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COMPARATIVE RELIGION
ITS ADJUNCTS AND ALLIES
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
COMPARATIVE RELIGION:
ITS MEANING AND VALUE.
A General Exposition. The Aims. Needs, and Outlook of this Science. 8vo. Pp. 600. 12s. net.
[SJtortJt/.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION:
ITS GENESIS AND GROWTH.
An Historical Exposition. Kepresentative Founders, Programmes, and Schools. 8vo. Pp. 600. 12s. net.
[Out of print. A revised edition, entirely rc- luritten, in preparation.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION:
ITS PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS.
A Critical Exposition. Processes, Discoveries, and Portents. A Handbook for Students. 8vo. Pp. 600. 12s. net, [In preparation.
EACH VOLUME IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION
ITS ADJUNCTS AND ALLIES
BY
LOUIS HENRY JORDAN, B.D. (Edin.)
MEMBER OF THE INSTITUT ETHNOGRAPHIQUE INTERNATIONAL, PARIS
ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF THE ' REVIEW OF THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY '
AUTHOR OF 'comparative RELIGION: ITS GENESIS AND GROWTH'
' THE STUDY OF RELIGION IN THE ITALIAN UNIVERSITIES '
ETC. ETC.
HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY
1915 ^m-^
.14 ^>
PRINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
• « - » c c.
• • • • . ' '
• . » . - • . I' fc
« • r
e I
\'^1.,1V
CONTENTS
Preface ..... The Purpose of this Survey .
PAGE XV
. xxvi
PART I
AVENUES OF APPROACH
I. ANTHROPOLOGY.
Dieserud, The Scope and Content of the Science of- Anthro
pology ..... Frazer, The Golden Bough V. Gennep, Religions, mo&urs et legendes Hartlaiid, Ritual and Belief . Nilsson, Primitive Religion . Quiggin, Essays and Studies . Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions Renter, UOrigine des religions Temple, Anthropology as a Practical Scieyice Supplementary Volumes
10 12 19 23 26 27 28 31 32 33
II. ETHNOLOGY.
Chadwick, The Heroic Age .
Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States
Frobenius, Und Afrika sprach ....
Graebner, Methode der Ethnologie ....
Hanauer, Folk-Lore of the Holy Land : Moslem, Christian a7id Jewish .......
Hutchinson, Customs of the World ....
Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion Meinhof, Afrikanische Religio7ien ....
Pettazzoni, T^a Religione primitiva in Sardegna
Supplementary Volumes ....
38 40 ^3 46
49 51 54 56 57 60
VI
CONTENTS
III. SOCIOLOGY. PAGE
Durkheim, Les Formes elementaires de la vie religieuse . 66 Henderson, Social Programmes in the West ... 69 Levy-Bruhl, Les Fonctions mentales dans les societes
inferieures ........ 72
Smith, Religion in the Makirig . . . . .75
Vernes, Histoire sociale des religions . . . .77
Supplementary Volumes . . . . .79
IV. ARCHAEOLOGY.
Garstang, The Land of the Hittites . Handcoek, Mesopotamian Archceology Jessel, The Unknown History of the Jews Petrie, The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt Schiffer, Die Aramaer
Supplementary Volumes
84 87 89 90 92
93
V. MYTHOLOGY.
Ehrenreich, Die Allgemeine Mythologie Guerber, The Myths of Greece and Rome Murray, Four Stages of Greek Religion Palmer, The Samson- Saga Wundt, Vblkerpsychologie
Supplementary Volumes
100 101 102 104 106
108
VI. PHILOLOGY.
Conybeare, Harris and Lewis, The Story of Ahikar .
Deissmann, Licht vom Osten ....
Evans, Scripia Minoa ...
Marucchi, Epigrafia cristiana ....
Meyer, Der Papyrusfund vo7i Eleplmntine
Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament
Sachau, Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer
jiidischen Militiir-Kolonie zu Elephantine . Sayce, The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions
Supplementary Volumes ....
116 118 120 122 123 126
127 130
134
CONTENTS
VI 1
VII. PSYCHOLOGY.
Ames, The Psychology of Religious Experience
Cook, The Foundations of Religion
Hill, Religion ami Modern Psychology
Hocking, The Meaning of God in Human Experience
TsATLgy The Development of Religion
Leuba, A Psychological Study of Religion
Pratt, The Psychology of Religious Belief
Stratton, Psychology of the Religious Life
Tailing, The Science of S2nritual Life
Warneck, Die Lebenskrafte des Evangeliums
Watson, The Interpretation of Religious Experience
Supplementary Volumes .
PAGE
142 143 146 147 149 151 L53 155 157 157 160
160
VIII. THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS.
(1) General Manuals.
Beuchat et Hollebecque, Les Religions .
Bishop, The World's Altar Stairs .
Bricout, OH en est Vhistoire des religions ?
Dussaud, Introduction a Vhistoire des religions
Geden, Studies in the Religions of the East
Hinneberg, Die Religionen des Orients
Huby, Christus. Manuel d'histoire des religio7is
Martindale, Lectures on the History of Religions
Menzies, History of Religion ....
Moore, History of Religions . . . . .
V. OreUi, Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte .
Soderblom, Oversikt av Allmdnna Religionshistorien .
Soderblom, Tide's Konipendium der Religionsgeschichte
Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions
Turchi, Manuale di storia delle religioni .
Warren, The Religions of the World and the World- Religion
Supplementary Volumes .....
170 173 175 178 181 183 184 186 187 188 191 193 194 195 198 200 204
(2) Special Groups.
Bliss, The Religions of Modem- Syria and Palestine . . 205 Cumont, Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain . . . . . . . . 207
De CTroot, Religion in China
Hyde, The Five Great Philosophies of Life
211 213
viii CONTENTS
(2) Special Groups, continued. page
Martin, Great Religious Teachers of the East . . .215
HsindaW M\d Smith, The Uniti/ of Religions . , . 217 8oothil\, The Three Religio7is of China . . . .218 Underwood, The Religions of Eastern Asia . . .221
Supplementary Volumes ..... 223
(3) Individual Religions.
Arnold, Roman Stoicism ...... 225
Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in A7icient
Egypt 228
Dhorme, La Religion assyro-habylonienne . . . 233
FsiTneW, The Higher Aspects of Greek Religio7i . . . 235
Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People . 237
Friedlander, Darstellungen aus der Sitteyigeschichte Roms . 241
Goldziher, Vorlesmigen iiher den Islarn . . . . 241
Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion .... 243
Harada, The Faith of Japan ..... 244
Harrison, T^em^s. The Social Origiyis of Greek Religion . 247
Hartmann, Der Islatn. Geschichte, Glaube, Recht . . 250
Howells, The Soul of India ...... 251
Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief arid Practice in Bahy-
lonia and Assyria ...... 254
de Lorenzo, hidia e Buddhismo antico .... 258
Macauliffe, The Sikh Religiori ..... 260
MacCulloch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts . . . 267
M.dk,cdoi\dX(}i, Aspects of Islam ..... 270
Margoliouth, Mohatmnedanism ..... 273
Margoliouth, The Early Developrnent of Mohammedanism 274
Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism ..... 275
MuTTSiy, Four Stages of Greek Religion .... 278
'Nuksbviydi, The Religion of the Sarnurai .... 282
Richard, The New Testament of Higher Buddhism . . 284
Roemer, Die Bahi-Beha'i ...... 288
Sayce, The Religion of Ancient Egypt .... 293
Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer . . . 294
Supplementary Volumes ..... 295
(4) Detached Problems.
Caetani, Studi di storia orient ale ..... 302
Deussen, Die Philosophic der Bibel .... 304
Hackmann, Religionen und heilige Schriften . . . 306
CONTENTS
IX
(4) Detached Problems, continued. ' page
Hubert et Mauss, Melanges dliistoire des religions . . 308
Loisy, A propos d'histoire des religions . . . 309
Lyon and Moore, Studies in the History of Religions . . 310 Soderblom, Naturliche Theologie und AUgemeine Religions-
geschichte . . . . . . . .310
Usener, Kleine Schriften . . . . .314
Wiinsch und Deubner, Beligionsgeschichtliche Versuche und
Vorarheiten , . . . . . .316
Supplementciry Volumes . . . . .317
PvETROSPECT 320
PART II THE TRANSITION
I. THE EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
Anonymous, The Laws ivhich govern the Course and Destinies
of Religion . . . . . . - . . 336
Brandt, Elchasai. Ein Religionsstifter U7id sein Werk . 338
Clemen, Die religionsgeschichtliche Methode iti Theologie . 341
Foucart, Histoire des religions et Methode comparative . 342
V. Gennep, Tabou, Tofemisme et Methode comparative . 344 Goblet d' Alviella, De V assistance que se doivent inutuellement dans V Hierologie la Methode historique et la Methode
comparative ....... 346
Labanca, Prolegomeni alia storia comparativa delle religio7ii 348
Oltramare, La Faillite de la Methode comparative . . 350
Pettazzoni, La Scie7iza delle religioni e il suo Metodo . 353
Pinard, Quelques precisions sur la Methode comparative . 356
Schmidt, Voies nouvelles en science comparee des religioyis . 360 Toutain, Etudes de mythologie et d' histoire des religio7is
antiques ........ 361
Webb, Natural and Comparative Religion . . . 363 Wobbermin, Die religionsjisi/chologische Methode in Reli-
gioJiswissenscJiaft mid Theologie .... 366
Supplementary Volumes ..... 368
II. APOLOGETIC TREATISES.
Beth, Die Entwickhmg des Christentums zur Universal- Religion ........ 373
Jevons, Comjmrative Rellgio7i ..... 376
X CONTENTS
II. APOLOGETIC TREATISES, continued. page
Johnston, Some Alternatives to Jesus Christ , . . 380
V. Malapert-Neufville, Die ausserchristlichen Relkjionen
iind die Religion Jesu Christi ..... 382
Martindale, The Cults and Christianity .... 383
Moulton, Religions and Religion ..... 386
TisdaU, Christianity and Other Faiths .... 394
Valensin, Jesus-Christ et V etude com'paree des religions . 398
Supplementary Volumes ..... 399
III. TRANSLATIONS OF REPRESENTATIVE POR-
TIONS OF SACRED TEXTS.
Bertholet, Religio7isgeschichtliches Lesehuch . . . 402
Lehmann, Textbuch zur Religionsgeschichte . . . 403
Soderblom, Frdmmande Religionsurkunder . . . 404
Various Authors, Quellen der Religions-Geschichte . . 405
^ 4: ^
Besant, The Universal Textbook of Religions and Morals . 408 Wieger, Bouddhisme chi7iois, Le Canon taoiste, etc. . .410
IV. TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES AND
LEARNED SOCIETIES, ENCYCLOPEDIAS, ETC.
(1) Congresses.
Athens. Actes du Seizieme Congres International des
Orientalistes, 1912. . . . . 414
Berlin. Fifth International Congress of Free Chris-
tianity and Religious Progress ^ 1910 . 415
Berlin. Verhandlungen des Soziologentoges, 1910 . 417
Geneva. Compte Rendu du XI V^ Congres International
d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie Prehisto- riques, 1912 ...... 417
Leiden. Actes du IV^ Congres International d'Histoire
des Religions, 1912 . . . .418
London. Inter-Racial Problems. Papers Communicated
to the First Universal Races Congress, 1911 420
London. Fourth International Congress of Historical
Studies, 1913 421
Louvain. Semaine d' Ethnologic Religieuse, 1912 . . 422
Neuchatel. Actes du /*'' Congres International d' Ethnologic
et d' Ethnographic, 1914 .... 424
CONTENTS xi
(1) Congresses, continued. page
Rome. Atti del IIF Congresso Archeologico Interna-
zionale, 1912 ..... 425
Siena. II VIT Congresso della Societd Italiana per
il Progresso delle Scienze, 1913 . . 426
(2) Learned Societies.
Berlin. Die Deutsche Gesellscliaft fiir Islamhunde . 428
Geneva. Ulnstitut Suisse d'Anthropologie Generate . 428
Gottingen. Die Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften 429
London. The Japan Society ..... 429
London. The Royal Asiatic Society .... 431
Paris. La Societe d'AnthropoIogie . . . ' . 431
Stockholm. Religionsvetenskalpiga Sdllskapet. . . 431
(3) Encyclopcedias .
Chisholm, The EncyclGpcedia Britannica . . . 433
Hastings, Encyclopcedia of Religion and Ethics , . 434 Hauck, Realencyklopa die fiir Protestantische Theologie und
Kirche ........ 436
Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia . . . 437
Houtsma, The Encyclopcedia of Islam .... 438
Jackson, The New ScJuiff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious
Knoivledge ........ 440
Schiele und Zscharnack, Die Religion in Geschichte und
Gegenivart . . . . . . . .441
Singer, The Jetvish Encyclopedia ..... 442
Wissowa und KroU, Pauly's Real-Encyclopadie der Classi-
schen Altertumswissenschaft ..... 444
(4) Special Works.
Cranmer-Bjng and Kapadia, The Wisdom of the East . 446 Curtis, A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith, in
Christendom and Beyond ..... 447
Durkheim, UAnnee sociologique ..... 449
Qohlet ^^ MYieWa^, Croyances, rites, institutions . . . 450
Gwatkin and Whitney, The Cambridge Medieval History . 452
Kriiger und Schian, Theologischer Jahresbericht . . 454 Liiders und Wackernagel, Grundriss der indo-arischen
Philologie und Altertumshunde .... 455
Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects . 456 Mercer, Extra-Biblical Sources for Hebreiv and Jewish
History ........ 458
Xll
CONTENTS
(4) Special Worlds, continued. page
Roscher, Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und
rdmischen Mythologie ...... 459
Salvatorelli, Introduzione hihliografica alia scienza delle
religioni ........ 460
Schiele, Religionsgeschichtliche Volkshiicher . . . 462 Steinmetz, Essai d'une hihliographie systematique de
Vethnologie ........ 463
Waxweiler, Archives sociologiques ..... 464
Weinel, Lehensfragen ....... 465
Winternitz, General Index to ' The Sacred Books of the East ' 466
V. PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
American J ou7'nal of Religious Psychology . . . 469
Americayi Journal of Sociology ..... 470
Ancient Egyj^t . . . . . . . .470
Annals of Archceology and AyitJiropology . . .471
Arithropos ........ 472
Archivfiir Papyrusforschung iind verwandte Gebiete . 472
Archivfiir Religio7iswissenschaft ..... 473
Archives Suisses d' Anthropologie Generate . . . 473
Archivio per V Antropologia e VEtnologia .... 473
Asiatic Revieiv . . . . . . . .474
Athenceum ........ 474
Biblical World . = ...... 475
Bilychnis. Rivista di Studi Religiosi .... 475
Bollettino di Letteratura Critico-Religiosa . . . 476
C(E7iohium. Rivista Internazionale di Liberi Studi . . 476
Cultura Contemporanea ...... 476
Cultura Moderim ....... 477
Expository Times ....... 477
Harvard Theological Review . . . . . .478
Hibbert Joiirnal ........ 478
Inquirer ......... 479
International Review of Missions ..... 479
Interpreter ........ 480
Islam .......... 480
Journal of the American Oriental Society . . . 481
Journal of Egyptian Archoiology ..... 482-
Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society . 482
Journal of Theological Studies ..... 483
Lares. Bullettino delta Societa di Etnograjia Italiana . 484
Moslem World ........ 485
CONTENTS
Xlll
V. PERIODICAL LITERATURE, continued
Open Court .....
Quarterly Review ....
Becherches de Science Beligieuse
Review of Theology and Philosophy
Rivista degli Studi Orientali . . ,
Revue d' Ethnographic et de Sociologie
Revue de VHistoire des Religions
Revue du Monde Musulman .
Revue Suisse d' Ethnographic et d^Art Compare
Sociological Revieiv . . .
Theologische Literaturzeitung
Times Literary Supplement .
Welt des Islams .....
PAGE
485 486 486 487 487 487 488 488 488 489 490 490 491 492
VI. CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY.
(1) Schools of Religions.
Cambridge, Mass. The Divinity School of Harvard
University .... 496
Hartford, Conn. The Kennedy School of Missions . 497
New Haven, Conn. The Divinity School of Yale
University .... 498
New York City. Union Theological Seminary , . 500
(2) Museiims.
Leiden. Neuchatel.
Retrospect
Museum van Oudheden Musee Ethnographique
503 503
504
PART III
COMPARATIVE RELIGION
I. ITS RESTRICTED AREA 11. ITS LEGITIMATE SCOPE
509 514
ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Authors. Subjects. Bibliographies
523
PREFACE
A LITERARY projcct, Outlined tentatively in 1905, is now to be carried into effect. The obstacles which for a time effectively barred its progress have at last happily been surmounted.
Fifteen years have passed since the author resolved to make an honest attempt to provide a competent exposition of Comparative Religion. The study of this subject — its rise, its sources, its various transi- tions, its unutilized capabilities, its hazards, and its probable issues — had already engaged his attention for a somewhat lengthy period. During all that time he prosecuted divers inquiries with diligence and eager- ness, for he had yielded to the lure of a quest which had thrown its fascination over him ; but, unfor- tunately, he had to content himself with devoting to these studies only the scanty leisure which he was able to command. The increasingly-insistent needs of the situation, however, seemed to summon him to concen- trate his energies upon investigations which promised to yield important results within the not very distant future. Besides, a great deal of the preliminary minutiae of research in this field had already been mastered. Accordingly, after due consideration, the fateful step was taken. Existing professional ties were severed. An earlier roving commission as a ' student at large ' being resumed, the responsibilities of a long and exacting task were deliberately accepted. During the interven- ing years, the opportunity of occupying a theological
xvi PREFACE .
chair has more than once presented itself. Had these proposals come earlier, or had they seemed likely to promote the one aim which the author had in view, they would no doubt have proved a serious tempta- tion. But none of them portended the establishment of a chair for Comparative Religion. All of them threatened to introduce unwelcome restraints, and possibly ' dogmatic ' restrictions. All of them were certain to lessen the author's chances of carrying his studies forward to some satisfying and comprehensive conclusion. Hence these seducements were unheeded and the work of investigation went on, though not without many inevitable interruptions. And now, at the close of the period of preparation, — devoted very largely to travel, observation, and research among the peoples and sacred cities of the East and of the West — it seems desirable that the results actually secured should be reviewed, and that the progress achieved thus far should be reported and recorded.
In 1900, students of Comparative Religion were still very limited in number. The general public evinced no interest in the investigations which were being con- ducted ; on the contrary, in so far as such inquiries had been initiated, they were not only regarded with indifference, but (in many quarters) they were viewed with unmistakable and outspoken distrust. Moreover, scholars of experience counselled a further postponement of any attempt to make a material advance. With practical unanimity they declared that the author's proposed undertaking, being almost certainly premature, was doomed to mishap and failure. It was urged that the boundaries of Comparative Religion were for the present too obscure, and also too indeterminate, to
PREFACE xvii
permit of any experiment surmounting the handicap of the unfavourable conditions which prevailed.
These advisers, no doubt, were right ; they interpreted, quite accurately, the signs of the times ; nevertheless, a good deal has been accomplished in the interval. The author recognized, when he entered upon his task, that the results at which he would arrive must be general and merely provisional in character. On the other hand, a definite and feasible scheme of exposi- tion had already begun to take shape in his mind. Moreover, the fact that there existed much con- fusion of thought touching the legitimate range of this study constituted for him an appeal which became increasingly alluring and clamant. He modestly hoped, also, that he might be able to hasten the day when some real achievement in this field would be welcomed and acknowledged among progressive scholars everywhere.
At the end of five years, with many natural misgivings, an initial volume was completed and sent to the press.^ It sought to do no more than present a rapid survey of a field which was afterwards to be more critically examined. It was proposed, at that time, to follow up this preliminary conspectus with two volumes of a less summary and transient character ; but the original programme has since been recast, and will now be framed in an entirely different manner. In the following year, a quadrennial review of the current literature of this study was founded. ^ Subsequently, a series of mono- graphs throwing light upon the progress and prospects of Comparative Religion in the chief Universities of the
^ Cf. Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth. Edinburgh, 1905. * Cf. Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature. Edinburgh, 1906, 1910, and 1914.
b
xviii PREFACE
world was iDrojected, and an introductory volume has already been issued.^
These successive publications, though representing in themselves valuable and substantial results, were how- ever only so many steps leading towards a goal which had been kept in view from the very outset. At the same time, the experience gained in the preparation of these books steadily deepened a conviction that had very early asserted itself, viz. that Comparative Religion would never come to its own until its right to be pursued as a separate and self -governing discijjline came to be generally conceded. Hitherto, this line of research has been regarded and expounded as a mere adjunct of Theology, Philosophy, History, or some other depart- ment of study ; in future, it must be accorded a recognition commensurate with the rank to which it is demonstrably entitled. A plea to this general effect was advanced, and briefly supported, in a paper read by the author at the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, held in Oxford seven years ago.^
It is plain that at least one other treatise must be added to a group of purely Preliminary Studies. Before one can enter upon a satisfactory examination of Comparative Religion itself, it is essential to clear away a considerable amount of accumulated debris ; only thereafter can the trenches be dug within which the foundations for a substantial and abiding fabric can be laid. This is a piece of work that has long awaited accomplishment. Once carefully executed, it will not need to be attempted again. Such is the task, more
^ The Study oj Religion in the Italian Universities. London, 1009. " CJ. Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope. London, 1908.
PREFACE xix
exactly defined elsewhere/ which the present volume essays to achieve. It will seek to frame a critical estimate of the contributions made by Anthropology, Ethnology, Sociology, Archaeology, Mythology, Philo- logy, Psychology, the History of Religions, Apologetics, the labours of countless Learned Societies, etc. etc., towards promoting the growth and greater stability of an important modern study. It will seek to appraise the assistance which various subsidiary sciences, the applica- tion of a purely scientific method, and the effectiveness of selected representative agencies of auxiliary research have been able to furnish to students of Comparative Religion, — whether that assistance has been rendered unconsciously, yielded perchance reluctantly, or offered chivalrously, unstintedly, impartially, and without thought or prospect of reward.
Comparative Religion largely owes its increasingly influential position to the activity and rapid advance of a number of kindred sciences. In common with every other department of research, it is gradually attaining reliability and maturity after this manner. It has by no means, even yet, fully emerged from the limitations of a condition of tutelage. Its sense of independence and strength is consciously developing ; nevertheless, it has no wish to minimize or conceal its profound and abiding indebtedness to numerous adjuncts and allies.
Comparative Religion derives its main support from the results which have been accumulated within the domain of the History of Religions ; for that reason, very special prominence will be found to have been given to the rapidly expanding literature peculiar to that field. - At the same time. Comparative Religion is greatly
^ Vide infra, pp. xxvi f. ^ Vide infra, pp. 163-319.
b2
XX PREFACE
dependent for material upon the data which have been garnered, and which are still being garnered, by a num- ber of other sciences ; and the obligations incurred in these quarters are unquestionably greater to-day than they have ever been before. It is important therefore that attention should be drawn to this fact, seeing that it is one which is entitled to a recognition and acknow- ledgement which have not sufficiently been accorded to it. Conversely, it is equally important that those sciences which surround and underlie Comparative Religion, and which contribute immensely to its stability, should everywhere be admitted to be supports merely, wholly distinct and easily distinguishable from the structure they help to sustain.
Of the auxiliary studies in question, fully a score deserve some credit for the conspicuous advances which Comparative Religion has been making of late. It will suffice, however, if the literary products of merely a few of these departments of research be specified and ex- amined in the following survey. The sciences succes- sively named are undoubtedly the chief sources upon which Comparative Religion has drawn, and from which it is still deriving an ever-increasing impulse. The present selection of tributary studies — outlined in one of the author's earlier publications, where the reader may find a brief discussion of each of these branches of inquiry, and a summary estimate of its individual ancillary value ^ — has recently been concurred in, and reaffirmed, bv various scholars of international standing.^
* Cf. Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth, pp. 253-325. Edinburgh, 1905.
^ Cf. Goblet d'Alviella, Les Sciences auxiliaires de Vhistoire comparee des religions, found in the Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, vol. ii, pp. 3G5 f. Oxford, 1908 ; Jean Reville,
PREFACE xxi
In the following pages, the reader will find a Classified Bibliography of the best recent books expository of those departments of literature with which that Biblio- graphy deals. It has not always been easy to determine with certainty the category to which a given treatise ought to be assigned.^ In some cases, the book has manifestly belonged partly to Anthropology, partly to Philology, and partly to yet some other science included among those w^hich are here specifically enumerated. Care has been taken to make the necessary allotments impartially, and with due discrimination. Supple- mentary lists of books — alphabetically arranged accord- ing to the names of their authors — have in each instance been added, lest less representative (yet still important) volumes might seem to have been neglected. It is hoped that, no recent work of conspicuous merit has inad- vertently been omitted. No modern school of opinion, local or Continental, has been slighted. As in the author's periodical Surveys of the literature of Compara- tive Religion,^ references in this book to British publica- tions will be found to be augmented by reviews of American, Australian, Austrian, Belgian, Canadian, Danish, Dutch, French, German, Indian, Italian, Japanese, Swedish, Swiss, and other foreign volumes. The comments offered, as in the Surveys just referred to, seek always to be fair. Drastic criticism is not withheld when it seems to be called for. Only four of the critiques w^hich follow, out of the very large number which
Les Phases successives de Vhistoire des religions, pp. 143-240. Paris, 1909 ; Joseph Bricout, Oh en est Vhistoire des religions, vol. i, pp. 24 f. Paris, 1911 ; William F. Warren, The Religions of the World and the World- Religion, p. 15. New York, 1911 ; etc. etc.
1 Vide infra, pp. 35, 43, 77, 100, 104, 107, 147, 149, 170, 178, 192-3, 196, 201, 219, 221, 338, 361-2, 363, 380, and 488.
* Vide supra, foot-note 2, p. xvii.
xxii PREFACE
the author had occasion to pen during the past four years, have previously been pubHshed. Written ori- ginally for the present volume, they were sent in advance to a Scottish theological review of which the author has been for the last two years one of the Associate Editors ; ^ but they express so completely the writer's judgement that it seemed a sheer waste of time merely to recast their phraseology without altering in any particular the substance of their verdict.
It is necessary, perhaps, to include in this Preface an explanatory paragraph. No scholar can hope to master all the departments of learning, exacting and divergent, which are represented by the numerous volumes cited in this survey. Least of all does the present writer lay claim to the possession of expert knowledge sufficient to appraise the value of these books when estimated within the spheres to which they severally belong. Yet, while it is unquestionably the sole right of a specialist to assess authoritatively the standard to which each of these volumes has attained, any mature student of Comparative Religion is quite competent to determine the extent to which these treatises overlap the domain with which he is intimately acquainted, and which he has diligently cultivated. Accordingly, as the fruit of ceaseless vigilance during the past twenty years, and a fairly close familiarity with all relevant publica- tions issued during that period, pains have been taken by the author to show wherein various associated sciences are impinging upon the sphere of Comparative Religion and exerting their appreciable sway. The real purpose of the present conspectus, as will be shown more fully in a moment, is to indicate and emphasize
^ Cf. Review of Theology and Philosophy : vide infra, p. 487.
PREFACE xxiii
the relation — closer or more remote — which each of the volumes enumerated bears to the general progress of Comparative Religion ; it will suffice if a disclosure be made of the influence which these successive publica- tions have exerted upon the growth of a great study, and of the manner and measure in which (unwittingly or wittingly) they have either embarrassed or aided its endeavours. It is not possible for any scholar, no matter how learned, to speak as an expert upon all the multi- farious topics which are dealt with in this volume. At the same time, it is quite possible (and even essential) that one who can trace with exactness the various stages discernible in the history of Comparative Religion should point out how, and in how far, Anthropology, Ethnology, etc., are in a position to promote or retard the pro- gress of that inquiry. Herein lies the chief aim of the present exposition, viz. to draw attention to the pro- cesses by which Comparative Religion is gradually becoming developed into a self-reliant and independent science.
To some it may seem that the foot-notes in this volume, and in its predecessors, have been unduly multiplied. Such critics are at liberty to leave these memoranda unread. To others however, as numerous testimonies confirm, this feature — which will continue to be char- acteristic of the present series of Handbooks — has added materially to their value. The author will be satisfied with the gratitude of those who know by experience the cost w^hich the preparation of carefully- verified foot notes invariably involves. Long accustomed to read with pencil in hand, it has seemed to him better to quote authorities verbatim, and to append the necessary references, than to summarize a writer's opinions
xxiv PREFACE
without aiding the reader to turn for himself to the volumes in which these literary pronouncements may be found.
The present Preliminary Study having been com- pleted, the way is now quite open for a real and an aggressive advance. Comparative Religion, even upon the admission of those who usually date its advent from about 1850, has of late become a completely trans- formed department of research. This study will in future be prosecuted in a more precise, adequate, and specialized manner than has been deemed sufficient hitherto. It is verily a New Comparative Religion — - Comparative Religion Proper — that is to-day steadily emerging into view ; and it is to a thorough exposition of that difficult branch of inquiry that three subsequent volumes are soon to be devoted.
If strength and opportunity permit, the author hopes that other relevant treatises may be published at a some- what later date. An estimate of the Christian faith, as viewed by a student of Comparative Religion rather than as it is certain to be appraised by an apologist or by a thorough-going rationalist, is an evaluation which ought seriously to be attempted. In like manner, a tabulated Comparative Survey of the tenets and practices of the diverse religions of mankind, even though it must involve enormous labour, would be worth far more than it is likely to cost. Other similar projects are fondly entertained, but the writer will not pause to specify them more particularly now. Suffice it to say that, while these later literary excursions will carry the reader much beyond the limits of an exposition of Com- parative Religion, they possess a genuine interest of their own. They have happily been made possible to
PREFACE XXV
one who has laid the whole subject under tribute, and who (in the course of the last two decades) has mas- tered a very great array of multifarious and illuminative details.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the present volume — equally with those by which it has been preceded and by which it will shortly be follow^ed — is complete in itself, and need not be coupled with any of the others with which it happens to stand associated. These kindred publications are not to be regarded as so many chapters in a book, or as so many tomes in a literary work, the whole of w^hich must be read by the con- scientious student. On the contrary, many are likely to find all the material they are in search of in a single selected volume. Nevertheless these expositions, viewed as a whole, bear a very close relationship to one another. Though each limits itself to that special aspect of the subject which it expressly undertakes to expound, a certain continuity of development will be found to link together all the successive members of the series.
' DowNSLEiGH ', Eastbourne. July, 1915.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY
For a long time after Comparative Religion began its uncertain career, it was everywhere denied that it had a right to exist as a separate and self -propagating science. Such aspirations on its part, wherever expressed, were affirmed to be utterly preposterous. Steps were accord- ingly taken to check, and if possible eradicate, all evi- dences of an ambition which was deemed unreasonable and extravagant in the very highest degree.
When these objections were first offered, they were not without excuse. But later events, coupled with a more exact knowledge of the aims of this aggressive new branch of research,^ have tended to correct a con- clusion which most are now ready to admit was hasty, ungenerous, and based upon a misreading of the actual facts of the case.
When it became evident that Comparative Religion was destined to become one of the leading studies of the future, and that even already it had emerged as one of the most vital and interpretive agencies of our time, keen debate began concerning the legitimate boundaries of this discipline. That debate is not yet closed ; indeed, in some quarters, it is keener to-day than ever.
The author will accordingly seek, through the instru- mentality of this volume, to define Comparative Religion. He will define it, however, after a new manner ; for he proposes to regard it from a new point of view. He has ventured to offer more than one such definition already
/r
Vide infra, pp. 507 f.
Cf. ComxMrative Relujion : Its Genesis and Growth, pp. 63-4. Edinburgh,
THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY xxvii
but an ultimate formula, framed in few and fitting words, has not yet been devised. A great deal of confused thinking still blurs the actual frontiers of a field which, by this time, ought surely to have been competently explored. So long however as the present uncertainty persists, and so long as scholars continue to apply the designation ' Comparative Religion ' to branches of investigation which have really very little in common with that studv,^ the Avork of a conscientious teacher must remain unsatisfactory and incomplete.
With scarcely an exception, the volumes reviewed in the following pages have publicly and repeatedly been referred to as expositions of Comparative Religion. - Yet, as a matter of fact, — even in those instances in which the title ' Comparative Religion ' has deliberately been appropriated, shelter being found beneath the folds of an invitingly capacious cloak — not one of all these books is really qualified to bear that name ! Whether regarded individually or collectively, they represent merely avenues of approach to Comparative Religion, — avenues more or less direct, more or less traversed, more or less accessible, but not the terminus ad quern which the comparativist has in view.
It is the author's purpose, in the course of the present survey, to emphasize the successive stages of a most inter- esting evolutionary process. The science of Compara- tive Religion has only quite recently been born. A new instrument of research, it has been welcomed bv keen investigators everywhere, and its "capabilities are already being utilized in diverse ways and under diverse aus- pices. How did it come into being ? Where lie its
1905 ; Comparative Religion : A ^iirvey of its Recent Literature, vol. ii. London, 1914 ; etc.
1 Vide infra, pp. 509, 513, etc. ^ Vide infra, pp. 18, 387, etc.
xxviii THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY
far-spreading roots ? In how far have its varying environments influenced it ? Through what discern- ible transitions has it passed ? How is one to dis- tinguish it from other sciences to which it is admittedly akin, and to which it often bears a strikingly-close resemblance ?
In seeking to answer these queries, the author is confident that his argument can best be developed — and, at the same time, incidentally illustrated — by an appeal to a series of books. It occurred to him that, hy a process of gradual elimination, it would not be difficult to demonstrate that those studies which are continually being confounded with Comparative Religion are in no sense identical with it. Each is unquestionably related to Comparative Religion, in a looser or more intimate way ; but each enjoys a life and an individuality of its own. And it is not otherwise with Comparative Religion itself. While its increasingly vigorous growth is no doubt traceable in large measure to a ceaseless absorption and assimilation of results which have been secured by researches conducted in numerous auxiliary departments, it is fully warranted in advancing a claim to exercise higher, more individual, and more comprehensive pre- rogatives than those which, thus far, have generally been conceded.
The contents of the present volume, accordingly, are a sort of apparatus criticus for determining the true nature and limits of Comparative Religion. The quali- ties and criteria of that science are revealed in the processes of its actual evolution. This is the first attempt that has been made, by means of concrete illustrations rather than by resort to an abstract
THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY xxix
definition, to mark off the boundaries of this new and expanding study. The labour involved has admittedly been exacting ; yet it has not been misspent, inasmuch as in no other way can one so easily be led to understand what Comparative Religion is, and what it is not. ' Since great things we, can seldom achieve, it is wise not to refrain from discharging those lesser tasks which lie within our reach.'
In one aspect of it, this volume may claim to be an up-to-date Special Bibliography. It draws attention to an aggregate of almost 500 volumes. One-third of these books, representing a considerable part of the author's recent reading, have been separately reviewed. The other two-thirds, grouped under . the heading of ' Supplementary Volumes ', have likewise been read and are cordially commended ; but they do not seem to call for special comment or criticism. Taken together, these 500 books present a bird's-eye view of the ways and means by which a newly-launched study has of late incontestably been developing into a science. The volumes selected for examination are restricted for the most part to publications which appeared between 1910 and 1914, — although it has seemed desirable, in the interests of a clearer and more comprehensive presenta- tion, to include also a few earlier and later volumes of admittedly outstanding importance. The best products of scholarship, in each of the fields under review, have unquestionably appeared during the last few years. Instead therefore of recalling the initial explorations of Max Miiller, Tylor, Mannhardt, M'Lennan, Lang, and a score of similar leaders, attention has been concen- trated upon the choicest specimens of the very latest literature. That so large a collection of books has been found available for the purpose, notwithstanding
XXX THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY
rigorous discrimination, is one of the best evidences of the amount of fruitful sjDade-work which has been acconiphshed within these adjoining fields during the past four years.
As to scientific method, the particular instrument which an expert is continuously employing is certain to be utilized when he ventures to conduct researches in some subsidiary domain.^ In this twentieth century the historical method dominates, of course, all depart- ments of scientific progress. At the same time, less obtrusive influences seldom fail to reveal their exis- tence and sway. This statement holds pre-eminently true of those who have devoted themselves to the study of religion. Adalbert Kuhn never wholly escaped the lure of the mythological method. Renan never wholly escaped the enticement of the ethnographical method. Max Mliller never wholly escaped the seduc- tiveness of the philological method. Professor James never wholly escaped the witchery of the psychological method. In our own day, Sir James Frazer yields continually to the spell of the anthropological method. Professor Durkheim is the willing servant of the socio- logical method. Others are the stanch and unhesitat- ing defenders of yet additional methods which one need not pause to name.^ All these various instruments have rendered, beyond question, valuable and permanent service. Nevertheless, the agency which must daily be employed by the student of Comparative Religion is the comjjarative method ; and, that he may be able to handle it aright, he must become an expert in the use of it.3
Apologetic Treatises,"^ written (whether frankly or
^ Cf. The ' Transition ' stage in this study : vide infra, pp. 323 f .
^ Vide infra, pp. 329 f . ^ Vide infra, pp. 520 f . * Vide infra, pp. 3G9 f .
THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY xxxi
covertly) in defence of a given faith, have unintentionally aided not a little in promoting the interests of Compara- tive Religion. Encyclopaedias and other source-books ^ — unusually multiplied of late, and now brought to very high perfection in the way of timeliness and accuracy — • have begun to devote considerable space to an exposition of the historical evolution of religion. A copious Periodical Literature, dealing more or less competently with the same theme,'- is now available for readers in any one of a dozen modern languages, and is published at extraordinarily moderate prices. Some of the choicest and most suggestive fruits of current investi- gations in Comparative Religion are to be found in the pages of these Journals, which are simply in- dispensable to every serious student of the subject. Several of the Periodicals which will presently be specified have come into existence only within the last four years ; on that account, special attention is drawn to them. Undenominational Schools of Re- ligions,^ the Transactions of Congresses * and Learned Societies,^ and the collections accumulated in ethno- graphical and kindred Museums,^ are to-day lending a simply invaluable impulse to the growth of Com- parative Religion.
In the following pages, reference will be made to each of the preliminary agencies just indicated. No detailed criticism of the successive volumes, now to be cited in evidence, will be attempted ; only the salient points in each will be dealt with, while occasionally some personal notes calculated to throw light upon the training and
^ Vide infra, pp. 432 f . ^ Vide injra, pp. 468 f.
^ Vide injra, pp. 494 f. * Vide injra, pp. 412 f.
^ Vide injra, pp. 427 f. ^ Vide injra, pp. 502 f.
xxxii THE PURPOSE OF THIS SURVEY
outlook of their respective authors will be added. ^ It is the purpose of the writer merely to show wherein each adjunct, or ally, has made an individual contribution to the science of Comparative Religion.
^ It was hoped, at the outset, that each book selected for examination could have been dealt with somewhat after the manner in which the literary- work of Professor Breasted {vide supra, pp. 228-33), Professor Jastrow {vide supra, pp. 254-8), Mr. Macauliffe {vide supra, pp. 260-7), Dr. Roemer {vide supra, pp. 288-93), etc., has been reviewed. But it soon became evident that, the available volumes being very numerous, the space allotted to each would require to be rigorously curtailed.
PART I AVENUES OF APPROACH
B
ANTHROPOLOGY
M. Eeinach has justly said that ' le systeme d'exegese anthropologique est " a la mode ". ' ^ It is beyond question the fashion of our age. More than any other of the sciences enumerated in the accompanying group, Anthropology is being appealed to and cultivated to-day by serious students of religion in every land. Never was this line of inquiry pur- sued with keener zest than at the present time. Moreover, it has proved itself invaluable in the measure of the service it has actually rendered. It has rewarded the investigator with rich and undreamed-of discoveries. It promises to reward him with additional reliable data of the very first importance. In a word, it is not too much to say that Anthropology occupies to-day the very first place among the sciences auxiliary to the study of Comparative Keligion.
The study of Man — in every aspect of his physical, mental, moral, and religious being — is the deliberately accepted task of the student of Anthropology. ^ Man's history, the laws which govern his many-sided development, the tendencies ,and conduct which emerge under the constraints of his environment, — all these questions are raised and investi-^ gated. Such inquiries would, however, remain glaringly incomplete if Man's spiritual fears and aspirations were not
^ Cf. Salomon Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, vol. i, p. vi : vide infra, pp. 28 f.
^ It is important to bear in mind that the meaning assigned in Great Britain to the term ' Anthropology ' does not accord with the usage which prevails on the Continent. Among English-speaking scholars, the definition which has just been supplied is everywhere accepted without question. By ' Anthropology ' is meant General Anthropology, while ' Ethnology ' {vide infra, p. 35 f .) is regarded as being merely one of its numerous branches. Among Continental scholars, on the contrary, the signification of these terms is often exactly reversed. In that case ' Anthropology ' is held to be equivalent to what in England is designated Physical Anthropology, while ' Ethnology ' is used in the most comprehensive and unrestricted sense.
B2
4 ANTHROPOLOGY
likewise ascertained and taken fully into account ; for there is no early stage of civilization which does not reveal the existence of definitely religious susceptibilities. These susceptibilities invariably seek visible expression, — in rude, elaborated, or increasingly degenerate forms. It would be a contradiction in terms, and a patent absurdity, to profess to interpret Humanity, and yet to ignore wholly man's fervent spiritual dreams. Hence the growing study of what is differently denominated Primitive Religion, Religions des Societes Inferieures, Religions of the Lower Culture, Social Anthropology, Sociology, etc. etc. iThe roots of all religions lie buried in the past, and Anthropology is seeking to recon- struct the fabric of primitive religious life, thought, and institutions. It is an attempt, in a word, to trace the natural history of religion. ^^ €^ ^-^ ^ / -^ ■""
Accordingly, ' in recent years, the study of religion has been pursued, not from the standpoint of the particular dogmas of any one religion, but rather in the light of religious phenomena characteristic of our common humanity. . . . And, so far as [anthropologists have been successful in] re-establishing the claims of religion to be a subject of serious study on the part of all thoughtful men, they have succeeded where the dogmatic theologians failed.' ^ The faiths of the race, fundamentally considered, are due to similar causes, and are wondrously alike. ' Mankind is one ; its manhood the same ; and so, in the religions of the world, there are many common features '.^
Only a few books, out of a great host that embody the researches of scholars of many nationalities, have been chosen for mention in the present survey ; but these volumes will sufficiently indicate the manner in which this new and vigorous science is proving itself helpful to students of Com.- parative Religion. Anthropology, as already stated, makes direct appeal to history. It searches out all accessible
* Cf. George Ho wells, The Soul of India, p. 253 : vide infra, pp. 251 f. » Cf. Alfred E. Garvie in London Theological Studies, p. 293. London, lOlI.
ANTHROPOLOGY 5
evidences of early religious beliefs and ritual practices. It discloses unsuspected ' survivals ', many of which it traces back to their verifiable though long-forgotten sources. The wider it throws its net, the more definite and secure become its successive pronouncements. It has already forced the world to accept the conclusion that religion is a primitive, instinctive, and indestructible element in Man, and that this impulse invariably reveals itself. In short, religion has been shown to be the most outstanding and influential fact in the whole range of human experience.
Unfortunately the promoters of Anthropology, immense benefactors though they are, frequently seek for recognition within domains where they are unable to speak with unques- tioned authority. Take, for example, the realm of reHgion. As auxiliaries of Comparative Eeligion, anthropologists are often wellnigh indispensable ; but as leaders, in command in that field, they have often conducted their followers into very serious entanglements. They are prone to treat with contempt the theory that religion perhaps, after all, may owe something to an express divine revelation. Their actual contributions to Comparative Eehgion, impartially weighed, are considerably less than is generally imagined. And if trained and mature anthropologists occasionally indulge in extravagant and quite unwarranted assertions, it is little wonder that other representatives of this school, less competently furnished for meeting the requirements of their task, often underestimate the limitations of Anthro- pology,— when it is confronted by those problems which a study of religion presents. It is important to distinguish between the universal ' recognition ' of God, and that subse- quent ' worship ' which may (or may not) be omitted. It is important to distinguish between the material furnished in the reports of scientific investigators and those ' travellers' tales ' which in some quarters are still accepted without sufficient scrutiny or challenge. Inasmuch, besides, as Anthropology deals largely with data derived from very remote ages, its materiaux are often very meagre and
6 ANTHROPOLOGY
uncertain. Hence, some of its predictions are mere guesses ; and some of its real discoveries, though at first supposed to have a direct bearing upon Comparative Kehgion, have after- wards been proved to be even ludicrously irrelevant.
Anthropology devotes itself largely to an investigation of origins. In so far as it seeks to trace religious origins, it has a great deal to say about Fetishism, Totemism, Magic, Taboo, Sacrifices, etc. etc.^ Yet, within this domain, it is far from being uniformly successful. It has sometimes to attempt the explanation of an obscure rite by means of another which is scarcely less obscure. Whether a given religion, current to-day among a primitive race, is a corruption of an earlier faith, or the outcome of conscious imitation and borrowing, will perhaps in many cases never be determined. ' The great difficulty in proving any hypothesis [touching the origin of religion] is that of ascertaining the real religious ideas of primitive men ; and while, for this purpose, anthro- pologists may go to the wilds of Africa [or Australia], and — studying the habits of those whom they call primitive savages — deduce an argument therefrom, the questions still remain (a) whether these people are in truth w^hat we call primitive [and not a degeneration from some higher type, as Lord Avebury, Reclus, and many others contend] and (h) whether, even though primitive, they really resemble all races and tribes of primitive men '.^ Principal Carpenter, in one of his latest affirmations, declares that the origin of religion ' can never be determined archseologically, or his- torically ; it must be sought conjecturally through psycho- logy '."^ In any case, this is a question which can intelhgently be dealt with only after a thorough comparison of religions has been instituted.
Professor Frazer's hard-and-fast distinction between magic and religion, for example, is an unsatisfactory and
' In other words, the embryology of religion.
• Cf. Horace G. Underwood, The Religions oj Eastern Asia, p. 232 : vide infra, pj). 221 f.
' CJ. J. J'].stlin Carpenter, article on ' Religion ' in the Encydopcp.dia Brilannica, 11th edition, vol. xxiii, p. 02 : vide infra, pp. 433 f.
ANTHROPOLOGY 7
unworkable hypothesis ; ^ besides, no sufficient proof is furnished by him to show that, among primitive peoples, religion really is evolved out of its alleged invariable ante- cedent.^ Another teacher maintains that animal worship invariably antedates anthropomorphism, a contention which Dr. Farnell has been able easily to refute. Yet another maintains that all religions began — as the Semitic, Teutonic, Greek, and Eoman religions almost certainly did begin — under the form of animism, while Dr. Marett holds that they can all be traced to pre- Animistic sources. In opposition to these contradictory pronouncements, many competent guides assure one that we know absolutely nothing about a genuinely primitive religion, seeing that, in nine cases out of ten, the anthropological ' wild man ' is a mere figment of the brain that calls him into being. ' To suppose that the modern savage is the nearest approach to primitive man would be against all the rules of reasoning.' ^ -
In any case. Comparative Eeligion ' is not concerned with origins, and does not project itself into the prehistoric past, where conjecture takes the place of evidence, . . . Whether religion first appeared in the cultus of the dead, or [as other anthropologists believe] only entered the field after the collapse of a reign of magic which had ceased to satisfy man's demands for help, or [as still others affirm] was born of dread and a desire to keep its gods at a distance, only remotely
^ Vide infra, p. 23.
* ' Am I going to draw no distinction between religion and mere super- stition ? . . . Superstition is the name given to a low or bad form of religion, to a kind of religion we disapprove. The line of division, if we make one, would be only an arbitrary bar, thrust across a highly complex and con- tinuous process ' (Gilbert Murray, Four Stages of Greek Eeligion, p. 20: vide infra, pp. 278 f.). Cf. also Frederic Bouvier, who has written a com- prehensive article entitled ' Religion et Magie ' in Eecherches de science religieuse, pp. 109-47. Paris, Mars-Avril, 1913. The late Andrew Lang and Professor Jevons have contended that religion always occurs first in the order of time, and that magic is an infallible symptom of degeneration and relapse. Professor Loisy {vide infra, pp. 309 f.) and Dr. Schmidt {vide infra, pp. 360 f.) likewise defend this view.
' Cf. Friedrich Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, p. 224. 4 vols. London, 1867-1875. [Latest edition, 1898.]
8 ANTHKOPOLOGY
affects the process of discovering and examining the resem- blances of its forms, and interpreting the forces (without and within) which have produced them '.^ Moreover, * the im- portant fact about the human race is, not that it has cherished all the irrational and debasing superstitions registered in TJie Golden Bough,^ but that it has, in the main, transmuted and transcended them ; and the superstitions themselves leave a false impression, unless they are looked at in the light of this fact '.^
It should be borne in mind, further, that Anthropology interests itself chiefly in the religions of savage communities. It is there indeed that, in so far as it concerns itself with religion at all, it finds its true and competent sphere of operation. Comparative Eeligion, on the other hand, insists that the spiritual impulses which reveal themselves in man can best be studied in their higher and more organized forms. One must examine and estimate the claims of a religion, not at the commencement of its career, but after it has experienced the storm and stress of centuries, or (it may be) of millenniums. The older a religion is, the greater is its opportunity to give expression to its true nature, and to exhibit its fundamental and essential qualities. If one would really ascertain the essence and worth of a religion, he must judge it by its fruits, — by its potentiality as exhibited in its later actual achievements, rather than by its inchoate and often quite barren aspirations. There is no doubt a kernel of goodness in all spiritual longings ; the seeds of the very highest faith are latent in the most savage rehgions. Nevertheless, it is a mistake to seek to interpret the highest by means of the lowest. Christianity will never be under- stood or explained by research, even the most dihgent, if conducted solely among the barren and often grotesque survivals of some early local fetishism.^
' CJ. J. Estlin Carpcrxter, Comparative Religion, p. 31. London, 1913. ' Vide infra, pp. ]2 f.
' CJ. .Janic« Ucnney in The British Weekly. London, July 13, 1912. C/., in support of this statement, George Foucart, Jlistoire des religions rt tnithode comparative : vide infra, pp. 342 f. Cf. also Jordan,
ANTHROPOLOGY 9
Finally, Anthropology fails often because of its unskilful employment of a method which is still unfamiliar in its hands. 1 Each of the writers whose books are about to be cited, and the great body of investigators whom they repre- sent, utiUze constantly and with eagerness the comparative method of study. Apparently they forget, however, that while as historical students they have well deserved the credit they have won through their disclosure of many unknown phases in man's early religious development, the framing of valid comparisons is an undertaking which de- mands training and skill. Only the expert in Comparative KeHgion is really at home in work of this kind. He has his own task to perform ; and he secures the necessary facility for the right execution of it through incessant and educative practice. Accordingly, a thoroughly competent man in this department will not onty make his comparisons swiftly and unerringly, but he will also escape the temptation to institute those hopelessly misleading parallels which some too rashly defend. It is on this ground, in particular, that Comparative Eeligion asserts its right to be regarded as a separate and distinctive discipline.
As the result of growing experience. Anthropology is not
Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906-1909, pp. 27 f. Professor Foucart's criticism of the anthropological school is sometimes too severe, as Canon MacCulloch shows in the Review of Theology and Philosophy, vol, viii, pp. 201-4. But Dr. Warde Fowler's testimony must also be cited. ' Anthropologists ', he says, ' put together bits of evidence, each needing conscientious criticism, to support hypotheses often of the flimsiest kind, which again are used to support further hypotheses : and so on, until the sober inquirer begins to feel his brain reelmg, and his footing giving way beneath him.' {The Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 20. See also some very frank criticisms of Professor Frazer on pp. 22 and 140 : vide infra, pp. 237 f.) The dangers which confront Anthropology are, at the same time, not being overlooked by those whom they most concern. Dr. Farnell speaks for not a few of his colleagues when he insists that ' the restraints that the more scientific anthropologists are imposing upon themselves, viz. working within certam geographical areas and comparing one area first with its adjacent ' {The
YearU Work in Classical Studies, 1912, p. 61), are simply imperative, and
must in future be more generally observed. ^ Vide infra, pp. 333 f., and 519 f.
10 ANTHROPOLOGY
so self-assertive as of yore. Its leading representatives to-day exhibit, especially in reference to those religious problems with which it seeks often to deal, a markedly modest and even chastened spirit. ^ This new frame of mind is reassuring, and augurs an important advance in this studv within the immediate future.
THE SCOPE AND CONTENT OF THE SCIENCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY. An Historical Review, Library Classification, and Annotated Biblio- graphy, by Juul Dieserud, member of the staff of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Chicago : The Open Court Publishing Company, 1908. Pp. 200. 12.00.
This volume, in view of the date of its publication, can claim no place in the present survey. On the other hand, the quite unique character of the book, and its relevancy to the subject-matter of this treatise, make it reasonable and desirable that special attention should be drawn to it.
The writer states in his Introduction that his aim is not to give ' a history of the science of Anthropology, a task that has been fairly satisfactorily accomplished already by P. Topinard and others '.^ He seeks rather to define the boundaries of ' this most unsettled and vaguely-limited field of study ' ; ^ and this task he achieves in a thorough and masterly way. No one who had not secured the training and skill of a professional librarian could have executed this undertaking in so comprehensive and exhaus- tive a manner. Mr. Dieserud's classification ^ will not be endorsed by every authority who examines it, but all will admit that the labour of years which it represents was exceedingly well expended. According to this scheme,. ReHgion falls to be considered under the subject-heading ' Ethnology ' — or, to be more exact, ' Ethnic Sociology '.^
^ Cf. Lewis R. FarncU, The. Evolution of Religion, p. 8. London, 1905; Edwin S. Hartlanci, Ritual and Belief, pp. 1 f. London, 1014 : vide infra^ p. 23 ; etc. etc.
- Cf. p. 3. =' Cf. p. 1. ^ Cf. pp. 53-87. ' Cf. p. 69.
DIESERUD, The Scope of Anthropology 11
Serious students in this field ought to give due con- sideration to the writer's ' explanation and defence ' of his conclusions.^ The book is divided into three parts, viz. i, Scope and Content, ii, Classification, and iii, Bibliography. A very useful Appendix contains (1) a dated list of the best ' Anthropological and Ethnological Societies, and their Publications ', and (2) an alphabetical list of the ' Leading Ethnographical Museums, and Museums containing impor- tant Ethnographical Collections '.^
It is very interesting to note that Mr. Dieserud, owing to the indefiniteness of the frontier line of Anthropology, finds himself perpetually hampered in the way in which writers on Comparative Keligion are similarly embarrassed to-day. Constant confusion, due to the careless use of a still-unfixed terminology,^ is inevitable. Accordingly, the writer frames an argument wherein he seeks to show that the general science of Anthropology ought to be subdivided into two main branches, viz. (a) Physical Anthropology, and (h) Eth- nical Anthropology. The former department limits itself to Anthropology Proper, while the latter embraces Ethno- logy, Ethnography, Archaeology, Sociology, Psychology, and Technology. Mr. Dieserud, moreover, takes special pains to define the meaning of two terms, concerning which the scientific world is still very far from having reached agreement, viz. ' Ethnology ' and ' Ethnography '.^ He would restrict Ethnology to a study of man ' as a social being, — with the comparative study of his institutions, customs, religions, morals, arts, sciences, language, and technology, (in short) of his mental and material culture ',^ while Ethnography is to be found rather in ' the mono- graphic descriptive study of the various peoples and tribes of the earth '.^ It is not uncommon to-day, as elsewhere
1 Cf. p. 2. 2 YifiQ in.jra, pp. 502 f.
^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 4.
* Cf. pp. 29-52. Vide supra, p. 10 and infra, p. 35.
^ Cf. p. 46. Herein the writer agrees practically with Professor Steinraetz, Essai d'une bihliographie systematique de Vethnologie, p. 3 : vide infra, pp. 463 f. < « Cf. p. 45.
12 ANTHHOPOLOGY
explained/ to define Ethnography as * Descriptive Ethno- logy '. At the first Congres International d'Ethnologie et d'Ethnographie, held in Neuchatel in June 1914,2 the dis- tinction was drawn thus : ' Ethnologie, le classement des races ', and ' Ethnographie, 1' etude comparee des civilisa- tions '.
THE GOLDEN BOUGH. A Study in Magic and Keli- GiON, by James George Frazer, Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool. 12 vols. London : Macmillan and Company, [3rd edition, revised and enlarged], 1911-1915. Pp. circa 4,500. £6 10s.
It is a satisfaction to Englishmen, and scarcely less a satis- faction to hundreds of scholars abroad, that this truly encyclopaedic work has now triumphantly been brought to completion. Taken as a whole, these volumes embody a magnificent project, carried forward with a calm and unswerving patience which is entitled to our honest applause. The mass of material which Sir James Frazer has been com- pelled to handle would long ago have checked and even appalled the ordinary investigator ; but, in his case, it has apparently only whetted an already firm resolve to master and interpret it. Accordingly, we now possess in this w^ork a perfect thesaurus of information bearing upon savage beliefs and practices. Illustrations and parallels, often quite un- expected and sometimes positively startling, are drawn from literally every quarter into which research has been able to penetrate. The religious customs of North, South, East, and West have been collected and compared. The whole field has been surveyed, and the author has thus up- reared for himself a monument of scholarship which reflects credit not less upon his British pluck than upon his own downright Scottish pertinacity. Yet he has achieved this
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth, p. 305. Edinburgh, 1905. * Vide iiifra, pp. 424 f.
FRAZER, The Golden Bough 13
herculean task, demandiilg for its performance the labours of a quarter of a century, at the summons of no narrow or selfish ambition ; it has been to him a constant labour of love. Hence, in spite of the countless obstacles which had to be surmounted, he has carried his great burden with an ease and gaiety of spirit which are at once rare and stimu- lating. He has marshalled his data with an ingenuity and skill which have perhaps never been surpassed. His exposi- tions, down to the last page, remain cogent, bright, and suggestive. It was no exaggerated tribute which a critic recently paid to this tireless pathfinder when he declared : ' The Golden Bough is undoubtedly the vastest piece of systematic work that anthropological science has yet to show '.1
The nucleus of this great undertaking appeared in 1890, and consisted of two volumes. A second and revised edition, in three volumes, was published in 1900. As now augmented and rearranged, the material contained in the third edition is distributed as follows :
Part I. The Magic Art and the Evolution
of Kings. Part II. Taboo and the Perils of the Soul. Part III. The Dying God. Part IV. Adonis, Attis, Osiris. Part V. Spirits of the Corn and of the
Wild. Part VI. The Scapegoat. Part VII. Balder the Beautiful. General Index and Bibliography.
The foregoing syllabus represents an immense expansion of the author's original programme. In the Prefaces to the first and second editions, it is expressly declared that ' this is not a general treatise on primitive superstition, but merely the investigation of one particular and narrowly-limited problem, to wit, the rule of the Arician priesthood. Accord- ingly, only such general principles are explained and illus-
^ Cf. The Athenceum, p. 82. London, July 27, 1912.
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14 ANTHROPOLOGY
trated in the course of it as seemed to me to throw hght on that special problem '.^ In the final edition, however, the writer frankly concedes that ' while nominally investigating a particular problem of ancient mythology, I have really been discussing questions of more general interest which concern the gradual evolution of human thought from savagery to civilization '.^ Moreover, Professor Frazer admits that, ' while his inquiry has been proceeding, he has seen reason to change his views on several matters '.^ . . . * The mere admission of such changes ', he remarks, ' may suffice to indicate the doubt and uncertainty which attend inquiries of this nature '.^ Further on, the writer adds : ' I am hopeful that I may not now be taking a final leave of my indulgent readers '.^ Doubtless, as long as Professor Frazer lives, various supplementary discussions may be looked for ; and these addenda will very gratefully be welcomed.® International Congresses of Prehistoric Anthro- pology and Archaeology,' not to speak of the labours of numerous private researchers, are rapidly supplying material for the successful solution of problems which, even yet, are very complex and perplexing.
The theme of this huge treatise may still perhaps be said to be ' The Myth and Kitual of Dying Gods '. It is an attempted exposition of primitive superstition and of primitive religion, with special reference to the conceptions of death and resurrection. It is a severe handicap of the undertaking that, owing to the very necessities of the case, the author is compelled continually to invoke the aids of imagination and speculation. He strives with all diligence to be loyal to the historical method ; but when that instru- ment fails him, he does not hesitate to fall back upon ten- tative and temporary expedients. By his own admission, he is ' seeking to trace the growth of human thought and
^ C/. The Golden Bough, 2nd edition (1900), vol. i, p. xxi.
" Cf. Balder the Beautiful, vol. i, p. vi. ^ Cf. ibid., pp. vii f.
* Cf. ibid., p. xi. ^ Cf. ibid., p. xii.
* Early publication of Folklore of the Old Testament is already announced. ' Vide infra, p. 417.
FRAZER, The Golden Bough 15
institutions in those dark ages which He beyond the range of history '.^ Occasionally he quite candidly confesses that many of the inferences he has drawn — not less than many of the alleged facts upon which they rest — may not be wholly reliable. In one notable passage he remarks : ' I am fully sensible of the slipperiness and uncertainty of the ground I am treading, and it is with great diffidence that I submit these speculations to the judgement of my readers '.^ On another occasion he declares : ' The domain of primitive superstition, in spite of the encroachments of science, is indeed still to a great extent a trackless wilderness — a tan- gled maze — in the gloomy recesses of which the forlorn explorers wander for ever without a light and without a clue '.^ Would that this ardent and painstaking scholar were himself always ruled by so modest and sober-minded a ' Spirit ' !
It is not surprising that, even from the purely anthropolo- gical point of view, this author's discussions have had to run the gauntlet of sharp and persistent criticism.^ Although the data upon which he bases his various conclusions and sug- gestions are still admittedly imperfect, and although (even where satisfactorily verified) they are frequently capable of yielding entirely contradictory interpretations, there is often associated with his verdicts an air of finality which is quite unwarranted. He irritates one needlessly, times without number, by making interjected and arbitrary pronounce- ments ; and when one proceeds to examine the foundations upon which some such declaration rests, they are often found to consist of ' It would appear ', ' It seems to me ', etc.
^ Gf. The Golden Bough, 2nd edition (1900), vol. i, p. xxiv. ■ « Cf. The Dying God, p. 270.
^ Cf. Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, vol. ii, p. 47.
* Cf. Andrew Lang's severe rejoinder in Magic and Religion. London, 1901. Vide supra, footnote, p. 7. The reproof administered by Dr. Warde Fowler — ' the good shepherd who has brought me back ', as Professor Frazer calls him {Balder the Beautiftd, vol. i, p. ix) — has already been cited : vide supra, footnote, p. 9. Cf. also Sir Alfred Lyall's criticisms of the first edition of The Golden Bough, and those repeatedly offered since by Professor A. van Gennep.
16 ANTHROPOLOGY
Such challenges to one's possible resentment, especially when they are numerous, are not wise, and they are hardly becom- ing ; in point of fact, they serve only to deepen one's original conviction that large portions of The Golden Bough possess only a transitory value. Professor Frazer is too magnani- mous to disguise this truth even from himself ; for, in one of his Prefaces, he admits that ' the facts which I have put together in this volume, as well as in some of my other writings . . . are rough stories which await the master- builder, — rude sketches which more cunning hands than mine may hereafter work up into a finished picture '.^ Herein lies probably the chief merit of this exhaustive undertaking. It represents a coup d'ceil rather than a chef-d'ceuvre. It embodies the information secured during a daring and successful reconnaissance. It is a piece of work that, regard- less of its risks, had to be faced and accomplished. Yet, while few could have attempted it with so fair a promise of success, a measure of failure (even in Dr. Frazer's skilful hands, learned and ingenious as he is) was absolutely inevit- able. Like Comparative Eeligion itself, which to-day is but a shadow of what it is destined to become,^ Anthropology is as yet able to offer only a limited number of substantial and reliable verdicts. No doubt its range and effectiveness will increase with the process of the years ; but mean- while, most of its conclusions — and especially its conclu- sions touching religion — must be submitted to a very rigid examination. Only in this way can facts and surmises be ultimately and confidently separated.
It has already been remarked that the contributions of Anthropology to Comparative Eeligion are often hugely exaggerated.^ In like manner, the relevancy of the contents of The Golden Bough to studies in Comparative Religion is by no means so great as some have been led to suppose. The work which Sir James Frazer has just completed cannot
^ Cf. Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. viii. - Vide supra, p. 41, and infra, pp. 514 f, ^ Vide supra, p. 5.
FRAZER, The Golden Bough 17
fail to prove very serviceable to explorers in this field ; yet the comparisons and parallels which it presents, sometimes fairly bewildering in variety and number, are often quite misleading. Moreover, because they omit to take account of facts which are not yet fully within our grasp, they are frequently far from convincing. Still further, many of the questions discussed at great length have exceedingly Httle to do with data of the spiritual order, whereas Comparative Religion limits itself exclusively to the historical validity and interaction of factors of that character.^ Finally, it must not be overlooked that, while Comparative Religion is unalterably opposed to the acceptance of inferences as valid substitutes for verifiable evidence. Anthropology — and especially Prehistoric Anthropology — is often restricted by conditions which, for the time being, render its testimony quite worthless for purposes of exact and critical inquiry. ^ That the author himself recognizes this fact may be gathered from the altered phraseology which he has chosen for the sub-title of his work ; he no longer uses the words selected for the Srst edition, viz. ' A Study in Comparative Religion ', but has substituted the manifestly more accurate label ' A Stady in Magic and Religion '.^
Nevertheless, Professor Frazer's treatise is rightly included within the present survey. It is included, first, because the anthropological method of studying religion is to-day con- spicuously in the ascendant.* In Great Britain, teaching in this department is improving very rapidly. The purely ' administrative value ' of Anthropology, as Sir Richard Temple pointed out in a recent Presidential Address before the British Association for the Advancement of Science ^ — the necessity that foreign magistrates and judges and governors, fulfilling their duties in various corners of the globe, should possess an intimate knowledge of the habits, customs, and ideas that dominate those alien races among
^ Vide supra, pp. 7-8. ^ Vide supra, pp. 5-6, 15, and infra, p. 19.
^ Cf. Professor King's criticism of the distinction underlying this title : vide infra, pp. 150-1. * Vide supra, p. 3,
^ Vide infra, pp. 32 f.
C
18 ANTHROPOLOGY
whom they Hve — has imparted an entn*ely new value to courses of expert training in this subject. Both of the older British Universities have accorded this branch of inquiry considerable prominence ; Oxford in particular, and espe- cially Exeter College, have become its zealous sponsors. The University of London now confers the degree of M.Sc. in Anthropology. An influential appeal has just been made to the British Government to provide adequate financial support for more fully organized instruction in this depart- ment. The same tendency is manifesting itself in America ; it is also fairly conspicuous at several centres on the Con- tinent, where the activity of the anthropological school has attracted and enlisted some very able advocates. A further reason for singling out Sir James Frazer's volumes, and for allowing them so large a measure of space, is the fact that The Golden Bough is undoubtedly the most representative modern publication of its type. This immense piece of research and Sir Edward Tylor's earlier publication ^ are to-day two great landmarks in the anthropological domain. They cover the whole field of this exacting study. In par- ticular, they have profoundly and permanently influenced students of religion throughout the world. All sorts of primitive usages — agricultural usages, in large part — are now admitted to have possessed a spiritual significance which, until recently, remained wholly undiscovered.
At the same time, it must not be supposed or alleged that this author's work furnishes us with a concrete specimen of Comparative Religion ; much less must it be labelled or accepted as a systematic exposition of that science. For one thing. Professor Frazer's apparent antagonism to belief in certain details of the Christian faith is very far from being characteristic of a genuine embodiment of Comparative Religion.2 Ancient sanctions, even though misplaced, must never ruthlessly be assailed and ridiculed and (if possible)
^ Of. Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture. 2 vols. London, 1871. [4th edition, 1903.]
* Vide infra, pp. 513 and 516 f. Happily this defect is considerably less in evidence in the third edition.
FRAZER, The Golden Bough 19
overturned ; least of all ought such an attempt to be made by one who is often compelled to speak on behalf of his own speciality with manifest hesitancy and uncertainty. But the most serious fault of this work, regarded as a scientific treatise, is its readiness to harbour and give currency to a multitude of mere conjectures. The late Andrew Lang, when criticizing Professor Frazer on one occasion, bluntly expressed the opinion that ' Hypotheses, based on reports about the religions of savage races, are not regarded as evidence within the sphere of practical theology '. He was right. In any and every science, proofs (not brilliant guesses) are the real demand of the hour.
EELIGIONS, MGEURS ET LEGENDES. Essais d'ethno- GEAPHiE ET DE LiNGuiSTiQUE, par Amold Van Gennep, Professeur d'Histoire Comparee des Civilisations et d'Ethnographie a I'Universite de Neuchatel. 5 vols. Paris : Mercure de France, 1908-1914. Pp. 317, 318, 268, 272, and 218. Each volume, Fr. 3.50.
This author, if his own preference w^re consulted, would undoubtedly have been placed among selected writers on Ethnology.^ The subject-matter of these essays, on the other hand, fully warrants the decision that they ought to be dealt with here.
Professor A. van Gennep — founder and editor of the Bevue d'Ethnogra'p'hie et de Sociologie, and President of the ' Euro- pean Folklore ' section of the Institut Ethnographique International de Paris — is one of the most diligent and aggressive agents through whom Anthropology and Ethno- graphy are to-day effectively furthering the interests of Comparative Religion. Alert, inquisitive, not easily turned aside from any quest he once deliberately undertakes, he is many-sided in his interests and aims. He has enjoyed the advantage of meeting familiarly with scholars in many lands ;
^ Vide infra, pp. 35 f. C2
20 ANTHROPOLOGY
for he has travelled widely, has lived and taught in Eussia, has lectured in various European Universities, and has recently been elected to occupy a professor's chair in the University of Neuchatel. During all these years his pen has been busy ; and, as it has been guided by a rapid and incisive writer, his books have everywhere been much in demand. Les Rites de Passage, brilliant and suggestive, gained for him speedily the recognition due to an author of insight, skill and courage. It is important to state, further, that — in the book just specified, as also in those which we are now to review^ — Professor van Gennep presents the results of his investiga- tions into the origin and meaning of Totemism, a subject to which he has devoted many years of exacting and penetra- tive inquiry.
The successive volumes of Religions, Mceurs et Legendes are made up of articles which, already published in some of the leading French reviews, have been retouched and care- fully brought up to date. They deal with many themes, — Druidism, the astral interpretation of myths and legends, the historic value of Folklore, etc. etc. They are, however, especially timely and interesting because of the light they throw upon Totemism. To that single point, accordingly, we shall confine our attention.^
Turn at once to what Professor van Gennep has to say upon this topic in the first and second chapters of volume ii. The latter of these sketches appeared originally in a well-known metropolitan journal.^ It provides an ad- mirable epitome of the results already achieved by w^orkers in this field, — by Eenel on behalf of Italian Totemism, by Sir Laurence Gomme and S. Eeinach on behalf of Celtic Totemism, by Eobertson Smith on behalf of Semitic Totemism, by Lang and Farnell and de Visser on behalf of Greek Totemism, by Loret and Amelineau on behalf of
^ Cf., for a very full discussion of this theme, Semaine d'ethnologie reli' gieuse, 1912, pp. 225-78 : vide infra, pp. 422 f.
^ Cf. Revue de VJiistoire des religions, vol. Iviii, pp. 34-76 : vide infra, p. 488.
GENNEP, Religions, Moeurs et Legendes 21
Egyptian Totemism, by Spencer and Gillen and Howitt and Strehlow on behalf of Australian Totemism, by Haddon and Wichmann and Parkinson on behalf of Totemism in New Guinea, by Kisley and Gait on behalf of Indian Totemism, by Powell and a large group of writers on behalf of North- American Totemism. It will be seen that the survey is conducted upon very modern and comprehensive lines.
The disposition to exalt the Totem to a divine status, and to accord it a markedly conspicuous place in the study of religion, is now generally discredited. Kobertson Smith must bear some of the blame for defending and propagating a serious aberration which at last, happily, has been got rid of. Furthermore, as the result of a closer acquaintance with the history and habits of primitive races in Australia, belief in the alleged universality of this cult has now practically been abandoned.
Professor van Gennep finds much that is worthy of praise in the pioneer anthropological work of Marillier and Lang. He criticizes somewhat sharply the earlier investigations of Professor Frazer,^ while commending sundry changes intro- duced by that teacher into the later expositions of his theory .^ He has much fault to find with Jevons,^ and Eenel ; * but he joins issue with Toutain,^ and Eeinach,^ in an especially vigorous way. He strenuously denies the conclusion that ' tous les peuples, dans tous les pays du globe, ont passe
^ Vide supra, p. 19.
^ Cf. James G. Frazer, Totemism. Edinburgh, 1887. Republished, after revision and expansion into 4 vols, as Totemism and Exogamy. London, 1910. Vide also his article in the Encyclopoedia Britannica (10th edition).
^ Cf. Frank B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion. London, 1896. [6th edition, 1914.] MarilUer's criticism of Dr. Jevons's theory of Totemism {cf. ' La Place du totemisme dans revolution religieuse ' in the JRevue de Vhistoire des religions, vol. xxxvi, pp. 208-53 and 321-69, and vol. xxxvii, pp. 204-33, and 345-404) is simply unanswerable.
* Cf. Charles Renel, Cultes militaires de Rome : Les Enseignes. Paris, 1903.
^ Cf. Jules Toutain, Etudes de mythologie et d'histoire des religions ■antiques, pp. 56-80 : vide infra, pp. 361 f.
* Cf. Salomon Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, vol. i, pp. 30-78 : vide infra, pp. 28 f.
22 ANTHKOPOLOGY
par le totemisme '.^ He denies with equal confidence the affirmation that Totemism must be accepted as the primitive type of religion.2 He holds, on the contrary, that Totemism — in so far as we at present understand it — is demonstrably a very complicated problem. A large number of factors, exceedingly varied in their complexion and influence, have plainly entered into it. Professor van Gennep, who is sane and discreetly cautious in formulating his judgements, is of the opinion that Totemism is a ' systeme a la fois magico- religieux et social '.^
This author is likewise quite out of accord with Professor Toutain's shyness in summoning to his aid the resources of the comparative method.* The latter half of volume v is devoted to a very interesting series of ' etudes sur des precurseurs en France, au xviii® siecle, de la methode comparative ou ethnographique '. Having drawn up a chronological table of authors, beginning with Natalis and ending with Dulaure, successive chapters are allotted to Lafitau, Montesquieu, Eousseau, Voltaire, Goguet, De Brosses, Boulanger, and Dupuis. The honour of intro- ducing the comparative method is awarded to Lafitau, with De Brosses as a close second. But to this matter reference may more conveniently be made in a subsequent connexion.^
^ C/. vol. ii, p. 81. Professor Frazer does not defend the theory of a universal diffusion of Totemism {cf. Preface to the 2nd edition of The Golden Bough, p. xxiii), although MM. Hubert and Mauss entertain a contrary opinion : vide infra, p. 308 f.
^ Cf. George Foucart, Histoire des religions et methode comparative, pp. li f., for a similar discrediting criticism : vide infra, pp. 342 f. Or cf. Principal Carpenter : ' Totemism cannot be established as the typical form of "Primitive Religion".' {Comparative Beligion, p. 56.) Or cf. Mr. Lang : vide infra, p. 29.
* Cf. vol. ii, p. 75. Dr. Soderblom is of opinion that ' Der Totemismus ist als solcher keine Religion, sondern eine Art sozialer Bildung ' {Tiele's Kompendinm der Eeligionsgeschichte, [4th edition, 1912], p. 35.) Frederic- Bouvier presents an excellent general survey of recent literature on Totemism in Becherches de science religieuse, vol. iv, pp. 412-42 : vide infra, p. 487.
* Vide infra, pp. 361 f. ^ Vide infra, p. 344 f.
HARTLAND, Ritual and Belief 23
KITUAL AND BELIEF. Studies in the History op Keligion, by Edwin Sidney Hartland. London : Williams and Norgate, 1914. Pp. xiv., 352. IO5. Qd.
At the third International Congress for the History of Keligions, held in Oxford in 1908, no paper led to a more animated discussion at the time, and to a more strenuous subsequent controversy, than the Presidential Address delivered by Mr. Hartland before members of the Section devoted to ' Eeligions of the Lower Culture'.^ The still- unsettled question of the primitive relations of magic and religion was once more raised and debated. Professor Frazer teaches in The GoldenBough,^ as all students are aware, that magic invariably precedes religion. He holds that the employment of magic is an attempt to utilize natural (or supernatural) forces, for effecting certain ends, — such as the greater fruitfulness of the soil, the thwarting of evil, the death of one's enemies, etc. etc. ; it is only when it comes to be discovered by savage peoples that magic fails very often to secure its purpose that an appeal, however blind and crude, is made to higher and more spiritual powers. Mr. Lang, on the other hand, held that religion antedates magic, — the belief in a ' relatively Supreme Being ' emerging always at a very early period among even the most uncivi- lized races. By and by, that belief tends to become obscure, being buried beneath a great weight of animistic specula- tions. Mr. Hartland, ever fertile in ideas, had his own theory to advance, ' quite different from either of those previously mentioned. I refer to the theory which lays primary em- phasis on two factors, viz. the sense of personality and the sense of mystery '.^ He held, accordingly, that magic and religion spring from the same root ; from the lowest stage of culture to the highest, they may be described as insepar-
1 Cf. Transactions, vol. i, pp. 21-32. 2 vols. Oxford, 1908. * Vide supra, pp. 12 f.
^ Cf. Transactions, vol. i, p. 27. Vide also his Presidential Address before the Anthropological Section of the British Association Meeting in 1906.
24 ANTHROPOLOGY
able '.^ At the same time, while he admits that a uniformly early belief in the efficacy of ritual has resulted in some instances from the antecedent dominance of magic, the data brought forward by those who contend that religion appeared equally early cannot successfully be refuted. The satis- factory solution of this problem apparently lies in the future. Instead of contending that magic is the earliest form which religion invariably takes, or that religion in every community is older than magic, or that the two are ' twins which come into being at the same time and have always existed together ',2 it is safer to admit that, thus far, the evidence available is conflicting and insufficient.^
In an earlier work * Mr. Hartland devotes himself con amove to the solution of another practical inquiry. Those who have read his wonderful Perseus ^ will not need to be urged to procure its successor, a work which embodies a piece of honest, timely, and brilliant investigation. Indeed, the latter treatise may be regarded as a sort of sequel to the earlier one, to which the reader is repeatedly referred. Like Professor Frazer, Mr. Hartland has a singular fondness and capacity for discovering and linking together a quite bewil- dering array of odd yet relevant facts and fancies. Dealing in great fullness with the question. What is the origin of Father-right and Mother-right among primitive peoples in all lands ? Mr. Hartland brings forward another new theory,
* Cf. ibid., p. 29. As Professor Foucart puts it : ' Magie, religion, science rudimentaire sont nees en meme temps . . . C'est beaucoup plus tard qu'on s'est avise de les distinguer.' {Histoire des religions et methode comparative, p. 224 : vide infra, pp. 342 f.). Professor Leuba maintains however that, while the primary forms of magic probably antedated religion, ' they are different in principle and independent in origin' {The Psychological Origin and the Nature of Religion, p. 48). ' Magic and religion combine, but never fuse ' {ibid., p. 65). Vide infra, pp. 151 f. Vide also Robert R. Marett on * Magic or Religion ? ' in The Edinburgh Review, pp. 389-408. London, April 1914.
* Cf. The Athenceum, p. 118. London, August 3, 1907. ' Vide supra, p. 17, and infra, pp. 25, 64-5, 67, etc.
* Cf. Divine Paternity. The Myth of Supernatural JBirth in relation to the history of the Family. 2 vols. London, 1909-1910.
^ Cf. The Legend of Perseus. 3 vols. London, 1894- 189G.
HARTLAND, Ritual and Belief 25
and defends it with conspicuous ability. The defect of this work lies in the fact that it carries its contention too far. The old individualism needed indeed to be broadened by the recognition of a co-existent socialism ; accordingly, Mr. Hartland's suggestions have not been advanced in vain. It is a mistake, however, to contend that Mother-right always asserted itself first, and invariably claimed and secured the foremost place. In all probability. Father-right has always been acknowledged, and has been held in honour along with Mother-right from the earliest times.
Mr. Hartland's latest book deals afresh, in the light of the most recent discussion, with the problem of the early associa- tion of magic with religion. The sub-title of the volume is a little misleading ; it would be more exact to call it ' Studies in the History of Primitive Religion '. For it is exclusively as an anthropologist that Mr. Hartland writes ; his exposi- tion has to do with the dim and conjectural beginnings of religion, as it gradually emerges into being. ' The following essays ', he says, ' are intended ... as a humble contribu- tion to the discussion. They . . . seek to express some of the results of a study of the phenomena, from the point of view of one who has been convinced that the emotions and the imagination . . . have had at least as much to do with the generation of religious practices and beliefs as the reason, and that, for the form they may have assumed, physical, social, and cultural influences must be held accountable.' ^
The opening essay, entitled ' The Relations of Religion and Magic ', will recall to many the Presidential Address — already referred to ^ — of which it is an elaborate expansion. This study covers one hundred and sixty pages of the book. Some of the other essays have also previously been printed, but they likewise have carefully been revised. The par- ticular instances of ritual or belief, here quoted, are very effectively stated and explained. A good Index, and an exceedingly serviceable Bibliographical List, complete this excellent volume.
^ C/. pp. xiii-xiv. * Vide supra, p. 23.
26 ANTHROPOLOGY
PEIMITIYE RELIGION, von Nils Martin Persson Nilsson, Professor der Klassischen Archaologie an der Uni- versitat Lund. (Religionsgeschichtliche Volksbiicher.) Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1911. Pp. 124. M. 1.
Compact and to the point, this booklet is well worthy of a place in the excellent popular series to which it belongs.
The writer — already widely known through an earlier publication,^ and a voluminous author and reviewer — en- tirely agrees with Dr. Marett ^ in believing that a pre- Animistic stage in the growth of religious conceptions must now frankly be conceded. Long before there can be any conscious assignment of a * spirit ' to innumerable animate or inanimate objects, early man must be admitted to have found often in trees and stones and similar visible things a suggestion of the existence of some Higher Power. This author further holds that Fetishism, counter to the general opinion, is also a pre- Animistic phase of man's religious development. Of course, as Dr. Nilsson is careful to point out, primitive religion — as all subsequent religion — is traceable to some- thing in man himself. The fact of faith is due, ultimately, to a psychological root ; ^ it is because of this fact that religion is inevitable and universal.
The existence of this psychological factor in man having been established,^ the writer goes on to show how it has manifested itself in various primitive cults, each possessing its appropriate ritual and priesthood, its mysteries and myths, and all the multifarious paraphernalia of a gradually unfolding system of belief and worship. In his attempt to indicate the successive steps in this process, the author is markedly successful ; he is plainly abreast of all that has recently been written upon this subject. His brief exposi- tions cover Tier- und Pflanzenkultus, Die Entstehung des Polytheismus, Menschenkultus, Grab- und Seelenkultus,
^ CJ. Griechische Feste. Leipzig, 1906. ' Vide infra, p. 33.
' Cf. Stanley A. Cook, The Foundations of Religion : vide infra, pp. 143 L * Cf. pp. 5-22.
NILSSON, Primitive Religion 27
Opfer und Gebet, Zauberer und Priester, Geheimbiinde und Mysterien, and Die Mythen. His condensed Bibliographies will no doubt prove very serviceable.
Taken as a whole, this sketch will admirably fulfil its purpose. It is very heartily commended to all who desire a competent conspectus of a complex and often very perplexing subject.
ESSAYS AND STUDIES. Presented to William Eidge- WAY ON HIS Sixtieth Birthday, edited by Edmund Crosby Quiggin. Cambridge : The University Press, 1913. Pp. XXV., 656. £1 5s.
The distinguished Professor of Archaeology, and Bereton Keader on Classics in the University of Cambridge, was well entitled to the honour which his colleagues and friends recently bestowed upon him. His sixtieth birthday occurred on August 6, 1913 : and, fitly to commemorate that event,, as well as to manifest the high regard in which Dr. Eidgeway is universally held, this imposing volume, with its represen- tative group of learned original articles, was prepared by willing and skilful hands. It is a pleasant thing to observe that a custom, admirable in itself and often most fruitful in its issues, is ceasing to be the reward exclusively of prominent scholars on the Continent.
The contents of this book, exceedingly varied, are classified under three headings, viz. Classics and Ancient Archaeology,. Medieval Literature and History, and Anthropology and Comparative Eeligion. On account of its possessing this. final subdivision, this work demands appropriate notice in the present survey.
Probably it is the first time in England that Comparative Eeligion has gained formal recognition in a general work of this kind. That recognition is not only significant, but it is accorded to studies that are among the best which this miscellaneous volume contains. It goes without saying.
28 ANTHROPOLOGY
that much of the material thus furnished is admittedly provisional and imperfect ; it is intended to serve as a stepping-stone to something more satisfying rather than as a foundation which is to be regarded as fixed and final. Even so, these papers possess much value. Three of them deserve special mention, viz. the study entitled ' The Serpent and the Tree of Life ', by Sir James Frazer, — suggestive, some- times whimsical, and often far from convincing ; a careful and lengthy discussion on ' The Evolution and Survival of Primitive Thought ', by Mr. Stanley A. Cook ; and an essay on ' Ancient Egyptian Beliefs in Modern Egypt ', by Dr. Charles G. Seligmann, Lecturer on Ethnology in the University of London.
CULTES, MYTHES ET RELIGIONS, par Salomon Reinach, Professeur a I'Ecole du Louvre. 4 vols. In progress. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1905-1912. Pp. vii., 468, xviii., 468, vii., 540, and v., 508. Each volume, Fr. 7.50.
Although the major part of this work was issued several years ago, it would be unpardonable to omit it from the present survey. These engaging essays are still in course of pubhcation, and it is a universal hope that they may long continue to appear. Moreover, it happens that a portion of this comprehensive treatise was recently presented to the world in an Enghsh dress, and the discussions which it contains are now destined to reach a wider literary con- stituency.^ Unhappily, only selections from the original have been translated. It is greatly to be regretted that attention has not expressly been drawn to the fact that three volumes have been condensed into one, that ninety-eight chapters have been reduced to fourteen, and that even these fourteen have suffered abridgement in various particulars.
^ Cf. Cults, Myths and Religions. London, 1912. (Pp. xiv., 209. 7<s. U,)
REINACH, Cultes, MtjtJies et Religions 29
Nevertheless, even in its curtailed form, this English version furnishes an excellent example of modern French exploration in the field of Anthropology, — in so far, that is, as such researches are concerned with elucidating our knowledge of the primitive religious ideas of mankind.
These essays, especially those brought together in the English edition of this work, constitute Professor Eeinach's well-known argument that Totemism was the primitive religion of the race.^ He cites the names of various British scholars, and confidently claims their support in defence of his theory. The authorities mentioned are Tylor, M'Lennan, Lang, Eobertson Smith, Erazer, and Jevons.^ But surely he reckons without his host, when he so writes. The investi- gators referred to agree with him, no doubt, in many respects ; but Mr. Lang has made it very plain that he at least is not to be quoted among the defenders of a primitive Totemism.^ M. Eeinach's arguments, moreover, — considered purely in themselves — are not wholly satisfying. If one were to judge by statements contained in his Presidential Address at Oxford,^ they are not altogether satisfying to M. Eeinach himself. They are ingenious, and reveal the nimbleness and skill of a daring and resourceful leader ; but, after they have been patiently and impartially weighed, they leave very much to be explained. To the cautious investigator, it becomes more and more clear that Totemism has undergone many changes in the course of its history. The very emergence of Totemism implies a still earlier period of primitive exis- tence, during which the conception of definite tribal organ- ization could scarcely have asserted itself. Whatever the religious ideas of that generation may have been, they cer- tainly antedated the introduction and spread of Totemism.
M. Eeinach deals in these pages with a score of other most interesting topics. His conclusions touching the origin of
^ Vide supra, p. 20 f., and infra, p. 172. ^ Cf. p. xi.
^ Cf. articles in Man, The Athenceum, etc. at various dates.
* Cf. Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, vol. ii, p. 118. Oxford, 1908. See also Cultes, rmjthes et religions, vol. iii, p. 88.
30 ANTHROPOLOGY
prayers for the dead — a practice which he traces back to Egypt — will arrest the attention of a multitude of readers.^ But the citation of the single representative inquiry, just referred to, must suffice.
In not a few particulars, Professor Reinach's intellectual activities continually remind one of Professor Frazer. Both are writers of w^ondrous versatility ; like the late Mr. Lang, they seldom hesitate to express opinions upon practically all subjects, opinions which they voice with the authority claimed by recognized specialists. Both are men of scholarly instincts, of tireless industry, and of genuine insight. Both are sponsors of theories which, expounded in a rarely brilliant way, have won a hearing wholly denied to the speculations of teachers who lack a mastery of literary style. Both pile illustration upon illustration, with the object of justifying some questionable proposition ; M. Reinach hurries us breathlessly in these pages from Australia to Egypt, from Greece to Rome, and then to ancient Persia ! Finally, both of these investigators err in arousing against themselves a needless antagonism, amongst various groups of readers. They alienate not a few through adopting an attitude and tone of superiority towards superstitions which — although by the majority outgrown — still exercise sway in respected and responsible quarters.^
In many of the main principles which he defends, M. Reinach is undoubtedly right. A study of cults, myths, and religions conclusively establishes his contentions (a) that religion is a universal possession of mankind, and (h) that religion is cultivated and developed under those laws that govern man in his various social relationships. It is here that a system of taboos becomes gradually evolved.
* Cf., in tho English translation, pp. 105-23.
2 If one mention only Roman Catholic writers, mark the resentment expressed by Leonce de Grandmaison on repeated occasions in Etudes ; by Frederic Bouvier in Becherches de science religieuse, vol. i, pp. 81 f.; by Alfred Loisy in A propos d'histoire des religions, pp. 49 f. ; by Friediich V. Hugel in Eternal Life, p. 279, etc. etc.
REINACH, Cultes, MyiJies et Religions 31
M. Reinach is mistaken, however, in believing that a study of Totemism provides the clue which will inevitably guide us into the presence of the very earliest form of primitive religious belief, — as mistaken as Professor Frazer, when the latter declares that ' the absolutely primary form of religion is that to which we give the name of magic '.^ In the field of Social Anthropology, he does not stand prominent as an original investigator. He exhibits marked originality at times ; but, by his own confession, he chiefly discharges in this domain the functions of a skilful interpreter. He is the eloquent popularizer of theories advanced in other quarters, particularly in England ; these he has made widely known, in a somewhat elaborated form, all over the European continent. His books may be counted by the score ; and they will never lack readers, so long as delicacy of touch and brilliancy of literary style continue to exercise their subtle and resistless charm.
L'ORIGINE DES RELIGIONS. Etude d'histoire com- PARBE DES RELIGIONS, par PieiTe Reuter, Professeur de Religion a I'Ecole Industrielle et Commercialede Luxem- bourg. Luxembourg: C.Praum, 1912. Pp.57. [Not published separately.]
L'Ecole Industrielle et Commerciale de Luxembourg embodied this very excellent paper by Professor Reuter in the official Programme which it published at the close of the academic year 1911-1912.
It is not easy to classify satisfactorily this brief exposition. It is put forward as ' A Study in the Comparative History of Religions ', and therefore might seem to belong to the ' Transition ' period.^ But it is also, and especially, a com- pendious study of ' The Origin of Rehgions '. This title depicts its real aim and scope. At the close of a brief general
^ Cf. The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. i, pp. 233 f. : vide supra, pp. 6-7, 23, etc. ^ Vide infra, pp. 323 f.
32 ANTHROPOLOGY
Introduction, the writer deals in three successive chapters with (1) Henotheism, (2) Animism, including Fetishism, Totemism, and The Theory of Taboo, and (3) Pre- Animism, including Naturism, Magic, and Theism.
It has already been shown that Comparative Religion, rightly understood, has really nothing to do with the ques- tion of origins. 1 This booklet plainly belongs to the depart- ment of Anthropology. It is a carefully written exposition* It is compact yet fully documented, and is supplied with an excellent Bibliography.
Professor Renter hopes soon to publish this paper, along with one or two others, in a volume which he is preparing for the press. His book will be welcomed by serious students not less than by those more general readers whom he keeps especially in view.
ANTHROPOLOGY. A Pkactical Science, by Richard Carnac Temple. London : George Bell and Sons, 1914. Pp. 96. Is.
This interesting, timely, and well-balanced discussion is made up of four Addresses, delivered — three of them during 1913 — on as many notable occasions. All of these papers have a single aim in view, viz. the statement and enforce- ment of the utilitarian aspects of Anthropology. Many pursue this study as if it were a purely theoretical branch of inquiry, and are entirely satisfied if they can widen appre- ciably the boundaries of human knowledge ; Sir Richard Temple is exclusively concerned, for the time being, with demonstrating its capabilities when viewed as a strictly practical science.
The scope of this little volume is best indicated by quoting the titles of its four successive chapters, viz. ' The Adminis- trative Value of Anthropology ', ' Suggestions for a School of AppHed Anthropology ', ' The Practical Value of Anthro-
^ Vide supra, p. 7.
TEMPLE, Anthropologij 33
pology ', and ' The Value of a Training in Anthropology for the Administrator, with special reference to Candidates for the Indian Civil Service '. The first and second papers were read at the meeting of the British Association held at Birmingham in 1913, while the other two were read respectively at Cambridge and Oxford. The author's purpose has most effectively been accomplished.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
RELIGIOUS CULTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE AMAZONS, by Florence Mary Bennett. New York : The Columbia University Press, 1912. Pp. 79. $ 1.25.
DER STERBENDE UND AUFERSTEHENDE GOTT-
HEILAND IN DEN ORIENTALISCHEN ReLIGIONEN, UND IHR
Verhaltnis zum Christentum, von Martin Briickner. (Religionsgeschichtliche Volksbiicher.) Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1908. Pp. 48. Pf. 50.
MYTHES ET L^GENDES. JEtude sur l'origine et l'evolu- TioN des croyances religieuses par la comparatson des textes originaux, par ^douard Danson. Paris : Marcel Riviere et C^e, 1914. Fr. 15.
LA MAGIE DANS L'INDE ANTIQUE, par Victor Henry. Paris : ]Emile Nourry, 1911. Pp. 286. Fr. 3.50.
HANDBUCH DER ALTORIENTALISCHEN GEISTESKUL- TUR, von Alfred Jeremias. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1913. Pp. xvi., 366. M. 10.
ANTHROPOLOGY, by Robert Ranulph Marett. (The Home University Library of Modern Knowledge.) London : WilUams and Norgate, 1912. Pp. 256. Is.
THE THRESHOLD OF RELIGION, by Robert Ranulph Marett. London : Methuen and Company, [2nd edition, revised and enlarged], 1914. Pp. 256. 55.
D
34 ANTHROPOLOGY
THE INFANCY OF EELIGION, by David Cymmer Owen. (The S. Deiniol's Series.) London: Humphrey Milford, 1914. Pp. vii., 143. 35. 6d. .
LA FORCE MAGIQUE. Du mana des primitifs au dynamisme SCIENTIFIQUE, par Pierre Saintyves. (Collection Science et Magie.) Paris : jSmile Nourry* 1914. Pp. 136. Fr. 4.
DIE UROFFENBARUNG ALS ANFANG DER OFFEN- BARUNGEN GOTTES, von Wilhelm Schmidt. Kempten : J. Kosel, 1913. Pp. vii., 159. M. 1.50.
DIE RELIGION DER EWEER IN SUD-TOGO, von Jakob Spieth. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1911. Pp. xvi., 316. M. 10.
DIE RELIGION DER BATAK. Em Paradigma fur ani- MiSTiscHE Religionen DES Indischen Archipels, von Johann Warneck. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1909. Pp. 136. M. 5.
DER TIERKULT DER ALTEN AGYPTER, von Alfred Wiedemann. (Der Alte Orient. 14. Jahrgang, Heft 1.) Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1912. Pp. 32. Pf. 60.
ETHNOLOGY
The line of demarcation between Anthropology and Ethnology — or, as most French and other continental writers would prefer to say, between Anthropology and Ethnography — is not always clearly drawn. Accordingly, it is sometimes difficult to assign a given volume, off-hand, to either of these categories in preference to the other.^ Professor Pettazzoni's book, cited on a subsequent page,^ might quite fitly have been placed under Anthropology. In like manner, the second entry in the following list might suitably have been included under the same subdivision ; for Dr. Farnell, in all his published work, reveals instinctively the attitude and methods of a student of Anthropology. Professor Chadwick would prefer, apparently,^ to stand associated also with that department. Much of Professor Frazer's great treatise,^ on the other hand, belongs properly to Mythology^ or to Folklore. In a similar way. Professor van Gennep, while he has made many valuable contributions to Anthropology,® writes for the most part as a representa- tive exponent of Ethnology.
There is abundant reason, however, for emphasizing the distinctive character of each of these departments. Anthro- pology has already been defined ;'^ in so far as it has any bearing upon spiritual and unseen realities, it seeks to trace — in all its multifarious details — the natural history of rehgion.^ But Ethnology, according to the British and American conception of it, is responsible for cultivating a very much narrower domain. It comes to ' closer grips ' with Man. It regards him as gathered into racial groups ;
^ Vide supra, p. xxi. - Vide infra, pp. 57 f.
3 Vide infra, p. 39. * Vide supra, p. 12 f.
^ Vide supra, p. 14. Vide infra, p. 96 f.
^ Vide supra, p. 19. ' Vide supra, p. 3. ^ Vide supra, p. 4.
D2
36 ETHNOLOGY
it does not view him merely in the mass and as a whole. It limits its examination to the ' race ' problem, — a factor which has always determined, and which in no small measure still determines, the religious preferences, prejudices, and activities of mankind. ^ ' Anthropomorphism is the strongest bias of the Hellene's religious imagination, and with this we associate his passion for idolatry and hero-worship. ^ Con- trast, in the United States, the Indian and the Negro ; the appeal which religion makes to these two units in the popula- tion of the Kepublic, and the difference of response which it evokes, correspond not inexactly to the secretive and silent disposition of the one race, and the light-hearted song- fulness and volubility of the other. Or contrast the type of Christianity w^hich prevails for the most part among Latin races, with that which has asserted its sway over Teutonic peoples ; who can deny that ethnic differences often lie at the root of those dissimilarities which none can fail to see ? That science which traces, moreover, the effects produced upon peoples by ' migration, the consequences of inter- marriage with other tribes, the disastrous issues of war, the immense variety of causes which have contributed to new developments of racial energy ', ^ is plainly competent - — especially when it is made to include the subsidiary study of Folklore — to throw a vast amount of light upon the quests in which students of Comparative Keligion are en- gaged. Truth to tell, it would be quite impossible without such aid to comprehend the subtle ramifications of Man's subconscious religious preferences and affinities. A few years ago a book, bearing a conventional title, rendered (within its limited sphere) a very considerable measure of service.*
^ Cj. Thomas Allin, Race and Religion. London, 1899. A most interesting and suggestive little book.
^ C/. Lewis R. Farnell, article on ' Greek Religion ' in Hastings's Encyclo- pcedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. vi, p. 424. Vide also a valuable article, by the same author, on ' Heroes and Hero-Gods ', ibid., vol. vi, pp. 633 f.
' Cf. J. Estlin Carpenter, Comparative Religion, p. 30. London, 1913.
* Cf. Mankind and the Church. An attempt hy seven Bishops to estimate the Contribution of Great Races to the Fidness of the Church of God, London, 1907.
ETHNOLOGY 37
If expanded so as to embrace a universal outlook, and if written by ethnological experts, it would fill a conspicuous gap in the scientific literature of our day. For, in so far as this study is able to elucidate the origin and growth, the agree- ments and differences, and various other particulars relevant to current religious beliefs and institutions, it becomes more and more manifest that race and racial surroundings and racial interblendings have had a vast amount to do with the shaping of Man's religious ideas and practices.
It is very desirable therefore that studies in Ethnology — as distinct from Anthropology — should be organized and prosecuted with unwearying diligence.^ Such research may still be conducted, and very usefully conducted, by students of Anthropology ; but, just as Comparative Eeligion ought no longer to be regarded as a mere adjunct of the History of KeHgions,2 so Ethnology ought everywhere in future to be carried on as an independent branch of inquiry. The immense significance of environment, and the effects which it is certain to exert upon given races, have admirably been delineated and emphasized by Professor Boas.^ Geographi- cal surroundings (the free air of mountain ranges, the neigh- bourhood of malignant swamps, or a home on the shores of some great sea), social and domestic surroundings, general prosperity or adversity, etc. etc. alike exert a measurable influence upon mankind. The slow expansion of ideals, also, — advancing through family, tribal, national, and (it may be) imperial stages — must not be ignored. The civilization of Ancient Egypt separates its inhabitants by an immense gulf from the modern fellahin. A race gradually outgrows its primitive history and beliefs, or it may relapse into depths of degradation of which a careless onlooker would never
' Vide supra, pp. 11-12.
2 Vide infra, pp. 164-5, 167, 365, 509 f., etc.
^ Cf. Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man : vide infra, p. 60. An arresting study of the race-problem, as illustrated in the very chequered history of the Jewish people, may be found in a book by Ignaz Zollschan, Das Rassenprohlem. Wien, 1910. Vide also some pregnant remarks on the general subject in The Athenceum, p. 150. London, February 8, 1913.
38 ETHNOLOGY
dream. But beneath all, and to some extent colouring all, the factor of race persists !
The ethnological method of study, as applied to tha investigation of religion, is especially popular in France ; ^ and, beyond question, excellent results have been achieved by means of it. At the same time, it is a method demanding infinite patience and skill ; it must ever be pursued with acutest watchfulness. While there is a common substratum in which all racial developments and practically all folktales may be said to agree, there are also important particulars (not always easily discoverable) in which races essentially differ. These ^agreements must be laid bare, and ade- quately accounted for. A prolific source of error in this study is explained by -the fact that, in tracing the formation of religious beliefs and opinions, the influence of the ' race ' element is often unconsciously exaggerated. All will recall Kenan's reiterated conviction that Semitic peoples have invariably been dominated by a monotheistic instinct, whereas no conclusion could more directly contradict the unshakable verdict of history.
THE HEKOIC AGE. By Hector Munro Chadwick, Fellow of Clare College, and Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Cambridge. (The Cambridge Archaeo- logical and Ethnological Series.) Cambridge : The University Press, 1912. Pp. xii., 474. 12s.
This extremely interesting volume is noteworthy as furnishing an instance of the application of the comparative method within a new and inviting domain.
The writer's acquaintance with the striking similarities which exist, during the ' hero ' stage of their development, between the folktales and traditions — and especially the
^ Cf. George Foucart, Histoire des religions et methode comparative, pp. xlv f. Cf., also, Arnold van Gennep's ' Contributions a rhistoire de la methode ethnographique ' in the Bevue de rhistoire des relifjions, vol. Ixvii, pp. 320-38, and vol. Ixviii, pp. 32-61. -
CHAD WICK, The Heroic Age 39
poetry — of various widely-separated races, led him to resolve that he would make a serious study and comparison of those stories which were common to the Teutonic and the Greek peoples, and ascertain if possible the source of their resem- blances.
The book is divided into three main portions. Part I deals with the early heroic poetry and traditions of the Teutonic peoples. It covers, roughly, the period lying between the middle of the third to the middle of the sixth century. Part II is occupied in like manner with the early heroic poetry and traditions of the Greek race, as recorded in Homer. It is in Part III that comparisons are formally instituted ; and some very arresting likenesses are indicated and un- folded. ' The comparative study of heroic poetry involves the comparative study of " Heroic Ages " ; and the problems which it presents are essentially problems of Anthropology ' ^ — or, more strictly speaking, of Ethnology, or, still more exactly, of Mythology.
The answer which Dr. Chadwick gives to the query he has raised is not indeed a new one ; but the reasons for the con- clusion at which he has arrived are presented adequately for perhaps the first time. One could wish that the infor- mation supplied had not been massed together in so bare and uninviting a form ; but it plainly represents the fruit of sound and laborious research. Abundant references are added, so that scholars can easily verify the testimony of the various authorities cited. ' For my own part ', he says, ' I prefer the explanation that similar poetry is the outcome, the expression, of similar social conditions.' ^ In the two cases under examination. Teutons and Greeks are found to have arrived in due course at a migratory stage in their history.^ Moreover, during that migratory period, both peoples were brought into touch with other races of a more advanced culture, whose traditions and lore they more or less consciously absorbed. It was an age of incessant
1 Cf. p. viii. 2 Cf. p. 76.
^ Cf. R. Fritz Graebner, Methode der Ethnologie : vide infra, pp. 46 f.
40 ETHNOLOGY
conflict and conquest, when brave leaders came to the front, and when heroic deeds (continually being executed) were rapturously applauded in speech and play and song.
This book is a credit to Cambridge, to British scholarship, and to the admirable literary series to which it belongs.
THE CULTS OF THE GKEEK STATES. By Lewis Eichard Farnell, Eector of Exeter College, Oxford. 5 vols. 207 plates. Oxford ; The Clarendon Press, 1896-1909. Pp. 1,658. U 2s. 6d,
Dr. Earnell recently brought to its conclusion a piece of work which has won him unstinted praise. He has given us of his best, regardless of what it has cost him. In the Preface to the closing volume he modestly congratulates himself upon having at last reached his goal, * a task which has occupied [the author's] leisure for twenty years '.^ Headers can very easily surmise how exacting this great undertaking has actually proved to be. In a sense, the work still remains incomplete ; and Dr. Farnell has intimated his intention of furnishing, on a subsequent occasion, * a full account of hero-worship, and the cults of the dead '.^ It is beyond question that, if this strenuous investigator's life reaches its normal limit, more than one supplementary volume is likely to follow. Dr. Farnell has accumulated a vast amount of material which, in the present instance, he has been com- pelled ruthlessly to excise. Nevertheless, these multifarious data may possess very high value for the student of Com- parative Religion ; in any case, in due time, they too will
' Cf. vol. V, p. iii.
^ Cf. vol. V, p. iii. A paper entitled ' Certain Questions concerning Hero- Cult in Gre3ce,' read by Dr. Farnell at the Fourth International Congress for the History of Religions {vide Transactions, pp. 140-1 : vide infra, pp. 418 f.), will be incorporated and amplified in this promised volume. Vide his article on ' Religious and Social Aspects of the Cult of Ancestors and Heroes ' in The Hibbert Journal, vol. vii, pp. 415-35. London, January, 1909.
FARNELL, The Cults of the Greek States 41
be placed at the disposal of those who are competent to appreciate and utilize them.
Dr. Farnell's procedure exemplifies anew the most effective method one can employ in the serious study of religion. His inquiries are conducted upon strictly scientific lines. Moreover, a definite and restricted field of research has deliberately been chosen ; ^ within that domain, every frag- ment of information which diligence and patience can con- tribute is brought under review, and its significance carefully determined. Dr. Farnell is no less tireless a collector of relevant ' facts ' than Professor Frazer ; by him, as by his learned confrere, even so-called trifles — by others overlooked or despised — are given their due place in his ultimate sum- maries. But, in the case of Dr. Farnell, the anthropological attitude is becoming ever more and more plainly dominated by his ethnological instinct. As the idiosyncrasies of the Greek mind become more familiar to this writer, the race- factor — more consciously recognized — is conceded freer and more vigorous play.^ The use Dr. Farnell makes of Greek coinage is a good illustration of the minutise which are often pressed into service in the course of his searching investigations.
It is not too much to say that in The Cults oj the Greek States we possess a treatise of the very highest worth, and of a rarely comprehensive character. As a work of reference, it is entitled to occupy — and is certain long to occupy — its present foremost place. It contains by far the most im- portant discussion yet published on the theme with w^hich it deals. It is a rich mine from which ore may be extracted in almost unlimited quantities ; herein lies, perhaps, its supreme contribution to our growing literary equipment. Authorities are copiously cited. It is, in truth, a sort of encyclopaedia. It reveals, everywhere, grasp and understanding. The numerous illustrations which adorn its pages very greatly increase its value. In a word, it can surprise no one that,
^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 9, and infra, pp. 58-9, 509 f., and 519 f. * Cf.f in particular, Greece and Babylon: vide infra, p. 42.
42 ETHNOLOGY
as the result of the pubhcation of this work, and the subse- quent appearance of his ' Hibbert'^ and ' Wilde '^ Lectures, Dr. Farnell has come to be recognized as one of the most eminent British authorities among the expositors of Greek Beligion.
In his application of the comparative method, Dr. Farnell is not always so successful as could be desired. A very interesting feature of the work under examination is the light it throws upon the wTiter's gradually expanding out- look. This result is due no doubt, for the most part, to two related causes. On the one hand, contemporary scholars have been engaged upon the very problems which have been occupying the author's attention ; and his inquiries have quite visibly been stimulated, and also occasionally corrected, by the books which other experts have recently published. On the other hand, his own mind has been ripening and maturing during the last twenty years ; this expansion is especially manifest in the third and subsequent volumes of this inviting and inspiring treatise. The qualify- ing remark made in reference to Dr. Farnell's application of the comparative method is true likewise of his excursions into the domain of Comparative Eeligion. He is evidently not quite at home there, as yet. His advances are cautious and tentative. It is, however, more than a hope — it is a confident belief — that, under the wise leadership of this scholar, yet another branch of knowledge will shortly be placed under an immensely increased indebtedness to his skil- ful and patient research. When he shall have complied more closely with the demands of this exacting quest, an important new stage in the history of Comparative Eeligion in Great Britain bids fair to be ushered in. No worthier appeal could address itself to Dr. Farnell, whose learning and powers of concentration peculiarly fit him for the successful discharge of this task.
^ CJ. The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion : vide injra, p. 235 f . 2 Cf. Greece and Babylon. A Comparative Sketch of Mesopotamian, Anatolian and Hellenic Religions. Edinburgh, 1911.
FROBENIUS, Und Afrika Sprach 43
UND AFRIKA SPRACH, von Leo Frobenius, Chef der Deutschen Inner- Afrikanischen Forschungs-Expedition. Charlottenburg : Vita, Deutsches Verlagshaus, 1912-. In progress. Pp. circa 400, each volume. M. 12.50-M. 20, each volume.
Among the most diligent exponents of Ethnology to-day, one may confidently include Dr. Leo Frobenius. By special students in this field his work has long been highly valued. Some are disposed to classify him as an exponent of Ethnic Sociology.^ The writer's own judgement has been expressed in the following terms : ' The goal at which I aim is the origin of culture-forms ; but, in the last analysis, this means " the origin of peoples ".' ^ Seventeen years ago. Dr. Frobenius published a series of popular yet scholarly studies which won for him an immediate and permanent place among the younger group of investigators.^
Three years later. Dr. Frobenius wrote a book which has only recently been translated into English.* As a conse- quence of the great pains which the late Dr. Keane bestowed upon this task, the text has been admirably rendered into our own tongue. It professed to give nothing more than a popular account of the superstitions, folklore, customs, occu- pations, etc., of primitive races ; yet the skill and fullness with which this vast survey was executed, and its condensa- tion into a compact yet adequate statement, are deserving of very high praise. We learn here also, incidentally, how the author's interest in this field was awakened, and how his early ardour was quickened into a purpose of sober and resolute research. The Berlin Zoological Gardens, whose
^ Vide infra, pp. 62 f.
" Cf. Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen, p. 15. Weimar, 1898.
2 Cf. Die WeltanscJiauung der Naturvolker. Weimar, 1898.
* a. Aus den Flegeljahren der Menschheit. Hannover, 1901. [Trans- lated, ' The Childhood of Man '. London, 1909.] This work was sub- sequently issued by the same publisher as a part of Vulkerkunde in Charakter- hildern des Lehens, Treibens und Denkens der wilden und der reiferen Mensch- heit. 2 vols. Hannover, 1902.
U ETHNOLOGY
special attractions are well known, cast swiftly a permanent spell over an eager and generous mind. Here the writer ' came into constant contact with Eskimo, Laplanders, Indians, Bedouins, and Blacks ; and here he gained the sympathy, and even the love, of these primitive peoples '.^ Later, Dr. Erobenius expended great labour in accumulating a huge private collection of all sorts of industrial, religious, and other * material ', upon which his Flegeljahren was based. A great number of the objects in question are depicted in the pages of this book, which contains a perfect store-house of illustrations.^ Tattooing, details of personal adornment, peace and war dances, sacred animals, fire worship, skull worship, etc., all find their appropriate por- traiture. But the instinct of the ethnologist carried the writer further. He endeavoured scrupulously to trace these multifarious customs — ' as well as the traditions, legends, and general folklore of the lower races — to their origins, in remote prehistoric times '.^ It would not be easy to find, in any existing publication, a more stimulating introduction to the general study of Ethnology.
Attention may be called, in passing, to another important book which this author has written. Only to those who have been so unfortunate as to miss it can it need at this date to be seriously commended.^ This volume does not fall, however, wdthin the chronological limits which mark the general boundaries of the present survey.
Coming now to Dr. Frobenius's latest work, recently translated into English,^ it will be found to contain an admir- able account of the experiences and discoveries of the German Inner- African Exploration Expedition, conducted in Togo- land, Nigeria, and the Cameroons during the years 1910-1912.
^ Cf. The ChildJiood of Man, p. v.
^ The English version is illustrated, in addition, by reproductions of a valuable series of dra"wings etc. which are to be found among the treasures of the British Museum.
^ Cf. The Childhood of 31 an, p. vi.
* Cf. Das Zeitalter des Sonnengottes. Berlin, 1904.
'^ Cf. The Voice of Africa. 2 vols. London, 1913.
FROBENIUS, Und AfriJca Sprach 45
Dr. Frobenius, as all are aware, was the leader of this im- portant undertaking. The illustrations supplied are copious and valuable, but unfortunately there is no Index ! Many will honestly endorse a recent criticism of this work wherein the writer remarks : ' A perfervid, half mystic, vague mode of expression — which breaks out in many parts — leaves the reader at a loss how much to discount from more sober pages . . . The historical theories of the author do not, however, detract from the value of his solid work '.^ This publication, however, — issued in Germany in a single volume in 1912 — is intended to be nothing more than a popular statement ; readers are especially recommended to consult the enlarged and ' wissenschaftliche ' edition, which will prove to be the really important one in so far as students of Comparative Eeligion are concerned. Ancestor worship, Shamanism, Social Cosmogony, and Islam are the four phases of religious culture which are to be brought under review. This elaborate treatise, now in course of publication, will consist of several volumes. The first of them supplies the latest pronouncement of its author upon his well-known theory, viz. that in Africa is to be found the lost Atlantis ; 2 its title is ' Auf den Triimmern des klassischen Atlantis '. The second and third volumes are entitled, respectively, ' An der Schwelle des verehrungswiirdigen Byzanz * and ' Unter den unstraflichen Aethiopen '. The author originally intended to complete his survey in four — or perhaps in five — volumes. Inasmuch, however, as a great deal of the material so diligently collected had not yet been utilized. Dr. Fro- benius ultimately decided to give considerable expansion to his initial programme. Accordingly, an Index (covering volumes i to iii) has been compiled ; and with it the author completes what he declares is now to be regarded as merely 'der erste Teil der Enzyklopadie'^ which he proposes to edit. Volume iv, which will be entitled ' Die ewigen Wege ', is in
^ Cf. Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 84 : vide infra, pp. 470 f. ^ Cf. Auf dem Wege nach Atlantis. Berlin, 1911, ^ C/. vol. iii, J), xix.
46 ETHNOLOGY
course of preparation ; it will serve to introduce ' the second group ' in what must be admitted to be a truly imposing series of historical and expository records.
It is a significant and very gratifying fact that the German Government recently sanctioned a grant of M. 25,000 to Dr. Frobenius, in order that his exploration of Central Africa might be continued with unflagging vigour.
METHODS DEE ETHNOLOGIE, von Eobert Fritz Graebner, Dozent fiir Ethnologie an der Universitat Bonn. (Kulturgeschichtliche Bibliothek.) Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1911. Pp. xviii., 192. M. 4.
This inviting little book forms an important contribution to a valuable scientific series, edited by Dr. Willy Foy, Director of the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Cologne. The Library comprises three main departments, the first and most comprehensive of which is allotted to Ethnology.
Within the last few years an interesting movement has revealed itself among the ethnologists of Germany, and it is steadily gathering force. It does not portend the inauguration of a new school of investigators, but rather the broadening and deepening of a theory which was long ago foreshadowed by the late Professor Bastian.^ More- over, as in England the disciples of Sir Edward Tylor occupy to-day a position considerably in advance of that defended by their master, so in Germany Frobenius ^ and Ehrenreich,^ and (to a less extent) Schmidt,* now move in the van of many learned contemporaries. Dr. Graebner has practically become the mouthpiece of this group. It is his name, to-day, that is oftenest on one's lips.
What may be said to be the characteristic feature of this
^ Cf. Adolf Bastian, Die Vdlker des bstlichen Asien. Jena, 1866-1871 ; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie. Berlin, 1869 et seq. ; etc. etc.
^ Vide supra, pp. 43 f. * Vide infra, pp. 100 f.
* Cf. Wilhelm Schmidt, article on ' Kulturhistorischc Methode in der Ethnologic' in Anthropos, vol. vi, p. 102: vide infra, p. 472.
GRAEBNER, Methode der Ethnologie 47
new departure? The answer to this question may be crystal- lized within the word Kulturkreis. It used to be held by ethnologists that a culture, localized in a given race, was propagated almost exclusively under the law of evolution. It gradually unfolded its hereditary tendencies, and was not perceptibly interfered with by contact with cultures of an alien origin. It will at once be seen that no allowance is here made for the effect of tribal migrations, and the subsequent fusion of cultures that have been nurtured under entirely different conditions. Graebner and his followers maintain, accordingly, that tribal movements from place to place must be conceded to have had a great deal to do with the produc- tion of practically new cultures.^ Hence the hypothesis of ' Cultural Areas ', w^hich takes express account of all his- torical migrations and of the interblending of unrelated traditions and institutions. ^
Dr. Graebner, in scarcely a less degree than the late ProfessorBastian,has enjoyed rarely favourable opportunities for marshalling the facts necessary for the defence of his position. The information accumulated during his former connexion with the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Berlin has been utilized in a skilful and very effective manner. He has had no difficulty, in virtue of the concrete instances which he cites, in demonstrating that an actual interblending of cultures has occurred within narrowly specified areas. ^ In language, in religious rites, in domestic customs, and indeed in an infinite variety of ways, there has occurred — sometimes unconsciously, sometimes deliberately— a bor- rowing by all early peoples of the habits and preferences of those with whom they have been brought into contact.
^ Vide supra, p. 39.
^ Cf. George roucart, Histoire des religions et methode comparative, p. xlix, for a criticism of Dr. Graebner's theory : vide infra, j)p. 342 f. Vide also Michael Haberlandt in an article entitled ' Zur Kritik der Lehre von den Kulturschichten und Kulturkreisen ' in Petermanns Mittheilungen, vol. Ivii (Part I), p. 113. Berlin, 1911. Dr. Graebner and Dr. Foy made reply in the same Journal ; cf., respectively, p. 228 and p. 230.
^ Vide infra, p. 59.
48 ETHNOLOGY
Accordingly, in addition to the study of the sociology, the archaeology, the philology, the psychology, and the mytho- logy of early peoples. Dr. Graebner holds that the closest attention must be given likewise to all relevant questions of Ethnology. Dr. Graebner says in effect that the method he advocates is the only really reliable one for the successful prosecution of anthropological inquiry. This dictum, how- ever, is manifestly narrow and one-sided.
Englishmen have not forgotten the notable address delivered by Dr. Kivers when President of the Section for Anthropology at a recent meeting of the British Association.^ While adhering to the view that similarities of culture are due to a considerable extent to the psychological likeness of all members of the human race, he admits the necessity of determining, by careful historical study, whether such agreements are not traceable to periods of actual contact. In his subsequent contribution to the Kidgeway Memorial Volume, he presents an enlargement of this discussion in an excellent paper entitled ' The Contact of Peoples '.^ Dr. Graebner warmly endorses Dr. Eivers's contentions, but he carries them a good deal further. It is arguable that he attempts to carry them too far. In any case, he differs from Dr. Bastian in so far as the latter — like the late Dr. Daniel G. Brinton of Philadelphia — held that ' cultural resem- blances are due merely to the psychical unity of mankind '. He contends on the contrary — with Dieserud ^ and others — that Ethnology must be regarded as an historical science. Its chief instrument of research is known as the kultur" JiistoriscJie Meihode.^ It ferrets out facts, and then associates them together in their chronological sequences. In other words, it is the historical relationships of cultures which
^ Cf. William H. R. Rivers, The Ethnological Analysis of Culture. London, 1911. [Report of the Eighty-first Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science : Plymouth, 1911, pp. 490-9.]
2 Cf. Essays and Studies, pp. 474 f. : vide supra, pp. 27 f.
^ Cf. Juul Dieserud, The Scope and Content of the Science of Aiithropology, pp. 47-8 : vide supra, pp 10 f.
* Vide infra, p. 330.
GRAEBNER, Methode der Ethnoloyie 49
really explain their more or less manifest similarities. The individual factors of interblended cultures must be studied — and, in as far as possible, ascertained — before the origin of the separated strands can confidently be determined.
The bearing of Dr. Graebner's theory upon the modifica- tions, gradual yet inevitable, which become introduced into the religious beliefs and customs of associated alien peoples is self-evident. It requires here no special emphasis. It is somewhat surprising therefore that, in Dr. Hastings's great Dictionary, 1 no article has been devoted to a discussion of Cultural Areas. An inquiry ought certainly to be instituted, without undue delav, into the measure of influence which collective and cultural factors — as distinguished from those which are individual and hereditary — have wielded in the moulding of the religious life of mankind.
FOLK-LORE OF THE HOLY LAND. Moslem, Christian, AND Jewish, by James Edward Hanauer. London : Duckworth and Company, 1910. Pp. xxii., 322. 5s.
The manner in which Folklore continues to aid the pro- gress of Comparative Religion is capably suggested and illustrated in a book recently published in England. It is not wholly a new book, for a considerable portion of it was printed in the United States more than a decade ago.^ By its British publishers, it was first issued under its present revised title in 1907 ; and it has now very fitly been incor- porated in their valuable Crown Library. The author, owing to his wide and varied experience at Damascus and elsewhere as a missionary of the London Jews Society, is competent to speak with authority upon a subject which he has diUgently studied. Few know Palestine better than he, and few are equally familiar with its subtle and curious lore. He is an acute observer, and his sketches reveal insight
1 C/. James Hastings, Encydo'pcedia of Religion and Ethics : vide infra,
pp. 434 f .
2 Cf. Tales Told in Palestine. New York, 1904.
E
50 ETHNOLOGY
combined with imagination and humour. The valuable contributions he has made to the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund have made his name well known to scholars in this field.
The projected comprehensiveness of this work is to be commended. Taken as a whole, it contains a most interest- ing selection from stories and legends which have long been current in the Holy Land. As the editor puts it : ' Although this compilation is but a pailful from the sea, as compared with the floating mass of folklore which exists in Palestine, I know of no other attempt at collection on anything like so large a scale '.^ These narratives are drawn from the investigator's own conversations with the inhabitants of ' the hill country between Bethel on the north and Hebron on the south. It is holy land for the Mohammedan and the Jew hardly less than for the Christian ; and its population comprises all three branches of that monotheistic faith, whose root is in the God of Abraham '.^ In point of fact, however, the survey is restricted almost exclusively to legends of a Moslem or Jewish origin.
One cannot undertake to criticize in detail a book of this sort ; but two remarks, of a somewhat general nature, are called for.
In the first place, as already hinted, the promise conveyed in the title of the volume is only partially fulfilled. Of Christian folklore, there is scarcely any citation. Moreover, as it stands, the book is too heterogeneous. Its subject- matter needs sifting, and then rearrangement in accordance with entirely different categories. But, in a second respect, this treatise is markedly disappointing. It falls short of any abiding and really scientific achievement through its lack of a competent and tJioroughgoing comparison of the various strains of folklore which it brings under review. This defect is frankly admitted. While Mr. Pickthall, the editor, is quite justified in saying that ' their stories against one another [i. e. the stories of Moslems against Christians, and
^ Cf. p. xix. * Cf. p. xvii.
HANAUER, Folk-Lore of the Holy Land 51
of Christians against Moslems], though abounding in sly hits, breathe (as a rule) the utmost good nature . . . only in the Jewish legends does one detect a bitterness which, in view of the history of their race, is pardonable V • • • he is compelled to add : ' Where he [Mr. Hanauer] has observed a coincidence or similarity, he has endeavoured to point it out ; but neither he nor his editor are skilled folklorists. There are sure to be many such kinships which have escaped our vigilance.' ^
On the other hand, this highly creditable piece of work has not been attempted in vain. ' It has been our object so to present the stories as to entertain the casual reader, without impairing them for the student of such matters '.^ If the book achieves its purpose, rather when it causes one to bubble over with mirth than when it seeks to lead the reader to pause and compare and reflect, that end in itself was worth the labour it has cost. But more serious results need not — and wdll not — be lacking. The notes and addenda by which each of the three subdivisions of the book is supple- mented are useful and timely. The collecting and recording of perishable data — now doomed, more swiftly than ever, to be submerged beneath an advancing civilization — was surely a most worthy undertaking. It can scarcely fail to stimulate the expert to bring this field at once under the inquest of a more exacting scrutiny.
CUSTOMS OF THE WOELD. A Popular Account of THE Customs, Kites and Ceremonies of Men and Women of all Countries, edited by Walter Hutchin- son. 2 vols. London : Hutchinson and Company, 1912-1913. Pp. xxiv., 1,200. £1 Is.
It may surprise some to find that, in the course of a critical survey, place should have been given to a work which pro- fesses to present merely ' a popular account ' of various
1 CJ. p. xvii. ' Cf. p. xix.
E 2
52 ETHNOLOGY
national customs, including religious rites and ceremonies. But, upon second thoughts, it will be seen that the objection is not valid. It is by means of such publications as the present one that, in reality, much of the research preliminary to Comparative Eeligion is actually being accomplished. Moreover, in this way, popular interest is being aroused ; and technical information, offered in an easily digested form, is reaching an ever-widening circle of intelligent readers. Such undertakings are to be welcomed ; and, where they are rightly appreciated, they will never lack a prompt and cordial reception. On the other hand, some books which profess to be severely scientific are, in point of fact, no more ' final ' or ' authoritative ' than are some of these modest yet competent summaries.
Every one is aware of the help which various series of popular handbooks have lent to the study of the History of Keligions.^ And Comparative Eeligion stands greatly in need of securing similar assistance. A few such treatises exist, but they all fall short of the mark.^ More elaborate research, embodied in volumes presenting a systematic exposition of the subject, is unquestionably one of the special demands of our time. What Dods ^ and Ealke ^ have accomplished through a searching examination and compari- son of three selected faiths requires to be done on a vastly expanded scale. Meanwhile, much preparatory work of
^ Vide infra, pp. 163 f. Take, as representative examples: —
Non-Christian Religious Systems. 11 vols. London, 1877-1905, The United Studtj of Missions. 12 vols. New York, 1901-
In progress. The World's Religion. 8 vols. London, 190-4- . In progress. Religions Ancient and Modern. 21 vols. London, 1905-
In progress. The Wisdom of the East. 47 vols. London, 1905- . In pro- gress : vide infra, pp. 446 f. ^ Cf. the best of the publications included in Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, vols, i and ii. London, 1910 and 1914. 2 Cf. Marcus Dbds, Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ. London, 1887. * Cf. Robert Falke, Buddha, Mohammed, Christus. Bin Vergleich der drei Persi'mlichkeiten und ihrer Religionen. GUtersloh, 1895. [2nd edition, enlarged, 1898-1900.]
HUTCHINSON, Customs of the World 53
the sort found in the Maitland Prize Essay for 1897 ^ is still a sine qua non ; and such a compilation as Customs of the World ought to be greeted with open arms, because it constitutes a milestone on the road which leads directly to a welcome and covetable goal.
It is not to be inferred from the remarks just made that the work under review is slight, and its subject-matter hastily put together. It is certainly not a series of studies intended merely to amuse, or to wile pleasantly away some unoccupied half-hour.^ The true quality of this treatise may fairly be appraised from the character of its contributors. Each is a specialist in the department with which he deals. As to breadth of survey, these two volumes cover the whole human race. They lack doubtless the unity, and some of the technical features, of a book such as Professor van Gennep has given us ; ^ but no deductions have to be made on the ground that they lack minuteness and authority. The descriptions given of birth rituals, curious matrimonial customs, death and burial ceremonials, in addition to the more directly religious acts of various priests, chiefs, and doctors, cannot fail to whet the appetite of readers for a fuller knowledge of the origin, and a clearer discernment of the meaning, of man's constant appeals to magic and sorcery, and also of his proneness to engage in practices which are €haracteristic of literally every race during its primitive stages.
These engaging records are supplemented by nearly a thousand illustrations, admirably reproduced from a remark- able series of photographs. This statement will draw attention to the vast amount of labour that has unstintedly been expended upon a work which students of Comparative Keligion will find stimulating and suggestive in no ordinary degree.
* Cf. Douglas M. Thornton, Parsi, Jaina, and Sikh. London, 1898.
2 Cf. James E. Hanauer, Folk-Lore of the Holy Land : vide supra, pp. 49 f.
^ Arnold van Gennep, Les Bites de passage. Paris, 1909.
54 ETHNOLOGY
MODEKN GEEEK FOLKLORE AND ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION. A Study in Survivals, by John Guth- bert Lawson, Fellow and Lecturer of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Cambridge : The University Press, 1910. Pp. xii., 620. 12s.
One finds in this volume an excellent illustration of the value of a University Foundation, created for the purpose of encouraging the laudable ambitions of beginners in serious research. Having won the Craven Studentship at Cam- bridge in 1898, Mr. Lawson spent the succeeding two years in Greece. He is but one of many beneficiaries who, under the will of the late Lord Craven, have done much for the promotion of valuable work of this kind ; and very few, if any, can have turned the great opportunity thus afforded them to better or more fruitful account.
The special task to which Mr. Lawson addressed himself was an ' investigation of the customs and superstitions of modern Greece in their possible bearing upon the life and thought of ancient Greece '.^ As he himself remarks : ' It was a venture, new in direction, vague in scope, and possibly void of result '.^ His undertaking was not indeed original; the feat had already been essayed by several predecessors. ^ Yet by none has it hitherto been carried out with such thorough- ness and competency : ' no large attempt has previously been made to trace the continuity of the life and thought of the Greek peoples '.^ Accordingly, Mr. Lawson has happily succeeded in throwing considerable light upon several controverted problems, while he has been rewarded by the discovery of various by-products of a highly impor- tant character. By temperament and training, not less than by his intimate acquaintance with the peasantry of the country, this author was peculiarly well fitted to enter
* Cj. p. vii.
" To mention but one authority, often referred to in the volume now under review, take Bernhard Schmidt, Bas Volksleben der Nengriechen und das hellenische AUerthum. Erster Toil. Leipzig, 1871. Part II has not yet been published. ^ Cf. p. x.
LAWSON, Modern Greek Folklore, Ancient Greek Religion 55
upon a somewhat difficult role. His knowledge of the classics, in particular, has stood him in good stead, and has enabled him to conduct his quest in a highly successful manner.
Mr. Lawson is persuaded that a study of modern Folklore is essential as a preliminary to the mastery of certain types of religion ; and ancient Greek Keligion, as he shows, falls indubitably within this category. Unlike Buddhism or Confucianism or Christianity or Mohammedanism, it had no founder, no sacred books, no Holy of Holies, ' no hierarchy concerned to arrest the free progress of thought, or to chain men's minds to the faith of their forefathers. A summary of popular doctrines, if it could have been written, would have had no readers, for the simple reason that the people felt their religion more truly and fully than the writer could express it. ^ . . . Nothing was imposed by authority. In belief and in worship, each man was a law unto himself. . . . The individual was free to believe what he would, and what he could ; it was the general, if vague, concensus of the masses which constituted the real religion of Greece. The vox populi fully established itself as the vox del.' ^
During the past ten years, Mr. Lawson has been applying his theory to the interpretation of the religious ideas of the Greek people ; and the present volume contains the outcome of this fascinating task. It would be quite impossible to review his book, after the ordinary manner, in any adequate way ; a better service will have been rendered if the reader is induced to consult the volume for himself. It will abun- dantly reward both the learned and the uninitiated. It is in truth a quite admirable ' Study in Survivals '. Touching a few points there must remain, as is natural, considerable difference of opinion ; but this diligent piece of research, taken as a wdiole, represents honest and suggestive work of a very high order. It will doubtless lead some to attempt to trace various pivotal customs and institutions, now existent alike in Christian and non-Christian faiths, to their primitive but wholly forgotten sources.
1 Cf. p. 5. '' Cf. p. 3.
56 ETHNOLOGY
AFEIKANISCHE KELIGIONEN, von Carl Meinhof, Pro- fessor der Afrikanischen Sprachen am Hamburgischen Kolonial-Institut. Berlin: Missionsbuchhandlimg, 1912. Pp. 154. M. 3.
In his ' African Keligions ', a series of nine lectures de- livered recently in Hamburg, Dr. Meinhof has condensed an immense mass of information of an extremely useful char- acter. In the circumstances, the treatment of his subject had to be popular in form ; but, notwithstanding that fact, these lectures are of high value to the student of Comparative Keligion.
Amid amazing variety as regards outward details, the African negro is as amazingly a unit in the fundamental concepts of his faith. Keligion, for him, is a living and ubiquitous force. It accompanies him everywhere ; it enters into every nook and cranny of his existence. It is, for the most part, animistic in its type, with a strong ten- dency towards fear of the spirits of the dead ; fear, indeed, may be said to underlie the whole fabric of it. The belief in magic is practically universal, and expresses itself in many extraordinary ways. And if religion in Africa sjjrings from fear, it also ceaselessly inculcates that haunting and unsettling sentiment. It is often pitilessly cruel in its unbending decrees and demands.
Professor Meinhof adduces evidence to show that, where occasionally one comes across traces of higher and more elevating conceptions, these ideals are probably due to influences from without ; for it is well known that African soil has been the home of many highly elaborated faiths — Egyptian and Babylonian, Greek and Koman, Arabian and Jewish — from very early times. How far these influ- ences may have penetrated, and the effect they have been able — singly and in unison — to exert at diverse centres, remains for the present a matter for closer investigation. The writer's opinion, however, is fairly warranted when he affirms that the African negro, without outside assistance.
MEINHOF, Afrikanische Religionen 57
seems incapable of rising to any worthy conception of God and of divine laws and requirements.
The topics dealt with successively in this book are as follows : (1) Aufgabe und Methode der Forschung, (2) Die Seelenvorstellungen, (3) Zauberei, (4) Geist-undAhnendienst, (5) Tierverehrung, (6) Weihen und Feste, (7) Damonen und Himmelsgotter, (8) Einfluss fremder Keligionen, and (9) Bei- gabe : Afrikanische Gebete. The appended Bibliography is comprehensive as well as select, and will certainly prove very useful to a considerable number of readers.
Dr. Meinhof has more recently covered the same ground — although with a more directly scientific purpose — in his welcome contribution to Professor Bertholet's enlarged Beligionsgeschichtliches Lesebucli.^ The importance of mak- ing a thorough and systematic study of African religions is now generally recognized, and already some excellent pro- gress has been made in the prosecution of this task. The old sneer, ' a mere mass of baseless superstition ', no longer represents the verdict of informed opinion on this subject ; a libel of this sort, accordingly, is now less likely to be either uttered or permitted. Missionaries to-day feel that they are under obligation to do much more than preach the gospel in which they have been led to believe ; they are bound also to seek to understand, even at the cost of the necessary time and labour, the alien faiths they have been commissioned to encounter, quicken, and transform.
LA EELIGIONE PKIMITIVA IN SAEDEGNA, di Eaffaele Pettazzoni, Libero Docente di Storia delle Eeligioni neir Universita di Eoma.^ Piacenza : Societa Editrice Pontremolese, 1912. Pp. xxiii., 250. L. 6.
In the new ' Biblioteca del Pensiero Eeligioso Moderno ', a place has happily been found for this valuable little book
^ Vide infra, pp. 402 f . Professor Meinhof's Essay, published separately, is entitled Religionen der schriftlosen Volker Afrikas : vide infra, p. 60.
^ Promoted to be ' Professore incaricato ' in the same department in the University of Bologna in October 1914.
58 ETHNOLOGY
from Dr. Pettazzoni's pen. It utilizes material which had already appeared in various reviews and journals ; but the whole of it has very carefully been revised, and then collected into a unity which completely conceals the stages of its gradual evolution.
Inasmuch as this volume is not so well known to English- speaking readers as it ought to be, it may be explained that it consists of two main divisions. Following upon a brief Introduction, in which the author deals succinctly with the study of religion in Italy, he proceeds in Part I to discuss what he terms ' The Elements '. In chapter i he expounds and illustrates the forms under which primitive religion in Sardinia found expression in its earlier animistic manifesta- tions, and (later on) in its gradually elaborated series of shrines, temples, etc. Chapter ii is devoted to a survey of concrete representations of the Supreme Deity, likenesses which naturally varied very greatly in material, form, em- bodied sentiment, and so on. Many citations from early writers, relative to this theme, are made with happy dis- crimination. Chapter iii introduces one to the second and major portion of the volume, which is allotted to a considera- tion of ' The Comparisons '. In the three chapters which constitute Part II, attention is concentrated successively upon {a) Primitive Eeligion in Sardinia and in the Mediter- ranean, (h) Sardinia and Africa, and (c) The Place of Sardinian Eeligion in the Comparative History of Keligions.
As these condensed and thoughtful pages are perused, two impressions are sure to gather force in every reader's mind. First, a student is struck by the fact that we have here a treatise which deliberately pursues its inquiries within a narrow and easily explored arena. A small and sharply defined field has been selected, and then a competent ethno- logist has devoted his whole attention to making a searching
survey of it.^ In this respect. Dr. Pettazzoni has set an
«
^ This author gained wide and invaluable equipment for his task through his having filled for a time the post of Inspector in the Museo Preistorico, Etnografico e Kircheriano in Rome.
PETTAZZONI, La ReUgione Primitiva in Sardegna 59
example which it would be well if some of the more ardent promoters of Anthropology and Ethnology would seriously take to heart. A lot of spade-work of this type is impera- tively demanded. ' What is most needed at the present day is intensive study of limited areas ; the studies already so made have proved the most fruitful.' ^ What is needed is not so much ' world-wide comparisons, concerned with general traits of mankind ', but rather the characterization of ' particular areas and their no less particular interactions '.^ The conclusions of Anthropology and Ethnology, when these studies are prosecuted upon an unrestricted basis, tend to become exasperatingly vague, and are often sorely lacking in the quality of thoroughness.
Secondly, the comparisons which are instituted between the religion of the primitive inhabitants of Sardinia, and the religions of neighbouring or more distant peoples, carry with them the conviction that they are true to reality. They are based upon data that are ample, easily and conclusively established, not too diversified in character, and not too heterogeneous as regards their differing origin.
This book will well repay conscientious examination and study. It reveals wide reading, and an intimate personal acquaintance with its subject. Moreover, while reference is made to numerous French and German authorities, the volume pays a high compliment to recent English scholarship through its constant citations from well-known British publications.
Occasion wdll be taken on subsequent pages to draw attention to Professor Pettazzoni's activity in the interests of Comparative Eeligion in Italy.^ He is to-day loyally promoting this science in a field where local conditions demand more than ordinary skill and patience.
^ Cf. Alfred C. Haddon, History of Anthropology, p. 154. London, 1910. It has been mentioned already that Dr. Farnell {vide supra, p. 41) and Dr.. Graebner {vide supra, p. 47) warmly endorse this principle.
^ Cf. The Aihenceum, p. 17. London, January 4, 1913.
^ Vide infra, pp. 353 f., etc.
60 ETHNOLOGY
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
ETHNOGRAPHY. Castes and Tribes, bv Athelstane Baines. (Grundriss der indo-arisclien Philologie und Altertums- kunde.) Strassburg : Karl J. Triibner, 1912. Pp. 211. M. 11.50.
DIE KULTUE DES ALTEN AGYPTEN, von Friedricli Willielm von Bissing. Leipzig : Quelle und Meyer, 1913. Pp. 87. M. 1.25.
THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN, by Franz Boas. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1911. Pp. x., 294. $ 1.50.
THE GENIUS OF THE GAEL. A Study in Celtic Psy- chology, by Sophie Bryant. London : T. Fisher L^nwin, 1913. Pp. 292. 55.
DIE SITTEN DER VOLKER. Liebe, Ehe, Heirat, Geburt, Religion, Aberglaube, Lebensgewohnheiten, Kultur- eigentumlichkeiten. Tod und Bestattung bei allen Volkern der Erde, von Georg H. Buschan. 3 vols. Stuttgart : Strecker und Schroder, 1914. In progress. Vol. i, pp. viii., 432. M. 15.
KOLONIALE VOLKENKUNDE, by J. C. van Eerde. Am- sterdam: J. H. de Bussy, 1914. In progress. Part I,' pp. ix, 181. Fl. 2.30.
THE HANDBOOK OF FOLKLORE, by G. Laurence Gomme. Revised, greatly altered, and enlarged by Charlotte S. Burne. London : Sidgwick and Jackson, 1914. Pp. x., 364. 65.
THE PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO, by Charles Hose and William McDougall. 2 vols. London : Macmillan and Company, 1912. Pp. xv., 283 + 374. £2.
BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN BIRTH-OMENS AND THEIR CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE, by Morris Jastrow. Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1914. Pp. vi., 86. M. 3.20.
RELIGIONEN DER SCHRIFTLOSEN VOLKER AFRIKAS, von Carl Meinhof. Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1913. Pp. iii., 46. M. 1.20.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 61
HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, by George Foot Moore. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1914. In progress. Vol. i, pp. xiv., 637. 125. Vide infra, pp. 188 f.
AMULETS. Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College, London, by William M. Flinders Petrie. London: Constable and Company, 1914. Pp. x.,58. 54 Plates. £1 Is.
THE HISTORY OF MELANESIAN SOCIETY, by William H. R. Rivers. (The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to Melanesia.) 2 vols. Cambridge : The University Press, 1914. Pp. xii., 400 + vi., 610. £1 16s.
GEBURT, HOCHZEIT UND TOD. Beitrage zur verglei- CHENDEN Volkskunde, von Ernst Samter. Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1911. Pp. 222. M. 6.
DIE MODERNE ETHNOLOGIE. Fine Einfuhrung in die Geschichte, Methoden UND Ziele der modernen Ethno- LOGIE, von Wilhelm Schmidt. Wien: Mechitharisten-Buch- druckerei, 1910. M. 3.
THE RELIGIOUS REVOLUTION OF TO-DAY, by James Thomson Shotwell. (The William Brewster Clark Lectures, 1913.) Boston : Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1913. Pp. viii., 162. $1.10.
THE NATIVE TRIBES OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY OF AUSTRALIA, by Walter Baldwin Spencer. London : Macmillan and Company, 1914. Pp. xx., 516. £1 Is.
*
* *
ANTHROPOS-BIBLIOTHEK. Internationale Sammlung ETHNOLOGiscHER MOnographien. 5 vols. MUuster : Aschen- dorff, 1909- . In ^progress. Prices vary from M. 6 to M. 20.
ETHNOLOGICA, herausgegeben von Willy Foy. 2 vols. Leipzig : K. W. Hiersemann, 1909- . In ^progress. Pp. circa 200, each volume. M. 10 to M. 20, each volume.
KULTURGESCHICHTLICHE BIBLIOTHEK, herausgegeben von Willy Foy. Heidelberg : Carl Winter, 1911- . In progress. Vol. i. : vide supra, p. 46.
SOCIOLOGY
CoMTE, the founder of Sociology, admirably defined this study as ' the science of the associated life of humanity '.^ Herbert Spencer, now himself out-distanced, became its chief representative among its later apostles.^ The emphasis given by this writer to the bearing of evolution upon the growth and improvement of social institutions ensured that, when the sociological method came to be applied to the study of religion — and especially to the genesis of religious institutions among the lower races — it would inaugurate within that domain an entirely new departure of a highly important character.
At the outset, this science was viewed with a good deal of coldness and distrust. Its offers of guidance were promptly declined ; its claim to speak in the name of scientific accuracy was often met with ill-concealed contempt. Pro- bably its promoters were themselves chiefly to blame for these evidences of pique and displeasure ; they certainly, by their inconsiderate and rather cavalier treatment of those who refused their leadership, did little to soothe — and much to irritate — the ruffled susceptibilities of their critics. And similar mistaken tactics to-day, in any branch of research, are bound to meet with similar resentment and censure.
Sociologists, alike in Great Britain and beyond it, are beginning so to expand the meaning of ' Sociology ' that their procedure inevitably reminds one of the action of certain other teachers when interpreting the terms ' Anthropology '
^ Cf. Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive. 6 vols. Paris, 1830- 1842. [Translated and condensed. 2 vols. London, 1853.] Amplified in Systeme de politique positive, ou Traite de sociologie instituant la Religion de VHumanitL 4 vols. Paris, 1851-1854. [Translated, London, 1875.]
2 CJ. Principles of Sociology. 3 vols. London, 1876-189G. Also, Descriptive Sociology, begun in 1867, and still in course of publicaliion in accordance with instructions transmitted to the author's trustees.
SOCIOLOGY • 63
and ' Ethnology '.^ Used in this wider sense, ' Sociology ' becomes practically interchangeable with ' Anthropology '. Be that as it may, the chief rival to-day of the anthropologi- cal school — represented in Germany by Professor Bastian's successors, and in England by Tylor and his more or less dissentient followers ^ — is the new sociological school, now being piloted with much skill and daring by MM. Durkheim and Levy-Bruhl. The British group tends, no doubt, to be somewhat too restricted in its outlook ; it seeks to arrive at a knowledge of early social institutions through a study of those psychological factors which are discoverable in the individual unit. The French school, on the other hand, seeks to arrive at the same goal through a study of those psychological factors which reveal themselves in every primitive community.
Accordingly, a new phase of inquiry has recently become prominent ; and already it has secured influential support among scholars in Great Britain.^ The splendid work accomplished by Dr. Westermarck and Mr. Hobhouse, the Martin White Professors of Sociology in the University of London, cannot be too warmly commended. It is under ' Sociology ' that, in its School of Anthropology, the Uni- versity of Oxford is at present discussing all questions which emerge in connexion with primitive religion.* Moreover, as already stated, the chair which Professor Frazer fills in
^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 3. Professor Hobhouse maintains that ' tho eoniparative study of religion goes together with that of jurisprudence, of ethics, of politics, and of economics, to make up the whole body of truth which forms the subject-matter of Sociology ' ! {Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, vol. ii, p. 433. Oxford,. 1908.) ^ Vide supra, p. 46,
^ Cf. Francis M. Cornford, From Religion to Philosophy : vide infra, p. 79. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers of Cambridge, though not wholly a convert {cf. his points of dissent in The Hihhert Journal, vol. x, pp. 393-407. London, January, 1912), accepts the principle that social organization lies at the very heart of all anthropological investigations. Sir Laurence Gomme holds that Sociology is the basis of any effective inquiry into Primitive Culture : cf. The Sociological Review, vol. ii, pp. 317-37. Manchester, 1909.
* Dieserud would allot the discussion of religion to the department of ' Ethnic Sociology ' : vide supra, p. 10.
64 SOCIOLOGY
the University of Liverpool is set apart to the study of Social Anthropology.^
Among American publications in this department, atten- tion is drawn to inquiries which were recently instituted by Professor Toy.^ Two other American volumes, singled out for special mention, are reviewed on subsequent pages .^
It is in France, however, that the sociological method is conspicuously in evidence ; and, in that country, it is steadily winning adherents. Very noteworthy and ingenious are the efforts it is making to reconstruct the (probable) circumstances and environments of primitive peoples, and to explain in this way their varying religious conceptions.* And, in probing the mysteries of this subject, Sociology finds the root of religion to be deposited in man's social life. It holds, in a word, that ' the social group is the original type on which all other schemes of classification — at first magical, and later scientific — are modelled '.^ Individuals vary immensely, yet they are inevitably conditioned and con- trolled by their social environment. At the end of the day, it is not the man, hut the tribe, that is found to have determined the actual condition of things.
Under the auspices of this New Sociology, religion has become — much more directly and constantly than among the older ' anthropologists ' — a subject of intensive study. It is now taught that there are forces in man, everywhere existent, which tend — in infinite variety, yet under the pressure of identical social laws — to build up a specifically religious structure. In distinguishing magic from religion. Dr. Durkheim lays emphasis upon the individual character
^ Vide supra, p. 12.
2 Cf. Crawford H. Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions ; vide infra, pp. 195 f. Chapter x (pp. 481-583) is entitled, ' Social Development of Religion.' ^ Vide infra, pp. 69 and 75.
* Cf. in particular, £raile Durkheim, Les Regies de la methode sociologique [Paris, 1895: (3th edition, 1912], and UAnnee sociologique [vide infra, pp. 449 f.] ; and Raoul de la Grasserie, Des religions comparees au point de vue sociologique. Paris, 1899.
= Cf. F. M. Cornford, From Religion to Philosophy, p. 71.
SOCIOLOGY 65
of the one and the collective character of the other. ' Les croyances proprement religieuses sont toujours communes a une collectivite determinee qui fait profession d'y adherer et de pratiquer les rites qui en sont solidaires '.^ The ' collective ' worth of one of the greatest religions the world has ever known is only now, it is held, beginning to be apprehended aright. ^ Kehgion is said to be invariably related to ' the general circumstances of the social deve- lopment to which it belongs '. Primitive Kehgion is the product of the collective feeling and thinking of a savage community, and its origin is found to stand associated with various prevalent social customs. It remains to the end a supremely social fact. It is ' the only force capable of ensuring to society the cohesion which is essential to social life '.2 It binds people together, and helps to maintain a certain agreement in religious thought and action.
The chief exponents of Sociology do not hesitate to criticize very vigorously the methods employed by other investigators in the study of religion. They themselves, however, must be taken somewhat severely to task.
Professor van Gennep, equally with the late Mr. Lang, thinks that the esteem in which the sociological method is held by those who defend it quite overshoots the mark. ' Les appellations qu'on a donnees a notre methode sont evidemment trompeuses, et n'expriment en definitive que des nuances. Je prefere le qualificatif d'ethnographique pour rappeler que les populations " sauvages " vivantes entrent en ligne de compte, et non pas seulement celles civilisees, ou du passe. M. Durkheim et son ecole preferent " socio- logique " pour indiquer qu'il s'agit de phenomenes sociaux, collectifs, et de mecanismes. Cette ecole a prouve, dans plusieurs Memoires, que I'usage de la "methode sociologique " conduit en effet a des explications, — au lieu de conduire
^ Cf. Emile Durkheim, Les Formes elementaires de la vie reltgieuse, p. 60 : vide infra, pp. 66 f.
^ Cf. George Chatterton-Hill, The Sociological Value of Christianity/. London, 1912.
F
66 SOCIOLOGY
seulement, comme la metliode historique, a des constata- tions '.^ As he puts it elsewhere : * Essentiellement, notre methode {quelque nom qu'on lui donne) est une application a la vie sociale de la methode speciale qui fut elaboree pour I'etude de la vie physique. . . . Quand on veut etudier les phenomenes sociaux, il faut les etudier a la fois localement (a I'aide de la methode historique) et comparativement (a I'aide de la methode biologique), afin d'arriver a les classer dans des categories " naturelles " : famille, genre, espece.' ^
Professor Loisy is another who is continually combating the aggressiveness of this ambitious line of inquiry. He is more thoroughgoing, however, than Professor van Gennep.^ His arguments are directed, with equal force, against the employment of the ' anthropological ' method, — his personal preference leading him to adopt ' une methode historique, infiniment comprehensive '.^ He feels he is on safer ground if he confines his inquiry to a discovery (if possible) of the con- stitutent elements of religion, and to a record of their succes- sive and varied transformations. But to these criticisms, and to a discussion of other issues involved in questions of method, fuller space will be devoted on subsequent pages.^
LES FOKMES ELEMENTAIEES DE LA VIE KELI- GIEUSE. Le Systeme totemique en Austkalie,^ par Emile Durkheim, Professeur de Sociologie a la Faculte des Lettres de I'Universite de Paris. (Travaux de UAnnee Sociologique.) Paris : FeHx Alcan, 1912. Pp. 647. Fr. 10.
Dr. Durkheim's portly volume brings us back once more to a discussion of the meaning and merits of Totemism, a subject
^ Cf. Arnold van Gcnnep, Religions, mceurs et Ugendes, vol. ii, p. 85 : vide supra, pp. 19 f.
2 Cf. ibid., pp. 83 and 84.
^ Cf. Alfred Loisy, LeQon d'ouverture du cours d'histoire des religions au College de France. Paris, 1909.
* Cf. ibid., p. 38. Vide infra, p. 309.
5 Vide infra, pp. 320 f., 329 f., etc. ^ Translated, London, 1915.
DURKHEIM, Formes Elementaires de la Vie Religieuse 67
which has been dealt with already under the heading of Anthropology.^ The author treats of this oft-recurrent feature of primitive religion in the light which our increasing knowledge of various Australian tribes has recently thrown upon it.
The impression deepens, the further the reader advances, that it is premature for students of Comparative Keligion to hope to derive much assistance from the discussion of this subject. Where doctors disagree, who is to be accepted as a fully qualified umpire ? Dr. Durkheim takes Professor Frazer to task because of the latter's faulty interpretations of well-known primitive phenomena, and because in many cases he begs the very questions which are supposed to be under debate.^ He maintains also against Professor Frazer the absurdity of teaching that Totemism does not rise above the level of primitive magic. The distinction which the Liverpool professor draws between magic and religion is largely an arbitrary one ; everything depends upon the narrowness or comprehensiveness of one's concept of religion.^ To Dr. Durkheim, Totemism is religion. * Une religion aussi etroitement solidaire du systeme social qui depasse tous les autres en simplicite pent etre regardee comme la plus elementaire qu'il nous soit donne de connaitre. Si done nous parvenons a trouver les origines des croyances qui viennent d'etre analysees (that is, totemistic beliefs), nous avons des chances de decouvrir du meme coup les causes qui firent eclore le sentiment religieux dans I'hu- manite.' ^ Accordingly, Totemism must be included among the elementary phases of man's religious experience. Here is one of the particulars in which, agreeing with our author, the late Mr. Lang took issue with Professor Frazer.^
^ Vide supra, pp. 12 f., 19 f., and 28 f. Cf. also Emile Durkheim, article ' Sur le totemisme ' in UAnnee sociologique, vol. v, pp. 82-121 : vide infra ^ pp. 449 f. 2 Cf. pp. 257-62.
^ Vide supra, pp. 64-5. For Dr. Durkheim's definition of religion, vide infra, p. 171. ' C/- P- 239.
^ Yet Dr. Durkheim couples Sir James Frazer and Mr. Lang together, afiirming that both ' nient le caractere religieux du totemisme ' ! (p. 266).
F2
68 SOCIOLOGY
Dr. Durkheim, however, does not pause at this point. Having stated that ' nous savons que le totemisme est etroitement he a r organisation sociale la plus primitive que nous con- naissions et meme, selon toute vraisemblance, qui soit concevable \^ this author is prepared to regard Totemism as being itself man's primitive faith.
It must be remarked that the writers of these varied expositions of Totemism seem incapable of conveying their meaning with a sufficient amount of explicitness ; or is it because they so frequently change their conclusions that their critics so often incur their resentment ! Thus Dr. Durkheim, when referring to Mr. Lang, states that the latter traces 'I'idee des grands dieux ' to ' une sorte de revelation primitive ' ^ . . . une sorte d'intuition sur la nature de laquelle on refuse de s'expliquer.^ One can imagine what must have been the look and speech of the accused, when he first heard this charge while he was still in the flesh ! Indeed in one of the very latest of his contributions to the press, Mr. Lang pro- tested vigorously that he never held that the belief in a god originated in a primitive revelation. ' Dr. Durkheim credits me with a view which I never expressed, and which I have repeatedly disclaimed.' * Any one who has read with care the successive editions of the book to which our author refe^rs will quickly become aware that his rebuke was quite unwarranted.^ It must be admitted, however, that Mr. Lang modified his positions so frequently — down even to the very year of his death — that honest impressions and criticisms of this Scottish scholar have sometimes needed drastic revision and correction.
Dr. Durkheim believes that the conception of ' le grand dieu ' is due directly to the existence of primitive Totemism.^ He thinks that the savage began by conceiving a ' substance
' Cf. p. 2(37. ■ 2 Cf. p. 2G7. ■' Cf. p. 414.
* Cf. The Athenceum, p. 119. London, August, 1912.
* Cf. Andrew Lang, The Making of Religion. London, 1898. Vide 2nd edition (1900), and especially the 3id edition (1910), pp. ix-xii.
<■' Cf. p. 418.
DURKHEIM, Formes Elementaires de la Vie Religieuse 69
immaterielle, une energie diffuse a travers toutes sortes d'etres heterogenes, qui est, seule, I'objet veritable du culte '.^ But what does this imply ? Surely it overlooks the fact that no really ' primitive ' man could frame such a comprehensive concept !
Dr. Durkheim's contributions to the sociological study of religion — especially in L'Annee Sociologique, which he edits with conspicuous skill — entitle him to our admiration and gratitude. We are unable always to agree with him. As M. Dussaud easily shows,^ Professor Durkheim exaggerates the importance of the social factor — and proportionately minimizes the part actually played by the individual — in the associated life of mankind. Nevertheless, this author is a hard worker and spares himself no pains. His researches secure in Great Britain a perusal not less eager and respectful than that which they have already everywhere received among his fellow countrymen.^
SOCIAL PROGKAMMES IN THE WEST, by Charles Richmond Henderson, Professor of Sociology in the Uni- versity of Chicago. (The Barrows Lectures, 1912-1913.) Chicago: The University Press, 1913. Pp. xxviii., 184. $1.25.
In the subject he chose for discussion. Professor Henderson inaugurated a new departure among the topics dealt with in the official publications of the Barrows Foundation. Mrs. Haskell, the creator of this Lectureship, was supremely eager to secure — from an impartial and enlightened point of view — a presentation of the claims of the Christian rehgion before intelHgent audiences in India, China, and Japan. The
^ Cf. p. 270.
2 Cf. Rene Busssiud, Introduction a Thistoire des religions, pp. 16-17 : vide
infra, pp. 178 f.
* Cf. Goblet d'Alviella, article on ' La Sociologie de M. Durkheim et I'histoire des religions ' in the Eevue de VMstoire des religions, vol. Ixvii, pp. 192-221 : vide infra, pp. 488 f.
70 SOCIOLOGY
lecturers were to be indeed propagandists, yet not propa- gandists in the ordinary sense of the term. It was hoped and beheved that they would profoundly influence the judgement of those who heard them, and who afterwards seriously inquired into the grounds upon which successive advocates might be led to rest their plea ; but no attempt to ' stampede ' the convictions of listeners has ever been contemplated or attempted. The intellectual alertness of scholars such as President Barrows, Principal Fairbairn, and President Hall was deliberately summoned to this task, and that alertness was invited to busy itself conscientiously and perseveringly with the furthering of the interests of Christianity.
Dr. Henderson, on the other hand, had a somewhat dif- ferent object in view. When he went to the East to deliver his ' life-message ' ^ on the foundation of the Barrows Lec- tureship, he proceeded thither as the official representative of the ' International Association for the Legal Protection of Working Men, of the Permanent Committee of Social Insurance, and of the International Association for the Combat with Unemployment '. One of the express purposes he meant to fulfil was the founding of special sections of these Associations in the Orient. It will be seen at once that a con- siderable gulf separates these discussions from those which the founder of the Lectureship had especially in view.
Dr. Henderson's undertaking is significant, and it is bound to bear fruit. His book has already been published in the local tongues of Japan and China, and it has awakened a good deal of interest in India. His enterprise may be regarded as an experiment, and the exact measure and quality of its results cannot yet be foreshadowed. Professor Henderson made no disguise of his religious affiliations. ' I could not conceal, if I would, the faith by which I live. I am a theist and a Christian. I believe in God the Holy, and I find His image in Christ. There is mystery in faith, and there are many things I do not profess to know ; but the Christian view of life, of God, of sin, of duty, of redemption, of eternal
^ C/. p. vii.
HENDEKSON, Social Programmes in the West 71
life seems to me inherently reasonable, and practically the best for mankind. It is the deepest, most earnest wish and prayer of my soul that you will think of my Master lovingly, as I am sure He is your friend.' ^ But after this introduction, the lecturer leaves theological questions for the most part severely alone. Such topics emerge indeed incidentally, as when the speaker declares : ' I have come to tell you some- thing of the modern revelation of Christ's spirit in works of love, kindness and justice.' ^ Or again : ' This is Christianity, — universal friendship. ... It is high time we should consciously organize a spiritual policy for all the peoples, a policy in which love shall be the master force.' ^ His argument, however, is concerned exclusively with ' the economic evolution of modern peoples '. The characteristics of modern industry and exchange, the schemes which have been devised in America and the countries of Europe for the improvement of the condition of the people as a whole, questions of public health and education and morality, movements to improve the economic and cultural situation of wage-earners, are some of the subjects successively dis- cussed. The book indeed is a valuable manual for the help of the social reformer in all lands.
In view of the vast industrial changes which are now taking place in the East, and the still greater changes which are sure to come, these lectures have a peculiar value, especially as they contain a compendium of the views of an acute and sagacious thinker. Dr. Henderson wisely remarks : ' I have not in mind specific proposals for direction of the Orient ; the policy of a people must be worked out by itself, with all the help it can command from modern science. . . . But I do have the ambition to describe, illus- trate, and explain some of the essential aims, tendencies, and reasons of the social policy of the Western World, especially that country with which I am most familiar, the United States. . . . Principles of organization and conduct will be disclosed which are based on general (perhaps uni-
1 Cj. p. 2. ^ C/. p. 29.
72 SOCIOLOGY
versal) factors of human nature and needs.' ^ In his second lecture, devoted to ' PubHc and Private Belief of Dependents and Abnormals ', some frank and straight-flung words have no doubt been inspired by his contact with some of the count- less beggars of the East — many of them ' holy ' men — who are allowed to batten upon the kind-hearted but mistaken charity of their neighbours. Western methods in this connexion are well worthy of study and comparison.
The lecturer had to face a peculiarly difficult task, but it must be said in all honesty that he met it with skill and success. ' It was necessary and proper for a stranger and a guest ', he writes elsewhere, ' to be careful with his fire while he was near this magazine of explosives.' ^ Our author concludes : ' Sociology can never be a substitute for theology ; but, like all other sciences, it can help us to under- stand and guide the life of God in the lives of men. Philan- thropic work can never take the place of worship, faith, and spirituality ; but it can make unbelief ashamed in presence of its demonstration that Christianity is not merely an idle speculation or the luxury of ecstatic emotion, but is the power of God in this world of reality, and a power for good before which misery, pauperism, crime, war, sin, are sure to be subdued '.^
LES EONCTIONS MENTALES DANS LES SOCIETES INFEKIEUEES, par Lucien Levy-Bruhl, Professeur de I'Histoire de Philosophie a la Faculte des Lettres de rUniversite de Paris. (Travaux de UAnnee Socio- logique.) Paris : Felix Alcan, [2nd edition], 1912. Pp.461. Fr. 7.50.
We have here a truly brilliant book, deserving of patient and sympathetic study. It is written by an investigator peculiarly competent for his task. It reveals the influence
' Cf. pp. 17-18.
^ Cf. The International Review of Missions, vol, ii, p. 771 : vide infra, pp. 479 f. 2 Cf. ibid., p. 772.
LlSVY-BKUHL, Fonctions Mentales dans les Societes Inferieures 73
at countless points of Dr. Durkheim's researches, and it is open to the criticisms which any dominant constraint invariably incurs ; but it is full of suggestion and argument and detail which no scholar can afford to ignore.
The volume is divided into four sections. Part I deals with (a) ' Les Kepresentations collectives dans les perceptions des primitifs, et leur caractere mystique ', (6) the much debated ' Loi de participation ', and (c) ' Les Operations de la mentalite prelogique '. Part II discusses (a) ' La Mentalite des primitifs dans ses rapports avecles langues qu'ilsparlent', and {b) ' La Mentalite prelogique dans ses rapports avec la numeration '. Part III has to do with ' Institutions ou sont impliquees des representations collectives regies par la loi de participation ', and covers such topics as birth, initiation, death, burial, etc. Part IV is allotted to ' Passage a des types superieurs de mentalite ', including the origin of myths, and the gradual development in the human mind of conse- cutive and logical thought.
The purpose of this book is to ascertain and record the characteristic features of the mental status and action of primitive peoples. As to the meaning of the word ' primi- tive ', Professor Levy-Bruhl states that ' par ce terme — impropre, mais d'un usage presque indispensable — nous entendons simplement designer les membres des societes les plus simples que nous connaissions '.^
Professor Lew-Bruhl is an enthusiastic advocate of the employment of the comparative method. Indeed, he takes pains at the very outset to demonstrate that the New Sociology is essentially and invariably ' comparative '. He proceeds : ' Que les fonctions mentales superieures doivent etre etudiees par la methode comparative, c'est-d-dire socio- logique, ce n'est pas la une idee nouvelle. Auguste Comte I'avait deja nettement enoncee, dans le Cours de pJiilosophie positive '.2 But the Sociology of to-day has far outrun the dicta of its distinguished founder. * Cette etude patiente et minutieuse des phenomenes mentaux dans les differents ^ Cf. p. 2. ' Cf. p. 4.
74: SOCIOLOGY
types de societes humaines, dont Comte n'avait pas aper^u la necessite, d'autres I'avaient commencee,et ils I'ont poursuivie avec perseverance, en savants, non en philosophes, et dans le simple dessein de connaitre et de classer les faits. Je veux parler des anthropologistes et des ethnograplies, et en particulier de Tecole anthropologique anglaise '.^ And then the writer proceeds to show wherein that school has failed. ' L'ecole anthropologique anglaise . . . se preoccupe toii- jours de montrer le rapport de la mentalite " sauvage " avec la mentalite " civilisee ", et de Vexpliquer, Mais c'est precisement cette explication qui les a empeches d'aller plus avant. Ils I'avaient toute prete. Ils ne I'ont pas cherchee dans les faits eux-memes ; ils la leur ont imposee. En constatant dans les societes inferieures des institutions et des croyances si differentes des notres, ils ne se sont pas demande si, pour en rendre compte, il n'y aurait pas lieu d'examiner plusieurs hypotheses. lis ont pris pour accorde que les faits ne pouvaient s'expliquer que d'u7ie seule maniere. Les representations collectives des societes considerees pro- viennent-elles de fonctions mentales superieures identiques aux notres, ou doivent-elles etre rapportees a une mentalite qui differe de la notre, dans une mesure a determiner ? Cette alternative ne s'est pas presentee a leur esprit '.^
Professor Levy-Bruhl, a keen historian and logician, is very ready to criticize others ; but he has left not a few weak places in his own armour, and his opponents have not been slow to discover them. He has probably raised quite as many problems as he has solved. A countryman of his own — representing, to be sure, a different type and quality of scholarship — has certainly not spared him in the pages of a recent review.^ This critic does not hesitate to declare that ' une bonne partie du livre est employee a interpreter, en fonction de sa propre hypothese, des faits et des institu- tions fort susceptibles d'une autre interpretation, puisqu'ils
^ Cf. p. 5. 2 cf. pp. 6-7.
* C/. Frederic Bouvier in his ' Bulletin d'histoire comparee des religions', in Recherches de science religieuse, vol. ii, pp. 75-84 : vide infra, p. 487.
LEVY-BKUHL, Fonctions Mentales dans les Societes Inferieures 75
avaient ete d'abord baptises au rite anthropologique'.^ At the same time, one of the chief excellences of this volume lies in the fact that it sets the whole problem in a new light, and insists upon its being viewed and discussed in a compre- hensive and scientific way.
EELIGION IN THE MAKING. A Study in Biblical Sociology, by Samuel George Smith, Head Professor in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology in the University of Minnesota. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1910. Pp. vi., 253. $1.25.
The title of Professor Smith's book at once suggests a volume, already referred to, upon which Mr. Lang expended infinite pains. ^ These two writers, to be sure, represent two entirely different schools. Mr. Lang seemed sometimes to speak rather slightingly of Sociology, claiming that its quest in every direction was largely a work of supererogation ; in so far as he was wont to cultivate any special branch of General Anthropology, his bent led him to investigate for the most part questions pertaining to Comparative Mythology.^ Professor Smith, on the other hand, relates his sociological inquiries directly to the exposition of modern Christianity, and especially to its initial embodiment in the Old and New Testament Scriptures. For many years, he had lectured on Sociology to an academic audience. But, simultaneously, he had been conducting large classes devoted to advanced Bible study ; and it occurred to him that he might combine these processes of research, to the manifest advantage of both. It was in this way that he began, eventually, to lecture in the University on ' Biblical Sociology ' ; and he has now provided for us, in this volume, ' a fresh study at first hand of the Bible in the light of the principles of Sociology '.*
The piece of work which Professor Smith felt constrained
1 Cf. ibid., p. 77.
^ Cf. The Making of Religion. London, 1898. [3rd edition, 1910.] Vide supra, p. 68. ^ Vide infra, pp. 96 f. * Cf. p. vi.
76 SOCIOLOGY
to undertake has been carefully and successfully executed. It was, by no means, an unnecessary task. Whenever he finds in the Bible some ritual practice or leading religious idea, exhibiting similarity to a practice or idea current among peoples who have never heard of the Hebrew or Christian Scriptures, he neither seeks to explain away this agreement nor to minimize its significance. He experiences no surprise, indeed, when he makes such discoveries. On the contrary, he feels more than ever established in his con- viction that mankind is a unit, that ' le grand dieu ' is the God of all the race, and that the social cravings implanted in the very constitution of man compel him to seek diligently for God until he find Him.
Mr. Lang was never weary of reiterating this challenge : ' Kestrict yourself to facts ; with your theories I have no patience.' Possibly, in this particular as in some others, Mr. Lang's advice was better than his practice. But he and Professor Smith are quite at one, in so far as the validity of this fundamental principle is concerned. Dr. Smith does not hesitate to frame, towards the close of his volume, a number of ' Kesultant Conclusions ' ; ^ but, first of all, he is engaged in a search for reliable information. ' Sociology is a science, and so deals with facts and their interpretation.' - In particular, ' to discover what our debt is to the Hebrew people, it is necessary to investigate their history, and to learn what ideas and institutions they have given, worthy of becoming part of the permanent inheritance of the world '.^
Applying the sociological method. Professor Smith goes on to show that ' the institutions of religion began when men, in a common service, sought to express a common need and to seek a common good. These institutions began to be visible and organized when men made some spot — where they had worshipped before — a permanent trysting-place for new appeals to the unseen powers '.^
The chapters which deal respectively with ' The Social
' CJ. pp. 226 f. 2 CJ. p. 15. =^ CJ. pp. 1-2. -• CJ. p. 12.
SMITH, Religion in the Making 77
Value of Keligion ' ^ and ' Development of the Idea of God ' 2 deserve to be specially commended. ' Philosophy ', this writer says, ' may be under compulsion to account for the idea of God ; but Sociology accepts the idea of God as an historic fact, and seeks to exhibit its workings in human affairs. Fortunately we do not have to attempt an explana- tion of religious origins. Eeligion is a human experience, at once primary and universal. It is found, in some form, among all people. It is probably the most distinctive human interest. . . . The Hebrew people, in having a religion, share in the common experience of the race. The ^miqueness of Hebrew history consists in the fact that rehgion is, from the beginning and to the end, its chief interest. ... It begins with a form of religion showing many processes of earlier survivals, but which worked out in the course of centuries into a permanent form of mono- theism.' ^ The greatest gift which the Hebrew race has bestowed upon mankind, and ' the greatest possession which ever came to the world from any source, is the thought of one God '.4
HISTOIRE SOCIALE DES RELIGIONS, par Maurice Vernes, Professeur au College Libre des Sciences Socia- les, Paris. (Etudes Economiques et Sociales.) 2 vols. Paris : V. Giard et E. Briere, 1911. In inogress. Vol. i, pp. 539. Fr. 10.
This book is but the first volume of an inquiry that must needs proceed somewhat slowly. It confines itself to ' Les Beligions occidentales, dans leiir ra2)2:)ort avec le progres j)oU' tique et social '.^ From one point of view, this treatise ought to be dealt with under a subsequent category ; ^ for it treats at considerable length of Greek Religion, Roman Religion, Mohammedanism, Judaism, Christianity, Roman Catholi- cism, and Protestantism. Yet there is one central idea which
' Cf. pp. 23 f. 2 cf^ pp_ 57 f_ 3 c/. p. 58.
* Cf. p. 233. 5 Cf. p. 5. « Vide infra, pp. 163 f.
78 SOCIOLOGY
dominates the entire undertaking. The social aspects of these several faiths are kept constantly in mind ; their social capability and efficiency influence the whole of the writer's outlook. Professor Vernes has already had something to say concerning the History of Eeligions, using that title in its ordinary signification ; ^ but here he is engaged in an entirely different enterprise. ' Dans une seconde partie, nous traiterons de la religion dans ses rapports avec les sciences et la philosophie du temps present, c'est-a-dire du role que I'avenir reserve au christianisme.' ^
The seven chapters of this volume — including a brief introductory survey — are devoted for the most part to Judaism and Christianity ; the other religions named are dealt with in a somewhat cursory and incidental manner. The purpose of the writer is to ascertain ' quelle attitude ' these religions ' ont adoptee sciemment et resolument en presence des questions sociales et politiques qu'elles ont rencontrees '.^ And special stress is laid upon his confidence in the method which he elects to adopt. ' Nous nous pro- posons de traiter par I'emploi de la methode scientifique, c'est-a-dire par I'analyse et la discussion des documents authentiques, une matiere qui, jusqu'a ce jour, n'a guere donne lieu qu'a des pubhcations d'un caractere nettement apologetique ou polemique.' ^
The success with which the author's task has — thus far — been accomplished will be appraised no doubt in somewhat differing verdicts. He magnifies the right of intellectual freedom throughout his extended inquiry. At the same time, the success of Christianity is plainly attributed to causes which most apologists for that faith wdll cordially welcome. Professor Vernes thinks that the Christian religion has w^on its great triumph in the West, not so much owing to a decline in the vitality of its rivals as because of its own inherent superiority. It has not failed to borrow much from earlier systems, and its obligations to Judaism in particular
»
^ Cf. UHistoire des religions. Paris, 1887.
2 C/. p. 535. 3 CJ. p. 2. * Cf. p. 5.
VERNES, Histoire Sociale des Religions 79
are carefully pointed out ; but; on the other hand, it has ever enriched and ennobled those faiths which have come under its influence.
While rejoinders are perhaps inevitable, there is much in this book that will ensure an eager perusal of its ' seconde partie ', as soon as that volume appears.
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
INTERPRETATIONS AND FORECASTS, A Study of Sur- vivals AND Tendencies in Contemporary Society, by Victor Branford. London : Duckworth and Company, 1914 Pp. xii., 424. 75. Qd.
SOCIOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN MISSION LANDS, by Edward Warren Capen. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Com- pany, 1914. Pp. 293. $1.50.
THE SOUL OF AMERICA. A Constructive Essay in the Sociology of Religion, by Stanton Coit. London : Mac- millan and Company, 1914. Pp. x., 405. 8s. 6d.
FROM RELIGION TO PHILOSOPHY, by Francis Macdonald Cornford. London : Edward Arnold, 1912. Pp. xx., 276. 10s. 6d.
ABORIGINAL SIBERIA. A Study in Social Anthropology, by Mary Antoinette Crispine Czaplicka. Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1914. Pp. xv., 374. Us.
INTRODUCTION A LA SOCIOLOGIE, par Guillaume Joseph de Greef. 2 vols. Paris : Marcel Riviere et C^, [2nd edition], 1911. Pp. 232 + 446. Fr. 12.
THE POSITION OF WOMAN IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY.
A Study of the Matriarchy, by C. Gasquoine Hartley. London : Eveleigh Nash, 1914. Pp. 276. 3s. 6d.
DEVELOPMENT AND PURPOSE. An Essay toavards A Philosophy of Evolution, by Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse. London : Macmillan and Company, 1913. Pp. xxix., 383. 10s.
80 SOCIOLOGY
LA SOCIETE JAPONAISE, Etude sociologique, par Temaki Kobayashi. Paris : Felix Alcan, 1914. Pp. xx., 223. Fr. 5.
THE FAMILY AMONG THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.
A Sociological Study, by Bronislaw Malinowski. London : Hodder and Stoughton, 1913. Pp. xv., 326. 6s.
THE SOCIAL BASIS OF RELIGION, by Simon Nelson Patten. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1911. Pp. xviii., 247. $1.25.
KINDRED AND CLAN IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND AFTER. A Study in the Sociology op the Teutonic Races, by Bertha Surtees Phillpotts. Cambridge : The University Press, 1913. Pp. xii., 302. 10s. 6d.
LA SOCIOLOGIE G:EN]ERALE ET LES LOIS SOCIO- LOGIQUES, par Gaston Richard. Paris : Octave Doin et Fils, 1912. Pp. 296. Fr. 5.
KINSHIP AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, by William Halse Rivers Rivers. London: Constable and Company, 1914. Pp. 96. 2s. Qd.
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES IN MOROCCO, by Edward Westermarck. London : Macmillan and Company, 1914. Pp. 422. 12s.
ARCHAEOLOGY
No branch of modern investigation is more highly esteemed by students of Comparative Rehgion than that science which devotes itself to a study of the survivals of bygone civiliza- tions. And to no other branch of modern investigation is Comparative Religion more profoundly indebted. Anthro- pology, as a general department of inquiry, enjoys unques- tionably a wide popularity ; it is perhaps more cultivated to-day than any other of the subsidiary sciences referred to in this survey. At the same time. Archaeology is the more arresting of these two studies ; and it has ground for feeling greater confidence in the reliability of the results at which it arrives than Anthropology can venture to assert. The interpretation of the facts — often the merely alleged facts — which Anthropology supplies differs widely in different quarters, and accordingly is often misleading ; it has become the custom, indeed, to define Anthropology as ' Prehistoric Archaeology '. Archaeology proper, however, as the late Dr. Brinton used to insist, ' is rigidly wedded to rugged historical data, which are constantly available for fresh examination and verification '.^ Accordingly, it is ever busily widening the habitable domain of History, that domain in which alone Comparative Religion can flourish. Archaeology is History. It draws back, further and further, the curtain which hides from us the occurrences of the unnumbered aeons of the Past, and thus gradually reveals to us the multifarious vicissitudes of primitive human existence. It is reconstructing with certainty the framework of the ages. In a word, it is constantly supplying an immense stock of material which previously-known records and earlier investi- gations had been unable to disclose.
^ Cf. Daniel G. Brinton, Anthropology as a Science, pp. 7 f. New York, 1892.
82 ARCHEOLOGY
Take a single concrete instance. Until quite recently, the world's only sources of information concerning Palestine during the period prior to the Hebrew conquest were the Old Testa- ment Scriptures. But those documents tell us exceedingly little about the culture and domestic relations of the peoples who were the earlier inhabitants of that country. Within late years, however, a vast amount of archaeological work has been carried on in the Holy Land. Desert wastes have been visited by explorers ; ancient mounds have been excavated ; forgotten cities, and the still older ruins upon which they were built, have once more been thrown open to the light of day. As a consequence, not only has the testi- mony of the Old Testament concerning Palestine been supplemented to an extraordinary degree, but a great deal of light has been thrown upon the Old Testament Scriptures themselves.
The evolution of the human race must ever prove, to all thoughtful people, a subject of absorbing interest. Year after year, the blanks in the sequence of our discoveries are being gradually filled. Already we know a good deal of man's historv durino^ the last seven thousand years. One has only to pass up and down the Assjaian, Egyptian, and Grecian corridors of the British Museum to be made aware that he has been given admission into a great buried world of remote antiquity. And that world is no longer speechless. Its survivals tell us a marvellous story about the inhabitants who formerly peopled it, the houses in which they lived, the civilizations they helped to found, and the lofty or sordid ambitions they cherished and carried into effect. As the direct outcome of archaeological discoveries, much of the history of mankind has of late been entirely rewritten. Widely-current conceptions concerning the literature, the laws, ancl the domestic customs of various earty races have been radically modified ; in some cases, they have perforce become completely transformed.
In no sphere, however, have the discoveries of Archaeology proved more revolutionary than within the domain of
AKCH.EOLOGY 83
religion. Negatively considered, ' Archaeology came to the rescue of history from the morass into which Philology [formerly ^] had dragged it '.^ Viewed positively, who can over-estimate its benefits ? The excavations now being carried on in Egypt, in Palestine, in Mesopotamia, in India,^ in America,^ and elsewhere, have resulted in the accumu- lation of an immense amount of new information concerning the gods, the temples, the priests, the ritual, and the multi- farious religious observances of mankind in all parts of the world. In this way, a strong and ever-increasing impulse is being lent to the systematic study of religion. Many venerated theories have been re-enforced and established, wliile others have been completely overturned. It is not too much to say that the growing eagerness with which scholars are to-day giving themselves to the study of Com- parative Eeligion is due in no small measure to the magnificent successes achieved by recent Archaeology, a closely-related science to which attention must now be turned.^
It is not difficult to mention books, fitly representative of this domain, in which the comparative method has been more or less skilfully applied. Their number and excellent quality, indeed, have made the reviewer's task considerablv harder than it would otherwise have proved. Admirable manuals, dealing with practically every department of the subject, are now available in every European language. The volumes about to be named have been selected with care, and illustrate not inadequately the practical utility and the im- mense possibilities of this fascinating and most fruitful study.
^ Vide infra, pp. 111-2.
^ Cf. Harry R. H. Hall, jEgean Archceology, p. 1 : vide infra, p. 94.
^ Cf. an admirably illustrated article, entitled ' The Unburying of Buddha ' in The Graphic, pp. 93 f. London, January 18, 1913.
* The founding of an International School of American Archaeology and Ethnology in Mexico, in 1910, was an event of extraordinary interest : vide infra, pp. 427-8.
^ The work of Sir William M. Ramsay in Asia Minor, of Sir Gaston Maspero and Professor Edouard Naville in Egypt, and of Professor Sayce and Dr. Stephen Langdon in the fields of Assyriology and Oriental Archae- ology, cannot be too warmly commended.
G2
84 ARCHEOLOGY
THE LAND OF THE HITTITES. An Account of Recent Explorations and Discoveries in Asia Minor, with Descriptions op the Hittite Monu- ments, by John Garstang, Professor of Archaeology in the University of Liverpool Maps, Plans and Photo- graphs. London : Constable and Company, 1909. Pp. xxiv., 415. 12s. 6^.
Among the younger archaeologists of to-day, none have obtained greater prominence of late than Professor Garstang. For the last sixteen years, he has been busy in the work of actual research, — especially in Egypt, Nubia, Asia Minor and Northern Syria. It is in the Sudan ^ and in Central Asia Minor that he has chiefly won his fame. Besides his more extended expositions, many valuable contributions from his pen are to be found in the Annals of Archceolocjy and Anthropology,^
Students of Hittite civilization will always hold in high esteem the name of Professor Sayce. Until a comparatively recent period, we possessed no Hittite records of any real account ; the peoples bearing that name were practically unknown. Vague allusions to them were found in the Old Testament ; but their existence seemed so visionary that many scholars refused to admit its actuality. It was Pro- fessor Sayce, however, — after Dr. Wright ^ had in 1872 brought to the notice of experts the curious hieroglyphic inscriptions which Burckhardt had discovered at Hamath on the Orontes sixty years before, and after Mr. Skene had in 1874 come across a number of similar inscriptions at Jerablus on the Euphrates, the site of the ancient Hittite capital, Carchemish — who boldly expressed the opinion that these
•
* Cf. John Garstang, Meroe. London, 1911. Tliis ancient city, a great centre of Ethiopian culture, seems to have been founded about 700 B. c. and to have lasted until about a. d. 700. Its language, equally with that of the Hittites, is still an alluring mystery.
^ Vide infra, pp. 471-2.
=* Cf. William Wright, The Empire of the Hittites. London, 1884.
GARSTANG, The Land of the Hittites 85
inscriptions were realty Hittite monuments. This conjecture has since been verified ; and step by step, as Hittite picto- graphs and other survivals have been recovered, the records of a lost Empire, and the successive chapters of its forgotten history, have gradually been restored to the world.
It is, however, more than two decades since the first edition of Professor Sayce's book appeared.^ In the interval, the explorations conducted at Boghaz Keui in Central Asia Minor by Dr. Hugo Winckler of Berlin — not to mention Dr. Garstang's own discoveries at the same place — have quite revolutionized our knowledge of the career of this conquering race. The researches conducted at Carchemish by Mr. Hogarth ^ of Oxford, and (more recently) of Baron Oppenheim in the Tell Halaf region of Western Mesopotamia, have also proved to be of a highly valuable character.
The appearance of Professor Garstang's book has been greeted with an unmistakably cordial welcome ; and it is entitled to all the praises it has won. Professor Sayce, in a very generous spirit, has written a formal Introduction, in which he says that the author has successfully elucidated, and will yet more fully elucidate, ' much that is mysterious in the art and religion of Greece and Europe '.^ It required no little courage on Professor Garstang's part to attempt to sketch the history of a people whose origin and language have constituted the foundation of so many heated contro- versies ; yet that courage has not been lacking. Nay, more : the reader finds in these pages a clearer, more comprehensive, and more reliable account of the Hittite confederacy and
^ Cf. Archibald H. Sayce, The Hittites. London, 1888. [2nd edition, 1892.] An extensive work, full of scholarly research, was published by a Canadian professor about the same time : cf. John Campbell, The Hittites : Their Inscriptions and their History. 2 vols. London, 1891.
^ Cf. David G. Hogarth, Hittite Problems and the Excavation of Carchemish, London, 1912. The view is expressed that ' there were Hittites — or at least Hittite cultural influences — in Syria before its conquest by the King of the Hatti of Boghaz Keui ' (p. 11). Cf. also a paper by the same writer on ' Hittite Civilization in Syria ', read before the International Congress of Historical Studies in 1913 : vide infra, pp. 421 f.
^ Cf. p. viii.
86 AECH^OLOGY
its rulers than has anywhere yet been pubHshed. In his endeavour to reconstruct the history of this mighty ancient Empire in Asia Minor — triumphant against even the power of Babylon, Egypt, and Assyria, until finally it was itself overthrown — the author has rendered modern scholarship a highly important service. The slow unfolding of the career of these warlike and cultured peoples, blossoming into special distinction at two definite periods (about 1350 b.c, and again about 1000 b.c), has now been explained in an intelligible and satisfying way.
Dr. Garstang's book, when it reaches its second edition, will be even more valuable than it is to-day ; for ampler information touching several matters in dispute has already been secured, and must in future discussions be taken into account. In a course of three lectures, delivered before the Koyal Institution in London during April-May 1913, the Professor took for his subject ' The Progress of Hittite Studies ' during the last year or two ; and he had a wonder- fully inspiring story to tell. His book is chiefly occupied with a description of all the Hittite monuments known to scholars to-day, and includes vivid representations of many of their intricate and puzzling inscriptions. The decipher- ment of these inscriptions advances somewhat slowly. Nevertheless, they are being elucidated . with a steadily growing confidence, and with a success which promises important results even within the present decade.
Professor Garstang is of course an ardent believer in the comparative method ; and, in one respect at least, his book presents us with a new application of that method. In its pages we find, placed side by side, photographs of numerous monuments which depict the faces of Hittite kings, military leaders, and priests ; photographs of recovered bronzes ; photographs of distinctive pottery, etc. In this particular, this volume possesses a unique value among books of its class.
Students of Comparative Keligion will be not a little interested in what Dr. Garstang has to say concerning the Earth-goddess (the ' Great Mother '), of whom he discovered
GARSTANG, The Land of the Hittites 87
a gigantic rock-sculpture at Mount Sipylus. He affirms that while the worship of this goddess undoubtedly spread every- where throughout Western Asia, its origin in that region ' is traceable to the Hittites, upon whose monuments its symbolism appears earlier than it is known elsewhere '.^ It is useful to turn in this connexion to Dr. Garstang's edition of Lucian's De Dea Syria, translated by Dr. Herbert A. Strong."^ In a short but delightfully lucid Introduction, devoted to ' The Syrian Goddess in History and Art ', he shows very convincingly that this cult is indebted immensely for its extension to Hittite propaganda and support.
MESOPOTAMIAN AECH^OLOGY. An Introduction TO THE Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria, by Percy Stuart Peache Handcock, Lecturer of the Palestine Exploration Fund. (Handbooks to Ancient Civilizations.) London : Philip Lee Warner. 1912. Pp. xvi., 423. 125. 6^.
Mr. Handcock's volume admirably serves the purpose for which it was written. It is a veritable thesaurus, and is not likely to disappoint any particular group of readers. Scholars will welcome it ; for it is comprehensive, compact in form, orderly in arrangement, and accurate in statement. It is addressed however, for the most part, to the general public ; hence it is enlivened by copious as well as excellent illustrations. It contains, also, two very useful maps.
One finds in this volume a complete conspectus, thoroughly up-to-date, of the results achieved by archaeology in Baby- lonia and Assyria. The author causes to pass before us, as in an arresting panorama, a long line of excavators — scholars of many nationalities — who have gradually enlarged the boundaries of our knowledge, and who share the honour of having made some truly remarkable discoveries. They constitute an illustrious and unforgettable succession.
1 Cf. p. 354. Cf. also pp. 168 f.
^ Of. The Syrian Goddess. London, 1913.
88 AECHiEOLOGY
A still more fascinating story is told, however, when Mr. Handcock proceeds to recount the fruits of these inter- national labours. The splendour of other days in ancient Mesopotamia is vividly recalled. The country, its inhabi- tants, its chequered history, its domestic employments, become once more instinct with life and movement. Its achievements in art and literature and government are chronicled with surprising fullness. Specimens of its pottery, painting, sculpture, etc., are depicted for our leisurely examination. Yet further, — and, for our present purpose, most important of all — we are furnished with a huge mass of Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions ^ which, before many years have passed, will enable us to draw yet further aside the veil which still hides much of the distinctively religious life of the Mesopotamian peoples.
From the strictly religious point of view, the information furnished by this book concerning Hammurabi is especially interesting. Those who, as visitors to the Louvre, have examined the stele upon which this ruler's famous code of laws is inscribed do not need to be reminded of their debt to archseological science. Thus far, however, Mesopotamian Archaeology has had disappointingly little to say on the sub- ject of religion. Mr. Handcock, in one of his chapters, has told us all that is at present available touching this theme ; the time for obtaining a really satisfying knowledge concern- ing it has not yet arrived.
At the end of this volume, one finds a list of the rulers who figured in the Dynasties which successively held sway in early Mesopotamia. It is a remarkable catalogue ; and it is wonderfully complete, considering the scattered and fragmentary data out of which it has been compiled.
Mr. Handcock has recently published a book which students of religion have accorded a very cordial welcome.^ The range of its studies covers a very wide field, including
^ Vide infra, pp. Ill f.
"* Cf. P. S. P. Handcock, The Latest Light on Bible Lands. London, 1913. [2nd edition, 1914.]
HANDCOCK, Mesofotmman Archceology 89
excavations and researches in Europe and Africa as well as in Asia. As before, the discussion is popular in its form and appeal. The connexion of many Old Testament stories with their Babylonian originals is satisfactorily traced. The writer's conclusions concerning the Hittite migrations and invasions may fitly be compared with those of Professor Garstang, — whose book has already been referred to,^ and whose verdict (where it differs from that of Mr. Handcock) may be accepted with perhaps a slightly larger measure of confidence.
THE UNKNOWN HISTOKY OF THE JEWS. Dis- covered FROM THE Ancient Eecords and Monuments op Egypt and Babylon, by E. E. Jessel. London : Watts and Company, 1909. Pp. xi., 158. 3s. Qd,
This book is singled out, not because of any special merit it displays, but because its title suggests a theme which waits to-day to be dealt with in a competent, sober, and comprehensive manner.
The attitude of the writer is clearly one-sided. He holds a theory of his own touching the origin of the Jewish people ; but unfortunately, even after his exposition has been com- pleted, the history of the Hebrews cannot be said to be any more ' known ' than it was before.
Mr. Jessel states in his Introduction that ' the Old Testa- ment related the events of history with one motive only, — to introduce the argument for Jewish theology and the origin of the ceremonial of religious observances. Nevertheless, there are embedded in the priestly writings some real his- torical facts of great value, though generally ... so inter- woven with miraculous incidents that the seeker after truth hesitates to accept any of them. . . . Unfortunately for the progress of truth, clerical influences tend to suppress the publication of any evidence which is seen to be in conflict with the Scriptural accounts. . . . To-day we are on the
1 Vide supra, pp. 84 f.
90 ARCHEOLOGY
verge of discoveries ; and what we have to relate in this small volume is merely the historical evidence up-to-date, collected here by one who claims no special knowledge, but who has searched for such comparisons as may be made by any reader of his book. . . . We now offer the public a first attempt to reconstruct history from the Jewish writings, modified by the records and monuments of contemporary nations '.^
As a Higher Critic, Mr. Jessel cannot be said to be lacking in the quality known as the speculative imagination. His employment of the evidence of the monuments is far from being reliable. The further the reader of his book proceeds,' the more he becomes convinced that the comparison made between the Old Testament records and parallel narratives supplied by the records and monuments of Egypt and Babylon are really the ingenious screening and buttressing of a foregone conclusion.
There are many excellent illustrations in this book, some of them being reproductions of Dr. Petrie's well-known casts.- Notwithstanding this fact, and the many timely suggestions which this volume contains, younger students of Archaeology are advised to put themselves under the guidance of such teachers as Professor Meyer or Professor Petrie or Mr. Hand- cock. These investigators are experts in their craft, and are accustomed to take their responsibilities seriously.
THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF ANCIENT EGYPT, by WilHam Matthew Flinders Petrie, Professor of Egypt- ology in the University of London. (The Arts and Crafts of the Nations.) London : T. N. Foulis, [2nd edition], 1910. Pp. xvi., 166. DS.
This volume from Professor Petrie's pen — first published in 1909, and recently translated into French^ — is not fairly representative of his archaeological activity during the last
^ C/. pp. vii, viii, and xi. ^ Vide infra, p. 91.
^ Cf. Les Arts et metiers de Vancienne Egypte. Paris, 1912,
PETRIE, Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egijpt 91
four years ; but lie has been kept so busy of late in actual research that he has had little leisure for authorship. Nor is this volume a fairly representative specimen of the writer's knowledge and skill ; for the archaeological aspects of the subject are only incidentally dealt with. At the same time, Egyptian art tells one a good deal indirectly about gods, temples, priests, sacrifices, the disposal of the dead, etc. etc. During earlier periods. Professor Petrie has written several books bearing directly upon the study of religion.^ If similar publications of a more recent date are lacking, the treatise under review will at least serve as a reminder of that archaeological zeal which, if not always embodied in print, continues to find abundant expression on the lecture platform, in current periodicals,^ and in the collection of those magnificent Egyptian treasures which have been housed in the Museum of University College, London.
Professor Petrie, as is well known, has contributed not a little to our knowledge of the subject discussed in Professor Garstang's book.^ His casts of the faces of Hittites, whose portraits were carefully executed by Egyptian artists thou- sands of years ago, are the priceless possessions of European students to-day.
At the annual meeting of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, held at University College in May 1913, Dr. Petrie gave a most interesting sketch of the work undertaken during the previous season. At the usual annual exhibition of the latest spoils brought from Egypt, subsequently displayed in the same place. Dr. Petrie drew attention to the ' finds ' he had just secured at Memphis, and at Tarkhan (i. e. the earlier Capital). These items take one back to about 5500 b.c. Among other discoveries, two magic wands — made of wood, different from each other yet similarly decorated, and which
^ Cf. Religion in Ancient Egypt. London, 1906 ; Personal Religion in Egypt before Christianity. New York, 1909 ; Egypt and Israel. London, 1910 ; etc. etc.
^ Professor Petrie recently launched a new journal, of which he is the editor : vide infra, p. 470.
^ Vide supra, pp. 84 f.
92 AECH^OLOGY
appear to have been carried by the High Priest as one of the symbols of his office — were placed upon view. These wands are the first specimens of the kind that have ever been found, and are accordingly very highly prized.
Dr. Petrie has been able to give us also a very full description of the graves of the early Egyptians, with their curious ante-chambers, their inscriptions, and those offerings of pottery, alabaster vases, etc., which had been deposited in them so many ages ago. Over six hundred of these tombs, constituting quite an extensive cemetery, were unearthed in the neighbourhood of Tarkhan. The gifts found therein reveal the high standard of culture attained by these people of a prehistoric time. Professor Petrie's account, too, of the excavation of the Hawara Pyramid — with its interior temples, its representations of animal-gods of a remarkably early date and of other strange divinities, etc. etc. — has aroused the keenest interest among students of religion everywhere .
DIE AEAMAEK. Historisch-geographische Unter- sucHUNGEN, von Siua Schiffer. Leipzig : J. C. Hin- richs, 1911. Pp. xii., 207. M. 7. 50.
Dr. Schiffer's book suggests the need and the reward of exploring unfrequented by-ways, while the nationality of the writer reminds one of the quarter whence such explorers are most readily obtained. This volume deserves, beyond question, to be widely read ; and he who first clothes it in a worthy English dress will render his fellow countrymen a real and timely service.
The Aramaeajis, though seldom referred to in modern literature, occupied a rarely influential place in the move- ments of early history. The Old Testament chronicles this fact ; whilst, in the records preserved in various cuneiform inscriptions, the migrations of this people are referred to again and again.
SCHIFFEK, Die Aramder 93
Dr. Schiffer concurs with the majority of authorities in beheving that the Aramaeans originally inhabited North Arabia. Thence, in the dim ages before Christ, they extended their sway throughout Palestine and Syria, eventually making Damascus one of the great centres of their power. As in the case of the Hittites, they made themselves masters as far east as — and even beyond — Mesopotamia.
This book is scarcely up-to-date in all respects, though it makes a genuine advance upon any monograph that has appeared hitherto. The investigations made by Scheil have not been drawn upon. At the same time, numerous inscrip- tions are cited ; the evidence they furnish is soberly weighed ; and the reader is placed in a position to draw reasonable conclusions from the facts which have admittedly been established.
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
ANTIQUITIES OF INDIA. An Account of the History AND Culture of Ancient Hindustan, by Lionel David Barnett. (Handbooks to Ancient Civilizations.) London : Philip Lee Warner, 1913. Pp. xvi., 306. 12s. 6d.
MANUEL D'AKCHEOLOGIE AMEKICAINE. Amerique pre- historique, les civilisations disparues, par Henri Beuchat. Paris : Auguste Picard et Fils, 1912. Pp. vii., 747. Fr. 15.
THE THUNDERWEAPON IN RELIGION AND FOLKLORE. A Study in Comparative Archeology, by Charles Blinkenberg. Cambridge : The University Press, 1911. Pp. xii., 122. 5s.
MANUEL D'ARCHEOLOGIE. Prehistorique, celtique ET GALLO-ROMAINE, par Joseph Dechelette. 3 vols. Paris : Auguste Picard et Fils, 1908- . In progress. Tomes i et ii, avec Appendices, pp. 2,058. Fr. 40.
94 AECH^OLOGY
LES CIVILISATIONS PEEHELLENIQUES DANS LE BASSIN DE LA MER EGEE, par Rene Dussaud. Paris : Paul Geuthner, [2nd edition], 1914. Pp. x., 482. Fr. 24.
iEGEx\N ARCILEOLOGY. An Introduction to the Arche- ology OF Prehistoric Greece, by Harry Reginald Holland Hall. (Handbooks to Ancient Civilizations.) London : Philip Lee Warner, 1915. Pp. xxi., 270. 12s. 6d.
CARCHEMISH. Report on the Excavations at Djerabis. Part I, Introductory, by David George Hogarth. London: The Trustees of the British Museum, 1914. In progress. Part I, pp. iv., 31 + 27 Plates. 155.
DER TIERKULT DES ALTEN AGYPTEN. Nach den
GRIECHISCH-ROMISCHEN BeRICHTEN UND DEN WICHTIGEREN
Denkmalern, von Theodor Hopfner. Wien: A. Holder, 1914. Pp. 200. M. 12.
HISTOIRE DE LA CIVILISATION EGYPTIENNE, par Gus- taveJequier. Paris: Payot et C^MOU. Pp.330. Fr. 3. 50.
SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY. An Introduction to THE Archeology of the South American Continent, with special reference to the Early History of Peru, by Thomas Athol Joyce. (Handbooks to Ancient Civiliza- tions.) London: Philip Lee Warner, 1912. Pp. xv., 292. 125. Qd.
MEXICAN ARCHAEOLOGY. An Introduction to the Arche- ology OF THE Mexican and Mayan Civilizations of Pre -Spanish America, by Thomas Athol Joyce. (Hand- books to Ancient Civilizations.) London : Philip Lee Warner, 1914. Pp. xvi., 384. 125. Qd.
THE DECIDING VOICE OF THE MONUMENTS IN BIBLI- CAL CRITICISM, by Melvin Grove Kyle. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1913. Pp. xvii., 320. 45.
BIBLIOTHEQUE EGYPTOLOGIQUE, publiee sous la direction de Gaston Maspero. 28 vols. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1893- . In progress. Fr. 12 to Fr. 20, each volume.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 95
MANUAL OF EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY, by Gaston Mas- pero. London : H. Grevel and Company, [6th English edition], 1914. Pp. xxiv., 385. 6s.
EXTRA-BIBLICAL SOURCES FOR HEBREW AND JEWISH HISTORY, by Samuel Alfred Browne Mercer. Vide infra, pp. 458 f .
REICH UND KULTUR DER CHETITER, von Eduard Meyer. Berlin : Karl Curtius, 1914. Pp. viii., 168. M. 8.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Was the Old Testament written in Hebrew ? by Edouard Naville. (Library of Historic Theology.) London : Robert Scott, 1913. Pp. xii., 212. 5s.
BIBLE STUDENT'S HANDBOOK OF ASSYRIOLOGY, by
Francis Collins Norton. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Company, [2nd edition], 1913. Pp. xx., 226. 3s. 6d.
THE CEMETERIES OF ABYDOS, by Thomas Eric Peet and Leonard Stevenson Loat. Part III, 1912-1913. London : The Egyptian Exploration Fund, 1913. Pp. 80. £1 5s.
ATHENS AND ITS MONUMENTS, bv Charles Heald Weller. (Handbooks of Archaeology and Antiquities.) New York : The Macmillan Company, 1913. Pp. xxiv., 412. ^4.00.
* *
ASSYRIOLOGISCHE UND ARCHAOLOGISCHE STUDIEN. Herman Yolrath Hilprecht zu seinem 25. Doctor-
JUBILAUM UND SEINEM 50. GeBURTSTAGE (25. JULl) GE-
wiDMET. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1910. Pp. xiv., 457. M. 20.
MYTHOLOGY
Matthew Arnold used to affirm that all religions are founded either on Mythology or on Mysticism. This pro- nouncement, like not a few others which emanated from the same source, has enkindled many a debate.
About the middle of the nineteenth century, a serious attempt was begun to determine if possible the origins of Mythology. For a considerable period, attention was concentrated (a) upon the legends and myths ^ which stand associated with agriculture, and (h) upon the local customs to which these narratives subsequently gave rise ; it was after this manner that the study of Folklore was inaugurated, although its actual beginning passed unnoticed at the time. By and by, however, an important discovery was made, viz. that traces of mythologies may be found as historic deposits in the venerated documents of all the higher religions, — in the Pentateuch of Judaism, in the Gospels and in the Boole of Bevelation of Christianity, and in the various Sacred Books of diverse peoples scattered all over the world. The early beliefs which these legends recall have of course, in many instances, been supplanted. More or less rapidly, and more or less consciously, they have been outgrown. Nevertheless, survivals of these primitive conceptions manage to persist. A recent authority has declared : ' It may safely be said that the earliest forms of all the fundamental doctrines of the great living religions are to be found in the mythology of one or other of the ancient nations. . . . There are few religious doctrines which, when scratched, do not reveal a lower surface of myth '.^
* Professor Toy emphasizes the following distinction : ' A myth is a purely imaginative explanation of phenomena : a legend rests on facts, but the facts are distorted.' Introduction to the History of Religions, p. 380 : vide infra, pp. 195 f.
2 Cf. Morris Jastrow, The Study of Religion, pp. 265-6. New York, 1901.
MYTHOLOGY 97
The study of Mythology is still, admittedly, very backward. Literature bearing upon the subject steadily increases ; yet, after it has been perused, one often finds himself still in the dark, or even perhaps being led into deeper and deeper perplexity. Nevertheless, under the leader- ship of Ehrenreich,^ Foy,^ Frobenius,^ and other masters in Germany — a country in which scholars like Albrecht Dieterich have devoted themselves with great perseverance to researches of this character — some valuable results are likely to be reaped in the now not distant future.* The Astral-mythological school, represented by Winckler and Jeremias, makes little progress. It is noteworthy however that, in June 1906, a society for prosecuting the comparative study of Mythology (Gesellschaft fiir vergleichende Mythen- forschung) was founded in Berlin, and its publications already run into several volumes.^ Among English students, the names of Sir John Rhys,® Dr. Farnell,' Miss Harrison,^ Canon MacCuUoch,^ and Mr. Hartland^^ will not be forgotten; while Principal Carpenter has recently written a very sug- gestive paper on the same general subject. ^^ Among French
^ Vide infra, pp. 100 f.
2 Vide supra, p. 46, and infra, p. 368.
^ Vide supra, pp. 43 f.
* It is of interest to record that the second and concluding volume of the collected Myihologische Studien von Adalbert Kuhn, begun in 1886, was recently issued in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of that scholar's birth. {Vide infra, p. 109.) It includes an admirable biblio- graphy not only of Kuhn's books, but also of his lesser literary contributions. The article on ' Mythologie ' in Wissowa u. Kj-oH's Pauly's Real-Encyclopiidie der klassischen AUertumswissenschaft should certainly be consulted : vide infra, pp. 444 f.
^ Cf. Mythologisclie Bihlioiheh : vide infra, p. 110.
« Cf. John Rhys, Celtic Folk-Lore. 2 vols. Oxford, 1901.
' Cf. Lewis R. Famell, The Cults of the Greek States : vide supra, pp. 40 f.
^ Cf. Jane E. Harrison, The Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens. London, 1890. Also, The Religion of Ancient Greece. London, 1905 ; and Themis : vide infra, pp. 247 f.
' Cf. John A. MacCuUoch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts : vide infra pp. 267 f.
1" Cf. Edwin S. Hartland, Mtjthology and Folktales. London, 1900. Vide supra, pp. 23 f.
" Cf. J. Estlin Carpenter, article on ' Buddhist and Christian Parallels. The
H
^ MYTHOLOGY
scholars, mention must be made of the very able investi- gations of Professor Levy-Bruhl/ Maspero,^ Professor Toutain,^ and MM. Hubert et Mauss.* M. Keinach,^ who has worked diligently in this field not less than in many another, has penned a brief but useful sketch in a recent English journal.^ Among American scholars, admirable and con- scientious research has been conducted by Mr. Curtin, whose extraordinary linguistic gifts stood him in good stead in the prosecution of these inquiries^ Professor Toy also, in his recent Introduction, has given us a keen-sighted survey of the whole field.^
All students remember with gratitude the late Andrew Lang, a conspicuous worker in this field.^ The late Pro- fessor Max Miiller, a notable contributor to the advent of Comparative Keligion through his extended investigations in Philology ,^^ busied himself also with tireless energy in researches connected with Mythology. He however followed much too rigidly, here as in the former domain, the purely linguistic clue ; and so he fell, once more, into serious error.^^
Mythological Background ' in Studies in the History/ of Religions, pp. 67-94 : vide infra, p. 310. ^ Vide supra, pp. 72 f.
^ Cf. Gaston Maspero, Etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie egyptiennes. 7 vols. Paris, 1893- . In progress.
^ Cf. Jules Toutain, Mudes de mythologie et d'histoire des religions antiques : vide infra, pp. 361 f.
* Cf. Henri Hubert et Marcel Mauss, Melanges d'histoire des religions : vide infra, p. 308.
^ Cf. Salomon Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions : vide supra, pp. 28 f .
" Cf. Salomon Reinach, article on ' The Growth of Mythological Study ', in The Quarterly Review, pp. 423-41. London, October, 1911.
' Cf. Jeremiah Curtin, Myths of Primitive America, and their relation to the Religious and Mental History of Mankind. Boston, 1898. [2nd edition, 1909.] Myths of the Modocs. Boston, 1912.
* Cf. Crawford H. Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions, chaj). vii, pp. 359-91 : vide infra, pp. 195 f.
* In view of the name chosen by M. Reinach for his recent book, it is interesting to note that Mr. Lang's Myth, Ritual and Religion (2 vols. London, 1887) was translated by M. Marillier into French under the title Mythes, cultes et religions. Paris, 1898.
^" Vide infra, pp. Ill f.
*^ Cf. Fricdrich Max Miiller, Contributions to the Science of Mythology, 2 vols. London, 1897.
MYTHOLOGY 99
Most of his successors, in Britain and elsewhere, have avoided this particular pitfall ; but unfortunately they have not always escaped the lure of other dangers which have confronted them.
This study, as increasingly pursued to-day, is no longer held to deal merely with a deposit of purely antiquarian interest. It is espoused, more and more, by those who have come to view Mythology in a broader, more intelligent, and much more sympathetic way. Men once believed absolutely in the historic reality of weird tales and legends, accepting them as an integral part of the authorized teaching of their religion ; it is essential, therefore, in the critical examina- tion of these stories, that none of them should be despised, or openly ridiculed, or treated as though they might wholly be disregarded. They who demolish legends are often greater vandals than the destroyers of archives. Of course, as general intelligence advances, it is inevitable that these earlier conceptions should be revised and reappraised ; after a time, the superseded myth will unhesitatingly be discarded. But those who have studied closely the expansion of the Christian religion, and who have noted the disturbing results which have accompanied its gradual abandonment of belief in the legends of Genesis, will never attempt to ride rough- shod over the susceptibilities of those who represent a more primitive stage of civilization, or a different stage of intellec- tual development, but who are quite reasonably perturbed by the advances of modern thought and investigation. The myth often possesses a strictly religious value, and is capable of exer- cising a spiritual influence which must not be ignored.
No religion is founded wholly on Mythology. Moreover, not all myths have a religious significance ; oftentimes they are merely imaginative creations, and do not profess to be anything else. Nevertheless, many a religion will never be rightly understood until one has become able to think his way back to the period of its infancy and childhood. If, as some one has said. Magic is ' primitive science ', it is quite as fair to regard Mythology as being the product of primitive
H 2
100 MYTHOLOGY
philosophy. The relationship of Mythology to Psychology ^ will at once be perceived ; ' the myth . . . furnishes to the psychologist one of the best means of examining the full nature of religion in its diverse forms \^
DIE ALLGEMEINE MYTHOLOGIE UND IHRE ETHNOLOGISCHEN GEUNDLAGEN, von Paul Ehrenreich, Dozent an der Universitat Berlin. (Mythologische Bibliothek. Gesellschaft fiir verglei- chende Mythenf orschung.) ^ Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1910. Pp. viii., 288. M. 10.
The title of Dr. Ehrenreich's book suggests at once the close relationship which subsists between Mythology and Ethno- logy.^ Dr. Foy's and Dr. Frobenius's ethnological researches,^ conducted with conspicuous success, have quite frequently been prosecuted within the domain of Mythology.
After a brief Introduction, the author goes on to distin- guish between ' comparative ' and ' general ' Mythology. Thereafter he states, with some detail, the ' Problems of General Mythology '. The material, the gradual develop- ment, and the changing forms and meanings of myths are expounded in successive chapters with a skill which is as manifest as it is confident and unfailing. The discussion does not always leave the reader wholly satisfied ; in the nature of the case, many perplexities must remain unremoved. This author, although he has done much to introduce a strictly scientific study of Comparative Mythology, is not unbiased by a leaning in favour of certain pet theories. Thus the influence ascribed by Dr. Frobenius and others to sun myths is here attributed to myths associated with the moon. And there are evidences of additional idiosyncrasies
* Vide i7ifra, pp. 136 f.
^ Cf. George M. Stratton, Psychologi/ of the Religious Life, p. vi : vide supra, pp. 155 f.
3 Vide infra, p. 110. * Vide svpra, pp. 35 f.
^ Vide supra, pp. 43 f.
EHRENREICH, Die Allgemeine Mythologie 101
which disclose the writer's distinctive mental quality. None however who have read Dr. Ehrenreich's earlier work on American Mythology ^ will fail to welcome, and to feel grateful for, this comprehensive and illuminative treatise.^
THE MYTHS OF GEEECE AND KOME. Their Stories, Signification, and Origin, by H. A. Guerber. Lon- don : George G, Harrap and Company, [Reissue], 1912. Pp. xiv., 394. 7s. Qd.
This author, widely known through many popular ex- positions of Mythology, has achieved exceedingly well the purpose kept in view.^ The work of an indefatigable col- lector of stories and legends associated with the religious con- ceptions of various early races, the contents of these books are always brightly phrased. The surveys presented are comprehensive and accurate in a very high degree. The numerous illustrations which accompany the text are selected from the masterpieces of the world's chief sculptors and artists. It is little wonder that youthful readers dehght to gain possession of volumes which are fairly crammed with the recital of weird and wonderful incidents ; the mature scholar, on the other hand, turns over these pages with many a pleasurable reminiscence of the thrills these narratives once invariably awakened, and with a deepened appreciation of the lessons which they were intended to convey.
The present work — first published in 1907, and enjoying still a very large sale — is cited in order to call special atten- tion to statements which are contained in its final chapter. The author there presents an analysis of the myths which had
* Cf. Myihen und Legenden der sudamerilcanischen Urvolker. Berlin, 1905.
^ Arnold van Gennep, Beligions, moeurs et Ugendes, in a chapter entitled * Mythologie et ethnographie a propos d'un livre recent ', has written a candid appreciation of this book: cf. vol. iii, pp. 111-39. Vide supra, pp. 19 f.
^ Cf. Myths of the Norsemen from the Eddas and Sagas. London, 1908. Also Myths and Legends of the Middle Ages : Their Origin and Influence on Literature and Art. London, 1909.
102 MYTHOLOGY
been collected in the preceding pages, and the reader is offered a summary of the differing scientific theories which have been advanced to account for the origin of Mythology. This analysis is not very successful. The hypotheses defended respectively by philologists and anthropologists receive special exposition, but the writer's evident personal pre- dilections are far from being well-grounded. It is boldly affirmed that ' the philologists' interpretation of myths [i. e. that myths are the result of a disease of language, just as the pearl is the result of a disease of the oyster] is the most accredited at the present time ' ! ^ The view that ' the key to all mythologies lies in language ' ^ is no longer main- tained, even in an age that is much inclined to optimism.
rOUE STAGES OF GEEEK EELIGION, by Gilbert Murray, Eegius Professor of Greek in the University of Oxford. (Columbia University Lectures, 1912.) New York: Columbia University Press, 1912. Pp.xiv., 209. $1.50.
Under a subsequent heading,- attention must be drawn at considerable length to this new book from Professor Murray's pen. It is due to the author, however, that reference should be made here to the very interesting study in Mythology which he has supplied.
In the first and second chapters, constituting together almost one half of the volume, Dr. Murray deals with Pre- Olympian and Olympian mythology in a very fascinating way. Students of the subject must not omit to read these engaging and quite notable sketches. In the former of the two chapters in question, the author writes : ' Greek rehgion — associated with a romantic, trivial, and not very edifying mythology — has generally seemed one of the weakest spots in the armour of those giants of the old world. Yet I will venture to make for Greek religion almost as great a claim
1 CJ. p. 344. 2 Yi^Q infra, pp. 278 f.
MURRAY, Four Stages of Greek Religion 103
as for the thought and the Hterature [of Greece] . . . because the whole mass of it is shot through by those strange Hghts of feehng and imagination, and the details of it are con- stantly wrought into beauty by that instinctive sense of artistic form which we specially associate with Classical Greece '.^
There are two defects noticeable in the writer's exposition ; yet both are natural, and neither of them must be magnified beyond its actual limits. First, the expert in this field has not sufficiently been taken into account. To be sure. Professor Murray had especially in view the claims of a popular audience. Academic students have really no right to complain, accordingly, if they miss the documentary and other substantial data upon which they are accustomed to base their conclusions ; nevertheless, the sense of incom- pleteness and vacuity too often unpleasantly obtrudes itself. Dr. Murray anticipates this objection, for he remarks : * Readers will forgive me if, in treating so vast a subject, I draw my outline very broadly, — leaving out many qualifi- cations, and quoting only a fragment of the evidence '.^ In the second place, the student of Comparative Religion in particular must peruse these pages with constant watchful- ness. The interpreter who leads the way is a student of Greek literature rather than an expert in the History of Religions. The author himself is quite conscious of this fact. ' My essays ', he writes, ' do not for a moment claim to speak with authority on a subject which is still changing, and showing new facets, year by year. They only claim to represent the way of regarding certain large issues of Greek religion which has gradually taken shape — and which has proved practically helpful, and consistent with facts — in the mind of a very constant (though unsystematic) reader of many various periods of Greek hterature.' ^ Nevertheless, just as the separate readings of sextant and theodolite, taken respectively by Amundsen and Scott as they approached the South Pole by different routes but at the same period of the
1 Cf. p. 15. ' Cf. pp. 22-3. » Cf. p. 6.
104 MYTHOLOGY
year, lent confirmatory value to the scientific results which these explorers so heroically secured for the world, — the Pole being fixed at two points which, upon examination, were found to lie only half a mile apart ! — so the conclusions which Dr. Murray has arrived at are entitled to all the more generous welcome because of the somewhat unexpected source from which they have come.
THE SAMSON-SAGA. Its Place in Comparative Eeli- GioN, by Abram Smythe Palmer. London : Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1913. Pp. xii., 267. 5s,
One is somewhat puzzled, at first, in an attempt to meet the query : Should this book be classified under Folklore (Ethnology),^ or Mythology ? As in the case of previous volumes allotted with some hesitancy to a given category ,2 a good deal might be said in favour of either of these pos- sible apportionments. Dr. Palmer is incHned to regard his study as an exposition of Folklore ; in a chapter entitled * Myths and Folk-Tales ', he remarks that ' it is quite a mis- take to speak of myth and history as two opposites which exclude any third possibility \^ The writer's wide explora- tions in the field of Folklore, and his enthusiasm for such excursions, may explain the spell which that particular quest has come to exercise upon him. It seems wiser however, on the whole, to allot this book a place under its present heading. Samson is not indeed held by the author to have been himself a myth ; on the contrary, he is presented to us throughout as a veritable historical personage. At the same time, the central aim of the book is to trace many of the details in the alleged career of Samson back to an unknown antiquity, and to show that they were originally derived from the story of Gilgamesh (a mythical Babylonian king), which narrative in turn is based upon an ancient Babylonian Sun Myth, * It is now well understood ', the writer quite
* Vide supra, pp. 35 f. * ^^-^g supra, p. xxi. =» 0/"- p. H.
PALMER, The Samson-Saga 105
fitly adds, * that most (if not all) peoples of the world have, at some stage of their development, venerated the Sun as the source of life, and given him a prominent place in their mythologies. I have not scrupled, therefore, to adduce parallels and side-lights to the solar saga of the Hebrews from all quarters ; from Aryan, Egyptian, African, and American — as well as Semitic — sources. In all regions of the earth and among races the most disparate, man is found to be at bottom the same, entertaining similar ideas and fancies, and formulating the same beliefs about the great phenomena of the solar drama which he sees every day and every year being enacted before his eyes.' ^ And again : ' The ideas that go to the making of Samson are common to man wherever he mythologizes, and that is everywhere \^ Or yet again ; * Man everywhere and at all times formulates much the same ideas about the cosmic phenomena of Nature, and often with the most striking resemblances of details '.^
Dr. Palmer's pen is a practised one ; * and his popularly presented theme, in the present instance, will not fail to possess attraction for all intelligent readers. Nevertheless, the criticism passed by him upon some earlier expounders of this Samson story must in truth be applied to his own thesis : ' it must be confessed, their essays are not always convinc- ing '.s One cannot escape the feeling, in part anticipated by Dr. Palmer himself, that ' some of the comparisons made [are] only coincidences '.^ Adopting Professor Frazer's method,^ he piles up his parallels in a quite bewildering array. The very smallest details in the life of Samson, as recorded in the Book of Judges, are matched (through the exercise of an almost uncanny ingenuity) with events chronicled in the corresponding 'Lives' of numerous Eastern and European heroes. The giants of Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia,
^ Cf. pp. 16-17. 2 Cf. p. vi. 3 cf. p. ix.
* Cf. Babylonian Influence on the Bible. London, 1897 ; Jacob at Bethel : An Essay in Comparative Religion. London, 1899 ; etc. = Cf. p. V. « Cf. p. ix.
Cf. The Golden Bough : vide supra, pp. 12 f.
106 MYTHOLOGY
Greece, Phoenicia, Babylon, etc., are severally compelled to lend help in uprearing a truly stupendous structure. Such arguments, in reality, do not ' add to the sum-total of the evidence ',i but rather weaken its legitimate effect..
The author is a writer of wide and curious learning. He is to be commended for his abundant and useful footnotes, and for supplying in this way a quite excellent summary of the chief relevant literature. The Index, however, much too curtailed, necessitates often a weary and fruitless search for passages that persist in remaining concealed. The book, taken as a whole, can scarcely claim to be a critical study ; but it does present an admirable review of the bearings of a deeply interesting subject. If it cannot rightly be placed under the heading of ' Comparative Eeligion ', it neverthe- less' constitutes a very useful ' preliminary study ', whilst it emphasizes the eminent desirability of individual students in that field concentrating their researches upon the expo- sition of a single selected topic. '^
VOLKEKPSYCHOLOGIE. Eine Untersuchung der Entwicklungsgesetze von Sprache, Mythus und SiTTE, von Wilhelm Wundt, Professor der Psychologie an der Universitat Leipzig. 7 vols. Leipzig : Alfred ■ Kroner. 1900- . In j)rogress. Pp. circa 3,000. M. 100.
This great work, which will long remain a splendid monu- ment to the industry and learning of one of the acutest masters of Psychology ^ in modern times, has already reached its sixth volume. As, in the course of its production, this treatise has expanded considerably beyond the limits originally set for it, and since it is not always easy to remem- ber exactly the stage at which it has arrived, it seems fitting — as in the case of Sir James Erazer's The Golden Bough ^ —
^ Cf. p. ix.
* Vide supra, footnote, p. 9, and infra, pp. 59 and 509 f.
' Vide supra, pp. 13G f. * Vide supra, p. 13.
WUNDT, Volkerfsijchologie 107
that the several steps marking its gradual enlargement should be indicated as follows : —
Part I. (Erster Band)
DieSprache Vol. i, 1900. [3rd ed., 1911.] M. 14.
Vol. ii, 1900. [3rd ed., 1912.] M. 14. Part II. (Zweiter Band)
Mijthus iDid Religion Vol.i, 1905. [2nd ed., 1910.] M. 14.
Vol.ii, 1906. [2nd ed., 1914.] M. 11.
Vol. iii, 1909. [2nd ed., 1914.] M. 18. Part III. (Dritter Band)
Die Sitte Vol. i [Not yet published.]
Volkerpsydiologie is a term used in Germany to cover the whole field of Ethnical Psychology. Professor Wundt's work, accordingly, might quite suitably have been included under the heading of Ethnology.^ For our present purpose, attention need be called only to the three volumes which constitute Part II, inasmuch as they alone deal expressly with the study of Mythology.
The first of these volumes expounds Die Phantasie, Die Phantasie in der Kunst, and Die mythenbildende Phantasie. [The first and second of these subdivisions have been pub- lished together in a separate treatise, in which form they have already passed into a second edition.^] The second volume treats of Die Seelenvorstellungen, under the four following categories : (1) Allgemeine Formen der Seelen- vorstellungen, (2) Der primitive Animismus, (3) Animismus und Manismus, and (4) Die Damonenvorstellungen. The third volume deals with Der Naturmythus (viz. Die Be- standteile des Naturmythus, Das Mythenmarchen, Der Mythus in Sage und Legende, and Die Jenseitsvorstellungen) and Der Ursprung der Keligion.
Since it is quite impossible to summarize Dr. Wundt's Mythus und Beligion, it has seemed better to indicate exactly the nature of its contents. Students will thus be able to forecast for themselves the measure of its probable utility in
* Vide supra, pp. 35 f.
2 Cf. Die Kunst. Leipzig, 1906. [2nd edition, 1908.]
108 • MYTHOLOGY
the prosecution of their respective inquiries. It is needless to say that innumerable helps are given towards promoting a better understanding of the general relationship of Myth- ology to Keligion, and that special problems are dealt with in a fearless and comprehensive manner.
It will doubtless be held by some readers that in Professor Wundt the philosopher is continually in evidence, while the historian occasionally fades completely out of view. This criticism is not wholly unjust. The discussion does tend at times to become unduly abstract. Yet, in so far as Ethno- logy and Psychology are able to throw light upon the origin and significance of primitive beliefs and practices, these two great departments of investigation ^ have been laid under generous and effective tribute ; and it will not be denied that the inquiry has been conducted by one who stands practically unrivalled in the latter field of research.
For any one who wishes to collect the cream of Dr. Wundt's VoTkeripsychologie, the task has already very ably been per- formed by the author himself.^ Successive chapters deal with Der primitive Mensch, Das totemistische Zeitalter, Das Zeitalter der Helden und Gotter, and Die Entwicklung zur Humanitat.
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
PE0L:EG0MENES a L'BTUDE DE la keligion fiGYP- TIENNE. EssAi sur la mythologie de l'Egypte, par fimile Amelineau. (Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Hautes- !l^tudes.) Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1908. Pp. iv., 536. Fr. 15. [Volume ii is in the press.]
THE CHILDHOOD OF THE WORLD. A Simple Account OP THE Birth and Growth of Myths and Legends, by Edward Clodd. New York : The Macmillan Company, [New and revised edition], 1914. Pp. xiii., 240. |1.25.
^ Vide supra, pp. 35 f., and infra, pp. 136 f.
^ Cf. Elemente der Volkerpsychologie. Grundlinien einer psycJiologischen Entwicklungsgeschichte der Menschheit : vide infra, p. 162.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 109
ZEUS. A Study in Ancient Religion, by Arthur Bernard Cook. 2 vols. Cambridge : The University Press, 1914. In 'progress. Vol. i, pp. xliv., 886. £2 55.
MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF JAPAN, by Frederick Hadland Davis. London : George G. Harrap and Company, 1912. Pp: 432. 75. 6d.
A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION, by John Dowson. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Company, [5th edition], 1913. Pp. xix., 411. 165.
DIE CHRISTUSMYTHE, von Arthur Drews. 2 vols. Jena : E. Diederichs, [2nd edition], 1910. Pp. xxiv., 262. M. 3.
LA FORMATION DES LEGENDES, par Arnold van Gennep. (Bibliotheque de Philosophie Scientifique.) Paris : Ernest Flammarion, 1910. Pp. 318. Fr. 3.50.
ALTGERMANISCHE RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, von Karl
Hermann Georg Helm. (Religionswissenschaftliche Biblio- thek.) 2 vols. Heidelberg : Carl Winter, 1913- . In progress. Vol. i, pp. x., 411. M. 6.40.
THE RELIGION OF OUR NORTHERN ANCESTORS, by Ernest Edward Kellett. London : Charles H. Kelly, 1914 Pp. 141. l5.
DIE ARISCHEN GRUNDLAGEN DER BIBEL. Die Ueber-
EINSTIMMUNG DER BIBLISCHEN SaGEN MIT DER MyTHOLOGIE
DER Indogermanen, von Paul Koch. Berlin, H. Johnke, 1914. Pp. 190. M. 2.
MYTHOLOGISCHE STUDIEN von ADALBERT KUHN,
herausgegeben von Ernst Kuhn. 2 vols. Giitersloh : C. Bertelsmann, 1886-1912. Pp. xii., 240+viii., 200. M. 12.
THE GODS OF INDIA. A Brief Description of their His- tory, Character, and Worship, by Edward Osborn Martin. London : J. M. Dent and Sons, 1914. Pp. xviii., 330. 45. 6d.
TEUTONIC MYTH AND LEGEND, by Donald Alexander Mac- kenzie. London : The Gresham Publishing Company, 1912. Pp. xlvii., 469. 75. 6d.
110 MYTHOLOGY
EGYPTIAN MYTH AND LEGEND, by Donald Alexander Mac- kenzie. London : The Gresham Publishing Company, 1913. Pp. xlix., 404. 75. 6d.
ALTGEKMANISCHE RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, von Richard M. Meyer. Leipzig : Quelle und Meyer, 1910. Pp. xx., 645. M. 17.
MYTHS OF THE HINDUS AND BUDDHISTS, by Sister Nivedita and Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. London : George G. Harrap and Company, 1913. Pp. xii., 400. 155.
GRUNDLINIEN EINEE VERGLEICHUNG DEE EELIGIO- NEN UND MYTHOLOGIEN DEE AUSTEONESISCHEN VOLKEE, von Wilhelm Schmidt. Wien : A. Holder, 1910. Pp. 142. M. 10.
THE MYTHS OF MEXICO AND PEEU, by Lewis Spence. London : George G. Harrap and Company, 1913. Pp. xiv., 367. 75. 6d.
THE MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF THE NOETH AMEEICAN INDIANS, by Lewis Spence. London : George G. Harrap and Company, 1914. Pp. xii., 393. 75. Qd.
* * *
MYTHOLOGISCHE BIBLIOTHEK, herausgegeben von der Gesellschaft fiir vergleichende Mythenforschung. 7 vols. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1907- . In progress. Sizes vary. M. 9-M. 12, each volume. Vide swpra, pp. 100 f.
PHILOLOGY
Of the various ' avenues of approach ' to Comparative EeHgion, few have resulted in effecting a fuller elucidation of 'this extremely complex subject than Philology, in its different forms and applications. It was by means of this auxiliary that Max Miiller made his first serious contributions to a science which, in his day, was merely a dream of the future.^
It must be borne in mind, however, that Philology itself has made marvellous advances during the past thirty years. Its field of operations, in consequence, has had to be hugely extended, and thereafter judiciously subdivided. Compara- tive Philology and Literary Philology, for example, undertake entirely different tasks. When Max Miiller was led, in the intoxication of a new enthusiasm, to apply too rigidly the methods of Comparative Philology to the study of religion, it is not surprising that he frequently went astray. His investigation of the law of human speech, the interrelations of diverse and widely separated tongues, and the historical development of languages, suggested to him the desirability of instituting a similar inquiry into the laws, interrelations .and historical development of religion ; such a proposal was altogether natural, coming as it did from a scholar of rare .acuteness and unmistakable genius. The quest, moreover, proved to be a fruitful one ; it undoubtedly lent impulse to the efforts of other pioneers, already becoming interested in this promising new study. If Comparative Philology — as a means of promoting the advancement of Comparative Keligion — is exposed to various risks, and if it is now less invoked and relied upon than formerly, this result is owing merely to its importance having been temporarily over-
* Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth, pp. 150 f. Edinburgh, 1905. Vide infra, pp. 514 f.
112 PHILOLOGY
estimated, and to its genuine serviceableness having been obscured beneath unfortunate and unwelcome accretions. Max Miiller insistently maintained that the ' study of Com- parative Philology would be in future the only safe founda- tion for the study of Anthropology '.^ Moreover, he was entirely justified in reiterating his conviction that the inner life of man can never be understood unless one acquire a knowledge of the language in which that inner life finds. its truest expression. And neither can the inner spiritual life of man be really understood unless one interpret aright the language in which that life finds its truest expression. Hence, although students of religion must accept the aid of Philology (i. e. as originally employed) with a conscious and constant reserve, they should not overlook that it is un- doubtedly able to render very great assistance in tracing various linguistic, racial, and ethical relationships of real and permanent moment.
Literary Philology, on the other hand, devotes itself to a study of language as it is found embodied in some deliber- ately-framed text. It does not concern itself with the origin and history of human speech, nor does it seek to trace the relationships and laws which govern the employment of given terms and concepts ; it concerns itself rather with the decipherment and correct interpretation of man's thoughts, wherever his mental conceptions have been reduced to some form of writing. Literary Philology invites one to embark,, not upon a technical philological study, but upon an indivi- dual and practical utilization of those texts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, cursive, etc.) the discoveries of which have so marvellously enriched the age in which we live. Accordingly, the new science of Epigraphy (which busies itself with the study and interpretation of inscriptions and other literary productions), the new science of Papyrology ^
^ Cf. Friedrich Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, 4 vols. London, 1867-1875. [Reprinted, Collected Works, vol. i, p. 230. London, 1898.] Vide supra, pp. 3 f.
^ Greatly impoverished by the premature death of M. Jean Maspero, who died heroically on the battlefield in February 1915.
PHILOLOGY 113
(which concerns itself with the narrower task of interpreting all kinds of writing, pictorial and otherwise, which have pressed papyrus into service), and countless other depart- ments of inquiry, successively necessitated by a due sub- division of labour, have taken their rise, and have fully justified their existence, during recent years. From a comparison of the pictorial or alphabetical characters thus employed, a scholar may be able to determine, at least approximately, the origin and date of various scripts, and their actual relations to one another.
This explanation being accepted, it will at once be seen that a very close connexion exists between the assistance rendered to Comparative Eeligion by Archaeology,^ and that wdiich it receives from Philology. The former science, in accordance with an earlier usage, w as held to embrace a study of all ancient relics and records, pottery, monuments, sculp- tures, all written sources, mural decorations, etc. etc. It is more convenient, however, to collect all scrijot under a separate category, and to examine and classify it under the heading of Philology. When archaeologists began to recover inscriptions, they made at first comparatively little use of them. Such action, indeed, would have been premature. To-day a kindred science, fully qualified to cope with this task, has been invited to deal expressly with it.
It will be remarked that most of the writers who have already been named under ' Archaeology ' ^ have suppHed us with early texts bearing upon the subject of religion. These are found inscribed on all sorts of substances, — wood, stone, bronze, parchment, the most fragile bits of papyri, the most enduring kinds of granite ; and the skill and ingenuity of numerous decipherers such as Paul Emil Botta, Julius Oppert, and Eberhard Schrader can never be too highly praised. One has only to visit the British Museum, or any other similar collection on the Continent, to realize the extent of those epoch-making discoveries which scholarship has registered wdthin recent years ; and this material is increasing
^ Vide supra, pp. 81 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 84, et seq.
I
114 PHILOLOGY
so rapidly that experts are quite unable to keep abreast of it. It has happily become the policy of the trustees of great National Museums to publish these texts, with adequate translations, introductions, and notes.^ In this way, many obsolete words and idioms have incidentally been recovered. It is an immense convenience, besides, that the archaeologist, — confining himself exclusively to the ' monumental ' survivals of a bygone age — can to-day hand over his purely ' philological ' data to competent investigators in a depart- ment which devotes itself wholly to inquiries of that character.
The historian of religions, likewise, has thrown a great deal of light upon the philological interpretation of religion. ^ A single instance may be cited. Professor Breasted, in a recent work, has based his conclusions mainly upon the well-known Pyramid Texts. ' These Texts ', he says, ' preserved in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty Pyramids at Sakkara, form the oldest body of literature surviving from the ancient world, and disclose to us the earliest chapter in the intellectual history of man, as preserved to modern times. They are to the study of Egyptian language and civilization what the Vedas have been in the study of early East Indian and Aryan culture. Discovered in 1880-1881, they were published by Maspero in a pioneer edition wdiich will always remain a great achievement and a landmark in the history of Egyptology. . . . The appearance last year of the ex- haustive standard edition of the hieroglyphic text at the hands of Sethe, after years of study and arrangement, marks a new epoch in the study of earliest Egyptian life and reli- gion '.^ It is in these words that Professor Breasted discloses
^ Cf. the recent Coptic Apocrypha in the. Dialect of Upper Egypt. Edited by E. A. Wallis Budge, Printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum. London, 1913.
^ Vide infra, pp. 163 f.
^ Cf. James H. Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. vii : vide also pp. 70 f . Vide infra, pp. 228 f . Dr. Kurt Sethe, as is well known, is Professor of Egyptology in the University of Gottingen, and is a very prominent representative of the Berlin (or German) school of Egyptology ; while Sir Gaston Maspero, representing an entirely different
PHILOLOGY 115
the foundation of his argument. The manner in which he develops his thesis will be referred to at length in another connexion.^
It need scarcely be said that the philologist has rendered Comparative Keligion invaluable assistance by the decipher- ment and comparison of the texts with which the archaeolo- gist has so abundantly supplied him. It must be admitted that he is continually puzzled and baffled, but happily he has the will to persevere. When Dr. Winckler unearthed the great structure he found at Boghaz Keui,^ it was the clay tablets it contained which instantly awakened interest among the world's experts in Philology. Most of these records were written in Babylonian script, similar to the cuneiform writing of the Tell el Amarna tablets recovered in 1892 ; but others were written in an entirely unknown text. It is evident that these tablets, whatever may be their exact import, contain correspondence which passed under the seal of certain Hittite kings. What is at present most in demand is the securing of some bilingual document that will accom- plish for Hittite writing what the Eosetta Stone so success- fully achieved in the decipherment of the hieroglyphs of Egypt.3
Philologists to-day, yet further, are lending Comparative Eeligion constant help by supplying it with critical texts of such ancient religious documents as we already possess. Practically all the Sacred Books of mankind are now acces- sible in the vernaculars in which they were originally written. But these texts have frequently become corrupt. Accord- ingly, apart altogether from competent translations, several new recensions of these texts have been prepared by philo- logical authorities of the very highest standing, unwarranted
group of interpreters, is probably the most brilliant and distinguished of living Egyptologists. ^ Vide infra, pp. 228 f. ^ Vide supra, p. 85.
^ Professor Friedrich Delitzsch, at a recent meeting of the Berlin Academy, discussed very ably the probable value of fragments of cuneiform tablets — evidently prepared lists of Sumerian and Assyrian words, with their Hittite equivalents — which have been found at Boghaz Keui, and which are now deposited in Berlin.
I 2
116 PHILOLOGY
editorial emendations have been sifted out, and thus rehable interpretations have at last been arrived at. For the accomplishment of such tasks, the assistance of experts is invaluable. It is, indeed, simply indispensable.
THE STOKY OF AHIKAK, by Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, James Kendel Harris, and Agnes Smith Lewis. Cambridge : The University Press, [2nd edi- tion], 1913. Pp. xcix., 302. 15s.
The first edition of this book, published in 1898, had a considerable sale ; but the discovery at Elephantine of some papyri — dating from the fifth century B.C., and con- taining an additional version of this well-known Story — led to a new edition being called for. The opportunity thus pre- sented has been made use of to revise the work throughout, to incorporate an old Turkish version which has lately come into the possession of Mr. Conybeare, and to amplify the general contents of the book in several notable particulars.
In the Preface to the original edition. Dr. Harris writes : ' The story which is here escued from the Arabian Nights — and, with some diffidence, restored to the Biblical Apocrypha — occurs in such various forms and in so many languages that there are few scholars who could edit it single-handed. . . . I have had the assistance of my friends, Mrs. Lewis and Mr. Conybeare, in dealing with the linguistic problems. . . . I hope we have been able to clear up some of the difficulties of the text, and to pave the way for its further criticism '.^ It is altogether fitting that this ' further criticism ' should be undertaken once more by the same competent hands, and advanced under their guidance towards its present more satisfying form.
Dr. Harris, in an elaborate Introduction covering a hun- dred pages, tells the story of Ahikar and his nephew Nadan. The antiquity of the legend, its numerous versions (Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Old Turkish, Greek, and
' Cf. p. V.
CONYBEARE, HARRIS, LEWIS, Story of A/iikar 117
Slavonic), the principal characters in the story, allusions to Ahikar in Greek literature, its affiliations with the Book of Tobit, its relation to the contents of the Old and Now Testaments, the use made of the legend in the Koran and elsewhere, the discovery of an Aramaic version on the island of Elephantine, and some account of recent editions of the story, make up a list of topics which are dealt with in a very fascinating way in successive chapters.
Thereafter, constituting the main portion of the book, we find a series of translations of those Eastern texts in which the story of Ahikar is preserved to us. The texts them- selves, for the most part, are likewise reproduced.
For many, the keenest interest awakened by this book will be associated with the recent finding of those papyrus fragments to which it owes its birth. ^ ' The occasion of this edition is a great literary surprise, the discovery of an Aramaic papyrus of such extraordinary antiquity as to rank it and its companion documents amongst the oldest known Biblical monuments. Who ever expected that the fifth century before Christ was going to be represented by a library of its own, consisting of documents from the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, and written in the very Aramaic dialect that was used by them ? And who could have imagined that the documents in question would have come from the site of a Jewish colony on an island in the Nile, occupied at the time of which we are speaking by a stately temple that rivalled the sanctuary of Jerusalem itself, and exhibited a ritual of its own, independent (as far as can at present be determined) of the so-called Deuteronomic legislation ? ' 2 Professor Sachau is strongly inclined to hold that the story of Ahikar was first composed at some date lying between 550 B.C., and 450 B.C. Dr. Harris adds : ' We are dealing with the oldest literary monument in the Aramaic language ;
^ Vide infra, p. 129.
^ Cf. p. xci. For copies of these documents, cf. Eduard Sachau, Ara- mdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jildischen Militdrkolonie zu Elephun- tine, pp. 147-82 : vide infra, pp. 127 f.
118 PHILOLOGY
and, although the book is found in the ruins of a Jewish colony, it was a colony who spoke Aramaic and not Hebrew, and who read the story before us in the Aramaic that they spoke, without a trace of Hebrew influence in the tradition, or any suggestion of Judaism in the origins of the book '.^
Students of Comparative Eeligion, whether Christian or non-Christian, will trace with ardour the variations effected in the form of this story, as it passed from age to age. In its Aramaic form, it is less elaborate than in versions which are demonstrably of a later date ; numerous descriptive details, whether striking or commonplace, are lacking. The agree- ments of its text with citations from the Book of Tobit, or with citations from the Septuagint version of the Psalms, are certainly very striking.
LICHT VOM OSTEN. Das Neue Testament und die
NEUENTDECKTEN TeXTE DER HELLENISTISCH-ROMISCHEN
Welt,2 YQn Adolf Deissmann, Professor der Theologie an der Universitat Berlin. Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr, [2nd edition], 1909. Pp. xv., 376. M. 12.60.
Dr. Deissmann, in a recent series of volumes,^ furnishes an admirable illustration of the aid which philological science has supplied of late to students of Christianity, and especially to students of the New Testament writings.* In these and other publications. Professor Deissmann makes a careful study of various papyri texts which belong to the second
* CJ. p. xcii. Vide infra, p. 129.
2 Translated, in an enlarged and improved form, as Light from the Ancient East. London, 1910.
^ Cf. Bihelstudien. Beitrdge, zumeist aus den Pa/pyri und Inschriften, zur ErUnrung des Neuen Testaments. Marburg, 1895 ; and Neue Bihelstudien. Marburg, 1897. [Translated, ' Bible Studies. Contributions, chiefly from Papyri and Inscriptions, to the History of the Language, Literature and Religion of Hellenistic Judaism and Primitive Christianity.' Edinburgh, 1901. 2nd edition, 1903.] Also Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung. Tiibingen, 1910.
* Cf. also Paul Wendland, Die hellenistisch-rdmische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum. Tubingen, 1907.
DEISSMANN, Licht vom Osten 119
century, and which accordingly have come down to us from an age when Christianity was still young. The writers of these documents, discovered not long ago at Oxyrhynchus, lived in one of those quarters of the world in which the new religion began very early to forge its way into a place of some importance. Special prominence is given, in the present work, to the decipherment of these scripts.
And what does a study of these ancient papyri and inscrip- tions disclose '? It throws an entirely new light upon the literary history of the New Testament. Through a compari- son of texts contemporary with these New Testament papyri, Dr. Deissmann has been able to demonstrate that the Gos- pels we use to-day were written in the language, and abound in the local idioms, employed by the man in the street during the first century of our era. This discovery, once made, awakens no surprise. The New Testament, at the time Christianity was born, had little opportunity of reaching the cultured and the wealthv ; it was intended for the common people, and to them it was directly addressed. It was very natural, therefore, that it should have been embodied in the ordinary everyday speech of the Greek population of its age, — a people who, at that period, were distributed through- out the countries of the entire East. Nevertheless, until Professor Deissmann had written these brilliant books, it remained the custom to think and speak of ' New Testament Greek ' as if it occupied a separate category, and represented a unique literary type. It was held to be a sort of Hebraic Greek, constituting a special variety by itself.^
An outstanding feature of this book, and one specially
^ It is only fair to say that this new conception of New Testament Greek was forestalled hy the late Dr. Edward Robinson, of Union Seminary, New York ; for in his Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament, published in that city in 1836, he remarks : ' The Jews . . . were conversant only with the later Greek. They learned it from the intercourse of life, in commerce, in colonies, in cities founded like Alexandria, where the inhabitants were drawn together from Asia as well as from Greece ; and it was therefore the spoken language of common life (and not that of books) with which they were acquainted ' (p. v).
120 PHILOLOGY
relevant to the purpose of the present survey, is the emphasis it lays upon points of agreement between the phraseology of the New Testament and the teaching of various non-Christian faiths which were contemporary with it. Christianity has been shown by the study of Comparative Eeligion to have borrowed much from earlier religions ; and, when it borrowed their speech, it is quite to be expected that it adopted also — and was commonly believed to have adopted — the ancient ideas which that speech embodied. In how far this impression is well-grounded has still to be more exactly determined.
In a more recent work, Dr. Deissmann gives us a w^onder- fully suggestive study of the most representative leader of primitive Christianity .^ This sketch is based directly upon the new light obtained from inscriptions and papyri, and upon Dr. Deissmann's personal acquaintance with conditions which actuallv exist in the East.
It is little wonder that this teacher, still comparatively young, has been promoted to occupy Professor Bernhard Weiss's chair in Berlin. Apart from his profound and in- creasing scholarship, he is a master of literary style. Hence his books are at once brilliant, vigorous, and arresting.
SCEIPTA MINOA. The Written Documents of Minoan Crete, bv Arthur Evans, Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology in the University of Oxford. 3 vols. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1909- . In progress. Vol. i, pp. xiv., 302. £2 2s.
Attention is here drawn to a work which, although it aroused instant interest when it was begun, is making very slow progress. The task attempted, however, is a peculiarly difficult one.
The hieroglyphs of Crete are still the despair of philological experts. Even those who have begun to solve the riddle of the Hittite inscriptions have been rendered almost hopeless
* Cf» Pavlus. Eine kultur- mid religionsgeschichtliche Skizze : vide iiifra, p. 368.
EVANS, Serif ta Mima 121
here. No doubt the signs used were borrowed to some extent from Egypt, but one is compelled to speak with great reserve.
The Minoan script is essentially different from that which the Hittites employed. The double-axe, for instance — though worshipped in Asia Minor as in Crete — was entirely absent from the Hittite syllabary. It has been suggested that the form of writing found in ancient Cyprus affords the most probable clue. Some of the keenest critics of this book agree with Sir Arthur Evans in holding that the Phoenician alphabet was not derived from any Semitic source. They maintain also with Professor Evans that it is not unreason- able to believe that the Philistines, who are acknowledged to have been Cretans, were responsible for the introduction of the Cretan hieroglyphs into Syria.
M. Toutain believes that the religion of the Cretans was an indigenous product, and that there is no evidence to show that either Egypt or the East lent it any appreciable colour- ing. The measure in which Greek religion was influenced by the early MgesiU religion is a question to which scholars are giving careful consideration.^ It is confidently hoped that, before long, additional material will be available. As soon as these new data can be examined and appraised, the necessary steps will be taken to frame a definite pro- nouncement upon this subject.
Two new books promised by Professor Evans are now prac- tically ready, and will be cordially welcomed. ^ It is good news moreover that, before many months, the well-known work prepared by Professor Manatt and Professor Tsountas will be issued in a new and entirely revised edition.^
^ Cf. Mary H. Swindler, Cretan Elements in the Cults and Ritual of Apollo^ Philadelphia, 1913. Cf. also Harry R. H. Hall, Mgean Archoeology : vide supra, p. 94.
^ Cf. An Atlas of Knossan Antiquities, of which the first volume will be devoted to ' Wall Paintings ', some of which will be reproduced in colour ; and The Nine Minoan Periods, dealing with the successive and distinctive stages in Cretan civilization.
^ Cf. The Mycencean Age. New York, 1914.
122 PHILOLOGY
EPIGKAFIA CKISTIANA. Trattato elementare, com- pilato da Orazio Marucchi, Professore incaricato di Archeologia Cristiana nell' Universita di Eoma. Milano : Ulrico Hoepli, 1910. Pp. viii., 453. L. 7.50.
This book has recently been introduced, in an attractive EngHsh dress, to students in Great Britain ; ^ but it will prove a disappointment to many.
Professor Marucchi stands eminent among the disciples of De Eossi, the greatest modern authority on Koman Archae- ology. For many years he has lectured at the University of Eome upon the Early Christian Topography of that city, and he is a familiar figure to all who have had occasion to work as special students in the Museums of the Vatican and the Lateran. Hence, when he undertook the production of a Manual, the very highest expectations were aroused.
It is called ' an elementary treatise ' ; nevertheless, coming from so practised a hand, a book of a high order of excellence was quite, reasonably anticipated. Moreover, since it deals in particular with script of a distinctively religious character, it seemed likely to occupy a somewhat important place in the present survey.
Five hundred inscriptions, or thereabouts, are cited ; and a large number of them are capitally reproduced, either in the text or in a series of plates given at the close of the volume. The explanations of these inscriptions, however, are some- times strongly one-sided, harmonizing rather with the teach- ing of a special school of theology than with the trend of modern scientific inquiry. Some of the translations, also, must seriously be queried. Accordingly, students will do well to consult the original texts whenever any question of crucial importance emerges.
The title of this book is so inviting, especially to students of Comparative Eeligion, that many workers in that field will be certain to procure it. The domain of strictly ' Chris-
^ Cf. Christian Epigraphy. Cambridge, 1912.
MAEUCCHI, Epigrafia Cristiana 123
tian ' epigraphy has now grown to be so extensive that a full and rehable handbook is urgently needed. That lack, unfortunately, still remains unsupplied. At no very distant date, however, this awkward gap in modern scientific litera- ture will no doubt be bridged.
DEE PAPYEUSFUND VON ELEPHANTINE, von Eduard Meyer, Professor der Alten Geschichte an der Universitat Berlin. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, [1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions], 1912. Pp. 128. M. 2.50.
At the International Congress for Historical Studies, held in Berlin in 1908, members were invited to examine at the Eoyal Museums a wonderful collection of Hieratic, Demotic, Coptic, Nubian, Aramaic, Syrian, Hebrew, Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Latin papyri, described in an accompanying attractive booklet.^
The discovery of material of this sort has, in the interval, made surprisingly long strides. In Germany, France, Great Britain, and America, existing depositories have been greatly extended and enriched.
The record of papyrus-research in Great Britain, during the last four years, includes the promotion of Dr. Hunt to the Professorship of Papyrology in the University of Oxford. ^ He, and his eminent predecessor and co-worker. Dr. Grenfell — as also Mr. Hogarth ^ — will always be held in honour because of the labour they have bestowed upon the Greek papyri secured at Oxyrhynchus, in the valley of the Nile about 120 miles south of Cairo. The beginning of these finds dates from 1897, and the end has not yet come.* These
^ Cf. Zur Einjuhrung in die Papyrusausstellung der Koniglichen Museen in Berlin. Berlin, 1908.
"^ May, 1913. Cf. Professor Hunt's article on ' Pap3n:'i and Papyrology', dealing with discoveries made during the last twenty years in Egypt, in the Journal of Egyptian ArchcEology, vol. i, pt. ii : vide infra, p. 482.
^ Vide supra, p. 85.
* Ten ' Parts ' of The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, edited and annotated by Dr. Grenfell and Dr. Hunt, have already been published.
124 PHILOLOGY
texts, extremely miscellaneous in character, cover a period of about a thousand years (viz. from 323 b.c. to a.d. 641), and incidentally throw much light upon the domestic, social, political, and religious life of the Egyptians during all that long period. Towards elucidating and assorting this Oxyrhynchus material. Professor Mitteis of Leipzig and Professor Wilcken of Bonn — the latter probably the leading expert on Papyrology on the Continent — have lent invalu- able aid.^ It has already been mentioned that Professor Deissmann has made excellent use of these papyri in demon- strating that the Greek of the New Testament is nothing else than the ordinary local vernacular of Hellenists, wherever found throughout the East during the first and second centuries of our era.^ In this connexion, the investigations of Professor Eobertson,^ Professor Moulton,* and Professor Milligan ^ will not be overlooked. The much-needed piece of literary work upon which the latter two scholars are collaborating is of first-rate quality.^
More recently, however, attention has been concentrated upon an examination of the Aramaic papyri w^hich were discovered by members of a German expedition at Elephan- tine,— an island much higher up the Nile than Oxyrhynchus, being situated about 600 miles south of Cairo." Lying just opposite Assuan, Elephantine was formerly a capital city, and a place of considerable strategic importance. It is
^ Cf. Ludwig Mitteis und Ulrich Wilcken, Grundzilge und Chrestomathie der Papyruskunde. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1912. This is a work of sterling and permanent worth. " Vide supra, p. 119.
^ Cf. Archibald T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research. New York, 1914.
* Cf. James H. Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek. Vol. i, Edinburgh, 1906. [3rd edition, 1908.] In progress.
^ Cf. George Milligan, Selections from the Greek Papyri. Cambridge, 1910. Vide infra, p. 134.
® Cf. James H. Moulton and George Milligan, Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Part I, London, 1913. This work is now being published under the title The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament : Illustrated from the Papyri and other non-Literary Sources. London, 1914- , In progress.
'' Vide supra, pp. 116 f., and infra, pp. 127 f.
MEYER, Der Papyrusfund von Elephantine 125
with researches made in material derived from this quarter that Professor Meyer has of late been enthusiastically occupy- ing himself. Other investigators who deserve honourable mention in this association are Professor Sayce,^ Dr. Cheyne (more particularly with reference to the Elephantine names of gods), - Dr. Budge,^ Professor Sachau,^ Dr. Piubensohn,^ Dr. Wessely,^ Professor von Gall,' Dr. Ungnad,^ and Pro- fessor Kauschen.^
It will be seen that a whole literature, especially in Ger- many, is springing up around this subject. The repro- duction and translation of ancient texts — beginning with the Petrie Collection published in 1890-1893, and including many volumes issued in Berlin, Geneva, Heidelberg, London, and elsewhere — is growing apace. Professor Meyer's book is an especially noteworthy addition to this fascinating group of volumes. While some of its conclusions seem premature, it will be found admirably compact, and yet thoroughly up-to-date. It stands unrivalled as supplying a reliable conspectus of the whole situation, including the important issues which these papyri have either created or brought into a new and arresting prominence. There is something about the manner of Dr. Meyer's presentation of his theme — a breeziness, a frankness, a definiteness, and a confidence — which is certainly very engaging. Students of Comparative Religion are especially recommended to pro- cure this book ; they will search far before they discover a better one. Happily it has already been translated into
^ Cf. Archibald H. Sayce and Arthur E. Cowlej^ Aramaic Papyri dis- covered at Assuan. London, 1906.
^ Cf. Thomas K. Cheyne, The Tito Religions of Israel. London, 1911.
^ Vide infra, p. 134. * Vide infra, pp. 127 f.
^ Cf. Otto Rubensohn, Elephantine-Papyri. Berlin, 1912.
^ Cf. Carl Wessely, Studien zur Palaographie iind Papyriiskunde. Leipzig, 1912.
^ Cf. August von Gall, Die Papyrusurkunden der judischen Gemeinde in Ele- phantine in ihrer Bedeutung fur judische Religion und Geschichte. C4iessen, 1912.
® Cf. Arthur Ungnad, Aramdische Papyrus aiis Elephantine. Leipzig, 1912. [An abridgement of Professor Sachau's work : vide infra, pp. 127 f.]
^ Cf. Gerhard Rausehen, Neues Licht aus dem alien Orient. Keilschrift- und Papyrusfunde aus dem judisch-christlichen Altertum. Bonn, 1913.
126 PHILOLOGY
English in America,^ and a British edition may be expected this year.-
Details concerning the contents of these papyri are given on a subsequent page.^
CUNEIFOEM PAEALLELS TO THE OLD TESTAMENT, by Robert Wilham Eogers, Professor in Drew Theo- logical Seminary, Madison, New Jersey. New York : Eaton and Mains, 1912. Pp. xxii., 567. S4.50.
American scholarship is most honourably represented in this book, which was written none too soon. The student will recall at once the similar undertaking of Professor Schrader,* and will be apt to compare it with this later and more comprehensive survey of the same field ; but Dr. Eogers can await the verdict with confidence. The measure of learning and competency which this writer displayed in earlier publications ^ is fully maintained in the present instance.
It is not too much to say that, for any one w4io wishes to form an independent judgement, no more helpful book exists at the present time in any language. No other w^ork con- tains so large an accumulation of data bearing upon the Old Testament ; and, in addition to the actual texts and trans- lations, the writer has been scrupulously dihgent in furnishing references to sources, to authoritative discussions available elsewhere, and to various scraps of fugitive literature which throw light upon the subject. At the end of the volume the
' Cf. The Pai^yri at Elephantine. New York, 1913.
^ Cf. The Papyri discovered at Elephantine. London, 1915.
^ Vide infra, pp. 127 f.
" Cf. Eberliard Schradei*, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament Giessen, 1872. [2nd edition, 1882. Translated, ' The Cuneiform Inscrip- tions and the Old Testament \ 2 vols. London, 1885-1888. 3rd edition, Berlin, 1903-1904.]
^ Cf. A History of Babylonia and Assyria. 2 vols. New York, 1900 ; and The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, especially in its relation to Israel. New York. 1909.
ROGERS, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament 127
reader is given a series of excellent iDliotographs of nearly a hundred Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian inscriptions which greatly enlarge our knowledge of the period covered by the Old Testament. An admirable Bibliography has also been compiled.
Unlike Schrader, — i.e. in the new edition of hisKeilinschriften which Professors Winckler and Zimmern brought out, and which became practically ' transformed ' in the process,^ — Professor Rogers does not identify himself with any par- ticular critical school. He cites successively the Old Testa- ment passages, and then supplies the alleged parallels. His aim is to furnish his readers with the necessary information, to give them general guidance, and then to allow them to draw their own conclusions. In this particular, as already intimated, the present volume enjoys an honourable dis- tinction. At the same time, one finds everywhere abundant evidence of candour and grasp, qualities which inspire no small measure of confidence in those to whom the writer so modestly addresses himself.
ARAMAISCHE PAPYRUS UND OSTRAKA AUS EINER JUDISCHEN MILITARKOLONIE ZU ELEPHAN- TINE, von Eduard Sachau, Professor an der Universitat und Direktor des Seminars fur Orientalische Sprachen, Berlin. 2 vols.^ Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1911. Pp. xxix., 365. M. 90.
Professor Sayce, in a brief but very vivid and valuable Introduction to his edition of the Mond Papyri — found at Elephantine in 1904 ^ — threw out a hint that the securing of additional papyri would almost certainly reward the speedy
^ Cf. 3rd edition, 1903-1904.
^ Folio in size, the first volume contains the Text (pp. xxix., 290), while the second reproduces with wondrous exactitude seventy-five specimens of Papyrus and Ostraka Fragments.
^ Cf. Archibald H. Sayce and Arthur E. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri dis- covered at Assuan. London, 1906. Vide supra, ^. \25.
128 PHILOLOGY
arrival of other explorers. The German Government lost no time in acting upon this suggestion. An expedition, quickly got together, made its head-quarters at Elephantine during the winter of 1906-1907. A French party likewise, led by M. Clermont-Ganneau, was quickly organized. As Professor Sayce predicted, a considerable quantity of papyri was recovered ; and it was found to date back as far as the tifth century b.c.
In an earlier work. Professor Sachau dealt critically with three of the more important papyri which had just been brought to light. ^ These documents disclose the fact that a sumptuous Jewish Temple, built at Elephantine in the period of the Pharaohs, was subsequently destroyed during an insurrection of the Egyptians. This circumstance was revealed through the discovery, among these papyri, of a copy of a petition which the broken-hearted Jews dispatched in 408 B.C. to the Persian Governor of Judea ; and there was also found a copy of the Governor's reply. It was at once noted that, while the names of the Jews recorded in these papyri are Hebrew names, the papyri themselves are written in Aramaic. Evidently the latter tongue — the language of commerce throughout the East in the period lying between the sixth and the fourth century B.C. — was at that time, in Egypt, in familiar current use."^
Professor Sachau's present treatise gives one a very full account of the contents of a group of documents considerably less noteworthy than those with which he dealt in the earlier exposition. They are of very uneven quality, some of them being of comparative^ little worth. But the explorer found among them two papyri of real and permanent utility. The former is a copy of the Behistun inscription of Darius I, written in Aramaic, — which incidentally confirms one's knowledge of the fact that this Persian ruler made use of different languages (Aramaic among others) when drawing
^ Cf. Eduard Sachau, Drei aramalsche Papyrus-Urkunden aus Elephan- tine. Berlin, 1907. * Vide supra, ]). 117.
SACHAU, Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka 129
up his official proclamations ; ^ the latter presents the story of Ahikar {cf. The Book of Tobit) in an incomplete form.^
A fact upon which Professor Sachau lays emphasis is the discovery, through these papyri, that the Jews living at Elephantine were in reality a military garrison, stationed there by Persia for the purpose of keeping the Egyptians in order. It was for this reason, no doubt, that these Hebrews enjoyed the large measure of consideration and freedom admittedly accorded to them. For example, when the Persian monarch Cambyses looted and overthrew the temples of the Egyptians, he spared this Jewish Temple on its favoured island site. Such a proceeding, it should be remem- bered, was not uncommon under Persian rule. The central Government, indeed, did not hesitate to become openly the protector of centres where alien worship was observed ; and it demanded of its subjects at least an outward show of respect for the traditions which had become associated with places of this character.
The rehgious observances of this foreign colony at Ele- phantine exhibit certain marked modifications of those conceptions which are universally associated with Judaism. The earlier ideal that ' At Jerusalem only is the place where men ought to worship ' ^ was not scrupulously maintained ; at this period there were evidently other recognized localities, far removed from the national capital, where the appointed rites of the Jewish faith could legitimately be celebrated. It is clear, further, that these Elephantine Jews did not fear to pronounce the sacred name of God, which appears to have had the sound of Yahu. Moreover, while these colonists acknowledged and worshipped Yahu as a ' Supreme ' deity, and upreared a Temple in His honour, they did not denounce a contemporaneous belief in the existence of other gods. The
^ Most of the early Aramaic texts we possess ' came from Egypt, where the language was used, not only for trade purposes (as elsewhere), but also ofl&cially under Persian rule '. (Wallace M. Lindsay in The Encyclopoedia Britannica, 11th edition, vol. xiv, p. 619.)
2 Vide supra, pp. 116 f. * Cf. John iv. 20.
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130 PHILOLOGY
deities their neighbours worshipped were known to be many, and their altars were apparently permitted to stand in immediate proximity to the Elephantine Temple.^
The Ostraca, which date also from the fifth centmy b. c, have proved of little service thus far. Many of the in- scriptions are not in Aramaic. The text is imperfect, and often very difficult to reconstruct ; the ultimate interpre- tation of it wdll be the reward of those philological experts who may be found to have skill enough to force it to yield its meaning.
THE AKCH^OLOGY OF THE CUNEIFOEM INSCEIP- TIONS, byi.Archibald Henry Sayce, Professor of Assyrio- logy in the University of Oxford. (The Ehind Lectures in Archaeology, 1906.) London : The Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, [2nd edition], 1908. Pp. vi., 220. 5s.
No discussion of the transmission and decipherment of religious texts would be complete Avithout some allusion to the work of Professor Sayce. He was one of the pioneers in this field, and he is still in the van of a great forward move- ment. He is equally an expert with the spade and with the pen ; and no important discovery in the world-wide fields of Archaeology and Philology escapes either his eager eye or his illuminative comment.
Inasmuch as, during the last four years, Dr. Sayce has not written any treatise bearing directly upon this subject, it may not be amiss to call attention to a volume which was prepared by him a short time ago. Several considerations justify this particular selection, and its inclusion in the present survey. First of all, it was the premier book of its kind which the British press was asked to publish. More- over, it deals with its subject in an extremely interesting way,
* Cf. Albin van Hoonacker on ' Jerusalem et Elephantine ' in Le Museoii, ■fcroisieme serie, tome i, p. 40 f. Cambridge, 1915.
SAYCE, Arch(Eology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions 131
and is well fitted to inform a wider constituency than it has reached thus far. Yet further, it emphasizes aright the close relationship subsisting between Archaeology and Philology. And finally, although several books of the same type have appeared since this treatise was penned, few of them are capable of discharging exactly the function it fulfils in relation to the steadily advancing study of Comparative Religion.
Putting aside all the more technical aspects of his subject — e. g. questions of date and racial authorship and many kindred inquiries, most of which may be determined from the shape and general character of the sign-notation which the writers severally employed — Professor Sayce concentrates attention upon the contents of the inscriptions, and the bearing they have upon the interpretation of other epigraphs of similar and dissimilar origin. Special stress is laid also upon the study of pottery, an important aid in facilitating the purposes of this inquiry. As the outcome of his investi- gations, Dr. Sayce lays bare in a very striking way the proofs of relationship and mutual intercourse between the inhabi- tants of the oldest Eastern Empires. He shows with con- siderable detail how Babylonian culture influenced Egypt and Canaan and the remotest portions of Asia Minor, and how — not less in religion than in commerce and national government — the evidences of this fact have incidentally been recorded in numerous official documents.
The gradual decipherment of Cuneiform Inscriptions has not only immensely widened the boundaries of modern knowledge, but it has discredited (or else revolutionized) many theories which had previously gained general accep- tance. On the other hand, owing to the constant possibihty of error in such investigations, and owing also to the rashness of some whose equipment for this undertaking has been much too limited, philologists in this department have had to bear the reproach of strong and often well-deserved criticism. It is hardly surprising that, even among experts, many initial mistakes have been made, and parallelisms have been
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132 PHILOLOGY
' discovered ' where no parallelism actually existed. More- over, since such work has quite truthfully been described as * the archaeological romance ' of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it has suffered from those friendly approaches which are equally the peril of Comparative Eeligion, viz. the handiwork of the too-enthusiastic amateur.
Even the author of this book has not wholly escaped the censure of the purist ! Yet if Professor Sayce — equally with his predecessors and contemporaries — has been guilty of some errors of judgement, he is not unduly perturbed by that fact. It is by the way of failure — and pre-eminently in this field — that success must ultimately be won. On the other hand, there have certainly been very few, during the past generation, who have rendered such magnificent service in this enterprise as Dr. Sayce has done. He came to this task fortified by an excellent equipment ; and, as already inti- mated, he has executed his quest — alike as an expert philolo- gist and as a practical excavator — with a steadily growing competency. In particular, he has been throughout his life an enthusiastic student of the history and military rule of the Hittites.^ It was he who discovered the clue which enables us to-day to read with some confidence their hieroglyphic writing, long the insoluble puzzle of modern scholarship ; and many of his predictions concerning the career of this wonderful people, though treated often with unduly scant courtesy at the outset, have turned out to be surprisingly well-grounded. It was also he who in 1911 detected the value of some Egyptian translations of Meroitic words, and thus probably inaugurated the decipherment of the still- mysterious Meroitic script.^ It begins to seem likely that the elucidation of an earlier philological problem by means of the Kosetta Stone is now, in our own day, about to be repeated !
Few teachers have given valuable and timely 'pointers ' to younger contemporary archseologists and philologists more un- selfishly than Professor Sayce. Not infrequently, in his books
* Vide supra, pp. 84 f.
SAYCE, ArchoBology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions 133
as in his lectures, he has dropped the remark : * I am in- cUned to think the solution of this perplexity lies, after all, liere' A brief exposition has followed ; and those who have been wise enough to apply the suggested test have often discovered that Dr. Sayce was right. These fruitful ' asides ' have not been lucky ' guesses ', or arrows shot at random into the air, as some have mistakenly supposed. When tentative predictions have been fulfilled, they have not been merely ' happy hits '. They have been, in reality, scientific forecasts, based upon a maturing experience, and possessed of the value due to a genuinely penetrative insight.
In view of these facts, no apology is needed for including in the present survey a volume that appeared so early as 1907. All Professor Sayce's work is conspicuously suggestive. In his acute comparisons, he reveals often a very enviable prescience. He has a perfect genius for scenting out a probable ' find '. It is not surprising therefore that he proves exceedingly helpful and stimulating to younger students of religion, and that his obiter dicta, noted and remembered by scholars and Governments abroad, are promptly subjected to the test of a practical and searching experiment.^
Students of Comparative Keligion have noted with satis- faction that Professor Sayce's Gifford Lectures,'^ so admirable because of the ' comparative ' survey they contain, are at present under revision, and will soon be accessible in a considerably enlarged form. The first volume of the set has already issued from the press. ^ It is however in the fields of Archaeology and Philology that Dr. Sayce is evi- dently most at home. On all problems arising in connexion with the transmission and interpretation of religious texts — wheresoever found, and howsoever preserved — his conclu- sions are sure to be invited, reported, and frequently cited.
' Vide supra, pp. 127-8.
^ Cf. The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Edinburgh, 1902.
^ C/. The Religion oj Ancient Egypt : vide infra, p. 293 f.
134 PHILOLOGY
SUPPLEMENTAKY VOLUMES
ZUR GESCHICHTE DER JUDEN VON ELEPHANTINE, von Hedwig Anneler. Bern : Max Drechsel, 1912. Pp. viii., 155. M. 6.45.
CHINESE AND .SUMERIAN, by Charles James Ball. Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1913. Pp. 168. £2 25.
THE GREENFIELD PAPYRUS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM,
edited by Ernest A. T. Wallis Budge. London : The Oxford University Press, 1912. Pp. 130 + Plates. £2 lOs.
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. The Papyrus of Ani. A Reproduction in Facsimile, edited by Ernest A. T. Wallis Budge. 2 vols. London : Philip Lee Warner, 1913.
Pp. 722. £2 2s.
AUSWAHL AUS GRIECHISCHEN PAPYRI, von Robert Helbing. Leipzig : G. J. Goschen, 1912. Pp. 146. Pf. 80.
UNE COMMUNAUTE JUDEO-ARAMEBNNE A ELEPHAN- TINE, EN EGYPTE, AUX VI^ ET Ve SIECLES AV. J.-C, par Albin van Hoonacker. (The Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology, 1914.) London : The Oxford University Press, 1915. Pp. 91. 35.
EXTRA-BIBLICAL SOURCES FOR HEBREW AND JEWISH HISTORY, by Samuel A. B. Mercer. Vide infra, pp. 458 f.
THE NEW TESTAMENT DOCUMENTS. Their Origin and Early History, by George Milligan. London : Macmillan and Company, 1913. Pp. xvi., 322. IO5. M.
EPICTETUS AND THE NEW TESTAMENT, by Douglas Sim- monds Sharp. London : Charles H. Kelly, 1914. Pp. xii., 158. 25. U.
DER KRITISCHE WERT DER ALT - ARAMAISCHEN AHIKARTEXTE AUS ELEPHANTINE, von Friedrich Stummer. (Alttestamentliche Abhandlungen.) Miinster : Aschendorff, 1914. Pp. vii., 86. M. 2.50.
SUPPLEMENTAKY VOLUMES 135
CHARIS. EiN Beitrag zur Geschichte des altesten Christentums, von Gillis Albert Petersson Wetter. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1913. Pp. vii., 224. M. 7.
STUDIEN ZUR PALAOGRAPHIE UND PAPYRUSKUNDE,
Lerausgegeben von Carl Wessely. 15 vols. Leipzig : H. Haessel, 1901- . In progress. M. 128, for the first twelve volumes.
THEBAN OSTRACA. Hieratic, Demotic, Greek, and Coptic Texts, being a series of the University of Toronto Studies. London : The Oxford University Press, 1913. Pp. 230. 15s.
T
PSYCHOLOGY
Beyond the domain of Comparative Keligion, there lies that still wider and more exacting field which is cultivated to-day by students of the Philosophy of Eeligion. Within its area, a considerable section of territory has been allotted to experts in the Psychology of Keligion.
There can no longer be any doubt that explorers in this latter department are destined to play a very important role in broadening our religious conceptions. Not only is their teaching certain to modify materially some of the funda- mental dogmas of modern Eeligious Philosophy, but the advent of the Psychology of Eeligion is bound to exercise influence in preparing the way for a still further expansion of Comparative Eeligion. Students in this field no longer regard the problems which it presents to them as the theologian is too apt to view them, viz. as mysteries which possess often a sacrosanct character ; ^ they confront them, rather, in the spirit of the purely scientific investigator. It is their busi- ness to widen, if possible, the boundaries of contemporary knowledge. They seek, therefore, to understand how the human mind acts, when it is constrained by distinctively religious irnpulses. They strive to answer, in a w^ord, Ihe single crucial question : What is the correct interpretation of human experience w^hen viewed in the light of its traceable spiritual processes ?
Thus Psychology supplies a new method for the study of religion.2 It compares man's inner religious experiences rather than his outward religious practices and observances. It recognizes that faith is quite as much a ' fact ' as the sacri-
^ Vide infra, p. 149.
^ It is not less true, of course, that the study of religions supplies Psy- chology with a field wherein it may correct and expand its tireless investiga- tions.
PSYCHOLOGY 137
fice it offers upon some altar. Suppose the doctrine of an objective revelation be true ; still, even that revelation be- comes a possession of man only through a personal religious experience. This experience is of the very essence of religion, and is more reliable and revealing than conformity to any amount of prescribed and visible ritual. Accordingly, the method of the Psychology of Eeligion is inductive, not de- ductive. It is reverent, yet empirical. It is convinced that, behind all the visible manifestations of religion, there is something subjective in man that accounts for and supplies value to his religious ideals and aspirations. It is not too much to afHrm that, as time and reflection advance, it is ' this inward spiritual experience ' that deepens and confirms our sense of the reality of religion.
In the opinion of some eminent judges, the future of Com- parative Eeligion will in no small measure be influenced by the progress of Psychical Kesearch.^ The late Mr. Myers, in his great literary legacy to the world, ^ made ' the most daring excursion into psychology ' published during the present generation. Not a little is to be hoped for, moreover, from the creation of the new ' Sub-Section ' allotted to Psychology, recently inaugurated at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.^ A competent authority has not hesitated to affirm that ' the natural history of religious consciousness, as it manifests itself in the life of the individual, has now taken its place among the sciences '.* It will be noted also that Psycholog}^ as applied to religion, has numerous affiliations with Mysticism ; most of the writers selected for special mention under the present heading — e. g. Ames,^ Hill,^ Hocking,"^ etc. — have been led to
^ C J. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. 26 vols. London, 1882- . In progress.
^ Cf. Frederic W. H. Myers, Hwnan Personality, and its Survival of Bodily Death. 2 vols. London, 1903. [Abridged edition, in one vol., 1907.]
^ Held at Birmingham. September, 1913.
* Cf. William R. Inge, Faith and its Psychology, p. 151. London, 1912.
^ Vide infra, pp. 142 f. ® Vide infra, pp. 146 f.
' Vide infra, pp. 147 f.
138 PSYCHOLOGY
deal more or less fully with that subject. Psychology, thus applied, has also many affiliations with Sociology,^ which, under some of its aspects, is denominated Social Psychology or Collective Psychology. Here the mind of primitive peoples — a group or tribe, not an individual merely, being taken as the unit of inquiry — is subjected to a rigorous psychological analysis. The affiliation of Psychology with Mythology ,2 likewise, will not be overlooked. The value of this study for the propagandist of religion among alien peoples — naturally somewhat indifferent to his appeals — is self-evident. To understand the subtle inner working of the ordinary savage mind, when a distinctively religious appeal is being made to it, really means the winning of the battle. For the reasons just specified, a somewhat generous amount of space must be allotted to this topic in the course of the present survey.
Attention is specially drawn, in this preliminary sketch, to the opening chapter of Professor King's book ; ^ its title runs : ' The Possibility and the Scope of the Psychology of Eeligion.' Likewise, in a commemorative volume pub- lished by the professors and alumni of Hartford Theological Seminary,^ Professor Dawson presents an admirable account of the genesis and growth of this virile new study. He defines the Psychology of Eeligion as ' the science of the religious life. As such, its aim is to investigate human experience, under the aspect of those feelings, ideas, and activities that go out towards the supernatural. Its material is (1) the mental states involved in religion, (2) the objects that induce them, and (3) the environment of mind that affects its reactions to such objects. Its method is that of the other inductive sciences. As a separate science, indeed, it is thus far only correlating and interpreting the data of the older human sciences, formulating its plans, and seeking to
^ Vide supra, pp. 62 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 96 f.
' Vide infra, pp. 149 f.
* Cf. Recent Christian Progress. Studies in Christian Thought and Work during the last Seventy-five Years. New York, 1909.
PSYCHOLOGY 139
find its own more specific methods.' ^ Nevertheless, it furnishes ' the beginnings of independent investigation in the sphere of religion ' ; '^ whilst there have already ' been brought to light the unity of religious consciousness in all mankind, the essential elements of that consciousness, the objects that evoke its activities under the varying con- ditions of racial environment, the forms these activities take (in ceremonials, sacrifices, worship, and institutions), and the religious sanction of conduct throughout racial evolution '.^
It is quite natural that, of late, the psychological study of religion has attracted an increasing number of votaries, including many scholars of international standing. Some of the very best work in Psychology, thus far accomplished, stands connected with its investigations of man's religious experiences. Such investigations probably represent to-day the dominant phase of psychological research. Already a great stream of books has begun to issue from the press. The study had its inception, really, a long time ago. It began in Germany ; for it can scarcely be denied that it was Schleiermacher w^ho first analysed religion after this parti- cular manner. His theory was defective, no doubt, in the exaggerated importance it attached to the ' subjective con- sciousness ' ; nevertheless the element of emotion assuredly enters into all genuine religion, and in many instances completely dominates it.^ In Germany however for the most part, the Psychology of Keligion has (until lately) been studied merely as a branch (and as a quite subordinate branch) of the Philosophy of Eehgion. In Great Britain, this study is gradually winning adherents. The recent action of the British Association has alreadv been referred to. Both
1 Cf. ibid., pp. 180 and 184.
- Cf. ibid., p. 187. 3 Cf. ibid.y p. 183.
* It is important to bear in mind that the terminology employed by Schleiermacher in this connexion, in his Glaubendehre and Psycliologie re- spectively, is not always uniform in its meaning. Cf. F. Siegmund-Schultze, Schleiermachers Pst/chologie in ihrer Bedeutung fur die Glaubenslehre. Tu- bingen, 1913.
140 PSYCHOLOGY
elaborate ^ and popular 2 expositions of the Psychology of Eeligion have begun to appear. This is not surprising, seeing that the vigorous cultivation of Anthropology in the British Isles is largely psychological in its trend. The study of Animism, in Sir Edward Tylor's hands, was often simply a study of Psychology, i. e. he deliberately analysed the psychological impulses of the individual savage, in order that he might interpret correctly the latter's distinctively religious rites and institutions.
The great majority of writers on this topic, and its foremost and most successful expositors, are undoubtedly scholars of American nationality. This fact will be ma.de evident in a moment ; but all are familiar with the magnificent advance which has been led successively by Professors Everett,^ Starbuck,^ Coe,^ and James.^
Attention has already been drawn to Principal Carpenter's remark that the origin of religion can be determined only through the aid of Psychology.' Moreover, the similarities which reveal themselves in religions of diverse types must, in large measure, be explained in the same way ; they are due, ultimately, to the homogeneity of the human race, and (in particular) to the homogeneity of the human mind. At the same time, a note of warning, perhaps sufficiently expressed by the maxim ' Festina lente ', is called for in connexion with the advances which are now being achieved in the prosecution of this study. If, owing to what must be regarded as a strange and culpable oversight, the Psychology
^ Cf. James Lindsay, The Psycliolocjy of Belief. Edinburgh, 1910.
2 Cf. William R. Inge, Faith and its Psychology. London, 1909 ; George Steven, The Psychology of the Christian Soul : vide infra, p. 161 ; Eric S. Waterhouse, The Psychology of the Christian Life : vide infra, p. 161 ; etc.
^ Cf. Charles C. Everett, The Psychological Elements of lieligious Faith, New York, 1902.
* Cf. Edwin D. Starbuck, The Psychology of Religion. An Empirical Study of the Growth of Religious Consciousness. New York, 1899.
^ Cf. George A. Coe, The Spiritual Life. Studies in the Science of Religion. Chicago, 1900.
* Cf. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York, 1902. ' Vide supra, p. 6.
PSYCHOLOGY Ul
of Keligion has been unduly long in making its appearance, it must not now be exploited, or permitted to fall into the hands of careless and incompetent interpreters.
There is, at the outset, the risk of exaggerating the impor- tance of this new branch of inquiry. The weakness insepar- able from certain forms of Mysticism, and the occasional aberrations which are apt to become linked with the methods of Psychical Kesearch, must be watched and promptly corrected. There is risk, further, of exaggerating the actual possibilities of this study .^ It must be remembered that the conclusions at which experts in Psychology arrive are based upon data of a somewhat volatile character ; and there are at present no available methods by which erroneous factors in the argument are certain to be detected. Moreover, the doctrine of the ' Subconscious Self ' is in danger of being pushed to extremes.2 Finally, while the Psychology of Keligion rests upon actual verifiable experience, wJiose experiences are to be allowed to count ? Is the investigator always a reliable and competent medium ? Is he possessed, in sufficient measure, of the religious sense? Are his religious emotions sufficiently vivid ? It must ever be remembered that Psychology, as an instrument of research, is restricted to ' the study of states of consciousness. It can investigate the interplay of the emotions and the will ; but, for the seeker after ultimate truth, it has no message. It knows nothing of any truth that is not relative and contingent '.^
It can, however, be said with all confidence that the more serious promoters of this study are keeping a high ideal in
^ Vide infra, pp. 152, 154, 156, etc.
- Professor San day has raised this question, in an acute form, in his Christ- ologies Ancient and Modern. Oxford, 1910. A searching examination of this theory is made by John Baillie in ' The Subliminal Consciousness as an aid to the interpretation of the Religious Experience ', an article which appeared in The Expository Times for May 1913, pp. 353-8. Cf. Dr. Sanday's reply to his critics, ' The Value of the Subconscious ', found in the same Journal for July 1913, pp. 438-44. Cf. also an elaborate article entitled ' Science empirique et psychologie religieuse ' in Eecherches de science religieuse, vol. iii, pp. 1-61 : vide infra, p. 487.
=» Cf. The Times. London, March 20, 1913.
142 PSYCHOLOGY
view. They are seeking earnestly, and not unsuccessfully, to ascertain, through this particular avenue of approach, the actual facts which are embraced within man's subjective religious experience. They are seeking, furthermore, to sift and classify all such discoveries, and to formulate, in as far as possible, the laws under which these articulated psycho- logical processes can be shown to be indissolubly linked together.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF KELIGIOUS EXPEEIENCE, by Edward ScribnerAmes, Assistant Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1910. Pp. xii., 428. $2.50.
It is fitting that the first volume presented in this list should come from an American author ; for, as already remarked,^ scholars in the United States have shown much fondness for this special line of inquiry. They have displayed also, along with a praiseworthy activity, a rare capacity for elucidating a subject which, however engrossing, is still admittedly elusive and obscure.
Dr. Ames has attempted to take stock of the results which previous investigators have garnered, — the necessary liQks of connexion being supplied, and personal interpretive expositions being thrown in, as his undertaking advances. ' Several studies have appeared ', he remarks, ' treating of primitive religion, and the religion of particular races ; others have dealt with the phenomena of conversion, of faith, of mysticism, and of other special interests with which the current religious reconstruction is concerned ; it seems desirable, however, to bring all these phenomena into the per- spective of a comprehensive psychological inquiry '.^
This work is divided into four leading sections. First, a brief sketch is given of the ' History and Method of the Psychology of Eeligion '. In Part II, attention is concen-
^ Vide supra, p. 140. * Cf. p. viii.
AMES, The Psychology/ of Religious Experioice 143
trated upon ' The Origin of Keligion in the Eace '. The paralleHsms touching prayer, sacrifice, ritual, etc., inci- dentally dwelt upon under this heading, are of special interest for the student of Comparative Eeligion. This portion of the book is probably its most fruitful subdivision, in so far as the purpose of the present survey is concerned. Part III deals with ' The Kise of Keligion in the Individual ' ; and here one is often reminded of the pioneer work of Professor James, .as embodied in his epoch-making Gifford Lectures.'^ Part IV is entitled ' The Place of Keligion in the Experience of the Individual and Society '. Under this heading the author has much to say concerning the psychology of religious genius and inspiration, and the psychology of religious sects.
At many points the writer shows his sympathy with the sociological school,^ although his persistent affinities more than suffice to lead him elsewhere. His book is a good illustration of the manner in which the investigations of all schools are, in reality, complementary and supplementary to one another.^
THE FOUNDATIONS OF KELIGION, by Stanley Arthur Cook, Lecturer in the Comparative Study of Keli- gions, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. (The People's Books.) London : T. C. and E. C. Jack, 1914. Pp. 96. e>d.
It is surely one of the most significant signs of the times that a book of this type and quality should be included in a ' popular ' series, and that it could be offered to the public at the paltry price which its Publishers ask for it. But ' The People's Books ' stand quite apart by themselves. One hundred of these little volumes have already been completed. Though handy in form, attractive in appearance, and sub- stantially bound, their cost is phenomenally small. A still greater surprise is awakened, however, when one samples the
^ Cf, William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience. London, 1902. 2 Vide supra, pp. 62 f. =» Vide infra, pp. 321-2.
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contents of these volumes. A glance at the list of titles and authors reveals the fact that investigators of the highest standing have not ignored the possibilities of a great oppor- tunity, or shirked the toil necessarily involved, in their effort to simplify and condense the substance of modern critical learning. Scholarly, comprehensive, and thoroughly up-to- date, the man in the street is to be congratulated upon the hitherto undreamed-of privilege which the existence of these booklets has brought within his reach. A competent Bibliography is invariably supplied.
Mr. Cook has for many years been a devoted student of religions. Individual preferences led him early to make a special study of Hebrew and Syriac, and he has won many distinctions as prizeman, examiner, and editor in the field of Oriental Eeligions. His little book in the Beligions Ancient and Modern series is widely known,^ while his contributions to various Encyclopaedias have given him a permanent place among critical authorities in the depart- ment he represents. A larger work, just published, has been welcomed with genuine interest. ^
Behind and beyond all Mr. Cook's industry, however, there has lain a far deeper purpose than the mastery of the most recent available data bearing upon the History of Eeligions. As he says in his Preface : ' This little book aims merely at introducing the reader to certain fundamental aspects of the vast subject of Keligion. It does not concern itself with the value of any particular religion, or with what may be called the " Foundations of Theology ".' The writer's outlook is wider ; his intention is to go deeper ; there- fore he seeks to expound The Foundations of Religion.
In the course of his investigations, Mr. Cook has always placed the very highest estimate upon the capabilities of the comparative method.^ He has accordingly pressed that method into service from the very outset, and to-day he is
^ Cf. Religion in Ancient Palestine. London, 1908. ^ C/. The Study of Religions : vide infra, p. 317. " Vide infra, pp. 332 f.
COOK, The Foundations of Religion 145
more than ever convinced that it is indispensable as an agent of research. At the same time, he is a diHgent student of Psychology, in which field he discovers many clues that lead one straight to the heart of the study of Keligion. Hence he frankly premises that ' this little book is based upon the applications of psychology and psychological methods to the comparative and historical study of religions and religious material '.^
In some of its statements, this admirable primer reminds one forcibly of a penetrative American book that was pub- lished a little over a decade ago.^ From one point of view, it might well be assigned to the Philosophy of Keligion, i. e. to a department lying entirely beyond the boundaries of Comparative Keligion. The writer himself — in the pas- sage just quoted, as also in his own academic practice — bases The Foundations somewhat illogically upon the gains won by Comparative Keligion. Its real place, however, is to be found among studies preliminary to Comparative Keligion, whenever that designation is employed in its modern and more restricted meaning.^
In seeking to summarize the results of his inquiry, Mr. Cook writes : ' The comparative study of religions has proved the fundamental similarities in the different forms of Kehgion, — a not altogether surprising result when we consider the scientific evidence for the oneness of all mankind '.* ' The comparative study of the forms and vicissitudes of Keligion has revealed the enormous amount of variation ... in human thought, from the earliest times to the present day ' ; ^ but ' these very profound differences indicate the continuous development, as man learns more of himself and of his environment'.^ 'Modern anthropological research — in throwing a flood of light upon past and present rehgious, social, legal and other ideas — is laying the foundation for
^ Cf. p. 5.
2 Cf. Charles C. Everett, The Psychological Elemerits of Religious Faith. New York, 1902. * Vide infra, pp. 509 f.
' Cf. p. 91. ' Cf. p. 11. « Cf. p. 87.
L
146 PSYCHOLOGY
a more critical knowledge of human natm-e, and the prepon- derating tendencies of life and thought.' ^ ' Increase of thought develops conceptions of God and of the world ; and, in this respect, both are " man made ".' ^ ' Man cannot with impunity go back to earlier types of belief and behaviour ; and every advance has been psychical, rational, with enrichment of thought and for the benefit of the average man.' ^
One often feels that the writer, in view of the probable character of the majority of his readers, indulges too much in the use of metaphysical forms of expression, and in abstract phases of thought. At the same time, he has furnished a really satisfying exposition, and one that cannot fail to stimulate many to acquaint themselves with some portion of that vast untrodden region w^hich still lies beyond their horizon.
EELIGION AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY^ A Study OF Present Tendencies, by J. Arthur Hill. London : W. Rider and Son, 1911. Pp. 200. 35. 6d.
The full sub-title of Mr. Hill's book runs thus : ' A Study of Present Tendencies, particularly the religious implications of the scientific belief in survival, with a discussion on Mysticism.' As those who have read a contemporary volume from the same pen* might anticipate, the author's treatment of Mysticism is especially noteworthy.
This modest, compact, and thoughtful treatise is in no sense ' cheap ', save as regards its price. When one opens it, it is found to be wholly without pretension. It contains no Preface. It frankly makes its appeal to the non-pro- fessional scholar. Nevertheless, while remarkably well fitted to achieve its manifest aim, it is a book which those w^ho read it once will not fail to read again. It is not the
1 Cf. p. 12. - Cf. p. 87. =* Cf. p. 92.
* C J. New Evidences in Psychical Research. London, 1911.
HILL, Religion and Modern Psychology 147
work of a careless or hurried writer, but proves to be robust and suggestive at practically every turn.
The subject-matter of this volume, as its sub-title suggests, centres around two comprehensive themes, viz. the doctrine of Immortality, and the interpretation of Mysticism. But it has much to say incidentally upon other subjects, pertinent to the present inquiry. It would be a very real oversight if any student of the Psychology of Keligion were not to peruse this brief but helpful exposition.
THE MEANING OF GOD IN HUMAN EXPERIENCE.
A Philosophic Study of Religion, by William Ernest Hocking, Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Yale University. New Haven : The Yale University Press, 1912. Pp. xxxiv., 586. 12.50.
Reference to this book must not be omitted, for it repre- sents work and impulse and originality of a rarely high order. It is somewhat difficult to assign it with confidence to its proper category. It belongs, in large part, to the Philosophy of Religion ; yet it belongs also to the Psychology of Religion, and it might with almost equal warrant be included under the heading of Mysticism. These uncertainties, however, are details which do not really matter ; the main fact to be noted is that a very sane and scholarly discussion here awaits any reader who is willing to entrust himself for a little time to the guidance of a vigorous and stimulating thinker.
Dr. Mellone of Manchester recently expressed the opinion that ' most of the constructive work in the Philosophy of Religion, at the present time, has affinities either with prag- matism or with mysticism, even if these are inwrought with elements of a wholly different kind '. Dr. Hocking is of much the same mind, yet personally he is quite unable to endorse the claims of pragmatism. It, he holds, is a philo- sophy that will never conduct the inquiring soul into the presence of God. ' It is the function of the pragmatic test
L2
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(as of pain and discomfort generally) to point out something wrong ; the work of discovering what is right must be done by other means.' ^ In mysticism, on the other hand, the conditions are entirely different. ' The mystic finds the absolute in immediate experience. Whatever is mediated is for him not yet the real which he seeks. This means to some that the mystic rejects all mediators ; the implication is mistaken. To say that a mediator is not the finality is not to say that a mediator is nothing. The self-knowing mystic, so far from rejecting mediators, makes all things mediators in their own measure. To all particulars he denies the name God, — to endow them with the title of mediator between himself and God. Thus it is that the mystic, representing the truth of religious practice, may teach idealism the way to worship, and give it connexion with particular and historic religion.' ^
Professor Hocking will certainly not be satisfied if he is merely granted a respectful hearing ; he aims at quickening thought in the minds of his readers. Some, it is to be feared, will find that the mental burden he lays upon them is a pretty severe one ; for the writer's own mind seems practi- cally tireless. The exceedingly numerous phases of the subject, as they successively emerge, are handled with scrupulous fidelity. The author holds that our idea of God, ultimately considered, is in each individual case ' a postulate of our moral consciousness '.^ At the same time, the mental nimbleness and confidence with which Dr. Hocking passes from point to point, his ohiter dicta, and his conspicuous sincerity, make one forgetful of everything save the keen exhilaration of the moment, and the skill and comradery and enthusiasm of a guide such as one seldom encounters.
The successive stages of the argument bear the following labels : i, Eeligion as seen in its Effects ; ii, Eeligious Feeling and Religious Theory ; iii. The Need of God ; iv. How Men know God ; v. Worship and the Mystics ; and vi, The Fruits of Religion.
1 Cf. p. XV. * Cf. p. xix. =» Cf. p. 146.
KING, Tlie Development of Religion 149
THE DEVELOPMENT OF KELIGION. A Study in Anthropology and Social Psychology, by Irving King, Professor of Education in the University of Iowa. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1910. Pp. xxiii., 371. $1.75.
An interesting fact, not without its significance, is the circumstance that the writer of this book began his study of rehgion while he was still a student of theology. He is not to-day, it may be remarked in passing, a sponsor of the theological method. On the contrary, it was because he found his earlier approaches to the study of religion so often blocked and practically thwarted by the conceptions he had imbibed during his theological training that, greatly daring, he resolved to adopt in future a more progressive line of action. As a result, he has now become a highly competent expositor of Anthropology and Social Psychology.
The theologian, if not an ingrained radical, is apt to become ultra-conservative. He tends more and more to believe that his religion. Ids conception of God, his system of doctrine, his co-ordinated ritual, etc., are better than those of his neighbours ; hence, in all conscientiousness, he tends to become an aggressive and tireless proselytizer. The student of Anthropology or Ethnology or Sociology, on the other hand, begins the study of religion entirely free from the handicap of such narrow and narrowing ideals. He finds religion manifesting itself under a great variety of forms, and he proceeds to enrich his mind through an unbiased accumulation of actual facts and a knowledge of actual restrictive conditions. It soon begins to appear that Totemism not less than Pantheism, that Unitarianism not less than the most rigid Calvinism, are saturated through and through wath the irrepressible thought of God. The savage, not less than the scholar, cannot rid himself of a haunting Presence, which asserts its actuality in an immense variety of ways. The scientific study of religion — far from leading the conscientious student astray, and causing him to drift
150 PSYCHOLOGY
helplessly from his old moorings — discloses to him, in point of fact, a new and broader and abiding foundation for his faith. The writer of this book has not ceased, as a result of his painstaking researches, to be a theologian ; but he is now a theologian of an emphatically scientific and thorough- going type.
' We may define ', he says, ' the problem of the pages which follow as that of showing how the religious conscious- ness has been huilt up, or differentiated from a background of overt activity and relatively objective phases of con- sciousness. The assumption underlying the problem is that the religious attitude of mind has had a natural history ; that there was a time in the history of the race when a definite religious attitude did not exist ; and that, in its genesis and in its development, it has been conditioned by the same laws according to which other mental attitudes have come into being.' ^ The writer further quotes with approval Dr. Nansen's dictum that ' religious ideas must be reckoned as a natural product of the human mind itself under the influence of its surroundings '.^
Notwithstanding the author's somewhat radical attitude, he has shown immense diligence in the preparation of this volume. It fairly bristles with ' facts '. The writer em- bodies many most excellent suggestions in his chapter entitled ' The Possibility and the Scope of the Psychology of Eeligion '.^ On ' The Genesis of the Eeligious Attitude ' he is to be read with caution ; but he will certainly give satis- faction to the typical sociologist when he writes : ' The social organization is practically the universe, the 7ie plus ultra, of the primitive man's life '.^ In his chapter on ' Magic and Eeligion ' he joins issue with Professor Frazer,^ advancing reasons which convince him that magic ' cannot in all cases be sharply differentiated from religion '.^ He feels con- strained to criticize also the theory Professor Jevons main-
» Cf. p. 43. 2 Cf. Fridtjof Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 209. London, 1893.
3 Cf. pp. 1-23. * Cf. p. 68. ^ Vide supra, pp. 17, 23, etc.
^ Cf. p. 165.
KING, The Development of Religion 151
tains, when the latter argues for the original and independent existence of religion ^ ; for he cannot accept the belief that the idea of the supernatural was present in the mind of primitive man. Professor King promises, in his chapter on ' Eeligion and Morals ',2 to write at more length upon this theme at a subsequent date. ' The author has amassed much material for a full treatment of this subject, but time does not permit of working it out for the present volume '.^ May this fore- shadowed undertaking not remain too long unattempted !
A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF EELIGION. Its Origin, Function, and Future, by James Henry Leuba, Professor of Psychology in Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1912. Pp. xiv., 371. S2.00.
To speak with perfect frankness. Professor Leuba's book is a disappointment. It is not lacking in philosophic insight, competent dialectic, and considerable originality ; such qualities, in view of the writer's previous work and honour- able professional standing, were confidently anticipated. But those who expected that the slightness of an earlier survey * would here have been expanded into a comprehen- sive and closely-reasoned treatise, marked by a satisfying precision and coherence, can only regret that their hope remains unfulfilled.
In truth, this book receives notice in the present survey rather on account of what it is not than because of its actual contents. In some quarters, it has been heralded as an embodiment of the best product of current literature bearing upon the Psychology of Eeligion ; but, in reality, it may more truthfully be described as a Philosophy of Eeligion, based upon the principles and methods of Psychology. The
^ Cf. p. 173. Vide Frank B. Jevons, An Introdtiction to the History of Religion. London, 1896. [6th edition, 1914.] ■' Cf. pp. 287-305. ^ Cf. p. 287.
* Cf. The Psychological Origin and the Nature of Eeligion. London, 1909.
152 PSYCHOLOGY
ultimate verdict that must be pronounced upon this book reminds one of the erroneous impression which remained current for a time in reference to Professor Jevons's Intro- duction to the History of Beligion ; as a matter. of fact, the latter work presents a survey of the History of Keligion only in so far as that statement is qualified by the author's caveat : ' investigated on the principles and methods of An- thropology '. Touching the light it throws upon the problems of Comparative Religion, that feature of it is found (as in the case of Professor Frazer's Golden Bough), to be con- siderably less in evidence than is usually imagined.^
The demands made in the name of Psychology throughout^ this book are strangely exaggerated, and tend to discredit the application of the psychological method within the domain of religion. In his eleventh chapter. Professor Leuba is particularly severe upon the authorized teachers of religion, as when he remarks : ' If theology is ever to find out what beliefs work best towards self-realization and happiness, it will have to deal with inner experience according to the best scientific methods. Until it does so, it cannot make anv claim to serious consideration. And when it does so, it will have become a branch of Psychology '.^
Professor Leuba's speculations concerning the future of religion, in a work of a purely ' scientific ' character, seem to be somewhat out of place. It was to explain actual mysteries, and not to invent new ones, that the writer entered upon his quest. Even if he were strictly in order, — for surely it is a psychology of existing religions, not a psychology of a future religion, that scholars to-day need — his theory is singularly vulnerable to criticism. Dr. Leuba's ' Religion of Humanity ' is an airy forecast that can hardly satisfy any one save an ' empirical idealist 'like the professor himself. Professor Pratt, as an expert investigator in Psychology, is more modest (if also more conventional) when he declares : ' What the future of religion is to be, no one can tell '.^
1 Vide supra, p. 16. ^ qj^ ^ 277.
^ Cf. James B. Pratt, The Psychology of Religious Belief, p. 302 : vide infra, pp. 153 f.
PRATT, The Psychology of Beligious Belief 153
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF, by James Bissett Pratt, Assistant Professor of Philosophy in Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1907. Pp. xii., 327. $1.50.
Dr. Pratt's volume occupies a place, logically if not chronologically, intermediate between the books offered to us respectively by Mr. HilP and Professor Stratton.^ It is intended, chiefly, for the general reader ; yet it exhibits a reasonable ambition of achieving results of a higher and more discriminative order. It undoubtedly breaks new ground ; yet it is based to a large extent upon the work already accomplished by pioneers in related domains of study. ' Most of all am I indebted to the assistance and inspiration of Professor William James. How deeply his Varieties of Beligious Experience has influenced my thought will be patent to every reader of this book. His Principles of Psychology and his Will to Believe have been only less influen- tial ; while to his lectures, and to personal contact with him, I owe even more than to his writings.'^ Such admittedly was the genesis of this very engaging volume.
Professor Pratt subdivides his book into three parts : viz. i, Psychological, (The Elements of Psychic Life, and The Nature of Belief) ; ii, Historical, (Religious Belief among Primitive Peoples, Religious Belief in India, Religious Belief in Israel, and Three Phases of Christian Belief) ; and iii, The Present Status of Religious Belief, (in which its de- velopment in each human being, during Childhood, Youth, and Mature Age, is traced with scrupulous care).
It is to be observed that man's religious beliefs, viewed from the psychological standpoint — in particular, ' (1) the nature of belief in a God or gods, and (2) the basis or bases on which this belief really rests ' * — constitute the theme upon which this author concentrates his whole inquiry. Various
^ Vide supra, pp. 146 f. ^ Vide infra, pp. 155 /.
" CJ. p. ix. * Cf. p. vii.
154 PSYCHOLOGY
aspects of the religious consciousness, such as conversion, etc., are dehberately put aside. And what is Dr. Pratt's con- clusion ? According to him, the basis of rehgious behef is traceable to Feeling. ' The one contention for which I wish my book to stand is insistence upon the immense and vital importance of our instinctive life, as manifested in the feeling- background, and as seen particularly in the religious con- sciousness '.^
It is here that one finds the central defect in an argument which, in other respects, is as admirable as it is suggestive. The part played by the Will, in the creation of religious ideas, is almost wholly ignored. Even in the discussion of ' Types of Belief in Mature Life ', the Intellect is not allotted that regnant place to which it is undoubtedly entitled. It is quite true that the writer declares : ' I do not wish to be understood as assigning no value to thought in religion. . . . To exist, belief must be made articulate ; and, for this purpose, thought is essential '.^ Nevertheless, he holds that Intellect can no longer be regarded as ' an original and inde- pendent source of religious belief '. In truth, as Professor Leuba ^ and others have shown, Thought, Feeling and Volition are equally essential constituents ; these three factors are absolutely inseparable in the formation of man's fundamental and most persistent beliefs. Keligion that is based ultimately on Feeling rests upon a very uncertain foundation, and on one Avhich — because it cannot easily be tested — can never adequately be established. This theory tends to resolve religion, ultimately, into an enigma — ' the recognition of a mystery pressing for interpretation ', as Herbert Spencer phrased it — and, in all probability, into an insoluble mystery.
This book closes with two Appendices, — the one, a brief Questionnaire, made up of queries of a very searching and personal character ; the other, a select (yet fairly represen- tative) Bibliography of the Psychology of Religion, covering ten pages.
1 Cf. p. 28. 2 Cf. p. 284. " Vide supra, pp. 151 f.
STRATTON, Psychology of the Beligious Life 155
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE EELIGIOUS LIFE, by George Malcolm Stratton, Professor of Psychology in the Uni- versity of California. (The Library of Philosophy.) London : George Allen and Company, 1911. Pp. xii., 376. 10s. 6^.
Professor Stratton's book, a valuable addition Avhich America has made to the series of Handbooks now in course of publication under the editorship of Professor Muirhead of Birmingham, conducts its readers to a higher level, and into an atmosphere rarer and more difficult to breathe, than that characteristic of some of the volumes which have just been specified. Not that an earnest student of Psychology will find here any really serious obstacles impeding — much less barring — his w^ay, or that a casual investigator will be in danger of being immediately carried beyond his depth ; on the contrary, both classes of inquirers are certain to experi- ence an agreeable mental stimulus, and to find the writer's style sparkling, arresting and lucid. At the same time, this treatise is evidently intended for scholars, i. e. for men whose equipment and intellectual training will enable them to move easily and without pause through abstract and often complicated discussions.
xinother outstanding difference separates this volume from most contemporary publications. It will be recalled that the late William James, the great instigator and inspirer of all recent research in this department, was in the habit of drawing up series of carefully-framed ' Questions ', and of distributing these among persons who were likely to be able to furnish reliable answers to them. Professor Pratt sup- plies us indeed, in his book, w^ith an actual Questionnaire} Professor Stratton, on the other hand, is not quite so ready to yield himself to the guidance and methods of his distin- guished forerunner. ' Professor Jam.es's volume on Beligious Experience \ he says, ' has inevitably been of influence
^ CJ. The Psycliology of Religious Belief, pp. 307-9 : vide supra, pp. 153 f.
156 PSYCHOLOGY
throughout, even though his writing arouse so often one's admiring opposition.' ^ Professor Stratton does not ignore, or seek improperly to minimize, the value of accumulated ' introspective testimonies ' ; nevertheless, he perceives clearly that the circle from which they can successfully be obtained must perforce be a narrow one, while the evidence thus procured is liable to be self-conscious and distorted. He is alive to the ' danger of laying undue stress on what is exceptional and even morbid '.- Hence he is inclined to assign to the material acquired through every such Ques- tionnaire a secondary and subordinate place. The chief sources of information upon which he relies are primarily objective, not subjective. For a record of the religious beliefs of a wide variety of primitive races, he examines with a critical eye the works published by Tylor and Frazer ; for a record of the corresponding beliefs of advanced civiliza- tions, he refers us to the Sacred Books of mankind. No doubt, ' as psychological evidence, some of the canonical collections [may] have in them a trace of insincerity. . , . Whatever motives may have entered into such a work, the product must have been psychologically sound ; for men responded to it, accepted it, and made it the basis of a creed, and this is proof positive that it answered to something deep in the nature of those to whom it was addressed '.^
The scrutinv to which these multifarious data are sub- jected is carried forward with rare insight and skill. Herein lies the distinction of this volume. And what are the con- clusions at which the writer arrives ? Professor James held that, amid all the varieties of religious experience, men agree ultimately in believing that ' the visible world is part of a more spiritual universe, from which it draws its chief significance '.^ Professor Stratton does not directly combat this view, but he prefers to affirm that Psychology discloses a ' war of motives in religion. At every instant, the mind is driven powerfully in opposite directions ; it at once clings
1 Cf. p. viii. 2 Cf. p. vi. ^ Cf. p. vi.
* Cf. The Varieties of Religious Experience, pp. 516 f. New York, 1902.
STRATTON, Psychology of the Religious Life 157
to, and abhors, the self and the world, both physical and social ; it wishes to act in conflicting ways, and at the same time to remain passive ; it depends upon, and despises, its own powers of sense and of intellect ; it would have its divinity both many and one, both near and far, both known and unknown '.^ Accordingly, he divides the substance of his book into four parts, viz. i, Conflicts in regard to Feeling and Emotion ; ii. Conflicts in regard to Action ; iii, Conflicts in regard to Religious Thought ; and iv. Central Forces of Religion, this latter subdivision including a notable and thoroughly discriminative chapter on ' Standards of Reli- gion '.
THE SCIENCE OF SPIRITUAL LIFE. An Applica- tion OF Scientific Method in the Exploration of Spiritual Experience, by Marshall Peter Tailing. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Company, 1912, Pp. 320. $1.50.
As in the case of Professor Watson's volumes,^ students of the Psychology of Religion are reminded that this book will repay examination and study. It contributes little directly tow^ards promoting the interests of Comparative Religion, — its domain being rather Theology, and its goal ' the recon- struction of theology in accord with the principles of science ' ; ^ but it is full of sidehghts and suggestions of genuine scientific value.
DIE LEBENSKRAFTE DES EVANGELIUMS, von Johann Warneck, Missions-Inspektor in Barmen.^ Berlin : Martin Warneck, [5th edition, revised], 1913. Pp. 358. M. 4.50.
Instead of selecting a purely technical book to represent recent scholarly work supplied by German experts in this
^ Cf. p. viii. 2 Vide infra, p. 160. ' Cf. p. 7.
* Dr. Warneck is also Lecturer on the Science of Missions and Religion, in the Theological Seminary at Bethel bei Bielefeld.
158 PSYCH0L0C4Y
field/ it is a pleasure to draw attention rather to a volume which no student of the Psychology of Keligion can afTord to overlook. It has been translated, quite recently, into English.- Unfortunately, however, it is generally thought 01 as a manual, intended only for missionaries ; it is really a treatise, of peculiar and permanent worth, addressed to all who are interested in a subject of timely and paramount importance.
This book is in truth, as the author claims, ' a psychological study of missions '. It contains an account of experiences faced by a Christian propagandist ' in the midst of Animistic Heathendom ' ; at the very outset, the introduction of the term ' animistic ' reveals the scientific standpoint of the wTiter.^ He seeks to ascertain and demonstrate the exis- tence of those vital forces which, more than anything else, tend to set Christianity apart from all the other religions of the world.
One is at -once impressed — as previously by Professor Meinhof's book"* — by the serious way in which German missionaries regard and approach their task. British and American candidates, when offering themselves for work in some foreign field, are apt to be constrained to take this step under the pressure of strong religious sentiment ; men of Teutonic birth, on the other hand, usually allow con- siderations of quite another sort to come into play. They intensely dislike the risk of being hurried into a position from which no honourable way of retreat may lie open to them. Moreover, they always regard missionary work, more or less consciously, from the scholar's point of view. Accordingly, Dr. Warneck devotes the first part of his book — as he devoted the first years of his preparation for his great lifework — to a searching study of Animism, in all its nebulous beliefs and implications. His volume, on this account, is extremely
^ C/. Wilhelm Wundt, V'ulkerpsychologie : vide supra, pp. 106 f. - Cf. The Living Forces of the Gospel. Edinburgh, 1909. ^ Cf. also this author's Die Religion der Batak. Ein Paradigma fur animistische Religionen des Indischen Archipels: vide supra, p. 34. ■* Vide supra, pp. 56 f.
WARNECK, Die Lebenshrdfte des Evangeliums 159
valuable : in it he has recorded the long series of relevant facts which he has patiently collected. He is surely quite right in his contention that Animism, as a phase of religion, must be investigated as carefully, and ' taken as seriously, as the higher rehgions of Greece and India '. Would that the author had had more numerous predecessors of this type among those who, for a hundred years, have been busily propagating Christianitv in various non-Christian lands !
The second division of the book depicts the chief factors which emerge in the actual conflict between Animism and Christianity. The writer shows how the Gospel appeals to, and modifies, the religious psychology of primitive peoples, and thus becomes influential in changing their conceptions of religious life and worship. The communistic ideal gradu- ally gives way before the realization of individual wrong- doing and individual responsibility. The materialistic id^al gradually gives way before the conception of a higher and spiritual world. This section of the book is admirably executed, and will furnish students of Comparative Eeligion with a great deal of useful material.
The closing portion of the volume undertakes to lay bare the mainspring of the Christian propaganda, and to explain its wondrous success. This portion of the argument is made up of matter that sometimes seemed over-apologetic in its colouring, but it contains at any rate the conclusions of a clear-headed and courageous leader. Dr. Warneck plainly entertains a far higher conception of many an alleged ' false ' religion than those do who regard the study of Comparative Eeligion as a field of merely curious and impracticable research.
It is necessary to add that exception will generally be taken to Dr. Warneck's oft-expressed belief that Animistic Heathendom is a form of diabolical possession ; and that, until the vital forces of the Gospel gain supremacy among primitive peoples, the latter are actually and literally ' slaves of the Devil '. Testimony of an entirely opposite character, yet equally reliable, could easily be produced.
160 PSYCHOLOGY
THE INTEKPKETATION OF EELIGIOUS EXPERI- ENCE, by John Watson, Vice-Principal and Professor of Moral Philosophy in Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. (The Clifford Lectures, 1910-1912.) 2 vols. Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, 1912. Pp. xiv., 375-t-x., 342. £lls.
It will suffice, here, if express attention be drawn to Pro- fessor Watson's able work. It is full of strong and cogent thinking, and contains many incidental references to the Psychology of Religion. The writer holds that ' in the end, faith never transcends knowledge ; but, as the assertion of the principle that underlies and makes knowledge possible, it is the highest form of knowledge '.^
These volumes do not belong to the Psychology of Reli- gion. They represent rather that wider, more general, and more advanced department which is commonly known as the Philosophy of Religion.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN, by Franz Boas. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1911. Pp. x., 294. $1.50.
DAS WESEN DER RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE UND IHRE BEDEUTUNG FUR DIE DOGMATIK, von Hermann Faber. Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1913. Pp. xiii., 164 M. 6.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CHRISTIAN EX- PJERIENCE, by Richard H. K. Gill. Boston : Sherman, French and Company, 1915. Pp. 104. Sl.OO.
THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION AND ITS VERIFICATION,
by Terrot Reaveley Glover. London : Methuen and Com- pany, 1913. Pp. 246. 35. 6d.
^ Cf. vol. i, p. 354.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 161
STUDIES IN THE MARVELLOUS, by Benjamin Putnam Kurtz. (The University of California Publications.) Berkeley : The University Press, 1910. Pp. 179. $2.00.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGIOUS SECTS. A Com- parison OF Types, by Henry Clay McComas. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Company, 1912. Pp. 235. $1.25.
TRUTH IN RELIGION. Studies in the Nature of Christian Certainty, by Dugald Macfadyen. London : Macmillan and Company, 1911. Pp. xiii., 303. 4s. Qd.
CHRISTIAN FAITH AND THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY. Evo- lution AND Recent Science as aids to Faith, by David Ambrose Murray. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Company, 1911. Pp. 384. $1.50.
EINFUHRUNG IN DIE RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE. Bei-
TRAGE ZU DER KRITISCHEN MeTHODENLEHRE DER ReLIGIONS-
wissENSCHAFT, von Ernst Pariser. Halle : Max Niemayer, 1914. Pp. v., 61. M. 1.50.
RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE UND APOLOGETIK, von Emil Pfennigsdorf. Leipzig : Andreas Deichert, 1912. Pp. 96. M. 2.
'CHRISTIAN PSYCHOLOGY, by James Stalker. (The James Sprunt Lectures, 1914.) London : Hodder and Stoughton, . [2nd edition], 1915. Pp. 282. 55.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CHRISTIAN SOUL, by George Steven. (The Cunningham Lectures, 1911.) London : Hodder and Stoughton, 1911. Pp. viii., 304. 65.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE. A Con- tribution TO THE Scientific Study of Christian Ex- perience AND Character, by Horace Emory Warner. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Company, 1910. Pp. 401. $1.50.
M
162 SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE, by Eric Strickland Waterhouse. London : Charles H. Kelly, 1913. Pp. viii., 119. l5.
DAS PROGRAMM DER RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE, von Roland Wielandt. Tubingen : J. C. B. Molir, 1910. Pp. 40. Pf. 80.
AUFGABE UND BEDEUTUNG DER RELIGIONSPSYCHO- LOGIE, von Georg Wobbermin. Berlin : Protestantischer Schriftenvertrieb, 1910. Pp. 19. Pf. 60.
ZUM STREIT UM DIE RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE, von
Georg Wobbermin. Berlin : Protestantischer Schriften- vertrieb, 1913. Pp. XV., 91. M. 2.
ELEMENTE DER VOLKERPSYCHOLOGIE. Grundlinien
EINER PSYCHOLOGISCHEN ENTWICKLUNaSGESCHICHTE DER
Menschheit, von Wilhelm Wundt. Leipzig : Alfred Kroner, [2nd edition], 1912. Pp. xii., 523. M. 12. Vide supra, pp. 106 f.
THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
The goal of each of the seven sciences, already considered, is a different one. The primary quest of each of them is individual, specific, and differentiable from that of any of the others.
Nevertheless, these sciences have much in common. They all employ the historical method of research and verification. They all employ the comparative method of inquiry .^ More- over,— and this point is directly material to the present discussion — they all engage, more or less, in investigations which throw light upon religion. At the same time, not one of them concentrates its attention upon the facts of religion. Data of that sort, whenever obtainable, are valued indeed very highly, and are sure to be placed upon record ; the debt incurred by students of religion to each of these subsidiary sciences is already large, and it is steadily increasing. Nevertheless if, by some miracle, every vestige of religion were suddenly to disappear from the universe, — if, indeed, religion had never come into existence — these sciences would pursue, with unabated diligence, their respective lines of research. They would make no complaint because their domain had become (or had always been), in so far, circum- scribed ; and they would continue their present quests without any visible diminution of interest.
There is, however, one department of study, pursued in accordance with the historical — and, until recently, with the aid also of the comparative — method, wherein the facts of religion are the only facts that are perseveringly and syste- matically sought for. This branch of inquiry is designated ' The History of Keligions '. By it, details of information bearing upon religious ritual, statements embodying the
1 Vide infra, pp. 329 f. M2
164 . THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
substance of some oral or written belief, facts associated with a sacred place or a sacred person or a sacred book, constitute data which it unceasingly accumulates and which it records with scrupulous care. Moreover, for it, every such item is of value, — be it relatively trivial or important, crude or refined, puzzling or suggestive, a mere echo out of the dim past or a significant contemporary act that evokes the profoundest reverence — provided only that it springs from, and points to, a religious impulse in man. Accordingly, every such occur- rence— every indication of the existence of that subtle factor in man which, universally and persistently, has manifested itself under an infinite variety of forms — is accurately chron- icled, together with such proofs as serve to furnish it with its fitting and sufficient credentials.
The study of the History of Religions, it need scarcely be said, represents a huge undertaking ; and it is a splendid proof of courage that any individual scholar, especially to- day, should attempt to prepare a competent manual em- bodying the results of up-to-date research in that field.^ It is, however, more in accordance with our present purpose to point out that the study of the History of Religions consti- tutes the uppermost and final course in those broad and deep foundations upon which modern Comparative Religion rests. The measure of indebtedness which Comparative Religion owes to it can scarcely be exaggerated. Of all the ' avenues of approach ' specified in the present volume, the History of Religions is the chief. It is from this source that Com- parative Religion daily derives support. The History of Religions is a stepping-stone with which Comparative Religion is quite unable to dispense. It is not only a means to the end which Comparative Religion has in view, but it is an absolutely imperative means to that end. No matter how much assistance Comparative Religion may obtain through other kindred channels, it would instantly become bereft of its most valuable tributory if it were cut off from the constant help it receives from students of the History of
^ Vide infra, pp. 1G8 f.
THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS 165
Religions. A reliable historical basis is absolutely essential to the uprearing and stability of this additional and most complex science. Anthropology, Ethnology, Sociology, and the rest, are extremely useful auxiliaries ; the History of Religions is a sine qua non. It has yielded the student of Comparative Religion larger results, richer results, and more direct results than any of the others. It has yielded larger, richer, and more direct results than all the other seven put together. Under the historical search-light, — and no religion can be understood, and accurately expounded, except through a knowledge of its history — Comparative Religion has become able to interpret, with a steadily growing confidence, the likenesses which link together the religions belonging to a given racial group, and likewise the differences which set these and all other religions apart from one another. It has become able to disclose many undreamed-of parallelisms ; but, at the same time, it rapidly disintegrates those specious analogies which appeal strongly to the imagination, yet which are plausible only to those whom they deceive and mislead. It will be shown, presently, that it is owing to a study of the History of Religions that scholars have not only been furnished with a practically exhaustless store of the very information most needed, but have been enabled to make that transition into Comparative Religion v/hich has already been accomplished.^ It was in the History of Re- ligions that Comparative Religion found its initial material ; it is from the same source that it first derived, and still derives, its impulse.
The volumes which belong to this eighth category, the History of Religions, have been written of course for students working in that particular department. Save in a very few instances, ^ they make little or no pretence to be concerned with the needs of students of Comparative Religion ; and, in some at least of the cases just referred to,
* Vide infra, pp. 325 f.
2 C/., e. g, Alfred S. Geden, Studies in the Religions of the East : vide infra, pp. 181 f.
166 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
the assistance that is afforded is meagre in the extreme. Nor need it surprise any one if the historian of rehgions presents his readers with Httle more than a bare chronicle ; it is not really his duty to do more than collect the relevant data. The acquisition of knowledge, rather than the critical comparison of such knowledge, is the task he formally undertakes. The matter of history, rather than the hidden relationships of the facts his record embraces, constitutes the burden of his quest. It is enough, therefore, if the His- tory of Religions reveals the actual career of various faiths, their points (if any) of historical contact, and the measure of capacity (or incapacity) they exhibit when each is con- fronted and tested by some grim revealing crisis.
The aim and legitimate scope of the History of Religions is satisfied when it gives us ' an account of the origin, de- velopment and characteristic features of all religions, from those of the lowest savage tribes to those of the most culti- vated nations.'^ In the prosecution of its task, it seeks to be rigidly scientific, and to admit no alleged ' fact ' into its growing depository until that fact has been properly certified. Nevertheless, its results need to be checked by a dispassionate, independent, and competent authority. Unwarranted conclusions must be pointed out, publicly discredited, and discarded. A subconscious bias, where it exists, must be remedied. Moreover, the work achieved by the historian of religions must be carried a step further. The History of Religions hitherto, in countless instances, — overlooking the circumstance that, in so doing, it is encroach- ing upon the domain of a totally different science — has itself attempted to discharge this function of review and impartial criticism. It has itself made many a formal application of the comparative method. There has arisen, in consequence, that confusion of boundaries between the History of Religions and Comparative Religion which still unhappily exists ; these two distinctive designations, indeed, are to-day fre-
* Cf. Philip Schaff, Theological Propcedeutic, p. 19. New York, 1892. [2nd edition, 1894.]
THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS 167
quently employed as if they were synonymous, and might therefore quite legitimately be interchanged.
As a matter of fact, the study of the History of Religions can aid Comparative Religion only up to a certain point. It can furnish the necessary historical data, but it cannot impart the insight and trained acuteness that will ensure the right employment of the materials thus obtained. ' The valid comparison of the faiths of mankind — not made by concen- trating attention upon their superficial features of likeness or unlikeness, but executed in a far deeper and more pene- trative way — is a task which not every scholar is competent to perform. Comparison, in so far as the historian is con- cerned, is a passing incident, a detail, a side-issue. With the student of Comparative Religion, on the other hand, it is his sole and supreme business. . . . The facts which the his- torian supplies require in due course to be interpreted, and they must be interpreted by one who thoroughly understands them. Such a teacher will be able to say with confidence what these facts mean, — not what they jprohaUy mean, but what they unquestionably mean, when one reads unerringly their actual and authentic significance.' ^
Inasmuch as the immediate inecursor (the necessary foundation, the logical starting-point, the portico or vesti- bule) of Comparative Religion has now to be dealt with, it will be necessary to mention and appraise a considerably larger number of publications than seemed necessary under any previous heading. At the same time, the present survey is of course concerned only indirectly with the History of Religions. Of the varied sources of that study, — whether epigraphical and monumental, hagiographical (the sacred books of different religions), legendary and mythical, or incidental and collateral ^ — one cannot here pause to speak. Of the many benefits which it is capable of supplying, — its value as a science, its practical utility for missionary
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope, pp. 12-13. London, 1908.
2 Cf. William F. Warren, The Beligions of the World and the World-Religion, pp. 12 f. : I'ide infra, pp. 200 f.
168 ■ THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
propagandists of literally every name, the assistance it un- consciously lends to the defenders of Christianity, the larger outlook it affords — nothing can now be said. The present survey is concerned directly, and solely, with the relationship' in which the History of Religions stands joined to Compara- tive Religion. No attempt will be made to include all the books which have recently been published in exposition of the History of Religions, or to do more than present a review of representative volumes. Even so, a goodly array of titles must be specified. The amount of space allotted to each book must therefore be curtailed, and the examination at- tempted must be limited exclusively to relevant and material details.
(a) GENERAL MANUALS
When recalling the most prominent books which have been published within the domain of the History of Religions during the last four years, it is fitting to begin with those which make a comprehensive survey of the entire field. In them w^e are furnished with a conspectus of modern know- ledge covering all the religions of the world. In most cases the summary with w^hich their authors respectively furnish us will be found to be adequate and satisfying ; in others it will seem unduly pruned and condensed ; but , in practi- cally every instance, the writer's aim has been to provide a bird's-eye view of all the necessary facts. During the period 1910-1914 an unusually large number of Manuals have been published. The quality of these books, moreover, is of a high order ; in one or two cases, indeed, the standard reached will not likely be surpassed for many years to come.
In several of these publications, differing widely as ih.Qj do in purpose and general effectiveness, there is discoverable one conspicuous defect. They are not marred by that blemish which largely destroyed the scientific value of M. Reinach's Manual,^ viz. a constant and unconcealed
^ Cf. Salomon Reinach, Orpheus : Histoire generate des religions. Paris, 1909.
THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS 169
feeling of antagonism towards Christianity, which was some- times alluded to in a tone that seemed to be embittered by scorn. The fault which must be charged against these later handbooks is a tendency to err in the opposite direction. Christianity, in the estimate of some of their authors, appears to be sacrosanct ; it is either exempted from review alto- gether, or it is so set apart from other religions that it is made to occupy a place separate and unique.^ This fact is significant, and should put the reader on his guard. The promoter of Comparative Religion, as long as he remains a student, will never so deal with the Christian faith ; as long as his comparisons retain any genuine value, he must never so deal with any faith.
Hence, though more up-to-date than many of their pre- decessors, some of these later Manuals have not kept pace with the march of events. In certain respects they are scarcely abreast of the more distinguished of the pioneers who went before them. Happily this description is wholly undeserved by the majority of the text-books whose titles are included in the list that follows. The splendid Manual which Professor Moore is now engaged in preparing does him infinite credit. It represents an immense forward- stride, and one for which the English-speaking world has been waiting with evident and growing impatience. Con- tinental students in this field have long been well served by Professor Chantepie de la Saussaye's magnificent handbook.^ That treatise, it is true, has thus far omitted all reference to Judaism and Christianity ; but this oversight is soon to be remedied. A revised edition, now in hand, is being edited by Professor Lehmann of the University of Lund, and may be expected during 1915-1916. To it, an extra volume is to be added ; and the new section will deal ex- clusively with Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism.
1 Vide infra, pp. 175 f., 184 f., 186 f., 369 f., etc.
2 Cf. Pierre D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lelirhuch der EeligionsgescMchte.
2 vols. Freiburg i/B, 1887-1889. [3rd edition, Tubingen, 1905. 4th edition,
3 vols. 1 71 preparation.']
170 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Professor Menzies, in his well-known handbook/ omits neither Judaism nor the Christian religion ; and Professor Moore is to follow this wise and broad-minded example.^ A frank discussion of the merits of Judaism and Christianity is simply imperative. The publication (and republication) of the three Manuals just named, not forgetting the special aid which Professor Soderblom and the late Professor von Orelli so opportunely rendered, must speedily impart to the study of the History of Religions, regarded as a domain of un- biased scientific inquiry, a vigorous and permanent im- pulse. That so lengthy an array of text-books should have been published within so brief a period is a very notable sign of the times, and a most hopeful augury for the future.
LES RELIGIONS. Etude histoeique et sociologique Du PHENOMENE KELiGiEux, par Henri Beuchat et M. Hollebecque. (Collection Athena.) Paris : Marcel Riviere et C^ 1910. Pp. xxv., 157. Fr, 2.50.
As its sub -title fairly suggests, this study of the reli- gions of the world is dominated by those conceptions for which M. Durkheim and his school stand sponsors.^ As Professor Jevons has given us a history of early religion * investigated on the principles and methods of Anthro- pology ',* so there is presented to us here a survey — similar in character but of considerably wider range — based on the prin- ciples and methods of Sociology. Readers must bear this fact in mind. At the same time, it is interesting to watch how the principles in question work themselves out in the course of a concrete and responsible inquiry.
In the judgement of the publishers and the authors, ' La
^ Cf. Allan Menzies, History of Religion : vide infra, pp. 187 f. - Cf. George F. Moore, History of Religions : vide infra, pp. 1 88 f . ^ Vide supra, pp. 62 f.
* Cf. Frank B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion, p. v. London, 1896. [6th edition, 1914.]
BEUCHAT ET HOLLEBECQUE, Les Religions 171
Science des Keligions est elle-meme une branche de la Sociologie Generale. . . . Le livre que nous publions sous ce titre Les Beligions a pour but d'expliquer, d'une maniere claire et precise, ce qu'est le phenomene religieux et la fonc- tion qu'il remplit a I'interieur de chaque societe. . . . Loin que I'individu explique la societe, la societe pourrait bien expliquer I'individu.^ . . . Une telle permanence [as religion] ne peut s'expliquer que par I'existence d'une realite partout sentie et traduite. Cette realite, c'est le phenomene social.' '^
Within the limitations of a necessarily rapid survey, this little book rather more than justifies the expectations which it raises. It consists of only five chapters. First, we have a brief section giving an account of the ' Distribution geo- graphique des principales religions qui existent actuellement'. Chapter ii, consisting of forty pages, is allotted to an ' Etude historique des religions ' ; here one is introduced succes- sively to the faiths found among uncivilized peoples, the Egyptian religion, the Chaldao-Assyrian religion, the Syrian and Phoenician religions, the religions of India and Persia (Vedism, Brahmanism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Mazdaism), the religions of China (Sinism, Confucianism, and Taoism), the religion of Japan (Shinto), the religions of Celts, Slavs, and Teutons, the Greek religion, the Eoman religion, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In each case, a brief list is given of the latest relevant literature.
Chapters iii and iv bring us to the most interesting portion of the book, wherein we get a taste of its individual quality. The former chapter, covering over thirty pages, is entitled ' Le Phenomene religieux: ses formes, sa nature'. It accepts as a fairly adequate definition of religion the one which M. Durkheim has framed, viz. ' Un ensemble de croyances et de pratiques communes a un groupe d'individus et relatives a des choses sacres.' ^ It then goes on to deal
1 Cf. p. xii. 2 cf. p. 135.
^ Cf. p. 84. It is only fair, however, to quote the authors when, on the preceding page, they remark : ' Nous pouvons nous rattacher d'une maniere generale et sous les reserves precedentes [cf. p. xvi. f.] a I'idee de M. Durk- heim sur la separation entre le sacre et le profane.
172 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
with the associations which gradually gather around sacred places, authorized beliefs, solemn rites, myths, and magic. Chapter iv is devoted to ' Le Fonctionnement d'une religion ', and deals successively with feasts, sacrifices, priesthoods, and the Church, the latter term being used in the general sense of ' une assemblee '.
Chapter v is assigned to ' Les Theories relatives au pheno- mene religieux '. The theologian is apt to find the origin of religion in an express divine revelation. The historical and philosophical student of the faiths of mankind directs his scrutiny rather to early mythology, and the growing claims of a not-too-scrupulous priesthood. Investigators of this latter type devote special study to those phenomena of reli- gion which become disclosed in the researches of Anthropo- logy, Ethnology, Archaeology, Philology, Psychology, and (in particular) the History of Religions. Each is led, in conse- quence, to adopt and defend a corresponding ' method ' of inquiry. The present authors have no hesitation in casting their vote on behalf of modern sociological interpretations. All the other methods serve, indeed, a useful purpose. ' Elles peuvent toutes fournir des faits ; mais ces faits ont besoin, a leur tour, d'etre classes suivant une discipline speciale qui est celle de la sociologie. Tandis que I'histoire, par exemple, se borne a reconstituer des series de faits qui se succedent dans le temps, la sociologie, sans se soucier de I'ordre du temps ni de I'espace, groupe des faits capables de rentrer sous une denomination commune. L'histoire etudie, en la situant, le developpement de telle ou telle religion particu- liere ; la sociologie recherche, a travers tous les etats religieux connus, ce qu'est, par exemple, un mythe, un rite, le sacri- fice, etc' 1
On the whole, this sketch is entitled to a place in the present section of this survey. It is merely a sketch ; it is often very one-sided ; and it is sure to provoke some re- joinders. The theory is still very far from being accepted that Totemism is ' la forme religieuse qui parait etre primi-
^ Cf. p. 135.
BEUCHAT ET HOLLEBECQUE, Les Beligions 173
tive ' .^ The relation of religion to magic ^ — Professor Jevons ^ and other British anthropologists notwithstanding — is very inaccurately defined by stating ' la premiere a un but eminem- ment social : I'autre ne poursuit qu'une fin individuelle.' * Nevertheless Les Beligions will repay those who read it with an alert and open mind.
THE WOKLD'S ALTAE STAIKS. Introductory Studies in the Beligions of the World, by Arthur Stanley Bishop. London : Eobert Culley, 1910. Pp. xii., 275. 3s. Qd.
Mr. Bishop's book puts forward no claim to be a Manual in the technical sense of that name. Its open type, its lack of footnotes, and its deliberate avoidance of some of the special difficulties of the subject, suggests that it is to be regarded rather as a preliminary historical guide of a very modest character.
The introductory chapter abundantly confirms this fore- cast. Nothing is really attempted save the presentation of an attractive and useful outline of ' the religious aspirations of the human race '.^ At the same time, the writer's survey is not only comprehensive and fair, but it is brought within conveniently restricted limits. Moreover, his mental apti- tude for such an undertaking is conspicuous and commend- able. ' In the childhood of the world ', he affirms, ' we may expect to find childish conceptions. . . . But whatever history reveals of the struggle for light, — marred by unclean and degrading ideas, discredited by impostures, as religion may be till the end of time — it must be steadily borne in mind that, if God operates in the world to-day according to the extent of our faculties, so has he operated in all the lifetime
^ Cf. p. 40. Vide supra, pp. 21, 29, etc. ' Vide supra, pp. 6 f., 23, etc.
^ Cf. Introduction, p. 40, and Comparative Religion, [Cambridge, 1913], pp. 49 f.
* Cf. p. 113. ' Cf. p. 13.
174: THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
of the race up to the highest Hmit of their power to receive the Truth, the Truth which makes men free.' ^
For a considerable number of.j^ears, Mr. Bishop was a Christian missionary in Ceylon ; it is not surprising, there- fore, that he reveals at once an intimate and accurate acquaintance with Buddhism and Hinduism. He possesses also, of course, a still closer familiarity with the temper and doctrines of Christianity, a fact which has led him occasion- ally to institute some very suggestive comparisons between these three representative faiths.
The writer gives us, in a few bold and vivid strokes, a series of excellent sketches of the greater religions of man- kind. Eecognizing that the anthropologist has not yet col- lected sufficient data upon which to base any authoritative pronouncement concerning primitive religion,- he has very little to say upon that controversial topic. His strength is concentrated upon providing brief descriptions, in their order, of (1) Turanian Religions, (2) Semitic Religions, and (3) Aryan Religions, with additional chapters on Modern Gnosticism and on Christianity.
Mr. Bishop rather surprises one by his retention of the term ' Turanian ', in the foregoing classification. No such family of religions exists. Notwithstanding the philological views held by Professor Max Miiller half a century ago — accepted in substance by the late Professor von Orelli, as if still legitimately applicable wdthin the sphere of religion ^ — we have no right to invent an omnibus-group of languages or religions, and then affirm that it includes all items of Asiatic origin which are neither Semitic nor Aryan. The name ' Turanian ' is clumsy, inexact, and even mis- leading ; it corresponds to no reality ; the product of a mere adventure of the imagination, the term is now generally aban- doned. It is to be regretted, further, that no account is given us by Mr. Bishop of the religions of Greece and Rome.
* Cf. p. 32. 2 yicIq supra, pp. 5 f.
^ Gf. Conrad von Orelli, AUgetneine Religionsgescliichtey pp. 31 f. : vide infra, pp. 191 f.
BISHOP, The World's Altar Stairs 175
The writer finds it difficult at times, it would seeru, to view the situation with absolute disinterestedness. He does not always take his bearings from a purely scientific standpoint. The chapter on ' The Hebrews V moreover, is distinctly disappointing ; it reveals, occasionally, an unexpected lack of sympathy and appreciation. Never- theless, Mr. Bishop has been successful in providing his readers with a truly excellent popular exposition of a very complex theme. The book will prove helpful and timely. The Appendices, including a brief Bibliography, are conveniently arranged, and increase greatly the value of the book for all who chance to consult it.
OU EN EST L'HISTOIKE DES EELIGIONS ? par Joseph Bricout, Directeur de la Bevue du ClergeFrancais, Paris. 2 vols. Paris : Letouzey et Ane, 1911-1912. Pp. 457 + 580. Fr. 12.
The elaborate work which M. Bricout recently edited is of a type quite different from the one which Mr. Bishop has. given us.2 It comprises over 1,000 pages of closely-printed matter. It owes its origin, not to a Protestant source, but to Eoman Catholic inspiration. It is written, not by one author, but by a selected group of writers. It views the situation, not from the standpoint of the ardent missionary, but from the platform of scholars who are experts in these studies.
The first volume, considerably the smaller of the two,, attempts to cover the major portion of the field. It em- braces a survey of Les Religions non-chretiennes, while volume ii is allotted to Juda'isme et Christianisme. A very few years ago, the publication of a work which ventured to associate Judaism and Christianity — even on manifestly restrictive terms — with the ' lesser ' religions of mankind ^•
^ Cf. pp. 102-19. " Vide supra, pp. 173 f.
^ Vide supra, p. 169.
176 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
could not have secured the official imprimatur of the Eoman CathoHc Church ; ^ but, happily, that day is now past. In the present instance, the Vicar- General of the Archdiocese of Paris stands sponsor for this comprehensive exposition. It may be that the aggressiveness of Protestantism in this field has compelled a serious response on the part of the Roman branch of the Christian faith ; ^ be that as it may, the activity of Jesuit scholars has of late been conspicuous in a department of research which they had previously been wont to neglect. The surprise originally occasioned by this departure has already ceased to exist ; nevertheless, one is glad to be supplied here with a formal enumeration of the reasons why Catholics should give themselves con amove to this study .^ But a genuine surprise, nevertheless, is awakened by this treatise ; if the editor of it is really un- fettered, alike externally and subjectively, how is it that, when he professes to survey dispassionately the age-long reign of multifarious human behefs, the space assigned to Christianity covers fully a third of the entire work ?
In fact, while this series of sketches — admirably fitted to serve as a source-book for general reference — is warmly to be commended, readers soon gather the impression that the inquiry was instituted under the impulse of a definite and inflexible purpose ! Such procedure is risky : yet it is upon this very ground of ' risk ' that, strange as it may appear, exception is taken by the editor to the now widely-current employment of the comparative method.^ Judged by its own standard, however, this treatise cannot be pronounced wholly blameless. What was the underlying motive which resulted in the publication of these volumes ? Their pages
^ Vide supra, p. 169.
' The relatively large number of manuals which have been prepared, during the last four years, by Roman Catholic writers is a very significant fact, well deserving of notice and emphasis.
3 Cf. pp. 40-46. Cf. the similar testimony of Cyril C. Martindale : vide infra, pp. 384-5; or of Herman Schell, Christies. Das Evangelium mid seini weltgeschichtliche Bedeutung. Mainz, 1906. [Translated, ' The New Ideals in the Gospel '. London, 1913.] * Cf. vol. i, p. 31.
BRICOUT, Oil en est VHistoire des Religions? 177
supply answer to this question. * Qui sait ? Demain peut- etre, le voeu de nos ennemis sera realise, et I'enseignement de I'Histoire des Eeligions deviendra, chez nous, universel et obligatoire. Nous ne devons pas nous laisser surprendre. Le monde catholique semble, enfin, avoir compris que I'etude des religions est pour nous, a I'heure presente, d'urgente necessite '.^
This is the radical defect of a work which, in many respects, is able and serviceable. It is an open question whether it ought not really to have been assigned to an entirely different category.'^ In the opening volume, in which the rehgions of non- Christians are dealt with, the individual leaning and limitations of the several writers seldom come into play. The doctrine of a primitive revelation is indeed frankly defended ; and it is added that ' cette revelation faite a la premiere humanite n'a pas ete oubliee entierement '.^ But when one advances into the second volume, the forecast of the editor is entirely fulfilled : ' II va sans dire que les rehgions juive et chretienne et I'histoire de I'Eglise catho- lique seront etudiees en detail, et occuperont, dans ce musee religieux, la place d'honneur qui leur revient '.* Ultimately we come to a chapter in which La Transcendance du Juddisme et du Christianisme is vigorously contended for, — although such an argument is wholly out of place in a strictly scientific survey. The genuine historian of rehgions never accepts responsibility for tabulating reasons why ' la superiorite de la religion d' Israel, du Christianisme, de I'Eglise catholique, n'est pas niable '.^
Of the numerous scholars whose collaboration the editor has secured, one may name MM. Bros, Capart, Dhorme, de la Vallee Poussin, Habert, and Carra de Vaux. A special feature of this work, moreover, is its extensive (yet dis- criminative) Bibliographies. One of these Usts is appended at the close of each chapter. It is a pity, however, that the omissions here are so numerous, and that no attempt is made
1 Cf. vol. i, p. 45. 2 Vide infra, pp. 369 f. =» Cf. vol. i, p. 50.
* Cf. vol. i, p. 46. ^ Cf. vol. ii, pp. 538-48. Vide infra, pp. 512 f.
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178 THE HISTORY OF EELIGIONS
to estimate the relative values of the authorities severally quoted. Non-Catholic books are much in evidence ; but (save as a useful catalogue for those who happen to be Protestant scholars) the disproportionately large citation of Catholic works is unfortunate. Another error that should have been avoided is the excessive reference to French authors. In this instance, however, an editorial explana- tion is furnished to the reader : ' Nous indiquons . . . de preference les travaux de langue fran^aise, qui interessent davantage la plupart de nos lecteurs '.^
INTRODUCTION A L'HISTOIRE DES RELIGIONS, par Rene Dussaud, Editeur de la Bevue de VHistoire des Beligions. (Bibliotheque Historique des Religions.) Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1914. Pp. vi., 292. Fr. 3.50.
MM. Rene Dussaud and Paul Alphandery , the accomplished editors of a well-known critical Bevue, have undertaken to supervise the publication of a new series of Handbooks dealing with the History of Religions. Three volumes have already been issued,^ and a fourth volume has been under- taken by Professor van Gennep of Neuchatel.
The general purpose of the editors is to lay before thought- ful readers, specially interested in this subject, a reliable conspectus of the results which scholarship has thus far attained. ' Nous demanderons aux specialistes qui menent la vaste enquete sur les institutions et les faits religieux de presenter eux-memes le fruit de leurs recherches '.^
A little further on, when emphasizing the strictly histori- cal character of the sketches which follow, the editors add this explanation : ' Cette bibliotheque historique des religions ne vise pas a supplanter les manuels comme ceux de M. Chantepie de la Saussaye et de M. Salomon Reinach.
' Cf. vol. i, p. 47.
^ Tomes ii and iii, entitled Precis de Vhistoire des religions (Paris, 1915), contain a translation of the Tiele-Soderblom Kompendium : vide infra, pp. 194 f. 3 cj^ p. iii.
DUSSAUD, Introduction a VHistoire des Religions 179
Nous ne nous attacherons pas a un expose complet, et nous chercherons plutot a traiter les questions actuelles dans la science. C'est surtout de I'histoire que nous nous proposons de faire : mais avec la preoccupation, soit dans 1' etude des croyances et de leurs formes systematisees que sont les mythologies, soit dans I'expose des rites oraux et manuels, d'elargir la base de la methode uniquement historique pour atteindre, en tenant compte des phenomenes analogues, une comprehension plus intime et plus continue '.^
The present volume inaugurates the series. It is intended * a orient er le lecteur dans F ensemble des croyances et des rites, a le placer immediatement au coeur des problemes essentiels, moins pour lui en fournir une solution que pour I'amener a les discuter par lui-meme en I'initiant a la methode comparative, tout en lui demandant de faire de cette derniere un emploi judicieux. ... II se tiendra a egale distance du rationalisme vulgaire et du mysticisme '.^
When one comes to examine the book itself, it seems to be open to the criticism which has greeted the volume Dr. Toy recently published.^ While the editors of this new series enter a warning against the abuse of the ethnographical method,* the writer of the present monograph fails to escape the pitfalls incident to an excessive use of the anthropological method. His opening chapter is entitled ' Naturisme, Ani- misme, Preanimisme ', and practically every sentence of it belongs to a discussion of Anthropology.^ The second chap- ter deals with Totemism, another distinctively anthropo- logical topic. Chapter iii expounds what the author holds to have been man's primitive conception of religion, viz. the principle of life {principe de vie),^ another theme
' Cf. p. iii. 2 Cf. p. iv.
^ Cf. Crawford H. Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions : vide infra, pp. 195 f.
* Cf. p. V. 5 Vide swpra, pp. 3 f.
® One finds outlined here a curious and debatable theory, hardly to have been expected in a book of this sort. Yet this speculative hypothesis under- lies the contents of the entire volume ! An historic science ought to be con- tent to confine itself to facts.
N2
180 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
of the same general class. The rest of the book may be said to belong, in the main, to Comparative Theology ; it seeks to formulate the early ideas of men of different races concerning the soul, deities, temples, sacrifices, prayer, rites of initiation, taboos, rites of the dead, moral con- ceptions, etc.
If this book had been called ' Discussions Preliminary to a Study of the History of Religions ', one could have found in it Httle or nothing to object to. On the contrary, regarded from this standpoint, it must in justice be pronounced an exceedingly useful Manual. For students of Comparative Religion, it will prove especially helpful ; the writer handles with conspicuous ease and discrimination an immense amount of lore derived from acquaintance with the religious usages of China, Egypt, Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and many other lands. In so far as M. Dussaud has aimed at securing a clearer and more reliable conception of religion in itself — ' I'enchainement et la complexity des faits religieux, et la valeur des rites essentiels ',^ — ^he has achieved a well- merited success. As the best available definition, based upon his laborious researches, the writer concludes that ' une religion est constitute par un ensemble organise de croyances et de rites qui se propose d'accroitre et de perpetuer le principe de vie de I'individu, du groupe et de la nature '. ^ On the other hand, if offered as a systematic hitroduction to the History of Religions, this book restricts itself far too much to purely auxiliary questions. When one closes the volume, he finds himself still standing outside the door of a structure within which he had hoped to be conducted, and thereafter permitted to secure a bird's-eye view of its numer- ous and fascinating treasures. A Handbook whose contents conformed more closely to its title would have proved most serviceable to those who, on the eve of entering upon a serious study of the religious beliefs of mankind, were anxious to gain a glance over the domain which they were presently to explore.
' Cf. p. V. ^ Cf. p. 290.
GEDEN, Studies in the Religions of the East 181
STUDIES IN THE KELIGIONS OF THE EAST, by Alfred Shenington Geden, Tutor in Hebrew and Biblical Literature at the Wesleyan College, Eichmond. (Uni- versity of London.) London : Charles H. Kelly, 1913. Pp. XV., 904. 12s.
In this large and scholarly tome. Professor Geden com- bines and amplifies the contents of two earHer and very useful volumes.^ All three books have grown out of the successive courses of lectures which, as Tutor at the Wesleyan College, the writer has been preparing and revising during the last two decades. Within that time, the accumula- tion of additional material has been almost overwhelming ; the author's own conceptions have undergone considerable change ; and the general attitude of believers in individual faiths has been immeasurably broadened. Hence the pre- sent book is really a new work, re-written and expanded throughout. Entirety new matter has been added in sections devoted to Shintoism, Confucianism, and Taoism.
The opening chapter deals with the origins of reHgion. Strictly speaking, this discussion — with its survey of Ani- mism, Fetishism, Totemism, etc. — belongs rather to a study of Anthropology 2 than to an exposition of the History of Eeligions. Dr. Geden, apparently, holds a different view ; he even groups the study of origins and Comparative KeUgion under a single heading ! ^ Yet, in one of his earher volumes — and here afresh* — he enters a vigorous protest against making Comparative Reh'gion ' a mere inquisition into origins, and primitive usage or beUef ; it is like judging of the perfect fruit by a dissection of the immature embryo '.^ It must frankly be said that, throughout an initial chapter
* Cf. Studies in Comparative Religion. London, 1898 ; and Studies in Eastern Eeligions. London, 1900. * Vide supra, pp. 3 f.
' Cf. p. 1. Indeed ' History of Religions ' and ' Comparative Religion ' are used as if they were identical in meaning. The former designation does not occur even once in the Index, whilst the latter is mentioned again and again.
* Cf. pp. viii, 4, etc. ' Cf. Studies in Comparative Religion, p. x.
182 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
which covers more than fifty pages, there seems to be a some- what indefinite perception of the boundaries of contiguous fields, and a consequent bkirring of the fines that keep them individually asunder.^ In 1898, Professor Geden was ready to apologize for adding ' another book to the rapidly growing literature of Comparative Religion, already abundantly furnished ivith handbooks and introductions ! ' ^ As a matter of fact, the first text-book of Comparative Religion Proper has yet to make its appearance.^
The faiths which are dealt with, each being critically examined in turn, are the Egyptian religion, Babylonian and Assyrian religion, Brahmanism and Hinduism (which are treated with special fullness),^ Buddhism,^ Jainism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, Zoroastrianism,^ and MuhammadanismJ It will be observed that — quite after the manner of Professor Chantepie de la Saussaye's Leh^- huch der Beligionsgeschichte ^ — neither Judaism nor Chris- tianity finds mention in this catalogue ; nevertheless, both are continually cited in these pages by way of com- parison or illustration. ' In the proportion and method of treatment, the decisive consideration . . . has been the comparative importance of each faith in human history, and its influence in the formation and edification of a moral and religious life.' ® If Judaism and Christianity have been omil ted, it is only because their inclusion would have neces- sitat ed the addition of a second volume, and would not really have secured much advantage beyond that wliich has been gained already.
Professor Geden's book is heartily welcome. In aim and literary style, it is emphatically a ' popular ' text-book. Notwithstanding its considerable bulk, it never loses its hold
^ Vide supra, pp. 37 and 164, and infra, pp. 510-11.
'^ Cf. Studies in Comparative Religion, p. viii.
3 Vide infra, p. 516. * Cf. pp. 185-431. '" Cf. pp. 432-593.
« Only 30 pages ! ' Cf. pp. 718-881.
^ It is elsewhere stated that in the fourth edition of the Lehrhuch der Be- ligionsgeschichte, now in course of preimration, this omission will be supplied : vide supra, pp. 109 and 189. ' Cf. p. viii.
GEDEN, Studies in the Religions of the East 183
upon the reader. At the same time, its footnotes, its brief BibHographies at the close of each chapter, and its Indices, add immensely to its effectiveness in the estimate of the more serious class of students. It will certainly lend impulse to the present widespread desire to gain a closer acquaintance with the varied faiths of mankind. It will inevitably widen the circle of those who are coming to appreciate, more and more, the * religious character and aspirations and needs of the peoples of the East '?■ It will lead not a few to discern * how much of living interest and importance is to be found ' in these religions, and to ' interpret with greater sympathy and insight the manifold endeavours of the human mind and heart to gain a knowledge of the truth '.^
DIE KELIGIONEN DES OEIENTS UND DIE ALTGEE- MANISCHE EELIGION, herausgegeben von Paul Hinneberg. Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, [2nd edition], 1913. Pp. X., 287. M. 8.
In Die Kultur der Gegenwart, as outlined in its Prospectus, provision was made for dealing amply with the Religions of mankind. Accordingly, in the first general division of that work, there stands a large volume devoted to the Christian religion ^ and a much smaller one allotted to the non-Chris- tian faiths.^ It is the latter of these two treatises which is to be dealt with here, and which is now introduced under an altered title.
The contents of this book are substantially the same as in the original edition. That is to say, the writers entrusted with the exposition of the beginnings of religion, primitive religion, the Egyptian religion, the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, Brahmanism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Lamaism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, etc., have not been changed. It would be hard indeed to enlist
^ Cf. p. xi.
^ Cf. Die christliche Religion, mit Einschluss der israelitisch-judischen Religion. Berlin, 1906.
' Cf. Die orientalischen Religionen. Berlin, 1906.
184 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
the services of critics more competent than Professors Leh- mann, Erman, Bezold, Oldenberg, Goldziher, De Groot, etc. Their essays, notwithstanding, have been revised and im- proved, and brought again quite up-to-date.
At the same time, two entirely new sections have been incorporated in the text. First, a well-proportioned dis- cussion entitled Die orientaliscJien Religionen in ihrem Einjiuss auf die europdische Kultur des Altertums has been contributed by M. Franz Cumont, while Die altgermanische Beligio7i is masterfully interpreted by Professor Andreas Heusler. These appended papers involve the addition of twenty pages to the size of the volume.
No comment is called for, especially at this late date, touching the merits of these successive and deeply interesting expositions. All of them are written with care, skill, and a finely discriminative judgement. Students of Comparative Religion should not fail to keep this volume within con- venient reach.
CHRISTUS. Manuel d'histoire des religions, par Joseph Huby, S.J., Professeur au Scolasticat d'Ore Place, Hastings. Paris : Gabriel Beauchesne et C^^, 1912. Pp. XX., 1,036. Fr. 7.
Another Manual, in origin and character almost identical with one which has already been examined,^ has recently appeared. Already it has passed into a revised and cor- rected edition. In size, it is much more compact than its predecessor ; printed upon thinner paper, it has been quite easy to bring its contents within a single volume. Its con- tributors, as before, are Roman Catholic speciaHsts in the study of religion. Professor Louis de la Vallee-Poussin writes for both publications, — in the former one upon Les Beligions de Vlnde,^ and in the present one upon Bouddhisme et Les Beligions de Vlnde.^ Monseigneur Le Roy discusses
^ Cf. Oil en est Vhistoire des religions ? : vide supra, pp. 175 f. * Cf. ibid., vol. i, pp. 229-88. ^ Cj. pp. 220-97.
HUBY, Christus 185
Les Populations de Culture inferieure} Professor Huby deals with La Beligion des Grecs,'^ Father Martindale treats of La Beligion des Bomains,^ while Father Condamin interprets La Beligion des Bahyloniens et des Assyriens.^ La Beligion des Chinois^ and Les Beligions du Japon^ are described respectively by M. Leon Wieger and M. Joseph Dahlmann, both of whom have served as missionaries in the foreign field. This earlier portion of the book is well done, and merits unstinted praise.
As in the case of M. Bricout's Manual, a very large section of the present work is reserved for an exposition of La Beligion d' Israel '^ and La Beligion chretienne? Indeed, the very title of the volume, and its frontispiece portrait of Christ, proclaim, that — hke its forerunner — it views the whole situation from the standpoint of ' the Christian Eehgion, and the Church in which it is incarnated and by which it is propagated '.
The general criticism which has been appHed to M. Bri- cout's undertaking — the recognition of its good quaUties, and equally the necessity of exercising caution when accept- ing its dicta — is no less valid in the case of M. Huby's useful book. The presentation it offers of Protestantism, while very inadequate, is not intentionally unfair ; nevertheless, it is the mistaken conception of men who view it — as, in the last analysis, one must view all alien faiths — from the out- side. The need of unsleeping vigilance when one is engaged in the study of rehgion receives here anew a very significant emphasis.
Bibliographies are suppHed, chapter by chapter. Of wide range and fairly full, they deserve cordial commendation. The citation of a great number of Eoman Catholic authori- ties was to have been expected, but it has been somewhat overdone ; in this respect, also, the exception taken to M. Bricout's work holds good.^
1 Cj. pp. 48-94. 2 Qj^ pp^ 298-349. =» CJ. pp. 350-406.
* Cf. pp. 501-40. ^ Cf. pp. 9&-120. ^ Cf. pp. 121-60.
' Cf. pp. 586-676. » Cf. pp. 677-1016. » Vide supra, pp. 177-8.
186 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, edited by Cyril Charlie Martindale, S.J. 5 vols. London : The Catholic Truth Society, 1910-1911. Pp. vii., 252, 248, 256, 256, and 248. 6s.
Mr. Martindale 's large undertaking has been carried to a successful completion. He happily secured the assistance of several British experts, and of French and German scholars as well. As regards his Continental helpers, we encounter names which appear and reappear in two of the publications which have previously been reviewed,^ e. g. de Grandmaison, de la Vallee-Poussin, J. Huby, etc. etc.
In many respects, these volumes closely resemble Christus ^ in their range and aim. In point of contents, the resem- blance sometimes amounts to identity ; for several portions of Mr. Martindale's work are admittedly mere translations of French or German originals.^ The two series cover, in a well- informed and attractive way, the whole field of the History of Religions. They make appeal, and very effective appeal, to the general reader ; at the same time, they embody with accuracy the leading facts which characterize and differen- tiate man's many and varied faiths. It is when inferences come to be drawn, and when questions of dogma arise, that one must stand instantly upon his guard. To most editors, for example, — unless in the case of a book intended for a purely Roman Catholic constituency — it would surely seem inadvisable to invite a Jesuit Father to furnish an account of Luiheranism * or Presbyterianism ! ^
Perhaps the most interesting chapter in these volumes — it is by far the longest of them all — is the one in which the editor himself expounds The Cults and Christianity. Inas- much, however, as separate treatment must be accorded to
^ Vide supra, pp. 175 f. and 184 f. ^ yj^^ supra, pp. 184 f.
' Cf. Christus, chapter i, with Lectures, vol. i, chapter i ; Christus, chapter iii, with Lectures, vol. i, chapter ii ; Christus, chapter iv, with Lectures, vol. v, chapter ii ; etc. etc.
* C/. vol. iv, pp. 97-129. = CJ. vol. iv, pp. lGl-93.
MARTINDALE, The Historu of Religions 187
this paper elsewhere,^ reference to it may fittingly be post- poned meanwhile.
The Bibliography appended to each chapter is compre- hensive, and (on the whole) well selected. A good Index has been supplied in the closing volume.
HISTOEY OF EELIGION. A Sketch of Primitive Eeligious Beliefs and Practices, and the Origin AND Character of the Great Systems, by Allan Menzies, Professor of Biblical Criticism in the University of St. Andrews. London : John Murray, [4th edition], 1911. Pp. xvii., 440. 5s.
Professor Menzies's book still holds the high place it im- mediately won for itself just twenty years ago.^ In the interval, it has frequently been reprinted ; but it has also, more than once, been carefully revised. In the fourth edition, recently issued, quite a number of changes have been introduced. Although for the most part these alterations are brief and slight, they are by no means to be accounted immaterial. With the additions made to the successive groups of Bibliographies, the exposition of the subject has now been brought thoroughly up-to-date.
The introductory portion of this Manual, deaHng with ' The Eehgion of the Early World ', has often been com- mended ; in its latest form, it is more than ever worthy of praise. Neither Judaism nor Christianity has been omitted from the survey.^ The volume, as a whole, is excellent. Prior to the appearance of Professor Moore's great work,^ it was everywhere admitted to be by far the best handbook which English-speaking students possessed ; notwithstand- ing the advent of its rival, it has manifestly entered upon a new and vigorous lease of life.
^ Vide infra, pp. 383 f. ^ The first edition appeared in 1895.
3 Vide suprg., pp. 169, 175, etc. * Vide infra, pp. 188 f.
188 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
^ HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, by George Foot Moore, Pro- fessor of the History of Religion in Harvard University. (The International Theological Library.) 2 vols. Edin- burgh : T. and T. Clark, 1914- . In progress. Vol. i, pp. xiv., 637. 125.
Only the first volume of this exposition, eagerly awaited for some years past, has been published thus far. Its succes- sor will probably be ready toward the close of this year. The ground it covers includes the religions of China, Japan, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, India, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Vol. ii has been reserved for Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, ' three religions so intimately related in origin and history as to constitute a natural group '.^
Nothing so comprehensive in range, so firm in grasp, and so reHable in details, has hitherto been published in English. It is a book that has entailed immense labour on the part of even so competent and skilful a writer as Dr. Moore. Pro- fessor Chantepie de la Saussaye many years ago adjudged the task heavier than any single scholar should attempt, and accordingly he distributed the material that had to be dealt with amongst a group of selected experts ; only those who understand what Professor Moore has actually had to face can fully appreciate the splendid quaHty of the result he has achieved. The unity secured through the guidance of a single controlling hand helps to make up for the loss of that sharpness and emphasis which only a specialist (limiting himself to a narrow and deliberately contracted sphere) can hope to attain. ' Unifcy of method and of point of view, and the wider outlook gained by the comparative study of many religions, may perhaps to some extent offset the greater independence and authority obtained by colla- boration.' 2 Suffice it to say that, notwithstanding all drawbacks. Professor Moore has succeeded in weaving a fresh laurel for his own brow, while he has added distinction
' Cf. p. V. » (7/. p. X.
MOORE, History of Religions 189
to the already enviable status of American scholarship in an exacting field of research.
The author begins by stating that ' the plan of this work embraces only the religions of civihzed peoples. What are miscalled " primitive " reUgions are a subject by themselves/ demanding another method, and much too extensive to be incidentally dispatched in the prolegomena to a History of Keligions. Nor is an investigation of them necessary to our purpose ; the phenomena which occur in the higher religions as survivals are just as intelligible in Babylonia or in Greece as in Africa or Australia.' ^ Yet, even with this exclusion, it soon became evident to the writer that two volumes will prove barely sufficient to overtake adequately the com- mission which has been entrusted to him. The fourth edition of Professor Chantepie de la Saussaye's Lelirbuch is to be enlarged at an early date by the addition of a third volume.^ Vols, i and ii, revised throughout, are to be ready during 1915; vol. iii, made up of entirely new matter, will be devoted (as in the case of Professor Moore's second volume) to Israel, Christianity, and Islam, and may be expected in 1916.
Turning now to the treatise lying before us, the largest amount of space will be found to have been devoted to the Eeligions of Greece ; nearly one hundred and fifty pages are utilized for this purpose. Judged by the same criterion, the Eeligions of India stand next in the order of importance ; to them have been allotted over one hundred pages. It may be remarked in passing that Dr. Moore's method of consider- ing each country separately necessitates a certain amount of dupHcation, e. g. the Buddhism of China, the Buddhism of Japan, etc. ; but absolutely no scheme of classification, applied to a subject so multifarious and complex as the present one, can expect wholly to escape criticism, or to commend itself equally to those who regard it from different points of view. The Religions of China secure an apportion-
^ Vide supra, p. 6. ^ Cf. p. v.
' Vide supra, pp. 169 and 182.
190 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
ment of space amounting to almost eighty pages ; the remainder have to be content with about fifty pages each. Dr. Moore justifies his procedure by saying that, ' in the presentation of the several religions, the endeavour is made (as far as the somxes permit) to show their relation to race and physical environment and to national life and civiliza- tion, to trace their history, and to discover the causes of progress and decline and the influences that have affected them from without.' ^ This ethnological aspect of the study of religions is one of the special features of this Manual : * it has been the author's aim, without exaggeration, to bring into relief the individuality of the several religions, as it expresses itself in their history '.^ As for the relatively greater space allotted to the Religions of Greece, it is ex- plained that there was abundant ' reason for fuller expo- sition : Christian, Jewish and Moslem theology are so largely in debt to Greek philosophy that these chapters lay the foundation for much of the second volume '.^
An Annotated Bibliography, in which brief and serviceable notes are associated with the titles of the volumes specified, is appended.* ' Books that belong strictly to the specialist are not included, nor (on the other hand) purely popular works, except a few by scholars of high authority. So far as possible, reference is made to books accessible in English. . . . References to foreign literature are confined, with one or two exceptions, to French and German.' ^ Here, as in the classification of the subject-matter of the volume, opinion must needs vary ; but, even in a quite summary statement of the relevant literature, many additional standard books might with advantage have been included.
The Index has been carefully compiled, and will be found most useful.^ Students of Comparative Religion will appre- ciate very fully the numerous cross-references it contains ; by this means, actual comparisons can be conducted much more rapidly and easily.
|
^ Cf. p. V. |
"^ Cf. p. vii. |
3 Cf. p. vi. |
|
* Cf. pp. 603-16. |
"> Cf. p. 603. |
« Cf. pp. 617-37. |
ORELLI, Allgemeine ReligionsgescJnchte 191
ALLGEMEINE EELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, von Conrad von Orelli, Professor der Theologie an der Universitat Basel. 2 vols. Bonn : A. Marcus und E. Weber, [2nd edition], 1911-1913. Pp. viii., 420 + viii., 478. M. 24.
The single-volume edition of this handbook by the late Professor von Orelli, issued by the same publishers in 1899, has been considerably improved by being brought up-to-date. Unfortunately, although its author was spared to complete the revision, he did not live to see more than the initial volume printed. His son. Dr. K. von Orelli, has well per- formed his filial task in seeing the second volume through the press. In its earlier form, the book was somewhat bulky ; it is now divided into two portions of convenient size and weight. The amount of subject-matter has not materially been increased.
Volume i deals with three great subdivisions of the subject. We have (1) the Turanische Gruppe, including the religion of the Chinese, the religions of Japan, etc. ; (2) the Hami- tische Familie, i. e. the religion of the Ancient Egyptians J and (3) the Semitische Familie, including (a) the religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians, (b) the religion of the Phoenicians, Canaanites, and Carthaginians, (c) the religion of the Aramaeans, Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites and Arabs, (d) the rehgion of Israel and the Semites, (e) Christi- anity, (/) Manichseism, (g) Mandaism and Qi) Islam. Volume ii deals, in its turn, with four additional main branches of the religions of mankind. There is (1) the Indogermanische Familie, embracing {a) Indian religions, including Vedic religion. Early Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Hin- duism ; (h) Parsism ; (c) Greek religion ; (d) Eoman religion ; (e) Celtic religion ; (/) Teutonic religion ; and (g) Slavonic religion. There comes, next, (2) the Afrika- nische Gruppe, including some account of African fetishism, and other primitive religious beliefs and practices ; (3) the
192 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Amerikanische Gruppe, including (a) the religion of the local Indian Races, (b) the religion of Mexico, and (c) the rehgion of Peru. Finally, we have (4) the Ozeanische Gruppe, in- cluding the religious behefs of the aborigines of (a) Australia and Tasmania, {b) Melanesia, (c) Micronesia, and (d) Poly- nesia.
This Manual is already so widely and favourably known that any detailed criticism of it now is quite uncalled for. It is well, however, to emphasize anew the fact that the writer's aim is somewhat different from that of the majority of authors presently at work in this field. While candid, and intent upon embodying the latest conclusions of experts, Professor von Orelli — like Professor Warren^ — especially keeps in view the needs of students of theology, pastors, missionaries, and other active propagandists of the Christian faith. Such readers will find in this treatise that countless sidelights are thrown upon the work to which they are earnestly devoting themselves. They will encounter, no doubt, some rather unwelcome surprises ; but, at the same time, they will gain unexpected insight into matters which, for them, are of the very highest moment. The practical bearing of the History of Rehgions upon Christian theology — ' Verhaltnis der allgemeinen Religionsgeschichte zur christlichen Theologie ' ^ — is dealt with in a worthy and competent manner. The section entitled ' Verhaltnis der Volkerreligionen zum Christentum ' ^ is also significant because of its standpoint and candour. Professor von Orelli rejected the theory that religions advance by evolutionary stages from lower to higher, and that the Christian faith merely represents the supreme product (thus far) of this natural and chronological process. In Christianity he found something for which purely human instrumentalities are quite unable to account, and against which all forces and strategies contend in vain. His exposition might indeed,
* Cf. William F. Warren, The Religions of the World and the World- Religion : vide infra, pp. 200 f.
* Cf. vol. i, pp. 19 f. » Cf. vol. ii, pp. 463 f.
ORELLI, AUgemeine Religionsgeschichte 193
from this point of view, be regarded as a treatise in Christian Apologetics ; ^ but its aim and contents, and its unquestion- able value in the domain of historical and scientific research, fully entitle it to inclusion under the heading to which it has here been assigned.
OVERSIKT AV ALLMANNA EELIGIONSHISTORIEN, av Nathan Soderblom, Professor vid Kungl. Universi- tetet i Uppsala.2 Stockholm : Hugo Geber, [2nd edition], 1914. Pp. viii., 202. Kr. 3.
Dr. Soderblom was greatly honoured in 1911 by being selected to become the first occupant of the newly-created chair for Religionsgeschichte in the University of Leipsic. He retained, at the same time, his post as professor of Teologiska Prsenotioner och Teologisk Encyklopedi in the University of Upsala, where he spent at least three months of each year among his Swedish students. But, whether living in Scandinavia or in Germany, his work in the interest of the History of Religions has been carried steadily and enthusiastically forward.
The text-book now under review, published originally in 1912, is of a somewhat elementary character. Such is its avowed purpose. Nevertheless, its very appearance is sig- nificant. This brief Survey of the General History of Beligioii was prepared at the instance of the Swedish Government, a decision having been reached that the subject was already of sufficient importance to warrant its introduction into the High Schools of the country. Is it not time that educational leaders in other lands should follow this excellent example ? But, although this book is very condensed and written admittedly for beginners, it is a truly wonderful compend ; even advanced scholars will find it very useful. The analysis it gives of relevant topics is all the more suggestive because
^ Vide infra, pp. 369 f.
* Appointed Archbishop of Upsala, and {ex officio) Pro- Chancellor of its University, in 1914.
O
194 THE mSTOKY OF RELIGIONS
of its very simplicity. Numerous well-selected illustrations are inserted in the text. No doubt, before very long, the book will be translated into English ; and — the sooner the better.
TIELE'S KOMPENDIUM DEE KELIGIONSGE- SCHICHTE, von Nathan Soderblom, Professor an der Universitat Upsala. Berlin : Theophil Biller, [4th edition], 1912. Pp. v., 564. M. 5.60.
Among the many tasks which Professor Soderblom has- undertaken in the interest of the History of Religions, few have won him sincerer gratitude than his revisions of tha late Professor Tiele's Outlines of this study. Appearing first in a Dutch edition,^ the book was translated in the following year into English.- Three years later, it was translated into- German,^ and then into French.^ At Dr. Tiele's suggestion,, and under his personal supervision, Professor Soderblom carefully revised and enlarged the text of the second German edition, incorporated in it a great deal of additional informa-^ tion, and brought it thoroughly up-to-date.^ Unfortunately Dr. Tiele passed away before the book issued from the press.
Not content with rendering this service. Dr. Soderblom recently published a further revision, being the fourth edition of this work presented to scholars in a German dress .. It need scarcely be said that the volume bears only a very remote likeness now to its Dutch original. It is no longer a translation, but is practically a new book, rewritten from cover to cover. There are nearly 150 pages more text than
^ Cf. Cornells P. Tlele, Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst tot aan de heer- schappij der Wereldgodsdiensten. Amsterdam, 187G.
, ^ Cf. Outlines of the History of Religion to the Spread of the Universal Religions. London, 1877. [7th edition, 1905.]
' Cf. Kompendimn der Religionsgeschichte. Berlin, 1880. [2nd edition,. Prenzlau, 1887.]
* Cf. Manuel de Vhistoire des religions de Tiele. Paris, 1880. [Latest edition, 1902-1903.]
^ Cf. Tiele's Kompendium der Religionsgeschichte. Breslau, 1903.
SODERBLOM, Kompendiwn der Beligionsgeschichte 195
are to be found in the third German edition, for the book contains matter which did not he within our knowledge a generation ago ; and its rearrangement — not less than its enlargement — reveals a truly marvellous advance. Instead of a single paragraph being allotted to Christianity, Dr. Soderblom sets apart a separate subdivision.^ Primitive religion, Hittite religion, Sufi religion, etc., receive likewise due recognition and examination. The contents now leave very little to be desired.
Soderhloms Kompendium is perhaps the best brief Manual of the History of Religions that has been placed thus far within the student's reach. Its Bibliographies are excellent, discriminating, and commendably full. Unfortunately for many, this handbook has not yet appeared in an English translation. When the day for that new advance arrives, it is urgently recommended that an Index be added. This desideratum is, in truth, an imperative necessity.
INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, by Crawford Howell Toy, Professor Emeritus of Harvard University. (Handbooks on the History of Religions.) Boston : Ginn and Company, 1913. Pp. xix., 639. S3.00.
Almost twenty years ago the first volume of this very valuable series of Handbooks edited by Professor Morris Jastrow was published in the United States.^ The second^ and third* volumes followed after brief intervals; the fifth ^
^ C/. pp. 490-530. It is to be regretted that the author here sometimes forgets that his task is the framing of an exposition by a dispassionate historian. Subjective interpretations, in a book of this sort, are not looked for ; and it can hardly be expected that they will prove welcome, or really helpful, to the majority of those who consult it.
' Cf. Edward W. Hopkins, The Religions of India. Boston, 1895.
' Cf. Morris Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. Boston, 1898.
* Cf. Pierre D, Chantepie de la Saussaye, The Religion of the Teutons. Boston, 1902.
° Cf. John P. Peters, The Religion of the Hebrews : vide infra, p. 299.
O 2
196 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
has just been issued ; it is its immediate predecessor — occupying the fourth place but really entitled to stand first in a strictly logical order — that we are now to examine. It is a useful book, and it is bound to receive a wide and verv sincere welcome.
Dr. Toy has served an apprenticeship, honourable and unusually prolonged, that has endowed him with special qualifications for the preparation of this volume. The post he formerly filled in Harvard University, and where he taught with authority for a period of thirty years, was the chair assigned to Hebrew and Oriental Languages. But his interests and his influence carried him into other spheres as well. Always keen as a philologist, his contributions to the field for which he now stands sponsor have been of long standing, invariably stimulative, and often of conspicuous worth. Moreover, it was he who, in 1891, secured the establishment at Harvard of that academic Club which ever since has devoted itself to research in the Historv of Religions. It was altogether fitting that, a couple of years ago, this fact should have been commemorated by the presentation to its founder of a notable tribute to which reference will elsewhere be made.^
The writer sets out by stating that ' the object of this volume is to describe the principal customs and ideas that underlie all public religion. . . . References to the higher religions are introduced for the purpose of illustrating lines of progress.' ^ The author's conception of his task has of course coloured his book throughout ; in the judgement of many, it will be deemed to have been a handicap. It has constrained him to include an immense amount of matter which belongs really to the domain of Anthropology.^ Thus, many chapters deal successively with such topics as Early Religious Ceremonies (used at births, deaths, burials, etc.), Early Cults (associated with animals, plants, mountains, waters, winds, etc.), Totemism and Taboo, Magic and
^ C/. Studies in the History of Religions : vide infra, pp. 310.
^ Cf. p. vii. 3 Yj^^Q supra, pp. 3 f., and pp. 179-80.
TOY, Introduction to the Histori/ of Belirjions 197
Divination, and other themes of a similar order. One finds here another proof, if additional proofs were needed, that the confines of the History of Eeligion — not less than those of Comparative Eeligion ^ — are still very imperfectly de- termined.
In chapters i and ii, Dr. Toy makes some admirable re- marks concerning the ' Nature of Eeligion ' and ' The Soul '. Chapter vi also, in which he gives an exposition of the varying conceptions of the gods of all races — Clan gods, Departmental gods, Nature gods, the Great gods of the nations (Egyptian, Hindu, Persian, Chinese, Japanese, Babylonian and Assyrian, Phoenician and Arabian, Hebrew, Greek, and Eoman) — is a veritable tour de force, and sum- marizes admirably (with copious references to authorities) the knowledge we at present possess on this wide and com- plex subject. The chapter oil ' Myths ' ^ classifies its material under a series of headings labelled respectively cosmogonic, ethnogonic, sociogonic, astronomical, procellar, and vege- tation groups.
The last three chapters are perhaps the best in the book. Chapter ix deals with ' The Higher Theistic Development ', under which Polytheism, Dualism, Monotheism, Pantheism, and Nontheistic Systems are successively expounded. Having shown that man's theistic conceptions have followed the general line of social development, and that ' there never has been a supernatural Power that has not reflected the moral ideas of its time and place ',^ Dr. Toy proceeds in chapter x to deal with the ' Social Development of Eeligion ', — its forms of external worship, its sacred places, its sacred books, etc. Under the heading of ' Priests ', — as also in the chapter on ' Gods ' already referred to,^ in the bibliography on Magic ^ and Folklore,^ and often elsewhere — students of Comparative Eeligion will find the conceptions of different faiths placed in convenient juxtaposition. The volume ends
1 Vide infra, pp. 330 and 509 f. ^ Cf. pp. 359-91.
3 Cf. p. 480. •' Cf. chapter vi. ^ Cf. pp. 594-5.
« Cf. pp. 597-9.
198 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
with a finely discriminative chapter on ' Scientific and Ethical Elements in Religious Systems '.
The Analytical Table of Contents, the Selected List of Books of Reference, and the Index deserve special commen- dation. The Bibliography is full and well up-to-date ; ^ moreover, its material is very competently classified ; but the author, wishing to indicate the gradual jirogress that investigators have made in the serious study of religion, has been led to adopt a chronological (instead of an alphabetical) order of arrangement, — a method which incurs considerable loss of time on the part of those who make use of this valuable addition to the handbook. An Index of Authors, covering both the ' Selected List ' and the footnotes with which the book abounds, would prove a most useful adjunct. The volume is perhaps a little repellent in its tone and general aspect. The subdivision of the text into numbered para- graphs, one thousand one hundred and seventy-three in all, may often prove convenient for purposes of reference, but it is needlessly pedantic and precise. Students will hardly take to this volume upon first acquaintance ; but, as a compen- dious Manual for classroom and library, it possesses qualities which ensure for it a wide circulation and the tribute of a genuine and growing esteem.
MANUALE DI STORIA DELLE RELIGIONI, di Nicola Turchi, formerly Professore di Rettorica delle Scuole della Propaganda Fide.'^ Torino : Fratelli Bocca, 1912. Pp. xxiv., 643. L. 6.
Still another book, emanating from Roman Catholic sources, is found in Don Nicola Turchi's Manuale. This is one of the more bulkv volumes in the ' Piccola Biblioteca di Scienze Moderne' ; but, although so recently issued, it has
^ A few curious oversights and errors, notwithstanding, have managed to creep in.
2 Now candidate for the post of Libero Docente di Storia delle Religioni in the University of Rome : vide supra, p. 57.
TUKCHI, Manuale di Stona delle Religioni 199
already been accorded a wide, sincere, and even grateful welcome. It is the first pitblication of its type that has appeared in Italy. Moreover, it carries the official impri- matur of the Koman Church. This fact somewhat restricts at times the scope and outlook of the book. Neither Judaism nor Christianity is included in the writer's survey ; ^ and this procedure is admittedly deliberate.^ Nevertheless, this handbook proves to be a very serviceable one, and is bound to accomplish useful and permanent results in the land of its birth. Many still remember this author's well- written Bollettino di Storia delle Religioni, which appeared in the opening volume of a now-defunct Italian review.^ We shall hear from him often again, if life and health are vouchsafed him.
One cannot but admire the courage of a youthful scholar who, in this twentieth century, deliberately faces the task of writing independently a Manual of the History of Re- ligions.* The preliminary equipment for executing such a feat, now more difficult to secure than ever, involves the pre- paration of a lifetime. Moreover, the literature with which such an author must make himself more or less acquainted is simply appalling in its bulk and multifarious variety. Don Turchi does not claim to be mor^ than a careful expositor, * un espositore diligente, che offrisce ai lettori il risultato degli studi intorno ai vari punti della complessa materia '.^ Nevertheless, all through his book, there may be found evidences of conspicuous competency for executing his task in a highly creditable w^ay. Another fact deserves to be chronicled. When the author had completed his work, but before he issued it to the public, he submitted its successive chapters to distinguished Italian specialists, and thus secured their examination and criticism of it in advance. Accord-
^ Vide supra, pp. 169, 175, 182, etc. ^ Cf. pp. x-xi.
^ Cf. Rivista storico-critica delle scienze teologiche, vol. i, pp. 845 f. Rome, 1905. [Ceased publication in 1910.]
* Cf. the similar, but maturer, undertakings of Professor Gedeu (vide supra, pp. 181 f.), Professor Menzies {vide supjra, pp. 187 f.). Professor Moore {vide supra, pp. 188 f.), etc. '" Cf. p. xiv.
200 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
ingly, while shouldering all the burden himself and accepting full responsibility for his conclusions, he has obtained for his readers the full benefit of timely and candid suggestions. In as far as he was able to do so, Don Turchi has made use of all available original sources. He writes : ' Questo io ho cercato di fare con la maggiore oculatezza, attingendo sempre alia letteratura migliore e rifacendomi tutte le volte che ho potuto, nel testo o nelle versioni, alle fonti ; ' ^ and the necessary references to the various treatises cited are added. In particular, this Manual is greatly to be commended because of its Bibliographies. These are given at the end of every chapter ; and they embrace, not only the standard authorities, but others which are much less widely known. Their value is greatly increased by the editorial comments •which accompany them. The writer drops a revealing remark when he says that the list makes no attempt to in- clude every relevant work, but embraces only those publica- tions which ' per mia esperienza personale ' ^ seemed worthy of mention. He adds that he has selected and named only those volumes which possess sterling worth, since younger scholars ought not to be troubled by an introduction to too many books, nor indeed to any authorities save the very best.
The promise made by Don Turchi that he will follow up this Manual by publishing the result of other extended inquiries of a kindred character ^ has awakened eager expectation in the minds of numerous readers.
THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD AND THE WORLD- RELIGION. An Outline for Personal and Class Use, by William Fairfield Warren, Professor of Religions and Religion in Boston University. New York : Eaton and Mains, 1911. Pp. xiv., 103. $1.00.
This admirable little handbook, while rightly included in the present list of Manuals, stands entirely apart from all
^ Cf. p. XV. ^ Cf. p. xvii.
WARREN, World Religions and the World-Religion 201
those which have thus far been mentioned. As its sub-title suggests, it is intended chiefly for employment in the Class- room. It provides no actual exposition of any of the reli- gions which it enumerates, but indicates rather the way in which, and the order in which, such expositions may best be attempted. It is made up of a series of outlines — it is a mere framework or skeleton of the subject — which instruc- tors (influenced by different ideals) will doubtless utilize in different ways. Nevertheless, it has been prepa:red by a teacher whose annual courses of lectures in this field date from as early as 1873. This book is emphatically prac- tical, alike in its aim and scope. At the back of it, one finds a number of blanks, prepared for the use of students ; and candidates are invited to find answers to the questions which there confront them, and then to pass on their filled- up blanks (say once a fortnight) to their tutor or professor. At the same time, the book is rigidly scientific in its method. Its general treatment of the whole subject will reward examination and study.
It must be added that the design of the writer is governed throughout by a consideration of capital importance. The formal ' Dedication ' of the volume reveals the fact that Professor Warren — quite after the manner of the late Pro- fessor von Orelli ^ — keeps ever in view the efficient equipment of Christian missionaries ; for he there recalls, in so many words, ' my beloved former pupils, now labouring on every continent to transfigure the Religions of the World into the one perfected and all-regnant World-Religion '.- Again : ' The standpoint of the present work is frankly that of Chris- tian theism.' ^ In accordance with this aspect of the author's conception of his task, — indicated with abundant clearness in the main title of his volume — the book ought perhaps to have been added to those which have been placed under the heading ' Apologetic Treatises '.^
Following upon a General Introduction (in which the
^ Vide supra, p. 192. ^ Cf. p. v.
Cf. p. xii. * Vide infra, pp. 309 f.
3
202 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
subject-matter of the study of religion, its auxiliary sciences, its attractiveness and perils, etc., are duly indicated), the book is divided into three principal sections. Part I deals with the religious phenomena of the world historicalhj con- sidered, i.e. the History of Religions. Part II deals with the religious phenomena of the world systematically con- sidered, i. e. Comparative Religion. Part III deals with the religious phenomena of the world j^^ii^osophically considered, i. e. the Philosophy of Religion. It w^ill be seen, therefore, that the scope of the book far exceeds the limits of a mere ' avenue of approach ' to Comparative Religion ; it embraces indeed that latter science itself, and (in addition) those philo- sophical discussions and criticisms which are essential to the ultimately completed structure of the Science of Religion. The abounding measure of its contents, however, only makes the book more valuable for the general purposes of this survey. Within its covers, the whole field of inquiry is carefully mapped out, its main and subordinate boundaries being clearly delineated.
Returning to Part I,^ which alone deals specifically with the History of Religions, the material accumulated — pre- sented purposely in the form of a series of sketches — is subdivided under three headings, viz. (1) The History of Particular Religions, (2) The History of Developments common to several Particular Religions, and (3) The History of Developments common to all Religions.
Under the first of these subdivisions are grouped (a) the religions known to the Ancient World (viz. those of the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, of the ancient Egyptians, of the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Canaanites, and pre- Islamic Arabians, of the ancient Persians and Medo-Persians, of the Pelasgians and Greeks, of the Etruscans and Romans, of Judaism and Christianity) ; (h) the principal religions known to the Mediaeval World (viz. Zoroastrianism, the religion of the Celtic Tribes, the religion of the Teutonic Tribes, the religion of the Slavic Tribes, the religion of the
^ Cf. pp. 21-43.
WARREN, World Beligions and the World-Religion 203
West Mongolians, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) ; and (c) the principal religions brought to light in Modern Times (viz. those of the West-Central and South African Tribes, of the American Indians, of the Pacific Islanders, of the East India Aborigines and Hindus, of the aboriginal and present populations of Farther India and of the islands of the Indian Ocean, of China, Japan, and Korea, and of the North and Central Asiatic Nomads. Also Judaism, Christianity, and Islam).
The particulars included by Dr. Warren under sub- divisions (2) and (3) need not be stated here. Nevertheless, the analyses he gives of these various ' Developments ' have evidently been framed very carefully, and at an immense expenditure of pains. The history of the rise and expansion of numerous faiths, their gradual absorption of (or by) sundry other faiths, the origin of multifarious rites and institutions, and the rise and progress of various practical religious tendencies, receive ample notice and examination in these pages.
While each of these helpful chapters has been compressed into the briefest possible space, — the Bibliographies might with advantage have been considerably expanded — the book, used with discrimination, will prove a real boon alike to professors and students. The volume contains the quintes- sence of wide experience, comprehensive knowledge, and systematic arrangement. A privately-published ' first draft ' of this treatise appeared in 1900 ; one of its Appendices, expository of ' A Quest of the Perfect Religion ', was pub- lished as early as 1886 ; but it has been w^ell worth while to re-issue these papers in their present compendious form. Many a course of lectures will no doubt be facilitated in preparation, and considerably enriched in contents, by suggestions obtained from this modest yet timely Manual. Dr. Warren has made many his debtors, both directly and indirectly, during his long career as academic ' guide, philo- sopher and friend ' ; this little handbook will lead yet others to hold him in similarly grateful regard.
204 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
ALLGEMEINE RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, von Alfred Jere- mias. (Evangelisch-tlieologische Bibliothek.) Leipzig : Quelle unci Meyer, [1915 ?]. Pp. [not yet published]. M. 4.
COLLEZIONE DI SCIENZA DELLE RELIGIONI. Roma : Guglielmo Quadrotta, 1914- . In 'progress. Vol. i, pp. xvi., 179 : L. 5. Vide infra, pp. 460 f.
RELIGIONSVETENSKAPEN, af Edvard Lehmann. (Re- ligionsvetenskapligt Bibliotek.) 3 vols. Stockholm : Hugo Geber, 1914- . In progress. Vol. i, pp. 200. Kr. 4.
(6) SPECIAL GROUPS
Besides those General Manuals which survey the entire world of religions, another set of publications contributing material most useful to students of Comparative Religion is found in volumes which supply an exposition of three or Jour {or more) selected faiths. It may be that the religions thus grouped together flourish side by side, and therefore to some extent necessarity act and react upon one another. It may be that they possess racial or philological or other historical affinities. Be that as it may, it seems fitting and convenient that these religions should be studied contemporaneously, and that a sketch of their history should be presented within the pages of a single volume.
We shall now, accordingly, direct attention to a series of books of this type. Only a few selections are made from a list of somewhat formidable dimensions, the volumes named being characterized by qualities of a distinctively scholarly order. Each religion, in a measure, is dealt with separately ; from that point of view, it might equally well have been included under ' Individual Religions '.^ But each religion is here estimated, also, in its relation to some other faith or faiths.
^ Vide infra, pp. 224 f.
BLISS, Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine 205
THE EELIGIONS OF MODEEN SYEIA AND PALES- TINE, by Frederick Jones Bliss, Dean for men in the University of Eochester. (The Bross Lectures, 1908.) New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. Pp. xiv., 354. $1.50.
The academic Fomidation which has provided us with this admirable course of lectures is admittedly somewhat rigid in its theological outlook. It was created with the express purpose of calling forth ' the best efforts of the highest talent, and the ripest scholarship of the world, to illustrate from science or any department of knowledge, and to demon- strate, the divine origin and authority of the Christian Scriptures '.^ It frankly aims at the establishment of the unquestioned pre-eminence of the Christian religion. ^ Never- theless, it has already produced quite a little library of broad-minded and helpful handbooks. The Christian faith has been interpreted afresh from new points of view, and certain aspects of its relationship to various other faiths have carefully and accurately been delineated. This new volume constitutes a real addition to a series which has become distinguished for its conspicuous merits.
' The many religions of Syria and Palestine ', as they exist to-day, is the subject which Dr. Bliss undertakes to expound. The theme was one that stood in need of competent treat- ment, and this volume was therefore emphatically called for. The writer, moreover, was peculiarly well-equipped for his task. He was born in Syria. He is an accomplished archaeologist. He is a good linguist. Long and familiar intercourse with the inhabitants of that special portion of the Turkish Empire with which he is here concerned, coupled with a scholar's eagerness to pursue and complete his quest, has rendered his enterprise more than ordinarily fruitful. He has collected most of his material at first-hand ; at the same time, the unpublished note-books of the late Professor
^ CJ. Tnist Deed. Chicago, 1890. « Vide infra, pp. 369 f.
206 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
S. I. Curtiss were placed at his disposal, and have freely been made use of, to the manifest advantage of author and reader alike.
In one respect, it must be confessed, the result is a little disappointing. A single volume — and it was within such rigidlv restrictive limits that the writer was confined — does not afford sufficient room within which to survey a region at once so wide and so diversified. Accordingly, the Jews, the Druses, and two or three other important groups have intentionally been reserved for a subsequent treatise.
Dr. Bliss concentrates attention, in his present book, upon (a) the Eastern Churches and (b) Islam. A closing chapter sketches with a rapid pen the changes which are gradually being wrought under the influence of Christian missions. Upon each of the foregoing main topics, the information supplied is abundant, reliable, and not easily obtainable elsewhere. Under the Eastern Churches, the writer deals successively with (1) The Holy Orthodox or Greek Church, (•2) The Old Syrian Church, (3) The Uniates (being fragments of various national Syrian Churches which recognize the rule of the Pope); (4) The Marionite Church, and (5) The Monasteries of Syria and Palestine. Under Islam, he has much to say that is pertinent concerning (1) Religious Observances, (2) Religious Orders, and (3) Social Customs.
As to the contact of modern Christian missionaries with these varied earlier faiths, suffice it to say that the student of Comparative Religion will find a great deal of serviceable matter in this terse and timely treatise. Dr. Bliss thinks that, in so far as Islam is concerned, no direct impression can be said to have been made as yet by Christian teaching, — ' except on a very few individuals, converted at different times and places, and having no coherence among them- selves.' ^ Although ' the spirit of Islam as it appears in the Koran might be said to be moderation ',2 although ' forcible
^ Cf. p. 314. Professor Macdonald takes a more optimistic view : vide infra, p. 272.
* Cf. David S. Margoliouth, The Early Development of Mohammedanism, p. 62 ; vide infra, pp. 274 f. . -
BLISS, Religions of Modern Sijria and Palestine 207
conversions to Islam appear to be against the express orders of the Prophet '/ and although the letter of the law which the Sublime Porte has imposed upon itself seems to provide ample protection for any one who gives up his former faith, Moslems who become Christians are practically compelled to take to flight .2 Otherwise, on some trumped-up charge, they quickly find themselves behind prison doors. Even their own relatives frequently turn against them, and make their existence simply unendurable. Professor Margoliouth admits that, w^hen we get down to the actual facts, ' the thirst . . . for infidel blood was [from the outset] encouraged rather than suppressed. Those who had to deal with the Prophet, or his immediate successors in Medinah, had to deal with an armed camp . . . and with physical force.' ^
LES RELIGIONS OEIENTALES DANS LE PAGANISME ROMAIN, par Franz Cumont, formerly Conservateur au Musee du Cinquantenaire, Bruxelles. (Conferences faites au College de France en 1905-1906.) Paris : Ernest Leroux, [2nd edition], 1909. Pp. xxii., 333. Fr. 5.
These lectures were originally published so long ago as 1907 ; but the recent appearance of an English translation * suggests the advisability of emphasizing afresh the impor- tance of a work which still retains the value and stimu- lating qualities it revealed when the press first gave it to the world.
In the interval, a later volume has come to us from Dr. Cumont 's pen, and one w^hich reveals in equal measure the knowledge and skill of this distinguished and painstaking scholar.^ In it he exhibits a characteristic fullness and
' Cf. ibid., p. 132.
^ Cf., on the other hand, Mr. Martin's opinion : vide infra, p. 216. ^ Cf. The Early Development of Mohammedanism, pp. 58-9. * Cf. The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganis7n. Chicago, 1911. ^ Cf. Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans : vide infra,. p. 224.
208 THE HISTORY OF EELIGIOXS
mastery of detail. He speaks with an easy contidenee and authority. The ilhistrative material, gathered from widely separated quarters, is wonderfully rich and complete. At once quickening our interest in an abstruse and sadly neglected theme, he discloses in a series of vivid sketches how the religions of Greece and Rome incurred a very considerable debt to Oriental astrology, how the Greeks in particular improved upon their Babylonian teachers, and how a new astral religious cult was gradually built up in Egypt and Syria. In this latter volume, however, — as in one of his earlier books ^ — the investigator concentrates attention for the most part upon one particular phase, one dominant factor, in the evolution of religious conceptions ; in the volume about to be examined, on the other hand, the outlook is immensely wider, and various centres of interest make a different and combined appeal.
Dr. Cumont furnishes a broad interpretation of the way in which various Oriental faiths were introduced into the Roman Empire, how they gradually influenced the local beliefs which they encountered, and how they ultimately prepared the way for the advent of Christianity. The narrative is unfolded in a rarely engaging manner. Hav- ing shown how a welter of discredited religions had made their home in the imperial capital, and how attempts had vainly been made there to crush or reconcile various antago- nistic elements in the resulting spiritual discord, he shows how the conviction steadily grew that the East — which was plainly able to teach Rome much in matters of law, science, art, literature, etc. — had something also to impart touching the domain and significance of religious institutions. In his fascinating second chapter, he deals with the topic, ' Why did the Oriental Religions so rapidly and successfully make their way ? ' He takes occasion at this point to show wherein the religions of the Orient differed, and differed essentially, from
* C/. Les Mysteres de Mithra. Paris, 1900. [3rd edition, completely re- vised and brought up-to-date, 1913. The 2nd edition, 1902, was translated into English : Chicago, 1903.]
CUMONT, Religions dans le Paganisme Rornain 209
those of the Occident. They addressed themselves to the senses, to the intelhgence, and to the conscience in a way that was entirely foreign to the official religion with which the Koman populace were familiar. They enkindled the hope of a future hfe. They appealed to the worshipper's individuality, and promised to meet and satisfy his personal spiritual needs. The old Koman religion was cold and formal, and it was observed chiefly in the interests of the State ; ^ the newer cults were instinct with life and warmth and sympathy. They were rich in ceremonial. The Mysteries they revered and maintained made subtle and continual appeal to the imagination, and to an innate reverence for the realities of a world, vague and unseen, of which but little was known. ' Compared with the ancient creeds, they [the Oriental religions] appear to have offered greater beauty of ritual, greater truth of doctrine, and a far superior morality. . . . The emotions excited by these religions, and the consolations offered, strongly attracted the women, — who were the most fervent and generous followers, and most passionate propagandists, of the religions of Isis and Cybele.' ^
It was about 100 b. c. that these Oriental religions began to make their influence felt within the Koman Empire. A century later, Christianity was born. At first, it repre- sented a movement so weak and despised that it secured little notice, and awakened no concern. By and by, how- ever, it incurred the enmity of many opponents. As it increased in strength, its struggle with its surrounding rivals became fiercer and fiercer, until the final overthrow of Paganism (so-called) occurred at the end of the fourth cen- tury. Chapter viii, dealing with ' The Transformation of Koman Paganism ', is especially noteworthy. It is unques- tionable that, as the strife progressed, Christianity did not disdain to adopt and adapt many of the beliefs which were rife among its opponents ; but Dr. Cumont is careful to show that Christianity did not borrow so much as some
' Vide infra, p. 213. ' C/. p. 44.
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210 THE HISTOEY OF EELIGIONS
mistakenly imagine. * Des ressemblances ', he says, ' ne supposent pas necessairement une imitation, et les simili- tudes d'idees ou de pratiques doivent souvent s'expliquer, en dehors de tout emprunt, par une communaute d'origine. . . . Certaines similitudes, dont s'etonnaient et s'indignaient les apologistes, cesseront de nous paraitre surprenantes quand nous apercevrons la source lointaine dont sont derives les canaux qui se reunissent a Kome '.^ In the end, however, Christianity triumphed ; and it triumphed because it was the superior faith. ' Christianity did not wake-into-being the religious sense, but it afforded that sense the fullest oppor- tunity of being satisfied ; and Paganism fell, not because it was sunken in sin and vice, but because the less perfect must give place to the more perfect. It had, by the expendi- ture of its own strength, laid out the paths by which it advanced until it lost itself amid the forces of Christianity ; and to recognize this fact is not to minimize the significance of Christianity. We are under no necessity of painting the heathen world unduly black ; the light of the Evangel streams into it brightly enough without this offset.' ^
It will be apparent, at a glance, that Dr. Cumont's book is a veritable mine of wealth for the student of Comparative Religion. The waxing and waning strength of various faiths, Christianity included, is delineated with a knowledge and sympathy of a very rare order. The amount of material placed within reach, and framed in a popular form, constitutes an invaluable possession. This volume recalls at points the somewhat similar treatise written by Dr. Glover ; ^ but the purely scientific attitude of the present writer is the more marked and persistent of the two. The notes which Dr. Cumont has added in the form of a substan- tial Appendix to his book are admirable, and increase greatly the debt of gratitude which all his readers owe him.
^ C/. pp. xiii and xviii. [In the English translation, pp. xvii, f.] 2 Cf. Emil Aust, Die Religion der Homer, p. 116. Miinster i/W., 1899. ^ Cf. Terrot R. Glover, The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Em-ptre. London, 1909.
DE GKOOT, Religion in China 211
KELIGION IN CHINA, by Jan J. M. De Groot, Professor of Sinology in the University of Berlin. (The American Lectures on the History of Keligions, 1910-1911.) New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912. Pp. xv., 327. .50.
To older scholars, the name of Dr. De Groot recalls very pleasantly his long association with the University of Leiden, and his diligent labours there as Professor of Ethnography. To-day, — and, until very recently. Professor Lehmann ^ and Archbishop Soderblom ^ were associated with him in this honour — his chair represents one of the fruits of that new departure in connexion with which the study of the History of Eeligions became incorporated in the official curriculum of the German Universities.^ At the University of Berlin, he is now quite at home ; and a group of ardent and ambi- tious researchers have already become enrolled among his disciples. All his investigations are concentrated upon a single theme. Of the rehgious instinct as it manifests itself among the Chinese, he is recognized to be one of the foremost interpreters. His magnum opus is well known.^ More recently he has published, on yet another American Foundation, a valuable series of discussions covering largely the same ground he traverses here.^
The sub-title of the present volume at once arrests one's attention : ' Universism : A Key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism.' Dr. De Groot does not indeed ignore Buddhism ; but, inasmuch as the latter faith was an im- portation and not an indigenous growth, it is relegated to a subordinate place. It enters later as an important element into the absorbent religious life of the Chinese people ; but,
* Vide infra, pp. 403 f .
* Vide supra, pp. 193, 194, and infra, pp. 404 f.
^ Cf. Jordan, articles in The Expository Times, vol. xxii, pp. 198-201, and vol. xxiv, pp. 136-9 : vide infra, p. 477.
* Cf. The Religious System of China. 6 vols. London, 1892-1910.
' Cf. The Religion of the Chinese. (The Hartford-Lamson Lectures, 1908.) New York, 1910.
P 2
212 THE HISTOKY OF RELIGIONS
in so far as the origins of native beliefs are concerned, Bud- dhism may safely be neglected.
As all are aware, Dr. De Groot invariably employs the term ' religion ' (not ' rehgions ') when discussing those spiritual impulses in man which have reached visible expression in China. His theory is fascinating because of its very sim- plicity. ' The fact is \ he says, ' that the three religions ^ are three branches, growing from a common stem that has existed from prehistoric times. This stem is the religion of the Universe,^ its parts and phenomena. This Universism, as I will henceforth call it, is the one religion of China.' ^ Universism, Professor De Groot maintains, was Taoism in its original form ; ' the two terms are synonymous '.* Its origin is unknown. It had no personal founder or founders, but grew up as a phase of animism. Primitive religion, in China, was really Nature Worship, the following of Tao, i. e. the Way of the Universe. ' In the age of Han, — two centuries before, and two after, the birth of Christ — the ancient stem divided itself into two branches, Taoism and Confucianism ; while, simultaneously, Buddhism was grafted upon it '.5 Taoism thereafter identified itself (ever more and more) with magic, while Confucianism became largely a ritual religion. Ultimately Confucianism became predomi- nant as the State Religion ; and it then took very rigorous measures to prevent either of its competitors from securing any position of paramount importance. As for Taoism, it was openly branded as a poisonous heresy.
Professor De Groot says in his Preface that the object of his book is to present his personal interpretation of that * primitive and fundamental element ' ^ which underlies the whole of Chinese religion and ethics. No one will wish to deny the wealth of learning, supported by copious refer- ences to classic texts, upon which the author's opinions rest. Nevertheless, when he adds : ' The writer confidently gives
^ Cf. William E. Soothill, The Three Religions of China : vide infra, pp. 218 f.
* That is, Taoism.
3 Cf. pp. 2-3. * Cf. p. 3. ^ Cf. p. 3. * Cf. p. V.
DE GROOT, Religion in China 213
this book as a Key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism ; no such Key has as yet been offered \^ he seems hkely in some quarters to fail to communicate his own strong con- victions to others. Some of the details of his theory are bound to awaken objections, and students will do well to read anew Dr. Legge's exposition, which has by no means been wholly superseded.^ Professor De Groot is inclined also to lay undue stress upon his view — elsewhere elaborated ^ — that the religion of China is essentially intolerant. Does not every religion manifest that spirit at times ?
In his restricted description of Buddhism, the author ably shows why its advent was generally welcomed ; it imparted colour and feeling to existing types of religion, and provided a vent for the emotions which had previously been either ignored or smothered.^ It may chance, as Professor De Groot believes, that it will be by the way of Buddhism — if at all — that Christianity will yet become the religion of the iChinese. The exact and patient study of Buddhism,^ there- fore, must occupy no secondary place in the investigations of those who wish to understand the past and present spiritual history of the inhabitants of the Chinese Empire.
THE FIVE GKEAT PHILOSOPHIES OF LIFE, by William De Witt Hyde, President of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine. New York : The Macmillan Com- pany, 1912. Pp. 296. $1.50.
This book is not perhaps, strictly speaking, one that should be included in the present list of carefully selected volumes ; for it belongs to the domain of Ethics rather than to a study
1 Cf. p. vi.
^ Cf. James Legge, The Religions of China. London, 1880. Cf., also, our latest British book, viz. Herbert A. Giles, Confiicianism and its Rivals : vide infra, p. 297.
' Cf. Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in Chin^i. 2 vols. Amster- dam, 1903-1904. ^ Vide supra, p. 209.
^ Cf. Fasuku Harada, The Faith of Japan (vide infra, pp. 244 f.) ; Giuseppe de Lorenzo, India e buddhismo antico {vide infra, pp. 258 f.) ; Timothy Richard, The New Testament of Higher Buddhism {vide infra, pp. 284 f.) ; etc.
214 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
of the History of Eeligions. Nevertheless, it should by no means be overlooked by students of Comparative Religion. It first appeared eleven years ago, when it bore a different title.^ In the interval, it has passed through several editions ; and now, revised and enlarged, it is plainly destined to live through many a year to come. Its author has written much, and he has always written well ; ^ but he has seldom brought within such narrow limits the pronouncements of so arrest- ing and stimulating a volume. His pages are often as chaste in expression as they are invitingly terse and piquant. They carry with them an atmosphere of American frankness and directness, coupled with that insight which is the reward of adequate and genuine scholarship.
President Hyde points out that, during the five centuries separating Socrates from Jesus, the ideal of life, entertained and taught by representative and trusted teachers, under- went five conspicuous changes. Hence arose the five philo- sophies which are now known as Epicureanism, Stoicism, Platonism, Aristotelianism, and Christianity. These several systems of thought — which are enumerated, it will be noted, not chronologically but in the order of their logical sequence — are elucidated in five successive chapters ; and the special interpretation given to each of them is sufficiently indi- cated in the following successive chapter-headings, viz. The Epicurean Pursuit of Pleasure, Stoic Self-control by Law, The Platonic Subordination of Lower to Higher, The Aristo- telian Sense of Proportion, and The Christian Spirit of Love. President Hyde, though making no attempt to disguise his Christian faith, is never chargeable with the offence of special pleading. Possibly it is because he is very sedulous to avoid this charge that his presentation of Christianity seems less hearty and effective than might have been antici- pated. However, he finds good in every one of the philo- sophies he expounds, and he is generous and emphatic in awarding praise wherever praise is due.
^ Cf. From Epicurus to Christ. A Study in the Principles of Personality. New York, 1904. - Cf. The Quest of the Best. New York, 1913.
MARTIN, Religious Teachers of the East 215
GREAT RELIGIOUS TEACHERS OF THE EAST, by Alfred Wilhelm Martin, Associate Leader of the Society for Ethical Culture of New York. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1911. Pp. x., 268. $1.25.
This slim and unpretentious book contains a selection of seven (out of a series of twelve) lectures, originally delivered as addresses at the Meeting House of the Society for Ethical Culture in New York during the year in which it was pub- lished. The topics with which it deals are (1) The Sacred Books of the East, (2) Gotama, (3) Zoroaster, (4) Confucius and Lao-Tze, (5) The Prophets of Israel, (6) Jesus, and (7) Mohammed.^
While claiming to be no more than a popular presentation of the life and work of the successive moral teachers whose careers it seeks to expound, this volume may be employed as a very serviceable introduction to the History of ReHgions. Moreover, it is written by one who quite plainly is not only interested in, but who is also intimately acquainted with, those inquiries which have resulted in the creation of the science of Comparative Religion.^ The author is firmly con- vinced that it is only by familiarizing oneself with the aims and achievements of the world's chief spiritual guides that any man can hope to estimate aright Jiis own religious beliefs and institutions.
As in President Hyde's book, already reviewed,^ the strong points of rehgions other than the writer's own are clearly and candidly explained. Their characteristic weaknesses, hkewise, are faithfully and powerfully delineated. There is evidently no desire to ' take sides ' with any one faith as against the others. On the contrary, a persistent endeavour is maintained to follow, in all cases, the dictates of the strictest impartiality.
^ Cf. Edward Russell Bernard, Great Moral Teachers. London, 1906. This is a kindred book, made up of eight lectures delivered in Salisbury Cathedral (1903-4), and embodies a candid examination of the teaching of Confucius, Gotama, Socrates, Epictetus, and Christ.
« Cf. p. 14. =* Vide supra, pp. 213 f.
216 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Nevertheless, the estimates of Jesus and Mohammed, arrived at by this author, are scarcely up to the standard of the other portraitures he has sketched for us. Like Dr. Hyde, Mr. Martin is least successful in what he writes concerning Christianity.^ Upon closer examination, it be- comes only too evident that Jesus is not dealt with in a full and adequate manner ; this chapter, indeed, proves to be an unexpected disappointment in a book which elsewhere exhibits in an unusual degree the endowments of insight and mental equilibrium. The lesser qualities in Christ's char- acter are specified and expounded in a really admirable way ; but those particulars in which he so often transcended his fellows are passed over, as though (even granting that they actually existed) they possessed no special significance. The alleged sinlessness of Christ, and his reputed resurrection from the grave — whether these doctrines are to be regarded as valid or otherwise — are dropped wholly out of view. Accordingly, it can scarcely be affirmed that the writer's attitude towards Jesus is as strictly impartial as it might have been, and as it certainly ought to have been.^ On the other hand, considerable rein has been given to a leaning that seeks to glorify the personality and work of Mohammed. The author certainly goes too far when he writes : ' Never has it been either the principle or the practice of Islam to convert people generally by forcible means.' ^ On a preceding page of this survey,* the testimony of Dr. Bliss has been quoted to show that, whatever the legal theory may be, the consequences of resisting Moslem pressure in matters of religion are likely to be prompt and disastrous. The actual history of Islam is the best corrective of Mr. Martin's faulty and misleading testimony.
No doubt chapter v will receive, as it deserves, the careful perusal of all who purchase this engaging little volume. It is, on the whole, the best chapter of the seven. It reveals
' Vide supra, p. 214.
^ Cf., from tho same pen, The Life of Jesus in the Light of the Higher Criticism. New York, 1913.
3 Cf. p. 259. " Vide supra, p. 207.
MARTIN, Religious Teachers of the East 217
a grasp of the situation, and a discernment of the meaning and value of the Jewish Prophets for the whole History of Eeligions, which are as rare as they are penetrative, stimu- lating and satisfying.
THE UNITY OF RELIGIONS. A Popular Discussion OF Ancient and Modern Beliefs, edited by John Herman Randall and J. Gardner Smith. New York: Thomas J. Crowell and Company, 1910. Pp. x., 362. $1.50.
One of the opening pages of this book discloses, as by a flashlight, its purpose and contents. It bears this significant inscription : ' To the Bible School of the Mount Morris Baptist Church [New York City], which stands for breadth of thought, freedom of conscience, and strength of character, this volume is dedicated, in the hope that it may help men and women to be more tolerant, more generous, and more kind, and that love to God and love to man may be the basis of every true faith.' ^
The twenty-two chapters which follow represent the sub- stance of a series of lectures. The discussions are unfortu- nately too brief to do full justice to their themes, and they are admittedly popular in their structure ; yet they are full of keen insight and are evidently the fruit of much serious study. This fact would have become more manifest if a good Index had been added ; unhappily, no register of any kind has been provided. These lectures were originally ' delivered on successive Sunday mornings, during the winter of 1909-1910 ',2 to the members of the Bible School to whom they have formally been dedicated ; and it is not at all surprising that, owing to the interest they awakened, they attracted a large, representative, and responsive body of hearers.
The topics embraced within a carefully drawn up scheme
^ Cf. p. V. « Cf. V. vii.
218 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
of study included (1) a conspectus of all the ancient religions, and (2) the various developments of the Christian rehgion under the forms of Roman Catholicism, Greek Orthodox Catholicism, Protestantism, Reformed Judaism, etc. The Lecturers, as multifarious as their themes, were drawn from the ranks of outstanding scholars, and included the late Professor George W. Knox, Professor A. V. WilUams Jack- son, President Francis Brown, Professor W. Adams Brown, Professor Arthur C. McGiffert, Rabbi Rudolph Grossman, Rabbi Joseph Silverman, Mr. Alfred W. Martin,^ etc. The series appropriately opens with a sketch of ' The Beginnings of Religion ', and closes with a forecast of ' The Religion of the Future '.
The general utility of this book, considered in itself, can scarcely be over-estimated. It meets a current demand, and it meets it exceedingly well. Moreover, it distinctly stimulates that demand. At the same time, it is bound to create a conscious and strong desire that skilled and prac- tised hands, competent for the task, shall now undertake the formulation of an effective comparison of these rehgions, — a comparison at once comprehensive, systematic, and searching — by which means their respective ' values ' shall authoritatively be determined, exhibited, and confirmed.
THE THREE RELIGIONS OF CHINA, by William Edward Soothill, President-Elect of the proposed Central-China University. (Edinburgh Missionary Continuation Lec- tures, delivered during the Board of Study's Vacation Course for Missionary Training, Oxford, 1912.) London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1913. Pp. xii., 324. 6s.
Although not a few British scholars have already traversed the ground covered by this book,^ no apology need be made for its appearance. It is marred unfortunately by occasional
* Vide supra, pp. 215 f.
* Cf. Joseph Edkins, Religion in China. London, 1878 ; James Legge,
SOOTHILL, The Three Religions of China 219
evidences of haste, but it reveals a definite purpose of its own. While admittedly popular and practical^ in its appeal, — ' the Lectures were prepared for students designated for work in China, and are therefore meant as an introduction to the three recognized religions of that country ' ^ — this treatise will be found to be thoroughly up-to-date, and fully informed touching the latest research in the wide field with which it deals. Accordingly, the author's hope is quite likely to be realized, viz. that this book, while of special value to beginners, may also prove a useful ' guide to those who are further advanced, and especially an incentive to a fuller inquiry than has hitherto been possible '.^
Following upon a comprehensive and very serviceable Introduction, the next three chapters are allotted succes- sively to Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The expo- sition will be found to follow lines and to lead to conclusions somewhat different from those favoured by Professor De Groot, the foremost expert interpreter of these ancient faiths.* President Soothill holds that Professor De Groot, ' in his presentation of the religions of the Chinese, has emphasized only one side of the evidence, and painted the stream as " dank and foul in its marshy cowl", while faihng to show that nevertheless there is a living current there all the time '.^ But President Soothill reaffirms, quite as strongly as Dr. De Groot, that the religion of that land springs from a primitive and prehistoric animism. He also insists that ' Confucius, Laocius and Buddha adopted and modified rehgious systems already ancient ; they were reformers [not originators] of religion ; and each of them stands for one side, and one side only, of those religions. In each case, they only partially succeeded in bringing about the reforms they desired. The
The Religions of China. London, 1880 ; and, quite recently, John Ross, The Original Religion of China. Edinburgh, 1909.
^ Reasons might easily be advanced in favour of placing this volume under the heading of Apologetic Treatises : vide infra, pp. 369 f.
* Cf. p. vii. ^ Cf. p. vii.
* Vide supra, pp. 211 f. » Cf. p. 14.
220 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS .
old native beliefs and practices refused to be shaken off; and, while the people adopted the name of the reformer, and many of his ideas became common property, in reality these were superimposed upon the old beliefs and practices rather than substituted for them '.^ In the end, however, an appreciable and important advance was accomplished by each of these religious pioneers.
Chapters v to x inclusive, constituting the main content of the book, deal with topics belonging to Comparative Theology, — such as the idea of God, man's relationship to God, moral ideals, sin and its consequences, cosmology, eschatology, etc. The sketches supplied under these head- ings are penetrative and timely. The two remaining chapters are allotted respectively to Public Religion (the official Cult), and Private Religion.
There is something in the tone and spirit of President Soothill's volume which is distinctly attractive and un- usually full of promise. Formerly (for thirty years) an aggressive Christian missionary in China, and ultimately appointed Principal of the Shansi Imperial University, the writer is thoroughly at home with his subject. He knows intimately the Empire, its people, its sacred classics, and its spiritual ideals and aspirations. Then hear what he says : ' There may be times when condemnation — and even ridicule and scorn — are justifiable as means of calling attention to, and destroying the foolish excesses of, religious superstition ; but ... a more effective method for establishing and ad- vancing the cause of right rehgion is to lay hold of the ex- cellent material which the sages and scholars of China have, through generations of faithful toil, so arduously gathered together.' ^ In a word. President Soothill is symjmthetic as well as discriminative ; and therein lies the supreme hope of effective missionary propaganda, not in China only, but in all the non-Christian countries of the world. Tliis wiser conception of the way in which every new religion ought to be preached is now rapidly spreading on every hand.
' Cf. pp. 8-9. ^ Cf. p. 15.
UNDERWOOD, The Religions of Eastern Asia 221
THE EELIGIONS OF EASTERN ASIA, by Horace Grant Underwood, American Missionary in Seoul, Korea. (The Charles F. Deems Lectureship, 1909.) New York : The Macmillan Company, 1910. Pp. ix., 267. S1.50.
Dr. Underwood has long been recognized as an authority upon all questions pertaining to the religious life of Korea. His opinions are influenced, no doubt, by his experiences and aims as a Christian missionary ; it is not possible that he should wholly disassociate himself from feelings and com- pulsions which are the inevitable consequences of his calling. Nevertheless, as a teacher and author, he has shown himself to be a man of excellent practical judgement. His acquain- tance with the East generally is intimate as well as extensive, and it has been gained at first hand during a long series of years. He speaks with frankness and freedom, and he writes with a rapid and incisive pen. If one cannot always endorse his fearlessly uttered conclusions, — his opinion, for example, that a pure monotheism was an outstanding feature of the faith of the Orient in primitive times,^ — ^it is ever a refresh- ing experience to encounter a thinker who knows his own mind, and who is not afraid to declare and vigorously support his convictions. Dr. Underwood is never concerned because his vote may link him with the minority.
The religions elucidated in this volume are five in number. The countries surveyed are China, Japan, and Korea ; and the religions associated respectively with these three lands are, of course, Taoism, Shintoism, and Shamanism. Accord- ingly, in the three opening lectures, attention is concentrated successively upon these ancient faiths. Thereafter, other two religions — Confucianism and Buddhism, each of which is found to exist in force in all three of the countries named — are singled out for discussion and scrutiny. It is important to remark that Dr. Underwood's estimate of Buddhism is very different from that of Dr. De Groot, already referred to.^ The former entertains an unmistakable dislike and distrust
^ Cf. p. 234. 2 Vide supra, pp. 211 f.
222 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
of Buddhism, whereas the latter sees in it the chief hope and a possible ally of Christianity. For some reason, Dr. Underwood is distinctly unfair in his criticisms. He does not hesitate to declare that the religion of Gotama is ' like the many-armed devil-fish — enveloping, embracing, and (in the end) digesting and annihilating all that it can grasp. . . . The great factor in the rapid development of Buddhism has been the chameleon-like nature of this system, which appears almost involuntarily to change its colour to suit the time and place in which it finds itself '.^
The sixth and final lecture is entitled ' A Comparison of the foregoing Theisms with that of the Old and New Testaments '. To it the student of Comparative Religion naturally turns with special eagerness ; but, it must frankly be said, he will fail to find there any evidence of a thorough or satisfactory analysis. On the contrary, he will soon get the impression that the issue is a foregone conclusion.^ The phraseology is not discriminative or evenly balanced, and the reader is liable (unless constantly upon his guard) to be misdirected and misled. If there is a genuine risk, as Dr. Underwood points out, that ' those who, seeing signs of an evolution in nature (and tracing also a sort of evolution in revelation) think it necessarily follows that there has been a similar evolution in the development of all religions, and (starting out with this preconceived conviction) they attempt to prove . . . that there has been a steady upward tendency which finally results in the highest form of theism ',^ he ought to have remembered that there is also the kindred risk that, starting out with a preconceived counter-conviction, the evidences of an actual evolution may illegitimately be ex- plained away. Holding persistently to the view that the earliest type of worship was monotheistic,* and that from this lofty standard man has invariably — save ' where there has been a God speaking to man, and giving a direct revela- tion of Himself ' ^ — tended to fall away, Dr. Underwood has
^ C/. p. 193. 2 y^-^g i^^j^^^ pp^ 369 f 3 (jf^ pp^ 231-2.
* Vide supra, p. 221, and infra, pp. 396-7. Vide infra, also, ]")p. 231-2. '' Cf. p. 233 : c/. also p. 246.
UNDERWOOD, The Religions of Eastern Asia 223
failed to discern that his whole outlook is in danger of being disastrously circumscribed. No one denies that arguments can be framed which lend support to this interpretation of religious history and of the religious consciousness in man ; and Dr. Underwood marshals these arguments with energy and skill. He does not hesitate to declare that ' sooner or later, the world will learn that rehgion is not a creature of civihzation, nor of evolution worked out by a gradually developing animal, but a matter of inspiration, and that " not of yourselves, it is the gift of God " '.^ Yet it ought not to be supposed that the evolutionary exposition of the History of Keligions is, in point of fact, the unsubstantial structure which Dr. Underwood imagines. In that case, it would never have gained the adherence of those who to-day conscientiously defend it, and who unquestionably include among their number the foremost exponents and promoters of the modern Science of Religion.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
THE ENVIRONMENT OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY, by
Samuel Angus. (Studies in Theology.) London : Duck- worth and Company, 1914. Pp xi., 240. 2s. Qd.
LES RELIGIONS DE L'INDE, par Auguste Earth. (The first volume of a collection of the CEuvres d^ Auguste Barth. Com- plete in 4 vols.) Paris : Ernest Leroux, [5th edition], 1914. (Popular re-issue, 5th edition, in English. London, 1914.) Pp. xii., 412. Fr. 10. [Volume ii is ready : vols, iii and iv are nearly ready.]
THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY. A Genetic Study of First Century Christianity in Relation to ITS Religious Environment, by Shirley Jackson Case. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1914. Pp. ix.,
385. $2.00.
' Cf. p. 236.
224 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
LES PROPHETES D'ISRAEL ET LES RELIGIONS DE L'ORIENT. EssAi sur les origines du monotheisme UNiVERSALiSTEj par Antonin Causse. Paris : Emile Nourry* 1913. Pp. 330. Fr. 7.50.
LES GRANDES RELIGIONS DE L'ORIENT. JStude popu- LAiRE DE CRITIQUE RELiGiEUSE, par Maurice Charvoz. Lugano : Gasa Editrice del Cwnohium, 1914. Pp. 36. 60c.
ASTROLOGY AND RELIGION AMONG THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, by Franz Cumont. (The American Lectures on the History of Religions, 1911-1912.) New York : G. P. Put- nam's Sons, 1912. Pp. xxvii., 208. $1.50.
L'IMPERO ROMANO E IL ORISTIANESIMO, Alfonso Manaresi. Torino : Fratelli Bocca, 1913. Pp. 600. L. 12.
ANCIENT INDIA. From the Earliest Times to the First Century a. d., by Edward James Rapson, Cambridge : The University Press, 1914. Pp. viii., 200. 3s.
THE RELIGIONS OF ANTIQUITY, by Charles Newton Scott. London : Smith, Elder and Company, [3rd edition], 1914. Pp. ix., 209. 2s.
LES CULTES ORIENTAUX, par Jules Toutain. (The second volume of Les Cultes fdiens dans VEmpire romain, 1907- . In 'progress.) Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1911. Pp.270. Fr. 6.
(c) INDIVIDUAL RELIGIONS
In addition to the valuable aid which the student of Com- parative Religion derives from General Manuals ^ and from scholarly expositions of Special Groups of Religions,^ atten- tion must next be directed to the high service rendered to him by competent interpretations of selected individual faiths » A catalogue of volumes of this type, published during the past four years, remains — even after deliberate curtailment — a fairly long list. At the same time, that fact supplies a singularly gratifying proof of the activity, acumen and
^ Vide supra, pp. 168 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 204 f.
INDIVIDUAL RELIGIONS 225
persistency of recent historical research within the domain of rehgion.
Comparatively few scholars to-day are willing to face the labour of wTiting a ' Manual ' of the History of Religions. It is quite true that Professor Moore ^ and Don Turchi '^ have not been deterred, notwithstanding the risks involved, from making such an experiment ; and they have conspicu- ously won success where many others have failed. But recent advances in the study of the History of Religions have been so rapid, and the literature of each faith (viewed wholly by itself) has become so extensive — and often so complicated and perplexing — that Professor Chantepie de la Saussaye^ and others strongly discourage any proposal by individual writers, however learned and skilful, to undertake this exacting task. The tendency to-day, on the contrary, is to carry the process of specialization a stage further. It is becoming the custom for a modern scholar to concentrate his investigations, not merely upon a single religion, but <quite frequently upon some deliberately-selected ' phase ' or ' aspect ' of that religion. In the following series of reviews, many illustrations of this latest attitude of research will be found often to recur.^
ROMAN STOICISM. The History of the Stoic Philo- sophy, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS DEVELOPMENT
WITHIN THE Roman Empire, by Edward Vernon Arnold, Professor of Latin in the University College of North Wales. Cambridge: The University Press, 1911. Pp.xi., 468. 105. 6^^.
Is Stoicism, strictly speaking, a religion ? Probably it is associated in most men's minds with a certain type of philo- sophy, either Greek or Roman, But it is emphatically a religious philosophy. It recognizes a God who, notwith-
^ Vide supra, pp. 188 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 198 f.
^ Vide supra, p. 188.
^ Vide infra, pp. 235 f., 254 f., 270 f., 274 f., 275 f., etc.
Q
226 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
standing all inherited pantheistic conceptions, is the con- trolling and unifying force which transcends and underlies everything that exists. Submission to the divine will may be said to have been the real kernel of Stoicism. Within recent years, much acute criticism has been applied to the study of this faith ; ^ and this revival of interest in its origin and meaning has been rewarded by our securing a firmer grasp upon the principles that ultimately explain it.
Concerning the introduction of Greek Stoicism into Eome, Dr. Fowler writes instructively in a work which will be noticed in a moment. ^ ' Destitute as the Eoman was both in regard to God and to Duty, he found in Stoicism an explana- tion of man's place in the universe, — an exj^lanation relating him directly to the Power manifesting itself therein, and de- riving from that relation a binding principle of conduct and duty. This should make the religious character of Stoicism at once apparent '.^ Mr. Lecky also adduces testimony that Stoicism ' became the true religion of the educated classes. It furnished the principles of virtue, coloured the noblest literature of the time, and guided all the develop- ments of moral enthusiasm '.^
Dr. Arnold restricts his survey to a delineation of Roman Stoicism. The account he gives of it is in an eminent degree scholarly and exhaustive, but it is also well adapted to the needs of the ordinary reader. The substance of these lectures, originally intended for classical students who were candidates for Honours in the Universit}^, was recast — and purposely popularized — before being thrown into its present printed form.
The writer — with Stein, Schmekel, Pearson, Hicks, and others — is disposed to accord a higher rank to Stoicism than Zeller and his immediate disciples were prepared to con- cede to it ; he regards Stoicism, ' shortly expressed, as the
^ Cf. Edwyn Bevan, Stoics and Sceptics : vide infra, p. 296.
^ Cf. W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People : vide infra, pp. 237 f. » Cf. ibid., p. 362.
* Cf. William E. H. Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. i, p. 225.. 2 vols. London, 18C9. [Xew edition, 1911.]
ARNOLD, Roman Stoicism 227
bridge between ancient and modern philosophical thought '.^ Students of Comparative Keligion will find in the opening and closing chapters of the book the material which is likely to make, to thein, the strongest and most fruitful appeal.^ The initial chapter is entitled ' The World-Religions '. The writer can do no more, of course, than present the barest sketch of his subject. Tracing the origins of Stoicism, he passes under chronological review Chaldaism, Persism (' the teaching of Zarathustra, as it affected the Greek and Latin world '), and Buddhism. By this pathway he arrives at length at Stoicism, of w^hich he records his opinion that, while it is ' in the first instance a philosophy . . . the philo- sophy which appealed most successfully to the judgement of men who played a leading part in the Roman world . . . as its acceptance becomes more general, it begins to assume all the features of a religion ' ^ . . . 'Its teachers are actively engaged in propagating its doctrines and guiding its disciples. Stoicism has, in short, the inward and out- ward characteristics of the other great movements we have described, and may claim without presumption to be reckoned amongst the world-religions '.^ The influence of Stoicism on both Judaism and Christianity are then briefly described.
The final chapter is labelled ' The Stoic Strain in Chris- tianity ', and constitutes a most interesting study. In one of his earlier pages, the author declares that, while Stoicism ' came into sharp conflict with Christianity on matters of outward observance, . . . from Stoic homes were drawn the most intelligent advocates of the newer faith '.^ Following up this remark. Professor Arnold proceeds to deal with the question of Christian origins. He begins with St. Paul's address on Mars Hill, wherein a quotation is made by the Apostle from the well-known Stoic poet Aratus ; and there- after he analyses, step by step, St. Paul's distinctive teaching.
^ Cf. p. vii.
^ Chapter x, also, is devoted expressly to ' Religion '.
3 Cf. pp. 2-3. ' Cf. p. 17. 5 Cf. p. 20.
Q 2
228 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Not all scholars will concede that the measure of influence which St. Paul derived from Stoicism was as great as the author believes. Dr. Arnold affirms that the Apostle ' is steeped in Stoic ways of thinking, which are continually asserting themselves in his teaching without being formally recognized by him as such '.^ Or again : ' Stoicism is some- thing more than . . . part of " the preparation of the Gospel " ; it may rather be regarded as forming an integral part of the Christian message. . . . The study of Stoicism is essential to the full understanding of the Christian religion '.^ At the same time, Dr. Arnold has rightly drawn attention to an element in the Apostle's thought, and in his public teaching, which the majority of scholars — theologians and non- theologians alike — strangely overlook. In declaring this verdict, the writer is supported by Dr. Rendall, — who declares that Stoicism, when ' dying, bequeathed no small part of its disciplines, its dogmas, and its phraseology to the Christianity by which it was ingathered '.^
An admirable Bibliography, a good General Index, and a Greek Index, bring to a close a very able and suggestive volume.
DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGION AND THOUGHT IN ANCIENT EGYPT, by James Henry Breasted, Pro- fessor of Egyptology and Oriental History in the University of Chicago. (The Morse Lectures, New York, 1912.) New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. Pp. xix., 379. SI .50.
Professor Breasted, as every one who knows him is aware, is pecuharly well-fitted to undertake the task to which he here addresses himself. He knows Egypt well, and our acquaintance with its ancient monuments and literature
' Cf. p. 414. 2 Cf. p. 435.
' Cf. Gerald H. Rendall, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus to Himself, p. xv. London, 1898.
BREASTED, Religion in Ancient Egijp 229
owes much to his laborious researches.^ Moreover, he pos- sesses in an enviable degree the gift of effective popular exposition.^
The substance of this book was utilized, in the first in- stance, to enkindle among the students of Union Theological Seminary, New York, a keener and more intelligent interest in a great and timely subject. This circumstance explains, incidentally, some of the notable defects of the volume, e. g., the omissions which cannot fail to surprise one. No reference is made to the importance and significance of Sacrifice. Again, ' the problem of origins — like that of the sacred animals, so prominent in Egypt ' ^ — has been omitted. But if a great variety of perplexities, inseparable from a study of Egyptian religion, remain practically untouched, it must not be forgotten that many of these questions are still unsolved. The author's continual handicap, however, lay in the conditions under which he had to write. To adopt his own words : ' I have been obliged to limit the discussion of this subject chiefly to mortuary ritual and observances. ... I have dealt chiefly with the Solar and Osirian faiths. ... I have taken those aspects of Egyptian religion and thought in which the development and expan- sion could be most clearly traced, — the endeavour being especially to determine the order and succession of those influences which determine the course and character of religious development '.*
In presenting a sketch of Egyptian religion in the making, — an initial attempt ' to trace from beginning to end, during a period of three thousand years, the leading categories of life, thought, and civilization as they successively made their mark on the religion, and disclosing how the religion was
^ Cf. Ancient Records of Egypt. 4 vols., with an additional index-volume. Chicago, 1906-1907.
^ Cf. A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. New York, 1906. [2nd edition, 1909. 2nd edition, revised, 1912.] A History of the Ancient Egyptians. (The Historical Series for Bible Students. Vol. V.) New York, 1908.
" Cf. p. ix. * Cf. pp. ix-x.
230 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
shaped by these influences and how it in its turn reacted on society ' ^ — Professor Breasted shows that Egyptian rehgion began in a Nature Worship, wherein the Sun and the Nile were the popular deities. Later, Re (the Sun-god) became the State god of Egypt, while Osiris (the Nile-god) became the outstanding deity amongst those held in reverence by the great mass of the people. The rivalry between these two cults can be demonstrated to have been existent in the very earliest times of which we have any knowledge ; and it survived every attempt at fusion or even co-operation. The rise of kingly pomp and power tended perceptibly to emphasize and reinforce this distinction ; for the ' Heaven ' of the Egyptian faith was at the outset reserved exclusively for those of royal birth and station. It was indeed in connexion with death, and the doctrine of a life after death, that the cleavage between the rulers and the people became more than ever pronounced. As a consequence, the Pyra- mids make their appearance ; and these colossal royal tombs became associated with an elaborate ritual, main- tained out of the revenues of a generous financial endowment. This fact leads, in turn, to a revolt against the pressure of social inequality ; and an ' Osirianization of the Hereafter ' ^ is the result. An Osirianization of the Pyramid Texts ^ also takes place, and Heaven is no longer regarded as the close preserve of a royal race. Thereafter, still another departure reveals itself in the emergence of a moral sense ; and this fact is of special significance for the student of the History of Religions. It was felt that man must possess genuine moral qualities, if he was to be accounted worthy to share in the bliss of Heaven's peace. Even kings were not exempted from this invariable requirement. ' That was a momentous step which regarded felicity after death as (in any measure) dependent upon the ethical quality of the dead man's earthly life ; and it must have been a deep and abiding moral consciousness which made even the divine Pharaoh (who was above the mandates of earthly govern-
1 Cf. p. ix. 2 Cf. pp. 142 f. 3 Vide supra, p. lU.
BREASTED, Religion in Ancient Egypt 231
ment) amenable to the celestial judge, and subject to moral requirements '.^ The effect may be discerned even in the Pyramid structures, which begin to be fewer in number and much less imposing in appearance. Henceforth, Heaven was conceived of as the blissful abode of the dead, however high or humble might have been their origin. The cult of Osiris received an immense impulse, and along with its revival there sprang up an increasing resort to magic. The Book of the Dead, which is for the most part ^ a description of magical charms and rites, was not long in appearing ; and a consequent deterioration in religion became inevitable. Happily, however, the creation of the Egyptian Empire (c. 1580 B.C.) led to the introduction of monotheism^ under the guise of establishing Aton (the Sun-god) as the sole god of the realm. This step was premature. It was embar- rassed by countless obstacles, and was clearly doomed to fail ; yet it was a move in the right direction, and its influence was never wholly evaded in the ages that followed. Meanwhile, the old order was restored. Amon, the former local god of Thebes, regained once more a place of paramount influence. ' By 1100 B.C., the Pharaoh had yielded the sceptre to the head of the State Church. . . . The sanctuaries of this age will always form one of the most imposing survivals from the ancient world. Not only in their grandeur as architecture, but also in their sumptuous equipment, these vast palaces of the gods lifted the external observances of religion to a plane of splendour and influence which they had never enjoyed before. Enthroned in magnificence which not even the sumptuous East had ever seen, Amon of Thebes became, in the hands of his crafty priesthood, a mere oracular source for political and administrative decisions '.* But, with the triumph of sacerdotalism, literalism and traditionalism
^ Cf. p. 177.
^ The Book of the Dead was ' not exclusively a magical vade mecum for use in the Hereafter ; for consider its elaboration of the ancient idea of the moral judgement, and its evident appreciation of the burden of conscience. The re- lation with God had become something more than merely the faithful observ- ance of external rites '. (p. 297.) 3 Vide supra, p. 222. ^ Cf, p. 364.
232 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
began to dominate the religious life of the people. The appeal was ever to the past, and religious sentiment was allowed to become a purely conventional commodity. ' In this process of conserving the old, the religion of Egypt sank deeper and deeper in decay, — to become, what Herodotus found it, a religion of innumerable external observances and mechanical usages, carried out with such elaborate and insistent punctiliousness that the Egyptians gained the reputation of being the most religious of all peoples. But such observances were no longer the expression of a growing and developing inner life, as in the days before the creative vitality of the race was extinct. ... In the days of the Greek kings, the Osirian faith finally submerged the vener- able Sun-god. . . . Osiris gained the supreme place, in the popular as well as in the State religion ; and through him the subterranean Hereafter, rather than the Sun-god's glorious celestial Kingdom of the Dead, passed over into the Eoman world '.1
Professor Breasted explicitly disavows any intention to * correlate the phenomena adduced with those of other religions ' ; ^ nevertheless, he supplies to our hand abundance of material for this fascinating undertaking. He enables us to effect one of the express aims of Comparative Religion, viz. to compare religious conceptions w^hich- — wholly apart from their existence or non-existence in different faiths — are found to be current within a single faith at different stages in its career. He traces with admirable skill, and in a most illuminative way, the gradual historical evolution of belief and dogma — during a period of 3,000 years ^ — in one of the most notable religions of the world.
Professor Breasted's book is a scholarly and valuable addition to the literature of the History of Religions ; but students of Comparative Religion, likewise, will do well not to ignore the assistance it is capable of rendering. The writer holds that a gradual advance from polytheism to monotheism can be traced in the development of religious
^ Cf. pp. 3G7-8. 2 Qf^ p_ ^^ 3 j/^-^g 5^^^,.^^ ^ 229.
BREASTED, Religion in Ancient Egypt 233
thought m Ancient Egypt. It is but fair to add that all historians of Egyptian religion do not endorse this opinion, a considerable number of them maintaining that the balance of evidence seems to point in an exactly opposite direction.
LA EELIGION ASSYRO-BABYLONIENNE, par Paul Dhorme, Professeur d'Assyrien a Saint-Etienne de Jerusalem. (Conferences donnees a I'lnstitut Catho- lique de Paris.) Paris : J. Gabalda et C'®, 1910. Pp. xi., 319. Fr. 3.50.
In comparison with the great work written by Professor Jastrow,^ these attractive lectures may seem at first sight to yield only a slight contribution to the subject with which they deal. In view, however, of their summary character, the audience to which they were addressed, and the particular aim which the writer had in view, they must be said to constitute a most useful and stimulating series of studies. They ought to be compared, rather, with Professor Jastrow's smaller work ; ^ for they attempt to sketch not so much the history as the gradual evolution of religious thought and institutions among the peoples to whom they refer.
Professor Dhorme, who is also ' un frere precheur ', has found time to translate and annotate a number of Assyrian and Babylonian texts.^ He contributed the section on Les Semites (moins les Arabes et les Hebreux) to one of the Manuals already noticed.^ He has written, also, a suggestive book dealing with the lands of the Bible and Assyria ; ^ in it,
^ Cf. Morris Jastrow, Die Religion Bahyloniens und Assyriens. 3 vols. Giessen, 1905-1912.
^ Cf. Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria : vide infra, pp. 254 f.
^ Cf. Choix de textes religieux assyro-babyloniens. Paris, 1907. Vide supra, pp. Ill f.
* Cf. Joseph Bricout, Ou en est Vhistoire des religions ?, vol. i, pp. 129 f. : vide supra, 175 f.
^ Cf. Les Pays hibliques et VAssyrie. Paris, 1912.
234 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
all allusions made in Assyrian literature to the Israelites in Egypt, in Palestine, in Syria, etc., will be found to have been traced and recorded.
The lectures in the present volume were originally deli- vered in 1909, and are nine in number. In their revised form, they have been amplified in various ways. An intro- ductory chapter describes briefly, yet competently, ' The Sources '. Then follow, in successive discussions, (1) The Conception of Divinity, (2) The Gods, (3) Gods and the City, (4) Gods and Kings, (5) Gods and Men, (6) The Moral Law, (7) Prayer and Sacrifice, and (8) The Priesthood. It will be seen that this volume throws light especially upon that department of Comparative Keligion which is denominated ' Comparative Theology ', many subdivisions of which are covered in the successive chapters of this treatise. Viewed in this way, its exposition of the topics to which it refers — in so far as such selected conceptions and beliefs can be illustrated by the customs of ancient Babylonia and Assyria — is eminently satisfactory.
It was a wise inspiration which led the publishers to include these lectures in that excellent series, ' Etudes palestiniennes et orientales ', to which Father Lagrange, Father Vincent, Father Schwalm and others have already contributed. Purposely passing by such subjects as mythology, magic, and divination, the author devotes himself to an elucidation of ' le fond meme de la psychologic religieuse, a savoir les idees sur la divinite et sur les rapports qui existent entre elle et le monde, les sentiments que font naitre ces idees dans le coeur de I'homme, les desirs de rendre plus etroites les relations entre I'humanite et les etres superieurs '.^ He seeks to lay bare ' I'essence de I'idee religieuse '. These are topics too often neglected, save in large and exhaustive works. Their exposition in the present instance is not only reliable, but the abundant citation of authorities makes the book exceedingly useful for those who wish to pursue this study further, and to consult the sources for themselves.
^ C/. pp. vii-viii.
FARNELL, Higher Aspects of Greek Religioti 235
THE HIGHER ASPECTS OF GREEK RELIGION, by Lewis Richard Farnell, Rector of Exeter College, Ox- ford. (The Hibbert Lectures, Second Series, 1911.) London: Williams and Norgate, 1912. Pp. vii., 155. 6s.
All students of the History of Religions greeted with an unmistakable welcome the announcement that the well- known Hibbert Lectures were to be resumed. The earlier series — inaugurated by Professor Max Miiller in 1878 and continued annually (with only two breaks, viz. in 1889 and 1890) until 1894 — provided a remarkably fine group of studies bearing upon the origin and growth of all the chief religions of the world. And, a second series of these scholarly discussions having been projected, an excellent selection was made when another Oxford teacher was invited to initiate this enterprise. Already four courses of Lectures have been delivered, and all four of them have been issued from the press.^
In Dr. Farnell's book there are but six lectures. They bear the following titles : (1) General Features and Origins of Greek Religion, (2) The Religious Bond and Morality of the Family, (3) Tribal and Civic Religion, (4) Influence of the Civic System of Religion upon Religious Thought, Morality and Law, (5) Expansion of Greek Religion beyond the Limits of the Polls, and (6) Personal Religion in Greece. The opening chapter presents an unusually broad and fair intro- ductory statement. Chapters iv to vi do for Greece, in a limited w^ay, what Professor Breasted has done more fully for Egypt ; ^ they lay bare the gradual changes wrought in a given religion by forces at work in its particular environ- ment. Moreover, Dr. Farnell is at special pains to discover and separate the ideas which were purely conventional
^ Cf. J. Hope Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism (1912) : vide infra, pp. 275 f. ; David S. Margoliouth, The Early Development of Mohammedanism (1913) : vide infra, pp. 274 f. ; and Herbert A. Giles, Confucianism and its Rivals : vide infra, p. 297. ^ Vide supra, pp. 228 f.
236 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
and mechanical from those which were vital and spiritual, — in order, subsequently, to set the former over against those more potent religious beliefs which governed the daily lives of the Greek people. The sixth lecture is specially to be commended, not only on account of its topic, but equally in view of the very lucid manner in which its theme is unfolded.
This volume, although it is comparatively a brief one, — printed in open-faced type and easily read in a couple of evenings — is bound to secure an honourable place among those numerous bulkier authorities by which it is at present surrounded. The writer, in his own quiet way, does not hesitate to hold and back his opinions against those of an opposite character, notwithstanding that the latter may be advanced by eminent international scholars ; his argument may not always be convincing, but it is invariably the fruit of sane and original thinking. Dr. Farnell is not a believer in the theory that Babylonian influence wrought any con- siderable modifications in Greek theolog}^ and practice ; ^ he sees the sources of change rather in European currents, which take their rise in that Mycenaean civilization which overran Crete and other famous isles in the ^^Egean and Mediterranean seas.
It will be noted that early Hellenistic tJiouglit and morality — as w^ell as religion — are dealt with in these Lectures. It is well ; for religion, as yet, was practically inseparable from morality. ' In early society, public morality mainly follows the lead of religion ; ' ^ and that lead, at the outset, is far from being uniformly either confident or correct. Dr. Farnell rightly adds : ' Hellenic religion, though deeply concerned with morality, and helping in many ways to establish a moral order of society, was doubtless inferior as a moral force to the Hebraic '.^ Students of Comparative Religion may here pick up a suggestive and fruitful clue.
In the study of Greek religion, — alike on its ethnological,*
^ Cf. Greece and Babylon, pp. 306-7, Edinburgh, 1911.
2 Cf. p. 102. ^ Cf. p. 124. * Vide supra, pp. 40 f.
FARNELL, Higher Aspects of Greek Religion 237
philological, mythological, and historical sides — British scholarship has no more trusted or authoritative repre- sentative than Dr. Farnell ; and this book will undoubtedly add to his reputation, both in Great Britain and beyond it.
THE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. From the Earliest Times to the Age of Augustus, by William Warde Fowler, Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. (The Gifford Lectures, Edinburgh, 1909-1910.) London : Macmillan and Company, 1911. Pp. xviii., 504. 12s.
Those who had already made themselves familiar with Dr. Warde Fowler's admirable introduction to the study of Roman religion ^ were not a little pleased when it was announced that he had been invited to become one of the large yet select group of Gifford Lecturers in Scotland. His intimate acquaintance with the social life of the Roman people ^ had forced upon him the necessity of seeking to interpret, fairly and fully, their complex religious concep- tions ; it only needed that a fitting opportunity should be given him, in order that he should proceed to discuss with adequate scope The Religious Experience of the Boman People. Although some of the ground covered by his Roman Festivals had of necessity to be surveyed anew, the con- clusions he now gives us are considerably more than a mere reproduction and expansion of his earlier and more summary judgements.
In this portly volume, made up of twenty lectures, the student of Roman religion will revel with delight. Its structure and contents are scholarly ; its references to authorities are ample and exact ; its additional notes, supplied at the close of each lecture, are compact and illuminative ; while its Index, sufficiently full, has been
^ Cf. The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic. (Handbooks of Archseology and Antiquities.) London, 1899.
^ Cf. Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero. London, 1909.
238 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
compiled with unusual care. Moreover, the manifest serious- ness, straightforwardness and capacity of the writer combine to inspire confidence in him as a thoroughly qualified guide. The character of the audience before wiiom these discourses were originally delivered necessitated a non-technical line of treatment, and happily this feature of the lectures has not been eliminated in the process of preparing them for the press ; nevertheless, the learning and skill of the expositor emerge on every page.
The late Andrew^ Lang, on one occasion, facetiously remarked that none of Lord Gifford's lecturers had ventured to attack the dark and embarrassing problems which the religion of ancient Rome still presents. Successful achieve- ment in this field calls for a combination of qualities which very few scholars to-day can be said to possess ; and naturally no one of them has formulated the evidence adducible in support of his individual claims. Dr. Fowler, in his opening lecture, naively alludes to this gibe : ' So far as I know', he writes, ' the subject has not been touched upon as yet by any Gifford lecturei" '.^ Few will complain that Dr. Fowler, taking his courage in both hands, has at last boldly entered the arena. He has certainly acquitted himself not only with credit, but with very high distinction,. under conditions of a peculiarly difficult character.
The old conception that Roman religion was non-experien- tial, impersonal, dead and deadening in its influence, largely a matter of prescribed ceremonial, is utterly rejected. * That the formalised religion of later times had become almost divorced from morality, there is indeed no doubt ; but in the earliest times — in the old Roman familv, and then in the budding State — the whole life of the Roman seems to me so inextricably bound up with his religion that I cannot possibly see how that religion can have been distinguishable from his simple idea of duty and discipline '.^ ' The primi- tive religious instinct, which was the germ of the religion of the historical Romans, was gradually atrophied by over- ' Cf. p. 1. 2 Cf. p. 63.
FOWLER, Religious Experience of the Ro^nan People 239
elaboration of ritual, but showed itself again in strange forms from the period of the Punic wars onwards.' ^
Passing over many most interesting discussions, ' The First Arrival of New Cults in Rome ' ^ opens up a wonderful and arresting survey. ' The Contact of the Old and New in Religion,' ^ and the gradual secularization of faith which followed, furnish material for a further enlightening sum- mary. ' The showy Greek ritual is applied alike to Roman and to Greek deities ; the Sibylline books have conquered the jus divinum, and the decemviri in religious matters are more trusted physicians than the pontifices. The old Roman State religion, which we have been so long examining, may be said henceforth to exist only in the form of dead bones, which even Augustus will hardly be able to make live.' 4
The closing chapters on ' Greek Philosophy and Roman Religion ', ' Religious Feeling in the Poems af Virgil ', and ' The Augustine Revival ', reveal the writer's rare resources of learning and insight. They are most effective, likewise, in their popular appeal. In the final lecture, the student of Comparative Religion will come across much suggestive data bearing upon the relation of early Roman faith to the Chris- tian religion. ' I have all along wished ', says the writer, ' to bring our subject . . . into touch with Christianity, — whether by marking points of contact, or of contrast, or both.' ^ The contributions made respectively by stoicism, mysticism, the Roman poets (especially Virgil), and the old Roman religion itself, are briefly but clearly indicated ; and then the writer concludes : ' Yet, all this taken together, so far from explaining Christianity, does not help us much in getting to understand even the conditions under which it grew into men's minds as a new power in the life of the world. ... I say this deliberately, after spending so many years on the study of the religion of the Romans, and making
1 Cf. p. vii. ^ Cf. chapter x, pp. 223-47.
2 Cf. chapter xi, pp. 248-69. * Cf. p. 319. "> Cf. p. 453.
240 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
myself acquainted in some measure with the rehgions of other peoples. The essential difference ... is this, that whereas the connexion between religion and morality has so far been a loose one, — at Rome, indeed, so loose that many have refused to believe in its existence — the new religion was itself morality, but morality consecrated and raised to a higher power than it had ever yet reached. It becomes active instead of passive ... an enthusiasm embracing all hu- manity, consecrated by such an appeal to the conscience as there never had been in the world before, — the appeal to the life and death of the divine Master.' ^
Dr. Warde Fowler criticizes rather severely some of those whose conclusions, on various points, differ from his own. Professor Frazer, to whom the author in his Preface expresses ' very deep obligations \^ is cited elsewhere as having indited a page ' of which every line appears to me to be written under a complete misapprehension of the right methods of research into the nature of Roman gods \^ Other authorities do not escape an equally vigorous handling. Dr. Fowler cannot complain, therefore, if at times his own conclusions have been challenged and rebutted. Nevertheless, he remains the foremost and most trusted leader among British scholars in this field. A new volume, which he has recently published, has been accorded a very flattering reception.^ Based upon Cicero's Be Natura Deorum, it consists of a series of lectures delivered at Oxford under the auspices of the Common University Fund. To some readers, this treatise will come as a veritable revelation. It has long been usual to believe and affirm that Roman religion made no real contribution to man's conception of God, and that no such contribution was to have been expected. Dr. Fowler is rightly of a different opinion, and the grounds of his conviction are stated with great force and abihty.
^ C/. pp. 4G5-6. 2 (oy p ^iji^
^ Cf. p. 140. See also Note 13 on p. 22. Vide supra, footnote, p. 15. * Cf. Roman Ideas of Deity in the Last Century before the Christian Era. London, 1914.
FEIEDLANDER, Roman Life under the Early Emfire 241
KOMAN LIFE AND MANNERS UNDER THE EARLY EMPIRE, by Ludwig Friedlander, formerly Professor in the University of Konigsberg. (English Translation of the seventh German edition.) 4 vols. London : George Routledge and Sons, 1908-1913. £1 8s.
This masterly and authoritative work has passed through many editions, and has gathered notable improvements at every stage. Commenced a little over half a century ago,^ it reached its seventh German edition in 1901. In 1908, the year before Professor Friedlander's death, its translation into English was begun. This undertaking was completed in 1912, various expansions intended for the eighth German edition (1910) being incorporated in it, A fourth volume — containing the excurses, appendices and notes which form a part of the sixth German edition, but which were omitted in the seventh (popular) edition — was added to the English version of this work in 1913.
, This great treatise, it is true, throws light rather upon problems of classical interest than upon those which pertain to the study of religion. At the same time, the student of Comparative Religion may obtain immense help from its pages. It is a sound and thorough piece of work. It may have a wider value for anthropologists than for compara- tivists ; yet it will often guide the latter towards the solution of some of the profounder mysteries of Early Roman religious beliefs and practices.
VORLESUNGEN UBER DEN ISLAM, von Ignaz Goldziher, Professor der Semitischen Philologie an der Universi- tat Budapest. (Religionswissenschaftliche Bibliothek.^) Heidelberg : Carl Winter, 1910. Pp. x., 341. M. 8.40.
Professor Goldziher was to have delivered, at various University centres in the United States, the course of
^ C/. Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms von August his zum Ausgang der Antonine. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1862-1871. '^ Vide infra, p. 319.
242 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
American Lectures on the History of Religions for 1908- 1909. The subject chosen by him was ' The Rehgion of Islam '. Owing to illness, this engagement had to be aban- doned. These Lectures, accordingly,, were not published in English, or officially included in the ' American ' series ; nevertheless, the following year they were printed in Heidel- berg. They have already become widely known and quoted, and it is a satisfaction to state that before long they will be made accessible more readily to English-speaking readers.
In this learned and fascinating book, translated into Russian in the year following its publication, Professor Goldziher gives us an unusual amount of insight into Moslem thought and theology. The chapters on ' The Evolution of Dogma ', ' Asceticism and Sufism ', ' Moslem Sects ', and (especially) ' Recent Developments in Islam ', are of high and timely interest. No abler or more brilliant guide than Dr. Goldziher can be named to-day among those who have become experts in Mohammedanism, and he is proving particularly helpful to all who are really seeking to under- stand its essence and philosophy. The changes gradually being effected in Islam through its growing contact with Western ways and conceptions are very effectively delineated. Moreover, the writer has appended to the text of his studies such a wealth of references to authorities, illustrative notes, and other relevant sidelights upon the general bearings of the subject, that the casual reader becomes very soon changed into an assiduous and enthusiastic investigator.
One finds here another illustration of the way in which scholars are making easier the propagandic work of Christian and non-Christian missionaries. As impartial students of the religions of mankind, — ^judging them indeed from the outside, yet interpreting them (in the large majority of cases) competently and systematically — they are pointing out with authority various inherent defects and weaknesses, and also- factors of persistent and often-unsuspected strength. In this connexion, few teachers have earned so huge a meed
GOLDZIHER, Vorlesungen itber den Islam 243
of gratitude as Dr. Goldziher. In the more technical field of Arabic philology,^ he is also of course a master.
BUDDHISM AS A EELIGION. Its Historical Deve- lopment AND ITS Present Conditions, by Heinrich Friedrich Hackmann, Professor of the History of Eeli- gions in the University of Amsterdam. London : Probsthain and Company, 1910. Pp. xiii., 315. 65.
This admirable survey differs in several respects from the majority of similar publications. It is very compact. It may claim also to be a sifted product, for it represents the culmination of a series of rigid revisions. It appeared first as a booklet, in the ' Keligionsgeschichtliche Volksbiicher ' series,^ when it bore the modest title Der Ursprung des BuddJiismus. Then a second booklet (slightly larger) appeared, bearing the title Der sftdliche Buddhismus und der Lamaismus. It, in turn, was followed by Ber Buddhismus in China, Korea und Japan. Finally, these three studies were brought together within a single volume, which was published at Halle as Ber Buddhismus in 1906. The author, however, was not yet satisfied. Having submitted his material to a fresh revision, and having incorporated in it a considerable number of additions, it has now appeared finally in an English dress. In its present form, it is prac- tically a new volume.
The contents of this book have been sufficiently indicated in the narrative of its origin. Professor Hackmann is familiar with the East j^ in his exposition of Buddhism, he speaks out of the abundance of his own personal know- ledge. He is peculiarly well equipped, therefore, to analyse the salient features of this faith, and to describe it as it actually exists to-day. He depicts with skill and insight its chief characteristics in all the countries of the Orient, and shows in particular how these developments have gradually unfolded themselves within comparatively recent times.
^ Vide supra, pp. Ill f. ^ y^^^ infra, p. 462.
^ Vide infra, pp. 306 f.
R2
244 THE HISTOKY OF RELIGIONS
THE FAITH OF JAPAN, by Tasuku Harada, President of Doshisha University, Kyoto. (The Hartford-Lamson Lectures, 1910.) New York : The Macmillan Company, 1914. Pp. XV., 1.90. $1.25.
Dr. Harada possesses many quahfications for attempting his difficult task. Himself a native of Japan, he naturally regards the situation from the Japanese point of view ; yet he is certainly entitled to speak with authority concerning the faith of a people with whom he is so intimately familiar. On the other hand, his American audience evidently made a very special appeal to him. Alert, unbiased, and eager to learn, they were the hearers above all others whom he was anxious to address. Moreover, a subtle religious tie tended to draw the lecturer and his auditors together ; his book presents the result of ' a Christian's endeavour to interpret the spirit of the Faith of Japan to fellow Christians of another race '.^
The writer does not undertake to expound the religions of Japan after the manner in which President Soothill de- lineated the religions of an adjoining Empire,^ or Dr. Under- wood performed a similar service covering several of the religions of the East.^ His ' governing purpose ' has rather been to indicate those fundamental beliefs in which all Japanese agree, differ widely as they may in reference to lesser and debatable issues. ' By the " Faith of Japan " I have in mind — not Shinto, Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, or any other religion, but — that union of elements from each and all that have taken root in Japanese soil, and moulded the thought and life of her people.' * ' If it be charged that, in these pages, only the bright side and the ideals of the Faith of Old Japan have been emphasized, while the dark side and the failures in practice have not been
^ Cf. p. vii.
* Cf. William E. Soothill, The Religions of China : vide supra, pp. 218 f. ^ Cf. Horace G. Underwood, The Religions of Eastern Asia : vide supra, pp. 221 f. 4 Cf. p. 2.
HARADA, The Faith of Ja'pan 245
equally presented,' ^ Dr. Harada is not prepared to deny wholly the truth of that accusation ; but he enters the very reasonable plea that, in estimating and appraising the faith of his fellow countrymen, the good qualities he enumerates must be taken into account, inasmuch as they are actual, verifiable and dominant facts.
The opening lecture, as was fitting, is largely introductory. It presents an historical sketch of the development of reli- gious life and thought in Japan. The various factors which have entered into that development, whether derived from Chinese, Indian, or Western sources, are briefly specified and analysed. As the writer says : ' For students of Compara- tive Eeligion, Japan presents some of the most interesting phenomena. Here three principal systems (with several subsidiary principles and beliefs) existed side by side for many centuries, — each, with its peculiar characteristics, passing through various stages of evolution. They are the factors that have developed the religious consciousness of the Japanese nation.' ^
Thereafter follow six lectures, devoted respectively to (1) The Conception of Deity, (2) The Way of Humanity, (3) The Law of Enlightenment, (4) The Doctrine of Salvation, (5) The Spirit of Loyalty, and (6) The Idea of Future Life. These topics cover discussions which belong, strictly, to Comparative Theology. They are handled with knowledge and discrimination. It means a peculiar service to scholar- ship that, in these pages, these questions are dealt with by an expert who is also a native of Japan.
The last lecture must, on several grounds, be pronounced the most arresting in the book. It is entitled ' The Faith : Old and New ', and enumerates the reasons why the Japa- nese are unwilling to accept Christianity as their national faith. No Western thinker, and especially no Western propagandist, can afford to overlook the considerations w^hich are here dispassionately adduced. The familiar argument that Japan naturally prefers the faiths she already
1 Cf. p. viii. ^ Cf. p. 24.
246 THE HISTORY OF EELIGIONS
possesses is no doubt based, in some measure, upon an obvious national prejudice ; but it owes its influence also to a commonly-accepted belief that the external forms of religion count for very little in the sight of Heaven. The doctrine of miracles, usually held to be interwoven Avith the very texture of orthodox Christianity, is another serious handicap to the success of that faith when it is seeking to win favour among the educated Japanese. To such students, this doctrine is especially repellent. It is alleged, further, that ' neither loyalty nor filial piety finds clear expression in Christianity ; and, since these two principles are the very central pillars of Japanese morality, a religion that slights them is considered not only unsuited, but a positive menace, to the nation '.^ Yet again, since 1890, there has been manifest throughout Japan a conservative reaction which has led to an outspoken defence of the earlier national ideals. Accordingly, old customs are being carefully revived, while Western ways of thought and speech are now very critically examined before they are commended or adopted. And religion being a peculiarly conservative preserve in every land, Christianity has felt the antagonism of these new conditions more severely than if it had been a reform of a purely secular kind. Then, the very aggressiveness of Christianity has proved hurtful to it. It has aroused a similar spirit in the breasts of honest Shintoists, Confu- cianists, and Buddhists. The methods of Christianity have frankly been adopted, and turned against Christianity itself. Native missionaries have been sent to various Japanese settlements abroad. ' Temples that had fallen into decay suddenly donned fresh garments, and Sects that had long been stagnant began a new lease of life.' - Finally, the strictness of the Christian moral code, and its general enforce- ment, have made Christianity particularly unwelcome. That code is ' very noble and very beautiful ', the Japanese are accustomed to say ; but they go on to affirm that it is wholly ' impracticable in the modern world '.^ Add to all
» Cf. p. 160. 2 Cf. p. 16G. 3 Cf. p. 168.
HARADA, The Faith of Japan 247
these considerations the fact that the Japanese, ' in common with other Orientals, are inchned to pantheism. They have been steeped in Buddhism. . . . Consequently, they have no clear conception of a personal God, or even of the personality of man himself '.^ The inflow of scepticism from the West, moreover, has wrought deadly havoc amid the older con- ceptions of the faith. The result is that the educated Japanese of to-day fall into three main divisions, viz. (1) those who would be completely satisfied with Confucian- ism viewed as a purely ethical system, and who would abolish religion altogether ; (2) those eclectics who w^ould combine the strongest elements of Shinto, Buddhism, Con- fucianism and Christianity in a new amalgam ; and (3) those who would create an entirely new religion, based upon well- tested scientific and philosophical principles.
Before concluding. Dr. Harada presents a series of reasons why Christianity, notwithstanding the special drawbacks which impede its progress, appeals with a manifestly growing force to the majority of the Japanese nation.^
THEMIS. A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion, by Jane Ellen Harrison. Cambridge : The University Press, 1912. Pp. xxxii., 559. 155.
Miss Harrison's distinguished reputation as a lecturer on the staff of Newnham College, her equally distinguished success as an author,^ and the flattering recognition her talents have received at the hands of more than one national University, ensure immediate attention for any publication which is the product of her pen. Moreover, her brilliancy and originality are winning for her a steadily widening circle of admirers and friends. It goes without saying that, as she is a daring and indefatigable student, she has provoked many
1 Cf. p. 169. ^ Cf. pp. 171-9.
^ Cf. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. Cambridge, 1903. [2nd edition, 1908] ; The Religion of Ancient Greece. London, 1905 ; Ancient Art and Ritual, London, 1913 ; etc.
248 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
rejoinders ; her critics to-day are probably more numerous, and they are certainly more resolute, than ever before.
In her Prolegomena, Miss Harrison sought to show that the gods of Homer do not take us back to the origins of Greek religion. Far from being primitive, these anthropo- morphic deities — even Zeus himself — were conceptions which had gradually been built up out of antecedent ma- terials of a very crude and often very lowly character. The Homeric gods were not always even ' divine ' ; they acquired their superhuman status only at the end of a long and intri- cate process of evolution. In the ecstatic emotion generated by means of the Orphic Mysteries, ancient Greek religion reached its bloom, and soon displayed its fairest fruitage. It is at this point that Miss Harrison gives us of the best that her earlier book contains.
In Themis, on the other hand, a new conception dominates the writer. Professor Durkheim's theory of the origin of religion is applied to the beginnings of the religion of Greece, and with very striking results. Miss Harrison admits that Professor Bergson also has had a good deal to do with the modification which has been wrought in her earlier opinions. Indeed, she has felt constrained to confess that her Prolego- mena does not represent her maturer conclusions.
In this latest exposition. Dr. Harrison states that ' two ideas underlie the whole argument of the book, viz. (1) that the Mystery-god and the Olympian express, respectively, the one duree (life) and the other the action of conscious intelligence which reflects on and analyses life, and (2) that, among primitive peoples, religion reflects collective feeling and collective thinking '.^ The collective character of religious emotions furnishes, in truth, the key to her new theory.
These well-documented pages awaken a genuine and lively interest. The ability displayed by the writer is beyond question. This book is not only remarkable in itself, but it must be accounted a real contribution to the theme
^ Cf. p. ix.
HARRISON, Themis 249
with which it deals. The author's acquaintance with primi- tive types of Greek rehgion has stood her in good stead, enabhng her to produce what is distinctly the ablest book she has yet given us. Nevertheless, the majority of the readers of Themis, when they come to close the volume, will feel perplexed and unconvinced. Had it come from a cer- tain quarter that need not be named, one would have the impression that, behind all its display of learning, a bold attempt was being made to exploit a purely a 'priori theory, and to claim for it the prerogatives of a genuine and scientific discovery. Miss Harrison, as we all understand, is quite incapable of practising conscious deception ; but surely, in the manipulation of her material, she is occasionally self- deceived ! She is not wholly free from bias. Her data at times are seriously at fault. What is worse, they seem occa- sionally to be used in so uncritical and careless a way that one's confidence is unpleasantly shaken. The reader is apt to feel especially suspicious when subjects are introduced, and airily discussed, concerning which the range of modern knowledge is confessedly very restricted. Miss Harrison deals with a huge variety of topics, many of which are not greatly illuminated by what she happens to say. Quite after the manner of Professor Frazer, — who has not only set an evil example, but who has already gained a host of admir- ing imitators — ' instances ' of a most miscellaneous character are cited by Miss Harrison in simply bewildering array. Even Professor Durkheim's Bevieiv, certain to regard in a favourable light the work of an unusually welcome convert, feels constrained to enter a caveat : ' Precisement parce que nous croyons en partie solide le fond d'idees sur lequel elle batit, nous souhaiterions qu'elle imposat une discipline plus stricte a sa precieuse faculte de saisir les analogies. Cela dit, on ne peut que reconnaitre la haute valeur de ce livre, oil se rencontrent a la fois une vaste erudition d'archeologue et d'helleniste, de tres beaux dons d'imagination et de style, et la curiosite philosophique la plus eveillee.' ^
^ Cf. UAnnee sociologique, vol. xii, p. 260 : vide infra, pp. 449 f.
250 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
The foregoing criticisms — should they seem to some to be unduly severe — will not at least be misjudged by one whose courage and candour explain in no small measure the com- plimentary reception which her books invariably receive. That the discovery of the Hymn of the Kouretes — found recently at Palaikastro in Crete, and already published ^ — has resulted in the birth of this latest treatise is a matter for genuine congratulation. If the construction which Miss Harrison has put upon the text of this new document — a construction framed apparently in the interest of an alleged social type of primitive Greek religious ritual — should fail to win general acceptance, the suggestion of a keen-sighted and undaunted pioneer will nevertheless be accorded on all sides a prompt and respectful consideration.
DER ISLAM : Geschichte, Glaube, Recht, von Martin Hartmann, Professor des Arabisch am Seminar fiir Orientalische Sprachen, Berlin. Leipzig: Rudolf Haupt, 1909. Pp. xi., 188. M. 2.
This book is called ' ein Handbuch ', and it is entitled to claim the rank which that honourable name implies. It would be hard to find, in any language, a more compendious and reliable guide.^ Only a scholar possessing the resources of a wide and intimate knowledge, a genius for compression w^hich at the same time overlooks no salient feature of the situation, and a rare power in effecting the orderly arrange- ment of one's material, could have produced a volume at once so full, so compact, and so convenient for purposes of reference.
Dr. Hartmann has already shown his capacity for work of this kind in the valuable contributions he has made to a great
^ Cf. Annual of the British School at Athens, vol. xv, i^p. 309-65. London, 1909.
^ As regards statistics, caution is recommended. One or two computa- tions need revision in the light of the latest reports from abroad.
HARTMANN, Der Islmn 251
modern Encyclopaedia.^ In the present publication he deals, in his own incisive way, with the Prophet, the Koran, the country which gave them birth, the territorial expansions of Islam, the substance of Islamic teaching, and the probable future of this faith. On the latter topic, the author is constrained to utter predictions which must prove exceed- ingly unwelcome to Moslems. He thinks ' bei den Tiirken tritt an Stelle des Islams ein Nichts. Kopf und Herz sind leer . . . Die Osmanlis sind keine Stiitze des Islams, den sie ausserlich vertreten, denn sie entbehren selbst der Stiitze '.^ Possibly, however, in other quarters of the globe — not under the immediate control of the Sultan — there is ground for cherishing a more optimistic outlook.
THE SOUL OF INDIA. An Introduction to the Study of Hinduism in its Historical Setting and Development, and in its Internal and Historical Kelations to Christianity, by George Howells, Principal of Serampore College, Bengal. (The Angus Lectureship, 1909-1910.) London : James Clarke and Company, 1913. Pp. xix., 623. 5s.
This compendious book, as its lengthy sub-title reveals, sets itself to accomplish a two-fold task. It provides (1) a sketch of the historical setting and the gradual unfolding of Hinduism, and (2) a critical interpretation of the relation- ships of Hinduism with Christianity. In both respects, the aim of the volume has very skilfully been carried into effect. Such expositions have already frequently been undertaken, but it is now evident that it w^as abundantly w^orth while that the attempt should be made again.
The writer's purpose, and standpoint, need to be kept in mind. Dr. Howells is not a specialist, and he makes no pretence to write for the benefit of experts. ' Nevertheless,
^ Cf. Die Kultur der Gegenwart : Hire Entwicklung und Hire Ziele. 6 vols. Leipzig, 1905- . In progress. Cf. also his Der islamische Orient. Berichte und Forschungen. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1905-1909. ^ Cf. p. 186.
252 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
he plainly possesses an acquaintance at first hand with the local colouring and indefinably subtle atmosphere of his theme. He has lived in India for many years, and has been brought into close contact with the exceedingly varied currents of its thought. At the same time, while he makes no attempt to conceal the fact that he is a Christian mis- sionary, he writes as an educationalist of wide and thorough training, accustomed to take a calm and dispassionate view of things. He is broad-minded, open and generous in his sympathies, and glad to discover traces of good wherever he chances to find them.' ^ Accordingly this volume, while professedly propagandic in its aim,^ is packed with valuable information, and reveals an uncommonly sane judgement in the appraisement and arrangement of its contents. The reader will find here a remarkably full conspectus of data bearing upon the two general topics with which the book deals. The original Lectures have been greatly amplified ; but all the subsidiary matter, now incorporated in them, has been inserted in a markedly skilful way. In addition to the Index, an admirable Synopsis of Contents has been prefixed. A Bibliography of considerable compass makes it easy for a student to follow up the hints, and to test the conclusions, which the author supplies in a very copious and arresting manner.
The discussion as a wdiole is divided into five parts. Books I and II, dealing respectively with ' The Land, its Languages, and its Races ' and ' An Historical Survey of Indian Civilization ', do not here concern us, — although they have involved much reading and occupy 250 pages of this treatise.
Book III, covering 150 pages, gives a sketch of ' The Evo- lution of Indian Religion and Philosophy '. Starting with an estimate of Anthropology and its bearing on the origin and evolution of Religion,^ the author proceeds to interpret
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature^ vol. ii, pp. 35 f. London, 1914.
^ Vide infra, pp. 369 f. ; also, pp. 253-4. ^ Vide supra, pp. 3 f.
HO WELLS, The Soul of India 253
that evolution, in so far at least as Hinduism is concerned. In this connexion, his account of the theistic religious teachers of India — especially the reformers who arose during the nineteenth century, including Earn Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, the leaders of the Arya Somaj, the Theosophists and Mrs. Besant, etc., — deserves to be pondered.
Book IV, entitled ' A Comparative Study of Hinduism and Christianity ', presents a very excellent summary — not com- plete indeed, yet sufficiently comprehensive — of ' certain fundamental principles and institutions, more or less char- acteristic of practically the whole body of Hindu faith '.^ Dr. Howells then takes up such formative beliefs as revela- tion, incarnation, second birth, immortality, etc., and relates them successively to corresponding Christian beliefs. Parti- cular interest centres upon an extended comparison of the Bhagavad Gita and the New Testament,^ wherein it is shown that, in the theories concerning God which they disavow, and also in their comprehensive affirmative teaching on the same subject, there are quite remarkable and significant parallels. When, however, we reach the concluding portion of Book IV, viz. that section of it which deals with ' The Supremacy of the Christian Religion in Relation to Hinduism ',^ it becomes evident that a transition from the History of Religions to Comparative Religion is a process which, even in our day, is not alw^ays satisfactorily accomplished.^ Much of the contents of Dr. Howells's book belongs neither to the one science nor to the other ; it occupies, clearly, an inter- mediate position. It is all very natural, and proper, that a Christian missionary should represent Christianity as the supreme religion known among men ; it is also very convenient to be put in possession of ' Answers to Objections ' (brought forward by Hinduism against Christianity, and here carefully tabulated) ; but students of Comparative Religion have no right either to combat or defend any particular faith. 5 Hinduism, in certain respects, is no doubt inferior
^ Cf. p. 397. 2 Qf^ pp^ 425 f. 3 cf^ pp, 490 f. * Vide infra, pp. 325 f. ' Vide infra, pp. 512 f.
254 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
to Christianity ; but it would be a very grave mistake to imagine that Christianity has nothing to learn from its Eastern predecessor. Comparative Religion has no mandate to disclose the essential superiority of a given religion, or to seek to ensure that ultimately it shall triumph over all the other faiths of mankind ; it is enough if it compare, honestly and with scrupulous fairness, those multifarious religious sentiments — wheresoever they emerge — with which it has been able to make itself intimately acquainted.
Book Y, an exposition of ' Hinduism and Christianity in Historical Contact ', is a very valuable portion of this treatise. Having shown that there is some basis for the tradition that the Apostle Thomas actually carried the Gospel to India, and for the view that ' the Bhagavad Gita and the Krishna cult are indebted to Christianity for many of its doctrines and observances \^ the author proceeds to give an account of the early Syrian Church in Malabar, and of the introduction and extension of modern Roman Catholic and Protestant missions in that land. A fine spirit of detachment, already elsewhere in evidence, is a conspicuous feature of this concluding section of an excellent and noteworthy book.
ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND PRACTICE IN BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, by Morris Jastrow, Jr., Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Pennsylvania. (The American Lectures on the History of Religions, 1910.) New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1911. Pp. XXV., 471. 12.25.
Seventeen years ago, as a unit in an important series of ' Handbooks on the History of Religions ' — a series which Professor Jastrow is still editing — this author issued a volume that at once assured his standing as an authoritative inter- preter of Babylonian culture.^ Since that date Dr. Jastrow,
^ Cf. ]). 540.
* Cf. Morris Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. Boston,
JASTROW, Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria 255
now occupying a foremost place in his chosen field of study, has thoroughly revised his earlier undertaking. It has become, indeed, his acknowledged magnum opus ; ^ and it is not too much to alBtirm that it is to-day the standard au- thority on the subject. Quite superseding its predecessor, it has recently been supplemented by the issue in a separate volume of a wonderful series of illustrations,^ — some hun- dreds in number, and gathered in many instances from quarters not easily accessible. Deities, temples, cylinders, seals, etc., have very skilfully been portrayed, and in a quite amazing variety. This work is thoroughly up-to-date. It is not yet, of course, an exhaustive exposition. Myths and legends and multifarious details of worship have still to be dealt with ; but scholars in all lands will be glad to learn that these topics are to receive separate treatment in a volume which will shortly be published simultaneously in German and English.^
In the meantime, w^e turn with eagerness to the course of lectures now under review ; and we are not surprised to find that they justify completely the anticipations w^hich their announcement awakened. During the last seventeen years, the wider knowledge that has become available, and the staff of workers who have devoted themselves to inquiries in this field, have increased in the most extraordinarv manner. Hence it has become necessary to present a brief survey of the results which have recentlv been achieved. Not that any complete statement is attempted ; on the contrary, as Dr. Jastrow remarks, ' the material for the study has grown to such an extent that it is no longer possible (even were it desirable) to present the entire subject in a single course of lectures.' * The title of his book shows that he contemplates
1898. Vide also his splendid article, bearing the same title, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, extra vol., pp. 531 f. Edinburgh, 1905.
^ Cf. Die Religion BabyloniensuTidAssyriens. 3 vols. Giessen, 1905-1912.
* Cf. Bildermappe zur Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens. Giessen, 1912. ^ Cf., in this connexion, the author's Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions.
(The Haskell Lectures, Oberlin, 1913.) New York, 1914.
* Cf. p. 1.
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including only the salient features of those beliefs and practices which he proceeds to examine.
Of the six chapters into which the book is divided, the first is general and introductory ; nevertheless, it supplies an admirable conspectus of Babylonian culture and religion. Then follows, in the second lecture, a very valuable feature of the volume, viz. ' a picture of the chief deities in the systematized pantheon, with due regard to the manner in which the original traits of these deities were overlaid with the attributes accorded to them because of the political position assumed by the centres in which they were wor- shipped. ... I venture to hope that my presentation of the pantheon will be regarded as an advance upon previous attempts '.^
Chapters iii and iv, likewise, possess a more than ordinary value. It is only within recent years that we have come to understand the place which the ancient Babylonians assigned to omens of various kinds. Many records are now in our hands which demonstrate that the destinies of individuals, and of the whole people indeed, were held to be dependent upon the activity or inactivity of certain mysterious agencies. Accordingly, the subject of divination is given exhaustive treatment, in relation (a) to examinations made of the liver of animals offered in sacrifice, and (h) to the movements of the heavenly bodies.^
Lectures v and vi are of equally engaging interest. The former is entitled ' The Temples and the Cults ', and con- tains a careful exposition of the meaning of the temple as a structure, and of the somewhat complicated ritual w^hich was observed within its walls. The latter lecture restricts itself to ' Ethics and Life after Death '. It supplies, perhaps, the crowning touch in this very able book. Professor Jastrow lays strong emphasis here upon a very important distinction. ' I am convinced ', he says, ' that, for a proper understanding of the religion under discussion, we must differentiate more sharply than has hitherto been done
^ Cf. p. vi. * Cf. Franz Cumont : vide supra, pp. 207 f., and 224.
JASTROW, Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria 257
between these two currents of thought, — the popular and the speculative. In the views of life after death, the con- trast between what the people believed, and the way in which the priests partly justified these beliefs, is particularly instructive.' ^ The common opinion held by the former was that ' the dead continue in a conscious (or semi-conscious) state after this life is come to an end. . . . Deep down in the bowels of the earth, there was pictured a subterranean cave in which the dead are huddled together. The place is dark, gloomy, and damp ; and, in a poetic work, it is de- scribed as a neglected and forlorn palace, where dust has been allowed to gather. ... It is a land from which there is no return, a prison in which the dead are confined for all time '.^ Among the priests, however — and, especially, among the more educated and thoughtful classes in every community — there was found ' at least the faint inkling of the view that the gods, actuated by justice and mercy, could not condemn all alike to a fate so sad as eternal confinement in a dark cave. Besides Aralu, there was also an " Island of the Blest ", . . . to which those were carried who had won the favour of the gods.' ^ Yet very few indeed, it appears, were counted worthy to enter this blissful state. The rulers, and even the priests, had to face the common fate, and dwell in the cave of never- 'ending night. ' Only one thing can make the fate of the dead less abhorrent. A proper burial, with an affectionate care of the corpse, ensures at least a quiet repose.' *
Accordingly, among the Babylonians, we find frequent ^ expression of sad resignation that man must be content with the joys of this w^orld. Death is an unmitigated evil ; and the favour of the gods is shown by their willingness to save the victims, as long as possible, from the cold and silent grave '.^ The present world, in effect, is the only world. Whatever a man hopes to do or win must be done and won while he is still in the flesh. He must placate the gods while he has still a chance to do so. ' What happiness a man may
^ Cf. pp. vii and viii. ^ Cf. p. 353.
2 Cf. p. 355. * Cf. p. 358. ^ Cf. p. 365.
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desire must be secured in this world. It was now, or never.' ^ Is it surprising that no ethical conceptions, comparable even with the lowest ideals of Buddhism, entered into the Baby^ Ionian scheme of belief ? There was no ' doctrine of retribu- tion for the wicked, and belief in a better fate for those who had lived a virtuous and godly life '.^ No matter how a man might conduct himself, all alike were buried at last in a ray- less gloom. ' Had an ethical factor been introduced, in however faint a degree ', Professor Jastrow concludes, ' we should have found a decided modification of the primitive views in regard to the fate of the dead. Perhaps there might have been a development not unlike that which took place among the Hebrews, — who, starting from the same point as the Babylonians and Assyrians, reached the conclusion that a god of justice and mercy extended his protection to the dead as well as to the living, and that those who suffered injustice in this world would find a compensatory reward in the next.' ^
The value of this book is greatly enhanced by the addition of over fifty admirable illustrations, a Map of Babylonia and Assyria, and Chronological Lists of the rulers of these ancient Empires.^
INDIA E BUDDHISMO ANTICO, di Giuseppe de Lorenzo, Professore di Geografia Fisica nell' Universita di Napoli. (Biblioteca di Cultura Moderna.) Bari : Giuseppe Laterza e Figli, [2nd edition], 1911. Pp. viii., 488. L. 5.
Professor de Lorenzo won many years ago the gratitude and thanks of all serious students of religion. In the intro-
' Cf. p. 373. 2 c/ p. 372. 3 Cf. pp. 412 f.
* The student is recommended to consult an excellent article entitled ' Notes upon the Beliefs of the Babylonians and the Assyrians ' which ap- peared in The Expository Times, vol. xxii, pp. 163-7 : vide infra, p. 477. Also, the 'Bulletin de la religion assyro-babylonienne, 1909-1910' in the Revue de Vhistoire des religions, vol. Ixiv, pp. 292-342, and vol. Ixv, pp. 178— 225 : vide infra, p. 488. Also, ' Bulletin des religions babylonienne et assyrienne ' in Becherches de science religieuse, vol. i, pp. 291 f. and pp. 397 f., vol. iii, pp. 270 f., and vol. v, pp. 163 f. : vide infra, p. 487.
LORENZO, India e Buddhisnio Anlico 259
duction to this book, in which he sketches the rapid growth of Europe's acquaintance with Buddhism, he pays a high tribute to the gifts of Dr. Neumann of Vienna, and acknow- ledges his great personal debt to that indefatigable worker. ' Questa fedele traduzione di Neumann ', he says, ' forma la base fondamentale del present e volume.' ^ Much help, no doubt, has been derived from the labours of Dr. Neumann, who, for a score of years, has been at work translating selec- tions from the Pali texts of Buddhism ; ^ but the present author is entitled to great credit for what he himself has accomplished during that time. For more than two decades he has found his chief delight in furnishing students with expositions of various phases of this study, A few years ago, in collaboration with Dr. Neumann, he supplied Italian scholars with the first vernacular translation — from Pali — of the Buddha Dialogues.^
The present volume is divided into four Parts, entitled as follows : (1) India before the time of Gotama Buddha, (2) The Beginnings of Buddhism, (3) The Dialogues of Buddha, and (4) Buddhism since Buddha's Time. In the first of these sections, a very interesting comparison is instituted between the Brahmanic theories of immortality, redemption, and asceticism, and the corresponding views propounded by the more celebrated of the teachers of Greece. In the second section, an excellent sketch is given — the relevant historical, archaeological, and epigraphical evidences being supplied — of Buddha's birth, life, and death. The
^ CJ. p. 18. And again : ' A lui deve anche I'ltalia la sua piu intima conoscenza del Buddhismo ; a lui ed alia sua opera io debbo la migliore luce della mia mente e la piu grande consolazione della mia vita ' (p. 6).
^ Cf. Karl Eugen Neumann, Buddhistische AntTwlogie. Texte aus dem Pdli-Kanon zum ersten Mai vbersetzt. Leiden, 1892 ; Die Beden Gotamo Buddhos. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1896-1902 ; Die Lieder der Monche und Nonnen Gotamo Buddhos. Berlin, 1899 ; etc. etc. Dr. Franke {vide infra, p. 407) does not hold Dr. Neumann's translations to be as reliable as they might have been.
^ Cf. Karl E. Neumann e Giuseppe de Lorenzo, / discorsi di Gotamo Buddho nel Majjhimanilcayo. Bari, 1907. [This book is a translation of vol. i of Neumann's Buddhistische Anthologie, mentioned in the preceding footnote.]
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260 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
third section, which forms the main body of the work, is devoted to an examination and analysis of the Dialogues. The closing section passes in review the history and pros- pects of Buddhism in India, in Asia generally, and also in the West. . '
This interesting work is not absolutely new, seeing that it appeared in a first edition in 1904. Nevertheless, to all intents and purposes, it is a new book. Carefully revised throughout, its material has been considerably augmented. The studies it contains have thus been brought well up-to- date.
THE SIKH RELIGION. Its Gurus, Sacred Writings AND Authors, by Max Arthur Macauliffe. 6 vols. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1909. Pp. Ixxxviii., 2,403. £3 3s.
A London journal, framing an obituary notice of the late Mr. Macauliffe only three years after the completion of his •epoch-making treatise, did not affirm too much when it stated that the author ' had the satisfaction, denied to most men, of knowing before his death that he was leaving behind him a monument more enduring than brass '.^ His labour, it must be confessed, received scanty recognition during his lifetime. When his manuscript was complete, the British Government offered him a honorarium of £300 towards meeting the numerous expenditures to which he had been put ; but the proposal, perhaps somewhat curtly, was refused. Thousands of pounds of the writer's modest fortune had been spent, without stint or hesitation, upon the high enterprise in which he had so long been engaged ; and the .acceptance of the trifling reward which was offered to him would no doubt have seemed to appraise the worth of his undertaking at a value far beneath that which he and others assigned to it.
The story of the origin of this work reads like a romance.
^ Cf. The Times. London, March 17, 1913.
MACAULIFFE, The Sikh Religion 261
Mr. Macauliffe joined the staff of the Indian Civil Service in 1863. His duties led to his becoming a resident of the Punjab, i. e. the Province in which Sikhism originated in the fifteenth century. Promoted in due course from step to step, Mr. Macauliffe was eventually called upon to fill the post of Divisional Judge. This advance was gained in 1884. It was while he was thus o£&cially occupied that an influential deputation of leaders of the Sikh faith — aware that he had long been a diligent student of their religion, that he was familiar with the circumstances of its origin, that he knew well its chequered history, and that he had often protested against the misrepresentations to which it had been sub- jected— urged him to resign his judgeship, to devote all his remaining energy to the preparation of a reliable translation of the Sikh Bible, and to furnish in this way an authoritative vindication of a deeply venerated religion. The proposition was a magnificent tribute, no doubt, to Mr. Macauliffe's reputation for learning, sympathy, and disinterested self- sacrifice ; but could there be any hope that the plea would be favourably entertained ? The event proved that the Sikhs had not over-estimated either the courage or the ability of an ardent European admirer. Mr. Macauliffe in 1893 sur- rendered his Government appointment, and gave himself with all his heart to his tremendous task. For the next sixteen years, he tJiougJit practically of nothing else and ivorked for nothing else. Ultimately he succeeded in making an excellent translation of the Granth into idiomatic and sonorous English. The Granth, like the Hebrew and Chris- tian Scriptures, is the product of a gradual literary deve- lopment. It embraces, first of all, the Adi-Granth (or original Bible), which belongs to the end of the sixteenth century. This set of writings contains a large number of poems, written not only by Gurus prior to that date, but framed in many instances by still earlier monotheistic reformers. The pen of Guru Arjun (the fifth Guru), who compiled this work, furnished about one half of its contents. Later on, however, when the tenth Guru came into power
262 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
(1675-1708), a second Granth was prepared, — a martial and patriotic kind of book, full of the ring of battle, in harmony with the change which time had wrought in the national character of the Sikh nation. Many of the representatives of this faith regard this later Granth as of inferior authority, and many reject it altogether ; but, as might be expected, it appealed very strongly to the growing warrior instincts of the people. Nanak (the first Guru) had said : ' Let thy coat of mail be understanding. Convert thy enemies into friends ; fight valiantly, but with no weapon save the Word of God.' Govind Singh (the last Guru), on the contrary, proclaimed : * Be lions in the path of all your foes.'
Mr. Macauliffe had thus to face the problem of translating a dual Scripture, and one whose successive supplements had been written in half a dozen languages, — Hindi, early Punjabi, Mahratthi, Persian, etc. The task was attempted none too soon, for many of the dialects which Mr. Macauliffe had to translate had already become exceedingly difficult to render into English ; even English-speaking Sikhs confessed that they dared not attempt it. Many of the terms employed in the Granth are now quite obsolete ; they are, moreover, of unknown origin, and even the authorized teachers of Sikhism can only guess their meaning. But Mr. Macauliffe — falling back upon his linguistic ability, not afraid of hard work, and aided b}^ the best advisers he could find — refused to be dismayed. He realized, besides, that the trusted expositors of these Scriptures were passing away, and that before many years the last of them would be beyond reach. Accordingly, sparing himself no pains and pressing every available agency into service, he tells us that, after his task had reached a certain stage, ' I submitted every line of my work to the most searching criticism of learned Sikhs. . . . I also published invitations in Sikh newspapers, to all whom it might concern, to visit me, inspect and (if necessary, correct) my translation.' ^ It may quite justly be claimed, therefore, that, in The Sikh Religion, we possess a rendering
^ Cf. p. ix.
MACAULIFFE, The Sikh Religion 263
of the Granth which carries with it the endorsement of the foremost authorities who to-day represent that faith.
But this indefatigable scholar was not willing, even yet, to reckon his labours complete. Finding that there were no documents which gave a full and authorized account of the Sikh Gurus, Saints, and Writers, Mr. Macauliffe undertook to supply that lack also. With conscientious diligence, he proceeded to separate, and discard, the vast accretion of ' debased superstitions and heterodox social customs ' which had gradually come to be associated with the recognized teaching of the Sikh religion. The discoveries he thus made constitute the bulk of the work he has given us. Volumes i to V, inclusive, contain a fairly full narrative of all that is known concerning the lives of the successive Gurus, ten in number, with details concerning the origin of their occasional hymns and other writings, of which translations are duly supplied. Volume vi, inverting the chronological order, contains similar data associated with the Bhagats, i. e. the reformatory forerunners of the Gurus. The Granth itself, accordingly, is not set out before the reader in separate and concrete form ; it is scattered piecemeal through the work, introduced at the successive dates at which it chanced to be written by its authors. It was the express wish of the Sikh authorities that their Sacred Scriptures should be thus ' hidden ' (as it were) from the gaze of the merely curious reader, while at the same time they would remain easily accessible to those who really wanted to study them.
Of the substance of the Sikh Keligion, it is not necessary to give a detailed account here ; the relevant question v/hich arises is : Does Mr. Macauliffe provide an adequate and reliable exposition of that faith ? We have drawn attention to the rare devotion with which he gave himself to his task. He was privileged to live for years at Amritsar, — the central stronghold of Sikhism, where its renowned Golden Temple was erected and where its foremost leaders have long had their seat. Mr. Macauliffe has undoubtedly written the fullest and most important work on the subject that has thus
264 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
far been produced in any Western language. That such a treatise was called for is explained by the fact that its only real competitor in Europe, Professor Trumpp's well-known book/ conveyed a very misleading conception of the actual contents of the Sikh Bible.
Mr. Macauliffe gives an excellent summary of this religion in vol. iv ; ^ and, in vol. i, we find this notable and compact statement : ' it prohibits idolatry, hypocrisy, caste exclu- siveness, the con-cremation of widows, the use of wine and other intoxicants, tobacco smoking, infanticide, slander, pilgrimages to the sacred rivers and tanks of the Hindus ; and it inculcates loyalty, gratitude for all favours received, philanthropy, justice, impartiality, truth, honesty, and all the moral and domestic virtues known to the holiest citizens of any country.' ^
It is beyond question that Sikhism marks the beginning of a genuine and earnest reform. Hinduism had, long before the fifteenth century, fallen away terribly from the standards of its earlier purity. Islam, on the other hand, affirmed with unwavering fidelity — over against the gross polytheism of the Hindus — the absolute unity of God. Hence, at a time when Luther and Calvin were making their great protest in Europe, Nanak raised a like stern protest in Asia. ' Some men are Hindus,' he declared, ' and some are Moslems. Yet they are all alike ; there is but one God, the Father of them all.' Had Sikhism succeeded in its mission, Hinduism and Islam might have been combined in a single compre- hensive system. Not only would monotheism have received an immense and perhaps permanent impulse, but the blight of many a leading doctrine of Hinduism would effectually have been purged away. The positive ethical teaching of the new religion could not have failed to exert a powerful
^ C/. Ernst Trumpp, The Adi-Granth, or The Scriptures of the Sikhs. [A Translation, with accompanying Essays.] London, 1877. Vide also Die Meligion der Sikhs. Nach den Quellen dargestellt. Leipzig, 1881.
2 CJ. also Mr. Macaulifife's article on ' Sikhism ' in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, 11th edition, vol. xxv, pp. 8G f. : vide infra, pp. 433 f.
* Cf. p. xxiii.
MACAULIFFE, The Sikh Religion 265
influence upon the individual and national life of all those peoples in India who might have embraced it. As things have turned out, however, a practically unreformed Hindu- ism bids fair before long to absorb Sikhism, — a calamity which, in Mr. Macauliffe's judgement, every friend of India and the British Empire should strenuously seek to avert.
Although this author, by his unrequited labours, has undoubtedly given great assistance to the progress of general scholarship ; although, like Max Muller,^ he has become the interpreter to thousands, both in India and beyond it, of sacred but growingly-obscure texts which (while greatly revered) have become practically unintelligible to those who hold them in highest honour ; and although he has rendered by his industry a very special service to students of the History of Keligions, it is necessary to utter a word of caution in reference to one important detail. Mr. Mac- auliffe must never be quoted as ' the chief modern authority ' on this subject, save with a certain reservation.
In the work under review, one occasionally comes across a remark — more or less unpleasantly critical; — which reflects seriously upon the judgement and temper of the late Pro- fessor Trumpp. No one can wholly take exception to this attitude, when the facts of the case are duly considered ; yet, as we shall see in a moment, Mr. Macauliffe was certainly not the man to administer the needed reproof. Dr. Trumpp, beyond all question, was but meagrely equipped for his task. His knowledge of English was very imperfect, — perhaps almost as imperfect as his knowledge of the various written dialects which he set himself to translate. Worst of all, he was resident in India as a Christian missionary, having no further concern with Sikhism than to undermine and supplant it. His estimate of the successive Gurus can hardly be said to be flattering. He says in his book that ' the Sikh Granth is a very big volume, but incoherent and shallow in the
^ Cf. his editorial supervision of the translation of The Sacred Books of the East. 49 vols. Oxford, 1879-1904. An Index-volume followed in 1910 ; vide infra, pp. 466 f.
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extreme, and couched at the same time in dark and perplex- ing language in order to cover these defects '.^ Or again : ' The Granth, in proportion to its size, is perhaps the most shallow and empty book that exists.' 2 At the same time, when Dr. Trumpp somewhat too rashly affirmed that ' Sikh- ism is in no way different from the common Hindu pan- theism ',^ he was nearer the truth than when Mr. Macauliffe deliberately declares that ' it would be difficult to point to a religion of greater originality '.^ Sikhism, in point of fact, never got away from the entanglements of its Hindu origin ; and its relapse into Hinduism, should this result eventually come to pass, need not cause much surprise. Mr. Macauliffe is anxious to keep the two systems aloof. This aim is due in part to the fact that Hinduism of late has not been so gener- ously affected towards the British crown as could have been desired. On the other hand, under Govind Singh — when, like Shintoism in Japan, Sikhism produced a succession of heroes, men of undoubted and undaunted courage — the inculcation of loyalty to British rule became a formal part of the Sikh religion ; and Mr. Macauliffe, looking back and looking forward, is over-anxious to utilize this fact in the interest of strengthening British dominion in India. Hence his point of view — very natural in a thorough-going Anglo- Indian Government administrator, who has good reasons for advocating that every possible step should be taken to prevent the disappearance of Sikhism — cannot be said to be a wholly disinterested one.
There is another respect in which Mr. Macauliffe must be adjudged a special pleader. If Dr. Trumpp unfortunately showed himself at times to be careless, incompetent and manifestly biased, Mr. Macauliffe becomes upon occasion the mere mouthpiece of the Sikh authorities at Amritsar. Pro- fessor Bloomfield — while not himself conspicuously sym- pathetic— has probably full warrant for saying that ' on the whole and in the main, Mr. Macauliffe's work impresses one
^ Cf. Ernst Trumpp, The Adi-Granth, p. vii. ^ Cf. ibid., p. cxxii.
^ Cf. ibid., p. c : vide also pp. cxii f. * Cf. p. Iv.
MACAULIFFE, The Sikh Religion 267
as a reliable account of Sikhism as the Sikhs see it, — that, but nothing more. The quasi-historical accounts are based upon zealot Sikh sources, full of fond and unbridled fancies. By every token, these lives of the Gurus are legendary, fantastic, and largely incredible. . . . Sikh philology of the remoter future will gratefully remember Mr, Macauliffe's work ; but it will remember it as a great work of orientation, rather than a critical analysis of Sikh teachings or an unprejudiced history of the development of the Sikh nation '.^
Scholars still stand in need of an edition of the Granth in English, — compact in form, freed from all extraneous accretions, and wholly unbiased in spirit. Notwithstand- ing all the pains that Mr. Macauliffe has taken, he himself admits that his own renderings are occasionally somewhat doubtful ! Additional years of waiting are probably in store for us ; but, after the original texts of these Scriptures have been transcribed, edited, and reproduced in Europe, the boon we crave will not much longer be denied us.
THE KELIGION OF THE ANCIENT CELTS, by John Arnott MacCulloch, The Eectory, Bridge of Allan. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1911. Pp. xv., 399. 10s.
Notwithstanding the demands of multifarious parochial duties. Canon MacCulloch happily finds time to follow up his earlier studies in the History of Eeligions. The handy little primer he published a decade ago continues to render excel- lent service in various quarters. ^ His researches in a kindred field are full of suggestive information.^ It is unfortunate, however, that a still earlier volume — one which none of its possessors w^ould willingly surrender — has been allowed to remain so long out of print ; for it is beyond question that
^ Cf. Maurice Bloomfield on ' The Sikh Religion ' in Studies in the History/ of Eeligions, pp. 170-1 : vide infra, p. 310.
^ Cf. Religion : Its Origin and Forms. London, 1904.
^ Cf. The Childhood of Fiction : A Study of Folk Tales and Primitive Thought. London, 1905.
268 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
this book lent an early and very decided impulse to a depart- ment of inquiry which has since made progress in a surpris- ingly rapid way.^
In the present volume, Dr. MacCulloch concentrates the reader's attention upon a single faith, — or rather, perhaps, upon a group of kindred faiths.^ He is under no illusion touching the difficulty of his task. His predecessors in this quest have not been conspicuously successful ; and he can hardly claim to surpass them — some of them, at least — in enthusiasm, in learning, or in sober purpose and judgement. But he does claim to approach the subject from a point of view more strictly scientific than any which has hitherto been adopted. He has made a fresh study of the sources. He does not frame his thesis in the form in which M. Reinach presents it,^ or as Sir Edward Anwyl has sought to expound it.^ The labours of Sir John Rhys, it is true, have not been overlooked ; ^ but the latter, like most of the older group of scholars, is a representative of the mythological school, while Canon MacCulloch is a pronounced and unwavering anthropologist.
This study is, admittedly, a very thorny one. No strictly Celtic literature exists. Accordingly, any one who seeks to collect information upon which ultimately to base some substantial conclusions will find that the available facts are scanty in number and exceedingly hard to verify.^ Existing data are open, also, to entirely different interpretations, each of which can be defended by arguments which seem quite fair and relevant .'' Canon MacCulloch goes so far as to
^ Cf. Comparative Theology. London, 1902. ^ Vide swpra, pp. 204 f.
^ Cj. Salomon Eeinach, Orpheus, pp. 161 f. Paris, 1909.
* Cf. Edward Anwyl, Celtic Religion in Pre-Christian Times. London, 1900.
^ Cf. John Rhys, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illus- trated by Celtic Heathendom. London, 1888. Also, Celtic Folklore : Welsh and Manx. 2 vols. Oxford, 1901.
^ Hence the embarrassments under which Matthew Arnold was compelled to write his well-known essay On the Study of Celtic Literature. London, 1867.
' Cf. Thomas W. H. RoUeston. Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race,
MacCULLOCH, Beligion of the Ancient Celts 269
declare that ' the difficulty and complexity of the subject make all results merely tentative ; and it is doubtful whether we shall ever know exactly what Celtic religion was '. There- in lies the explanation of the wholesale series of guesses which used to characterize the work of early explorers in this field. It is a fault, moreover, from which the present author is not himself wholly exempt.
Dr. MacCulloch thinks that the Druids, to whom he devotes two chapters, constituted 'a native Celtic priest- hood '. But another Scottish clergyman, of a different ecclesiastical communion, joins issue sharply with the author at this point, and goes on to affirm that ' the Druids of Gaul [i. e. true Celts] bear little resemblance to the Druids of Gaelic literature. . . . The Druids of Gaul were ministers of religion, the priests of the national faith, a recognized and exclusive order in the State, the arbiters in disputes, the teachers of youth, the presidents at the election of rulers, etc. The Druid of the Gael was not a priest in any sense of the word. He was essentially a wizard, a magician, one who studied the secrets of nature in the hope of acquiring personal power over human wills and human affairs '.^ This critic holds indeed that the title of Canon MacCulloch's book is misleading, seeing that in it the term ' Celtic ' is used as if it were wide enough to cover and include items which (strictly speaking) are ' Gaelic '. He holds, on the contrary, that the designations Celtic and Gaelic can never legitimately be regarded as synonymous.
Dr. MacCulloch has plainly spared no pains in his effort to make his exposition illuminative and complete. Insight and ingenuity are in evidence in every part of the book. The author's treatment of the subject must be pronounced conscientious and effective in a very marked degree. If some of the conclusions reached are likely to be modified
London, 1911. Also, Walter Y Evans Wentz, The Fairy Faith in Celtic Countries. London, 1911.
- ^ Cf. Duncan Macgregor in the Review of Theology and Philosophy, vol. viii, p. 492 : vide infra, p. 487.
270 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
before long through a critical examination of the numerous Gaelic MSS. which have been accumulated in the Advocates* Library at Edinburgh, in the Library of Trinity College at Dublin, and in several private collections, the impulse to such inquiry will undoubtedly in no small measure be attri- butable to the treatise now under review.^ Andrew Lang was not wrong when, in his somewhat blunt w^ay, he charac- terized this book as one in which ' on the whole, the reader will find wide learning in combination with common sense ', and in which he will gain ' some clear glimpses through the Celtic mist '.
ASPECTS OF ISLAM, by Duncan Black Macdonald, Pro- fessor of Semitic Languages in Hartford Theological Seminary. (The Hartford-Lamson Lectures, 1909.) New York : The Macmillan Company, 1911. Pp. xiii., 375. S1.50.
Students of Islam have learned to expect a more than ordinary treat whenever they take up a new book by Pro- fessor Macdonald. His ' Haskell Lectures on Comparative EeHgion ', delivered at the University of Chicago in 1906, are still gratefully remembered. ^ An accomplished Arabist, accustomed to take infinite pains, gifted with insight, and availing himself of opportunities which to many are wholly denied, he has made the study of Mohammedanism pecu- liarly his own. When he addresses himself to specialists, he can be profound and recondite enough to please even the most exacting ; take as an illustration the learned work he published twelve years ago.^ It is to-day, probably, the standard treatise on the subjects with which it deals. In
^ As a specimen of the modern method of approach to Celtic studies, see the thirty-seven articles contained in that notable volume Miscellany presented to Kuno Meyer by some of his Friends. Halle, 1912.
^ Cf. The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam. Chicago, 1909.
2 CJ. The Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitu- tional History. New York, 1903.
MACDONALD, Asjjects of Islam 271
the present volume, however, he is addressing himself to young men, — to beginners in such inquiries, and especially to young men who are looking forward to becoming mis- sionaries in Mohammedan countries. From beginning to end, the author keeps in view the special audience which he has gathered around him ; and very evidently he enjoys his contact with students whose ambitions are so keen, buoy- ant, and unbounded.
In some respects, this is the brightest and most engaging book that Dr. Macdonald has given us. Before writing it he had just returned from an extended tour in the East, where his trained powers of observation had gleaned a rich and rare harvest. His statements, accordingly, are constantly illu- minated by references to concrete personal experiences. His paragraphs are full of light and inspiration. He has un- doubtedly produced the best Introduction to the study of Islam, available in the English language.
This volume contains ten lectures. Two chapters, viz. those entitled ' The Missionary Activity of Muslims ', and ' Muslim Ideas on Education ', have been added to the lectures actually read, and help to secure for the book its merit of conspicuous completeness. They constitute, more- over, exceedingly welcome additions ; for the themes of which they treat have not hitherto been dealt with in so full and satisfactory a manner.
Following upon a brief series of suggestions concerning the training requisite for successful missionary propaganda among Mohammedan peoples. Professor Macdonald presents in his opening lecture a sketch of the Muslim East, viewed as a whole. Here the writer reveals great breadth of under- standing and sympathy. Then follow, in order, a brilliant study of Mohammed, an interpretation of the Qur'an, an outline of Muslim theology and metaphysics, two lectures on the mystical life (with special reference to the Dervish fraternities), a careful estimate of the attitude of Islam towards the Bible and its teaching concerning Christ, and, finally, a picture of the hidden inner side of actual Muslim
272 THE HISTOEY OF EELIGIONS
life. These studies abound in useful hints and sidelights, whose value to young students — and, often, to older students as well — cannot easily be exaggerated. Only a master-hand could have penned them.
The attempted evangelization of Islam by Christianity, should it ever succeed, ought to be aided not a little by the publication of a book which is full of sage counsels, though they are mentioned in a quite conversational and wholly unobtrusive way. Professor Macdonald does not conceal his hope that this undertaking may one day be achieved.^ Yet existing obstacles are numerous and formidable. * Of all the non- Christian religions, Mohammedanism exhibits the greatest solidarity and the most activity and aggressive- ness. It is conducting a more widespread propaganda at the present time than any other religion save Christianity.' ^ Nevertheless, Professor Macdonald's personal confidence gains strength from the circumstance that ' one of the most encouraging elements in the present awakening of interest in missions to Mohammedans is the plain fact that mis- sionaries and European scholars are again coming together. ... It is perhaps vain for us now to expect that any of our Colleges for the training of missionaries should also be centres for original Arabic research, — though we might well keep it before us as a pious hope ; but it is happily certain that missionaries are now turning to learn from European Arabists, and will in their turn contribute to western study of the East '.^
Students who wish to keep themselves fully abreast of modern knowledge in this field should not fail to consult the relevant periodical literature,^ amongst which special attention must be drawn to a new publication of a highly promising character.^
1 Cj. Dr. Bliss's opinion : vide supra, p. 206.
^ Cf. John R. Mott, The Decisive Hour of Christian Missions, p. 66. New York, 1910.
3 Cf. Professor Macdonald's article in The International Review of Missions, vol. ii, pp. 373-4 : vide infra, p. 479. * Vide infra, p. 468.
^ Cf. Die Welt des Islams : vide infra, p. 492.
MARGOLIOUTH, Mohammedanism 273
MOHAMMEDANISM, by David Samuel Margoliouth, Pro- fessor of Arabic in the University of Oxford. (The Home University Library of Modern Knowledge.) London: Williams and Norgate, 1911. Pp. 255. Is.
Although this book is modest alike in bulk and claims, it comes from a master's hand. It is one of the special qualities of the series to which it belongs that, while the contents of each volume must be limited to a summary of the relevant facts, the skill of an expert has been enlisted for the due accomplishment of this task.
The seven chapters into which the book is divided deal with the following topics : (1) The Islamic World, (2) Mo- hammed and the Koran, (3) The Islamic State, (4) Islamic Theory and Practice, (5) Islamic Sects, (6) Preachers, Saints and Orders, and (7) Islamic Art, Literature and Science. A brief (but most useful) Bibliography is added at the close of the volume.
It will be seen that the range of the discussion, however restricted it may be in point of detail, is comprehensive in an unusual degree. Touching its penetrative insight, readers will discover no ground for complaint. Indeed, taking the book as it stands, a more useful and satisfactory primer on Mohammedanism does not at present exist. Dr. Margoliouth is fully informed. He knows all the most recent theories concerning this ancient and now rejuvenes- cent faith ; and it is a notable fact that the product of cur- rent debate and controversy on the subject has been given due place in these instructive and illuminative pages. The rapidly increasing extent to which Great Britain is becoming the protector of Moslem sacred cities and the ruler of the Moslem world must make the study of Islam a subject of the very first importance to every conscientious citizen of the British Empire. The same remark applies in a lesser degree to the expanding dominions of Italy, and her resultant closer contact with Islamic peoples.^
^ Vide supra, p. 242, and infra, p. 304. T
274 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF MOHAMMEDANISM, by David Samuel Margoliouth, Professor of Arabic in the University of Oxford. (The Hibbert Lectures. Second Series. 1913.) London: Wilhams and Norgate, 1914. Pp. ix., 265. 6s.
Still another treatise on Mohammedanism must be named, and it also is very warmly to be commended. Ordinary praise is hardly called for in the present instance ; for Pro- fessor Margoliouth has cultivated this field long and diligently, and with magnificently fruitful results. That very fact, how^ever, has made it possible for him to concentrate here, with the greatest advantage, upon a specially selected aspect of his general theme ; ' throughout, an acquaintance with the elements of the subject, such as may be obtained from the writer's mamials,^ has been assumed in the reader '.^
Dr. Margoliouth explains his immediate purpose in the following words : ' The topic chosen by the present writer might be called " The Supplementing of the Koran ", i. e. the process whereby the ex tempore (or indeed ex mo- mento) utterances, thrown together in that volume, were worked into a fabric which has marvellously resisted the ravages of time '.^ The first two lectures, accordingly, are devoted to ' The Koran as the Basis of Islam ' ; these dis- cussions are acute, comprehensive, and satisfying. The legal, philosophical, and historical ' supplements ' to this deposit are thereafter successively considered.
The special value of this book lies in the documentary material it adduces, and upon which its main argument rests. Drawn from authoritative Islamic sources, and much of it made available to British scholars only within very recent years. Professor Margoliouth has rendered a truly international service by calling express attention to these now accessible records. His own conclusions, however,
' Cf. Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. (Heroes of the Nations Series.) London, 1905. [3rd edition, 1913.] Also Mohammedanism : vide supra, 1). 273. 2 Cf. p. vii. 3 (jj. p. V.
MAKGOLIOUTH, Early Development of Mohammedanism 275
reached after a careful examination of these texts, have increased immensely the growing debt we owe him. In one respect, it must be confessed, he has shown a regrettable oversight. It would have been a great advantage, especially in view of the fact that so much of the material he relies upon is comparatively unfamiliar, if these documents had been cited verbally, with references added in the usual way. Some of the criticisms the writer will surely have to face might then have been forestalled and weakened, while others of them would have been completely silenced.
Chapter vi is entitled ' Asceticism leading to Pantheism ', •and is a very notable essay. The light thrown upon Sufism, and the choice quotations which are made from its extensive literature, are tw^o of the special features of this timely and scholarly volume.
EAKLY ZOKOASTEIANISM, by James Hope Moulton, Professor of Hellenistic Greek and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. (The Hib- bert Lectures. Second Series. 1912.) London : Wil- liams and Norgate, 1913. Pp. xix., 468. IO5. ^d.
The type in which this ' Second Series ' of Hibbert Lec- tures is being printed is very restful to the eyes, and will constitute an added attraction in the judgement of many a prospective reader. The present work, following upon the initial volume prepared by Dr. Farnell,^ is considerably bulkier than its predecessor ; it is indeed fully three times as large. This expansion is due, in part, to an addition of over a hundred pages allotted as follows : A new translation of the Gathas ; a translation of various important passages cited from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, etc. ; a valuable excursus on ' Foreign Forms of Zoroastrian Names ' ; and a set of three Indices. Inasmuch, however, as the contents of the volume throughout are relevant and scholarly, no one
^ Cf. Lewis R. Farnell, The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion : vide supra pp. 235 f.
T 2
276 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
is likely to complain because the author has given more scope to his pen than Dr. Farnell, when the latter inaugurated the present New Series of lectures.
It may be said at once that Professor Moulton's exposition is a most inviting and stimulating piece of work. One may feel inclined to protest that this interpreter of Zoroastrianism allows himself to be carried away at times by his glowing enthusiasm, and that he is thereby blinded in a measure to the existence of factors to which otherwise he might have allowed more weight. He will not admit, for example, that Zoroastrianism was influenced by, or exercised influence upon, other neighbouring faiths. This question, plainly, must be debated anew ! As the writer himself says : ' Scholars more competent than myself may pronounce my painting out of perspective, and false to the facts ; but I shall still perhaps have done some service to the study of a fascinating and much-neglected subject if I only provoke discussion and research. ... If I do venture on novelties, or even heresies, I trust it is with great willingness to be confuted if I am wrong '.^ It is in this spirit, beginning with the very first page of his book, that Dr. Moulton proceeds with his task ; and it must be conceded that, on the whole, he proves to be not only a painstaking but a reliable guide. He is scrupu- lously conscientious. He never willingly misleads. He never pushes aside, out of sight and out of thought, data that might prove incompatible with his fundamental con- ception of Zoroastrianism.
Professor Moulton's survey covers the career of Parsism down to the era of Alexander's conquest. He begins with a discriminative lecture on the Sources. The origin of this religion is admittedly hard to trace. Chief reliance is of course placed upon the Gathas, the oldest portion of the Sacred Books of the Parsis. ' The traditional date (660-583 B.C.) is a minimum, but there are strong reasons for placing Zarathushtra and his Gathas some generations earlier still.' ^ Zoroaster, as it has recently been conclusively proved, did
^ C/- PP- vii-vdii. 2 (7y p yjjj^
MOULTON, Early Zoroastrianism 211
not initiate the belief in Ahura Mazdah as the greatest among the gods ; that conception can be found in an antecedent period. But Dr. Moulton holds that Zoroaster did transform the conception in question into a real monotheism, the idea of Ahura Mazdah being so enlarged and elevated that He was henceforth worshipped as the Supreme God. Moreover, inasmuch as Good was presented as a principle that must ultimately subdue and exterminate Evil, the alleged fundamental dualism of Zoroastrianism is found to melt away.
Lecture iii, entitled ' The Prophet and the Eeform ', is an intensely interesting chapter of this narrative. What Zoroaster himself was able to effect was apparently very limited in the range of its influence. He may have succeeded in inspiring his immediate followers with a flaming loyalty and reverence ; but he lived in a remote locality, and the mag- netism of his personality and teaching seem largely to have passed away with him. It was really those priests of Media whom we know as the Magi who — ' after failing to gain political supremacy in the revolt of Gaumata, secured in two or three generations a religious ascendancy which compen- sated for any failure ' ^ — imparted to Parsism the form under w^hich we know it. It was in this latter guise that it was carried to the West ; among the ancients, Parsism was usually referred to as the Keligion of the Magi.
Lectures vi and vii are devoted to an interpretation of the place and activities of the Magi, and constitute the true kernel of the book. It is of this portion of his exposition that Dr. Moulton remarks : ' The most important novelties I have to propound [relate to] the Magi, the delineation of whose origin and work is central for my whole view of Zoroastrianism '.^ The writer's contention is that, while the Magi carefully retained the Hymns (Gathas) now found in the Avesta, they added various prose portions to the text. In particular, he thinks they ' may be held responsible for the ritual, and for the composition of the Vendidad '.^ It
1 Cf. p. X. 2 Cf. p. xi.
278 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
was Zoroastrianism of this type that slowly invaded the Occident.
The last lecture, devoted to ' Zarathushtra and Israel ', will arouse special interest among students of Comparative Religion. The teaching of early Zoroastrianism is there compared with the doctrinal tenets of Judaism and Chris- tianity. Notable similarities of belief are pointed out, and duly emphasized ; but, as already intimated,^ the writer then proceeds to argue that little or no borrowing actually took place. - The agreements are held to be traceable, in point of fact, to independent causes. On the other hand, the essential differences underlying these agreements tend to confirm the conviction that the latter are unconscious and are wholly unrelated in origin.
Professor Moulton is to be congratulated, and the Hibbert Trustees not less, upon the publication of these lectures. They are a credit to British scholarship, and supplement admirably the corresponding American investigations con- ducted by Professor Williams Jackson. A few Continental scholars are certain to join issue with Professor Moulton concerning the accuracy and probable meaning of certain fiercely debated texts.^ In the present stage of uncertainty, Dr. Moulton — an accomplished Professor of Philology — may be trusted to give a good account of himself, when confronted by even the most loquacious of his critics.
FOUR STAGES OF GREEK RELIGION, by George Gilbert Aime Murray, Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Oxford. (Columbia University Lectures, 1912.) New York : The Columbia University Press, 1912. Pp. xiv., 209. $1.50.
There is something very vivid, very light in touch, and irresistibly engaging about all Professor Murray's books.^
^ Vide swpra, p. 276. ^ Vide supra, pp. Ill f. ; especially p. 115.
' To name but one example, take The Rise of the Greek Epic. Oxford, 1907. [2ncl edition, enlarged, 1911.]
MURRAY, Four Stages of Greek Religion 279
Whether original productions, or translations of the creative work of others, they invariably reveal the writer's personality. They are born of an imaginative genius, and they awaken in turn the imagination of their readers. Hence Professor Murray's latest volume, a brief but brilliant sketch of the probable historical evolution of Greek religion, has been accorded a cordial welcome. Nor has it disappointed the expectations which its publication aroused. The third chapter — entitled ' The Failure of Nerve ', and the longest of the five into which the book is divided — will certainly win admiration, even in quarters where it may give rise to keen discussion and criticism.
The contents of this volume are not wholly new, some portions of it having already been published in well-known English journals.^ The material has, in a word, been gradu- ally accumulated ; yet, even where previously utilized, it has invariably ' been reconsidered ',^ co-ordinated, and thrown into a more compact form. One may perhaps feel at times that the temptation to hasty generalization, and a facility in grouping facts pictorially, have led the author to permit ' probabilities ' to enter unduly into his premises. Of this tendency, he himself is not wholly unaware. Thus he writes : ' I wish to put forward here what is still a rather new and unauthorized view of the development of Greek religion.' ^ In chapter iii he remarks : ' We are treading here upon somewhat firmer ground than in the first two essays. The field for mere conjecture is less ; we are sup- ported more continuously by explicit documents.'* When describing his initial purpose, he writes : ' I was first led to these studies by the wish to fill up certain puzzling blanks of ignorance in my own mind ; and doubtless the little book bears marks of this origin. It aims largely at the filling of interstices.' ^
Settling himself down to his task, and premising that ' Greek religion — associated with a romantic, trivial, and
^ Cf. The English Review (1908) and The Hibbert Journal (1910).
2 Cf. p. 5. 3 Cf. p. 22. " Cf. p. 8. ' Cf. p. 9.
280 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
not very edifying mythology ^ — has generally seemed one of the weakest spots in the armour of those giants of the old world ', 2 Dr. Murray proceeds to divide the evolution of Greek religion into four distinct stages. First, he depicts the Age of Ignorance, concerning which he says that ' one is tempted to regard it as the normal beginning of all religion, and almost as the normal raw material out of which religion is made '.^ Next he delimits the Olympian or Classical Stage, a period during which ' this primitive vague- ness was reduced to a kind of order. ... It is the stage that we know from the statues and the handbooks of mythology '.^ Then follows the Hellenistic Period, ' reaching roughly from Plato to St. Paul or the earlier Gnostics, a period based upon the consciousness of manifold failure, and consequently touched both with morbidness and with that spiritual exaltation which is so often the companion of morbidness '.^ Finally, and more briefly, we have the Period of Recoil, ' when the old religion, in the time of Julian, roused itself for a last spiritual protest against the all-conquering " atheism" of the Christians,' ^ — that ' Pagan reaction of the fourth century, when the old religion (already full of allegory, mysticism, asceticism and Oriental influences) raised itself for a last indignant stand against the all-prevailing deniers of the gods '?
A closing chapter, not the least interesting in the book, contains what Professor Murray describes as ' something like an authoritative Pagan creed.' ^ It is the translation of a brief writing by Sallustius, entitled Ilept ©ewz; koI KoV/xoi;, — ' in all probability that Sallustius who is known to us as a close friend of Julian before his accession, and a backer or inspirer of the emperor's efforts to restore the old religion.' ^ His book tells us what may legitimately be believed concern- ing the gods and the world. In particular, this early writer makes a stout defence of the old mythology, which was
* Vide supra, pp. 102 f. « Cf. p. 15. » (7/. p. 16.
* Cf. pp. 16-17. s Qj^ p_ i^ 6 (jj p i8_
' Cf. p. 157. « Cf. p. 9. '^ Cf. p. 163.
MURRAY, Four Stages of Greek Religion 281
being vigorously attacked by representatives of the new-born Christian rehgion. He divides myths into five classes, viz. (1) theological, (2) physical, (3) psychic, (4) material, and (5) those which are admixtures of the psychic and material. Examples of all these varieties are successively given. * Theological myths ', he says, ' suit philosophers ; physical and psychic myths suit poets ; material myths are common among the ignorant ; while mixed myths suit religious initiations, since every initiation aims at uniting us with the world and the gods.' ^ He contends also that mythology is a subject too deep, too mystical, too allegorical to be easily comprehended by children ; accordingly, it should not be taught to the young. At the same time, he avers, myths contain in pictorial form doctrines of profound spiritual meaning, and ought therefore to be rightly interpreted (not foolishly rejected) by all who would seek to be enlightened by a divine revelation. Their esoteric signification is for the guidance of those who shall successfully master it.
Professor Murray has shown less skill in his treatment of ' Saturnia Regna ' and ' The Olympian Conquest ' ^ than he exhibits in the two lectures which follow. Indeed, his knowledge of the origins of Greek religion seems to be de- fective, and scarcely abreast of contemporary standards of scholarship. But Lectures iii and iv more than atone for earlier slips and surprises. The delineations there given of events which preceded, accompanied, and followed upon the birth of Christianity are sketched with a master hand, and constitute a real contribution towards the interpretation of an exceedingly perplexing problem. Students of Comparative Religion would be wise not to neglect these inviting and sympathetic pages. As Professor Moore has already pointed out,3 the close relationship subsisting between Christianity and contemporary Greek thought renders it imperative that both of these domains should be considered and studied simultaneously.
1 CJ. p. 191. 2 Vide supra, pp. 102 f. ^ Vide supra, p. 190.
282 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
THE RELIGION OF THE SAMURAI. A Study of Zen Philosophy and Discipline in China and Japan, by Kaiten Nukariya, Professor in the Keiogijiku Uni- versity, Tokyo. (Luzac's Oriental Religions Series.) London : Liizac and Company, 1913. Pp. xxii., 253. 75. 6^.
Thirteen years ago, a well-known publishing house in London initiated a useful series of works bearing upon the History and Philosophy of Religion. The three volumes which have already appeared have very cordially been welcomed ; ^ a fourth has now been added.
The title of this book is misleading. The Zen philosophy may have been introduced into Japan * as the faith, first for the Samurai . . . and afterwards ... it permeated through every fibre of the national life ' ; ^ but it remained a philo- sophy rather than a religion. The right to wear two swords comports strangely with the summons to self-renunciation and mystical speculation. President Harada affirms, indeed, that ' Zen was the religion of the military class, among whom it found many adherents. Its contribution to the formation of Bushido must not be overlooked.' ^ But the very same writer declares that ' Bushido, the code of the Samurai or Knightly class, is not a religion, nor a system of morality ; it has never been organized, but always remained a principle . . . that arose as a product of the social environment of the feudal system. ... A most powerful motive in the Japanese breast is the spirit of loyalty and patriotism ; and it is there- fore not strange that cJiugi (the spirit of loyalty) entered into the faith of the Japanese.'* Exactly. Yet neither was Zen itself, strictly speaking, a ' religion ', — although, no doubt, it usurped religion's place in the heart of many a
^ Cf. Michael V. Fausboll, Indian Mythology, according to the Mahabhdrata. London, 1902 ; Tjitze J. de Boer, The History of Philosophy in Islam, 1903 ; and R. Campbell Thompson, Semitic Magic : Its Origins and Development^ 1908. 2 Cf. p. xxii.
2 Cf. Tasuku Harada, The Faith of Japan, p. 24 : vide supra, pp. 244 f .
* Cf. ibid., pp. 23-4.
NUKARIYA, The Religion of the Samurai 283
courageous inhabitant of Old Japan. It too ' entered into the faith ' of the people, but it did so without becoming an independent faith. The title of this book ought rather to read ' A Japanese School of Philosophy ', or (at most) ' An Ancient Buddhist Sect in Japan '.
Professor Nukariya presents the reader, really, with a survey of a single selected phase of Buddhism. The name Zen (derived from the Sanskrit word Dhyana) signifies ' meditation '. The type of philosophy to which it is com- monly applied is traceable to China, whence it was carried to Japan in the early Christian centuries ; but no expert can examine it closely without detecting its unmistakably Indian origin, which dates from days long prior to the birth of either Christ or Buddha. The author does not sufficiently empha- size its affinities with Taoism. ' The object of this little book ', its writer remarks, ' is to show how the Mahayanistic view of life and of the world ^ differs markedly from that of Hinayanism,^ which is generally taken as Buddhism by occidentals ; to explain how the religion of Buddha has adapted itself to its environment in the Far East ; and also to throw light on the . . . spiritual life of modern Japan.' ^ The exposition that follows is capable and suggestive, and well deserves serious study ; but there is no need to say more about it here. The volume containing it is noticed in these pages, not because it could not justly have been omitted, but because its title might lead some to look for it among the books here specified under the heading of the History of Religions. It belongs really to the Philosophy of Eeligion. It seeks to demonstrate that Zen occupies a * unique position . . . among the established religious systems of the world '.* The absence of an Index, it must be added, robs this book of a large measure of its possible usefulness.
^ This Buddhistic school cannot be dated earlier than the end of the first Christian century.
2 The teaching traceable directly to Buddha (i. e. about 500 b. c), whose views of life were comparatively soon recast in several important par- ticulars. ^ Cf. p. xix. Vide infra, p. 285. * Cf. p. xix.
284 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
THE NEW TESTAMENT OF HIGHER BUDDHISM, by Timothy Richard, formerly Chancellor and Director of the Shansi Government University, and until the present year General Secretary of the Christian Literature Society, Shanghai. Edinburgh : T. and T. Clark, 1910. Pp. viii., 275. 65.
Dr. Richard, a leading representative of the Baptist Mis- sionary Society in China, has laboured in that country for over forty years. Associated there (for the most part) with literary and educational work, he has won high honour at the hands of the Chinese Government, being granted ulti- mately the status of a Mandarin of the first rank. He was one of the founders of the Imperial University in Shansi, but his distinctive service has been rendered through his connexion with the Christian Literature Society of China. He has travelled widely in that Eastern Empire, and he thoroughly understands its needs and its dreams. He not only knows its varied peoples well, and can explain with confidence and accuracy their multifarious religious beliefs, but he has been instrumental in scattering broadcast among them transla- tions into Chinese of hundreds of standard English books of an educational and devotional character.
It is noteworthy, also, that Dr. Richard has translated into English several Buddhist books of more than ordinary significance. By many occidentals — and by not a few students of religion, in particular — these publications have been read not less with surprise than with a profound interest, for they have proved to be documents of a singularly re- vealing type.
The present volume, in which Dr. Richard has brought together his translations of The Aivakening of Faith, The Lotus Scripture (the most popular of all the Buddhist writings of this sort in current circulation in Japan, and of which ' the essence ' is here given). The Great Physician's Twelve Desires, and A Buddhist Creed,^ will unfold to many perhaps the
^ Cf., also, his translations entitled respectively Guide to Buddhahood : A
EICHARD, The New Testament of Higher Buddhism 285
greatest surprise of all. These are documents which, among the large collection of venerated Sacred Books, may not unfitly be designated ' The New Testament of Higher Bud- dhism '. As regards the first and second of these tractates, it is declared that they have been ' for fifteen centuries sources of consolation and aspiration to countless millions in the Far East '.^
Besides giving us brief special introductions to each of these booklets, Dr. Kichard writes a suggestive and illumina- tive introduction to the translations viewed as a whole. He is not unaware of, nor does he seek to minimize, the palpable defects of Buddhism. Its general theory of the universe, its gravitation towards asceticism, its monasticism and penitential disciplines, etc., inevitably bear unwholesome and hurtful fruits. On the other hand, it has ' made men think of eternal things as vastly more important than tem- poral perishing things ' ; ^ it lays strong emphasis upon the importance of cultivating the growth of sterling character ; ' it makes men tender-hearted, and think how they can save men from sin and suffering ' ; ^ it engenders the missionary spirit, etc.
The parallels between Buddhism and Christianity which Dr. Kichard adduces in this book raise anew the old question touching the actual relationship of these two ancient faiths. Even a superficial study of them discloses a wondrous simi- larity in ideas, w^hether the theory that either faith borrowed from the other be successfully established or refuted. And then the author shows, beyond all denial, that the New Buddhism — the higher Buddhism, the best Buddhism, the Mahayana form of Buddhism,^ the only really vital Buddhism of to-day — is indebted profoundly to its younger and more vigorous rival. The ancient doctrine of Karma has been so transformed as to admit the necessity of united action between human effort and divine assistance ; while ' asceticism.
Standard Manual of Chinese BuddMsm. London, 1908 ; and A Mission to Heaven. Shanghai, 1913.
I'C/. p. 3. 2 c/. p. 27. 3 cf. p. 28.
* Vide sujpra, p. 283, and infra, p. 287.
286 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
monasticism and fasting are now giving way to marriage of priests and nuns, and the establishment of Colleges where men and women are taught on equal footing, — instead of the [older] Buddhist idea of the inferiority of women '.^
But Dr. Richard not only holds that there is a ' vital con- nexion between Christianity and Buddhism ',2 but that this very fact discloses a possible ' paving of the way for the one great world-wide religion of the future '.^ The writer else- where affirms : ' There has arisen the feeling that the next step in religious evolution is not a monopoly of any one of these competitive religions, but a federation of all, — on a basis that acknowledges with gratitude all that is best in the past in different parts of the earth as Divine, and then finally follows the one which surpasses all the rest in authority and in usefulness to the human race. . . . The religion of the future which will satisfy all nations and all races will not be born of any party cry, but will be born from the habit of looking at the highest and permanent elements in all religions, and gladly recognizing all that helps to save man — body, soul and spirit, individually and collectively^as Divine '.^ ' The time is now come to say that there shall be only one religion in the future ; and that one will contain what is truest and best in all past religions which reveal the Divine within them.' ^
It is not surprising perhaps that, in Great Britain, serious protest has been entered against these unexpected utterances. Dr. Tisdall, for example, refuses to be placated.^ But Dr. Richard has anticipated this objection. If any reader should ask : ' What further need is there of sending mis- sionaries from the West to China and Japan, when the in- habitants of these countries already possess such valuable Scriptures ? ', the author replies : ' Because modern Christian- ity is the winnowing fan which separates the chaff from the
^ Cf. p. 30. ^ Cf. p. 4.
^ Cf. p. 4. For a corresponding conviction held by Professor De Groot, vide supra, j), 213.
* Cf. pp. 34-5. '^ Cf. p. 142. « Vide infra, pp. 394 f.
RICHARD, The New Testament of Higher Buddhism 287
wheat. . . . The doctrines of New Buddhism (the Mahayana school), now taught, are so intermingled and mixed up with Old Buddhism, and transmigration concepts (derived from ancient Indian thought), that only those who possess the fuller light of Christianity can recognize in them the likeness to true Christianity. . . . When the leaders of the West and the leaders of the East understand each other better, there will be mutual advantage, and mutual sympathy and help in all that is best.' ^
It is to be regretted that Dr. Richard, in common wdth almost every enthusiastic pathfinder, commits the mistake of ' discovering ' parallels which do not actually exist. Some alleged resemblances between Buddhism and Christianity seem strangely mechanical and unreal. Likewise, when the author penned the words to which Dr. Tisdall takes exception, viz. ' It is getting clearer every year that these common doctrines of New Buddhism and Christianity were not borrowed from one another, but that both came from a common source (Babylonia), where some of the Jewish prophets wrote their glorious visions of the Kingdom of God that was to come ',2 he was bound to have disclosed in detail the foundation of this personal conviction.
At the same time, Dr. Richard is an ardent believer in the efficacy of Comparative Religion. It too he calls ' a winnow- ing fan '.^ It has been ' a joy to me ', he says, ' to find many Japanese priests studying Comparative Religion — and con- sequently our Christian Scriptures — with a zeal and intelli- gence which Christian teachers might well emulate '.* He firmly believes that Jesus was thinking of a mission to all mankind (and not merely of his relation to Judaism) when he declared, ' I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil '.^ And so he concludes his task with the words : ' The Eastern religions are mines of gold in which incalculable stores of great value still lie hidden in their vast and hoary literature, unknown to the Western mind. I have only picked up a
1 Cf. pp. 134-7. 2 Q- p^ 49^ 3 cj^ pp. 27, 29, 134, etc.
* Cf. p. 136. 5 Qf^ Matthew v. 17.
288 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
few nuggets which the best people in Far Eastern Asia con- sider more precious than rubies, and which dehght every truth-loving soul in the West, — and, most of all, those messengers of God who seek to establish His Kingdom in all the earth, based on the common highest truths inspired of God in all lands and throughout all the ages '.^
DIE BABI-BEHA'I. Fine Studie zur Keligions- GEscHicHTE DEs IsLAMS, vou Hermann Roemer. Potsdam: Die Deutsche Orient-Mission, 1911. Pp.204. M. 3.
The account which Dr. Roemer gives us of ' die jiingste muhammedanische Sekte ' ^ will not prove agreeable reading to the adherents of Bahaism ; yet it is well that this frank and courageous criticism of a faith which is beginning to be conspicuously aggressive — not in the East only, but in Europe and America — should have been framed and pub- lished. A similar report concerning the general features and tendencies of Bahaism^ has been made in various quarters of late ; but nowhere have the weak points and the un- welcome logical implications of this system been more un- sparingly handled than in this effective brochure. If the defenders of Bahaism are able to refute these strictures, it is high time that they should accept a challenge which is daily growing bolder and more explicit.
Hitherto, there has been a general disposition to greet this new religion with every mark of consideration and respect. It seemed from the first to be singularly incoherent, viewed as a prospective theological system ; but its romantic and chequered career, the severe persecutions to which it has been subjected, the patience and endurance of its devotees,
1 Cf. p. 144.
^ Cf. the counter statement ' The Babis are not a Muslim sect ', defended by Frederick A. Klein in The Religion of Islam, p. 239. London, 1906. Certainly the scope and outlook of this faith has greatly widened with the passing of the years.
^ Also written 'Bahaiism', — as Babism is frequently written 'Babiism', and Sufism becomes ' Sufiism '.
ROEMER, Die Babi-BehaH 289
together with its advocacy of brotherhood and universal peace, have won for it friends even among those whose initial impressions concerning it were not altogether favour- able.
Bahaism attempts to be all things to all men. Conse- quently, as a matter of fact, it means different things to different adherents and critics. And this confusion is not wholly accidental. In Persia, where this faith originated, it has more than once developed a dangerous political aggres- siveness ; in India, it makes its appeal largely to a strong contemporary craving for needed religious reforms ; in America and England, it synchronizes with the current growth of mysticism and of an easy-going latitudinarianism. The impression is deepening, however, that Bahaism is too invertebrate to commend itself long to the practical Western mind. Even in the East, where this religion is undoubtedly spreading, it is not generally regarded as being a robust form of active spiritual agency.
Dr. Roemer supplies a commendably full account of the rise and development of this faith, its successive leaders, its numerous suppressions and revivals, its present position and its probable future. The philosophical roots of the system are laid bare with skill and precision. The early antecedents of this new religion, its transition from Babism into Bahaism, and the changes which have accompanied the transference of its head-quarters from Persia to Syria, are sketched in a truly admirable manner. Of its re-birth in 1844, when Mirza 'Ali Muhammad (the Bab) — martyred in 1852 — be- came its honoured Prophet ; of the succession to leadership of Mirza Yahya (Subh-i-Ezel), from 1850 to 1868 ; of the schism whereby Baba'u'llah, much more energetic than his younger brother, usurped the former's office ; of the Govern- ment's interference, whereby Mirza Yahya was deported to Cyprus where he died in 1902, and Baba'u'llah was sent to Acre where he passed away in 1897 ; of the succession of 'Abdu'1-Baha ('Abbas Effendi, son of Baha'u'llah), who now directs the movement from Haifa, and who has filled this post
u
290 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
since 1892 ; of the recent practical extinction of the Persian sect which Mirza 'AH Muhammad fathered, a sect which originated in an effort to reform Islam and which addressed itself to Moslems exclusively ; and of the rapid growth of the modern Bahais, who claim to possess a religion adapted for all men and adherents numbering to-day not less than 3,000,000, an excellent summary has now happily been placed in our hands.
The central doctrine of Bahaism, as expounded in its current and latest form, is the essential unity of all religions. All men are brothers ; and, at root, all religions are one. Hence the central aim of Bahaism is the spiritual unification of mankind. It is emphatically a missionary religion ; and, in theory at least, it is a broadly democratic faith.^
In practice, however, — in complete harmony with its Scriptures, of which Dr. Eoemer has made a careful and profound study — Bahaism is not always as generous as one might be led to expect. On the contrary, it is not wholly free from the blight of bigotry ; it has even, upon occasion, pressed into its service the weapons of persecution. It has not escaped schisms within its own borders. As regards Christianity, in particular, — although this aspect of the new faith is conveniently kept in the background — Bahaism usually undermines the influence of the Christian religion. It declares indeed constantly, quite after the manner of Theosophy, that it is not essential in those who embrace and propagate its teachings that they should surrender their connexion with Christianity ; but, before the end of the day, it becomes sufficiently evident that between Bahaism and Christianity there is bound to develop a steadily increas- ing antagonism. The missionaries of all nationalities ara practically agreed in voicing this conviction. Bahaism regards its Scriptures as veritable revelations. Its under- lying theology has a distinctly pantheistic tendency. Like other Eastern faiths, it has absorbed (consciously or uncon-
* Cf. Thomas K. Cheyne, The Reconciliation of Races and Religions ; vide infra, p. 296.
ROEMER, Die Babi-BehaH 291
sciously) many of the tenets which Jesus proclaimed. ' Baha- ism presents a great many points of contact with Christianity ; but it cannot be considered as in any sense a preparation for it, unless it serve to some extent as a solvent to Moslem bigotry and prejudice. On the contrary, Bahaism looks on Christianity as an intermediate stage in a universal religion, of which the revelation of Baha Ullah is the supreme fulfilment '.^ This new religion certainly places Jesus no higher than its own successive Prophets ; indeed, the ten- dency is rather to over-exalt Mohammed, and to put Jesus in a distinctly secondary place. And as Jesus is thus deliber- ately withdrawn from view, and assigned no greater impor- tance than attaches to a great teacher who lived in a bygone age, the modern leader of Bahaism advances more promin- ently into the foreground. The father of the present chief apostle of this faith ventured openly to apply to himself words which the Bab once spoke prophetically concerning a Coming Deliverer : ' Verily he is the one who shall utter in all grades, " Verily I am God. There is no God but Me, the Lord of all things ; and all beside Me is created by Me. 0 ye. My creatures ; ye are to worship Me ".' And when the present Master was recently asked, ' Did Baha'u'llah claim to supersede the revelation of Jesus the Christ ? ' he made a very significant response. His reply was : ' Baha Ullah has not abolished the teachings of Christ, but gave a fresh impulse to them and renewed them, explained and inter- preted them, expanded and fulfilled them ' ; 2 but it is generally understood that Baha'u'llah regarded himself, and is to-day to be regarded by the faithful, as a veritable incar- nation of God Himself.
More space has been allotted to the present review than the intrinsic importance of Bahaism demands ; neverthe- less, since this Eastern faith has become somewhat ' the vogue ' of late, and as the recent world-wide travels of 'Abdu'1-Baha have unquestionably stimulated interest in it,
^ Cf. Proceedings of the World Missionary Conference, 1910, vol. iv, p. 124. 9 vols. Edinburgh, 1910. ^ Cf. ibid., p. 288.
U2
292 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
express attention is directed to the subject. Though the movement is not a new one, it has gained a new significance and importance within the last year or two ; the appearance of Dr. Roemer's book is therefore most opportune. This writer is convinced that the West has been misled by the pretensions of Bahaism. This opinion he has reached and uttered, not incautiously and hastily, but after calm and dispassionate research. His indictment is admittedly severe, but only once or twice can it be charged with needless harsh- ness. On the other hand, he demonstrates that Bahaism deserves — and must henceforth be accorded — honest and exhaustive study. The subject has already been very competently dealt with, from time to time, by Professor Browne ; ^ an excellent summary of the history and tenets of Bahaism was contributed by him recently to one of our standard books of reference.^ A pamphlet from the pen of Canon Sell — written with the aim of ' counteracting the extraordinary claims now made for Baha'u'llah and his teaching, and the assumption that 'Abbas Effendi is the prophet of a new era ' ^ — ought also to be mentioned. France has made a very useful contribution — at once historical and descriptive, but seeking especially to define the probable influence of Bahaism on modern civilization — in a book which has already been translated into English.^ Germany furnishes another severe criticism, of a compact and incisive order, in a survey prepared by Herr Schaefer.^ And Ameri-
^ Cf. Edward G. Browne, A Traveller's Narrative. Cambridge, 1891 ; The New History of Mirza Ali Muhammad, The Bah. Cambridge, 1893 ; and No. XV in the E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Series, viz. The Earliest History of the Buhis. London, 1910.
^ Cf. Edward G. Browne in article on 'Bab, Babis' in Hastings's Encyclo- poidia of Religion and Ethics, vol. ii, pp. 299-308 : vide infra, pp. 434 f.
^ Cf. Edward Sell, Bahaism, p. v. London, 1912.
* Cf. Hippolyte Dreyfus, Essai sur le Bab. Son histoire, sa portee sociale. Paris, ]908. [Translated, The Universal Religion: Bahaism. London, 1909.] Vide also A. L. M. Nicolas, Seyyed Ali Mohammed, dit le Bab. Paris, 1905- . In j^rogress ; and Le Bey an i^^rsan. 4 vols. Paris, 1911-1914.
° Cf. Richard Schaefor, Die neue Religion des falschen Christus. Kassel, 1912.
ROEMER, Die Bahi-Beha'i 293
can expositors and critics, as might be expected, are not lacking. One well-known volume has already passed into a second edition.^ Dr. Shedd — another American authority, intimately acquainted with actual conditions prevailing to-day in Persia — supplies a brief, trenchant, and decidedly damaging criticism.^
A fairly up-to-date Bibliography, covering both Babism and Bahaism, may be found in a recent review.^
THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT, by Archibald Henry Sayce, Professor of Assyriology in the University of Oxford. (The Gifford Lectures, Aberdeen, 1901- 1902.) Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, [2nd edition], 1913. Pp. viii., 256. 45.
This book contains only one-half of the Gifford Lectures, as they were originally framed by Professor Sayce ; * but the author has rightly decided that the time has come when he must divide his work into two independent volumes.
Professor Sayce's exposition is already well known. Suffice it to say here that he has now put into our hands one of the very best accounts of the early religion of Egypt accessible to students to-day. The book is full of learning, and yet it is never heavy or burdened with technical and critical details. It is the production of an expert, who nevertheless adroitly conceals all evidence of the toil by which the information he supplies has slowly and diligently been gleaned. Egj^pt has become a sort of second ' home ' to the writer, who knows the country well and has thoroughly mastered its lore.
As already stated,^ Professor Sayce is an investigator
^ Cf. Myron H. Phelps, Abbas Effendi : His Life and Teachings. A Study of the Religion of the Bahis or Bahais. New York, 1903. [2nd edition, 1912.] ^ Cf. William A. Shedd, Bahaism and its Claims. Philadelphia, 1912. ^ Cf. The Moslem World, vol. ii, pp. 243-4 : vide infra, p. 485. * Cf. The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Edinburgh, 1902. ^ Vide swpra, p. 133.
^94 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
whose studies in the History of Rehgions designedly throw Hght upon the tasks undertaken by the student of Com- parative Rehgion. ' His central idea ', as Professor Wiede- mann has succinctly expressed it, 'is that the Divine light lightens all men who come into the world, and that the rehgions of Egypt and Babylon form the background and freparation for Judaism and Christianity. The Christian faith, in his view, is not only the fulfilment of the law, but of the truest and best in the religions of the ancient world, — which, in it, have been interpreted and consummated '.^
RELIGION UND KULTUS DER ROMER, von Georg Wissowa, Professor an der Universitat Halle. (Hand- biicher der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft.) Miin- chen : C. H. Beck, [2nd edition], 1912. Pp. xii., 612. M. 12.
The first edition of this splendid exposition appeared in 1902.2 jn its present form — enlarged by nearly one hundred pages in order that all the later bibliography might be included and estimated, but otherwise little changed — this handbook is now more valuable than ever. It is, in truth, an indispensable aid. The Index, absolutely essential in a work of this complex character, has fortunately been compiled with scrupulous care.
This book is already familiar to the great majority of students ; it is mentioned solely that one's gratitude for this later and fuller edition of it may be recorded. Those who have not employed it hitherto have a happy surprise in store for them.
For the student of Comparative Religion, this thoroughly reliable manual is a veritable Godsend. It makes no ambi-
^ Cf. Alfred Wiedemann in the Theologische Literaturzeitung, p. 225. Leipzig, April, 1914. Vide infra, p. 490.
* A Supplementary Volume, entitled Gesammelte Ahhandlungen zur rimischen Religions- uiid Stadtgeschichte, was issued two years later.
WISSOWA, Religion und Kultus der Romer 295
tious claims to be more than it is ; it presents to us the fruits of an exclusively historical survey. Within its own sphere, however, it is absolutely without a rival. It con- fines itself strictly to ascertaining the facts of Eoman religion ; the utilization and application of those facts, it willingly leaves to specialists who work in sundry kindred depart- ments.
In one particular. Dr. Wissowa has completely abandoned his earlier line of teaching. His conception of Juno as the companion-goddess of Jupiter has practically been trans- formed. He now holds that the introduction of the Juno- cult was an event of considerably later origin than has generally been supposed. The building in Kome of a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva seems to mark the beginning of a new epoch in Koman religion. Thenceforward, Juno assumes a new rank ; she becomes in fact a goddess, ever more and more widely accredited and worshipped. This theory is ingenious, and it can be defended by a plausible array of arguments ; but it cannot yet be regarded as fully established. On the contrary, it has provoked — and is bound still further to provoke — a somewhat heated contro- versy. This hypothesis is interesting, incidentally, because it raises anew the demand for a fuller study of the origin and status of female deities in all the ancient religions.^
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LIGHT FROM THE EAST. Studies in Japanese Confu- CIANISM, by Robert Cornell Armstrong. Toronto : The University Press, 1914. Pp. 326. $1.50.
THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF JAINISM, by U. D.
Barodia. Bombay : Meghjee Hirjee and Company, 1909. Pp. 135. Re. 1.
^ Cf. Lucian, De Dea Syria : vide supra, p. 87.
296 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
THE BUDDHA AND HIS RELIGION, by Jules Bartlielemy Saint-Hilaire. (A new edition of the translation of Le Bouddha et sa religion. Paris, 1859. [3rd edition, 1866.]) New York : E. P. Dutton and Company, 1914. Pp. 384. $1.25.
DIE EIGENART DER ALTTESTAMENTLICHEN RELIGION.
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THE CULTURE OF ANCIENT ISRAEL, bv Carl Heinrich Cornill. Chicago : The Open Court Publishing Company, 1914. Pp. iv., 180. $1.50.
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LIGHT OF THE AVESTA AND THE GATHAS, by Faredun K. Dadaclianji. Bombay, 1913. Pp. 365. Rs. 4.
BUDDHISMUS ALS RELIGION UND MORAL, von Paul Dahlke. Leipzig : W. Markgraf, 1914. Pp. 457. M. 8.
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298 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
RELIGION UND KULTUS DER CHINESEN, von Willielm Grube. Leipzig : R. Haupt, 1910. Pp. vii., 220. M. 3.
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SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 299
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THE OLD EGYPTIAN RELIGION, by l^douard Naville. (A translation of La Religion des anciens Egyptiens. Paris, 1906.) London: Williams and Norgate, 1909. Pp. 342. 45. ed.
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THE ORIGINAL RELIGION OF CHINA, by John Ross. Edinburgh : Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1909. Pp 327. 5s.
300 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
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HINDUISM, ANCIENT AND MODERN, by John Alfred Shar- rock. London : The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1913. Pp. x., 237. 25. 6(7.
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CONFUCIUS, von Rudolf Stiibe. (Religionsgeschichtliche Volks- biicher.) Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1913. Pp. 40. Pf. 50.
DAS ZEITALTER DES CONFUCIUS, von Rudolf Stiibe. (Sammlung gemeinverstandlicher Vortrage und Schriften aus dem Gebiet der Theologie und Religionsgeschichte.) Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1913. Pp. vii., 54. M. 1.50.
LA RELIGION DE L'ANCIENNE EGYPTE, par Philippe Virey. Paris : Gabriel Beauchesne, 1910. Pp. viii., 325. Fr. 4.
THE MESSAGE OF ZOROASTER, by Ardaser Sorabjee N. Wadia. London : J. M. Dent and Sons, 1912. Pp.226. 3s.
CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM, by William Gilbert Walshe. (The James Long Lectures, 1906-1907.) Shanghai : Kelly and Walsh, 1911. Pp. vi., 50. 2s.
JAINISM, by Herbert Warren. Madras : The Minerva Press, 1912. Pp. xii., 129. Annas 12.
THE RELIGION OF ISRAEL UNDER THE KINGDOM, by
Adam Cleghorn Welch. (The Kerr Lectures, 1911-1912.) Edinburgh : T. and T. Clark, 1912. Pp. xv., 305. 7s. 6fZ.
DIE BUDDHISTISCHE LITTERATUR, von Moriz Winternitz. (Geschichte der indischen Litteratur. Zweiter Band.) Leip- zig : Amelangs, 1913. Pp. vi., 288. M. 7.
GESAMMELTE ABHANDLUNGEN ZUR ROMISCHEN RE- LIGIONS- UND STADTGESCHICHTE, von Georg Wis- sowa. Miinchen : C. H. Beck, 1904. Pp. vii., 329. M. 8.
THE GOD JUGGERNAUT AND HINDUISM IN INDIA, by
Jeremiah Zimmerman. New York : The Fleming H. Revell Company, 1914. Pp. 319. $1.50.
*
AMERICAN LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS.
Vide supra, pp. 211, 224, 254, etc.
HARTFORD-LAMSON LECTURES ON THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. Vide supra, pp. 244, 270, 297, etc.
302 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
HIBBERT LECTURES. Second Series. Vide suj,ra, pp. 235, 274, 275, and 297.
BIBLIOTHECA BUDDHICA, publiee sous la direction de I'Academie imperiale de Petrograd. 14 vols. Petrograd : L' Academic, 1897- . In 'progress. The sizes and cost of volumes vary.
{d) DETACHED PROBLEMS
One further group of volumes — miscellaneous in their character and contents, yet throwing a good deal of light upon the subject-matter of the History of Religions — must be included in our selected and representative list. The student of Comparative Religion must by no means overlook books of this class ; for, if he be wise and alert, he will soon discover that they are able to render him simply invaluable help. Such volumes, to be sure, deal with many topics entirely irrelevant to comparative and critical studies. Yet, amongst much that is quite remote from the inquiry at present in hand, the competent investigator will find here a surprising amount of material, of the very highest importance, lying ready to his hand.
It is not proposed to furnish formal reviews of any of the books which are about to be named. It will sujffice if atten- tion be specially drawn to those chapters, or even briefer sections of them, whose data, germane to the History of Religions, seems worthy of closer inspection, — and, it may be, of deliberate and repeated consideration.
STUDI DI STORIA ORIENTALE, di Leone Caetani (Principe Leone di Teano), Deputato al Parlamento. Milano : Ulrico Hoepli, 1911- . In progress. Pp. circa 400, each volume. L. 8, each volume.
This work, of which three tomi are now ready, will constitute eventually a very valuable group of Studies. Volume i bears the triple title, Islam e Cristianesimo ;
CAETANI, Studi di Storia Orientale 303
U Arabia preislamica ; Gli Arahi anticJii. Volume iii deals with La Biografia di Maometto, prof eta ed uomo di Stato ; II Principio del Califfato ; La Conquista d' Arabia. This new undertaking is wholly different in character from that erudite treatise which has made its author famous, and which is destined to become an international work of refer- ence.^ There, the whole literature of the subject, Arabic and European alike, is laid under tribute, and the sources and history of Islam are dealt with in a remarkably full and competent way. The Studi, which will also extend through several volumes, make their appeal to a wider and less exact- ing constituency. A number of maps have been included. This undertaking exhibits all the learning and skill which are manifest in its bulkier predecessor, for it consists really of a selection from the essays published in that earlier work ; but all the elaborate critical apparatus has been omitted, together with everything that might render these studies less welcome to ordinary readers.
The first topic discussed ^ is directly relevant to the purpose of the present survey ; the entire handling of it deserves very cordial commendation. The second is not a whit less important. It deals courageously with a sheaf of problems which modern research has brought into prominence ; and, although some of the author's conclusions can be accepted only with reserve, the gradual elaboration of his theme must be pronounced a piece of remarkably able historical criticism. Did the prehistoric migrations of the Arabs begin in Baby- lonia (as Guidi and Hommel maintain), or in Arabia (as Winckler and Noldeke affirm) ? The author thinks that the latter view can be established by proofs already in hand. The third essay presents us with a penetrative interpretation of the rapid growth of Islam, after it had definitely been launched upon its career.
Vol. ii contains an unusually valuable series of Studies.
^ Cf. Annali delV Islam. Milano, 1905- . In progress. [Vol. vii ap- peared in 1915. 20 additional volumes are contemplated.] ^ Vide swpra, p. 302.
304 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
It furnishes a critical examination of the rehgious hehefs of pre-Islamic times, together with a careful estimate of Mo- hammed, viewed as the founder of a religion that puts forth very lofty claims.
The Prince of Teano has begun to publish an additional work, which will cover the same ground in a somewhat different way.^ Three volumes have already been issued. This treatise, like the Annali, will provide a comprehensive chronology of Islam ; it embraces a period of 900 years, viz. from a.d. 622 to a.d. 517. It is called ' an epitome '. Even so, it will extend probably to ten volumes ; for the record it supplies is to be amply documented, — not only for purposes of reference, but also as a proof of its complete reliability. The cost of producing this work will be some- what high, and the publisher is compelled to ask twenty-five lire for each volume.
Italian scholars — i signori Luigi Salvatorelli, Salvatore Minocchi, Aldo Vannuzzi, and others — are beginning to take an unwonted interest in the critical study of religions. Amongst such studies, the history and modern develop- ments of Islam are bound to occupy a place of steadily increasing prominence, inasmuch as Italy has recently become ruler over a not inconsiderable portion of the Mohammedan world.
DIE PHILOSOPHIE DER BIBEL, von Paul Deussen, Professor an der Universitat Kiel. (Allgemeine Ge- schichte der Philosophie.) Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1913. Pp. xii., 304. M. 4.
Let it be admitted at once that this volume, as its title imphes, ought hardly to be included under the heading ' The History of Religions '. It belongs really to a study of the Philosophy of Rehgion, and constitutes an important volume
^ Cf. Cronografia Islamica. Paris, 1913- . In ^progress.
DEUSSEN, Die Philosophie der Bihel 305
in that great work upon which, for many years, Dr. Deussen has lavished unmeasured thought and pains .^
The Hnes upon which this elaborate exposition proceeds may best be understood if one take a glance at the following scheme :
Part I (Erster Band). Vol. i, Die Philosophie des Veda his auf
die Upanishad's. 1894. [2nd edition, 1906.] M. 7.
Vol. ii, Die Philosophie der U panishad' s 1899. [2nd edition, 1907.] M. 9.
Vol. iii. Die nachvedische Philosophie der Inder. 1908. M. 16. Part II (Zweiter Band). Vol. iv, Die Philosophie der Griechen.
1911. M. 6.
Vol. V, Die Philosophie der Bihel. 1913. M. 4.
Vol. vi. Die hihlisch-mittelalterliche Phi- losophie?'
Vol. vii. Die neuere Philosophie.
The central purpose of the author is to show how all philo- sophy— whether modern, mediaeval, biblical, or Greek — rests ultimately upon a basis of refined Indian thought, and how all religions are coloured by the philosophical thinking of the ages to which they belong. In particular, as regards the Christian religion. Dr. Deussen undertakes — having carefully traced the origin and development of that faith — to demonstrate its close relationship to various other faiths. In the course of a wondrously comprehensive survey, he takes us first to Egypt, thence to Babylonia, and then to Persia, — pointing out at every stage the way in which the religious thinking of all these lands had some part in laying the foundations of the subsequent Christian structure. We
^ CJ. Paul Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie^ mit hesonderer Beritcksichtigung der Religionen. 7 vols. Leipzig, 1894- . In progress.
- Volume vi (which is supplementary to volume v), and volume vii, have not yet been published.
X
306 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
are invited, next, to view the Hebrew transformation, effected under the pressure of exile in Babylon. The religion of the ancient Jews, the life and teaching of Jesus, the teach- ing of St. Paul and the other evangelists, are topics succes- sively dealt with in a style, and with a mastery of fact and diction, which prove simply fascinating to every serious reader.
The student of the History of Religions might easily over- look this volume, inasmuch as it confessedly makes its appeal to researchers who labour in a field different from his own ; but he who studies this book will not grudge the time and thought it is certain to exact of him, nor will he feel ungrate- ful to the reviewer who now directs his attention to its timely and stimulating contents. The author may not always convince his readers that he is guiding them aright, but he will never fail to quicken and feed the spirit of intel- ligent inquir}^ The resolve to revise and verify and (if necessary) restate one's conclusions, whatever be the ulti- mate issue, is perhaps the most precious of all impulses that any man can receive from acquaintance with the researches in which other students are engaged.
RELIGIONEN UND HEILIGE SCHRIETEN, von Hein- rich Friedrich Hackmann, Professor fiir Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte und Geschichte der israelitischen Religion an der Universitat Amsterdam. Berlin : Karl Curtius, 1914. Pp. 46. M. 1.
On December 15, 1913, Professor Hackmann entered upon his new duties at Amsterdam. The present booklet contains the Inaugural Lecture delivered by him at the University on that very interesting occasion.
It is noteworthy that Dr. Hackmann came to his task with high natural qualifications, and with an unusually compre- hensive equipment. Always an ardent student, and asso- ciated closely at Gottingen and elsewhere with student communities for whose instruction and oversight he was
HACKMANN, Religionen und Heilige Schriften 307
responsible, Professor Hackmann has filled the post of German pastor in cities so far removed from each other as Shanghai and London. He has travelled widely in the East, and many valuable books have come to us from his pen. His exposition of Buddhism is well known. Prepared in the first instance to serve as three successive volumes in the popular Beligionsgescliichtliclie Volkshuclier series,^ it was afterwards issued as a single volume,^ and has since been revised, enlarged, and published in an English version.^ More recently, many have greatly enjoyed reading a popular account of some of his experiences in the East ; his bright and impressionable record is lit up continually by the com- ments of a keen and observant traveller.^ This book, like- wise, has found its way into the libraries of many readers in England, where, in a somewhat abbreviated form, it has been issued in an admirable translation.^ An earlier travel- volume, containing a wonderful report of what happened to this daring explorer in portions of China, Tibet, and Burma, has had a wide circulation in Germany.®
As a student of the History of Eeligions, Dr. Hackmann concentrated his attention at the outset upon Buddhism. But the journeys undertaken in this interest naturally broadened the investigator's purpose ; and, to-day, every Oriental faith makes irresistible appeal to him.
The discussion of ' Eeligions and their Bibles ', contained in the present pamphlet, is full of insight and movement. Th€ influences which an authorized Sacred Book is bound to exert upon the peoples who possess and revere it are very effectively sketched. The eager inquisitiveness of the writer is infectious ; the poise of his judgements is admirably pre- served ; his conclusions are sane and reliable. Both he and
^ Vide infra, p. 462. " Cf. Der BuddJiismus. Halle, 1906.
^ Cf. Buddhism, as a Religion. Its Historical Development and its Present Conditions. London, 1910,
* Cf. Welt des Ostens. Berlin, 1912.
^ Cf. A German Scholar in the East. Travel Scenes and Reflections. London, 1914.
* Cf. Vom Omi his Bhamo. Halle, 1905. [2nd edition, 1907.]
X2
308 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
his students are to be congratulated upon the wide vista of research which now stretches out before them, and upon the resources of that opulent domain over which they are to be permitted to roam at will together.
MELANGES D'HISTOIRE DES RELIGIONS, par Henri Hubert et Marcel Mauss, Directeurs-Adjoints a I'Ecole des Hautes-Etudes. Paris : Felix Alcan, 1909. Pp.xlii., 236. Fr. 5.
This volume is made up of three reprinted essays. The first, in which the authors collaborated, is entitled ' Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice ', a careful and exhaustive study covering 130 pages. The second paper, written by M. Mauss, deals with ' L'Origine des pouvoirs magiques dans ks societes australiennes ', an analytic and critical study of one particular phase of magic, based upon ethnographical documents and extending to nearly 90 pages. The final essay, written by M. Hubert, presents an ' Etude sommaire de la representation du temps dans la religion et la magie '. It is the briefest of the three, being compressed within 40 pages ; but it is not less distinctive and charac- teristic than the others.
A very valuable part of this book is found in its extended Introduction, pp. i-xlii. This section, entitled ' De quelques resultats de la sociologie religieuse ',^ — full of weighty con- siderations bearing upon our knowledge of sacrifice and magic — makes clear how the three discussions which follow it are related to one another. The opportunity to make reply to certain objections which greeted the original publication of these papers is also adroitly improved.
Throughout the volume the relevant authorities are copiously quoted, while the references supplied are of a most comprehensive character.
' It speedily becomes manifest that these writers are enthusiastic ad- herents of the Durkheim school : vide supra, pp. 64-5.
LOISY, Histoire des Religions 309
A PKOPOS D'HISTOIEE DES EELIGIONS, par Alfred Loisy, Professeur d'Histoire des Keligions au College de France. Paris : Emile Nourry, 1911. Pp.326. Fr. 3.
' Les cinq articles que Ton reunit dans ce petit volume sont des essais critiques, occasionnes par de recentes publica- tions. L'on voit une certaine utilite a les rassembler, parce qu'ils se trouvent, sans qu'on y ait vise, former un groupe assez homogene, et une fagon d'esquisse, tres generale, d'une methode qui paraitra sans doute a plusieurs man- quer terriblement de nouveaute, mais qui n'en est peut- etre pas plus mauvaise a suivre dans les etudes d'histoire religieuse '.^
It is with these words, frank and to the point, that Pro- fessor Loisy introduces this handy little volume. The titles of the successive essays are as follows : (1) Eemarques sur une definition de la religion, (2) De la vulgarisation et de I'enseignement de I'Histoire des Eeligions, (3) Magie, science et religion, (4) Jesus ou Christ ?, and (5) Le My the du Christ. The first, third, and fifth papers are of special value, — not merely as specimens of brilliantly written exposition, but because of the penetrative criticism they contain. In the first and third essays, some of the positions taken up by M. Salomon Eeinach in his Orpheus are successfully turned ; while the summary of the writer's argument in his fifth paper is succinctly expressed in the following words : ' Tout bien considere, I'origine purement mythique du christianisme est un roman, I'existence historique de Jesus est un fait '.^
This book contains a pithy and elaborate Preface,^ in which the origin of the five successive articles is briefly explained. The theological attitude of the author will not always commend itself to his readers. At the same time, that attitude is broader, saner, and more profoundly con- scientious than that of many of his critics. Professor Loisy's selection for the post which he so honourably fills in the College de France has already been abundantly justified.
^ Cf. p. 5. 2 Qj-^ p_ 3i(3_ 3 Qf^ pp_ 5_48,
310 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS, by David Gordon Lyon and George Foot Moore, Professors in Harvard University. (A Commemorative Volume, pre- sented to Professor Crawford Howell Toy in honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday.) New York : The Mac- millan Company, 1912. Pp. viii., 373. S2.50.
Quite apart from the high personal tribute which this portly volume conveys, it contains a number of studies of genuine and conspicuous merit. The successive papers are exceedingly varied as regards their subject-matter; indeed, save for the personal link which unites them all together, they would inevitably drop asunder, and the question would arise : Why have topics, so remote from one another, been brought within the covers of a single volume ?
From the standpoint of the student of Comparative Religion, the essays which are most important are the following : Buddhist and Christian Parallels, by Principal J. Estlin Carpenter, Oxford ; The Liver as the Seat of the Soul,^ by Professor Morris Jastrow, Pennsylvania ; The Sikh Beligion,'^ by Professor Maurice Bloomfield, Johns Hopkins ; Jahweh before Moses, by Professor George A. Barton, Bryn Mawr ; The Sacred Bivers of India, by Professor Edward W. Hopkins, Yale ; Asianic Influence in Greek Mythology,^ by Mr. William H. Ward, New Y^ork ; Oriental Cults in Spain, by Professor Clifford H. Moore, Harvard ; and The Consecrated Women of the Hammurabi Code, by Professor David G. Lyon.
NATURLICHE THEOLOGIE UND ALLGEMEINE RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, von Nathan Soderblom, Professor der Religionsgeschichte an der Universitat Leipzig. (Beitrage zur Religionswissenschaft.) Leip- zig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1913. Pp. x., 112. M. 6.
The perusal of this most interesting tractate, the first of a new series of official publications issued by the Religions-
* Vide supra, p. 256. 2 Vide supra, pp. 260 f.
^ Vide supra, pp. 96 f.
SODERBLOM, Theologie und ReligionsgeschicJite 311
vetenskapliga Siillskapet i Stockholm,^ makes one regret more keenly than ever that Dr. Soderblom has now finally been separated from active academic pursuits.^ As the result of long and diligent application, he had secured magnificent equipment for the tasks successively committed to his hands, and he performed them with marked and grow- ing efficiency. But another call has reached him of late ; and, finally, he decided to accept it.^
The Swedish Society for the Science of Religion was founded at Stockholm in 1906.^ An event which contri- buted directly to its inauguration was the assembly in that city, nine years previously, of the first ' Congress ' for the study of the History of Religions.^ The idea, thus embodied, was not wholly independent of that great initial Parliament of Religions which was held in Chicago in 1893; it has blos- somed out, more recently, into those International Congresses which have been held successively in Paris (1900), Basel (1904), Oxford (1908), and Leiden (1912). The Beitrage zur Beligionswissenschaft will for the most part be restricted to contributions that may be made to the Science of Religion by representative Swedish scholars. Honorary members of the Society (irrespective of their nationality) and other foreign experts of outstanding eminence, will however, from time to time, be invited to contribute papers and suggestions bearing upon relevant topics of high scientific interest.
The Religionswissenschaftliche Gesellschaft (Religions- vet enskapliga Sallskapet), recalling with just pride the fruitful labours of men like the late Fredrik Fehrs and Viktor
^ Cf. Nathan Soderblom, Naturlig Religion och Religionshistoria. En Historik och ett Program. Stockholm, 1914. Vide infra, p. 318.
" Vide supra, footnote, p. 193.
^ Happily Dr. Soderblom's pen is not idle, even in the midst of exacting ecclesiastical duties. Last year he published a suggestive volume entitled Gudstrons uppkomst. Studier. Stockholm, 1914. At the present moment he is associated with Professor Lehmann in editing a 'Science of Religion' Library : vide supra, p. 204.
^ Vide infra, pp. 431-2.
^ Cf. the record of its transactions, entitled Religionsvetenskapliga Kan- gressen i Stockholm, 1897. Stockholm, 1898. Vide infra, pp. 418 f.
312 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Rydberg, could not have made better choice of a prominent local and international scholar than when it asked Dr. Soder- blom to become its first spokesman, and thus to launch for it its latest Hterary venture. And immediately, in his very opening sentence, the writer leads us into the heart of his subject : ' die sogenannte natiirhche Theologie hat im Christentum vier Perioden erlebt '. ^
During the first of these periods, down (say) till the Middle Ages, no definite conception of Natural Theology (Natural Rehgion) seems to have been formulated. The subject is often incidentally referred to,— by St. Paul, by the Church Fathers, etc., — but apparently it did not make much appeal to the thinkers of that age. Where it did manage to rise into the position of a living issue in the minds of individual scholars, no comprehensive theory defining its boundaries was framed and elaborated. In other words, this initial chronological stage represents a time of transition and assimilation; it bore little or no fruit in the way of a permanent theological product.
The second period extends to the revival of learning, — followed, as all remember, by a wondrous new-birth of philosophy, science, art and religion, a Renaissance whose force is still unspent. During this age, a definite theory of Natural Theology was advanced and courageously defended, viz. that Natural Religion was intended to serve man as a preparation for Revealed Religion.
The motto of the third period, which began in the seven- teenth century, may be said to have been ; ' Alle Religion ist natiirliche Religion '. Dr. Soderblom has no doubt that ' mit der Epoche des Deismus und der Aufklarung beginnt fiir den Begriff natiirliche Religion eine neue Zeit. Die alte Distinktion zwischen natiirlicher und geoffenbarter Religion wurde in der Tat auch weiterhin inne gehalten. Aber die Grenze zwischen Vernunft und Offenbarung ver- schob sich zu Gunsten der menschlichen Vernunft '.'^
The fourth period, beginning with the close of the
^ C/. p. 1. ' C/. p. 33.
SODERBLOM, Theologie und Religionsgesckichte 313
eighteenth century, is aptly characterized in the chapter-head- ing : ' Es giebt keine natiirhche Eehgion '. At this juncture, the imposing personaHty of Schleiermacher looms into view, with all that his epoch-making teaching suggested and ensured. For him, the only religion worth arguing about was Positive Religion. Those who are familiar with his Reden uher die Eeligion will appreciate the force with which he drove his conclusions home. ' Das Wesen der Religion musste tiefer begriindet werden . . . Religion muss ihrem Wesen nach immer positiv sein.' ^ Accordingly, this fourth period was marked by an intensive study of the ' positive ' religions.
In two closing chapters, entitled respectively An Stelle der naturlichen Theologie tritt die allgemeine BeligionsgeschicJite and Allgemeine und hesondere Beligionsgeschichte, Dr. Soder- blom gives a wonderfully satisfying outline of the various stages discernible in the historical unfolding of the chief religions of the world. Moreover, he enters a vigorous plea on behalf of the study of the History of Religions, whose utility and necessity he fully appreciates, and of whose fitness to occupy the place hitherto assigned to Natural Theology he is absolutely assured. This step, if taken, would inaugu- rate the beginning of a ' fifth ' period in the successive stages of an unbroken advance. But Dr. Soderblom goes further. While the yearning of man for God is a universal instinct, traceable ultimately to a secret Divine impulse, another fact must be accorded due emphasis. Over and above that universal summons which is uttered within the soul, God has revealed Himself to man in other, and more particular, and more objective ways. In short, students of the History of Religions must devote themselves with redoubled earnestness to a patient and scientific study of Christianity. * Das Christentum ist das nachste und wichtigste Gebiet fiir das Studium der Religion.' 2 Proceeding to deal with the ques- tion : Besteht zwischen der allgemeinen Religionsgeschichte und der biblischen Religionsgeschichte irgend ein Unter- ' Cf. p. 43. 2 Cf. p. 80.
3U THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
schied, gewissermassen analog zii dem, den die friiheren Darstellungen der Religion zwischen natiirlicher und geoffen- barter Religion machten ?, Dr. Soderblom finds in the Christian religion a fuller and richer divine revelation than is elsewhere accessible to man ; and he holds that it is the function of the History of Religions, not less than the ap- pointed task of Christian Theology, to make this fact more clear, and to aid in separating from the Christian faith those unfortunate but inevitable accretions which tend to obscure its unrivalled and inherent excellences.
This booklet is of quite unusual merit, and is fully worthy of the dignity of that high ecclesiastical rank to which its author has recently been promoted. It has since been followed by another ' Heft ' containing valuable papers by Professor Goldziher, Dr. Fries, Dr. Wetter, etc. ^
KLEINE SCHRIFTEN, von Hermann Usener, Professor an der Universitat Bonn. (Band iv, herausgegeben von Richard Wiinsch.) 4 vols. Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1913. Pp. vii., 516. M. 15.
The concluding volume in a series which will always be prized, not only as a fitting memorial of a fondly-remembered friend but as a depository of extremely valuable material, has recently been published. It bears the sub-title Arheiten zur Beligionsgeschichte,^ and contains twenty-two essays. These sketches represent the literary activity of the writer during a strenuously productive period of nearly forty years, and deal with a great variety of themes.
As one scans these scholarly and suggestive papers, the
regret steadily grows that Professor Usener followed so
• closely the example of the late Lord Acton, who too long
^ Vide infra, pp. 431-2. Its predecessors dealt respectively with Arheiten zur griechischen Philo- Sophie und Rhetorik (1912) and Arheiten zur laleinischen Sjjrache und Literatur (1913). Literargeschichtliches , Epigraphisches, Ckronologisches appeared in 1914.
USENER, Kleine Schriften 315
postponed the embodiment of his mature thinking in care- fully planned and elaborate treatises. To be sure, this author has given us several books which all would be loath to part with ; ^ but these volumes merely whet the appetite for detailed expositions which, unfortunately, were never penned. This investigator's range of learning was so wide, and withal so minute and accurate, that he might easily have served his generation in a larger and more permanent way.
The work of Professor Usener suggests at many points the kindred investigations of his younger contemporary, Pro- fessor Wissowa.2 Both are past masters in the domain of classical scholarship. Both have applied themselves to the elucidation of some of the most knotty problems associated with primitive religion. Both have shown themselves con- scientious and painstaking to the very highest degree. Yet on some questions — as in regard to the Sondergotter ^ — these two interpreters failed to agree ! Here one finds an additional proof of the extreme complexity of some of the enigmas which the student of the History of Keligions must set himself to solve. Notwithstanding instances of defective judgement here and there. Professor Usener must be accounted an unusually competent pioneer in work of this kind. If he is followed uncritically, — as Usener often is followed by Professor Murray * and Miss Harrison ^ — he is capable of suggesting quite erroneous clues, and may thus prove himself to be a dangerous and misleading guide. Nevertheless his death, and the subsequent decease of his brilliant son-in-law, the late Albrecht Dieterich, mark the disappearance of two of the most stimulating co-workers whom students of Comparative Keligion have thus far been privileged to know.
* Cf. Das WeihnacJitsfest (in which the dependence of Christianity on earlier non-Christian beliefs is strikingly brought out), Bonn, 1889, [2nd edition, 1911]; and Die Gotternamen, Bonn, 1896. Cf. also his Religions- geschichtliche Untersuchungen, Bonn, 1889, and Vortrdge und Aufsiitze. Leipzig, 1907.
- Vide supra, pp. 294 f., and infra, pp. 444 f., etc.
^ Cf. the closing essay, entitled ' Keraunos ', pp. 471-97.
* Vide supra, pp. 278 f. * Vide supra, pp. 247 f.
316 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
RELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHE VERSUCHE UND VORARBEITEN, herausgegeben von Eichard Wiinsch und Ludwig Deubner. 15 vols. Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1903- . In'progress. Sizes vary. M. 1 (or less), up to M. 17.
This admirable series, made up of experimental and pre- liminary studies in the History of Religions, will always recall grateful memories of Dr. Albrecht Dieterich. One of the founders of this important literary undertaking, he and Dr. Wiinsch co-operated in the editing of volumes i to iv. Since 1908, his surviving colleague — who promptly called to his aid a competent and industrious helper — has carried forward this enterprise with unabated vigour. Dr. Wiinsch, as most readers of German theological literature are aware, is an indefatigable explorer whose ardour has led him to enter many fields of inquiry. One of the numerous literary schemes with which he is associated as collaborator and director is the BeligionsivissenscJiaflliche Bihliothek,'^ which has furnished us with one of the most outstanding volumes mentioned in this survey .^ He is also a valued con- tributor to the Kleine Texte,^ and to many journals and reviews.
It is to the present series that we are indebted for several valuable little books bearing upon the Mystery Religions. One of these studies is a penetrative exposition to which special attention may well be drawn ; * another, also deserv- ing of special mention, appeared two years earlier.^
Among other suggestive discussions, embraced within these
^ Vide infra f p. 319.
^ Cf. Ignaz Goldziher, Vorlesungen uher den Islam : vide supra, pp. 241 f.
^ Cf. Kleine Texte far Vorlesungen und Uebungen. Bonn, 1903- . In progress.
* Cf. Carl Clemen, Der Einfluss der Mysterienreligionen auf das iilteste Christenium. Giessen, 1913.
^ Cf. Richard Perdclwitz, Die Mysterienreligion und das Problem des I. Petrusbriefes. Giessen, 1911.
WtJNSCH UND DEUBNER, Versuche 317
VersucJie und Vorarheiten and belonging to the purview of this survey, one is particularly noteworthy.^
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
THE RECONCILIATION OF RACES AND RELIGIONS, by Thomas Kelly Cheyne. London : A, and C. Black, 1914. Pp. XX., 216. 6s.
THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS, by Stanley Arthur Cook. London : A. and C. Black, 1914. Pp. xxiv., 439. 7s. Qd.
BABYLONIAN OIL MAGIC IN THE TALMUD AND IN THE LATER JEWISH LITERATURE, by Samuel Daiches. London : The Council of the Jews' College, 1913. Pp. 42. 2s. 6d.
RELIGIONE E ARTE FIGURATA, di Alessandro Delia Seta. Roma : M. Danesi, 1912. (Translated, Religion and Art, London, 1914.) Illustrated. Pp. 288. L. 16.
WELTENMANTEL UND HIMMELSZELT. Religions-
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ANTIKEN Weltbildes, vou Robert Eisler. 2 vols. Miin- chen : C. H. Beck, 1912. Pp. xxxii., 318 + 493. M. 40.
HOMERISCHE GOTTERSTUDIEN, av Erik Heden. Uppsala : Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1912. Pp. iv., 191. Kr. 4.50.
BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN BIRTH-OMENS AND THEIR CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE, by Morris Jastrow. (Re- ligionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarheiten.) Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1914. Pp. vi., 86. M. 3.20.
DIE SCHLANGE IN DER GRIECHISCHEN KUNST UND RELIGION, von Erich Kiister. (ReHgionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarheiten.) Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1913. Pp. X., 172. M. 6.50.
TAMMUZ AND ISHTAR. A Monograph upon Babylonian Religion and Theology, by Stephen Langdon. London : The Clarendon Press, 1914. Pp. x., 196. 10s. 6d.
* Cf. Ferdinand Kutsch, Attische Heilgotter und Heilheroen. Giessen, 1913.
318 THE HISTOEY OF RELIGIONS
RELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHE STUDIEN, von A. Mar- morstein. Skotschan (6. Schlesien) : A. Marmorstein, 1910. Parts I and II, pp. 83 + 125. M. 7.25.
DER EID BEI DEN SEMITEN, von Johannes Pedersen,
(Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des islamischen
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INDIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES, by Hugli George Rawlinson. London : Longmans, Green and Company, 1913. Pp. xiii., 229. 4s. U.
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WER WAR MOSE ? Eine religionsgeschichtliche Unter- sucHUNG, von Daniel Volter. Leiden : E. J. Brill, 1913. Pp.iii.,31. M. 1.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIONS. Different Methods : Their Advantages and Disadvantages, by Duren J. H. Ward. Chicago : The Open Court Publishing Company, 1909. Pp. v., 75. 35 c.
DIE MILCH IM KULTUS DER GRIECHEN UND ROMER,
von Karl Wyss. (Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten.) Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1915. Pp. iv., 67. M. 2.50.
* * *
BEITRAGE ZUR RELIGIONSWISSENSCHAFT, herausge- geben von der Religionswissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft in Stockholm. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1914- . In pro- gress. Vol. i., pp. 270. M. 10. Vide supra, pp. 310 f., and infra, pp. 431-2.
SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES 319
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STUDIES IN JEWISH LITERATURE, edited by David Philipson, David Neumark, and Julian Morgenstern. (A Festschrift issued in honour of the Seventieth Birthday of Professor Kaufmann Kohler of Cincinnati, Ohio.) Berlin : Georg Reimer, 1913. Pp. vi., 301. M. 6.
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STUDIEN ZUR SEMITISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE. [Julius Wellhausen zum
SIEBZIGSTEN GeBURTSTAG, AM 17. MaI 1914, GEWIDMET.]
Herausgegeben von Karl Marti. Giessen : Alfred Topelmann, 1914. Pp. xi., 388. M. 18.
EETROSPECT
In no way, perhaps, can one get a clearer impression of the many-sidedness of reHgion — ever an intensely human product, revealing itself in different forms in harmony with man's varying ethnic and geographical environment, disclosed in man's domestic and social institutions, exhibited in tangible or furtive survivals which testify to the existence of beliefs and rites which were widespread during earlier ages, revealed in the building up of a more or less elaborate mythology, trace- able in the evolution of man's speech, and due to the inner working of his mind — than when it is studied successively from the foregoing points of view. Anthropology, Ethno- logy, Sociology, Archaeolog}^, Mythology, Philology, and Psychology — not to mention other kindred sciences which might be specified — substantiate in various particulars, or serve to modify, that modern and gradually expanding con- ception of religion which must ultimately win the day.
All of these subsidiary sciences — and, in particular, the History of Keligions ^ — contribute effectively towards pro- moting the progress of Comparative Keligion. As it has already been pointed out,^ each helps Comparative Eeligion in a different way, and in a different measure ; but it is these auxiliaries which, to a very large extent, are meanwhile carrying on the work of this new department of investigation, besides nourishing its incipient powers. They constitute the active forces which are gradually opening up before it a very alluring vision and a truly brilliant career. Moreover, inasmuch as these rapidly-advancing subsidiary sciences constitute a more or less dominant feature of our times, it is but fair to recognize and draw attention to this special aspect of their utility. If the labours of Anthropology or Ethnology or Sociology, etc., are not identical — either in
* Vide supra, pp. 164-5. - Vide supra, p. 163. '
EETROSPECT 321
their form or aim — with those in which students of Compara- tive ReHgion are engaged,^ such undertakings are at least highly important in themselves. They record the discoveries made by a variety of inter-related (yet largely autonomous) departments of research ; and each, in addition, is contribut- ing its individual share towards a solution of the problems which Comparative Eeligion has raised. Accordingly, all who aspire to render this latter science any real and perma- nent service must acquaint themselves thoroughly, con- stantly, and systematically with the findings of each of those- ancillary lines of inquiry which have been named.
The activity exhibited in these eight selected spheres of research — an activity that is being pressed simultaneously and persistently forward — is the chief hope of Comparative Religion as it confidently confronts the future. Only by a judicious sub-division of labour can the comprehensive purposes which it has in view be ultimately realized. Taken together, these ' avenues of approach ' have wrought — even already — an amazing revolution in the scientific study of religion. They are not antagonistic, or mutually exclusive, or even competitive, sciences ; on the contrary, they are complementary segments in a single huge circle.^ All of them are needed ; not even one of them can be spared. * There must be an interconnexion of divers branches of study, or departments of research ; and a little reflection will convince one that upon such interconnexion, and upon continuous criticism and counter-criticism, the progress of knowledge has always depended. A co-operation of this character militates against a casual dilettantism, and an excessive specialism ; it adjusts the more specialistic and inevitably one-sided work of the single individual to a greater number of interests and aims ; it tests the methods, prin- ciples and conclusions in one field by applying them to another '.^ What Comte sought to accomplish through his
^ Vide infra, p. 325. ^ Vide supra, p. 143.
^ Cf. Stanley A. Cook on ' The Evolution and Survival of Primitive Thought ', in Essays and Studies, pp. 375-6 ; vide supra, pp. 27 f.
Y
322 THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS
Cours de fliilosoioliie j^ositive,'^ we must here seek to do, viz. to ' co-ordinate ' the results obtained from many separate sciences, in order thus to approximate an expression of the sum-total of our knowledge in terms of a single world-view. It is undeniable that present investigators in the eight do- mains specified — barring only the last — do not always take steps to secure a solution of those profoundly religious problems which they themselves have raised.^ Oftentimes, such queries lie wholly beyond the sphere within which these respective coadjutors and auxiliaries have been allotted their individual task. Yet who can deny the debt which Comparative Religion owes to some at least of those scholars, men of international reputation, who are by profession anthropologists, philologists, psychologists, etc. ? It 'is in these preliminary fields that many of the pioneers of Com- parative Religion — the sappers and miners of the movement — are to-day ceaselessly at work.
In other words. Comparative Religion has reached, thus far, only a transition-stage in its history. Great as have been its achievements, it has not yet come to its own. Nor can it hope to make any conspicuous or permanent advance until a vast amount of labour of a purely provisional and preparatory character has been faced and successfully accomplished.
^ Vide supra, p. 62. ^ Vide supra, p. 163.
PART II
THE TRANSITION
Y 2
THE TRANSITION
In so far as its subject-matter is concerned, Part I of this survey might almost have been termed ' Adventures in Comparative Eehgion '. Anthropology, Sociology, Mytho- logy, etc., have been studied by experts historically and comparatively in literally every instance ; but each of these sciences has sought diligently to discharge its own task,^ and that task has never been identical with the duty and mission of Comparative Keligion.^ As the late Dr. Fairbairn once put it : ' The emphasis has fallen, now, on the philological or literary expression ; and the mythology, the folklore, the divine names and attributes have been investigated and compared. Then the emphasis has changed to institution and custom ; and the totem, the sacrifice, the priest, the magician have become the fields of research and speculation. But these [items of inquiry] by themselves are more signifi- cant of the stage of culture than of the nature or character of the religion '.^
It has already been explained that the transition towards Comparative Keligion has been made, for the most part, through a study of the History of Eeligions.^ Quite fre- quently, in volumes representing this latter branch of research, a chapter or two will be found devoted to an examination of some of the parallehsms, analogies, etc., which subsist between different rehgions. Take, for example. Book iv of Dr. Howells's Angus Lectures — embracing three essays — in which he discusses ' A Comparative Study of Hinduism and Christianity '.^ Or take Lecture vi of Dr.
1 Vide supra, p. 163. ^ Vide supra, pp. 320-1.
3 Cf. Andrew M. Fairbairn, The Philosophy of the Christian Religion, p. 212. London, 1902. [4th edition, 1907.] * Vide supra, pp. 163 f. 5 Cf. George Howells, The Soul of India, pp. 395-523 : vide supra,
pp. 251 f.
326 THE TRANSITION
Underwood's book,^ in which the author deals with ' A Com- parison of the foregoing Theisms with that of the Old and New^ Testaments '. Many similar instances might be cited, but these tw^o will suffice. No systematic, comprehensive and exhaustive comparison of the data which these various historians provide is instituted by them, or even attempted ; nevertheless, they are evidently conscious that such a com- parison ought to be made.
For a considerable period, a strong and growing desire to bring about a separation between the History of Eeligions and Comparative Eeligion has manifested itself in influential quarters. For, much as the latter study owes to the former, it was clearly discerned that Comparative Eeligion had its own work to do, and that it could not legitimately be identi- fied with the History of Eeligions any more than it could be identified with Anthropology or Mythology or Psychology. Moreover, the History of Eeligions has of late so extended its area, and has become so weighted with ever-increas- ing material, that it is to-day simply unable to cope with the additional task of competently comjparing the huge mass of data it has accumulated. In truth, the compari- son of religions was never an integral part of the ser- vice which the History of Eeligions undertook when it promised to make its contribution to the modern Science of Eeligion.
This sentiment, at the outset merely a pious wash, has been strengthened by the experience actually gained in attempting to carry a quite impossible burden. It has gathered force, besides, owing to the very outspoken demands of the representatives of Comparative Eeligion. And the movement grows apace. While few imagined that the proposed separation of these two branches of inquiry could be effected soon, the arguments in its favour have proved so overwhelming that apparently they needed only to be framed in order to secure serious consideration. At
^ Cj. Horace G. Underwood, The Religions of Eastern Asia, pp. 231-64 : vide supra, i>p. 221 f.
THE TRANSITION 327
the third International Congress for the History of Rehgions^ convened at Oxford seven years ago, this feehng found definite and insistent expression in a paper that dealt ex- pressly with this subject. 1
This new movement has lacked, however, — thus far — the support it reasonably anticipated. Many workers in the domain of the History of Religions have looked upon it askance,^ — sometimes disdainfully, sometimes distrustfully,, as though Comparative Religion were an unwelcome and aggressive intruder. Others have looked upon the proposed separation of these two studies with unmistakable and im- movable indifference.
Happily it is now generally recognized that the party supporting this demand is the party of the future. The legitimacy of its contention is widely conceded, even by those who — under the ceaseless pressure of their own scientific pursuits — are practically unable to lend the movement itself any personal assistance. It is felt that, while Anthropology and its co-auxiliaries must continue to furnish Comparative Religion with the great mass of its raw material, the latter science has its own proper task to face and accomplish. And another hopeful fact must be chronicled ; the old feeling of unfriendliness towards Comparative Religion is gradually passing away. The first seven of the subsidiary sciences, enumerated in Part I of this survey, are beginning to show a certain willingness to hand over to Comparative Religion those portions of their data which relate exclusively to religion ; the History of Religions, on the other hand, is beginning to abandon its purely tentative attempts to
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope : vide infra, p. 368.
2 Cf. Hermann Gunkel : ' The historian of religion must . . . overstep the boundaries of his special subject, and must be able to recognize every- where the actual special relation of the parts to the whole, and the truly- significant analogies ' {Proceedings and Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Free Christianity and Religious Progress, p. 123 : vide infra,. pp. 415 f.). Or Joseph Bricout : ' La Methode comparative, qui est essentielle en hierologie, n'est pas a exclure d'histoire ; elle fait en quelque sorte de la methode historique ' {Ok en est Vhistoire des religions?, p. 31 : vide supra, pp. 175 f.
328 THE TRANSITION
institute comparisons. Moreover, while all eight of these subsidiary sciences must continue to promote their own individual ends/ some of them have generously announced their intention to keep the special interests of Comparative Eeligion more directly in view. Simultaneously, Compara- tive Religion has made it plain that this action on the part of its colleagues is entirely justified. The additions it has recently made to its staff, the higher standard of scholarship it now exacts and attracts, the judicious organization of its forces, and the immense impulse which the science has already gained thereby, fully warrant the delegation in future to Comparative Religion of a sphere of action more wide, re- sponsible, and independent than it has hitherto enjoyed.
In addition, then, to the literature specified under ' Avenues of Approach ', there is a copious auxiliary literature — rapidly being increased — which is proving immensely effec- tive in promoting the interests of Comparative Religion. The volumes which belong to the ' Transition ' period are not of course themselves genuine expositions of Compara-. tive Religion. They indicate rather a quest for adequate methods by which this new line of research may be advanced with greater vigour. They present us continually with com- parisons which are admittedly imperfect and one-sided ; yet they are honestly and persistently striving to make an end of such comparisons, and to introduce an era wherein such blunders and absurdities will wholly disappear.
In a word, it is plain that the loose and varying concep- tions of Comparative Religion, formerly everywhere pre- valent, are gradually being got rid of.^ They have evidently been outgrown. The range of the science is being deliber- ately curtailed ; its interests and activities are being brought within definite and carefully-prescribed boundaries. The goal towards which it is advancing is still distant, and strenuous efforts must be put forth if that goal is to be reached without undue delay. What that goal actually is will be delineated in a subsequent part of this survey.^
' Vide supra, pp. 163, 325, etc. » Vide injra, pp. 509 f.
^ Vide infra, pp. 514 f.
THE EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
It is not surprising that, when students were in quest of an effective agency for interpreting the reHgions of the world, each of the eight sciences already enumerated should have recommended its own distinctive method as the very best that could be found. Thus Farnell, Frazer and Jevons con- fidently advise the employment of the anthropological method. Van Gennep, Schmidt, and Steinmetz extol the merits of the ethnological (or ethnographical) method. Durkheim, Hubert, and Mauss advocate enthusiastically the sociological method. Breasted, Garstang, and Sayce pin their faith to the archseological method. Ehrenreich, Jeremias, and Palmer magnify the possibilities of the mytho- logical method. Deissmann, Moulton, and Wetter remind us with pride of the achievements of the modern philo- logical method. Leuba, Stratton, and Wobbermin sing the praises of the psychological method. All competent au- thorities to-day, whatever may be the special sphere of investigation they represent, are also of course strenuous defenders of the historical method.
As a consequence of such discordant and often contra- dictory advice,^ and inasmuch as good results have been obtained through every one of these agencies,^ various at- tempts have been made to combine two or more of these methods, or to fuse two or more of them into an entirely new instrument. Thus, some advocate as a deliberate blend the historico-comparative method, — a procedure which
* Cf. Arnold van Gennep on ' La Faillite de la methode historique ' in Religions, moeurs et Ugendes, vol. ii, pp. 82 f. : vide supra, pp. 19 f. Or cf. George Foucart's criticism of the anthropological and ethnological schools in Histoire des religions et methode comparative, pp. xlv f. : vide infra, pp. 342 f. * Vide supra, p. 321.
330 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
has frequently been adventured, but almost uniformly with unsatisfactory results.^ Dr. Nilsson affirms that ' die Keligionswissenschaft ist eine liistoriscli-'psychologisclie Wis- senschaft \^ — a view endorsed by Mr. Johnston in his recent book.^ Others, — more fully alive to the importance of concentration, e. g., Ankermann, Foy, Frobenius, Graebner, etc., — warmly support the alleged paramount claims of the kulturgeschichtliche Methode.^ La MetJiode analytique ^ and la Methode syntJietique ^ — not to mention others — have alike been enthusiastically defended. That the best way of studying and interpreting the complex phenomena of religion, the best definition of Comparative Keligion itself, and the best demarcation of its boundaries are still matters of controversy are surely striking evidences of the fact that — • notwithstanding all that has already been accomplished — Comparative Eeligion has not yet passed beyond the stage of a remarkable and momentous transition.
The demand for the discovery and utilization of a distinctive and strictly-scientific procedure — la Methode. scientifiiue,'^ applicable especially to the study of religion — was never more clamant than to-day.^ Its absolute necessity,
^ Of. James C. Moffat, A Comjparative History of Religions. 2 vols. New York, 1871-1873. Rene Dessaud, Introduction d Vhistoire des religions : vide supra, pp. 178 f. Vide supra, p. 163, and iyijra, p. 354.
^ Cf. Martin P. Nilsson, Primitive Religion, p. 3 : vide supra, pp. 26 f. C/., also, Georg Wobbermin, Die religionspsychologische Methode in Religions- wissenschaft und Theologie : vide infra, pp. 366 f .
^ Cf. John L. Johnston, Some Alternatives to Jesus Christ, pp. 13-16 : vide infra, pp. 380 f. Vide supra, also, p. 140.
'* Vide supra, pp. 46 f . Cf. Wilhelm Schmidt on ' Die kulturhistorische Methode in der Ethnologie ' in Anthropos, vol. vi, pp. 1010-36 : vide infra, p. 472. This form of inquiry, which seeks to demonstrate the direct transmission of cultures, is frequently called the ethnologico -historical method, la methode historico-culturelle, the historico-ethnical method, or simply the ethnological method (la methode ethnologique) : vide infra, pp. 360 f.
Cf. Emilo Amelineau, Frolegomenes a Vetude de la religion egyptienne, p. 59 : vide supra, p. 108.
^ Cf. Paul Richard, Les Dieux : vide infra, p. 368.
Cf. Maurice Vcrnes, Histoire sociale des religions : vide supra, pp. 77 f. » Cf. Marshall P. Tailing, The Science of Spiritual Life : vide supra, p. 157.
EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD 331
indeed, is conceded. In Germany, the employment of the historical method, in countless spheres of inquiry, quite naturally led to th« adoption of the religionsgescJiichtliche Methode as an agency for solving problems raised by the Old and New Testaments.^ More recently, this method has been widely used in a critical and comparative study of all reli- gions,— not merely those of Ancient Greece and of the Orient before the time of Christ, but also those of later and even of contemporary periods. The conception of Christianity, in particular, has in consequence undergone a revolutionary change. In most respects, — though not in all, — its unique- ness has vanished. ' Das Christentum, das bestimmt war, vielen Volkern gepredigt zu werden, war selber nicht von einem Volke erzeugt worden, sondern war aus einer grossen und vielverschlungenen Geschichte vieler Yolker erwachsen.' ^ An effort is being made to overcome ' the dogmatic prejudice which regards the religion of the Bible ... as something so peculiar to itself that it cannot possibly be explained on the analogy of other religions. . . . This is the fundamental thought which has led us to search throughout the whole of the Orient for material which may be brought to bear upon the religion of the Bible, — to seek throughout the whole world for analogies to Biblical phenomena.' ^ In other words, Christianity has been found to be a sort of spiritual amalgam ; * not less than other faiths, it is largely
^ Cf. Hermann Gunkel, Zu7n religionsgeschichtlichen V ersti'mdnis des Neuen Testaments. Gottingen, 1903. [2nd edition, 1910.] Vide also his paper on ' The History of Religion, and Old Testament Criticism ' in the Proceedings and Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Free Chris- tianity and Religious Progress, pp. 114-25. Berlin, 1911. Also his Reden und Aufsdtze. Gottingen, 1913. Professor Gunkel is no doubt the foremost living representative of this school. The contributions made to the move- ment by Troeltsch, Bousset, Wernle, Cheyne, etc., are well known.
^ Cf. Zum . . . Verstdndnis, p. 95.
* Cf. Hermann Gunkel, Proceediiujs and Papers of the before -mentioned Berlin Congress, p. 124. Vide infra, pp. 341 f.
* Cf. Zum . . . Verstandnis, p. 95 : ' Das Christentum ist eine synkre- tistische Religion.' Or Wilhelm Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im iieutestamentlichen Zeitalter (1903, p. 493) : ' Das Judentum aber war die Retorte, in welcher die verschiedenen Elemente gesammelt wurden.'
332 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
the outcome of an evolutionary process which explains the origin of the elements of which it consists.^
This ' religionsgeschichtliche Methode ■ has been subjected in various quarters to severe and persistent criticism.^ While it is quite true that all religions are more or less syncretic, — indeed it is a proof that a given faith pos- sesses one of the qualifications essential for a world-wide career that it exhibits this feature of adaptability in a conspicuous measure — this method, however suggestive and fruitful in the hands of a competent historian, is at best im- perfect and unsatisfying. It does not take one far enough, nor can it conduct its adherents with a sufficient measure of confidence. It is not singular, therefore, that a new ideal has begun to arise of late among students of religion in many lands. ^ When one religion is set over against another, comparison may not always prove a reliable test of ' value ' ; but it is a good criterion, in many other respects, notwithstanding. Accordingly, the desire to utilize the comparative method of inquiry — under more exact and more promising conditions than have hitherto been possible ^ — has found increasing expression within the last two decades. The comparative method, like all other agencies, is open to abuses ; ^ it must never be wholly divorced from the his-
^ Vide infra, pp. 390-1.
^ Cf. Carl Clemen, Die religionsgeschichtliche Methode in der Theologie : vide infra, pp. 341 f. ; and Alfred E. Garvie, The Christian Certainty amid the Modern Perplexity. London, 1910. Also, an article from the same pen in The Expository TimeSy vol. xxv, p. 156 f. : vide infra, p. 477. Professor Moulton is not altogether unfriendly to this line of investigation : vide infra, p. 391. Many make the mistake of supposing that the religionsgeschicht- liche Methode is identical with the comparative method. The two are so regarded, generally speaking, in Germany ; but, in point of fact, they are very far from being one and the same.
^ Cf. Carpenter, Cook, Foucart, Garvie, Geden, van Gennep, Goblet d'Alviella, Labanca, Martindale, Pinard, etc.
* Vide infra, p. 167, and infra, pp. 333, 342 f., 356 f., and 519 f.
^ Cf. Maurice Vernes on ' Les Abus de la methode comparative dans I'histoire des religions ' in UHistoire des religions, pp. 67 f. Paris, 1887. Also, Goblet d'Alviella on ' Trois limitations de la methode comparative ' in Croyances, rites, institutions, vol. ii, pp. 211 f . : vide infra, pp. 450 f. Also, Alfred Loisy on ' L' Application dela methode comparative a I'histoire
EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD 333
torical method.^ Nevertheless, the comparativist is needed to supplement the work of the historian.^ He is one who utters no absolute or final judgements ; his conclusions are purely relative and tentative. Mr. Cook, in an article previously referred to, declares that ' one of the objects of this essay is to suggest that the comparative method has opened the way to several inquiries of rather novel character, which will be of distinct value not only for certain special studies, but also for the far more vital study of human nature '.^ Another writer, while unduly anxious to press this new agency into the service of a given faith, viz. ' for the establishment of the absolute superiority of Christianity ', ^ very justly remarks : * Comparative investigation brings life and action into the fossils of historic science, and into the tertiary strata of the ancient deposits of language and thought. It should therefore be systematically employed in the examination of religions. . . . The knowledge of religions is necessary to the understanding of religion '.^
It appears, then, that the proposal to separate the study of the History of Keligions from the task of Comparative Keligion ^ does not demand the invention of a new scientific method, but merely a better and more skilful application of an existing and trusted method. As stated already, all the sciences which have here been grouped together under the designation ' Avenues of Approach ' are comparative sciences ; ' some of their greatest successes indeed have been
des religions ' in A propos dliistoire des religions, pp. 316 f. : vide supra, pp. 309 f. 'La methode comparative', says Professor van Gennep, ' n'a de valeur scientifique que dans les limites fort bien connuea des ethno- graphes ' {Religions, moeurs et legeiides, vol. ii. p. 67) : vide supra, pp. 19 f.
* Vide supra, pp. 164 f.
* Vide infra, pp. 346 f.
^ Cf. Stanley E. Cook on ' The Evolution and Survival of Primitive Thought ' in Essays and Studies, p. 35 : vide supra, pp. 27 f.
* Cf. Edmund Spiess, The Comparative Study of Religions, and its Importance for Christianity, p. 11. Jena, 1874. Vide infra, pp. 369 f.
* Cf. ibid., p. 11.
® Vide supra, pp. 326 f.
^ Vide supra, pp. 325 and 329. Vide also, Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth, pp. 321 f. Edinburgh, 1905.
334 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
achieved through the employment of the comparative method. But, in hterally every instance, such efforts have been purely experimental, while the comparisons thus framed have been instituted in the interest of some special branch of investigation, whether Anthropology, Ethnology, Sociology, etc. Similar experiments have been undertaken, it is true, in the alleged interest of religion ; but these at- tempts have generally proved not only defective but mis- leading. In so far as the competent exposition of religion is concerned, the necessity has plainly arisen for an applica- tion of the comparative method under somewhat different auspices, viz. under the guidance of experts who, possessed of the necessary time and training, can concentrate the major part of their energies upon this single undertaking.^
It was after this manner that a dividing line first began to emerge between the newer science of Comparative Reli- gion and the older science out of which it has grown. The History of Religions, apt and successful in its emplojmient of the historical method, still busies itself in accumulating and assorting all the multifarious facts of religious experi- ence ; Comparative Religion, on the other hand, seeks to discover (1) the relationshijjs and laws which govern the evolution of religion in general, and (2) the relationships and laws which have determined the evolution of each individual religion in its separate and distinctive career.
It has been well said that ' no religion is an absolutely isolated phenomenon. They have all grown up in sight of one another, so to speak ; and, not infrequently, one form has arisen in order either to develop or to oppose some form already in action. Each particular rehgion, therefore, both gains light from comparison with others, and sheds its own light upon them '.^
The method of comparison which Comparative Religion is strenuously seeking to evolve is a method the very reverse
^ Vide infra, pp. 519 f.
* Cf. Alfred Caldecott in A Bibliography for Missionary Students, p. 54. London, 1913. . .
EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD 335
of one that is haphazard, occasional, or casual in its char- acter. It has no ambition to obtain results which passing onlookers will feel constrained to pronounce ingenious, bold, and arresting. It aims rather at conducting its processes in a rigidly scientific way. The products it is in search of must be exact and reliable. In the use of this agency, it covets supremely the ease which comes through experience, and the dexterity which only experience can supply. It is cultivating that keenness of vision which (backed by sound learning) detects instantly a counterfeit comparison, and that courage which is remorseless in its exposure of such blunders. The comparative method, however, employed after the manner just described — i. e. applied with prompt- ness, skill, and confidence — is possible only to him who has become an expert in the use of it.^
As utilized by Comparative Eeligion, this agency may roughly be described as a distinctive method of research in which the investigator's conclusions are arrived at by means of a series of comparisons. These comparisons may be many or few, and may be wider or narrower in scope, as circumstances may temporarily require ; but, when insti- tuted in accordance with certain definite and fundamental principles,^ they serve gradually to make clear the way in which man's multifarious religious beliefs have come to occupy the places they have filled, and to wield the influence they have possessed over the minds of those who have been led to accept them. The comparativist seeks thus to deter- mine the demonstrable agreements and differences which pertain amongst religious phenomena, the proofs of their mutual dependence or (if it be so) of their wholly independent status, the standards of moral excellence or defect which they respectively reveal, and all other facts of a similarly interpretive character.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope, pp. 12-13 : vide infra, p. 368.
* Cf. Jordan, Comparative Beligion : Its Meaning and Value. [In pre- paration.]
336 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
THE LAWS WHICH GOVEKN THE COUKSE AND DESTINY OF EELIGIONS. A Course of Lec- tures.^ [Anonymous.] London : The Year Book Press, 1912. Pp. xx., 225. 7s. 6d.
This is a curious book, and the reader lays it down with two clear impressions in mind. First, it exhibits high purpose, and a creditable level of attainment. Secondly, it is a peculiarly unsatisfactory piece of work. Its phrasing, careless and inexact, is sometimes positively irritating. As ^.n exposition, it is obtuse and needlessly perplexing.
The wTiter begins by saying that ' these Lectures were prepared, but not delivered. . . . They are submitted . . . in the hope that they may be . . . available in drawing more attention to a particular aspect of a great subject which . . . has not received the attention to which it is entitled '.^
The book contains sixteen Lectures. Incidentally it. throws much light upon the process by which Comparative Eeligion is slowly coming to its own ; hence its inclusion in this survey. Not that the writer is altogether friendly to this new science. He begins : ' The subject which I submit to your consideration is " The laws which govern the rise, progress, stability and decay of religions in the world ". There are kindred subjects with which it is easy to confound it, — two at all events. These are Comparative Eeligion (a newly sprung-up science, if it is indeed entitled to the name) and Ecclesiastical History. . . . With these, the subject of our present concern, however connected, is clearly not identical. ... I would call it, for brevity and dis- tinction sake, by the name of Threskonomy. . . . Com- parative Eeligion proposes to itself a wide subject, the subject-matter of all religions ; but Comparative Eeligion has nothing to do with the laws that govern their history.
* Reissued the following year at a reduced price, in a somewhat revised form, under the title The Rise and Fall of Religions in the World.
* Cf. p. vii.
ANONYMOUS, The Destiny of Religions 337
It is only concerned with their natural history, as illustrated and revealed by a comparative view of their respective features '.^
The author is to be commended for his statement that * Ecclesiastical History [by which he means the History of Eeligions] concerns itself with . . . the histories of parti- cular religions, but without attempted comparison between the particulars of each history '.^ This dictum shows that his eye rests upon wide and widening horizons. As regards Comparative Eeligion, however, he is seriously astray. Most emphatically, part of its business is to search out and proclaim those ' laws ' from which he proposes to exempt it.^ The ' general principles elicited from a comparison between the details of the histories of different religions ' * — to which study it is proposed to apply the uncouth name ' Threskonomy ' — belong really to a quite different and more advanced department of the general Science of Eeligion, viz. the Philosophy of Eeligion.
Lectures ii and iii are devoted to the Origins of Particular Eeligions, alike greater and lesser. Lecture iv deals with the Propagation of Eeligions, as conducted in divers man- ners. Lectures v to xi inclusive expound the Working Agencies of Eeligions, whether personal (the priest, the prophet, woman, etc.,) or institutional (Scriptures, rites, united worship, and various ancillary means such as philan- thropies, written defences of a faith, etc.,). Lecture xii deals with the Matter of Eeligions ; ' for how are you to treat of the strength or decay of anything, without respect to the matter of which it consists ? ' ^ Lectures xiii to xvi are devoted to enumerating and emphasizing various Indica- tions of Strength and Decay. It is to be noted that, in the writer's judgement, * Christianity — with some local exceptions, especially Ireland — shows serious signs of labe- factation ' ! ^ Christianity, he holds, ' has seen its best days,
^ C/. pp. 1-2. * Cf. p. 2, ^ Vide supra, pp. 334, and infra, p. 519.
* Cf. p. 2. Cf.y to the same effect, p. 144.
* Cf. p. 144. « Cf, p. 193.
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338 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
and is falling into decay like its predecessors ; but from this it does not follow but [sic] there may be something better (another system, and by divine interposition) to follow, as much in excess of Christianity, and as legitimate a descen- dant, as Christianity was of Judaism \^ The writer believes that ' there has been an original revelation, contemporary with the origin of the species ; ' ^ that successive revelations have been vouchsafed wherever imperatively needed ; and that this law of progression is the only — yet sure — hope of the Christian world to-day.
One must repeat the verdict that, notwithstanding the author's evident knowledge and sympathy and willingness to take considerable pains, this volume throws little light upon the theme with which it professes to deal.
ELCHASAI: EIN KELIGIONSSTIFTER UND SEIN WERK. Beitrage zur judischen, christlichen UND allgemeinen Religionsgeschichte, von Wilhelm Brandt. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1912. Pp. vii., 182. M. 7.50.
From one point of view, this singularly attractive little book should have been given a place among those volumes on the History of Religions which are grouped under ' Indi- vidual Religions '.^ It claims to present the history of a little-known Jewish- Christian and Baptist sect which appeared about the year 100 a.d. east of the Jordan, which flourished in the second and third centuries, which sent out missionaries who penetrated westward as far as Rome, and which for a time seemed to have a promising future. The book, however, represents much more than an effort to gather up the threads of a long-forgotten history. It is animated, clearly, by the spirit of the ' Transition ' period. It seeks to effect — though of necessity somewhat imper-
' Cf. p. 194. 2 Vide supra, pp. 224 f.
BRANDT, Elchasai : Ein Religions stifter, etc. 339
fectly — a comparison of the tenets of this early sect with those of its numerous neighbours. It is here, more than in the accomplishment of its own more immediate aim, that the real value of the book is to be found. Hence its inclu- sion under the present category.
Before Dr. Brandt resigned his chair in the University of Amsterdam, a few years ago, he had rendered international scholarship immense service through his patient elucidation of the Mandsean religion.^ Students of Gnosticism, especi- ally, know and acknowledge their very great indebtedness to him. Ever a lover of history, the instinct of the com- parativist continually asserts itself in all his literary under- takings. And now in his inviting Swiss home, in the enjoyment of ampler leisure, the author is still a most diligent investigator and writer. In the present instance, his industry has been very satisfactorily rewarded.
Dr. Brandt tells us that ' fiir die eben jetzt im Erscheinen begriffene EncyclopcEdia of Religion and Ethics ^ sollte ich den Artikel iiber die Elchasaer verfassen '.^ That contri- bution was recognized from the outset to be one deserving of the highest commendation. As in the case of the volume now under review, many statements have to be accepted with reserve ; our knowledge of the actual facts is admittedly very fragmentary. ' Historische Erkenntnisse kommen nicht ohne Beihilfe der Phantasie zustande. Dass ihr Anteil um so grosser wird, je sparlicher die Quellen der Uberlieferung fiiessen, ist unvermeidlich '.* But Dr. Brandt has no wish to deceive either himself or others ; and he is so much upon the alert that the risk of incurring that disaster unawares is certainly not very serious. * Die tendenziose Phantasie ist Liige : die rein wissenschaftlich interessierte, trotzdem sie sehr oft irrt, zu jedem Fortschritt der Erkenntnis unentbehrlich. An der hier veroffentlichten Arbeit hat nicht jene, hat nur diese Phantasie mitgewirkt '."^
^ Cf. Die mandaische Religion. Leipzig, 1889. Also, Manddische Schriften. Gottingen, 1893.
2 Cf. vol. V, pp. 262-9. 3 Cf. p. V. ^ Cf. p. vi.
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34:0 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Having dealt in a brief opening chapter with ' The Sources ' upon which our knowledge of the Elkesaites rests, Dr. Brandt goes on to furnish us with a most interesting inter- pretation of * Elchasai : ein Mann und ein Buch '. He repudiates the theory that this name is to be restricted to the Scriptures of the sect ; he holds strongly the view that the founder of this new faith was an outstanding personal leader who filled an important historical role. Then follow chapters dealing with ' The Tenets of the Elkesaites ', ' The History of Elchasai ', ' The Book of Elchasai in the Greek Orient ' and the divine revelation which it was said to con- tain, ' The Mission to the West, and the Christianizing of the Book ', ' The Sampsaeans ', ' The Mughtasila ', ' Origin of the Elkesaite Baptism ' (viz. total immersion, which was the distinguishing rite of the sect, and which was to be employed for the removal of disease as well as of moral defilement), and then a final chapter on ' Wissenschaftliche Bemiihungen und Ergebnisse '.
Dr. Brandt, notwithstanding an honest endeavour to keep his imagination under restraint, allows it to run at times far beyond the boundaries of all available literary sources. Hippolytus, Epiphanius, Origen, and other early writers took much less interest in this little-known Jewish- Christian sect than Dr. Brandt confessedly feels ; but the fragmentary references they make to it, and the scattered excerpts they cull from its Scriptures, certainly cannot sus- tain that very considerable fabric which this writer proceeds to uprear. In teaching that the Elkesaites were originally a sect of the Jews,^ and that by successive stages — as the gradually-compiled Book of Elchasai is held to reveal — they approximated more and more closely to the Christian ideal. Dr. Brandt parts company with several competent authorities who have already surveyed this field ; but for range of knowledge covering religious movements during the first centuries of our era, and for firm grasp upon some at least
^ Few deny that the Jewish sect known as the Essenes accepted Elchasai as a prophet.
BRANDT, Elchasai : Bin Religionsstifter, etc. 341
of the leading facts of the situation, he can hardly be surpassed.
It is beyond question that this monograph will direct attention afresh — not only with a conscious renewal of interest, but with the open-mindedness of a purely scientific inquiry — to a very obscure and complicated subject.
DIE KELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHE METHODE IN DER THEOLOGIE, von Carl Clemen, Professor der Religionsgeschichte an der Universitat Bonn. Giessen ; Alfred Topelmann, 1904. Pp. iv., 39. M. 1.
It is not proposed to do more than mention this booklet, lest it should chance to be overlooked. Its date precludes any formal examination of it in the present survey. It is a real pleasure, however, to draw attention to the literary activities of its author, now one of the chief leaders of a movement which is at last bringing Comparative Religion to the forefront in Germany .^
This paper is significant as well as important. Read as an Inaugural Lecture by Dr. Clemen when he was trans- ferred to his present post at Bonn, it forms an introductory step to those labours into which the author is now throwing himself v/ith conspicuous ardour. In it one finds an admir- ably compact record of the attempts which, up to ten years ago, various scholars had made to account for the substance of New Testament teaching, in so far as that teaching has been associated by them with alleged contributory non- Christian sources. 2
As to the ' religionsgeschichtliche Methode ' itself, its aims and its defects, enough has already been said on a preceding
^ Cf. Carl Clemen, Religionsgeschichtliche ErJcldrung des Neuen Testaments. Giessen, 1909. [Translated ' Primitive Christianity and its Non-Jewish Sources '. Edinburgh, 1912] ; Der Einfluss der Mysterienreligionen auf das illteste Christentum. Giessen, 1913 ; etc. etc.
* Of. Hermann Gunkel, Zum reUgionsgeschichtlichen Verstandnis des Neuen Testaments. Gottingen, 1903. [2nd edition, 1910.]
342 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
page.^ The reader is referred, also, to certain criticisms of it — offered from a perhaps ultra-conservative point of view — by Principal Garvie ^ and Professor Shaw.^
HISTOIEE DES EELIGIONS ET METHODE COM- PAKiVTIVE, par George Foucart, Professeur a la Faculte des Lettres de I'Universite d'Aix-Marseille, (Bibliotheque d'Histoire Eeligieuse.) Paris: Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils, 1912. Pp. clxiv., 450. Fr. 5.
An earlier issue of this book has been published under a slightly different title.^ The two volumes differ, moreover, in their subject-matter. Many corrections and amplifica- tions have been incorporated in the text of the new edition. The criticisms with which certain scholars immediately greeted some of the writer's views are frankly replied to. The Bibliography has been amplified. In short, the number of pages has been doubled, an elaborate Introduction having been prefixed to the very able discussions which make up the body of the work.
The words elsewhere written in praise of this volume ^ do not need to be modified in any particular. It is a book of genuine and conspicuous merit. The author ' recognizes clearly that the study of the History of Eeligions and the study of Comparative Eeligion are venj far from being merely different aspects of the same thing. He recognizes, besides, that the method which each employs is charac- teristically its own '.^
In view of the successive and searching comparisons
^ Vide supra, pp. 331 f.
^ Cf. Alfred E. Garvie on ' The Danger of Mares' Nests in Theology ', in The Expository Times, vol. xxiv, pp. 373 f. : vide infra, p. 477.
^ Of. John M. Shaw on ' The Religious-Historical Movement in German Theology ', in The Expository Times, vol. xx, pp. 248, 303, and 350, and on ' The Present Theological Situation ', in the same journal, vol. xxiii, pp. 7 f.
" Cf. La Methode comparative dans Vhistoire des religions. Paris, 1909.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906-1000, pp. 26 f. Edinburgh, 1910. « Cf. ibid., p. 29.
FOUCART, Histoire des Religions 343
which Professor Foucart institutes between sacrifices, ceremonials associated with magic, rites of the dead, forms of worship, etc. etc., observed in Egypt, Babylonia, India, Greece, and other countries, his book is almost entitled to be given a place under ' Comparative Keligion ' ; ^ but its outstanding feature is rather to be found in the emphasis it lays upon the right employment of the comparative method. To this exposition, indeed, it devotes a very large part of the scholarly Introduction which has already been referred to, and which exceeds 160 pages in length.
Investigators who pin their faith to the processes characteristic of any one of the specified ' Avenues of Approach ' ^ will not derive much encouragement as they peruse these pages. In particular, the anthropological method ^ finds in Professor Foucart one of its most redoubt- able antagonists.* He has Uttle hope that the study of totemism, magic, etc., will be able to throw much light on the origin of religion. He does not think that we can possibly discover what primitive religion may have been ; ^ but, even were it otherwise, he contends that such a type of faith need never be sought for among the rapidly diminishing survivors of modern savage races. Among them, reHgion is apt to become a blighted and withered plant, affording only very faint indications of its pristine vigour and purity. If one would know the real essence and capa- bilities of a body of belief, he must study it in its advanced and fullest developments,^ — comparing it with itself in its successive stages of growth, and comparing it also with other adjacent religions ."^
If Professor Foucart 's work, as regards its spirit and tendency, might quite fitly be allotted to Part III of this volume, its place meanwhile has not been unfairly adjudged.
^ Vide infra, pp. 507 f . '^ Vide supra, pp. 1 f.
* Vide supra, pp. 3 f . Dr. Foucart employs, of course, the terminology ' la methode ethnologique ' : vide supra, footnote, p. 1.
* Vide supra, footnote, p. 9 ; footnote, p. 329 ; etc.
^ ' A la verite, cette religion n'a jamais existe reellement ' (p. 30).
* Vide supra, p. 8. ' Vide supra, p. 334.
344 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A notable event — full of promise, and here gladly chronicled — was the recent bestowal upon this scholar ^ of one of the valuable Lefevre-Deumier prizes, awarded to him by the Academie des Sciences morales et politiques (Institut de France) for the production of the volume just reviewed.
TABOU, TOTEMISME ET METHODE COMPAKATIVE, par Arnold van Gennep, Professeur d'Histoire Com- paree des Civilisations et d'Ethnographie a I'Universite de Neuchatel. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1908. Pp. 45. Fr. 2.
When dealing with the literature representative of recent progress in Anthropology ,2 special reference was made to a valuable work in process of publication by Professor van Gennep.^ In one of the volumes of this treatise, a chapter is devoted to ' Tabou, Totemisme et Methode Compara- tive \^ — a reprint of the discussion now under review. It first made its appearance as an article in a French journal of high academic standing.^
In the preceding volume of the review just mentioned,^ Professor Toutain — in a sketch entitled ' L'Histoire des Religions et le Totemisme ' '^ — undertook to criticize very severely M. Renel (and M. Salomon Reinach ^ also) for having maintained that Totemism may easily be traced in the texture of Greek religion. In particular he held that * I'ouvrage consacre par M. Ch. Renel aux Enseignes ro- maines^ et aux cultes qui leur etaient rendus . . . posait une tres grave question de methode '.^^
Professor van Gennep joins issue with Professor Toutain.
^ In June 1913. * Vide supra, pp. 3 f.
^ Cf. Arnold van Gennep, Religions, moeurs et legendes : vide supra, PP- 19 f. * Cf. ibid., vol. ii, pp. 22 f.
Cf. Revue de Vhistoire des religions, vol. Iviii, pp. 34-76: vide infra, V' 488. « Cf. ibid., vol. Ivii, pp. 333-54.
Since reprinted in his Studes de mythologie et d'hisioire des religions antiques. Paris, 1909 : vide infra, pp. 361 f. * Vide supra, pp. 28 f.
* Cf. Charles Renel, Cultes militaires de Rome ; Les Enseignes. Paris, 1903. " Cf. Jules Toutain, /itudes de mythohgie, etc., p. 56.
GENNEP, Totemisme et Methode Comparative 345
While not underrating the importance of the historical method — while affirming, indeed, its fundamental and irreducible value — Professor van Gennep enters a strong plea on behalf of the comparative method ; and he then draws a distinction between these two lines of procedure : ' La methode historique se caracterise (1) en ce qu'elle considere les phenomenes dans leur ordre chronologique, et (2) en ce qu'elle utilise des documents ecrits ou figures. La methode comparative se caracterise (1) en ce qu'elle fait abstraction des conditions de temps et de lieu, et (2) en ce qu'elle utilise aussi le document oral. La methode historique juxtapose ; la methode ethnographique compare. La premiere s'occupe des formes, la seconde des fondions et des mecanismes. Le fait que I'objet d'etude n'est pas le meme dans les deux cas prouve deja la legitimite de I'une comme de I'autre methode '.^ To this differentiation, he adds on a subsequent page that our knowledge of any religion depends upon ' la methode historique jpour la partie descrip- tive . . . Mais V explication de revolution de la famille grecque ne s'obtient qu'en comparant cette evolution a celle de la famille egyptienne, romaine, germanique, amerindienne, australienne, etc., parce que c'est ainsi seulement qu'on arrive a discerner quels sont les facteurs et les elements locaux externes, et quels sont les elements intrinseques '.^
As regards the special designation to be bestowed upon this method, Professor van Gennep is not particularly con- cerned.^ Some call it comparative ; others, like M. Durkheim and his school, prefer the name sociologique. ' Mais je prefere le qualificatif d' ethnographique pour rappeler que les populations " sauvages " vivantes entrent en ligne de compte, et non pas seulement celles civilisees, ou du passe '.^
* Cf. Religions, mmurs et legendes, yo\. ii, p. 82.
^ Cf. ibid., p. 84. ' Vide supra, p. 65.
* Cf. Religions, moeurs et legendes, vol. ii, p. 85. Vide also his article entitled ' Contributions a Fhistoire de la methode ethnographique ', in the Revue de Vhistoire des religions, vol. Ixviii, pp. 32 f. (now greatly amplified in the ' deuxieme partie ' of his Religions, moeurs et legendes, vol. v, pp. 93-215 : vide supra, p. 22) : vide infra, p. 488.
346 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
DE L'ASSISTANCE QUE SE DOIVENT MUTUELLE- MENT DANS L^HIEKOLOGIE LA METHODE HISTOKIQUE ET LA METHODE COMPAKATIVE, par le comte Goblet d'Alviella, Professeur de I'Histoire des Keligions a I'Universite de Bruxelles. Bruxelles : P. Weissenbruch, 19[3. Pp.23. Fr. 1.
Count Goblet d'Alviella, among the European scholars of to-day, is undoubtedly one of the most prominent and assiduous promoters of the Science of Religion. He has conducted fruitful explorations in almost every quarter of this immense field. ^ The political and religious atmosphere in which, as it has happened, he has had to conduct his investigations has not perhaps been favourable to his attaining the highest and fullest results ; nevertheless, he has pressed steadily onward with an open and cheerful mind, and has thus been so fortunate as to render conspicuous service to the whole academic world.
The substance of the present pamphlet was offered as a paper at the Fourth International Congress for the History of Eeligions, held at Leiden in September 1912.2 j^ the Actes of that Congress, this study bears the title ' Du Con- cours que doivent se preter mutuellement dans la Science des Religions la Methode historique et la Methode com- parative ' ; and the changed heading suggests at once the revision which the entire discussion received before it was published in full in Brussels during the following year.^
The conviction which Count Goblet d'Alviella reaffirms in this pamphlet is one which he holds in common with M. Bri- cout,^ and one which he has personally for a long time defended. He is still inclined to cast his vote in favour of ' la methode historique '. He honours it rightly for its previous high achievements, and he admires the reliability
^ Cf. Croyances, rites, institutions : vide infra, pp. 450 f.
2 Vide infra, pp. 418 f.
^ Cf. Revue de V Universite de Bruxelles, p. 439-57. Bruxelles, February, 1913.
* Cf. Joseph Bricout, On en est Vhistoire des religions P vol. i, i^p. 23-31 : vide supra, pp. 175 f.
GOBLET d'ALYIELLA, VHierologie, etc. 347
and stability of its work. At the same time, he recognizes — as he has always recognized ^ — that, in the domain of religion, the method in question is inadequate as an exclu- sive instrument of research. Although the comparative method is subject to serious abuses and exaggerations, he admits that the historical method must always be supple- mented by ' la methode comparative ' if any really inter- pretive exposition is to be framed. ' Quant a moi, j'estime que, pour faire bonne besogne, il faut accepter dans toutes ses consequences le principe de la methode comparative '.^ As M. Bricout puts it : 'La veritable methode qui convienne a I'histoire des religions [est] la methode historique. . . . Ce n'est done pas de comparer que certains historiens des religions peuvent etre blames, c'est de ynal comparer, de comparer a tort et a travers, surtout d'assimiler sans raison les choses les plus differentes. ... La methode compara- tive, qui est essentielle en hierologie, n'est pas a exclure de I'histoire ; elle fait en quelque sorte partie de la methode historique. Je veux dire que la methode historique peut I'employer avec profit. . . . L 'usage prudent et circonspect de la methode [comparative] ne peut qu'etre approuve'.^
In the second volume of his collected writings,* Count Goblet d'Alviella presents us with several valuable papers dealing with this theme. But in the present booklet, con- taining his latest declaration, he says : ' La methode his- torique et la methode comparative ont toutes deux leur fonction a remplir dans la Science des Eeligions. ... La methode historique est partout le guide le plus sur, quand elle peut parler avec autorite ; mais elle ne possede qu'un champ d'action limite. . . . D'autre part, la methode comparative peut seule nous eclairer sur les lois generales de revolution religieuse, et cela a condition de prendre en
^ Cf. Revue de lliistoire des religions, vol. xliv, pp. 1-15 (Juillet-Aout 1901). Also Revue de VUniversite de Bruxelles, pp. 24-6 (Decembre 1908), and pp. 321-7 (Fevrier 1910).
■^ Cf. Croyances, rites, institutions, vol. ii, p. 105.
^ Cf. Ok en est Vhistoire des religions? vol. i, pp. 28, 30, and 31.
* Cf. Croyances, rites, institutions.
348 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
consideration les croyances des non-civilises aussi bien que des civilises '.^ If this author often speaks with a reserve which seems excessive, — a reserve which, by the way, the majority of his fellow countrymen welcome and applaud — European and American scholars note with satisfaction his defence of the comparative method, and his plea for its competent and systematic employment in the study of religion.2 The ' Transition ' period through which we are passing, and the alteration in the present outlook of Com- parative Religion which this investigator has done so much to effect, need the help of just that sympathetic and appre- ciative attitude of mind which Count Goblet d'Alviella invariably displays.
PROLEGOMENI ALLA STORIA COMPARATIVA DELLE RELIGION!, di Baldassare Labanca, Pro- fessore di Storia del Cristianesimo all' Universita di Roma. Lugano : Casa Editrice del Coenohium, 1909. Pp. 56. L. 1.
The recent death of Professor Labanca has removed a stirring and picturesque figure from the academic world of Italy. Retaining his chair at an age when most men would have coveted a well - earned repose, Professor Labanca's pen was not laid down until he had passed the boundary of more than fourscore years. By many he was misunderstood, and by some he was harshly misjudged ; but he was honoured, and even loved, by all those who knew and appreciated his high and sterling worth. No doubt he was sometimes found in the midst of a storm-centre which, as he himself would playfully admit, was largely his own creation. Yet he revered his Church far too profoundly to permit him to maintain a convenient silence concerning its defects and shortcomings. No challenge was ever thrown down in his presence which he did not courageously accept ;
^ C/. pp. 21-2. * Cf. Croyances, rites, institutions, vol. i, p. xii.
LABANCA, Storia Comparativa delle Religioni 349
and if he fought hard and unsparingly, he knew that he himself would receive no quarter. An outline of his career — never so crowded with tasks that it did not find oppor- tunity for abundant literary labours — has already been made accessible to English readers.^ In the same volume, an ac- count is given of the success he met with in his endeavour to secure, in the University of Eome, the establishment of a chair devoted to the ' Storia delle Keligioni '.
As a teacher of the History of Eeligions, Professor Labanca in his Inaugural Lecture ^ expressed his conviction that only by means of the comparative method could the real signifi- cance of Christianity — or of any other religion — be accurately portrayed. As might have been expected, even if the title of his chair had not almost immediately been changed to ' Storia del Cristianesimo ', this keen investigator's interest was always supremely drawn out when he was engaged in the exposition of his own faith ; nevertheless, he preserved to the end an open mind, and utilized with no little skill the capabilities of the method he so cordially commended. In this respect, as also in his activity as a lecturer on the History of Eeligions, he must always be reckoned among the pioneers of the Science of Eeligion in Italy. He was one of the very first in that country — along with the late Professor Mariano of Naples, also recently deceased — to apply fearlessly the historico-critical method to the study of religion.
In the booklet now under review, Professor Labanca provides an excellent sketch of the Prolegomena of Com- parative Eeligion. Having distinguished between the spheres occupied respectively by the History of Eeligions and Comparative Eeligion, he attempts the still-disappoint- ing task of providing an adequate definition of religion.
^ Cf. Jordan and Labanca, The Study of Religion in the Italian Univer- sities, pp. 27-39. London, 1909. Vide also Luigi Salvatorelli's article entitled ' Gli studi religiosi in Italia e F opera di Baldassare Labanca ', in La Cultura contemporanea, vol. vii, pp. 65-104 (Febbraio-Marzo, 1913) : vide infra, pp. 476 f.
' Cf. La Religione per le U niversitd e un problema, non un assioma. Torino, 1886.
350 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
' La religione in generale ', he says, ' consiste in un senti- mento interiore verso una potenza misteriosa creduta e adorata '.^ He next enumerates and criticizes various theories of the origin of rehgion, and numerous classifica- tions of the faiths of mankind. Then he compares and contrasts the various conceptions of God, and likewise the various concepts of morality, which have been defended by the adherents of different religious systems. Finally, he supplies a rapid survey — ' sguardo comparative e non studio comparative ' ^ — of the different World-Keligions, putting his readers repeatedly upon their guard against the pitfalls which careless investigators in this field are sure to encounter.
This final chapter is rather slight, alike in its form and substance. The ' Saggio Bibliografico ' by which it is followed is likewise far from perfect ; it is marred not only by surprising incompleteness, but by many glaring inac- curacies. This pamphlet, as a whole, possesses nevertheless many excellencies. It is at least a notable milestone on a thoroughfare which, until very recently, provided exceed- ingly few finger-posts to guide Italian pilgrims on their way.
LA FAILLITE DE LA METHODE HISTOKIQUE, par Paul Oltramare, Professeur a la Faculte des Lettres et des Sciences Sociales a I'Universite de Geneve. Geneve : Albert Kiindig, 1911. Pp. 14. Fr. 1.
For nearly twenty years, in the literary capital of Switzer- land, Professor Oltramare has filled a chair assigned to the exposition of the History of Eeligions. Before this founda- tion was created, — so far back, indeed, as 1868 — lectures on this subject were delivered to students, unofficially, by members of the Faculty of Theology. When a chair was estabhshed in 1873, the first holder of it was not a theologian, a statement which is equally true of Professor Oltramare ; but at the date when the latter was invited to fill his present
' Cf. pp. 8-9. « Cf. p. 43.
OLTRAMARE, La Methode Historique 351
post, the chair itself was formally transferred from the Faculty of Theology to the Faculty of Letters and Social Sciences. These introductory remarks will be pardoned inasmuch as they serve to indicate the individual view-point, and the probable mental attitude, of the writer of this pamphlet. It is not too much to say of Professor Oltramare that, while conspicuously studious and industrious, he is one of the keenest and most liberal thinkers of to-day. Two of his books, in particular, have gained appreciative readers both in Great Britain and America.^
At first glance, one might suppose from its title that the booklet under review embodies an attack upon ' la methode historique '. Such an impression is wholly mistaken, and will quickly be removed as the reader proceeds. Professor Oltramare is, in reality, an ardent supporter of the claims of the historical method ; he adopts quite derisively a title which was suggested to him by another.^
The writer begins by drawing attention to the fact that, during recent years, — especially in France — a heated dis- cussion has been going on touching the best available method for the study of the phenomena of religion. Out of this conflict of opinions there have emerged into view, he holds, three groups of teachers. There is (1) the anthropological school, including such representative leaders as MM. Durk- heim, Hubert, Mauss, S. Keinach, van Gennep, and others ; (2) the historical school, well represented by an aggressive teacher like M. Toutain ; and (3) the comparative school, which is said to break off into two branches, represented respectively by two members of a single family. ' M. Paul Foucart invoque des arguments d'ordre historique, et M. George Foucart obeit a un postulat pose a priori.' ^
^ Cf. UHistoire des idees theosophiques dans rinde. Geneve, 1907- . In progress ; and La Formule houddhique des douze causes. Son sens originel et son interpretation theologique. Geneve, 1909.
^ Cf. Arnold van Gennep in Religions, moeurs et legendes : vide supra, pp. 19 f. ; in the Revue de Vhistoire des religions ; etc.
" CJ. p. 1. Further on (p. 6), the writer apparently combines groups (1) and (3) : vide infra, pp. 352-3.
352 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
As already intimated, Professor Oltramare has no hesita- tion in identifying himself with the second of these groups : ' La methode historique ecarte sans hesiter toute supposition qui n'est pas d'accord avec ce que nous Savons du miheu auquel appartiennent les faits a expliquer. II sait d'ailleurs que I'hypothese la plus plausible est toujours provisoire. . . . Au surplus, un esprit critique se resignera a ignorer plutot que de sortir des limites imposees par les donnees historiques du probleme a resoudre '.^
At the same time, he has no philippic to pronounce against the comparative method. On the contrary, quite after the manner of Count Goblet d'Alviella,^ he believes in a systematic co-operation between these two divergent means of securing the same result. ' II n'y a pas de raison pour qu'une des methodes soit moins legitime que I'autre. En fait, elles ont toutes deux de brillants etats de service. . . . Bien loin de se nier I'une I'autre, les deux methodes en presence se com- pletent et se rendent de mutuels services. Qu'au lieu de s'ex- communier et de se declarer reciproquement en faillite, elles s'associent en collaboratrices conscientes de leurs limites, la cause de la verite en sera mieux servie '.^
This is excellent ; but one or two defects in Professor Oltramare's treatment of the subject call for mention and emphasis. First, one comes occasionally upon evidences of a lack of discrimination, as when the author deliber- ately writes : ' L'autre methode — nous I'appellerons indif- feremment comparative, sociologique ou anthropologique'.^ Indifferently ! Professor van Gennep, it is true, consents to allow considerable latitude in this matter ; ^ but if there is one point upon which the majority of leaders in this field rigorously insist, it is upon the student's making express differentiation between various available ' Avenues of Approach ',^ and the methods which they severally represent. Secondly, when Professor Oltramare defines the historical method as concerning itself with ' collectionnement,
• Cf. p. 0. •' Vide supra, pp. 347-8. » Cf. pp. 13-14. ' CJ. p. 0. * Vide supra, p. 345. * Vide supra, pp. 1 f.
OLTRAMARE, La Methode Historique 353
classement, interpretation, critique des textes et des monu- ments ',^ he is plainly annexing part of the task which belongs legitimately, not to the History of Eeligions, but only to Comparative Keligion. So to define the historical method is needlessly to confuse it with the comparative method. Finally, to affirm concerning Irhe latter mode of procedure that ' ses adeptes actuels tiennent pour evident que toutes les races humaines ont passe dans leur developpe- ment par des phases exact ement semblables ',2 and again, ' la methode comparative a pour but avoue d'expliquer les phenomenes religieux. Unguis tiques, juridiques et meme technologiques qui datent de la prehistorique, c'est-a-dire d'un temps que n'atteignent ni les sources litteraires, ni les restes archeologiques ',^ is to speak without warrant. These charges might have been levelled, and with abundant reason, against many an anthropologist ; but by the genuine com- parativist, quite as much as by Professor Oltramare, such palpable errors are invariably condemned. Comparative Eeligion is interested only in facts, not in idle gossip or even in brilliant and happy conjectures ; and the facts it employs are for the most part obtained from adepts in the History of Eeligions, by whom the data in question have been collected, sifted and verified.
LA SCIENZA DELLE EELIGIONI E IL SUO METODO, di Eaffaele Pettazzoni, Libero Docente di Storia delle Eeligioni nell' Universita di Eoma.* Bologna : Nicola Zanichelli, 1913. Pp. 9. L. 1.
A couple of years ago, Professor Pettazzoni contributed a very interesting article to Scientia.^ Happily it has since been issued in a separate form, and now constitutes the booklet which we are about to review.
1 Cf. p. 1. - Cf. p. 10. =» Cf. p. 6.
•* Vide supra, second footnote, p. 57.
^ Cf. Scientia. Organo internazionale di sintesi scientifica, vol. vii, pp. 239-47. Bologna, 1913.
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354 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The writer raises at once the question : ' Lo studio di quei popoH che furono detti dapprima " selvaggi " e poi " primitivi'* o "naturah", e che ora megUo si designano semphcemente come popoh " incolti ", rientra nel quadro delle scienze naturaH o delle scienze storiche ? E I'etnologia un ramo deir antropologia, -come sostengono i rappresentanti classic! del metodo antropologico ; oppure va intesa come un capitolo della storia della civilta, secondo un indirizzo che si e manifestato recentemente fra gli etnologi ? ' ^
In seeking to determine whether the study of non-civilized peoples is one which belongs to the Natural Sciences or to the Historical Sciences, the author is quite justified in affirming that he is raising a problem so fundamental that it has to do with the very essence of Ethnology.
Dr. Pettazzoni is inclined to take issue with Professor Goblet d'Alviella ^ and Professor Oltramare ^ who, in the study of religion, favour a friendly combination of the historical and the comparative methods. ' Ne I'uno ne I'altro dev' essere usato esclusivamente ; ne all' uno ne air altro deve rinunziare lo studio delle religioni, cosi come non rinunzia alia conoscenza di nessun ordine di mani- festazioni religiose. L'uno e I'altro debbono cooperare alia costruzione dell' opera comune. . . . L'eclettismo cosi'for- mulato rappresenta indubbiamente un progresso di fronte ai vari esclusivismi ; storico dei filologi, comparativo degli antropologi. D'altro lato, mi sembra che esso si presti, alia sua volta, ad una osservazione critica '.^
Professor Pettazzoni admits that the course which Count Goblet d'Alviella advocates is capable of a very plausible defence. ' II pluralismo metodico sembra dunque, a prima vista, piu che legittimo, quasi necessario, et necessariamente richiesto dalla varieta multiforme di quegli ambienti ai quali la scienza delle religioni estende la sua ricerca. Eppure, di mano in mano che essa scienza progredisce, il pluralismo tende a semplificarsi, e quasi a polarizzarsi, come dissi,
1 Cf. pp. 1-2. 2 Vide supra, pp. 346 f.
^ Vide supra, p. 352. " Cf. p. 3.
PETTAZZONI, La Scienza delle Religioni 355
intorno a due centri : metodo storico e metodo compara- tivo '.1
Nevertheless, this procedure results in a practical dualism. The historical method and the comparative method have, in reality, two entirely different ends in view, and they contri- bute to the building up of two entirely different products. The History of Eeligions and Comparative Keligion must however each rely, ultimately, upon an effective method of its own. Anthropologists, ethnologists, sociologists, and other kindred investigators will no doubt continue to interest themselves in the exposition of religious 'phenomenology ; strictly speaking, the historical method is inapplicable in the study of primitive religion. ' L'elemento storico e teori- camente nello presso le religioni dei popoli incolti (religioni non storiche) '."^ But historians, when seeking to enlarge our knowledge wdthin the domain of conscious and expanding religion, have an entirely different task to perform.
Answering his own initial question concerning Ethnology,^ Dr. Pettazzoni holds that this study is to be regarded as a branch of the History of Civilization. ' II concetto del- I'etnologia come parte della storia generale della civilta e un' applicazione, una estensione, e un superamento insieme, del concetto su cui e fondata la paletnologia '.*
As regards the future of ' la scienza delle religioni ' — a title which, in this instance, signifies ' Comparative Keligion ' — Professor Pettazzoni's hope for it lies in its adopting and magnifying, and employing exclusively, a selected individual method. ' Una cosa e certa ad ogni modo, ed e che qui non si tratta di due metodi da abbinare, di due ordini di cono- scenze da sommare, ma di una visione sintetica, di una concezione unitaria da conseguire, — una concezione della scienza delle religioni e del suo metodo fondata sulla natura del suo proprio oggetto, cioe del fatto religioso indefinita- mente vario e multiforme nel tempo e nello spazio, ma neir essenza sua uno e definito '.^
^ Cf. p. 4. 2 cf^ p_ g 3 y^-^g 5^^,.^,^ p_ 354 _
* Cf. p. 8. ■ ' Cf. pp. 8-9.
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356 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
QUELQUES PEECISIONS SUE LA METHODE COM- PAEATIVE,^ par Henri Pinard, S.J., Professeur d'Apologetique au Scolasticat d'Enghien, La Belgique. Wien : Mechitharisten-Buchdruckerei, 1910. Pp. 25. Kr. 2.
Professor Pinard, formerly attached to St. Beuno's College, St. Asaph, Wales, has written a notable defence of the comparative method. He estimates aright its im- mense possibilities when applied to the elucidation of pro- blems in religion. He has absolutely no fear that unpleasant consequences may be reaped, in so far at least as Christianity is concerned. ' S'il [le Christianisme] pretend a quelque transcendance, c'est la comparaison qui lui fournira I'occa- sion de se manifester, — un peu comme le premier roi d'Israel n'apparut si grand qu'au moment ou " il se tint au milieu du peuple les depassant tous de I'epaule et au dela " (1 Kings X. 23) '.2 At the same time, he is anxious to make clear the limitations by which this method is restricted in its application. ' La methode comparative est, dans ces etudes, d'un usage frequent. EUe a ses partisans et ses adversaires. Nous ne lui menagerons pas nos suffrages, quitte a formuler quelques precisions important es '.^ The writer would not seek in any way to narrow the just rights and claims of the comparative method ; yet he seeks to show that the employment of it in the study of rehgion demands ' une critique plus meticuleuse, en signalant a quel degre la prudence, la delicatesse, le sens des nuances doivent la preoccuper '.^
The author elsewhere writes : ' Sa legitimite [i. e. the legitimacy of the comparative method], en general, est hors de conteste. II suffit de savoir que, partout ailleurs, elle a une valeur hors de pair, pour etre en droit et en devoir
^ This suggestive paper may be found in Anthropos, vol. v, pp. 534-58 : vide infra, pp. 472 f. It is to the pagination used in that review that, for the greater convenience of readers, successive references are here made.
- Cf. p. 539. 3 Cf. p. 535. * Cf. p. 544.
PINARD, La Methode Comparative 357
d'affirmer que, dans les limites d'un usage vraiment critique, elle peut avoir, en matiere religieuse, un role et un succes pareils. ... Et rien de plus necessaire, si Ton veut, comme on en a le droit, dans le sujet qui nous occupe, essayer d'etu- dier non plus telle forme du sentiment religieux, mais le sentiment religieux en lui-meme et les lois generates de ses manifestations.^ . . . On le voit, la comparaison a partout un role important. Si done on oppose methode comparative et methode historique, il est clair que le con- traste existe moins entre ces methodes prises en elles-memes, qu'entre certaines manieres de les appliquer. Tune bornant I'histoire a la lecture directe des documents, I'autre sup- pleant au silence de I'histoire par des emprunts suggeres par voie de comparaison, Tune historique en un sens trop strict, Fautre comparative jusqu'a des assimilations injusti- fiees. ... Ce n'est done pas sur les droits theoriques de la methode comparative qu'il peut y avoir disaccord entre Chretiens et non-chretiens ; ce ne peut etre que sur ses applications.' ^
M. Pinard then proceeds to formulate certain ' Principes critiques ' which should govern our application of the com- parative method. These principles are four in number.
(1) Principe d'uniformite. ' L'uniformite de certaines manifestations religieuses prouve uniquement I'identite profonde des natures ou elles se manifestent '.^ Beings who participate in the same nature must participate also in the same essential needs. If then two or more faiths are found to prescribe similar religious practices, and to hold similar religious beliefs, it does not follow that any of them ipso facto have borrowed from the others. Such a declara- tion, at best, is merely an hj^pothesis until it can furnish a demonstration of its accuracy. Similarities of the kind indicated may quite easily and satisfactorily be accounted for by the ' besoins essentiels ' of mankind.
(2) Principe d'originalite. ' Tout est a tous, hors le genie.' Suppose the substance of two religions to be prac-
^ Cf. p. 537. - Cf. p. 539. C/. p, 540.
358 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
tically the same ; suppose, moreover, that one of them can be shown to have borrowed from the other ; nevertheless, the way in which each employs the beUefs which it defends may reveal a ' genius ', an instinct, a power — or else the lack of these several qualities — which will set it apart in a cate- gory of its own. Thus, one religion may be entitled to the award of an entirely different status from another, although both have very much in common. ' On conclut de la parite materielle des rites a leur parente historique, voire a leur identite fonciere. C'est dire qu'on oublie, en matiere de religions comparees, qu'apres avoir constate des analogies materielles et des dependances de fait, il reste encore une question a examiner, la plus grave de toutes : De quelle ame, ou identique ou toute nouvelle, vit cette matiere etrangere ? Disons mieux : cet emprunt est-il ou n'est-il pas une crea- tion ? . . . Apres avoir determine, par la critique de pro- venance, les dependances de rituel a rituel, il reste a resoudre encore le probleme de beaucoup le plus grave : Ou est I'originahte et le genie ? ' ^
(3) Principe de primaute. ' C'est cette " ame plus divine " qui fait I'artiste, et qui transfigure les rituels et les religions.' ^ M. Pinard finds it difficult to put into words what any impartial critic can instantly and instinctively discern. ' Les similitudes s'accentuent forcement entre les diverses religions, a mesure qu'elles tendent vers leur expression exterieure ; infiniment distantes peut-etre par leur esprit intime, elles se rejoignent, peut-etre a s'y me- prendre, dans leurs rites. . . . Les idees seules se distin- guent nettement les unes des autres. . . . C'est done encore une fois par I'idee qu'il faut juger du rite '.^
(4) Principe d'unite. ' Dans un tout organique, aucune partie ne peut etre comprise que dans sa relation exacte avec I'ensemble.'* No religion can be understood if examined merely in separate bits and fragments. It is a living thing, instinct with its own peculiar life ; when dismembered and
' Cf. p. 541-2. 2 cf. p. 543. ^ Cf. p. 543-4.
' Cf. p. 545.
PINAKD, La Methode Comparative 359
dead, it becomes a faith to which we attach a surrendered and empty name. ' Apres avoir precise I'idee qui anime le rite, il reste a connaitre sa place et son coefficient de valeur.' ^
This very stimulating essay proceeds to give an enumera- tion of the ' Applications principales ' of the comparative method, viz. (1) Assimilations par analogic, (2) Les sup- pleances, (3) Dependances, and (4) Jugements de valeur, and to show how erroneous conclusions have often been pro- mulgated in connexion with each of these procedures.
M. Pinard concludes by laying emphasis upon the impor- tance of recognizing the differences — not less than the agreements — which are characteristic of diverse religions.^ As M. Eeinach put it, in his well-remembered Presidential Address at Oxford : ' The hour has come when we must go beyond the analogies, and the pleasure their discovery causes us ; we must take up the study of differences which — comparable in that respect to the variations of phonetic laws • — should, when carefully investigated, supply the key to many a delicate lock as yet neglected in the vast storehouse of our knowledge. Even confined to the comparative study of Greek and Koman religions, that most refined or most fastidious method leads to new results, — compelling us to distinguish between kindred phenomena which have some- times been thrown together, and unduly bear what I would call the same label '.^ A mature use of the comparative method will invariably take account of divergencies, to which it will draw attention not less rigorously than to similarities and actual agreements. ' La methode com- parative integrale et rigoureuse se garderait des fantaisies de la these comparatiste et des comparaisons superficielles. C'est done moins le bon droit qui lui manque, que la fidelite a ses propres regies . . . et la patience.' ^
In a few details, exception might be taken to this writer's
' Cf. p. 544. 2 cj^ p^ 556_8,
^ Cf. Salomon Reinach, Transactions of the Third Internatioiial Congress for the History of Religions, vol. ii, p. 120 : vide infra, pp. 418 f. * Cf. p. 558.
360 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
individual point of view ; but, regarded as a whole, M. Pinard's exposition is most worthy and timely, and is fully entitled to the somewhat extended notice given to it in this survey.
VOIES NOUVELLES EN SCIENCE COMPAEEE DES EELIGIONS ET EN SOCIOLOGIE COMPAEEE, par Wilhelm Schmidt, Professeur d'Ethnologie a St. Gabriel, Moedling [near Vienna], et Direct eur de la revue An- tliwpos. Kain, Le Saulchoir (La Belgique), 1911. Pp. 31. Fr. 1.
The versatile Director of a widely circulated journal ^ — an International Eeview of Ethnology and Linguistics {Inter- nationale Zeitsclirift filr Volker- und Sprachenkunde) — and an ever-keen observer of modern religious tendencies and movements, Dr. Schmidt draws attention to certain ' new methods ' now being employed in the rapidly expanding study of the Science of Eeligion.
Eeference is made, for example, to the huUurgescJiichtliche Methods, for which (in varying degrees) Frobenius,^ Foy,^ Graebner,^ etc., have become sponsors. 'According to this interpretation of the diversified religious behefs of mankind, questions of origin count for less than proofs of demon- strable contact ; it is really, it appears, the existence and succession of ' cultural cycles ' which largely determine and modify, at different centres, the course of human belief and practice. The old hard-and-fast theory of man's continuous progress, or continuous degeneration, no longer holds good ; he may advance, or deteriorate, according to the environment within wdiich he happens to be found. Dr. Schmidt holds that man, if left to himself, is sure to degenerate ; hence the necessity of a divine revelation, and the advent and leadership of men who have become privileged to possess such a revelation, if mankind is to be
^ Vide infra, p. 472. 2 y^^^ supra, pp. 43 f.
2 Vide infra, p. 61. ^ Vide supra, pp. 46 f.
SCHMIDT, La Science Comparee des Religions 361
saved from utter spiritual decadency.^ The ' methode historico-culturelle ', accordingly, is cordially welconied by this author. That method serves incidentally, it may be remarked, to strengthen a theory of the Church to which the writer belongs, and to interpose a check upon the spread of the doctrine of evolution — aggressive and distasteful — in so far as that doctrine claims to throw light upon the origin and development of religion.
Another ' new method ' which Dr. Schmidt commends is the foundation and liberal endowment of national Ethno- graphical Museums.^ He suggests, accordingly, the estab- lishment at Kome ' d'un grand musee ou Ton trouverait des bases solides pour une etude exacte et reflechie, ne serait-elle pas le meilleur parmi les moyens naturels, pour ruiner completement les theories evolutionnistes et ideo- logiques de I'histoire comparee des religions, si vivement condamnees par les dernieres ency cliques du Saint-Pere '.^ The writer hopes that all readers, likeminded with himself, will ' collaborer tout d'abord au developpement positif de Fethnologie, science aujourd'hui doublement importante, et de plus, ce sera pour eux le meilleur moyen d'eluder les efforts de cet evolutionnisme ideologique qui a deja cause tant de dommages '. The paragraphs just quoted err in their evident leaning in a propagandic direction. Dr. Schmidt, nevertheless, is a very ardent believer in, and expounder of, la methode ethnologique.
ETUDES DE MYTHOLOGIE ET D'HISTOIEE DES EELIGIONS ANTIQUES, par Jules Toutain, Direc- teur- Adjoint a I'Ecole des Hautes-Etudes, Paris. Paris : Hachette et C^% 1909. Pp. viii., 300. Fr. 3.50.
Although the title of this work might well suggest its assignment to another section of this survey,* the first
^ Cf. Die Urojfenbarung als Anfang der Offeyibarurvgen Gottes : vide supra, p. 34. " Vide infra, pp. 502 f.
3 Cf. p. 29. * Cf. Mythology : vide sujpra, pp. 96 f.
362 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
portion of the volume — almost one-half of the book — is devoted to a discussion of ' Generalites et Questions de Methode '.
Professor Toutain is a very resolute opponent of the com- parative method.^ He holds that, through the employment of it, M. Kenel has been led to adopt some entirely wrong conclusions in his book entitled Cultes militaires de Bome,^ He even goes so far as to declare that the comparative method ought really to be designated ' la methode d'exegese mytho- logique fondee sur le totemisme ' ! ^ In another of his books, pubHshed somewhat earher, he maintains the same attitude : ' nous nous sommes enfermes de propos delibere dans les limites geographiques et chronologiques du sujet que nous avons choisi. Nous n'avons pas tente d'elargir ce sujet par des comparaisons ambitieuses ou piquantes.' *
In conclusion, Professor Toutain reaffirms his resolve not to abandon the earlier and well-tested ' methode historique '. He writes : ' A I'heure actuelle, de telles interpretations [mythologiques], fondees sur des etymologies souvent temeraires, sur une connaissance absolument incomplete des faits, ou sur des syntheses aussi hatives que fragiles, n'ont point a nos yeux de valeur scientifique : ce sont des opinions personnelles, subjectives et arbitraires. Les conclusions, souvent differentes, parfois diametralement opposees, que de savants mythologues ont tirees des memes legendes et des memes noms, suffiraient a prouver combien il est teme- raire de vouloir aller aussi vite. La science de la mythologie grecque n'en est qu'a ses debuts ; elle doit se cantonner, et sans doute pour longtemps encore, dans le domaine stricte- ment historique '.^
Professor Toutain presents only one side of the shield. It is hard to account for his evident belief that the otJier side is not worth seeing !
^ Vide supra, pp. 22, 332, etc. ^ (^j pp_ 5(3 f ^ yi^^ supra, pp. 21-2.
^ Cf. p. 79. Cf. also Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, vol. ii, p. 130. 2 vols. Oxford, 1908.
* Cf. Les Cultes pa'iens dans V Empire romain, vol. i, p. v : vide sujyra, p. 224. ^ Cf. p. 84.
WEBB, Natural and Comfarative Religion 363
NATUKAL AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION, by Clement Charles Julian Webb, formerly Wilde Lecturer at Oxford University. (Inaugural Lecture.) Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1912. Pp. 31. Is.
Some difficulty has been experienced in determining the category within which this lecture ought to be placed. It has plainly not advanced far into — if indeed it has actually entered — the domain of Comparative Religion. At the same time, it has quite clearly pushed far beyond the limits of the History of Religions, to which study neverthe- less it exhibits sundry close relationships. On the whole, it seems best to assign it a place in the ' Transition ' period.^ As a product of progressive modern scholarship, it stands about midway between the two branches of inquiry just named.^
A needless perplexity has been associated with the Wilde Lectureship from its beginning, viz. the difficulty of arriving at a clear understanding of its scope. Each lecturer has interpreted his commission somewhat differently. Dr. Wilde, under the Trust Deed, declares that ' Comparative Religion shall be taken to mean the modes of causation, rites, obser- vances, and other concepts involved in the higher historical religions, — as distinguished from the naturalistic ideas and fetishisms of the lower races of mankind '. Mr. Webb devotes the opening pages of his lecture to an attempt to interpret this statement ; and he arrives at this conclusion : ' I think that it is plain from these words that by " Com- parative Religion " the Statute means more than Religion studied by the comparative method ; that an indication is given of the kind of Religion which ought so to be studied ; and that kind of religion thus indicated is Historical as distinguished from Natural Religion. . . . Hence, in the Founder's mind, " Comparative Religion " stands for Historical as opposed to Natural Religion, — or, as I should
' Vide supra, pp. 323 f .
- The full course of lectures will be published immediately under the title Studies in the History of Natural Theology. Oxford, 1915.
364 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
myself prefer to express it, for the History of Eeligion as opposed to its Philosophy '.^
In holding that Dr. Wilde carelessly inserted in the Trust Deed the name ' Comparative Eeligion ' when he ought to have written ' The History of Eeligion ', and that he jotted down ' Natural Eeligion ' when he really meant ' The Philo- sophy of Eeligion ', Mr. Webb reveals presumably the influence of a strong personal predisposition. When Dr. Farnell filled this Lectureship, he felt justified in dealing with his subject from the standpoint of an avowed anthropologist ; ^ and Mr. Webb, the representative of an entirely different school of investigators, is here found con- scientiously treating his theme from the standpoint of the psychologist, with special reference to recent advances in the Philosophy of Eeligion.^ Could confusion be worse, or more unfortunate in its consequences ! Mr. Webb is not unaware that the study of the Philosophy of Eeligion should follow — and should never precede — the study of the History of Eeligions, for he expressly makes this admission on a subsequent page ; ^ but he fails to make allowance for it in the outlining and framing of his alleged official task. He overlooks also that Historical Eeligion and Natural Eeligion constitute a very unreal antithesis, seeing that both groups fall under the ' Historical ' category, even though quite frequently extant historical records may remain for a long time inaccessible to those diligently searching for them. * Eeligion and Eeligions ', following a suggestion presented by the .title of one of Professor Pfleiderer's latest books,^ appears to be his real theme.
' Of. pp. 6-7.
^ Cf. Lewis R. Farnell, Greece and Babylon : A Comparative Sketch of Mesopotamian, Anatolian and Hellenic Religions. Edinburgh, 1911. C/. also Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906-1909, p. 23. Edinburgh, 1910.
^ Cf. C. C. J. Webb, Problems in the Relations of God and Man. London, 1911. [2nd edition, 1915.] * Cf. p. 15.
" Cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Religion und Religionen. Miinchen, 1906. Cf. also Victor Hugo, Religions et religion. Paris, 1880 ; and James H. Moulton, Religions and Religion : vide infra, pp. 386 f.
WEBB, Natural and Comparative Religion 365
It is a mistake, further, to hold that ' Natural Religion is one, over against the many religions in which men have expressed their various thoughts and fancies about the mind and purpose of which they divined traces in the world around them ' ?■ Natural Rehgion — unless indeed that name be compelled to act as substitute for ' Philosophy of Reli- gion' — ^is most emphatically not ' one', but utters itself in ways that are simply legion. Natural Religion, as it em- bodies itself alike in Lower Culture and in Higher Culture forms, is varied beyond all telling. Accordingly, the comparative method is quite as applicable to it as it is to the material accumulated by students of the History of Religions.
It will be asked : Where, under Mr. Webb's scheme, does Comparative Rehgion {in the ordinary sense of those words) make its appearance ? The lecturer strangely adheres to the view that this study is merely a branch of the History of Religions.^ In a quotation already made,^ Mr. Webb admits that Comparative Religion is something more than ' a compendious equivalent for some such phrase as " Reli- gion studied by the Comparative method ".' ^ It is quite correct to say that the late Professor Max Miiller ' has often been regarded as the chief pioneer ' ^ in the employment of the Comparative method in the study of the History of Religions ; but those pioneer days are growing dim and distant now. They recall many opinions and theories which have been outgrown and discarded.
When Mr. Webb's scholarly lectures have been pubhshed in full, it may be possible — and even necessary — to place his book in a more advanced category. Meanwhile it would appear that the investigations he has completed will prove to be a contribution to the History of Religions and to the Philosophy of Religion rather than a contribution to Comparative Religion.
Dr. Wilde's Trust Deed surely means, on the face of it,
^ Cf. p. 7. - Vide supra, pp. 37, 164 f., 167, and infra, pp. 509 f., etc.
Vide supra, p. 363. * Cf. p. 5. Cf. also p. 15. ^ Cf. p. 24.
3
366 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
that (1) only the higher historical religions — all those faiths concerning which history has something to tell us — are to be dealt with, and that (2) these selected religions are to be studied in a specifically comparative way. As things have gone thus far, the Wilde Lectureship is throwing exceedingly little light upon Comparative Keligion, strictly so called. The first course of lectures, prepared by Dr. Farnell, was largely historical ; ^ the present course is largely philoso- phical ; the intervening domain, which is recognized to belong to Comparative Keligion proper, still awaits treat- ment at the hands of the third lecturer. Principal J. Estlin Carpenter, who will enter upon his duties towards the close of the current year.
DIE EELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGISCHE METHODE IN EELIGIONSWISSENSCHAFT UND THEOLOGIE, von Georg Wobbermin, Professor der Christlichen Ethik an der Universitat Breslau. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1913. Pp. xiii., 475. M. 10.
In this stimulating treatise, one is introduced to the first volume of a new Systematic Theology, written ' nach religionspsychologischer Methode'. Dr. Wobbermin has pub- lished several works bearing upon the relation of Theology to Philosophy, — and, in particular, of Theology to Psycho- logy .^ Upon the appearance of the late Professor James's book. The Varieties of Beligious Experience, Professor Wobbermin took a keen interest in its bold statements and forecasts, and lost no time in producing an excellent trans-
* Vide supra, footnote, p. 364.
^ Cf. Theologie und Meta/physik. Das Verhdltnis der Theologie zur mo- dernen Erkenntnistheorie utid Psychologie. Leipzig, 1901. Der christliche Gottesglauhe in seinem Verhnltnis zur gegenwcirtigen Philosophie. Berlin, 1902. Geschichte und Historie in der Religionswissenschaft. Tubingen, 1911. Article on ' Religionspsychologie ' in Professor Hauck's Realencyklopadie fin- protestantische Theologie und Kirche, vol. xxiv : vide infra, pp. 43G f.
WOBBEKMIN, Die Religionsfsychologische Methode 367
lation of it into German.^ Moreover, he quotes with high approval Dr. James's well-known dictum : ' I do believe that feeling is the deeper source of religion, and that philosophic and theological formulas are secondary products, like trans- lations of another tongue '.
At the very threshold of his present task, Professor Wobbermin has to face the question : Which method, out of many, shall I select and employ ? And his decision, deliberately made, is to adopt the religionspsychologische Methode.^
This volume is divided into two main parts. Book I deals with ' The Presuppositions of the Psychological Method '. Under this heading, the author discusses the place occupied by Theology among the sciences, its main branches and subdivisions, and the imperative demand for an adequate and comprehensive method proper to the study of Systematic Theology. Thereafter, in Book II, we find an exposition of ' The Psychological Method '.
It is not necessary, here, to go into details. The writer, having traced the beginnings of this method in the able researches of Schleiermacher, goes on to show wherein Professor James made an advance upon all preceding attain- ments, and wherein Professor James's own affirmations need to be broadened and supplemented. A strong plea is entered for the application of this method, not only to the interpretation of Theology and the Science of Eeligion, but especially to the building up securely of the structure of Systematic Theology. As particularly relevant to the purposes of this survey, students will find much suggestive matter in the chapter allotted to ' Keligionspsychologie und religionsgeschichtliche Methode '.^
Reference is elsewhere made to Professor AVobbermin's more direct and substantial contributions to the study of the Psychology of Rehgion.^
1 Cf. Die religiose Erfahrung in ihrer Mannigfaltigkeit. Leipzig, 1907.
2 Vide supra, p. 330. ' Cf. pp. 438-65. " Vide infra, p. 416.
368 EVOLUTION OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
PAULUS. EiNE KULTUR- UND RELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHE
Skizze, von Adolf Deissmann. Tubingen : J. C. B. Molir, 1911. Pp. viii., 202. M. 6.
CROYANCES, RITES, INSTITUTIONS, par le comte Goblet d'Alviella. Vide infra, pp. 450 f .
COMPARATIVE RELIGION : ITS METHOD AND SCOPE,
by Louis Henry Jordan. London : The Oxford University Press, 1908. Pp. 20. Is.
LES DIEUX, par Paul Richard. (Bibliotheque de Synthese Philosophique.) Paris : Librairie Fischbacher, 1913. Pp. 325. Fr. 3.50.
RATSEL AUS DEM HELLENISTISCHEN KULTURKREISE,
von Wolfgang Schultz. 2 vols. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1909-1912. Pp. xviii., 159 + iii., 160. M. 12.
FORMALE METHODEN IN DER THEOLOGIE. Kritische Studie zur Religionspsychologie, Religionsgeschichte UND Soziologie, vou Wilhelm Vollrath. Leipzig : Andreas Deichert, 1914. Pp. 61. M. 1.80.
*
KULTURGESCHICHTLICHE BIBLIOTHEK, herausgegeben von Willy Foy. Heidelberg : Carl Winter, 1911- . In progress. Vol. i. : vide supra, p. 46
APOLOGETIC TREATISES
The older form of Apologetic, alike in the East and in the West, consisted in framing a frank and thoroughgoing defence of a given religion. That religion might be Bud- dhism, or Mohammedanism, or Hinduism, or Christianity, or any one of a score of antagonistic systems ; but the faith defended, whatever it chanced to be, was magnij&ed and glorified in a superlative measure. All its strong points were impressively emphasized ; all its weak points were adroitly kept in the background. On the other hand, all the virtues and defects of its adversaries were dealt with in exactly the opposite manner. The scholar summoned his knowledge and skill to draw up a statement which, while true so far as it w^ent, was in reality totally one-sided. Thus, each religion was put forward as the best in the world ; the impression conveyed was that its defence needed only to be known in order to secure a loyal and universal acceptance.
Comparative Kehgion is gradually banishing this dishonest, blind, and grossly misleading procedure. Special pleading of this kind is to-day subject to a very stiff discount.^ It may be a despicable thing to sneer at another man's faith ; but it is equally bad form, and it exhibits equally bad judge- ment, to overpraise one's own. Accordingly, it is something to be thankful for that Comparative Kehgion — more than any other single agency, and with an unforgettable emphasis — has declared and demonstrated that literally every religion has its excellencies and its shortcomings. Which rehgion is ' the best ', absolutely considered, is a problem which no man need ever hope to solve ; the solution lies far beyond his reach. Inasmuch, however, as Comparative Eeligion has no wish to weaken or destroy any faith,^ it never raises this question. At the same time, it has convinced men that
^ Vide infrUf p. 385. * Vide infra, pp. 512 f.
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370 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
it is not their * religion ' that either saves or can save them ; it is. instead, some potentiahty to which their rehgion points. While therefore faiths differ vastly in their intrinsic character and general effectiveness, all religions are shown to spring (in the last analysis) from a common source, and to lead towards a common goal. Is it any wonder that the old Apologetic is not much in vogue to-day ? If one pick up a treatise of this sort, written a generation or two ago, it seems wholly unreal and mechanical. Yet these books w^ere once held to be unanswerable ! When Christianity — or some other selected faith — was really believed to be the only religion worth mention, it was not an unscrupulous proceed- ing, and utterly unfair, to pile up a great array of arguments contributory to its defence ; but to act thus noio amounts to a culpable suppression of the truth. Any such delineation of a faith is also amazingly short-sighted, as scores of over- ardent propagandists have found to their cost. Neither Chris- tianity, nor any other religion, is really sacrosanct.
There was a time when books, nominally devoted to an exposition of Comparative Eeligion, were unblushingly apologetic in their purpose. This impulse became operative before any attempt was made to distinguish between the History of Eeligions and Comparative Eeligion ; ^ but, unhappily, it is much too greatly in evidence still, even in books which claim to be unbiased and scientific in charac- ter.2 Of the volumes recently dealt Avith elsewhere,^ a very large proportion belonged to this class. It is probably true that Eoman Catholic writers offend oftenest in this
^ Vide supra, p. 326. Cf. James C. Moffat, A Comparative History of Religions. 2 vols. New York, 1871-1873 ; Samuel H. Kellogg, A Hand- book of Comparative Eeligion. Philadelphia, 1899; etc. etc. Even much more recent expositions — cf. those by v. Orelli {vide supra, pp. 191 f.), Soothill [vide supra, pp. 218 f.), Underwood {vide supra, pp. 221 f.). Ho wells {vide supra, pp. 251 f.), etc. — err in the same direction.
* Cf. Frank B. Jevons, ^w Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion. New York, 1908 ; William St. Clair Tisdall, Comjiarative Religion. London, 1909 ; etc. etc.
* Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906-1'.j09, pp. CO-2, etc. Edinburgh, 1910.
APOLOGETIC TREATISES 371
connexion/ notwithstanding the fact that many distin- guished Jesuit scholars now devote themselves con amove to promoting this important branch of study .^
The tendency just referred to, based upon an entire mis- conception of the real function of Comparative Eeligion,^ is now rapidly disappearing. It is beginning to be recog- nized that such a faulty course of action violates every fundamental canon of Comparative Eeligion, — which must ever sedulously maintain a spirit of strict impartiality, exhibit neither fear nor favour, aim only at the discovery of the actual facts in each particular case, and resolutely ignore the suggestions due to any considered and deliberate purpose. Hence students in this field are seeking, more and more, to prosecute their studies in an exclusively critical way ; the really constructive part of their task must be left to their successors. The vindication of ' the absolute and divine authority of Christianity ',* 'la transcendance du Chris- tianisme ',^ * the surpassing excellence of the Christian religion ' ^ — or of Mohammedanism, or of Mormonism, or of any other religion — is the task of the apologist, who (at least in the majority of cases) ought to receive a definite and authoritative commission before yielding to any impulsive resolve to discharge this particular service."^
A deeply-rooted disposition to utilize Comparative Eeli- gion in the interest of some selected Christian or non-Christian faith is to-day continually disclosing itself. This tendency can awaken no surprise. Moreover, it is a procedure not
^ Cf. Pierre Courbet, La Superiorite du Christianisme. Coup d'ceil sur les religions comparees. Paris, 1902. [3rd edition, 1913] ; M, Thomas, Christia- nisme et Bouddhisme : vide infra, p. 400 ; Adhemar d' Ales, Dictionnaire apologetique de la foi catholiq^ie. 3 vols, Paris, 1886. [4th edition, practically a new work, 1909- . In progress.]
^ Vide supra, pp. 184 f., 356 f., etc. ; and infra, pp. 383 f., 410 f., etc.
^ Vide infra, pp. 512 f.
* Cf. Edmund Spiess, The Comparative Study of Religions, and its Impor- tance for Christianity, p. 7. Jena, 1874.
^ Cf. Semaine d'ethnologie religieuse, p. 29 ; vide infra, pp. 422 f.
* Cf. The Catholic Encyclopedia : vide infra, pp. 437 f . ' Vide infra, pp. 512 and 516-7.
B b2
372 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
only legitimate, but in the highest degree praiseworthy, provided it be instituted in the name of Apologetics. It represents a particular application of the results secured through a study of Comparative Eeligion, but it is something entirely distinct from Comparative Religion itself. The application thus made, as a matter of fact, may be grossly at fault. It is not more a mistake to declare that this new science reveals the equal futility of all religions ^ than to affirm that it provides an unanswerable demonstration of the pre-eminence of (say) the Christian religion. Yet, if it were not that many contemporary volumes (some of them pos- sessing a highly meritorious character) were believed to contribute directly towards the defence of this or that particular religion, they would certainly never have been written ; and, if written, they would certainly never have won the tributes that have since been showered upon them. They are plainly books which belong to a ' Transition ' period.2 Yet, for a student of Comparative Religion, these treatises — though framed perhaps with no view of promoting his interests,^ — often contain material that is suggestive and helpful in the very highest degree. In parts simply admir- able and deserving of unquahfied praise, each of the volumes about to be reviewed, taken as a whole, is abundantly entitled to the place given to it in the list that follows.
The old conception of Apologetic was based upon the supposition that men could be converted by force of reason- ing. Hence logic, syllogism, and all the machinery of argumentative debate, were called into vigorous action. This practice won favour chiefly among those who were already persuaded ; it made comparatively few proselytes. The faiths it condemned were often entirely guiltless of holding the tenets with which they were charged ; when such dogmas did actually find a place in official statements of
^ Vide infra, p. 513. ^ Vide supra, pp. 323 f.
^ Cf. Semaine d' ethnologic religieuse, p. 24. The authors have not wholly escaped from numerous time-honoured restraints, yet it is equally clear that they are seeking all the while to be ' resolument scientifiquc ' : vide infra, pp. 422 f.
APOLOGETIC TREATISES 373
doctrine, they were not always really believed. This remark holds true concerning literally every Creed that has ever been framed ; much of its contents are (or soon become), for very many, a purely formal and impersonal declaration. The best Apologetic — as that study is understood to-day — is something frankly experimental. The origin and formu- lated claims of a faith matter now very little, unless it can accomplish its high purpose more manifestly and more rapidly than its rivals. The great question of questions is : In how far does a given faith transform mankind into something purer, more unselfish, more divine ? Comparative Eeligion has no higher function to fulfil than to supply an ever-fuller answer to this query, and then to make that answer known throughout the world.
An acute critic recently diagnosed the present situation thus : ' The only Apologetic that has any persuasion in it to-day is that which closely follows the comparative method of study '.^ This writer holds moreover that, as the assessors of alien faiths — the opponents of Christianity in particular — are never tired of extolling and employing this new agency, the defenders of various religions might do worse than boldly follow their example. Dr. Hastings is undoubtedly right, and the hint thus thrown out ought not to be forgotten.
DIE ENTWICKLUNG DES CHRISTENTUMS ZUR UNIVERSAL-RELIGION, von Karl Beth, Professor der Theologie an der Universitat Wien. Leipzig : Quelle und Meyer, 1913. Pp. viii., 337. M. 5.50.
Professor Beth has supplied his numerous readers with an aggressive and masterful book. It lacks nothing in the way of combativeness and confidence. It is at the same time copious in learning, sympathetic in spirit, and fortified in
^ Cf. James Hastings in The Expository TimeSy vol. xxv, p. 51 : vide infrUf pp. 477-8.
374 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
its conclusions by an appeal to a great array of facts accumu- lated in the interest of its thesis.
Will Christianity indeed become, eventually, the religion of all mankind ? It will not indeed become the deliberately professed faith of literally every individual, but is it destined to become the faith of the great mass of believers in every quarter of the globe ? This question, which is here answered in the affirmative, is an old one. Many years ago, the same inquiry was examined at great length in Dr. Amnion's well-known work.^ The author of that treatise likewise answered the query in the affirmative ; he expressed his unalterable conviction that, if Christianity would only show more consideration for the sensibilities and prejudices of those who were adherents of its rivals, and would exhibit more flexibility in adapting itself to their needs and local ideals, the end in view would ultimately be accomplished. It should be added, however, that this consummation was not looked for — seeing that it could not reasonably be anticipated — until a still very remote period.
Dr. Beth's name may not be widely known in Europe as yet, for he is only forty years of age ; but his new message is likely to make its way gradually throughout the greater part of Christendom. It rings with a welcome and reassuring note. The speaker reveals supreme confidence in the capabilities of the Christian faith. As a University lecturer on Systematic Theology and Symbolics, Dr. Beth has an intimate acquaintance with the doctrinal peculiarities of the numerous branches and divisions of the Christian Church. He knows also the East ; he has scrutinized it closely with open eyes, and a constantly studious purpose, whenever the opportunity has presented itself. Moreover, he is one of those who, when the challenge was thrown down, promptly and successfully entered the lists against Professor Drews.^
^ Christoph Friedrich von Ammon, Die Fortbildung des Christenthums zur Weltreligion. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1833-1835. [2nd edition, 4 vols., Leipzig, 183G-1840.]
'^ Cf. Hat Jesus geleht ? Kritik der Drews' schen Christusmythe. Berlin, 1910.
BETH, CJiristentum als die Universal-Religion 375
He has written many books.^ In his present volume, he lays special stress upon the possession by Christianity of a genius for ' development ', by means of which it has been enabled to meet and satisfy the demands which have suc- cessively confronted it. There is no race nor land nor age nor zone that seems alien to Christianity ; on the contrary, it can with equal ease make itself at home amid any given surroundings. In this respect, in comparison with every other religion, it easily takes the palm. It thus appears to be destined to prove ultimately the heir of all the ages, the spiritual ruler of the entire religious world. ' Das Christen- tum hat eine lebendige Zukunft vor sich und mit ihr die Moglichkeit, sich zur Universalreligion zu entwickeln. Diese Entwicklung darf zu seinem Wesen gerechnet werden. Schon in seinen Anfangen sind die Grundziige vorhanden, mit denen es auf eben die Entwicklungslinie gestellt wird, die zur Ausbildung der universalen Eeligion fiihren muss.' ^
The five chapters into which the work is subdivided are entitled, respectively, Die Entwicklungsfahigkeit des Chris- tentums, Entwicklung und Entfaltung (Epigenesis und Evolution), Die Keimgestalt des Christentums, Die Entwick- lung der Kultur- und Universalreligion, and Das universale Christentum als Offenbarungs- und Erlosungsrehgion. The last chapter, which expounds the significance of Christianity as a religion of revelation and redemption, will quicken the pulse and brighten the outlook of many who are labour- ing hard to promote that faith's more rapid advancement.. Students of Comparative EeHgion may feel that the argument is sometimes a little one-sided, and that the writer tends occa- sionally to be carried away by his theme. Keligions other than Christianity seem to be relegated to an unduly subordinate place. Eepresentatives of the Christian faith, on the other hand, have good reason to feel grateful to a champion who is at once shrewd, daring and competent.
^ One may mention, in particular. Das Wesen des Christentums und die moderiiehistorische Denkweise. Leipzig, 1904; and Der Entwicklungsgedajike und das Christentum. Berlin, 1909. ' Cf. p. v.
376 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
COMPARATIVE RELIGION, by Frank Byron Jevons, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Durham. (The Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature.) Cambridge : The University Press, 1913. Pp. vi., 154. Is.
No misapprehension is more common, or more mischiev- ous, than that which confounds Apologetics with Compara- tive Religion.^ This mistake, as it was pointed out at the time,2 is one into which Professor Jevons fell some years ago.^ Comparative Religion, rightly understood, is a pure science ; Apologetics, on the other hand, is — in one of its branches — an application of that science. In the latter case, the com- parisons which are instituted depend less upon the available facts than upon the personality of the comparativist,^ — his temper, his insight, his motive, his adroitness, and a score of additional adventitious factors. Herein lies the explana- tion of the very different conclusions which Mohammedans, Buddhists, Christians, etc., draw from similar or identical premisses. It is for this reason, further, that many a book which bears the name and claims the prerogatives of Com- parative Religion is in reality something quite otherwise."* The hands are the hands of Esau, but ' the voice is Jacob's voice ' !
The volume under review is an excellent case in point. Although it has been entitled ' Comparative Religion ', it belongs really to quite another department of study. Strictly speaking, it may be said to represent two other departments of study. On the one hand, it is a thesis in Apologetics. In so far as it deals with religion, it is in effect an apologia for Christianity ; it is constructed very much upon the lines of the author's earher work, already alluded to. The writer shows himself to be well-informed ; he supplies a very
^ Vide supra, pp. 369 f., and infra, pp. 512 f.
'^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion: A Survey oj its Recent Literature, 1906-1909, pp. 15-18. Edinburgh, 1910.
' Cf. Frank B. Jevons, An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion. New York, 1908. * Vide supra, p. xxvii.
JEVONS, Comparative Religion 377
interesting synopsis of relevant data ; he is never consciously unfair ; yet he is extremely and persistently one-sided in his comparison of the faiths of mankind. On the other hand, Dr. Jevons seems to find it impossible to regard and classify his material from any standpoint save that of Anthropology. So much so is this the case that Comparative Eeligion some- times seems to be merely a side-issue. It flits to and fro, — ever present, yet seldom made available as a concrete and tangible possession. It is nowhere explicitly defined : and, when the reader closes the book, he will still remain un- certain as to the boundaries of the subject discussed.
The very structure of this volume is one of the causes of its failure. The first four chapters are entitled, respectively. Sacrifice, Magic, Ancestor Worship, and The Future Life. Then follow chapters on Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Monotheism, — the latter section covering Judaism, Chris- tianity, and Mohammedanism. We seem to wander — or at least to be led with a somewhat indefinite purpose — through three successive domains, viz. Anthropology, Comparative Theology, and the History of Keligions. Each of these departments may be likened to successive ' Outer Courts ' annexed to a great Palace. Each is (within its limits) complete in itself, being w^holly distinct from each of its neigh- bours. As we pass through each in turn, the slender thread of multifarious comparisons prevents us from losing our way ; but we never gain admission to the great ' Audience Cham- ber ' of Comparative Eeligion, which, even at the end of the book, lies still a long distance in advance of us.
Dr. Jevons sets out with the conviction that Christianity stands pre-eminent among the great faiths of the w^orld. One can quite understand Dr. Speer's adoption of this attitude.^ ' Christianity ', he declares, * should perceive, and unswervingly hold to, the truth of its own absolute uniqueness '.^ Or again : ' We beheve in the triumphant conquest of [by ?] Christianity, and the sovereignty of
^ Cf. Robert E. Speer, Christianity and the Nations. New York, 1910. « Cf. ibid., p. 312.
378 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
Christ's name over every name'.^ Once more : ' The mis- sionary enterprise does not pretend to say that it has approached the subject with an empty mind, — with no preconceptions '.^ This is invariably the note of Propagandic Theology ; and that fact it frankly sets in the foreground. But for a serious expositor of Comparative Eeligion to attempt to play this role is a veritable anachronism, and one which cannot fail to grate very unpleasantly upon the sensi- bilities of every fair-minded reader. Moreover, this attitude almost inevitably blinds an interpreter to the significance of facts v.'hich run counter to his theory. It will hardly be denied that a Jewish purchaser of this book will be extremely disappointed with — if not indeed consciously repelled by — Dr. Jevons's account of Judaism. In fact, Jews are certain utterly to repudiate that account. So with the Mohamme- dan, when he surveys the portrayal of his religion. So with the Buddhist, when he reads the account given of Buddhism. These sketches are made by one who — in so far as sym- pathetic insight is concerned — views the landscape from a distance, and cannot free himself from the thrall of his own very different religious environment. What Compara- tive Eeligion demands is a clear and objective summary of all available and verifiable data,^ — not the marshalling of data selected with the view of their meeting effectively the requirements of an a priori theory. In his brief ex- position. Dr. Jevons as a matter of fact passes entirely beyond the frontiers of Comparative Eeligion, and adopts (consciously or unconsciously) the tactics of a thorough- going propagandist.
Another defect of this volume, very noticeable in a book offered to the public as a scientific Manual, is its proneness to sheer speculation. ' We may reasonably conjecture ' ^ is a phrase which the writer is constantly employing. At other times, it takes the variant form : ' We may not un- reasonably conjecture'.^ Or it runs: 'The presumption
^ Cf. Christianity and the Nations, p. 309. * Cf. ibid., p. 241.
=» Vide infra, pp. 513 and 518. * Cf, p. 95. ' Cf. p. 99.
JEVONS, Comparative Relirjioyi 379
afforded by the comparative method is . . .' ^ Professor Jevons, in truth, is much more given to the adventurous drawing of inferences than to a cahii comparison of the data with which research students have abundantly suppKed him. Overlooking the fact that a scientist must view all questions dispassionately, quite uninfluenced by his personal pre- possessions, this writer frequently reminds us of the pro- cedure of the average religious enthusiast, while he exhibits simultaneously the nimble mental activity of the typical anthropologist. Dr. Tisdall — whose general ' apologetic ' attitude accords closely with that of Dr. Jevons ^ — says of Professor Frazer's great work ^ that ' his strongest proofs are " perhaps ", "in the absence of positive information, we may conjecture ", etc. etc.'.* Such an attitude may be permissible, and even imperative meanwhile, under the conditions which still seriously impede the progress of Anthropology ; it may be permissible even in Com- parative Eeligion, loosely so called ; but it is certainly not permissible within the domain of Comparative Eeligion Proper.^
This Manual is faulty, yet further, in its failure to supply references to the authorities which it cites. ^ A primer, to be sure, must be chary of footnotes, and it is not forgotten that a brief Bibliography has been supplied at the end of the book."^ Nevertheless the authorities alluded to ought cer- tainly to have been specifically named. The authorship of a quotation has naturally not a little to do, among students, with determining the exact value to be attached to the opinions to which attention has expressly been drawn.
Eegarded as a popular handbook. Professor Jevons's
1 Cf. p. 59.
2 Cf. William St, Clair Tisdall, Comparative Religion. London, 1909 : vide Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906-1909, pp. 40-2 ; Christianity and Other Faiths : vide infra, pp. 394 f . ; etc.
2 Cf. James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough : vide supra, pp. 12 f.
* Cf. Christianity and other Faiths, p. 33.
^ Vide infra, pp. 507 f.
' Cf. pp. 31, 39, etc. ' Cf. pp. 145-6.
380 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
exposition of Comparative Eeligion will fill its niche very- well ; for it possesses many excellent qualities. Viewed as a scientific interpretation of its subject, it must be pronounced disappointing. It represents a transitional stage of pro- gress, now happily for the most part outgrown.
SOME ALTERNATIVES TO JESUS CHRIST. A Com- PAEATiVE Study of Faiths in Divine Incarnation, by John Leslie Johnston, Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. (The Layman's Library.) London : Long- mans, Green and Company, 1914. Pp. xvi., 215. 2s. 6d.
This attractive and useful volume is somewhat difficult to classify. The purpose of the ' Library ' to w^hich it belongs plainly suggests that it should be placed under Apologetics. That purpose is thus explained : ' An endeavour faithfully to represent the essentials of the Christian Faith in the spirit of a large and firm churchmanship. . . . But, while taking full account of the results of modern criticism, the volumes are in the main an attempt to build up a constructive reli- gious ideal '. The book might however, with equal fitness, be dealt with under Comparative Religion, where — within the category of Comparative Theology — it would fall to be discussed in connexion with Divine Incarnations.
The note of this book, as exhibited equally in the other members of the Layman's Library series, is its admittedly popular appeal. It consists of twelve chapters, an admirable ' Analysis ' of whose contents is prefixed, — although it must be said that the absence of an Index is scarcely atoned for by the substitution of this preliminary help. The substance of the volume was originally utilized in the form of lectures, delivered under the auspices of the Faculty of Theology at Oxford. The audience was made up of beginners in Com- parative Religion : accordingly, beliefs touching a divine Incarnation — as held by Christianity on the one hand, and
JOHNSTON, Alternatives to Jesus Christ 381
by Buddhism, Hinduism, Babi-Behaism, Hellenism, etc., on the other — had formally to be explained and not simply taken for granted. In this undertaking, the author has shown skill and discernment. He ' makes no pretence to expert knowledge in most of the vast field ' ^ on which his exposition touches, but he offers ' a tenable view of each point, based on a personal estimate of authoritative opinions '.^ He knows his material well, and guides one unerringly to the sources.
The facts relevant to the discussion, as regards the non- Christian religions just named, are carefully and succinctly stated. As the writer himself foresees, his interpretation is likely to be challenged in certain particulars ; but, in the main, his conclusions will not be shaken. His criticisms are acute and to the point. Chapter x, devoted to ' The Value of Non-Christian Beliefs ', is sympathetic, even where the value in question is occasionally much too slightly esteemed. Chapters xi and xii contain a competent sum- ming up of the outstanding features and excellencies of Christianity — in particular the historicity of Jesus, His veritable appearance, and His actual life and death among men — as set over against the faiths with which it is carefullv compared. It is at this point that the admittedly apologetic character of the book stands clearly revealed.
The aim of this volume, its necessary brevity, and the restriction of the discussion to practically a single great doctrine, have robbed it of that ' circumambience ' which students of Comparative Keligion would have welcomed. Yet, within its limits, it presents a truly admirable survey of a conception fundamental to all advanced religious thinking. On the other hand, it fairly recognizes the issues that Comparative Keligion is raising. It is written, indeed, with the express purpose — as regards at least one central belief — of meeting and composing those issues.^ To this end, the writer wisely employs the comparative method. ' It will be my object to try in each case to get as complete » Cf. p. vi. * Cf. pp. 6 f.
382 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
a summation as possible of the imier characteristics, the essential life-principles of each religion, as it is related to the Incarnate in whom it believes. And I shall then make some attempt by comparison to estimate how far the claim of Christianity to embody the Divine life uniquely can be justified.' ^
DIE AUSSERCHEISTLICHEN RELIGIONEN UND DIE EELIGION JESU CHEISTI, von Maria Constantia von Malapert-Neufville. Leipzig : Andreas Deichert, 1914. Pp. v., 188. M. 3.
This little book is in many ways attractive, both in form and contents. Its spirit is earnest, straightforward, and persuasive. The writer has evidently been very seriously perturbed by the spiritual restlessness, the religious radical- ism, and kindred developing tendencies of the present time. Feeling impelled to do what in her lies to help to remedy this distressing state of matters, she has been led to pen these arresting and revealing pages.
The volume is divided into three sections. Part I is entitled ' Die Vorbereitungen des Heils in Israel ', and attempts to show in what way and measure the Eeligion of Israel was a preparation for Christianity. The argument, however, is poorly framed ; at many points it is historically defective ; while the account of ' Der Islam, die mohamme- danische Eeligion ',2 appended to this section, is extremely slight. It is indeed singularly inadequate, if offered as a fair presentation of the Mohammedan faith.
Part II, which constitutes the major portion of the book, will appeal especially to students of Comparative Eeligion. It selects for discussion ' Die Gottesoffenbarung in der Heiden- welt '. Having provided an outline-survey of the religions of Babylon, Egypt, Persia, India, China, Greece, and Eome, the author concedes that in all of these faiths one can trace evidences of the existence of a Divine watchfulness and of
' Cf. p. 13. « Cf. pp. 30-9.
MALAPERT-NEUFVILLE, Ausserchristliche Religionen 383
a Divine revelation. Yet even the very best of these faiths is held to have been merely preparatory to something fuller and higher, — viz. the direct self-disclosure of God in the person of Jesus Christ.
Part III is allotted to ' Das Christentum '. Here the writer gives her pen full rein. Her devotion to ' Christus der Gottgesandte ', and the peace of spirit which she believes she has obtained through Him, lead her to press the legiti- macy and supremacy of His claims upon the allegiance of the whole world. The tone of this portion of the volume is rather hortatory than convincing. The book, throughout, is suited chiefly for popular and devotional use. It will serve a useful end — an end with which the author must be satisfied — if it contribute towards strengthening the re- ligious opinions of those Vv^ho are Christians already. It is scarcely fitted to influence seriously the religious thinking of others.
THE CULTS AND CHEISTIANITY, by Cyril Charhe Martindale, S.J. London : The Catholic Truth Society, 1911. Pp. 72. M.
This booklet, with its two Appendices, has since been added to the last volume of a work to which reference has already been made.^ Its editor has more recently written a series of suggestive sketches dealing with the impact of Christianity upon the restless and despairing non-Christian world of the first and second centuries. Vivid imagination, and accurate knowledge of the spirit of a sorely perplexed age, are there found happily interblended.^
Mr. Martindale is an enthusiastic advocate of the applica- tion of the comparative method to the study of religion.^
^ Cf. Lectures on the History of Religions : vide supra, pp. 186 f.
» Cf. In God's Nursery. London, 1913.
' Vide supra, pp. 332 f. C/. an article by this author, ' A Note on Com- parative Religion ', in The Dublin Review, pp. 270-84. London, October, 1910.
384 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
As editor of Lectures on the History of Beligions, he takes occasion, in this closing paper on The Cults and Christianity, to emphasize ' some considerations which will help the readers of these lectures to compare or contrast the facts he has gathered, to classify them, and even to draw from them some wide and safe conclusions '.^
In what Mr. Martindale affirms concerning the right of Eoman Catholics to cultivate Comparative Eeligion — not- withstanding the fact that some who prosecute this study have ' come to attach no absolute or transcendent value or truth to any one religion, but take up a detached attitude towards each and all, including Christianity ' 2 — one can entirely concur. No body of believers. Christian or non-Christian, can afford to-day to ignore, or minimize, the manifest teaching of this wondrously interpretive new science. But when the writer goes on to say that Catholics are not free to draw absolute conclusions ; that ' certainly there are some theories which run directly counter to the Church's doctrine, and that these the Catholic cannot hold and will not frame' ;^ that ' he will face facts, and deal with them, [only] upon the principles which govern his mental and moral life already ' ; ^ etc., he scarcely carries his readers along with him,^ — even though he subjoins the
^ Cf. p. 8. 2 cf. p. 7.
' Cf. p. 10. As a well-known abbe has phrased it : ' Nous faisons marcher de pair le serieux de I'information scientifique avec la docilite aux directions de I'Eglise.' When the editors of The Catholic Encyclopedia {vide infra, pp. 437 f.) received from His Holiness, the late Pope Pius X, an award of the Decoration known as ' Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice ', they hastened to record their gratitude in a statement which declared that the foregoing motto ' happily expressed the original design of the publication, and the spirit ' in which its authors had prosecuted their task.
* Cf. p. 12.
® Cf. Herman Schell, The New Ideals in the Gospel. London, 1913. (A translation of Christus. Das Evangelium und seine weltgeschichtliche Bedeutung. Mainz, 1906.) Evidences of this author's handicap leave a similarly unfavourable impression on the average reader's mind. The scholarship of most Jesuit investigators seems unable, moreover, to rise superior to the suspicion that researchers other than Roman Catholics must be ' libres-penseurs ' : cf. numerous remarks by Leonce de Grandmaison, S.J., in Etudes, Recherches de science religieuse {vide infra, p. 487), Semaine
MARTINDALE, The Cults and Christianity 385
consideration that the Cathohc scholar need not regret this limitation, seeing that ' he is thereby being saved a deal of time spent in buttressing a system which was bound to fall, while he could have been doing solid and lasting work '.^ The citation of certain findings of the Vatican Council seems particularly mat ct propos.^ Any man who enters upon this study, whether Catholic or non-Catholic, ' confident that the transcendent beauty of his own religion will but shine out the better ' ^ as the result of comparing it with any other faith, has already forestalled the issue. The details of the procedure he may follow do not really matter.
The substance of the latter part of this essay is written with evident sincerity, and is backed by wide and varied learning. Yet, in spite of the author's heroic endeavour to counteract a possibly unfavourable impression, one cannot escape the thought that an atmosphere of special pleading mars the effect of his entire presentation of the subject. To place all religions save Christianity in one group, and to aver that the religion of Jesus is the answer made to the world's cry for a supernatural revelation, is very seriously to misinterpret the function and significance of those faiths by which Christianity was preceded, and by which it may yet be followed. It is quite true that no student of religions can ' possibly neglect ' ^ Christianity to-day, whether he be. friendly to it or the reverse. Students of Compara- tive Religion, in particular, must accord to it the amplest
d' ethnologie religieuse, vol. i, pp. 156 f. {vide infra, pp. 422 f.), etc. etc. They view with special repugnance the general acceptance to-day of the doctrine of evolution, seeing that that theory must needs be taken into account when one attempts seriously to estimate and appraise the unfolding cycles of a developing religious system. It is certainly evidence of short- sightedness that certain Protestant teachers practically ignore the contribu- tions which Catholics have made to recent advances in this field ; but, on the other hand, Professor Moffatt is fully justified in saying that the perusal of some duly authorized Catholic works of this type ' is like going back to the days of wooden ships from an age of ironclads and submarines. . . . This book is evidently intended for the use of Roman Catholic students. ... In method and aim alike, it is curiously out of touch with vital issues.' {The Hibhert Journal, vol. xiii, p. 425 : vide infra, pp. 478-9.) 1 Of. p. 10. ^ Cf. p. 34. ^ Cf. p. 15. " Cf. p. 37.
C C
386 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
consideration and examination. But although Mr. Martin- dale disclaims any wish or mandate to assume the role of an apologist/ he proceeds at once to undertake it. The ' pro- fessed apologist \^ to whom he incidentally alludes on a subsequent page, would find — were he to appear upon the scene — that Mr. Martindale had left practically nothing for him to do.
RELIGIONS AND RELIGION. A Study of the Science OF Religion, Pure and Applied, by James Hope Moulton, Professor of Hellenistic Greek and Indo- European Philology in Manchester University. (The Fernley Lecture, 1913.) London : Charles H. Kelly, 1913. Pp. XX., 212. 3s. 6^.
Dr. Moulton has won for himself a very enviable place in the w^orld of modern scholarship. His equipment is so ample, his temper so imperturbable, and his judgement so evenly poised, that many to-day accept his leadership abso- lutely without question. Even when their own opinion has strongly tended to lead them in an opposite direction, they have often been found not unwilling to surrender a personal preference in favour of reasons which commend themselves to this alert and discriminative student. .
The current Fernley Lecture,^ the forty-third in an excel- lent series, is divided into four chapters. The first and fourth, dealing respectively with ' A Century and its Lessons ' and ' The Christ that is to be ', are of secondary importance for the purposes of the present review ; nevertheless, they are full of keen analysis, and arrest attention by the force of their vivid yet restrained imagination. It is especially in Chap- ter ii (' Comparative Religion and Christian Origins ') and in Chapter iii (' Christianity and other Religions ') that the chief relevant significance of this volume is to be found.
Some readers of this book have publicly declared that it contains one of the very best expositions of Comparative
^ Cj. p. 38. » Cf. p. 65. » Vide supra, last footnote, p. 364.
MOULTON, Religions and Religion 387
Keligion hitherto pubKshed. The facts of the case scarcely sustain this statement. It would be much more fair to say that the volume presents one of the best available apologies for the Christian religion. Such was not the sole purpose of the book, as all who read it can very easily see ; neverthe- less, this characterization is fully warranted by a perusal of its contents. It might quite fitly have been entitled ' The Keligions of the World and the Christian Eeligion '. It must be said, moreover, that the treatment accorded to the topics dealt with in Chapters ii and iii is slight rather than exhaustive. The conditions under which the task was undertaken rendered this result inevitable. The purchaser of the book is indeed deliberately forewarned of this fact by the remark : ' The absorbing demands of my work upon the Hibbert Lectures ^ — from which I have to snatch a few weeks' interval to write currente calamo upon the great theme of this little book — will help to account for defects that I can see in advance, at least as clearly as any reader '.^ The spirit of the book, still further, is foreshadowed (1) in its formal dedication to the memory of four missionaries, relatives or friends of the author, and (2) in its being written as a fitting adjunct to and memorial of the centenary attained in 1913 by the Wesley an Missionary Society. Though never engaged personally in the work of world evangelization, Professor Moulton regards that undertaking with ' sympathy and enthusiasm ',^ a fact which is continually in evidence in these pages. He adds also these interpretive words : ' I turn now to a duty in which impartiality, as pure science understands it, can have no place. ... I shall make no pretence of concealing my conviction that there is but one perfect religion. ... If a cold impartiality ... is to be the attitude of the Comparative Science of Keligion, I have no use for it. . . . The writer is convinced that, in his own faith, he holds the key to the world's spiritual history.' * Such statements as the foregoing, while admirable in their
^ Cf. Early Zoroastrianism : vide supra, pp. 275 f.
* Cf. p. viii. * Cf. p. vii. * Cf. pp. viii., ix. and x.
CC2
388 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
honest outspokenness, are not reassuring when they come to us from an expositor of Comparative Kehgion. If these conclusions are convictions, then the science of Comparative Eehgion — for such a teacher — has nothing additional to offer. The far-flung field has been surveyed ; the facts collected have been interpreted ; certain governing infer- ences have been drawn ; all that now remains to be done is to buttress and fortify the conclusions which have already been reached. This task will not prove insuperable ; and, for the scholar, it will not prove difficult. Nevertheless, if one proceed to teach that aU non- Christian religions have been designed merely to prepare the way for Christianity ; if ' we are convinced of [the validity of] Christ's claim to crown all religions, — to heighten and make permanent everything in them that is good, and to destroy all that is not good by the energy of a perfect ideal ' ; ^ if ' we face the new century . . . with a gospel the light of which is gathered into a focus of dazzling brilliance, so that the half-lights surrounding it are hardly seen \^ — what is all this but a confounding of Comparative Religion with Christian Apologetics ? ^ In a footnote, indeed, Professor Moulton seems to confuse the ' method ' of Comparative Religion with Comparative Religion itself ! ^ The writer frankly admits that other investigators, no less competent and honest than himself, have been led to interpret the products of Comparative Religion in a way w^hich he does not approve ; but, although he may call them ' radicals ' ^ or even ' anarchists of criti- cism',^ they are responsive and obedient to convictions not less imperative than those of their critic. It is unhappily a characteristic of many Christian teachers to-day that, having shown apparently a generous appreciation of the good points in other religions, they then insist that the latter are no better than so many servants of Christianity. Never- theless, in the judgement of countless sincere believers, each of these earlier faiths had to execute its own appointed task
1 C/. p. 124. 2 CJ. pp. 170-1. 3 yi^^ lYiJra, pp. 512 f.
* GJ. p. 22. 5 ^rj p 29.
MOULTON, Religions and Religion 389
— and, in some cases, to complete its task — thousands of years before Christianity was born.
Professor Moulton is far indeed from being an apologist of the old school, — dogmatic, often offensive, unscientific, uninformed, unsympathetic ; he is the very antipodes of those who were once the millstones that nearly strangled Christianity. Yet he writes here, not as a comparativist, but as a Christian apologist. He has reached certain definite judgements; and, like an honest man, he fearlessly utters his convictions. He finds in the non-Christian faiths a challenge to Christianity.^ He finds in Christian missions ' the crucial test of a spiritual life '.- But if things had been otherwise ; if his studies had led him, as Professor Gunkel ^ and others have been led, to adopt an attitude different from the one he himself represents, he would scarcely have selected his present subject as being appropriate for a ' Missionary Centenary ' Fernley Lecture.* As a piece of literary work, calculated to further a definite end, Religions and Beligion is certain to prove effective in a very high degree. Judged from this angle, it is almost impossible to exaggerate its excellencies. The writer is straightforward, broad-minded, farseeing, penetrative in analysis, and generous in the wel- come he accords to every good quality he can discover in an alien religion. In a word, if one may judge from the spirit which Professor Moulton exhibits throughout this book, it is quite evident that he could write a wholly admirable treatise on Comparative Keligion. Or he might write a searching examination and comparison of Parsism and Christianity. But the volume he has actually given us is of a character which falls far short of the standard which the science in question demands.
In the opening chapter — which is devoted, for the most part, to an enumeration of the changes wrought by modern scientific advance upon the outlook and methods of scholars generally — special reference is made to the advent and
1 Cf. p. 198. * Cf. p. 196. » Vide supra, pp. 331 f.
* C/. pp. 84, 119, 200, etc.
390 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
significance of the science of Comparative Keligion.^ It is only in the second chapter, however, that an exposition of this science is offered.'^
The subject-matter of Chapter ii, ah^eady indicated,^ could have been dealt with adequately only in a volume of very considerable dimensions. Of that fact. Professor Moulton is fully aware. The writer accordingly seeks to do little more than concentrate attention upon two or three salient features of the discussion. He groups what he has to say around two central topics, respectively negative and positive in their character. ' First I ask w^hether the results of our science [Comparative Eeligion] have done anything to shake the general credit of our Christian documents. Then I pro- ceed to the still wider question, how far Comparative Eeligion will help us to frame a general theory of the divers manners in which God has made himself known to men.' ^
Touching the former of these queries, the writer shows how the introduction of the ' religionsgeschichtliche Methode ' ^ has led many German scholars of distinction to teach that Christianity is really ' a syncretic religion, gathering some of its most vital doctrines — and both its sacraments — from sources which have hitherto escaped recognition. . . . Out of the study of Oriental religion in ancient times emerges the vague outline of a more or less universal syncretism, which is held to have exerted considerable influence on pre- Christian Judaism '.^ Professor Moulton thinks that the
^ C/. pp. 14 f.
' Professor Moulton prefers to substitute for ' Comparative Religion ' the rather clumsy designation ' The Comparative Science of Religion '. Naturally desirous of shortening this name, he occasionally substitutes for it the label ' The Science of Religion ' (c/. pp. 18, 44, 61, etc.). This course is certain to lead to confusion, since the latter designation is almost uniformly used to indicate the genus of which Comparative Religion is one of the subordinate species. Further, if one may judge from the sub-title of his book. Professor Moulton agrees with Professor Jevons in holding [cf. An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion, pp. 20, etc.) that Com- parative Religion is but another name for ' The Applied Science of Religion'. Cj. Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1906- im), pp. 17-8. Edinburgh, 1910. » Vide supra, p. 386.
* Cf. p. 22. ^ Vide supra, pp. 331 f. « Cf. p. 31.
MOULTON, Religions and Religion 391
tendency to press this theory too far has led to extreme statements, even among the more sober members of this particular group of critics; but he is not inclined to reject the theory in Mo. ' I see not the slightest reason for preju- dice against the doctrine that our New Testament religion is, to some extent, a " syncretism ", indebted to other rehgions than Judaism for pregnant hints. . . , That the final religion should have taken toll from the best elements in other religions — as well as from that out of which it immediately arose — -seems to me a natural expectation, and one that need raise no alarm in a Christian mind.' ^
Having answered the first question in the negative, Pro- fessor Moulton proceeds to deal with his second interroga- tion. If the study of Anthropology, Ethnology, and other kindred sciences has demonstrated that various religious beliefs and rites, though of independent origin, are conspicu- ously similar, may not the explanation be found in the unity of human nature, which tends to produce like results under like conditions ? The absolute universality of religion itself may be accounted for in this way. Israel was not the only nation that possessed a line of Prophets, — nor (intellectually considered) were her Prophets the greatest ; their distinction lay rather in the fact that they brought religion ' into indis- soluble union with conduct, of which religion became the supreme inspirer and controller '.^ The stages in the divine education of Israel ' have been vividly brought out by Comparative Keligion ',^ which enhances our conception of the preparation of Israel for a world-mission, and discloses how the handicap of political insignificance — a temporary safeguard for a chosen people — served as a direct aid towards securing the accomplishment of its Heaven-appointed destiny.
Passing on to Chapter iii, the writer remarks : ' I have to ask in this chapter, what is the attitude of Christianity to other religions ; and it is vital to my answer if it turns out that, in its earliest history, it drew material of value from
1 Cf. pp. 35-6. • Cj. p. 62. =» CJ. p. 68.
392 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
religions which yielded it unconsciousl}^ all that was best in them, and then perished before its advance. . . . The capacity of the new religion to absorb all that was best in the systems that were " waxing old and nigh unto vanishing away " is one of its most obvious minor qualifications for a queenly rank over all the religions of the w^orld '.^ The bearing of this part of the discussion upon missionary pro- paganda is self-evident. Professor Moulton refers in terms of highest praise to the report presented by Commission No. IV at the recent Missionary Conference in Edinburgh, ^ and to ' the tolerance, the modernity, and the open-mindedness of the missionaries whose experience is concentrated here. . . . In every part of the field, the most typical missionaries are seen to be bending their whole force of brain and heart to the great task of acquiring a sympathetic under- standing of their people's thoughts '.^ It was certainly not always so ; it is not alwa3^s so even yet ; but Comparative Eeligion has had no small share in effecting the radical change of sentiment which has already been brought about.
It is not surprising that some are ' very much afraid lest the new attitude should be supposed to involve too high an estimate of the elements of truth to be found in non-Christian systems, which we may often read into them by mistaken explanation of acts only outwardly capable of the higher meaning '.^ But the writer evidently finds satisfaction in the modern ' transformation ' of the missionary motive, a trans- formation which is declared to be ' an accomplished fact '.^ He warmly commends, further, the resolve of the Edin- burgh Missionary Conference to search out those ' reserves of spiritual force [in the Church] which remain unappropriated in her own revelation. . . . Every fresh outburst of spiritual life in history has been due to a discovery. Francis of Assisi, Martin Luther, George Fox, John Wesley, John Henry
' Cf. p. 84.
^ Cf. Proceedings of the World Missionary Conference, 1910. 9 vols. Edinburgh, 1910. The report of Commission No. IV is contained in vol. iv. and bears the title ' The Missionary Message in Relation to Non-Christian Religions'. ^ qj-^ ^ qi 4 qj- ^ 93 5 (jj^ p gg.
MOULTON, Religions and Religion 393
Newman, David Livingstone, William Booth, — all these men of spiritual genius were truly discoverers, who added some- thing to the wealth of Christianity as it was in their time. Everything permanent in all [that they learned] was in the Gospel already ; and it may well seem strange to us that no one saw these truths before. . . . They had been on the lips of men, as sacred formulae, for generations. . . . And then a Prophet has come, and discovered that the words mean soinetJiing ! ' ^
Professor Moulton, as the result of his mature and com- prehensive study, has arrived at the following conclusions. He is persuaded that Comparative Eeligion has in no wise diminished the claims of the missionary movement ; it has changed the motive, but the necessity remains. ' The mission of the Church, to all peoples of the world, approves itself as the discharging of a debt.'^ Christianity can offer men something which is nowhere- else to be obtained. ' Our study of Comparative Eeligion has made us thankful for the truth understood by those who had not yet received the Gospel, and has removed the reproach which narrower views of God brought upon religion. He has not left Himself without witness anywhere, nor allowed a small proportion of His children to monopolize the life-giving knowledge of Himself.' ^ In particular, ' the study of Comparative Eeligion — whether in the laboratory with the student at home, or in the field with the foreign missionary — will do nothing to disturb the primacy of ," Jesus and the Eesurrection " among all the truths that have come to men. Each rehgion, in turn, is found to have glimpses of truth, — some few- enough, others more or less abundant ; but none of them has anything of value which cannot be traced in the New Testament '.*
This lengthy review is fully justified on account of the learning, the fearlessness, and the transparent honesty of a writer who has dealt with a difficult theme in a markedlv generous and comprehensive way. * Cf. pp. 107-8. « Cf. p. 123. ^ Of. p. 122. * Cf. pp. 96-7.
394 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER FAITHS, An Essay in CoMPAEATivE Religion, bj William St. Clair Tisdall, until recently a representative of the Church Missionary Society in Persia and India. (Library of Historic Theology.) London : Robert Scott, 1912. Pp. xviii., 234. 5s.
Dr. Tisdall occupies a high place in the esteem of all thoughtful readers, and in the affection of those who usually constitute the majority in any popular evangelical audience. A Catholic, though not a Roman Catholic, he is staunchly loyal to the Christian faith ; he has long preached it, and defended it, in far-off Eastern lands. And now in later life, — as Vicar since 1913 of St. George's, Deal — he is simul- taneously employing his gifts as a linguist and interpreter to make clear the significance of Mohammedanism and Bud- dhism and other alien faiths to English-speaking peoples throughout the world.
A scholar always, and largely associated from the outset with academic undertakings, Dr. Tisdall has enjoyed advan- tages which promised to fit him to render distinguished service in the field of Comparative Religion. As elsewhere intimated,^ he has written much upon this theme. But, unfortunately, he has not been able to free himself from the restrictions and impulses inseparable from an ecclesiastical environment, and from the stated discharge of a definitely aggressive commission. He has been a Christian apologist during the whole of his active life, and he simply cannot now rid himself of that attitude of mind, strive strenuously as he may. Like Mr. Martindale,'^ he has conscientiously sought to safeguard himself against tendencies, of the presence and peril of which he has been fully aware ; if neither writer has quite succeeded in his effort, each has at least faced his task without fear, and has kept his honour free from reproach. In the present instance. Dr. Tisdall has not produced what
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature^ 1906-1909, pp. 40-2. Edinburgh, 1910. » Vide supra, pp. 383 f.
TISDALL, Christianity and other Faiths 395
can be called a material contribution to Comparative Reli- gion ; indeed, his modest sub-title makes no claim of that kind. This volume belongs, clearly, to the stage of ' Transi- tion '. Broadly viewed, it is probably the ablest book which Dr. Tisdall has given us thus far ; and it certainly exhibits, in some respects, a closer approach to a genuine exposition of Comparative Religion than we find in any of the pubKca- tions that bear this writer's name.
The author's summing up of the whole matter is found in the words with which his book closes : ' Christianity is related to other Faiths as their complement, their fulfilment, their realization. And when that which is perfect is come, then that which is in part should be done away '.^ He cites also with special approval Dr. Gwatkin's avowal that, ' if the Gospel is a revelation of the eternal through facts of time, it cannot be treated simply as one religion among others. Given the revelation of God, Comparative Religion may help to show us how the forms of human nature clothed it with religions of men ; but the application of Comparative Religion to the revelation itself is a fundamental error '.^
This mental attitude, to say the least, is a very serious handicap. Dr. Tisdall affirms indeed that ' Christianity has nothing to fear, but much to hope, from the fullest inquiry ' ; ^ nevertheless, he never disguises from himself — or from his readers — that ' the whole question of the origin, the truth, the historicity, the authority of Christianity is bound up with ' * the issue. He seeks really to set the Christian faith upon a lofty and imposing pedestal which will lift it high above all its predecessors and contemporaries, while the weaknesses of all other religions are ruthlessly sought out, and as ruthlessly exposed to view.
The kernel of the whole discussion is found in Chapter iv, which the author entitles ' Christianity in its relation to all
1 Cf. p. 227.
* Cf. Henry M. Gwatkin, Early Church History to ./• d. 818, vol. i, pp. 2-3. 2 vols. London, 1909. » Cf. p. ix. * Cf. p. 29.
396 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
other Faiths ' ; the three preceding chapters deal with general questions, while the remainder of the book is devoted to such topics as incarnation, virgin birth, the hereafter, sin, prayer, etc., i. e. topics proper to Comparative Theology. In other words, the book is, to a large extent, a careful expansion of his earlier text -book, published in another series.^ Five theories of the relationship of Christianity to other Faiths are enumerated. (1) Christianity possesses no prerogative which distinguishes it from any other religion. (2) Christianity is an eclectic religion. (3) Christianity is the only true religion. (4) Christianity is the summit of a series of evolutions. (5) Christianity is ' the self -rev elation of God in Christ, the final lesson in the religious education of the race. . . . The last stage. . . . God's final revelation of Himself to man.' "^
In identifying himself with the fifth of these possible interpretations of Christianity, Dr. Tisdall unconsciously separates himself from the genuine expositors of Comparative Keligion ; and this fact becomes only the more manifest in his closing chapter.^ For Comparative Keligion has no warrant to forestall or foreclose the future. It must restrict itself to an examination and comparison of such verifiable data as have actually been accumulated.^ That the Chris- tianity of the first century is immensely different from the Christianity of the twentieth century, few will be bold enough to deny ; and — if the world lasts a thousand years longer, or (much more) if it lasts ten thousand years longer — that difference is bound to increase with each succeeding century. Even were it otherwise, Comparative Eeligion has no right to frame arguments which, as it has often been shown, carry it entirely beyond its legitimate sphere.^
As in his former book on the same subject,^ Dr. Tisdall's main purpose here has been to widen popular interest in
^ Cf. Comparative Religion. (The Anglican Church Handbooks.) London, 1909. « Cf. pp. 44-5. 3 Cf. pp. 208 f. * Vide infra, pp. 513 f.
•^ Vide infra, pp. 514 f. « Cf. first footnote.
TISDALL, Christianity and other Faiths 397
a theme of transcendent importance. ' One object of this volume will be attained ', he writes, ' if it leads men to think for themselves, and to study such questions independently with a solemn sense of responsibility.' ^ At the same time, this exposition will no doubt be especially welcomed in circles within which the faith of certain Christian believers has of late been perceptibly disturbed by the investigations of Comparative Keligion. It is to be regretted that, in various particulars. Dr. Tisdall's judgement is very seriously at fault. He holds that, ' as the Bible asserts, man at the very beginning of his history knew the One True God. This implies a Kevelation of some sort, and traces of that Eevela- tion are still to be found in many ancient faiths '.^ Again : ' It is an almost general rule that, the further back we trace a religion, the higher are its adherents' ideas of the Divine.' ^ . . . ' Except in Israel, the story of religion (wherever it can be traced) is a melancholy story of steady progress downward.' ^ In the opinion of the great majority of experts in this field. Dr. Tisdall is far from justified in behev- ing that the faiths of mankind were purer and more persis- tently monotheistic in their earlier forms, and that the tendency they so often exhibit towards slackness and degeneration is to be explained as the effect of an ineradic- able law\ Some of the illustrations he uses to enforce his view would certainly not have been chosen if he had taken time to think again.
In the Preface to this volume,^ an allusion is made in a somewhat unfriendlv vein to Dr. Kichard's The New Testament of Higher Buddhism.^ A quotation from the book is given ; but its writer's name is withheld, and no page- reference is mentioned. "^ It has already been stated that, on the question of the interpretation of Buddhism, these two authors do not see eye to eye,^ — Dr. Tisdall being inclined,
^ Cf. p. sii. 2 cf\ p. 226.
^ Cf. p. 6. Vide supra, p. 222. * Cf. p. 44.
•' Cf. p. xiv. ® Vide supra, pp. 284 f.
' The citation may be found in Dr. Richard's volume, p. 49.
^ Vide supra, p. 286.
398 APOLOGETIC TREATISES
apparently, to resent the clearly-marked trend of recent studies in this field. And when one recalls that, in his manner of interpreting Christianity, Dr. Tisdall parts com- pany with the more sober students of Comparative Eeligion, the conviction becomes stronger than ever that the sub-title of his book ought to have run, ' An Essay in Christian Apologetics '.
JESUS-CHRIST ET L'ETUDE COMPAREE DES RELI- GIONS, par Albert Valensin, Professeur a la Faculte de Theologie de Lyon. (Conferences donnees aux Facultes catholiques de Lyon, 1911.) Paris : Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1912. Pp. vi., 232. Fr. 3.50.
This little book is quite openly apologetic in its aim. * Marquer de quelques points lumineux la voie qui, a travers cette melee des religions, pourrait conduire a Jesus-Christ ceux qui appellent la verite, est tout le dessein de ces pages.' ^ It bears, moreover, an official imprimatur. It is one of the literary products of a series of Conferences, organized two or three years ago with the express purpose of confirming Christians in their faith. For these reasons, it is evident that this volume belongs to the ' Transition ' stage, and not to the period of the actual attainment of ideals which Com- parative Religion (often in strange and unwelcome ways) is plainly destined to fulfil.
Apart from the facts just enumerated, and subject to the limitations they have imposed. Professor Valensin is entitled to congratulations and cordial praise. In some respects, he has produced a truly brilliant little book. While a Buddhist or a Mohammedan would probably, at several vital turning- points in the argument, raise objections to what would appear to them to be special pleading, the author has cer- tainly made a telling defence of the life and teaching of Jesus. Not only so, but he has built up and buttressed his
' Cf. p. V.
VALENSIN, L'Etude Com'paree des Religions 399
faith by a very skilful use of the material with which Com- parative Eeligion has supplied him. Seizing the weapons which certain short-sighted or evil-minded persons have fiercely been brandishing of late, — weapons which some have insanely imagined Comparative Eeligion expressly forged for sinister reasons of its own ^ — he has turned them with most discomfiting effect against those who have been rash enough to employ them. As a consequence, he has suc- ceeded in showing that, if many Christians fondly believe that their rehgion stands wholly apart from all the rest, and that it possesses qualities which it could not possibly have derived from sources — in Babylonia, Persia, India, Greece, and elsewhere — which are alleged to have given them birth, an argument can be framed which seems verily to justify such faith. In particular, special stress is laid upon the differences which separate Christianity from all other systems of behef ; and Professor Valensin, in formulating his defence, has exhibited abundant knowledge and resource. This book should prove a useful vade mecum for men who are engaged in Christian propagandism in different parts of the world, but it should prove very useful also to all serious students of Comparative Eeligion.
SUPPLEMENTAEY VOLUMES
COMPAEATIVE RELIGION AND MISSIONS TO NON- CHRISTIAN PEOPLES, by John ClifEord. (The Carey Lecture, 1912.) London : The Baptist Missionary Society, 1912. Pp. 35. U.
THE GOSPEL AND HUMAN NEEDS, by John Neville Figgis. (The Hulsean Lectures, 1908-1909.) London : Longmans, Green and Company, 1909. Pp. 210. ^s. Qd.
THE FELLOWSHIP OF THE MYSTERY, by John Neville Figgis. (The Bishop Paddock Lectures, 1913.) New York : Longmans, Green and Company, 1914. Pp. xv., 300. $1.60.
^ Vide infra, pp. 516-7.
400 SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES
THE MISSIONARY OBLIGATION. In the Light of the Changes of Modern Thought, by Alfred Ernest Garvie. London : Hodder and Stoughton, 1914. Pp. ix., 141.
25.
THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION AND ITS VERIFICATION,
by Terrot Reaveley Glover. (The Angus Lectures, 1912.) London : Methuen and Company, 1913. Pp. xiv., 229. 35. 6d.
MODERN SUBSTITUTES FOR TRADITIONAL CHRIS- TIANITY, by Edmund McClure. London : The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, [2nd edition], 1914. Pp. viii., 224. 25.
RELIGIONSPSYCHOLOGIE UND APOLOGETIK, von Emil Pfennigsdorf. Leipzig : Andreas Deichert, 1912. Pp. 96 M. 2.
DIE UROFFENBARUNG ALS ANFANG DER OFFEN- BARUNGEN GOTTES, von Wilhelm Schmidt. Kempten : J. Kosel, 1913. Pp. vii., 159. M. 1.50.
THE RELIGIONS OF ANTIQUITY AS PREPARATORY TO
CHRISTIANITY, by Charles Newton Scott. London: Smith, Elder and Company, [3rd edition], 1914. Pp. ix., 209. 25.
HINDUISM, ANCIENT AND MODERN, IN THE LIGHT OF THE INCARNATION, by John Alfred Sharrock. London : The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1913. Pp. x., 237. 25. 6d.
CHRISTIANITY AS RELIGION AND LIFE, by John Mac- kintosh Shaw. (The Pollok Lectures, 1914.) Edinburgh : T. and T. Clark, 19l4. Pp. vii., 99. 25.
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO THE JEWS AND PAGANS.
The Historical Character of the Gospel established FROM Non-Christian Sources, by Samuel E. Stokes. New York : Longmans, Green and Company, 1913. Pp. x., 54. 50c.
CHRISTIANISME ET BOUDDHISME, par I'abbe M. Thomas. Paris : Librairie Bloud et Gay, [9th edition], 1914. Pp. 144. Fr. 1.20.
TRANSLATIONS OF REPRESENTA- TIVE SACRED TEXTS
A MA.GNIFICENT enterprise, inaugurated by the labours of Max Miiller and his collaborators,^ has been emulated in the literary activity of several distinguished scholars of the present century. Accordingly, what the Oxford Professor succeeded in doing for the English-speaking world has since been achieved — though, for the most part, on a much more modest scale — for Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. The relative compactness and inexpensiveness of these later works are not least among the features which distinguish and commend them.
It need scarcely be said that the student of Comparative Eeligion has supplied to him, here, a collection of material, varied and reliable, upon which to base — or by which to check — the comparisons he is seeking to institute. The work of translation has carefully and competently been performed. The best philological skill has been placed at his service. Brief expository introductions to the several Texts have been supplied. At a later stage in his career, such help will in large measure cease to be necessary ; but meanwhile, — and, as regards certain faiths, for a very considerable period — the assistance thus furnished will prove a distinct aid in tasks which are often formidable and exacting in a very high degree.
It will be noted at once that the volumes about to be reviewed belong, strictly speaking, to the sphere of the History of Keligions.^ It is for the student who is still occupied with this earlier subdivision of the Science of
1 Cf. The Sacred Books of the East. 49 vols. Oxford, 1879-1904. Supplemented by a General Index volume (Oxford, 1910) : vide infra, pp. 466 f. " Vide supra, pp. 163 f.
D d
402 TRANSLATIONS OF SACRED TEXTS
Religion that each of these treatises has expressly been prepared. But these works belong also to the ' Transition ' ^ ; hence their inclusion in this survey. For investigators who have pressed on to a more advanced position, these volumes may prove to be of the highest value, — not only as adjuncts to the study of Philology,^ but also as excellent allies of Comparative Religion.
RELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHES LESEBUGH, heraus- gegeben von Alfred Bertholet, Professor der Theologie an der Universitat Gottingen. Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1908. Pp. xxviii., 401. M. 6.60.
Professor Bertholet ' was the occupant of a chair in the University of Basel when he projected and published this very useful book. Later, he removed to Tubingen ; and, last year, he transferred his services to Gottingen. Accord- ingly, he adds yet another scholar of distinguished capacity to the number of those who, invited to make their home in Germany,^ have enthusiastically furthered the gradual introduction of the History of Religions into the curricula of the German Universities. Happily several of these Universities are now welcoming the inauguration, in addition, of the study of Comparative Religion, — this latter subject being viewed as something quite different from Beligionsgescliiclite, and as necessitating the employ- ment of a method quite different from the religionsgeschicht- liche Methode^
In an able introductor}^ statement. Professor Bertholet explains that his exacting task was undertaken by himself and his colleagues, not exclusively in the interest of students
^ Vide supra, pp. 325 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. Ill f.
' Cf. Professor De Groot {vide sup>ra, pp. 211 f.), Professor Lehmann {vide infra, pp. 403 f.), Professor Soderblom {vide supra, pp. 194 f., and 404 f.), etc. Cf. Jordan, articles on 'The History of Religions, and its Introduction into the German Universities ' in The Expository Times, vol. xxii, pp. 198-201, and vol. xxiv, pp. 136-9 : vide infra, pp. 477-8.
* Vide supra, pp. 331 f.
BERTHOLET, Religion sgeschichtliches Lesehuch 403
of the History of Keligions, but equally with a view of meet- ing the needs of somewhat more advanced investigators. The choice of passages, taken from the successive documents cited in this volume, reveals how judicious and competent has been the service which the editor and his helpers have rendered to numerous bodies of researchers.
Only four groups of religions are dealt with, — dealt with meaniohile, for a supplementary volume is to follow ^^ viz. the religions of China, India, Persia, and Arabia ; these particular faiths have been chosen because each of them has put into our hands certain notable Sacred Books. The strong points and the weak points characteristic of these diverse religions are diligently sought out and presented side by side, in order that a fair .comprehension of the con- tents and spirit of each religion — as presented in the text of its own authoritative standards — may be reached without an unnecessary expenditure of time.
References to the sources are of course uniformly supplied. There is also an excellent Index.
TEXTBUCH ZUR RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE, heraus-. gegeben von Edvard Lehmann, [friiher] Professor der Religionsgeschichte an der Universitiit Berlin. (Samm- lung theologischer Lehrbiicher.) Leipzig : Andreas Deichert, 1912. Pp. viii., 372. M. 6.
Professor Lehmann, whom Germany successfully allured from Copenhagen, entered in 1910 v/ith characteristic vigour upon his new^ task at Berlin. ^ He wields the pen of a ready writer ; and, being a native of a multilingual nationality, he is quite at home in modern — as well as in several Eastern — languages. It is he who, on the invitation of the pub- lishers, suppHed the article on ' Religionsgeschichte ' for the
^ The first section of the new volume has airead;/ appeared : vide supra, pp. 57 and 60.
* Dr. Lehmann, at the close of 1913, was chosen to be the first occupant of a corresponding chair in the University of Lund, Sweden.
D d2
404 TRANSLATIONS OF SACRED TEXTS
Supplement to one of the most widely circulated of Con- tinental encyclopaedias ; ^ and he is now associated with Dr. Soderblom in editing a new Beligionsvetenskapligt BiblioteJc-
The present work is noticeably brief ; indeed, it seriously errs in the way of compression. Professor Bertholet limits himself to a selected group of religions ; but Dr. Lehmann, notwithstanding the restricted space at his disposal, attempts to cover a very much wider domain. His list includes Chinese, Japanese, Egyptian, Babylonian- Assyrian, Islamic, Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman, and Teutonic religions, and therefore covers faiths which do not really possess any sacred canon. ^ Professor Lehmann on Parsism and on Earlv Germanic Religion, and Dr. Landsberger on Babylonian- Assyrian Religion, are perhaps the most satisfactory sections of the book ; but it is somewhat lackinoj in method and arrangement. And there is no Index ! As a handbook for reference by more advanced investigators, it is capable of rendering much useful service : but unless it be augmented by lectures, or by other supplementary expositions, it will prove to be of comparatively little value to the beginner, or even perhaps to the average student.
FRAMMANDE RELIGIONSURKUNDER, utgifna af Nathan Soderblom, Professor vid Uppsala Universitet. 4 vols. Stockholm : Hugo Geber, 1908. Pp. xviii., 224 + 686-1-304 + 328. Kr. 24.
Professor Soderblom has enjoyed the distinction of holding for a time a professorship in a German University.* Leipzig was not able, however, to persuade him to sever his connexion with Upsala, where he continued to be a resident during a portion of each year. Promoted now to the Archbishopric
' C'f. Albert Hauck, Realencyklofildie filr protestantische l^heologie und Kirche : vide infra, pp. 436 f. 2 y^^^ supra, p. 204.
2 Cf. Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, Rome, etc. * From October 1912 until July 1914.
SODERBLOM : Frdmmande Religio)isurkunder 405
of Upsala, he has rejoined his University as its honoured Vice-Chancellor.
In his Frdmmande Religionsurkunder, Dr. Soderblom has struck a happy mean between the somewhat cumbrous fullness of Max Miiller's undertaking, and the too great compactness attempted by Dr. Lehmann. All that the student of Comparative Eeligion really needs is here made ready to his hand. The accompanying expositions, likewise, are satisfying without being overweighted. The editorial supervision, constant and firm, reveals itself unmistakably in many a detail. There is an excellent Index. The one serious difficulty is that Swedish is an unknown tongue to most English-speaking readers, — and to not a few among other nationalities as well.
Apart from the handicap just specified, this work com- pletely fulfils the promise which accompanied its formal announcement, viz. that its contents would supply ' an encyclopaedic survey of religions . . . and a clear and toler- ably complete illustration of what is most important and characteristic in the non- Christian religions '. A detailed examination of this work may be consulted, if desired, in a well-known Scottish journal.^
QUELLEN DEE RELIGIONS-GESCHICHTE, heraus- gegeben im Auftrage der Religionsgeschichtlichen Kom- mission bei der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften zu Gottingen. Gottingen : Vandenhoeck und Kuprecht, 1913- . hi progress. The sizes and prices of the successive volumes vary ; vide infra, footnotes, p. 407.
This substantial and standard work is one of the very best evidences of the spirit in which German scholarship to-day is addressing itself to the study of the History of Religions.
^ Cf. Jordan, article in the Review of Theology and Philosophy, vol. iv, pp. 184-8 : vide infra, p. 487.
406 TRANSLATIONS OF SACRED TEXTS
It represents perhaps the crown of all similar undertakings thus far attempted. The literature of the sources of the History of Religions has been divided by the editors into twelve groups, as follows : (1) Europa, (2) Altsemitisches und Agyptisches, (3) Judentum, (4) Gnostizismus mit Einschluss der mandaischen Religion, (5) Islam, (6) Iran, (7) Indien, ausser Buddhatum, (8) Buddhatum in und ausserhalb Indiens (soweit nicht in Gruppe 9 vorkommend), (9) China, Japan, und Mongolen, (10) Afrika, (11) Amerika, and (12) Die Primitiven der Siidsee und des slidlichen Asiens. The selection of scholars chosen to make individual translations reveals how widely the editorial net has been cast, and how competent the literary product of this great enterprise will be found to be when it shall ultimately be completed.
As intimated in its title, the production of this work is being supervised by a local group of University professors in Gottingen, appointed for the purpose by the Gottingen Royal Society of Sciences. This Commission is made up of Pro- fessors Andreas, Bousset, Oldenberg, Otto, Peitschmann, Schroder, Sethe, Titius, Wackernagel, and Wendland. Here one finds abundant guarantee that the task will be in every way capably executed. German scholars will be entrusted with the major portion of the work, but a few foreign special- ists will be invited to co-operate in the capacity of literary associates. The historical method of research will be scrupulously applied throughout ; all special pleading, and all ex parte statements, will be rigorously excluded. Each volume — complete in itself and purchasable separately — is to be prefaced by a comprehensive Introduction ; in Dr. Franke's book, this preliminary statement extends to nearly seventy pages. It will be found that copious footnotes are a conspicuous feature of these volumes. Valuable Appendices are promised, while the Indices are to be full yet precise, grouped under the headings of Wortregister, Nariienregister, and Sachregister.
Six volumes have already been published, but it should
VARIOUS AUTHORS, Quellen der Religions-Geschichte 407
be explained that three ^ of these books really form part of an earlier similar work, the Religioris-Urkunden der Volker, which has now been merged by consent in a much larger undertaking.
Two volumes included in this compendious scheme ap- peared two years ago.^ With them, the new enterprise really begins ; and students of Comparative Religion will find these two publications to be of exceeding value. In the former volume, one is given an excellent translation into German of selected portions of Buddhist Canonical Writings, while in the latter a like service is performed in the interest of the choicest Hymns of the Rigveda. The Scriptures of all the great religions of the East are to be dealt with after a similar manner in the volumes which are to follow.
It will be seen how, when this huge task has been com- pleted, Germany will have placed her investigators in the History of Religions on a footing of equality with English- speaking workers in this field. The latter owe an immense debt to the labours of the late Professor Max Miiller and his collaborators, whose initial enterprise lent impetus to inquiries of this type fully a generation ago ^ ; corresponding research in Germany is now sure to receive a similar impulse, with the added advantage of an examination of the most recently discovered texts, and the application to them of a scholarship which, now more mature, is fully abreast of the times.
^ Cf. Johann Warncck, Die Religion der Batak. Ein Paradigma fur animistische Religionen des Indischen Archipels, 1909. Group 12. M. 5 ; Hans Haas, Amida Buddha unsere Zuflucht, 1910. Group 9. M. 6 ; Jakob Spieth, Die Religion der Eiveer in Siid-Togo, 1911. Group 10. M. 10.
2 Cf. R. Otto Franke, Dtghanikaya. Das Buck der langen Texte des huddhistischen Kanons, 1913. Group 8. M. 14 ; and Alfred Hillebrandt, Lieder des Rgveda, 1913. Group 7. M. 5. The sixth volume {Prajnd- paramita. Die Vollkommenheit der Erkenntnis. Nach indischen, tihetischen und chinesischen Quellen, by Professor Walleser of Heidelberg, Group 8) appeared in 1914. The seventh volume {Kojiki, Nihongi, Engishki, by Professor Florenz of Tokyo, Group 9) may be published this year.
^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 401.
408 TRANSLATIONS OF SACRED TEXTS
THE UNIVERSAL TEXT BOOK OF RELIGIONS AND MORALS, edited by Annie Besant, President of tHe Theosophical Society. London : The Theosophical Publishing Society, 1910-1911. 2 vols. Pp. viii., 191+viii., 178. 35.
Separated by a long gap from the four works just named, there stands another which is entitled at least to a courteous passing mention. Two volumes have already appeared, and a third is promised. The first is restricted to ' Religion ', and enumerates those ' doctrines of the Universal Religion ' which are incorporated in the varied faiths of mankind. ' These broad teachings, found in every faith, are a common possession V viz. the unity of God, the incarnation of Spirit, the brotherhood of Man, etc. Under each of these headings, various quotations (more or less relevant) are made from the Scriptures of the World, — Hindu, Zoroastrian, Hebrew, Christian, Islamic, Sikh, etc. The second volume is allotted to ' Ethics ', and deals with its subject on precisely the lines embodied in the plan of its predecessor. ' That all religions teach similar ethics ', the author remarks,^/ is very fully proved in the following pages.' '^ Volume iii, long expected, has not yet appeared ; but, w^hen it does so, it is to present ' brief statements of the special doctrines of the various religions ',^ with a short account of their local and distinctive rites.
The student of Comparative Religion will not expect to find here the cautious and scientific accuracy of expert scholarship. The practice of collecting mere ' excerpts ' from the Sacred Books of mankind, and of printing them side by side under selected headings — especially if the author has some self-evident purpose in view — has never proved effective in promoting the serious comparison of religions.^
' Cf. vol. i, p. 10. 2 ^j ^ol. ii, p. iv.
=» Cf. James G. R. Forlong, Short Texts in Faiths and Philosophies. Edin- l^urgh, 1807; Martin K. Schcrmerhorn, The Sacred Scriptures of the World.
BESANT, Text Book of Religions and Morals 409
Nevertheless, it redounds to the credit of Theosophy that it has always encouraged the study of Comparative Keligion, and it has done not a little to popularize and advance inquiries of this character. ' It admitted all the facts discovered by archaeologists and antiquarians, but asserted that they were susceptible of quite other explanation than that given by the enemies of religion . . . viz. that the community of religious teachings, ethics, stories, symbols, ceremonies, and even the traces of these among savages, arose from the derivation of all religions from a common centre, from a Brotherhood of Divine Men, which sent out one of its members into the world from time to time to found a new religion, containing the same essential verities as its predecessors, but varying in form with the needs of the time, and with the capacities of the people to whom the Messenger was sent . . . Eeligions are the messages ... of Manu, Zara- thushtra, Buddha,' ^ etc. Whether this theory be accepted or rejected,^ it is under the influence of the friendly regard which Theosophy has always shown towards Comparative Keligion that many have caught their first impulse to face courageously the problems which that science presents, and to subject them to a serious and sustained study. Later on, under the guidance of a more competent and exacting leadership, some who were merely curious at the outset — anxious only to hear or tell some new thing — have become active and invaluable promoters of a branch of exact research which, with scarcely an exception, has rewarded a hundred- fold their persistent and unselfish industry.
New York, 1883 ; James M. Hodgson, The Bibles of other Nations. Man- chester, 1885.
^ Cf. Annie Besant, Theosophy, pp. 14-15. London, 1912.
^ Students of Comparative Religion will be interested in a lecture, recently delivered by Principal A. G. Eraser, entitled A Comparison beticeen Christianity and Theosophy. London, 1913. Theosophy unfortunately glosses over the irreducible differences by which various religions are separ- ated. Mr. Farquhar affirms that ' so far from providing a means of recon- ciling the great religions, Theosophy creates another religious system ' {The Crown of Hinduism, p. 20) : vide supra, p. 297.
410 TRANSLATIONS OF SACRED TEXTS
BOUDDHISME CHINOIS. Extkaits du Tripitaka, des coMMENTAiRES, ETC., par Leoii Wieger, S.J. Paris : E. Guilmoto, 1910- . In progress. Pp. circa 400, each volume. Fr. 9, each vohime.
LE CANON TAOiSTE, par Leon Wieger, S.J. Paris: E. Guihnoto, 1911- . In progress. Pp. circa 450, each volume. Fr. 9, each volume.
Father Wieger is well acquainted with China, concerning whose history, language, folklore, etc., he has written many books. He has studied also with eagerness the religions of that country, and has of late been engaged in editing and reproducing various Chinese sacred texts, each of which is accompanied by a fluent French translation. It was he who wrote the paper on ' The Religion of China ' which Mr. Mar- tindale has incorporated in vol. i of his recent History of Religions.^
Of Bouddhisme chinois, two vohimes have been issued,^ and two volumes of Le Canon tao'iste have also been com- pleted.^ If the author's life is spared, he promises to supply us before long with a quite new and comprehensive corpus of ancient sacred texts.
Unfortunately, however, this undertaking is marred by several serious defects. A vast amount of labour has been expended, and a difficult situation has courageously been faced ; yet one is forced to say that evidences of rather careless workmanship are by no means infrequent. Ren- derings of a text into another language, while philologically correct, may leave the reader immeasurably remote from the spirit and intention of the original. There can be detected in these pages an absence of poise, and a lack of that accurate balancing of one's diction, which are among the most reliable
' Vide supra, pp. 186 f.
^ Of. Vinaya, monachisme et discipline (1910), and Les Vies chinoises du Jiuddha (1913).
^ (JJ. Bihliographie generate (1911), and Les Peres du systeme tadiste : Lao-tzeu, Lie-tzeu, Tchoang-tzeu (1913).
WIEGER, Bouddhisme Chinois, etc. 411
criteria of the mastery peculiar to a mature scholar. More- over, considerable sections of the Chinese text are at times quite arbitrarily omitted, and thus a wrong impression is once more likely to be conveyed to those who are accustomed unhesitatingly to follow their leader. Dr. Wieger's per- sistent habit of abridging the text when he thinks such a course desirable is utterly destructive of the permanent value of his work. It is important, therefore, to put younger students upon their guard, lest they appeal with undue confidence to a series of books which, in many respects, are of real and abiding w^orth.
TKANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
AND LEARNED SOCIETIES,
ENCYCLOPEDIAS, ETC.
In the following section, it is proposed to draw attention to several groups of volumes — wide in their range, and very varied in character — which prove most valuable, and often simply indispensable, to students of Comparative Eeligion. The assistance they are capable of rendering differs in kind and degree, but that assistance must under no circumstances remain unsought and unutilized.
These ' Source Books ' are practically innumerable. Only representative works will be mentioned ; but happily, during the last four years, such publications — often of a more than ordinarily high standard of excellence — have been very greatly multiplied. They may be classified under four distinctive headings.
(1) CONGEESSES
There has never been a period when Conferences and Congresses — local and international — have been so numerous, so ardent, and so various as to-day. They undertake to deal with almost every conceivable theme.
The motive which inspires these assemblies is altogether commendable. Nor do such Congresses fail to achieve in large measure the ends they have in view. ' The broadened range of survey, the deliberate comparison of differing judgements arrived at by the more notable leaders in any science, the open impromptu discussions that follow, the indefinable stimulus that is secured through personal contact with experienced and venerated teachers, and the diffusion of intelligence touching a great variety of important
TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES 413
subsidiary questions, invariably count for a great deal '.^ Not only so, but some of the most important literary under- takings of modern times have been the direct fruitage of such Congresses. It may be worth while to cite one or two recent instances. Take, for example, the preparation and publication of The Encyclopcedia of Islam,^ — a project which, often discussed by savants attending successive meetings of the International Congress of Orientalists,^ led to action being finally taken at the Assemblee Generale de I'Associa- tion Internationale des Academies held in Paris in 1901. Or one may mention the proposal to provide a Dizio7iario hio-hihliografico italiano, more fully described as a Rejjer- torio hiografico delta storia d'ltalia dot 476 al 1900, to be edited by Leone Caetani, Principe di Teano,* — a scheme which was discussed at the International Congress of His- torical Studies ^ held in Berlin in 1908. Or again, all must recall the suggestion that the preparation of a new Mediaeval Latin Dictionary should at last be seriously undertaken, a proposition which was brought forward and ably supported at the still more recent meeting of the same Congress, when it met in London in 1913.^ Lesser literary results, such as the founding of a new scientific journal or review,' have like- wise often been achieved through the enlightened action of some international Congress.^
At each of these great Councils, considerable attention is paid to the developments taking place in various auxiliary sciences ; and herein lies the necessitv that students of Comparative Religion should make frequent and systematic survey of many a long row of bulky printed Transactions. Unfortunately, the custom of dispensing with printed Pro- ceedings is steadily on the increase. Advance copies of
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth, p. 301. Edinburgh, 1905.
^ Vide infra, pp. 438 f. ^ Vide infra, pp. 414 f.
* Vide supra, pp. 302 f. ^ Vide infra, pp. 421 f.
^ Cf. the proposal to publish an up-to-date Lexicon of Greek and Roman Mythology and Religion : vide infra, p. 419. ' Vide infra, p. 489.
* Cf. the founding of the Kennedy School of Missions : vide infra, p. 498.
414 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
individual Papers can usually be obtained, and those who are specially interested in them are thus able to procure them by merely asking for them. On the other hand, the publishing of all Papers m extenso is too costly, while the furnished abstracts of them are in most cases wholly un- satisfactory. The lesson to be learned is that, in so far as possible, a student should arrange to attend the more promis- ing of these Congresses. The time demanded, though yielded perhaps somewhat grudgingly, will generally in the end be sufficiently repaid. The ' impromptu discussions ', to which reference has already been made,^ are seldom correctly reported, if indeed they are reported at all. Should one be precluded however from giving personal attendance, the Papers of most likely value should promptly be procured, and pigeon-holed for reference when required
It is not proposed, in the present instance, lo do more than single out for commendation a very few of the Congresses which have been convened during the past four years. In making a selection, the choice has naturally fallen upon those which have afforded the largest measure of help to students of Comparative Religion.
ACTES DU SEIZIEME CONGRES INTERNATIONAL DES ORIENTALISTES. Session d'Athbnes, Avril 6-14, 1912. Athens : Meissner et Kargadonris, 1912. Pp. 252. Fr. 7.50.
This great Council, invariably attended by many of the foremost savants of our day, is one of those which un- happily are falling into the habit of allowing their Trans- actions to remain unprinted. At the Copenhagen Congress, it was resolved — as regards that particular Meeting — that ' la publication des actes in extenso ou en extraits detailles soit supprimee, et qu'au lieu de celle-ci paraisse une sim- ple enumeration des questions traitees '.^ The Executive
^ Vide supra, p. 412.
^ Cf. Actes du Quinzieme Congres international des Orientalistes. Session de Copenhague, 1908, p. 80. Copenhague, 1909.
Congres International des Orientalistes 415
Committees of many a future Congress are quite certain to quote and accept this precedent !
The way in which a student of Comparative Kehgion can best surmount this difficulty, and thus continue to secure for himself the rich material that may be derived from scores of unofficially printed documents, has already been explained.^ Many of the earlier volumes of the Proceedings of the Con- gress of Orientalists can still quite easily be obtained. In order to guide the investigator in his search, it may prove useful to supply a list of the Congresses which have thus far been held. Inaugurated by a notable assembly held in Paris in 1873, meetings followed in London, 1874, (3) St. Petersburg, 1876, (4) Florence, 1878, (5) Berlin, 1881, (6) Leiden, 1883, (7) Vienna, 1888, (8) Stockholm and Chris- tiania, 1889, (9) London, 1892, (10) Geneva, 1894, (11) Paris, 1897, (12) Kome, 1899, (13) Hamburg, 1902, (14) Algiers, 1905, (15) Copenhagen, 1908, and (16) Athens, 1912. The next assembly was summoned to meet at Oxford in 1915.
FIFTH INTEKNATIONAL CONGEESS OF FKEE CHEISTIANITY AND KELIGIOUS PKOGRESS, HELD IN Berlin, August 5-10, 1910. Edited by Charles William Wendte. Berlin-Schoneberg : Pro- testantischer Schriftenvertrieb, G. m. b. H., 1911. Pp. xi., 679. 9s. 6d. [M. 8.50.]
The German report of the proceedings of this Weltkongress filr freies CJiristentum und religiosen Fortschritt, issued by the same Publishing Company, is in some respects fuller than its English counterpart ; but it is better perhaps, in the present case, to call attention to a volume which is the more likely of the two to be consulted by English-speaking readers. The translations, on the whole, are quite satisfactory ; in certain instances, however, full justice is scarcely done to the language employed by the writers of some highly important
^ Vide supra, pp. 413^.
416 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
papers. It must be added that it is especially to be regretted that Professor Wobbermin's discussion of ' The Task and Significance of the Psychology of Religion ' ^ has not been included in the English edition of this work.
These successive Congresses have been viewed in some quarters with a certain amount of suspicion, owing no doubt to the circumstances and influences which chiefly account for their origin. Such objections carry no weight with students of Comparative Religion, who regard all dogmatic differences from a wholly impartial point of view.^ They are satisfied with the fact that each of these Congresses — held respectively in London (1901), Amsterdam (1903), Geneva (1905), Boston (1907), Berlin (1910), and Paris (1913)3_has been productive of clearer thinking and saner judgements on the subject of religion. The compact volumes of successive Transactions are well worthy of a place, and are certain to secure a place, on the bookshelves of every investigator of the central problems of reason, faith and conduct.
For students of Comparative Religion, the most fruitful section in the latest volume is Part V, which bears the general title ' Sympathetic Relations between Christianity and other Great World-Faiths '. Here are traced certain affinities between the Christian religion and Mohamme- danism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Hinduism, etc. etc. Almost all the writers of these papers are Eastern scholars who regard Christianity from an oriental point of view, and through an atmosphere which is not always favourable to securing a right perspective of its qualities. Nevertheless, their verdict is neither unfriendly nor unjust ; while, even among casual onlookers, it is bound to awaken many new and sobering reflections. Professor Gunkel's exposition of ' The
* Cf. Georg Wobbermin, Aufgahe und Bedeutung der Beligionspsychologie. Berlin-Schoneberg, 1910. Cf. also the same author's Ziim Streit um die Religionspsychologie : vide supra, p. 162.
^ Vide infra, pp. 512 f., 516 f., etc.
' Cf. Actes du Sixieme Congres international du progres religieux. Paris » [publication postponed]. For a good report of the proceedings cf., mean- while, Bihjchnis, vol. ii, pp. .352 f. : vide infra, p. 475.
International Congress of Free Christianity . 417
History of Keligion and Old Testament Criticism ' ^ is one of the papers which will repay careful perusal and study.
The next meeting of the Congress, now inevitably delayed, was to have been convened in Prague in 1915.
VEKHANDLUNGEN DES SOZIOLOGENTAGES, 1910,
herausgegeben von der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Soziologie. Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1911. Pp. 335. M. 8.
' The German Society for the Study of Sociology ' held its first Congress in Berlin in October 1910. In addition to the present volume, which contains a number of excellent papers by well-known writers, a second volume — performing a like office for a second Congress held in Berlin in October 1912 — was issued by the same Publishers in 1913.
The method and purpose of Sociology are here set forth in much detail, though not without the risk of raising a some- what heated controversy in a quarter that will immediately suggest itself ! ^ Those who approach the study of religion from the sociological point of view will consult with advan- tage these thoughtful and timely volumes.
COMPTE KENDU DU XIV^ CONGEES INTEK- NATIONAL D'ANTHROPOLOGIE ET D'ARCHEO- LOGIE PREHISTORIQUE, tenu a Geneve du 9M4® Septembre 1912. 2 tomes. Geneve : Albert Kiindig, 1913-1914. Pp. 696 + 528. Fr. 40.
Among the ' Communications et Discussions ' contained in these volumes, there are few perhaps that claim mention when regarded from the standpoint of the student of religions. Yet here is a field, wide and fruitful, which experts are exploring not merely for their own information, but equally for the advantage of those who account Anthropology and
1 Cf. pp. 114-25. ^ Vide supra, pp. 66 f.
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418 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
Archaeology to be ' avenues of approach ' to a domam that lies still in advance of them. Moreover, the illustrations with which these volumes abound cannot be too warmly- commended.
The attendance at this Congress — numbering more than five hundred, and very cosmopolitan in its character — affords a sufficient reply to those who contend that the day for such Assemblies is drawing to a close. The interest immediately awakened was sustained throughout the course of the proceedings, — a gratifying tribute to the quality and range of the papers which the Congress inspired, and which afterAvards it was happily instrumental in circulating among appreciative readers in Eastern and Western countries.
The next Congress was appointed to meet at Madrid in 1915.
ACTES DU IV« CONGRES INTERNATIONAL D'HIS- TOIRE DES RELIGIONS, tenu a Leide du 9M3« Septembee 1912. Leide : E. J. Brill, 1913. Pp. 172.
[Not for sale. Obtainable only by Members of the Congress.]
In several particulars, the Executive Committee of the Fourth International Congress did not follow the initiative of their predecessors at Oxford. To mention but one instance, no separate department was allotted to ' The Method and Scope of the History of Religions '. Opinions differed as to the advisability of repeating the ' new depar- ture ' which Oxford inaugurated ; ^ and accordingly, in view of certain considerations which were pressed, this Section was not revived at Leiden.
The subjects with which students of Comparative Religion are accustomed to occupy themselves will be found, never- theless, scattered here and there throughout this volume. In Section I, these topics are dealt with under the heading ' Religions des Peuples Sauvages, et Questions Generales '.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1900-1909, pp. 54-5. Edinburgh, 1910.
Congres International d'Histoire des Religions 419
Professor Goblet d'Alviella, as was fitting, was chosen one of the Presidents of this Section ; and his personal contri- bution ^ — an able paper to which reference has already been made '^ — reminds one of the leadership and valued aid he rendered in a similar capacity at Oxford. His paper bears a title slightly different from that which he gave to it when it was afterwards printed in separate form ; and it is here compressed within six and a half pages, whereas it extends to twenty-three pages when given in full. If the truth must be told, the Leiden Transactions are exceedingly disappointing in that they contain only the very scantiest abstracts of the papers which were read ; while many of the contributions offered, not having been presented in person by their authors, have been altogether omitted. Professor Bertholet furnished in this Section an excellent discussion entitled ' Der Ver- sohnungsgedanke in der Religion', but it has here been cur- tailed within the pitiful limits of merely two pages. ^
In other Sections of the Congress, Professor Oltramare writes suggestively on ' La Morale du Bouddhisme con- sideree dans ses relations avec la Doctrine ; ' ^ Mr. Stanley A. Cook, on ' The Old Oriental Religions and the Comparative Study of Religions ',^ Professor Jastrow, on ' Babylonian, Etruscan, and Chinese Divination ; ' ^ Professor Monseur, on ' Considerations sur les rapports entre les religions de rinde et de la Perse ; ' ^ Bishop Massignon, on ' De I'influ- ence du Soufisme sur le developpement de la theologie morale islamique avant le iv® siecle de I'Hegire ; ' ^ Professor Calderon, on ' Parallels between the Thracian Elements of Oreek Religion and Modern Slavonic Folklore ; ' ^ Professor Nilsson, ' tJber den Plan eines Lexikons der griechischen und romischen Religion mit Ausschluss der Mythologie ; ' ^° Canon MacCulloch, on ' The Celtic Conception of the Future Life ; ' ^^ Professor Clemen, on ' Der Einfluss der Mysterien-
1 Cf. pp. 57-63. ^ Vide supra, pp. 346 f. ' Cf. pp. 47-9.
* CJ. pp. 76-81. ^ Cf. pp. 99-102. ' Cf. pp. 106-11.
' CJ. pp. 111-12. « Cj. pp. 121-2. « Cf. pp. 127-8,
" Cf. pp. 131-2. " Cf. pp. 143-4.
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420 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
religion auf das Urchristentum ; ' ^ and Professor Bacon, on ' Baur's Theory of New Testament Origins from the viewpoint of Comparative EeKgion '.^
In addition to the Ades having been reduced to the pro- portions already indicated, — as contrasted with two volumes, containing a total of 833 pages, in 1908 — it seems a mistake not to have offered the volume for sale, as in previous years. Many who cannot make it convenient to attend these Congresses are, nevertheless, profoundly interested in the discussions they arouse and the conclusions they announce.
The next meeting was appointed to be held in Heidelberg in 1916.
INTER-RACIAL PROBLEMS. Papers Communicated TO THE First Universal Races Congress, held at THE University of London, July 26-29, 1911. Lon- don : P. S. King and Son, 1911. Pp. xlvi., 485. 7s. Qd,
This volume represents a new departure in the world of thought and action. ' Henceforth it should not be difficult to answer those who allege that their own race towers far above all other races, and that therefore other races must cheerfully submit to being treated (or mal-treated) as- hewers of wood and drawers of water '.^
The object of this Congress, as stated in its formal invitation, was to ' discuss, in the light of science and the modern conscience, the general relations subsisting between the peoples of the West and those of the East, — between so-called white and so-called coloured peoples — with a view to encouraging between them a fuller understanding, the most friendly feelings, and a heartier co-operation '.
That the ' general relations ' in question are dependent, in no small measure, upon a fuller understanding and a more friendly co-operation among men of pronounced religious convictions needs no demonstration. Hence, although
» Cf. pp. 149-53. 2 Of. p. 156. ' Cf. p. v.
Universal Races Congress 421
problems in Anthropology, Ethnology, Sociology, Psycho- logy, etc., received ample discussion, an excellent paper on ' Kehgion as a Consolidating and Separating Influence ' ^ was submitted by an expert in Comparative Eehgion, Professor T. W. Ehys Davids. ' This inner spiritual fount will ever make ', he says, ' both for division and for consoli- dation.' 2 Special mention must be made of a paper on ' Shintoism ' ^ by Dr. Genchi Kato, Lecturer on the Science of Eehgion in the Imperial University of Tokyo ; of another, on ' The Behai Movement'^ by 'Abdu'1-Baha, and of one on ' The Influence of Missions ' ^ by Professor Alfred Caldecott.
An excellent Bibliography — covering (1) Anthropology, (2) Ethnography, and (3) Eace Contact — brings this emi- nently useful volume to a close ; it will prove of much service to students, whether younger or more mature. The second Congress, which was to have met this year in Paris, is (owing to the European war) indefinitely postponed.
FOUETH INTEENATIONAL CONGEESS OF HIS- TOEICAL STUDIES, held in London, April 3-9, 1913. [The Proceedings have not yet been published.]
This great Congress, first convened at The Hague in 1898, is one of those learned societies which frequently cause disappointment by their omission to publish Transactions.^ A great deal of printing has statedly to be supervised and paid for ; but, for the most part, it covers merely the inci- dental needs of each Meeting, and consists largely of circu- lars, programmes, cards of invitation, lists of members, and the like. Take such an item as the Kongress-Tagehlatt, — printed daily in four languages, and running in the aggre- gate into hundreds of pages — which was supplied to members
1 Cf. pp. 62-7. ^ Cf. p. 67. 3 Qf^ pp^ Ul-S.
Cf. pp. 155-7. Vide supra, pp. 288 f. ^ Cf. pp. 302-12.
* Vide supra, pp. 413-4, and infra, pp. 425, etc.
4
422 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
during the Historical Congress that met in Berlin, August 6-12, 1908. After the Meeting immediately preceding it, held at Rome in 1903, and more recently at the close of the London Congress, individual papers were sent independently by their authors to the press ; but the promised ' volume ', hoped for at the conclusion of the latest of these assemblies, has not yet seen the light.
The International Congress of Historical Studies makes no pretence to undertake the promotion of the study of the History of Religions. Nevertheless, as already remarked,^ the historical development of many branches of research ' subsidiary ' to the study in question is noted and chronicled at each successive meeting. For instance, at the Congress held in 1913, not only were the results accumulated within such great central departments as Oriental History, Greek and Roman History, Religious and Ecclesiastical History, Archaeology, etc., diHgently expounded, but, under its ' Related Subjects ' — Ethnology, Egyptology, etc. — a great deal of rich and most suggestive material was brought to the notice of special students in almost every domain of modern scientific inquiry.
The fifth Congress will meet in Petrograd in 1918.
SEMAINE D'ETHNOLOGIE RELIGIEUSE. Compte
RENDU ANALYTIQUE DE LA PREMIERE SESSION, TENUE
A LouvAiN Du 27e AouT AU 4® Septembre 1912. Bruxelles : Albert Dewit, 1913. Pp. 340. Fr. 6.
A modest ' Summer School ',- due chiefly to the initiative of Dr. Wilhelm Schmidt of Vienna (its energetic Secretary) and of Professor Frederic Bouvier of Hastings (England), has recently been begun in Belgium ; and the record of its first session is certainly full of promise. As might be ex-
^ Vide supra, pp. 413, 417-8, etc.
* In a preliminary statement, it is declared that this School ought to be regarded rather in the light of ' une Semaine studiouse que d'un Congres. Le but devait en etre avant tout technique, I'orientation resolument scientifique, I'esprit franchement catholique ' (p. 24).
Se7naine d'Ethnologie Religieuse 423
pected, in view of the surroundings and influences amid which this assemblage must meet, — its lectures being given under the express patronage and goodwill of the Archbishop of Malines — a strongly conservative atmosphere is discern- ible in almost every page of its Proceedings ; indeed, the raison d'etre of the School is to be found in the fact that ' nous avons des raisons serieuses d'accueillir avec une cer- taine mefiance les conclusions arbitraires de la science moderne des religions ',^ and in ' la confusion produite dans I'Histoire des Eehgions par les theories fantaisistes de I'ecole evolutionniste et du peril qu'elles font courir aux croyances chretiennes ' ?
At the initial series of meetings, — in addition to the consideration of the more general aspects of Ethnology- special attention was devoted to Totemism, the religions of Annam, and the Ethnology of Oceania and Africa. Lec- turers from France, Holland, Germany, and Austria came to assist their Belgian confreres. Although the School is organized chiefly in the interests of missionaries who are- about to engage in propagandist efforts among non-Christian peoples, — ' un moyen pratique . . . pour initier mission- naires et etudiants catholiques a I'etude technique de I'ethno- logie en general et des religions non-chretiennes en parti- culier ' ^ — a commendable spirit of impartiality and of marked religious tolerance distinguishes the utterances of most of the teachers. The numerous Bibliographies which this volume furnishes are fairly full ; they are drawn from widely varied sources, and are notably up-to-date.
Prior to the second session of the School (1913),* arrange- ments were made to ensure a thorough study of Mythology and Mohammedanism. This undertaking deserves to be supported, by Catholics and non-Catholics ahke, in a hearty and sympathetic way.
1 C/. p. 28.
2 Cf. Revue (Thistoire ecdesiastique, vol. xiii, p. 747. Louvain, 1912. = Cf. p. 23.
* The School, if revived, will likely meet in future during every second or third year.
424 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGRESSES
ACTES DU 1'' CONGEES INTERNATIONAL D'ETH- NOLOGIE ET D'ETHNOGRAPHIE, tenu a Neu- CHATEL DU 1^^ AU 5® JuiN 1914. [The Proceedings have not yet been published.]
Up to the time of preparing these notes, no vokmie of Transactions has appeared ; but an official record of the Meeting will shortly be issued.
Certainly those who were present at the Congress — the first of its order — were not disappointed in the results it achieved. Its membership was made up of scholars who had journeyed from many widely separated countries. Not a few must have recalled the fact that the first Congres International d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie Prehisto- riques (1866)^ was convened at Neuchatel; and here, most fittingly ,~at a centre which has long devoted special research to Ethnographic, and where Professor van Gennep (Direc- teur of a well-known scientific review 2) has recently been added to the University staff — another new departure was courageously inaugurated.
In an advance Circulaire a distinction was expressly drawn between Ethnology (' classement des races ') and Ethnography {' etude comparee des civilisations '). In the absence temporarily of any fuller record of the proceedings, the topics for discussion, arranged in an admirably classified list, may be reproduced as follows : (1) Ethnographie generale (methods, history, etc.), (2) Ethnographie psycho- logique (Psychology of Religion, Mythology, etc.), (3) Ethno- graphie sociologique (primitive forms of racial organization), (4) Ethnographie technologique (beginnings of arts and industries), (5) Ethnologie et Ethnographie prehistoriques et protohistoriques, (6) Ethnologie et Ethnographie antiques (Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, Persian, Asia Minor types, Greek, and Roman), (7) Ethnologie, Ethnographie, et Folk-
^ Vide supra, pp. 417 f.
* Cf. Revue d' Ethiographie et de Sociologie : vide infra, p. 488.
Congres International d'Ethnologie et d' Ethnographie 425
lore de I'Europe, (8) Ethnologie, Ethnograpliie, et Folklore de I'Asie et de I'Oceanie, (9) Ethnologie, Ethnographie, et Folklore de I'Afrique, (10) Ethnologie, Ethnographie; et Folk- lore de I'Amerique, and (11) Enseignement des Sciences de FHomme (organization and extension of Ethnographical Museums^). For students, anxious to appropriate sugges- tions offered by savants at work in an adjacent field, the thoughts quickened by the discussion of many of the fore- going themes naturally proved most fruitful and timely.
ATTI DEL IIP CONGEESSO AKCHEOLOGICO IN- TEKNAZIONALE, tenuto a Koma dal 9° al 16<^ Ottobre 1912. [The Proceedings have not yet been published.]
The tardy appearance of the Transactions of this Congress has regretfully to be noted. An abridged statement, giving a rapid survey of the ground overtaken, and registering the names of those who took a prominent part in the discussions which ensued, has already been distributed among mem- bers ; 2 but something much more satisfying is very greatly desired.
Many papers of a * subsidiary ' sort, most interesting to students of Comparative Keligion, were read in the Sections allotted to Archaeology (prehistoric, oriental, prehellenic, itahan, etruscan, christian, etc.), Philology, Papyrology, etc. Section IX however, set apart for researches in Mitologia e Storia delle Beligioni, was especially attractive. Under the very competent guidance of Professor Ignazio Guidi (Presi- dent) and Dr. Luigi SalvatorelH (Secretary), its dehberations were from the outset kept firmly in hand. It is to be hoped that the valuable papers thus procured may, before long, be made accessible.
^ Vide infra, pp. 502 f .
* Cf. Bollettino riassuntivo del IIP Congresso Archeologico Internazionale. Roma, 1913.
426 TRANSACTIONS OF CONGKESSES
IL VIP CONGRESSO DELLA SOCIETA ITALIANA PER IL PROGRESSO DELLE SCIENZE, tenuto A Siena dal 22^ al 27^ Settembre 1913. [The Pro- ceedings have not yet been pubHshed.]
At this seventh meeting of a Congress which has already won distinction because of its keen and progressive spirit, a new Section was created in the department of Scienze morali, and its members were instructed to devote their special attention to a study of the Storia delle Religioni, Not only so, but — at this initial meeting of the Section — • papers were offered in quite unexpected numbers. Professor Pettazzoni read one entitled ' II Criterio del Nirvana nella valutazione religiosa del Buddismo ' ; while, in the Circoh Filosofico of the Congress, he offered an excellent summary of current opinion on ' Le Origini della idea di Dio, secondo le recenti teorie storico-religiose '.^ Dr. Salvatorelli, who recently published the valuable Bibliography elsewhere reviewed,^ spoke on ' La Storia del Cristianesimo ed i suoi rapporti con la Storia civile '. Don Nicola Turchi — whose excellent Manual has already been referred to,^ and who has recently been hard at work on two other volumes, one deahng with certain principles which govern the Science of Religion and the other concerned with questions relating to early Byzantine civilization^ — read a paper entitled ' Sul valore del jus liberorum nella legislazione religiosa del- I'imperatore Augusto '. Evidently this Storia delle Religioni Section is going to provide students of Comparative Religion with some very useful supplementary material. It is advisable, therefore, that all who are keen in this pursuit should keep themselves informed as to the work attempted and achieved by their confreres in Italy.
* Vide supra, pp. 330 f .
' Cf. Luigi Salvatorelli, Introduzione biblior/rafica alia scienza delle religioni : vide infra, pp. 460 f .
^ Cf. Nicola Turchi, Storia delle Religioni : vide supra, pp. 198 f.
* Cf. II Culto di Giunone nel Lazio, which is nearly ready for the press ;. and La Civiltd hizantina, which has been completed (Torino, 1915).
TRANSACTIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES 427
(2) LEARNED SOCIETIES
It will be impossible, within the brief space at one's com- mand, to do more than indicate — in the very barest outline — the w^ealth of resom'ces which in this quarter are provided for students of Comparative Religion. As in the case of Congresses, to which allusion has just been made/ the results of recently conducted researches may here likewise be gathered from a survey of successively issued Transactions, Happily, in the present connexion, the best papers are generally published in full ; and they are prepared for the press with less haste, and under conditions more favourable to their future utility, than can usually be secured when scholars hold their Meetings in public, and at some centre more or less remote from the contributor's own home.
One has only to glance through any national OflS.cial Record ^ to comprehend how numerous such Learned Societies are, and how marvellously varied are the fields they occupy and explore. It is proposed, in the following pages, to mention only a few representative instances, the selection being determined by the express needs of those who are seeking to promote the interests of Comparative Religion. The value of such Transactions to all serious workers in this department can scarcely be overstated. Sometimes the direct assistance derived from this source is exceedingly timely and potent ; but, even when the help obtained is only indirect, it often proves to be the first link in a chain of suggestion which supplies a clue to some unthought-of — ^yet important — discovery.
It is very interesting to record the fact that, in 1910, an International School of American Archaeology and Ethnology was founded in Mexico. All problems of Mexican Anthro- pology are henceforth to be studied on the spot, and by representatives of the best expert scholarship of our time.
^ Vide supra, pp. 412 f.
2 Cf. Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. 31 vols. London, 1884- . In progress.
428 TRANSACTIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES
A local Director, holding office for one year, is nominated in turn by the Governments, Universities, Learned Societies, etc., that help to meet the costs of the midertaking ; while students of good promise are sought for, and their investiga- tions are sure to be guided by competent instructors. The outcome of this experiment will be watched with special eagerness b}^ every prospective investigator of early Mexican religious beliefs and practices.
DIE DEUTSCHE GESELLSCHAFT FUR ISLAMKUNDE
BERLIN
This new ' Society for the Study of Islam ' was founded in Berlin in 1912. As pointed out elsewhere,^ its quest is directed towards gaining a more intimate acquaintance with Mohammedanism in its present relations — social, political, and religious — with the life of surrounding countries. This line of inquiry is distinctive, timely, and full of promise. The first President of the Society, Professor Martin Hart- mann, has taken full advantage of the opportunity which this new foundation has opened up for him. The journal of the Society has already won for itself a cordial and enthusi- astic welcome.^
L'INSTITUT SUISSE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE GENERALE
GENEVA
The work undertaken by this Institute is much more com- prehensive than its name w^ould suggest to the majority of Enghsh-speaking students ; it deals, in point of fact, with everything embraced under the descriptive phrase ' sujets anthropologiques, ethnographiques, et archeologiques '. At the head of the list of its office-bearers, this year, there stands the honoured name of Professor Edouard Naville. In the opening pages of its admirable journal, already com- mended,^ the President writes : ' Nous esperons que les
' Cf. Die Welt des Islams : vide infra, p. 492.
* Cf. Archives suisses d'Anthropologie generale : vide swpra, p. 473.
Vlnstitut Suisse d' Anthropologie Generale 429
Archives contribueront a developper le gout de ces etudes en Suisse ou il y a encore tant de recherches interessantes a faire dans des domaines divers, et tant de restes du passe qu'il est de notre devoir de ne pas laisser perir '.^ It is beyond question that the Institute will help to develop a keener ' taste for these studies ', not merely in Switzerland, but in many countries and among many individual scholars found far beyond its borders.
DIE KONIGLICHE GESELLSCHAFT DER WISSENSCHAFTEN
GOTTINGEN
The magnificent undertaking upon which the Gottingen Koyal Society of Sciences has recently embarked has been sufficiently described in preceding pages. ^ The importance of this enterprise cannot possibly be over-rated. At the same time, it represents only one field in which this distin- guished group of scholars are already affording help to students of the History of Eehgions. Those who are most active in promoting the advancement of Comparative Eeligion have good reason for believing that Gottingen University and the Gottingen Eoyal Society of Sciences will yet render them a like special service. This step, if taken, would be one whose influence would speedily react, and react most effectively, upon several other centres in Ger- many,— centres which, thus far, have exhibited only a very moderate interest in this study.
THE JAPAN SOCIETY LONDON
Although this Society (founded in 1892) was established more particularly for ' the encouragement of the study of Japanese Language, Literature, History, Folklore, Art,
^ Cf. Archives suisses d'Anthropologie generale, vol. i, p. G. Geneve, 1914. * Vide supra, pp. 405 f. Vide supra, also, p. 402.
430 TEANSACTIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES
Science, Industries and Social Life ', one has only to glance through its Transactions ^ to become aware that a student of the History of Eeligions — quite apart from the hght he is bound to acquire touching an important branch of Ethno- logy, and apart from the copious and artistic illustrations which these successive volumes contain — may gather abundance of material proper to his own particular province. A compact Index to the Transactions, recently published,"^ proves a very convenient guide to those papers which will especially interest investigators of this school.
Informative interpretations of temple architecture (' How the Nikko Temples were Built ' : cf. vol. vii, pp. 160-77), sacred paintings (' Illustrations of Buddhism from Japanese Pictures ' : cf. vol. viii, pp. 210-27, and vol. xii, pp. 178- 203), the national conception of loyalty (' Japanese Patriot- ism ' : cf. vol. vii, pp. 180-207), and many kindred subjects, deserve to be specially mentioned ; but numerous contribu- tions deal even yet more directly with the subject of religion in Japan. Various aspects of Shinto {cf. vol. vii, pp. 340- 51), Buddhism {cf. vol. vii, pp. 264-79), the influence wielded respectively by Shinto and Buddhism, etc. etc., are very competently expounded, yet always with conspicuous tact and in a way befitting the attention of a cosmopolitan audience.
What has just been said concerning the Transactions of the Japan Society applies of course with equal truth to the printed Proceedings of the Chinese Society of London,^ and of many another national Learned Society which has found a home for itself in one or more of the capitals of Europe. * A word to the wise is sufficient.'
^ Cf. Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London. 12 vols. London, 1893- . In progress.
* Cf. The Japan Society, London. Analytic Index to Volumes I to X. London, 1913.
^ Cf., also. The Chinese Revieiv. London, 1914. Begun in April, the European war soon led to its temporary suspension. For the expression of opinion formed from the Chinese point of view, it promises to prove helpful to Occidentals in no ordinary degree.
The Royal Asiatic Society 431
THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY LONDON
The range of topics coming within the purview of this Society is so wide, and the mixed character of its member- ship compels so constantly the exercise of a fitting and discreet reserve, that strictly ' religious ' questions can be given only an incidental and subordinate place in its pro- grammes. Nevertheless, its Journal ^ and other official publications will not be overlooked by any keen student of religious life and movement in the East. Since the creation of the Society in 1823, it has (through its ' Oriental Trans- lation Fund ' 2 and in countless other ways) famiharized Western scholars wdth some of the most valuable literary resources of the inhabitants of the other side of the globe.
LA SOCIETE D'ANTHROPOLOGIE PARIS
Students of Anthropology, as a rule, need no one to counsel them to keep under view the Bulletins of this vigorous Association.^ The sixth series of this publication has now reached its fifth volume. Those who have let slip the opportunity of utilizing these records should seek to make amends for such remissness, and with the least possible delay.
RELIGIONSVETENSKAPLIGA SALLSKAPET
STOCKHOLM
Attention has already been directed to the Beitrdge zur BeligionswissenscJiaft, edited by this Society, and to which Dr. Soderblom contributed the introductory ' Heft \^ The first volume (1913-1914) has now been completed, its addi- tional sections having been furnished by Professor Ignaz
1 Published quarterly. London, 1834- . In progress.
* Volume xxiii, in the New Series, was issued in 1914. Thus quite a little library has already been created.
^ Cf. Bulletins et Memoires de la Societe d' Anthropologie de Paris. Paris, 1860- . In progress. * Vide supra, i^ip. ZIO t
432 TRANSACTIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES
Goldziher of Budapest on ' Katholische Tendenz und Par- tikularismus im Islam ', Dr. Samuel A. Fries (a leading Lutheran minister in Stockholm) on ' Jahvetempel ausserhalb Palastinas ', and Docent GilHs P : son Wetter of Upsala on ' Ich bin das Licht der Welt : Eine Studie zur Formelsprache des Johannesevangeliums '. Various literary notes, a chronicle, etc., have been added. These successive series of papers promise to yield students of the history, comparison, and philosophy of religions a most welcome accession of help.
(3) ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
It has frequently been levelled as a reproach against the scholarship of particular times and particular countries that it has devoted itself too much to ' the preparation of mere Encyclopaedias'. This charge has been unusually rife during the last twenty years ; and, if the publication of such de- positories of information is to be accounted a crime, the complaint is abundantly justified.
That the editing of some Encyclopaedias — sadly lacking in knowledge, in comprehensiveness, in proportion, and in maturity of judgement — is blameworthy, few will venture to dispute. On the other hand, it is the glory of the present generation that, in almost every department, standard books of reference of this type have been supplied in copious measure. Never has the general level of such treatises been so high, and so insistently progressive. The value of such w^ork, when well executed, is entirely beyond estimate. It supplies an epitome of human knowledge, brought con- veniently up to date.
In no department of study have recent Encyclopaedias been more in demand, and in no department have they shown themselves more adequate to meet the require- ments of that demand, than in the domain occupied by modern students of religion. A glance through the pages which immediately follow will amply vindicate this statement.
CHISHOLM, Encyclopaedia Britannica 433
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BKITANNICA, edited by Hugh Chisholm, aided by a large staff of Advisers and Assis- tants. 29 vols. Cambridge: The University Press, [11th edition], 1910-1911. Pp. circa 1000, each volume. £32 12s. M.
One of the chief literary achievements of the past four years has been the preparation and publication of a new edition of this standard national Encyclopaedia. One annual Supplement — issued under the same editorial management, and bringing its review of our ' additions to knowledge ' down to the end of 1912 — has already been printed.^ It was proposed, in this way, to keep the contents of the Encyclo- paedia constantly up-to-date ; but no Supplement covering the years 1913 or 1914 has thus far been announced.
This vast undertaking, though very greatly to be com- mended from most points of view, yields some startling sur- prises. It is still chargeable with singular and persistent omissions. To mention one which users of this survey are likely to account foremost and most regrettable, no article on Comparative Keligion has been provided ! Such an oversight, under any circumstances, would have been sure to evoke unfavourable comment ; but in an Encyclopaedia which has passed through two editions within ten years, and whose rota of articles has been again and again revised, this omission simply passes comprehension. ^ Other books of reference, of a like standard, have a good deal to say upon the topic in question ^ ; surely it is time that this great national publication — responsible and representative in no ordinary degree, and entitled to speak unequivocally in the
^ Cf. The Britannica Year Book, 191S. London, 1913.
* It ought to be added that the latest edition of The Century Dictionary (12 vols. New York, 1914) has also overlooked this subject.
^ C/. A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. 10 vols. Oxford, 1888- . In progress. The New International Encyclopoedia. 17 vols. New York, 1903-1901. [2nd edition, 24 vols. 1914-1916.] The New Schaff- Herzog Encyclopedia. 12 vols. New York, 1908-1912 : vide injra, pp. 440 f. Other Encyclopsedias might be added to this honourable list, but the foregoing will suffice.
Ff
434 ENCYCLOPEDIAS
name of British scholarship — should no longer maintain its obstinate and inexcusable silence.
It may be replied that, in the Index (Vol. xxix, p. 193), the title ' Comparative Keligion ' appears, and that the inquirer is there referred to the topic ' Eeligion '. But when (following instructions) one turns to the subject named, it is only to discover that Comparative Eeligion is not mentioned even under that heading ! On the History of Eeligions, the student will find in the Encyclojocedia Britannica a score of splendid individual expositions ; but, as bearing upon Com- parative Eeligion, he wdll discover only brief incidental para- graphs— not always in harmony with one another — intro- duced in connexion with the treatment of various kindred topics. The inclusion of Comparative Eeligion in the Index seems to have been an after-thought. It certainly was omitted from the Editor's final programme, as it would appear to have been omitted from his initial general survey of the titles of such articles as were deemed imperative and timely.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EELIGION AND ETHICS, edited by James Hastings. 12 vols. Edinburgh : T. and T. Clark, 1908- . In jor ogress. Pp. circa 900, each volume. £1 8s. each volume.
During the past four years, four volumes have been added to those previously published.^ As this great undertaking moves forward at a steady and untiring pace, those who have possessed themselves of its successive instalments come to value them more and more. Besides, they have now learned to utilize the contents of these volumes in a countless varietv of wavs.
An estimate of the prospective resources of this work, else- where expressed, 2 continues to hold good ; for the student
Cf. Volumes iv to vii, inclusive, covering articles from ' Confirmation ' to ' Liberty '.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : A Stirvei/ of its Recent Literature^ 1906-1909, pp. 53-4. Edinburgh, 1910.
HASTINGS, Encyclo2)(Bdia of Beligion and Ethics 435
of Comparative Keligion, the Hastings's Encyclojocedia is simply indispensable. It is true that it busies itself, almost exclusively, with providing a permanent historical founda- tion for Comparative Eeligion ; the subsequent critical ' con- struction ' remains unexecuted. The bricks and the mortar are here assembled in immense quantities. They are placed conveniently at hand, and one is supplied with numerous architectural designs of a more or less elaborate character. The work of actual building, however, is left undone. The comparativist must proceed to uprear — as best he can — a substantial and stable structure of his own.
Perhaps it is too soon to expect in a work of this sort the realization of an ideal which many had hoped to find em- bodied in the present treatise. Yet how is it that, in an Encyclopaedia of Eeligion, ' Comparative Keligion ' is practi- cally ignored ! As a Dictionary of the History oj Beligions, Dr. Hastings's undertaking could not easily be surpassed.^ It certainly has had no rival thus far. It is a library in itself, combining remarkable unity with remarkable breadth of view. It constitutes ' the most masterly, the most compre- hensive, and the most reliable collection of data relevant to Comparative Keligion that has ever been projected.' ^ Students in that field, accordingly, could not wrong them- selves more profoundly, or more needlessly, than by neglect- ing to utilize the help which this Encyclopaedia would be certain to yield them. Nevertheless, a great task — a con- siderably greater task — remains practically untouched. Without undue delay, comparativists must prepare and publish a deliberate, exhaustive, and carefully- balanced comparison of the religious beliefs, rites and institutions of mankind. Something more — and something much more — than the mere juxtaposition of multifarious religious tenets and practices is called for ; these sacred beliefs and acts
^ Cf. many additional and notable articles on individual religions, found in Dr. Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. v. Edinburgh, 1905.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Beligion : A Survey of its Becent Literature, 1906-1000, p. 54.
Ff 2
436 ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
must be brought into organic relationsliijjs with one another, if man's religious history is to be rightly interpreted.^
It is impossible to call attention separately to the long succession of articles which make up the contents of the latest four volumes.^ Further, it must needs be that, in a work framed on such comprehensive lines, readers will detect occasionally some very unexpected omissions. Eefer- ence has just been made to the absence of any article on ' Comparative Keligion ' ; it is to be hoped that this over- sight may be remedied in the volume which shall give us an adequate exposition of ' Religion '. It is surprising, too, that ' Cultural Areas ' (Kulturkreise) ,^ and the modern theories \yhich stand associated with this new method of appraising certain ethnological problems, have been passed over in silence. It must be added that some of the positive statements which are made, and made with great confidence, — e. g. in the article on ' Deicide ' — are open to serious question.
REALENCYKLOPADIE FUE PEOTESTANTISCHE THEOLOGIE UND KIECHE, herausgegeben von Albert Hauck. 24 vols. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, [3rd edition, revised and enlarged], 1896-1913. Pp. circa 800, each volume. M. 236.
As a Supplement to the third revised edition of this splendid contribution to scholarship, two volumes (Vol. xxiii, A-K, and Vol. xxiv, L-Z) appeared during 1913. In the second of them, the article on ' Eeligionsgeschichte ' * will be found to have been entrusted to Professor Edvard
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : Its Method and Scope, pp. 12-13. London, 1908. Vide infra, pp. 518 f.
^ In vol. vi, the expositions of ' God ' (pp. 243-306) and ' Human Sacrifice ' (])p. 840-67) will bo especially welcomed by every comparativist. In vol. vii, the articles on ' Incarnation ' (pp. 186-201), ' Israel ' (pp. 439-56), ' Jainisra ' (pp. 465-74), ' Jesus Christ ' (pp. 505-53), ' Judaism ' (pp. 581- 609), and ' Lamaism ' (pp. 784-89) deserve special mention.
^ Vide supra, pp. 47, 330, 360 f., etc. ' Cf. pp. 393-411.
HiVUCK, Reale7icyJclopddie 437
Lehmann, who has discharged his commission with com- mendable thoroughness. As a friend and promoter of Comparative Eehgion, strictly so called, this writer has incorporated in his survey a good deal of matter which students of that science will specially value. The articles on ' Jesus Christus ' (by H. Windisch) and ' Religionspsycho- logie ' (by G. Wobbermin) are also to be commended, being studies preparatory to a better understanding of the function which Comparative Religion is seeking to fulfil.
THE CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, edited by Charles George Herbermann, Professor of Latin Language and Literature, College of the City of New York. 16 vols. New York : The Robert Appleton Company, 1907-1914. Pp. circa 800, each volume. Original [and Standard ^] edition, $96.00.
In accordance w^ith the demands of the scheme originally drafted, this important work was completed in 1912. It then consisted of fifteen volumes. As its articles were arranged in alphabetical order, it was not intended at the outset that a separate index-volume should be published. How^ever, in view of the desirability of providing cross- references to the huge mass of material which the Encyclo- pedia contained, a sixteenth volume was subsequently prepared ^ ; it will not only prove immensely serviceable in itself, but it embodies a piece of work which has been ex- ceedingly well executed. A number of articles, supplemen- tary to those embraced within the preceding volumes, have very wisely been added.
The point of view of this Encyclopedia, as regards its statements on all questions of dogma, is necessarily that of the Roman Catholic Church.^ Yet it is ' Catholic ' in another
^ Another edition, printed on less expensive paper and omitting many colour-plates and half-tones, may be purchased for $48.00. ^ Published by the Encyclopedia Press. New York, 1914. ^ Vide supra, footnote, pp. 384, 423, etc.
438 ENCYCLOPEDIAS
sense, at the same time. Speaking generally, its articles are distinguished by a timeliness and thoroughness which do infinite credit to those who have supplied them. Although this work deals professedly with ' the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Cathohc Church,' and although it fulfils its appointed mission in a way that has secured for it the imprimatur of the Archbishop of New York, it can also fairly claim to be an Encyclopedia of considerably wider scope. Its contributors, who number more than a thousand, represent Great Britain, Ireland, the Continent, and (as a matter of course) some of the foremost scholars of the United States.
No special article has been allotted to ' Comparative Eeligion ', but the subject is not ignored. It is dealt with, in a very condensed way, under the heading ' Eeligion '.^ Yet this brevity is not accompanied by any evidence that Comparative Eeligion as a theological discipline is dis- countenanced, or its importance underestimated. As Mr. Martindale has shown, this modern science — under certain restrictions ^ — is to-day being deliberately cultivated by scholars representative of the Eoman Catholic Church, with a view of turning its evident capabilities to good account in the very near future.^ Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Jainism, Mohammedanism, and many other faiths, are passed under competent review.
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ISLAM. A Dictionary of THE Geography, Ethnography and Biography of THE MuHAMMEDAN PEOPLES, edited by Martyn Theodor Houtsma. 3 [?] vols. Leiden : E. J. Brill, 1908- . In progress. Pp. circa 1000, each volume. £3 ds. each volume.
This great work — courageously projected, and then (in the form of separate fasciculi) carried forward for several years
^ Cf. vol. xii, p. 747. ^ y^^^ supra, p. 384. ^ Vide supra, p. 373.
HOUTSMA, Encyclo-pcedia of Islam 439
under seriously embarrassing conditions — saw its first volume completed in 1913.
For a long time, the need of such an Encyclopedia has been keenly felt. It is much wider in range, and much more exact in scholarship, than the late Dr. Hughes's well-known book.^ The latter work is a compilation made by a single hand. It is a mine of rich treasure for all who wish to master the intricacies of Mohammedanism, as exhibited in the life and thought of various Moslem peoples ; but it has long been out of print, and it is costly and hard to procure.'^ The present undertaking, on the other hand, is likely to run into at least four bulky tomes ; volume i covers only such articles as emerge between A-D inclusive. Dr. Houtsma has been supported in his exacting labours by three associate editors of international standing, viz. Dr. Thomas W. Arnold, Professor Bene Basset, and Dr. Kichard Hartmann.^ The entire work is being printed simultaneously in English, French, and German. Yet, further : while this Encyclo- paedia confines itself — like The Jeivish Encyclopedia * — to a single faith, it deals not only with every topic which concerns the religion and civilization of the different nations which profess Islam, but it includes a discussion of many questions of geography, biography, etc., which throw much light upon the career of a very influential and widespread religious movement. For the student of the History of Eeligions, this work will prove to be an indispensable help ; for the student of Comparative Keligion, it will be found to embody an immense array of facts which he must take into account. Indeed, just as the possession of a General Encyclopaedia is essential to the equipment of every ordinary household, so
^ Cf. Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam. A Cyclopaedia of the Doctrines, Bites, Ceremonies, and Customs, etc., of the Muhammadan Religion. New York, 1885.
^ Happily an edition of 500 copies has recently been issued (1914) by Messrs. H. Heffer and Sons, Cambridge.
^ The sub-editors change with unusual frequency. Already Volume ii, in course of preparation, has had to secure a substitute for Dr. Hartmann.
* Vide infra, pp. 442 f.
440 ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
this Special Encyclopaedia — all the more because of its definitely restricted yet comprehensive range — is essential to the equipment of every serious student of Mohammedanism. The Bibliographies, unusually copious and discriminative, are a special feature of this work.
THE. NEW SCHAFF-HEKZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE, edited by Samuel Macauley Jackson, assisted by various Department Editors. 12 vols. New York : The Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1908-1912. Pp. circa 500, each volume. $60.00.
The Editor-in-Chief of this exceedingly useful work was happily permitted to see it brought to completion before he was taken from us. He was also editor of one of the leading departments in a similar publication, issued a few years earlier.^
As most are aware, the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia was based by the late Professor Schaff upon the second edition of Dr. Herzog's Bealencykloj^ddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche,^ — a work comprised within eighteen volumes, and completed in 1888.^ In Dr. Schaff 's own w^ords, it was ' not a translation but a condensed reproduction and adapta- tion of all the important German articles, with necessary additions (especially in the literature), and with a large number of new articles by the editors and special contributors. More than one-third of the work is original.' ^ This entirely reconstructed treatise appeared, in three volumes, in 1882- 1884. In 1886-1887 a revised edition was issued, and a fourth volume was added. A subsequent revision took place in 1891, two years before Dr. Schaff's death.
The Neiv Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia is based, however,
^ Cf. The New International Encyclopaedia. Vide supra, footnote, V- 433. 2 Vide supra, p. 436.
^ The first edition, begun in 1854, was completed in twenty-two volumes in 1868. 4 Cf. Preface, p. iv.
JACKSON, New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia 441
upon the third edition of the German work, for which Pro- fessor Hauck has acted as sole editor. In the present Enghsh version of it, the principle of making ' necessary additions ' has continuously been followed ; and, accordingly, an im- portant article on ' Comparative Eeligion ' has been intro- duced.^ It is unfortunate that the writer undertakes, in reality, an exposition of the Science of Eeligion ; for it is plain that he has confused two departments of research which ought to be kept scrupulously apart. Still, since the greater includes the less, he has much to say concerning the field in which the comparativist is daily at work. A good deal of the article is devoted to topics which, to a greater or less extent, are subsidiary to the study of Comparative Eeligion ; it will be found peculiarly timely, therefore, by readers of the present survey.
Of the general excellencies of this Encyclopedia it is quite unnecessary to speak. It is one of the very best books of reference — compact, up-to-date, and reliable — purchasable in English to-day. A brief working-index, of great value, has since been prepared, and is now offered for sale.^
DIE EELIGION IN GESCHICHTE UND GEGENWAET, herausgegeben von Friedrich Michael Schiele und Leo- pold Zscharnack. 5 vols. Tiibingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1909-1913. Pp. circa 1000, each volume. M. 130.
The first volume of this notable work appeared in October 1909, and covered the ground represented by the topics emerging between ' A to Deutschland '. Volumes ii and iii followed shortly afterwards, — the one, allotted to the section ' Deutschmann to Hessen ', appearing in June 1910, and the other, assigned to ' Hesshus to Lytton ', appearing in February 1912. Volume iv, embracing ' Maassen to Eogge ', appeared in July 1913 ; while Volume v — slightly antedated,
1 Cf. vol. iii, pp. 190-203.
2 C/. George W. Gilmore, Index to the New ScJuiff-Herzog EncyclojJedia of Beligioua Knowledge. New York, 1914.
442 ENCYCLOPEDIAS
and covering the section ' Eoh to Zypressen ' — was issued from the press in January 1914. A comprehensive Begister- hand is promised, and may be expected at the close of the present year.
A high standard of achievement has been maintained throughout, and this work will long hold its place as an authoritative book of reference. The general topics relevant to Eeligion secure a fuller and more satisfying treatment than would have been accorded to them a decade ago. Be- ligionsgeschicJite and the religionsgeschichtliche Schule ^ are naturally much more in evidence than vergleichende Beligions- gescJiicJite or Beligionsvergleicliung. Individual religions are briefly (yet very capably) handled ; it will suffice to state that Professor Gunkel and Dr. Schiele undertook the editorial responsibility for all articles expository of the non-Christian religions.
This Encyclopaedia is concise and inviting. It is free from all needless technicalities. Its successive papers are well pro- portioned. Its Bibliographies are excellent. It is designed especially for general and popular use, for it deliber- ately makes its appeal to a very wide circle of readers ; nevertheless its scholarship, sound and conspicuous, will not be found lacking even among those who are no longer amateurs.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA. A Desckiptive Kecokd OF THE History, Eeligion, Literature and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times TO THE Present Day, edited by Isidore Singer, assisted by American and Foreign Boards of Consulting Editors. 12 vols. New York : The Funk and Wag- nails Company, 1901-1906. Pp. circa 700, each volume. $84.00.
As in the case of The Encyclopcedia of Islam," one finds here a depository of information bearing exclusively upon
' Vide supra, pp. 331 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 438 f.
SINGER, Jewish Encyclopedia 443
the development of a single religion. Within the scope of a dozen portly volumes, opportunity is afforded for sum- marizing in an adequate way all that is authoritatively known concerning the Jewish race. The period of history dealt with covers three thousand years. It is no small achievement that so varied a mass of memoranda has been brought together w^ithin a single treatise.
The conviction has rapidly been growing in Germany that Encyclopaedias, abandoning the attempt to present an all- comprehensive survey, should in future confine themselves to selected and definitely circumscribed themes. This custom is gaining many adherents in Great Britain and in the United States, as may be illustrated by the existence of some of the w^orks of reference which have already been specified. 1 But the process of curtailment, thus recom- mended, may with advantage be carried still further. We need more and more, not Encyclopaedias of Mythology, but an Encyclopaedia of Greek Mythology,^ — or of Roman Mythology, Indian Mythology, Egyptian Mythology, Teu- tonic Mythology, etc., as the case may be. So with Philo- logy, Archaeology,^ and each of the other sciences in its turn. In this way, all the various sides of a subject may succesr sively be studied, and each aspect of it examined under the guidance of a specialist who has gained unrivalled eminence in some given field of inquiry.
There w^as abundance of room, undoubtedly, for an Encyclopaedia restricted to the history, literature, and religion of the Jews. The day is within sight when the religion of the Hebrews will call for treatment in an Encyclo- paedia reserved exclusively for that purpose.* Meanwhile, the student of Comparative Religion will find in this splendid treatise much preliminary information bearing upon Judaism, — information not so easily obtained anywhere else, yet of the highest utility in securing those ends which
^ Vide supra, pp. 434 f., 440 f., etc.
2 Vide infra, pp. 459 f. ^ Vide infra, pp. 444 f .
* Cf. John P. Peters, The Religion of the Hebrews : vide supra, p. 299.
444 ENCYCLOPiEDIAS
he must keep persistently before hini. The historical develop- ment of the doctrines distinctive of Judaism are carefully traced ; the relation of Judaism to Christianity, Islam, and other rehgions is clearly indicated ; while Jewish sects, Jewish philosophy, Jewish ethics, etc., are portrayed with skill, balance, and all the aids of a manifestly comprehensive knowledge.
PAULY'S EEAL-ENCYCLOPADIB DEE CLASSISCHEN ALTEKTUMSWISSENSCHAFT, herausgegeben von Georg Wissowa und Wilhelm KroU. 12 vols. Stutt- gart : J. B. Metzler, 1893- . In progress. Pp. circa 1000, each volume„ M. 30, each volume.
This great treasury of knowledge — although it is more contracted in range than some of the works already referred to — ^is simply invaluable touching questions which emerge in connexion with Greek and Eoman religion. At the same time, it has much to say incidentally concerning several other rehgions.
Under the skilful editorship of Professor Wissowa, who in 1910 was fortunate enough to enlist the co-operation of Professor Kroll of Breslau, this standard work has entered upon a new lease of life. Its contents cover six general departments, viz. (1) Geographic und Topographic, (2) Geschichte und Prosopographie, (3) Litteraturgeschichte, (4) Sogenannte Antiquitaten, (5) Mythologie und Kultus, and (6) Archaologie und Kunstgeschichte. On questions of Greek and Eoman mythology, early cults, archaeology, inscriptions, etc., it is doubtless the premier book of refer- ence which has thus far been produced. Its Bibliographies are almost perfect. It possesses an imposing list of over one hundred contributors, most of whom are experts in the researches which it undertakes. Its aim, as the pubhshers succinctly express it, is ' a codification of the entire know- ledge we possess of the classical age, and the presentation
WISSOWA UND KROLL, Pauhfs Real-Encyclopadie 445
of this knowledge, in lexicon form, in a strictly scientific manner '.
Four /iaZ/- volumes ^ have been issued during the past four years, viz. Volume vii (1 and 2) in 1910-1912, and Volume viii (1 and 2) in 1912-1913. The successive sections have now advanced as far as the letter ' H ',2 and the work is more than half finished. In order, however, to keep it up-to-date during its necessarily slow progress, various Supplements have been arranged for ; the first one, covering the words ' Aba to Demokratia ', was issued in 1903. The staff of contributors, moreover, has been enlarged ; and, with a view of hastening the completion of their task, some of these scholars have already made a beginning with the letter ' R '. In this way, two or more portions of the work can in future be kept advancing simultaneously, — a method which has been adopted with great advantage by the editor of the New English Dictionary, now being published at Oxford.^
(4) SPECIAL WORKS
The books belonging to this final group are necessarily of a miscellaneous character. Some of them may seem at first glance to possess only a remote bearing upon the problems of Comparative Religion ; but, upon examination, it will be found that they have a closer connexion with that science than originally seemed probable, while all of them are (in varying degrees) useful accessories for the prosecution of researches pertaining to comparative studies.
Many additional publications might fitly have been included in the following List. The selections made, how- ever, are fairly representative of others of the same class. The choicest books have been specified, and each of them will repay the student's conscientious scrutiny.
^ The pagination runs from the beginning to the close of ea,ch full volume. - The first portion of Volume viii covers ' Helikon-Hestia ' (1912), while the latter portion covers ' Hestiaia-Hyagnis ' (1913). ^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 433.
446 SPECIAL WORKS
THE WISDOM OF THE EAST, edited by Lancelot Cran- mer-Byng and Shaporji Aspaniarji Kapadia. 47 vols., thus far. London : John Murray, 1905- . In ^progress. Pp. circa 100, each volume. Is.-^s., each volume.
These valuable little books are liable to be missed — or, at least, considerably underestimated — because of their modest size and cost. They are, it is true, very uneven in quality. They make no exaggerated pretences. Many of them are at best merely translations ; some of them are translations at second-hand, borrowed by permission of the scholars who originally made them. The editors claim only that ' these books shall be the ambassadors of goodwill and understanding between East and West, — the old world of Thought and the new world of Action. . . . They are confident that a deeper knowledge of the great ideals and lofty philosophy of Oriental thought may help towards a revival of that true spirit of charity which neither despises nor fears the nations of another creed and colour '.
The aim of the series, modest though it is, is an extremely worthy one. The inexpensiveness of the volumes will ensure for them an extended circulation ; several of them have already had to comply with the demand for a second and third impression. But something more must be said. A number of the translations included in this series are quite new, and have been made from difficult and not easily accessible texts. The assistance of eminent specialists has been enlisted. Honest and thoroughgoing research has been one of the objects continually kept in view. Brief — yet, within their limits, valuable — Introductions have been secured. And certainly no reader of a comparativist turn of mind can miss, or fail to profit by, that contrast between Eastern and Western modes of thought of which he is constantly kept aware.
Among the more recent additions to this series, special
BYNG AND KAPADIA, The Wisdom of the East 447
attention is drawn to two books contributed by Mr. Giles ; ^ an attractive sketch of Early Egyptian religion ; - two com- petent translations from Pali texts, ^ and one from a French text in exposition of Buddhism ; ^ and a summary of Sikh- ism ^ that is likely to lead not a few to consult the pages of Mr. Macauliffe's great work, ^ upon which it is confessedly based.
A HISTOEY OF CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS OF FAITH IN CHRISTENDOM AND BEYOND, by William Alexander Curtis, Professor of Systematic Theology in the University of Aberdeen."^ Edinburgh : T. and T. Clark, 1911. Pp. xx., 502. 10s. ^d.
It may cause surprise, at first, that this volume should have been included in the present list ; but a perusal of the book itself will speedily remove that impression. One finds here, in point of fact, an admirable illustration of the wisdom of those students of Comparative Religion who, when scru- tinizing intently the floods of current scientific literature, cast a capacious net.
In this treatise we possess the fruit of a courageous and exacting undertaking. It is the product of historical and theo- logical research — uncommonly well executed — which fully entitled its author to the immediate University recognition it secured for him. Concerned chiefly with the doctrinal standards of Christendom, — the texts of wdiose multifarious Creeds it reproduces in full — it reminds the reader at once of a very able American work (devoted to the same
^ Cf. Lionel Giles, Musings of a Chinese Mystic {\^\\), and Taoist Teachings (1912).
2 Cf. Margaret A. Murray, Ancient Egyptian Legends (1913).
^ Cf. W. D. C. Wagiswara and Kenneth J. Saunders, The Buddha's ' Way of Virtue'' (1912) ; and Edward J. Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures (1913).
* Cf. Winifred Ste^Dhens, Legends of Indian Buddhism (1911).
° Cf. Dorothy Field, The Religion of the Sikhs (1914) : vide supra, p. 297.
" Cf. Max. A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion : vide supra, pp. 260 f .
' Appointed in 1915 Professor of Biblical Criticism and Biblical Antiquities in the University of Edinburgh.
448 SPECIAL WOKKS
subject ^) to which Dr. Curtis more than once acknowledges his indebtedness. One portion of it, however, is allotted to * Creeds and Confessions outside Hebrew and Christian Keligion ',^ — Zoroastrian Creeds, Buddhist Creeds, Moham- medan Creeds, etc. ; and into this brief space — all too cur- tailed— the author has packed a wonderful amount of material and suggestion. The volume, as its title affirms, is contributory for the most part to the History of Keligions. It discloses the various stages through which given doctrinal statements can be shown to have passed, in the course of their gradual formulation. But, just as the History of Keligions is itself a stepping-stone to Comparative EeHgion, so this acute and valuable treatise — not least significant in its final chapter, where it discusses ' Subscription and its Ethics : The Ideal Creed ' — prepares the way for the achieve- ment of that ultimate unity (among the representatives of all types of belief) for which thoughtful men everywhere are now earnestly pleading. ' The house we long to build is to be vaster [than its predecessors], capable of accommodating under its spreading roof, not individuals or families only, but churches, peoples, even religions. . . . There are signs that Christian missionary enterprise is stimulating other faiths to formulate their characteristic tenets with a precision and self -scrutiny hitherto unknown ; and it is probable that the future will receive from them substantial additions to the library of dogma. ^
From one point of view, this work might fitly be assigned a place under Comparative Keligion,* viz. within that department of it which is commonly known as Comparative Theology. It is better, however, on the whole, to put it under ' Special Works', seeing that it is really a compre- hensive Source Book, invaluable for frequent reference. But students of Comparative Keligion, having gratefully perused it, will eagerly scan all other books from the same pen.
^ Cf. Philip Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom. 3 vols. New York, 1877. £5th edition, 1890.]
* Cf. Chapter ii. ^ Cf. pp. vii-viii. * Vide infra, pp. 507 f.
DURKHEIM, VAnnee Sociologique 449
L'ANNEE sociologique, publiee sous la direction de Emile Durkheim, Professeur a la Faculte des Lettres de rUniversite de Paris. 12 vols., thus far. Paris : Felix Alcan, 1898- . In progress. Pp. circa 800, each volume. Fr. 15.
Professor Durkheim, and the eminent group of scholars who are collaborating with him in the production of this valuable treatise, interpret * Sociology ' in an extraordinarily- comprehensive way. This department of study is made wide enough to embrace, not only Sociology as generally defined,^ but (with emphatic insistence) Eeligious Sociology in particular, together with all its multifarious affihations with Anthropology, Ethnology, Mythology, Psychology, etc. etc.2 Accordingly, under a great variety of headings, and in harmony with a very thorough-going system of classifica- tion, nearly all the best literature of practically all lands is brought under systematic and critical survey, at least once every three years. ^
Occasion has already been taken to point out that M. Durk- heim is incHned to carry his characteristic views to a very^ questionable extreme.^ All the books successively examined and appraised in this publication are brought to the touch- stone of a somewhat arbitrary standard ; and they are * commended or condemned accordingly. But even where a given volume may fail to come up to the requirements of a test which in these pages is often much too rigidly applied, it may still be possessed of qualities which entitle it to honour, and possibly to a measure of quite unusual distinction. These incidental points of excellence are seldom overlooked in the pages of VAnnee Sociologique. It is because a con- spicuous degree of fairness, backed by a special knowledge of the field which the criticized volume has undertaken to
1 Vide supra, pp. 62 f . ' Vide supra, p. 63.
3 Prior to 1910 (vol. xi, 1906-1909) each volume covered the literature: of the two preceding years.
* Vide supra, pp. 64 f . and 66 f.
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deal with, is easily distinguishable in the great majority of its reviews, that weight and permanent value must be attached to its well-considered deliverances. It is not surprising therefore that, while the price of each volume has recently been advanced from ten to fifteen francs, the number of purchasers steadily increases. Every student of Comparative Eehgion who is wise will make a point of ensuring that these successive surveys shall regularly be added to his book- shelves. They are a perfect mine of wealth, and cover practically the whole domain of studies subsidiary to the one to which he is especially devoted.
CEOYANCES, BITES, INSTITUTIONS, par le comte Goblet d'Alviella, Senateur, et Professeur de THistoire des Eeligions a I'Universite de Bruxelles. 3 vols. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1911. Pp. xx., 386+412 + 389. Fr. 22.50.
The writer of these portly volumes can look back over a public career which very few academic leaders to-day can match. For the space of a generation, he has been ceaselessly active as a teacher and author ; while, during more recent years, he has proved a valued and most highly ■esteemed member of the Senate of his country.
Professor Goblet d'Alviella is one of the surviving founders of the Science of Eehgion. Not a few still remember the mingled suspicion and satisfaction with which his earliest volume in this field was greeted, both in Belgium and else- where.^ This treatise, which contains a synopsis of his first course of lectures, delivered before the University of Brussels in the winter of 1884-1885, is not included in the volumes of Collected Writings to which we are now drawing attention ; but, historically considered, it is a highly valu- able and significant product. It includes, moreover, an Appendix which contains matter not elsewhere reprinted, and which is entitled ' Eeponse a quelques objections pro-
^ CJ. Introduction a Vhistoire generale des religions. Bruxelles, 1887.
GOBLET d'ALVIELLA, Croyatices, Rites, Institutions 451
duites centre mon cours '/ — a fact all the more piquant inasmuch as his Legon d' ouverture, dealing with ' Des pre- juges qui entravent I'etude scientifique des religions', is reproduced in full.^ This earlier course of lectures, re- delivered each year until 1889 when they were supplanted by a course dealing with ' Les Principes generaux de revolution religieuse ', produced a deep and far-reaching impression ; indeed the mental and theological quickening they inspired, while they were being offered annually in the University, will never be forgotten by those who heard them.
The present elaborate compilation is a sort of epitome of the life-work of. its author. It includes all the most note- worthy of his lesser publications, collected into a convenient and attractive form. In no way could the varied interests and investigations of this writer have been exhibited in a more arresting manner. It is but the simple- truth to say that the production of the literary matter contained in these three volumes constitutes a very remarkable performance. All departments of the Science of Eeligion have been investi- gated. Tome I is allotted to Hierographie, and covers Archaeology and the History of Keligions. Tome II is assigned to Hierologie, and covers Questions of Method and of Origins. Tome III is reserved for Hierosophie, and covers Problems of the Present.
In this thesaurus of acute and courageous exposition, exceedingly useful for reference, it is the second volume that will chiefly interest the readers of this survey. In it, the author deals with such topics as ' L'Histoire des Kehgions dans I'enseignement public ',^ ' De la methode comparative dans I'Histoire des Keligions V ' L^s Sciences auxihaires de I'Histoire Comparee des Eehgions ',^ ' Trois limitations de la methode comparative ',^ ' La Methode comparative et le €hoix d'un etalon ','^ etc. etc.
1 Cf. ibid., pp. 135-74.
^ Cf. Croyances, rites, institutions, vol. ii, pp. 1-28. 3 Cf. pp. 46-72. * Cf. pp. 93-108. Vide supra, pp. 346 f.
6 Cf, pp. 192-210. ^ Cf. pp. 211-15. ' Cf. pp. 364-94.
Gg2
452 SPECIAL WORKS
THE CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY, edited by Henry Melvill Gwatkin and James Pounder Whitney. 8 vols. Cambridge : The University Press, 1911- In progress. Pp. circa 800, each volume. £1, each volume.
The Cambridge Modern History, planned by the late Lord Acton, has found a worthy successor in the present admirable treatise. The University which has given us The Cambridge History of English Literature, and which stands so closely connected with the publication of the latest edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica,^ has rendered a further and truly magnificent service through its preparation and publication of its ' Modern ' and ' Medieval ' Histories.
The present work, it must be remembered, is not merely a product of the choicest British scholarship ; it contains, in addition, the best fruits of learning that Europe and America are able to furnish. It is, in truth, an inter- national thesaurus of tested historical information. Scholars in the United States, France, Italy, and Russia — besides those of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Spain, etc. — have cheerfully undertaken the tasks severally entrusted to them. At the same time, the successive volumes, though learned, are never laboured. They are intended, ' partly for the general reader, as a clear and (as far as possible) interesting narrative ; partly for the student, as a summary of ascertained facts, with indications (not discussions) of disputed points ; and partly as a book of reference, contain- ing all that can reasonably be required in a comprehensive work of general history '.-
Two volumes of this great undertaking have already appeared. One is devoted to ' The Christian Roman Empire, and the Foundation of the Teutonic Kingdoms ' (1911), while the other deals with ' The Rise of the Saracens, and the Foundation of the Western Empire ' (1913). It will at
^ Vide suina, pp. 433 f . ^ C/. vol. i, p. v.
GWATKIN AND WHITNEY, Cambridge Medieval History 453
once recur to the student of the History of Keligions that the period covered is one in which many of the faiths of mankind underwent an epoch-making transition. It was an era of syncretism and the interminghng of divergent spiritual interests. One recalls instantly those books by Professor Cumont ^ and Professor Toutain ^ — not to mention others — to which attention has already been directed.
Amon^vthe more important sections to which the com- parativist will be certain to turn, in volume i, are those written by the late Principal Lindsay on ' The Triumph of Christianity ' (chap, iv, pp. 87-117), by Dr. M. Manitius on ' The Teutonic Migrations ' (chap, ix, pp. 250-76), and by Dr. T. Peisker on ' The Asiatic Background ' (chap, xii, pp. 323-66). In the second volume. Pro- fessor Anthony A. Bevan interprets with extraordinary compactness and grasp ' Mahomet and Islam ' (chap, x, pp. 302-28), Professor Carl H. Becker deals very com- petently with ' The Expansion of the Saracens ' (chaps, xi, pp. 329-64, and xii, pp. 365-90), Professor Camille Jullian expounds ' Keltic Heathenism in Gaul ' (chap, xv, pp. 460-71), the late Sir Edward Anwyl renders the same service touching ' Keltic Heathenism in the British Isles ' (chap. XV, pp. 472-9), Miss Phillpotts discourses on ' Germanic Heathenism ' (chap, xv, pp. 480-95), while Kev. Frederick E. Warren sketches the ' Conversion of the Kelts ' (chap, xvi, pp. 496-513), and Professor Whitney outlines the ' Conversion of the Teutons ' (chap, xvi, pp. 514-42).
The student of Comparative Eehgion might easily suppose, at first sight, that this work had no very special interest for him. His ' fach ' is not so much as dreamed of by the great majority of its contributors ; possibly, by some of them, it is a subject held in conscious and insistent abeyance. Never- theless, as a ' subsidiary ' to the study of Comparative
^ Cf. Franz Cumont, Les Religiom orientates dans le Paganisme romain : vide supra, pp. 207 f.
* Cf. Jules Toutain, Les Cultes patens dans V Empire romain : vide supra, p. 224.
454 SPECIAL WOEKS
Eeligion^ the Cambridge Medieval Histo7'y has ah'eady rendered a wide and much appreciated service. In parti- cular, its copious Bibhographies deserve the warmest praise. They have cost great labour, but they will win more and more the unstinted gratitude of those who have occasion to consult them.
THEOLOGISCHER JAHEESBEEICHT, herausgegeben von Gustav Kriiger und Martin Schian. 33 vols., thus far. Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1881- . In progress. Pp. circa 1,200, each volume. Price varies ; circa M. 70, each volume.
This comprehensive survey of the theological literature of the world maintains its stately progress from year to year. Moving forward at its accustomed and very deliberate pace, it refuses to be hurried. Volume xxxiii, still in course of publication, covers the year 1913. Since its removal from Berlin to Leipzig in 1906 (and especially during its domicile in the latter city, viz. until July 1914,) this compendium has increased considerably in size, yet without losing either its grip or its incisiveness. The student of Comparative Eeligion would be impoverished indeed if this invaluable work of reference were not constantly within reach.
Among the numerous departments into which the theo- logical literature of each year is distributed, — Das Alte Testament, Das Neue Testament, KirchengescJiiclite, etc. etc., — the sections allotted to Encyklojoddie und Methodologie, Beligionsj)]iiloso2:)]iie, Der vordere Orient, and NicJitsemiti- scJies Heidentum will especially reward the search of every comparativist. The works reviewed are dealt with, of course, — as a rule — in the briefest possible manner ; this fact constitutes the one defect, and even a cause of frequent annoyance, inseparable from any attempt at criticism on so vast a scale. Nevertheless, a reader who is keen as well as patient can pick up easily the clue of which he stands in need, and will often be assisted (or forewarned) in the
KRtJGER UND SCHIAN, Theologischer Jahreshericht 455
effective prosecution of his task. Special students in all departments of modern inquiry, whether younger or more mature, cannot fail to find in some portion of this volume the information they require. It is a veritable Index of modern theological Uterature. Its contents are systematically arranged, and are made accessible with a minimum of labour to all classes of investigators.
GRUNDRISS DER INDO-ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND 'ALTERTUMSKUNDE, herausgegeben von Hein- rich Liiders und Jakob Wackernagel. 3 vols., issued in numerous separately-bound * Parts '. Strassburg : Karl J. Triibner, 1896- . In progress. (The sizes and prices of the ' Parts ' vary very considerably.)
This important work, launched by the late Georg Biihler, moves forward all too slowly. It is promised however that, under its present Editors, — aided by an international group of nearly thirty scholars — much more rapid progress will now be made. Two Hefte have been issued since the beginning of 1910, viz. Professor Macdonell's Vedic Grammar and Sir Jervoise Athelstane Raines's Ethnography.^ Both of these ' Parts ', and several others also, are printed in English ;- contributors, some of whom are British or American, are allowed to write either in English or in German.
The plan of this comprehensive work, which is not as widely known as it ought to be, embraces three main sub- divisions. Volume i has been assigned to Allgemeines und Sprache. Six of the twelve Hefte of which it consists, each of which may be obtained separately, have been issued ;; students of Philology ^ will find that an immense amount of help may be secured from these erudite discussions. Volume ii is devoted to Literatur und Geschichte. Only two or three of its nine Hefte have thus far been published ;,
* Vide supra, p. 60. ^ Vide supra, pp. Ill f.
456 SPECIAL WORKS
.students of Ethnology,^ of selected Sacred Texts, ^ of Ar- chaeology,^ etc., are here specially appealed to. Volume iii is allotted to Beligion, tveltliche Wissenscliaften und Ku7ist. About half of its Hefte — dealing with Mythology,* Minor Religious Systems, Ritual Literature, etc. — are now ready. It is to this portion of the undertaking that students of the History of Religions, and of Comparative Religion, will certainly turn. Professor Kern's well-known handbook on Buddhism ^ forms one of the Hefte in this third sub- division.
The publisher is fully warranted in maintaining that this Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan Research represents the first attempt made to provide a complete, systematic and concise survey of the vast field of Indian languages, religion, history, antiquities, and art, most of which subjects have never before been treated in a connected form. Though the Grundriss is primarily intended as a book of reference for students, it will nevertheless prove useful to all who take interest in India, and not least to those who are studying critically the various religions of that country. Moreover, although these volumes for the most part summarize results which have already been achieved, they will be found to contain much that is new, and much that will doubtless lead to unforeseen discoveries in the future.
YEDIC INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS, by Arthur Anthony Macdonell and Arthur Berriedale Keith. (Indian Texts Series.) 2 vols. London : John Murray, 1912. Pp. xvi., 544 + 592. £1 4s.
It would be hard to exaggerate the value of these exhaus- tive volumes ; it is quite impossible to thank adequately the two scholars who have made their contents available. Such
Vide supra, pp. 35 f. » Vide supra, pp. 114 f., and 401 f.
Vide supra, pp. 81 f. ■» Vide supra, pp. 96 f.
Cf. Hendrik Kern, Manual oj Indian Buddhism. Strassburg, 1896.
MACDONELL and KEITH, Vedic Index 457
labours can never really be requited ; nevertheless, they unquestionably do awaken a very lively and abiding sense of gratitude.
There will be found collected here ' all the historical matter accessible to us in the earliest literary documents of India ... a conspectus of the most ancient phase of Aryan civilization that can be realized by direct evidence '.^ The record comes down to the rise of Buddhism, about 500 b.c. It is the first time that such a task has been undertaken, and it has been discharged with scrupulous thoroughness and completeness.
Much as the student of Comparative Keligion may profit by a use of this Index, it is for the Encydopcedia (which is to follow) that he will impatiently wait. Not India's civiliza- tion, but the religious factors in that civilization, constitute the theme in which he is particularly interested ; and it is upon this topic that the two scholarly compilers are at present at work. Masters of Sanskrit will no doubt especi- ally welcome the two volumes already completed. Many of the discussions and criticisms they contain are necessarily technical. They deal courageously with questions which are still under debate ; hence the elaborate and very com- plete Bibliographies which the authors have supplied. But Comparative Keligion lives and moves and has its being within a much more contracted sphere. If the present volumes fairly forecast the treatment which is soon to be accorded to ' the most ancient phases of Aryan religious beliefs ', the compilers are about to make students of Com- parative Keligion more than ever their debtors, and to win their united and unstinted benedictions. What Dr. Hastings and his colleagues have achieved — and will soon more com- pletely achieve — through the publication of a magnificent General Encyclopaedia,"^ these two British scholars are now about to accomphsh through an exposition of early rehgious thought and ritual in India.
^ Cf. p. vii.
2 Cf. Encyclopcedia of Religion and Ethics : vide supra, pp. 434 f.
458 SPECIAL WORKS
EXTEA-BIBLICAL SOURCES FOR HEBREW AND JEWISH HISTORY, by Samuel Alfred Browne Mercer, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Literatm-e in the Western Theological Seminary, Chicago. New York : Longmans, Green and Company, 1913. Pp. xiv., 210. $1.50.
Students of Comparative Religion can obtain much help from this Manual ; and, when they turn to it, they will find that the information they need is embodied in a very com- pact and convenient form.
Dr. Mercer is not immediately concerned with require- ments which are peculiar to students of religion ; and, when he is so concerned, it is upon its historical (rather than upon its comparative) aspects that he specially dwells. Occasionally a more personal and critical note is to be found in his brief ' Introductions '.^ Religion, however, is so inter- woven with the very texture of Hebrew and Jewish thought that it may be said to be in evidence throughout the pages of this volume.
The ' sources ' which Professor Mercer has translated and edited are grouped in the following chronological order. First of all come the Cuneiform Sources, including (1) the Babylonian Period, (2) the Tell el Amarna Period, (3) the Assyrian Period, and (4) the New Babylonian and Persian Periods. Next, the writer indicates the Egyptia7i Sources, starting with the Old Kingdom (2980-2475 B.C.), and in- cluding the Middle Kingdom, the Empire, and on until the conquest by Cambyses in 525 b.c. Third, we are re- minded of Other Semitic Sources, including the Moabite Stone and the relevant Elephantine Papyri. Finally, we are in- troduced to those important Greek and Latin Sources which embrace a period reaching from Cyrus (559 b. c.) to Hadrian (a. D. 135).
It will be seen that the era covered is a very wide one,
^ Cf. p. 12.
MERCER, Extra-Biblical Sources of History 459
and few important monuments or documents seem to have been overlooked. Some omissions, to be sure, the writer has purposely made. Thus, under Greek Sources, he states that the chief helps in this connexion — Josephus, Philo, and the New Testament — ' have not been reproduced, because they are accessible to all students '.^ But, while the record does not profess to be absolutely complete, it is substantially complete ; the workmanship is thorough ; and the information supplied is quite sufficiently detailed. The period under review extends ' from the beginning of Old Testament history down to the final destruction of the Jewish people as a nation'.- The translations, notwithstanding the special difficulties presented by various texts, are well made ; and it is no small advantage to have them all thus brought together within the covers of a single small volume. Exact references to original documents are scrupulously given. The Appendices contain a number of chronological lists, tables, genealogies, etc., which will often prove exceedingly useful.
The, object of this book, as explained in the Preface, has admirably been fulfilled. The writer proposed to himself, at the commencement of his task, ' not to write a history, nor even to discuss the bearing of these sources on Hebrew and Jewish history, but rather to furnish the student with material which will enable him to build up a history of the Hebrew and Jewish people for himself '.^
AUSFUHRLICHES LEXIKON DER GRIECHISCHEN UND ROMISCHEN MYTHOLOGIE, herausgegeben von Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher. 5 [?] vols. Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1884- . In 'progress. Pp. area 1500, each volume. Cost varies ; circa M. 40, each volume.
This magnificent and remarkably comprehensive work, in course of publication during the last thirty years, continues to make progress. Three volumes have thus far appeared,
1 CJ. p. 157. » Cf. p. vii. » Cf. p. X.
460 SPECIAL WOEKS
covering respectively the letters A-H, I-M, and N-P. The letter S was reached and completed in Lieferung No. 68, which appeared at the end of 1913. Three important Supplements have been added, while others are to follow ; the third of these surveys, devoted to Mythisclie KosmograpJiie der Griechen, appeared two years ago.
For thoroughness, breadth, and variety of scholarship, there is no work whose authority excels — or even equals — that which this standard Lexicon has everywhere won. The myths of Egypt, Babylonia, etc., come incidentally under review. One may feel constrained to regret that a more rapid rate of progress has not been found to be practicable ; but the scrupulous accuracy of the editor and his learned collaborators will make the possession of this ' wertvolles Eepertorium ' all the more precious when at length it shall have been completed. The illustrations of this work — one of its distinctive features, and they are to be reckoned literally by hundreds — are often reproductions of ancient master- pieces of Art. Moreover, almost without exception, they have been executed in a rarely skilful manner.
INTKODUZIONE BIBLIOGEAFICA ALLA SCIENZA DELLE EELIGIONI, di Luigi Salvatorelh, Segretario presso ilMinistero della Pubblica Istruzione. (Colle- zione di Scienza delle Eeligioni.) Eoma : Guglielmo Quadrotta, 1914. Pp. xvi., 179. L. 5.
This critical compendium, the first volume of a very promising new series of Manuals, covers nearly the whole bibliography of the Science of Eeligion.^ Almost all books of real worth bearing upon the subject find a place in this exceedingly comprehensive record. The manner in which the selected volumes are classified deserves warm commen-
^ It is to bo regretted that no department has been provided for registering recent literature in the Philosophy of Religion. This is a serious lack, but it will doubtless be remedied in a future edition.
SALVATORELLI, Introduzione Bibliografica 461
dation, while the notes appended to each title will be found to be admirably compact, to the point, and honestly and frankly discriminative.
It can quite fairly be claimed for Dr. Salvatorelli's book that it ' e un prezioso strumento di lavoro, che fino ad ora non esisteva.' Parts of it appeared first (in a prehminary form) in the successive issues of an Italian review, which provided each month a useful ' Bollettino di Scienza delle Eeligioni'^; but the author, before his task was completed, decided to broaden considerably the scope of his survey, and to secure its separate publication.
The large number of books included in this Bibliographical Introduction are grouped under five headings, as follows : (1) Oj)ere Generali (Encyclopaedias, Periodicals, Manuals, etc.), (2) Storia delta Scienza (General Histories, Histories of the Science of Religion w^ithin particular periods, and Histories of the Science of Religion in selected countries), (3) Metodologia (Theory of the Science of Religion, Various methods of studying it, whether comparative, historical, etc.), (4) Fenomenologia (Magic, Worship, Animism, Mytho- logy, Totemism), and (5) Storia delta Beligione (The Nature of Religion, Its Origin, Its Primitive Forms, and Its Theistic Evolution).
The volume closes with two excellent Indices, — one restricted to the authors mentioned (including the titles of their books), and the other (somewhat briefer) dealing with the ' subject-matter ' which the Introduzione seeks to expound.
This piece of work is emphatically well done. The record, which begins with publications issued about 1870, does not come further down than to the close of 1912. Some un- fortunate omissions, however inevitable, will be noted. Regarded as a whole. Dr. SalvatorelK has prepared a treatise which will prove an immense help to students of many nationalities for a good many years to come.
^ Cf. La Cultura contetnporanea. 7 vols. Rome, 1909-1913. Consult especially vols, iv-vii. Vide infra, p. 476.
462 SPECIAL WORKS
KELIGIONSGESCHICHTLICHE VOLKSBUCHEK fur DIE DEUTSCHE CHRiSTLiCHE Gegenwart, herausgegeben von Eriedrich Michael Schiele. 93 vols., thus far. Tub- ingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1904- . In j^rogress. Pp. circa 50, each booklet. Einfache Nummer, Pf. 50.
This excellent series holds bhthely on its way, and con- tinues to discharge its mission with conspicuous skill. In its general theological attitude, it represents quite fairly the teaching of the religionsgescliiclitliche Scliule.^ In its attempt to popularize the results of modern ' advanced ' critical study, it has proved more successful than that less-known yet scholarly ' counteractive ' series which has striven to in- culcate a narrower and more positive type of theological opinion. 2
The books belonging to this series are sub- divided under six general categories, viz. (1) Die Eeligion des Neuen Testaments, (2) Die Religion des Alten Testaments, (3) All- gemeine Religionsgeschichte und Religionsvergleichung, (4) Kirchengeschichte, (5) Weltanschauung und Religions- philosophie,and (6) Praktische Bibelerklarung. It is upon the third group of these volumes that students of Comparative Religion should keep a watchful eye. Unfortunately this group is not a large one, and it has grown hitherto with dis- appointing slowness. The outlook for its expansion has however, of late, become decidedly more promising. To four of the volumes in this third series attention has already been directed.^ Others of a noteworthy character are being pre- pared for early publication.
In some quarters, where the apologetic attitude of mind has become strongly developed, this series of expositions is naturally regarded with a certain instinctive distrust. To comparativists, however, these booklets will prove timely and stimulating.
* Vide supra, pp. 331 f.
^ Cf. Bihlische Zeit- und Streitfragen. Berlin, 1905- . In progress.
^ Cf. Martin P. Nilsson, Primitive Religion {vide supra, pp. 26 f.), Hcinrich F. Hackmann, Der Buddldsmus {vide supra, pp. 243 f.), and Rudolf Stiibe, Lao-Tse and Confucius {vide supra, p. 301).
STEINMETZ, BihliograjjJiie de VEthnologie 463
ESSAI D'UNE BIBLIOGKAPHIE SYSTEMATIQUE DE L'ETHNOLOGIE JUSQU'A L'ANNEE 1911, par Sebald Kudolf Steinmetz, Professeur de I'Ethnologie a rUniversite d'Amsterdam. Bruxelles : Misch et Thron, 1911. Pp. iv., 196. Fr. 7.
The compiler of this exceedingly useful handbook, the first of a series of Monographies hihliographiques now being pubhshed by L'Intermediaire Sociologique under the auspices of the Institute of Sociology (Institut Solvay) of Brussels, is fully warranted in beginning his Preface with the words : 'Es fehlte bis jetzt an einem Buche wie das hier vorlie- gende. . . . Eine Uebersicht von allem, was geschrieben wurde, fehlt vollstandig.' ^
That this volume is the fruit of an immense amount of toil and patience goes without saying. That it is compre- hensive in its range is sufficiently suggested by the facts that (1) its title is French, (2) its author, though born in Holland, bears a German name, (3) its geographical origin is Dutch, (4) the dominant language throughout, though three are employed, is German, while (5) its place of publi- cation is Belgium. Nor do its contents belie its unusually cosmopolitan character. While a few titles found to be lacking ought certainly to have been recorded, its scope is genuinely free from local preferences and prejudices. As in the case of Dr. Salvatorelli's Introduzione bibliografica, noticed elsewhere,^ ' parmi les moyens qui ont ete preconises en vue de contribuer a la documentation scientifique, il semble que celui des monographies bibliographiques reponde particulierement bien aux necessites du moment '.^ The value for beginners in Ethnology of this preliminary survey — its value as a systematic Bibliography for even the maturer class of students — cannot easily be overestimated. The corresponding Bibliographies of Anthropology^ and of
^ Cf. p. 3. ^ Vide supra, pp. 460 f. ^ Cf. p. iii.
* Cf. Northcote W. Thomas, Bibliography of Anthropology aiid Folklore, 1906. London, 1907. .
464: SPECIAL WORKS
Folklore ^ compiled by Mr. Thomas, though limited to works published within the British Empire, have rendered immense service to a very wide circle of investigators.
The present list of books embraces only such publications as appeared prior to 1911. The scheme of subdivision has been well thought out ; and, although its author does not claim that it is perfect, it would not be easy to suggest any material improvements. There are eleven main groups of volumes, collected under the following headings : (1) Ge- schichte und Entwicklung der Ethnologie, (2) Entwicklung und Verbreitung der Eassen und Volker, (3) Psychologie, (4) Wirtschaft, (5) Materielle Kultur und Ergologie, (6) Gesell- schaft, Staat und Eecht, (7) Ehe, Familie und Geschlechts- leben, (8) Sitten und Gewohnheiten, (9) Moral und Moralitat, (10) Religion, and (11) Wissenschaft und Kunst. Under each of these general divisions there are from fifteen to twenty subdivisions, systematically arranged. Thus, (a) General Works, (b) Manuals, (c) Miscellaneous Works, etc. etc., are assembled in a quite imposing order. Students of Com- parative Religion will turn without delay to Section 10 ; they will there find an immense collection of volumes, speci- fied under no fewer than forty-two subdivisions, not omitting one allotted to ' Volker ohne Religion '.
An excellent Index, indispensable in such a work, extends to nearly thirty pages.
ARCHIVES SOCIOLOGIQUES. Bulletin de l'Institut DE SocioLOGiE SoLVAY, publiees sous la direction de Emile Waxweiler. Bruxelles : Misch et Thron, 1910- . In progress. 10 volumes each year. Pp. circa 300, each volume. Fr. 15, each volume.
Ten times each year,^ theSolvay Institute of Brussels issues comprehensive summaries to all relevant material (recently published) that bears upon the study of Sociology. These
1 C'/. N. W. Thomas, Bibliography of Folklore, 1905. London, 1906. ^ No volume is issued in August or September.
WAXWEILER, Archives Sociologiques 465
records cover of course competent reviews of the chief books (and lesser publications) Avhich throw light directly upon the exposition of Sociology ; but they include likewise a brief reference to all works, no matter to what department they may belong, whence students of Sociology may derive direct help, or at any rate the impulse of some pregnant suggestion. They constitute, in a word, a veritable encyclopaedia — kept continually up-to-date, and enriched by information collected from all parts of the world — which possesses an absolutely unique value.
Since 1912, these Bulletins have accumulated material under two distinctive headings, viz. (1) Introduction a la Sociologie humaine, and (2) Sociologie humaine. Under the former of these categories falls the discussion of all topics having to do with Biology, Ethnology, Physiology, and Psj^- chology ; while, under the latter, material germane to ' L 'Ac- commodation sociale,' 'L' Organisation sociale,' and ' Doctrine et Methode ', is dealt with in the order named.
Eeference has already been made to the valuable Mono- graphies hihliographiques which are likewise published under the auspices of the Institut Solvay.^ Yet other publica- tions, issued by this industrious school of inquiry, are classi- fied into three general groups, viz. (1) Notes et Memoires, often quite elaborate, and ranging in cost from Fr. 2 to Fr.20 ; (2) Etudes sociales ; and (3) Actualites sociales, studies which are the least formal of all, and cost from Fr. 1.50 upwards.
LEBENSFKAGEN. Schriften und Keden, herausgege- ben von Heinrich Weinel. 25 vols., thus far. Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr, 1904- . In progress. Pp. circa 50-300, each volume. Pf. 50-M. 3.
These discussions of ' Vital Questions ' belong to the same general category as the ' Popular Booklets on the History of Keligion '.^ They embrace a great variety of literary
^ Vide supra, pp. 463 f.
* Cf. BeligionsgeschichtUche Volkshucher : vide supra, p. 462.
Hh
466 SPECIAL WORKS
productions — books, lectures, etc. — which seek to further the same ends as the cheaper series, but to advance on ampler and more scholarly lines. This undertaking was launched by the publication of a work from the pen of Professor Sell of Bonn,^ followed almost immediately by a valuable contri- bution made bv the Editor.- whose well-known work Jesus in the 'Nineteenth Century^ belongs also to this growing array of arresting and stimulating treatises. •
Professor Weinel is fully justified in saying that ' der Geist, in dem die Lebensfragen geschrieben werden, ist der Geist voller wissenschaftlicher Wahrhaftigkeit und Frei- heit . . . Wir suchen unsere Leser in alien Konfessionen.' In particular, ' die Lebensfragen sollen den Geist wahrer Ehrfurcht von der Geschichte atmen. Sie sollen die grossen Ergebnisse der religions- und sittengeschichtlichen Forsch- ung, die bis jetzt fast gar nicht bekannt geworden sind, unserem Volke vermitteln helfen '. He hopes to diffuse not merely a profounder knowledge of the vital questions dis- cussed, but to ensure the exhibition of a more resolute and courageous spirit in the handling of them. Students of Comparative Eeligion will do well to keep this series in view.
A GENERAL INDEX TO THE SACRED BOOKS OF THE EAST, by Moriz Winternitz, Professor of Indian Philology and Ethnology in the University of Prague. Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1910. Pp. xvi., 684.
185.
This invaluable help for students of Comparative Religion would have been placed among those works which Professors.
' Cf. Karl Sell, Die Religion unserer Klassiker. [Lessing, Herder, Schiller,, and Goethe.] Tubingen, 1904.
" Of. Heinrich Weinel, Paulus. Der Mensch und sein Werk. 1904. [Translated, St. Paul : The Man and his Work. London, 1906.]
* Cf. Heinrich Weinel, Jesus im neunzehnten Jahrhundert. 1903. [3rd edition, 1914. Translated, revised, and enlarged by Alban G. Widgery under the title Jesus in the Nineteenth Century and After. Edinburgh, 1914.}
WINTERNITZ, Index to Sacred Boohs 467
Bertholet, Lehmann and Soderblom have given us,^ had it not been separated by so long an interval from the com- pletion of Max Miiller's Sacred Books of the East. Besides, it is quite capable of discharging an individual function of the very highest utility.
Professor Max Miiller's undertaking required the labour of thirty-five years ; and, when it was finished, it offered to English-speaking students a possession of somewhat bulky dimensions. An instrument had to be devised whereby its contents could be rendered quickly available. Max Miiller saw what apparatus was needed, and he also selected and commissioned the scholar who was best fitted to supply it.^ Professor Winternitz has regarded his task as a trust ; he has discharged it as an act of loving remembrance, but he has also evidently felt constrained to utilize to the full the possibilities of a supreme opportunity. Accordingly, his book — quite apart from its being an Appendix to the work which it supplements— possesses a rare value of its own. It is a perfect quarry of information, analytically arranged, and made exceedingly convenient for purposes of reference. All the great rehgions of mankind can by its aid be brought under instant survey, while any given detail of belief can be referred to its several sources with a minimum expenditure of effort. If, by means of the translation of the Sacred Books of the East, Max Miiller for the first time — as Professor Macdonell remarks in his Preface — ' placed the historical and comparative study of religions on a solid foundation ',^ it is equally true to add that the present ' volume constitutes a handbook for the study of Oriental rehgions '.* The author indeed expressly claims that his Index is ' a sort of Manual of the History of Eastern Keligions '.^
^ Vide supra, pp. 401 f.
^ Cf. Moriz Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litter atur. (Die Littera- turen des Ostens in Einzeldarstellungen, vol. ix.) Leipzig, 1905- . In progress. The first part of vol. ii, devoted to Die buddhistische Litteratur, appeared in 1913 : vide supra, p. 301.
* Cf. p. viii. * Cf. p. ix. * Cf. p. xiii.
Hh2
PERIODICAL LITERATURE
It is fully recognized by all who study Comparative Eeligion that, while resort must regularly be had to formal and (more or less) elaborate treatises, none can afford to neglect those surveys — ^limited to single selected aspects of some faith — which, from time to time, are given a place in the pages of scientific and literary journals, and of the monthly or quarterly reviews.
It is proposed to do little more than name those Periodicals which, during the last four years, have done most to stimu- late the eagerness and reward the industry of special students in this field. To characterize each pubHcation separately, and somewhat in detail, would prove an invidious task ; moreover, to a large extent, it would in the present case be a work of supererogation.
Most of the Periodicals now to be enumerated are well- known to readers of this survey ; a few of them however, as already remarked,^ have only very recently been launched upon their career. Other journals might easily, and quite suitably, have been added to the list ; but certainly every review included in it is important, and ought regularly and systematically to be examined. Each of these Periodicals — in its own measure, according to its individual opportunity, and in harmony with its governing ideal — has placed great stores of suggestive material at the disposal of all such students of Comparative Eeligion as are accustomed to weigh, discriminate, and evaluate what they read. It is sincerely to be hoped that, before long, a Journal of Com- parative Religion^ — definitely restricted in its appeal, yet an efficient channel of information and intercommunication between students in this field — may be inaugurated by a well-known publishing house in London.
' Vide supra, p. xxxi. ^ yi^Q infra, p. 516.
American Journal of Religious Psychology 469
THE AMEEICAN JOUKNAL OP KELKIIOUS PSYCHO- LOGY AND EDUCATION.! Worcester, Mass. : The Clark University Press, 1904- . In progress. Three issues each year.^ 7 vols. Pp. circa 450, each volume. '3.50.1
The initial number of this review awakened keenest anticipations among various circles of readers. Its field lies chiefly within the domain cultivated by students *of the Psychology of Keligion ; ^ but the striking article with which it opened — ' Stages of Eehgious Development ', written by Dr. Jean du Buy, Docent in Comparative Keligion in Clark University — has never been forgotten. The whole spirit of that discussion, its grasp on central principles, its acute (if not wholly satisfactory) analysis of Mohammedanism, Con- fucianism, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, and the brief tabular comparison of these five religions with which it closed, have led many students of Comparative BeHgion to scan attentively the pages of this journal during all the intervening years. And this diligence has often been rewarded. The writers in this review are drawn from representative scholars of various schools of opinion, men of alert and progressive temperament, teachers who are not afraid to accept those responsibilities which are inseparable from leadership. The surveys it furnishes of all relevant literature — and especially of the best foreign books and articles — are exceedingly well done.
In its present form, this journal gives special attention to the Psychology of KeHgion ' viewed under its anthropological and sociological aspects '.^ This course has been suggested by the fact that recent research is ' leading more and more to the revision of our opinions concerning the mytho- logical, philosophical and religious ideas of so-called " lower
^ In January 1912, with the commencement of vol. v, the title of this review was changed to The Journal of Religious Psychologi/, its publication became quarterly, and its price was fixed at S3. 00 per annum.
^ Cf. vol. V, p. 1.
470 PEKIODICAL LITERATURE
races " of man, and their relationship to the cognate pheno- mena now existing (or having existed) among the " higher races ".' ^ The resources of Anthropology in America, where Indian peoples of various tribes provide the investigator with a great mass of virgin material, have not hitherto been utilized as they might — and certainly ought to — have been. This oversight, all too tardily discovered, will now (in as far as it is still possible) be effectively remedied.
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY. Chicago : The University Press, 1895- . In progress. Bi- monthly. 20 vols. Pp. circa 850, each volume. $2.00.
Though ' American ' in title and origin, and exhibiting characteristic features of a Transatlantic type, this journal has won many friends and contributors in Europe. Its constituency is far from being confined to technical experts, who devote all their time to a study of sociological problems ; on the contrarv, it makes direct and successful endeavour to aid ' social workers ' in handling those practical difficulties which modern progress, and the growing complexity of modern sociological and religious experiments, are continu- ally bringing to the fore.
ANCIENT EGYPT. London : Macmillan and Company, 1914- . hi progress. Quarterly. 1 vol. Pp. circa 200, each volume. 7s.
Professor Flinders Petrie is to be congratulated upon the appearance and excellent contents of a publication which, often projected, has at last most promisingly been begun. * There has been hitherto no journal in England, or abroad, to keep readers acquainted with the advances and discoveries [being made touching] the principal civiHzation of the Ancient World ; ' 2 that blank is now being filled. Original
' Cf. vol. V, p. 1. 2 Qj jj 1
Ancient Egypt 471
articles, and frequent surveys of the latest attainments of knowledge covering various problems of present-day interest — supplied by the best living authorities, and thoroughly up-to-date — are provided in these pages. ' A special feature will be the summaries of all papers in the foreign periodicals, sufficient to show in detail the movement of research. . . . New books on Egypt will be reviewed and analysed, so as to show how far they would be useful to our readers.' ^ Copious illustrations, man}^ of which occupy an entire page, have most wisely been introduced. Accordingly, whilst ' this Journal will be the regular organ of the various branches of the Egyptian Eesearch Students' Association ',^ and must therefore make its chief appeal to specialists, it has already awakened a widespread popular demand. It is in reality, simultaneously, a magazine of art and a reliable historical record.
Students of Comparative Eeligion will read, with peculiar interest and advantage, the editor's contribution entitled
* Egyptian Beliefs in a Future Life '.- It embodies his well- known Drew Lecture, delivered in London in November 1913. The illustrations which accompany it add immensely to its value. About the same time. Dr. Alan H. Gardiner delivered an address on a topic of profound and ever-recurring interest ; an excellent summary of it is furnished under the heading
* Notes on the Ethics of the Egyptians '.^
THE ANNALS OF AKCH^OLOGY AND ANTHEO- POLOGY. Liverpool : The University Press, 1908- . In progress. Quarterly. 7 vols. Pp. circa 150, each volume. 10s.
This journal, which is issued under the auspices of the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology, continues to be especially noteworthy on account of numerous timely contributions by Professor Garstang. Professor Sayce is also a frequent and
' Cf. p. 2. ' Cf. pp. 16-31. ' Cf. pp. 55-8.
472 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
ever-welcome collaborator. Professor Frazer might perhaps have been counted upon to claim for Anthropology a larger place than it has secured hitherto in the pages of this ably conducted review.
ANTHROPOS. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vol- KBR- UND Sprachenkunde. Wien *. Mechitharisten- Buchdruckerei, 1906- . In progress. Bi-monthly. 9 vols. Pp. circa 1000, each volume. Kr. 18.
As its name implies, this review is particularly helpful to all who approach the study of Comparative Religion from the side of Anthropology,^ Ethnology,^ or Philology.^ Within its own sphere, and as supplying scientific expositions of the culture distinctive of primitive peoples, it has no superior. Contributions are printed in German, French, or EngHsh.
When this Periodical was projected, the editor's intention was to issue it in a quarterly form. Since 1907, however, it has appeared each alternate month.
ARCHIY FUR PAPYRUSFORSCHUNG UND YER- WANDTE GEBIETE. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, -1901- . In progress. Quarterly. 14 vols. Pp. circa 550, each volume. M. 24.
The name of the editor of this journal, Professor Ulrich Wilcken of Bonn,* is sufficient guarantee of the standard and timeUness of its contents. No higher authority on Papyro- logy is guiding those ardent investigators who are flocking to-day into this new field of inquiry. All the latest dis- coveries are promptly chronicled in this review, while the discussions which they are instrumental in arousing are there summarized in an apt and masterly way.
^ Vide supra, pp. 3 f . ' Vide supra, pp. 35 f.
2 Vide supra, pp. Ill f. * Vide supra, p. 124.
Archiv filr ReUgionsivissenschaft 473
ABCHIV FUK RELIGIONSWISSENSCHAFT. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1898- . In progress. Quarterly. 18 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. M. 18.
While this journal has hitherto been noted for its insistent plea that the Science of Eeligion can be advanced only through a study of the History of Rehgions, it no longer ignores — and of late it has begun even to advocate — the desirabiHty of assigning to the Comparison of Rehgions a larger and more distinctive place than leading scholars in Germany have hitherto been wont to accord to it.
ARCHIVES SUISSES D'ANTHROPOLOGIE GENE- RALE. Geneve : Albert Kiindig, 1914- . In pro- gress. Quarterly. 1 vol. Pp. circa 350, each volume. Fr. 12.
This journal, just founded, is the official organ of the Institut Suisse d'Anthropologie Generale of Geneva. It has made a most auspicious beginning ; and the introductory statement, addressed to ' nos lecteurs ' by M. Edouard Naville, the distinguished President of the Institute, will be read with peculiar interest. As the range of the Institute's work embraces Anthropology, x\rch8eology, and Ethnology, each of these subjects will systematically be dealt with in the pages of the ArcJiives. Students of Comparative Religion will be arrested at once by M. Alfred Boissier's able paper on ' Les Mysteres babyloniens '.^
ARCHIVIO PER L'ANTROPOLOGIA E L'ETNO- LOGIA. Firenze : M. Ricci, 1871- . In progress. Quarterly. 44 vols. Pp. circa 450, each volume. L. 20.
A long career of quietly persistent research has abundantly established the authoritative name and place of this suggestive and practical journal.
* Cf. pp. 89-101.
474 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
THE ASIATIC REVIEW. London : Westminster Cham- bers, 1886- . Li progress. Twice each quarter. New Series : 5 vols. Pp. circa 400, each volume. £1.
A considerable part of the contents of this journal has of course nothing to offer to the student of Comparative Reli- gion. Nevertheless, a glance through its pages very seldom goes unrewarded.
This publication has had to face a somewhat chequered career. It was at first entitled The Asiatic Quarterly Review, and its opening series consisted of ten volumes (1886-1890). Its name was then changed to The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Beview, its second series consisting likewise of ten volumes (1891-1895). Its third series covers a much longer period, and embraces thirty-four volumes (1896-1912). With the commencement of its fourth series (January 1913), the original title was resumed ; but, last year, its present briefer name was adopted. Under efficient editorial super- vision, it promises still to yield good results to the com- parativist, if only he exercise patience and discrimination.
THE ATHENiEUM. Journal of English and Foreign Literature, Science, the Fine Arts, Music, and the Drama. London : The Athenaeum Press, 1828- . In progress. 144 vols.^ Weekly. Pp. circa 800, each half-year. £1 85.
This journal is the oldest, sanest, and most notable literary publication in the British Empire. Inclined to be ultra- conservative in its selection and appraisement of the books it reviews, it is at the same time one of the very best guides to which any serious student can appeal. Few really signifi- cant volumes are overlooked. Its critical judgements are searching, and (in the vast majority of cases) they are
^ Down to the end of 1857 annual volumes were published, thirty in all. Steadily increasing in bulk until they had reached the proportions of 1600 pages, it was resolved to issue in future semi-annual volumes.
t
AthencBum 475
unquestionably fair ; it is for this reason that its bound numbers, like the files of the London Times, constitute an enviable national possession. The comparativist will not secure much direct help from this quarter, seeing that the AthencBum has not yet quite made up its mind touching the vaHdity of the claims (and the best apportionment of the boundaries) of Comparative Religion. On the other hand, the promoters of this new science will find themselves con- stantly enriched, through a perusal of this journal, by a succession of sidelights, suggestions, and criticisms of the very highest value.
THE BIBLICAL WORLD. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1893- . In jnogress. Monthly. 44 [half-yearly] vols. Pp. cirm 500, each volume. $2.00.
This journal has well upheld, from the very outset, the characteristics of a broad, alert, timely, and penetrative scholarship. Some of its articles on individual religions — and, even better, on selected aspects of given religions — are of singular and permanent value.
BILYCHNIS. RiviSTA illustrata di studi religiosi. Roma : Scuola Teologica Battista di Roma, 1912- . In 'progress. Monthly. 6 vols. Pp. ciVca 600, each volume. L. 5.
This optimistic bearer of a lamp that flames with a two- fold fight — Science and Faith — is, no doubt, of a popular type. It makes no higher claim. Yet few students will fail to be profited by reading its sprightly pages. It enjoys in Italy a larger circulation than any other Protestant maga- zine. Formerly a bi-monthly review, and providing a single complete volume each year, its contents will in future fill two half-yearly volumes. Volume iv began in July 1914. The annual subscription rate, however, has been advanced from L. 4 to L. 5.
476 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
BOLLETTINO DI LETTERATURA CRITICO-RELI- GIOSA. Roma : Tipografia del Senato, 1914- . In progress, 1 voL Pp. 384. L. 8.
Launched only last year, this little review has won an immediate welcome, and is sure to add rapidly to the number of its friends. It is daintily printed, although perhaps in a type that is a trifle too small. Its range is wide. Its articles are signed. Its criticisms are frank and sound. Several of the contributors to this journal were once colla- borators in promoting the interests of an earlier review ; ^ the excellent service then rendered is an augury of the kind of critical results they will furnish in the pages of the periodical which has now entered upon a promising career.^
CCENOBIUM. RiviSTA internazionale di liberi studi. Lugano : Villa Ccenohium, 1906- . In ^progress. Monthly, 9 vols. Pp. circa 1200, each year. L. 12.
This independent journal, in spite of innumerable and often very exasperating hindrances placed in its way, con- tinues to flourish. Its resources, moreover, are evidently being strengthened. At first a bi-monthly, it has of late (since January 1911) been published ever}' four weeks. A friend of rehgious reform, and commanding the contribu- tions of many representative pens, local and foreign, it is furthering its special aims with untiring zest and abiUty. Rehgion and Philosophy are its special fields, and both domains are being explored in a way that is winning abmidant and significant recompense.
LA CULTURA CONTEMPORANEA. Rivista mensile
DI FILOSOFIA, STORIA, E SCIENZA DELLE RELIGIONI.
Roma: LibreriaEditriceRomana, 1909-1913. Monthly. 7 [half-yearly] vols. Pp. circa 600, each year. L. 8.
' Cf. Rivista atorico-critica delle scienze teohgiche. Rouia. 1905-1010. - Publication was temporarily suspended in July 1915.
Cultura Moderna 477
CULTUEA MODEKNA. Eassegna bimestrale di studi sciENTiFici RELiGiosi. Menclrisio, Switzerland : Casa Editrice Cultura Moderna, 1904- . In progress. Bi-monthly. 8 vols. Pp. circa 150, each volume. L. 5.
These two journals, though not so prominent or widely- circulated as Coenohiiim, belong to the same general category. Both have had to face, like scores of similar literary ventures in Italy, a highly adventurous career.
To the genuine regret of its subscribers, La Cultura Contem- poranea was compelled to cease publication in June 1913. Its Bollettino di Scienza delle Beligioni — continued through several of its numbers, and now printed as a separate volume ^ — was prepared regularly by the pen of Signor Luigi Salva- torelU ; it wdll serve as an excellent sample of the work which, for a short period, this most promising review was able to accomplish. Its articles were ahvays timely, and the treatment it accorded to the topics dealt with was thoroughly up-to-date. Copies of its seven volumes may still be pro- cured from the publishers.
The Cultura Moderna, revived in 1910 after a silence of four years, is more variable in its quality. Nevertheless, it is well worth reading. Its criticisms of the Church of Eome are apt to be pungent ; most readers will deem them unduly caustic and severe.
THE EXPOSITOEY TIMES. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1889- . In progress. Monthly. 26 vols. Pp. circa 560, each volume. 6s.
This vigorous review, owing to its great breadth of sweep and extraordinary closeness of mesh, collects within its net a great deal of original material which the student of Com- parative Eehgion will find extremely useful. One has only
^ Vide supra, pp. 460 f.
478 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
to consult its successive lists of ' Contents ', or its first General Index, ^ to become aware of the immense amount of help which may be derived from a regular consultation of its pages. Its editor has always been a keen friend and promoter of the very kind of research which Comparative Religion entails. His criticisms of books are noted for their crisp, shrewd, and independent tone.
THE HARVARD THEOLOGICAL REVIEW. Cam- bridge : The Harvard University Press, 1908- . In progress. Quarterly. 7 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. 12.00.
This journal, though comparatively a new-comer, has already won for itself a very honourable record. It has gained the genuine liking and respect of all who have tested its quality. Partly endowed by a bequest from Miss Mildred Everett, — in memory of her father, the late Professor Charles C. Everett — it continues with skill the excellent work charac- teristic of its predecessor, The New World.^ According to an official statement, it ' seeks to maintain a spirit both catholic and scientific, in sympathy with the aims and practical activities of the Christian Church as well as with scholarly investigation '. In particular, it invites discussion of the theological and religious aspects of the study of the History of Religions.
THE HIBBERT JOURNAL. A Quarterly Review OP Religion, Theology, and Philosophy. London : Williams and Norgate, 1902- . In progress. Quarterly. 13 vols. Pp. circa 1000, each volume. 10s.
Many shades of theological and philosophical opinion find expression in the pages of this very scholarly journal. It
^ Cf. Index to the Expositors/ Times. Volumes i to xx. 1889-1909. Edin- burgh, 1913. * ComiDlete in 9 vols. Boston, 1892-1900.
Hihhert Journal 479
has no individual point of view ; in its discussion of all themes, intellectual freedom and breadth are its invariable watchwords. Its up-to-date Bibliographies, and its quarterly ' Surveys ' of social, theological and philosophical questions, are two conspicuous features in w^hich it excels. No student can fail to be considerably poorer if this review be absent from his book-shelves.
THE INQUIKEK. A Journal of Liberal Keligion, Literature, and Social Progress. London : Essex Hall, 1842- . In progress. Weekly. 73 vols. Pp. circa 800, each volume. 6s. 6^.
Illuminative discussions of Comparative Eeligion, regarded from widely separated points of view, continue to appear in this bright, informative, and ably conducted journal. The aim of The Inquirer, as officially expressed, is ' to promote the liberal movement in religion, to provide a common platform (unhampered by the authority of dogma) for the discussion of problems of Keligious Thought and Social Ethics, and to keep its readers in touch with the movement of liberal religious life and thought at home and abroad '.
THE INTEKNATIONAL EEVIEW OF MISSIONS. Lon- don : The Oxford University Press, 1912- . In jyrogress. Quarterly. 3 vols. Pp. circa 800, each volume. 85.
This journal is an outcome of the Edinburgh World Mis- sionary Conference in 1910, and is still evidently animated by the spirit which characterized that remarkably stimu- lating Convention. Within its own sphere, it occupies a place of the very j&rst rank. Its acute surveys of missionary problems, and its able sketches of those features of Christi- anity which bring it into relationship with (or seem to set it apart from) the other religions of the world, are exceedingly
480 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
well done. Its Bibliographies are not only comprehensive, but are noteworthy also because of the convenient scheme of classification adopted, and the terse annotations by which book-titles are frequently accompanied.
The International Review of Missions is one of the few current journals which take express account of books bearing upon Comparative Religion. A place, in future, is to be reserved for this topic in the pages of its annual Index.
THE INTERPRETER. Manchester : Rodger and John- son, 1905- . In jjrogress. Quarterly. 11 vols. Pp. circa 400, each volume. 4s. 6d.
The treatment accorded to all subjects dealt with in this review is at once popular and scholarly. The timeliness of a given discussion, moreover, is always a requisite feature in contributions which this periodical invites or accepts. It is no wonder that Comparative Religion, especially at the present stage in its career, receives invariably a sympathetic handling in the pages of this journal.
DER ISLAM. Zeitschrift fxjr Geschichte und Kultur DES iSLAMiscHEN ORIENTS. Strassburg : Karl J. Triib- ner, 1910- . hi progress. Quarterly. 5 vols. Pp. circa 400, each volume. M. 20.
The editor of this review, Dr. Carl H. Becker — formerly professor of Oriental History in the Colonial Institute of Hamburg, but now professor of Oriental History and Languages in the University of Bonn — is carrying forward this new and educative enterprise with splendid energy. For a reliable survey of the contemporary religious life of Islam no better popular guide is available, and none better could be desired. Its ablest British counterpart is to be found in The Moslem World,^ but it has many competitors
^ Vide infra, p. 485.
Islam 4:81
on the Continent. La Revue du Monde Musuhnan'^ repre- sents the activity of French savants, the Orientalisches Archiv ^ and Die Welt des Islams ^ the kindred researches of German savants, and Mir Islama the awakening interest of Russian savants, in the cultivation of this field. More and more reviews (not less than Encyclopaedias *) are being com- pelled to lessen the range of outlook and to concentrate investigation upon the ex^position of a single problem, if they would render any conspicuous help in the gradual enlargement of the boundaries of modern knowledge.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY. New Haven : The American Oriental Society, 1850- . In progress. Quarterly. 34 vols. Pp. circa 450, each volume. $6.00 (approximately ^) each volume.
This well-known Society, founded in 1842 and entering formally upon its task in the following year,^ is concerned intimately with — and adequately traces — the progress of several of those subsidiary sciences which are dealt with in this volume. But another fact is still more noteworthy. Students of Comparative Religion should bear in mind that, since 1898, the American Oriental Society has maintained a ' Section for the Historical Study of Rehgions '. Such in- vestigators, accordingly, will do well to keep the successive issue of these volumes under careful review. Rich gleanings await those who are sufficiently patient and keen.
* Vide infra, pp. 488 f .
« Published at Leipzig (3 vols. 1910-1913), but now unfortunately sus- pended.
3 Vide infra, p. 492. * Vide supra, pp. 438 f.
^ Sizes and prices of the successive volumes vary. Quite frequently a volume covers two or more years. Thus vol. i (1843-1849) has 591 pages, and costs $25.00. Vol. xxix (1908-1909) contains only 330 pages, and costs $5.00. The price of a volume occasionally reaches only $3.00.
« Volume i bears the date ' 1843 ', but it was not actually published until 1850.
II
482 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
THE JOURNAL OF EGYPTIAN ARCHEOLOGY. Lon- don : The Egypt Exploration Fund, 1914- . In 'progress. Quarterly. 1 vol. Pp. circa 300, each volume. £1 4s.
Professor Flinders Petrie's review^ did not get a long start of its attractive and learned competitor. The Journal is wider in its range than its sprightly contemporary. It has secured the co-operation of many eminent foreign contri- butors, and promises to provide the latest information con- cerning completed and projected excavations. The annual Archceological Beport of the Egypt Exploration Fund will in future be incorporated in this journal. Illustrations abound, and they are of the greatest value in throwing light upon the text. Professor Edouard Naville's account of the discovery of the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, Mr. T. Eric Peet's review of ' The Year's Work in Abydos ', Professor Hunt's article on ' Papyri and Papyrology ', and Mr. J. de M. Johnson's sketch of ' Antione and its Papyri ', are deserving of special mention. The Bibliographies and book-reviews are excellent.
JOURNAL OF THE MANCHESTER EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL SOCIETY. Manchester : The University Press, 1913- . In progress. Annual. 2 vols. Pp. circa 100, each volume. 5s.
This bright and progressive series of volumes will afford much help to students of Comparative Rehgion. To middle-aged scholars they come as a silent reminder of the late Professor Hogg's eagerly-launched project, the Journal of the Manchester Oriental Society. No one can glance over the list of the ofi&ce-bearers and members of the later Society, or turn over the pages of this newer Journal, without recalling the profound interest Professor Hogg took in providing an additional agency for promoting scientific research. He was
^ Cf. Ancient Egypt : vide, supra, pp. 470 f .
Journal of tlie Egyptian and Oriental Society 483
the founder of the Manchester Oriental Society, and was chosen to be its first President ; but he Hved to see it accom- pHsh only one or two of its initial undertakings.
In the Proceedings and in the Special Papers contained in these volumes, the student of Comparative Kehgion will find not a little of the data which he is anxious to gather. In the second volume (1913-1914), one comes upon a notable article on ' Zoroastrian and other Ethnic Eeligious Material in the Acta Sanctorum V followed by a review of Professor Moulton's recent book on Early Zoro- astrianism.^
A special measure of attention is of course devoted by this journal to questions bearing upon Archaeology and Philology ; but Eeligions also are incidentally discussed, and always with knowledge and good judgement. The range of survey is wide. The conclusions reached are well-poised and discriminating.
THE JOUKNAL OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. Lon- don : The Oxford University Press, 1899- . In progress. Quarterly. 16 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. 125.
The amount of assistance which the student of Compara- tive Eeligion can obtain from this review is, as a rule, not very great. Nevertheless, in an incidental way, he may secure an immense amount of stimulus. Material of a kind preliminary to the study he is engaged in will seldom be sought for in vain ; while, from time to time, real and important ' finds ' are suddenly disclosed. Every new issue of this journal ought to be examined, and the back numbers likewise should be carefully scanned. Besides admirable book-reviews and synopses of the contents of local and foreign periodicals, its monthly ' Notes and Studies ' are of unusual value.
1 Cf. pp. 37-55. 2 Cf. pp. 79-81.
li2
484 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
LARES. BULLETTINO DELLA SOCIETA DI ETNOGRAFIA
iTALiANA. Roma : Ermanno Loescher e C^, 1912-
In progress. Issued every four months. 3 vols. Pp.
circa 300, each volume. L. 15.
The founder of this review, Signor Lamberto Loria, was scarcely permitted to do more than complete the plans made for its successful inauguration ; on April 4, 1913, death separated him from a circle in which his many gifts were sincerely appreciated and admired. But the journal in whose prospective career he took so keen an interest, now committed to the guidance of other competent hands, seems destined to render excellent service in a field which cordially welcomes its assistance. Its founder's hopes concerning its future are not likely to suffer any material check, or to fall short of attaining that ideal of which he so often spoke and dreamed.
The scope of this review is admittedly restricted ; yet, on that very account, its curtailed scrutiny should yield all the greater accuracy in its collection and tabulation of results. Folklore, ancient beliefs, curious superstitions, etc., receive express attention. Its surveys of contemporary ethno- graphical literature deserve special commendation. Synopses of articles in current periodicals are regularly supplied. A chronicle of progress achieved by investigators who are not Italians is diligently compiled. In a word : the amount of bibliographical material it furnishes, brief and up-to-date, constitutes a most valuable feature of this publication.
Those who have read carefully that section of the present volume which explains the relations of Ethnology to Com- parative Rehgion ^ will not fail to discern the value of a special record of this character.
The excellence of the typography of the Bullettino is note- worthy, and might with advantage be taken as a model by many similar journals.
Vide supra, pp. 35 f.
Moslem World 485
THE MOSLEM WOELD. A Quarterly Review of Current Events, Literature, and Thought among Mohammedans, and of the Progress of Christian Missions in Moslem Lands. London : The Chris- tian Literature Society for India, 1911- . In progress. Quarterly. 5 vols. Pp. circa 450, each volume. 4s.
The comprehensive sub- title of this journal describes fully its aim, and the nature of its contents. Dr. Samuel M. Zwemer, its editor, has filled many roles, and has filled them all with enviable distinction ; yet possibly he never rendered the English-speaking world a greater service than when he undertook the supervision of this stimulating and up-to-date review. He has been signally successful, moreover, in secur- ing the co-operation of the foremost living authorities on Islam. Although ' the progress of Christian Missions in Moslem lands ' is admittedly one of the chief ends which this journal seeks to promote, it is broad-minded and fair in its propaganda ; it is bent upon disseminating a reliable and unbiased interpretation of the Christian faith. Effective comparisons between Mohammedanism and Christianity are continually being drawn in its ably- written surveys.
THE OPEN COURT. Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and the Exten- sion OF THE Religious Parliament Idea. Chicago : The Open Court Publishing Company, 1887- . In progress. Monthly. 28 vols. Pp. circa 800, each volume. $1.00.
As its full name implies, this review is something of a free lance in the domain of theological literature. Never- theless, its deadly thrusts have punctured many an empty pretension, and dissipated many a specious delusion. All the religions of the world — rare and curious and new, not less than those of age-long standing — are brought under the searchlight of its acute and penetrative criticisms.
486 PEEIODICAL LITERATUKE
THE QUARTERLY REVIEW. London : John Murray, 1809- . In ^progress. Quarterly. 224 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. £1 45.
This standard publication easily maintains, after a long lapse of years, its high reputation for sound scholarship, broad outlook, and consistently conservative opinion. It must not be confounded by foreign readers with either one of two other reviews — also published in London and dis- charging excellent service, but of more recent origin — which bear similar names. ^ Weighty articles of permanent value, most useful to the student of the History of Religions, appear in these pages from time to time. Based usually upon a group of volumes which deal with some theme of current interest — take, for example, a recent illustrated article on ' The Mysteries of Mithras ' ^ — these masterly summaries are not only most informing, but they keep one's critical faculties constantly on the alert. The excellent series of Indices,^ issued by this review, enable its readers to utilize the entire range of its contents at the cost of a minimum expenditure of time.
THE QUEST. London: John M. Wat kins, 1909- . In progress. Quarterly. 6 vols. Pp. circa 800, each volume. 105.
This review announces that 'the investigation and com- parative study of religion is one of its primary objects '. It undertakes, further, to record the results of specialized work in ' all departments of religion, philosophy and science '. It is a fearless exponent of free and progressive thought in each of the realms just named.
^ Cf. The London Quarterly Revieiv. 1853- . In progress ; and The Church Quarterly Review, 1875- . In jnogress.
* Cf. The Qiuirterly Review, pp. 103-27. [July, 1914.] ^ 0/. vols. XX, xl, Ix, Ixxx, etc.
Recherches de Science Religieuse 487
EECHEKCHES DE SCIENCE KELIGIEUSE. Paris: Bureaux de la Kevue, 1910- . In progress. Bi- monthly. 5 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. Fr. 25.
Though somewhat restricted in scope, and inclined perhaps to be unduly analytic in form, this Eoman CathoHc review has entered upon a successful career, and is evidently winning favour among its English-speaking readers. It commands the services of an able staff of contributors. It provides annually, among other useful Bulletins, one that is allotted to the literature of the ' Histoire comparee des Eeligions '.
EEVIEW OF THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. Edin- burgh : Otto Schulze and Company, 1905- . In progress. Monthly. 10 vols. ' Pp. circa 800, each volume. 125.
Having filled the breach caused by the discontinuance of The Critical Bevieiv,^ this journal has more than upheld the honourable traditions of its predecessor. It furnishes its readers regularly with competent guidance touching the freshest and best literature — American, British, and Continental — belonging to the two great domains which it surveys. It has recently (1913) been placed on a broader and more satisfactory basis, while five Associate Editors have been added to its stafT.^
EIVISTA DEGLI STUDI OEIENTALI. Eoma : La Eegia Universita di Eoma, 1907- . In progress. Quarterly. 7 vols. Pp. circa 700, each volume. L. 18.
When this learned review^ was projected, it was thought by some of its founders — in particular, by the late Professor Labanca — that it might be possible to restrict its researches to the scientific study of religion. Indeed, it was at one time
* London, January 1891-November 1904. 14 vols. - * Owing to the Great War, publication was temporarily suspended in June 1915.
488 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
proposed to call it the Bivista di Studi Orientali Beligiosi. Although other counsels ultimately prevailed, the active promotion of Chinese, Semitic, Arabic, and kindred philo- logical studies has been accompanied from the first by many very valuable suggestions for students of Comparative Religion. Those who are especially interested in the faiths (ancient or modern) of the Eastern world will find here a large store of material which can be turned to good account.
REVUE D'ETHNOGRAPHIE ET DE SOCIOLOGIE. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1910- . In progress. Bi- monthly. 5 vols. Pp. circa 400, each volume. Fr. 25.
In view of claims which both Ethnology ^ and Sociology ^ are now advancing in the alleged interests of improved methods of studying religion, these annual volumes are proving exceedingly useful. They may at times provoke dissent and even antagonism, but they quite as frequently suggest possible solutions of difficult and perplexing problems.
REVUE DE L'HISTOIRE DES RELIGIONS. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1880- . In progress. Bi-monthly. 70 [half-yearly] vols. Pp. circa 800, each year. Fr. 25.
This review remains absolutely unrivalled in the field which it has so long and so honourably occupied. It is enough to say that its varied contents often awaken envy and despair amongst the editors of all similar publications.
REVUE DU MONDE MUSULMAN. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1906- . In progress. Quarterly. 29 vols. Pp. circa 350, each volume. Fr. 25.
Since March 1913, this review has been pubHshed in quarterly volumes, thus providing four volumes each year.
* Vide supra, pp. 35 f. » Vide supra, pp. 62 f.
lievue du Monde Musuhnan 489
At the outset, it appeared every month ; and, each vohime consisting of four monthly Parts, three volumes were issued every year. Moreover, at that time, each volume contained about double the number of pages found in the more recently bound issues.
This admirable journal, the pioneer of several reviews of its class,* is conducted with great competency and vigour. As an aid to research, it is extremely important ; it is practi- cally as essential to every special student of Islam as the Bevue de VHistoire des Religions ^ is essential to every special student of religion. The comprehensive scope of its contents may perhaps best be gauged by one's taking a glance through the pages of its first Index Volume, published three years ago.^
EEVUE SUISSE D'ETHNOGKAPHIE ET D'ART COM- PARE. Neuchatel: Attinger Freres, 1914- . In progress. Quarterly. 1 vol. Pp. circa 400, each volume. Fr. 15.
One of the most significant accompaniments of the recent International Congress of Ethnology and Ethnography, held in Neuchatel in June 1914,* was the launching of this journal. Switzerland now possesses a review which promises not only to unifv and make more effective the work of her own scholars, but to render these experts less dependent than hitherto upon the ethnological journals of neighbouring countries. Anthropology and Archaeology are purposely excluded from the scope of this review, seeing that another publication has just been set apart in Switzerland for the discussion of all problems which those studies involve.^ The editor states that ' le mot compare exprime la methode, ou, si Ton prefere,
^ Cf. Der Islam {vide supra, p. 480), The Moslem World {vide supra, p. 485), Die Welt des Islams {vide infra, p. 492), etc.
* Vide supra, p. 488.
' Cf. Bevue du rnonde musuhnan : Index general des Volumes I a XVI. Paris, 1912. * Vide supra, pp. 424 f. * Vide supra, p. 473.
490 PERIODICAL LITERATURE
Tangle d'examen sous lequel les faits seront eclaires les uns par les autres et groupes '.
A special feature of this journal will be its annual Biblio- graphies. This compilation is begun in its very first number.^
THE SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW. Manchester : ' Sherratt and Hughes, 1908- . In progress. Quarterly. 7 vols. Pp. circa 350, each volume. 10s.
This journal, the official organ of the Sociological Society of London, has of late proved more than ordinarily helpful to students of religion. As was inevitable in England,"^ ques- tions pertaining to the Psychology of Rehgion are found continually emerging ; and these themes are here discussed with great acuteness and suggestiveness. This review is the only journal published in Great Britain which systematically devotes itself to a really scientific treatment of sociological questions ; it is quite easy therefore, by a constant survey of its pages, to keep oneself in touch with the trend and pro- gress of British scholarship in this field. The work of foreign investigators is also, of course, regularly given a large amount of space in this excellent periodical.
THEOLOGISCHE LITERATURZEITUNG. Leipzig : J. C. Hinrichs, 1876- . In progress. Fortnightly. 26 vols. Pp. circa 650, each volume. M. 20.
The great eminence of the two most distinguished editors of this journal, Professor Adolf v. Harnack and Professor Emil Schlirer, is still everywhere reflected in its pages. Ac- cordingly, although the services of these great leaders are no longer available, this critical review continues to be regularly consulted by all w^ho — either in Germany or beyond it — are seeking to keep themselves abreast of current theological literature. Professor Arthur Titius and Licentiate Hermann
V Cf. pp. 39-66. » Vide supra, pp. 139-40.
Theologische Literaturzeitung 491
Schuster are sparing no pains to discharge adequately the great task they have assumed ; and already they have won many appreciative acknowledgements of their efforts from a widening circle of readers. Special attention is devoted to all literature bearing upon ' Eeligionsgeschichte '. The value of the Theologische Literaturzeitung for the student of Comparative Keligion is almost identical with that sup- pHed by the corresponding British journal^ the Athenceum?-
THE TIMES LITEKAEY SUPPLEMENT. London : The Times Publishing Company, 1902- . In progress. Weekly. 12 vols. Pp. circa 600, each volume. 6s. 6^.
In the course of its career, this journal has passed through three important stages. For a time, it bore simply the name Literature ; ^ but, although conducted with skill and spright- liness, it never succeeded in winning a satisfactory constitu- ency. Accordingly, it was shortly afterwards made a * Literary Supplement ' to The Times,^ and was issued as a part of that newspaper every Thursday. It was not sold separately. But, a Httle over a year ago, it attained an independent existence. It still appears on Thursdays, but it now possesses its own list of subscribers. It is edited by a large and efficient staff, assisted by many speciahst writers. As regards its hterary standing to-day, it is not surpassed even by the Athenceum ; ^ in truth, in certain respects, it has taken the premier place. A glance down the columns of one of its Indices is sufficient to assm^e one of the splendid comprehensiveness of its contents. Some of its book- reviews are undoubtedly the very best that are at present supphed by the British press. In addition, it usually contains a special article inspired by some outstanding current event in literature or history ; several of these essays have been collected, and have been pubhshed in attractive volumes.
^ Vide supra, p. 474.
2 October 1897 to January 1902. 9 [half-yearly] vols.
3 January 1902 to March 1914. 12 vols.
492 PEEIOPICAL LITERATURE
DIE WELT DES ISLAMS. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Islamkunde. Berlin : Dietrich Eeimer, 1913- . In 'progress. Quarterly. 2 vols. Pp. circa 350, each volume. M. 12.
This journal owes its origin to the recent founding in Berlin of an Association for the studv of Mohammedanism,^ and our debt to it promises to be from the outset a very considerable one. Its special endeavour is to elucidate, not the origins and previous history of Islam, but its present social and religious conditions, its activities and aims, and its probable influence upon its immediate surroundings. It will be seen that, for the missionary and the comparativist, — though neither the one nor the other is intentionally kept in view — this journal is certain to prove a welcome and indis- pensable aid. Its reviews of relevant books are careful and scholarly. A special Bibliography is in progress ; it . is unusually rich in its inclusion of Oriental pubHcations, and will often be turned to with a deep sense of gratitude by readers and investigators of many different schools.
* Vide supra, p. 428.
CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY
When emphasizing the importance of consulting system- atically the Transactions of multifarious Congresses^ and Learned Societies, ^ attention was drawn to various incidental advantages which arise from securing actual contact with the best representatives of different schools of contemporary religious and scientific thought.
The same argument applies in the present connexion. Nothing can take the place of personal acquaintance with those rehgions which one really seeks to understand and interpret to others. For this reason, it is imperative that all serious students of rehgion — if it be at all within their reach — should make a somewhat extended visit to the East. There is no way of getting to know a religion adequately unless one has seen it in practical operation in those places where it makes its hereditary or voluntary home.
None are likely to forget the striking testimony borne by the late Dr. Fairbairn in reference to this matter. Some years ago,^ he was chosen by the authorities of the University of Chicago to fill the post of Barrows Lecturer on Comparative Kehgion. ' The conditions of the endowment ', Dr. Fairbairn relates, ' were that a certain number of lectures should be delivered in India. . . . Here the author suddenly found himself face to face with a religion he had studied in its literature, and by the help of interpreters of many minds and tongues : and this contact with reality at once illuminated and perplexed him. It was not so much that his knowledge was incorrect or false, as that it was mistaken in its emphasis. No religion can be known in its Sacred Books alone, or simply through its speculative thinkers and religious reformers.' ^
^ Vide supra, pp. 412 f. ' Vide supra, pp. 427 f.
=« During the winter of 1898-1899.
* Cf. Andrew M. Fairbairn, The Philosophy of the Christian Religion, p. viii. London, 1902. [4th edition, 1907.]
494 CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY
In the absence of such facihties, one must do the best he can with the opportunities which are found to be available. He may attend the classes of a well-equipped School of Beligions, of which fortunately several are already accessible.^ Or he may make himself acquainted with the contents of some central Ethnographical Museum, where he can examine all the visible apparatus of those faiths which he has resolved to study.
(1) SCHOOLS OF RELIGIONS .
A central School of ReUgions, established and hberally endowed in each of the greater modern capitals, is still a dream of the future. A sketch of such a School was drafted in a paper read at the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, recently held at Oxford. It was there described as ' a College of Specialists . . . attended by a small number of picked graduate students. ... It will devote its whole strength to the furtherance of original research '.^ The postponement of the hope then expressed, a hope unhappily still unfulfilled, strains severely one's patience, and doubles the amount of labour which students in this field are in consequence constrained to face ; but Government grants for such purposes are exceedingly rare, and private philanthropy refuses to be hastened.
The forerunners of such clamant and practical National
^ Boston University provides an elaborate course of instruction in ' The Study of Religions and Religion '. A chair for research covering the various scientific and practical aspects of Missions has just been founded in Columbia University, New York. Professor Troeltsch of Heidelberg has recently supported the proposal that the Faculty of Theology in German Universities, completely reconstructed, should be transformed into a Faculty of the History of Religions ! [Cf. Adolf Deissmann, Der Lehrstuhl fur Religions- geschichte. Berlin, 1914.] The College of Missions in Indianapolis, Indiana (founded in 1910 as a ' Graduate School for the special preparation of Missionary Candidates for foreign service '), the Ecole Coloniale in Paris, the Kolonialinstitut in Hamburg, etc., offer facilities which students of Comparative Religion are too wise to ignore.
' Cf. Jordan, The Relation of Comparative Religion to the History of Religions, Transactions, vol. ii, pp. 431-2. Oxford, 1908.
SCHOOLS OF RELIGIONS 495
Institutions are already in existence. The Ecole des Hautes- Etudes in Paris has long given France a proud pre-eminence in this particular. The latest advances have, however, been made on the other side of the Atlantic, and will be referred to in a moment. But Schools of this sort, very much larger and more important than any which the academic world has yet known, are certain to be inaugurated within the next two decades. A new spirit is to-day widely manifesting itself, and the creation of undogmatic (Interdenominational, or rather non-Denominational) Schools of Theology is one of the most striking signs of the times. Religions are more ancient than dogmas, and they persist though dogmas change and pass away. Moreover, all religions deserve to be taken into account. In Canada — at Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver, and elsewhere — students for the Christian ministry, although of different communions, are now being trained side by side within the same classrooms, and have learned to compete in friendly rivalry for the same Fellow- ships and prizes. What means this spectacle if it is not a concrete foreshadowing, although admittedly on a very limited scale, of an Interdenominational School of Religions ? In every large University to-d^y, though particularly in the Universities of Germany and America, men of every faith are being thrown more and more together. The influx of Asiatic students is perhaps one of the most marked features of contemporary academic Hfe in the United States ; forty- two per cent, of all foreign University candidates — from China, Japan, Korea, Persia, India, Siam, etc. — are now registered annually from that quarter. The foundation of the new Graduate School at Princeton University has en- kindled a hope that something will yet be attempted by it in the interest of a comprehensive School of Religions ; while the creation of a School of Oriental Studies in London — to be formally inaugurated by its patron. His Majesty the King, during the present year — has been accompanied by the announcement that it will seriously undertake and promote the study of Oriental Religions.
496 CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY
In the following memoranda, brief reference is made to what has actually been accomplished during a very short period. There can no longer be any doubt that a gradually growing sentiment is beginning to find due expression in concrete (though varying) forms ; the initiation of an entirely new movement has at last been successfully effected. This departure, moreover, has begun to create a litera- ture of its own. What has already been achieved in this direction may perhaps best be understood if one glance through that series of admirable volumes which Hartford Theological Seminary — to cite but one instance — is now issuing year by year.^
THE DIVINITY SCHOOL OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY
This academic Department has, for a very long period, been entirely unsectarian. Its function is held to be amply fulfilled when it provides teachers of religion who are broad- minded, earnest, and scholarly men. It aims to equip efficiently for their difficult life-work all candidates who may present themselves, but it is in nowise concerned to secure that they shall afterwards unite with any selected body of believers in preference to all others.
Accordingly, graded courses — intended respectively for Undergraduates and Graduates — are provided in the fol- lowing subjects : The Science of Religion ; The History of Religions, including The History of Religions in General, and The History of Individual Religions ; The Comparison of Religions (e. g. The Hebrew Religion, viewed in deliberate and systematic comparison with other Semitic or non-Semitic Religions) ; and The Philosophy of Religion, including Theism, and Individual Religico-Philosophical Systems.
The value of such a School is found, of course, not in its ability to produce ardent supporters and pioneers in strictly denominational propagandism, but in its implanting deeply a spirit of wider tolerance and charity, and especially in its
* Cf. The Hartford- Lamson Lectures on the Religions of the World. 6 vols., thus far. New York, 1808- . In jnogress. Vide supra, p. 301, and infra, p. 498.
SCHOOLS OF RELIGIONS 497
training men who will one day become prominent and effective — whether as teachers or otherwise— in promoting the study of Religion. EnHghtened religious leadership is the demand of the hour. * A combination of sound scholar- ship with sincere moral earnestness ' is surely a worthy and inspiring ideal ; and nothing less, and nothing else, is the ideal which the directors of the Divinity School of Harvard University have set up. As they themselves declare, they are honestly seeking to establish and perpetuate an ' unde- nominational School of Theology '.
THE KENNEDY SCHOOL OF MISSIONS, HARTFORD.
As in the Theological Faculties of Harvard and Yale, so in Hartford Theological Seminary men are trained * for the ministry ', and not for the ministry of one particular name or order. The Seminary was founded as a Congrega- tional School of Theology, but it has long kept an open door for the College Graduates of all Christian denominations. Nay, more : no seriously-minded non-Christian need fear lest his presence might be deemed an intrusion. On the contrary, his greeting likewise is always cordial and sincere. The methods recommended and employed by the Seminary staff, over twenty in number, are searching and scientil&c ; and the Institution has never suffered any real loss in conse- quence of its fearless and straightforward procedure.
The Kennedy School of Missions is one of three Depart- ments which, taken together, constitute the Theological Seminary. The original foundation dates from 1834. During the interval, the endowments have steadily increased. Quite recently the Hartford School of Rehgious Pedagogy, and the Kennedy School of Missions, have been added ; all three units, moreover, have now been incorporated under a single charter. An additional endowment of SI ,000,000, of which sum about $900,000 have already been secured, represents the financial stabihty of the new and compre- hensive scheme which has been inaugurated.
The Kennedy School of Missions was opened in September
Kk
498 CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY
1911. Its origin represents one of the direct fruits of the great Missionary Conference, recently convened in Edin- burgh.^ Towards the endowment of this School, Mrs. John Stewart Kennedy of New York — in memory of her husband ■ — contributed $500,000. It is needless to say that, in its theological complexion, this Institution is interdenomina- tional. It invites especially all College Graduates who desire special training for the task of propagating the Christian missionary ideal. Missionaries on furlough, from all parts of the w^orld, are already gladly availing themselves of the facihties it offers for further and profounder study. A Theological Library of over 100,000 volumes, and an exten- sive Missionary Museum, are among the aids for research which it provides. Advanced courses of study are available in the History and Theory of Missions, the ReHgious History and Customs of Specific Fields, Comparative Religion, etc. etc. Distinguished scholars of different nationalities deliver, from time to time, successive series of Hartford-Lamson Lectures on the Religions of the World.- It is proposed, as soon as possible, to invite four or five outstanding authorities on as many different religions to take up their residence in Hartford, in order thus to ensure that scholarlv research and the practical training of missionaries shall be conducted side by side. A ' Department of Mohammedanism ' — under the rarely able leadership of Dr. D, B. Macdonald, and compris- ing a staff of three Professors — has already been inaugur- ated ; other similar Departments will be organized, as local demand or unexpected facilities suggest that such a course is desirable.
THE DIVINITY SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY.
In 1905, Dr. Harlan P. Beach was appointed to fill a newly- created chair in the Divinity Faculty at New Haven, and was subsequently installed in the ' Professorship of the Theory
^ Cf. Proceedings of the World Missionary Conference, 1910. [Volume v contains the report of the Commission on ' The Training of Teachers '.] 9 vols. Edinburgh, 1910.
* Vide supra, pp. 211, 244, 270, 301, etc.
SCHOOLS OF RELIGIONS 499
and Practice of Missions '. Li 1907, in an official Bulletin of the University, the now well-known ' Yale- Columbia Courses in preparation for Foreign Service ' were carefully outlined. This scheme had in view the fitting of students for work in foreign countries, — either in the service of the United States Government, in the interest of business enterprises, as missionaries, or as scientific investigators. The programme of studies was divided into seven distinct branches, viz. (1) Languages,^ (2) Geography, (3) Ethno- graphy, (4) History, (5) Eeligions, (6) Economics, and (7) Law. LTnder Section 5, courses were provided as follows : The History of Eeligions ; Introduction to the Comparative Study of Eeligions ; Comparative Eeligion ; and Missions in relation to the non-Christian Eeligions.
A new Bulletin, issued in 1912, announced that a number of important changes had been made, and that the School had been completely reorganized. The work to be over- taken is now distributed among what are in reality five subordinate Schools, viz. (1) a School for the training of the home pastor and preacher ; (2) a School for the training of the foreign missionary ; (3) a School for the training of the teacher of religion in Colleges and Universities ; (4) a School for the training of the social worker ; and (5) a School of Eesearch in the History and Philosophy of Eeligion.
In this final Department, the lectures dehvered are divided between (a) Courses in the History of Eeligion and (h) Courses in the Philosophy of Eeligion. Comparative Eeligion, instead of being accorded separate treatment, is taught (with some- what questionable wisdom ^) under the heading of the History of Eeligion. The courses provided in both of these main subdivisions are comprehensive and thorough. They consti- tute no doubt for some — for those who have not been follow- ing very closely the stages of a truly wonderful expansion —
^ Both, ancient and modern.
- Vide supra, pp. 325-6, 349-50, etc. Union Theological Seminary (vide infra, pp. 500 f.) adopts the same procedure, and (in addition) discusses the fundamental problems of the Philosophy of Religion before those proper to the History of Religion are mentioned and reviewed.
Kk2
500 CENTKES OF SUBSIDIAEY STUDY
a veritable revelation in the possibilities of the newer methods which are now being applied to the exposition of the Science of Kehgion. It must be added that, in the Yale School of Kehgion, special instruction is given in ' The Philosophy and Morphology of the non-Christian Keligions '.
The Divinity School at New Haven owes this splendid advance to the munificence of a loyal private benefactor. A gift of $100,000 was made upon the understanding that at least $200,000 additional could be found, and that the teaching of the School should conform to the demands of a broader theological standard. It is now proposed to in- crease this endowment to $1,000,000, in order that the new School of Religion may be placed upon an adequate and permanent foundation.
If any imagine that the contemplated programme is too ambitious, perhaps they may be reassured by the opinion of a singularly sane and well-informed observer. When Dr. John R. Mott heard that this new procedure was contem- plated, he dispatched the following message to the President of the University : ' Your plan is . . . most timely. . . . It is adapted to meet the requirements of the modern world as is no scheme which I have seen in operation, or in outline, on either side of the Atlantic'
UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK.
, The most promising School, of the type now under review, is unquestionably Union Seminary. Formerly a Theological College, established and maintained by the Presbyterian Church, its supporters have always been singularly broad- minded both in purpose and action. They made it known at the very outset that students other than Presbyterians would always be welcome in any of the College classrooms. In 1892, after considerable controversy, the Trustees carried their contention that the College should be released from de- nominational control of every sort and form. The Seminary is to-day, as it has always been, a ' Christian ' Theological College ; but its teachers represent Christian communions
SCHOOLS OF RELIGIONS 501
of practically every name. Its students, of equally varied theological affinities, need not necessarily be connected with any Christian denomination. Its magnificent buildings and equipment, its very notable Library and Museum, the size and eminence of its staff, etc., attract to it annually an increasing body of such young men as are thoughtful, eager, and honestly seeking to gain deeper insight into the per- plexing theological problems of the hour. Moreover, owing to the arrangements which have been made with Columbia University 1 and the New York University, students have the privilege of attending classes at both of these seats of learning, with pecuhar advantage to themselves and to the studies they have in hand.
Turning to the Department devoted to ' The Philosophy and History of Eeligion ' ^, — recently bereft of its head through the lamented death of Professor Knox, but now under the efficient control of his successor. Professor Robert E. Hume — one finds that, during the interval since 1905, provision has been made for the prosecution of the following studies : The Origin and Development of Religion ; Individual Religions ; The Truth of the Christian Religion ; Com- parison of the Principal Types of Religious Behef ; Intro- duction to the Philosophy of Religion ; The Philosophy of Religion ; Theism ; The Fundamentals of Religion ; etc. Seminar work, open to qualified students, is conducted during two hours of each week throughout the year. Union Seminary moreover, imitating the example of the University of Chicago, has taken a first step towards estabhshing a * Lectureship on Comparative Rehgion ', the holder of which is to deliver his lectures in India and the East. In May 1911, Professor Knox had the honour of launching this enterprise ; it was while he was on his way back to America, his task having been completed, that he died unexpectedly in Korea.
^ Columbia University inaugurated a department entitled ' The Compara- tive Study of Religions' in 1907, and now provides a very complete series of relevant courses of lectures. ^ Vide supra, footnote, p. 499.
502 CENTRES OF SUBSIDIARY STUDY
(2) MUSEUMS
Here again the student of Religions finds himself, as Dr. Fairbairn puts it, ' in contact with reality '.^ Some of the accumulated ' survivals ' of ancient faiths, and some of the ways in which later ' primitive ' faiths contrived to express themselves, may create only a pained surprise, and can arouse at best only the faintest enthusiasm. But anthropological, ethnological, archaeological, and kindred Museums have, nevertheless, a wondrously informative tale to unfold. In truth, they awaken reflections, and gradually fill the mind with convictions, which greatly influence one's interpretation of the factor of religion in man.^
Take Ethnographical Museums, as an instance in point. Of the ethnographical Collections assembled in the Museum ftir Volkerkunde in Berlin, or of the scarcely less important contents of the ethnographical portion of the Grassi Museum in Leipzig, or of the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Hamburg, it is not necessary to speak. Most readers of these pages are familiar, also, with the ever-growing ethnographical collec- tions of the British Museum. Others are acquainted with the Moskovskij Publicnyj i Rumjantzovskij Musej in Moscow, the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Field Columbian Museum in Chicago. Many of these great Institutions issue regular series of Proceedings, Annales, Bulletins, Reports, or other similar publications ; and these printed statements must not be allowed by comparativists to slip by without examination and review^
In like manner, the wealth of information and suggestion which any national Archaeological Museum can furnish to a student of Religions can scarcely be over-estimated.^
It is proposed to draw attention to merely two represen- tative Museums, both of which have lent definite and very considerable help to students of Comparative Religion.
^ Vide supra, p. 493. » Vide supra, pp. 360-1.
^ The receut founding in Cologne of the Museum fiir ostasiatische Kunst,
MUSEUMS 503
MUSEUM VAN OUDHEDEN LEIDEN
The Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, founded nearly a century ago, has long been famous for its fine Egyptian Collection. Students of Egyptology have not overlooked its treasures, and students of Egyptian rehgion would do well to imitate their example. Temple furnishings, rehgious hieroglyphics (dating from as early as the sixth century B. c), papyri, etc. etc., will well reward the expert's personal scrutiny. Happily, during the last few years, photographic reproductions of the choicest Egyptian possessions of this Museum have been in course of publication under careful supervision. The accompanying text, containing valuable notes and translations by the editor, adds greatly to the permanent importance of this exacting undertaking.^
MUS^E ETHNOGRAPHIQUE NEUCHATEL
In the initial number of the Bevue Suisse d' ethnograpliie et d'art compare,'^ Professor van Gennep provides a ' Guide Sommaire ' ^ to the Collection of nearly 10,000 specimens which this Museum possesses. The illustrations in this Guide suggest at a glance some of the more interesting objects which invite the visitor's inspection. The available materials associated with magic, divination, etc., are very numerous, and throw considerable hght upon the rehgious behefs and practices of many primitive peoples.
largely due to the initiative and generosity of Professor Adolf Fischer, suggests another important group of kindred and most informative Collec- tions.
* Cf. P. A. A. Boeser, Beschrcibwng der agyptischen Sammlung des Nieder- Idndischen Reichsmuseums der Alteriumer in Leiden. Dritte Abteilung : Stelen. 's-Gravenhage, 1913.
2 Vide supra, p. 489.
^ Of. Revue Suisse, etc., pp. 57-96.
RETROSPECT
Nearly two hundred pages have been devoted to a survey of those books, published during the last four years, which best illustrate the * Transition ' which is at present in pro- gress. These volumes represent something much more than so many ' Avenues of Approach ' ; ^ they embody, in truth, — in varying degrees, and sometimes most imperfectly — actual specimens of Comparative Keligion. In other words, they represent genuine products of that new science itself, at different stages in its historic development.
As regards the evolution of a scientific method,^ the argument against the recognition and introduction of ' the comparative method ' has signally failed. In the hands of scholars thoroughly competent for their task, the employ- ment of this agency has already raised Comparative Eehgion to the status of ' a highly specialized branch of human know- ledge. It is enabling Comparative Eeligion to demonstrate its right to occupy a distinct field of its own, . . . quite separate from [the respective domains of] those other sciences with which it . . . has frequently been confounded '.^
The significance of the changes which Comparative Eeh- gion has wrought in the texture of recent apologetic literature — as also in the formal teaching of religion in modern Theo- logical Colleges — will not be overlooked by even the casual reader of these pages. These changes are, on every ground, noteworthy and full of promise ; but they are especialty reassuring as regards the immediate prospects of Compara- tive Eeligion itself. Never were those prospects so bright as they are at present. Although the process of transition is still far from complete, the trend of the latest apologetic treatises makes it plain that the advocates of a genuinely ' comparative ' study of religion have already won the day.
^ Vide supra, pp. If. ^ Vide supra, pp. 329 f.
* Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope, p. 13. Lon- doQ, 1908.
RETROSPECT 505
The multiplication of translations of the most notable Sacred Texts, rendered with conspicuous accuracy into almost every modern language, means the forging of new international tools of the very highest quahty, fully capable of doing the work which Comparative Religion is now con- fidently entrusting to them.
Little more has been attempted than the naming of the best and most recent Encyclopaedias, Periodicals, etc. etc., to which the student will do well to turn his attention, again and again. Many of these books of reference, it must be confessed, do not offer any exposition of Comparative Religion, regarded as a separate field of inquiry ; but they do throw an immense amount of light upon its researches, its capabilities, and its aims. The day when a responsible Encyclopaedia can omit to discuss (or at least attempt to define) the true boundaries of Comparative Religion is now practicall}^ past. In truth, the omission (or introduction) of this topic is held to-day to be one of the incidental criteria by which a new Encyclopaedia may fairly be tested and appraised.
The section dealing with ' Centres of Subsidiary Study ' ^ is intended to be suggestive of a score of other kindred fields, — w^herein the student of Comparative Religion, if he would possess himself of additional rich deposits of ore which await his discovery, must constantly be on the alert. Not alone through consulting the written or printed page, but contemporaneously through contact with progressive thinkers and teachers, and through the scrutiny of rehcs which speak out of the silence of a quickly-receding past, he must gather up the threads of the story of the rehgions of mankind. At the same time, such ' Centres ' often produce a hterature of great value ; - and it is highly important that the volumes in question should regularly, systematically, and patiently be scanned, — in order that, where it seems desirable, they may be added to the stock of available Source Books which the comparativist keeps constantly at hand.
1 Vide supra, pp. 493 f. ^ Vide supra, pp. 498, 502, 503, etc.
506 KETROSPECT
Under ' Special Works ' ^ less than a score of volumes have been cited, but a hundred titles would not suffice to indi- cate the variety of quarters towards which the student of Comparative Eeligion must constrain himself to turn. The subject-matter of his quest, in unstinted abundance, — though existent often, it may be, in some merely embryonic form — lies ready here to be utilized, provided the inquirer possess that measure of ordinary patience and insight which will enable him to find the treasure of which he is in search.
^ Vide supra, pp. 445 f .
PART III COMPARATIVE RELIGION
COMPARATIVE RELIGION
The third subdivision of this volume having now been reached, a very few pages will suffice to bring it to a close.
It does not fall within the province of this treatise to examine and criticize books which deal directly with Com- parative Eeligion, or to present a documented summary of the results which that science has recently achieved. That task is statedly being discharged through another publication which seeks to meet that particular need ; ^ the present volume is concerned exclusively with studies subsidiary to Comparative Eeligion. There its responsibility ends.
Two considerations, however, brought often under notice in the pages of this book, ought perhaps to be emphasized anew. On the one hand, the definitely-restricted area of Comparative Eeligion must, in future, be acknowledged and observed. On the other hand, the legitimate scope of Com- parative Eeligion must be defended against all who venture to ignore — and especially against all who assail — its inde- pendent and indefeasible authority.
(1) ITS EESTEICTED AEEA.
It has been shown in preceding pages that Comparative Eeligion, and the meaning of the name ' Comparative Eeligion', ought to be confined within much narrower boundaries than those which ordinary usage seems to justify.^ Hitherto this designation has been applied, often in an exasperatingly casual fashion, to different units of a whole group of sciences, all of which differ fundamentally from one another. In a word, it is fully time that Compara- tive Eeligion, exempted from the hazards of roaming at large
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Eeligion : A Survey of its Recent Literature. Edinburgh, 1906, 1910, and 1914. For a general survey of the subject, c/. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Meaning and Value. [Nearly ready.]
2 Vide supra, pp. 11, 330, and infra, pp. 513 f., 515 f., etc.
510 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
in a practically world-wide domain, should in future be con- strained to occupy a definitely-restricted area.
This study must never be confounded with the Science of Religion,^ of which it constitutes merely one department. It must never be confounded with the Philosophy of Religion,^ seeing that it is only one among many tributaries which supply material for the philosophic interpretation of religion. It must never be confounded with Anthro- pology,^ Ethnology,* Sociology,^ Archaeology,^ Mytho- logy,'^ Philology,^ or Psychology ; ^ for each of these sciences, employing its appropriate and distinctive method, is limited (in the main) to the discharge of functions which are peculiarly its own.^^ From one point of view, it may not seem unfair to claim that Comparative Religion is merely a branch of Anthropology, or of Ethnology, or of Sociology. But such a contention overlooks the fact that, for the anthropologist, religion is only 07ie of those factors in humanity which demand scrutiny and careful analysis ; for the comparativist, religion is the one factor upon which he concentrates his researches. For the ethnologist, religion is an influential cultural element, dominating — or tending to dominate — a given group or race ; for the comparativist, religion is that subtle constituent in every man which accom- panies him unbidden from the cradle to the grave. And it might be shown that a similar penetrative cleavage separates Comparative Religion from each of the other ' subsidiary ' sciences whose most recent literature has just been subjected to survey.
In particular, Comparative Religion must never be con-
* Vide supra, p. 441. Principal Galloway, in his able book on The Philosophy of Religion (p. 29 : Edinburgh, 1914), seems to fall into this not uncommon error.
" Vide supra, p. 365. This misconception is very frequently encountered in the writings of well-known German authorities.
=* Vide supra, pp. 3 f . * Vide supra, pp. 35 f.
'• Vide supra, pp. 62 f. « Vide supra, pp. 81 f.
' Vide supra, pp. 96 f. 8 y^^^ supra, pp. Ill f.
» Vide supra, pp. 136 f. " Vide supra, pp. 320 f.
ITS RESTRICTED AREA 511
founded with the History of Religions,^ a science which should no longer be allowed to usurp an academic position to which it can establish no claim. ^ The historian of religion — whenever he deals with his subject fairly — confines him- self to the study of a single faith, which he traces (if he can) to its sources, which he interprets through making clear the successive stages of its growth, and which he makes im- mensely more intelligible by arranging its distinctive prac- tices in their strictly chronological order ; the comparativist, on the other hand, is bound to study all faiths, and to ap- praise them in the light of their verifiable relationships with one another. The History of Religions concerns itself with facts, arranged (if possible) in orderly sequence ; Comparative Rehgion is in search of those laws (discoverable behind the activities of all religions) which tend invariably to produce certain results under certain given conditions. The History of Religions, moreover, lays stress upon such factors in a (tribal or national) faith as set it apart from others ; Com- parative Religion, on the other hand, — seeking to disclose the connexion which links all religions together, and which thus brings them within the purview of a comprehensive synthesis — ^lays stress upon those influences and aspirations which unite rather than divorce and divide.
Comparative Rehgion must never be confounded with Comparative Theology. Yet no misapprehension is more common ; volume after volume might be cited wherein the writer uses these designations as if they were synonymous. Nor could any misapprehension be more unfortunate. Com- parative Theology, which undertakes to compare merely the doctrinal behefs existent — or at some time existent — among the numerous races of mankind, restricts itself obviously to a very narrow segment of the circle which Comparative Rehgion represents.^ Comparative Theology is a field in
^ Vide supra, pp. 163 f.
2 Vide supra, pp. 37, 164 f., 167, 181, 197, etc.
"^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 1910- 1918. [Ready, but publication postponed.]
512 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
which a good deal of ' comparativist ' work has been accom- phshed, although accomplished generally in a fitful and irre- gular way ; it is the field in which the great majority of researchers in Comparative Religion are busy to-day ; but it must never be supposed that such investigators are compara- tivists in the full meaning of that term. Their task is com- prehensive and exacting ; yet its boundaries are very much more limited than those of that more capacious science which they thus indirectly yet materially promote.
Finally, Comparative Religion must never be confounded with Apologetics.^ The latter study, still governed all too markedly by its traditional and hereditary purpose, seeks to erect an impregnable defence around an individual faith ; the comparativist, on the other hand, merely seeks to under- stand the multifarious faiths of mankind, that afterwards he may correctly estimate and interpret them. Apologetics, representing an intensely practical piece of research, is swayed inevitably by considerations of a manifestly practical character,^ and is quite willing to describe itself as ' The Applied Science of Religion ' ; ^ Comparative Religion, on the other hand, being a purely technical study, is pursued for purely academic ends, and is totally undisturbed by the character of the goal which gradually emerges into vieAV. The apologist (like the historian) lays continual stress upon the differences which separate religions, and he often (con- sciously or unconsciously) exaggerates these differences ; the comparativist, penetrating beneath the peculiarities of out- ward guise, deliberately emphasizes the existence of those
* Vide supra, pp. 369 f., 376 f., etc.
^ Principal Garvie is not prepared to allow any comparativist to dis- credit the uniqueness and originality of Christianity : cf. The Christian Certainty amid the Modern Perplexity, pp. 62, 112, etc. London, 1910. This writer thinks, moreover, that ' we should treat with . . . respect , . . the great mass of reverent, serious and responsible Christian scholarship that has an unbroken tradition within the Christian Church ' {The Expository Times, vol. xxiv, p. 374). Quite so. But that argument leaves altogether unmoved the great world of ' reverent, serious and responsible wow-Christian scholarship '.
' Vide supra, foot-note, p. 390.
ITS EESTKICTED AREA 513
aims and interests wherein diverse religions agree, and those common purposes in whose presence local animosities tend to become assuaged and forgotten. The apologist is never tired of asserting the undoubted truth of his beliefs ; the com- parativist ' has nothing to do with religious values ',^ seeing that he is ' simply concerned with ascertaining and compar- ing the ideas which various races have had of their gods and worship, and with tracing the continuity of the religious idea '.^ As already affirmed,^ he is content with partial knowledge, having little or no hope of ever arriving at ulti- mate truth ; all the teaching he imparts is admittedly rela- tive and contingent. * We know nothing for certain ; that is the condition of our lives in this world, the only condition upon which all our value of noble things is founded.' The apologist claims to be an exponent of the best faith known among men ; ^ whether Comparative Religion is capable of lending support to this or that religion, or whether it is likely to become a solvent influence (destructive of the lofty claims of every existing religion), are alternatives which the com- parativist does not usually pause to consider.
The fact that Comparative Religion is a very modern science may perhaps sufficiently account for this singular (and seemingly inveterate) habit of confusing things which differ.^ Our knowledge of the science is still, at many points, admittedly imperfect. It can hardly be wondered at, there- fore, that several books which have dehberately been labelled ' Comparative Rehgion ' ^ — and many other books which do not aspire to that title,^ but which are commonly referred to as expositions of Comparative Rehgion "^ — have in reality only a very uncertain connexion with the study in
1 Cf. Thomas J. Hardy, The Religious Instinct, p. 290. London, 1913.
* Vide supra, p. 141. * Vide supra, p. 369.
* Vide supra, pp. xviii and xxvi f .
5 Vide supra, pp. 376 f ., 386 f ., 394 f ., 398 f., etc.
« Cf. Stephen Langdon, Tammuz and Ishtar : vide supra, p. 317. This volume is reviewed in The Oxford Magazine (p. 228 : February 26, 1915) under the heading ' Comparative Religion '.
' Vide supra, pp. 12 f., etc.
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514 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
question.^ Instead of occupying themselves specifically Avitli their proper theme, the majority of sach volumes touch merely upon the outer fringes of the subject, or (with a curious lack of discrimination) introduce into it a variety of discussions which are more or less irrelevant. The com- parisons instituted are, for the most part, obscure and un- reliable.- The advances made, if any, are conspicuously tentative, provisional, and diffident.
In a word : the study of Comparative Religion, in the judgement of competent scholars, is still in process of transi- tion.^ Its boundaries — and therefore its contents — cannot yet finally be determined. Notwithstanding its vigorous growth, many mysteries remain unsolved, and many diffi- cult heights have still to be surmounted. The compara- tivist, confident and adventurous, is abroad ; but he has not yet tested and matured his powers. In an age when settled conclusions are everywhere being revised, none are more often called in question than those which pass current under the aegis of religion. The faiths of mankind, assembled in a single arena, no longer hesitate — deliberately, and some- times even aggressively — to confront and challenge one another. What will be the outcome of this tryst ? The issue cannot yet be predicted. We are viewing the birth- throes of an entirely new religious environment. The solu- tion of existing perplexities would, however, more quickly be reached if — in so far as Comparative Religion is concerned — the boundaries of that science were not so often carelessly overstepped and its great heritage inordinately extended.
(2) IT8 LEGITIMATE SCOPE
Although admitting that the study of Comparative Re- ligion is still in a transitional stage, and that most of the work thus far accomplished — and still being accomplished — is
^ Cj., as an illustration in point, Professor Jevons's recent primer : vide supra, pp. 376 f.
2 Vide supra, p. 328, and infra, pp. 519 f. » Vide supra, pp. 329 f.
ITS LEGITIMATE SCOPE 515
preparatory and subsidiary in character, it must at the same time be affirmed that an immense and permanent advance has happily been achieved. Misconceptions touching the real import of Comparative Keligion are rapidly passing away. These mistaken opinions, natural and even inevitable at the outset, have largely been outgrown. As already remarked, Hhe range of the science is . . . being brought within definite and carefully prescribed boundaries'.^ The goal towards which it is advancing has at last risen clearly into view. One has only to look back for a moment, contrasting 1915 with 1900, to feel convinced that a new branch of research has successfully been inaugurated. It is now only a question of time, skill, and perseverance until the alluring dream of half a century ago shall gloriously and completely be ful- filled.
' If any reader of these pages entertains the idea that Comparative Keligion is already a robust, fully-developed, and self-reliant science, — definite in its dimensions, and grown to such maturity that it can now formulate in confident and systematic detail its principles and laws — it is important that all such beginners should be disillusioned without delay.' ^ Comparative Eeligion is emphatically a science of the twentieth century, and accordingly no very pronounced results need be looked for as vet. ' It is still a science in the making. It is only gradually assuming concrete and confident form. The contents of this volume — and, not least, the carefully-ordered arrangement of those contents^ — serve in the best possible way to demonstrate that most existing books on Comparative Eeligion are merely pre- liminary treatises .' '^ The ground, in many places, is still in process of being broken up. At other points, the seed already sown has produced an excellent harvest. It is quite correct to say, with Dr. Clifford, that ' tlie literature
^ Vide supra, p. 328.
^ Of. Jordan, Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Literature, 2910-1918 : vide supra, p. 511. Vide supra, pp. 330, 334, 337, 510 f., etc. ^ Vide supra, pp. xviii-xix and xxvi f.
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516 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
is astonishingly extensive, and it is growing from month to month '/ provided the pronoun ' its ' be not substituted for the definite article. The books thus far available lead towards a goal which, even in 1915, is apparently somewhat remote. No popular or scientific Manual has thus far been produced. 2 Less than a dozen expositions of Comparative Religion have been penned — whether in Great Britain,. America, or on the Continent — during the last four years ! Of systematic and adequate expositions, even after the lapse of nearly fifty years, there are none. Several such volumes are at present in course of preparation ; some of them, it is well known, have long been in hand ; but not one of them has been completed and printed.^ No Journal of Comparative Beligion, national or international in its scope, has yet been launched. Even in the standard Encyclopaedias the subject is still very imperfectly dealt with.^ In the latest * Ready Reference ' copy of the Subject- Index of the British Museum Library, even in 1915, the heading ' Comparative Religion ' is still sought for in vain ! ^ Nevertheless, of volumes which throw a good deal of light upon this study, the number is practically unlimited. It is in part to guide the student in his quest for such literary assistance that this survey has been published.
It has often been imagined, moreover, that Comparative Religion is secretly the foe of every individual religion ; that it teaches the composite origin of literally every faith ; and that it entertains the hope of gathering ultimately all religions into a single comprehensive synthesis.^ Its hostility towards Christianity, in particular, has been widely proclaimed."^
* Cf. John Clifford, Comparative Religion and Missions to Non-Christian Peoples, p. 4. London, 1912. Professor Geden goes inordinately far when he says that ' Comparative Religion is already abundantly furnished with handl)ooks and introductions ' : vide supra, p. 182.
" Vide supra, p. 52. * Vide supra, pp. 52, 182, etc.
* Vide supra, pp. 433 f., 505, etc.
^ In the latest printed volumes of the Subject-Index (1901-1905 and 190G-1910), books on Comparative Religion must be looked for under the heading ' The History of Religions '.
" Vide supra, pp. 331 f. ' Vide supra, p. 399.
ITS LEGITIMATE SCOPE 517
* The attack from the side of Comparative Eeligion ', exclaims a usually discriminative writer, ' is one of the most formid- able with which the Christian apologetic has to deal at the present time ; and, if that attack were driven home success- fully, it is difficult to see how the missionary motive could survive in any adequate form.' ^ But, as already pointed out,^ no more erroneous misconception could possibly prevail. All that Comparative Eeligion asks of Christian believers is that they allow their faith to be honestly and fairly examined.^ In point of fact. Comparative Eeligion restricts itself ex- clusively to the demands of a twofold purpose. ' It is that science which, by means of comparisons, strives to determine with exactness (1) the relation of the various religions of mankind to one another, and (2) the relation of conceptions current within a single religion at different periods in its history.' *
It is plain, therefore, that this science has a function to fulfil vastly different from — and infinitely higher than — that which some of its critics assign to it.^ Happily a saner judgement is now finding expression on every hand. It is beginning to be recognized that Comparative Eeligion and Apologetics are studies which stand entirely apart from each other. ^ The former branch of research never seeks to exalt unduly either Jesus Christ or any other religious teacher of men ; neither does it seek to shadow the glory rightly belonging either to one leader or to another. Accordingly, the modern spirit of inquiry finds immediate and congenial fellowship amongst investigators who, w^hile striving to solve the fundamental problems of religion, are seeking to solve
^ Cf. Joseph H. Oldham in The International Review of Missions, vol. ii, p. 805 : vide supra, pp. 479 f .
2 Vide supra, pp. 512 f. It is no evidence of antithesia or ill-will if Comparative Religion, again and again, has disclosed the indebtedness of Christianity to numerous non-Christian faiths : vide supra, pp. 78-9, 120, etc.
^ Vide supra, pp. 331 f.
* Cj. Jordan, Comparative Religion: Its Genesis and Growth, p. 65. Edinburgh, 1905.
5 Vide supra, pp. 372-3. " Vide supra, pp. 372-3, 512 f., etc.
518 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
them quite independently of their local and traditional bearings, and (not less) of their subtle yet potent interactions. As a consequence, a new conception of religion — of its universality, of its essential unity, of its wondrous variety, of that Infinite and Supreme Power that stands behind it all — has everywhere raised strange and pregnant questionings among thoughtful men.
It is no part of the duty of Comparative Religion to assume the role of a prophet. It has nothing to say concerning the future. Accordingly it has absolutely nothing to say con- cerning the probable future of Christianity, or of any other faith ; those teachers who actually make such pronounce- ments have no real right to speak in its name.^ It is quite as permissible to affirm that all religions lead to God as it is to declare that only one of them enjoys that distinction. None can find fault with a scholar who, feeling constrained to record his convictions, publicly affirms that a given religion is superior to all others, — or even, perhaps, that it is the abso- lute and final religion for all mankind. But when any such investigator claims to be a comparativist, he is in duty bound to make it clear that, in voicing the opinion in ques- tion, he is speaking merely for himself, and not with the authority of a science which (over and over again) has re- pudiated its responsibility for statements of this kind. The legitimate scope of Comparative Religion is restricted to the past and to the present. It would be a more popular science if, utilizing for purely secondary purposes the vast stores of material it has accumulated, it gave itself rein in the framing of attractive hypotheses, the creation of fanciful analogies, the undue straining of actual likenesses, etc. etc. But neither guesses nor exaggerations possess any scientific value. The mysteries of religion will continue to make their mute appeal to every serious student ; and, as long as these mysteries persist, it is man's duty to adhere to his resolve to master and unravel them.
^ Cf., as an illustration of this defect, a recent work by Dr. Tisdall : vide supra, p. 396.
ITS LEGITIMATE SCOPE 519
The real aim of Comparative Eeligion is to investigate and expound, through the competent comparison of data, collected from the most diverse sources, the meaning and value of the several faiths of mankind. It seeks to give a coherent and consistent account of the result of the operation of those laws which underlie man's religious development, that development being studied as a whole and not merely as a series of unrelated eruptions. It is hardly likely to prove a universal solvent of differences in religion,^ but it has at least demonstrated the wondrous solidaritv of the race in its religious needs and aspirations. It detects, and seeks to interpret,^ the resemblances which are characteristic of the whole array of human faiths ; but it recognizes, also, the existence of divergencies for which meanwhile it is wholly unable to account.^ It is strongly of opinion that these differences, which temporarily set religions more or less widely apart, rest upon a foundation of universally diffused constituent elements which unite all faiths indissolubly to- gether ; yet it does not presume to frame or pronounce any verdict in the premisses. It is convinced that the soundest basis for confidence in the claims made by any faith is to be found in a scientific examination of the facts and principles which it defends, and which account for its (more or less progressive) vitality.
Before any new advance in this department of inquiry can be secured, a vast amount of regional and intensive study wiU have to be faced. The collection of necessary data is not yet complete. A sufficiently close examination of already available data has not yet been made. The final processes, connected with the sifting and classification of data, will not probably be accomplished for many years to come. Factors which, in one form or another, are bound to enter ultimately into the texture of this science will need to be more accurately determined than has been possible
^ Cf. C. Stanley G. Mylrea's article on ' Points of Contact and of Contrast ' in The Moslem World, vol. iii, p. 402. London, 1913.
- Vide supra, pp. 209 f. ' Vide supra, pp. 359 f.
520 COMPAKATIVE EELIGION
hitherto. Meanwhile, however, this task has been begun. Many of the returns hitherto tabulated, though compiled with scrupulous care, have proved to be unreliable. Un- fortunately they have had the effect of spreading erroneous opinions, and of bringing discredit upon the science which they were meant to promote ; but, their untrustworthiness having been discovered, they have already been revised. Yet further, the comparativist of to-day is cheerfully sub- jecting himself to a long course of close and exacting study. ' Comparative Keligion must no longer be given over to the tender mercies of well-meaning but often very poorly qualified exponents. It must be delivered from the reproach which rested so heavily for a time upon the History of Keligions, viz. the mischievous intermeddling of the dilet- tante scholar. The competency and ease with which the genuine expert in such work confronts and accomplishes his task is very different from the uncertain advances and with- drawals of those to whom such investigations are admittedly unfamiliar. A certain dexterity is essential ; and it can be acquired, like skill of other kinds, only by careful training under capable masters.' ^ The comparativist of to-day fully realizes that, in his study of religion, he must be one who — to adopt words recently used in another connexion — has ' immersed his mind in the matter with which he has to deal, and who has learned in the process . . . what methods of treatment are appropriate to the matter in question '. ^ Mere amateurish inferences are inadmissible ; for while such guesses may prove ' happy hits ', they are in reahty more or less vagrant conjectures. Mere amateurish comparisons are equally inadmissible. The qualities really demanded are the keenness and doggedness of the sleuth-hound, which refuses to be baulked of its prey. The comparativist knows that the difficulties which await him are numerous and grave.
» Vide supra, pp. 333 f. Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its MetJiod and Scope, pp. 12-13. London, 1908.
» Cf. The British Weekly, p. 497. London, January 22, 1914. Vide supra, p. 9.
ITS LEGITIMATE SCOPE 521
He has no longer any illusions in this connexion ; he is quite prepared to comply with the demand for whatever patience may be needed during years of laborious research. For, at last, he is persuaded that it is only through the fruitage of sucli discipline that he can hope to frame and justify hypotheses which — constructed, ' not by random guess-work but by the trained imagination of a man of science, or by the true divination of genius — will enlarge the horizon ' ^ of human knowledge, and (in particular) impart to the study of Comparative Eeligion that definiteness and restriction-of- range which are essential to its vigorous growth.^
Accordingly, while a considerable amount of pioneer work still remains to be overtaken, an amazing change — a practical revolution — has been wrought in current opinion touching the legitimate scope of this science. ' It is not very long ', remarks Dr. Hastings, ' since a book on Comparative Eeligion would have been refused by the publishers, however well written and authoritative.' ^ Such an offer, if backed by some real achievement, would certainly not be refused by any publisher to-day ! Comparative Eeligion is already in being, but at many points its aim and field are still some- what obscure. The present volume represents a genuine attempt to lessen that obscurity. Two other publications, already alluded to,^ seek to carry the process of elucidation a couple of stages further on its way.
Comparative Eeligion is already a science, although some of its ultimate prerogatives cannot be foreseen. Experts are considering indeed the advisability of subdividing this study into a number of subordinate departments.^ Mean- while, it is growing daily through a judicious employment
^ Cf. R. Bosworth Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, p. 2. London, 1874. [3rd edition, 1889.]
2 Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope, pp. 13-15.
3 Cf. James Hastings, The Expository Times, vol. xXv, p. 323 : vide supra, pp. 477-8.
* Vide supra, foot-note, p. 509.
^ Cf. Jordan, Comparative Religion: A Survey of its Recent Literature, vol. ii, p. V f . : vide supra, foot-note, p. 509.
522 COMPARATIVE RELIGION
of the methods of observation and experiment. It is not alarmed, or ashamed, because it has itself sometimes been labelled ' an experiment '. The designation is not inapt. In harmony with the experience of all living and developing instrumentalities, Comparative Religion will always remain an experiment. Nevertheless, because of the sturdy and continuous expansion of this study, competent guidance is essential. Its advances must be made under the control of leaders who are experienced, prudent, and courageous. They must be masters of their craft, and must be immune from the usual effects of unforeseen delays and irretrievable dis- asters. With such leadership, reinforced by the endow- ments of patience and openness of mind, it is not too much to affirm that there does not exist to-dav — in the entire circle of progressive human inquiry — a domain more needy, more fruitful, or more inviting than the definitely-restricted area assigned to Comparative Religion.
X
INDEX
AUTHORS. SUBJECTS. BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
The names of authors, given in full, are printed in small capitals ; topics discussed
in ordinary type ; titles of books, in italics. A page-numeral in heavy type, inserted after a book-title or a general topic,
denotes a book-review or a compact survey. The letter n, placed after a page-
numeral, signifies a foot-note.
PAGE
'Abbas, Effendi. See 'Abdu'l-BahA. 'Abdu'l-Baha.
Bahaism . . 289, 292, 421
Aborigines of Australia, ^ee Australia.
of Borneo . . . .60
of Siberia . . , .79
Abydos. Cemeteries of . 95, 482
Tomb of Osiris at . . . 482
See LoAT, Naville, Peet. Acta Sanctorum .... 483 AcTox, John Emerich Edward Dalberg, Baron.
Undue reluctance to publish tentative conclusions. . 314
Projector of The Cambridge Modern History . . 452
i^Egean Archaeology . . 94, 236
Africa, the cradle of many faiths . 56
See Meinhof. Ahikar. The story of . 116 f, 129, 134 Ahura Mazdah. See Zoroastria-
NISM.
Ales, Adhemar d'. See d'Ales. Alexander, and his victories . 276 Allegory in religion. The place of . 280 Allin, Thomas.
Race and Religion (1899) 36 ri Alphabet. The Phoenician . .121
Alphandery, Paul.
Introduction a Vhistoire des reli- gions {1914) . . .178 Amazon Cults. See Cults. Amelineau, Emile.
Egyptian Totemism . . 20
Prolegomenes a V etude de la reli- gion egj/ptienne (1908) 108,330/?. American Oriental Society . .481
Its ' Section for the Historical Study of Religions ' . .481
American Universities, and the
influx of Asiatic students . 495
See Universities.
page Ames, Edward Scribner.
The Psychology of Religious Experience (1910) . 137,142 Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von. Die Forthildun/j des Christen- thums zur Weltreligion (1833- 35) . . . . 374 n
Amon, an Egyptian deity . .231
Amritsar, the stronghold of Sikh-
isni .' . . 263, 266
Amulets . . . . .61
Amundsen, Roald.
Unexpected verifications : an illustration from Antarctic exploration . . . 103
Analogies in religion. The place
of . . . . . 325
Ancestor Worship. See Cults. Andreas, Friedrich C.
Quellen der Religions-Geschichte (1913- ) . . . . 406
Angus, Samuel.
The Environment of Early Christianity (1914) . . 223
Animal Worship. See Cults. Animism. Origin and diffusion of
7, oS, 140 in China . . . 212,219
in the Far East . . . 158
and Christianity in conflict . 159 See DussAUD, Geden, Mein- hof, Pettazzoni, Reuter, Salvatorelli, Spieth, Ty- lor, Warneck. See Pre-Animism. Ankermann, Bernard.
The kulturgeschichtliche method 330 UAnnee sociologique (1898- )
64 n, 66, 69, 72, 249 n, 449 Anneler, Hedwig.
Zur Geschichte der Juden von Elephantine (1912) . . 134
524
INDEX
PAGE
Anthropology. General survey of . 3 An estimate of . . . 252
Varying usage of this term . 3 Sometimes called ' Prehistoric
Archaeology ' . . 17, 81
Definition of ... 3
An investigation of origins . 6 Appeals directly to History . 4
|
Discloses unsuspected ' |
sur- |
|
vivals ' . |
. 5 |
|
Ethnical |
. 11 |
|
General |
3 n, 75 |
|
Physical |
3 n, 11 |
|
Social |
4,79 |
|
V. Archseology |
. 11 |
|
V. Comparative Religion |
326, 510 |
|
V. Ethnography . |
11,35 |
|
V. Ethnology . 3 |
n, 11, 35 |
|
V. Psychology |
. 11 |
|
V. Sociology |
. 11 |
|
V. Technology |
. 11 |
Its conspicuous vogue to-day
3, 17, 81
Increasing recognition in Uni- versity curricula . .18
Its inviting possibilities in America .... 470
Its persistent quest in Aus- tralia . 21, 30, 61, 66 f, 80
Has a definite task of its own to discharge . 163, 325, 327
Incidentally, it throws light upon man's religions
4, 5, 10, 16, 17, 18, 35, 64, 136, 163.
' The embryology of religion ' 6 n
' The natural history of reli- gion ' . . . 4, 35
Studies chiefly the religions of the Lower Culture 8, 365, 470
Thus, a study subsidiary to Comparative Religion
3, 4, 16, 320, 322, 327
Indispensable to Comparative Religion .... 5
Yet, its claims are too often exaggerated . . 5, 16, 17
Its materiaux often meagre and uncertain . . . 5, 6
Vaguely defined boundaries
5-6, 10, 15, 16, 17, 19
Its defective use of the com- parative method . . 9
Less self-assertive to-day than formerly .... 9
See Brinton, Bruckner, Chadwick, Danson, Die-
SERUD, FaRNELL, FraZER,
Anthropology {cont.) — page
VAN Gennep, Hartland, Henry, Jeremias, Jevons, King, Lyall, Marett, NiLssoN, Owen, Pettaz- zoNi, Reinach, Reuter, Saintyves, Schmidt (W.), Temple, Thomas (N. W.), Tylor, Warneck, Wiede- mann. See Periodicals. Proceedings and Journal of the Institute of Anthropology, Geneva. Transactions of the Inter- national Congress of Anthro- pology and Prehistoric Arch- aeology. Transactions of the Congress of Universal Races.
Anthropomorphism. Early ap- pearance of . . .7 among the Greeks . .36 See Lang.
Anthropos-Bibliothek. See Biblio-
THEK.
Anwyl, Edward, Sir.
Celtic Heathenism in the
British Isles . . . 453
Celtic Religion in Pre-Christian Times (1906) . . 268 m
Apocrypha. Enlargement of the
Biblical . . . .116
Apologetic treatises. General sur- vey of . . . . 369 A ' practical ' line of study . 512 Inherent distrust of all ' ad- vanced ' schools . . 462 The older Apologetic one-sided
369, 372, 376, 389, 512, 517 V. Comparative Religion
369, 372, 376, 378, 388, 512 The best Apologetic . .373
Corrective due to Compara- tive Religion . . 369, 504 See Beth, Bliss, Garvie, HowELLS, Jevons, John- ston, Martindale, Moul- TON, von Orelli, Schmidt (W.), Sharrock, Tisdall, Valensin, Warneck, War- ren. See Periodicals. Aramaeans. The . . 92-3, 191 Aratus.
The Cilician poet quoted . 227 Archaeology. General survey of . 81 Studies in . . . 95, 113
The Classics and Ancient . 27 V. Anthropology . . .11
V. Comparative Religion . 113
INDEX
525
Archaeology (cont.) — page
V. History of Religions . .114
v. Philology . 113-14,131
of America (South) . . 94
of Assyria . . . .87
of Babylonia . . .87
of Egypt . . . .94
of Greece . . . 94, 95
of Mesopotamia . . .87
of Mexico . . . .94
An effective auxiliary to Com- parative Religion . 81-3, 320 See Barnett, Beuchat, De-
CHELETTE, DuSSAUD, GaE-
STANG, Hall, Handcock,
HlLPRECHT,H0GARTH,H0PF-
NER, Jequier, Joyce, Lu- DERS, Maspero, Mercer, Meyer (E.), Naville, Pe- trie, Sayce, Schiffer, Weller, Wissowa. See Periodicals. Proceedings of the Institute of Anthro- pology, Geneva. Transac- tions of the International Archaeological Congress. Transactions of the Inter- national Congress of Anthro- pology and Prehistoric Archaeology. Transactions of the International Congress of Historical Studies. Aristotelianism .... Armstrong, Robert Cornell.
Light frotn the East (1914) Arnold, Edward Vernon. Roman Stoicism (1911) . Arnold, Matthew.
Mythology or Mysticism ? The Study of Celtic Literature (1867) . . . 268 w
Arnold, Thomas Walker.
Joint-editor of The Encyclo- poedia of Islam . . . 439
Architecture in Japan. Temple . 430 Art and religion . 444, 456, 464
Aryan Religions. See Classifica- tion OF Religions. Asceticism . 242, 259, 280, 285
Often ends in Pantheism . 275 Assyriology. Studies in . . 95
Bible Student's Handbook of
Assyriology (1908) See Delitzsch, Hogg, Lang- don, Norton, Sayce. Astral Cults. See Cults. Atheism . . . . •
Athens, and its monuments Atlantis. The lost
214
295 225
96
95
280 95 45
page Aton, an Egyptian deity . .231
Australia, Aborigines of
21, 30, 61, 66/, 80, 88 AusT, Emil.
Die Religion der Romer (1899) 210 Avebury (John Lubbock), Baron.
Degeneration in religion . (i
Avesta. The .... 277 See Dadachanji, Dhalla, Jackson (A. V. W.), Moul-
TON.
Axe. The double- . . .121
Babism. The origin of . . 288
The Bab . . . .289
Its prophetic utterances . 291
See Browne, Dreyfus, Nicolas.
Babylonian Religion. See Reli- gion.
Bacon, Benjamin Wisner.
Baur's theory of New Testa- ment origins . . . 420
Bahaism. General survey of 288/
' The unity of all religions ' . 290 In fact, a rival of Christianity 290 Entitled to serious study 292, 421 Baha'u'llah . . .289
'Abdu'1-Baha . . 289, 291
Its doctrine of incarnation . 381 Its sanction of persecution . 290 Its present numerical strength 290 in America .... 289 in England . . . .289
in India .... 289 in Persia . . . 289, 293
See 'Abdu'l-Baha, Browne, Phelps, Roemer,Schaefeb, Sell, Shedd.
Baillie, John.
The subliminal consciousness 141 n
Baines, Jervoise Athelstane, Sir. Ethnography (1912) . 60, 455
Ball, Charles James.
Chinese and Sumerian (1913) 134
Barnett, Lionel David.
Antiquities of India (1913) . 93
Barodia, U. D.
The History and Literature of Jainism (1909) . . .295
Barrows, John Henry.
Lecturer on the Barrows
Foundation . . .70
See Lectures.
Barth, Auguste.
Les Religions der I nde{l9U) . 223
526
INDEX
PAGE
Bakthelemy Saint-HilaikE; Jules.
Le Bouddha et sa religion (1859) 296 Barton, George Aaron.
Jahweh before Moses's time . 310 Basset, Ren6.
Joint-editor of The Encyclo- pcedia of Islam . . . 439
Bastiax, Adolf.
Equipment for ethnological
research . . . .47
under criticism . . 48, 63
Die Volker des nstlichen Asien (1866-71) . . 46 ?i
Beach, Harlan Page.
The theory and practice of Missions .... 498 Becker, Carl H.
The expansion of the Saracens 453 Editor of Der Islam . . 480
Editor of Studien zur Ge- schiclite und Kultur des is- lamischen Orients . .319
Beliefs. Outgrown. See Supersti- tions. Bennett, Florence Mary.
Religious Cults associated with the Amazons {\%\2) . . 33
Bergson, Henri.
An influential religious thinker 248 Bernard, Edward Russell.
Great Moral Teachers (1906) 415 ?i Bertholet, Alfred.
A keen student of religions 402, 419 Religionsqeschiclitliches Lese-
buchiimS) . 57,402,467 Die Eigenart der alttestament- lichen Religion (1913) . 296
Besant, Annie.
The High Priestess of Theo-
sophy .... 253 The Universal Text-Book of Religions and Morals (1910- 11) . . . . . 408
Theosophy (1912) . . .296
Beth, Karl.
A Christian apologist . . 375
Das Wesen des ChristeMums
(1904) . . . 375 u
Der Entwicklungsgedanke und
das Christentum {1909) 375 w Hat Jesus geleU ? ( 1910) 374 n
Die EntwirMung des Christen- tums zur Universal- Religion (1913) . . . .373
Beuchat, Henri.
Les Religions [1910) . . 170
Manuel d^archeologie ameri- caine (1912) . . .93
PAGE
Bevan, Anthony Ashley.
Mahomet and Islam . . 453
Bevan, Edwyn.
Stoics and Sceptics {1913) 227 u, 296 Bezold, Carl.
Contributor to Die Religionen
des Orients . . .184
Bhagats. The .... 263 Bhagavad GUCt (The), compared
with the New Testament . 253 Its alleged indebtedness to
Christianity . . . 254
Bibliography for Missionary Stu- dents {1913) . . 334 w Biblioteca del Pensiero Religioso
Moderno (1911- ) . . 57
Biblioteca di Cultura Moderna
(1909- ) . . . 258
Biblioteca di Scienze Moderne
{Piccola) {1891- ) 198, 426 li Bibliotheca Buddhica {1891- ) . 302 Bibliotek. Religionsvetenskapligt
(1914- ) . . 204,404
Bibliothek. Anthropos- (1909- ). 61 Bibliothek. Evangelisch-theologische
(1915- ) . . . 204
Bibliothek. Kultur geschichtliche
(1911- ) . 46, 61, 368
Bibliothek. Mythologische {1901- )
91 71, 100, 110 Bibliothek. Religionsivissenschaft-
liche (1910- ) 109, 241, 316, 319 Bibliotheque d'histoire religieuse
(1908- ) ... 342
Bibliotheque de synthese philoso-
phique (1911) . . . 368
Bibliotheque egyptohgique {1893- ) 94 Bibliotheque historique des reli- gions (1914- ) . .178 Biblische Zeit- und Streitfragen
(1905- ) . . 462 7i
Birth Customs . . . . 53
See BuscHAN, Hutchinson,
Samter. Birth Omens, and their cultural
significance
60
Bishop, Arthur Stanley.
The World's Altar Stairs (1910) . . . .173 BissiNG, Friedrich Wilhelm von Die Kultur des alien Agypten (1913) . . .' . 60
Blinkenberg, Charles.
The Thunderweapon in Reli- gion and Folklore (1911) . 93 Bliss, Frederick Jones.
The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine (1912) 205, 272 n
INDEX
527
PAGE
Bloomfield, Maurice.
The Sikh Religion . .310
Contributor to Studies in the History of Religions . 267 n
Boas, Feanz.
The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) . . 37n, 60, 160 BoEE, Tjitze Jacobs de.
The History of Philosophy in Islam (1903) . . 282 ii
BoESEE, p. A. A.
Beschreibwig der agyptischen Sammliing des Niederlandi- schen Reichsmuseums der Al- tertiimer in Leiden (1905- ) 503 n Boghaz Keui. Explorations at 85, 115 BoissiER, Alfeed.
The Babylonian Mysteries . 473 Booh of the Dead. Egyptian . .231
See Saceed Books. Books. Sacred, ^ee Saceed Books. Booth, William, General.
An enlarged vision of Chris- tianity .... 393 Boston University, and the pro- vision it makes for the scien- tific study of religion 494 n See Universities. BoTTA, Paul Emil.
Expert philologist . .113
BouLANGEE, Nicolas Antoine. Early supporter of the com- parative method . . 224 Boundaries of Coinparative Reli- gion still too indefinite
166, 182, 197, 330, 475, 509 Bousset, Wilhelm.
A representative leader of the religion sgeschichtliche Schule
331 n, 462 Judaism a syncretism ? 331 w
Promoter of the Quellen der
Religions-Geschichte . 406
Kyrios Christos {1913) . . 296
Bouviee, Feedeeic.
Magic and Religion differ- entiated . . . .In Survey of recent literature
on Totemism . . . 22 w
Survey of some recent exposi- tions in Comparative Reli- gion .... 487 Criticism of M. Levy-Bruhl . 74 Protest against a carping criticism of modern Roman Catholic scholars . . 30 w Promoter of the Louvain Sum- mer School of Ethnology . 422
PAGE
Brahmanism. Expositions of
171, 182, 183, 191 See Beuchat, Beicout, Deus- SEN, Faequhae, Geden, Hinnebeeg, Howells, Menzies, Moore, von Orelli, Tiele, Turchi. Brandt, Wilhelm.
Elchasai (1912) . . .338
Beanfoed, Victoe.
Interpretations and Forecasts (1914) . . . .79
Beeasted, James Heney.
Egyptologist and archaeolo- gist . . . .329 A History of Egypt (1906) 229 n Ancient Records of Egypt
(1906-07) . . 229 71
A History of the Ancient
Egyptians (1908) . 229 n Development of Religion atid Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912) . . 114^,228,235 Beicout, Joseph.
The comparative method 327 n Oil en est Vhistoire des religions? (1911-12)
175, 184 w, 233 n, 327 n 346 w, 347 7^. Beinton, Daniel Garrison.
Ethnological attitude criti- cized . . . .48 Anthropology as a Science (1892) . . . .81;i British Association for the Advance- ment of Science
17, 23 n, 33, 48, 137 Bros, A., UAhhe.
Contributor to Oh en est Vhis- toire des religions ? . .177 Brosses, Charles de.
A precursor of modern com- parativists Brown, Francis.
Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . . .218
Brown, William Adams.
Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . . .218
Beowne, Edwaed Geanville.
A Traveller's Narrative {1891) 292 n The New History of Mirza Ali Muhammad, The Bab (1893)
292 n The Earliest History of the Bahis (1910) . . . 292 ?i
Beuckhaedt, John Lewis.
Distinguished archaeologist . 84
9o
528
INDEX
PAGE
BaucKNEK, Martin.
Der sterhende und auferstehende Gottheiland (1908) . . 33
Bryant, Sophie.
The Genius of the Gael (1913) . 60 Buddha. See Gotama. Buddhism. A lofty conception of
284 f The rise of . . . 299, 457
Historical development of . 243 Different estimates of
171, 174, 182, 183, 184, 189, 191, 211,221,227,286,376, 394, 397, 406, 438. and its Creeds . . . 448
Its doctrine of incarnation . 381 The Zen philosophy . . 282
in China 189, 211, 219, 221, 298 in India . . . 258, 298
in Japan . . . 247,282
Eclectics in . . . . 247
Analysis of . . . . 469
Buddhist apologetics . . 369
Buddhist sects . . .298
Illustrated by Japanese pic- tures .... 430 Must be sympathetically inter- preted . . . 378, 397 V. Christianity . . 285, 416 A possible mediator between Confucianism and Christi- anity . . . 213, 222 A world -religion ? . . 298 See De Groot, Getty, Haas, Hackmann, Kern, Leh- MANN, de Lorenzo, Olden- berg, Oltramare, Pettaz- zoNi, Richard (T.), Ste- phens, Underwood, Wie- ger, Winternitz. Budge, Ernest Alfred Thomp- son Wallis. The Greenfield Papyrus in the
British Museum (1912) The Book of the Dead (1913) . Coptic Apocrypha in the Dialect
of Upper Egijpt (1913) 114 n
A Short History of the Egyptian People {\9U) . Buhler, Georg.
Projector and founder of the
Grundriss der indo-arischen
Philologie und Altertums-
kunde .... 455
Bulletin d'histoire comparee des
religions {1910- ) . 74 w, 487 Bulletin de Vlnstitut de Sociologie
Solvay .... 464
134 134
296
PAGE
Bulletin of the Yale-Columbia
Graduate Courses . . 499
Buonaiuti, Ernesto.
II Cristianesimo tnedioevale (1914) . . . .296
Burne, Charlotte Sophia.
The Handbook of Folklore{19l4:) 60 Buy, Jean du.
An expositor of Comparative Religion .... 469 BuscHAN, Georg H.
Die Sitten der Volker (1914) . 60 Bushido ..... 282 Byzantine civilization . . 426
Caetani, Leone.
Prehistoric migrations of the
Arabs .... 303 Annali delV Islam (1905- ) 303 n Studi di storia orientale
(1911- ) . . .302
Cronografia islamica (1913- ) 304 Caldegott, Alfred.
The influence of Missions -' . 421 Contributor to A Bibliography for Missionary Students 334 n Calderon, George.
Greek Religion and Modern Slavonic Folklore . .419
Calvin, John.
His great religous protest . 264 Calvinism. .... 149
Cambridge History of English Lite- rature {1901- ) . . .452 Cambridge Medieval History
(1911- ) . . . .452
Cambridge Modern History (1902-
12) 452
Cambyses.
Victorious advance in Egypt . 458 Spares a Jewish Temple there . . . .129
Cameroons. Explorations in the . 44 Campbell, John.
The Hittites {1891) . 85 ri
Canada's interdenominational
Schools of Theology. See Schools. Capart, Jean.
Contributor to Oh en est Vhis- toire des religions? . .177
Capen, Edward Warren.
Sociological Progress in Mission Lands (1914) . . . 79
Carchemish, the ancient Hittite
capital ... 84, 94
INDEX
529
PAGE
Carpenter, Joseph Estlin.
Wilde Lecturer at Oxford . 366 The origin of religion , . 140
The psychology of religion 6, 140 The mythological background
of religion . . 98 n
Toteniism not a universal form
of primitive religion . 22 n
Defender of the comparative
method . . . 332 n
Buddhist and Christian paral- lels . . . . 97 M, 310 Article on ' Religion ' in the
Encydopcedia Britannica . 6 n Comparative Religion (1913)
8 n, 22 n, 36 n Carra de Vaux, Alexandre, Le Baron. Contributor to Oii en est Vhistoire des religions? . 177 Case, Shirley Jackson.
The Evolution of Early Chris-
Uamty^m^^--. . 223, 296
Catholicism. Roman . . . 218
See Roman Catholic Scholars. Greek Orthodox . . .218
Causse, Antonin.
Les prophetes d' Israel et les religions de V Orient (1913) . 224 * Celtic ' V. ' Gaelic ' . . .269
conception of the Future Life 419 heathenism .... 453 religion. See Classification
of Religions. See Henderson, Jullian, MacCulloch, Rhys. Centres for Studies subsidiary to
Comparative Religion . 493
Chadwick, Hector Munro.
Studies in Anthropology . 35 The Heroic Age {1912) . . 38
Chaldaism . . . 171,227
Chantepie de la Saussaye, Pierre Daniel. Lehrhuch der Beligionsge- schichte (1887- )
169, 178, 182, 188, 189, 225 The Religion of the Teutons
(1902)
195 n
Charvoz, Maurice.
Les GraTides Religions de V0rient{l9U) . . . 224
Chatterton-Hill, George.
The Sociological 'Value of Christianity {1912) . 65 n
Cheyne, Thomas Kelly.
A representative of the reli-
gionsgsschichtliche Schule 331 n A keen student of Papyrology 125
Cheyne, Thomas Kelly {conf.) — page The Tivo Religions of Israel
(1911) . . . .125
The Reconciliation of Races and Religions (1914) 290 7i, 296, 317 Chicago University's ' Barrows Lectureship' on Compara- tive Religion . . 493, 501 See Lectures. Universities. Chinese Society. The (London) . 430 Chisholm, Hugh.
Editor of The Encyclopaedia Britannica . . . 433
Christ. See Jesus. Christian Folklore . . .49
Christianity. Theories concerning 396
1. Its Origins.
In Hebrew soil . . . 299
Under Christian influences
281, 386, 390 A constant growth 349, 396, 501 Affiliations with Greek thought
190, 281 Affiliations with other religions 305 Other religions an alleged preparation for it . . 294
2. Its Conflicts.
With early Roman religion 239, 331 With Hinduism . . . 253
With Japanese faiths . 245, 247 With Oriental religions 209, 231
3. Contrasted ivith : —
Bahaism .... 290 Buddhism .... 285 Hinduism . . 253, 325, 416
Judaism .... 444 Mohammedanism . . 272
Theosophy . . . 409 n
Zoroastrianism . . . 278
Other religions generally
213, 313, 315 n, 386-7, 391 f,
396, 416.
4. Distinctive Features. Different estimates of
171, 174, 175, 183, 188, 191, 195, 202, 369, 376-7, 408, 469 Alleged to be the final revelation 396 Its genius for expansion 375, 426 Secret of its steady advance . 78 Its missionary motive . . 393
Its doctrine of incarnation , 380 Is it merely a syncretism ?
331, 331 n, 390-1 Its denominational subdivi- sions .... 218 Latin v. Teutonic Christianity 36
5. Its Handicap.
The persistency of its critics
18, 169, 331, 337
Mm
530
INDEX
Christianity {cont.) — page
Its indebtedness to other reli- gions
78, 120, 209-10, 315, 399, 517. This fact must not be exag- gerated .... 399 Its prerogatives often unduly extolled
169, 175 f, 184 f, 186 f, 203, 369 f, 331. Its alleged superiority to all other faiths
78, 177, 192, 205, 253, 333, 356, 370, 371, 371 n, 372, 375, 376, 377, 381, 382, 383, 385, 387, 392, 395, 512 n. 6. Its Future.
Assured by its present re- sources and spirit . . 78 A world -dynamic . .72 Germs of a universal religion
200 f, 373 f Its universal brotherhood . 71 Its manifest fulfilment of
other religions . . 395, 396
/SVe Nox-Chkistiax Religions. JNIust now be given a place in every Manual of the History of Religions
169, 175, 182, 199, 331 See Beth, Bishop, Bousset, C'aetaxi, Chatterton-
Hill,Hinneberg,Labanca, Lindsay (T. M.), Menzies, MiNoccHi, Moore, Moul-
TOX, SODERBLOM, VeRNES.
Churches. The Eastern . . 206
The Greek . . . .206
The Syrian . . . .206
Cicero, Marcus Tullius.
De NaturaDeorum {4:4: B.C.) . 240 Classifications of religions . 318, 350 Turanian . ' . . 174, 191
Hamitic . . 191, 228, 293
Semitic 174, 191, 233, 236, 306, 458 Indo-Germanic [Indo-Euro- pean, Aryan, Japhetic] 174, 191 Celtic
171, 191,202,269,453,496 Slavonic . 171, 191, 202
Teutonic
171, 184, 191, 195 n, 202, 404, 453. African . . , .191
American . . . .192
Oceanic . . . .192
See Bishop, Labanca, von Orelli, Ward.
page Clemen, Carl.
Die religionsgescJiichtliche Me- thode in Theologie (1904)
332 n, 341 Beligionsgeschichtliche Erkld- rung des Neuen Testaments (1909) . . . 34:ln
Der Einfluss der Mysterien- religionen (1913)
316 n, 341 n, 419 n Clermont-Ganneau, Charles.
Explorations in Egypt . .128
Clifford, John.
The growing literature of
Comparative Religion . 515
Comparative Religion and Mis- sions to Non-Christian Peo- ples (1912) . . 399, 516 n Clodd, Edward.
The Childhood of the World (1872) . . . .108
CoE, George Albert.
The Spiritual Life (1900) 140 n CoiT, Stanton.
The Soul of America (1914) . 79 College de France . . .309
College Libre des Sciences So-
ciales . . . , .77
Colleges of Missions :
Hartford . . . .497
Indianapolis . . 494 n
See EcoLE. Comparative Method (The), an invaluable instrument of re- search . . . 347, 373 To-day very widely employed
163, 325, 329, 356 As used by archaeologists 83, 86 Its varied designations 22, 345, 352 Its application to religion de- fended by :
Cook . . . .144
Garstang . . . .86
van Gennep . 19, 22. 345
Goblet d'Alviella . . 348
Hastings . . .373
Johnston , . , 381
Labanca .... 349 Levy-Bruhl . . .73
Martindalc . . .383
Pinard .... 356 Precursors in this use of it 22, 325 Its effective employment de- mands training and skill
9, 165, 167, 332, 333, 334, 335, 342 f, 348, 351, 353, 356 f, 357 f, 359, 451, 504, 519 f.
INDEX
531
Comparative ^Method {cont.) — page Not a reliable test of actual
' value ' . . . . 332
Its limitations and abuses
164f, 332, 3 i7, 356, 451,504 See Carpenter, Foucart (G.), Garvie, Gedex. Comparative Religion. General
survey of . . 509 f
Advantageously studied in Japan .... 245
1. Its Advent.
Tentative beginnings . . 390
Adventures in Comparative
Religion .... 325 Experimental advances
141, 333, 396, 513, 515, 522 Its boundaries, even yet, are imperfectly defined
xvi, xxvi, xxvii, xxix, 33, 328, 330, 509, 512, 514, 515. Its preliminary phases
xxiv, 14, 16, 322, 328, 330, 514, 518, 519, 521, 522.
2. Its Evolution.
Successive stages xxvii, xxviii, 515 Various names given to this
science . . 390 n, 501 n
Various meanings attached to ' Comparative Religion '
xxvii, 11, 330, 376, 386, 394,
398, 509, 513, 515. Subsidiary studies
xix, xxiii, xxvi, xxviii, 1,
163, 320 f, 325, 504, 510,
513, 521. V. Anthropology . . . 510
V. Apologetics
333, 369 f, 372, 376, 378, 388, 512 f, 513, 517.
V. Archaeology . . .113
V. Comparative Theology . 511 V. Ethnology . . • 510
V. History of Religions
37, 164 f, 166, 167, 181, 197, 252, 253, 325-6, 330, 333,
334, 342, 349-50, 355, 365, 370, 509 f, 511, 513, 515,516.
V. Philology . .113, 510
V. Science of Religion . . 510
3. Its Content.
Tentative definitions . 335, 509 f
Its legitimate scope . 514 f
A science
xxiii, xxix, 322, 376, 515, 521
A separate and self-governing discipline
xviii, xxiii, xxvi, xxix, 328, 373, 504, 509, 515, 518, 521.
M
Comparative Religion (cont.) — page Based upon historical research
81, 1()4, 325 Supplements the work of the ^ historian . . . 333, 340 f
Yet not to be confounded with the History of Rtili- gions. See above, v. His- tory OF Religions. ' A winnowing fan ' . . 287
A process of discovery and
interpretation ... 8 Absolutely impartial
169, 176, 177, 195 w, 212, 253, 331 f, 371, 378, 384, 388, 416, 512 f, 516, 517, 519 Restricts itself rigorously to
religious problems . 7-8, 17 Studies chiefly the religions
of advanced civilizations 8, 510 Its twofold aim 232, 334, 343, 517
4. What it is not. It is not an intruder among
the sciences . . . 327
It is not concerned with
origins . . . .7
It is non-propagandic
xxix, 254, 370, 376, 387, 504, 512 f. It is not ' essentially rational- istic ' . 384 71, 388, 397, 399 It is not hostile to religion
369, 372, 384 ?^, 399, 512, 513, 516. It is not hostile to the Christian
religion . 399, 516, 517, 518 It is not content with effecting the mere juxtaposition of religious beliefs 435-6, 518 f
It is not a test of the ' truth '
of a religion . . .513
It is not a test of the absolute ' value ' of a religion
254, 332, 388, 513 It attempts no forecast of the ' ultimate ' religion
15, 222, 384, 388, 396, 518, 520. It is not tolerant of mere con- jectures and guesses
279, 353, 390, 518, 521
5. Its Limitations. Lack of popular handbooks . 52 Lack of any adequate text- book .... 182
Still dependent upon the tardy advance of kindred sciences xix
See Studies Subsidiary to Comparative Religion.
m2
532
INDEX
Comparative Religion {corit.) — page Immature use of the compara- tive method
9, 167, 333, 335, 50^ 520, 521, 522. Lack of restricted and more penetrative comparisons
9 n, 59, 106, 225, 509 Lack of competent leadership
497, 522 Lack of a technical Journal
468, 516 6. Its Achievements.
How Comparative Religion
lends help . . . 390
A new conception of religion
393, 518 The deepening of sympathy
with Missions . . 392-3
Emphasizes what is best in
each religion . 8, 245, 369, 513 Reveals points of agreement
amongst religions . . 513
Singles out faiths which most fully realize their individual purposes . . . .373
Inculcates a tolerant spirit . 496 Demonstrates that all religions yield to the pressure of ex- ternal influences . . 334 The comparative method in religion' a practically new instrument to-day . xxvi Comparative Religion Proper, a transformed department of research, is now ' a highly specialized branch of human knowledge '
xxiv, 182, 202, 379, 504, 507 f Its division into numerous sub- ordinate branches
321, 390, 515, 518, 521 Its real function
371, 512 f, 514,519 Its capacity for achieving the highest ends . . 373, 438
7. Its Future.
Gradually coming into its own 336 A truly inviting field . . 522
Now brought within narrower boundaries
9 n, 41, 58, 59, 328, 509, 514, 515, 522. Sound scholarship has become allied with moral earnest- ness .... 497 Workers were never so fully
organized 16, 41, 328, 504
Ampler financial provision . 500
Comparative Religion {cont.) — page Subject is now taught in Uni- versities and Seminaries
496, 497, 498, 500 It is assigned to different University Faculties
350, 351, 494 n Each religion is being studied
also in its own home . . 493
A really expert use of the com- parative method has begun
xxvi, XXX, 9. 167, 333, 335, 504, 515, 518, 520, 521, 522. The Churches are lending open
approval . . 373, 384, 438
One of the most vital and interpretative agencies of modern scholarship
xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, 3.35 Constructive work will come
later .... 371
Already a separate and dis- tinctive discipline
xviii, 9, 37, 166, 320, 328, 333, 504, 509, 510. A science of the twentieth cen- tury .... 515 See BouLANGER, Carpenter, Clemen, Dods, Dtjssaud, Falke, Farnell, Labanca, Pettazzoni, Richard (T.), Schmidt (W.), Thornton, Warren, Webb. See Periodicals. Qutggin. Universities. Comparisons. Ineffective 335, 514, 520 CoMTE, Auguste.
The founder of Sociology . 62 Cours de philosopJiie positive
(1830-42) . 62ti, 73, 322
Systeme de politique positive (1851-54) . . .62w
CoNDAMiN, Albert.
Contributor to Christus . 185
Confucianism. General survey of
171, 182, 183, 185, 188, 191, 203, 211 f, 215, 219, 221, 244, 247, 403, 404, 406, 438, 469. Its revival in the East . .247
in Japan .... 295 See De Groot, Geden, Giles, Harada, Martin, Soothill, Stube, Under- wood, Walshe. See Encyclop-edias. Congresses. General value of .412 Furnish invaluable material for comparativists . 14, 493
INDEX
533
Congresses [cont.) — page
Often inaugurate important literary undertakings
413, 479, 489 for anthropological studies . 417 for archaeological studies 417, 425 for ethnological studies
12, 420, 422, 424, 489 for free Christianity and reli- gious progress 327 n, 331 n, 415 for historical studies
85 w, 123,413,421 for the History of Religions
23, 327. 340, 3od n, 362 7i, 418, 494. for scientific studies . . 426
for sociological studies . .417
for oriental studies . 413, 414
Conjectures and guesses inadmis- sible in genuinely scien- tific research
279, 295, 353, 396, 518 Consciousness. The religious 150, 154 Conservatism in Theology. See
Theology. Constructive advance in Christi- anity . . . 371, 380 in Comparative Religion 371, 435
COXYBEARE, FREDERICK CORN- WALLIS.
The Story of Ahilcar {1898) . 116 Cook, Arthur Bernard.
Zeus (1914- ) . . .109
Cook, Stanley Arthur.
Defender of the comparative
method 144, 332 n, 333, 419
Religion in Ancient Palestine
(1908) . . . 144 ?i
The Evolution and Survival of Primitive Thought (1913)
28, 321 n The Foundations of Religion
(1914) . . . 26 r?,, 143
The Study of Religions (1915)
144, 317 CoomaraswamY; Ananda K.
A voluminous writer . .110
3Iyths of the Hindus and Bud- dhists {191S) . . .110 CoRNFORD, Francis Macdonald. From Religion to Philosophy
(1912) . . 63;^, 64 71, 79 Cornill, Carl Heinrich.
The Culture of Ancient Israel (1914) . . . .296
CoRYN, Sidney G. P.
The Faith of Ancient Egypt
(1913) . . . , 296 Cosmogonv. Social . . .45
PAGE
Courbet, Pierre.
La Superiorite du Christia- nisme (1902) . . 371 n
Cowley, Arthur Ernest.
Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan {190Q) . 125 n, 121 n Cranmer-Byng, Lancelot.
Joint-editor of The Wisdo7n of the East series . . . 446
Creeds. A history of . . . 447
Soon inevitably outgrown , 373
Ideal 448
See Curtis, Schaff. Crete, and its hieroglyphs . .120
Contact with neighbouring
civilizations . . . 236
Hymn of the Kouretes . . 250
See Evans, Toutain.
Criticism. Biblical . . 90, 94
Conjectural 279, 353, 396, 518
Cultural Areas
47, 49, 330, 360, 368, 436 See Kulturkreise. Cultures. Lower- . 8, 365, 470
Direct transmission of . 330 n
The fusion of . . 47, 49
Criticism of this theory of
fusion . . . 47 n-
See Graebner, Jastrow, Rivers. Cults. Amazon . . . .33
Ancestor . . . 45, 377
Animal
7,26,34,57,92,94,229,317 Astral . . . .208
Axe ..... 121 Egyptian :
Animal Worship . . 34
Isis 209
Osiris . . 229,230,232
Greek :
Apollo . . . 121 n
Cybele . . . .209
Juno .... 295 Jupiter .... 295 Minerva .... 295 Mystery Cults. See Mys- teries. See Farnell, Wissowa. Hero . . . 36, 40, 317 7i
Indian :
254
|
Nature |
• ^^'^ XL . 179 |
|
In China . |
. 212 |
|
In Egypt |
. 230 |
|
Oriental |
. 310 |
|
Plant . |
. 196 |
|
of tlie Dead |
7 |
534
INDEX
PAGE
. 317 45, 221
Cults {cont.) — Serpent Shamanism Shinto. See Shinto.
CUMONT, FeANZ.
Contributor to Die Beligiomri
des Orients . . .184
Les Mysteres de Mithra (1900)
208 n Les Religions orientales dans le Paganisme romain (1907)
207, 453 w Astrology and Religion (1912)
207 n, 224 Cuneiform Texts. See Ixsceip-
TioNS. Texts. CuRTiN, Jeremiah.
Myths of Primitive America
(1898) ... 98 ?i
Myths of the Modocs (1912) 98 w Curtis, William Alexander. A History of Creeds and Con- fessions of Fa i^ A ( 1 9 1 1 ) CuRTiss, Samuel Ives.
Notes of Travel in Palestine and Syria Customs and Ceremonials Cybele Worship. See Cults. Cyprus, and its connexion with
Cretan civilization Cyrus, ' the Great '.
Founder of the Persian Em- pire ..... 458 CzAPLiCKA, Mary Antoinette.
Aboriginal Siberia (1914) . 79
Dadachanji. Faredun K.
Light of the A vesta and the Gathas (1913) . . .297
Dahlke, Paul.
Buddhismus als Religion und Moral {19U) . . .297-
Dahlmann, Joseph.
Contributor to Christus . 185
Daiches, Samuel.
Babylonian Oil Magic in the Talmud, etc. (1913) . .317
d'Al^s, Adh^mar.
Dictionnaire apologetiquc de la f oi catholique {\88()) . 371 /i
Danson, Edouard.
Mythes et legendes {19U) . 33 Darius I.
The Behistun inscription . 128 Davids, Thomas William Rhys. Religion a consolidating and separating influence . .421
447
206 51 f
121
PAGE
Davis, Frederick Hadland.
Myths and Legends of Japan (1912) . . . .109
Dawson, George Ellsworth. Contributor to Recent Chris- tian Progress . . .138 Dead. Cult of the. See Cults.
Prayers for the . . .30
Death. Primitive conceptions of . 14 Babylonian conceptions of . 257 Hebrew conception of . . 258
an alleged evil . . . 257
Ceremonials associated with . 53 Life after .... 257 See BuscHAN, Hutchinson, Jastrow, Samter. de Brosses. See Brosses. Dechelette, Joseph.
Manuel d'archeologie {190S- ) 93 Decipherment of Texts. See Texts. De Dea Syria . . . 87, 295 n
Degeneration. Religious
6, 222, 337, 360, 397 De Groot, Jan Jacob Maria.
His German professorship 211, 402 Contributor to Die Religionen
des Orients . . .184
The Religious System of China
(1892-1910) . . 211 n
Sectarianism and Religious Per- secution in China (1903-04)
213 n The Religion of the Chinese
(1910) . . . 211 )t
Religionin China (1912) 211, 286 n Deism . . . . . 312
Deissmann, Gustav Adolf.
Expert philologist . . 329
Expert in Greek pa pyrology 119, 124 Bibelstudie n [189 of ." 1 1 8 ;^ Neue Bibelstudien (1897) 118 u Licht vom Osten (1908) . .118
Die Urgeschichte des Christen-
tums (1910) . . 118 n
Paulus {1911) . 120 ?^ 368
Der Lehrstnlil fur Rcligionsge-
schichte {19U) . . 49-i n
Deities. Female . . So, 295
See Gods. Delitzsch, Friedrich.
Discoveries at Boghaz Keui 115 n Della Seta, Alessandro.
Religione e arte fig urata (1912)
297, 317 Denney, James.
Advanced religions quite transmute earlier and irra- tional superstitions . . 8
INDEX
535
PAGE
De Kossi, Giovanni Battista.
Expert in Roman archaeology 122 Dervishes . . . .271
Deubner, Ludwig.
Joint-editor of Beligionsge- schichtliche Versucheund Vor- arheiten .... 316 Deussen, Paul.
Allgenieine Geschichte der Philo-
sophie {1894- ) . 305 ?i
Die Philosophie der Bibel (1913) . . . .304
Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji.
Zoroastrian Theology (1914) .297 Dhorme, Paul.
Contributor to Oh en est Vhis-
toire des religions ? . .177
Clioix de textes religieux assyro-
hahyloniens [1901) . 233%
La Religion assyro-hahylonienne
(1910) .... 233 Les Paijs hibliques et VAssyrie (1912) . . . 233 71
Dhydna ..... 283 Diabolical possession. The theory
of 159
See Warneck. Dictionary. The Century . 433 n
of Greek and Roman Mythology
413, 419 of Hindu 31 ythology and Religion 109 of Islam . . . 439 n
of the Bible ... 435 n
Mediaeval Latin . . .413
New English . 433 n, 445
See Encyclopaedias. Dieserud, Juul.
Religion a branch of Ethnic
Sociology . . 63 71
Ethnology an historical science 48 The Scope and Content of the Science of Anthropology {190S)
10, 48 7i
DiETERICH, AlBRECHT.
Mythology . . . . 97
Comparative Religion . .315
A founder and editor of Reli- gionsgeschichtUche Versuche und Vorarheiten . . 316
Differences between religions, the
special quest of the apologist 512
often remain inexplicable 359 f, 519
must be studied
145, 359, 399, 409 n, 519
in large measure composed through Comparative Reli- gion . . . 165, 519
See Garvie, Pinard, Reinach.
page Dilettantism and its consequences
:{2 1,520 Dissimilarities among religions.
See Differences. Divination. Babylonian . . 419
Chinese . . . .419
Etruscan . . . .419
General aspects of 197, 250, .503 See Daiches, Jastrow. Divine interpositions. Alleged . 338 DoDS, Marcus.
Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ {1881) . . ,52 7i
DowsoN, John.
A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion (1879) . . . .109
Dozy, Reinhart.
Histoire des Musulmans d'Es- pagne (1861) . . . 297
Drews, Arthur.
Die Christus7ny the {1909) . 109 Criticized by Professor Beth 374 n Dreyfus, Hippolyte.
Essai sur le Bab (1908) . 292 n
Druidism . . . .20, 269
Druses. The . . . .206
Dualism. Zoroastrian. See Zo-
roastrianism. Dulaure, Jacques Antoine.
A precursor of modern com- parativists . . .22
Dupuis, Charles Francois.
Another precursor of modern comparativists . . .22
Durkheim, Emile.
Ardent defender of the socio- logical method (io, 329, 345, 351 His "- School' . . . 308
Its powerful influence . 170, 248 Exaggerates the function of
the social factor . . 69
Criticism of Professor Frazcr . 67 Definition of Religion . .171
Totemism the primitive reli- gion of mankind . 66 f Editor of UAnnec sociologique
64 n, 66, 09, 72, 449 Les Regies de la methode socio- logique {1895) . . 64 71 Sur le Totemisme (1902) 67 n Les Formes elementaires de la vie religieuse (1912) . 65 /^ 66 DussAUD, Ren6.
Criticism of Professor Durk- heim . . • .69 Les Civilisations prehclUniques (1910) . . . . S-l
536
INDEX
DussAUD, Rene {cont.) page
Introduction a Vhistoire des religions (1914) 69 n, 178, 330 n
Dizionario bio-hibliografico italiano 413 See Dictionaries.
Earth-goddess (The). See Female
DEITIES.
Ecole Biblique de Saint -Etienne
de Jerusalem . . 233, 234
Ecole Coloniale de Paris . 494 n
Ecole des Hautes-Etudes
108, 308, 361, 495 Edkins, Joseph.
Religion in China (1878) 218 w
EeRDE, J. C. VAN.
Kolo7iialeVolIcenkunde{l914:- ) 60 Egypt and Crete . . .119
and its ancient civilization 37, 114 Egypt Exploration Fund . . 482
Egyptian animal worship. See Cults. religious beliefs to-day . . 28
belief in a Future Life . .471
ethics . . . .471
Totemism . . . .20
Research Students' Association 471 See Religion : Egyptian. Egyptology. General survey of . 422 See VON BissiNG, Breasted, Budge, Hopfner, Jequier, Maspero (G.), Naville, Petrie, Sayce, Virey, Wiedemann. Ehrenreich, Paul.
Researches in Mythology 97, 329 Moon myths . . . 100
Mytlien und Legenden (1905) 101 n Die allgemeine Myllwlogie und Hire ethnologischen Grund- Za^ew (1910) . . .100
EiSLER, Robert.
Weltenmantel und Himniels- zelt {1912) . . .317
Elchasai.
His life and teaching . . 338
Elephantine papyri
116, 123, 124, 127, 458
See Anneler, Cowley, von
Gall, Hoonacker, Hunt,
Meyer(E.),Mitteis,Ruben-
soHN, Sachau, Sayce, Stum-
MER, UnGNAD, WeSSELY,
Wilcken. Emphasis. The importance in the
study of religion of a right . 325 Encyclicals. Papal . . . 361
PAGE
Encyclopaedias. General survey of 432 Help they furnish to com-
parativists . . . 432
Yet some of them make no mention of Comparative Religion ! . . 433, 505
A serious oversight . 443, 481 Encyclopcedia Britannica
6n,21n, 129n, 264 7i, 433, 452. Catholic Encyclopedia
371 ?i, 384, 437 Jewish Encyclopedia . 439, 442 Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan
Research . . . .456
Encyclopaedia of I slain 413, 438, 443 Encyclopcedia of Religion and
Ethics 36 n, 292 n, 329, 434
New International Encyclopae- dia .... 433 n Neio Schaff-Herzog Encyclo- pedia . . . 433 n, 440 Pauly's Real- Encyclopd die der classischen Altertumswissen- schaft . . . 97 w, 444 Realencyklopddie fur protestan- tische Theologie und Kirche
366 n, 436, 440 Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart . . . 441
Epictetus.
A notable moral teacher 134, 215 w Epicureans. The . . 214, 298
Epigraphy. The science of .112
Erman, Adolf.
Contributor to Die Religionen
des Orients . . .184
Essenes. The . . . 340 n
Ethics. Egyptian . . .471
Jewish .... 444
Ethical conceptions non-existent in
Babylonian religion . . 258
elements in different religious systems 198, 408
Ethnography.
Called 'Descriptive Ethnology ' 12 V. Anthropology . . .11
V. Ethnology . 11,12,424
Importance for Comparative
Religion . . . 421, 428
See Baines, van Gennep, De
Groot. See Periodicals. Archives sociologiques. Divinity
School of Yale Univer- sity. Grundriss der indo- arischen Philologie und Al- tertumskunde.
INDEX
537
PAGE
Ethiioiogy. General Survey of . 35 Its importance for Compara- tive Religion 320, 354, 422, 427 Keenly studied in France . 38 Recent advances in Germany 40 V. Anthropology 3 n, 11, 35, 37 V. Ethnic Sociology . , 10
r. Ethnography " 11,12,424
See Bastian, von Bissing, Boas, Buschan, Chadwick, Ehrenreich, Farnell, For, Frobenius, Gomme, Graebner, Hose, Jastrow, Lawson, Meinhof, Petrie, Pettazzoni, Rivers, Sam- ter, Schmidt (W.), Spencer
(W.B.),StEINM£TZ, WlNTER- NITZ.
See Periodicals. Museums. Evans, Arthur, Sir.
Scripta Minoa (1909- ) . 120
An Atlas of Knossan Anti- quities . . . 121 ?^ The Nine Minoa n Periods 121 ?i Everett, Charles Carroll.
Editor of The New World . 478 The Psychological Elements of Religious Faith ( 1902) 140 n, 145 n Evolution. The philosophy of . 79 of the human race . . 82
of Religion . 451, 461, 519
of Creeds .... 448 of Christianity . . . 375
Modern peoples and their economic . . . .71
.Evolutionarv theory of religion.
The " 197, 208, 222-3, 248, 252 This theory viewed with suspicion 192, 361, 385 n, 423 Excavations. Archaeological 83, 130 See Archaeology.
Faber, Hermann.
Das Wesen der Religions- psijchologie (1913) . . 160
Facts, not conjectures, the basis of Comparative Religion
279, 295, 353, 396, 518 Faculty in which Comparative Religion should be taught in the Universities 350, 351, 494 n Fairs AiRN, Andrew Martin.
The right placing of the em- phasis .... 493 Barrows Lecturer in the East
70, 493
Fairbairn, a. M. [cont.) — page
The Philosophy of the Christian Religion (1902) 325 n, 493 n
Falke, Robert.
Buddha, Mohammed, Christua (1895) . . . 52 n
Farnell, Lewis Richard.
Researches in Anthropology
35,41,328,364 Special student of Greek Totc-
mism . ... 20
Mythological investigations 40, 97 Wilde Lecturer in Compara- tive Religion . . 364, 366 Defends the demands of the
New Anthropology . . 9 n
Advocate of the cultivation of more compact and manage- able areas . 9 n, 41, 58 Greek Religion . . 36 72. Certain Questions concerning
Hero-Cult in Greece . 40 n
Heroes and Hero-gods . 36 n
The Cults of the Greek States
(1896-1909) . . 40, 97h
The Evolutiou of Religion
(1905) . . . 10 n
Greece and Babylon (1911)
41, 42, 236 n, 365 n The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion {1912) 42n,2Zb,21on Farquhar, John Nicol.
The Crown of Hinduism (1913)
297, 409 n Modern Religious Movements in India (1915) . . 297
Fausboll, Michael Viggo.
Indian Mythology (1902) 282 n
Fear, the alleged source of Reli- gion .... 7 in African religions . . 56 Federation amongst religions 286, 495 Feeling, the basis of religious belief
139, 154, 367 See Schleiermacheb, Wob- bermin. Fehr, Fredrik.
A notable Swedish savant . 311 Female deities in Mvthologv
86, 87 n, 295 See Gods. Festschriften :
Hilprecht, Herman Volrath 95 Kohler, Kaufmann . . 319
RiDGEWAY, William . . 27 Toy, Crawford Howell . 310 Wellhausen, Julius . . 319 Fetishism, and anthropological
theories concernuig it
6,8
538
INDEX
2(3
32
181
191
Fetishism {cont.) — page
A pre-Animistic phase of reli
gion A phase of Animism A phase of genuine religion in Africa . .
Field, Dorothy.
The Religion of the Sikhs (1914)
297, 447 n Figgis, John Neville.
The Oospel and Human Needs
(1909) . . . .399
The Fellowship of the Mystery (19i4) . . . .399
Florenz, Karl Adolf.
Kojiki, Nihongi, EngishJci 407 n
96
49
429
49
49 39
Folklore. Origin of the study of .
Christian ....
Japanese ....
Jewish ....
of the Old Testament. See Frazer.
Moslem ....
Teutonic v. Greek
Its historic value . . 20, 36
A useful auxiliary of Com- parative Religion 49, 197, 325
Folk-Lore of the Holi/ Land (1907) . . ' . .49
See Arnold, Blixkenberg, Calderon, Frazer, Fro- benius, Gomme, Haxauer, Lawson, MacCulloch,
Palmer, Rhys, Thomas (N. W.).
See Periodicals. Congres- ses. Institutes. FoRLONG, James George Roche, General.
Short Texts in Faiths andPhilo- sophies {1891) . . 408 w
FoucART, George.
The relation of magic to religion 24«
Totemism not the universal primitive religion . 22 n
Anti})athy towards the anthro- pological School 9 n, 329 n, 343
('riticism of M. Reinach . 344
Criticism of M. Renel . . 344
Ardent advocate of the com- ])arative method 332 n, 351
A study of the higher religions best repays research . . 8
Awarded a Lefevre-Deumier jjrize .... 344
Ilisloire des religions et rnHhode comparative (1912)
8 n, 22 n, 24 n. 38 n, 47 n, 329 n, 342.
PAGE
FoucART, Paul.
Supporter of the comparative method .... 351 Fowler, William Warde.
Severe critic of the anthropo- logical School . 9 n, 15 n, 240 The Roman Festivals (1899) 237 n Social Life at Rome (1909) 237 n The Religious Experience of the Ronmn People (1911)
9 n, 226 n, 237 Roman Ideas of Deity (1914) 240 n Fox, George.
Enlarged the current under- standing of Christianity . 392 FoY, Willy.
Researches in Ethnology . 100 ;, Mythology . 97 Reply to his critics . 47 n
Defends the kulturgeschicht-
liche method . . 330, 360
Editor of Ethnologica . . 61
Editor of the KulturgeschicM-
liche Bibliothek . 46, 61, 368
Francis of Assisi, Saint.
Widened men's conception of the Christian faith . . 392
Franke, R. Otto.
Criticizes Dr.Neumann's trans- lations of Buddhist classics 259 n Dlghanikaya (1913) 406, 407 n
Eraser, Alexander Garden.
A Comparison between Chris- tianity and Theosophy (1913)
409% Frazer, James George, Sir.
A representative anthropolo- gist . . . 18, 329 Expert in Social Anthropology
12,63 Essential difference between magic and religion affirmed
6, 17, 23, 31 Totemism not the universal
primitive religion . 22 n, 29 His theories severelj' criticized
9 n, 15, 67, 150, 379 ^Nlany of his conclusions purely
tentative . . 14r-16, 19
Misleading accumulation of
' parallels ' . . .17
Actual assistance lent to Com- parative Religion . 18, 30 The Serpent and the Tree of
Life . . . .28
Contributor to The Annals of Archceology and Anthropo- logy .... 472
INDEX
539
Fkazer, J. G., Sir {cont.) — page
Totemism and Exogamy (1910) 21 n The Golden Bough (3rd cd., 1911-15)
12, 22, 23, 31 n, 105 w, 150, 152, 156, 249, 379 n. Folklore of the Old Testament 14 ?i Fbiedlander, Ludwig.
Roman Life arid Manners under the Ea rly Empire ( 1 908-1 3 ) 241 Fries, Samuel Andreas.
Jahvetempel ausserhalb Palds- tinasildU) . . 314,432
Frobenius, Leo.
Interest and researches in
Ethnology . . 43, 100
Researches in Mythology . 97 Sun myths .... 100 Defends the kulturgeschicht-
liche method . . 330, 360
Der Ursprung der afrikanischen
Kulturen {1898) . 43 h
Die Weltanschauung der Natur-
volker {1898) . . 43 ?i
Aus den Flegeljahren der
Menschheit {1901) . 4:3 n
Das Zeitalter des Sonnengottes
(1904) . . .' 44 71
TJnd Afrika sprach (1912- )
43, 44 n Future Life. Primitive concep- tions of the . . . 377 Babylonian conceptions . 257 Celtic conceptions . . 419 Christian v. non-Christian con- ceptions . . . 396 Egyj)tian conceptions . .471
Oait, Edward Albert.
Indian Totemism . . .21
Oall, August G. Ed. K. von.
Die Papyrusurkunden der jiidi- schen Gemeinde in Elephan- tine {1912) . . 125 H Galloway, George.
The Philosophy of Religion (1914) ... 510 n
Gandhi, Virchand Ragiiavaji.
The Jain Philosophy {1911) . 297 Gardiner, Alan Henderson.
Ethics of the Egyptians . 471
Gars TANG, John.
A distinguished archa?ologist
84, 329 Contributor to The Annals of Archceology and Anthropo- logy . . . 471 n
Garstang, John {cant.) — page
The Land of the Hittites (1909) 84
Meroe (1911) . . . 84 n
Garvie, Alfred Ernest.
A critic of the religionsge- schichtliche method . . 342
Defends the comparative me- thod . . . 332 n
Contributor to London Theo- logical Studies . . .4)1
The Christian Certainty amid the Modern Perplexity {1910)
332 71, 512 n
The Missionary Obligation
(1914) . . . .400
Gathas. The . . 275, 276, 277
See Dadachanji, Jackson (A. V. AV), MouLTON. Geden, Alfred Shenington.
Supporter of the comparative method . . . 332 n
The literature of Comparative Religion . . .182, 516 ;i
Studies in Comparative Reli- gion (1898) . . 181 n
Studies in Eastern Religions (1990) ... 181 n
Studies in the Religions of the East {1913) . . 165 n, 181 Gennep, Arnold van.
Researches in Ethnology 328, 351
Ardent student of Totemism 20-2
Denies alleged primitive uni- versality of Totemism . 21
Critic of the antluropological method . . 15 «, 21, 22
Critic of the sociological me- thod . . . . ^o
Criticism of M. Toutain 21, 344
Supporter of the ethnographi- cal method . . .65
Warmly defends the compara- tive method 19, 22, 332 «, 345
The abuse of the comparative method • . 333 n
Promoter of an Ethnographi- cal Congress . . . 424
Contributions to the history of the ethnographical method 38 n
Guide sommaire to the Ethno- graphical Museum in Neu- chatel .... 503
Religions, moeurs et legendes (1908- )
19, 66 n, 101 n, 329 n, 333 n, 344 71, 345 n,S51 n.
Tabou, Totemisme et Mlthode comparative (1908) . . 344
Les Rites de passage (1909) 20, 53 n
540
INDEX
Gexnep, Arnold van (cont.) — page La Formation des legendes
(1910) . . . .109 Grermany, and the History of Reli- gions . . 405, 429, 462
See Jordan, Troeltsch.
Its indebtedness in this domain
to foreign scholarship
194, 211, 402, 403, 404 Its own valuable initiative 92, 462 Gesellschaft fur vergleichende
Mythenforschunq 97, 100, 110 Gesellschaft fur Islanihunde . 428 Getty, Alice.
The Gods of Northern Buddhism
(1914) . . . .297 Giles, Herbert Allen.
Confucianism and its Rivals
(1915) . 213 ?i, 235 72, 297 Giles, Lionel.
Musings of a Chinese Mystic
(1911) . . . 447 w Taoist Teach ings (1912) 4A'l n
Gilgamesh. The story of . . 104
Gill, Richard H. K,
The Psychological Aspects of Christian Experience (1915) 160 Gillen, Francis James.
Australian Totemism . .21
GiLMORE, George William.
Index to the New Schaff- Herzog Encyclopedia of Re- ligious Knoivledge (1914) 441 n Glover, Terrot Reaveley.
The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire (1909) . . . .210
The Christian Tradition and its Verification (1913) 160, 400 Gnosticism . 174, 280, 339, 406
Goblet d'Alviella, Eugene, Le Comte. A founder of the Science of ^ Religion . . 419, 450
Values highly the comparative
method . . . 332 n
Abuses of that method 332 7i, 347 Criticism of the sociological
method . . . . Q9 n
Rejoinder to his own critics 450-1 Introduction a Vhistoire gene- rale des religions (1887) 450 n Croyances, rites, institutions (1911)
332 w, 346 w, 347 «, 348 w, 368, 450. De V assistance que se doivent mutuellement dans Vhiero- logie la Methode historiqiie
Goblet d'Alviella (cont.) — page et la Methode comparative (1913) . . . .346
God. Origin of the idea of 426, 436 n Nature of belief in .153, 350
' A postulate of moral con- sciousness ' . . . 148 A universal belief 148, 149, 350 in Hindu religion . . . 253 in Japanese religion . . 247 in Roman religion . . 226 in Stoic philosophy . . 226 Gods of all races .... 197 of the Babylonians and As- syrians .... 256 of Egypt . . . 230-2 of Homer . . . 248, 317 Heilgotter .... 317 Sondergotter . . . 315 Divine names . . . 325 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang.
The problems of religion 466 n GoGUET, Antoine Yves.
A precursor of modern com- parativists . . .22
GOLDZIHER, IgNAZ.
Distmctive features of Islam
314, 432 Contributor to Die Religionen
des Orients . . .184
Contributor to Beitrdge zur
Religionswissenschaft . 431
Vorlesungen uber den Islam
(1910) . . 241,316?*
GoMME, George Laurence, Sir.
Celtic Totemism . . .20
Researches in Sociology . 63 n The Handbook of Folklore
(1890) . . . .60
GOTAMA.
His personal teaching;
215, 222, 259. 283, 298, 409. Early modification of his doc- trines by his successors 283 n The Dialogues . .259, 260
See Barthelemy Saint- Hilaire, Dahlke, Held, Lehmann, Oldenberg, Richard (T.). Shankar. Graebner, Robert Fritz.
Researches in Ethnology . 4S Need of intensive study with- in narrowly restricted areas 47 Criticism of his ethnological
theory . . . . 41 n
Reply to his critics . . 47 7fc
The k'ulturgeschichtlichc me- thod defended . . 330, 360
INDEX
541
Graebner, R. F. (cont.) — page
Methode der Ethnologie (1911)
36 n, 46 Orandmaison, Leonce de.
Suspicious of the comparative
method . . . 384 ti
Protest against some unjust criticisms of the Roman Catholic attitude towards Comparative Religion . 30 n
Editor of Etudes . . .30 n
Contributor to Lectures on the History of Religions . .186
Granth. The. 261, 263, 265, 266 7i
A reliable English translation still needed . . . 267
Orasserie, Raoul Guerin de la. Des religions comparees au poiyit de vue sociologique (1899) . . . .64 71
Greef, Guillaume Joseph de. Introduction d la sociologie (1886-89) ... 79
Grenfell, Bernard Pyne.
Expert in Papyrology . .123
Grossman, Rudolph, Rabhi.
Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . .218
Grube, Wilhelm.
Religion und Kultus der Chinesen (1910) . .298
Grundriss der indo-arisclien Philo- logie und Altertumskunde (1896- ) . . .60, 455
GUERBER, H, A.
The Myths of Greece and Rome (1907) . . . .101
Ilyths of the Norsemen (1908) 101 n
Myths and Legends of the 3Iiddle Ages (1909) . 101 n
GuiDi, Ignazio.
Prehistoric Migrations of the Arabs . . . .303
President of the International Archaeological Congress of 1912 . . . .425
GuNKEL, Hermann.
Christianity a syncretism 331 n, 389
The History of Religion and Old Testament Criticism 331 n, 417
Approves the use of the com- parative method . 327 w.
Contributor to Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart . 442
Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verstandnis des Neuen Testaments (1903) 331 n, 341 n
Reden und Aufsatze (1913) 331 n Gurus of Sikhism. The . 263, 267
PAGE
GwATKiN, Henry Melvill.
Joint -editor of The Cambridge
Medieval History . . 452
Ea rly Ch urch History ( 1 909) 395 n
Haas, Hans.
Amida Buddha unsere Zuflucht (1910) . . . 407 u
Haberlandt, Michael.
Zur Kritik der Lehre von den Kulturschichten und Kultur- kreisen (1911) . . . 4:7 n
Habert, a., L'Abbe.
Contributor to Oii en est Vhis- toire des religions ? . .177
Hackmann, Heinrich Friedrich.
Travels in the East . 243, 306 Vom Omi bis Bhamo (1905) 307 n Der Buddhismus (1906)
243, 307 n, 462 n Buddhism as a Religion (1910)
243, 307 n Welt des Ostens ^1912) . 307 ?i Religioneti und heilige Schriften (1914) . . . .308
Haddon, Alfred Cort.
Australian Totemism . .21
Advocate of an intensive study
of limited areas . . 59
History of Anthropology (1910)
59 71 Hall, Charles Cuthbert.
Barrows Lecturer in the East 70 Hall, Harry Reginald Holland. JEgean Archceology (1915)
83 n, 94, 121 n Hammurabi.
King of Babylon . . .88
Code of Laws . . 88, 310
Hanauer, James Edward.
Missionary of the London Jews
Society . . . .49
Tales told in Palestine (1904) 49 n Folk-Lore of the Holy Land (1907) . . . .49
Handbooks for the study of reli- gion. See Manuals. Handcock, Percy Stuart Peache.
Theory of Hittite migrations . 89 Mesopota7nian Archceology
(1912) . . . .87
The Latest Light on Bible Lands (1913) . . . 88 n
Harada, Tasuku.
The Faith of Japan (1914)
21Zn, 244, 282 n
542
INDEX
PAGE
Hardy, Thomas John.
The Religious Instinct (1913)
513 w Harxack, Adolf von.
Former association with the Theologische Liter aturzeitung
490 Harris, James Rendel.
The Stori/ of Ahikar {1898) . 116 Harrison, Jane Ellen.
Influenced by M. Durkheim . 248 Also influenced by Usener . 315 Excessive multiplication of
'parallels' . . .249
The Mythology and Monuments
of Ancient Athens (1890) 97 n Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion (1903) 247 n, 248 The Religion of Ancient Greece
(1905) . . 97w, 247?2
Themis {1912) . . 91 n, 2^1
Ancient Art and Ritual (1913)
247 n Hartford Theological Seminary.
See Seminaries. Hartland, Edwin Sidney.
Eminent anthropologist , 25
Relation of magic to religion
23, 24, 25 Origin of Father-right and
Mother-right . . .24
The Legend of Perseus (1894-
96) . . . . 24 ?i
Mythology and Folktales { 1900) 97 n
Divine Paternity (1909-10) 24 n
Ritual and Belief (1914) 10, 23
Hartley, C. Gasquoine.
The Position of Woman in Primitive Society (1914) . 79 Hartmann, Martin.
First President of the Gesell-
schaftfur Islamkunde, Berlin 428 Der islamische Orteni (1905-09)
251 n Der Islam : Geschichte, Glauhe, Recht {1909) . . .250
Hartmann, Richard.
Joint-editor of The Encyclo- paedia of Islam . . . 439 Harvard University Divinity School. See Universities. Haskell, Caroline E.
Founder of important Ameri- can Lectureships for the study of religion . . 69
Hastings, James.
Untiring promoter of Com- parative Religion . . 478
Hastings, James {cont.) — page
Laments the dearth of exposi- tions of Comparative Reli- gion .... 521
Unexpected omissions from his great Encyclopcedia . 436
The only persuasive Apolo- getic .... 373
Editor of The Expository Times . . . .477
Editor of A Dictionary of the Bible . . . 435 n
Editor of the Encyclopcedia of Religion and Ethics
36 n, 49 n, 255 n, 434, 457 n Hauck, Albert.
Editor of the Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie
und Kirche Heathendom. Celtic . Germanic Non-Semitic See Hose, Lehmann,
404w, 436
. 453
. 453
. 454
Mein-
HOF, NiLSSON, WaRNECK.
Heden, Erik.
Homerische Gotterstudien {1912) 317 UHegire .... 298, 419 Helbing, Robert.
Ausivahl aus griechischen
Papyri {1912) . . .134
Held, Hans Ludwig.
Buddha (1912- ) . .298
Helm, Karl Hermann Georg.
A Itgerman ische Religio n sge - schichte {191'^- ) . .109
Henderson, Charles Richmond.
Barrows Lecturer in the East 69
Social Prograynmes in the West
(1913) Henderson, George.
Survivals in Belief among the Celts {1911) Henotheism expounded Henry, Victor.
La Magie dans VInde antique (1911) . . . .
Herbermann, Charles George. Editor of The Catholic Encyclo- pedia .... Herder, Johann Gottfried von.
69
298 32
33
43-
466 n
275 232
The problems of religion Herodotus.
Citations from
on P]gyptian religion Hero Worship. See Cults. Heusler, Andreas.
Contributor to Die Religionen des Orients . . .184
Hibbert Lectures. See Lectures.
INDEX
543
PAGE
HiCKs, Robert Drew.
Researches in Stoicism. 226 n
Stoic and Epicurean (VJW) . 298 Hiiroqraphie .... 451 HUrologie .... 346, 451 Hierosopkie . . . .451
Hill, J. Arthur.
New Evidences in Psychical Besearch {1911) . 146 w
Religion and Modern Psycho- lorji/ {1911) . . .146
HiLLEBRANDT, ALFRED.
Lieder des Rgveda (1913) 407 n
HiLPRECHT, HeRMAX VoLRATH.
See Festschriftex. Hinayaniism .... 283
See Mahayanism. Hinduism. General survey of
174, 182. 183, 188, 191, 203, 251, 369, 403, 404, 406, 408, 416, 438. and Christianity . 251, 253, 325 and Sikhism . . . 264
and other religions . . 469
Its doctrine of incarnation . 381 See Dowsox, Farquhar, HowELLS, SherrocK; Zim-
MERMAX'.
Hixxeberg, Paul.
Editor of Die Kultur der Gegen- icart .... 183
History of Religions. See Reli-
GIOXS.
Sources of Greek . . . 458
Sources of Latin . . . 458
Hittites. The Empire of the 84, 86, 115 Perplexing inscriptions . .120
Various migrations . . 89
See Campbell, Garstaxg,
Hogarth, Petrie, Sayce,
Skexe, Wright. HoBHOusE, Leoxard Trelawxy. The comprehensiveness of
Sociology . . 63 w
Development and Purpose
(1913) . . . .79
HocKixG, William Erxest.
The Meaning of God in Human
Experience (1912) . 137, 147 HoDGSOX, James Museutt.
The Bibles of Other Nations
(1885) . . . 409 ?i
Hogarth, David George.
Papyri fragments . .123
Hittite Problems and the
Excavation of Carchemish
(1912) . . . .85
Carchemish (1914- ) . .94
page Hogg, Hope Waddell.
Researches in Assyriology 482, 566
Founder of the INIanchester Oriental Society . . 483
HoLLAXD, Edith.
The Story of Mohammed (1914) 298 HoLLEBECQUE, Madame.
Les Beligions (1910) . . 170
' Holy ' men of the East . . 72
Homer.
The gods of Early Greece . 248 HoMMEL, Fritz,
Prehistoric migrations of the Arabs .... 303
HOOXACKER, AlBIX VAX.
Elephantine researches . 130 n
Une communaute jiideo-arame- enned Elephantine {1915) . 134
HOPFXER, ThEODOR.
Der Tierkult des alten Agypten (1914) , . . .94
HopKixs, Edward Washbitrx.
The sacred rivers of India . 310 The Beligions of India (1895) 195 n Hose, Charles.
The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (1912) . . . .60
Houtsma, Martyx Theodor.
Editor of The Encyclopcedia of Islam .... 438 HowELLS. George."
The Sonl of India {1913)
4 n, 251, 325 w, 370 ?i Howitt, Alfred William.
Australian Totemism . .21
Hubert, Hexri.
Researches in Ethnology 329, 351 Sir James Frazer's theory con- cerning Totemism misjudged 22 7i Melanges d'histoire des religions (1909) . . . 98 w, 308
Huby, Joseph.
Contributor to Lectures on the
History of Beligions . . 186
Editor of Christus . . 184
Hugel, Friedrich vox. Baron.
Rejoinder to criticisms un- justly made against Roman Catholic research in religion 30 n Hughes, Thomas Patrick.
A Dictionary of Islam (1885) 439 n Hugo, Victor.
Beligions et religion (1880) 364 n Hume, Robert Erxest.
Now occupant of the Chair of the Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Seminary, New York . . . SOL
544
INDEX
PAGE
Hunt, Arthur Surridge.
Papyri and Papyrology . 123
Hutchinson, Walter.
Editor of Customs of the World 51 Hyde, William De Witt.
From Epicurus to Christ {1904)
214 w The Five Great Philosophies of
Life {1912) . . .213
The Quest of the Best (1913) 214 n Hymn of the Kouretes . . . 250
Hypotheses. The frequent abuse of
19, 305, 396, 518
workinoj
Iconography . . . .297
Imagination. Risks of a too speculative
14-15,90, 132, 179,279,340, 378, 518. Immortality. The general doctrine
of . . . . 147,377
Babylonian ideas of . . 256 Brahmanic theories . . 259
Egyptian views . . . 230
Greek ideals . . , 259
Japanese teaching . .245
Incarnation. Faiths in a divine
380 f, 396, 436 n in Bahaism . . . .381
in Buddhism . . . 381
in Christianity . . .380
in Hellenism . . .381
in Hinduism . . .381
Index {Subject) of Modern Works in the British Museum Library (1886- ) . 516 w
Index { Vedic) of Names and Subjects
(1912) . . . .456
Index to the Expository Times
1880-ldOd {19U) . 478 w
Index to the New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (1914) . 441 n
India. Antiquities of . .93
Indians and Negroes in America
contrasted . . .36
Inferences. Risky 17, 19, 76, 353
'^ Happy hits' . . 520,521
' Safe ' pronouncements . 384
Inge, William Ralph.
Faith and its Psychologi/ { 1909)
137 n, 140 n
Inscriptions. Assyrian . 127, 458
Babylonian 88, 111, 127, 458
Christian . . . .122
Cuneiform . 92, 126, 130 f, 458
|
Inscriptions {cont.) — |
PAGE |
|
Egyptian |
. 503 |
|
Greek |
. 444 |
|
Hittite |
. 120 |
|
Persian |
127, 128, 458 |
|
Roman |
. 444 |
|
Tell el Amarna |
. 458 |
Institut catholique de Paris . 233
ethnographique international
de Paris , . . .19
Kolonial-, in Hamburg 480, 494 n Suisse d'anthropologie gene- rale de Geneve . . . 473 de sociologie Solvay de Bru- xelles . . . 463, 464 Intellect as creative of religious ideas 154 Isis Worship. See Cults. Islam. See Mohammedanism. Israel. The Religion of. See Ju- daism.
Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams. Researches in Zoroastrianism 278 Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . .218
Jackson, Samuel Macaulay.
Editor of The New International
Encyclopcedia . 433 n, 440 n
Editor of The New Schaff- Herzog Encyclopedia . . 440 Jahweh [ Jahve] before the time of
Moses . . . .310
Temples outside of Palestine
117. 128, 129, 432 Jainism. General survey of
182, 188, 191, 436 n, 438 The History and Literature of
Jainis77i\l909) . . . 295
The Jain Philosophy (1911) .297 Jainism (1912) . . .301
The Heart of Jainism {1915) . 300 See Barodia, Gandhi, Ste- venson,Thornton, Warren. James, William.
Inspirer of many pupils
153, 155, 367 Unfaltering belief in a spiritual
universe . . .156
Constant employment of a
Questionnaire . . .155
Principles of Psychology (1891) 153 The Will to Believe (1897) . 153 The Varieties of Religious Ex- perience (1902)
140 n, 143 n, 153, 155, 156 n, 366.
INDEX
545
PAGE
Jastrow, Morris.
Divination .... 419 ThcLiverastliescatof thcsoul 310 Editor of Handbooks on the
History of Reliqions 195, 299 Tlie Relic/ ion of Babylonia and
Assyria {ISm) . 195 ?i, 254 ?t The Study of Religion ( 1901) . 96 n Die Religion Babyloniens imd
Assyriens (1905-12) 233 n, 255 n Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria (1911) . 233 w, 254 Bildermappe zitr Religion Baby- loniens und Assyriens (1912)
255 w Hebrew and Babylonian Tradi- tions {1914:) . . 255 ?i Babylonian- Assyrian Birth- Omens and their Cultural Significance (1914) . 60, 317 Jeqfier, Gustave.
Histoire de la civilisation egyptienne (1914) . . 94
Jebeauas, Alfred.
Researches in Mythology . 329 Astral myths . . .97
Handbuch der altorientalischen
GeisteskuUur {1913) . . 33
A Ugemeine Religionsgeschichte (1916) . . . .204
Jessel, E. E.
The Unknown History of the Jeivs {1909) . . .89
Jesus. The alleged myth of . 309
Alternatives to . . . 380
The historicity of
214, 215-16, 306, 381, 436 w, 437. The alleged resurrection of 240, 393 as viewed by Bahaism . .291
or Christ . . . .309
and His mission to all mankind
240, 287. 382 in coming time . . . 386
however revered, not to be
excessively lauded . 398, 517 See Garvie, Jevons, Johnston (J. L.), Martin (A. W.), Martindale, Moulton,
TiSDALL.
See Encyclopaedias. Jevons, Frank Byron.
Researches in Anthropology
328, 377
Religion prior to magic . Totemism not a universal type of primitive religion .
7 n
29
Jevons, F. B. {conl.) — • page
Severely criticized 21, 21 n, 150 A Christian apologist 376, 378, 379 Comparative Religion as 'The Applied Science of Religion '
390?* An Introduction to the History of Religion (1896)
21 71, 151 w, 152, 170 w, 173 w An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion (1908) . 370 n, 376 n, 390 n Comparative Religion (1913)
173 n, 376, 5U n Jewish Folklore. See Folklore. Jews' Society of London . . 49
Jews at Elephantine . 117, 128, 134
See Judaism. Johnson, John de Monins.
Antione and its papyri . . 482
Johnston, John Leslie.
Supporter of the comparative
method . . . .381
Some Alternatives to Jesus Christ (1914) . 330 n, 330 Johnston, Reginald Fleming.
Buddhist China {1913) . . 298
Jordan, Louis Henry.
The History of Religion, and its introduction into the Ger- man Universities 211 n, 402 n Comparative Religion : Its Goiesis and Growth (1905) 12 71, 111 n, 333 n, 517 n. Comparative Religion : A Survey of its Recent Litera- ture (1906- )
9 n, 52 n, 252 n^ 342 ?i, 364 n, 370 n, 376 n, 379 n, 390 n, 394 n, 418 71, 434 n. 435 n, 436 n, 509 n, 511 n, 515 n. Comparative Religion : Its Method and Scope (1908)
167 n, 327 7?. 335 n, 368, 494 n, 504 n, 520 n, 521 n. The Study of Religion in the
Italian Universities {1909) 349 n Comparative Religion : Its
Range and Limitations (1915) 521 Comparative Religion : Its Meaning and Value 335 n, 509 n Journal of Comparative Religion
{International) still lacking 516 This want must be supplied . 486 Joyce, Thomas Athol.
South American Archceology
(1912) . . . .94
Mexican Archceology (1914) . 94
413 n.
N n
546
INDEX
PAGE
Judaism. General survey of
171, 175, 177, 185, 188, 191,
19571, 202, 203, 234, 278, 294,
306, 338, 377, 406, 408, 436 n.
The religion of Israel . . 436 n
Alleged origins of . 89, 331 w
Extra-biblical sources of its
history . . . .95
Social history of . . .78
Reformed . . . 218,444
at Elephantine . 117, 128, 134 Is it a syncretism ? .331 n, 390 Outgrown ? ... 338
A preparation for Christianity?
382, 391 Must be sympathetically inter- preted .... 378 The alleged transcendence of . 177 V. Christianity . . . 444
V. Islam .... 444 V. non-Semitic religions . 496
Every adequate Manual ex- pounds it . . .169 See Kent, Levine, Menzies, Mercer, Moore, Peters, Sanders, Smith (H. P.), Welch. See Encyclopedias. Julian. The Emperor.
Protest against the ' atheism ' of Christianity . . 280
JULLIAN, CaRHLLE.
Keltic Heathenism in Gaul . 453 Juno Cult. See Cults. Jupiter Cult. See Cults. Jus divinum . . . .239
Kapadia, Shaporji Aspaniarji. Joint-editor of The Wisdom of the East series . . . 446
Karma ..... 285 Kato, Genchi.
Shintoism . . . .421
Keane, Augustus Henry.
Translator of Dr. Frobenius's
Und Afrika sprach -. . 43
The Childhood of Man (1909) . 44 n Keith, Arthur Berriedale.
Vedic Index of Names and Sub- jects (1912) . . .456 Kellett, Ernest Edward.
The Religion of our Northern Ancestors (1914) . 109, 298
Kellogg, Samuel Henry.
A Handbook of Comparative Relifjion 1899) 370 n
page
Kennedy School of Missions. See
Schools. Kent, Charles Foster.
The Makers and Teachers of Judaism (1911) . .298
Kern, Johan Hendrik.
Manual of Indian Buddhism (1896) . . . 456 n
Keshab Chandra Sen.
Religious reform in India . 253 King, Irving.
Magic and religion differen- tiated . . . 150-1 Sir James Frazer's theory
criticized . . . 17 /i
The psychology of religion . 138 The Development of Religion (1910) . . . .149
Klein, Frederick Augustus.
The Religion of Islam (1906) 288 n Kleine Texte fur Vorlesungen und
Uebungen {1903- ) . 316
Knox, George William.
Union Seminary Lectureship
on Comparative Religion . 501 Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . . 218
KOBAYASHI, TeRUAKI.
La Societe japonaise (1914:) . 80 Koch, Paul.
Die arischen Grundlageii der Bibel{19U) . . . 109
Kolonialinstitut, Hamburg. See
Institut. Koran. Sundry references to the
117, 251, 273 the basis of Islam . . 274
The spirit of the . . . 206
An interpretation of the . 271
See Macdonald, Margo- liouth, Sell(e), Tisdall. Krishna Cult. See Cults. Kroll, Wilhelm.
Joint-editor of Pauly's Real- Encyclopadie . . . 444
Kruger, Gustav.
Joint-editor of the Theologi- scher Jahresbericht . . 454
Kuhn, Adalbert.
Mythologische Studien (1886- 1912) . . .97 u, 109
Kuhn, Ernst.
Mythologische Studien von Adalbert Kuhn (1912) . 109
Kidtur der Gegemvart {Die) { 1905- )
183, 251 n See Encyclop.hdias. Kulturkreise 47, 49, 330, 360, 368, 436
INDEX
547
PAGE
Kurdn. See Koran". Kurtz, Benjamix Pcttnam,
Studies in the Marvellous (1910) 161 KusTER, Erich.
Die Schlange in der griechi- schen Kunst und Religion (1913) . . . .317
KuTSCH, Ferdinand.
Attische Heilgdtter und Heil- heroen (1913) . . .317
Kyle. Melvin Grove.
The Deciding Voice of the Monuments in Biblical Criti- cism {1913) . . . 94
Labanca, Baldassare.
Pioneer work in Italy , . 349
Projected the founding of a Review for the scientific study of religion . . 487
Supporter of the comparative
method . . .332 n, 349
La Religione per le Universitd e un problema, non un assioma (1886) . 349 n
Prolegomeni alia storia com- parativa delle religioni ( 1909)
348 Lafitau, Pierre Fran-cois.
A precursor of modern com- parativists . . .22
Lagrange, Marie Joseph, Pere. Contributor to Etudes palesti-
niennes et orientales . . 234 Semitic religions . . . 234
Lamaism . . . 183, 243, 436 w
Lammens, Henri.
Le Berceau de F Islam {IQU- ) 298 Landsberger, B.
Babylonian -Assyrian religion 404 Lang, Andrew.
A many-sided genius . . 30
Religion prior to magic 7 n, 23 No patience with excessive
hypotheses . . .76
Severe critic of Sir James
Frazer . . 15 w, 19, 67
Totemism an early type of
genuine religion . .67
Yet not a universal expression
of primitive religion . 22 n, 29 Greek Totemism . . 20, 21
Never taught the doctrine
of a primitive revelation . 68 GifiEord Lectures. >See Lecture-
ships.
Nn
Lang, Andrew {cont.) — page
Criticism of Canon MacCulloch 270 Criticism of the sociological
method ... 65, 75 Myth, Ritual and Religion
(1887) . . . ' .98w
The Making of Religion ( 1 898)
68 n, 75 n Magic and Religion (1901) . 15 ?«. Langdon, Stephen.
Archaeologist and Assyriolo-
gist . . . .83/4
Tammuz und Ishtar (1914)
317, 513 n Lao-Tze.
Personality and teaching 215, 301 See Stube. Latin v. Teutonic Christianity . 36 La Vallee-Poussin, Louis de. Contributor to Lectures on the
History of Religions . . 186
Contributor to Oii en est Vhis-
toire des religions ? . .177
Contributor to Christus . 184
Laws. Comparative Religion a search for
112, 150, 334, 336, 337, 511, 515, 519. which govern the destiny of religions .... 336 Lawson, John Cuthbert.
Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion (1910) . . . .54
Learned Societies. See Societies. Lecky, William Edward Hart- pole. History of European Morals (1869) . . . 226 w
Lectureships.
International
134, 205. 211, 221, 228, 237. 242, 244, 275, 278, 493, 501. Stimulus they supply to stu- dents of Comparative Reli- gion . . . 276, 293 American 211, 224, 242, 254, 301 Angus . . 251, 325, 400 Barrows . . 69, 493, 501 Bross ..... 205 Carey . . . . 399
Clark 60
Colwmhia University . . 278
Cunningham . . .161
Deems .... 221
Drew ..... 471 Edinburgh Missionary Con- tinuation . . . .218 Ely . . . . . 300
2
548
INDEX
Lectureships [cont.) — page
Fernley .... 386 Gijford 133, 143, 160, 237, 238, 293 Hartford-Lamson
211 n, 244, 270, 297, 301,
496 n, 498. Haskell . . 255 n, 270 n
Hibhert
42, 235, 274, 275, 298, 302,
387.
|
Hulsean |
. 399 |
|
|
Kerr . |
. ■ . 301 |
|
|
Long . |
. 301 |
|
|
Morse |
. 228 |
|
|
Paddock |
. 399 |
|
|
• Pollok |
. .400 |
|
|
Bhi)id |
. 130 |
|
|
Schweich |
. 134 |
|
|
Sprunt |
. 161 |
|
|
Wilde |
363, 364, 366 |
|
|
Legends v. Myths |
. 96 |
|
|
often of permanent |
value . 99 |
|
|
associated with |
agriculture . 96 |
Babylonian originals found in
the Old Testament 89, 90, 99 Their astral interpretation . 20 of the Celtic race . . 268 n
See Danson, Fbobenius, van Gennep, Reinach, Rolles-
TON.
Legge, James.
The Religions of China (1880)
213 n, 218 11 Lehmann, Edvard.
Professorship in Berlin 211, 402 n Contributor to Die Religionen
des Orients . . .184
Contiibutor to the Realencyklo- pctdie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche . 436
Editor of Teztbuch zur Reli-
gionsgeschichte . 403, 405, 467 Editor of Lehrbuch der Reli-
gionsgeschichte . . .169
Editor of Religionsvetenskapen
204, 404 Der Buddhismus (1911) . 298
Le Roy, Alexandre, UEveque.
Contributor to Christus . 184
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim.
The perplexing problems of religion .... 466 Leuba, James Henry.
The psychological method . 329 Thought, feeling, and volition essential constituents of religion . . . .154
Magic in its relation to religion
24 w
Leuba, J. H. [cont.) — page
The Psychological Origin and the Nature of Religion (1909)
24 n, 151 n A Psychological Study of Reli- gion (1912) . . .151 Levine. Ephraim.
Judaism (1913) . . . 298
LlfeVY-BRUHL, LitCIEX.
A disciple of M. Durkheim . 73 Researches in Mythology . 98 ' La loi de participation ' . 73 Criticism of the English anthro- pological school . . 74 Advocates the use of the
comparative method . . 73
Weak points in his own theory 74 Les Fonctions mentales dans
les societes injerieures (1910) 72 Lewis, Agnes Smith.
The Story of Ahikar (1898) . 116 Liberal Theology. See Theology. ' Libraries ' consulted for the pur- poses of this volume : Allgemeine Geschichte der Philo-
sophie . . . . 304
Aus Natur und Geisteswelt . 300 Beitrage zur Religionswissen-
schaft . . 310,311,318
Biblioteca, Bibliotheca, Biblio-
tek, Bibliothek, Bibliotheque,
q. r. Cambridge Manuals of Scien/^e
and Literature. See Manuals. Christian Literature Society for
India .... 300 Christian Literature Society of
China .... 284 Collection Athena . . .170
Collezione di scienza delle reli-
gioni . . . 204, 460
Epochs of Philosophy . . 298
Mudes palestiniennes et orien-
tales .... 234
Geschichte der indischen Littera-
tur ..... 301 Gibb Memorial series . 292 n
Handbooks of the History of
Religions. See Manuals. Handbilcher der klassischen
Altertuniswissenschaft ■ . 294 Heroes of all Time . . 298
Heroes of the Nations . 274 n
Historical Bible series . . 298
Historical Series for Bible
Students . . . 229 n
Home University Library of
Modern Knowledge . . 273 Indian Texts . . . 456
INDEX
549
' Libraries ' (cont,) — page
International Theological . 188
Layma7i's .... 380 Library of Philosophy . .155
Library of Historical Theology 394 Litteratiiren des Ostens in
Einzeldarstellutigen . 467 ?i
Manuals for Christian Think- ers. See Manuals. Oriental Reliqions . . 282
People's Books 143, 296, 298
Religio nsgeschichtliche Volks-
biicher . . 243, 301, 462
Religionsvetenskapligt Bibiiotek
204, 311 71, 460 Religions Ancient and Modern 144 Religions Quest of India . 300
Sammlunggemeinverstdndlicher
Vortrdge undSchriften, u.s.w. 301 Sa7)i7nlung theologischer Lehr-
bucher .... 403 Studies in Theology . . 223
Wisdom of the East 297, 446, 447 n LiETZMANN, Hans.
Editor of Kleine Texte fur Vorlesungen und Uebungen 316 9i Likenesses. See Parallels. Lindsay, James.
The Psychology of Belief {\^l{)) 140 n Lindsay, Thomas Martin.
The triumph of Christianity . 453 Lindsay, Wallace Martin.
Aramaic Texts . . 129 ?4
Literature of Comparative Religion
is still scanty . . . 516
Liver (The), the alleged seat of the
soul .... 310
Livingstone, David.
A new vision of Christianity . 393 Loat, Leonard Stevenson.
The Cemeteries of Abydos (1909- ) ... 95
LoiSYj Alfred.
Religion prior to magic . 7 n
Criticism of the anthropologi- cal method . . .66 Criticism of the sociological
method . . . .66
Advocate of the historical
method . . . .66
Abuses of the comparative
method . . . 332 ?i
Protest against an unjust criticism of Roman Catholic scholars . . . . 30 w
Le^on d'ouvertwe du cours
d'histoire des religions (1909) 66 n A propos d'histoire des reliaions (1911) . . 309,333 71
page London Theological Studies (1911) . 4 w Lorenzo, Giuseppe de.
India e buddhismo antico (1904) . . 213 w, 258
LoRET, Victor.
Egyptian Totemism . . 20
Loria, Lamberto.
Founder of Lares . , . 484
Lotu^ Scripture. The . . . 284
Loyalty an aspect of religion
246, 264, 260, 282, 430 Lucian.
Le Lea Syria . . , S7
LUDERS, HeINRICH.
Joint -editor of Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologic und Altertumskunde . . 455
Lutheranism . . . .186
Lyall, Alfred Comyn, Right Hon. Sir. Criticism of Sir James Frazer 15 n Lyon, David Gordon.
The Hammurabi Code . .310
Joint-editor of Studies in the History of Religions . . 310
Magi. The. ' . . . .277
Magic. General survey of
197, 308, 309, 325, 377, 461, 503. The appeal of . . .53
An anthropological studj^ 6, 196 Not likely to unveil the origin
of religion . . . 343
V. religion
6, In, 11, 23-4, 24 n, 25, 32, 64, 67, 150, 173. as associated with Totemism 212 in African religion . . 56
in Celtic religion . . . 269
A symptom of religious degen- eration ? . . . 1,1 n See BouviER, Durkheim, FoucART, Henry, Hubert, Jevons, King, Lang, Leu-
BA, LOISY, MaCGREGOR,
Marett, Mauss, Saintyves,
Schmidt (W.). Magna Mater . . . . ^iS
Mafidbhdrata . . . 282 n
Mahdydna . . 283, 285, 287
Malapert-Neufville,Maria Con-
stantia von, Freifrau. Die ausserchristlichen Religio'
nen und die Religion Jesu
Christi (1914) . . .382
550
INDEX
PAGE
Maunowski, Bronislaw.
The Family among the Austra- lian aborigines (1913) . 80 Mana. See Marett, Saintyves. Manaresi, Alfonso.
Ulmpero romano e il Cristiane- simo (1913) . . .224
Manatt, James Irving.
The Mycencean Age (1914) 121 n Mandsean religion . . 191, 339
Die mandaische Religion
(1889) . . . 339 w
Mandaische Schriften (1893) 339 ?i Manichseism .... 191 Manitius, Maximilianus.
Teutonic migrations . , 453
Mankind and the Church ( 1907) 36 n Manu.
The religion of . . . 409
Manuals of the History of Religions.
General survey of . . 168 f
See Bricout, Chantepie de la
Saussaye,Dussaud,GedeN,
HuBY, Jastrow, Menzies,
Moore, von Orelli, Rei-
NACH, SoDERBLOM, ToY,
TuRGHi, Warren.
Such Manuals, to-day, are usually of composite work- manship
169, 175 f, 184, 186 f, 225
Yet some are single-handed products
168 w, 173 f, 181 f, 187 f, 188 f, 191 f, 199, 225.
Popular Handbooks of the History of Religions . . 52
See Bishop, Geden, Martin- dale, Soderblom.
No adequate Manual of Com- parative Religion
52, 182, 516, 521 Manuals consulted for the purposes of this volume :
American Lectures on the His- tory of Religions . . 254
Anglican Church Handbooks . 396
Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature . . . 376
Extra- Biblical Sources for
Hebrew and Jewish History . 458
Handbooks of the History of Religions . . . 195, 299
Handbooks of Archceology and Antiquities . . 95, 237 n
Handbook of Assyriology . 95
Handbooks to Ancient Civiliza- tions . . 93, 94, 94, 94
Manuals {cont.) — page
Index to the Sacred Books of
the East .... 466 Introduzione bibliografica alia
scienza delle religioni . . 460
Islam (Der) .... 250 Lectures on the History of
Religions . . . .186 Manuals for Christian Think- ers 298
Manual of Egyptian Archceo- logy . . . .95 Manual of Indian Buddhism 456 n Monographies bibliographiques
463,465 Oriental Religions (Luzac's)
282, 282 n Marett, Robert Ranulph.
The pre-Animistic sources of
religion . . . 7, 26
The relation of magic to reli- gion . . . 24tn The Threshold of Religion{ 1909) 33 Anthropology (1912) . . 33 Margoliouth, David Samuel. Mohammed and the Rise of
Main (1905) . . 274 w
Mohammedanism (1911) 273, 274 n The Early Development of Mohaminedanism (1913)
206 n, 207 n, 235 n, 274 Mariano, Raffaele.
A pioneer advocate in Italy of the critical study of religion 349 Marilliek, L6on.
A keen anthropologist . .21
Critic of Sir James Frazer's
theory of Totemism . 21 n
Translator of Mr. Lang's books . . . 98 n
Marmorstein, a.
Religionsgeschich tliche Studien (1910- ) ... 318
Maronites. The . . . 206
Marriage Customs . 51, 60, 61, 80 See BuscHAN, Hutchinson, Samter, Westermarck. Marti, Karl.
Editor of Studien zur semiti- schen Philologie und Reli- gionsgeschichte . . .319
Martin, Alfred Wilhelm.
Contributor to The Unity of
Religio7is . . . .218
Great Religious Teachers of the
East (1911) . . .215
The Life of Jesus in the Light of the Higher Criticisin {1913)
216 w
INDEX
551
PAGE
Martix, Edward Osborn.
The Gods of India (1914) . 109 Martixdale, Cyril Charlie.
Defends the use of the com- parative method . 332 n A Christian apologist
386, 394, 438 Contributor to Ghristus . 185
Editor of Lectures on the His-
torij of Religions 186, 383 n, 384 The Cults and Christianity
(1911) . . . 186,383
In God's Nursery (1913) 383 n Marucchi, Orazio.
Epigrafia cristiana (1910) . 122 Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles, Sir. Researches in Egyptology
83 w, 114 ?i Publication of Pyramid Texts 114 Researches in Mythology . 98 Editor of the Bibliotheque
egyptologique , . .93
Manual of Egyptian Archceo- ^ logy (1887) . . .95
Etudes de mythologie et d'archeo- logie egyptiennes (1893- ) 98 n Maspero, Jean.
Expert in Papyrology . .112
Massignon, L., L'Sveque.
Sufism and Islam . .419
Matriarchy . . . 24-5,79
Mauss, Marcel.
Researches in Ethnology 329, 351 Misapprehension concerning Sir James Frazer's view of Totemism . . 22 n
' Melanges d'histoire des religions (1909) . . . 98 w. 308 Max Muller, Friedrich, Right Hon. The philological approach to
Comparative Religion . Ill
Exaggerated estimate of the assistance which Philology can render . . 98, 111
A ' Turanian ' group of lan-
guages
174
Comparative v. Literary Philo- logy . , . Ill
A pioneer of Comparative Religion . . . 365, 467
An invaluable popularizer . 265
Inaugurated the first series of Hibbert Lectures . . 235
Editor of The Sacred Books of the East
265 n, 401, 405, 407, 466, 467
Max Muller, F. {coiit.) — page
Chips from a German Workshop
(1867-75) . .7 71, 112 n
Contributio7is to the Science of Mythology {IHdl) . 98 n
Mazdaism. See Zoroastrianism. Media. The priests of . .277
Meinhof, Carl.
Afrikanische Religionen (1912) 56 Religionen der schriftlosen Vol- ker Afrikas (1913) . 57 n, 60 Mellone, Sydney Herbert.
The Philosophy of Religion 147 n Menzies, Allan.
History of Religion (1895) 1 70, 187 Merger, Samuel Alfred Browne. Extra- Biblical Sources for He- brew and Jewish History (1913) . . 95, 134, 458 Mercier, Desire Joseph, Le Car- dinal. A patron of modern research . 423 Mesopotamia. Archaeology of . 87 f Method. Evolution of a scientific 392 Each science utilizes a charac- teristic and distinctive
163, 172, 325, 328, 329 as employed in the study of
religion : Analytic .... 330
See Amelineau. Anthropological
3, 17, 179, 268, 329, 351, 352 See Farnell, MacCul- LOCH, Frazer, Jevons. Archceological . . , 329
See Breasted, Garstang, Sayce. Biological . . . .66
Comparative. See Compara- tive Method. Ethnographical . 179, 329, 345
See van Gennep. Ethnological
190, 329, 330 n, 343 n, 360 See Graebner, Schmidt (W.), Steinmetz. Historical
14, 66, 163, 164/, 179, 329, 345, 346, 347, 350, 351, 352, 361, 362, 406. See DussAUD, Goblet d'Alviella, Oltra- mare, Toutain. See * Religionsgeschicht- liche^ method. Historico-comparative
163, 329, 346 f, 352, 354 Historico-critical . . . 349
552
INDEX
Method {cont.) — page
Historico - cultural
46, 48, 330, 361, 366 See FoY, Frobenius. Historico -ethnical . . 330 ?i
Historico -psycJiohg ica I
330, 366, 367 Mythological . . 268,329
See Ehrenreich, Jere- MiAS, Palmer. Philological . . 98, 111, 329
See Deissmann, Max Mul- leRjMoulton, Wetter. Psychological . 140, 152, 329 See Letjba, Stratton,
WOBBERMIN.
Beligionsgeschichtliche
331 f, 341, 367, 390, 402, 442, 462. Criticism of this method
332, 341 f, 342 n, 391 See BoussET, Cheyne,
GUNKEL, ScHIELE,
Troeltsch, Wernle. Scientific . . 78, 330, 504
See Vernes. Sociological 62, 65, 172, 329, 345, 352 See DuRKHEiM, Hubert, Mauss. Syyitlietic . . . .330
See Richard (P.). Mexico, Archaeology of . .94
International School of Arch- aeology and Ethnology . 427 Meyer. Eduard.
Der Papyrnsfund von Elephan- tine (1912) . . .123 Reich und Kultur der Chetiter (1914) . . . .95 Meyer, Richard M.
Altgermanische Bcligionsge-
schichte (1910) . . .110
Migration, and its cultural conse-
36, 39, 47 303 . 303 . 92 . 89 . 453 GIraebner,
quences .
Prehistoric
Arab .
Aramasan .
Hittite
Teutonic
See Caetami,
Noldeke, Winckler.
See Race. Milligan, George.
Selections from the Greek Papyri (1910) . . 124/1
The New Testament Documents (1913) .... 134
Greek Lexicon of the New Testa- ment (1913- ) . . 124 n
Milligan, G. {cant.) — page
The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament {1914- ) . 124 ii
Milk, and its cultural signific- ance among Greeks and Romans .... 31S Mills, Lawrence Heyworth. Our Own Religion in Ancient Persia (1913) . . . 29S
Minera Cult. See Cults. MiNoccHi, Salvatore.
Timely critical studies . . 304'
II Panteon {19U) . . . 299
Miracles an alleged handicap . 246
Missionaries, German v. British . 15S
Seek to supersede existing
faiths . . . 265, 378
Promote the disposition to
frame official Creeds . . 448
Rightly, though with discrim- ination, to be esteemed . 3S7 Must cultivate the gift of sym- pathy .... 392 Missionary Colleges. See College OF Missions. Seminaries. Universities. Missionary Conference ( World)
(1910) . . . 291 w
Missionary motive, changed under the influence of Compara- tive Religion . 242, 392, 393 Missionary Society, Church . . 395
Wesleyan .... 387 Missions. History and theory of 337, 498 Changed conception of
57, 242, 378, 389, 498 to India .... 254 to Japan. .... 246 to Mohammedans
206, 242, 271, 272, 485 See Beach, Caldecott, Gar- vie, Mott, von Orelli, Speer, Warneck, Warren, Valensin. See Periodicals. Proceed- ings of the World Mission- ary Conference of 1910. Sc- inaine d'' ethnologic religieusc. The United Study of Mis- sions series. Mithras, The Mysteries of. See
CuMONT. Mysteries. Mitteis, Ludwig.
GrundziXge und Chresiomaihie der Papyruskundc (1912) . 124 Moabite Stone .... 458 Moffat, James Clement.
A Co7nparaiive History of Re- ligions (1871-73) 330 n, 370 n
INDEX
o53
MoFFATT, James. page
Criticism of certain Koinan Catholic researchers . 385 n
Mohammed.
His character and teaching
215, 251, 273, 274, 298, 303, 453. See Caetaxi. Hartmaxx, Macdonald, Margoliouth, Martin. Mohammedanism,^ General Sur- vey of
45, 171, 182, 183, 188, 191, 203, 206, 241, 250, 271, 273, 274, 303, 376, 382, 394, 404, 406, 408, 423, 438, 453. Doctrine of the unity of God . 264 Toleration of other faiths ?
206-7, 216 Alleged proselytism by force
207, 216 Apologetics of . . 369, 371
Creeds of . , . . 448
Folklore of . . . .49
Future of . . . .251
Its missionary activity 271, 272 in Sumatra . . . 300
V. Christianity
271, 291, 416, 469, 485 See Missions. Reforming Sects . 273, 288, 290 Changes due to its contact
with other faiths . . 242
as related to the British Em- pire . . . 242, 273 as related to Italy 242, 273, 304 Must be interpreted sympa- thetically . . .378 Societies, Academic Depart- ments, etc., created to fur- ther its study . . 428, 498 See Bliss, Browne, Caetani, Geden, Goldziher, Hart- MANN, Hughes, Lammens, MacdoIstald, Margoliouth, MoNTET, Moore, v. Orelli, OsTRUP, Sell, Stubbe, Tis-
DALL.
See Periodicals. Sufism. Monastic Institutions . . , 206
MoND, Robert.
Valuable collection of Papyri 127 Honographies hihliographiques 463, 465
PAGE
Monotheism alleged to be the earliest faith of man
192, 221-2, 233, 397 This theory challenged
231, 232, 277, 397 Zoroastrian . . . .277
Montesquieu, Charles de Secon- DAT, Le Baron de. A precursor of modem com- j)arativists . . .22
Montet, Edouard.
De ritat present et de Vavenir de rislam (1911) . . .299
Monuments. The deciding voice
of the . . . .94
of Ancient Greece . 97 n
of Athens . . . .95
Moon Myths. See Myths. Moore, Clifford Herschel.
Oriental Cults in Spain. . 310
Moore, George Foot.
Joint-editor of Studies in the
History of Religions . .310
History of Religions (1914- )
61, 169, 170, 188, 225, 281
MORGENSTERN, JuLIAN.
Joint-editor of Studies in Jewish Literature . .319
Morality. Varying conceptions of 350 V. Religion . . 236, 240, 246
Mormonism . . . .371
Mortuary Ritual. See Ritual. MoTT, John Raleigh.
Necessity for a more special- ized study of religion . 500 The Decisive Hour of Christian Missions {1910} . 272 w
MouLTON, James Hope.
Eminent philologist . . 392
A Christian apologist . 387, 389 Employs effectively the com- parative method . 387, 388 Criticizes the religionsgeschicht-
liche Methode . 332 n, 391
' The Applied Science of Re- ligion ' . . . 390 n A Ghrammar of New Testament
Greek {\9m) . . 124//
Greek Lexicon of the New Testa-
men«(1913- ) . . 124 /i
Religions and Religion (1913)
364 n, 386
^ Alternative spellings, found in this volume, include ' Muhammedanism ' (vide supra, pp. 288, 299, 438, etc.), and 'Muhammadanism' {vide supra, pp. 289, 292 n, 300, 439 n, etc.). The former orthography is favoured by The Expository Times; the latter is in part supported by entries in the General Catalogue of the British Museum.
554:
INDEX
MouLTON, J. H. {cont.) — page
Early Zoroastrianism (1913)
235 n, 275, 387 n, 483 The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament {I9l4r~ ) . 124 ?i
MuiRHEAD, John Henry.
Editor of the Library of Philo- sophy . . . .155 Murray, David Ambrose.
Christian Faith and the New Psychology (1911) . .161
Murray, George Gilbert Aime
A disciple of Usener . .315
The Rise of the Greek Epic
(1907) . . . 278 w
Four Stages of Greek Religion
(1912) . . 7n, 102, 278 Murray, Margaret Alice.
Ancient Egyptian Legends
(1913) . . . 447 w Museums, a special aid to students
of Comparative Religion . 502
Anthropological
Archaeological, in Cologne in Leiden
Ethnographical. List of leading National . in Leipzig in Neuchatel in Rome .
Ethnological.
502
502 n . 503
. 11
361, 425, 494
. 502
. 503
58 n
47, 502 . 502 . 502 . 502 . 502 . 502 82, 113, 114 7^, 502 . 122 . 123 . 122 . 236
in Berlin . in Calcutta in Chicago in Hamburg in Moscow in Washington British Lateran
Royal Museums in Berlin Vatican Mycenajan civilization Myers, Frederic William Henry. Human Personality (1903) 137 7i Mylrea, Clarence Stanley Garland. Christianity v. Islam . 519 n
Mysteries. The primitive 27, 248, 419 Effectiveness of the appeal of
Oriental . . . .209
Babylonian . . . 473
Mithraic .... 486
Orphic . . . .248
Mystery Religions. See Mysteries.
Mysticism, and its relation to
Psychology 137, 142, 146, 148
Mysticism {cont.) — page
Its relation to Religion
96, 179, 239, 280, 282, 289, 447 n. Its risks .... 141 See Ames, Giles, Hill, Hock- ing, Inge. Myth of the dying gods . .14
Mythology. General survey of . 96 Origins of . . . .96
Relation to Ethnology . . 100
Relation to Psychology
100, 136, 138 Traceable in all religions
96, 99, 108, 320, 325 Olympian religion . 248, 280
Asianic influence visible in . 310 V. the History of Religions . 326 V. Comparative Religion . 75
Its diligent study essential
423, 424, 444, 456 Gesellschaft fur vergleichende
Mythenforschung 97, 100, 110 Projected Lexicon of Greek and Roman Mythology and Reli- gion . . . 413 n, 419 See Amelineau, Carpenter, Chad WICK, Clodd, Cook
(A. B.), CURTIN, DiETERICH,
DowsoN, Ehrenreich, Far-
NELL, FaUSBOLL, FoY, FrA-
ZER, Frobenius, van Gen- NEP, Harrison, Hartland, Helm. Jeremias, Koch. KuHN, Lang, Levy-Bruhl, MacCulloch, Mackenzie, Martin (E. 0.), Maspero. Max MiJLLER, Meyer (R. M.), Murray (G.), Palmer, Reinach, Rhys, Roscher, Schmidt (W.), Spence, TouTAiN, Toy, Wundt. See Encyclopaedias. Grund- riss der indo-arischen Philo- logie und Altertumskunde. Myths. Primitive . . .27
Origin of . . . 73, 197
' A disease of language ' . 102
V. Legends . . . . 9() ?i
V. History .... 104 Classification of . . . 197
of the Moon . . .100
of the Stars . . . 20
of the Sun 100, 104-5, 230, 231 Their astral interpretation 20, 97 Babylonian . . . 460
Celtic . . . 268 w
Egyptian .... 460 Greek . 280-1,460
INDEX
555
Myths {cont.) — page
Researches recommended and
projected . . . 255
See Danson, Jastrow, Jere-
MIAS, ROLLESTON, WiNCKLER .
Macauliffe, Max Arthur.
The Sikh Beligion (1909) 260, 447 n McClure, Edmund.
Modern Substitutes for Tradi- tional Christianity (1913) . 400 McComas, Henry Clay.
The Psychology of Religious Sects {\9\2) . . .161
MacCulloch, John Arnott, Canon. Celtic conceptions of the
Future Life . . .419
Rejoinder to M. Foucart's criticism of the anthropo- logical method . . . 9 n Comparative Theology (1902) 268 n Religion : Its Origin and
Forms {1904.) . . 267 w
The Childhood of Fiction {1905)
267 w The Religion of the Ancient Celts (1911) . . 97 w, 267
Macdonald, Duncan Black.
Head of the new ' Department of Mohammedanism ' at Hartford . . . .498
The Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional History (1903)
270 n The Religious Attitude and Life
in Islam {1909) . 270 w
Aspects of Islam {1911) . 270
Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Max Miiller's contributions to
the study of religion . . 467
A Vedic Grammar (1910) . 455 Vedic Index of Names and Sub- jects {1912) . . .456 Encyclopcedia of the earliest known Aryan religious beliefs 457 McDougall, William.
The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (1912) . . . .60
Macfadyen, Dugald.
Truth in Religion (1911) . 161
McGiFFORD, Arthur Cushman. Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . .218
Macgregor, Duncan.
The Druids . . .269
page Mackenzie. Donald Alexander. Teutonic Myth and Legend
(1912) . . . .109 Egyptian Myth and Legend
(1913) . . . .110 M'Lennan, John Ferguson.
Theory of Totemism . . 29
Nanak.
The first Sikh Guru . 262, 264 Nansen, Fridtjof.
Eskimo Life (1893) . 1 50 w
Natalis, Alexandre.
A precursor of modern com- parativists . . .22
Natural Religion. See Religion. Natural Theology. See Theology. Nature Worship. See Cults. Naville, Edouard.
Representative archaeologist 83 n Presidency of the Institut Suisse d' anthropologic, Ge- neva . . . 428, 473 Account of the Osiris tomb at
Abydos . . . ^ . 482
La Religion des anciens Egyp-
tiens {190Q) . . .299
Archceology of the Old Testa- ment (i913) . . . 95 Negro V. American Indian . . 36 The African and his religion . 56 Neumann, Karl Eugen.
His translations of Eastern
texts criticized . 259 n
BuddhistischeAnthologie{ 1892)259 n Die Reden Gotamo Buddhos
(1896-1902) . . 259 n
Die Lieder der Monche tind Nonnen Gotamo Buddhos (1899) . . . 259 n
I Discorsi di Gotamo Buddho (1907) . . . 259 w
Neumark, David.
Joint -editor of Studies in Jewish Literature . .319
Newman, John Henry. Cardinal. An enlarged conception of Christianity . . . 393
New York University. See Uni- versities. Nicolas, A. L. M.
Seyyed Ali Mohammed, dit le
Bab (1905- ) . . 292 n
Le Bey an persan. (1911-14) 292 n Nigeria. Explorations in . . 44
Nikko and its temples. ^S'ee Temples.
556
INDEX
PAGE
Nile-god. See Gods. NiLSSON, Nils Martin Persson. Defends the pre-Animistic theory of the origin of reli- gion . . , .26 Notes on a projected Lexicon
of Greek and Roman Religion 419 Griechische Feste (1906) . 26 n
Primitive Religion (1911)
26, 330 n, 462 n NiVEDiTA, Sister.
Myths of the Hindus and
Buddhists (1913) . .110
See Noble. Noble, Margaret Elizabeth. Otherwise known as ' Sister Nivedita ', q. v.
NOLDEKE, ThEODOR.
Prehistoric migrations of the
Arabs .... 303 Non-Christian Religions. General
survey of 175, 177, 183, 442
Contain numerous fundamental
truths . . . 392, 393
Depositories of a genuine
revelation? . . . 393
Conspectus of beliefs of . 405
Their study highly important
381, 499, 500 A preparation for Chris- tianity ? . 388, 392, 395, 400 Their testimony to the value
of Christianity . . 400
A challenge to Christianity 389, 423 Missions to . . 399, 423, 499
See Missions. Non-Christian students in
Christian Colleges . 497, 501
See Seminaries. Non-Christian Religious Sys-
tems (1877-1905) . . 52 n
Die orientalischen ReUgionen
(1906) . . . 183 w
Non-Denominational Schools of
Theology. See Schools. Norton, Francis Collins.
Bihle Studenfs Handbook of
Assyriology (IdOS) . . 95
Nukariya, Kaiten.
The Religion of the Samauri
(1913) . . . .282
Oath (An) among Semitic peoples 318 Oldenberg, Hermann.
Contributor to Die ReUgionen des Orients . . .184
Oldenberg, H. {cont.) — page
Promoter of Quellen der Reli- gions-Geschichte .. . 406 Buddha, ' sein Lehen, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde (1881) 299 Oldham, Joseph Houldsworth. Editor of The International Review of Missions 479, 517 n Oltramare, Paul.
Advocate of the historical
method . . 350, 352, 419
Researches in Buddhism . 419 UHistoire des idees theoso-
phiques dans rinde{l901- ) 351 n La Formule houddhique des
douze causes {1909) . 351 w La Faillite de la methode his- torique (1911) . . . 350
Olympian religion. See Mythology. Omens among the Babylonians 256, 317 Oppenheim, Max von. Baron.
Der Tell Halaf und die ver- schleierte Gvttin (1909) . 85
Oppert, Julius.
Expert philologist . .113
Orelli, Conrad von.
Defends a ' Turanian ' group
of religions . . 174, 191
A llgemeine Religionsgeschichte
(1899) . 170, 191, 299, 370 w Der Islam (1911) . . . 299
Oriental faiths, and the strong in- fluence they have exerted upon Western faiths . . 208
V. Occidental faiths . . 209
A preparation for Christianity ? 208 Orientalists. International Congress
of. See Congresses. Osiris Worship. See Cults.
Tomb at Abydos . . 95, 482
Ostraca. an aid to Comparative
Religion . . 130, 131, 135
Theban Ostraca (1913) . . 135
OsTRUP, Johannes Elith.
Islam {19U) . . .299
Otto, Rudolf.
A promoter of Quellen der Reli- gions-Geschichte . . 406
Outgrown beliefs. See Supersti- tions. Owen, David Cymmer.
The Infancy of Religion (1914) 34 Oxyrhynchus and its papyri
119, 123, 124
Paganism. The overthrow of 209 f
Paintings. Sacred Japanese . 430
INDEX
557
PAGE
Palestine and its Folklore . . 49
Its earliest history . . 82
Exploration Fund . .87
Pali texts. See Texts. Palmer, Abbam Smythe.
^, Researches in Mythology . 329 An over-multiplication of
' parallels ' . . .105
Babylonian Influence on the
Bible {1S91) . . lOo n
Jacob at Bethel (1899) . 105 7i
The Samon-Saja (1913) . 104
Pantheism . . 149, 197, 247
Papyrologv. The science of 1 12,1 18 f, 425 Aramaic . . . 124, 128
Discoveries at Elephantine
116, 123, 127,458 Recent British research
123 n, 125, 134, 482 Collections deposited in Berlin
123 n, 125
See Budge, Cheyne, Deiss-
MANN, VON Gall, Grenfell,
Helbing, Hogarth, Hoon-
acker, Hfxt, Johnson
(J. DE M.), MiLLIGAN, MlTT- EIS, MOULTON, RaUSCHEN,
Robertson, Rubensohn, Sachatj, Sayce, Ungnad, Wessely, Wilcken. Parallelisms between religions
143, 145, 165, 325, 519 Due to (1) fundamental unity
of human nature . 357, 391
Or to (2) conscious borrowing
357, 358 Or to (3) accidental juxta- position and contact . . 358 Comparative Religion inter-
prets these likenesses . 165
Imaginary 132, 165, 287, 518
Buddhism v. Christianity 285, 310 Greek Religion v. Modern
Greek Folklore ... 5 Greek Religion v. Modern Slavonic Folklore . . 419
Pabiser, Ernst.
Einfuhrung in die Eeligions- psychologie (1914) . . 161
Parkinson, Richard Heinrich Robert. New Guinea Totemism . 21
Parliament of Religions, The
Chicago . . . .311
Parsism. See Zoroastrianism. Patten, Simon Nelson.
TJie Social Basis of Religion (1911) . . . .80
PAGE
Paul, Saint.
His distinctive teaching
227, 280, 306, 312 His indebtedness to Stoi- cism .... 228 Pearson, Alfred Chilton.
Researches in Stoicism . 226 n
Pedersen, Johannes.
Der Eid bei den Semiten
(1914) . . . .318
Peet, Thomas Eric.
The Cemeteries of Abydos
(1909- ) ... 95
Peisker, [T.] Johann.
Contributor to The Cambridge
Medieval History . . 453
Peitschmann, Richard.
A promoter of Quellen der Reli-
gions-Geschichte. . . 406
Perdelwitz, Richard.
Die Mysterienreligion und das
Problem des I. Petrusbriefes
(1911) . . . 316 ?^
Periodicals, Journals, etc. : —
Select list of . . . 468
List of antliropological and
ethnological . . .11
Ancient Egypt . . 4=5 n, 470
Annals of Archceology and
Anthropology . . 84, 471
Anmuil of the British School
at Athens . . . 250
A7ithropos
46 n, 330 n, 356, 360, 472 Archiv fur Papyrusforschun^
und verwandte Gebiete . 472
Archiv fur Beligionsivissen-
schaft .... 473 Archives Suisses d'Anthropo-
logie Generale 428, 429 n, 473 Archivio per V Antropologia e
VEtnologia . . . 473
Asiatic Review . . . 474
Asiatic Quarterly Review . 474
Asiatic Society. Journal of
the Royal . . . 431 w
Athenceum . . . 474
Biblical World . . . 475
Bilychnis .... 475 Bollettino di Letter atur a Critico-
Religiosa . . . 476
British Weekly . . S n, 520 n
Bulletin d'Histoire Comparee
des Religions . . 74 w, 487
Bulletin de Vlnstitut de Socio-
logie Solvay . . . 464
Bulletin de la Societe d^ Anthro- pologic . . . 431 w
558
INDEX
|
Periodicals (cont.) — |
PAGE |
|
Chinese Review |
430 n |
|
Classical Studies. |
The Year's |
|
Work in . |
. 9n |
|
Ccenohium . |
. 476, 477 |
Comparative Religion. Neces- sity for a Journal of . 468, 516 Critical Revieic . . . 487
Cultura Contemporanea
349 n, 461 n, 476 Cultura Moierna . . 477
Dublin Review . . 383 n
Edinburgh Review . . 24: n
Egyptian Archceologi/. Journal
of . . . .123 n, 482 Egyptian and Oriental Soc ety.
Journal of the Manchester . 482 English Review . . 279 w
Etudes . . .30 ?i, 384 n
Expository Times
141 n, 258 n, 332 n, 373 n, 402 n, 477, 512 /i, 521 n. Graphic . . . . 83 n
Harvard Theological Re- view .... 478 Hihhert Journal
40 n, 63 n, 279 n, 385 n, 478
|
Inquirer |
. 479 |
|||
|
Interpreter |
. 480 |
|||
|
Islafn |
. 480 |
|||
|
Lares |
. 484 |
|||
|
Literature |
. 491 |
|||
|
Man . |
. 29 ?i |
|||
|
Mercure de France |
. 19 |
|||
|
Mir Islama |
. 481 |
|||
|
Missions. Intern |
ational Rc- |
|||
|
vieiv of . |
72 /i, 272 |
n, 479 |
||
|
Moslem World |
||||
|
293 n, |
485, 489 n |
, 519 n |
||
|
Muspon |
• • |
130 w |
||
|
New World |
, , |
. 478 |
||
|
Open Court |
, , |
. 485 |
||
|
Oriental Society. |
Journal |
of |
||
|
the American |
. 481 |
|||
|
Oriental Society. |
Journal |
of |
||
|
the Manch |
ester |
. 482 |
Orientalisches Archiv . .481
Oxford Magazine . .513
Palestine Exploration Fund.
Quarterly Statement of the . 50 Petermanns Mittheilungen 47 n
Psychology. American Journal
of Religious . . . 469
Quarterly Review . . 98 n, 486
Quarterly Review. Church 486 n Quarterly Review. Imperial and
Asiatic .... 474 Quarterly Review. London 486 n Quest . . . . 486
Periodicals {cont.) — page
Recherches de Science Reli- giev^e
7 n, 23 n, 30 n, 74 n, 141 n, 258 n, 384 n, 487. Review of Theology and Philo- sophy . 9 n, 269 n, 405 n, 487 Revue du Clerge FranQais . 175 Revue d' Ethnographic et de
Sociologie . .19, 488
Revue de VHistoire des Reli- gions
20 n, 21 71, 38 w, 69 n. 344 n, 345 n, 347 n, 351 n, 488, 489 Revue d'Histoire Ecclesiastique 423 n Revue du Monde Musulman
481, 488, 489 Revue Suisse d' Ethnographie et
d'Art Compare . . 489, 503 n Revue de VUniversite de Bru-
xelles . . 346 n, 347 n
Rivista degli Studi Orientali . 487 Rivista Storico-Critica delle
Scienze Teologiche 199 n, 476 n Scientia . . . 353 n
Sociological Revieiv . 63 n, 490
Sociology. American Journal
of 470
Theological Studies. Journal
of 483
Theologische Literaturzeitung
294 n. 490 Times . 141 n, 260 n, 475
Times Literary Supplement . 491 Welt des I slams
272 n, 428 n, 481, 489 n, 492 Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic 46 n
Persism. See Zoroastrianism. Peters, John Punnett.
The Religion of the Hebrews (1914) . 195 w, 299, 433 ?i
Petrie, William Matthew Flinders. Collection of Casts of Hittite
faces . . . 90, 91
Collection of Papyri . .125
Early Egyptian graves . . 92
Editor of Ancient Egypt
"91 n. 470, 482 Religion in Ancient Egypt
(1906) ... 91 n
Personal Religion in Egypt
before Christianity (1909) . 91 ;i The Arts and Crafts of Ancient
Egypt {1909) . . .90
Egypt and Israel (1910) 91 n
A t'nulets {19U) . . .61
Pettazzoni, Raffaele.
A studious anthropologist . 35
INDEX
559
Pettazzoxi, R. {cont ) — page
Special qualiticatioiis for ethno- logical research . 58 n Originof theideaof God . 426 Nirvana .... 426 Rejoinder to critics of the
comparative method . . 354
La Beligione primitiva in
Sardegna {\'d\2) . ^ .57
La Scienza delle religioni C il svx) metodo (1913) . . 353
Pfannmuller, Gustav.
Die Klassiker der Religion und die Religion der Klassiker (1-912- ) . ; . 299
Pfennigsdorf, Emil.
Religionspsi/chologie und Apo- logetik {1912) . . 161,400
Pfleiderer, Otto.
Religion und Religionen (1906) . . . .364?i
Pharaoh.
Alleged divine prerogatives
230, 231 Phelps, Myron H.
Ahbas LJjfendi (1903) . . 293n Phenomenology of Religion. See
Religion. Philipson, David.
Joint-editor of Studies in Jewish Literature . .319
Philistines' alleged introduction of Cretan hieroglyphs into Syria . . . .121
Phillpotts, Bertha Surtees.
Germanic Heathenism . . 453
Kindred and Clan in the Middle Ages and After (1913) . TO
Philology. General survey of . Ill
Literary v. Comparative 111-3 Arabic .... 243
Assyrian ... 115 w
Hittite . . . 115 n
Sumerian . . . 115 w
Its relation to Anthropology . 1 12 Its relation to Archaeology
113, 131 Its relation to History . . 83
Its ability to promote Com- parative Religion
111, 113, 115, 131, 320, 322, 402. *..■ Early texts bearing upon reli- gion . . . .113 See Botta, Budge, Deiss- MANN, Evans, Goldziher, Helbing, van Hoonacker, Mercer, Milligan, Max MuLLER, Meyer (M.), Op-
Philology {cont.) page
PERT, Rogers, Sachau, Sayce,Schrader,Stummer, Wessely, Wetter. See Periodicals. Congres- ses. Special Works.
Philosophy of Religion. See Reli- gion.
PiCKTHALL, MaRMADUKE WiLLIAM.
Editor of Folk-Lore in the Holy Land {1910) . . . 50
Pinard, Henri.
Warmly defends use of the
comparative method 333 n, 356 Quelques precisions sur la methode comparative (1910) 356 Plato to St. Paul. From . . 280
Platonism. The subordination of
Lower to Higher in . .214
Pottery. Egyptian . . .131
Mesopotamian . . '^^, 131
Theban . . . .135
Polytheism. The beginnings of
26, 197, 232, 264
POUSSIN. LOTJIS DE LA VaLLEE.
See La Vall^e-Poussin. Powell, John Wesley.
North American Totemism . 21 Pragmatism .... 147 Pratt, James Bissett.
Indebtedness to Professor
James . . . .153
Employment of the Question- naire . . . .155 The future of religion . .152 The Psychology of Religious Belief {1907) . 153, 155 7* Prayer. The doctrine of
M.
' 234. 37 Dussaud's
Pre-Animism theory
Dr. Marett's theory
Dr. Nilsson's theory
M. Reuter's theory Presbyterianism Priesthoods . . 172, 325,
Conceptions in different faiths of .
in Babylonia
in China
in Egypt .
in Media
among the Druids Primitive Religion. See Religion. Princeton University's ' Graduate School '. See Universities. Principe de vie. Le . . .
Propaganda of religion. The. See Missions .
396 179
r, 26
26
32
186
337
197 234
286 321
277 277
179 391
560
INDEX
Prophets. The Hebrew page
175, 215, 217, 391 Non- Jewish . 337, 391, 393
Protestantism. In outline , .218
Inadequately portrayed 185, 186 Aggressive in promoting Com- parative Religion 176, 178, 185 Missionary zeal. See Missions. Psychical research . 137, 141, 146 Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research . 137 n
Psychology. General survey of . 136 A favourite British studv 63, 140 Celtic . . ." . 60
Ethnical . . . 107, 108
Social . . . .149
The psychological unity of
mankind 48, 140, 145, 509
The explanation of similarities between alien cultures. . 48 See Parallelisms. One of the roots of religion 26, 136 V. Anthropology . . .11
V. Comparative Religion . 326
i\ Mysticism . . .137
V. Mythology . . .138
V. Sociology . . .138
A special aid to Compara- tive Religion . . 320, 322 See Ames, Boas, Cook (S. A.), Faber, Gill, Hill, Hock- ixG, King, Leuba, Murray (D. A.), Pratt, Stalker, Steven, Stratton, War- NEGK, Warner, Wobber-
MlN, WUNDT.
Pyramids, their temples and
tombs 92, 114, 230-1
Quellen der Religions-Geschichte
(1913- ) . . . .405 Questionnaire. Ineffectiveness of the
154, 155, 156, 201 QuiGGiN, Edmund Crosby.
Editor of Essays and Studies
27, 48 n, 321 n, 333 n Qufan. See Koran.
Ra, the Sun-god. See Re.
Race. The problems of . 36-8
Migrations . 303, 453, 464
Contact of races . . .421
Interracial problems . . 420
The Jewish . . . .443 See Boas, Zollschan.
page
, 299
253
Rai, Lajpat.
The Arya Samaj (1915) Ram Mohan Roy, Rajah.
Religious reform in India Ramsay, William Mitchell. Sir. Archaeology and history of Asia Minor . . 83 n
Randall, John Herman.
Joint-editor of, and contri- butor to. The Unity of Reli- gions .... 217 Rapson, Edward James.
Ancient India (1914) . . 224
Rauschen, Gerhard.
Neues Licht ans dem alien Orient (1913) . . .125
Rawlinson, Hugh George. Indian Historical Studies
(1913) . . . .318
Re, the Sun-god . . . 230
Recent Christian Progress (1909) 138 n Reclus, Michel Elie.
Degeneration in religion . 6
Reinagh, Salomon.
Brilliant popularizer of current
anthropology . . 3, 31, 351
Celtic Totemism . . .20
Totemism the primitive religion
of mankind . . 29, 31
His theories severely criticized
21, 309, 344 The growth of mythological
study . . . . 98 72.
Differences that separate reli- gions .... 359 Cultes, mythes et religions
(1905- ) 3 n, 21 n, 28, 98 n Orpheus (1909)
168 n. 178, 268 n, 309 Religion. Defined by :
Durkheim , . . .171
Dussaud . . . .180
Labanca .... 350 Loisy ..... 309 1. In General. A universal instinct 30, 313, 391 No race without a religion . 464 A divine factor in human
nature . . . 223, 313
A mystery .... 316 Best studied in its highest
types ... 8, 343 Most fruitfully studied by concentration upon a few religions, or upon a single selected phase of religion . 225 A unity .... 358 Yet many-sided . . . 300
No religion sacrosanct . . 370
INDEX
561
Religion (con^.) — page
V. Ethnology . . 10, 36
V. Magic
6, 7 71, 17, 23-4, 24 7i, 25, 32, 64, 67, 150, 173. V. Morality . . . 236, 240
V. Mythology . . . 108
V. Superstition . . .In
A new conception of . . 518
Scientific study of. See The
Science of RELioioisr. Comparative. See Compara- tive Religion. Mystery. See Mysteries. Natural. See Theology. Positive . . . .313
Its consolidating and separat- ing influence . . . 421 Degeneracy in religion
6, 222, 337, 360, 397 The future of 4, 152, 218, 336, 448 The best . . 245, 369, 513
The perfect . . . 203, 263
The religion of the future . 218 A universal religion ? . . 408
The Religion of Humanity . 152 See Carpenter, Clemen, Geden, Jevons, MacCul-
LOCH, TiSDALL.
2. Primitive Religion.
The beginnings of religion
5, 6, 6 n, 21-2, 26, 29, 159, 171, 174, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191, 192. 195, 203. 218, 280, 337, 343, 350, 354, 406, 418, 461, 501. The growing study of
4, 23, 26, 73, 142, 159, 365 Its psychological roots . 26, 140 The embryology of religion . 6 n The phenomenology of religion 355 Definition of . . .73
The product of the collective thinking of a savage com- munity . . . .65 Conceptions of resurrection in 14 Its impenetrable obscurity
6, 7, 174, 343 in Australia . . .67
in Central Africa . . .56
in China .... 212 in Sardinia . . . .57
See Carpenter, Durkheim, Jevons, Lang, Nilsson, Reuter.
3. The History of Religions. General conspectus
163, 202, 218, 282, 283, 320, 337, 338, 363, 364, 377, 401,
Religion [cont.) — page
408, 425, 426, 430, 434, 439, 448, 451, 461, 473, 496, 499, 501.
Demands patient study . 313
Advantages derivable from this study . . .167
Various preliminary studies . 316
Its function is to accumulate the necessary /acfs . . 334
No separate mandate to com- 'pare these facts . 326, 327
V. Comparative Religion
511, 516 w
Its increasing literature :
Popular Handbooks . 52, 309 General Manuals . . 168
Associated Religions . . 204
Individual Religions . . 224
Detached Problems . . 302
International Congresses . 311
The immediate precursor of Comparative Religion . 167
The indebtedness of Compara- tive Religion to . 164, 320
This indebteditess must not be exaggerated . . 167
Religions of the East early supplanted those of the West .y . . .208
All religions spring from one source ... 5, 370
All contain truth . . 288, 294
All have features in common 4
All grow subject to, and re- spond to, influences reaching them from without . . 334
All are fundamentally one
217 f, 408, 519
All lead towards one goal . 370
See {supra) Contents, pp. vii-ix, and pp. 204, 223-4, 295-302, and 317-9. Earth, BoussET, Breasted, Cu- mont, Farnell, Farquhar, Fowler, Giles (H. A.), Goldziher, Jastrow, Jere- MiAS, Lammens, Lehmann, Macauliffe, Macdonald, Margoliouth, Moulton, Naville, Oldenberg, Ran- dall, Sayce, Scott (C. N.), TouTAiN, Vollrath, Wis-
SOWA.
The classification of Religions. /S^ee Classification of Reli- gions. {a) Localized Religions. African . . . 406, 423
O O
562
INDEX
Beligion {cont.) —
American. In general
PAGE
203, 406 . 192 . 192 . 423 . 403
Mexico Peru Annamese . Arabian Babylonian- Assyrian
171, 182, 183, 185, 188, 191, 195 w, 202, 233, 236, 256, 294, 305, 317, 404. See Dhoeme, Jastrow, Rogers, Sayce. Canaanitish . . 191, 202
See Warrex. Carthaginian . . 191, 202
See Warren. Chinese :
Sinism . . . 171, 406
Taoism
171, 182, 183, 189, 191, 203, 219, 403, 404. Its rise . . 185, 299
Its primitive and funda- mental element . .212 Confucianism. See Con- fucianism. See De Groot, Grube, Ross, SooTHiLL, Under- wood. Egyptian
182, 183, 188, 191, 202, 294, 404, 406, 447 %. Begins as Nature Worship . 230 Temples . . . .231
Doctrine of Immortality 230 Conception of Heaven . 230 Sun-god and Nile-god . 230
Book of the Dead . .231
Emergence of a moral
sense . . . 230-1
See Amelineau, Breas- ted, Budge, Coryn, Geden, Jequier, Moore, Murray (M.A.), von Orelli, Sayce, Virey, Warren, Wiedemann. Greek
171, 185, 188, 190, 191, 202, 208, 235, 247, 404. In how far influenced by
early JEgean religion . 121 Its ritual . 121 w, 239, 250
See Calderon, Cumont, Farnell,Harrison,Kus- TER, Moore, Murray(G.),
WiSSOWA.
Hittite . . . .195
See Garstang, Sayce. Indian :
Vedism . 188, 191, 195 m, 406
Religion {co7it.) — page
Brahmanism
171, 182, 184, 188, 191, 195 n, 403, 404, 406. Hinduism. See Hinduism. Buddhism, See Buddhism. Jainism. See Jainism. Sikhism. See Sikhism. The doctrine of incarnation . 381 See Farquhar, Geden, HowELLs, DE Lorenzo, Moore, von Orelli. Japanese :
Buddhism. See Buddhism. Confucianism. See Confu- cianism. Shinto. See Shinto. See Hackmann, Harada, Kato, Moore, Nuka- RiYA, Underwood. Jewish. See Judaism. Korean . . . 203, 221 f
See Underwood. Oceanic . 192, 203, 406, 423
See VON Orelli. s
Persian. See Sufism. Zoro-
ASTRIANISM.
Phoenician . 171, 191, 202
See VON Orelli. Roman
171. 185, 188, 191, 202, 208, 225, 237, 404. Alleged to be cold and formal
209, 238 An exaggerated idea . . 238
Made a genuine contribution
to man's conception of God 240 Stoicism. See Stoicism. See Cumont, Fowler, Moore, von Orelli,
WiSSOWA.
Syrian . . 87, 171, 205
See Bliss.
(6) World Religions. Buddliism :
Chinese . . 189, 219, 406
Indian . 171, 184, 191, 406 Japanese
185, 188, 189, 191,203,244,283 See Buddhism. Christianity. See Christianity. Mohammedanism. See Moham- medanism.
4. Comjparative Religion. See
Comparative Religion.
5. The Philosophy of Religion. The apex of Comparative Reli- gion
136, 145, 202, 283, 304, 337, 364, 454, 462, 496, 499, 501.
INDEX
563
Religion {cont.) — page
V. Comparative Religion
364, 496, 499, 501, 510 See Deussex, Galloway, Hocking, Leuba, Watson.
6. The Psychology of Religion. A quite modern study
136, 424, 469 Its scope . . . .138
A genuine science . .137
Most keenly prosecuted in America
139, 140, 142, 149, 469 Makes a peculiarly effective
appeal to English scholars . 490 In Germany it occupies a sub- ordinate place . . .139 Its relation to Comparative
Religion . . .136, 234
Discloses a war of motives in
religion . . . .156
Its hazards . 140, 152, 159
See CoE, Cook, Everett, Hill, Hocking, Inge, James, King, Lefba, Lind- say, Pratt, Schleier- macher,Starbuck, Steven, Stratton, Vollrath, War- neck, Waterhouse, AVob- bermin, wundt.
7. The Science of Religion. Religion must be accorded a
closer and more scientific
study . . 4,242,451,499
V. Comparative Religion 441, 511 Alleged to be a branch of
Sociology . . 63 w, 171
The name ' Comparative
Science of Religion ' . 390 n
Its founders . . 346, 450
Its subdivisions . 202,401,451 Its methods of research
347, 353, 360 Its progress in Italy . 349, 426 A recent advance in Sweden
311, 401 Establishment in America of
Schools of Religions . 494 f
See Goblet d'Alviella, Max
MtJLLER, MoTJLTON, SaLVA- TORELLI.
See Periodicals. Religionsgeschichte
402, 403, 436, 442, 462, 491 See Religion : The History OF Religions. Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 331, 462 Religionsgeschichtliche Studien{1910)
318
page
Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten (1903- )
316, 317, 318
Religionsgeschichtliche Volksbucher
(1904- ) 26, 33, 307, 462, 465 n
Religionsphilosophie. See Reli- gion : The Philosophy of Religion.
Religions- Urkunden der (1909-13)
Religionsvergleichung .
Religionsvetenskapliga
V'ulker
. 407 . 442, 462 Sdllskapet
311, 431 , 366
Religionswissenschaft ReligionswissenschaftlicheBihliothek
(1910- ) . . 318, 319
Renan, Joseph Ernest.
An alleged religious instinct peculiar to the Semitic peoples . . . .38
Rendall, Gerald Henry.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus to Himself (1898) . 228 «
Renel, Charles.
Italian Totemism . . 20
His theory criticized '21, 344, 362 Cultes militaires de Rome (1903)
21 71, 344 n, 362 Renunciation. The doctrine of . 282 Resurrection. Primitive interpre- tations of . . 14, 33 The teaching of Jesus concern- ing the .... 216 R(,etrospect of successive ' Parts ' in
the present volume 320, 504, 509 Reuter, Pierre.
UOrigine des religions (1912) Revelation. A primitive divine
The general doctrine 5, 137 This theory defended by : Besant Bricout . Elchasai Gwatkin Martindale Schmidt (W.) Soderblom Tisdall . Underwood The theory repudiated by
34, 318,
31
338
. 409 . 177 . 340
. 395
. 385 360, 400
. 312 395, 397
. 222
Mr. Lang
Q8
Christianity alleged to be the final .... 396
Rhys, John, Right Hon. Sir.
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illus- trated by Celtic Heathendom (1888) ' . . . 268 ?i
O 02
564
INDEX
Rhy's, John, aSm' (co?ii.) — page
Celtic Folklore : Welsh and Manx {1901) . 97 w, 268 w
Richard, Gaston.
La Sociologie generale et les his sociologiques (1912) . 80 Richard, Paul.
Les Dieux (1913) . . 330 n, 368
Richard, Timothy.
Guide to Buddhaland ( 1908) . 284 n The New Testament of Higher
Buddhism (1910) 213 n, 284, 397 A Mission to Heaven (1913) 285 n Ridgeway, William.
Significant contents of an Honorary Volume . . 27
RiSLEY, Herbert Hope, ^*V.
Indian Totemism . .21
Ritual V. Religion . . .137
Its frequently excessive ela- boration . . . 232, 239 Mortuary . . . .229 Greek religions . 121 ??, 239, 250 Rivers, William Halsb Rivers.
Researches in Sociology . 63 n
The ethnological analysis of
Culture . . . .48
The contact of Peoples . . 48
Kinship and Social Organiza- tion (1914) . . .80 The History of Melanesian Society (1914) . . .61 Rivers. Sacred . . . .310 Robertson, Archibald Thomas. A Graimnar of the Greek New Testament (1914:) . 124: n Robinson, Edward.
Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testaynent (1836) \\9 n Roemer, Hermann.
Die Bahi-BehcVl (1912) . 288
Rogers, Robert William.
A History of Babylonia and
Assyria {\9(){)) . . 126 w
The Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria {1909) . 126 ?^
Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament {1912) . . 126
Rolleston, Thomas William H. Myths and Legends of the Celtic i?ace (1911) . . 268 w
Roman Catholic scholars and Com- parative Religion
30?i, 175, 178, 184, 185,186, 198, 356, 383, 410, 437. Inevitableness of an ecclesiasti- cal point of view
177, 185, 186, 199, 370-1, 384, 385, 422 n, 423, 437.
Roman Catholic scholars {cont.) — page Rejoinder to this charge
30 n, 176, 384 See Bricout, Courbet. d'Ales, Huby, Le Roy, Martindale, Schell,
Thomas {Vicaire General). See Periodicals. Roman Catholicism . . . 218
A sympathetic understanding
of its attitude . . . 220
Its propaganda in India . 254
RoscHER, Wilhelm Heinrich. Editor of AusfiXhrliches Lexi- kon der griechischen nnd r67nischen Mythologie . 459
Rosetta Stone. The . .115, 132
Ross, John.
The Original Religion of China (1909) . . . 219 12,299
Rousseau, Jean Jacques. — A precursor of modern com-
parativists . . .22
Rubensohn, Otto.
Elephantine- Papyri (1912) . 125 Rydberg, Viktor.
Researches of an eminent Swedish savant . . 312
Sachau, Eduard.
Expert in Papyrology . .125
The story of Ahikar . .117
Drei aramdische Papyrus- Urkunden aus Elephantine (1907) . . . 128 w
Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jildischen Militdrkolonie zu Elephan- tine {1911) . . 117 w, 127 Sacraments. Origin of the Christian 390 Sacred Books of the world now practicallv accessible to all
96, l'l5, 156, 197, 215, 306, 337. of Bahaism . . . 290
of Buddhism . . .284
of the Elkesaites . . . 340
of Sikhism . . . .263
See FoRLONG, Hackmann. Hodgson, Martin, Scher- merhorn, Winternitz. Sacred Books of the East {The)
(1879-1904) . . 401 n
Sacred Books of the East. A
General Index to the (1910) . 466 Sacrifice, an anthropological study
6, 172, 229, 308, 325, 343, 377
INDEX
565
PAGE
GriecJien
. 300 233, 234
. 34
. 280
Sacrifices. Human Sainter, Ernst.
Die Religion der (1914) . Saint-Etienne de Jerusalem
See EcoLE. Saixtyves, Pierre.
La Force magique (1914) Sallustius.
Hepl Qecov Kal KocTfiov Salvatorelli, Luigi.
Contributor to La Cultura
contemporanea 304, 349 n, 477 International Congress of
Archaeology in 1912 . . 425
Introduzione hihliografica alia scienza delle religioni (1914)
426 n, 460, 463, 477 n
Samaj. The Arija . . 253, 299
The Brahma . . .300
Samson. The story of . . 104 f
Samter, Ernst.
Geh urt, Hochzeit und Tod (1911) 61 Samurai. The religion of the . 282
Sanday, William, Canon.
Christologies Ancient and
Modern {\Q\0) . . 141 /i
Sanders, Frank Knight.
The History of the Hebrews (1914) .... Sanskrit. A new aid to students of .... .
Saracens. The rise of the The expansion of the Sardinia. Primitive religion in Sastri, Sivanath.
Histon/ of the Brahma Samaj (1911-12) Saunders, Kenneth James.
The Buddha's ' Way of Virtue ' (1912) . . . 447 w
Sayce, Archibald Henry.
Archaeologist and philologist
83 n, 133, 329 A specialist in Hittite history
84, 132 Penetrative forecasts and con- jectures . . 85, 127, 133 Decipherment of Meroi^tic
texts . . . .132
A student of Papyrology . 125 In study of religion employs the comparative method
133, 294 Contributor to The Anyials of Archceology and Anthropo- logy .... 471 The Hittites {18S8) . .Son
300
357 452 453
57 f
300
Sayce, A. H. (cont.) — page
The Religions of Ancient Egypt
and Babylonia ( 1902) 133 n, 293 n Aramaic Papyri discovered at
Assuan (1906) . 125 w, 127 n
The Archceology of the Cunei- form Inscriptions (1907) . 130 The Religion of Ancient Egypt (1913) . . . .293 Schaefer, Richard.
Die neue Religion des falschen Christus (1912) . 292 n
Schaff, Philip.
The Creeds of Christendom
(1877) . . . 448 M
Theological Propcedeutic ( 1892)
166 n Scheie, Vincent.
Aramaean migrations . . 93
Schell, Herman.
Christus {1906) . 176 n, 384 n
The Neiv Ideals in the Gospel (1913) . . 176%, 384 ?i
Schermerhorn, Martin Kellogg. The Sacred Scriptures of the World (1883) .. . 408 ;i
ScHiAN, Martin.
Joint-editor of the Theologi- scher Jahresbericht . . 454
SCHIELE, FrIEDRICH MiCHAEL.
Editor of the Religionsgeschicht-
liche Volksbilcher , . 462
Joint-editor of Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegen- wart .... 441
Schiffer, Sina.
Die Aramiler {\9\\) . . 92
Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich. The problems of religion 466 n
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Da- niel Ernst. Founder of the Psychology of
Religion . 139, 313, 367
Der christliche Glaube (1821) 139 n Psychologic (1862) . 139 n
Schmekel, August.
Researches in Stoicism . . 226
Schmidt, Bernhard.
Das Volksleben der Neugriechen und das hellenische Alter - thum (1871- ) . . 54n
Schmidt, Wilhelm.
Researches in Ethnology . 328 Religion prior to magic . .In
The Louvain Summer School
of Ethnology . . . 422
The kulturhistorische Methode in Ethnology . . 46 w, 330 w
566
INDEX
Schmidt, W. {cont.) — page
Editor of Anthropos . . 46 7i
Editor of the Anthropos- Bihlio-
thek . . . .61
Die moderne Ethnologie (1910) 61 Grundlinien einer Vergleichung der Relinionen und Mytho- logien der austronesiscTien Volker (1910) 110
Voies nouvelles en science corn- far ec des religions (1911) . 360 Die Uroffenbarung als Anfang der OJfenharungen Gottes (1913) 34, 318, 361 n, 400
School of American Arcliseology
and Ethnology, Mexico 83 n, 427 School of Oriental Studies, London 495 Schools. Undenominational Theo- logical : Canadian centres . .495
Harvard University . . 496
Kennedy School of Missions
413 n, 497 Yale University . . . 498
Union Seminary, New York . 500 ofReUgions . . 494,499
SCHRADER, EbERHARD.
Contributions to Philology 1 13, 126 Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testameiit (1872) 126 n
Schroder, Edward.
A promoter of Quellen der Reli- gions Geschichte . . 406 ScHLT^TZ, Wolfgang.
Bcitsel aus dem hellenistisclien Kidturkreise (1909-12) . 368 SchItrer, Emil.
Formerly an editor of the Theologische Literaturzei- tung .... 490
Schuster, Hermann.
Joint-editor of the Theologi- sche Literaturzeitung . .491 ScHWALM, Maria Benedictus, Pere. Studies in Semitic religions . 234 Sciences auxiUary to Comparative Religion
xix, 1 f, 143, 163 f, 202, 320, 325, 413, 417, 422, 451. Each has an aim and domain of its own
xxviii, XXX, 163, 325, 328, 504. Each employs its own
'Method' . . . 172,510
Each makes use, also, of the Comparative Method
325, 329, 333
Sciences (cowf.) — page
These sciences supplement one another . . .163
Scott, Charles Newton.
The Religions of Antiquity (1914) . . . 224,400
Scott, Ernest Findlay.
The Beginnings of the Church (1914) .... 300 Sects. Religious .... 161 Indian . . . .298
Islamic .... 273
Japanese . . " . . 283
Jewish . . . . 444
Jewish-Christian . . . 338
Seligmann, Charles Gabriel. Ancient Egyj)tian Beliefs in Modern Egypt . . .28
Sell, Edward, Canon.
Bahaism {1912) . . 292 n
The Life of MiLlmmmad (1913) 300 Sell, Karl.
Die Religion unserer Klassiker (1904) . . . 466 w
Semaifie d'ethnologie religieuse, 1012 (1913)
20 n, 371 n, 372 n, 384 n, 422 Seminaries :
Canadian .... 495 Hartford . . . .497
Recent Christian Progress
(1909) . . . 138 w
The Hartford-Lamson Lec- tureship 244, 270, 297, 496 n Its ' Department for Mo- hammedanism ' . . 498 Union (New York) . . 500 Comparative ReHgion . 499 New Testament Greek 119 n The Morse Lectureship . 228 The Ely Lectureship . 300 Projected Foreign Lecture- ship . . , .501 Semitic reHgion. See Classifica- tion OF Religions. Sen, Keshab Chandra. See
Keshab Chandra Sen. Septuagint. The . . .118
Sethe, Kurt.
The Pyramid Texts . .114
A promoter of Quellen der Religions-Geschichte . . 406
Shamanism. See Cults. Shankar, Shyama.
Buddha and his Sayings (1914) . . . .300
Sharp, Douglas Siminionds.
Epictetus and the New Testa- ment (1914) . . .134
INDEX
567
PAGE
Shaerock, JoH]sr Alfred.
Hinduism, Ancient and Modern (1913) . . . 300,400
Shaw, John Mackintosh.
Criticism of the religionsge-
sckichtliche method , . 342
Christianity as Religion and Z^Jc (1914) . . .400
Shedd, William Ambrose.
Bahaism and its Claims (1912)
293 n Shinto. General survey of
182, 183, 185, 188, 191, 203, 221, 244. 247, 266, 282, 404, 406, 421, 430. The influence it has wielded,
and still wields . . . 430
See Dahlmann, Geden, Harada, Moore, Nuka-
RIYA, von OrELLI, UnDER- WOOD.
Shotwell, James Thomson.
The Beligious Revolution of To-day {1913) . . .60 Sibylline Books. The . . 239
Siegmund-Schultze, Friedrich. Schleiermachers Psychologie in ihrer Bedeutungfilr Glauhens- lehre {1913) . . 139 w
Sikhism. The origin of . 261,266 A summary account of
260, 408, 447 Its Bible . . . .261
V. Christianity . . .416
?'. superstition . . . 263
See Bloomfield, Field, Macaijliffe, Thornton, Trumpp. Silverman, Joseph, Rabhi.
Contributor to The Unity of Religions . . . .218
Similarities amongst religions. See
Parallelisms. Simon. Gottfried.
Islam und Chrisfentum (1910) 300 Sin. The doctrine of . . . 396
Singer, Isidore.
Editor of The Jewish Encyclo- pedia .... 442 Skene, William Forbes.
Researches in Archaeology . 84 Slavonic religion. See Classifica- tion OF Religions. Smith, Henry Preserved.
The Religion of Israel (1914) 300 Smith, J. Gardner.
Joint-editor of The Unity of Religions .... 217
PAGB
Smith, Reginald Bosworth.
Mohammed and Mohammedan- ism (1874) . . 521 w Smith, Samuel George.
Bibhcal Sociology, The study
of . . . . .75
The social value of reUgion . 77 ReHgion a universal fact . 77 Humanity's debt to the He- brew race . . 76-7 Religion in the Making (1910) 75 Smith, William Robertson.
Semitic Totemism . . 20
Totemism accorded an undue
prominence . . .21
Its alleged primitive univer- sahty now discredited 21, 29 Snake (The) in Greek art and reli- gion . . . .317 Social Reform, in all lands . .71 in the United States . .71 Societies. Learned . . . 427 Anthropological Society . 11 Berhn Academy . 115 m Chinese Society (London) . 430 Ethical Culture (New York) . 215 Ethnological . . .11 Gesellschaft der Wissenschaf-
ten (Gottingen) . . 429
GeseUschaft fiir Islamkunde
(Berhn) . . . 428,492
Imperial Academy (Petrograd) 302 Institut Suisse d' Anthropologie
(Geneva) .... 428 Institut de France (Paris) . 344 Institut Solvay (Brussels) . 463 Japan Society (London) . 429
Royal Institution (London) . 86 Sociological Society (London) 490 Sociology. General survey of . 62 Wide signification of the term
62, 63 n, 449 A definition of . . .62
Growing study of . . 4
The British school . . 63
The French school . 63, 64 The German school . . 417
Bibhcal . . . . 75
Comparative . . . 360
Ethnic . . . 10,43
of the Teutonic races . . 80
sometimes denominated Col- lective Psychology , .138 by some called Social Psvcho-
logy . . . " 138. 149
V. Anthropology . . 11,63 Its method and purpose . 417
Its valuable contributions . 308
568
INDEX
Sociology {cont.) — page
Its questionable contentions
63%, 64, 65, 66, 159, 449 Its relation to religion
62, 63 n, 64, 150, 159 Religious .... 449 Not a substitute for theology 72 See Ames, Branford, Comte,
CORNFORD (F. M.), DURK-
HEiM, GoMME, Hender- son, HOBHOUSE, KmG, Levy - Bruhl, Patten, Richard (G.), Rivers, S]\nTH (S. G.) Spencer (Herbert), Toy, Vernes,
VOLLRATH, WeSTERMARCK,
See Periodicals. Institut
SOLVAY
Socrates
Ethical ideals . 214, 215 n
SoDERBLOM, Nathan, Archbishop. An historic professorship in
Leipzig . 193,211,402^,404 Researches in Totemism 22 n
Editor of Frilmmande Religions -
urkunder .... 404 Editor of Tiele^s Kompendium
der ReligionsgescJiiciite
22 n, 170, 178 n, 194 Joint -editor of Religions-
vetenskapligt Bibliotek 204, 404 Oversikt av allmanna ReUgions-
historien (1912) . .193
Naturliche Theologie und all-
gemeine Religionsgeschichte
(1913) . . . 310,431 Giidstrons uppkomst. Studier
(1914) ... 311 n Solvay Institute (Brussels) . 463, 464 Soothill, William Edward.
The Three Religions of Chiiia (1913) 212 n, 218, 244 n, 370 n Special Works, helpful to students
of Comparative Rehgion . 445 Speciahzation may become exces- sive .... 321 Speculation a handicap of the
scientist . . 14, 15, 378-9
Its risks 90, 132, 179, 279, 340, 378, 518. Speer, Robert Elliott.
Christianity and the Nations (1910) . . . 377 n
Spence, Lewis.
The Myths of Mexico and Peru
(1913) . . . .110 The Myths and Legends of
the North American Indians
(1914) . . . .110
Spencer, Herbert. page
Exposition of Socialism . 62
The mystery inseparable from
rehgion . . . .154
Descriptive Sociology {IS61- ) 62 n Principles of Sociology (1876-
96) Q2n
Spencer, Walter Baldwin.
AustraHan Totemism . .21
The Native Tribes of the Northern Terr itory of A ustralia (1914) 61 Spiess, Edmund.
The Comparative Study of Religions (1874) 333 n, 371 n Spieth, Jakob.
Die Religion der Eweer in Sud- Togro (1911) . . 34, 407>t
Stalker, James.
Christian Psychology (1914) . 161 Starbuck, Edwin Diller.
The Psychology of Religion (1899) . . . UOn
Stein, Ludavig.
Researches in Stoicism . 226
Steinmetz, Sebald Rudolf.
Researches in Ethnology . 329 Essai d'une bibliographic sys- tematique de f ethnologic (1911) . . . 11 7?, 463 Stephens, Winifred.
Legends of Indian Buddhism (1911) . . . 447 71
Steven, George.
The Psychology of the Christian Soul [l^U) . 140 M, 161
Stoicism. Greek . . 226
Roman . . . 214,225
Is Stoicism a rehgion ? 225, 226 Its recognition of God . . 226
Its influence on Judaism and
Christianity . 227, 228, 239 See Arnold, Bevan, Fowler, Hicks, Pearson, Ren- dall, Schmekel, Stein, Zeller. Stokes, Samuel E.
The Gospel according to the Jews and Pagans {\91Z) . 400 Stratton, George Malcolm.
Researches in Psychology . 329 Shyness towards the Ques- tionnaire method . 155-6 Psychology of the Religious Life {1911) . ioO/i, 155 Strehlow, Carl.
Australian Totemism . .21
Streitberg, Wilhelm.
Joint-editor of the Religions- wissenschaftliche Bibliothek 319
INDEX
569
PAGE
Strong, Herbert Augustus.
Translator of De Dea Syria . 87 Stubbe, Henry.
An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism
(1911) . . . .300 Stube, Rudolf.
Lao-Tze {\Q\2) . .301, 462 ?^
Confucius (1913) . . 301, 462 n
Das Zeitalter des Confucius (1913) . . . .301
Studien. Religio nsgeschichtliche
(1910- ) ... 318
Studien zur Geschichte und Kul- tur des islamischen Orients (1912- ) . . 318, 319
Studien zur semitischen Philologie
und Eeligionsgeschichte (1914) 319 Studies in the History of Religions
(1912) . . 98 ri, 196 n, 310 Studies. Indian Historical (1913) 318 Studies in Jewish Literature (1913) 319 Studies subsidiary to Comparative
Religion . xxviii, 328, 509, 513 Special ' Centres ' for such
studies . . . 493, 505
The literature which these ' Centres ' supply
498, 502, 503, 505 Special literary products which are not to be overlooked
445, 506 Intensive and regional study the clamant demand to-day
41, 47, 59, 519 Stummer, Friedeich.
Der kritische Wert der alt- aramdischen Ahikartexte axis Elephantine (1914) . . 134
' Subconscious Self '. Problems of
the . . . . 31, 141
Subject Index of the British Museum
Library. See Index. Sufism. General survey of
195, 275, 288 n and asceticism . . . 242
Its influence on the develop- ment of Islamic theology . 419 See Browne, Goldziher, Macdonald, Margoliouth, Sell (E.). Sun-god. See Gods. Sun Myths. See Myths. Supernatural. Criticism of theories
of the . . . . 89
Superstition v. Religion
7 n, 8, 14, 89, 148, 220 an accretion of Sikhism . . 263
PAGE
Supreme Deity. Early belief in a 58 Survivals. Studies of
5, 6, 54 f, 77, 79, 81, 82, 90, 220, 344. Swindler, Mary Hamilton.
Cretan Elements in the Cults and Ritual of Apollo {1913) 121??. Symbolics. Christian . . . 374
Sympathy requisite for the under- standing of religion . . 220 Syncretism in religion 331 f, 390-1, 453 in Christianity . . . 390 Synthesis. Possibility among reli- gions of an absolute
331 f, 408, 516, 519
Taboo an anthropological study 6, 196 Talling, Marshall Peter.
The Science of Spiritual Life (1912) . . 157, 330 n
Taoism. General survey of
182, 183, 211-13, 219, 221, 410. Afifinities with the Zen philo- sophy .... 283 The Taoist Canon 410, 447 n
See De Groot, Soothill, Underwood, Wieger. Tarkhan (Egypt) . . 91, 92
Teano, Leone di, Principe.
See Caetani. Technology v. Anthropology . 1 1
Tell el Amarna . . 115, 458
Temple, Richard, Sir.
The utilitarian aspects of
Anthropology . Anthropology (1914) Temples in Babylonia in Egypt (Jewish) in Greece in Japan Terminology. Hazards of an un
fixed Testament. The Greek New . Teutonic races and their socio
logy . Teutonic religion. See Classifica- tion of Religions. V. Greek Folk Tales V. Latin Christianity Texts. Aramaic Chinese
Egyptian (Pyramid) Egyptian (Meroitic) Indian Islamic
11
32 32 256 432 295 430
11 119
80
. 39 . 36 129 ?t . 410 114, 230 84, 132 . 456 274-5
570
INDEX
Texts {cont.) — page
Pali .... 259,447 Zoroastrian . . . 278
The value of textual studies
for Comparative Religion . 113 Sacred .... 456
oi the New Testament . .119
of Creeds .... 447 Translations of sacred texts
115, 401, 446, 505 The preparation of criticaltexts 115 Cuneiform . . . 126, 130 f
Decipherment of the foregoing
texts 113, 119, 130, 132, 185-6 See Breasted, Max Muller, Sayce. Theism. The study of . 496, 501
A comparison of various sys- tems of
197, 201, 222, 253, 326, 461. Theologischer J ahresbericht {1881- ) 454 Theological Colleges. See Schools,
Seminaries. Theology. Babylonian . .317
Muslim . . . .271
Islamic . . . .419
Zoroastrian .... 297 Natural (Natural Religion)
310, 363, 365 Propagandic. See Missions. Systematic . . . 367, 374
Comparative
180, 220, 234, 245, 253, 268 n, 377, 380, 396, 511. See Jevons, MacCulloch. Liberal . . . 479, 486
Bearing of the History of
Religions on . . .192
Reconstruction in . . 157
Its inevitably restrictive
tendency . . 149, 172, 246
Theosophy, and its uniform en- couragement of Compara- tive Religion . . . 409 Its doctrine of the unity of
all religions , . . 408
Irreducible differences by which the great religious Systems stand separated 409 n Is it really tolerant ? . . 290
An attempted reform of
Hinduism . , . 253
Mrs. Besant's text-books 296, 408 Thomas, Saint.
Alleged teaching in India . 254 Thomas, Edward Joseph.
The Buddha's ' Way of Virtue ' (1912) . . . 447 m
page Thomas, M., Vicaire General de Verdun. Christianisme et Bouddhisme (1897) . . 371^,400
Thomas, Northcote Whitridge. Bibliography of Folk-Lore, 1905
(1906) . . . 464 %
Bibliography of Anthropology and Folk-Lore, 1906 ( 1907) 463 n Thompson, R. Campbell.
Semitic Magic (1908) . 282 n
Thornton, Douglas Montagu.
Parsi, Jaina, and Sikh (1898) 53 n Threskonomy .... 336 Tiele, Cornelis Petrus.
Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst tot aan de heerschappij der W ereldgodsdiensten (1876) 194 n TiSDALL, William St. Clair.
Criticism of Sir James Frazer 379 n A Christian apologist
379, 394, 518 n An effective popularizer of the
study of religions . . 396
Comparative Religioyi (1909)
370 n, 379 n, 396 n Christianity and Other Faiths (1912) . 286 w, 379 ?t, 394 TiTius, Arthur.
A promoter of Quellen der
Religions -Geschichte . . 406
Joint-editor of the Theologische
Liter at urzeitung . . 491
Tobit. The Book of . 117, 118, 129
Togoland. The exploration of . 44
Toleration (Religious) among the
Chinese . . . .213
under Islam . . 207, 216
among Theosophists . . 290
TopiNARD, Paul.
UAnihropologie (1877) . . 10
Totemism, an anthropological studv
6, 149, 179, 181, 196," 423, 461. American . . , .21
Australian . . . 21, 66
Celtic . . . .20
Egyptian . . . .20
Greek . . . .20
Indian . . . .21
Italian . . . .20
New Guinea . , .21
Semitic . . . .20
Its interpretation by :
M. Durkheini . . .67
M. van Gennep . 20-2
M. Renter . . . 32
Something more than magic . 67
INDEX
571
Totemism {cont.) — • tage
Was it really man's primitive
religion ? 21, 29, 172, 325, 343 Its universality maintained . 29 Its universality now widely
discredited 21-2, 29, 172, 343 Its alleged survival in Greek
religion .... 344 See Betjchat, Bouvier, Car- penter, Frazer, Fofcart, VAZsr Gennep, Gillen, Haddon, Jevons, Lang, ^Iarillier, Mauss, Soder-
BLOM, ToUTAIN, TyLOE.
TouTAiN, Jules.
Defends the historical method 351 Criticism of the comparative
method . . .22, 362
Rejoinder by M. van Gennep . 21 The religion of the Cretans . 121 Les Cultes pa'iens dans V Empire romain (1907- )
224, 362 n, 453 n E tildes de mythologie et d'his- toire des religions antiques (1909) 21 n, 98 n, 344 n, 361
Les Cultes orientaux (1911) . 224 Toy, Crawford Howell.
Expert philologist . .196
Researches in Anthropology . 196 Researches in Sociology , 64
Legends and Myths differen- tiated . . . 96 w Honoured by the presentation
of a Commemorative Volume 310 Introdiiction to the History of Religions (1913)
64 71, 96 n, 98 n, 179 n, 195 Transactions of Congresses, etc. . 412 No longer published in full
413, 421, 425 Will repay serious study 413-4,427 British Association 17, 23 n, 33, 48 Congress for the History of
Religions 23 n, 29 n, 40 n, 418 Japan Society . . 430 n
Transition stages in the study of Comparative Religion
325 f, 328, 330 Translation Fund. Oriental . .431
Translations of sacred texts. See
Texts. Troeltsch, Ernst.
A leader of the religionsge-
schichtliche Schule . 331 «
Advocate of the founding of a University ' Faculty ' for teaching the History of Religions . . 494 n
page Trumpp, Ernst.
An unsafe interpreter of
Sikhism . . 264, 265, 266
The Adi-Chranth, or The Scrip- tures of the Sikhs (1877) 264 ?i Die Religion der Sikhs (1881)
264: n Truth in all religions. See Reli- gion : The History' of Religions. Tsofntas, Chrestos.
The Mycenoian Age (1914) 121 n Turanian religion. See Classifi- cation OF Religions. TuRcin, Nicola, Do7i.
Manuale di storia, delle reli-
gioni (1912) 198, 225, 426 n
La Civiltd hizantiyia (1915) 426 n II Culto di Giu7ione 7iel Lazio 426 n Tylor, Edward Burnett, Sir. A founder of British Antliro-
pologj'- . . . .18
Outdistanced by his modern
disciples . . . 46, 63
His theory concerning Totem- ism , . . .29 Researches in Psychology . 140 Pri7nitive Culture (1871) 18, 156
Undenominational Schools of Theo- logy. See Schools. Underwood, Horace Grant.
The Religions of Eastern Asia (1910)
6 n, 221, 244 n, 326 ??, 370 n Ungnad, Arthur Franz Ed.
Aramuische Papyrus aus Ele- phantine (1912) . . 125 Uniates. The . . . . 206 Unitarianism .... 149 U7iited Study of Missions series, The 52 n Universism . . . .212 Universities promoting the scien- tific study of religion : Aix-Marseilles : a special pro •
fessorship . . . 342
Boston: the special equip- ment of missionaries
201, 494 n Cliicago : Barrows Lecture- ship on Comparative ReHgion . . 493,501
Columbia : courses in pre- paration for foreign service, missionary or scientific 494 n, 499, 501 n
572
INDEX
Universities (cont.) — page
Harvard : a School of Reli- gions . . . 496 Its Theological Review . 478 Lyons : conferences . . 398 New York : lectures on Com- parative Religion . 501 Paris : special lectures in the
Faculte des Lettres 66, 72 Princeton : an expansion of its
Graduate School . 495
Yale : a School of Religions . 498 Upanishads. The . . . 305
UsENER, Hermann.
His researches compared with
those of Professor Wissowa 315 Das W eihyiachtsf est {ISS9) 315 w Religio nsgesch ichtliche Unter -
suchimgen {1889) . 315 n
Die G'tJUernamen (1896) . 315 w Vortrage imdAufsdtze (1907) 315 n Klei7ieSchriften {1912-U) . 314
Valensin, Albert.
Jesus-Christ et Vetude com- paree des religions (1912) . 398 Value judgements in religion . 359
Vannuzzi, Aldo.
The critical study of rehgions 304 Vatican Council cited as authority 385 Vaux, Alexandre Carra de, Le Baron. >See Carra de Vaux. Vedas. The 114, 171, 191, 305, 407
V erhandlungeyi des Soziologentages,
1910 (1911) . . .417
Vernes, Maurice.
The abuse of the comparative
method . . . 332 w
UHistoire des religions (1887)
78 n, 332 n Histoire sociale des religions (1911- ) . . 77, 330 n
Vincent, Hugues, Pere.
BibHcal Archaeology at Saint- Etienne de Jerusalem . 234
ViREY, Philippe.
La Religion de Vancienne Egypte (1910) . . .301
Virgil.
Religious feeling in his poetry 239 Virgin Birth. The doctrine of a . 396
ViSSER, W. M. DE.
Greek Totemism . . .20
Volkerkunde . . . 35, 472
Volkerktmde in Charakterhildern
(1902) . . . . 43 «
PAGE
Volker psychologic . . . 107
VOLLRATH, WiLHELM.
For male Methoden in der Theo- logie (1914) . . .368
Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet
DE.
A precursor of modern com-
parativists . . .22 Volter, Daniel.
Wer war Mose? (1913) . . 318
Wackernagel, Jakob.
A promoter of Quellen der Reli-
gions-Geschichte . . 406
Joint-editor of Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde . . 455
Wadia, Ardaser Sorabjee N.
The Message of Zoroaster (1912) 301 Wagiswara, W. D. C.
The Buddha's ' Way of Virtue ' (1912) ... 447 n
Walleser, Max.
Prajndpdramitd. Die Voll- kommenheit der Erkenntnis (1914) . . . 407 Ji
Walshe, William Gilbert.
Confucius and Confucianism (1911) . . . .301
Ward, Duren J. H.
The Classification of Religions (1909) . ... .318
Ward, William Hayes.
Asianic influence in Greek mythology . . .310
Warneck, Johann.
A psychological study of Mis- sions .... 158 Die Lebenskriifte des Evaoige-
Hums (1908) . . .157
Die Religion der Batak (1909)
34, 158 n, 407 n Warner, Horace Emory.
The Psychology of the Christian Life (1910) . . .161
Warren, Frederick Edward.
The conversion of the Celts . 453 Warren, Herbert.
Jainism (1912) . . .301
Warren, William Fairfield.
The Religions of the World and the World- Religion (1911)
167 n, 192 n, 200 Wateriiouse, Eric Strickland. The Psychology of the Christian Life (1913)" 140 /t, 162
INDEX
573
160
464
366 363
364
363
PAGE
Watsox, John.
The Interpretation of Religious Exjperieiice (1912) Waxwetler, Emile.
Editor of the Archives socio- logiques .... Webb, Clement Charles Julian. The Philosophy of Religion
364, 365, Wilde Lecturer at Oxford Problems in the Relations of
God and Wlan (1911) . Natural and Comparative Reli- gion (1912) Studies in the History of Natural Theology (1915) 363 n Weinel, Heinrich.
Editor of Lehensfragen . . 465
Jesus itn neunzehnten Jahr-
hundert . . 466 n
Paulus. Der Mensch und sein Werk {1^0)4) . . 466 ?^
Weiss, Bernhard.
Professorial work in Berlin . 120 Welch, Adam Cleghorn.
The Religion of Israel under the Ki7igdom (1912) . . 301
Weller, Charles Heald.
Athens and its Monuments (1913) . . . .95
Wendland, Paul.
A promoter of Quellen der Reli-
gions-Geschichte . . 406
Die hellenistisch-romische Kid- tur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum (1907) . . . 118%
Wendte, Charles William.
Editor of the Proceedings of the Fifth International Con- gress of Free Christianity . 415 Wernle, Paul.
A prominent representative of the religionsgeschichtliche Schide . . . 331 71
Wesley, John.
Enlargement of the common understanding of Christia- nity . . . .392 Wessely, Carl.
Studien zur Paldographie und Papyruskunde (1912) 125, 135 Westermarck, Edward Alex- ander. Martin White Professor of
Sociology, London . . 63
Marriage Ceremonies in Mo- rocco (1914) . ... 80
page Wetter, Gillis Albert Peters- son. Researches in Philology . 329
Contributor to Beitrage zur
Religionswissenschaft 314, 432 Chan's (1913) . . . 135
Whitney, James Pounder.
The conversion of the Teutons 453 Joint-editor of The Cambridge Medieval History . . 452
Wichmann, Carl Ernst Arthur.
New Guinea Totemism . 21
Widgery, Alban Gregory.
Jesus in the Nineteenth Century and After {\^\4:) . 466 ?i
Wiedemann, Alfred.
Friendly reference to Professor
Sayce's researches . . 294
Der Tierkult der alten Agypter
(1912) . . . .34 WiEGER, Leon, Pere.
Contributor to Lectures on the
History of Religions . 186, 410
Contributor to Christus . 185
Bouddhisme chinois (1910- ) 410
Le Ca7ion taotste {I91l~ ) .410
Wielandt, Roland.
Das Program m der Religions- psychologie (1910) . . 162
WiLCKEN, UlRICH.
The leading Continental au- thority on Papyrology . 124 Editor of the Archiv fur Papyrusforschung tmd ver- uxi7idte Gebiete . . . 472
Grundzuge und Chrestomath it der Papyruskunde (1912) . 124 Wilde Lectureship, Oxford . . 42
Will (The) as creative of religious
ideas .... 154
WiNCKLER, Hugo.
Astral mythology . .97
Prehistoric migrations of the
Arabs .... 303 Explorations at Boghaz Keui
85, 115 Joint-editor of Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament . . .127
WiNDiscH, Hans.
An estimate of Jesus . . 437
Winternitz, Moriz.
Geschichte der indischen Littera-
ttir {1905- ) . . 461 n
General Index to ' The Sacred
Books of the East ' (1910) . 466 Die buddhistische Litteratur
(1913) . . . 301, 467 n
574
INDEX
PAGE
Wisdom of the East {The) (1905- )
52 n, 446 WissowA, Georg.
His researches compared with
those of Professor Usener . 315 Joint-editor of Pauly's Re.al-
Encyclojiddie . . . 444
Beligion vnd Kultur der
Rom,er (1902) . . .294
Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur ro7nischen Bdiqions- iind Stadtgeschichte (1904) 294 n, 301 WoBBERMiN, Georg.
Researches in Psychology 329, 366 Special student of religious
psychology . . . 437
Ardent admirer of W. James . 366 Theologie mid Metaphysik
(1901) . . . 366^1 Der christliche Gottesglauhe
(1902) . . . 366 w Aiifgahe und Bedeutung der
Religionspsychologie (1910)
162, 416 n GeschicJite und Historie in der Religionswisse ascliaft (1911)
366 n Die religions-psydiologische Me- tJwde in Religionswissen- schaft und Theologie (1913)
330 n, 366 Zum Streit um die Religions- psychologie (1913) . 162, 416 n World Missionary Co7ifere7ice, 1910
(1910) . . 392 n, 479, 498 n
World's Rehgions. Brief Exposi- tions of the . . 52 n Worship .... 444, 461
See Cults. Wright, William.
The Empire of the Hittites (1884) . . . .84 n
WUNDT, WiLHELM.
A master in psychological research . . . .106
Volkerpsychologie (1900- )
106, 158 n
Die Kunst (IdOQ) . . 101 n
Elemente der Volkerpsychologie (1912) . . ■ .108 71,162
WiJNSCH, Richard.
Contributor to Kleine Textefur Vorh'sungen und Uebungen 316 n
Joint-editor of Religionsge- schichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten . . .316
Joint-editor of Religionsivissen- schaftliche Bibliolhek . 319
WiJNSCH, R. (cont.) — page
Editor of Usener's Kleine Schriften . . . 314
Wyss, Karl.
Die Milch im Kultus der Griechen und Romer (1915) 318
Yfihu 129
Yale University Divinity School.
See Universities. Year Book. The Britannica (1913) 433
Zarathushtra. See Zoroaster. Zeller, Eduard.
Researches in Stoicism . 226
Zen Philosophy. The . . .282
Zeus, the supreme god of the
Greeks . .' . 109, 248
ZniMERMAlSr, jEREanAH.
The God Juggernaut OMdHindu- ism in India (1914) . . 301
ZiMMERN, HeINRICH.
Joint-editor of Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament . . .127
Zollschan, Ignaz.
Das Rassenproblein {1910) . 37 w Zoroaster.
His work as a Reformer
215, 276, 277, 409 Zoroastrianism. General survey of
171, 182, 183, 188, 191, 202, 275, 305, 377, 403, 404, 408 Its earlier development . 276
Zoroastrian Theology. See
Theology. Its influence on the Greek and
Latin world . . .227
in the Acta Sanctorum . . 483
In how far influenced by
neighbouring faiths . . 27(5
The Creeds of . . . 448
The Magi . . . .277
Similarities between the I'cli-
gions of India and Persia . 419 Ahura Mazdah . . .277
An alleged dualism . .277
See Dhalla, Jackson (A. V. W.), Kapadia, Leh- , MANN, Martin, Mills, Moul- TON, Thornton, Wadia. Zscharnack, Leopold.
Joint-editor of Die Religion in. Geschichte und Gegenwart . 441 ZwEMER, Samuel Marinus.
Editor of The Moslem World . 435
ERRATA
Page 4(3 n, last line. For •' p. 102 ', read ' pp. 1010-36 '.
Page 97 n, 1. 10 from end. For ' Folk-Lore ' read ' Folklore '.
Page 139 n, 1. 4 from end. For ' Glauhenslehre ' read ' Der christliche Glauhe '.
Page 228, 1. 7. For ' Die Baha-Beha'i ' read ' Die Baha-Beha'i '.
Page 228, 1. 9. For ' 1911 ' read ' 1912 '.
Page 311, 1. 12 from end. For ' Fehrs ' read ' Fehr '.
Page 463 n, 1. 2 from end. For ' Folklore ' read ' Folk-Lore '.
Page 464 n, 1. 2 from end. For ' Folklore ' read ' Folk-Lore '.
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Revue de I liistoire des religions, Paris.
* A masterful work, and stands alone in its specific field.'
lievietv and Expositor, Louisville, Ky.
' Since Max Muller attempted to systematize the study of the world's religions, no book has appeared of more importance than Comparative Religion : Its Genesis and Growth. It is a guide for the student, and for the general reader an illuminating revelation.'
Yorhsliire Post, Leeds.
' A work of profound interest, which will do much to stimulate the study of the subject on both sides of the Atlantic. Mr. Jordan everywhere gives evidence of a thorough mastery of the subject, both in respect of the accumulation of materials bearing upon it, and the power of forming independent judge- ments.'
Herald, Glasgow.
'Mr. Jordan's History stands beside Tiele's and Jastrow's Introductions to the History of Eeligion as evidences of the immense interest which these studies are now awakening. The author with exceeding care .... has prepared a book of reference, in which the writer on the History of Eeligion can find everything he requires.'
Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipzig.
' Here is a book that every advanced student of Apologetics would do well to keep by him for study and reference, a book of high value to future workers in the same field.'
Tablet, London.
' This book is at once a programme, a history, and a biblio- graphy of the History of Keligions. The reader will find in it much information that he would search for elsewhere in vain. ... A great^ merit of Mr. Jordan's book is that it
appears to be absolutely unsectarian.'
Xe Museon, Louvain.
' We feel a sense of gratitude to Mr. Jordan [for the clear,
forceful, and convincing manner in which he has handled his
subject.'
Outlook, Dunedin, N.Z.
THE LITERATURE OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION
Quadrennial Surveys.
-*©»—
COMPARATIVE RELIGION : A SURVEY OF ITS RECENT LITERATURE.
Volume 1 : 1905-1909.
8vo. Pp. 100. 5s. net.
[Out of print*
COMPARATIVE RELIGION : A SURVEY OF ITS RECENT LITERATURE.
Volume II : 1910-1913.
8vo. Pp. 400. 10s. net.
[Beady, hut puUication temporarily postponed.
A FEW REVIEWS OF VOLUME I.
' I warmly recommend it. Mr. Jordan is trustworthy ; the combined candour and tactfulness of his criticisms is very striking. He is an enthusiastic advocate of a good cause.'
The late Br. Tliomas K. Cheyne, Oxford.
. ' A survey unequalled elsewhere. Such work is serving an immense public, and in a way that compels admiration.'
Professor William F. Warren, Boston.
* A limited number of copies of Fart II of Volume I (1906-1909), in Carton covers, may still be obtained. 2s. net.
' Mr. Jordan has the knack of getting his finger upon the pulse of a writer, and of reporting his " beat " with singular accuracy. '
Professor George S. Duncan, Washington.
'Mr. Jordan is ever on the watch to further the cause of Comparative Religion, no man more strenuously.'
Expository Times, Edinburgh.
*This publication constitutes an excellent guide. . . . The reader will find here an analysis, rapid but clear, of the most important recent works upon this subject. Particularly inter- esting are the conclusions which the author draws from his study.'
Revue modernisfe internationale, Geneva.
'It is especially pleasant to note Mr. Jordan's invariable courtesy of tone : he is indeed generous with his praise of the good qualities of those very books, e. g. M. S. Reinach's Orpheus, whose conclusions he is far from sharing. Yet he does not lack discrimination.'
Tablet, London.
'It can be warmly recommended to any beginner in this difficult field of inquiry ; and as it contains a learned and temperate statement of the author's views concerning the right and the wrong method of handling the subject, it will be of interest and value to the advanced student. If only for its bibliography, Mr. Jordan's treatise will be welcome.'
Oxford Magazine.
'Mr. Jordan's large work Comparative Beligion : Its Genesis and Grotvth has established his position as an authority on his favourite subject ; and this able and discriminating review of books on Comparative Religion, published during the last three years, will be warmly welcomed by his fellow-scholars.'
Globe, Toronto.
' These reviews are carefully and critically written. It is a great service to have a competent specialist repeatedly report- ing progress in a whole field of investigation and thought.'
Beview and Expositor, Louisville, Ky.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION
Occasional Papers and Lectures.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION :
ITS METHOD AND SCOPE,
Koyal 8vo. Pp. 20. Is. net.
A Paper read at the Third International Congress for the
History of Keligions.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION:
ITS ORIGIN AND OUTLOOK.
Royal 8vo. Pp. 16. Is. net.
A Lecture devoted largely to a critique of recent expositions
of Comparative Eeligion by Principal Carpenter
and Professor Jevons.
Other Papers about to he puhlislied : —
COMPARATIVE RELIGION :
ITS RANGE AND LIMITATIONS.
A Survey intended to dispel misconceptions which cause needless perplexity and unrest.
Royal 8vo. Pp. 20. Is. net.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION :
ITS CONSTRUCTIVE CAPABILITIES.
A Sketch of the beginning of an entirely new era in the history of this science.
A FEW SPECIMEN REVIEWS.
* These Lectures are simply intended to whet the reader's appetite, an eifect which thej^^ may well produce/
Beview of Theology and Philosophy, Edinburgh.
* Mr. Jordan has attracted much attention among specialists in this field by the results of his studies.'
Presbyterian, Toronto.
* The learned lecturer has shown the free development of studies in Comparative Religion, and has not abstained from drawing conclusions touching the aid they furnish towards initiating a new religious syncretism.'
Revue de Vhistoire des religions, Paris.
' The lecturer emphasises the fact that, in any broad treat- ment, the practical question must be faced : What is the bearing of the study of Comparative Religion on this and that individual religion ? For instance : what light, if any, has the study of Comparative Religion thrown upon the high traditional claims of Christianity.'
Chronicle, Oxford.
' To prove that thoughtful people are not — as some reviewers have said — just beginning to take a serious interest in this important subject, Mr. Jordan comments on works which have already appeared, and in so doing supplies valuable guidance to students.'
Methodist Recorder, London.
' Mr. Jordan gives detailed reasons for his disagreement with Dr. Sanday's identification of Comparative Religion and the History of Religions.'
Christian Commonwealth, London.
^ Of great interest to students of Comparative Religion.'
London Quarterly Bevieiv.
THE STUDY OF RELIGION
in the Universities of Europe and America
A Series of Handbooks. General Editor: Louis Henry Jordan, B.D.
THE STUDY OF RELIGION IN THE ITALIAN UNIVERSITIES.
By the General Editor, and Professor Baldassare Labanca,
Kome.
Crown 8vo. P^). xxviii., 324. 6s.
[Ready.
THE STUDY OF RELIGION IN THE FRENCH UNIVERSITIES.
By Professor Arnold van Gennep, Neuchatel.
Crown 8yo. Pp. 350. 6s. net.
[^In preparatioi \
THE STUDY OF RELIGION IN THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES.
By the General Editor.
Crown 8vo. Pp. 350. 6s. net.
\In preparation.
Other volumes are being arranged for, and a prospectus will
be issued.
A FEW REVIEWS OF VOLUME I.
'The details furnished are exact. The appreciations ai'e competent. The conclusions reached are reliable.'
Professor Giovanni JRostagno, Florence,
^ This book by Mr. Jordan will attract wide attention, and we are glad he has helped to make better known the conscien- tious work of so eminent a scholar as Professor Labahca.'
Bivista (Vltalia, Rome.
* Above all, Mr. Jordan's volume possesses the merit of reopening the discussion of a question of first-rate importance.'
La Cultitra, Rome,
'At the present moment, this important volume is of special interest, not less on account of the acknowledged erudition of its authors than because of the questions which it fairly and exhaustively discusses. The chapters devoted to the Modernist movement abound in fresh information, and are characterized by breadth, acuteness, and maturity of judgement.'
La Tribuna, Rome.
"A publication w^hich reveals the measure of study which English scholars are bestowing to-day upon Italian jDroblems. . . . Mr. Jordan gives evidence of a wide knowledge of scientific and religious thought in Italy. We are very grateful to the author. . . . His book is entitled to our cordial welcome.'
Bassegna Contemporanea, Rome.
' It is to be hoped that this book will be well received in Italy. It deserves to be read and seriously pondered.'
Nuova Antologia, Rome.
'Learned circles in Italy ought to be very grateful to the distinguished author who, in his recent work on religious studies conducted in the Italian Universities, has drawn atten- tion to the chief local promoters of such disciplines, and who has rendered to them .... a generous measure of praise.'
Bivista degli studi orientali, Rome,
'A very interesting volume. ... A compressed yet impartial account of the Modernist movement in Italy.'
L'ltalia, Rome.
' This is a singularly well-informed inquiry into contemporary
religious tendencies in Italy.'
Nation, London.
' Mr. Jordan, who has written and lectured much on Com- parative Keligion .... gives a useful account of the conflict which resulted in the abolition of all the Theological Faculties.'
Times Literary Supplement, London.
'A fair idea of Italy's attitude towards religious research may be gathered from this volume. ... A topical and biographical index makes the book a handy guide.'
Athenaeum, London.
' The tactfulness of Mr. Jordan's personal references is beyond
praise. He has obtained detailed and accurate information on
very thorny subjects. I will add that he is a consummate
index-maker.'
JReview of Theology/ and Fhilosqphy, Edinburgh.
^This book appears most opportunely. It contains various excellent suggestions, well worthy of being considered.'
Cultura moderncif Mendrisio, Switzerland.
*An interesting and valuable contribution to the question as to the part which University scholarship plays in the evolution of religion.'
■American Journal of Theology, Chicago.
'A work of profound interest to intelligent readers in all
lands.'
Presbyterian Witness, Halifax, Canada.
* It is one of the most interesting studies of the general
condition of Italy imaginable, and will prove most suggestive
and illuminating reading to any one interested in religious
progress. '
Christian Worli and Evangelist, New" York.
' This is a book that all who are interested in modern
religious conditions ought to possess. ... It is delightfully
written, scholarly, and reliable. . . . For a clear statement of
the ecclesiastical and religious situation in Italy, we heartily
commend it.'
Presbyterian Banner, Pittsburg.
MODERNISM
Its Advent, Import, and Development
MODERNISM IN ITALY,
Royal 8vo. Pp. 48. 2s. net.
A record, appreciation, and interpretation of a Movement
which, as regards its real impulses and consequences, is
still imperfectly understood.
MODERNISM IN AMERICA.
Royal Svo. Pp. 50. 2s. net.
[In preparation.
A FEW REVIEWS OF VOLUME I.
' Mr. Jordan has furnished the best popular account we have yet seen of the history of the Modernist movement in Italy.'
Expository Times, Edinburgh.
^It throws a vivid light on a movement of transcendent importance, not for Italy only but for the world.'
Christian World, London.
'■ Mr. Jordan holds that the historical growth of Modernism in Italy is quite independent of any direct influence arising from Protestantism : and therein he is undoubtedlj'^ right. The deliberate affirmations made in this connexion by Murri, Semeria, Minocchi, and Fogazzaro seem to him to be not only honest, but to be true beyond dispute.'
Theologische Literaturzeitung, Leipzig.
' The awakening has been largely due to the Modernists, who
are perhaps stronger in Italy than anywhere else. . . . The
vision of a renovated Catholic Church, no longer in hopeless
and stubborn conflict with modern science and history, has
begun to dawn upon serious minds.'
Church Times, London.
' A most interesting survey of the progress of Italian Modern- ism. Mr. Jordan has shown both real knowledge and sound judgement in his account of the movement. He has detected
its weak spots also.'
Inquirer, London.
^ It is a book at once well-informed, sympathetic, and judicial.
• . . The account of Modernism in Italy is notable both for its
knowledge and its judgement, and we shall eagerly look forward
to the story of the progress of the movement in other countries,
which Mr. Jordan has promised us.'
Guardian, Manchester.
' It is probably the most complete and reliable statement
that has yet appeared in English. Of equal importance and
value is the estimate of the future of the Modernist movement
which, despite the fateful Encyclical, .... is still spreading
under the very shadow of the Vatican.'
Scotsman, Edinburgh,
' Mr. Jordan treats of the Modernist movement in an illumi- nating manner. . . . The pronouncement should commend itself to all who can appreciate a strikingly original and compre- hensive study of a remarkable movement.'
Free Press, Aberdeen.
*No clearer statement of the rise and progress of the
Modernist movement in Italy has been given to English
readers. '
Congregationalist, Boston.
* The most complete and satis factor)'^ history, and estimate, of
this movement that we possess. We are pleased to note that
Mr. Jordan intends to supplement it with a history of the
movement outside of Italy. '
Christian Guardian, Toronto.
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY
3 9999 05986 521 0
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