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TEXTS FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON

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THE BIRTH OF THE WAR-GOD.

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Translated from the Sanskrit into English Verse by
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A CLASSICAL DICTIONAEY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY

AND RELIGION, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND

LITERATURE.

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SELECTIONS FROM THE KORAN.

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A New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with an Introduction by
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MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS,

BEING A SERIES OF IMPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS.

By MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L.,

Hon. LL.D. of the University of Calcutta, Hon. Member of the Bombay Asiatic

Society, Boden Pix)fessor of Sanskrit iu the University of Oxford.

Third Edition, revised and augmented by considerable Additions,

with Illustrations and a Map.

This edition will be found a great improvement on those that preceded it.

The author has taken care to avail himself of all such criticisms on particular

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and customs of the Queen's Indian suljjocts than we ever remember to liave seen in
any one work. He not only deserves the thanks of every Kngli.«hnian for this able
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METRICAL TRANSLATIONS FROM SANSKRIT
WRITERS.

With an Introduction, many Prose Versions, and Parallel Passages from
Classical Authors.

By J. MUIR, CLE., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.

". . . An agreeable introduction to Hindu poetry." — Thius.

"... A volume which may be taken as a fair illustration alike of the religious
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MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS RELATING TO INDIAN
SUBJECTS.

Br BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, Esq., F.U.S.,

Late of the Bengal Civil Service ; Corresponding Member of the Institute ; Chevalier
of the Legion of Honour ; late British Minister at tiie Court of Nepal, &c., &.C.

CONTENTS Oh VOL. I.

Section 1. — On the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhimal Tribes. — Part L Vocabulary.
Part n. Grammar. — Part III. Their Origin, Location, Numbers, Creed, Customs,
Character, and Condition, with a General Description of the Climate they dwell in.
— Appendix.

Section IL — On Himalayan Ethnology. — I. Comparative Vocabulary of the Lan-
guages of the Broken Tribes of N^pal. — IL Vocabulary of the Dialects of the Kiranti
Liin.cuage. — III. Grammatical Analysis of the Vayu Language. The Vayii Grammar.
— IV. Analysis of the Balling Dialect of the Kiranti Language. The Balling Gram-
mar.— V. On the Vayu or Hayu Tribe of the Central Himalaya. — VI. On tue Kiranti
Tribe of the Central Himalaya.

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

Section III, — On the .Uioiigines of North-Eastern India. Comparative Vocabulary
of the Tibetan, B6d6, and Garo Tongues.

Section IV. — Aborigines of the North-Easteni Frontier.

Section V. — Aborigines of the Eastern Frontier.

Section VI — The Indo-Chinese Borderers, and their connection witli tlie Hlma-
layausand Tibetans. Comparative Vocabnlary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Arakan.
Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chine.se Borderers in Tenasserim.

Section VII. — The Mongolian Affinities of tlie Caucasians. — Comparison and Ana-
lysis of Caucasian and Mongolian Words.

Section VIII. — Physical Type of Tibetans.

Section IX. — The Aborigines of Central India. — Comparative Vocabulary of the
Aboriginal Languages of Central India. — Aboiigines of the Eastern Ghats. — Vocabu-
lary of some of the Dialects of the Hill and Waudeiing Tribes in the Northern Sircars.
— Abori^'ines of the Nilgiris, with Remarks on their Affinities. — Supplement to the
Nilgirian Vocabularies. — The Aborigines of Southern India and Ceylon.

Section X — Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin, with Remarks on the Water
Shed and Plateau of Tibet.

Section XI. — Route from Kdthmandu, the Capital of Nepal, to Darjeeling in
Sikim. — Memorandum relative to the Seven Cosis of Nepal.

Section XII. — Some Accounts of the Systems of Law and Police as recognised in
the State of Nepal.

Section XIIL— The Native Method of making the Paper denominated Hindustan,
Nepalese.

Section XIV. — Pre-eminence of the Vernaculars; or, the Anglicists Answered:
Being Letters on the Education of the People of India.

■' For the study of the less-known races of India Mr. Brian Hodgson's ' Miscellane-
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A 2

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A TALMUDIC MISCELLANY;

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THE MIDRASHIM, AND THE KABBALAH.

Compiled and Translated by PAUL ISAAC HERSHON,
Author of " Genesis According to the Talmud," kc.

With Notes and Copious Indexes.

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extracts have been all derived, word for word, and made at first hand, and references
are carefully given." — British Quarterly Review.

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" Altogether we believe that this book is by far the best fitted in the present state
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giving labour." — Jewish Herald.

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THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE.

By basil hall CHAMBERLAIN,
Author of " Yeigo Henkaku Shiran."

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and in the volume before us we have a selection from that poetry rendered into
graceful English verse." — Tablet.

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appeared during the close of the last year." — Celestial Empire.

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THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib),

KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-6G8.

Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cj'linders and Tablets in
the Britisli Museum Collection ; together with a Grammatical Analysis
of each Word, Explanations of the Ideographs by Extracts from the
Bi-Lingual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c.

Br ERNEST A. BUDGE, M.R.A.S.,

Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge, Member of the
Society of Biblical Archaeology.

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THE MESNEVI

(Usually known as The Mesneviyi Sherif, or Holt Mesnevi)

OF

MEVLANA (OUR LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUML

Book the First.

Together tcith some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author,

of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants.

Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected

by their Historian,

Mevlana SHEMSu-'D-DtN Ahmed, el Eflaki, el 'Arifi.

Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English,

By JAMES AV, REDHOUSE, M. R. A. S., &c.

" A complete treasury of occult Oriental lore." — Saturday Review.

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desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important department of tlie literature
extant in that language." — Tablet.

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EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS

Illustrating Old Truths.

By Rev. J. LONG,

Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S.

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reading. " — Record.

" Altogether, it is quite a feast of good things."— Glohe.
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INDIAN POETRY;

Containing a New Edition of the "Indian Song of Songs," from the Sanscrit
of the "Gita Govinda" of Jayadeva ; Two Books from "Tlie Iliad of
India" (Mahabharata), "Proverbial Wisdom" from the Shlokas of the
Hitopadesa, and other Oriental Poems.

By EDWIN ARNOLD, C.S.I., Author of "The Light of Asia."

" In this new volume of Messrs. Triibner's Oriental Series, Mr. Edwin Arnold does
good service by illustrating, tljrough the medium of his musical English melodies,
the power of Indian poetry to stir European emotions. Tlie ' Indian Song of Songs '
is not unknown to scholars. Mr. Arnold will have introduced it among popular
English poems. Nothing could be more graceful and delicate than the shades by
which Krishna is portrayed in the gi-adual process of being weaned by the love of

' Beautiful Radha, jasmine-bosomed Radha,'
from the allurements of the forest nymphs, in whom the five senses are typified." —
Times.

"The studious reader of Mr. Arnold's verse will have added richly to his store of
Oriental knowledge . . . infused in every page of this delightful volume. . . . No
other English poet lias ever thrown his genius and his art so thoroughly into the
work of traiislating Eastern ideas as Mr. Arnold has done in his splendid parai^hrases
of language contained in these mighty epics."— Dtnfv Tdepraph.

" The poem abounds with imagery of Eastern luxuriousness and sensuousness ; the
air seems laden with the spicy odours of the tropics, and the verse has a richness and
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" The translator, while producing a very enjoyable poem, has adhered with toler-
able fidelity to the original text."— Overlavd Mail.

"We certainly wish Mr. Arnold s>iccess in his attempt 'to popularise Indian
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HINDU PHILOSOPHY.

The SANKHYA KARIKA of IS'WARA KRISHNA.

An Exposition of the System of Kapila, with an Appendix on the
Nyilya and Vais'eshika Systems.

Bt JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.A.S.

The system of Kapila is the earliest attempt on record to give an answer
from reason alone to the mysterious questions whicli arise in every thoughtful
mind about the origin of the world, the nature and relations of man and his
future destiny. It contains nearly all that India has juoduced in tlie depart-
ment of pure philosophy. Other systems, though classed as philosophic,
are mainly devoted to logic and physical science, or to an exposition of the
Vedas.

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THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA.

By a. EARTH.
Translated from the French with the authority and assistance of the Author.

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A MANUAL OF HINDU PANTHEISM. VEDANTASARA.

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"With a Preface by E. B. COWELL, M.A.,
Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge.

The design of this little work is to provide for missionaries, and for
others who, like them, have little leisure for original research, an accurate
summary of the doctrines of the Vedanta.

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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.

Translated by E. H. WHINFIELD, M.A.,

Barrister-at-Law, late H.M. Bengal Civil Service.

Omar Khayyam (the tent-maker) was born about the middle of the fifth
century of the Hejirah, corresponding to the eleventh of the Christian era,
in the neighbourhood of Naishapur, the capital of Khoi-asan, and died in

517 A.H. ( — 1122 A.D.)

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THE MIND OF MENOIUS ;

Ou, POLITICAL ECONOMY FOUNDED UPON MORAL
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A Systematic Digest of the Doctrines of the Chinese Philosopher

Mencius.

Translated from the Original Text and Classified, with
Comments and Explanations,

By the Eev. ERNST FABER, Rhenish Mission Society.

Translated from the German, with Additional Notes,

By the Rev. A. B. HUTCHINSON, C. M.S., Church Mission, Hong Kong,

Author of " Chinese Primer, Old Testament History."

" The Mind of Meneius" is a Translation from the German of one of the
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ever published.

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TSUNI— 1 1 GO AM :

The Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi.

By THEOPHILUS HAHN, Ph.D.,

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of the Gesgr. Society, Dresden ; Corresponding Member of the

Anthropological Society, Vienna, &c. , &c.

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PREFACE.

In presenting to tlie public the first volume of A Com-
prehensive Commentary on the Quran, I think it necessary
to make a brief statement as to the reasons which have
led to the publication of this work, and the object sought
to be attained thereby.

The idea of preparing such a work grew out of the wants
which I felt in the pursuit of my own study of the Quran,
and in the work of a missionary among Muslims. The
time required to gather up the results of the labours of
various writers on Islam ; the difficulty of preserving
these results in a form suitable for convenient reference ;
and the still greater difficulty of bringing the truth thus
acquired to bear on the minds of Muslims, owing to the
absence of any medium whereby the proof-texts, referred
to in the English works by chapter and verse, may be found
in the original copies current among Muhammadans,
where no such mode of reference is used ; — all these sug-
gested the great need of a work which would remove in
some degree at least these obstacles to the study of the
Quran, and thus promote a better knowledge of Islam
among missionaries.

It will thus be seen that I have not laboured simply to
make a book. I have endeavoured to provide for a felt

vj PREFACE.

want. My object has been to gather up in a few volumes
the results of the labours of those who have endeavoured
to elucidate the text of the Quran, adding the results of
my own study. It is in this sense that this work is en-
titled a Comprehensive Commentary, Though primarily
intended for the use of those who, like myself, are engaged
in missionary work among Muhammadans, it is hoped
that it will render valuable service to others.

The plan adopted in the preparation of this work is as
follows : —

I. To present Sale's translation of the Quran in the
form of the Arabic original, indicating the Sipdra, Surat,
Bugo^j of the Sipdra, Ruqu of the Surat, &c., as they are in
the best Oriental editions.

II. To number the verses as they are in the Eoman
Urdu edition of Maulvi Abdul Qadir's translation. This
arrangement will be of special benefit to missionaries in
India.

III. To exhibit in the notes and comments the views
of the best Muslim commentators. For these I am in-
debted for the most part to Sale, the Tafsir-i-Raufl, the
Tafsir-i-Hussaini, the Tafsir-i-Fatah-ar-Eahmdn, and the
notes on Ahchd Qddir's Urdu translation of the Quran.
Sale's notes have been almost entirely drawn (with the
aid of Maracci's work in Latin) from the standard writings
of Baidhawi, the Jalalain, and Al Zamakhshari. I have
also culled much from some of the best European writers
on Islam, a list of whose works may be found below.

IV. To the above is prefixed Sale's Preliminary Dis-
course, with additional notes and emendations. And
the last volume will contain a complete Index, both to
the text of, and the notes on, the Quran, which will enable
the reader to acquaint himself with the teaching of the

PREFACE. vii

Quran on any particular subject, with a very small amount
of labour.

In regard to the spelling of proper names, I have
invariably Romanised the original form of the words,
except when quoting from living authors, in which case
I have felt obliged to retain the spelling peculiar to each
writer.

In order to facilitate the study of individual chapters,
and to help a better understanding of the various " revela-
tions," I have prefixed to each chapter a brief introduction,
showing the circumstances under which the revelations
were made, the date of their publication by Muhammad,
and also giving a brief analysis of each chapter as to its
teaching.

As to the matter of the notes, the reader will perceive
occasional repetition. This is due in part to the repe-
titions of the text, and partly in order to call special
attention to certain doctrines of the Quran, e.g., its testi-
mony to the genuineness and credibility of the Christian
Scriptures current in the days of Muhammad ; the evidence
it affords to its own character as a fabrication ; its testi-
mony to the imposture of the Arabian prophet, in his
professing to attest the Former Scriptures, while denying
almost every cardinal doctrine of the same, — in his putting
into the mouth of God garbled statements as to Scripture
history, prophecy, and doctrine, to suit the purposes of
his prophetic pretensions, — and in his appealing to Divinity
to sanction his crimes against morality and decency.

The need of emphasising facts of this kind has grown
out of the attempt of certain apologists for Islam to ignore
these unpleasant truths, and to exhibit to the present
generation an ideal Muhammad, no less unlike the prophet
of Arabia than the Muhammad of Christian bigotry and

viii PREFACE.

misrepresentation. My endeavour has been to show what
the Quran actually teaches on these subjects.

On the other hand, I have endeavoured to remove,
as far as known to me, the misapprehensions, and conse-
quent misrepresentations, of the doctrines of the Quran,
popular among Christians, believing that every such error
strengthens the prejudices of Muhammadans, and thereby
aids the cause it seeks to overthrow, whilst justifying
similar misrepresentation from the Muslim side. Every-
where I have endeavoured to advance the cause of truth,
to show just what the Quran teaches, and so by stating
fairly the issues of the controversy with Islam, to advance
the great cause of bringing its votaries to a knowledge
of Him to whom all the prophets of God pointed as the
Son of God and the Saviour of sinners.

Finally, whilst I desire to express my obligations to all
those, now living, whose writings I have consulted or used
in the preparation of this volume, I wish specially to
make thankful acknowledgment of the help afforded me
by Sir William Muir, in permitting me to make use of
his most valuable works on Muhammad and the Quran in
the preparation of this work. My thanks are also due to
the Eev. P. M. Zenker, C.M.S. missionary, Agra, for much
valuable assistance in gathering material from sources
inaccessible to me.

Without further preface, and earnestly desiring the
blessing of Him who is The only Sinless Pkophet of
Islam, and the only Saviour of fallen men, I commend
this volume to the reader.

E. M. W.

LoMANA, December 31, 1881.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Preface v

Sale's Preface 3

SALE'S PEELIMINAEY DISCOUESE.
Sect.
I. — Of the Arabs before Muhammad ; or, as they express
it, in the Time of Ignorance ; their History, Eeligion,

Learning, and Customs 13

II. — Of the State of Christianity, particularly of the Eastern
Churches, and of Judaism, at the time of Muham-
mad's Appearance ; and of the Methods taken by
him for the Establishing his Eeligion, and the Cir-
cumstances which concurred thereto . . .61
III. — Of the Quran itself, the Peculiarities of that Book ; the
Manner of its being Written and Published, and

the General Design of it 96

IV. — Of the Doctrines and Positive Precepts of the Qurdn

which relate to Faith and Eeligious Duties . .116
V. — Of Certain Negative Precepts in the Qurdn . . . 191
VI. — Of the Institutions of the Quran in Civil Affairs . 205

VII. — Of the Months commanded by the Quran to be kept
Sacred ; and of the setting apart of Friday for the

especial Service of God 227

VIII. Of the Principal Sects among the Muhammadans ; and
of those who have pretended to Prophecy among
the Arabs in or since the time of Muhammad . 233

THE QUEAK
Chap.

I.— Entitled Si;rat ul Fatihat (The Preface) . . . .287

II.— Entitled Si;rat ul Baqr (The Cow) 291

LIST OF AUTHOES AND BOOKS QUOTED AND
MADE USE OF IN THE PREPAKATION OF
THIS VOLUME.

Abdul Qadir Ibn Wali Ullah. Translation of the Quran, with

Notes, in Urdu.
Arnold, John Muehleisen, D.D. Islam : Its History, Character,

and Relation to Christianity. Third edition.
Bdrckhardt, J. L. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahdbys. 2 vols.

1831.
Burton, Captain. Pilgrimage to Mecca.
Brinckman, Rev. Arthur. Notes on Isl4m.
HiGGiNS, Godfrey, Esq. An Apology for the Life and Character

of the Celebrated Prophet of Arabia.
Hughes, Rev. T. P. Notes on Muhammadanism. Second edition.

Also, Preface and Introduction to the Roman Urdu Quran.

Lodiana edition.
Lane, Edward William. Selections from the Qurdn.
MuiR, Sir William, LL.D. Life of Mahomet. The Testimony

borne by the Coran to the Jewish and Christian Scriptures.
NoELDEKE, Th. Origine et Compositione Surarum Quranicarum

ipsiusque Qurani. Geschichte des Qorans.
Palgrave, W. Gifford. Central and Eastern Arabia.
Prideaux, Humphrey, D.D. Life of Mahomet.
RoDWELL, J. M. The Koran. Second edition, 1876.
Sale, George. The Koran, with Preliminary Discourse and Notes

on the Authority of Baidhdwi, Jaldluddin, Al Zamakhshari, &c.
Smith, R. Bosworth, M.A. Mohammed and Mohammedanism.

Second edition.
Syed Ahmad Khan Bahadur. Essays on the Life of Mohammed.
The Tafsir-i-Raufi, an Urdu Commentary on the Quran.
The Tafsir-i-Fatah-ar-Rahmdn.

The Tafsir-i-Hussaini, a Persian Commentary on the Quran.
The Notes on the Roman Urdii Quran. Allahabad edition, 1 844.
Wheeler, Talboys. History of India, vol. iv., part i.

NOTE.

In reading the Komanised form of Arabic proper names, the reader
should pronounce —

a as u

in

hut.

d

, a

J)

far.

i

, i

»

sin.

i

, ee

5;

heed.

0

) 0

5)

home.

u

, 0

?>

do.

1i

, 00

5J

pool.

ai

, i

,,

side.

In reading the fractional sign R \, R Y? &c., in the margin to the
text of the Qurdn, understand by the figures above the line the RuqH
of the Siirat or chapter, and by the figures below the line the RuqH of
the Sipdra. The terms Ruha, Nisf, and Suls mark the fourth, half,
and three-fourths of a Sijydra.

SALE'S PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE,

WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES AND EMENDATIONS.

SALE'S PREFACE TO THE PRELIMINARY
DISCOURSE AND TRANSLATION.

I IMAGINE it almost needless either to make an apology
for publishing the following translation, or to go about to
prove it a work of use as well as curiosity. They must
have a mean opinion of the Christian religion, or be but
ill grounded therein, who can apprehend any danger from
so manifest a forgery : and if the religious and civil insti-
tutions of foreign nations are worth our knowledge, those
of Muhammad, the lawgiver of the Arabians, and founder
of an empire which in less than a century spread itself
over a greater part of the world than the Eomans were
ever masters of, must needs be so ; whether we consider
their extensive obtaining, or our frequent intercourse with
those who are governed thereby. I shall not here inquire
into the reasons why the law of Muhammad has met with
so unexampled a reception in the world (for they are
greatly deceived who imagine it to have been propagated
by the sword alone), or by what means it came to be
embraced by nations which never felt the force of th6
Muhammadan arms, and even by those which stripped
the Arabians of their conquests, and put an end to the
sovereignty and very being of their Khalifahs ; yet it seems
as if there was something more than what is vulgarly
imagined in a religion which has made so surprising a
progress. But whatever use an impartial version of the
Quran may be of in other respects, it is absolutely neces-
sary to undeceive those who, from the ignorant or unfair

4 SALE'S PREFACE.

translations wliicli have appeared, have entertained too
favourable an opinion of the original, and also to enable
lis effectually to expose the imposture ; none of those who
have hitherto undertaken that province, not excepting Dr.
Prideaux himself, having succeeded to the satisfaction of
the judiciovis, for want of being complete masters of the
controversy. The writers of the Eomish communion, in
particular, are so far from having done any service in their
refutations of Muhammadism, that by endeavouring to
defend their idolatry and other superstitions, they have
rather contributed to the increase of that aversion which,
the Muhammadans in general have to the Christian re-
ligion, and given them great advantages in the dispute.
The Protestants alone are able to attack the Quran with
success ; and for them, I trust. Providence has reserved
the glory of its overthrow. In the meantime, if I might
presume to lay down rules to be observed by those who
attempt the conversion of the Muhammadans, they should
be the same which the learned and worthy Bishop Kidder ^
has prescribed for the conversion of the Jews, and which
may, mutatis mutandis, be equally applied to the former,
notwithstanding the despicable opinion that writer, for
want of being better acquainted with them, entertained
of those people, judging them scarce fit to be argued with.
The first of these rules is, To avoid compulsion, which,
though it be not in our power to employ at present, I
hope will not be made use of when it is. The second is.
To avoid teaching doctrines against common sense; the
Muhammadans not being such fools (whatever we may
think of them) as to be gained over in this case. The
worshipping of images and the doctrine of trausubstantia-
tion'are great stumbling-blocks to the Muhammadans, and
the Church which teacheth them is very unfit to bring
those people over. The third is. To avoid weak argu-
ments ; for the Muhammadans are not to be converted

^ In his Demonstr. of the Messias, part iii. chap. 2.

SALE'S PREFACE. 5

with these, or hard words. We must use them with
humanity, and dispute against them with arguments that
are proper and cogent. It is certain that many Christians
who have written against them have been very defective
this way : many have used arguments that have no force,
and advanced propositions that are void of truth. This
method is so far from convincing, that it rather serves to
harden them. The Muhammadans will be apt to conclude
we have little to say when we urge them with arguments
that are trifling or untrue. We do but lose ground when
we do this ; and instead of gaining them, we expose our-
selves and our cause also. We must not give them ill
words neither ; but must avoid all reproachful language,
all that is sarcastical and biting : this never did good from
pulpit or press. The softest words will make the deepest
impression ; and if we think it a fault in them to give ill
language, we cannot be excused when we imitate them.
The fourth rule is, Not to quit any article of the Christian
faith to gain the Muhammadans. It is a fond conceit of
the Socinians that we shall upon their principles be most
like to prevail upon the Muhammadans : it is not true in
matter of fact. We must not give up any article to gain
them : but then the Church of Eome ought to part with
many practices and some doctrines. We are not to design
to gain the Muhammadans over to a system of dogma, but
to the ancient and primitive faith. I believe nobody will
deny but that the rules here laid down are just : the latter
part of the third, which alone my design has given me
occasion to practise, I think so reasonable, that I have not,
in speaking of Muhammad or his Quran, allowed myself
to use those opprobrious appellations, and unmannerly
expressions, which seem to be the strongest arguments of
several who have written against them. On the contrary,
I have thought myself obliged to treat both with common
decency, and even to approve such particulars as seemed
to me to deserve approbation; for how criminal soever
Muhammad may have been in imposing a false religion

6 SALE'S PREFACE.

on mankind, the praises due to his real virtues ought not
to be denied him ; nor can I do otherwise than applaud
the candour of the pious and learned Spanhemius, who,
though he owned him to have been a wicked impostor,
yet acknowledged him to have been richly furnished with
natural endowments, beautiful in his person, of a subtle
wit, agreeable behaviour, showing liberality to the poor,
courtesy to every one, fortitude against his enemies, and
above all a high reverence for the name of God ; severe
against the perjured, adulterers, murderers, slanderers,
prodigals, covetous, false witnesses, &c., a great preacher
of patience, charity, mercy, beneficence, gratitude, honour-
ing of parents and superiors, and a frequent celebrator of
the divine praises.^

Of the several translations of the Quran now extant,
there is but one which tolerably represents the sense of
the original ; and that being in Latin, a new version be-
came necessary, at least to an English reader. What
Bibliander published for a Latin translation of that book
deserves not the name of a translation ; the unaccountable
liberties therein taken, and the numberless faults, both of
omission and commission, leaving scarce any resemblance
of the original. It was made near six hundred years ago,
being finished in 1 143, by Eobertus Eetenensis, an Eng-
lishman, with the assistance of Hermannus Dalmata, at
the request of Peter, Abbot of Clugny, who paid them
well for their pains.

From this Latin version was taken the Italian of Andrea
Arrivabene, notwithstanding the pretences in his dedica-
tion of its being done immediately from the Arabic;^

^ Id certum, naturalibus egregie prodigos, avaros, falsos testes, &c,

dotibus instructum Muhammadem, Magnus idem patientise, charitatis,

forma prffistanti, ingenio calido, mo- misericordise, beneficentiae, gratitu-

ribus facetis, ac prse se ferentem li- dinis, honoris in parentesacsuperiores

beralitatem in egenos, comitatem preeco, ut et divinaruni laudum.

in singulos, fortitudinem in hostes, Hist. Eccles., sec. vii. c. 7, lem. 5

ac pr£e casteris reverentiam divini and 7.

nominis. — Severus fuit in perjures, - His words are : Questo libro,

adulteros, homicidas, obtrectatores, che gik havevo h commune utilit^

SALE'S PREFACE. y

wlierefore it is no wonder if the transcript be yet more
faulty and absurd than the copy.^

About the end of the fifteenth century, Johannes
Andreas, a native of Xativa in the kingdom of Valencia,
who from a Muhammadan doctor became a Christian
priest, translated not only the Quran, but also its glosses,
and the seven books of the Sonna, out of Arabic into the
Arragonian tongue, at the command of Martin Garcia,^
Bishop of Barcelona and Inquisitor of Arragon. Whether
this translation were ever published or not I am wholly
ignorant ; but it may be presumed to have been the better
done for being the work of one bred up in the Muham-
madan religion and learning ; though his refutation of
that religion, which has had several editions, gives no
great idea of his abilities.

Some years within the last century, Andrew du Eyer,
who had been consul of the French nation in Egypt, and
was tolerably skilled in the Turkish and Arabic languages,
took the pains to translate the Quran into his own tongue ;
but his performance, though it be beyond comparison
preferable to that of Ketenensis, is far from being a just
translation, there being mistakes in every page, besides
frequent transpositions, omissions, and additions,^ faults
unpardonable in a work of this nature. And what renders
it still more incomplete is the want of Notes to exj)lain a
vast number of passages, some of which are difficult, and
others impossible to be understood, without proper expli-
cations, were they translated ever so exactly, which the
author is so sensible of that he often refers his reader to
the Arabic commentators.

The English version is no other than a translation of

di molti fatto dal proprio testo 362; Selden., De Success, ad Leges

Arabo tradurre nella nostra volgar Ebrseor., p. 9.

lingua Italiana, &c. And after- - J. Andreas, in Prsef. ad Tractat.

wards : Questo e I'Alcorano di Ma- suum de Confusione Sectse Maho-

cometto, il quale, come ho gia detto, metanas.

ho fatto dal suo idioma tradurre, &c. * Vide Windet., De Vita Functo-

1 Vide Jos. Scalig., Epist. 361 et rum Statu, sec. ix.

8 SALE'S PREFACE.

Du Eyer's, and that a very bad one ; for Alexander Eoss,
who did it, being utterly unacquainted with the Arabic,
and no great master of the French, has added a number
of fresh mistakes of his own to those of Du Eyer, not to
mention the meanness of his language, which would make
a better book ridiculous.

In 1698 a Latin translation of the Quran, made by
Father Lewis Marracci, who had been confessor to Pope
Innocent XI., was published at Padua, together with the
original text, accompanied by explanatory notes and a
refutation. This translation of Marracci's, generally
speaking, is very exact ; but adheres to the Arabic idiom
too literally to be easily understood, unless I am much
deceived, by those who are not versed in the Muhammadan
learning.* The notes he has added are indeed of great
use, but his refutations, which swell the work to a large
volume, are of little or none at all, being often unsatis-
factory, and sometimes impertinent. The work, however,
with all its faults, is very valuable, and I should be guilty
of ingratitude did I not acknowledge myself much obliged
thereto ; but still, being in Latin, it can be of no use to
those who understand not that tongue.

Having therefore undertaken a new translation, I have
endeavoured to do the original impartial justice, not
having, to the best of my knowledge, represented it, in any
one instance, either better or worse than it really is. I
have thought myself obliged, indeed, in a piece which

* Of Marracci's translation Savary says, " Marracci, that learned
monk, who spent forty years in translating and refuting the Koran,
proceeded on the right system. He divided it into verses, according
to the text ; but, neglecting the precepts of a great master —

' Nee verbum verbo, curabis reddere, fidus
InteriJres,' &c. —

he translated it literally. He has not expressed the ideas of the
Kordn, but travestied the words of it into barbarous Latin. Yet,
though all the beauties of the original are lost in this translation, it
is preferable to that by Du Ryer." e. 11. w.

SALE'S PREFACE. 9

pretends to be the Word of God, to keep somewhat
scrupulously close to the text, by which means the lan-
guage may, in some places, seem to express the Arabic
a little too literally to be elegant English: but this, I
hope, has not happened often ; and I flatter myself that
the style I have made use of will not only give a more
genuine idea of the original than if I had taken more
liberty (which would have been much more for my ease),
but will soon become familiar ; for we must not expect to
read a version of so extraordinary a book with the same
ease and pleasure as a modern composition.

In the Notes my view has been briefly to explain the
text, and especially the difficult and obscure passages,
from the most approved commentators, and that generally
in their own words, for whose opinions or expressions,
where liable to censure, I am not answerable; my pro-
vince being only fairly to represent their expositions, and
the little I have added of my own, or from European
writers, being easily discernible. Where I met with any
circumstance which I imagined might be curious or enter-
taining, I have not failed to produce it.

The Preliminary Discourse will acquaint the reader
with the most material particulars proper to be known
previously to the entering on the Quran itself, and which
could not so conveniently have been thrown into the
Notes. And I have taken care, both in the Preliminary
Discourse and the Notes, constantly to quote my autho-
rities and the writers to whom I have been beholden ; but
to none have I been more so than to the learned Dr.
Pocock, whose Specimen Historicc Arcibum is the most
useful and accurate work that has been hitherto published
concerning the antiquities of that nation, and ought to be
read by every curious inquirer into them.

As I have had no opportunity of consulting public
libraries, the manuscripts of which I have made use
throughout the whole work have been such as I had in my
own study, except only the Commentary of Al Baidhawi

lo SALE'S PREFACE.

and the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The first belongs to the
library of the Dutch Church in Austin Friars, and for the
use of it I have been chiefly indebted to the Eev. Dr.
Eolten, one of the ministers of that church : the other was
very obligingly lent me by the Eev. Dr. Holme, Eector
of Hedley in Hampshire ; and I take this opportunity
of returning both those gentlemen my thanks for their
favours. The merit of Al Baidhawi's commentary will
appear from the frequent quotations I have made thence ;
but of the Gospel of St. Barnabas (which I had not seen
when the little I have said of it in the Preliminary Dis-
course,^ and the extract I had borrowed from M. de la
Monnoye and M. Toland,^ were printed off), I must beg
leave to give some further account.

The book is a moderate quarto, in Spanish, written in a
very legible hand, but a little damaged towards the latter
end. It contains two hundred and twenty-two chapters
of unequal length, and four hundred and twenty pages ;
and is said, in the front, to be translated from the Italian
by an Arragonian Muslim named Mustafa de Aranda.
There is a preface prefixed to it, wherein the discoverer of
the original MS., who was a Christian monk, called Fra
Marino, tells us that having accidentally met with a
writing of Irenteus (among others), wherein he speaks
against St. Paul, alleging, for his authority, the Gospel of
St. Barnabas, he became exceeding desirous to find this
Gospel; and that God, of his mercy, having made him
very intimate with Pope Sixtus V., one day, as they were
together in that Pope's library, his Holiness fell asleep,
and he, to employ himself, reaching down a book to read,
the first he laid his hand on proved to be the very Gospel
he wanted : overjoyed at the discovery, he scrupled not to
hide his prize in his sleeve, and on the Pope's awaking, took
leave of him, carrying with him that celestial treasure, by
reading of wliich he became a convert to Muhammadism.

^ Sec. iv. p. 123. 2 ju not. ad cap. 3.

SALE'S PREFACE. n

This Gospel of Barnabas contains a complete history of
Jesus Christ from his birth to his ascension; and most
of the circumstances in the four real Gospels are to be
found therein, but many of them turned, and some artfully
enough, to favour the Muhammadan system. From the
design of the whole, and the frequent interpolations of
stories and passages wherein Muhammad is spoken of and
foretold by name, as the messenger of God, and the great
prophet who was to perfect the dispensation of Jesus, it
appears to be a most barefaced forgery. One particular I
observe therein induces me to believe it to have been
dressed up by a renegade Christian, slightly instructed in
his new religion, and not educated a Muhammadan (unless
the fault be imputed to the Spanish, or perhaps the Italian
translator, and not to the original compiler) ; I mean the
giving to Muhammad the title of Messiah, and that not
once or twice only, but in several places ; whereas the title
of the Messiah, or, as the Arabs write it, al Masih, i.e.,
Christ, is appropriated to Jesus in the Quran, and is con-
stantly applied by the Muhammadans to him, and never
to their own prophet. The passages produced from the
Italian MS. by M. de la Monnoye are to be seen in this
Spanish version almost word for word.

But to return to the following work. Though I have
freely censured the former translations of the Quran, I
would not therefore be suspected of a design to make my
own pass as free from faults : I am very sensible it is not ;
and I make no doubt that the few who are able to discern
them, and know the difficulty of the undertaking, will
give me fair quarter. I likewise flatter myself that they,
and all considerate persons, will excuse the delay which
has happened in the publication of this work, when they
are informed that it was carried on at leisure times only,
and amidst the necessary avocations of a troublesome
profession.

SALE'S PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

SECTION I.

OF THE ARABS BEFORE MUHAMMAD ; OR, AS THEY EXPRESS IT, IN
THE TIME OF IGNORANCE ; THEIR HISTORY,* RELIGION, LEARN-
ING, AND CUSTOMS.

The Arabs, and the country they inhabit, which them- The name
selves call Jazirat al Arab, or the Peninsula of the
Arabians, but we Arabia, were so named from Araba, a
small territory in the province of Tahama ; ^ to which
Yarab the son of Qahtan, the father of the ancient Arabs,
gave his name, and where, some ages after, dwelt Ismail
the son of Abraham by Hagar. The Christian writers for
several centuries speak of them under the appellation of
Saracens, the most certain derivation of which word is
from shark, the east, where the descendants of Joctan, the

* Whilst regarding this Preliminary Discourse as a most masterly,
and on the whole reliable, presentation of the peculiar doctrines,
rites, ceremonies, customs, and institutions of Islam, we recognise
the fact that more modern research has brought to light many things
concerning the history of the ancient Arabs which greatly modify
the statements made in the early paragraphs of this chapter. We
therefore refer the reader to the most valuable works of M. C. de
Perceval, Hist, des Arabes, a masterly digest of which may be found
in the Introduction to Muir's Life of Mahomet, chap. iii. ; also to the
works of Dr. Sprenger, Biography of the Prophet, &c. E. M. w.

^ Pocock, Specim. Hist. Arab., p. 33.

14 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. I.

Qahtan of the Arabs, are placed by Moses/ aud in which
quarter they dwelt in respect to the Jews.^
Limits of The name of Arabia (used in a more extensive sense)
sometimes comprehends all that large tract of land bounded
by the river Euphrates, the Persian Gulf, the Sindian,
Indian, and Eed Seas, and part of the Mediterranean :
above two-thirds of which country, that is, Arabia properly
so called, the Arabs have possessed almost from the Flood;
and have made themselves masters of the rest, either by
settlements or continual incursions ; for which reason the
Turks and Persians at this day call the whole Arabistan,
or the country of the Arabs.

But the limits of Arabia, in its more usual and proper
sense, are much narrower, as reaching no farther north-
ward than the Isthmus, which runs from Aila to the head
of the Persian Gulf, and the borders of the territory of
Kiifa; which tract of land the Greeks nearly comprehended
under the name of Arabia the Happy. The Eastern geo-
graphers make Arabia Petrsea to belong partly to Egypt,
and partly to Sham or Syria, and the Desert Arabia they
call the Deserts of Syria.^

Proper Arabia is by the Oriental writers generally
divided into five provinces,^ viz., Yaman, Hijaz, Tahama,
Najd, and Yamdma; to which some add Bahrain, as a
sixth, but this province the more exact make part of Irak f
others reduce them all to two, Yaman and Hijaz, the last
including the three other provinces of Tahama, Najd, aud
Yamama.
The pro- The proviucc of Yaman, so called either from its situa-

Yamau. tiou to the right hand, or south of the temple of Makkah,
or else from the happiness and verdure of its soil, extends
itself along the Indian Ocean from Aden to Cape Rasalgat ;
part of the Eed Sea bounds it on the west and south sides,

^ Gen. X. 30. in his time divided into five king-

2 See Pocock, Specim., 33, 34. doms, 1. 16, p. 11 29,

"* Golius ad Alfragan, 78, 79. ^ Gol. ad Alfragan, 79.

^ Strabo says Arabia Felix was

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 15

and the province of Hijaz on the north.^ It is subdivided
into several lesser provinces, as Hadramaut, Shihr, Oman,
Najran, &c., of which Shihr alone produces the frankin-
cense.^ The metropolis of Yaman is Sanaa, a very ancient
city, in former times called Ozal,* and much celebrated for
its delightful situation ; but the prince at present resides
about five leagues northward from thence, at a place no
less pleasant, called Hisn al Mawahib, or the Castle of
Delights.^

This country has been famous from all antiquity for the
happiness of its climate, its fertility and riches,^ which
induced Alexander the Great, after his return from his
Indian expedition, to form a design of conquering it, and
fixing there his royal seat; but his death, which happened
soon after, prevented the execution of this project.^ Yet,
in reality, great part of the riches which the ancients ima-
gined were the produce of Arabia, came really from the so-caiied
Indies and the coasts of Africa ; for the Egyptians, who produce
had engrossed that trade, which was then carried on by from^india.
way of the Eed Sea, to themselves, industriously con-
cealed the truth of the matter, and kept their ports shut
to prevent foreigners penetrating into those countries, or
receiving any information thence ; and this precaution
of theirs on the one side, and the deserts, unpassable to
strangers, on the other, were the reason why Arabia was
so little known to the Greeks and Romans. The delight-
fulness and plenty of Yaman are owing to its mountains ;
for all that part which lies along the Eed Sea is a dry,
barren desert, in some places ten or twelve leagues over,
but in return bounded by those mountains, which being

* " Or this was the name of its builder ; see Kamoos " (Lane).

K. M. w.

^ La Roque, Voyage de I'Arab. * Vide Dionys. Perieges., v. 927,

Heur., 121. &c.

- Gol. ad Alfragan, 79, 87. ^ Strabo, 1. 16, p. 1 132; Arrian,

\_^ Voyage de I'Arab. Heur., 232. 16 1.

i6

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

Produce of
Yaman.

The HijAz-
its bounda-

Makkah
described.

well watered, enjoy an almost continual spring, and, be-
sides coffee, the peculiar produce of this country, yield
great plenty and variety of fruits, and in particular excel-
lent corn, grapes, and spices. There are no rivers of note
in this country, for the streams which at certain times of
the year descend from the mountains, seldom reach the
sea, being for the most part drunk up and lost in the
burning sands of that coast.^

The soil of the other provinces is much more barren
than that of Yaman ; the greater part of their territories
being covered with dry sands, or rising into rocks, inter-
spersed here and there with some fruitful spots, which
receive their greatest advantages from their water and
palm-trees.

The province of Hijaz, so named because it divides
Najd from Tahama, is bounded on the south by Yaman
and Tahama, on the west by the Eed Sea, on the north by
the deserts of Syria, and on the east by the province of
Najd.^ This province is famous for its two chief cities,
Makkah and Madiua, one of which is celebrated for its
temple, and for having given birth to Muhammad ; and
the other for being the place of his residence for the last
ten years of his life, and of his interment.

Makkah, sometimes also called Bakkah, which words
are synonymous, and signify a place of great concourse, is
certainly one of the most ancient cities of the world : it
is by some ^ thought to be the Mesa of the Scripture,* a
name not unknown to the Arabians, and supposed to be
taken from one of Ismail's sons.^ It is seated in a stony
and barren valley, surrounded on all sides with mountains.^
The length of Makkah from south to north is about two
miles, and its breadth from the foot of the mountain

1 Voyage de I'Arab. Heur., 121,

123, 153-

2 Vide Gol. ad Alfrag., 98 ; Abul-
feda, Descr. Arab., p. 5.

'^ R. Saadias in version. Arab.
Pentat. Safer Juchasiu., 135 b.

* Gen. X. 30.

^ Gol. ad Alfrag., 82 ; see Gen.
XXV. 15.

^ Gol., ib. 198. See Pitts' Account
of the Religion and Manners of the
Muhammadans, p. 96.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 17

Ajyad, to tlie top of another called Koaikaan, about a
mile.^ In the midst of this space stands the city, built
of stone cut from the neighbouring mountains.^ There
being no springs at Makkah,^ at least none but what are
bitter and unfit to drink,'^ except only the well Zamzam,
the water of which, though far the best, yet cannot be
drank of any continuance, being brackish,* and causing
eruptions in those who drink plentifully of it,^ the in-
habitants are obliged to use rain-water, which they catch
in cisterns.*' But this not being sufficient, several
attempts were made to bring water thither from other
places by aqueducts; and particularly about Muham-
mad's time, Zubair, one of the principal men of the tribe
of Quraish, endeavoured, at a great expense, to supply
the city with water from Mount Arafat, but without
success ; yet this was effected not many years ago, being
begun at the charge of a wife of Sulaiman the Turkish
emperor.''' But long before this another aqueduct had
been made from a spring at a considerable distance,
which was, after several years' labour, finished by the
Khalifah al Muktadir.s

The soil about Makkah is so very barren as to produce
no fruits but what are common in the deserts, though the
prince or Sharif has a garden w^ell planted at his castle

* Lane adds the following note : — " Sale here adds ' being brackish,'
but BuTckhardt says the water of the Zemzem ' is heavy to the taste,
and sometimes in its colour resembles milk ; but,' he adds, ' it is
perfectly sweet, and differs very much from that of the brackish wells
dispersed over the town. When first drawn up, it is slightly tepid,
resembling in this respect many other fountains of the Hejdz.' —
Travels in Arabia, p. 144. I have also drunk the water of Zemzem
brought in a china bottle to Cairo, and found it perfectly sweet."

E. M. w.

^ Sharif al Edrisi apud Poc. ^ Ibid, and Pitts, ubi supra, p.

Spec, p. 122. 107.

" Ibid. ^ Gol. ad Alfragan, 99.

'^ Gol. ad Alfragan, 99. ^ Ibid.

* Sharif al Edrisi, ubi supra, 124. ^ Sharif al Edrisi, ubi supra.

B

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

How the
people of
]\Iakkali
subsist.

Jfadina or
Yuthrab.

of Marbaa, about three miles westward from the city,
where he usually resides. Having therefore uo corn or
grain of their own growth, they are obliged to fetch it
from other places ; -^ and Hasham, Muhammad's great-
grandfather, then prince of his tribe, the more effectually
to supply them with provisions, appointed two caravans
to set out yearly for that purpose, the one in summer,
and the other in winter : ^ these caravans of purveyors
are mentioned in the Quran. The provisions brought by
them were distributed also twice a year, viz., in the month
of Kajab, and at the arrival of the pilgrims. They are
supplied with dates in great plenty from the adjacent
country, and with grapes from Tayif, about sixty miles *
distant, very few growing at Makkah. The inhabitants of
this city are generally very rich, being considerable gainers
by the prodigious concourse of people of almost all nations
at the yearly pilgrimage, at which time there is a great
fair or mart for all kinds of merchandise. They have
also great numbers of cattle, and particularly of camels :
however, the poorer sort cannot but live very indifferently
in a place where almost every necessary of life must be
purchased with money. Notwithstanding this great steri-
lity near Makkah, yet you are no sooner out of its territory
than you meet on all sides wdth plenty of good springs
and streams of running water, with a great many gardens
and cultivated lands. ^

The temple of Makkah, and the reputed holiness of this
territory, will be treated of in a more proper place.

Madina, which till Muhammad's retreat thither was
sailed Yathrab, is a walled city about half as big as
Makkah,* built in a plain, salt in many places, yet tolerably
fruitful, particularly in dates, but more especially near

* Biirckliardt saN's seventy-two miles. Travels in Arabia, p. 69.

E. M. W.

^ Sharif al Edrisi, ubi supra. ^ Sharif al Edrisi, ubi supra, 125.
Poc. Spec, p. 51. * Id., Vulgu Geogr. Nubiensis, 5.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 19

the mountain.s, two of which, Ohod on the north, and Air
on the south, are about two leagues distant. Here lies
Muhammad interred ^ in a magnificent building, covered
with a cupola, and adjoining to the east side of the great
temple, which is built in the midst of the city.^

The province of Tahama was so named from the vehe- The pro-
ment heat of its sandy soil, and is also called Gaur from TahTma,
its low situation ; it is bounded on the west by the Eed YaniAma
Sea, and on the other sides by Hijaz and Yaman, extending
almost from Makkah to Aden.^

The province of Najd, which word signifies a rising
country, lies between those of Yamama, Yaman, and
Hijaz, and is bounded on the east by Irak.*

The province of Yamama, also called Ariid from its
oblique situation, in respect of Yaman, is surrounded by
the provinces of Najd, Tahama, Bahrain, Oman, Shihr,
Hadramaut, and Saba. The chief city is Yamama, which
gives name to the province : it was anciently called Jaw,
and is particularly famous for being the residence of
Muhammad's competitor, the false prophet Musailama.^

The Arabians, the inhabitants of this spacious country,

1 Though the notion of Muham- town, which is something cori'upted,

mad's being buried at Makkah has by putting at the bottom of the

been so long exploded, yet several page, Makkah. The Abbot de Ver-

modern writers, whether through tot, in his History of the Order of

ignorance or negligence I will not Malta (vol. i. p. 410, ed. 8vo),

determine, have fallen into it. I seems also to have confounded

shall here take notice only of two ; these two cities together, though he

one is Dr. Smith, who having lived had before mentioned Muhammad's

some time in Turkey, seems to be sepulchre at Madina. However, he

inexcusable : that gentleman in his is certainly mistaken, when he says

Epistles De Morihus ac Institutis that one point of the religion, both

Turcarum, no less than thrice men- of the Christians and Muhamma-

tions the Muhammadans visiting dans, was to visit, at least once in

the tomb of their prophet at Makkah, their lives, the tomb of the author

and once his being born at Madina of their respective faith. Whatever

— the reverse of which is true (see may be the opinion of some Chris-

Epist. I, p. 22, Epist. 2, pp. 63, 64). tians, I am well assured the Muham-

The other is the publisher of the madans think themselves vmder no

last edition of Sir J. Mandeville's manner of obligation in that respect.
Travels, who on his author's saying - Gol. ad Alfragan, 97 ; Abulfeda,

very truly (p. 50) that the said tomb Descr. Arab., p. 40.
was at Methone, i.e., Madina, under- ^ Gol., ubi supra, 95.
takes to correct the name of the * Ibid., 94. * Ibid., 95.

20 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

Two classes wliicli tbey have possessed from tlie most remote antiquity,
' are distinguished, by their own writers into two classes,
viz., the old lost Arabians, and the present.

The former were very numerous, and divided into
several tribes, which are now all destroyed, or else lost
and swallowed up among the other tribes, nor are any
certain memoirs or records extant concerning them;^
though the memory of some very remarkable events and
the catastrophe of some tribes have been preserved by
tradition, and since confirmed by the authority of the
Quran.

The ancient The most famous tribes amongst these ancient Arabians
were Ad, Thamiid, Tasm, Jadis, the former Jorham, and
Amalek.

The Adites. The tribe of Ad were descended from Ad, the son of
Aws,^ the son of Aram,^ the son of Sem, the son of Noah,*
who, after the confusion of tongues, settled in al Ahqaf, or
the winding sands in the province of Hadramaut, where
his posterity greatly multiplied. Their first king was
Shadad the son of Ad, of whom the Eastern writers deliver
many fabulous things, particularly that he finished the
magnificent city his father had begun, wherein he built a
fine palace, adorned with delicious gardens, to embellish
which he spared neither cost nor labour, proposing thereby
to create in his subjects a superstitious veneration of him-
self as a god.^ This garden or paradise was called the

The garden garden of Iram, and is mentioned in the Quran,^ and often
alluded to by the Oriental writers. The city, they tell us,
is still standing in the deserts of Aden, being preserved

* This genealogy is given on the authority of Muslim tradition,
or rather of Muslim adai)tation of Jewish tradition to gratify Arab
pride. As to its utter worthlessness, see note on p. 24. E. M. w.

^ Albufarag, p. 159. son of Hain ; but the other is the

2 Or Uz. Gen. X. 22, 23. received opinion. See D'Herbel., 51.

3 Vide Qunin, c. 89, v. 6. Some ■* Vide Eund., 498.
make Ad the son of Amalek, the ^ Cap. 89.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 21

by Providence as a monument of divine justice, though it
be invisible, unless very rarely, when God permits it to be
seen, a favour one Colabah pretended to have received in
the reign of the Khalifah Muawiyah, who sending for him
to know the truth of the matter, Colabah related his whole
adventure : that as he was seeking a camel he had lost,
he found himself on a sudden at the gates of this city, and
entering it, saw not one inhabitant, at which, being terri-
fied, he stayed no longer than to take with him some fine
stones which he showed the Khalifah.^ *

The descendants of Ad in process of time falling from Destruction,
the worship of the true God into idolatry, God sent the laites.
prophet Hiid (who is generally agreed to be Heber - f) to
preach to and reclaim them. But they refusing to acknow-
ledge his mission, or to obey him, God sent a hot and
suffocating wind, which blew seven nights and eight days
together, and entering at their nostrils passed through
their bodies,^ and destroyed them all, a very few only
excepted, who had believed in Hud and retired with him
to another place.* That prophet afterwards returned into
Hadramaut, and was buried near Hasiq, where there is a
small to,wn now standing called Qabr Hiid, or the sepul-
chre of Hud. Before the Adites were thus severely
punished, God, to humble them and incline them to
hearken to the preaching of his prophet, afflicted them
with a drought for four years, so that all their cattle

* For a full account of his adventure, see Lane's translation of the
Thousand and One Nights. E. m. w.

+ I can find no authority for this " general belief," excepting that
of Muslim conjecture. The guesses of D'Herbelot and Bochart seem
to be inspired by Muslim tradition, which has been shown to be for
the most part, so far as genealogy is concerned, a forgery. Muir
suggests that Hud may have been a Jewish emissary or Christian
avangelist. Life of Mohamet, Introd., p. 139. E. M. W.

^ D'Herbel., 51. to have been a great prophet. Seder

^ The Jews acknowledge Heber Olam., p. 2. ^ Al Baidhawi.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 35, &c.

23 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

The latter perislied, and themselves were very near it ; upon wliich
they sent Luqman (different from one of the same name
who lived in David's time) with sixty others to Makkah
to beg rain, which they not obtaining, Luqman with some
of his company stayed at Makkah, and thereby escaped
destruction, giving rise to a tribe called the latter Ad,
, who were afterward changed into monkeys.^

Some commentators on the Quran ^ tell us these old
Adites were of prodigious stature, the largest being lOO
cubits high, and the least 60 ; which extraordinary size
they pretend to prove by the testimony of the Quran.^

The tribe of The tribe of Thamiid were the posterity of Thamiid the
son of Jathar * the son of Aram, who falling into idolatry,
the prophet Salih was sent to bring them back to the
worship of the true God. This prophet lived between the
time of Hud and of Abraham, and therefore cannot be the
same with the patriarch Salih, as M, d'Herbelot imagines.^
The learned Bochart with more probability takes him to
be Phaleg.*" A small number of the people of Thamiid
hearkened to the remonstrances of Salih, but the rest
requiring, as a proof of his mission, that he should cause a
she- camel big with young to come out of a rock in their
presence, he accordingly obtained it of God, and the camel
was immediately delivered of a young one ready weaned ;
but they, instead of believing, cut the hamstrings of the
camel and killed her ; at which act of impiety God, being

Destruction highly displcascd, three days after struck them dead in

mudites. their houses by an earthquake and a terrible noise from
heaven, which, some "^ say, was the voice of Gabriel the
archangel crying aloud, " Die, all of you." Salih, with
those who were reformed by him, were saved from this
destruction ; the prophet going into Palestine, and from
thence to Makkah,^ where he ended his days.

I Poc. Spec, p. 36. ^ D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., 740.

JaMluddin et Zamakhshari. ^ Bochart, Georg. Sac.

^ Qun(n, c. 7, v. 70. ^ See D'Herbel., 366.

^ Or Gether, vide Gen. x. 23. ^ Ibn Shohnah.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 23

This tribe first dwelt in Yaman,^ but being expelled
thence by Himyar the son of Saba, they settled in the
territory of Hajr in the province of Hijiiz, where their
habitations cut out of the rocks, mentioned in the Qurau,^ Eock-cut
are still to be seen, and also the crack of the rock whence theThamu-
the camel issued, which, as an eyewitness ^ hath declared,
is sixty cubits wide. These houses of the Thamiidites being
of the ordinary proportion, are used as an argument to
convince those of a mistake who make this people to have
been of a gigantic stature.^

The tragical destructions of these two potent tribes are
often insisted on in the Quran as instances of God's judg-
ment on obstinate unbelievers.

The tribe of Tasm were the posterity of Lud the son The tribe of
of Sem, and Jadis of the descendants of Jathar.^ These
two tribes dwelt promiscuously together under the govern-
ment of Tasm, till a certain tyrant made a law that no
maid of the tribe of Jadis should marry unless first de-
flowered by him; ^ which the Jadisians not enduring, formed
a conspiracy, and inviting the king and chiefs of Tasm to
an entertainment, privately hid their swords in the sand,
and in the midst of their mirth fell on them and slew
them all, and extirpated the greatest part of that tribe ;
however, the few who escaped obtaining aid of the king
of Yaman, then (as is said) Dhu Habshan Ibn Aqran,^
assaulted the Jadis and utterly destroyed them, there being
scarce any mention made from that time of either of these
tribes.^

The former tribe of Jorham (whose ancestor some pre- The Jor-
tend was one of the eight persons saved in the ark with ^^'"^^'^^
Noah, according to a Muhammadan tradition ^) was con-

^ Poc. Spec, p. 57. called " culliage," or " cullage,"

^ Qurfln, c. 15, v. 82. having been established by K. Ewen,

^ Abu Musa al Ashari. and abolished by Malcolm III. See

^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 37. Bayle's Diet. Art. Sixte IV. Rem.

5 Abulfeda. H.

® A like custom is said to have ^ Poc. Spec, p. 60.

been in some manors in England, ^ Ibid., p. 37, &c.

and also in Scotland, where it was " Ibid., p. 38.

2 1 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sEC. I.

temporary with Ad, and utterly perished.^ The tribe of

Amalek were descended from Amalek the son of Eliphaz

the son of Esau,^ though some of the Oriental authors say

Amalek was the son of Ham the son of Noah,^ and others

the son of Azd the son of Sem.* The posterity of this

person rendered themselves very powerful,^ and before the

TheAmaie- time of Joseph conquered the Lower Egypt under their

quer Lower king Walid, the first who took the name of Pharaoh, as

^^^ ■ the Eastern writers tell us.; ^ seeming by these Amalekites

to mean the same people which the Egyptian histories call

Phoenician shepherds.'' But after they had possessed the

throne of Egypt for some descents, they were expelled

by the natives, and at length totally destroyed by the

Israelites.^

Origin of The present Arabians, according to their own historians,

Arabs?^^° are sprung from two stocks, Qahttin,* the same with

Joctan the son of Eber,^ and Adnan, descended in a direct

line from Ismail the son of Abraham and Hagar ; the

posterity of the former they call al Arab al Ariba,^^ i.e.,

the genuine or pure Arabs, and those of the latter al Arab

al Mustariba, i.e., naturalised or insititious Arabs, though

* Muir, in his Life of Mahomet (IntrocL, p. cl.), proves con-
clusively that this identification of the Arab Qahtan with the
Joctan of Scripture is an extravagant fiction, and shows that the
age of Qahtdn must be fixed at a period somewhere between 800
and 500 B.C. He says: "The identification (alluded to above) is
one of those extravagant fictions which the followers of Islam, in
their zeal to accommodate Arab legend to Jewish scripture, has made
in defiance of the most violent improbability, and the grossest
anachronisms." e. m. w.

^ Ibn Shohnah. ^ R. Saad. in vers. Arab. Pentat.

^ Gen. xxxvi. 12. Geru x. 25. Some writers make

^ Vide D'Herbelot, p. 1 10. Qahtan a descendant of Ismail, but

^ Ibn Shohnah. against the current of Oriental his-

^ Vide Numb. xxiv. 20. torians. See Poo. Spec, p. 39.

^ Mirat Cainilt. ^'^ An expression something like

^ Vide Joseph, cont. Apion., 1. i. that of St. Paul, who calls himself

^ Vide Exod. xvii. 18, &c. ; i "an Hebrew of the Hebrews"

Sam. XV. 2, &c. ; ibid,, xxvii. 8, 9 ; (Phil. iii. 5).

I Chron. iv. 43.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 25

some reckon the ancient lost tribes to have been the only
pure Arabians, and therefore call the posterity of Qahtan
also Mutariba, which word likewise signifies insititious
Arabs, though in a nearer degree than Mustariba, the
descendants of Ismail being the more distant graff.

The posterity of Ismail have no claim to be admitted Their pos-
as pure Arabs, their ancestor being by origin and language no ciaim to
an Hebrew ; but having made an alliance with the Jor- Arabs'^
hamites, by marrying a daughter of Mudad, and accus-
tomed himself to their manner of living and language, his
descendants became blended with them into one nation.
The uncertainty of the descents between Ismail and
Adnan is the reason why they seldom trace their genea-
logies higher than the latter, whom they acknowledge as
father of their tribes, the descents from liim downwards
being pretty certain and uncontroverted.^ *

The genealogy of these tribes being of great use to
illustrate the Arabian history, I have taken the pains to

* On this subject we give the following extract from Muir's Life
of 3/ahomet, vol. i. p. evil. : —

"The first peopling of Arabia is a subject on which we may in
vain look for any light from the traditions of Arabia itself. Tradi-
tion, indeed, gives us the genealogies of the Himyar kings and the
links of the great Coreishite line of descent. But the latter do not
ascend much beyond the Christian era, and the former only five or
six centuries further ; the earlier names of the Himyar dynasty were
probably derived from bare inscriptions ; and of the Coreish we have
hardly anything but a naked ancestral tree, till within two or three
centuries of Mahomet.

" Beyond these periods Mahometan tradition is entirely worthless.
It is not original, but taken at second hand from the Jews, Mahomet
having claimed to be of the seed of Ishmael. The Jewish Eabbins
who were gained over to his cause endeavoured to confirm the claim
from the genealogies of the Old Testament and of Rabbinical tra-
ditions." Muir's Introduction to his Life of Mahomet is the standard
work, in the English language, on all that pertains to early Arabian
history. E. M. w.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 40.

26 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

form a genealogical table from their most approved authors,
to which I refer the curious.
The Besides these tribes of Arabs mentioned by their own

authors, who were all descended from the race of Sem,
others of them were the posterity of Ham by his son
Cush, which name is in Scripture constantly given to the
Arabs and their country, though our version renders it
Ethiopia ; but, strictly speaking, the Cushites did not
inhabit Arabia properly so called, but the banks of the
Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, whither they came from
Chuzestan or Susiana, the original settlement of their
father.i They might probably mix themselves in process
of time with the Arabs of the other race, but the Eastern
writers take little or no notice of them.

The Arabians were for some centuries under the govern-
ment of the descendants of Qahtan ; Yarab, one of his
sons, founding the kingdom of Yaman, and Jorham,
another* of them, that of Hijaz.
The Himyar The proviucc of Yamau, or the better part of it, par-
Yaman. ticularly the provinces of Saba and Hadramaut, was
governed by princes of the tribe of Himyar, though at
length the kingdom was translated to the descendants of
Qahlan, his brother, who yet retained the title of King of
Himyar, and had all of them the general title of Tubba,
which signifies successor, and was affected to this race of ■
princes as that of Ctesar was to the Koman emperors, and
Khalifah to the successors of Muhammad. There were
several lesser princes who reigned in other parts of Yaman,
and were mostly, if not altogether, subject to the king of
Himyar, whom they called the great king, but of these
history has recorded nothing remarkable or that may be
depended upon.^
The inunda- The first great calamity that befell the tribes settled in
Aram. Yaman was the inundation of Aram, which happened soon
after the time of Alexander the Great, and is famous in

1 Vide Hyde, Hist. Rel. vet. Pars., p. 37, &;c.
- Toe. Spec, pp. 65, 66.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 27

tlie Arabian history.* No less than eight tribes were
forced to abandon their dwellings upon this occasion, some
of which gave rise to the two kingdoms of Ghassan and
Hira. And this was probably the time of the migration
of those tribes or colonies which were led into Mesopo-
tamia by three chiefs, Baqr, Mudar, and Eabia, from whom
the three provinces of that country are still named Diyar
Baqr, Diyar Mudar, and Diyar Rabia.^ Abd-as- Shams, sur-
named Saba, having built the city from him called Saba,
and afterwards Marib, made a vast mound, or dam,^ to
serve as a basin or reservoir to receive the water which
came down from the mountains, not only for the use of
the inhabitants, and watering their lands, but also to
keep the country they had subjected in greater awe by
being masters of the water. This building stood like a
mountain above their city, and was by them esteemed so
strong that they were in no apprehension of its ever
failing. The water rose to the height of almost twenty
fathoms, and was kept in on every side by a work so solid,
that many of the inhabitants had their houses built upon
it. Every family had a certain portion of this water,
distributed by aqueducts. But at length God, being
highly displeased at their great pride and insolence, and
resolving to humble and disperse them,-}- sent a mighty
flood, which broke down the mound by night while the
inhabitants were asleep, and carried away the whole city,
with the neighbouring towns and people.^

* This event did not occiir till about the beginning of the second
century of the Christian era. See Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. :.,
Introd., p. clvii., and authorities cited there. E. 'M. w.

t This immigration was probably due chiefly to " the drying up of
the Yemen commerce, and stoppage of the carrying trade," owing
to the Eomans having opened up commercial intercourse between
India and Egypt by way of the Red Sea. Muir's Introd., Life of
Mahomet, p. cxxxvii. E. M. w.

^ Vide Gol. ad Alfrag., p. 232. - Poc. Spec, p. 57.

^ Geogr. Nubiens, p. 52.

28

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

Ethiopian
conquest of
Yamau.

Persian

supremacy
established.

The king
dom of
Ghassdn
founded.

The tribes wliicli remained in Yaman after tins terrible
devastation still continued under the obedience of the
former princes, till about seventy years before Muham-
mad, when the king of Ethiopia sent over forces to assist
the Christians of Yaman against the cruel persecution of
their king, Dhu ISTuwas, a bigoted Jew, whom they drove
to that extremity that he forced his horse into the sea,
and so lost his life and crown,i after which the country
was governed by four Ethiopian princes successively, till
Salif, the son of Dhu Yazan, of the tribe of Himyar,
obtaining succours from Khusrii Anushirwan, king of
Persia, which had been denied him by the emperor
Heraclius, recovered the throne and drove out the
Ethiopians, but was himself slain by some of them
who were left behind. The Persians appointed the
succeeding princes till Yaman fell into the hands of
Muhammad, to whom Bazan, or rather Badhan, the last
of them, submitted, and embraced this new religion.^

This kingdom of the Himydrites is said to have lasted
2020 years,^ or, as others say, above 3000,^ the length of
the reign of each prince being very uncertain.

It has been already observed that two kingdoms were
founded by those who left their country on occasion of
the inundation of Aram : they were both out of the proper
limits of Arabia. One of them was the kingdom of
Ghassan. The founders of this kingdom were of the
tribe of Azd, who, settling in Syria Damascena near a
water called Ghassan, thence took their name, and drove
out the Dajaamian Arabs of the tribe of Salih, who before
possessed the country;^ where they maintained their
kingdom 400 years, as others say 600, or, as Abulfeda
more exactly computes, 616. Eive of these princes were
named Harith, which the Greeks write Aretas : and one

^ See Prideaux's Life of Maho-
met, p. 61.

2 Poc. Spec, pp. 63, 64.
2 Abulfeda.

* Al Janniibi and Ahmed
Yusef.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 76.

Ibn

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 29

of them it was wliose governor ordered the gates of
Damascus to be watched to take St. Paul.^ This tribe
were Christians,* their last king being Jabalah the son
of al Ayham, who, on the Arabs' successes in Syria
professed Muhammadism under the Khalifah Omar; but
receiving a disgust from him, returned to his former faith,
and retired to Constantinople.^

The other kingdom was that of Hira, w^liich was founded The king-
by Malik, of the descendants of Qahlan^ in Chaldea or
Irak ; but after three descents the throne came by marriage
to the Lakhmians, called also the Mundars (the general
name of those princes), who preserved their dominion, not-
withstanding some small interruption by the Persians, till
the Khalifat of Abu Baqr, when al ]\Iundar al Maghnir,
the last of them, lost his life and crown by the arms of
Khalid Ibn al Walid. This kingdom lasted 622 years
eight months.* Its princes were under the protection of
the kings of Persia, whose lieutenants they were over the
Arabs of Irak, as the kings of Ghassan were for the Eoman
emperors over those of Syria.^

Jorham the son of Qahtan reigned in Hijaz, where his Jorhamites
posterity kept the throne till the time of Ismail; but on ° ^ ^^'^^'
his marrying the daughter of Mudad, by whom he had
twelve sons, Qidar, one of them, had the crown resigned
to him by his uncles the Jorhamites,*" though others say
the descendants of Ismail expelled that tribe, who retir- Theyareex-
ing to Johainah, were, after various fortune, at last all EnaiiyTe-
destroyed by an inundation.''' ^^^°^^ '

* This was true only of the last kings of the tribe, the conversion
having probably taken place through political influence about the
middle of the fourth century of our era. Muir's Introd., Life of
Mahomet, p. clxxxv. K M. "W.

^ 2 Cor. xi. 32 ; Acts ix. 24. ^ Ibid, and Procop. in Pers. apud

2 Vide Ockley's History of the Photium., p. 71, &c.
Saracens, vol. i. p. 174. ® Poo. Spec, p. 45.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 66. ' Ibid., p. 79.

4 Ibid., p. 74.

30 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. i.

Of the kings of Himyar, Hira, Ghassan, and Jorliam,
Dr. Pocock has given us catalogues tolerably exact, to
which I refer the curious.^
ThePhyiar- After the cxpulsiou of the Jorhamites, the government
nient of the of Hijaz secuis uot to liavc continued for many centuries
"" ^' in the hands of one prince, but to have been divided

among the heads of tribes, almost in the same manner as
the Arabs of the desert are governed at this day. At
Makkah an aristocracy prevailed, where the chief manage-
ment of affairs till the time of Muhammad was in the
tribe of Quraish, especially after they had gotten the
custody of the Kaabah from the tribe of Khuzaah.^

Besides the kingdoms which have been taken notice of,
there were some other tribes which in latter times had
princes of their own, and formed states of lesser note,
particularly the tribe of Kinda ;^ but as I am not writing
a just history of the Arabs, and an account of them would
be of no great use to my present purpose, I shall waive
any further mention of them.
The govern- After the time of Muhammad, Arabia was for about
hirifte/ti^e three centuries under the Khalifahs his successors. But in
ifiS?m°ad^^^" tlie year 325 of the Hijra, great part of that country was
in the hands of the Karmatians,^ a new sect who had
committed great outrages and disorders even in Makkah,
and to whom the Khalifahs were obliged to pay tribute, that
the pilgrimage thither might be performed : of this sect I
may have occasion to speak in another place. Afterwards
Yaman was governed by the house of Thabatiba, descended
from Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, whose sovereignty
in Arabia some place so high as the time of Charlemagne.
However, it was the posterity of Ali, or pretenders to be
such, who reigned in Yaman and Egypt so early as the
tenth century. The present reigning family in Yaman is
probably that of Ayiib, a branch of which reigned there in

1 Poc. Spec, p. 55 seq. ' Vide Poc. Spec, p. 79, &c

" Vide ibid., p. 41, and Prideaux's "* Vide Elmaciu. in Vita al Radi.
Life of Mahomet, p. 2.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 31

the thirteenth century, and took the title of Khalifah and
Imam, which they still retain,^ * They are not possessed
of the whole province of Yaman,- there being several other
independent kingdoms there, particularly that of Fartakh.
The crown of Yaman descends not regularly from father
to sou, but the prince of the blood royal who is most in
favour with the great ones, or has the strongest interest,
generally succeeds.^

The governors of Makkah and Madina, who have always The gover-
been of the race of Muhammad, also threw off their sub- Makkah and
jection to the Khalifahs, since which time four principal depeudeut.
families, all descended from Hassan the son of Ali, have
reigned there under the title of Sharif, which signifies
noUe, as they reckon themselves to be on account of their
descent. These are Banu Qadir, Banu Miisa Thani, Banu
Hcisham, and Banu Kitada;^ which last family now is,
or lately was, in the throne of Makkah, where they have
reigned above 500 years.-f- The reigning family at Madina

* There is no one family now ruling over tlie whole of Yaman. At
present the Turks have at least nominal dominion in the northern
part to about 17° 30' north latitude. In Southern Yaman there is no
paramount sovereign, the Zaidi family having been deposed from the
throne of Sanaa some years ago. The Sultan of Gaara, in Lower
Jafia, who is recognised as a sort of hierarch in those regions, exer-
cises considerable authority under the title of Af/fi. He is said
to pronounce judgment by fire ordeals. His principal rival is the
Sultan of Maar, in the district of Abian, but he has thus far been
able to maintain his position as the most respected judge in Southern
Yaman. In addition to these there is the so-called six-finger dynasty
(said to have twelve fingers and twelve toes) of the Osmani rulers in
the region near Aden, who are subsidised by the English. These
are also rivals of the Afifi. E. M. w.

t The present Grand Sharif of Makkah is Abdal IMuttalib, who
was deposed in 1S58 by the Sultan of Turkey, and kept at Constan-
tinople as a state prisoner for more than twenty years. His successor
in office was assassinated at Jidda in 1880 by a fanatic, because, as

^ Voyage de I'Arab. Heur., p. 255. ^ Ibid., p. 254.

2 Ibid., pp. 153, 273. 4 Ibid., p. 143.

32 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

are tlie Banu Hasham, who also reigued at Makkali before
those of Kitada.^
The rulers of The kiiigs of YamaD, as well as the princes of Makkah
pendent, and Madina, are absolutely independent^ and not at all
subject to the Turk, as some late authors have imagined.^ *
These princes often making cruel wars among themselves,
gave an opportunity to Selim I. and his son Sulaiman, to
make themselves masters of the coasts of Arabia on the
Red Sea, and of part of Yaman, by means of a fleet built
at Sues : but their successors have not been able to main-
tain their conquests ; for, except the port of Jidda, where

is believed by some, he refused to'recognise the Sultan of Turkey as
the Khalifah (caliph or vicegerent of Muhammad). Strange to say,
the Sultan reinstated the exiled Grand Sharif. He is said to be a
mortal enemy of the English. Yet he does not appear to be popular
in Arabia, as an unsuccessful attempt was made on his life soon
after his arrival at Llakkah. E. m. w.

* The defeat of the Wahabis by Ibrahim Pasha in 1818 brought
a considerable portion of Arabia, comprising about two hundred
thousand square miles, under Turkish suzerainty. The rule of the
Turk, however, is for the most part merely nominal, and this becomes
more so each year as the power of the Ottoman empire decreases.
So far, however, as recognised, it extends over almost the whole of
Hijaz, with Makkah, Madina, and Jidda, under semi-independent
rulers, the northern part of Yaman, and about half of Ahra (with
Palgrave's Hofhoof) on the east coast. Madina is subject to the
Grand Sharif of Makkah.

A German traveller (Von Moltzau) tells us that Arabia, especially
South- Western Arabia, is honeycombed by numerous sects, notably
by that of the "Hidden Imam." The Wahabis too are stirring
again, and the powerful chief of Northern Hijaz, with his hordes of
Bedouins, is quite ready to throw off the Ottoman yoke, light as it
is. It therefore appears that while the Turk jjossesses considerably
more authority in Arabia than he formerly did, according to our
author, there is every reason to believe it to be for the most part
nominal, and that even this tenure is likely to be of short duration.
(I am indebted for most of the information in this note and the two
preceding to the research of the Eev. P. M. Zenker, C.M.S., Agra.)

E. M. w.

1 Voyage del' Arab. Heur., p. 145. ^ Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient.,

2 Ibid., pp. 143, 14S. p, 477.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 33

tliey have a Paslia whose authority is very small, they
possess nothing considerable in Arabia.^ *

Thus have the Arabs preserved their liberty, of which Arabian

, . -1 liberty pre-

few nations can produce so ancient monuments, with very served in au
little interruption, from the very Deluge ; for though very
great armies have been sent against them, all attempts to
subdue them were unsuccessful. The Assyrian or Median
empires never got footing among them.^ The Persian
monarchs, though they were their friends, and so far
respected by them as to have an annual present of frank-
incense,^ yet could never make them tributary ; * and were
so far from being their masters, that Cambyses, on his
expedition against Egypt, was obliged to ask their leave
to pass through their territories;^ and when Alexander
had subdued that mighty empire, yet the Arabians had
so little apprehension of him, that they alone, of all the
neighbouring nations, sent no ambassadors to him, either
first or last ; which, with a desire of possessing so rich a
country, made him form a design against it, and had he
not died before he could put it in execution,*^ this people
might possibly have convinced him that he was not invin-
cible : and I do not find that any of his successors, either
in Asia or Egypt, ever made any attempt against them.^
The Ptomans never conquered any part of Arabia properly
so called ; the most they did was to make some tribes in
Syria tributary to them, as Pompey did one commanded
by Sampsiceramus or Shams'alkeram, who reio-ned at
Hems or Emesa ; ^ but none of the Eomans, or any other
nations that we know of, ever penetrated so far into Arabia
as ^lius Gallus under Augustus Csesar ; ^ yet he was so
far from subduing it, as some authors pretend,^" that he

* See note above.

1 Voy. de I'Arab. Heur., p. 148. ^ Vide Diodor. Sic, ubi supra.

" Diodor. Sic, 1. 2, p. 131, 8 Strabo, 1. 16, p. 1092.

^ Herodot., 1. 3, c 97. 9 Dion Cassius, 1. 53, p. m. 516

4 Idemib. C91. Diodor., ubi sup. i" Huet, Hist, du Commerce

^ Herodot., 1. 3, c 8 and 98. de la Navigation des Anciens,

® Strabo, I. 16, pp. 1076, 1 132. 50.

C

34-

TH E PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

was soon obliged to return without effecting anything con-
siderable, having lost the best part of his army by sickness
and other accidents.^ This ill success probably discouraged
the Eomans from attacking them any more ; for Trajan,
notwithstanding the flatteries of the historians and orators
of his time, and the medals struck by him, did not subdue
the Arabs ; the province of Arabia, which it is said he
added to the Eoman empire, scarce reaching farther than
Arabia Petrrea, or the very skirts of the country. And we
are told by one author,^ that this prince, marching against
the Agarens who had revolted, met with such a reception
that he was obliged to return without doing anything.
The religion The religion of the Arabs before Muhammad, which they
before jiu- Call the statc of ignorance, in opposition to the knowledge of
God's true worship revealed to them by their prophet, was
chiefly gross idolatry; the Sabian religion having almost
overrun the whole nation, though there were also great
numbers of Christians, Jews, and Magians among them.

I shall not here transcribe what Dr. Prideaux^ has written
of the original of the Sabian religion ; but instead thereof
insert a brief account of the tenets and worship of that
seet. They do not only believe one God, but produce
many strong arguments for his unity, though they also
pay an adoration to the stars, or the angels and intelli-
gences which they suppose reside in them, and govern
the world under the Supreme Deity. They endeavour to
perfect themselves in the four intellectual virtues, and
believe the souls of wicked men will be punished for nine
thousand ages, but will afterwards be received to mercy.
They are obliged to pray three times'* a day ; the first, half
an hour or less before sunrise, ordering it so that they
may, just as the sun rises, finish eight adorations, each
containing three prostrations : ^ the second prayer they

The Sabian
religion de-
scribed.

1 See the whole expedition de-
scribed at large by Strabo, 1. 1 6, p.
1 1 26, &c.

2 Xiphilin., epit.

5 Connect, of the Hist, of the Old
and New Test., p. i, bk. 3.

■* Some say seven. See D'Her-
belot, p. 726, and Hyde, De E-el. Vet.
Pers., p. 128.

'' Others say they use no incur-
vations or prostrations at all ; vide
Hyde, ibid.

SEC. r.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 35

end at noon, when the sun begins to decline, in saying
which they perform five such adorations as tlie former :
and the same they do the third time, ending just as the
sun sets. They fast three times a year, the first time
thirty days, the next nine days, and the last seven. They
offer many sacrifices, but eat no part of them, burning
them all. They abstain from beans, garlic, and some other
pulse and vegetables.^ As to the Sabian Qibla, or part
to which they turn their faces in praying, authors greatly
differ; one will have it to be the north,^ another the south,
a third Makkah, and a fourth the star to which they pay
their devotions : ^ and perhaps there may be some variety
in their practice in this respect. They go on pilgrimage
to a place near the city of Harran in Mesopotamia, where
great numbers of them dwell, and they have also a great
respect for the temple of Makkah, and the pyramids .of
Egypt;^ fancying these last to be the sepulchres of Seth, and
of Enoch and Sabi his two sons, whom they look on as the
first propagators of their religion ; at these structures they
sacrifice a cock and a black calf, and offer up incense.^ Be-
sides the Book of Psalms, the only true Scripture they read,
they have other books which they esteem equally sacred,par-
ticularlyone in theChaldeantongue which they call the Book
of Seth, and which is full of moral discourses. This sect say
they took the name of Sabian from the above-mentioned Sabi,
though it seems rather to be derived from N^li, Saba,^ or the
host of heaven, which they worship.'^ Travellers commonly
call them Christians of St. John the Baptist, whose disciples
also they pretend to be, using a kind of baptism, which is
the greatest mark they bear of Christianity. This is one of
the religions, the practice of which Muhammad tolerated (on

^ Abulfarag, Hist. Dynast., p. astronomer, and himself a Sabian,

281, &c. wrote a treatise in Syriac concerning

* Idem ibid. the doctrines, rites, and ceremonies

* Hyde, ubi supra, p. 124, &c. of this sect ; from which, if it could

* D'Herbelot, ubi supra. be recovered, we might expect much
^ See Greaves' Pyramidog.,pp, 6,7. better information than any taken
® Vide Poc. Spec, p. 138. from the Arabian writers; vide
^ Thabit Ibn Kurrah, a famous Abulfarag, ubi supra.

36 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. l-

paying tribute), and the professors of it are often included in
that expression of the Quran, " those to whom the Scrip-
tures have been given," or literally, the peo])le of the hook*
4v^and st'r- "^^^ idolatry of the Arabs then, as Sabians, chiefly con-
worship. sisted in worshipping the fixed stars and planets, and the
angels and their images, which they honoured as inferior
deities, and whose intercession they begged, as their
mediators with God. For the Arabs acknowledged one
supreme God, the Creator and Lokd of the universe, whom
they called Allah Taala, the most high God; and their
other deities, who were subordinate to him, they called
simply al Ilahat, i.e., the goddesses ; which words the
Grecians not understanding, and it being their constant
custom to resolve the religion of every other nation into
their own, and find out gods of theirs to match the others',
they pretend that the Arabs worshipped only two deities,
Orotalt and Alilat, as those names are corruptly written,
whom they will have to be the same with Bacchus and .
Urania ; pitching on the former as one of the greatest of
their own gods, and educated in Arabia, and on the other
because of the veneration shown by the Arabs to the stars.^
Tiieyac- That they acknowledged one supreme God, appears, to

oTifi supreme omit Other proof, from their usual form of addressing
God. ^ , ' , . '='

themselves to him, which was this, " I dedicate myself to
thy service, 0 God ! Thou hast no companion, except
thy companion of whom thou art absolute master, and of
whatever is his." ^ So that they supposed the idols not to
be S2ci juris, though they offered sacrifices and other offer-
ings to them, as well as to God, who was also often put
off with the least portion, as Muhammad upbraids them.
Thus when they planted fruit-trees or sowed a field, they
divided it by a line into two parts, setting one apart for

* For a better account of these Sabians, see note on chap. ii.
V. 6i. E. M. w.

1 Vide Herodot., 1. 3, c. S-; Arrian, pp. 1 6 1, 162 ; and Strabo, 1. 16.
2 Al Shahristani.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 2,7

•

their idols, and the other for God ; if any of the fruits
happened to fall from the idol's part into God's, they made
restitution; but if from God's part into the idol's, they
made no restitution. So when they watered the idol's
grounds, if the water broke over the channels made for
that purpose, and ran on God's part, they dammed it up
again ; but if the contrary, they let it run on, saying, they
wanted what was God's, but he wanted nothing.^ In the
same manner, if the offering designed for God happened
to be better than that designed for the idol, they made an
exchange, but not otherwise.^

It was from this gross idolatry, or the worship of inferior Muhammad
deities, or companions of God, as the Arabs continue to primitive
call them, tliat Muhammad reclaimed his countrymen, theSm.
establishing the sole worship of the true God among them ;
so that how much soever the Muhammadans are to blame
in other points, they are far from being idolaters,* as some
ignorant writers have pretended.

The worship of the stars the Arabs might easily be led ongin of
into, from their observing the changes of weather to happen worship,
at the rising and setting of certain of them,^ which after
a long course of experience induced them to ascribe a
divine power to those stars, and to think themselves in-
debted to them for their rains, a very great benefit and
refreshment to their parched country: this superstition
the Quran particularly takes notice of.^

* So far as the Quran and the religion of Muhammail are con-
cerned, a charge of idolatry would be a sign of ignorance. But
when we take into account the reverence of Muslims for the Black
Stone at Makkah, their worship of Walls or saints, and notably of
Hasan and Husain, the charge is just. However, when this incon-
sistency of Muslims is made to appear as an argument against Islam,
it is as absurd as the attempt of Muslims to establish the charge of
idolatry against Christians by pointing to Roman Catholic image-
worship. E. M. w.

^ Nodhm al dorr. ^ Vide post.

2 Al Baidhawi. 4 yide Poc. Spec, p. 163.

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec.

The temple
of Bait
Ghumddn at
Sanaa.

Different
stars wor-
sliipped by
different
tribes.

Angels or
gods wor-
shipped as
intercessors,

The ancient Arabians and Indians, between which two
nations was a great conformity of religions, had seven
celebrated temples, dedicated to the seven planets ; one
of which in particular, called Bait Ghumdan, was built in
Sanaa, the metropolis of Yaman, by Dahaq, to the honour
of al Zuharah or the planet Venus, and was demolished by
the Khalif ah Othman ; ^ by whose murder was fulfilled the
prophetical inscription set, as is reported, over this temple,
viz., " Ghumdan, he who destroyeth thee shall be slain." ^
The temple of Makkah is also said to have been consecrated
to Zuhal, or Saturn.^

Though these deities were generally reverenced by the
whole nation, yet each tribe chose some one as the more
peculiar object of their worship.

Thus as to the stars and planets, the tribe of Himyar
chiefly worshipped the sun ; Misam,* al Dabaran, or the
Bull's-eye; Lakhm and Jodam, al Miishtari, or Jupiter;
Tay, Suhail, or Canopus ; Qais, Sirius, or the Dog-star ;
and Asad, Atarid, or Mercury.^ Among the worshippers
of Sirius, one Abu Qabsha was very famous ; some will
have him to be the same with Wahab, Muhammad's grand-
father by the mother, but others say he "was of the tribe
of Khuzaah. This man used his utmost endeavours to
persuade the Quraish to leave their images and worship
this star ; for which reason Muhammad, who endeavoured
also to make them leave their images, was by them nick-
named the son of Abu Qabsha.^ Tlie worship of this star
is particularly hinted at in the Quran.'''

Of the angels or intelligences which they worshipped,
the Quran ^ makes mention only of three, which were wor-
shipped under female names ;^ al Lat, al Uzza, and Minah.
These were by them called goddesses, and the daughters

1 Shahristani. ^ Al Jannitbi.

^ Shahristani.

^ This name seems to be cor-
rupted, there being no such among
the Arab tribes. Poo. Si^ec, p. 130.

® Abulfarag, p. 160.

® Poc. Spec, p. 132.

'' Cap. 53, V, I.

8 Ibid., vs. 19-2S.

9 Ibid.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 39

of God ; an appellation tliey gave not only to the angels,
but also to their images, which they either believed to be
inspired with life by God, or else to become the tabernacles
of the angels, and to be animated by them ; and they gave
them divine worship, because they imagined they inter-
ceded for them with God.

Al Lat was the idol of the tribe of Thakif who dwelt at The idoi
Tayif, and had a temple consecrated to her in a place
called Nakhla. This idol al Mughairah destroyed by
Muhammad's order, who sent him and Abu Sofian on that
commission in the ninth year of the Hijra,^ The inhabi-
tants of Tayif, especially the women, bitterly lamented
the loss of this their deity, which they were so fond of,
that they begged of Muhammad, as a condition of peace,
that it might not be destroyed for three years, and not
obtaining that, asked only a month's respite ; but he
absolutely denied it.^ There are several derivations of
this word, which the curious may learn from Dr. Pocock ; ^
it seems most probably to be derived from the same root
with Allah, to which it may be a feminine, and will then
signify the goddess.

Al Uzza, as some affirm, was the idol of the tribes of The idoi
Quraish and Kinanah,* and part of the tribe of Salim ; ^ ^
others *' tell us it was a tree called the Egyptian thorn, or
acacia, worshipped by the tribe of Ghatfan, first consecrated
by one Dhalim, who built a chapel over it, called Boss,
so contrived as to give a sound when any person entered.
Khalid Ibn Walid being sent by Muhammad in the eighth
year of the Hijra to destroy this idol, demolished the
chapel, and cutting down this tree or image, burnt it:
he also slew the priestess, who ran out with her hair
dishevelled, and her hands on her head as a suppliant. Yet

^ Dr. Prideaux mentions this struments of war. See his Life of

expedition, but names only Abu Mahomet, p. 98.

Sofian, and mistaking the name of ^ Abulfeda, Vit. Muham., p. 127.

the idol for an appellative, sup- ^ Poc. Spec, p. 90.

poses he went only to disarm the * Al Jauhari, apud eund., p. 91.

Tayifians of their weapons and in- ^ Al Shah., ib. ^ Al Firauz., ib.

40 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. I.

the author who relates this, in another place says, the

chapel was pulled down, and Dhalim himself killed by

one Zuhair, because he consecrated this chapel with design

to draw the pilgrims thither from Makkah, and lessen the

reputation of the Kaabah. The name of this deity is

derived from the root azza, and signifies the most miglity.

The idol Minah was the object of worship of the tribes of Hu-

^'°'^^- dhail and Khuzaah,i who dwelt between Makkah and Ma-

dina, and, as some say ,2 of the tribes oi Aws, Khazraj, and

Thakif also. This idol was a large stone,^ demolished by

one Saad, in the eighth year of the Hijra, a year so fatal

to the idols of Arabia. The name seems derived from

mana, to fiow, from the flowing of the blood of the victims

sacrificed to the deity ; whence the valley of Mina,* near

Makkah, had also its name, where the pilgrims at this day

slay their sacrifices.^

Idols wadd, Before we proceed to the other idols, let us take notice

Yaghvith of fivo morc, which with the former three are all the

Yiiuq, and ,

Nasr. Quran mentions by name, and they are Wadd, Sawa,

Yaghiith, Yaiiq, and Nasr. These are said to have been
antediluvian idols, which Noah preached against, and
were afterwards taken by the Arabs for gods, having been
men of great merit and piety in their time, whose statues
they reverenced at first with a civil honour only, which in
process of time became heightened to a divine worship.^

Wadd was supposed to be the heaven, and was wor-
shipped under the form of a man by the tribe of Qalb in
Daumat al Jandal.'^

Sawa was adored under the shape of a woman by the
tribe of Hamadan, or, as others^ write, of Hudhail in
Eohat. This idol lying under water for some time after
the Deluge, was at length, it is said, discovered by the
devil, and was worshipped by those of Hudhail, who
instituted pilgrimages to it.^

1 Al Jauhari. Persic. ; vide Hyde, De Rel. Vet.

2 Al Shahristani, Abulfeda, &c. Pers., p. 133.

** Al Baidhawi, al Zamakhshari. '' Al Jauhari, al Shahristani.

* Poc. Spec, p. 91, &c. ^ Ibid. ® Idem, al Firauzabadi, and Sa-

^ Qurtln, c. 71, v. 22 j Comment, fiu'ddin, " Al Firauzab.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 41

Yaghiith was an idol in the shape of a lion, and was
the deity of the tribe of Madhaj and others who dwelt in
Yaman.^ Its name seems to be derived from gliatha,
which signifies to help.

Yiiiiq was worshipped by the tribe of Murad, or, accord-
ing to others, by that of Hamadan,^ under the figure of a
horse. It is said he was a man of great piety, and his
death much regretted; whereupon the devil appeared to
his friends in a human form, and undertaking to repre-
sent him to the life, persuaded them, by way of comfort,
to place his efhgies in their temples, that they might have
it in view when at their devotions. This was done, and
seven others of extraordinary merit had the same honours
shown them, till at length their posterity made idols of
them in earnest.^ Th^^name Yaiiq probably comes from
the verb dqa, to prevent or avert.^

Nasr was a deity adored by the tribe'of Himyar, or at
Dhu'l Khalaah in their territories, under the image of an
eagle, which the name signifies.

There are, or were, two statues at Bamiyan, a city of
Cabul in the Indies, fifty cubits high, which some writers
suppose to be the same with Yaghuth and Yiiiiq, or else
with Minah and al Lat; and they also speak of a third
standing near the others, but something less, in the shape
of an old woman, called Nasram or Nasr. These statues
were hollow within, for the secret giving of oracles ; ^ but
they seem to have been different from the Arabian idols.
There was also an idol at Siimenat in the Indies, called
Lat or al Lat,* whose statue was fifty fathoms high, of a

* Somndth is the name of the idol, and is applied to the god
Mahadev. This idol may have been called Lat or al Lat by the
Muslim plunderer, Mahmud, and his followers, but that it was ever
so called by the Hindus is a mistake. . e, m. w.

^ Shahrist^ni. * Poo. Spec, p. 94.

^ Al Jauhari. ^ See Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers., p.

3 Al Firauzab. 132.

42

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I,

The worship
of Hobal
and other
idols of the
Kaabah.

The idols
A sat and
Nailah of
Safa and
Marwa.

single stone, and placed in the midst of a temple supported
by fifty-six pillars of massy gold : this idol Mahmiid Ibn
Sabaqtaghin, who conquered that part of India, broke to
pieces with his own hands.^

Besides the idols we have mentioned, the Arabs also
worshipped great numbers of others, which would take up
too much time to have distinct accounts given of them ;
and not being named in the Quran, are not so much to
our present purpose : for besides that every housekeeper
had his household god or gods, which he last took leave
of and first saluted at his cooing abroad and returnino; home,^
there were no less than 360 idols,^ equalling in number
the days of their year, in and about the Kaabah of Makkah ;
the chief of whom was Hobal,* brought from Belka in
Syria into Arabia by Amru Ibn Luhai, pretending it
would procure them rain when they wanted it.^ It was
the statue of a man, made of agate, which having by some
accident lost a hand, the Quraish repaired it with one of
gold : he held in his hand seven arrows without heads or
feathers, such as the Arabs use in divination.^ This idol
is supposed to have been the same with the image of
Abraham,'' found and destroyed by Muhammad in the
Kaabah, on his entering it, in the eighth year of the Hijra,
when he took Makkah,^and surrounded with a great number
of angels and prophets, as inferior deities ; among whom, as
some say, was Ismail, with divining arrows in his hand also.^

Astif and Nailah, the former the image of a man, the
latter of a woman, were also two idols brought with Hobal
from Syria, and placed the one on Mount Safa, and the
other on Mount Marwa.* They tell us Asaf was the son

* Safci and Marwa "are two slightly elevated spots adjacent to
the Temple of Mekkeh." — Lane's Kurdn, p. 33. E. M. w.

1 D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient., p.
512.

2 Al Mustatraf.
^ Al Jannab.

4 Abulfed., Shahrist., &c.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 95.

6 Safiu'ddln.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 97.

^ Abulfeda.

^ Ibn al Ashir., al Jannab., &c

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 43

of Amru, and Nailali the daughter of Sahal, both of the
tribe of Jorham, who committing whoredom together in
the Kaabah, were by God converted into stone,^ and after-
wards worshipped by the Quraish, and so much reverenced
by them, that though this superstition was condemned by
Muhammad, yet he was forced to allow them to visit those
mountains as monuments of divine justice.^

I shall mention but one idol more of this nation, and The dough-

„ worship of

that was a lump of dough worshipped by the tribe or the tribe of
Hanifa, who used it with more respect than the Papists
do theirs, presuming not to eat it till they were compelled
to it by famine.^

Several of their idols, as Minah in particular, were no origin of

stone-wor-

more than large rude stones, the worship of which the ship,
posterity of Ismail first introduced ; for as they multiplied,
and the territory of Makkah grew too strait for them, great
numbers were obliged to seek new abodes : and on such
migrations it was usual for them to take with them
some of the stones of that reputed holy land, and set them
up in the places where they fixed ; and these stones they
at first only compassed out of devotion, as they had
accustomed to do the Kaabah. But this at last ended in
rank idolatry, the Ismailites forgetting the religion left
them by their father so far as to pay divine worship to
any fine stone they met with.*

Some of the pagan Arabs believed neither a creation Arab beUef
past, nor a resurrection to come, attributing the origin of life,
things to nature, and their dissolution to age. Others
believed both, among whom were those who, when they
died, had their camel tied by their sepulchre, and so left,
without meat or drink, to perish, and accompany them to
the other world, lest they should be obliged, at the resur-
rection, to go on foot, which was reckoned very scandalous.^

^ Poc. Spec, p. 98. •* Al Mustatraf, al Jannabi,

^ Quran, c. 2, v. 159. s Abulfarag, p. 160.

^ Al Mustatraf, al Jauhari.

44 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

Some believed a metempsychosis, and tliat of the blood
near the dead person's brain was formed a bird named
Hamah, which once in a hundred years visited the sepul-
chre ; though others say this bird was animated by the
soul of him that is unjustly slain, and continually cries,
Isquni, Isq^ini, i.e., " give me to drink " — meaning of the
murderer's blood — till his death be revenged, and then
it flies away. This was forbidden by the Quran to be
believed.^

I might here mention several superstitious rites and
customs of the ancient Arabs, some of which were
abolished and others retained by Muhammad; but I
apprehend it will be more convenient to take notice of
them hereafter occasionally, as the negative or positive
precepts of the Quran, forbidding or allowing such prac-
tices, shall be considered.

Let us now turn our view from the idolatrous Arabs,
to those among them who had embraced more rational
religions.
The Magian The Pcrsiaus had, by their vicinity and frequent inter-
adopted by course with the Arabians, introduced the Magian religion
' among some of their tribes, particularly that of Tamim,^ a
long time before Muhammad, who was so far from being
unacquainted with that religion, that he borrowed many
of his own institutions from it, as will be observed in the
progress of this work. I refer those who are desirous to
have some notion of Magisni to Dr. Hyde's curious account
of it,^ a succinct abridgment of which may be read with
much pleasure in another learned performance.*
Judaism in- The Jcws, who fled in great numbers into Arabia from
a result of the fcarf ul destruction of their country by the Eomans,
secution^^^ made proselytes of several tribes, those of Kinanah, al
Harith Ibn Kaabah, and Kindah^ in particular, and in

1 Vide Poc. Spec, p. 1 35. Hist, of the Old and New Test.,

2 Al Mustatraf. part i. book 4.

3 In his Hist. Relig. Vet. Pers. 5 Al Mustatraf.
■* Dr. Prideaux's Connect, of the

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 45

time became very powerful, and possessed of several towns
and fortresses there. But the Jewish religion was not
unknown to the Arabs, at least above a century before.
Abu Qarib Asad, taken notice of in the Quran,^ who was
king of Yaman, about 700 years before Muhammad,* is
said to have introduced Judaism among the idolatrous
Himytirites. Some of his successors also embraced the
same religion, one of whom, Yusaf, surnamed Dhu Nuwas,^
was remarkable for his zeal and terrible persecution of
all who would not turn Jews, putting them to death by
various tortures, the most common of which was throwing
them into a glowing pit of fire, whence he had the oppro-
brious appellation of the Lord of the Pit. This persecu-
tion is also mentioned in the Quran.^

Christianity had likewise made a very great progress Christianity
among this nation before Muhammad. Whether St. Paul "^
preached in any part of Arabia, properly so called,^ is
uncertain; but the persecutions and disorders which hap-
pened in the Eastern Church soon after the beginning of the
third century, obliged great numbers of Christians to seek
for shelter in that country of liberty, who, being for the most
part of the Jacobite communion, that sect generally pre-
vailed among the Arabs.^ The principal tribes that em-
braced Christianity were Himyar, Ghassan, Eabia, Taghlab,
Bahra, Tuiiiikh,^ part of the tribes of Tay and Kudaa, the
inhabitants of Najran, and the Arabs of Hira.'^ As to the
two last, it may be observed that those of Najran became
Christians in the time of Dhu Nuwc4s,^ and very probably,

* Here is another instance of the error into which the writers of last
century were led by Muslim authors. This Abii Qarib Asad flourished
about the beginning of the third century of our era, and hence about
four hundred years before Muhammad. See Introd. Muir's Life of
Mahomet, vol. i. p. clvi. E. M. w.

■^ Chap. 50. ® Abulfarag, p. 149.

2 See before, p. 2S, and Baronii, ® Al Mustatraf.
Annal. ad sec. vi. ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 137.

^ Chap. 85, vv. 4, 5. 8 ^1 Januabi, apud Poc. Spec, p.

^ See Galat. i. 17. 63.

46 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

if the story be true, were some of those who were con-
verted on the following occasion, which happened about
that time, or not long before. The Jews of Himyar
challenged some neighbouring Christians to a public dis-
putation, which was held s2Lh dio for three days before the
king and his nobility and all the people, the disputants
being Gregentius, bishop of Tephra (which I take to be
Dhafar) for the Christians, and Herbanus for the Jews.
On the third day, Herbanus, to end the dispute, demanded
that Jesus of Nazareth, if he were really living and in
heaven, and could hear the prayers of his worshippers,
should appear from heaven in their sight, and they would
then believe in him ; the Jews crying out with one voice,
" Show us your Christ, alas ! and we will become Chris-
tians." Whereupon, after a terrible storm of thunder and
lightning, Jesus Christ appeared in the air, surrounded
with rays of glory, walking on a purple cloud, having a
sword in his hand, and an inestimable diadem on his head,
and spake these words over the heads of the assembly,
" Behold I appear to you in your sight, I, who was cru-
cified by your fathers." After which the cloud received
him from their sight. The Christians cried out, " Kyrie
elccson," i.e., " Lord, have mercy upon us ; " but the Jews
were stricken blind, and recovered not till they w^ere all
baptized.^ *

The Christians at Hira received a great accession by
several tribes, who fled thither for refuge from the persecu-
tion of Dhu Nuwas. Al Numan, surnamed Abu Kabiis,
king of Hira, who was slain a few months before Mu-
hammad's birth, professed himself a Christian on the
following occasion. This prince, in a drunken fit, ordered

* We can but wonder at tlie apparent credulity which could admit
a story like this as anything more than a fabrication. The whole
account of the persecution of Christians by Dhu Nuwds shows that
Christianity had been introduced before his time. e. m. w.

^ Vide Gregentii disput. cum Herbano Judao.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 47

two of his intimate companions, who overcome with
liquor had fallen asleep, to be buried alive. When he
came to himself, he was extremely concerned at what he
had done, and to expiate his crime, not only raised a
monument to tlie memory of his friends, but set apart two
days, one of which he called the unfortunate, and the other
the fortunate day ; making it a perpetual rule to himself,
that whoever met him on the former day should be slain,
and his blood sprinkled on the monument, but he that met
him on the other day should be dismissed in safety, with
magnificent gifts. On one of those unfortunate days there
came before him accidentally an Arab of the tribe of Tay,
who had once entertained this king when fatigued with
hunting and separated from his attendants. The king,
who could neither discharge him, contrary to the order of
the day, nor put him to death, against the laws of hospi-
tality, which the Arabians religiously observe, proposed, as
an expedient, to give the unhappy man a year's respite,
and to send him liome with rich gifts for the support of
his family, on condition that he found a surety for his
returning at the year's end to suffer death. One of the
prince's court, out of compassion, offered himself as his
surety, and the Arab was discharged. When the last day
of the term came, and no news of the Arab, the king, not
at all displeased to save his host's life, ordered the surety
to prepare himself to die. Those who were by represented
to the king that the day was not yet expired, and there-
fore he ought to have patience till the evening ; but in the
middle of their discourse the Arab appeared. The king,
admiring the man's generosity, in offering himself to cer-
tain death, which he might have avoided by letting his
surety suffer, asked him what his motive was for so
doing ? to which he answered, that he had been tauglit to
act in that manner by the religion he professed ; and al Numdn,
Numan demanding what religion that was, he replied, the Hira,°ion-
Christian. Whereupon the king desiring to have the cMsti-*°
doctrines of Christianity explained to him, was baptized, ^^^^^'

48 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. i.

he and his subjects ; and not only pardoned the man and
his surety, but abolished his barbarous custom.^ This
prince, however, was not the first king of Hira who em-
braced Christianity; al Mundar, his grandfather, having
also professed the same faith, and built large churches
in his capital.^
The extent Sincc Christianity had made so great a progress in

of the Chris- o jt o

tian Church Arabia, we may consequently suppose they had bishops
in several parts, for the more orderly governing of the
churches. A bishop of Dhafar has been already named,
and we are told that Najran was also a bishop's see.^ The
Jacobites (of which sect we have observed the Arabs gene-
rally were) had two bishops of the Arabs subject to their
Mafrian,* or metropolitan of the East ; one was called the
bishop of the Arabs absolutely, whose seat was for the
most part at Akula, which some others make the same
with Kiifa,* others a different town near Baghdad.^ The
other had the title of bishop of the Scenite Arabs, of the
tribe of Thaalab in Hira, or Hirta, as the Syrians call it,
whose seat was in that city. The ISTestorians had but one
bishop, who presided over both these dioceses of Hira and
Akula, and was immediately subject to their patriarch.^
Free Tlicsc wcrc the principal religions which obtained among

and zendi- tlic aucicnt Arabs ; but as freedom of thought was the
the Quraish. natural consequcnce of their political liberty and inde-
pendence, some of them fell into other different opinions.
The Quraish, in particular, were infected with Zeudicism,'^
an error supposed to have very near affinity with that of
the Sadducees among the Jews, and, perhaps, not greatly

* Lane says " the Copts call tlieir metropolitan Matran." — Kurdn,
p. 39, note. E. ii. w.

^ Al Maidcini and Ahmad Ibn ^ Abulfeda in Descr. Iracse.
Yusaf, apud Poc. Spec, p. 72 " Vide Assemani, Bibl. Orient.,

- Abulfeda, apud eund., p. 74. torn. 2, in Dissert, de Mouophysitis,

3 Safiu'ddin, apud Poc. Spec, p. and p. 245.
137. '' Al Mustatraf, apud Poc Spec,

^ Abulfarag in Chron. Syriac, MS. p. 136.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 49

different from Deism ; for there were several of that tribe,
even before the time of Muhammad, who worshipped one
God and were free from idolatry,^ and yet embraced none
of the other religions of the country.

The Arabians before Muhammad were, as they yet are, Two classes
divided into two sorts — those who dwell in cities and previous-.to
towns, and those who dwell in tents. The former lived
by tillage, the cultivation of palm-trees, breeding and
feeding of cattle, and the exercise of all sorts of trades,^
particularly merchandising,^ wherein they were very emi-
nent, even in the time of Jacob. The tribe of Quraish
were much addicted to commerce, and Muhammad, in his
younger years, was brought up to the same business ; it
being customary for the Arabians to exercise the same
trade that their parents did.* The Arabs who dwelt in
tents employed themselves in pasturage, and sometimes
in pillaging of passengers ; they lived chiefly on the milk
and flesh of camels ; they often changed their habitations,
as the convenience of water and of pasture for their cattle
invited them, staying in a place no longer than that lasted,
and then removing in search of other.^ They generally
wintered in Irak and the confines of Syria. This way of
life is what the greater part of Ismail's posterity have
used, as more agreeable to the temper and way of life of
their father ; and is so well described by a late author,^
that I cannot do better than refer the reader to his account
of them.

The Arabic language is undoubtedly one of the most The dialects
ancient in the world, and arose soon after, if not at, the I'aDguage. ^^
confusion of Babel. There were several dialects of it, very
different from each other : the most remarkable were that
spoken by the tribes of Himyar and the other genuine Arabs,

1 Vide Reland, De Relig. Moham., ^ See Prideaux's Life of Mahomet,

p. 270 ; and Millium de Moham- p. 6.

medismo ante Moham., p. 31 1. * Strabo, 1. 16, p. 1 129.

" These seem to be the same whom ^ Idem ibid., p. 1084.
M. La Roque calls Moors. Voy. dans ® La Roque, Voy. dans la Pales-
la Palestine, p. no. tine, p. 109, &c.

D

50 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I.

and that of the Quraish. The Himyaritic seems to have
approached nearer to the purity of the Syriac than the
dialect of any other tribe ; for the Arabs acknowledge
their father Yarab to have been the first whose tongue
deviated from the Syriac (which was his mother tongue,
and is almost generally acknowledged by the Asiatics to
be the most ancient) to the Arabic. The dialect of the
Quraish is usually termed the pure Arabic, or, as the
Quran, which is written in this dialect, calls it, the per-
spicuous and clear Arabic ; perhaps, says Dr. Pocock,
because Ismail, their father, brought the Arabic he had
learned of the Jorhamites nearer to the original Hebrew.
But the politeness and elegance of the dialect of the
Quraish is rather to be attributed to their having the
custody of the Kaabah, and dwelling in Makkah, the centre
of Arabia, as well more remote from intercourse with
foreigners, who might corrupt their language, as frequented
by the Arabs from the country all around, not only on
a religious account, but also for the composing of their
differences, from whose discourse and verses they took
whatever words or phrases they judged more pure and
elegant; by which means the beauties of the whole
tongue became transfused into this dialect. The Arabians
are full of the commendations of their language, and not
altogether without reason ; for it claims the preference of
most others in many respects, as being very harmonious
and expressive, and withal so copious, that they say no
man without inspiration can be perfect master of it in its
utmost extent; and yet they tell us, at the same time,
that the greatest part of it has been lost ; which will not
be thouoht strano;e if we consider how late the art of
The art of Writing was practised among them. For though it was
Arabia! ^'^ kuowu to Job,^ their countryman, and also to the Him-
yarites (who used a perplexed character called al Musnad,
wherein the letters were not distinctly separate, and which
was neither publicly taught, nor suffered to be used

1 Job xix. 23, 24.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 51

without permission first obtained), many centuries before
Muliammad, as appears from some ancient monuments,
said to be remaining in their character; yet the other
Arabs, and those of Makkah in particular, were, for many
ages, perfectly ignorant of it, unless such of them as were
Jews or Christians.^ Muramir Ibn Murra of Anbar, a
city of Irak, who lived not many years before Muhammad,
was the inventor of the Arabic character, which Bashar
the Kindian is said to have learned from those of Anbar,
and to have introduced at Makkah but a little while be-
fore the institution of Muhammadism. These letters of
Muramir were different from the Himyaritic ; and though 1
they were very rude, being either the same with or very
much like the Cufic,^ which character is still found in
inscriptions and some ancient books, yet they were those
which the Arabs used for many years, the Quran itself
being at first written therein ; for the beautiful character
they now use was first formed from the Cufic by Ibn
Muklah, Wazir (or Visir) to the Khalifahs al Muktadir, al
Qahir, and al Eadi, who lived about three hundred years
after Muhammad, and was brought to great perfection by
Ali Ibn Bawab,^ who flourished in the following century,
and whose name is yet famous among them on that
account ; yet, it is said, the person who completed it, and
reduced it to its present form, was Yaqiit al Mustasami,
secretary to al Mustasam, the last of the Khalifahs of the
family of Abbas, for which reason he was surnamed al
Ivhattai, or the Scribe.

The accomplishments the Arabs valued themselves Arabaccom-
chiefly on were : i. Eloquence, and a perfect skill in their andieam-
own tongue ; 2. Expertness in the use of arms and horse- ^"^'

•^ See Prideaux's Life of Maho- of this character to Ibn Muklah's

met, pp. 29, 30. brother, Abdallah al Hassan, and

- A specimen of the Cufic charac- the perfecting of it to Ibn Amid al

ter may be seen in Sir J. Chardin's Kdtib, after it had been reduced to

Travels, vol. iii. p. 119. near the present form by Abd'aiha-

* Ibn Khaliqan. Yet others at- mid. Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient.,

tribute the honour of the invention pp. 590, 108, and 194.

52

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

style of
prose and
poetry.

bestowed
on poeto.

manship ; and 3. Hospitality.^ The first tliey exercised
themselves in by composing of orations and poems. Their
orations were of two sorts, metrical or prosaic, the one
being compared to pearls strung, and the other to loose
ones. They endeavoured to excel in both, and whoever
was able, in an assembly, to persuade the people to a great
enterprise or dissuade them from a dangerous one, or gave
them other wholesome advice, was honoured with the
title of Khatib, or orator, which is now given to the
Muhammadan preachers. They pursued a method very
different from that of the Greek and Eoman orators ; their
sentences being like loose gems, without connection, so
that this sort of composition struck the audience chiefly
by the fulness of the periods, the elegance of the expres-
sion, and the acuteness of the proverbial sayings ; and so
persuaded were they of their excelling in this way, that
they would not allow any nation to understand the art of
speaking in public except themselves and the Persians,
which last were reckoned much inferior in that respect
to the Arabians.^ Poetry was in so great esteem among
them, that it was a great accomplishment, and a proof
of ingenious extraction, to be able to express one's self
in verse with ease and elegance on any extraordinary
occurrence ; and even in their common discourse they
made frequent applications to celebrated passages of their
famous poets. In their poems were preserved the dis-
tinction of descents, the rights of tribes, the memory of
great actions, and the propriety of their language ; for
which reasons an excellent poet reflected an honour on
liis tribe, so that as soon as any one began to be admired
for his performances of this kind in a tribe, the other
tribes sent publicly to congratulate them on the occasion,
and themselves made entertainments, at which the women
assisted, dressed in their nuptial ornaments, singing to the
sound of timbrels the happiness of their tribe, who had

^ Poc. Orat. ante Carmen Tograi, p. lo.

- Poc. Spec, p. 161.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 53

now one to protect tlieir honour, to preserve their genealo-
gies and the purity of their language, and to transmit their
actions to posterity ; ^ for this was all performed by their
poems, to which they were solely obliged for their know-
ledge and instructions, moral and economical, and to which
they had recourse, as to an oracle, in all doubts and differ-
ences.- No wonder, then, that a public congratulation
was made on this account, which honour they yet were so
far from making cheap, that they never did it but on one
of these three occasions, which were reckoned great points
of felicity, viz., on the birth of a boy, the rise of a poet,
and the fall of a foal of generous breed. To keep up an poetic con-
emulation among their poets, the tribes had, once a year, a fair of
general assembly at Okatz,^ a place famous on this account,
and where they kept a weekly mart or fair, which was
held on our Sunday.*^ This annual meeting lasted a whole
month, during which time they employed themselves, not
only in trading, but in repeating their poetical composi-
tions, contending and vieing with each other for the prize ;
whence the place, it is said, took its name.^ The poems
that were judged to excel were laid up in their kings'
treasuries, as were the seven celebrated poems, thence
called al Muallaqat, rather than from their being hung
up on the Kaabah, which honour they also had by public
order, being written on Egyptian silk and in letters of
gold; for which reason they had also the name of al
Mudhahabat, or the golden verses.*^

The fair and assembly at Oktitz were suppressed by TUsfair
Muhammad, in whose time, and for some years after, by^Muham-
poetry seems to have been in some degree neglected by ™^ '
the Arabs, who were then employed in their conquests ;
which being completed, and themselves at peace, not only

^ Ibn Rashik, apud Poc. Spec, * Geogr. Nub., p. 51.

p. 160. ^ Poc. Spec, p. 159.

- Poc Orat. prasfix. Carm. Tograi, ^ Ibid., and p. 381. Et in calce

ubi supra. Notar. in Carmen Tograi, p. 233.

^ Idem, Spec, p. 159.

54

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. I.

Arab eques-
trian and
military
training.

Their hospi
tality and
liberality.

this study was revived,^ but almost all sorts of learning
were encouraged and greatly improved by them. This
interruption, however, occasioned the loss of most of their
ancient pieces of poetry, which were then chiefly pre-
served by memory ; the use of writing being rare among
them ill their time of ignorance.^ Though the Arabs
w^ere so early acquainted with poetry, they did not at first
use to write poems of a just length, but only expressed
themselves in verse occasionally ; nor was their prosody
digested into rules, till some time after Muhammad ; ^
for this was done, as it is said, by al Khalil Ahmad al
Farahidi, who lived in the reign of the Khalifah Hariiu
al Eashid.^

The exercise of arms and horsemanship they were in a
manner obliged to practise and encourage, by reason of
the independence of their tribes, whose frequent jarrings
made wars almost continual ; and they chiefly ended their
disputes in field battles, it being a usual saying among
them that God had bestowed four peculiar things on the
Arabs — that their turbans should be to them instead of
diadems, their tents instead of walls and houses, their
swords instead of entrenchments, and their poems instead
of written laws.^

Hospitality was so habitual to them, and so much
esteemed, that the examples of this kind among them
exceed whatever can be produced from other nations.
Hatim, of the tribe of Tay,^ and Hasan, of that of Fizarah,''
were particularly famous on this account ; and the con-

^ Jalaluddin al Soyii, apud Poc.
Spec, p. 159, &c.

- Ibid., p. 160.

'^ Ibid., 161. Al Safadi confirms
this by a story of a grammarian
named Abu Jaafar, who sitting by
the Mikyas or Nilometer in Egypt,
in a year when the Nile did not rise
to its usual height, so that a famine
was apprehended, and dividing a
piece of poetry into its parts or feet,
to examine them by the rules of art,

some who passed by not understand-
ing him, imagined he was uttering
a charm to hinder the rise of the
river, and pushed him into the water,
whei'e he lost his life.

4 Vide Clericum de Prosod. Arab.,
p. 2.

^ Pocock, in calce Notar. ad Car-
men Tograi.

® Vide Gentii Notas in Gulistan
Sheikh Sadi, p. 486, &c.

^ Poc. Spec, p. 48.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 55

trary vice was so much in contempt, that a certain poet
upbraids the inhabitants of Wasat, as with the greatest
reproach, that none of their men had the heart to give
nor their women to deny.^

Nor were the Arabs less prepense to liberality after the
coming of Muhammad than their ancestors had been. I
could produce many remarkable instances of this com-
mendable quality among them,^ but shall content myself
with the following. Three men were disputing in the court
of the Kaabah which was the most liberal person among
the Arabs. One gave the preference to Abdallah, the son
of Jaafar, the uncle of Muhammad ; another to Qais Ibn
Saad Ibn Obadah ; and the third gave it to Arabah, of the
tribe of Aws. After much debate, one that was present,
to end the dispute, proposed that each of them should go
to his friend and ask his assistance, that they might see
what every one gave, and form a judgment accordingly.
This was agreed to ; and Abdallah's friend, going to him,
found him with his foot in the stirrup, just mounting his
camel for a journey, and thus accosted him : " Son of the
apostle of God, I am travelling and in necessity." Upon
which Abdallah alighted, and bade him take the camel
with all that was upon her, but desired him not to part with
a sword which happened to be fixed to the saddle, because
it had belonged to Ali, the son of Abutalib, So he took
the camel, and found on her some vests of silk and 4000
pieces of gold; but the thing of greatest value was the
sword. The second went to Qais Ibn Saad, whose servant
told him that his master was asleep, and desired to know
his business. The friend answered that he came to ask
Qais's assistance, being in want on the road. Whereupon
the servant said that he had rather supply his necessity
than wake his master, and gave him a purse of 7000 pieces
of gold, assuring him that it was all the money then in

^ Ibn al Hubairah, apud Poc. in belot's Bibl. Orient., particularly in
Not. ad Carmen Tograi, p. 107. the articles of Hasan the son of Ali,

- Several may be found in D'Her- Maan Fadhal, and Ibn Yahya.

56 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. i.

the house. He also directed him to go to those who had
the charge of the camels, with a certain token, and take a
camel and a slave and return home with them. When
Qais awoke, and his servant informed him of what he had
done, he gave him his freedom, and asked him why he did
not call him, " For," says he, " I would have given him
more." The third man went to Arabah, and met him
coming out of his house in order to go to prayers, and
leaning on two slaves, because his eyesight failed him.
The friend no sooner made known his case, but Arabah
let go the slaves, and clapping his hands together, loudly
lamented his misfortune in having no money, but desired
him to take the two slaves, which the man refused to do,
till Arabah protested that if he would not accept of them he
gave them their liberty, and leaving the slaves, groped his
way along by the waU. On the return of the adventurers,
judgment was unanimous, and with great justice, given by
all who were present, that Arabah was the most generous
of the three.

Nor were these the only good qualities of the Arabs ;
they are commended by the ancients for being most exact
to their words ^ and respectful to their kindred.^ And
they have always been celebrated for their quickness of
apprehension and penetration, and the vivacity of their
wit, especially those of the desert.^
Their j^q the Arabs have their excellences, so have they, like

national "^

defects and other nations, their defects and vices. Their own writers

vices. , . . .

acknowledge that they have a natural disposition to war,
bloodshed, cruelty,* and rapine, being so much addicted

* On the authority of Lane I give the following from Burckhardt's
Notes on the Bedouins and IFahhahys, vol. i. p. 185 : — "The Turk is
cruel, the Arab of a more kind temper ; he pities and supports the
wretched, and never forgets the generosity shown to him even by an
enemy. Not accustomed to the sanguinary scenes that harden and

1 Herodot., 1. 3, c. 8. ^ vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient.,

- Strabo, 1. 16, p. II29. p. 121.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. S7

to bear malice that they scarce ever forget an old grudge ;
which vindictive temper some physicians say is occasioned
by their frequently feeding on camels' flesh * (the ordinary
diet of the Arabs of the desert, who are therefore observed
to be most inclined to these vices), that creature being
most malicious and tenacious of anger,^ which account
suggests a good reason for a distinction of meats.

The frequent robberies committed by these people on strange
merchants and travellers have rendered the name of an plundering
Arab almost infamous in Europe ; this they are sensible ^''^p®'^®^ ^"
of, and endeavour to excuse themselves by alleging the
hard usage of their father Ismail, who, being turned out of
doors by Abraham, had the open plains and deserts given
him by. God for his patrimony, with permission to take
whatever he could find there ; and on this account they
think they may, with a safe conscience, indemnify them-
selves as well as they can, not only on the posterity of
Isaac, but also on everybody else, always supposing a sort
of kindred between themselves and those they plunder.
And in relating their adventures of this kind, they think
it sufficient to change the expression, and instead of " I
robbed a man of such or such a thing," to say " I gained
it." 2 We must not, however, imagine that they are the
less honest for this among themselves, or towards those

corrupt an Osmanly's heart, the Bedouin learns at an early period of
life to abstain and to suffer, and to know from experience the healing
power of pity and consolation." — Kurdn, p. 48, note. E. m. w.

* This, again, according to Burckhardt, is a mistake, for he says
that the .slaughter of a camel rarely happens. (See his Notes on the
Bedouins and JVahhabys, vol. i. p. 63 ; Lane's Kurdn, p. 48.) But
the testimony of tradition to the fact that the Quraish, during their
expedition against Muhammad which resulted in the battle of Badr,
slaughtered nine camels daily, would seem to indicate that, what-
ever modern custom may be, the Arabs of Muhammad's time indulged
very freely in camels' flesh. e. m. w.

^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 87 ; Bochart, ^ Voyage dans la Palest., p. 220,
Hierozoic, 1. 2, c. I. &c.

58 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. i.

whom tliey receive as friends ; on the contrary, the strictest
probity is obsei-ved in their camp, where everything is
open and nothing ever known to be stolen.* ^
The sciences The scicnces the Arabians chiefly cultivated before
previous to Muliammadism were three — that of their genealogies and
■ history, such a knowledge of the stars as to foretell the
changes of weather, and the interpretation of dreams.^
They used to value themselves excessively on account
of the nobility of their families, and so many disputes
happened on that occasion, that it is no wonder if they
took great pains in settling their descents. What know-
ledge they had of the stars was gathered from long experi-
ence, and not from any regular study or astronomical rules.^
The Arabians, as the Indians also did, chiefly applied
themselves to observe the fixed stars, contrary to other
nations, whose observations were almost confined to the

* That this statement is incorrect is evident from the following
remarks in Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahhabys, vol. i.
pp. 157, 158 : — "The Arabs may be stj'led a nation of robbers, whose
principal occupation is plunder, the constant subject of their thoughts.
But we must not attach to this practice the same notions of crimi-
nality that we entertain respecting highwaymen, housebreakers, aud
thieves in Europe. The Arabian robber considers his profession as
honourable, and the term haramy (robber) is one of the most flatter-
ing titles that could be conferred on a youthful hero. The Arab
robs his enemies, his friends, and his neighbours, provided that they
are not actually in his own tent, where their property is sacred. To
rob in the camp or among friendly tribes is not reckoned creditable
to a man, yet no stain remains iipon him for such an action, which,
in fact, is of daily occurrence. But the Arab chiefly prides himself
on robbing his enemies, and on bringing away by stealth Avhat he
could not have taken by open force. The Bedouins have reduced
robbery in all its branches to a complete and regular system, which
offers many interesting details."

For these details the reader is referred to the excellent work from
which the above is quoted, Lane's Kurdn, note to p. 49. E. M. w.

1 Voyage dans la Palest., p. 213, ^ Al Shahristsini, apud Poc. Orat.,
&c. ubi aup., p. 9, and Spec, p. 164.

•* Abulfarag, p. 161.

SEC. I.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 59

planets, and they foretold their effects from their influences,
not their nature ; and hence, as has been said, arose the
difference of the idolatry of the Greeks and Chaldeans,
who chiefly worshipped the planets, and that of the Indians,
who worshipped the fixed stars. The stars or asterisms
they most usually foretold the weather by were those they
called Anwa, or the houses of the moon. These are twenty-
eight in number, and divide the zodiac into as many parts,
through one of which the moon passes every night ; ^ as
some of them set in the morning, others rise opposite to
them, which happens every thirteenth night; and from
their rising and setting, the Arabs, by long experience,
observed what changes happened in the air, and at length,
as has been said, came to ascribe divine power to them ;
saying that their rain was from such or such a star ; which
expression Muhammad condemned, and absolutely forbade
them to use it in the old sense, unless they meant no
more by it than that God had so ordered the seasons,
that when the moon was in such or such a mansion or
house, or at the rising or setting of such and such a star,
it should rain or be windy, hot or cold.^

The old Arabians, therefore, seem to have made no
further progress in astronomy, which science they after-
wards cultivated with so much success and applause,*

* E. Boswortli Smith, in his Lectures on Muhammad and Mu-
hammadanism, p. 216, makes the following statement on this
subject: —

" During the dark period of European history, the Arabs for five
hundred years held up the torch of learning to humanity. It was
the Arabs who then ' called the Muses from their ancient seats ; '
who collected and translated the writings of the Greek masters ; who
understood the geometry of Apollonius, and wielded the weapons
found in the logical armoury of Aristotle. It was the Arabs who
developed the sciences of agriculture and astronomy, and created
those of algebra and chemistry ; who adorned their cities with

^ Vide Hyde in not. ad Tabulas stellar fixar. Ulugh Beigh, p. 5.
- Vide Poc. Spec, p. 163, &c.

6o THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sEC. I.

than to observe the influence of the stars on the Tveather
and to give them names ; and this it was obvious for them
to do, by reason of their pastoral way of life, lying night
and day in the open plains. The names they imposed on
the stars generally alluded to cattle and flocks, and they
were so nice in distinguishing them, that no language has
so many names of stars and asterisms as the Arabic ; for
though they have since borrowed the names of several
constellations from the Greeks, yet the far greater part are
of their own growth, and much more ancient, particularly
those of the more conspicuous stars, dispersed in several
constellations, and those of the lesser constellations which
are contained within the greater, and were not observed
or named by the Greeks.^

Thus have I given the most succinct account I have been
able of the state of the ancient Arabians before Muham-
mad, or, to use their expression, in the time of ignorance.
I shall now proceed briefly to consider the state of religion
in the East, and of the two great empires which divided
that part of the world between them at the time of Mu-
hammad's setting up for a prophet, and what were the
conducive circumstances and accidents that favoured his
success.

colleges and lil3raries, as well as witli mosques and palaces ; who
supplied Europe with a school of philosophers from Cordova, and a
school of physicians from Salerno."

This expresses the opinion of a numerous class of modern writers
on Islam. But, whilst according to the Arabs all praise for what
they did towards the preservation and advancement of learning
during the dark ages, we cannot see that astronomy, as a science, owes
much to Arab genius. As in regard to philosophical learning and
medical science, so in regard to astronomy, it may be fairly said
that the Muslims did not improve on their Greek masters. They
never succeeded in elevating it out of the region of astrology.

On this question, see Arnold's Islam and Christianity, pp. 233-236.

E. M. w.

Vide Hyde, ubi sup., p. 4.

( 6i )

SECTION 11.

OF THE STATE OP CHRISTIANITY, PARTICULARLY OP THE EASTERN
CHURCHES, AND OP JUDAISM, AT THE TIME OP MUHAMMAD'S
APPEARANCE ; AND OP THE METHODS TAKEN BY HIM FOR THE
ESTABLISHING HIS RELIGION, AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH
CONCURRED THERETO.

If we look into the ecclesiastical historians even from the The decline

of trii6 rcli"

third century, we shall find the Christian world to have gion in tiie
then had a very different aspect from what some authors
have represented ; and so far from being endued with
active graces, zeal, and devotion, and established within
itself with purity of doctrine, union, and firm profession
of the faith,^ that on the contrary, what by the ambition
of the clergy, and what by drawing the abtrusest niceties
into controversy, and dividing and subdividing about them
into endless schisms and contentions, they had so de-
stroyed that peace, love, and charity from among them
which the Gospel was given to promote, and instead
thereof continually provoked each other to that malice,
rancour, and every evil work, that they had lost the
whole substance of their religion, while they thus eagerly
contended for their own imaginations concerning it, and
in a manner quite drove Christianity out of the world by
those very controversies in which they disputed with each
other about it.^ In these dark ages it was that most of
those superstitions and corruptions we now justly abhor

^ Ricaut's State of the Ottoman ^ Prideaux's Preface to his Life of
Empire, p. 187. Mahomet.

62 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. it.

in the Church of Eome were not only broached but
established, which gave great advantages to the propa-
gation of Muhammadism. The worship of saints and
images, in particular, was then arrived at such a scanda-
lous pitch that it even surpassed whatever is now practised
among the Romanists.^
Controyer- After the Niccue Council, the Eastern Church was

sies in the

churc™ engaged in perpetual controversies, and torn to pieces by
andcorrup- the disputcs of the Arians, Sabellians, Nestorians, and

tion of the . .

clergy. Eutychiaus, the heresies of the two last of which have
been shown to have consisted more in the words and form
of expression than in the doctrines themselves,^ and
were rather the pretences than real motives of those fre-
quent councils to and from which the contentious prelates
were continually riding post, that they might bring every-
thing to their own will and pleasure.^ And to support
themselves by dependants and bribery, the clergy in any
credit at court undertook the protection of some officer in
the army, under the colour of which justice was publicly
sold and all corruption encouraged.

In the Western Church Damasus and Ursicinus carried
their contests at Rome for the episcopal seat so high, that
they came to open violence and murder, which Viventius,
the governor, not being able to suppress, he retired into
the country, and left them to themselves, till Damasus
prevailed. It is said that on this occasion, in the church
of Sicininus, there were no less than one hundred and
thirty-seven found killed in one day. And no wonder
they were so fond of these seats, when they became by
that means enriched by the presents of matrons, and went
abroad in their chariots and sedans in great state, feasting
sumptuously even beyond the luxury of princes, quite

1 Vide La Vie de Mahonimed, ^ Ammian. Marcellin., 1. 21. Vide

par Boulainvilliers, p. 219, &c. etiam Euseb., Hist. Eccles., 1. 8, c. I.

" Vide Simon, Hist. Crit. de la Sozom., 1. i, c. 14, &c. Hilar, et

Crc^ance, &c., des Nations du Le- Sulpic. Sever, in Hist. Sacr., p.

vant. 112, &c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 63

contrary to the way of living of tlie country prelates,
who alone seemed to have some temperance and modesty
left.i

These dissensions were greatly owing to the emperors, evIi in-
and particularly to Constantius, who, confounding the Roman
pure and simple Christian religion with anile supersti- the^cimrch.
tions, and perplexing it with intricate questions, instead
of reconciling different opinions, excited many disputes,
which he fomented as they proceeded with infinite alter-
cations.2 This grew worse in the time of Justinian, who,
not to be behind the bishops of the fifth and sixth
centuries in zeal, thought it no crime to condemn to death
a man of a different persuasion from his own.^

This corruption of doctrine and morals in the princes
and clergy was necessarily followed by a general depravity
of the people ; * those of all conditions making it their
sole business to get money by any means, and then to
squander it away when they had got it in luxury and
debauchery.^

But, to be more particular as to the nation we are now Arabia
writing of, Arabia was of old famous for heresies,*^ which heresy,
might be in some measure attributed to the liberty and
independency of the tribes. Some of the Christians of
that nation believed the soul died with the body, and was
to be raised again with it at the last day : "^ these Origen is
said to have convinced.^ Among the Arabs it was that the
heresies of Ebion, Beryllus, and the Nazarseans,^ and also
that of the Collyridians, were broached, or at least pro-
pagated ; the latter introduced the Virgin Mary for God,
or worshipped her as such, offering her a sort of twisted
cake called collyris, whence the sect had its name.^°

■^ Ammian. Marcellin., lib. 27. ^ Vide Boulainvil., Vie de Mahom.,

^ Idem, 1. 21. ubi sup.

^ Procop. in Anecd., p. 60. ^ Vide Sozomen., Hist. Eccles., 1. i,

* See an instance of the wicked- c. 16, 17. Sulpic. Sever., ubi supra,

ness of the Christian army, even '' Euseb., Hist. Eccles., 1. 6, c. 33.

when they were under the terror of ^ Idem ibid., c. 37.

the Saracens, in Oakley's Hist, of ' Epiphan.de Hseres., 1. 2; Hser. 40.

the Sarac, vol. i. p. 239. ^" Idem ibid., 1. 3; Hseres., 75, 79.

64 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. ir.

warioiatry Tliis iiotion of the divinity of the Virgin Mary was also
trine of the believed by some at the Council of Nice, who said there
^^^y- were two gods besides the Father, viz., Christ and the
Virgin Mary, and were thence named Mariamites.^ Others
imagined her to be exempt from humanity and deified ;
which goes but little beyond the Popish superstition in
calling her the complement of the Trinity, as if it were
imperfect without her. This foolish imagination is justly
condemned in the Quran - as idolatrous, and gave a handle
to Muhammad to attack the Trinity itself *
Arabia re- Other sccts there were of many denominations within
heretics. the borders of Arabia, which took refuge there from the
proscriptions of the imperial edicts, several of whose
notions Muhammad incorporated with his religion, as may
be observed hereafter.
The power Thougli the Jews Were an inconsiderable and despised
in ArabiaT pcoplc iu othcr parts of the world, yet in Arabia, whither
mad's"treS- many of them fled from the destruction of Jerusalem, they
them.° grew very powerful, several tribes and princes embracing
their religion ; which made Muhammad at first show great
regard to them, adopting many of their opinions, doctrines,
and customs, thereby to draw them, if possible, into his
interest. But that people, agreeably to their wonted ob-
stinacy, were so far from being his proselytes, that they
were some of the bitterest enemies he had, waging con-
tinual war with him, so that their reduction cost him
infinite trouble and danger, and at last his life. This
aversion of theirs created at length as great a one in him
to them, so that he used them, for the latter part of his
life, much worse than he did the Christians, and fre-
quently exclaims against them in his Quran. His followers
to this day observe the same difference between them and

* A careful study of the Qurun will show that this is the only
conception of a Trinity which fouud a place in Muhammad's mind.

E. M. w.

^ Elmacin. Eutych. - Cap. 5, v. 77.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 65

the Christians, treating the former as the most abject and
contemptible people on earth.

It has been observed by a great politician/ that it is isiam suc-
irapossible a person sliould make himself a prince and religion '
found a state without opportunities. If the distracted uticai^wJak-
state of religion favoured the designs of Muhammad on and Persia!^
that side, the weakness of the Eoman and Persian mon-
archies might flatter him with no less hopes in any
attempt on those once formidable empires, either of
which, had they been in their full vigour, must have
crushed Muhammadism in its birth ; whereas nothing
nourished it more than the success the Arabians met with
in their enterjDrises against those powers, which success
they failed not to attribute to their new religion and the
divine assistance thereof.

The Eoman empire declined apace after Constantine, Decline of

. 1T1P ^^^^ Roman

whose successors were for the generality remarkable tor empire,
their ill qualities, especially cowardice and cruelty. By
Muhammad's time, the western half of the empire was
overrun by the Goths, and the eastern so reduced by the
Huns on the one side and the Persians on the other, that
it was not in a capacity of stemming the violence of a
powerful invasion. The Emperor Maurice paid tribute to
the Khagan or king of the Huns ; and after Phocas had
murdered his master, such lamentable havoc there was
among the soldiers, that when Heraclius came, not above
seven years after, to muster the army, there were only
two soldiers left alive of all those who had borne arms
when Phocas first usurped the empire. And though Herac-
lius was a prince of admirable courage and conduct, and
had done what possibly could be done to restore the dis-
cipline of the army, and had had great success against
the Persians, so as to drive them not only out of his own
dominions, but even out of part of their own ; yet still the
very vitals of the empire seemed to be mortally wounded,

^ Machiavelli, Princ, c. 6, p. 19,

66 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. ir.

that there couki no time have happened more fatal to the
empire or more favourable to the enterprises of the Arabs,
who seem to have been raised up on purpose by God
to be a scourge to the Christian Church for not living
answerably to that most holy religion which they had
received.^

The general luxury and degeneracy of manners into
which the Grecians were sunk also contributed not a little
to the enervating their forces, which were still further
drained by those two great destroyers, monachism and
persecution.
The com. The Persians had also been in a declining condition for

Mazdak. somc time before ]\Iuhammad, occasioned chiefly by their
intestine broils and dissensions, great part of which arose
from the devilish doctrines of Manes and Mazdak. The
opinions of the former are tolerably well known : the
latter lived in the reign of Khusrii Kobad, and pretended
himself a prophet sent from God to preach a community
of women and possessions, since all men were brothers
and descended from the same common parents. This he
imagined would put an end to all feuds and quarrels
among men, which generally arose on account of one of
the two, Kobad himself embraced the opinions of this
impostor, to whom he gave leave, according to his new
doctrine, to lie with the queen his wife ; which permission
Anushirwan, his son, with much difficulty prevailed on
Mazdak not to make use of. These sects had certainly
been the immediate ruin of the Persian empire, had not
Anushirwan, as soon as he succeeded his father, put Maz-
dak to death with all his followers, and the Manicheans
also, restoring the ancient Magian religion.^

In the reign of this prince, deservedly surnamed the
Just, Muhammad was born. He was the last king of
Persia who deserved the throne, which after him was

1 Ockley's Hist, of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 19, &;c.
^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 70,

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 67

almost perpetually contended for, till subverted by the
Arabs. His son Hormuz lost the love of his subjects by
his excessive cruelty : having had his eyes put out by his
wife's brothers, he was obliged to resign the crown to his
son Khusrii Parviz, who at the instigation of Bahram
Chubin had rebelled against him, and was afterwards
strangled. Parviz was soon obliged to quit the throne to
Bahram, but obtaining succours of the Greek emperor
Maurice, he recovered the crown ; yet towards the latter
end of a long reign he grew so tyrannical and hateful to
his subjects, that they held private correspondence with
the Arabs, and he was at length deposed, imprisoned, and
slain by his son Shiriiyah.^ After Parviz no less than six
princes possessed the throne in less than six years. These Decline of
domestic broils effectually brought ruin upon the Persians ; empire.
for though they did rather by the weakness of the Greeks
than their own force ravage Syria and sack Jerusalem
and Damascus under Khusru Parviz, and, while the Arabs
were divided and independent, had some power in the
province of Yaman, where they set up the four last kings
before Muhammad; yet, when attacked by the Greeks
under Heraclius, they not only lost their new conquests,
but part of their own dominions ; and no sooner were the
Arabs united by Muhammadism, than they beat them in
every battle, and in a few years totally subdued them.

As these empires were weak and declining, so Arabia, The political
at Muhammad's setting up, was strong and flourishing ; Arrb^i°con.
having been peopled at the expense of the Grecian empire, under mu-
whence the violent proceedings of the domineering sects ^^"^^^ ■
forced many to seek refuge in a free country, as Arabia
then was, where they who could not enjoy tranquillity and
their conscience at home found a secure retreat. The
Arabians were not only a populous nation, but unac-
quainted with the luxury and delicacies of the Greeks
and Persians, and inured to hardships of all sorts, living

^ Vide Teixeira, Relaciones de los Reyes de Persia, p. 195, &c.

68 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. ii.

in a most parsimonious manner, seldom eating any flesli,
drinking no wine, and sitting on the ground. Their poli-
tical government was also such as favoured the designs
of Muhammad ; for the division and independency of their
tribes were so necessary to the first propagation of his
religion and the foundation of his power, that it would
have been scarce possible for him to have effected either
had the Arabs been united in one society. But when
they had embraced his religion, the consequent union of
their tribes was no less necessary and conducive to their
future conquests and grandeur.

This posture of public affairs in the Eastern world, both
as to its religious and political state, it is more than pro-
bable Muhammad was well acquainted with, he having
had sufficient opportunities of informing himself in those
particulars in his travels as a merchant in his younger
years ; and though it is not to be supposed his views at
first were so extensive as afterwards, when they were
enlarged by his good fortune, yet he might reasonably
promise himself success in his first attempts from thence.
As he was a man of extraordinary parts and address,
he knew how to make the best of every incident, and
turn what might seem dangerous to another to his own
advantage.
Muham- Muliammad came into the world under some disad-

ml'rturer ' vautagcs, which he soon surmounted. His father, Abclallah,
Sid"foTtune. was a youugcr son ^ of Abd al Mutallib, and dying very
young and in his father's lifetime, left his widow and in-
fant son in very mean circumstances, his whole substance
consisting but of five camels and one Ethiopian she-slave.^
Abd al Mutallib was therefore obliged to take care of his
grandchild Muhammad, which he not only did during his

^ He was not his eldest son, as Dr. M. de Boulainvilliers (Vie de Ma-

Prideaux tells us, whose reflections hommed, p. 1 82, &c.) supposes ; for

built on that foundation must neces- Hamza and al Abb;is were both

sarily fail (see his Life of Mahomet, younger than Abdallah.
p. 9) ; nor 3'et his youngest son, as - Abulfeda, Vit. Moham., p. 2.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 69

life, but at his death enjoined his eklest son, Abu Talib,
who was brother to Abdallah by the same mother, to
provide for him for the future ; which he very affection-
ately did, and instructed him in the business of a mer-
chant, which he followed ; and to that end he took him with
him into Syria when he was but thirteen, and afterward
recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow,
for her factor, in whose service he behaved himself so well,
that by making him her husband she soon raised him to
an equality with the richest in Makkah.

After he began by this advantageous match to live at He forms

° -^ * . . the design

his ease it was that he formed a scheme of establishing of reiorniiug
a new religion, or, as he expressed it, of replanting the of ws
only true and ancient one, professed by Adam, Noah, men.
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets,^ by destroy-
ing the gross idolatry into which the generality of his
countrymen had fallen, and weeding out the corruptions
and superstitions which the latter Jews and Christians
had, as he thought, introduced into their religion, and
reducing it to its original purity, which consisted chiefly
in the worship of one only God.

Whether this was the effect of enthusiasm, or only a opinions as
design to raise himseli to the supreme government 01 his motives of

T -11 1-1 ° rm 1 • Muhammad.

country, 1 will not pretend to determine, ine latter is
the general opinion of Christian writers, who agree that
ambition and the desire of satisfying his sensuality were
the motives of his undertaking. It may be so, yet his first
views, perhaps, were not so interested. His original design
of bringing the pagan Arabs to the knowledge of the true
God was certainly noble, and highly to be commended;
for I cannot possibly subscribe to the assertion of a late
learned writer,- that he made that nation exchange their
idolatry for another religion altogether as bad. Muham-
mad was no doubt fully satisfied in his conscience of the
truth of his grand point, the unity of GoD, which was what

^ See Quran, c. 2. '^ Prideaux's Life of Mahomet, p. 76.

of God.

70 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, [sec. it.

he chiefly attended to ; all Lis other doctrines and institu-
tions being rather accidental and unavoidable than pre-
Hishoidon meditated and designed. Since, then, Muhammad was
of the unity Certainly himself persuaded of his grand article of faith,
which, in his opinion, was violated by all the rest of the
world, not only by the idolaters, but by the Christians, as
well those who rightly worshipped Jesus as God, as those
who superstitiously adored the Virgin Mary, saints, and
images ; and also by the Jews, who are accused in the
Quran of taking Ezra for the son of God ; ^ it is easy to
conceive that he might think it a meritorious work to
rescue the world from such ignorance and superstition ;
and by degrees, with the help of a warm imagination,
which an Arab seldom wants,^ to suppose himself destined
by Providence for the effecting that great reformation.
And this fancy of his might take still deeper root in his
mind during the solitude he thereupon affected, usually
retiring for a month in the year to a cave in Mount Hira,
near Makkah. One thing which may be probably urged
against the enthusiasm of this prophet of the Arabs is
the wise conduct and great prudence he all along showed
in pursuing his design, which seem inconsistent with the
wild notions of a hot-brained religionist. But though all
enthusiasts or madmen do not behave with the same
gravity and circumspection that he did, yet he will not be
the first instance, by several, of a person who has been out
of the way only quoad hoc, and in all other respects acted
with the greatest decency and precaution.*

The terrible destruction of the Eastern Churches, once
so glorious and flourishing, by the sudden spreading of
Muhammadism, and the great successes of its professors
against the Christians, necessarily inspire a horror of that

Probably a
mono-
maniac on
the subject
of religion.

* For a most able and satisfactory exposition of the character of
Muhammad, we refer the reader to Muir's Life of Mahomet, voL iv.
chap, xxxvii. E. M. w.

Quran, c. 10. v. 37.

See Casaub. of Enthusiasm, p. 148.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 71

religion in those to whom it has been so fatal ; and no
wonder if they endeavour to set the character of its founder
and its doctrines in the most infamous light. But the
damage done by Muhammad to Christianity seems to have
been rather owing to his ignorance than malice ; for his He was

,.p, ,.,. , -J ^ ignorant of

great misfortune was his not having a competent know- the pm-e
ledge of the real and pure doctrines of the Christian the chm
religion, which was in his time so abominably corrupted, gion.
that it is not surprising if he went too far, and resolved to
abolish what he might think incapable of reformation.

It is scarce to be doubted but that Muhammad had a His natural

• T J T ■ f T ■ ^ 1 , T ambition is

Violent desire of being reckoned an extraordinary person, inflamed by
which he could attain to by no means more effectually
than by pretending to be a messenger sent from God to
inform mankind of his will. This might be at first his
utmost ambition; and had his fellow- citizens treated him
less injuriously, and not obliged him by their persecutions
to seek refuge elsewhere, and to take up arms against
them in his own defence, he had perhaps continued a
private person, and contented himself with the veneration
and respect due to his prophetical office ; but being once
got at the head of a little army, and encouraged by
success, it is no wonder if he raised his thoughts to
attempt what had never before entered into his imagi-
nation.

That Muhammad was, as the Arabs are by complexion,^ His sensu-
a great lover of women, we are assured by his own con- doctrine of
fession ; and he is constantly upbraided with it by the accofaaSce'^
controversial writers, who fail not to urge the number molality of
of women with whom he had to do, as a demoustra- ^"^ *^"^^'
tive argument of his sensuality, which they think suffi-
ciently proves him to have been a wicked man, and con-
sequently an impostor. But it must be considered that
polygamy, though it be forbidden by the Christian reli-
gion, was in Muhammad's time frequently practised in

1 Anmiian Marcell., 1. 14, c. 4.

72

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. II.

A tolerable
morality
was neces-
sary to the
success of
his enter-
prise.

persons allowed
some of whom
correspondence.

Arabia and other parts of the East, and was not counted
an immorality, nor was a man worse esteemed on that
account; for which reason Muhammad permitted the
plurality of wives, with certain limitations, among his
own followers, who argue for the lawfulness of it from
several reasons, and particularly from the examples of
on all hands to have been good men,
have been honoured with the divine
The several laws relating to marriages
and divorces, and the peculiar privileges granted to Mu-
hammad in his Quran, were almost all taken by him from
the Jewish decisions, as will appear hereafter; and there-
fore he might think those institutions the more just and
reasonable, as he found them practised or approved by
the professors of a religion which was confessedly of
divine original.

But whatever were his motives, Muhammad had cer-
tainly the personal qualifications which were necessary to
accomplish his undertaking. The Muhammadan authors
are excessive in their commendations of him, and speak
much of his religious and moral virtues; as his piety,
veracity, justice, liberality, clemency, humility, and absti-
nence. His charity in particular, they say, was so con-
spicuous, that he had seldom any money in his house,
keeping no more for his own use than was just sufficient
to maintain his family ; and he frequently spared even
some part of his own provisions to supply the necessities
of the poor ; so that before the year's end he had generally
little or nothing 'left.^ " GoD," says al Bokhari, " offered
him the keys of the treasures of the earth, but he would
not accept them." Though the eulogies of these writers
are justly to be suspected of partiality, yet thus much, I
think, may be inferred from thence, that for an Arab who
had been educated in Paganism, and had but a very im-
perfect knowledge of his duty, he was a man of at least

^ Vide Abulfedca Vit. Mohani., p. 144, &:c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 73

tolerable morals, and not such a monster of wickedness as
he is usually rej^resented. And indeed it is scarce possible
to conceive that a wretch of so profligate a character
-shQukl ever have succeeded in an enterprise of this
nature ; a little hypocrisy and saving of appearances, at
least, must have been absolutely necessary ; and the sin-
cerity of his intentions is what I pretend not to inquire
into.

He had indisputably a very piercing and sagacious wit, ms inteiiec-
and was thoroughly versed in all the arts of insinuation.^ and fuavity
The Eastern historians describe him to have been a ° '"^^"^'-^•
man of an excellent judgment and a happy memory;
and these natural parts were improved by a great ex-
perience and knowledge of men, and the observations he
had made in his travels. They say he was a person of
few words, of an equal, cheerful temper, pleasant and
familiar in conversation, of inoffensive behaviour towards
his friends, and of great condescension towards his in-
feriors.^ To all which were joined a comely agreeable
person and a polite address ; accomjDlishments of no small
service in preventing those in his favour wdiom he attemp-
ted to persuade.

As to acquired learning, it is confessed he had none ms igno-
at all ; having had no other education than what was letters and
customary in his tribe, wdio neglected, and perhaps de- mlal of it
spised, what we call literature, esteeming no language in
comparison with their own, their skill in which they
gained by use and not by books, and contenting them-
selves with improving their private experience by com-
mitting to memory such passages of their poets as they
judged might be of use to them in life. This defect was
so far from being prejudicial or putting a stop to his de-
sign, that he made the greatest use of it; insisting that the
writings which he produced as revelations from God could
not possibly be a forgery of his own, because it w^as not

^ Vide Prid. Life of Mahomet, p. 105. ^ Vide Abulfeda, iibi supra.

74

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. ti.

His scheme
for the inau-
guration of
his religion.

He begins
with the
conversion
of his own
household.

conceivable tliat a person who could neither write nor
read should be able to compose a book of such excellent
doctrine and in so elegant a style, and thereby obviating
an objection that might have carried a great deal of weight.^
And for this reason his followers, instead of being ashamed
of their master's ignorance, glory in it, as an evident proof
of his divine mission, and scruple not to call him (as he is
indeed called in the Quran itself ^) the "illiterate prophet."

The scheme of religion which Muhammad framed, and
the design and artful contrivance of those ^\aitten revela-
tions (as he pretended them to be) which compose his
Quran, shall be the subject of the following sections : I
shall therefore in the remainder of this relate, as briefly
as possible, the steps he took towards the effecting of
his enterprise, and the accidents which concurred to his
success therein.

Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly judged
that it was necessary for him to begin by the conversion
of his own household. Having therefore retired w^ith his
family, as he had done several times before, to the above-
mentioned cave in Mount Hira, he there opened the secret
of his mission to his wife Khadijah, and acquainted her
that the Angel Gabriel had just before appeared to him,
and told him that he was appointed the apostle of God :
he also repeated to her a passage ^ wdiich he pretended had
been revealed to him by the ministry of the angel, with
those other circumstances of his first appearance which
are related by the Muhammadan writers. Khadijah re-
ceived the news with great joy,* swearing by him in
whose hands her soul was that she trusted he would
be the prophet of his nation, and immediately commu-
nicated what she had heard to her cousin, Waraqa Ibn

^ See Quran, c. 29, v. 47. Prid.
Life of Mahomet, p. 28, &c.

~ Chap. 7.

^ This passage is generally agreed
to be the first five verses of the 96th
chapter.

^ I do not remember to have read
in any Eastern author that Khadijah
ever rejected her husband's pretences
as delusions, or susjiected him of any
imposture. Yet see Prideaux's Life
of Mahomet, p. II, &c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 75

Naufal, wlio, being a Christian, could write in the Hebrew
character, and was tolerably well versed in the Scriptures ; ^
and he as readily came into her opinion, assuring her that
the same angel who had formerly appeared unto Moses
was now sent to Muhammad.^ This first overture the
prophet made in the month of Eamadhan, in the fortieth
year of his age, which is therefore usually called the year
of his mission.

Encouraged by so good a beginning, he resolved to pro- secret
ceed, and try for some time what he could do by private "in^*^'
persuasion, not daring to hazard the whole affair by
exposing it too suddenly to the public. He soon made
proselytes of those under his own roof, viz., his wife
Khadijah, his servant Zaid Ibn Harith (to whom he
gave his freedom ^ on that occasion, which afterwards
became a rule to his followers *), and his cousin and
pupil Ali, the son of Abu Talib, though then very young ;
but this last, makiiifr no account of the other two, used to
style himself the " first of believers." The next person
Muhammad applied to was Abdallah Ibn Abi Kuhafa,
surnamed Abu Baqr, a man of great authority among the
Quraish, and one whose interest he well knew would be
of great service to him, as it soon appeared ; for Abu Baqr Gains other
being gained over, prevailed also on Othman Ibn Affan, from bis
Abd al Eahman Ibn Awf, Saad Ibn Abi Wakkas, Al Zubair °^^

* Lane calls attention to the fact that " the conversion of a person
after he has been made a slave does not entitle him to, and seldom
obtains for him, his freedom." The " followers " of Muhammad
referred to in the text probably designates only those who were his
contemporaries. Certainly the " rule " is not observed by the holders
of slaves, black and white, in Turkey, Egypt, and other regions under
Muslim government. E. M. w.

1 Vide Poc. Spec, p. 157. ^ For he was his purchased slave,

2 Vide Abulfeda,'.Vit. Moham.,p. as Abulfeda expressly tells us, and
16, where the learned translator has not his cousin-german, as M. de
mistaken the meaning of this pas- Boulainvilliers asserts (Vie de Mah. ,
sage. p. 273).

l6 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec ii.

Ibn al A warn, and Talba Ibn ObaiduUah, all principal
men in Makkah, to follow bis example. Tbese men were
tbe six cbief companions, wbo, wutli a few more, were con-
At the end vertecl in tbe S2:)ace of tbree years, at tbe end of wliicli
years he Mubamniad, baving, as be boped, a sufficient interest to
claims his support liim, made bis mission no longer a secret, but
gave out tbat God bad commanded ' liini to admonisb bis
near relations ; ^ and in order to do it witb more conveni-
ence and prospect of success, be directed Ali to prepare
an entertainment, and invite tbe sons and descendants
of Abd al Mutallib, intending tben to open bis mind to
tbem. Tbis was done, and about forty of tbem came ; but
Abu Labab, one of bis uncles, making tbe company break
up before Mubammad bad an opportunity of speaking,
obliged bim to give tbem a second invitation tbe next day ;
and wben tbey were come, be made tbem tbe following
speecb : " I know no man in all Arabia wbo can offer his
kindred a more excellent tbing tban I now do you. I
offer you bappiness botb in tbis life and in tbat wbich
is to come. God Almigbty bath commanded me to call
you unto bim ; who therefore among you will be assisting
to me herein, and become my brother and my vicegerent ? "
His reia- All of them hesitating and declining tbe matter, Ali at
his prophe- length rose up and declared that he would be his assistant,
and vehemently threatened * those wbo should oppose bim,
Muhammad upon this embraced Ali with great demonstra-
tions of affection, and desired all wbo were present to
hearken to and obey bim as bis deputy, at which tbe

tic claims.

* The statement that Ali "vehemently threatened those who should
oppose" Muhammad is a mistake, which, says Lane {Kurun, p. 62),
" originated with Gagnier, who, in his edition of Abu-1-Fida's Life of
Mohammed, has given the original words of this speech with several
errors, and thus rendered them — ' Egomet ita faciam ; ego ipse dentes
illio excutiam, aculos eruam, ventrem dissecabo, crura mutilabo, &c.'
(p. 19)." E. M. w.

^ Qun'iD, c. 74. See the notes thereon.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 77

company broke out into great laughter, telling Abu Talib
that he must now pay obedience to his son.

This repulse, however, was so far from discouraging opposition
Muhammad, that he began to preach in public to the his preacu-
people, who heard him with some patience, till he came ™^'
to upbraid them with the idolatry, obstinacy, and per-
verseness of themselves and their fathers, which so highly
provoked them that they declared themselves his enemies,
and would soon have procured his ruin had he not been pro-
tected by Abu Talib. The chief of the Quraish warmly
solicited this person to desert his nephew, making frequent
remonstrances against the innovations he was attempting,
which proving ineffectual, they at length threatened him
with an open rupture if he did not prevail on Muhammad
to desist. At this Abu Talib was so far moved that he
earnestly dissuaded his nephew from pursuing the affair
any further, representing the great danger he and his
friends must otherwise run. But Muhammad was not
to be intimidated, telling his uncle plainly " that if they
set the sun against him on his right hand and the moon
on his left, he would not leave his enterprise ; " and Abu He is pro-
Talib, seeing him so firmly resolved to proceed, used no Abu TaiL
further arguments, but promised to stand by him against
all his enemies.^

The Quraish, finding they could prevail neither by fair First emi-
words nor menaces, tried what they could do by force and AiVsshiia.
ill-treatment, using Muhammad's followers so very injuri-
ously that it was not safe for them to continue at Makkah
any longer : whereupon Muhammad gave leave to such
of them as had not friends to protect them to seek for
refuge elsewhere. And accordingly, in the fifth year of
the prophet's mission, sixteen of them, four of whom were
women, fled into Ethiopia ; and among them Othman Ibn
Affan and his wife Eakiah, Muhammad's daughter. This
was the first flight ; but afterwards several others followed

^ Abulfeda, ubi supra.

78

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. it.

Conversion
of Hamza
and Omar.

Social ostra-
cism of the
Hasliimites.

The league
against
the Hiishi-
mites
broken.

them, retiring one after another, to the number of eighty-
three men and eighteen women, besides children.^ These
refugees were kindly received by the Najashi,- or king of
Ethiopia, who refused to deliver them up to those whom
the Quraish sent to demand them, and, as the Arab writers
unanimously attest, even professed the Muhammadan reli-
gion.

In the sixth year of his mission ^ Muhammad had the
pleasure of seeing his party strengthened by the con-
version of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valour and
merit, and of Omar Ibn al Khattab, a person highly
esteemed, and once a violent opposer of the prophet. As
persecution generally advances rather than obstructs the
spreading of a religion, Islam made so great a progress
among the Arab tribes, that the Quraish, to suppress it
effectually, if possible, in the seventh year of Muhammad's
mission,* made a solemn league or covenant against the
Hashimites and the family of al Mutallib, engaging
themselves to contract no marriages with any of them,
and to have no communication with them ; and to give it
the greater sanction, reduced it into writing, and laid it
up in the Kaabah. Upon this the tribe became divided into
two factions, and the family of Hashim all repaired to
Abu Talib, as their head, except only Abd al Uzza, sur-
named Abu Lahab, who, out of his inveterate hatred to
his nephew and his doctrine, went over to the opposite
party, whose chief was Abu Sofian Ibn Harb, of the family
of Ommeya.

The families continued thus at variance for three years ;
but in the tenth year of his mission, Muhammad told his
uncle Abu Talib that God had manifestly showed his disap-
probation of the league which the Quraish had made against
them, by sending a worm to eat out every word of the

^ Idem, Ibn Shohnah. every king of this country, See his

2 Dr. Prideaux seems to take this Life of Mahomet, p. 55.

word for a proper name, but it is ^ Ibn Sholmahj

only the title the Arabs give to * Al Janmibi.

SEC. 11.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 79

instrument except the name of God. Of this accident
Muhammad had probably some private notice ; for Abu
Talib went immediately to the Quraish and acquainted
them with it; offering, if it proved false, to deliver his
nephew up to them ; but in case it were true, he insisted
that they ought to lay aside their animosity, and annul
the league they had made against the Hashimites. To
this they acquiesced, and going to inspect the writing, to
their great astonishment found it to be as Abu Talib had
said ; and the league was thereupon declared void.

In the same year Abu Talib died, at the age of above Death of

P 1 • • ii 1 • • ,1 ^ T T 1 Abu Talib

lourscore ; and it is the general opinion that he died and Khadi-
an infidel, though others say that when he was at the
point of death he embraced Muhammadism, and pro-
duce some passages out of his poetical compositions to
confirm their assertion. About a month, or, as some write,
three days after the death of this great benefactor and
patron, Muhammad had the additional mortification to
lose his wife Khadijah, who had so generously made his
fortune. For which reason this year is called the year of
mourning.^

On the death of these two persons the Quraish began Renewed
to be more troublesome than ever to their prophet, and
especially some who had formerly been his intimate
friends ; insomuch that he found himself obliged to seek seeks refuge
for shelter elsewhere, and first pitched upon Tayif, about 1" rejected!
sixty miles east from Makkah, for the place of his retreat.
Thither therefore he went, accompanied by his servant
Zaid, and applied himself to two of the chief of the tribe
of Thakif, who were tlie inhabitants of that place ; but
they received them very coldly. However, he stayed there
a month ; and some of the more considerate and better
sort of men treated him with a little respect ; but the
slaves and inferior people at length rose against him, and
bringing him to the wall of the city, obliged him to depart

^ Abulfeda, p. 28. Ibn Shohuah.

8o THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. it.

and return to Makkali, where lie put himself under the pro-
tection of al Mutam Ibn Adi.^
Makes con- Tliis repulse greatly discouraged his followers : however,
men of Ma- Muhamiuad was not wanting to himself, but boldly con-
tinued to preach to the public assemblies at the pilgrimage,
and gained several proselytes, and among them six of the
inhabitants of Yathrab of the Jewish tribe of Khazraj,
who on their return home failed not to speak much in
commendation of their new religion, and exhorted their
fellow-citizens to embrace the same.
Night joixr- In the twelfth year of his mission it was that Muham-
Makkahto mad gavc out that he had made his night journey from
and heaven. Makkali to Jerusalem and thence to heaven,- so much
spoken of by all that write of him. Dr. Prideaux^ thinks
he invented it either to answer the expectations of those
who demanded some miracle as a proof of his mission,
or else, by pretending to have conversed with God, to
establish the authority of whatever he should think fit
to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and make his
sayings to serve the same purpose as the oral law of the
Jews. But I do not find that Muhammad himself ever
expected so great a regard should be paid to his sayings
as his followers have since done ; and seeing he all along
disclaimed any power of performing miracles, it seems
rather to have been a fetch of policy to raise his reputa-
tion, by pretending to have actually conversed with God
in heaven, as Moses had heretofore done in the mount, and
to have received several institutions immediately from
him, whereas before he contented himself with persuading
that he had all by the ministry of Gabriel.
This device Howcver, tliis stoiy seemed so absurd and incredible,
credTt.^^^ that several of his followers left him upon it, and it had
probably ruined the whole design, had not Abu Baqr
vouched for his veracity, and declared that if Muhammad

Ibn Shohnah. - See the notes on the 17th chapter of the Qurdu.

^ Life of Mahomet, pp. 41, 51, &c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. Si

affirmed it to be true, lie verily believed the whole.
This happy incident not only retrieved the prophet's
credit, but increased it to such a degree, that he was
secure of being able to make his disciples swallow what-
ever he pleased to impose on them for the future. And I
am apt to think this fiction, notwithstanding its extrava-
gance, was one of the most artful contrivances Muhammad
ever put in practice, and what chiefly contributed to the
raising of his reputation to that great height to which it
afterwards arrived.

In this year, called by the Muhammadans the accepted The first
year, twelve men of Yathrab or Madina, of whom ten were iqabah"
of the tribe of Khazraj, and the other two of that of Aws,
came to Makkah, and took an oath of fidelity to Muhammad
at al Aqabah, a hill on the north of that city. This oath
was called the women's oath, not that any women were
present at this time, but because a man was not thereby
obliged to take up arms in defence of Muhammad or his
religion ; it being the same oath that was afterwards
exacted of the women, the form of which we have in the
Quran,! and is to this effect, viz. : " That they should
renounce all idolatry ; that they should not steal, nor
commit fornication, nor kill their children (as the pagan
Arabs used to do when they apprehended they should not
be able to maintain them-), nor forge calumnies; and that
they should obey the prophet in all things that were
reasonable." When they had solemnly engaged to do all
this, Muhammad sent one of his disciples, named Musab
Ibn Omair, home with them, to instruct them more fully
in the grounds and ceremonies of his new religion.

Musab, being arrived at Madina, by the assistance of Missionaij

■. . success at

those who had been formerly converted, gained several Madina.
proselytes, particularly Osaid Ibn Hudaira, a chief man
of the city, and Saad Ibn Muadli, prince of the tribe of
Aws; Muhammadism spreading so fast, that there was

^ Cap. 60, V. 12. 2 Vide Quran, c. 6, v. 151

F

82

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. II.

The second
pledge of
Aqabah.

IslAm tLus
far propa-
gated by
persuasion.

scarce a house wherein there were not some who had
embraced it.

The next year, being the thirteenth of Muhammad's mis-
sion, Musab returned to Makkah, accompanied by seventy-
three men and two women of Madina, who had professed
Islam, besides some others who were as yet unbelievers.
On their arrival, they immediately sent to Muhammad,
and offered him their assistance, of which he was now in
great need, for his adversaries were by this time grown so
powerful in Makkah, that he could not stay there much
longer without imminent danger. Wherefore he accepted
their proposal, and met them one night, by appointment,
at al Aqabah above mentioned, attended by his uncle al
Abbas, who, though he was not then a believer, wished
his nephew well, and made a speech to those of Madina,
wherein he told them, that as Muhammad was obliged to
quit his native city and seek an asylum elsewhere, and
they had offered him their protection, they would do well
not to deceive him ; and that if they were not firmly
resolved to defend and not betray him, they had better
declare their minds, and let him provide for his safety in
some other manner. Upon their protesting their sincerity,
Muhammad swore to be faithful to them, on condition
that they should protect him against all insults as heartily
as they would their own wives and families. They then
asked him what recompense they were to expect if they
should happen to be killed in his quarrel ; he answered,
Paradise. Whereupon they pledged their faith to him,
and so returned home,^ after Muhammad had chosen
twelve out of their number, who were to have the same
authority among them as the twelve apostles of Christ
had among his disciples.^

Hitherto Muhammad had propagated his religion by
fair means, so that the whole success of his enterprise,
before his flight to Madina, must be attributed to per-

^ Abulfeda, Vit. Moham., p. 40, &c.

Ibn Ishdk.

SEC. IT.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 8;^

suasion only, and not to compulsion. For before this
second oath of fealty or inauguration at al Aqabah he had
no permission to use any force at all ; and in several
places of the Quran, which he pretended were revealed
during his stay at Makkah, he declares his business was
only to preach and admonish ; that he had no authority
to compel any person to embrace his religion ; and that
whether people believed or not was none of his concern,
but belonged solely unto God. And he was so far from
allowing his followers to use force, that he exhorted them
to bear patiently those injuries which were offered them
on account of their faith ; and when persecuted himself,
chose rather to quit the place of his birth and retire
to Madma, than to make any resistance. But this great Muham-
passiveness and moderation seems entirely owing to his moderation
want of power, and the great superiority of his opposers for Mpie
the first twelve years of his mission ; for no sooner was he
enabled, by the assistance of those of Madina, to make
head against his enemies, than he gave out that God had
allowed him and his followers to defend themselves against
the infidels ; and at length, as his forces increased, he pre-
tended to have the divine leave even to attack them, and
to destroy idolatry, and set up the true faith by the sword ;
finding by experience that his designs would otherwise
proceed very slowly, if they were not utterly overthrown,
and knowing, on the other hand, that innovators, when
they depend solely on their own strength, and can compel,
seldom run any risk ; from whence the politician observes
it follows, that all the armed prophets have succeeded,
and the unarmed ones have failed.* Moses, Cyrus, The-

iless-
ness.

* No sentiment could be furtlier from the truth than this. Jesus
and Buddha have more followers than any other " prophets " to-day.
Even Islam has not depended on the sword for all its successes,
e.g., the conversion of multitudes of Tartars, Hindus, Africans, &c.
Judaism was never a religion of the sword, and Christianity has ever
prospered amidst the fires of persecution, and in spite of the sword.
But see next paragraph. E. M. w.

84 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. II.

seus, and Eomulus would not have been able to estab-
lish the observance of their institutions for any length of
time had they not been armed.^ The first passage of the
Quran which gave Muhammad the permission of defend-
ing himself by arms is said to have been that in the
twenty-second chapter; after which a great number to
the same purpose were revealed.
He author- That Muhammad had a right to take up arms for his

ises the en- . , . .

foroement owu defence against his unjust persecutors may perhaps

times by be allowcd ; but whether he ought afterwards to have

made use of that means for the establishing of his

religion is a question I will not here determine. How far

the secular power may or ought to interpose in affairs of

this nature, mankind are not agreed. The method of

converting by the sword gives no very favourable idea of

the faith which is so propagated, and is disallowed by

everybody in those of another religion, though the same

persons are willing to admit of it for the advancement of

their own, supposing that though a false religion ought

not to be established by authority, yet a true one may ;

and accordingly force is almost as constantly employed in

these cases by those who have the power in their hands,

The sword as it is coustantly complained of by those who suffer the

Islam to be violeucc. It is certainly one of the most convincing

origin. ' proofs that Muhammadism was no other than a human

invention that it owed its progress and establishment

Christianity almost entirely to the sword ; and it is one of the strongest

withk demonstrations of the divine original of Christianity that

it prevailed against all the force and powers of the world

by the mere dint of its own truth, after having stood the

assaults of all manner of persecutions, as well as other

oppositions, for 300 years together, and at length made

the Eoman emperors themselves submit thereto ; ^ after

which time, indeed, this proof seems to fail, Christianity

1 Machiavelli, rrinc, c. 6.
^ Se3 Prideaux's Letter to the Deists, p. 220, &c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 85

being then established and Paganism abolished by public
authority, which has had great influence in the propagation
of the one and destruction of the other ever since.^ But to
return.

Muhammad having provided for the security of his com- Emigration
panions as well as his own by the league offensive and to Madina.
defensive which he had now concluded with those of
Madina, directed them to repair thither, which they accord-
ingly did ; but himself with Abu Baqr and Ali stayed
behind, having not yet received the divine permission,
as he pretended, to leave Makkah. The Quraish, fearing consequent
the consequence of this new alliance, began to think it among the
absolutely necessary to prevent ]\Iuhammad's escape to ^^^^^^ •
Madina, and having held a council thereon, after several
milder expedients had been rejected, they came to a reso- Theycon-
lution that he should be killed ; and agreed that a man Muiwmmad.
should be chosen out of every tribe for the execution of
this design, and that each man should have a blow at him
with his sword, that the guilt of his blood might fall
equally on all the tribes, to whose united power the
Hashimites were much inferior, and therefore durst not
attempt to revenge their kinsman's death.*

* A deputation was sent at this time to Muhammad, but its object
was not to assassinate him. This has been satisfactorily established
by Muir in his Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. chap. vi. p. 251. He says,
" What was the decision as to their future course of action (i.e., of
the Coreish), what the object even of the present deputation, it is
impossible, amid the hostile and marvellous tales of tradition, to
conclude. There is little reason to believe that it was assassination,
although the traditionists assert that this was determined upon at the
instigation of Abu Jahl, supported by the devil, who, in the person
of an old man from Najd, shrouded in a mantle, joined the council.
Mahomet himself, speaking in the Coran of the designs of his
enemies, refers to them in these indecisive terms — ^ And call to mind
when the unbelievers plotted against thee, that they might detain thee, or
slay thee, or expel thee; yea, they plotted, hut God plotted likewise, and

^ See Bayle's Diet. Hist., Art. Mahomet, Rem. O.

86 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. it.

This conspiracy was scarce formed when by some means
or other it came to Muhammad's knowledge, and he gave
out that it was revealed to him by the Angel Gabriel, who
had now ordered him to retire to Madina. Whereupon, to
amuse his enemies, he directed Ali to lie down in his place
and wra|) himself up in his green cloak, which he did, and
Muhammad escaped miraculously, as tliey pretend,^ to Abu
Baqr's house, unperceived by the conspirators, who had
already assembled at the prophet's door. They in the
meantime, looking tlirough the crevice and seeing Ali,
whom they took to be Muhammad himself, asleep, con-
tinued watching there till morning, when Ali arose, and
they found themselves deceived.
Muhammad From Abu Baqr's house Muhammad and he went to
Madfna. ° a cave in Mount Thiir, to the south-east * of Makkah,
accompanied only by Amar Ibn Fuhairah, Abu Baqr's
servant, and Abdallah Ibn Oraikat, an idolater, whom
they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay hid
three days to avoid the search of their enemies, which
they very narrowly escaped, and not without the assist-
ance of more miracles than one; for some say that the
Quraish were struck with blindness, so that they could
not find the cave ; others, that after Muhammad and his
companions were got in, two pigeons laid tlieir eggs at the
entrance, and a spider covered the mouth of the cave with

God is the best of plotters' (Sura viii. ver. 30). Assuredly had assassina-
tion been the sentence, and its immediate execution (as pretended by
tradition) ordered by the council, Mahomet would have indicated
the fact in clearer language than these alternative expressions. A
resolution so fatal would unquestionably have been dwelt on at
length, both in the Goran and traditions, and produced as a justi-
fication (for such, indeed, it would have been) of all subsequent
hostilities." E. M. w.

* Burckhardt says "south" {Travels in Arabia, p. 176). So Lane
in Kurun, p. 74. E. M. w.

^ See the notes to chap. 8 and 3G.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 87

her web,^ which made them look no further.^ * Abu Baqr,
seeing the prophet in such imminent danger, became very
sorrowful, whereupon Muhammad comforted him with
these words, recorded in the Quran : ^ "Be not grieved, for
God is with us," Their enemies being retired, they left
the cave and set out for Madina by a by-road, and having
fortunately, or, as the Muhammadans tell us, miraculously,
escaped some who were sent to pursue them, arrived safely
at that city, whither Ali followed them in three days, after
he had settled some affairs at JNIakkah.^ f

The first thing Muhammad did after his arrival at He builds a
Madina was to build a temple for his religious worship, Madina.^
and a house for himself, which he did on a parcel of
ground which had before served to put camels in, or, as
others tell us, for a burying-ground, and belonged to Sahal
and Sohail the sons of Amru, who were orphans.^ This
action Dr. Prideaux exclaims against, representing it as a
flagrant instance of injustice, for that, says he, he violently

* " The verses in Sura viii. 30, about God plotting so as to deceive
tlie Meccans, and in Sura ix. 40, about God assisting the two refugees
in the cave, have probably given rise to these tales." Muir's Life of
Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 257, note. E. M. w.

+ " It is the general opinion of oi:r chronologers that the first day
of the Muslim era of 'the Flight' (or, more properly, 'the Emigra-
tion') was Friday the i6th of July a.d. 622. , , . This era does not
commence from the day on which the prophet departed from Mekkeh
(as is supposed by most of our authors who have mentioned this
subject), but from the first day of the moon or month of Moharram
preceding that event. . . . The flight itself . . . commenced on the
22d of September." — Lane in " Kurun," p. 75. E. M. w.

1 It is observable that the Jews before the Most High GoD, who called

have a like tradition concerning a spider to weave a web for my sake

David, when he fled from Saul into in the mouth of the cave."
the cave ; and the Targum para- ^ Al Baidhawi in Qur<-(n, c. 9.

phrases these words of the second Vide D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient., p.

verse of Psalm Ivii., which was com- 445.
posed on occasion of that deliver- ^ Cap. 9, v. 40.
ance: "I will pray before the Most ^ Abulfeda, Vit. Moh., p. 50, &c.

High God that performeth all things Ebn Shohnah.
for me, in this manner ; I will pray * Abulfeda, ib. pp. 52, 53.

88 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. ll.

dispossessed these poor orphans, the sons of an inferior
artificer (whom the anthor he quotes ^ calls a carpenter) of
this ground; and so founded the first fabric of his worship
with the like wickedness as he did his religion.^ But to
say nothing of the improbability that Muhammad should
act in so impolitic a manner at his first-coming, the
Muhammadan writers set this aifair in a quite different
light ; one tells us that he treated with the lads about the
price of the ground, but they desired he would accept it as
a present ; s however, as historians of good credit assure us,
he actually bought it,^ and the money was paid by Abu
Baqr.^ Besides, had Muhammad accepted it as a present, the
orphans were in circumstances sufficient to have afforded it ;
for they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Najjar,
one of the most illustrious among the Arabs, and not the
sons of a carpenter, as Dr. Prideaux's author writes, who
took the word Najjar, which signifies a carpenter, for an
appellative, whereas it is a proper uame.^
Makes pre- Muliammad being securely settled at Madina, and able

datory raids . .

onthecara- not ouly to defend himself against the insults of his

vans of the . '' °

Quraish. euemics, but to attack them, began to send out small
parties to make reprisals on the Quraish ; the first party
consisting of no more than nine men, who intercepted
and plundered a caravan belonging to that tribe, and in
the action took two prisoners. But what established his
affairs very much, and was the foundation on which he
built all his succeeding greatness, was the gaining of the
battle of Badr, which was fought in the second year of the
Hijra, and is so famous in the Muhammadan history.'^ As
my design is not to write the life of Muhammad, but only
to describe the manner in which he carried on his enter-
prise, I shall not enter into any detail of his subsequent

■^ Disputatio Christian! contra ^ Ahmad Ibn Yusaf.

Saracen., cap. 4. ^ Vide Gagnier, not. in Abulfed.

^ Prideaux's Life of Mahomet, p, de Vit. Moh., pp. 52, 53.

58. '' See the notes on the Quran,

* Al Bokhari in Sonna. chap. 3, v. 13.

* Al Jaunabi.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 89

battles and expeditions, whicli amoimted to a considerable
number. Some reckon no less than twenty-seven expedi-
tions wherein Muhammad was personally present, in nine of
whicli he gave battle, besides several other expeditions in
which he was not present ; -^ some of them, however, will be
necessarily taken notice of in explaining several passages
of the Quran. His forces he maintained partly by the
contributions of his followers for this purpose, which he
called by the name of Zakdt or alms, and the paying of
which he very artfully made one main article of his
religion ; and partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder
to be brought into the public treasury for that purpose, in
which matter he likewise pretended to act by the divine
direction.

In a few years, by the success of his arms (notwithstand- He goes to
ing he sometimes came off by the worst), he considerably but is'^not
raised his credit and power. In the sixth year of the IntZ^ '"
Hijra he set out with 1400 men to visit the temple of
Makkah, not with any intent of committing hostilities, but
in a peaceable manner. However, when he came to al
Hudaibiya, which is situate partly within and partly
without the sacred territory, the Quraish sent to let him
know that they would not permit him to enter Makkah,
unless he forced his way ; whereupon he called his troops
about him, and they all took a solemn oath of fealty or
homage to him, and he resolved to attack the city ; but
those of Makkah sending Aran Ibn Masiid, prince of the
tribe of Thakif, as their ambassador to desire peace, a
truce was concluded between them for ten years, by which The ten
any person was allowed to enter into league either with ^^^^^
Muhammad or with the Quraish, as he thought fit.

It may not be improper, to show the inconceivable Muslim
veneration and respect the Muhammadans by this time of their ^°°
had for their prophet, to mention the account which the ^^°^
above-mentioned ambassador gave the Quraish, at his

1 Vide Abulfeda, Vit. Moh., p. 158.

90

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

[sec. n.

He sends

letters

inviting

foreign

princes to

embrace

Islam.

return, of tlieir behaviour. He said he had been at the
courts both of the Eoman emperor and of the king of
Persia, and never saw any prince so highly respected by
his subjects as Muhammad was by his companions ; for
whenever he made the ablution, in order to say his prayers,
they ran and catched the water that he had used; and
whenever he spit, they immediately licked it up, and
gathered up every hair that fell from him with great
superstition.^ *

In the seventh year of the Hijra, Muhammad began to
think of propagating his religion beyond the bounds of
Arabia, and sent messengers to the neighbouring princes
with letters to invite them to Muhammadism. Nor was
this project without some success. Khusrii Parviz, then
king of Persia, received his letter with great disdain, and
tore it in a passion, sending away the messenger very
abruptly, which when Muhammad heard, he said, " God
shall tear his kincfdom." And soon after a messeno-er
came to Muhammad from Badhan, king of Yaman, who
was a dependent on the Persians,^ to acquaint him that he
had received orders to send him to Khusru. Muhammad
put off his answer till the next morning, and then told the
messenger it had been revealed to him that nig;ht that
Ivhusni was slain by his son Shiruyih, adding that he was
well assured his new religion and empire should rise to as
great a height as that of Khusru, and therefore bid him
advise his master to embrace Muhammadism. The mes-
senger being returned, Badhan in a few days received a
letter from Shiruyih informing him of his father's death,
and ordering him to give the prophet no further disturb-

* These statements are manifest fabrications of a later period.
Muir says, " There is no reason to believe that there was any such
abject worship of Mahomet during his lifetime." — Life of Mahomet,
vol. iv. p. 30. E. M. w.

1 Abulfeda, Vit. Moh., p. 85.

See before, p. 28.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 91

ance; whereupon Badhan and the Persians with him turned
Muhammadans.^ *

The emperor Heraclius, as the Arabian historians assure
us, received Muhammad's letter with great respect, laying
it on his pillow, and dismissed the bearer honourably.
And some pretend that he would have professed this new
faith had he not been afraid of losing his crown.- f

Muhammad wrote to the same effect to the king of
Ethiopia, though he had been converted before, according
to the Arab writers ; and to Mukaukas, governor of Egypt,
wdio gave the messenger a very favourable reception, and
sent several valuable presents to Muhammad, and among Mukaukas-
the rest two girls, one of which, named Mary,^ became a Muhammad
great favourite with him. He also sent letters of the like
purport to several Arab princes, particularly one to al
Harith Ibn Abi Shamir,* king of Ghassan, who returning
for answer that he would go to Muhammad himself, the
prophet said, " May his kingdom perish ; " another to
Haudha Ibn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Chris-
tian, and having some time before professed Islam, had
lately returned to his former faith ; this prince sent back
a very rough answer, upon which Muhammad cursing
him, he died soon after; and a third to al Mundar Ibn

* This whole story of the conversion of Badhan, with all its mira-
culous surroundings, is a clear fabrication. The only element of
truth allowable is that Badhan, taking advantage of a revolution in
Persia, threw off his allegiance to that power, and, finding Muham-
mad the leader of a powerful and growing faction in Arabia, was
glad to gain his support by signifying his allegiance to him.

E. M. w.

t This absurd pretension of the traditionists is described in full
in Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iv. chap. 20. E. M. w.

1 Abulfeda, Vit. Moli., p. 92, &c. or Miriam, whereas this is written

^ Al Jannabi. Mariya.

^ It is, however, a different name ■* This prince is omitted in Dr.

from that of the Virgin Mary, which Pocock's list of the kings of Ghassan,

the Orientals always write Maryam Spec, p. 77.

Khitlid and
Amru con-
verted.

The expedi-
tion to
iSvria.

92 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. li.

Sawa, king of Bahrain, wlio embraced Muliammadism, and
all the Arabs of that country followed his example.^ *

The eighth year of the Hijra was a very fortunate year
to Muhammad. In the beginning of it Kluilid Ibu al
Walid and Amru Ibn al As, both excellent soldiers, the
first of whom afterwards conquered Syria and other coun-
tries, and the latter Egypt, became proselytes of Muham-
madism. And soon after the prophet sent 3000 men
ao'ainst the Grecian forces to revenue the death of one of

o 0

his ambassadors, who being sent to the governor of Bosra
on the same errand as those who went to the above-
mentioned princes, was slain by an Arab of the tribe of
Ghassan at Miita, a town in the territory of Balka in Syria,
about three days' journey eastward from Jerusalem, near
which town they encountered. The Grecians being vastly
superior in number (for, including the auxiliary Arabs,
they had an army of 100,000 men), the Muhammadans
were repulsed in the first attack, and lost successively
three of their generals, viz., Zaid Ibn H;irith, Muham-
mad's freed man, Jaafar, the son of Abu Tiilib, and Abdal-
lah Ibn Eawaha; but Khalid Ibn al Walid, succeeding
to the command, overthrew the Greeks with a great
slaughter, and brought away abundance of rich spoil ;'^t
on occasion of which action IMuhammad uave him the

* For a full and reliaLle account of tlie nuitters treated in this
paragraph, see Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iv. chap. 20, already
referred to above. E. M. w.

t " Some accounts pretend that Khaled rallied the army, and
either turned the day against the Romans or made it a drawn
battle. But besides that the brevity of all the accounts is proof
enough of a reverse, the reception of the army on its return to
Medina admits of only one conclusion, viz., a complete, ignoniiniou.'^,
and nnretrieved discomtituro." — Mtnr^s Life of Ifahomet, vol. iv. p.
100, note. E. M. w.

i Abulfeda, iibi sup., p. 94, &;c.

" Idem ib., pp. 99, ico, &c.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMIXARY DISCOURSE. 93

honourable title of Saif miu suyiif Allah, Oue of the
Swords of GoD.^

In this year also j\Iuhammad took the city of Makkah, xhetnice
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce concluded people of
on two years before. For the tribe of Baqr, who were bi\)keu.'
confederates of the Quraish, attacking those of Khuzaah,
who were allies of Muhammad, killed several of them,
being supported in the action by a party of the Quraish
themselves. The consequence of this violation was soon
apprehended, and Abu Sufian himself made a journey to
]\Iadina on purpose to heal the breach and renew the
truce,^ but in vain, for Muhammad, glad of this oppor-
tunity, refused to see him ; whereupon he applied to Abu
Baqr and Ali, but they giving him no answer, he was
obliged to return to Makkah as he came.

Muhammad immediately gave orders for preparations to
be made, that he might surprise the people of Makkah while
they were unprovided to receive him. In a little time he
began his march thither, and by the time he came near the
city his forces were increased to 10,000 men. Those of
INIakkah being not in a condition to defend themselves Muhammad
against so formidable an army, surrendered at discretion, Maktoi.
and Abu Sufian saved his life by turning Muhammadan.
About twenty-eight of the idolaters were killed by a party
under the command of Khiilid ; but this happened con-
trary to Muhammad's orders, who, when he entered the
town, pardoned all the Quraish on their submission,
except only six men and four women, who were more
obnoxious than ordinary (some of them having aposta-
tised), and were solemnly proscribed by ' the prophet
himself ; but of these no more than three men and one
woman were put to death, the rest obtaining pardon on

^ Al Bokhari in Sonna. pretence of Muhammad's, as Dr.

" This circumstance is a plain proof Prideaux insinuates. Lifeof Maho-

that the Quraish had actually broken met, p. 94.
the truce, and that it was not a mere

94 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. li.

their embracing Miiliammadism, and one of the women
making her escape.^

Tlie remainder of this year Muhammad employed in
destroying the idols in and round about Makkah, sending
several of his generals on expeditions for that purpose,
and to invite the Arabs to Islam : wherein it is no wonder
if they now met with success.
Many tribes The ucxt year, being the ninth of the Hijra, the Mu-
hammadans call "the year of embassies," for the Arabs
had been hitherto expecting the issue of the war between
Muhammad and the Quraish ; but so soon as that tribe —
the principal of the whole nation, and the genuine de-
scendants of Ismail, whose prerogatives none offered to
dispute — had submitted, they were satisfied that it was
not in their power to oppose Muhammad, and therefore
began to come in to him in great numbers, and to send
embassies to make their submissions to him, both to
Makkah, while he stayed there, and also to Madiua, whither
he returned this year.2 Among the rest, five kings of
the tribe of Himyiir professed Muhammadism, and sent
ambassadors to notify the same.^
All's expedi. In the tenth year Ali was sent into Yaman to propagate
Yaman. tlic Muhammadau faith there, and as it is said, converted
the whole tribe of Hamdan in one day.* Their example
was quickly followed by all the inhabitants of that pro-
vince, except only those of Najran, who, being Christians,
chose rather to pay tribute.'^
Arabia Thus was Muhammadism established and idolatry

iS!^ rooted out, even in Muhammad's lifetime (for he died
the next year), throughout all Arabia, except only
Yamama, where Musailama, who set up also for a pro-

* The arguments iised to persuade the Yamanites were the swords
of his Muslim followers. e. m. w.

1 Vide Abulfedajubi sup., c. 51, 52. ^ Abulfeda, ubi sup., p. 12S.

2 Vide Gagnier, not. ad Abulfeda, ■* Ibid., p. 129.
p. 121.

SEC. II.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 95

pliet as Muhammad's competitor, had a great party, and
was not reduced till the Khalifat of Abu Baqr. And the
Arabs beins; then united in one faith and under one
prince, found themselves in a condition of making those
conquests which extended the Muhammadan faith over
so great a part of the world.

( 96 )

SECTIOX III.

OF THE QURAN ITSELF, THE PECULIARITIES OF THAT BOOK ; THE
MANNER OP ITS BEING WRITTEN AND PUBLISHED, AND THE
GENERAL DESIGN OF IT.

Import of The word Quran, derived from the verb qaraa, to read,

the word ..„ -i • k i • i i-ji

qaraa. signines properly m Arabic "the reading, or rather
" that which ought to be read ; " by which name the Mu-
hammadans denote not only the entire book or volume of
the Quran, but also any particular chapter or section of
it ; just as the Jews call either the whole Scripture or any
part of it by the name of Karah or Mikra,i words of the
same origin and import ; which observation seems to over-
throw the opinion of some learned Arabians, who would
have the Quran so named because it is a collection of the
loose chapters or sheets which compose it — the verb karaa
signifying also to gather or collect ; ^ and may also, by the
way, serve as an answer to those who object ^ that the
Quran must be a book forged at once, and could not
possibly be revealed by parcels at difi'erent times during
the course of several years, as the Muhammadans afhrm,
because the Quran is often mentioned and called by that
name in the very book itself. It may not be amiss to
observe, that the syllable Al in the word Alqurcm is only
the Arabic article, signifying the, and therefore ought to
be omitted when the English article is prefixed.

^ This name was at first given to - VideErpen. not. ad Hist. Joseph.,

the Pentateuch only, Nehem. viii. p. 3.

Vide Simon. Hist. Crit, du Vieux ^ Marrac. de Alcor., p. 41.
Test., 1. I, c. 9.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 97

Besides this peculiar name, the Quran is also honoured othemames
with several appellations common to other books of Scrip- the quMu.
ture : as, al Fu7'qdn, from the verb faraqci, to divide or
distinguish; not, as the Muhammadan doctors say, be-
cause those books are divided into chapters or sections,
or distinguish between good and evil, but in the same
notion that the Jews use the word Ferek or Pirka, from
the same root, to denote a section or portion of Scripture.^
It is also called al Mushdf, the volume, and al Kitdh, the
Book, by way of eminence, which answers to the Biblia of
the Greeks ; and al Dhikr, the admonition, which name is
also given to the Pentateuch and Gospels.

The Quran is divided into 114 larger portions of very Divisions of
unequal length, which we call chapters, but the Arabians
Smvar, in the singular Sura, a word rarely used on any
other occasion, and properly signifying a row, order, or
regular series, as a course of bricks in building or a rank
of soldiers in an army ; and is the same in use and import
with the Sura or Tora of the Jews, who also call the
fifty-three sections of the Pentateuch Seddrim, a word of
the same signification.-

These chapters are not in the manuscript copies dis- Titles of tiie
tinguished by their numerical order, though for the reader's ^ ^"^ '^''''
ease they are numbered in this edition, but by particular
titles, which (except that of the first, which is the initial
chapter, or introduction to the rest, and by the old Latin
translator not numbered among the chapters) are taken
sometimes from a particular matter treated of or person
mentioned therein, but usually from the first word of
note, exactly in the same manner as the Jews have named
their Sedarim ; though the words from which some chap-
ters are denominated be very far distant, towards the
middle, or perhaps the end of the chapter, which seems

^ Vide Gol. in append, ad Gram. ^ Vide Gol.,iibi. sup., 177. Each
Arab. Erpen., 175. A chapter or of the six grand divisions of the
subdivision of the Massictoth of the Mishna is also called Seder, Mai-
IVIishna is also called Perek. Mai- mon., ubi sup., p. 55.
mon., Praef. in Seder Zeraim, p. 57.

G

98 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

ridiculous. But the occasion of this seems to have been,
that the verse or passage wherein such word occurs was,
in point of time, revealed and committed to writing before
the other verses of the same chapter which precede it in
order ; and the title being given to the chapter before it
was completed or the passages reduced to their present
order, the verse from whence such title was taken did not
always happen to begin the chapter. Some chapters have
two or more titles, occasioned by the difference of the copies.
Some of the chapters having been revealed at Makkah
and others at Madina, the noting this difference makes a
part of the title ; but the reader will observe that several
of the chapters are said to have been revealed partly at
Makkah and partly at Madina ; and as to others, it is yet
a dispute among the commentators to which place of the
two they belong.
The verses Evcry chapter is subdivided into smaller portions, of very
chapters, uucqual length also, which we customarily call verses ; but
the Arabic word is A^/dt, the same with the Hebrew Ototh,
and signifies signs or wonders; such as are the secrets of God,
his attributes, works, judgments, and ordinances, delivered
in those verses ; many of which have their particular titles
also, imposed in the same manner as those of the chapters.
Notwithstanding this subdivision is common and well
known, yet I have never yet seen any manuscript wherein
the verses are actually numbered ; though in some copies
the number of verses in each chapter is set down after the
title, which we have therefore added in the table of the
chapters. And the Muhammadans seem to liave some
scruple in making an actual distinction in their copies,
because the chief disagreement between their several
editions of the Quran consists in the division and number
of the verses ; and for this reason I have not taken upon
me to make any such division.

* In this edition the verses are numbered according to the divi-
sion of Shaikh Abdul Qadir of Delhi, so as to correspond with those
of the Roman Urdu edition published at Lodiana, 1876. e. m. w.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 99

Having mentioned the different editions of the Quran, it The seven
may not be amiss here to acquaint the reader that there editions of
are seven principal editions, if I may so call them, or ^^ ^'^'^'
ancient copies of that book, two of which were published
and used at Madma, a third at Makkah, a fourth at Kiifa,
a fifth at Basra, a sixth in Syria, and a seventh called the
common or vulgar edition. Of these editions, the first, of
Madina, makes the whole number of the verses 6000 ; the Number of
second and fifth, 62 14 ; the third, 6219 ; the fourth, 6236 ; words^ &c.
the sixth, 6226; and the last, 6225. But they are all
said to contain the same number of words, namely, 77,639,^
and the same number of letters, viz., 323,015 ;^ * for the
Muhammadans have in this also imitated the Jews, that
they have superstitiously numbered the very words and
letters of their law ; nay, they have taken the pains to
compute (how exactly I know not) the number of times
each particular letter of the alphabet is contained in the
Quran. ^

Besides these unequal divisions of chapter and verse, other
the Muhammadans have also divided their Quran into the Qurln!
sixty equal portions, which they call Ahzdh, in the singular
Hizh, each subdivided into four equal parts ; which is also
an imitation of the Jews, who have an ancient division of
their Mislma into sixty portions, called Massidoth ; ^ but
the Quran is more usually divided into thirty sections
only, named Ajzd, from the singular Juz, each of twice the
length of the former, and in the like manner subdivided
into four parts. These divisions are for the use of the
readers of the Quran in the royal temples, or in the

* Huglies, in his introduction to the Roman Urdix Quran, makes
the number of verses to be 6616 ; of words, 77,934 ; and of letters,
323,671. E. M. w.

■^ Or as others reckon them, 99, 464. ^ Vide Reland, De Relig. Moh.,

Reland., De Rel. Moh., p. 25. p. 25.

^ Or according to another compu- ■* Vide Gol., ubi i^snp., p. 178.

tation, 330,113. Ibid. Vide Gol., Maimon., Praef. in Seder Zeraim, p,

ubi. sup., p. 178. D'Herbelot, Bibl. 57.
Orient., p. 87.

loo THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. ill.

adjoining cliapels wliere tlie emperors and great men are
interred. There are thirty of these readers belonging to
every chapel, and each reads his section every day, so that
the whole Quran is read over once a day.^ I have seen
several copies divided in this manner, and bound up in as
many volumes ; and have thought it proper to mark these
divisions in the margin of this translation by numeral
letters,*
The Bis- Ncxt after the title, at the head of every chapter, except

^^ ^ ' only the ninth, is prefixed the following solemn form, by
the Muhammadans called the Bismillah, " In the name
of the most merciful God ; " which form they constantly
place at the beginning of all their books and writings in
general, as a peculiar mark or distinguishing characteristic
of their religion, it being counted a sort of impiety to omit
it. The Jews for the same purpose make use of the form,
" In the name of the Lord," or, " In the name of the great
God ; " and the Eastern Christians that of, " In the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."
But I am apt to believe Muhammad really took this form,
as he did many other things, from the Persian Magi, who
used to begin their books in these words, Bandm Yazddn
halilishaishghar ddddr; that is, " In the name of the most
merciful, just God." ^

This auspicatory form, and also the titles of the chap-
ters, are by the generality of the doctors and commentators
believed to be of divine original, no less than the text
itself ; but the more moderate are of opinion they are only
human additions, and not the very word of God.
The letters There are twenty-nine chapters of the Quran, which

A.L.M.,<fec. , .. T- 1 11 • -1 -1

have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters

* In this edition these parts are called sipdras, from two Persian
words : si, thirty, and para, parts ; and they are indicated as Jirst
sipdra, second sipdra, &c. e. m. w.

1 Vide Smith, De Moribus et In- - Hyde, His. Rel. Vet. Pers., p.
stit. Turcar., p. 58. 14.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. ici

of the alphabet, some with a single one, others with more.
These letters the Muhammadans believe to be the peculiar
marks of the Quran, and to conceal several profound
mysteries, the certain understanding of which, the more
intelligent confess, has not been communicated to any-
mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwithstanding
which, some will take the liberty of guessing at their mean-
ing by that species of Cabbala called by the Jews Notari-
kon,^ and suppose the letters to stand for as many words
expressing the names and attributes of God, his works,
ordinances, and decrees ; and therefore these mysterious
letters, as well as the verses themselves, seem in the Quran
to be called signs. Others explain the intent of these letters
from their nature or organ, or else from their value in num-
bers, according to another species of the Jewish Cabbala
called Gematria;- the uncertainty of which conjectures
sufficiently appears from their disagreement. Thus, for
example, five chapters, one of which is the second, begin
with these letters, A.L.M., which some imagine to stand
for Allah latif majid, " GoD is gracious and to be glori-
fied ; " or. Ana li viinni, " To me and from me," viz., be-
longs all perfection and proceeds all good; or else for
Ana Allah dlam, " I am the most wise God," taking the
first letter to mark the beginning of the first word, the
second the middle of the second word, and the third the
last of the third word; or for "Allah, Gabriel, Muham-
mad" the author, revealer, and preacher of the Quran.
Others say that as the letter A belongs to the lower part
of the throat, the first of the organs of speech ; L to the
palate, the middle organ ; and M to the lips, which are
the last organs ; so these letters signify that God is the
beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be praised in the
beginning, middle, and end of all our words and actions :
or, as the total value of those three letters in numbers is

1 Vide Buxtorf, Lexicon Rabbin.
^ Vide Ibid. See also Schickardi Bechinat happerushim, p. 62, &c.

I02 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

seventy-one, they signify that in the space of so many
years, the religion preached in the Quran should he fully
established. The conjecture of a learned Christian ^ is, at
least, as certain as any of the former, who supposes those
letters were set there by the amanuensis, for Amar li
Muhammad, i.e., " at the command of Muhammad," as the
five letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter seem to be
there written by a Jewish scribe for koh yaas, i.e., " Thus
he commanded,"*
The Ian- The Qurdu is universally allowed to be written with the

Qurdn.° utmost clegancc and purity of language, in the dialect of
the tribe of Quraish, the most noble and polite of all the
Arabians, but with ' some mixture, though very rarely, of
other dialects. It is confessedly the standard of the Arabic
tongue, and as the more orthodox believe, and are taught by
the book itself, inimitable by any human pen (though some
sectaries have been of another opinion),^ and therefore
insisted on as a permanent miracle, greater than that of
raising the dead,^ and alone sufficient to convince the
world of its divine original.
Its elegance And to this miraclc did Muhammad himself chiefly
cfaimed to appeal f or the confirmation of his mission, publicly chal-
cuiouT' lenging the most eloquent men in Arabia, which was at
that time stocked with thousands whose sole study and
ambition it was to excel in elegance of style and composi-
tion,^ to produce even a single chapter that might be com-

* See Rod well's Koran, p. 17, note. Eodwell conjectures that
they may have been the initial letters or marks of the persons to
whom the manuscripts of the respective Suras belonged from which
Zaid compiled the present text. e. m. w.

■■■ Golius in Append, ad Gram, rate performance by extinguishing

Erp., p. 1 82. - See post. all true learning. For though they

^ Ahmed Abd'alhalim, apud Mar- were destitute of what we call learn-

racc. de Ale, p. 43. ing, yet they were far from being

■* A noble writer therefore mis- ignorant, or unable to compose ele-

takes the question when he says gantly in their own tongue. See

these Eastern religionists leave their Lord Shaftesbury's Characteristics,

sacred writ the sole standard of lite- vol. iii. p. 235.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 103

pared with it.^ * I will mention but one instance out of
several, to show that this book was really admired for the
beauty of its composure by those who must be allowed
to have been competent judges. A poem of Labid Ibn
Eabia, one of the greatest wits in Arabia in Muhammad's
time, being fixed up on the gate of the temple of Makkah,
an honour allowed to none but the most esteemed per-
formances, none of the other poets durst offer anything of
their own in competition with it. But the second chapter
of the Quran being fixed up by it soon after, Labid himself
(then an idolater), on reading the first verses only, was
struck with admiration, and immediately professed the
religion taught thereby, declaring that such words could
proceed from an inspired person only. This Labid was
afterwards of great service to Muhammad in writing
answers to the satires and invectives that were made on
him and his religion by the infidels, and particularly by
Amri al Qais,^ prince of the tribe of Asad,^ and author of
one of those seven famous poems called al Muallaqat.* -f*

The style of the Quran is generally beautiful and fluent, The style
especially where it imitates the prophetic manner and sition!'^''^""

* Arnold (Islam and Christianity, p. 324) has pointed out that,
while the beauty of the Quran was acknowledged by some of
Muhammad's contemporaries, yet there is proof from the Quran
itself that this was rather the exception than the rule, e.g., chap,
viii. 31, also chap. xxi. 5. E. M. w.

t This Amri al Qais died in a.d. 540, on his return from Con-
stantinople. See Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. ccxxii. This
was just thirty years before Muhammad was born !

I can find no authority for the statement that Ldbid, the satirist
of the Bani Amir, rendered Muhammad any assistance of a poetic
order. If a convert at all, he must have become such very shortly
before Muhammad's death. See Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iv.
p. 226. E. M. w.

^ Al Ghazdli, apud Poo. Spec, - D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., p. 512,

191. See Quran, c. 17, v. 90, and &c.

also c. 2, p. 3, V. 23, and c. 11, v. 14, ^ Poc. Spec, p. So.

&c. 4 gge supra, p. 53.

104 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

Scripture phrases. It is concise and often obscure, adorned
with bold figures after the Eastern taste, enlivened with
florid and sententious expressions, and in many places,
especially where the majesty and attributes of God are
described, sublime and magnificent ; of which the reader
cannot but observe several instances, though he must not
imagine the translation comes up to the original, notwith-
standing my endeavours to do it justice.

Though it be written in prose, yet the sentences gene-
rally conclude in a long continued rhyme, for the sake
of which the sense is often interrupted, and unnecessary
repetitions too frequently made, which appear still more
ridiculous in a translation, where the ornament, such as it
is, for whose sake they were made, cannot be perceived.
However, the Arabians are so mightily delighted with
this jingling, that they employ it in their most elaborate
compositions, which they also embellish with frequent pas-
sages of, and allusions to, the Quran, so that it is next to
impossible to understand them without being well versed
in this book.
The in- It is probable the harmony of expression which the

tMsTtyie Arabians find in the Quran might contribute not a little
mad'^heS-'- to make them relish the doctrine therein taught, and give
an efficacy to arguments which, had they been nakedly
proposed without this rhetorical dress, might not have so
easily prevailed. Very extraordinary effects are related of
the power of words well chosen and artfully placed, which
are no less powerful either to ravish or amaze than music
itself ; wherefore as much has been ascribed by the best
orators to this part of rhetoric as to any other.i He must
have a very bad ear who is not uncommonly moved with
the very cadence of a well-turned sentence ; and Muham-
mad seems not to have been ignorant of the enthusiastic
operation of rhetoric on the minds of men ; for which
reason he has not only employed his utmost skill in these

1 See Casaubon, of Enthusiasm, c. 4.

ers.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 105

his pretended revelations, to preserve that dignity and
sublimity of style which might seem not unworthy of the
majesty of that Being whom he gave out to be the Author
of them, and to imitate the prophetic manner of the Old
Testament ; but he has not neglected even the other arts
of oratory, wherein he succeeded so well, and so strangely
captivated the minds of his audience, that several of his
opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft and enchant-
ment, as he sometimes complains.^

" The general design of the Quran " (to use the words Design of
of a very learned person) " seems to be this : to unite the
professors of the three different religions then followed in
the populous country of Arabia, who for the most part
lived promiscuously, and wandered without guides, the
far greater number being idolaters, and the rest Jews and
Christians, mostly of erroneous and heterodox belief, in
the knowledge and worship of one eternal, invisible God,
by whose power all things were made, and those which
are not, may be, the supreme Governor, Judge, and abso-
lute Lord of the creation ; established under the sanction
of certain laws, and the outward signs of certain cere-
monies, partly of ancient and partly of novel institution,
and enforced by setting before them rewards and punish-
ments, both temporal and eternal ; and to bring them all
to the obedience of Muhammad, as the prophet and
ambassador of God, who after the repeated admonitions,
promises, and threats of former ages, was at last to estab-
lish and propagate God's religion on earth by force of
arms, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff in spiritual
matters, as well as supreme prince in temporal." ^

The great doctrine, then, of the Quran is the unity of The doc-
God, to restore which point Muhammad pretended was the Quiiin
the chief end of his mission ; it being laid down by him religion
as a fundamental truth that there never was nor ever can lation.

^ Qurdn, c. 15, v. 6 ; c. 21, v. 3, - Golius. in appeii. ad Gram. Erp.,
&c. p. 176.

io6 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iir.

be more than one true orthodox religion. For though the
particular laws or ceremonies are only temporary, and
subject to alteration according to the divine direction,
yet the substance of it being eternal truth, is not liable
to change, but continues immutably the same. And he
taught that whenever this religion became neglected or
corrupted in essentials, God had the goodness to re-inform
and re-admonish mankind thereof by several prophets,
of whom Moses and Jesus were the most distinguished,
till the appearance of Muhammad, who is their seal, no
other being to be expected after him. And the more
effectually to engage people to hearken to him, great part
of the Quran is employed in relating examples of dreadful
punishments formerly inflicted by God on those who
rejected and abused his messengers ; several of which
stories, or some circumstances of them, are taken from
Tiiewse the Old and New Testament, but many more from the
Old Testa- apocryphal books and traditions of the Jews and Chris-
toryintiie tiaus of thoso ages, set up in the Quran as truths in
opposition to the Scriptures, which the Jews and Christians
are charged with having altered ; and I am apt to believe
that few or none of the relations or circumstances in
the Quran were invented by Muhammad, as is generally
supposed, it being easy to trace the greatest part of them
much higher, as the rest might be, were more of those
books extant, and it was worth while to make the
inquiry.

The other part of the Quran is taken up in giving
necessary laws and directions, in frequent admonitions
to moral and divine virtues, and above all to the worship-
ping and reverencing of the only true God, and resigna-
tion to his will ; among which are many excellent things
intermixed not unworthy even a Christian's perusal.
The use But bcsidcs thcsc, there are a great number of passages

Qunfn'by'''^ which are occasional, and relate to particular emergencies.
hi^'emS-™'''^ For whenever anything happened which perplexed and
gency. o'ravelled Muhammad, and which he could not otherwise

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 107

get over, he had constant recourse to a new revelation, as
an infallible expedient in all nice cases ; and he found
the success of this method answer his expectation. It
Avas certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his
to bring down the whole Quran at once to the lowest
heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet
would probably have done; for if the whole had been
published at once, innumerable objections might have
been made, which it would have been very hard, if not
impossible, for him to solve ; but as he pretended to have
received it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should
be published for the conversion and instruction of the
people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and
to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which
might occur. If any objection be hence made to that
eternity of the Quran which the Muhammadans are
taught to believe, they easily answer it by their doctrine
of absolute predestination, according to which all the
accidents for the sake of which these occasional passages
were revealed were predetermined by God from all
eternity.

That Muhammad was really the author and chief con- jiuhammad
triver of the Quran is beyond dispute, though it be highly of tiw
probable that he had no small assistance in his design "'
from others, as his countrymen failed not to object to
him.^ However, they differed so much in their conjectures
as to the particular persons who gave him such assistance,^
that they were not able, it seems, to prove the charge ;
Muhammad, it is to be presumed, having taken his
measures too well to be discovered. Dr. Prideaux ^ has
given the most probable account of this matter, though
chiefly from Christian writers, who generally mix such
ridiculous fables with what they deliver, that they deserve
not much credit.

1 Vide Qunln, c. 16, v. 105, and c. 25, v. 5."
2 See the notes on those passages. ^ Life of Mahomet, p. 31, &c.

io8 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

The divine However it be, the Muhammadans absolutely deny the
the^QuWn. Quraii was composed by their prophet himself, or any
other for him, it being their general and orthodox belief
that it is of divine original ; nay, that it is eternal and
uncreated, remaining, as some express it, in the very
essence of GoD; that the first transcript has been from
everlasting by God's throne, written on a table of vast
bigness, called the Preserved Table, in which are also
recorded the divine decrees past and future ; that a copy
from this table, in one volume on paper, was by the
ministry of the Angel Gabriel sent down to the lowest
heaven, in the month of Eamadhan, on the night of power ;^
from whence Gabriel revealed it to Muhammad by parcels,
some at Makkah, and some at Madina, at different times,
during the space of twenty-three years, as the exigency
of affairs required ; giving him, however, the consolation
to show him the whole (which they tell us was bound in
silk, and adorned with gold and precious stones of para-
dise) once a year ; but in the last year of his life he had
the favour to see it twice. They say that few chapters
were delivered entire, the most part being revealed piece-
meal, and written down from time to time by the prophet's
amanuenses in such or such a part of such or such a
chapter till they were completed, according to the direc-
tions of the angel.^ The first parcel that was revealed is
generally agreed to have been the first five verses of the
ninety-sixth chapter.^
Original After the new revealed passages had been from the

Qurdn^ ^ proplict's moutli taken down in writing by his scribe, they
were published to his followers, several of whom took
copies for their private use, but the far greater number
got them by heart. The originals when returned were put

^ Vide Quran, c. 97, and note Law was given to Moses by parcels.

ibid. Vide Millium. de Mohammedismo

- Therefore it is a mistake of Dr. ante Moham., p. 365.

Prideaux to say it was brought him ^ Not the whole chapter, as Golius

chapter by chapter. Life of Maho- says. Append, ad Gr. Erp., jj. 108.
met, p. 6. The Jews also say the

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 109

promiscuously into a chest,* observing no order of time,
for which reason it is uncertain when many passages were
revealed.

When Muhammad died, he left his revelations in the collected

into one

same disorder I have mentioned, and not digested into volume by

° . Abu Baqr.

the method, such as it is, which we now find them m.
This was the work of his successor, Abu Baqr, who con-
sidering that a great number of passages were committed
to the memory of Muhammad's followers, many of whom
were slain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected,
not only from the palm-leaves and skins on which they
had been written, and which were kept between two
boards or covers, but also from the mouths of such as had
gotten them by heart. And this transcript when com-
pleted he committed to the custody of Hafsa the daughter
of Omar, one of the prophet's widows.^

From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu
Baqr was really the compiler of the Quran ; though for
aught appears to the contrary, Muhammad left the chap-
ters complete as we now have them, excepting such pas-
sages as his successor might add or correct from those
who had gotten them by heart ; what Abu Baqr did else
being perhaps no more than to range the chapters in their
present order, which he seems to have done without any
regard to time, having generally placed the longest first.

However, in the thirtieth year of the Hijra, Othman othmdn's
being then Khalifah, and observing the great disagreement '^'^°°'^^°'^*
in the copies of the Quran in the several provinces of the
empire — those of Irak, for example, following the reading
of Abu Musa al Ashari, and the Syrians that of Maqdad
Ibn Aswad — he, by advice of the companions, ordered a
great number of copies to be transcribed from that of Abu

* Muir says, " This statement does not seem to be borne out by
any good authority." — Introduction, Life of Mahomet, p. 4.

E. M. W.

^ Elmacin. in Vita Abu Beer, Abulfeda.

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

Various

readings :
how they
originated.

The doctrine
of abroga-
tion.

Abrogated
passages.

Baqr, in Hafsa's care, under the inspection of Zaid Ibn
Thabit, Abdallah Ibn Zobair, Said Ibn al As, and Abd-
alraliman Ibn al Harith, the Makhzumite ; whom he
directed, that wherever they disagreed about any word,
they should write it in the dialect of the Quraish, in which
it was at first delivered.^ These copies when made were
dispersed in the several provinces of the empire, and the
old ones burnt and suppressed. Though many things in
Hafsa's copy were corrected by the above-mentioned super-
visors, yet some few various readings still occur, the most
material of which will be taken notice of in their proper
places.

The want of vowels - in the Arabic character made
Muqris, or readers whose peculiar study and profession it
was to read the Quran with its proper vowels, absolutely
necessary. But these, differing in their manner of reading,
occasioned still further variations in the copies of the
Quran, as they are now written with the vowels ; and
herein consist much the greater part of the various read-
ings throughout the book. The readers whose authority
the commentators chiefly allege, in admitting these various
readings, are seven in number.

There being some passages in the Quran which are con-
tradictory, the Muhammadan doctors obviate any objection
from thence by the doctrine of abrogation ; for they say
that God in the Quran commanded several things which
were for good reasons afterwards revoked and abrogated.

Passages abrogated are distinguished into three kinds :
the first where the letter and the sense are both abrogated ;
the second, where the letter only is abrogated, but the
sense remains ; and the third, where the sense is abrogated,
though the letter remains.

^ Abulfeda, ia Vitis Abu Beer
and Othnian.

" The characters or marks of the
Arabic vowels were not used till
several years after Muhammad.
Some ascribe the invention of them
to Yahya Ibn Yamir, some to Nasr

Ibn Asam, surnamed al Laithi, and
others to Abu al Aswad al Dili — all
three of whom were doctors of Basi'a,
and immediately succeeded the com-
panions. SeeD'Herbel.jBibl. Orient.,
p. 87.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. in

Of the first kind were several verses, wliich, by tlie
tradition of Malik Ibn Ans, were in the prophet's lifetime
read in the chapter of Eepentance, but are not now extant,
one of which, being all he remembered of them, was the
following : " If a son of Adam had two rivers of gold, he
would covet yet a third ; and if he had three, he would
covet yet a fourth (to be added) unto them ; neither shall
the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but with dust. God
will turn unto him who shall repent." Another instance
of this kind we have from the tradition of Abdallah Ibn
Masud, who reported that the prophet gave him a verse
to read which he wrote down ; but the next morning,
looking in his book, he found it was vanished, and the leaf
blank : this he acquainted Muhammad with, who assured
him the verse was revoked the same night.

Of the second kind is a verse called the verse of Ston-
ing, which, according to the tradition of Omar, afterwards
Khalifah, was extant while Muhammad was living, though
it be not now to be found. The words are these : " Abhor
not your parents, for this would be ingratitude in you.
If a man and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye
shall stone them both ; it is a punishment ordained by
God ; for God is mighty and wise."

Of the last kind are observed several verses in sixty-
three different chapters, to the number of 225 ; such as
the precepts of turning in prayer to Jerusalem, fasting
after the old custom, forbearance towards idolaters, avoid-
ing the ignorant, and the like.^ The passages of this sort
have been carefully collected by several writers, and are
most of them remarked in their proper places.

Though it is the belief of the Sonnites or orthodox that The Quran
the Quran is uncreated and eternal, subsisting in the very be etemai.
essence of God, and Muhammad himself is said to have
pronounced him an infidel who asserted the contrary,^ yet

Abu Hashem Hebatallah, apud Marracc. de Ale, p. 42.
^ Apud Poc. Spec, p. 220.

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec in.

several have been of a different opinion ; particularly the
sect of the Mutazalites/ and the followers of Isa Ibn
Subaili Abu Musa, surnamed al Muzdar, who stuck not
to accuse those who held the Quran to be uncreated of
infidelity, as asserters of two eternal beings.^

This point was controverted with so much heat that it
occasioned many calamities under some of the Khalifahs
of the family of Abbas, al Mamiin ^ making a public edict
declaring the Quran to be created, which was confirmed
by his successors al Mutasim * and al Wathik,^ who
whipped, imprisoned, and put to death those of the contrary
opinion. But at length al Mutawakkil,*^ who succeeded
al Wathik, put an end to these persecutions by revoking
the former edicts, releasing those that were imprisoned
on that account, and leaving every man at liberty as to
his belief in this point.^
Al GhazdU's Al Ghazdli seems to have tolerably reconciled both
opinions, saying that the Quran is read and pronounced
with the tongue, written in books, and kept in memory ;
and is yet eternal, subsisting in God's essence, and not
possible to be separated thence by any transmission into
men's memories or the leaves of books ; ^ by which he
seems to mean no more than that the original idea of the
Quran only is really in God, and consequently co-essential
and co-eternal with him, but that the copies are created
and the work of man.

The opinion of al Jahidh, chief of a sect bearing his
name, touching the Quran, is too remarkable to be

opinion as
to the
Quran.

Opinion of
al Jahidh.

1 See post, Sect. VIII.

' Vide Poc. Spec, p. 219, &c.

3 Anno Hij., 218. Abulfarag, p.
245, V. etiam Elmacin. in Vita al
Mauilan.

■* In the time of al Mutasim, a
doctor named Abu Hari'in Ibn al
Baqa found out a distinction to
screen himself, by affirming that the
Qunin was ordained, because it is
said in that book,; ' And I have

ordained thee the Qunin." He
went still further to allow that what
was ordained was created, and yet
he denied it thence followed that
the Qur;£n was created. Abulfarag,
P- 253.

^ Ibid., p. 257.

^ Anno Hij., p. 242.

^ Abulfarag, p. 262. *

^ Al Ghazali, in prof. fid.

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 113

omitted : he used to say it was a body, wliich might
sometimes be turned into a man/ and sometimes into a
beast; 2 which seems to agree with the notion of those
who assert the Quran to have two faces, one of a man,
the other of a beast ; ^ thereby, as I conceive, intimating
the double interpretation it will admit of, according to
the letter or the spirit.

As some have held the Quran to be created, so there Heretical
have not been wanting those who have asserted that there
is nothing miraculous in that book in respect to style or
composition, excepting only the prophetical relations of
things past, and predictions of things to come ; and
that had God left men to their natural liberty, and not
restrained them in that particular, tlie Arabians could
have composed something not only equal but superior to
the Quran in eloquence, method, and purity of language.
This was another opinion of the Mutazilites, and in par-
ticular of al Muzdar, above mentioned, and al Nudham.*

The Quran being the Muhammadans' rule of faith and Muslim
practice, it is no wonder its expositors and commentators miS! ^°*
are so very numerous. And it may not be amiss to take
notice of the rules they observe in expounding it.

One of the most learned commentators ^ distinguishes
the contents of the Quran into allegorical and literal. The
former comprehends the more obscure, parabolical, and
enigmatical passages, and such as are repealed or abro-

i The Khallfah al Walid Ibn person? Behold, I am that rebel-

Yazid, who was the eleventh of the lions, perverse person. When thou

race of Omnieya, and is looked on appearest before thy LoKD on the

by the Muhammadans as a repro- day of resurrection, say, O Lord,

bate and one of no religion, seems al Walid has torn me thus." Ibn

to have treated this book as a Shohnah. v. Poo. Spec, p. 223.

rational creature ; for, dipping into - Poc. Spec, p. 222.

it one day, the first words he met ^ Herbelot, p. 87.

with were these : " Every rebellious, ^ Abulfeda, Shahristani, &c., apud

perverse person shall not prosper." Poc. Spec, p. 222, et Marracc, De

Whereupon he stuck it on a lance, Qur., p. 44.

and shot it to pieces with arro\\s, * Al Zamakhshari. Vide Qur;in,

repeating these verses : " Dost thou c. 3, v. 7, note,
rebuke every rebellious, perverse

H

114

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. hi.

Muslim
reverence
for the
Quran.

Transla-
tions.

gated ; the latter those which are plam, perspicuous, liable
to no doubt, and in full force.

To explain these severally in a right manner, it is
necessary from tradition and study to know the time
when each passage was revealed, its circumstances, state,
and history, and the reasons or particular emergencies for
the sake of which it was revealed ;i or, more explicitly,
whether the passage was revealed at Makkah or at Madina;
whether it be abrogated, or does itself abrogate any other
passage ; whether it be anticipated in order of time or
postponed ; whether it be distinct from the context or
depends thereon ; whether it be particular or general ;
and, lastly, whether it be implicit by intention or explicit
in words. ^

By what has been said the reader may easily believe
this book is in the greatest reverence and esteem among
the Muhammadans, They dare not so much as touch it
without being first washed or legally purified;^ which,
lest they should do by inadvertence, they write these
w^ords on the cover or label, " Let none touch it but they
who are clean." They read it with great care and respect,
never holding it below their girdles. They swear by it,
consult it in their weighty occasions,^ carry it with them
to war, write sentences of it on their banners, adorn it
with gold and precious stones, and knowingly suffer it not
to be in the possession of any of a different persuasion.

The Muhammadans, far from thinking the Quran to be
profaned by a translation, as some authors have written,^

1 Ahmad Ibn Muh. al Thalabi,
in Princip. Expos. Ale.

^ Yahya Ibn al Salam al Basri,
in Princep. Expos. Ale.

^ The Jews have the same venera-
tion for their law, not daring to
toueh it with unwashed hands, nor
then neither without a eover. Vide
Millium, De Mohammedismo ante
Moh., p. 366.

■* This they do by dipping into it,

and taking an omen from the words
whieh they first light on, which
practice they also learned of the
Jews, who do the same with the
Scriptures. Vide Millium, ubi sup.
[See also Lane's Manners and Cus-
toms of the Modern Egyptians, vol.
i. chap, xi., near the end. E. M. W.]

* Sionita, De Urb. Orient., p. 41,
et Marracc, De Ale, p. jj-

SEC. III.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 115

have taken care to have their Scriptures translated not
only into the Persian tongue, but into several others, par-
ticularly the Javan and Malayan,^ though out of respect
to the original Arabic these versions are generally (if not
always) interlineary,*

* In addition to those mentioned in the text, we would note two
popular translations of the Qurdn in the Urdii language current in
India. They are interlined with the Arabic text in all Muslim
editions. E. M. w.

1 Reland, De Rel. Mob., p. 265.

( ii6 )

SECTION IV.

OF THE DOCTRINES AND POSITIVE PRECEPTS OF THE QURAN, WHICH
RELATE TO FAITH AND RELIGIOUS DUTIES.

Islam the It liRS been already observed more than once, that the
oithocTos fundamental position on which Muhammad erected the
superstructure of his religion was, that from the beginning
to the end of the world there has been, and for ever will
be, but one true orthodox belief, consisting, as to matter
of faith, in the acknowledging of the only true God, and
the believing in and obeying such messengers or prophets
as he should from time to time send, with proper credentials,
to reveal his will to mankind ; and as to matter of practice,
in the observance of the immutable and eternal laws of
right and wrong, together with such other precepts and
ceremonies as God should think fit to order for the time
being, according to the different dispensations in different
ages of the world ; for these last he allowed were things
indifferent in their own nature, and became obligatory by
God's positive precept only, and were therefore temporary,
and subject to alteration according to his will and pleasure.
And to this religion he gives the name of Islam, which
word signifies resignation, or submission to the service
and commands of GoD,^ and is used as the proper name
of the Muhammadan religion, which they will also have

^ The root ISalama, from whence of salvation ; but the other sense is

Islam is formed, in the first and more approved by the Muhamma-

fourth conjugations, signifies also to dans, and alluded to in the Qurtin

be saved, or to enter into a state of itself. See c. 2. v. ill, aud^c. 3, v.

salvation; according to which, /i/raw 19, notes,
may be translated the rclvjion or state

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 117

to be the same at bottom with that of all the prophets
from Adam.

Under pretext that this eternal religion was in his time
corrupted, and professed in its purity by no one sect of
men, Muhammad pretended to be a prophet sent by God
to reform those abuses which had crept into it, and to
reduce it to its primitive simplicity; with the addition,
however, of peculiar laws and ceremonies, some of which
had been used in former times, and others were now first
instituted. And he comprehended the whole substance
of his doctrine under these two j)ropositions or articles of
faith, viz., that there is but one GoD, and that himself was
the apostle of God ; in consequence of which latter article,
all such ordinances and institutions as he thought fit to
establish must be received as obligatory and of divine
authority.

The Muhammadans divide their religion, which, as I Five points
just now said, they call Islam, into two distinct parts : i>m.
Iman, i.e., faith or theory, and Din, i.e., religion or prac-
tice; and teach that it is built on five fundamental
points, one belonging to faith, and the other four to
practice.

The first is that confession of faith which I have already First funda-
mentioned, that " there is no god but the true God, and ^^lut'^
that Muhammad is his apostle," under which they com- ^ '^^'
prehend six distinct branches, viz., i. Belief in God; 2.
In his angels; 3. In his Scriptures; 4. In his prophets;
5. In the resurrection and day of judgment; and, 6. In
God's absolute decree and predetermination both of good
and evil.

The four points* relating to practice are: i. Prayer, Four points
under which are comprehended those washings or puritica-

* To these should be added the duty of Jihdd, or war against
infidels, which our author places under the head of Civil Laws, see
chap. vi. All Muslims regard this as a religious duty, which they
euumerate along with the four mentioned in the text. E. 11. w.

Ii8 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iV

tions which are necessary preparations required before
prayer; 2. Alms; 3. Fasting; and, 4. The pilgrimage to
Makkah. Of each of these I shall speak in their order.
TiieGodof That both Muhammad and those among his followers
true God. who are reckoned orthodox had and continue to have just
and true notions of God and his attributes (always except-
ing their obstinate and impious rejecting of the Trinity),
appears so plain from the Quran itself and all the Muham-
madan divines, that it would be loss of time to refute those
who suppose the God of Muhammad to be different from
the true God, and only a fictitious deity or idol of his
own creation.^ * Nor shall I here enter into any of the
Muhammadan controversies concerning the divine nature
and attributes, because I shall have a more proper oppor-
tunity of doing it elsewhere.-
Belief in the The existence of angels and their purity are absolutely
angels"^ ° required to be believed in the Quran, and he is reckoned
requiie . ^^ infidel who denies there are such beings, or hates any

* Tlie God of Islam is undoubtedly the only true God, inasmuch
as he is represented as a personal God, the Creator and Preserver of
all things, as a prayer-hearing God, and as possessing many other
characteristics of the God of the Bible.

And yet we have other objections to the Muslim conception of
God, besides that of its "impious rejecting of the Trinity." We
object to its having exalted His omnipotence over all other attributes ;
to its lowering of His character for holiness, nothing being said of
God in the Quran which might not be said of a holy man ; to its
limiting the goodness of God to Muslims, no matter what their
character, relegating even infants of unbelievers to hell-fire ; to its
sacrifice of God's justice by denying the necessity for any atonement
for sin ; and, finally, to its limitation of the truth of God by its
sanctification of a lie, if it only be spoken in self-defence or for the
advancement of Isldm. It should never be forgotten that the God
of Islam is not merely the Allah described m the Quran, but the God
who speaks in every word, syllable, and letter of the Quran. "We
must not therefore separate what we conceive to have special reference
to God in its teaching, from what we may conceive to have been used

^ Marracc. in Ale, p. I02. - Sect. VIII.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 119

of thera,^ or asserts any distinction of sexes among tliein.
They believe them to have pure and subtle bodies, created
of fire;^ that they neither eat nor drink, nor propagate their
species ; that they have various forms and offices ; some
adoring GoD in different postures, others singing praises to
him, or interceding for mankind. They hold that some of
them are employed in writing down the actions of men ;
others in carrying the throne of God and other services.

The four angels whom they look on as more eminently oabriei,
in God's favour, and often mention on account of the Az?am! '
offices assigned them, are Gabriel, to whom they give guardiau"
several titles, particularly those of the holy spirit,^ and ^°^'^^®-
the angel of revelations,* supposing him to be honoured
by God with a greater confidence than any other, and to
be employed in writing down the divine decrees; ^ Michael,
the friend and protector of the Jews ; ^ Azrael,* the angel
of death, who separates men's souls from their bodies ; '^

by Miiliammad for the furtherance of his private or political piirposes ;
for, according to Islam, Muhammad was but the mouthpiece of
Divinity. If, then, we would get a correct idea of the Allah of
Islam, we must take into account all that was done by Muhammad
tinder the sanction of the Qurd,n. Let this be done, and it will
aj^pear that what we have said above is by no means extravagant.

A true conception of Isldm and its doctrines can never be formed
by looking at the Quran from the standpoint of the " unbelievers,"
who regard it as the work of Muhammad ; but by looking at it as the
Muslim does, who believes it to be not only God's word, but as being
from eternity recorded on the " Preserved Table," kept close by the
throne of God.

We would refer the reader to Palgrave's criticism on Muhammadan
theology. For further information on this subject, see his Travels
in Arabia. E. M. w.

* Muslims pronounce these names Jibrail, Miki'iil, and Izrdil.

E. M. w.

1 Qur^n, c. 2, vv. 31-34. ^ Vide Hyde, Hist. Rel. Vet.
^ Ibid., 0. 7, V. 12, and c. 38, v. Pers., p. 262.

77. ^ Vide ibid., p. 271, and note in

2 Ibid., c. 2, V. 97. Qurdn, c. 2, vv. 97, &c.

* See the notes, ibid., vv. 97, &c. ^ Vide note, ibid., c. 2, v. 30.

I20 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

and Israfil, whose office it will be to sound tlie trumpet
at the resurrection.^ The Muhamniadans also believe
that two guardian angels attend on every man to observe
and write down his actions,^ being changed every day, and
therefore called al Maaqqibat, or the angels who continu-
ally succeed one another.
This doc- This whole doctrine concerning angels Muhammad and
rowed from liis disciplcs have borrowed from the Jews, who learned
the names and offices of those beings from the Persians,
as themselves confess.^ The ancient Persians firmly
believed the ministry of angels, and their superintendence
over the affairs of this world (as the Magians still do), and
therefore assigned them distinct charges and provinces,
giving their names to their months and the days of their
months. Gabriel they called Sarosh and Eavan Bakhsh, or
the giver of souls, in opposition to the contrary office of
the angel of death, to whom among other names they
gave that of Murdad, or the giver of death ; Michael they
called Beshter, who according to them provides sustenance
for mankind.* The Jews teach that the angels were
created of fire ; ^ that they have several offices ; ^ that they
intercede for men,'^ and attend them.^ The angel of death
they name Duma, and say he calls dying persons by their
respective names at their last hour.^
Belief con- The devil, whom Muhammad names Iblis, from his
Satan. despair, was once one of those angels who are nearest to
God's presence, called AzaziV^ and fell, according to the

^ Qurdn, c. 6, 13, and 86. The * Talmud Hieros. in Rosh hashan.

offices of these four angels are de- ^ Vide Hide, ubi sup., c. 19 and

scribed almost in the same manner 20.

in the apocryphal Gospel of Barna- ^ Gemar. in Hagig. and Bereshit

bas, where it is said that Gabriel rabbah, &c. Vide Psalm civ. 4.

reveals the secrets of God, Michael ^ Yalkut hadash.

combats against his enemies, Raphael '' Gemar. in Shebet, and Bava

receives the souls of those who die, Bathra, &c.

and Uriel is to call every one to ^ Midrash, Yalkut Shemuni.

judgment on the last day. See the ^ Gemar. Berachoth.

Menagiana, tom. iv. p. 333. " Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., p.

- Quran, c. 50, v. 16. 189, &c.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 121

doctrine of tlie Quran, for refusing to pay homage to
Adam at the command of GoD.^

Besides angels and devils, the Muhammadans are concerning
taught by the Quran to believe in an intermediate order
of creatures, which they call Jin or Genii, created also of
fire,2 but of a grosser fabric than angels, since they eat
and drink, and propagate their species, and are subject
to death.2 Some of these are supposed to be good and
others bad, and capable of future salvation or damnation,
as men are ; whence Muhammad pretended to be sent for
the conversion of genii as well as men."^ The Orientals
pretend that these genii inhabited the world for many
ages before Adam was created, under the government of
several successive princes, who all bore the common
name of Solomon ; but falling at length into an almost
general corruption, Iblis was sent to drive them into a
remote part of the earth, there to be confined ; that some
of that generation still remaining, were by Tahmiirath,
one of the ancient kings of Persia, who wacjed war
against them, forced to retreat into the famous mountains
of Qaf. Of which successions and wars they have many
fabulous and romantic stories. They also make different
ranks and degrees among these beings (if they be not
rather supposed to be of a different species), some being
called absolutely Jin, some Pari or fairies, some Dev or
giants, others Taqwims or fates.^

The Muhammadan notions concerning these G;enii airree Agrees with
almost exactly with what the Jews write of a sort of belief in
demons called Shedim, whom some fancy to have been ^ ^'^'
begotten by two angels, named Aza and Azaul, on ISTaamah
the daughter of Lamech, before the Plood.^ However,
the Shedim, they tell us, agree in three things with the

1 Qurdn, c. 2, vv. 31-34. See also ^ Vide Qurdn, c. 55, v. 31 ; c. 72,
c. 7, V. 12; c. 38, V. 77, &c. vv. I-14 ; and c. 74.

2 Qurdn, c. 55, v. 14. See the ^ See D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient.,
notes there. pp. 369, 820, &c.

* Jalaluddin, in Quran, c. 2, v. 1 01, ''In libro Zohar.
and c. 18, v. 48.

Scriptures.

122 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

ministering angels, for that, like them, they have wings,
and fly from one end of the world to the other, and have
some knowledge of futurity ; and in three things they
agree with men, like whom they eat and drink, are propa-
gated, and die.^ They also say that some of them believe
in the law of Moses, and are consequently good, and that
others of them are infidels and reprobates.^
The former As to the Scriptures, the Muhammadans are taught by
the Qunin that God, in divers ages of the world, gave
revelations of his will in writing to several prophets, the
whole and every word of which it is absolutely necessary
for a good Muslim to believe. The number of these
sacred books were, according to them, one hundred and
four. Of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth,
thirty to Idris or Enoch, ten to Abraham ; and the other
four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and
the Quran, were successively delivered to Moses, David,
Jesus, and Muhammad ; which last being the seal of the"
prophets, those revelations are now closed, and no more
are to be expected. All these divine books, except the
four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, and their
contents unknown, though the Sabians have several
books which they attribute to some of the antediluvian
prophets. And of those four, the Pentateuch, Psalms, afid
Gospel, they say, have undergone so many alterations and
corruptions, that though there may possibly be some part
of the true Word of God therein, yet no credit is to be
given to the present copies in the hands of the Jews
and Christians. The Jews in particular are frequently
reflected on in the Quran for falsifying and corrupting
their copies of their law ; * and some instances of such

* A careful study of the. passages alluded to here will shovr that
the alterations and " corruptions " charged against Jews and Chris-
tians in the Quran do not refer to tlie text of their Scriptures. Muir,

1 Gemara, in Hagiga. ^ Igrat Baale hayyiin., c. 15.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 123

pretended corruptions, both in that book and the two Alleged cor-
others, are produced by Muhammadan writers, wherein jewisTa°nd
they merely follow their own prejudices, and the fabulous scriptures,
accounts of spurious legends. Whether they have any
copy of the Pentateuch among them different from that
of the Jews or not, I am not entirely satisfied, since a
person who travelled into the East was told that they had
the books of Moses, though very much corrupted ; ^ but I
know nobody that has ever seen them. However, they
certainly have and privately read a book which they call
the Psalms of David in Arabic and Persian, to which are
added some prayers of Moses, Jonas, and others.^ This
Mr. Eeland supposes to be a translation from our copies
(though no doubt falsified in more places than one) ; but
M. D'Herbelot says it contains not the same Psalms which
are in our Psalter, being no more than an extract from
thence mixed with other very different pieces.^ The
easiest way to reconcile these two learned gentlemen
is to presume that they speak of different copies. The
Muhammadans have also a Gospel in Arabic, attributed Mnsiim
to St. Barnabas, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is oospei oT*^
related in a manner very different from what we find in ^'*™'^^^*-
the true Gospels, and correspondent to those traditions
which Muhammad has followed in his Quran.* Of this
Gospel the Moriscoes in Africa have a translation in

in his treatise on The Testiviony Borne hy the Goran to the Jewish and
Christian ScriiAures, clearly proves that — " The strongest and most
unequivocal testimony is borne by the Coran to the Jewish and
Christian Scriptures as current in the time of Mahomet ; that the
evidence extends equally to their genuineness and authority ; and
that there is not a hint anywhere to be found of their concealment
or interpolation." — Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 297. e. m. w.

* See page 10, Preface to Preliminary Discourse.

^ Terry's Voyage to the East In- ^ A copy of this kind, he tells us,

dies, p. 277. is in the library of the Duke of

- De Rel. Moham., p. 23. Tuscany, Bibl. Orient., p. 924.

124 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Spanish ; ^ and there is in the library of Prince Eugene
of Savoy a manuscript of some antiquity containing
an Italian translation of the same Gospel,^ made, it is
to be supposed, for the use of renegades. This book
appears to be no original forgery of the Muhammadaus,
though they have no doubt interpolated and altered
it since, the better to serve their purpose; and in parti-
cular, instead of the Paraclete or Comforter,^ they have
in this apocryphal Gospel inserted the word Periclyte,
that is, the famous or illustrious, by which they pretend
their prophet was foretold by name, that being the signifi-
cation of Muhammad in Arabic ; * and this they say to
justify that passage of the Quran ^ where Jesus Christ is
formally asserted to have foretold his coming, under his
other name of Ahmad, which is derived from the same
root as Muhammad, and of the same import. Prom these
Muslim use or some other forgeries of the same stamp it is that the
Gospels. Muhammadans quote several passages of which there are
not the least footsteps in the New Testament. But after
all, we must not hence infer that the Muhammadans,
much less all of them, hold these copies of theirs to be
the ancient and genuine ScrijDtures themselves. If any
argue, from the corruption which they insist has happened
to the Pentateuch and Gospel, that the Quran may
possibly be corrupted also, they answer that God has pro-
mised that he will take care of the latter, and preserve
it from any addition or diminution ; ^ but that he left
the two other to the care of men. However, they confess
there are some various readings in the Qurau,'^ as has been
observed.

Besides the books above mentioned, the ]\Iuhammadans
also take notice of the writiucjs of Daniel and several other

1 Reland, ubi .supra. * See Toland's Nazarenus, the

- Menagian, torn. iv. p. 321, first eight chapters.

&c. ^ Cap. 61, V. 6.

3 John xiv. 16, 26, XV. 26, andxvi. ^ Quran, c. 15, v. 9.

7, compared with Luke xxiv. 49. ^ Relaud, ubi supra, pp. 24, 27.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 125

prophets, and even nicake quotations thence ; but these
they do not believe to be divine scripture, or of any
authority in matters of religion.^

The number of the prophets which have been from time The pro-
to time sent by God into the world amounts to no lessms1dby°
than 224,000, according to one Muhammadan tradition, ^^'
or to 124,000 according to another; among whom 313
were apostles, sent with special commissions to reclaim
mankind from infidelity and superstition, and six of
them brought new laws or dispensations, which succes-
sively abrogated the preceding : these were Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. All the pro-
phets in general the Muhammadans believe to have been
free from great sins and errors of consequence, and pro-
fessors of one and the same religion, that is, Islam, not-
withstanding the different laws and institutions which
they observed. They allow of degrees among them, and
hold some of them to be more excellent and honourable than
others.2 The first place they give to the revealers and estab-
lishers of new dispensations, and the next to the apostles.

In this great number of prophets they not only reckon
divers patriarchs and persons named in Scripture, but not
recorded to have been prophets (wherein the Jewish and
Christian writers have sometimes led the way ^), as Adam,
Seth, Lot, Ismail, Nun, Joshua, &c., and introduce some
of them under different names, as Enoch, Heber, and
Jethro, who are called in the Quran Idris, Hiid, and
Shuaib, but several others whose very names do not
appear in Scripture (though they endeavour to find some
persons there to fix them on), as Salih, Khidhar, Dhu'l Kifl,
&c. Several of their fabulous traditions concerning these
prophets we shall occasionally mention in the notes on
the Quran.

^ Reland, ubi supra, p. 41. p. 2), and Adam by Epiphaniiis

^ Qurin, c. 2, v. 253, &c. (Adv. Hseres., p. 6). See also

^ Thus Heber is said to have been Joseph., Ant., 1. i, c. 2.
a prophet by the Jews (Seder 01am.,

126 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Muhammad As Muhammad acknowledged the divine authority of
theBibie°in the Pentateiich, Psalms, and Gospel, he often appeals to
mission. "^ the consonaucy of the Quran with those writings, and to
the prophecies which he pretended were therein concern-
ing himself, as proofs of his mission ; and he frequently
charges the Jews and Christians with stifling the passages
which bear witness to him.^ His followers also fail not to
produce several texts even from our present copies of the
Old and New Testament to support their master's cause.^ *
Doctrine of The uext article of faith reqviired by the Quran is the
rectionl* ' belief of a general resurrection and a future judgment.
But before we consider the Muhammadan tenets in those
points, it will be proper to mention what they are taught
to believe concerning the intermediate state, both of the
body and of the soul, after death.

* Eor example, Deut. xviii. 15-18, where the Lord promises to
raise up a prophet for the children of Israel /7'om among their breth-
ren. Muslims argue that the Israelites had no brethren excepting
the Ismallites, from whom Muhammad was descended. This argu-
ment is strengthened, they say, by the further statement that this
prophet should be like unto Hoses. Again, Deut. xxxiv. 10, declares
that " there arose no prophet in Israel like unto Moses ; " Habakkuk
iii. 3 says, " The Holy One came from Mount Paran." Mount Paran
is declared by the Muslims to be Makkah !

The Hebrew word T?n. translated desire in Hag. ii. 7, is said to
be the same as the name Muhammad. The same word is trans-
lated beloved in Cant. ii. 3. Wherefore we are called upon to behold
the very name of the Arabian prophet in the Bible !

Wlien we read in Isaiah, in the Septuagint version, chap. xxi. 7,
that he saw " two riders, one on an ass and one on a camel," we are
to understand the rider on the ass to refer to Jesus, who so entered
Jerusalem, while the rider on a camel refers to Muhammad. When
John the Baptist was asked if he were the Christ, or Elijah, or
" that prophet," Muhammadans claim that the words " that pro-
phet " refer to Muhammad, &c., &c. See Essays on the Life of Mu-
hamviad, by Syed Ahmed Khan Bah^dr, C.S.I. e. m. w.

'^ Qur^n, c. 2, vv. 41, 78 5 c. 3, li. Life of Mahomet, and more by
- Some of these texts are produced Marracci in Alcor., p. 26, &c.
by Dr. Prideaux at the end of his

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 127

When a corpse is laid in the grave, they say he is concerning
received by an angel, who gives him notice of the coming after death.
of the two examiners, who are two black, livid angels, of
a terrible appearance, named Munkir and Nakir. These
order the dead person to sit upright, and examine him
concerning his faith, as to the unity of God and the mis-
sion of Muhammad : if he answer rightly, they suffer the
body to rest in peace, and it is refreshed by the air of
paradise ; but if not, they beat him on the temples with
iron maces, till he roars out for anguish so loud, that he
is heard by all from ;^east to west, except men and genii.
Then they press the earth on the corpse, which is gnawed
and stung till the resurrection by ninety-nine dragons,
with seven heads each ; or, as others say, their sins \^ill
become venomous beasts, the grievous ones stinging like
dragons, the smaller like scorpions, and the others like
serpents : circumstances which some understand in a figu-
rative sense.^

The examination of the sepulchre is not only founded
on an express tradition of Muhammad, but is also ]3lainly
hinted at, though not directly taught, in the Quran,^ as
the commentators agree. It is therefore believed by the
orthodox Muhammadans in general, who take care to have
their graves made hollow, that they may sit up with more
ease while they are examined by the angels ; ^ but is utterly
rejected by the sect of the Mutazilites, and perhaps by
some others.

These notions Muhammad certainly borrowed from the tws belief
Jews, among whom they were very anciently received.* fr°om°tife
They say that the angel of death coming and sitting on
the grave, the soul immediately enters the body and raises
it on his feet ; that he then examines the departed person,
and strikes him with a chain half of iron and half of fire ;

1 Al Ghazcili. Vide Toe, not. in ^ Smith, De Morib. et Instit. Tur-

Port. Mosis, p. 241, &c. car. Ep. 2, p. 57.

- Cap. 8, V. 52, and c. 47, v. 29, ■* "Vide Hyde, in Notis ad Bobov.

&c. de Visit, ^^grot., p. 19.

128 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

at the first blow all liis limbs are loosened, at tlie second
his bones are scattered, which are gathered together again
by angels, and the third stroke reduces the body to dust
and ashes, and it returns into the grave. This rack or
torture they call Hihhut liaq^qeh&r, or the heating of the,
sepulchre, and pretend that all men in general must undergo
it, except only those who die on the evening of the Sab-
bath, or have dwelt in the land of Israel.^

If it be objected to the Muhammadans that the cry of
the persons under such examination has never been heard,
or if they be asked how those can undergo it whose bodies
are burnt or devoured by beasts or birds, or otherwise
consumed without burial; they answer, that it is very
possible notwithstanding, since men are not able to per-
ceive what is transacted on the other side the grave, and
that it is sufficient to restore to life any part of the body
which is capable of understanding the questions put by
the angels.^
The state of As to the soul, they hold that when it is separated from
TOTtouT^'' " the body by the angel of death, who performs his office with
opinions. ^^^^ ^^^1 gentleness toM^ards the good and with violence
towards the wicked,^ it enters into that state which they
call Al Barzakh,^ or the interval between death and the
resurrection. If the departed person was a believer, they
say two angels meet it, who convey it to heaven, that its
place there may be assigned, according to its merit and
degree. For they distinguish the souls of the faithful
into three classes : the first of prophets, whose souls are
admitted into paradise immediately ; the second of mar-
tyrs, whose spirits, according to a tradition of Muhammad,
rest in the crops of green birds which eat of the fruits and
drink of the rivers of paradise; and the third of other

1 R. Elias, in Tishbi. See also say the same, in Nishmat bayim., f.

Buxtorf, Synag. Judaic, and Lexic. 77.

Talmiid. * Vide Qurtln, c. 23, v. loi, and

- Vide Poc, ubi sup. not. ib.

3 Quran, c. 79, v. i. The Jews

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 129

believers, concerning tlie state of whose souls before the
resurrection there are various opinions. For, i. Some say
they stay near the sepulchres, with liberty, however, of
going wherever they please ; which they confirm from
Muhammad's manner of saluting them at their graves,
and his affirming that the dead heard those salutations as
well as the living, though they could not answer. Whence
perhaps proceeded the custom of visiting the tombs of rela-
tions, so common among the Muhammadans.^ 2. Others
imagine they are with Adam in the lowest heaven, and
also support their opinion by the authority of their pro-
phet, who gave out that in his return from the upper
heavens in his pretended night journey, he saw there the
souls of those who were destined to paradise on the right
hand of Adam, and of those who were condemned to hell
on his left.- 3. Others fancy the souls of believers remain
in the well Zamzam, and those of infidels in a certain well
in the province of Hadramaut, called Burhut; but this
opinion is branded as heretical. 4. Others say they stay
near the graves for seven days ; but that whither they go
afterwards is uncertain. 5. Others that they are all in
the trumpet whose sound is to raise the dead. 6. And
others that the souls of the good dwell in the forms of
white birds under the throne of GoD.^ As to the condi-
tion of the souls of the wicked, besides the opinions that
have been already mentioned, the more orthodox hold that
they are oftered by the angels to heaven, from whence
being repulsed as stinking and filthy, they are offered to
the earth, and being also refused a place there, are carried
down to the seventh earth, and thrown into a dungeon,
which they call Sajin, under a green rock, or, according to
a tradition of Muhammad, under the devil's jaw,^ to be

^ Poc, ubi sup., 247. throne of glory. Vide ibid., p. 156.

- Ibid., p. 248. Consonant hereto ■* Ibid., p. 250.

are the Jewish notions of the souls * Al Baidhawi. Vide Poc, ubi

of the just being on liigh, under the sup., p. 252. J

I30

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv-

The resur-
rection of
the body :
opinions oi
Muslims.

there tormented till they are called up to be joined again
to their bodies.

Though some among the Muhamraadans have thought
that the resurrection will be merely spiritual, and no more
than the returning of the soul to the place whence it first
came (an opinion defended by Ibn Sina/ and called by
some the opinion of the philosophers);^ and others, who
allow man to consist of body only, that it will be merely
corporeal ; the received opinion is, that both body and
soul will be raised, and their doctors argue strenuously for
the possibility of the resurrection of the body, and dispute
with great subtlety concerning the manner of it.^ But
Muhammad has taken care to preserve one part of the
body, whatever becomes of the rest, to serve for a basis of
the future edifice, or rather a leaven for the mass which is
to be joined to it. For he taught that a man's body was
entirely consumed by the earth, except only the bone
called al Ajb, which we name the os coccygis, or rump-
bone ; and that as it was the first formed in the human
body, it will also remain uncorrupted till the last day, as
a seed from whence the whole is to be renewed : and this
he said would be effected by a forty days' rain which
God should send, and which would cover the earth to the
height of twelve cubits, and cause the bodies to sprout
forth like plants.* Herein also is Muhammad beholden
to the Jews, who say the same things of the bone Luz,^
excepting that what he attributes to a great rain will be
effected, according to them, by a dew impregnating the
dust of the earth.

The time of the resurrection the Muhammadans allow
to be a perfect secret to all but God alone : the angel
Gabriel himself acknowledging his ignorance on this point

^ Or, as we corruptly name him,
Avicenna.

'^ Keiiz al airilr.

3 Vide Poe., ubi sup., p. 254.

* Idem, ibid., p. 255, &c.

* Bereshit. i-abbah, &c.
Poc, ubi sup., p. 1 1 7, &c.

Vide

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 131

when Muliammad asked him about it. However, they say
the approach of that day may be known from certain signs signs of tiie
which are to precede it. These signs they distinguish day.
into two sorts — the lesser and the greater — which I shall
briefly enumerate after Dr. Pocock.^

The lesser signs are: i. The decay of faith among men.^ Lesser signs

rm 1 • p 1 . , . of its ap-

2. Ihe advancing or the meanest persons to emment dig- proach.
nity. 3. That a maid-servant shall become the mother of
her mistress (or master), by which is meant either that
towards the end of the world men shall be much given
to sensuality, or that the Muhammadans shall then take
many captives. 4. Tumults and seditions. 5. A war
with the Turks. 6. Great distress in the world, so that a
man when he passes by another's grave shall say, " Would
to God I were in his place." 7. That the provinces of
Irak and Syria shall refuse to pay their tribute. And, 8.
That the buildings of Madina shall reach to Alu'ib or
Yahab.

The greater signs are :

1. The sun's rising in the west, which some have ima- Greater
gined it originally did.^

2. The appearance of the beast, which shall rise out of
the earth, in the temple of Makkah, or on Mount Safa, or
in the territory of Tayif, or some other place. This beast
they say is to be sixty cubits high: though others, not
satisfied with so small a size, will have her reach to the
clouds and to heaven when her head only is out ; and that
she will appear for three days, but show only a third part
of her body. They describe this monster, as to her form, to
be a compound of various species, having the head of a bull,
the eyes of a hog, the ears of an elephant, the horns of a
stag, the neck of an ostrich, the breast of a lion, the colour
of a tiger, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the legs of
a camel, and the voice of an ass. Some say this beast is

^ Vide Poc, ubi sup., p. 258, &c. ^ See Whiston's Theory of the

^ See Luke xviii, 8. Earth, bk. ii. p. 98, &c.

132 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

to appear three times in several places, and that she will
bring with her the rod of Moses and the seal of Solomon ;
and being so swift that none can overtake or escape her,
will with the first strike all the believers on the face and
mark them with the word Mumin, i.e., believer; and with
the latter will mark the unbelievers, on the face likewise,
with the word Kafir, i.e., infidel, that every person may
be known for what he really is. They add that the same
beast is to demonstrate the vanity of all religious except
Islam, and to speak Arabic. All this stuff seems to be
the result of a confused idea of the beast in the Eevela-
tion.i

3. War with the Greeks, and the taking of Constan-
tinople by 70,000 of the posterity of Isaac, who shall not
win that city by force of arms, but the walls shall fall
down while they cry out, " There is no god but God : God
is most great ! " As they are dividing the spoil, news will
come to them of the appearance of Antichrist, whereupon
they shall leave all, and return back.

4. The coming of Antichrist, whom the Muhammadans
call al Masih al Dajjal, i.e., the false or lying Christ, and
simply al Dajjal. He is to be one-eyed, and marked on
the forehead with the letters K.r.E., signifying Kafir, or
infidel. They say that the Jews give him the name of
Messiah Ben David, and pretend he is to come in the last
days and to be lord both of land and sea, and that he will
restore the kingdom to them. According to the traditions
of Muhammad, he is to appear first between Irak and Syria,
or according to others, in the province of Khurasan ; they
add that he is to ride on an ass, that he will be followed
by 70,000 Jews of Ispahan, and continue on earth forty
days, of which one will be equal in length to a year, another
to a month, another to a week, and the rest will be common
days ; that he is to lay waste all places, but will not enter
Makkah or Madina, which are to be guarded by angels;

^ Chap. xiii.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 133

and that at length he will be slain by Jesus, who is to
encounter him at the gate of Lud, It is said that Mu-
hammad foretold several Antichrists, to the number of
about thirty, but one of greater note than the rest.

5. The descent of Jesus on earth. They pretend that
he is to descend near the white tower to the east of
Damascus, when the people are returned from the taking
of Constantinople ; that he is to embrace the Muham-
mad an religion, marry a wife, get children, kill Antichrist,
and at length die after forty years', or, according to others,
twenty-four years',^ continuance on earth. Under him
they say there will be great security and plenty in the
world, all hatred and malice being laid aside ; when lions
and camels, bears and sheep, shall live in peace, and a
child shall play with serpents unhurt.^

6. War with the Jews, of whom the Muhammadans
are to make a religious slaughter, the very trees and stones
discovering such of them as hide themselves, except only
the tree called Gharkad, which is the tree of the Jews.

7. The eruption of Gog and Magog, or, as they are
called in the East, Yajiij and Majiij, of whom many
things are related in the Quran ^ and tlie traditions of
Muhammad. These barbarians, they tell us, having passed
the lake of Tiberias, which the vanguard of their vast army
will drink dry, will come to Jerusalem, and there greatly
distress Jesus and his companions ; till at his request
God will destroy them, and fill the earth with their car-
cases, which after some time God will send birds to carry
away, at the prayers of Jesus and his followers. Their
bows, arrows, and quivers the Muslims will burn for
seven years together ; * and at last God will send a rain
to cleanse the earth, and to make it fertile.

8. A smoke which shall fill the whole earth.^

^ Al Thaldbi, in Qxiran, c. 4. ^ See Quran, c. 44, v. 10, and the

^ See Isaiah xi. 6, &c. notes thereon. Compare also Joel ii.

^ Cap. 18, V. 96, and 21, v. 96. 20, and Rev. ix. 2.
* See Ezek. xxxix. 9 ; Rev. xx. 8.

134 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

9. An eclipse of tlie moon. Muhammad is reported to
have said that there would be three eclipses before the
last hour ; one to be seen in the East, another in the West,
and the third in Arabia.

10. The returning of the Arabs to the worship of al Lat
and al Uzza and the rest of their ancient idols, after the
decease of every one in whose heart there was faith equal
to a grain of mustard-seed, none but the very worst of men
being left alive. For God, they say, will send a cold
odoriferous wind, blowing from Syria Damascena, which
shall sweep away the souls of all the faithful, and the
Quran itself, so that men will remain in the grossest
ignorance for a hundred years.

11. The discovery of a vast heap of gold and silver by
the retreating of the Euphrates, which will be the destruc-
tion of many.

1 2. The demolition of the Kaabah or temple of Makkah
by the Ethiopians.^

13. The speaking of beasts and inanimate things.

1 4. The breaking out of fire in the province of Hijaz ;
or, according to others, in Yam an.

15. The appearance of a man of the descendants of
Qahtan, who shall drive men before him with his staff.

16. The coming of the Mahdi or director, concerning
whom Muhammad prophesied that the world should not
have an end till one of his own family should govern the
Arabians, whose name should be the same with his own
name, and whose father's name should also be the same
with his father's name, who should fill the earth with
righteousness.* This person the Shiites believe to be now

* An account of a remarkable movement among Indian Muslims,
aroused during the eleventh century (a.h.) by the expected advent
of the Im^ra Mahdi, is given in F. Talboys Wheeler's History of
India, vol. iv. part i. pp. 1 51-153. E. M. w.

^ See post, in this section.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 135

alive, and coucealed in some secret place till the time of
his manifestation ; for they suppose him to be no other
than the last of the twelve Imams, named Muhammad
Abu'l Qasim, as their prophet was, and the son of Hasan
al Askari, the eleventh of that succession. He was born
at Sarmanrai in the 255th year of the Hijra.^ From this
tradition, it is to be presumed, an opinion pretty current
among the Christians took its rise, that the Muhammadans
are in expectation of their prophet's return.

17. A wind which shall sweep away the souls of all
who have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as has been
mentioned under the tenth sign.

These are the greater signs, which, according to their
doctrine, are to precede the resurrection, but still leave
the hour of it uncertain : for the immediate sign of its
being come will be the first blast of the trumpet, which The blast
they believe will be sounded three times. The first they recUon*^
call the blast of consternation, at the hearing of which all ^^^^'
creatures in heaven and earth shall be struck with terror,
except those whom God shall please to exempt from it.
The effects attributed to this first sound of the trumpet Effects of
are very wonderful; for they say the earth will be shaken, wast.
and not only all buildings, but the very mountains
levelled ; that the heavens shall melt, the sun be darkened,
the stars fall, on the death of the angels, who, as some
imagine, hold them suspended between heaven and earth,
and the sea shall be troubled and dried up, or, according
to others, turned into flames, the sun, moon, and stars
being thrown into it : the Quran, to express the greatness
of the terror of that day, adds that women who give suck
shall abandon the care of their infants, and even the she-
camels which have gone ten months with young (a most
valuable part of the substance of that nation) shall be
utterly neglected. A further effect of this blast will be
that concourse of beasts mentioned in the Quran,^ though

1 Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., p. 531. ^ Cap. 81, v. 5.

136

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sEC. iv.

Effects'of
the second
blast.

Effects of
tlie thii'd
blast

some doubt whether it be to precede the resurrection or
not. They who suppose it will precede, think that all
kinds of animals, forgetting their respective natural fierce-
ness and timidity, will run together into one place, being
terrified by the sound of the trumpet and the sudden
shock of nature.

The Muhammadans believe that this first blast will be
followed by a second, which they call the blast of examina-
tion} when all creatures, both in heaven and earth, shall
die or be annihilated, except those which God shall please
to exempt from the common fate ; ^ and this, they say,
shall happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay, in an instant,
nothing surviving except God alone, with paradise and
hell, and the inhabitants of those two places, and the
throne of glory.^ The last who shall die will be the angel
of death.

Forty years after this will be heard the hlast of resurrec-
tion, when the trumpet shall be sounded the third time by
Israfil, who, together with Gabriel and Michael, will be
previously restored to life, and standing on the rock of the
temple of Jerusalem,'* shall, at God's command, call to-
gether all the dry and rotten bones, and other dispersed
parts of the bodies, and the very hairs, to judgment. This
angel having, by the divine order, set the trumpet to his
mouth, and called together all the souls from all parts,
will throw them into his trumpet, from whence, on his
giving the last sound, at the command of GoD, they will
fly forth like bees, and fill the whole space between heaven
and earth, and then repair to their respective bodies, which

1 Several writers, however, make
no distinction between this blast and
the first, supposing the trumpet will
sound but twice. See the notes to
Qurdn, c. 39, v. 68.

- Qurtin, c. 30, v. 14.

■■* To these some add the spirit
who bears the waters on which the
throne is placed, the preserved table
wherein the decrees of God are

registered, and the pen wherewith
they are written ; all which things
the Muhammadans imagine were
created before the world.

■* In this circumstance the Mu-
hammadans follow the Jews, who
also agree that the trumpet will
sound more than once. Vide R.
Bechai in Biur hattorah, and Otioth
shel R. Akiba.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 137

the opening earth ^A'ill suffer to arise ; and the first who
shall so arise, according to a tradition of Muhammad, will
be himself. For this birth the earth will be prepared by
the rain above mentioned, which is to fall continually for
forty years,! ^nd will resemble the seed of a man, and be
supplied from the water under the throne of God, which
is called living water ; by the efficacy and virtue of which
the dead bodies shall spring forth from their graves, as
they did in their mother's womb, or as corn sprouts forth
by common rain, till they become perfect; after which
breath will be breathed into them, and they will sleep in
their sepulchres till they are raised to life at the last
trump.

As to the length of the day of judgment, the Quran in Length of
one place tells us that it will last 1000 years,^ and in an- ment-day.
other 50,000.^ To reconcile this apparent contradiction,
the commentators use several shifts : some saying they
know not what measure of time God intends in those pas-
sages ; others, that these forms of speaking are figurative
and not to be strictly taken, and were designed only to
express the terribleness of that day, it being usual for the
Arabs to describe what they dislike as of long continuance,
and what they like as the contrary ; and others suppose
them spoken only in reference to the difficulty of the
business of the day, which, if God should commit to any
of his creatures, they would not be able to go through it
in so many thousand years ; to omit some other opinions
which we may take notice of elsewhere.

Having said so much in relation to the time of the
resurrection, let us now see who are to be raised from the
dead, in what manner and form they shall be raised, in
what place they shall be assembled, and to what end,
accordinsc to the doctrine of the Muhammadans.

^ Elsewhere (see supra, p. 130) this to fall during the whole interval
rain is said to continue only forty between the second and third blasts.
days ; but it rather seems that it is " Qurdn, c. 32, v. 4.

2 Ibid., c. 70, V. 4.

138 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sEC. iv.

Resurrec-" That tliG resuiTection will be general, and extend to all

tion to bej ,, , .. ,.,.,

general. cieatures, Dotli angeis, genu, men, and animals, is the
received opinion, which they support by the authority of
the Quran, though that passage which is produced to prove
the resurrection of brutes be otherwise interpreted by
some.^

Manner of Tlic manner of their resurrection will be very different.

of the dead. Those who are destined to be partakers of eternal happi-
ness will arise in honour and security ; and those who are
doomed to misery, in disgrace and under dismal appre-
hensions. As to mankind, they say that they will be
raised perfect in all their parts and members, and in the
same state as they came out of their mother's wombs,
that is, barefooted, naked, and uncircumcised ; which cir-
cumstances when Muhammad was telling his wife Ayesha,
she, fearing the rules of modesty might be thereby violated,
objected that it would be very indecent for men and
women to look upon one another in that condition ; but
he answered her, that the business of the day would be
too weighty and serious to allow them the making use of
that liberty. Others, however, allege the authority of
their prophet for a contrary opinion as to their nakedness,
and pretend he asserted that the dead should arise dressed
in the same clothes in which they died ; " unless we inter-
pret these words, as some do, not so much of the outward
dress of the body, as the inward clothing of the mind,
and understand thereby that every person will rise again
in the same state as to his faith or infidelity, his know-
ledge or ignorance, his good or bad works. Muhammad
is also said to have further taught, by another tradition,
that mankind shall be assembled at the last day distin-
guished into three classes. The first, of those who go on

1 See the notes to Quran, c. 8l, rise clothed, it is no wonder the

V. 5, and supra, page 136. pious who are buried in their clothes

- In this also they follow their should rise with them. Gemar.

old guides, the Jews, who say that Sanhedr., fol. 90.
if the wheat which is sown naked

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 139

foot ; the second, of those who ride ; and the third, of
those who creep grovelling with their faces on the ground.
The first class is to consist of those believers whose good
works have been few; the second of those who are in
greater honour with God, and more acceptable to him;
whence Ali affirmed that the pious when they come forth
from their sepulchres shall find ready prepared for them
white-winged camels with saddles of gold, wherein are
to be observed some footsteps of the doctrine of the ancient
Arabians ; ^ and the third class, they say, will be composed
of the infidels, whom GoD shall cause to make their ap-
pearance with their faces on the earth, blind, dumb, and
deaf. But the ungodly will not be thus only distinguished ;
for, according to a tradition of the prophet, there will be
ten sorts of wicked men on whom God shall on that day
fix certain discretory remarks. The first will appear in
the form of apes ; these are the professors of Zendicism :
the second in that of swine ; these are they wdio have
been greedy of filthy lucre and enriched themselves by
public oppression : the third will be brought with their
heads reversed and their feet distorted; these are the
usurers : the fourth will wander about blind ; these are
unjust judges : the fifth will be deaf, dumb, and blind,
understanding nothing; these are they who glory in their
own works : the sixth will gnaw their tongues, which will
hang down upon their breasts, corrupted blood flowing
from their mouths like spittle, so that everybody shall
detest them ; these are the learned men and doctors, whose
actions contradict their sayings : the seventh will have
their hands and feet cut off; these are they who have
injured their neighbours : the eighth will be fixed to the
trunks of palm trees or stakes of wood; these are the
false accusers and informers : the ninth will stink worse
than a corrupted corpse ; these are they who have indulged
their passions and voluptuous appetites, but refused God

^ See supra, Sect. I., p. 43.

I40

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I v.

The place
of final
judgment.

End of the
resurrec-
tion.

State of the
resurrected
pending
judgment.

such part of their wealth as was due to him : the tenth
will be clothed with garments daubed with pitch ; and
these are the proud, the vainglorious, and the arrogant.

As to the place where they are to be assembled to judg-
ment, the Quran and the traditions of Muhammad agree
that it M'ill be on the earth, but in what part of the earth
it is not agreed. Some say their prophet mentioned Syria
for the place ; others, a white and even tract of land, with-
out inhabitants or any signs of buildings. Al Ghazali
imagines it will be a second earth, which he supposes to
be of silver; and others, an earth which has nothing in
common with ours but the name ; having, it is possible,
heard something of the new heavens and new earth
mentioned in Scripture : whence the Quran has this ex-
pression, " On the day wherein the earth shall be changed
into another earth." ^

The end of the resurrection the Muhammadans declare
to be, that they who are so raised may give an account of
their actions and receive the reward thereof. And they
believe that not only mankind, but the genii and irrational
animals also,^ shall be judged on this great day, when the
unarmed cattle shall take vengeance on the horned, till
entire satisfaction shall be given to the injured.^

As to mankind, they hold that when they are all
assembled together, they will not be -immediately brought
to judgment, but the angels will keep them in their ranks
and order while they attend for that purpose ; and this
attendance some say is to last forty years, others seventy,

1 Cap. 14, V. 49.

" Qunln, c. 6, v. 37. Vide Mai-
monid., More Nev., part iii. c. 17.

^ This opinion the learned Greaves
supposed to have taken its rise from
the following words of Ezekiel,
wrongly iinderstood : " And as for
ye, O my flock, thus saith the Lord
God, Behold I, even I, will judge
between the fat cattle, and between
the lean cattle ; because ye have
thrust with side and with shoulder,

and pushed all the diseased with
your horns, till ye have scattered
them abroad ; therefore will I save
my flock, and they shall no more be
a pre}', and I will judge between
cattle and cattle," &c. (Ezek. xxxiv.
17, 20-22). Much might be said
concerning brutes deserving future
reward and punishment. See Bayle,
Diet. Hist. Art. Rorarius, Rem. D.,
&c.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 141

others 300, nay, some say no less tlian 50,000 years, each
of them vouching their prophet's authority. During this
space they will stand looking up to heaven, but without
receiving any information or orders thence, and are to suffer
grievous torments, both the just and the unjust, though
with manifest difference. For the limbs of the former,
particularly those parts which they used to wash in making
the ceremonial ablution before prayer, shall shine gloriously,
and their sufferings shall be light in comparison, and shall
last no longer than the time necessary to say the appointed
prayers ; but the latter will have their faces obscured with
blackness, and disfigured with all the marks of sorrow and
deformity. What will then occasion not the least of their
pain is a wonderful and incredible sweat, which will even
stop their mouths, and in which they will be immersed in
various degrees according to their demerits, some to the
ankles only, some to the knees, some to the middle, some
so high as their mouth, and others as their ears. And this
sweat, they say, will be provoked not only by that vast
concourse of all sorts of creatures mutually pressing and
treading on one another's feet, but by the near and unusual
approach of the sun, which will be then no farther from
them than the distance of a mile, or, as some translate the
word, the signification of which is ambiguous, than the
length of a bodkin. So that their skulls will boil like a
potji and they will be all bathed in sweat. From this
inconvenience, however, the good will be protected by the
shade of God's throne ; but the wicked will be so miserably
tormented with it, and also with hunger, and thirst, and a
stifling air, that they will cry out, " Lord, deliver us from
this anguish, though thou send us into hell-fire." ^ What
they fable of the extraordinary heat of the sun on this
occasion, the Muhammadans certainly borrowed from the
Jews, who say, that for the punishment of the wicked on
the last day that planet shall be drawn from its sheath,

^ Al Ghazali. ^ Idem.

142

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Muham-
mad's inter-
cession iji
the judg-
ment.

The great
day of
absizes.

in wliicli it is now put up, lest it sliould destroy all things
by its excessive lieat.i

When those who have risen shall have waited the limited
time, the Muhamraadans believe God will at length ap-
pear to judge them ; Muhammad undertaking the office
of intercessor, after it shall have been declined by Adam,
Noah, Abraham, and Jesus, who shall beg deliverance only
for their own souls. They say that on this solemn occa-
sion God will come in the clouds, surrounded by angels,
and will produce the books wherein the actions of every
person are recorded by their guardian angels,- and will
command the prophets to bear witness against those to
whom they have been respectively sent. Then every one
will be examined concerning all his words and actions,
uttered and done by him in this life ; not as if GoD needed
any information in those respects, but to oblige the person
to make public confession and acknowledgment of God's
justice. The particulars of which they shall give an account,
as Muhammad himself enumerated them, are — of their
time, how they spent it ; of their wealth, by what means
they acquired it and how they employed it ; of their
bodies, wherein they exercised them ; of their knowledge
and learning, what use they made of them. It is said,
however, that Muhammad has affirmed that no less than
70,000 of his followers should be permitted to enter para-
dise without any previous examination, which seems to be
contradictory to what is said above. To the questions we
have mentioned each person shall answer, and make his
defence in the best manner he can, endeavouring to excuse
himself by casting the blame of his evil deeds on others,
so that a dispute shall arise even between the soul and
the body, to which of them their guilt ought to be imputed^
the soul saying, " 0 Lord, my body I received from thee ;
for thou createdst me without a hand to lay hold with,

1 Vide Pocock, not. in Port. Mosis, p. 277.
^ See supra, p. 120.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 143

a foot to walk with, an eye to see with, or an imderstancl-
ing to apprehend with, till I came and entered into this
body; therefore, punish it eternally, but deliver me."
The body, on the other side, will make this apology : — " 0
Lord, thou createdst me like a stock of wood, having
neither hand that I could lay hold with, nor foot that I
could walk with, till this soul, like a ray of light, entered
into me, and my tongue began to speak, my eye to see,
and my foot to walk ; therefore, punish it eternally, but
deliver me." But God will propound to them the following
parable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as w^ell
as the preceding dispute, was borrowed by the Muham-
madans from the Jews : ^ — A certain king, having a pleasant
garden, in which were ripe fruits, set two persons to keep
it, one of whom was blind and the other lame, the former
not being able to see the fruit nor the latter to gather it ;
the lame man, however, seeing the fruit, persuaded the
blind man to take him upon his shoulders ; and by that
means he easily gathered the fruit, which they divided
between them. The lord of the garden, coming some time
after, and inquiring after his fruit, each began to excuse
himself ; the blind man said he had no eyes to see with,
and the lame man that he had no feet to approach the
trees. But the king, ordering the lame man to be set on
the blind, passed sentence on and punished them both.
And in the same manner will GOD deal with the body and
the soul. As these apologies will not avail on that day,
so will it also be in vain for any one to deny his evil
actions, since men and angels and his own members, nay,
the very earth itself, will be ready to bear witness against
him.

Though the Muhammadans assign so long a space for Time ai-
the attendance of the resuscitated before their trial, yet the uiai.
they tell us the trial itself will be over in much less time,

^ Gemara, Sanhedr. c. II ; R. Jos. Albo, Serm. iv. c. 33. See also
Epiphan, in Ancorat., sect. 89.

144

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The account
books deli-
vered.

The great

balance

described.

and, according to an expression of Muhammad, familiar
enough to the Arabs, will last no longer than while one
may milk an ewe, or than the space between the two
milkings of a she-camel.^ Some, explaining those words
so frequently used in the Quran, " God will be swift in
taking an account," say that he will judge all creatures
in the space of half a day, and others that it will be done
in less time than the twinkling of an eye.^

At this examination they also believe that each person
will have the book wherein all the actions of his life are
written delivered to him ; which books the righteous will
receive in their right hand, and read with great pleasure
and satisfaction, but the ungodly will be obliged to take
them against their wills in their left,^ which will be
bound behind their backs, their right hand being tied up
to their necks.^

To show the exact justice which will be observed on
this great day of trial, the next thing they describe is the
balance wherein all things shall be weighed. They say
it will be held by Gabriel, and that it is of so vast a size,
that its two scales, one of which hangs over paradise, and
the other over hell, are capacious enough to contain both
heaven and earth. Though some are willing to under-
stand what is said in the Quran concerning this balance
allegorically, and only as a figurative representation of
God's equity, yet the more ancient and orthodox opinion
is that it is to be taken literally; and since Avords and
actions, being mere accidents, are not capable of being
themselves weighed, they say that the books wherein
they are written will be thrown into the scales, and
accordincf as those wherein the ^'ood or the evil actions

^ The Arabs use, after they have
drawn some milk from the camel,
to wait a while and let her young
one suck a little, that she may give
down her milk more plentifully at
the second milking.

" Pocock, not. in Port. Mosis, pp.
278-282. See also Quran, c. 2, v.
201.

^ Qurdn, c. 17, v. 16; c. 18, v.
47; c. 69, V. 25; and c. 84, vv, 7, 8.

■* Jalaluddin,

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 145

are recorded shall preponderate, sentence will be given ;
those whose balances laden with their good works shall
be heavy will be saved, but those whose balances are
light will be condemned.^ Nor will any one have cause
to complain tliat God suffers any good action to pass
unrewarded, because the wicked for the good they do
have their reward in this life, and therefore can expect no
favour in the next.

The old Jewish writers make mention as well of the Notions of
books to be produced at the last day, wherein men's balance bor-
actions are registered, ^ as of the balance wherein they jews and.
shall be weighed ; ^ and the Scripture itself seems to have ^^^^'^^'
given the first notion of both.* But what the Persian
Magi believe of the balance comes nearest to the Muham-
madan opinion. They hold that on the day of judgment
two angels, named Mihr and Sarosh, will stand on the
bridge we shall describe by and by, to examine every
person as he passes ; that the former, who represents the
divine mercy, will hold a balance in his hand to weigh
the actions of men ; that according to the re2:)ort he shall
make thereof to God, sentence will be pronounced, and
those whose good works are found more ponderous, if
they turn the scale but by the weight of a hair, will be
permitted to pass forward to paradise ; but those whose
good works shall be found light will be by the other
angel, who represents God's justice, precipitated from the
bridge into hell.^

This examination being passed, and every one's works Mutual re-
weighed in a just balance, that mutual retaliation will the'crea-
follow, according to which every creature will take ven- oTmen.,
geance one of another, or have satisfaction made them
for the injuries which they have suffered. And since

^ Qurin, c. 23, v. 103 ; c. 7, v. 8, * Exod. xxxii. 32, 33 ; Dan. vii.

&c. 10; Rev. XX. 12, kc, and Dan. v.

2 Midrash, Yalkut Shemuni, f. 27.

153, c- 3- ^ Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers., pp.

* Gemar. Sanhedr., f. 91, &c. 245, 401, &c.

K

146 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

there will then he no other way of returning like for like,
the manner of giving this satisfaction will be by taking
away a proportionable part of the good works of liira who
offered the injury, and adding it to those of him who
suffered it. Which being done, if the angels (by \vhose
ministry this is to be performed) say, " Lord, we have
given to every one his due, and there remaineth of this
person's good works so much as equalleth the weight of
an ant," God will of his mercy cause it to be doubled unto
him, that he may be admitted into paradise ; but if, on
the contrary, his good works be exhausted, and there re-
main evil works only, and there be any who have not yet
received satisfaction from him, God will order that an
equal weight of their sins be added unto his, that he may
be punished for them in their stead, and he will be sent
to hell laden with both. This will be the method of God's
Pate of the dealing with mankind. As to brutes, after they shall
genii. ' liavc likewise taken vengeance of one another, as we have
mentioned above, he will command them to be changed
into dust ; ^ wicked men being reserved to more grievous
punishment, so that they shall cry out, on hearing this
sentence passed on the brutes, " Would to God that we
were dust also !" As to the genii, many Muhammadans
are of opinion that such of them as are true believers will
undergo the same fate as the irrational animals, and have
no other reward than the favour of being converted into
dust ; and for this they quote the authority of their
prophet. But this, however, is judged not so very reason-
able, since the genii, being capable of putting themselves
in the state of believers as well as men, must consequently
deserve, as it seems, to be rewarded for their faith, as well
as to be punished for infidelity. Wherefore some entertain
a more favourable opinion, and assign the believing genii
a place near the confines of paradise, where they will

^ Yet they say the dog of the favour, be admitted into paradise,
even sleepers and Ezra's ass, which See Quran, c. iS, vv. 8-24, and
was raised to life, will, by peculiar c. 3.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 147

enjoy sufficient felicity, thongli they be not admitted into
that delightful mansion. But the unbelieving genii, it
is universally agreed, will be punished eternally, and be
thrown into hell with the infidels of mortal race. It may
not be improper to observe, that under the denomination
of unbelieving genii, the Muhammadans comprehend also
the devil and his companions.-^

The trials being over and the assembly dissolved, the Passing

^ -^ . . the bridge

Muhammadans hold that those who are to be admitted into over heii.
paradise will take the right-hand way, and those who are
destined to hell-hre will take the left ; but both of them
must first pass the bridge, called in Arabic al Sirat, which
they say is laid over the midst of hell, and described to be
finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a sword,
so that it seems very difficult to conceive how any one
shall be able to stand upon it; for which reason most of
the sect of the Mutazilites reject it as a fable, though the
orthodox think it a sufficient proof of the truth of this
article that it was seriously affirmed by him who never
asserted a falsehood, meaning their prophet, who, to add
to the difficulty of the passage, has likewise declared that
this bridge is beset on each side with briars and hooked
thorns, which will, however, be no impediment to the good,
for they shall pass with wonderful ease and swiftness, like
lightning or the wind, Muhammad and his Muslims lead-
ing the way ; whereas the wicked, what with the slipperi-
ness and extreme narrowness of the path, the entangling
of the thorns, and the extinction of the light which
directed the former to paradise, will soon miss their foot-
ing, and fall down headlong into hell, which is gaping
beneath them,^

This circumstance Muhammad seems also to have tms notion

. also boi-

borrowed from the Magians, who teach that on the last rowed from

. the

day all mankind will be obliged to pass a bridge which Magians.
they call Piil Chinavad or Chinavar, that is, the straight

^ Vide Qurdn, c. 1 8, v. 48. "^ Pocock, ubi sup., pp. 282-2S9.

148 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Iridge, leading directly into the other world ; on the
midst of which they suppose the angels, appointed by
God to perform that office, will stand, who will require
of every one a strict account of his actions, and weigh
them in the manner we have already mentioned.^ It is
true the Jews speak likewise of the bridge of hell, which
they say is no broader than a thread ; but then they do
not tell us that any shall be obliged to pass it except the
idolaters, who will fall thence into perdition. ^
The seven As to the punishment of the wicked, the Muhamma-
of hell dans are taught that hell is divided into seven storeys, or
inmates. apartments, one below another, designed for the reception
of as many distinct classes of the damned.^ The first,
which they call Jahannam, they say will be the receptacle
of those who acknowledged one God, that is, the wicked
Muliammadans, who, after having there been punished
according to their demerits, will at length be released. The
second, named Ladhwa, they assign to the Jews ; the third,
named Hutama, to the Christians ; the fourth, named al
Sair, to the Sabians ; the fifth, named Saqar, to the
Magians; the sixth, named al Jahim, to the idolaters;
and the seventh, which is the lowest and worst of all,
and is called al Hawiya, to the hypocrites, or those who
outwardly professed some religion, but in their hearts
were of none.* Over each of these apartments they
believe tliere will be set a guard of angels,^ nineteen in

^Hyde, De Rel.Vet. Pers.,pp. 24S, deny the creation and believe the

402, &c. eternity of the world ; the second,

^ Midrash, Yalkut Reubeni, § for the Dualists, or Manichee.s, and

Gehinnom. the idolatrous Arabs ; the third, for

^ Quran, c. 15, v. 14. the Brahmins of the Indies ; the

4 Others fill these apartments with fourth, for the Jews ; the fifth, for
different company. Some place in the Christians ; and the sixth, for
the second the idolaters ; in the the Magians. But all agree in
third. Gog and Magog, &c. ; in the assigning the seventh to the hypo-
fourth, the devils; in the fifth, those crites. Vide Millium, De Moham-
who neglect alms and prayers ; and medismo ante Moham., p. 412 ;
crowd the Jews, Christians, and Ma- D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., p. 36S, &c.
gians together in the sixth. Some, * Quran, c. 40, v. 52 ; c. 43, v. 77 ;
again, will have the first to be pre- c. 74, v. 30, &c.
pared for the Dahrians, or those who

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 149

number,^ to whom the damned will confess the just
judgment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for
some alleviation of their pain, or that they may be deli-
vered by being annihilated.^

Muhammad has, in his Quran and traditions, been very Proportion

.,. ^ . pini-i*'^ suffering

exact m describing the various torments or heil, which, in heii.
according to him, the wicked will suffer both from intense
heat and excessive cold. We shall, however, enter into
no detail of them here, but only observe that the degrees
of these pains will also vary, in proportion to the crimes
of the sufferer and the apartment he is condemned to ;
and that he who is punished the most lightly of all will
be shod with shoes of fire, the fervour of which will cause
his skull to boil like a caldron. The condition of these
unhappy wretches, as the same prophet teaches, cannot be
properly called either life or death ; and their misery will
be greatly increased by their despair of being ever de-
livered from that place, since, according to that frequent
expression in the Quran, " they must remain therein for
ever." It must be remarked, however, that the infidels
alone will be liable to eternity of damnation, for the Mus-
lims, or those who have embraced the true religion, and
liave been guilty of heinous sins, will be delivered thence
after they shall have expiated their crimes by their
sufferings. The contrary of either of these opinions is
reckoned heretical ; for it is the constant orthodox doc-
trine of the Muhammadans that no unbeliever or idolater
will ever be released, nor any person who in his lifetime
professed and believed the unity of God be condemned to
eternal punishment. As to the time and manner of the Final
deliverance of those believers whose evil actions shall of Muslim^
outweigh their good, there is a tradition of Muhammad °" ^" ^'
that they shall be released after they shall have been
scorched and their skins burnt black, and shall afterwards
be admitted into paradise ; and when the inhabitants of

^ Quran, c. 74, v. 30, - Ibid., c. 40, v. 52 ; c. 43, v. 77.

150 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. iv.

that place shall, in contempt, call them infernals, God
will, on their prayers, take from them that opprobrious
appellation. Others say he taught that while they con-
tinue in hell they shall be deprived of life, or (as his words
are otherwise interpreted) be cast into a most profound
sleep, that they may be the less sensible of their torments ;
and that they shall afterwards be received into paradise,
Cleansing and there revive on their being washed with the water of
nais. life ; though some suppose they will be restored to life

before they come forth from their place of punishment,
that at their bidding farewell to their pains they may
have some little taste of them. The time which these
believers shall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet, will not be less than 900
years, nor more than 7000. And as to the manner of their
delivery, they say that they shall be distinguished by the
marks of prostration on those parts of their bodies with
which they used to touch the ground in prayer, and over
which the fire will, therefore, have no power ; and that
being known by this characteristic, they will be relieved
by the mercy of God, at the intercession of Muhammad
and the blessed; whereupon those who shall have been
dead will be restored to life, as has been said, and those
whose bodies shall have contracted any sootiness or filth
from the flames and smoke of hell will be immersed in
one of the rivers of paradise, called the river of life, which
will wash them whiter than pearls.^
Muhammad For most of thcsc circumstanccs relating to hell and
Jews and the state of the damned, Muhammad was likewise, in all
his°notions probability, indebted to the Jews, and in part to the
the state of Magiaus, both of whom agree in making seven distinct
apartments in hell,^ though they vary in other particulars.
The former place an angel as a guard over each of these
infernal apartments, and suppose he will intercede for the

^ Poc, not. in Port. Mosis, pp. in Arubin, f. 19 ; Zohar. ad Exod.
289-291. xxvi. 2, &c. ; and Hyde, De E-el.

^ Nishmat hayim, f. 32 ; Gemar. Vet. Pers., p. 245.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 151

miserable wretches there imprisoned, who will openly
acknowledge the justice of God in their condemnation.^
They also teach that the wicked will suffer a diversity of
punishments, and that by intolerable cold- as well as heat,
and that their faces shall become black ; ^ and believe
those of their own religion shall also be punished in hell
hereafter, according to their crimes (for they hold that
few or none will be found so exactly righteous as to deserve
no punishment at all), but will soon be delivered thence,
when they shall be sufficiently purged from their sins by
their father Abraham, or at the intercession of him or
some other of the prophets.* The Magians allow but one
angel to preside over all the seven hells, who is named
by them Vanand Yazad, and, as they teach, assigns punish-
ments proportionate to each person's crimes, restraining
also the tyranny and excessive cruelty of the devil, who
would, if left to himself, torment the damned beyond their
sentence.^ Those of this religion do also mention and
describe various kinds of torments, wherewith the wicked
will be punished in the next life, among which, though
they reckon extreme cold to be one, yet they do not admit
fire, out of respect, as it seems, to that element, which
they take to be the representation of the divine nature ;
and, therefore, they rather choose to describe the damned
souls as suffering by other kinds of punishments, such as
an intolerable stink, the stinging and biting of serpents
and wild beasts, the cutting and tearing of the flesh by
the devils, excessive hunger and thirst, and the like.^

Before we proceed to a description of the Muhammadan
paradise, we must not forget to say something of the wall
or partition which they imagine to be between that place
and hell, and seems to be copied from the great gulf of

^ Midrash, Yalkut Shemuni, part Arubin, f. 19. Vide Qur^n, c. 2, v,

II, f. 116. 79, and c. 3, V. 24, and notes there.

■•^ Zohar. ad Exod. xix. ^ Hj'de, De Rel. Vet. Pers., p.

^ Yalkut Shemuni, ubi sup., f. 86. 1S2.

* Nishmat hayim, f. 82; Gemar. ^ Vide eundem, ibid., p. 399, &c.

152 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The parti- Separation mentioned in Scripture.^ They call it al Urf,
^"d/ and more frequently in the plural al Araf, a word derived
from the verb arafa, which signifies to distinguish between
things, or to part them ; though some commentators give
another reason for the imposition of this name, because,
they say, those who stand on this partition will know and
distinguish the blessed from the damned by their respec-
tive marks or characteristics ; ^ and others say the word
properly intends anything that is high raised or elevated,
as such a wall of separation must be supposed to be.^ The
Muhammadan writers greatly differ as to the persons who
are to be found on al Araf. Some imagine it to be a sort
of limbo for the patriarchs and prophets, or for the martyrs
and those who have been most eminent for sanctity, among
wdiom, they say, there wdll be also angels in the form of
men. Others place here such whose good and evil works
are so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other,
and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment ; and
these, they say, will, on the last day, be admitted into
paradise, after they shall have performed an act of adora-
tion, wdiich wdll be imputed to them as a merit, and will
make the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others
suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for
those who have gone to war without their parents' leave,
and therein suffered martyrdom, being excluded paradise
for their disobedience, and escaping hell because they are
martyrs. The breadth of this partition wall cannot be
supposed to be exceeding great, since not only those who
shall stand thereon will hold conference with the inhabi-
tailts both of paradise and of hell, but the blessed and
the damned themselves will also be able to talk to one
another.'*

If Muhammad did not take his notions of the partition
we have been describing from Scripture, he must at least

^ Luke xvi. 26. ^ Al Baidh^wi.

2 Jalaluddin. Vide Quran, c. 7, * Quran, ubi sup. Vide D'Herbel,
vv. 47-50. Eibl. Orient., p. 121, &c.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 153

have borrowed it at second-liand from the Jews, who
mention a thin wall dividing paradise from hell.-^

The righteous, as the Muhammadans are taught to The
believe, having surmounted the difficulties and passed water of
the sharp bridge above mentioned, before they enter para- "
dise will be refreshed by drinking at the pond of their
prophet, who describes it to be an exact square, of a
month's journey in compass : its water, wdiicli is supplied
by two pipes from al Kauthar, one of the rivers of paradise,
being whiter than milk or silver and more odoriferous than
musk, Avith as many cups set around it as there are stars
in the firmament, of which water whoever drinks will
thirst no more for ever.^ This is the first taste which the
blessed will have of their future and now near-approaching
felicity.

Though paradise be so very frequently mentioned in
the Quran, yet it is a dispute among the Muhammadans
whether it be already created, or be to be created here-
after : the Mutazilites and some other sectaries asserting
that there is not at present any such place in nature, and
that the paradise which the righteous will inhabit in the
next life will be different from that from which Adam
was expelled. However, the orthodox profess the contrary,
maintaining that it was created even before the world, and
describe it, from their prophet's traditions, in the following
manner.

They say it is situate above the seven heavens (or in Paradise
the seventh heaven) and next under the throne of GoD ;
and to express the amenity of the place, tell us that the
earth of it is of the finest wheat flour, or of the purest
musk, or, as others will have it, of saffron ; that its stones
are pearls and jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched
with gold and silver, and that the trunks of all its trees
are of gold, among which the most remarkable is the tree
called Tiiba, or the tree of happiness. Concerning this

1 MiJrasb, Yalkut Sioni., f. il. ^ Al Ghazali.

154

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The rivers
of paradise.

Glories of
the Hur al

oyiin.

tree they fable that it stands in the palace of Muhammad,
though a branch of it will reach to the house of every
true believer ; ^ that it will be laden with pomegranates,
grapes, dates, and other fruits of surprising bigness, and
of tastes unknown to mortals. So that if a man desire to
eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will immediately be
presented to him, or if he choose flesh, birds ready dressed
will be set before him according to his wish. They add
that the boughs of this tree will spontaneously bend down
to the hand of the person who would gather of its fruits,
and that it will supply the blessed not only with food,
but also with silken garments, and beasts to ride on ready
saddled and bridled, and adorned with rich trappings,
which will burst forth from its fruits ; and that this tree
is so large, that a person mounted on the fleetest horse
would not be able to gallop from one end of its shade to
the other in a hundred years.^

As plenty of water is one of the greatest additions to
the pleasantness of any place, the Quran often speaks of
the rivers of paradise as a principal ornament thereof.
Some of these rivers, they say, flow with water, some with
milk, some with wine, and others with honey, all taking
their rise from the root of the tree Tiiba : two of which
rivers, named al Kauthar and the river of life, we have
already mentioned. And lest these should not be suffi-
cient, we are told this garden is also watered by a great
number of lesser springs and fountains, whose pebbles are
rubies and emeralds, their earth of camphire, their beds
of musk, and their sides of saffron, the most remarkable
among them being Salsabil and Tasnim.

But all these glories will be eclipsed by the resplendent
and ravishing girls of paradise, called, from their large
black eyes, Hur al oyiin, the enjoyment of whose com-
pany will be a principal felicity of the faithful. These,
they say, are created not of clay, as mortal women are,

1 Yahya, in Quran, c. 13.

" JalaluddiUj ibid.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 155

but of pure musk, being, as their prophet often affirms in
his Quran, free from all natural impurities, defects, and
inconveniences incident to the sex, of the strictest modesty,
and secluded from public view in pavilions of hollow
pearls, so large, that, as some traditions have it, one of
them will be no less than four parasangs (or, as others
say, sixty miles) long, and as many broad.

The name which the Muhammadans usually give to Names of
this happy mansion is al Jannat, or the garden ; and biiss.
sometimes they call it, with an addition, Jannat-ul-
Firdaus, the garden of paradise, Jannat-ul-Adan, the garden
of Eden (though they generally interpret the word Eden,
not according to its acceptation in Hebrew, but according
to its meaning in their own tongue, wherein it signifies
a settled or perpetual habitation), Jannat-ul-Mawa, the
garden of abode, Jannat-ul-Naim, the garden of pleasure,
and the like ; by which several appellations some under-
stand so many different gardens, or at least places of
different degrees of felicity (for they reckon no less than
a hundred such in all), the very meanest whereof will
afford its inhabitants so many pleasures and delights, that
one would conclude they must even sink under them, had
not Muhammad declared, that in order to qualify the
blessed for a full enjoyment of them, God will give to
every one the abilities of a hundred men.

We have already described Muhammad's pond, whereof The two
the righteous are to drink before their admission into this the g^te of'
delicious seat ; besides which some authors ^ mention two ceiestiaiat-
fountains springing from under a certain tree near the &c!'^^'^'^^'
gate of paradise, and say that the blessed will also drink
of one of them, to purge their bodies and carry off all
excrementitious dregs, and will wash themselves in the
other. When they are arrived at the gate itself, each per-
son will there be met and saluted by the beautiful youths
appointed to serve and wait upon him, one of them

^ Al Ghazdli, Kanz al Afrar.

156 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

running before, to carry tlie news of bis arrival to tbe
wives destined for bim ; and also by two angels, bearing
the presents sent bim by God, one of whom will invest
bim witb a garment of paradise, and tbe other will put a
ring on each of bis fingers, with inscriptions on them
alluding to tbe happiness of his condition. By which of
tbe eight gates (for so many they suppose paradise to
have) they are respectively to enter, is not worth inquiry ;
but it must be observed that Muhammad has declared
that no person's good works will gain bim admittance,
and that even himself shall be saved, not by bis merits,
The mercy but merely by the mercy of God. It is, however, the
ground; coustaut doctriuc of the Quran that the felicity of each
measure of pcrsou wiU bc proportioned to bis deserts, and that there
of the^right- will be abodes of different degrees of happiness ; tbe most
eminent degree being reserved for the prophets, the second
for the doctors and teachers of God's worship, the next
for the martyrs, and the lower for tbe rest of the righteous,
according to their several merits. There will also some
distinction be made in respect to the time of their admis-
sion, Muhammad (to whom, if you will believe bim, the
gates will first be opened) having affirmed that the poor
will enter paradise five hundred years before the rich:
nor is this the only privilege which they will enjoy in the
next life, since the same prophet has also declared, that
when be took a view of paradise, be saw tbe majority of
its inhabitants to be the poor, and when he looked down
into bell, be saw the greater part of the wretches confined
there to be women.
The great For the first entertainment of the blessed on their
admission, they fable that tbe whole earth will then be
as one loaf of bread, which God will reach to them with
bis hand, holding it like a cake ; and that for meat they
will have tbe ox Balam and the fish Nun, the lobes of
whose livers will suffice 70,000 men, being, as some ima-
gine, to be set before the principal guests, viz., those who,
to that number, will be admitted into paradise without

feast of God.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 157

examination;^ tliougli others suppose that a definite nnni-
ber is here put for an indefinite, and that nothing more is
meant thereby than to express a great multitude of people.

From this feast every one will be dismissed to the Rewards of

- • T P 1 • 1 / T 1 ■ TN 1 the faithful

mansion designed tor him, where (as has been said) he described.
will enjoy such a share of felicity as will be proportioned
to his merits, but vastly exceed comprehension or expecta-
tion, since the very meanest in paradise (as he who, it is
pretended, must know best has declared) will have eighty
thousand servants, seventy-two wives of the girls of para-
dise, besides the wives he had in this world, and a tent
erected for him of pearls, jacinths, and emeralds, of a very
large extent ; and, according to another tradition, will be
waited on by three hundred attendants while he eats, will
be served in dishes of gold, whereof three hundred shall
be set before him at once, containing each a different kind
of food, the last morsel of which will be as grateful as the
first; and will also be supplied with as many sorts of
liquors in vessels of the same metal ; and, to complete
the entertainment, there will be no want of wine, which,
though forbidden in this life, will yet be freely allowed to
be drunk in the next, and without danger, since the wine
of paradise will not inebriate, as that we drink here. The
flavour of this wine we may conceive to be delicious with-
out a description, since the water of Tasnim and the other
fountains which will be used to dilute it is said to be
wonderfully sweet and fragrant. If any object to these
pleasures, as an impudent Jew did to Muhammad, that
so much eating and drinking must necessarily require
proper evacuations, we answer, as the prophet did, that
the inhabitants of paradise will not need to ease them-
selves, nor even to blow their nose, for that all superfluities
will be discharged and carried off by perspiration, or a
sweat as odoriferous as musk, after which their appetite
shall return afresh.

^ See supra, p. 142.

158 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The mfignificence of the garments and furniture pro-
mised by the Quran to the godly in the next life is
answerable to the delicacy of their diet ; for they are to
be clothed in the richest silks and brocades, chiefly of
green, which will burst forth from the fruits of paradise,
and will be also supplied by the leaves of the tree Tiiba;
they will be adorned with bracelets of gold and silver,
and crowns set with pearls of incomparable lustre ; and
will make use of silken carpets, litters of a prodigious
size, couches, pillows, and other rich furniture embroidered
with gold and precious stones.
Ability of That wc may the more readily believe what has been
to enjoy! " mentioned of the extraordinary abilities of the inhabitants
of paradise to taste these pleasures in their height, it is
said they will enjoy a perpetual youth ; that in whatever
age they happen to die, they will be raised in their prime
and vigour, that is, of about thirty years of age, which age
they will never exceed (and the same they say of the
damned) ; and that when they enter paradise they will be
of the same stature with Adam, who, as they fable, was no
less than sixty cubits high. And to this age and stature
their children, if they shall desire any (for otherwise their
wives will not conceive), shall immediately attain, accord-
ing to that saying of their prophet, " If any of the faithful
in paradise be desirous of issue, it shall be conceived, born,
and grown up within the space of an hour." And in the
same manner, if any one shall have a fancy to employ
himself in agriculture (which rustic pleasure may suit the
wanton fancy of some), what he shall sow will spring up
and come to maturity in a moment.

Lest any of the senses should want their proper delight,
we are told the ear will there be entertained, not only
with the ravishing songs of the angel Israfil, who has the
most melodious voice of all God's creatures, and of the
daughters of paradise ; but even the trees themselves will
celebrate the divine praises with a harmony exceeding
what ever mortals have heard ; to which will be joined the

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 159

sound of the bells hanging on the trees, which will be put
in motion by the wind proceeding from the throne of God,
so often as the blessed wish for music ; nay, the very
clashing of the golden-bodied trees, whose fruits are pearls
and emeralds, will surpass human imagination ; so that
the pleasures of this sense will not be the least of the
enjoyments of paradise.

The delights we have hitherto taken a view of, it is said, The spm-

•^^ ^ ni-ii- p t tual enjoy-

wili be common to all the mhaoitants ot paradise, even ments of
those of the lowest order. What then, think we, must
they enjoy who shall obtain a superior degree of honour
and felicity ? To these, they say, there are prepared,
besides all this, " such things as eye hath not seen, nor
hath ear heard, nor hath it entered into the heart of man
to conceive ; " an expression most certainly borrowed from
Scripture.! That we may know wherein the felicity of
those who shall attain the highest degree will consist,
Muhammad is reported to have said that the meanest of
the inhabitants of paradise will see his gardens, wives,
servants, furniture, and other possessions take up the
space of a thousand years' journey (for so far and farther
will the blessed see in the next life), but that he will be
in the highest honour with GoD who shall behold his face
morning and evening ; and this favour al Ghazali supposes
to be that additional or superabundant recompense pro-
mised in the Quran,^ which will give such exquisite delight,
that in respect thereof all the other pleasures of paradise
will be forgotten and lightly esteemed ; and not without
reason, since, as the same author says, every other enjoy-
ment is equally tasted by the very brute beast who is
turned loose into luxuriant pasture.^ The reader will
observe, by the way, that this is a full confutation of those
who pretend that the Muhammadans admit of no spiritual

^ Isa. Ixiv. 4 ; i Cor. ii. 9. ^ Vide Poc, in not. ad Port. Mosis,

^ Cap. 10, V. 9, &c. p. 305.

i6o THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

pleasure in the next life, but make the happiness of the

blessed to consist wholly in corporeal enjoyments.^ *

Muhammad Whence Muhammad took the greatest part of his para-
indebted to ^ . . . ., ,
Jews and disc it IS casy to show. ihe Jews constantly describe tlie

his notions futurc mansioii of the just as a delicious garden, and make
o para lie. ^^ ^^^^ reach to the seventh heaven.^ They also say it has
three gates,^ or, as others will have it, two,* and four
rivers (which last circumstance tliey copied, to be sure,
from those of the Garden of Eden),^ flowing with milk,
wine, balsam, and honey.*' Their Behemoth and Leviathan,
which they pretend will be slain for the entertainment of
the blessed,'' are so apparently the Balam and ISTiin of
Muhammad, that his followers themselves confess he is
obliged to them for both.^ The Eabbins likewise mention
seven different degrees of felicity,^ and say that the highest
will be of those who perpetually contemplate the face of
GoD.^*^ The Persian Magi had also an idea of the future
happy estate of the good, very little diiTerent from that of
Muhammad. Paradise they called Bahislit, and Mi'nu,
which signifies crystal, where they believe the righteous
shall enjoy all manner of delights, and particularly the
company of the Huran-i-bahisht, or black-eyed nymphs of
paradise,^! the care of whom, they say, is committed to the
angel Zamiyad ; 12 ^nd hence Muhammad seems to have
taken the first hint of his paradisiacal ladies.

It is not improbable, however, but that he might have
been obliged, in some respect, to the Christian accounts of

* We find no autliority for such spiritual blessing in the Quran.
But see post, p. 162. e. m. w.

^ Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., 1. 2, ® Midrash, Yalkut Shemuni.

§17. ' Gemar. Bava Bathra, f. 78;

- Vide Geniar. Tanith, f. 25, Bera- Rashi, in Job i.

coth, f. 34, and Midrash sabboth, f. * Vide Poc, not. in Port. Mosis,

37. p. 298. ^ Nishmat hayim, f. 32,

3 Megillah, Amkoth, p. 78. i" Midrash, Tehillim, f. 11.

* Midrash, Yalkut Shemuni, ^^ Sadder, porta 5.

^ Gen. ii. 10, &c. ^- Hyde, De Eel. Vet. Pars., p. 225.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. i6r

the felicity of the crood in the next life.* As it is scarce christian

1 ,, , . (• 1 ''^"'' Muslim

possible to convey, especially to the apprehensions or the notions of
generality of mankind, an idea of spiritual pleasures with- state com-
out introducing sensible objects, the Scriptures have been
obliged to represent the celestial enjoyments by corporeal
images, and to describe the mansion of the blessed as a
glorious and magnificent city, built of gold and precious
stones, with twelve gates, through the streets of which
there runs a river of water of life, and having on either
side the tree of life, which bears twelve sorts of fruits and
leaves of a healing virtue.^ Our Saviour likewise speaks
of the future state of the blessed as of a kingdom where
they shall eat and drink at his table.^ But then these
descriptions have none of those puerile imaginations ^
which reign throughout that of Muhammad, much less
any the most distant intimation of sensual delights, which
he was so fond of ; on the contrary, we are expressly
assured that " in the resurrection they will neither marry
nor be given in marriage, but will be as the angels of God

* As all the doctrines of Muliammad concerning the future state
were proclaimed in Makkan suras before the tenth year of his mis-
sion, and as almost no reference had yet been made to Christianity,
it seems quite certain that he was ignorant of the Christian Scrip-
tures ; and inasmuch as he everywhere evinces in the Quran his
almost entire ignorance of Christian doctrine, we may safely con-
clude that he owed little or nothing to Christianity for his ideas of
heaven and hell. E. M. w.

•^ Rev. xxi. lo, &c., and xxii. i, 2. thousand twigs, and every one of

" Luke xxii. 29, 30, &c. these twigs shall have ten thousand

^ I would not, however, under- clusters of grapes, and in every one

take to defend all the Christian of these clusters there shall be ten

writers in this particular ; witness thousand grapes, and every one of

that one passage of Irenseus, wherein these gi'apes being pressed shall

he introduces a tradition of St. John yield two hundred and seventy-five

that our Lord should say, " The gallons of wine ; and when a man

days shall come, in which there shall shall take hold of one of these sacred

be vines, which shall have each ten bunches, another bunch shall cry

thousand branches, and every one of out, I am a better bunch : take me,

those branches shall have ten thou- and bless the Lord by me," &c.

sand lesser branches, and every one Iren., 1. 5, c. 23-
of these branches shall have ten

i62 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

in heaven." ^ Muhammad, however, to enhance the value of
paradise with his Arabians, chose rather to imitate the in-
decency of the Magians than the modesty of the Christians
in this particular, and lest his beatified Muslims should
complain that anything was wanting, bestows on them
wives, as well as the other comforts of life ; judging, it
is to be presumed, from his own inclinations, that, like
Panurgus's ass,^ they would think all other enjoyments
not worth their acceptance if they were to be debarred
from this.
The descrip- Had Muhammad, after all, intimated to his followers,
dise in the that wliat he had told them of paradise was to be taken,
understood not literally, but in a metaphorical sense (as it is said the
sense. Maglaus do the description of Zoroaster's ^), this might,
perhaps, make some atonement; but the contrary is so
evident from the whole tenor of the Quran, that although
some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined
to admit such gross conceptions, look on their prophet's
descriptions as parabolical, and are willing to receive them
in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation,* yet the general
and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to be strictly
believed in the obvious and literal acceptation ; to prove
which I need only urge the oath they exact from Chris-
tians (who they know abhor such fancies) when they
would bind them in the most strong and sacred manner ;
for in such a case they make them swear that if they
falsify their engagement, they will affirm that there will
be black-eyed girls in the next world and corporeal plea-
sures.^

Before we quit this subject it may not be improper

1 Matt. xxii. 30. diers, the kisses of boys and beau-

" Vide Rabelais, Pantagr., 1. 5, c. teous damsels. Vide Gell. Noct.

7. A better authority than this Att., 1. 18, c. 2.

might, however, be alleged in favour ^ Vide Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers.,

of Muhammad's judgment in this p. 266.

respect ; I mean that of Plato, who •* Vide eund., in not. ad Bobov.

is said to have proposed, in his ideal Lit. Turcar., p. 21.

commonwealth, as the reward of Poc. ad Port. Mosis, p. 305.

valiant men and consummate sol-

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 163

to observe the falseliood of a vulgar imputation on the
Muhammadans, who are by several writers ^ reported to
hold that women have no souls, or, if they have, that
they will perish, like those of brute beasts, and will not
be rewarded in the next life. But whatever may be the
opinion of some ignorant people among them, it is certain
that Muhammad had too great a respect for the fair sex
to teach such a doctrine ; and there are several passages
in the Quran which "affirm that women, in the next life,
will not only be punished for their evil actions, but will
also receive the rewards of their good deeds, as well as The rewards
the men, and that in this case God will make no distinc- women.
tion of sexes. ^ It is true the general notion is that they
will not be admitted into the same abode as the men are,
because their places will be supplied by the paradisiacal
females (though some allow that a man will there also have
the company of those who were his wives in this world, or
at least such of them as he shall desire ^), but that good
women will go into a separate place of happiness, where
they will enjoy all sorts of delights ;* but whether one of
those delights will be the enjoyment of agreeable paramours
created for them, to complete the economy of the Muham-
inadan system, is what I have nowhere found decided.
One circumstance relating to these beatified females, con-
formable to what he had asserted of the men, he acquainted
his followers with in the answer he returned to an old
woman, who, desiring him to intercede with God that she
might be admitted into paradise, he told her tliat no old
woman would enter that place ; which setting the poor
woman a crying, he explained himself by saying that GoD
would then make her young again. ^

^ Hornbek, Sum. Contr., p. 16. in not. ad Bobov.de. Visit, ffigr., p.

Grelot, Voyage de Constant., p. 275. 21. ^ ggg supra, j). 157.

Ricaut's Present State of the Otto- •* Vide Chardin, Voy., torn. 2, p.

man Empire, 1. 2, c. 21. 328 ; and Bayle, Diet. Hist. Art.

- See Quran, c. 3, v. 196 ; c. 4, v. Mahomet, Rem. Q.

126, &c. ; and also c. 13, v. 23 ; c. 16, * See Quran, c. 56, v. 36, and the

40, 48, 57, &c. Vide etiam Reland, rotes there ; and Gagnier, ntjt. in

De Rel. Mob., 1. 2, § 18 ; and Hyde, Abulfeda, Vit. Moh., p. 145,

1 64 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. I v.

Tiie decrees TliG sixtli great poiiit of faith wliicli the Muhammaclans
are taught by the Quran to believe is God's absolute
decree and predestination both of good and evil ; for the
orthodox doctrine is, that whatever hath or shall come
to pass in this world, whether it be good or whether it be
bad, proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is irre-
vocably fixed and recorded from all eternity in the pre-
served table,^ God having secretly predetermined not only
the adverse and prosperous fortune of every person in this
w^orld, in the most minute particulars, but also his faith or
infidelity, his obedience or disobedience, and consequently
his everlasting happiness or misery after death, which
fate or predestination it is not possible by any foresight
or wisdom to avoid.
Use made Of tliis doctrine Muhammad makes great use in his
trine br Qurdu for the advancement of his designs, encouraging
mad. " his followers to fight without fear, and even desperately,
for the propagation of their faith, by representing to them
that all their caution could not avert their inevitable
destiny or prolong their lives for a moment,^ and deter-
ring them from disobeying or rejecting him as an impostor
by setting before them the danger they might thereby
incur of being, by the just judgment of God, abandoned
to seduction, hardness of heart, and a reprobate mind, as a
punishment for their obstinacy.^

As this doctrine of absolute election and reprobation
has been thought by many of the Muhammadan divines
to be derogatory to the goodness and justice of God, and
to make God the author of evil, several subtle distinctions
have been invented and disputes raised to explicate or
soften it, and different sects have been formed, according
to their several opinions or methods of explaining this
point, some of them going so far as even to hold the

^ See supra, p. io8. " Quran, c. 3, v. 144; c. 4, v. 77, &c.

•* Ibid., c. 4, vv. 134-144 ; c. 2, vv. 6-20, &c., passim.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 165

direct contrary position of absolute free will in man, as we
shall see hereafter,^

Of the four fundamental points of religious practice Prayer or
required by the Quran, the first is prayer, under which,
as has been said, are also comprehended those legal wash-
ings or purifications which are necessary preparations
thereto.

Of these purifications there are two degrees, one called ceremonial
GliiLsl, being a total immersion or bathing of the body tions re'-
in water, and the other called Wadhu (by the Persians '^^"'°'"
Ahdast), which is the Avashing of their faces, hands, and
feet after a certain manner. The first is required in some
extraordinary cases only, as after having lain with a
woman, or being polluted by emission of seed, or by
approaching a dead body ; women also being obliged to
it after their courses or childbirth. The latter is the
ordinary ablution in common cases and before prayer, and
must necessarily be used by every person before he can
enter upon that duty.^ It is performed with certain
formal ceremonies, which have been described by some
writers, but are much easier apprehended by seeing them
done than by the best description.

These purifications were perhaps borrowed by Mu- These were
liammad from the Jews ; at least they agree in a great from tue
measure with those used by that nation,^ who in process
of time burdened the precepts of Moses in this point
with so many traditionary ceremonies, that whole books
have been written about them, and who were so exact
and superstitious therein, even in our Saviour's time, that
they are often reproved by him for it,* But as it is certain
that the pagan Arabs used lustrations of this kind^ long
before the time of Muhammad, as most nations did, and
still do in the East, where the warmth of the climate

1 Sect. VIII. 3 Poc_^ not. in Port. Mosis, p. 356,

^ Qurdn, c. 4, v. 42, and c. 5, v. 7. &c.

Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., 1. i, ■* Mark vii. 3, &c.

c. 8. 5 Vide Herodot., 1. 3, c. 198.

1 66 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

requires a greater nicety and degree of cleanliness than
these colder parts, perhaps Muhammad only recalled his
countrymen to a more strict observance of those purifying
rites, which had been probably neglected by them, or at
least performed in a careless and perfunctory manner.
The Muhammadans, however, will have it that they are
as ancient as Abraham,^ who, they say, was enjoined by
God to observe them, and was shown the manner of making
the ablution by the Angel Gabriel in the form of a beautiful
youtli.2 ^ay, some deduce the matter higher, and imagine
that these ceremonies were taught our first parents by the
angels.^
Theprac- That his followcrs mifdit be the more punctual in this

tice of re- . .

ligkm bapcd dutv, Muliammad is said to have declared, that " the
ness. practice of religion is founded on cleanliness," which is

tlie one-half of the faith and the key of prayer, without
which it will not be heard by God.* That these expres-
sions may be the better understood, al Ghazali reckons
four degrees of purification, of which the first is, the
cleansing of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre-
ments ; the second, the cleansing of the members of the
body from all wickedness and unjust actions ; the third,
the cleansing of the heart from all blamable inclinations
and odious vices ; and the fourth, the purging a man's
secret thoughts from all afiections which may divert their
attendance on God : adding, that the body is but as the
outward shell in respect to the heart, which is as the
kernel. And for this reason he highly complains of those
who are superstitiously solicitous in exterior purifications,
avoiding those persons as unclean who are not so scrupu-

1 Al Jann;lbi in Vita Abrah. Vide porque Dios quiere liahlar contigo.

Poc. Spec, p. 303. Dixo Abraham, Como tengo de la-

" Herewith agrees the spurious varme ? Luego ct angdise le appare-

Gospel of St. Barnabas, the Spanish cib como uno bello-manccbo, y se lard

transh\tion of which (cap. 29) has en la fuente, y Ic dixo, Ahriiham, Jiaz

these words: Dixo Abraham, Que como yo. Y Ahvaham se la ro, &c.
hare yo 2Mra servir al Dios de los * Al Kessai. Vide Relaud, De

sanctos y prophetas? Respondib el Rel. Moham., p. 81.
angel, Ve e aquellu fuente y lavate, ■* Al Ghazali, Ibn al Athir.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 167

lously nice as themselves, and at the same time have
their minds lying waste, and overrun with pride, ignorance,
and hypocrisy.^ Whence it plainly appears witli how
little foundation the Muhammadans have been charged
by some writers ^ with teaching or imagining that these
formal washings alone cleanse them from their sins.^

Lest so necessary a preparation to their devotions should Lustration
be omitted, either where water cannot be had, or when it instead of
may be of prejudice to a person's health, they are allowed lowed.
in such cases to make use of fine sand or dust in lieu of
it;^ and then they perform this duty by clapping their
open hands on the sand, and passing them over the parts,
in the same manner as if they were dipped in water. But
for this expedient Muhammad was not so much indebted
to his own cunning ^ as to the example of the Jews, or
perhaps that of the Persian Magi, almost as scrupulous
as the Jews themselves in their lustrations, who both of
them prescribe the same method in cases of necessity ; ^
and there is a famous instance in ecclesiastical history
of sand being used, for the same reason, instead of water,
in the administration of the Christian sacrament of baptism,
many years before Muhammad's time.^

Neither are the Muhammadans contented with bare Minor
washing, but think themselves obliged to several other pmifica-
necessary points of cleanliness, which they make also
parts of this duty ; such as combing the hair, cutting the
beard, paring the nails, pulling out the hairs of their arm-
pits, shaving their private parts, and circumcision ; ^ of

1 Vide Poc. Spec, p. 302, &c. de Morib. et Instit. Turcar., Ep. I,

- Barthol. Edessen. Confut. Ha- p. 32.

garen., p. 360. G. Sionita and J. ^ Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., 1.

Hesronita, in Tract, de Urb. and 2, c. 11.

Morib. Orient, ad Calcem Geogr. ■* Qnrin, c. 4, v. 42, and c. 5, v. 7.

Nubiens., c. 15. Du Ryer, dans le ® Vide Smith, nbi suj^.

Sommaire de la Rel. des Turcs, mis ® Gemar. Berachoth, c. 2. Vide

b, la tete de sa version de I'Alcor. Poc. not. ad Port. Mosis, p. 3S0.

St. Olon, Descr. du Royaume de Sadder, porta 84.

Maroc, c. 2. Hyde, in not. ad ' Cedren., p. 250.

Bobov. de Prec. Moh., p. i. Smith, ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 303.

£ion.

i68 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. iv

which last I will add S, word or two, lest I should not find

a more proper place.

The Muslim Circumcision, though it be not so much as once men-
doctrine of. .. 1 /-\ > •

circumci- tioned in the Quran, is yet held by the IMuhammadans to
be an ancient divine institution, confirmed by the religion
of Islam, and though not so absolutely necessary but that
it may be dispensed with in some cases,^ yet highly proper
and expedient. The Arabs used this rite for many ages
before Muhammad, having probably learned it from Ismail,
though not only his descendants, but the Himyarites,^ and
other tribes, practised the same. The Ismailites, we are
told,^ used to circumcise their children, not on the eighth
day, as is the custom of the Jews, but when about twelve
or thirteen years old, at which age their father underwent
that operation ; * and the Muhammadans imitate them so
far as not to circumcise children before they be able, at
least, distinctly to pronounce that profession of their faith,
" There is no god but God ; Muhammad is the apostle of
God;"^ but pitch on what age they please for the pur-
pose, between six and sixteen or thereabouts.^ Though
the Muslim doctors are generally of opinion, conformably
to the Scripture, that this precept was originally given to
Abraham, yet some have imagined that Adam was taught
it by the Angel Gabriel, to satisfy an oath he had made to
cut off that flesh which, after his fall, had rebelled against
his spirit; whence an odd argument has been drawn for
the universal obligation of circumcision.'' Though I cannot
say the Jews led the Muhammadans the way here, yet
they seem so unwilling to believe any of the principal

^ Vide Bobov. de Circumcis., p. following passage of the Gospel of

22. Barnabas (cap. 23), viz., Entonces

^ Philostorg., Hist. Eccl., 1. 3. dixo Jesus ; Adam el primer liombre

^ Joseph., Ant., 1. i, c. 23. aviendo comido por eiigano del de-

* Gen. xvii. 25. vionio la comida proJiibida por Dios

' Vide Bobov., ubi sup., and Poc. en el parayso, se le rehclb sii came ct,

Spec, p. 319. su espiritu ; por lo qual jurb diziendo,

® Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., 1. Por Dios que yo te quiero cortar ; y

I, p. 75. rompiendo una piedra tomb su came

^ This is the substance of the para cortarla con el corte de la piedra.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 169

patriarchs or prophets before Abraham were really uncir-
cumcised, that they pretend several of them, as well as
some holy men who lived after his time, were born ready
circumcised, or without a foreskin, and that Adam, in
particular, was so created;^ whence the Muhammadans
affirm the same thing of their prophet.^

Prayer was by Muhammad thought so necessary a duty, Prayer the
that he used to call it the pillar of religion and the key paradise.
of paradise ; and when the Thakifites, who d\Yelt at Tayif,
sending in the ninth year of the Hijra to make their
submission to the prophet, after the keeping of their
favourite idol had been denied them,^ begged, at least,
that they might be dispensed with as to their saying of the
appointed prayers, he answered, " That there could be no
good in that religion wherein was no prayer."*^

That so important a duty, therefore, might not be The hours of
neglected, Muhammad obliged his followers to pray five
times every twenty-four hours, at certain stated times ;
viz., I. In the morning, before sunrise; 2. When noon is
past, and the sun begins to decline from the meridian; 3.
In the afternoon, before sunset; 4. In the evening, after
sunset, and before day be shut in; and 5. After the day
is shut in, and before the first watch of the niglit.^ For
this institution he pretended to have received the divine
command from the throne of God himself, when he took
his night journey to heaven ; and the observing of the
stated times of prayer is frequently insisted on in the
Quran, though they be not particularly prescribed therein.
Accordingly, at the aforesaid times, of which public notice
is given by the Muadhdhins, or Criers, from the steeples

Por loqual fue reprehendido del angel aquello que Adam con juramento

Gabriel, y el le dixo ; Yo he jurado prometib.

por Pios que lo he de cortar, y men ^ Shalshel. hakkabala. Vide Poc.

tiroso no lo serd jamas. Ala hora el Spec, p. 320 ; Gagnier, not. in

angel le enseno la superfluidad de su Abulfed., Vit. Moh., p. 2.

came, y a quella corto. Pe mancrd ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 304.

que ansi como todo hombre toma came ^ See supra, p. 39.

de Adam, ansi esta obligado a cumplir ^ Abulfed. Vit. Moh., p. 127.

^ Vide ibid., pp. 38, 39.

IJO

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Manner of
performing
the service
of prayer.

of their mosques (for tliey use no bell), every conscientious
Muslim prepares himself for prayer, which he performs
either in the mosque or any other place, provided it be
clean, after a prescribed form, and with a certain number
of phrases or ejaculations (which the more scrupulous
count by a string of beads) and using certain postures of
worship ; all which have been particularly set down and
described, though with some few mistakes, by other writers,^
and ought not to be abridged, unless in some special cases,
as on a journey, on preparing for battle, &c.

For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the ]\Iuhammadans, besides the particulars above
mentioned, it is also requisite that they turn their faces,
while they pray, towards the temple of Makkah,- the
quarter where the same is situate being, for that reason,
pointed out within their mosques by a niche, wdiich they
call al Mihrab, and without by the situation of the doors
opening into the galleries of the steeples : there are also
tables calculated for the ready finding oiit their Qibla, or
part towards which they ought to pray, in places where
they have no other direction.^

But what is principally to be regarded in the discharge
of this duty, say the Muslim doctors, is the inward dis-
position of the heart, which is the life and spirit of prayer;*
the most punctual observance of the external rites and
ceremonies before mentioned being of little or no avail, if
performed without due attention, reverence, devotion, and
hope ; ^ so that we must not think the Muhammadans, or
the considerate part of them at least, content themselves
with the mere ojnis operatum, or imagine their whole
religion to be placed therein.^

^ Vide Hotting., Hist. Eccles., torn.
8, pp. 470-529 ; Bobov. in Liturg.
Turcic, p. I, &c. ; Grelot, Voyage
de Constant., pp. 253-264 ; Chardin,
Voy. de. Perse, torn. 2, p. 382, &c. ;
and Smith, de Moribus ac Instit.
Turcar., Ep. i, p. 33, &c.

- Qurdn, c. 2, v. 142. See the notes
there.

» Vide Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers.,
pp. 8, 9, and 126

■* Al Ghazali.

* Vide Poc. Spec, p. 305.

^ Vide Smith, ubi sup., p. 40.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 171

I had like to have omitted Uxo things which in my Retaliations
mmd deserve mention on this head, and may, perhaps, be and womeu
better defended than our contrary practice. One is, that prayer,
the Muhammadans never address themselves to God in
sumptuous apparel, though they are obliged to be decently
clothed, but lay aside their costly habits and pompous
ornaments, if they wear any, when they approach the
divine presence, lest they should seem proud and arrogant.^
The other is, that they admit not their w^omen to pray
with them in public, that sex being obliged to perform
their devotions at home, or if they visit the mosques, it
must be at a time w^hen the men are not there ; for the
Muslims are of opinion that their presence inspires a
different kind of devotion from that which is requisite in
a place dedicated to the worship of God.'-^

The greater part of the particulars comprised in the Theinstitu-

-iirT-,--- ^ T • ^ tion of

Muhammadan institution of prayer their prophet seems prayer bor-
to have copied from others, and especially the Jews, ex- the Jews,
ceeding their institutions only in the number of daily
prayers.^ The Jews are directed to pray three times a
day,* in the morning, in the evening, and within night, in
imitation of Abraham,^ Isaac,^ and Jacob ; '^ and the prac-
tice was as early, at least, as the time of Daniel.^ The
several'postures used by the Muhammadans in their prayers

1 Reland, De Rel. Moh., p. 96. viri et fosmince, ibi mens non est

See Quran, c. 7, v. 32. intenta et devota : nam inter cele-

-A Moor, named Ahmad Ibn hrandummissam et sacrificia, famines

Abdalla, in a Latin epistle by him, et viri mutuis aspectibus, signis, ac

written to Maurice, Prince of nuiibas accendimt pravorum appeti-

Orange, and Emanuel, Prince of turn, et desideriorum suorum ignes :

Portugal, containing a censure of the et quando hoc non fieret, saltern

Christian religion (a copy of which, humana fragilitas delectatur mutuo

once belonging to Mr. Selden, who et reciproco aspectu ; et ita non potest

has thence transcribed a considerable esse mens quieta, attcnta, et devota.
passage in his treatise De Synedriis * The Sabians, according to some,

vett. Ebrffior., 1. I, c. 12, is now in exceed the Muhammadans in this

the Bodleian Library), finds great point, praying seven times a day.

fault with the imedifying manner See supra, p. 34, note.

in which mass is said among the ^ Gemar. Berachoth. —

Roman Catholics, for this very * Gen. xix. 27. ^ Gen. sxiv. 63.
reason among others. His words ^ Gen. xxviii. 11, &c.
are: Ubicunque congregantur simul ^ Dan. vi. 10. j

172 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

are also the same with those prescribed by the Jewish
Eabbins, and particularly the most solemn act of adora-
tion, by prostrating themselves so as to touch the ground
with their forehead ; ^ notwithstanding, the latter pretend
the practice of the former, in this respect, to be a relic of
their ancient manner of paying their devotions to Baal-
peor.2 The Jews likewise constantly pray with their faces
turned towards the temple of Jerusalem,^ which has been
their Qibla from the time it was first dedicated by Solo-
mon ; * for which reason Daniel, praying in Chaldea, had the
windows of his chamber open towards that city ; ^ and the
same was the Qibla of Muhammad and his followers for
six or seven months,^ and till he found himself obliged
to change it for the Kaabah. The Jews, moreover, are
obliged by the precepts of their religion to be careful that
the place they pray in, and the garments they have on
when they perform their duty, be clean : "^ the men and
women also among them pray apart (in which particular
they were imitated by the Eastern Christians) ; and seve-
ral other conformities might be remarked between the
Jewish public worship and that of the Muhammadans.^
Almsgiving The uext point of the Muhammadan religion is the
fuiida-°'^'^ giving of alms, which are of two sorts, legal and voluntary.
of^reHgious The legal alms are of indispensable obligation, being com-
practice. mauded by the law, which directs and determines both
the portion which is to be given and of what things it
ought to be given ; but the voluntary alms are left to
every one's liberty, to give more or less as he shall see fit.
The former kind of alms some think to be properly called
Zakdt and the latter Sadaqa, though this name be also

^ Vide Millium, De Mohammedis- ^ Dan. vi. lO.

mo ante Moham., p. 427, &c., and ® Some say eighteen months,

Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers., p. 5, &c. Vide Abulfed., Vit. Mob., p. 54.

" Maimonid. in Epist. ad Proselyt. ^ Maimon.in Halachoth Tephilla,

Relig. Vide Poc. Spec, p. 306. c. 9, § 8, 9. Menura hammeor, fol.

* Gemar. Bava Bathia, and Bera- 28, 2.

choth. * Vide Millium, ubi sup., p. 424,

* I Kings viii. 29, iS:c. et seq.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 173

frequently given to the legal alms. They are called Zakat,
either because they increase a man's store, by drawing
down a blessing thereon, and produce in his soul the
virtue of liberality/ or because they purify the remaining
part of one's substance from pollution and the soul from
the filth of avarice ; 2 and Sadaqa, because they are a
proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God. Some
writers have called the legal alms tithes, but improperly,
since in some cases they fall short, and in others exceed
that proportion.

The giving of alms is frequently commanded in the
Quran, and often recommended therein jointly with
prayer ; the former being held of great efficacy in causing
the latter to be heard of God : for which reason the
Kliali'fah Omar Ibn Abd al Aziz used to say " that prayer
carries us half-way to God, fasting brings us to the door
of his palace, and alms j^rocures us admission." ^ The
Muhammadans, therefore, esteem almsdeeds to be highly
meritorious, and many of them have been illustrious for
the exercise thereof. Hasan, the son of Ali and grandson
of Muhammad, in particular, is related to have thrice in
his life divided his substance equally between himself and
the poor, and twice to have given away all he had ; * and
the generality are so addicted to the doing of good, that
they extend their charity even to brutes.^ *

Alms, according to the prescriptions of the Muham- Laws reiat-
madan law, are to be given of five things: i. Of cattle, "i^s.° ^^^'^^
that is to say, of camels, kine, and sheep ; 2. Of money ;

* A few years' residence among Muslims Avill serve to materially
niudify this statement, E. M. w.

Al BaidMwi. See Quran, c. 2, ^ D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., p. 5.

vv. 261-274. * Ibid., p. 422.

2 Idem. Compare this with what * Vide Eusbeq, Epist. 3, p. 178.

our Saviour says (Luke xi. 41), Smith, de Morib. Turc, Ep. i,p. 66,

" Give alms of such things as ye &c. Compare Eccles. xi. i and

have ; and behold, all things are Prov. xii. 10.
clean unto you."

174 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec iv.

3. Of corn; 4. Of fruits, viz., dates and raisins; and 5.
Of wares sold. Of each of these a certain portion is to be
given in alms, being usually one part in forty, or two and
a half per cent, of the value. But no alms are due for
them, unless they amount to a certain quantity or num-
ber ; nor until a man has been in possession of them eleven
months, he not being obliged to give alms thereout before
the twelfth month is begun ; nor are alms due for cattle
employed in tilling the ground or in carrying of burdens.
In some cases a much larger portion than the before-
mentioned is reckoned due for alms : thus of what is afotten
out of mines, or the sea, or by any art or profession over
and above what is sufficient for the reasonable support of
a man's family, and especially where there is a mixture
or suspicion of unjust gain, a fifth part ought to be given
in alms. Moreover, at the end of the fast of Eamadhan,
every Muslim is obliged to give in alms for himself and
for every one of his family, if he has any, a measure ^ of
wheat, barley, dates, raisins, rice, or other provisions com-
monly eaten.^
Appropria- Tlic legal alms were at first collected by Muhammad
aims. ^ ^ himself, who employed them as he thought fit, in the
relief of his poor relations and followers, but chiefly
applied them to the maintenance of those who served in
his wars, and fought, as he termed it, in the way of God.
His successors continued to do the same, till, in process of
time, other taxes and tributes being imposed for the sup-
port of the government, they seem to have been weary of
acting as almoners to their subjects, and to have left the
paying them to their consciences.
Jewish and In the f orcgoing rules concerning alms we may observe
aimsgMiig also footsteps of what the Jews taught and practised in
compared, ^.ggpg^^ thereto. Alms, which they also call Sedaka, i.e.,

^ This measure is a Sail, and con- 2 yye Reland, De E,el. Ma-
tains about six or seven pounds hommed., 1. i, p. 99, &c. Chardin,
weight. Voy. de Perse, torn. 2, p. 415, &c.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 175

justice or righteousness,^ are greatly recommended by
their Eabbins, and preferred even to sacrifices,^ as a
duty the frequent exercise whereof will effectually free a
man from hell-fire,^ and merit everlasting life ; ^ wherefore,
besides the corners of the field and the gleanings of their
harvest and vineyard, commanded to be left for the poor
and the stranger by the law of Moses,^ a certain portion
of their corn and fruits is directed to be set apart for
their relief, which portion is called the tithes of the poor.^
The Jews likewise were formerly very conspicuous for
their charity. Zaccheus gave the half of his goods to the
poor;'^ and we are told that some gave their whole sub-
stance : so that their doctors at length decreed that no
man should give above a fifth part of his goods in alms.^
There were also persons publicly appointed in every
synagogue to collect and distribute the people's contribu-
tions.^

The third point of religious practice is fasting, a duty me duty of
of so great moment, that Muhammad used to say it was ^'' "^^'
" the gate of religion," and that " the odour of the mouth
of him who fasteth is more grateful to God than that of
musk ; " and al Ghazali reckons fasting one-fourth part of
the faith. According to the Muhammadan divines, there
are three degrees of fasting : i. The restraining the belly
and other parts of the body from satisfying their lusts ;
2. The restraining the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and
other members from sin ; and 3. The fasting of the heart
from worldly cares, and refraining the thoughts from
everything besides God.^*'

■'■ Hence alms are in the New and Maimon. in Halachoth matanoth

Testament termed Ai/caiocT!;;'??. Matt. Aniyyim., c. 6. Conf. Pirke Avoth,

vi. I (ed. Steph.), and 2 Cor. ix. lO. v. 9.

2 Gemar. in Bava Bathra. ^ Luke xix. 8.

3 Ibid., in Gittin. 8 yide Reland, Ant. Sacr. Vet.
* Ibid., in Rosh hashana. Hebr., p. 402.

® Levit. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. " Vide ibid., p. 138.

19, &c. 1" Al Ghazili, Al Mustatraf.
" Vide Gemar. Hierosol. in Peah,

1/6 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Tiiefastof TliG Mulianimadans are obliged, by the express com-
mand of the Quran, to fast the whole month of Eamadhan,
from the time the new moon first appears till the appear-
ance of the next new moon ; during which time they must
abstain from eating, drinking, and women, from daybreak
till night,^ or sunset. And this injunction they observe
so strictly, that while they fast they suffer nothing to
enter their mouths, or other parts of their body, esteeming
the fast broken and null if they smell perfumes, take a
clyster or injection, bathe, or even purposely swallow
their spittle ; some being so cautious that they ^^•ill not
open their mouths to speak, lest they should breathe the
air too freely : - the fast is also deemed void if a man kiss
or touch a woman, or if he vomit designedly. But after
sunset they are allowed to refresh themselves, and to eat
and drink, and enjoy the company of their wives till
daybreak ; ^ though the more rigid begin the fast again at
midnight.* This fast is extremely rigorous and mortify-
ing when the month of Eamadhan happens to fall in
summer, for the Arabian year being lunar,^ each month
runs throufih all the different seasons in the course of

^ Qurdn, c. 2, vv. 185-195. and the black thread are to be iin-

^ Hence we read that the Virgin derstood the light and dark streaks

Mary, to avoid answering the reflec- of the daybreak ; and they say the

tions cast on her for bringing home passage was at first revealed without

a child, was advised by the Angel the words "of the daybreak;" but

Gabriel to feign she had vowed a fast, Muhammad's followers, taking the

and therefore she ought not to speak, expression in the first sense, regu-

See Quriln, c. 19, v. 27. lated their practice accordingly, and

^ The words of the Qurdn (cap. 2, continued eating and drinking till

V. 187) are: "Until ye can distin- they could distinguish a white thread

guish a white thread from a black from a black thread, as they lay be-

thread by the daybreak " — a form of fore them — to prevent which for the

speaking borrowed by Muhammad future, the words " of the daybreak "

from the Jews, who determine the were added as explanatory of the

time when they are to begin their former. AlBaidhawi. VidePocock,

morning lesson to be so soon as a not. in Carmen Tograi, p. 89, &c.

man can discern blue from white, Chardin, Voy. de Perse, torn. 2, p.

i.e., the blue threads from the white 423.

threads in the fringes of their gar- ■* Vide Chardin, ibid., p. 421, &c.

nients. But this explication the Eeland, De Kelig. Moh., p. 109, &c.

commentators do not approve, pre- ^ See post, Sect. VI.
tending that by the white thread

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 177

thirty-three years, the length and heat of the days making
the observance of it much more difficult and uneasy then
than in winter.

The reason given why the month of Eamadhan was
pitched on for this purpose is, that on that month the
Quran was sent down from heaven.^ Some pretend that
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus received their respective reve-
lations in the same month. ^

From the fast of Eamadhan none are excused, except The mie of
only travellers and sick persons (under which last denomi- thes^di, &c.
nation the doctors comprehend all whose health would
manifestly be injured by their keeping the fast ; as women
with child and giving suck, ancient people, and young
children) ; but then they are obliged, as soon as the im-
l^ediment is removed, to fast an equal number of other
days : and the breaking the fast is ordered to be expiated
by giving alms to the poor.^

Muhammad seems to have followed the guidance of the tws also
Jews in his ordinances concerning fasting, no less than /romtiie
in the former particulars. That nation, when they fast,
abstain not only from eating and drinking, but from
women, and from anointing themselves,* from daybreak
until sunset, and the stars begin to apjjear,^ sjoending
the night in taking what refreshments they please.*^ And
they allow women with child and giving suck, old persons,
and young children to be exempted from keeping most of
the public fasts.^

Though my design here be briefly to treat of those
points only which are of indispensable obligation on a
Muslim, and expressly required by the Quran, without
entering into their practice as to voluntary and super-

^ Quran, c. 2, v. 185. See also ^ Vide Gemar. Yoma, f. 40, and

c. 97. Maimon. in Halacboth Tanioth, c.

2 Al Baidhiiwi, ex Trad. Moham- 5, § 5.

medis. 7 Vide Gemar. Tiinith, f. 12, and

^ See Qurdn, c. 2, v. 1S5. Yoma, f. 8^, and Es Hayim, Tanith,

^ Siphra, f. 252, 2. c. I.

Tosephoth ad Gemar. Yoma, f . 34.

M

178 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

erogatory works ; yet, to show how closely Muhammad's
institutions follow the Jewish, I shall add a word or two
Voluntary of the voluutary fasts of the Muhammadans. These are
Muslims, such as liavc been recommended either by the example or
approbation of their prophet ; and especially certain days
of those months which they esteem sacred : there being
a tradition that he used to say, That a fast of one day in
a sacred month was better than a fast of thirty days in
another mouth, and that the fast of one day in Eamadhan
was more meritorious than a fast of thirty days in a sacred
month. ^ Among the more commendable days is that
Ashiirabor- of Ashura, tlic tenth of Muharram, which, though some
the Jewish writcrs tell us it was observed by the Arabs, and par-
at^o^nement. ticularly the tribe of Quraish, before Muhammad's time,^
yet, as others assure us, that prophet borrowed both the
name and the fast from the Jews, it being with them the
tenth of the seventh month, or Tisri, and the great day of
expiation commanded to be kept by the law of Moses.^
Al Kazwiui relates that when Muhammad came to
Madina, and found the Jews there fasted on the day of
Ashura, he asked them the reason of it ; and they told
him it was because on that day Pharaoh and his people
were drowned, Moses and those who were with him
escaping : whereupon he said that he bore a nearer rela-
tion to Moses than they, and ordered his followers to fast
on that day. However, it seems afterwards he was not so
well pleased in having imitated the Jews herein ; and
therefore declared that, if he lived another year, he would
alter the day, and fast on the ninth, abhorring so near an
agreement with them.*
Piigi-image The pilgrimage to Makkah is so necessary a point of
practice that, according to a tradition of Muhammad, he
who dies without performing it may as well die a Jew or

^ Al Ghazali. ^ Levit. xvi. 29, and xxiii. 27.

" Ja. Barezi in Comment, ad Orat. ■* Ibn al Athii-. Vide Poc. Spec. ,
Ibn No\|)!itse. p. 309.

SFX. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 179

a Christian ; ^ and the same is expressly commanded in
the Quran.2 Before I speak of tlie time and manner of
performing this pilgrimage, it may be proper to give a
short account of the temple of Makkah, the chief scene of
the Muhammadan worship ; in doing which I need be the
less prolix, because that edifice has been already described
by several writers,^ though they, following different rela-
tions, have been led into some mistakes, and agree not
with one another in several particulars : nor, indeed, do
the Arab authors agree in all things, one great reason
whereof is their speaking of different times.

The temple of Makkah stands in the midst of the city, The temple
and is honoured with the title of Masjid al Haram, i.e., described.^
the sacred or inviolable temple. What is princij^ally
reverenced in this place, and gives sanctity to the whole,
is a square stone building called the Kaabah, as some
fancy, from its height, which surpasses that of the other
buildings in Makkah,^ but more probably from its quad-
rangular form, and Bait Allah, i.e., the house of God,
being peculiarly hallowed and set apart for his worship.
The length of this edifice, from north to south, is twenty-
four cubits, its breadth from east to west twenty-three
cubits, and its height twenty-seven cubits : the door,
which is on the east side, stands about four cubits from
the ground ; the floor being level with the bottom of the
door.5 In the corner next this door is the black stone, of
which I shall take notice by and by. On the north side
of the Kaabah, within a semicircular enclosure fifty cubits
long, lies the white stone, said to be the sepulchre of
Ismail, which receives the rain-water that falls off the
Kaabah by a spout, formerly of wood,^ but now of gold.

^ Al Ghazdli. Mohammedans, p. 98, &c. ; and
^ Cap. 3, V. 97. See also c. 22, Boulainvilliers, Vie de Mah. p. 54,
V. 36. and c. 2, v. 125, &c. &c., which last author is the most
^ Chardin, Voy. de Perse, t. 2, p. particular. * Ahmad Ibn Yusaf.
428, &c. ; Bremond, Descrittioni ^ Sharif al Edrisi, and Kitab Ma-
dell' Egitto, &c., 1. I, c. 29 ; Pitts' salik, apud Poc. Spec, p. 125, &c.
Account of the Rel., &c., of the ^ Sharif al Edrisi, ibid.

I So THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The Kaabali has a double roof, supported within by three
octangular pillars of aloes wood, between which, on a bar
of iron, hang some silver lamps. The outside is covered
with rich black damask, adorned with an embroidered
band of gold, which is changed every year, and was for-
merly sent by the Khalifahs, afterwards by the Sultans of
Egypt, and is now provided by the Turkish emperors.*
At a small distance from the Kaabah, on the east side, is
the Station or Place of Abraham, where is another stone
much respected by the Muhammadans, of which some-
thing will be said hereafter.

The Kaabah, at some distance, is surrounded, but not
entirely, by a circular enclosure of pillars, joined towards
the bottom by a low balustrade, and towards the top by
bars of silver. Just wdthout this inner enclosure, on the
south, north, and west sides of the Kaabah, are three
buildings which are the oratories, or places where three of
the orthodox sects assemble to perform their devotions
(the fourth sect, viz., that of al Shafai, making use of
the Station of Abraham for that purpose), and towards the

* " Tlie interior of the Caaba consists of a single room, the roof
of which is supported by two columns, and it has no other light
than what is received by the door. The ceiling, the upper half of
the two columns, and the side walls to within about five feet of the
floor, are hung with a thick stuff of red silk, richly interwoven with
flowers and inscriptions in large characters of silver. The lower
part of each pillar is lined with sweet aloe wood ; and that part of
the walls below the silk hangings is lined with fine white marble,
ornamented with inscriptions cut in relief, and with elegant ara-
besques ; the whole being of exquisite workmanship. The floor,
which is upon a level with the door, and therefore about seA'en feet
above the level of the area of the mosque, is laid with marble of
different colours. Between the pillars numerous lamps are suspended
— donations of the faithful, and said to be of solid gold. In the
north-west corner of the chamber is a small gate, which leads up to
the flat roof of the building. The interior ornaments are coeval
with the restoration of the Caaba, which took place a.d, 1627." —
Burcl'hanUs 2'raveU in Aralia, quoted from Lanes Kurun, p. 7.

K. il. W.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. i8r

south-east stands the edifice which covers the well Zam-
zam, the treasury, aud the cupola of al Abbas. ^

All these buildings are enclosed, a considerable distance,
by a magnificent piazza, or square colonnade, like that of
the Eoyal Exchange in London, but much larger, covered
with small domes or cupolas, from the four corners whereof
rise as many minarets or steeples, with double galleries,
and adorned with gilded spires and crescents, as are the
cupolas which cover the piazza and the other buildings.
Between the pillars of both enclosures hang a great num-
ber of lamps, which are constantly lighted at night. The
first foundations of this outward enclosure were laid by
Omar, the second Khah'fah, who built no more than a low
wall, to prevent the court of the Kaabah, which before
lay open, from being encroached on by private buildings ;
but the structure has been since raised, by the liberality of
many succeeding princes and great men, to its present
lustre.^

This is properly all that is called the temple, but the sacred tem-
whole territory of Makkah being also Haram or sacred, '^'^"
there is a third enclosure, distinguished at certain distances
by small turrets, some five, some seven, and others ten
miles distant from the city.^ Within this compass of
ground it is not lawful to attack an enemy, or even to
hunt or fowl, or cut a branch from a tree : which is the
true reason why the pigeons at Makkah are reckoned
sacred, and not that they are supposed to be of the race of
that imaginary pigeon which some authors, who should
have known better, would persuade us Muhammad made
pass for the Holy Ghost.*

^ Sharif al Edrisi, ibid. Geogr. Nub., p. 21. Al Mughultai,

^ Poc. Spec, p. Ii6. in his Life of Muhammad, says the

3 Gol. not. in Alfrag., p. 99. [The pigeons of the temple of Makkah

present limits extend much farther, are of the best breed of those which

Burckhardt's Travels in Arabia, p. laid their eggs at the mouth of the

466.] cave where the prophet and Abu

* Gab. Sionita et Joh. Hesronita, Baqr hid themselves wheia they fled.

de nonnullis Orient, urbib. ad calc. from that city. See ante, p. 86.

1 82 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

The an- TliG temple of Makkah was a place of worship, and in

the KKabah. singular veneration with the Arabs from great antiquity,
and many centuries before Muhammad. Though it was
most probably dedicated at first to an idolatrous use,^
yet the Muhammadans are generally persuaded that the
Kaabah is almost coeval with the world : for they say
that Adam, after his expulsion from paradise, begged of
God that he might erect a building like that he had seen
there, called Bait al Mamur, or the frequc7itcd house, and
al Dunih, towards which he might direct his prayers, and
which he might compass, as the angels do the celestial
one. Whereupon God let down a representation of that
house in curtains of light,^ and set it in Makkah, per-
pendicularly under its original,^ ordering the patriarch to
turn towards it when he prayed, and to compass it by
way of devotion.^ After Adam's death, his son Seth built
a house in the same form of stones and clay, which being
destroyed by the Deluge, was "rebuilt by Abraham and
Ismail,^ at God's command, in the place where the former
had stood, and after the same model, they being directed
therein by revelation.^
The present After tliis edifice had undergone several reparations, it

building. ° -'■

was, a few years after the birth of Muhammad, rebuilt by
the Quraish on the old foundation,'^ and afterwards repaired

■^ See ante, p. 3S. heavens — whence, by the way, it

^ Some say that the Bait al appears that this number of heavens

Mdmur itself was the Kaabah of was not devised by Muhammad —

Adam, which, having been let down and of the angels, begins the de-

to him from heaven, was, at the scription of the heavenly Jerusalem

Flood, taken up again into heaven, in these words : " We have created

and is there kept. Al Zamakh. in the upper JeiTisalem above the

Quran, c. 2. waters, which are above the third

■* Al Juzi, ex Trad. Ibn Abbds. heaven, hanging directly over the

It has been observed that thei^rimi- lower Jerusalem," &c. Vide Gag-

tive Christian Church held a parallel nier, not. ad Abulfed. Vit. Moh., p.

opinion as to the situation of the 28.

celestial Jerusalem with respect to * Al Shahristiini.

the terrestrial ; for in the apocryphal ^ Vide Qurin, c. 2, v. 125.

book of the Revelations of St. Peter ^ Al Jannabi, in Vita Abraham,

(cap. 27), after Jesus has mentioned ^ Vide Abulfed. Vit. Moh., p. 13.
unto Peter the creation of the seven

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 183

by Abdullah Ibn Zubair, tlie Klialifali of Makkah, and at
length again rebuilt by al Hajdj Ibn Yiisaf, in the seventy-
fourth year of the Hijra, with some alterations, in the
form wherein it now remains.^ Some years after, how-
ever, the Khaiifah Harun al Eashid (or, as others write,
his father, al Muhdi, or his grandfather, al Mansiir)
intended again to change what had been altered by al
Hajaj, and to reduce the Kaabah to the old form in which
it was left by Abdullah, but was dissuaded from meddling
with it, lest so holy a place should become the sport of
princes, and being new modelled after every one's fancy,
should lose that reverence which was justly paid it.^ But
notwithstanding the antiquity and holiness of this build-
ing, they have a prophecy, by tradition from Muhammad,
that in the last times the Ethiopians shall come and
utterly demolish it, after which it will not be rebuilt again
for ever.^

Before we leave the temple of Makkah, two or three The biaek
particulars deserve further notice. One is the celebrated described.
black stone, which is set in silver, and fixed in the south-
east corner of the Kaabah,* being that which looks towards

* " At the (north) east corner of the Kaaha, near the door, is the
famous ' black stone ; ' it forms a part of the sharp angle of the
building, at four or five feet above the ground. It is an irregular
oval, about seven inches in diameter, with an undulated surface,
composed of about a dozen smaller stones of difierent sizes and
shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and
perfectly smoothed ; it looks as if the whole had been broken into
many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again. It is very
difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone, which has
been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses
it h^s received. It appears to me like a lava, containing several
small extraneous particles of a whitish and a yellowish substance.
Its colour is now a deep reddish brown, approaching to black ; it is
surrounded on all sides by a border, composed of a substance which

1 Abulfed. in Hist. Gen. al Jan- ^ Idem, Ahmad Ibn Yusaf. Vide
ndbi, &c. - Al Janndbi. Poc. Spec, p. 115, &c

i84 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Basra, alDOut two cubits and one-third, or, wliicli is the
same thing, seven spans from the ground. This stone is
exceedingly respected by the Muhammadans, and is kissed
by the pilgrims with great devotion, being called by some
the right hand of God on earth. They fable that it is one
of the precious stones of paradise, and fell down to the
earth with Adam, and being taken up again, or otherwise
preserved at the Deluge, the Angel Gabriel afterwards
brought it back to Abraham when he was buildino; the
Kaabah. It was at first whiter than milk, but grew black
long since by the touch of a menstruous woman, or, as
others tell us, by the sins of mankind,^ or rather by the
touches and kisses of so many people, the superficies only
being black, and the inside still remaining white.^ When
the Karmatians,^ among other profanations by them offered
to the temple of Makkah, took away this stone, they could
not be prevailed on, for love or money, to restore it, though
those of Makkah offered no less than five thousand pieces
of gold for it.^ However, after they had kept it twenty-
two years, seeing they could not thereby draw the pilgrims
from Makkah, they sent it back of their own accord, at
the same time bantering its devotees by telling them it
was not the true stone ; but, as it is said, it was proved to
be no counterfeit by its peculiar quality of swimming on
water.5

I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel, of a similar, but not
quite the same, brownish colour. This border serves to support its
detached pieces ; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little
above the si;rface of the stone." — Burckhardt, pp. 137, 138, quoted in
Midr's Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. chap. ii.

Burton thinks it is an aerolite. E. M. w.

1 Al Zamakh, &c., in Quriin. Ah- the fundamental points of Muham-
mad Ibn Yusaf. madism. SeeD'Herbel.,BibI. Orient.,

" Poc. Spec, p. 1 17, &c. Art. Carmath, and hereafter § viii.

^ These Karmatians were a sect ■* D'Herbel., p. 40.

which arose in the year of the Hijra ^ Ahmad Ibn Yusaf, Abulfeda.

278, and whose opinions overturned Vide Poc. Spec, p. 119.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 185

Another thing observable in this temple is the stone in The stone in
Abraham's Place, wherein they pretend to show his foot- piaoe.'
steps, telling us he stood on it when he built the Kaabah/
and that it served him for a scaffold, rising and falling of
itself as he had occasion,^ though another tradition says he
stood upon it while the wife of his son Ismail, whom he
paid a visit to, washed his head.^ It is now enclosed in
an iron chest, out of which the pilgrims drink the water
of Zamzam,* and are ordered to pray at it by the Quran.^
The officers of the temple took care to hide this stone
when the Karmatians took the other. ^

The last thing I shall take notice of in the temple is the The weii
well Zamzam, on the east side of the Kaabah, and which
is covered with a small building and cupola. The Muham-
madans are persuaded it is the very spring which gushed
out for the relief of Ismail, when Hagar his mother
wandered with him in the desert ; '^ and some pretend it
was so named from her calling to him, when she spied it,
in the Egyptian tongue, Zam, zam, that is, " Stay, stay," ^
though it seems rather to have had the name from the
murmuring of its waters. The water of this well is
reckoned holy, and is highly reverenced, being not only
drunk with particular devotion by the pilgrims, but also
sent in bottles, as a great rarity, to most parts of the
Muhammadan dominions. Abdullah, surnamed al Hafidh,
from his great memory, particularly as to the traditions of
Muhammad, gave out that he acquired that faculty by
drinking large draughts of Zamzam water,^ to which I
really believe it as efficacious as that of Helicon to the
inspiring of a poet.

To this temple every Muhammadan, who has health and Fame of the
means sufficient,^*^ ought once, at least, in his life to go on to Makkait

1 Abulfeda. ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 120, &c.

2 Vide Hyde, De Rel. Vet. Pers., ^ Gen. xxi. 19.

p. 35- ^ Gr. Sionit. et J. Hesr. de non. urb.

^ Ahmad Ibn Yusaf, Safiu'ddin. Orient., p. 19. ^ D'HerbeL, p. 5.

4 Ahmad Ibn Yusaf. 1* See Quran, c. 3, v. 97, and the

^ Cap. 2, V. 125. notes thereon.

i86 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

pilgrimage ; nor are women excused from the performance
of this duty. The pilgrims meet at different places near
Makkah, according to the different parts from whence they
come,^ during the months of Shawwal and Dhu'l Qaada,
being obliged to be there by the beginning of Dhu'l Hajja,
which month, as its name imports, is peculiarly set apart
for the celebration of this solemnity.
Thesacred At the placcs above mentioned the pilgrims properly

lltlDlt put . _ , - ^ ,

on. commence the sacred rites. The men put on the Ihram, or

sacred habit, which consists only of two woollen wrappers,
one wrapped about the middle to cover their shame, and
the other thrown over their shoulders, having their heads
bare, and a kind of slippers which cover neither the heel
nor the instep, and so enter the sacred territory on their
way to Makkah. While they have this habit on they
must neither hunt nor fowl ^ (though they are allowed to
fish 3), which precept is so punctually observed, that they
will not kill even a louse or a flea, if they find them on
their bodies : there are some noxious animals, however,
which they have permission to kill during the pilgrimage,
as kites, ravens, scorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite.*
During the pilgrimage it behoves a man to have a constant
guard over his words and actions, and to avoid all quar-
relling or ill language, and all converse with women and
obscene discourse, and to apply his whole intention to the
good work he is engaged in.

Visiting the The pilgrims, being arrived at Makkah, immediately visit
the temple, and then enter on the performance of the pre-
scribed ceremonies, which consist chiefly in going in pro-
cession round the Kaabah, in running between the Mounts
Safa and Marwa, in making the station on Mount Arafat,
and slaying the victims, and shaving their heads in the
valley of Mina. These ceremonies have been so par-
ticularly described by others,^ that I may be excused

^ Vide Bobov. de Peregr. Mecc, * Al Bald.
p. 12, &c. ® Bobov. de Peregr. Mecc, p. ii.

^ Quran, c. 5, vv. 95-97. ^ Ibid. &c. ; Chardin, Voy. de Perse, t. 2,

temjile, &c.

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 187

if I but just mention the most material circumstances
thereof.

In compassing the Kaabah, which they do seven times,
beginning at the corner where the blacl;: stone is fixed,
they use a short, quiclv pace the three first times they go
round it, and a grave, ordinary pace the four last ; which,
it is said, was ordered by Muhammad, that his followers
miirht show themselves strong and active, to cut off the
hopes of the infidels, who gave out that the immoderate
heats of Madina had rendered them weak.^ But the
aforesaid quick pace they are not obliged to use every
time tliey perform this piece of devotion, but only at some
particular times.^ So often as they pass by the black stone,
they either kiss it, or touch it with their hand, and kiss
that.

The running between Safa and Marwa^ is also per-
formed seven times, partly with a slow pace, and partly
running ; * for they walk gravely till they come to a place
between two pillars ; and there they run, and afterwards
walk again ; sometimes looking back, and sometimes stop-
ping, like one who has lost something, to represent Hagar
seeking water for her son ; ^ for the ceremony is said to
be as ancient as her time.*"

On the ninth of Dhu'l Hajja, after morning prayer, the
pilgrims leave the valley of Mina, whither they come the
day before, and proceed in a tumultuous and rushing
manner to Mount Arafat,^ where they stay to perform
their devotions till sunset : then they go to Muzdalifah, an
oratory between Arafat and Mina, and there spend the
night in prayer and reading the Quran, The next morn-
ing, by daybreak, they visit al Mashar al Haram, or the

p. 440, &c. See also Pitts' Account - Vide Poc. Spec, p. 314.

of the Rel., &c., of the Muhamnia- ^ See ante, p. 42.

dans, p. 92, &c. ; Gagnier, Vie de ^ Al Ghazdli.

Moh., t. 2, p. 25S, &c. ; Abulfed., ^ Reland, De Rel. Moh., p. 121.

Vit. Muh., p. 130, &c. ; and Reland, ^ Ibn al Athlr.

De Rel. Moh., p. 113, &c. "See Quran, c. 2, v. 198, and

^ Ibn al Athir. note there.

1 88

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

Sacrifices
and sacred
offerings.

The cere-
monies of
pilgrimage
borrowed
from Arab
heathenism.

sacred nioimment,^ and departing thence before sunrise,
liaste by Batn Muliassir to the valley of Mina, where they
throw seven stones ^ at three marks or pillars, in imitation
of Abraham, who, meeting the devil in that place, and
being by him disturbed in his devotions, or tempted to
disobedience, when he was going to sacrifice his son, was
commanded by God to drive him away by throwing stones
at him ; ^ though others pretend this rite to be as old as
Adam, who also put the devil to flight in the same place
and by the same means.*

This ceremony being over, on the same day, the tenth
of Dhu'l Hajja, the pilgrims slay their victims in the said
valley of Mina, of which they and their friends eat part,
and the rest is given to the poor. These victims must be
either sheep, goats, kine, or camels ; males if of either of
the two former kinds, and females if of either of the latter,
and of a fit age.^ The sacrifices being over, they shave
their heads and cut their nails, burying them in the same
place : after which the pilgrimage is looked on as com-
pleted,® though they again visit the Kaabah, to take
their leave of that sacred building.

The above-mentioned ceremonies, by the confession of
the Muhammadans themselves, were almost all of them
observed by the pagan Arabs many ages before their pro-
phet's appearance ; and particularly the compassing of the
Kaabah, the running between Safa and Marwa, and the
throwing of the stones in Mina ; and were confirmed by
Muhammad, with some alterations in such points as
seemed most exceptionable : thus, for example, he ordered
that when they compassed the Kaabah they should be
clothed ; '' whereas, before his time, they performed that

1 See Qurdn, c. 2, v. i88. M. Gag-
nier has been guilty of a mistake in
confounding this monument with
the sacred enclosure of the Kaabah.
Vide Gagn. not. ad Abulfed. Vit.
Moh., p. 131, and Vie de Moh., t. 2,
p. 262.

- Dr. Pocock, from al Ghazali,

says seventy, at different times and
places. Poc. Spec, p. 315.

^ Al Ghazali, Ahmad Ibn Yusaf.

* Ibn al Athir.

^ Vide Reland, ubi sup., p. 117.

^ See Quran, c. 2, v. 196.

^ Quran, c. 7, v. 27, 32,

SEC. IV.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 189

piece of devotion naked, throwing off their clothes as a
mark that they had cast off their sins,^ or as signs of their
disobedience towards GoD.^

It is also acknowledged that the greater part of these object of
rites are of no intrinsic worth, neither affecting the soul age.
nor agreeing with natural reason, but altogether arbi-
trary, and commanded merely to try the obedience of
mankind, without any further view, and are therefore to
be complied with ; not that they are good in themselves,
but because God has so appointed.^ Some, however, have
endeavoured to find out some reasons for the abitrary in-
junctions of this kind ; and one writer,^ supposing men
ought to imitate the heavenly bodies, not only in their
purity but in their circular motion, seems to argue the
procession round the Kaabali to be therefore a rational
practice. Eeland^ has observed that the Eomans had
something like this in their worship, being ordered by
Numa to use a circular motion in the adoration of the
gods, either to represent the orbicular motion of the world,
or the perfecting the whole office of prayer to that God
who is maker of the universe, or else in allusion to the
Egyptian wheels, which were hieroglyphics of the insta-
bility of human fortune.^

The pilgrimage to Makkah, and the ceremonies pre-
scribed to those w^ho perform it, are, perhaps, liable to
greater exception than other of Muhammad's institutions,
not only as silly and ridiculous in themselves, but as
relics of idolatrous superstition.'^ Yet whoever seriously
considers how difficult it is to make people submit to the

1 Al Faik, de Tempore Ignor. Oekley's English translation thereof,

Arabum, apudMill. de Mohammed, p. 117.

anteMoh., p. 322. Comp. Isa.lxiv. 6. ^ De Rel. Moh., p. 123.

^ JaHl. al Baid. This notion ^ Plutarch, in Numa.

comes very near if it be not the same '^ Maimonides (in Epist. ad Prosel.

with that of the Adamites. Rel.) pretends that the worship of

^ Al Ghazali. Vide Abulfar. Hist. Mercury was performed by throw-

Dyn., p. 171. ing of stones, and that of Chemosh

■* Abu Jaafar Ibn Tufail, in Vita by making bare the head and put-

Hai Ibn Yukdhdn, p. 151. See Mr. ting on unsewn garments.

I90 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. iv.

abolishing of ancient customs, how unreasonable soever,
which they are fond of, especially where the interest of a
considerable party is also concerned, and that a man may
with less danger change many things than one great one,^
must excuse Muhammad's yielding some points of less
moment to gain the principal. The temple of Makkah
was held in excessive veneration by all the Arabs in
general (if we except only the tribes of Tay and Khuzaah
and some of the posterity of al Harith Ibn Qaab,^ who
used not to go in pilgrimage thereto), and especially by
those of Makkah, who had a particular interest to support
that veneration ; and as the most silly and insignificant
things are generally the objects of the greatest superstition,
^ihiham- Muhammad found it much easier to abolish idolatry itself
cession to than to eradicate the superstitious bigotry with which
and super™ they wcre addicted to that temple and the rites performed
there ; wherefore, after several fruitless trials to wean
them therefrom,^ he thought it best to compromise the
matter, and rather than to frustrate his whole design, to
allow them to go on pilgrimage thither, and to direct
their prayers thereto, contenting himself with transferring
the devotions there paid from their idols to the true God,
and changing such circumstances therein as he judged
might give scandal. And herein he followed the example
of the most famous legislators, who instituted not such
laws as were absolutely the best in themselves, but the
best their people were capable of receiving ; and we find
God himself had the same condescendence for the Jews,
whose hardness of heart he humoured in many things,
giving them therefore statutes that were not good, and
judgments whereby they should not live.*"^

stition.

* For a clear and accurate description of tlie rites and ceremonies
of the Muslim religion, the reader is referred to Hughes' Notes on
Muhammadanism. e. m. w.

^ According to the maxim, Tutius ^ See Quran, c. 2, v. 147, &c.
estmultamutarequamunum magnum. * Ezek. xx. 25. Vide Spencer de
- Al Shahristiini. Urim et Thummim, c. 4, § 7.

( 191 )

SECTION V.

OF CERTAIN NEGATIVE PRECEPTS IN THE QURAN.

Having in tlie preceding section spoken of the funda-
mental points of the Muhammadan religion, relating both
to faith and to practice, I shall in this and the two follow-
ing discourses speak in the same brief method of some
other precepts and institutions of the Quran which de-
serve peculiar notice, and first of certain things which are
thereby prohibited.

The drinking of wine, under which name all sorts of The dnnw-

,.,..,. 1 1 1 • c "^S of wine

strong and inebriating liquors are comprehended, is tor- and spiritu-
bidden in the Quran in more places than one.^ Some, forbidden.
indeed, have imagined that excess therein is only for-
bidden, and that the moderate use of wine is allowed by
two passages in the same book ; ^ but the more received
opinion is, that to drink any strong liquors, either in a
lesser quantity or in a greater, is absolutely unlawful;
and though libertines ^ indulge themselves in a contrary
practice, yet the more conscientious are so strict, especially
if they have performed the pilgrimage to Makkah,* that
they hold it unlawful not only to taste wine, but to press
grapes for the making of it, to buy or to sell it, or even to
maintain themselves with the money arising by the sale
of that liquor. The Persians, however, as well as the
Turks, are very fond of wine ; and if one asks them how
it comes to pass that they venture to drink it, when it is

1 See c. 2, V. 2 1 8, and c. 5, v. 92. ^ Vide Smith, De Morib. et Instit.

^ Cap. 2, V. 218, and c. 16, v. 69. Turcar, Ep. 2, p. 28, &c.
Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., p. 696. * Vide Chardin, ubi supra, p. 212.

192 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

so directly forbidden by their religion, they answer, that
it is with them as with the Christians, whose religion
prohibits drunkenness and wdioredom as great sins, and
who glory, notwithstanding, some in debauching girls and
married women, and others in drinking to excess.^
Question as It lias been a question whether coffee comes not under
tobacco!'^" the above-mentioned prohibition,^ because the fumes of it
have some effect on the imagination. This drink, which
was first publicly used at Aden in Arabia Felix, about
the middle of the ninth century of the Hijra, and thence
gradually introduced into Makkah, Madina, Egypt, Syria,
and other parts of the Levant, has been the occasion of
great disputes and disorders, having been sometimes pub-
licly condemned and forbidden, and again declared lawful
and allowed.^ At present the use of coffee is generally
tolerated, if not granted, as is that of tobacco, though the
more religious make a scruple of taking the latter, not
only because it inebriates, but also out of respect to a
traditional saying of their prophet (which, if it could be
made out to be his, would prove him a prophet indeed),
" That in the latter days there should be men M'ho should
bear the name of Muslims, but should not be really such ;
and that they should smoke a certain weed, which should
be called tobacco." However, the Eastern nations are
generally so addicted to both, that they say, " A dish of
coffee and a pipe of tobacco are a complete entertain-
ment;" and the Persians have a proverb that coffee with-
out tobacco is meat without salt>

Opium and bang (which latter is the leaves of hemp in
pills or conserve) are also by the rigid Muhammadans
esteemed unlawful, though not mentioned in the Quran,

^ Chardin, ubi siip., p. 344. I'Origine et du Progres du Caf^ h,

- Abd al Qadir Muhammad al An- la fin du Voy. de I'Arabie Heur. de

sdri has written a treatise concerning la Roque.

« coffee, wherein he argues for its law- * Reland, Dissert. Miscell., t. 2, p.

fulness. Vide D'Herbel., art. Cah- 2S0. Vide Chardin, Voy. de Perse,

vah. t. 2, pp. 14 and 66.
* Vide Le TraitJ Historique de

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 193

because tliey intoxicate and disturb the understanding as
wine does, and in a more extraordinary manner : yet these
drugs are now commonly taken in the East ; * but they
who are addicted to them are generally looked upon as
debauchees.^

Several stories have been told as the occasion of Mu- The reason

1 -T • • 1 1 • T • f • o ^ ^ '^hy winc-

hammad s prohibiting the drinking of wine ; '- but the true drinking

, ^ , . , , 1 • n T '^'^^ prohi-

reasons are given m tlie Quran, viz., because the ill quali- bited.
ties of that liquor surpass its. good ones, the common
effects thereof being quarrels and disturbances in com-
pany, and neglect, or at least indecencies, in the perfor-
mance of religious duties.^ For these reasons it was that
the priests were, by the Levitical law, forbidden to drink
wine or strong drink when they entered the tabernacle,'*
and that the j^^azarites,^ and Eechabites,*^ and many pious
persons among the Jews and primitive Christians, wholly
abstained therefrom ; nay, some of the latter went so far as
to condemn the use of wine as sinful.'^ But Muhammad
is said to have had a nearer example than any of these, in
the more devout persons of his own tribe.^

Gaming is prohibited by the Quran ^ in the same Lots .and
passages, and for the same reasons, as wine. The word fhaifc'eV-
al maisar, which is there used, signifies a particular manner
of casting lots by arrows, much practised by the pagan
Arabs, and performed in the following manner. A young
camel being bought and killed, and divided into ten or
twenty-eight parts, the jDcrsons who cast lots for them, to
the number of seven, met for that purpose; and eleven
arrows were provided, without heads or feathers, seven of

* Opium is very commonly used by Muslims in India, e. m. w.

^ Vide Chardin, ibid., p. 68, &c., ® Jerem. xxxv. 5, &c.

and D'Herbel., p. 200. ^ This was the heresy of those

■^ Vide Prid., Life of Mah , p. 82, called Encratitse, and Aquarij.

&c. ; Busbeq. , Epist. 3, p. 255; and Khuaf, a Magian heretic, also de-

Mandeville's Travels, p. 1 70. clared wine unlawful ; but this was

' Qunin, c. 2, v. 218 ; c. 5, v. 92 ; after Muhammad's time. Hyde, De

and c. 4, V. 42 and note. See Pro v. Rel. Vet. Pers. , p. 300.

xxiii. 29, &c. 8 Vide Reland, De Rel. Moh., p.

* Levit. X. 9. 5 Numb. vi. 2. 271. " Cap. 2, v. 218 ; c. 5, v. 92.

194 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

which were marked, the first with one notch, the second
with two, and so on, and the other four had no mark at
all.i These arrows were put promiscuously into a bag,
and then drawn by an indifferent person, who had another
near him to receive them, and to see he acted fairly;
those to whom the marked arrows fell won shares in
proportion to their lot, and those to whom the blanks fell
were entitled to no part of the camel at all, but were
obliged to pay the full price of it. The winners, however,
tasted not of the flesh, any more than the losers, but the
whole was distributed among the poor ; and this they did
out of pride and ostentation, it being reckoned a shame
for a man to stand out, and not venture his money on
such an occasion.^ This custom, therefore, though it was
of some use to the poor and diversion to the rich, was
forbidden by Muhammad,^ as the source of great incon-
veniences, by occasioning quarrels and heart-burnings,
which arose from the winners insulting of those who lost.
Chess allow- Under the name of lots the commentators agree that
restrictions, all othcr games wliatsoever, which are subject to hazard
or chance, are comprehended and forbidden, as dice, cards,
tables, &c. And they are reckoned so ill in themselves,
that the testimony of him who plays at them is by the
more rigid judged to be of no validity in a court of justice.
Chess is almost the only game which the Muhammadan
doctors allow to be lawful (though it has been a doubt
with some),* because it depends wholly on skill and
management, and not at all on chance : but then it is
allowed under certain restrictions, viz., that it be no
hindrance to the regular performance of their devotions,
and that no money or other thing be played for or betted ;
which last the Turks, being Sunnis, religiously observe,

^ Some writers, as al Zamakh. Hariri, al Baidhdwi, &c. Vide Poc.

and al Shinizi, mention but three Spec, p. 324, &c.

blank arrows. ^ Qurjln, c. 5, v. 4.

- Auctores Nodhm al dorr, et ■* Vide Hyde, De Ludis Oriental.

Nothr al dorr, al Zamakh. al Fir- in Proleg. ad Shahiludium.
auzabddi, al Shirazi in Orat. al

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 195

but the Persians and Moguls do not.^ But what Muham-
mad is supposed chiefly to have disliked in the game of
chess was the carved pieces, or men, with which the
pagan Arabs played, being little figures of men, elephants,
horses, and dromedaries ; ^ and these are thought, by some
commentators, to be truly meant by the images prohibited
in one of the passages of the Quran ^ quoted above. That
the Arabs in Muhammad's time actually used such images
for chessmen appears from what is related in the Sunnat
of Ali, who, passing accidentally by some who were
playing at chess, asked, " What images they were which
they were so intent upon ? " * for they were perfectly new
to him, that game having been but very lately introduced
into Arabia, and not long before into Persia, whither it was
first brought from India in the reignof Khusrii Anushirwan.^
Hence the Muhammadan doctors infer that the game was
disapproved only for the sake of the images : wherefore
the Sunnis always play with plain pieces of wood or
ivory ; but the Persians and Indians, who are not so
scrupulous, continue to make use of the carved ones.*^ *

The Muhammadans comply with the prohibition of
gaming much better than they do with that of wine ; for
though the common people, among the Turks more fre-
quently, and the Persians more rarely, are addicted to
play, yet the better sort are seldom guilty of it.'^

Gaming, at least to excess, has been forbidden in all
well-ordered states. Gaming-houses were reckoned scan-
dalous places among the Greeks, and a gamester is declared
by Aristotle ^ to be no better than a thief : the Eoman
senate made very severe laws against playing at games of
hazard,^ except only during the "Saturnalia ; though the

* This statement is more fhan doubtful. E. M. w.

^ Vide Hyde, De Ludis Oriental. ^ Khondemir. apud eund. ibid.,

in Proleg. ad Shahiludium. p. 41. ^ Vide Hyde, ubi sup., p. 9.

^ Vide eundem, ibid., and in Hist. '' Vide eundem, in Proleg., and

Shahiludij, p. I35,&c. ^ Cap. 5, v. 92. Chardin, Voy. de Perse, t. 2, p. 46.

•* Sukaikar al Dimishki, and Auc- ^ Lib. iv. ad Nicom.

tor libri al Mustatraf, apud Hyde, » Vide Horat., 1. 3. Carm. Od.

ubi sup., p. 8. 24.

196 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

people played often at other times, notMdthstanding tlie
prohibition : the civil law forbade all pernicious games,^
and though the laity were, in some cases, permitted to
play for money, provided they kept within reasonable
bounds, yet the clergy were forbidden to play at tables
(which is a game of hazard), or even to look on while
others played.^ Accursius, indeed, is of opinion they may
play at chess, notwithstanding that law, because it is a
game not subject to chance,^ and being but newly invented
in the time of Justinian, was not then known in the
Western parts. However, the monks for some time were
not allowed even chess.*

As to the Jews, Muhammad's chief guides, they also

highly disapprove gaming: gamesters being severely

censured in the Talmud, and their testimony declared

invalid.^

Divining by Auothcr practico of the idolatrous Arabs forbidden also

arrows for- . p -1 ^ • t

bidden. m oue of the above-mentioned passages,** was that oi
divining by arrows. The arrows used by them for this
purpose were like those with which they cast lots, being
without heads or feathers, and were kept in the temple
of some idol, in whose presence they were consulted.
Seven sucli arrows were kept at the temple of Makkah ; ^
but generally in divination they made use of three only,
on one of which was written, " My Lord hath commanded
me," on another, " My Lokd hath forbidden me," and the
third was blank. If the first was drawn, they looked on
it as an approbation of the enterprise in question ; if
the second, they made a contrary conclusion ; but if the
third happened to be drawn, they mixed them and drew

^ ff. de Alecatoribus, Novell. Just, etiam Maimon. in Tract. Gezila.

123, &c. Vide Hyde, ubi sup. in Among the modern civilians, Mas-

Hist. Alese, p. 119. cardus thought common gamesters

^ Authent. interdicimus, c. de epis- v^'ere not to be admitted as wit-

coj^is. nesses, being infamous persons. Vide

•* In Com. ad Legem Praed. Hyde, ubi sup. in Proleg. et in Hist.

* Du Fresno, in Gloss. Alete, § 3.

^ Bava Mesia, 84, i ; Rosh has- ^ Quran, c. 5, v. 4,

hana and Sanhedr. 24, 2, Vide ^ See ante, p. 42.

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 197

over again, till a decisive answer was given by one of the
others. Tliese divining arrows were generally consulted
before anything of moment was undertaken ; as when a
man was about to marry, or about to go a journey, or the
like.^ This superstitious practice of divining by arrows
was used by the ancient Greeks,^ and other nations ; and
is particularly mentioned in Scripture,^ where it is said
that "the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the
way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination ; he
made his arrows bright " (or, according to the version of
the Vulgate, which seems preferable in this place, "he
mixed together or shook the arrows"), "he consulted with
images," &c. ; the commentary of St. Jerome on which
passage wonderfully agrees with what we are told of the
aforesaid custom of the old Arabs : " He shall stand," says
he, "in the highway, and consult the oracle after the'man-
ner of his nation, that he may cast arrows into a quiver,
and mix them together, being written upon or marked with
the names of each people, that he may see whose arrow will
come forth, and which city he ought first to attack." "^

A distinction of meats was so generally used by the Laws con-
Eastern nations, that it is no wonder that Muhammad meats.
made some regulations in that matter. The Qunin, there-
fore, prohibits the eating of blood, and swine's flesh, and
whatever dies of itself, or is slain in the name or in honour
of any idol, or is strangled, or killed by a blow, or a fall,
or by any other beast.^ In which particulars Muhammad
seems chiefly to have imitated the Jews, by ""whose law,
as is well known, all those things are forbidden; but he
allowed some things to be eaten which Moses did not,^ as
camels' flesh '' in particular. In cases of necessity, how-

' Ibn al Athir, al Zamakh., and ^ Ezek. xxi. 21.
al Baid. in Quran, c. 5, v. 4. Al "* Vide Poc. Spec, p. 329, &c.
Mustatraf, &c. Vide Poc. Spec, p. ^ Cap. 2, v. 174 ; c. 5, v. 4 ; c.

327, &c., audD'Herbel.,Bibl. Orient., 6, v. 146; and c 16, v. 116.
art. Koddh. ^ Levit. xi. 4.

" Vide Potter, Antiq. of Greece, ^ See Quran, c. 3, vv. 49 and 93,

vol. i. p. 334. and c. 6, v. 146.

198 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

ever, where a man may be in danger of starving, he is
allowed by the Muhammadan law to eat any of the said
prohibited kinds of food ; ^ and the Jewish doctors grant
the same liberty in the same case.^ Though the aversion
to blood and what dies of itself may seem natural, yet
some of the pagan Arabs used to eat both : of their eating
of the latter some instances will be given hereafter ; and
as to the former, it is said they used to pour blood, which
they sometimes drew from a live camel, into a gut, and
then broiled it in the fire, or boiled it, and ate it : ^ this
food they called Muswadd, from Asivad, which signifies
hlach ; the same nearly resembling our black puddings in
name as well as composition.* The eating of meat offered
to idols I take to be commonly practised by all idolaters,
being looked on as a sort of communion in their worship,
and for that reason esteemed by Christians, if not absolutely
unlawful, yet as what may be the occasion of great scandal;^
but the Arabs were particularly superstitious in this matter,
killing what they ate on stones erected on purpose around
the Kaabah, or near their own houses, and calling, at the
same time, on the name of some idol.*^ Swine's flesh, in-
deed, the old Arabs seem not to have eaten ; and their
prophet, in prohibiting the same, appears to have only
confirmed the common aversion of the nation. Foreign
writers tell us that the Arabs wholly abstained from
swine's flesh,'^ thinking it unlawful to feed thereon,^ and
that very few, if any, of those animals are found in their
country, because it produces not proper food for them ; ^
which has made one writer imagine that if a hog were
carried thither, it would immediately die.^*'

1 Qurdn, c. 5, v. 2, &c., and in ^ Compare Acts xv. 29 with i

the other passages last quoted. Cor. viii. 4, &c.

- Vide Maimon. in Halachoth ^ See the fifth chapter of the

Melachim, c. 8, § i., &c. Qui'iin, v. 4, and the notes there.

3 Nothr al dorr, al Firauz., al ^ .Solin. de Arab., c. 33.
Zamakh., and al Baid. ^ Hieronvm. in Juviu. 1. 2, c. 6.

* Poc. SiJec, p. 320. * Idem, ibid.

^^ boliuus, ubi supra.

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 199

In the proliibition of usury ^ I presume Muliammad of usury

■'■ "^ ^ . and certain

also followed the Jews, who are strictly forbidden by supersti-
tious cus-
their law to exercise it among one another, though they toms.

are so infamously guilty of it in their dealing with those

of a different religion ; but I do not find the prophet of

the Arabs has made any distinction in this matter.

Several superstitious customs relating to cattle, which
seem to have been peculiar to the pagan Arabs, were also
abolished by Muliammad. The Quran ^ mentions four
names by them given to certain camels or sheep, which
for some particular reasons were left at free liberty, and
were not made use of as other cattle of the same kind.
These names are Bahira, Saiba, Wasila, and Hiimi : of
each whereof in their order.

As to the first, it is said that when a she-camel or a The customs
sheep had borne young ten times, they used to slit her the^Bafdla,
ear, and turn her loose to feed at full liberty ; and when ^"^^and'^"'
she died, her flesh was eaten by the men only, the women ^ained^'
being forbidden to eat thereof : and such a camel or sheep,
from the slitting of her ear, they called Bahira. Or the
Bahira was a she-camel, which was turned loose to feed,
and whose fifth young one, if it proved a male, was killed
and eaten by men and women promiscuously ; but if it
proved a female, had its ear slit, and was dismissed to
free pasture, none being permitted to make use of its
flesh or milk, or to ride on it; though the women were
allowed to eat the flesh of it when it died : or it was the
female young of the Saiba, which was used in the same
manner as its dam; or else an ewe, which had yeaned
five times.^ These, however, are not all the opinions
concerning the Bahira; for some suppose that name was
given to a she-camel, which, after having brought forth
young five times, if the last was a male, had her ear slit,
as a mark thereof, and was let go loose to feed, none
driving her from pasture or water, nor using her for

^ Quran, c. 2, v. 275. ^ Cap. 5, v. 102. ^ Al Firauzabadi.

203 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

carriage ; ^ and others tell us that when a camel had
newly brought forth, they used to slit the ear of her young
one, saying, " 0 God, if it live, it shall be for our use, but
if it die, it shall be deemed rightly slain;" and when it
died they ate it.^

Saiba signifies a she-camel turned loose to go where she
will. And this was done on various accounts : as when
she had brought forth females ten times together ; or in
satisfaction of a vow ; or when a man had recovered from
sickness, or returned safe from a journey, or his camel
had escaped some signal danger either in battle or other-
wise. A camel so turned loose was declared to be Saiba,
and, as a mark of it, one of the vertehrce or bones was taken
out of her back, after which none might drive her from
pasture or water, or ride on her.^ Some say that the
Saiba, when she had ten times together brought forth
females, was suffered to go at liberty, none being allowed
to ride on her, and that her milk was not to be drank by
any but her young one, or a guest, till she died ; and
then her flesh was eaten by men as well as women, and
her last female young one had her ear slit, and was called
Bahira, and turned loose as her dam had been>

This appellation, however, was not so strictly proper
to female camels, but that it was given to the male when
his young one had begotten another young one : ^ nay, a
servant set at liberty and dismissed by his master was
also called Saiba ; ^ and some are of opinion that the
word denotes an animal which the Arabs used to turn
loose in honour of their idols, allowing none to make use
of them thereafter, except women only.'^^

Wasila is, by one author,^ explained to signify a she-
camel which had brought forth ten times, or an ewe which

1 Al Zamakh., al Eaidhdwi, al ^ Al Firanz.
Jlustatraf. ^ Idem, al Jawhari, &c.

- Ibn al Athir. ^ Nothr al dorr and Nodhm al

^ Al Firauzdb., al Zamakh. dorr.

^ Al Jawhari, Ibn al Athir. ^ Al Firauz.

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 201

had yeaned seven times, and every time twins ; and if the
seventh time she brought forth a male and a female, they
said, "Wusilat akliaha," i.e., "She is joined," or, "was
brought forth with her brother," after which none might
drink the dam's milk, except men only ; and she was used
as the Saiba. Or Wasila was particularly meant of sheep;
as when an ewe brought forth a female, they took it to
themselves, but when she brought forth a male, they con-
secrated it to their gods, but if both a male and a female,
they said, " She is joined to her brother," and did not
sacrifice that male to their gods : or Wasila was an ewe
which brought forth first a male and then a female, on
which account, or because she followed her brother,
the male was not killed ; but if she brought forth a male
only, they said, " Let this be an offering to our gods." ^
Another ^ writes, that if an ewe brought forth twins seven
times together, and the eighth time a male, they sacrificed
that male to their gods ; but if the eighth time she brought
both a male and a female, they used to say, " She is joined
to her brother," and for the female's sake they spared the
male, and permitted not the dam's milk to be drunk by
women. A third writer tells us, that Wasila was an ewe,
■which having yeaned seven times, if that which she
brought forth the seventh time was a male, they sacri-
ficed it, but if a female, it was suffered to go loose, and
was made use of by women only ; and if the seventh time
she brought forth both a male and a female, they held them
both to be sacred, so that men only were allowed to make
any use of them, or to drink the milk of the female : and
a fourth ^ describes it to be an ewe which brought forth
ten females at five births one after another, i.e., every
time twins, and whatever she brought forth afterwards
was allowed to men, and not to women, &c.

Hami was a male camel used for a stallion, which, if
the females had conceived ten times by him, was after-

^ Al Firauz., al Zamakh. - Al Jawbari. ^ ^^j Mutarrezi.

202 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

wards freed from labour, and let go loose, none driving
him from pasture or from water ; nor was any allowed
to receive the least benefit from him, not even to shear
his hair.i

These things were observed by the old Arabs in honour
of their false gods,^ and as part of the worship which they
paid them, and were ascribed to the divine institution ;
but are all condemned in the Quran, and declared to be
impious superstitions.^
Muhammad The law of Muhammad also put a stop to the inhuman

prohibits ,., .

infanticide, custom, wliich had been long practised by the pagan Arabs,
of burying their daughters alive, lest they should be re-
duced to poverty by providing for them, or else to avoid
the displeasure and disgrace which would follow, if they
should happen to be made captives, or to become scanda-
lous by their behaviour ; ^ the birth of a daughter being,
for these reasons, reckoned a great misfortune,^ and the
death of one as a great happiness.^ The manner of their
doing this is differently related : some say that when an
Arab had a daughter born, if he intended to bring her up,
he sent her, clothed in a garment of wool or hair, to keep
camels or sheep in the desert ; but if he designed to put
her to death, he let her live till she became six years old,
and then said to her mother, "Perfume her, and adorn
her, that I may carry her to her mothers ; " which being
done, the father led her to a well or pit dug for that
purpose, and having bid her to look down into it, pushed
her in headlong, as he stood behind her, and then filling
up the pit, levelled it with the rest of the ground ; but
others say, that when a woman was ready to fall in labour,
they dug a pit, on the brink whereof she was to be de-
livered, and if the child happened to be a daughter, they
threw it into the pit, but if a son, they saved it alive.'^

^ Al Firauz., al Jawhari, ^ Al Baidhdwi, al Zamakh., al

^ Jalal. in Qiiran. Mustatraf.

' Quran, c. 5, v. 102, and c. 6, * See Quran, c. 1 6, vv. 60, 61.

V. 142-145. Vide Poc. Spec, pp. ^ Al Maiddni. ^ Al Zamakh.
330-334-

SEC. v.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 203

This custom, though not observed by all the Arabs in
general, was yet very common among several of their tribes,
and particularly those of Quraish and Kinda ; the former
using to bury their daughters alive in Mount Abu Dalama,
near Makkah.^ In the time of ignorance, while they used
this method to get rid of their daughters, Sasaa, grand-
father to the celebrated poet al Farazdak, frequently
redeemed female children from death, giving for every
one two she-camels big with young, and a he-camel;
and hereto al Farazdak alluded when, vaunting himself
before one of the Khalifahs of the family of Omayyah,
he said, " I am the son of the giver of life to the dead ; "
for which expression being censured, he excused himself
by alleging the following words of the Quran,^ " He who
saveth a soul alive, shall be as if he had saved the lives
of all mankind." ^ The Arabs, in thus murdering of their
children, were far from being singular; the practice of
exposing infants and putting them to death being so
common among the ancients, that it is remarked as a
thing very extraordinary in the Egyptians, that they
brought up all their children ; * and by the laws of
Lycurgus ^ no child was allowed to be brought up without
the approbation of public officers. At this day, it is said, in
China, the poorer sort of people frequently put their children,
the females especially, to death with impunity.^ *

* The same practice was common among several castes of the
Hindus. It is worthy of note that the motives for the act were
the same as those which influenced the heathen Arabs. E. M. w.

^ Al Mustatraf. especially in this manner — whence

2 Cap. 5, V. 35. that saying of Posidippus :

3 Al Mustatraf. Vide Ibn Kha- ,r^^^^ ^p^^^, ^^^ ^ - ^ -^^^ ^^ ^,^^^
hqdn, in Vita al Farazdak, and Q^,yaTipaU tKTier,<yLKdv ^ irXomios—
Poo. Spec, p. 334. ^' '^ , , '., /

Strabo, 1. 17. Vide Diodor. " A man, tho poor, wdl not expose

Sic, 1. I

his

son

5'' Vide Plutarch, in Lycurgo. ' ^"^ i^ ^^^'s rich, will scarce preserve

« Vide Pufendorf, de Jure Nat. ^^^ daughter."—

et Gent., 1. 6, c. 7, § 6. The See Potter's Antiq. of Greece, vol.

Grecians also treated daughters ii. p. 333.

204 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. v.

This wicked practice is condemned by the Quran in
several passages ; ^ one of which, as some commentators ^
judge, may also condemn another custom of the Arabians,
altogether as wicked, and as common among other nations
of old, viz., the sacrificing of their children to their idols ;
as was frequently done, in particular, in satisfaction of a
vow they used to make, that if they had a certain number
of sons born, they would offer one of them in sacrifice.

Several other superstitious customs were likewise abro-
gated by Muhammad, but the same being of less moment,
and not particularly mentioned in the Quran, or having
been occasionally taken notice of elsewhere, I shall say
nothing of them in this place.

^ Cap. 6, vv. 137 and 151 ; c. 16, vv. 60, 61 ; and c. 17, v. 33. See
also chap. 81, v. 8.

^ Al Zamakh., al Baid.

SECTION VI.

OF THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE QURAN IN CIVIL AFFAIRS.

The Muhanimaclan civil law is founded on the precepts
and determinations of the Quran, as the civil laws of the
Jews were on those of the Pentateuch ; yet being variously
interpreted, according to the different decisions of their
civilians, and especially of their four great doctors, Abu
Hanifa, Malik, al Shafai, and Ibn Hanbal,^ to treat thereof
fully and distinctly in the manner the curiosity and use-
fulness of the subject deserves, would require a large
volume ; wherefore the most that can be expected here
is a summary view of the principal institutions, without
minutely entering into a detail of particulars. We shall
begin with those relating to marriage and divorce.

That polygamy, for the moral lawfulness of which the Laws
Muhammadan doctors advance several arguments,^ is pofygamy^
allowed by the Quran, every one knows, though few are
acquainted with the limitations with whicli it is allowed.
Several learned men have fallen into the vulgar mistake
that Muhammad granted to his followers an unbounded
plurality ; some pretending that a man may have as many
wives,^ and others as many concubines,^ as he can main-

^ See Sect. VIII. falsely asserts the restraint of the

^ See ante, Sect. II., p. 72. number of their wives to be no pre-

^ Nic. Cusanus, in Cribrat. Alcor. , cept of their religion, but a rule

1. 2, 0. 19. Olearius, in Itinerar. superinduced on a politic considera-

P. Greg. Tholosanus, in Synt. tion. Pres. State of the Ottoman

Juris, I. 9, c. 2, § 22. Septemcas- Empire, bk. iii. c. 21.

trensis (l3e Morib. Turc, p. 24) says ■* Marracc. in Prodr. ad Refut.

the Muhammadans may have twelve Alcor., part iv. pp. 52 and 71.

lawful wives, and no more. Ricaut Prideaux, Life of Mah., p. 114.

2o6 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vr.

tain : whereas, according to the express words of the
Quran,! j^q jjja,n can have more than four, whether wives
or concubines ; ^ * and if a man apprehend any incon-
venience from even that number of ingenuous wives, it
is added, as an advice (which is generally followed by the
middling and inferior people),^ that he marry one only,
or, if he cannot be contented with one, that he take up
with his she-slaves, not exceeding, however, the limited
number;* and this is certainly the utmost Muhammad
allowed his followers : nor can we urge, as an argument
against so plain a precept, the corrupt manners of his
followers, many of whom, especially men of quality and
fortune, indulge themselves in criminal excesses ; ^ nor
yet the example of the prophet himself,-]- who had peculiar
privileges in this and other points, as will be observed
hereafter. In making the above-mentioned limitation,
Muhammad was directed by the decision of the Jewish

* Mnir (Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 303) says, "There is no limit,
as supposed by Sale, to the number of slave-girls, with whom (irre-
spective of his four wives) a Moslem may, without any antecedent
ceremony or any guarantee of continuance, cohabit. Female slavery,
being a condition necessary to the legality of this illimitable indul-
gence, will never be put down, with a willing or hearty co-operation,
by any Mussalman community." E. M. w.

t Surely the " peculiar privileges " of the prophet, whereby all
limit as to the number of his wives and concubines was set aside,
added to his example, wherein he appeared as the possessor of ten
wives besides his concubines, must have gone far to weaken the

Chardin, Voy. de Perse, t. I, p. * Sir J. Mandeville (who, ex-

166. Du Ryer, Sommaire de la cepting a few silly stories he tells

Rel. des Turcs, mis k la tete de sa from hearsay, deserves more credit

version de I'Alcor. Ricaut, ubi than some travellers of better repu-

supra. Pufendorf, De Jure Nat. et tation), speaking of the Quran, ob-

Gent., 1. 6, c. i, § 18. serves, among several other truths,

1 Cap. 4, v. 3. that Muhammad therein commanded

" Vide Gagnier, in Notis ad Abul- a man should have two wives, or

fedse Vit. Moh., p. 150. Reland, three, or four ; though the Muham-

De Rel. Moh., p. 243, &c., and Sel- madans then took nine wives, and

den, Ux. Hebr., 1. i, c. 9. lemans as many as they might sus-

^ Vide Reland, ubi sup., p. 244. tain. Mandev. Travels, p. 164.

■» Qunin, 0. 4, v. 3.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 207

doctors, who, by way of counsel, limit the number of wives
to four,^ though their law confines them not to any certain
number.2

Divorce is also well known to be allowed by the Mu- Law ■
hammadan law, as it was by the Mosaic, with this dif- divor™"^
ference only, that, according to the latter, a man could not
take again a woman whom he had divorced, and who had
been married or betrothed to another ; ^ whereas Muham-
mad, to prevent his followers from divorcing their wives
on every light occasion, or out of an inconstant humour,
ordained that if a man divorced his wife the third time
(for he might divorce her twice without being obliged to
part with her, if he repented of wdiat he had done), it
should not be lawful for him to take her again until she
had been first married and bedded by another, and divorced
by such second husband.* And this precaution has had
so good an effect that the Muhammadans are seldom known
to proceed to the extremity of divorce, notwithstanding
the liberty given them, it being reckoned a great disgrace so
to do ; and there are but few, besides those who have little
or no sense of honour, that will take a wife again on the
condition enjoined.^ * It must be observed that, though

force of his explicit precepts, given for tlie guidance of his followers.
Would not the holy precepts of Jesus, as recorded in the Sermon on
the Mount, have lost much of their power over Christian hearts, had
he claimed for himself the special privilege of total exemption from
them, and, more so, had his example illustrated a lower grade of
moral rectitude ? E. M. w.

* The large dowry, fixed on the bride by the groom before the
marriage is consummated, to be paid in case of a divorce without
proper cause, is more potent than the Quran in preventing divorce.

E. M. w.

^ Maimon, in Halachoth Islioth., I. Vide Selden, ubi sup., 1. i, c.
c. 14. II.

" Idem, ibid. Vide Selden, * Qurdn, c. 2, v. 230.

Uxor. Hebr., 1. i, c. 9. ^ Vide Selden, ubi sup., I. 3, c.

^ Deut, xxiv. 3, 4. Jerem. iii. 21, and Ricaut's State of the Ottom.

Empire, bk. ii. c. 21.

2o8 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

a man is allowed by the Muhammadan, as by the Jewish
law,i to repudiate his wife even on the slightest disgust,
yet the women are not allowed to separate themselves
from their husbands, unless it be for ill-usage, want of
proper maintenance, neglect of conjugal duty, impotency,
or some cause of equal import; but then she generally
loses her dowry ,^ which she does not if divorced by her
husband, unless she has been guilty of impudicity or
notorious disobedience.^

When a woman is divorced, she is obliged, by the direc-
tion of, the Quran, to wait till she hath had her courses
thrice, or, if there be a doubt whether she be subject to
them or not, by reason of her age, three months, before
she marry another ; after which time expired, in case she
be found not with child, she is at full liberty to dispose
of herself as she pleases ; but if she prove with child, she
must wait till she be delivered; and during her whole
term of waiting she may continue in the husband's house,
and is to be maintained at his expense, it being forbidden
to turn the woman out before the expiration of the term,
unless she be guilty of dishonesty.* Where a man divorces
a woman before consummation, she is not obliged to wait
any particular time,^ nor is he obliged to give her more
than one-half of her dower.^ If the divorced woman have
a young child, she is to suckle it till it be two years old ;
the father, in the meantime, maintaining her in all respects :
a widow is also obliged to do the same, and to wait four
months and ten days before she marry again.''

These rules are also copied from those of the Jews,
according to whom a divorced woman or a widow cannot
marry another man till ninety days be past, after the

^ Deut. xxiv. I. Leo Moclena, ^ Quran, c. 4, v. 18, &c.

Hist, de gli Riti Hebr., part i. c. 6. * Quran, c. 2, v. 228, and c. 65,

Vide Selden, ubi sup. v. I, &c.

" Vide Busbeq. , Ep. 3, p. 184; * Ibid., c. 33, v. 48.

Smith, De Morib., ac Instit. Turcar., ^ Ibid., c. 2, v. 237.

Ep. 2, p. 52 ; and Chardin, Voy. de ^ Ibid., c. 2, vv, 233-235, and c.

Perse, t. I, p. 169. 65, v. i, &c.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 209

divorce or death of the husband ; ^ and she who gives
suck is to be maintained for two years, to be computed
from the birth of the child, within which time she
must not marry, unless the child die, or her milk be
dried up.^

Whoredom, in single women as well as married, was, in ^awscon-

' o > > cerning

the beginning of Muhammadism, very severely punished, "■^^^f®'"^-
such being ordered to be shut up in prison till they died ; cation,
but afterwards it was ordained by the Sunnat that an
adulteress should be stoned,^ and an unmarried woman
guilty of fornication scourged with a hundred stripes and
banished for a year.* A she-slave, if convicted of adultery,
is to sufler but half the punishment of a free woman,^ viz.,
fifty stripes and banishment for six months, but is not to
be put to death. To convict a woman of adultery, so as
to make it capital, four witnesses are expressly required,*^
and those, as the commentators say, ought to be men;
and if a man falsely accuse a woman of reputation of
whoredom of any kind, and is not able to support the
charge by that number of witnesses, he is to receive four-
score stripes, and his testimony is to be held invalid for
the future.'' Fornication, in either sex, is by the sentence
of the Quran to be punished with a hundred stripes.^

If a man accuse his wife of infidelity, and is not able to
prove it by sufficient evidence, and will swear four times
that it is true, and the fifth time imprecate God's vengeance
on him if it be false, she is to be looked on as convicted,
unless she will take the like oaths and make the like im-

^ Mishna, tit. Yabimoth, c. 4. Quran, and still in force, as some

Gemar. Babyl. ad eund. tit. Mai- suppose. See the notes to Qunln,

mon. in Halaeh. Girushin, Shylhan c. 3, v. 23, and the Prel. Disc, p.

Aruch, part iii. III.

- Mishna, and Gemara, and Mai- ^ Qurdn, c. 4, vs. 14, 15. See the

mon., ubi supra. Gem. Babyl. ad notes there,

tit. Cetuboth, c. 5, and Jos. Karo, ^ Ibid., v. 24.

in Shylhiln Aruch, 0. 50, § 2. Vide ^ Ibid,, c. 4, v. 14.

Selden, Ux. Hebr., 1. 2, c. II, and '' Ibid., c. 24, v. 4.

1. 3, c. 10, in fin. ® Ibid., vs., 1-3. This law relates

•* And the adulterer also, accord- not to married people, as Selden

ing to a passage once extant in the supposes, Ux. Heb., 1. 3, c. 12.

0

2IO THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

precation in testimony of her innocency ; which if she do,
she is free from punishment, though the marriage ought to
be dissolved.!
^[w'^oUhe III most of the last-mentioned particulars the decisions
tlTutdriTm. ^^ ^^6 Quran also agree with those of the JeM's. By the
law of Moses, adultery, whether in a married woman or a
virgin betrothed, was punished with death ; and the man
who debauched them was to suffer the same punishment.^
The penalty of simple fornication was scourging, the general
punishment in cases where none is particularly appointed;
and a betrothed bondmaid, if convicted of adultery, under-
went the same punishment, being exempted from death
because she was not free.^ By the same law no person
was to be put to death on the oath of one witness ; ^ and
a man who slandered his wife was also to be chastised,
that is, scourged, and fined one hundred shekels of silver.^
The method of trying a woman suspected of adultery
where evidence was wanting, by forcing her to drink the
bitter water of jealousy,^ though disused by the Jews long
before the time of Muhammad,'^ yet, by reason of the oath
of cursing with which the woman was charged, and to
which she M^as obliged to say " Amen," bears great re-
semblance to the expedient devised by the prophet on
the like occasion.

The institutions of Muhammad relating to the pollution

^ Qurdn, c. 24, vv. 6-9. See the maiden, because such a one and her

notes there. accomplice were plainly ordered to

- Levit. XX. 10 ; Deut. xxii. 22. be stoned (Deut. xxii. 23, 24). But

The kind of death to be inflicted on the ancients seem to have been of a

adulterers in common cases being different oj^inion, and to have under-

not exjjressed, the Talmudists gene- stood stoning to be the punishment

rally suppose it to be strangling, of adulterers in general. Vide Sel-

which they think is designed wher- den, Ux. Heb., 1. 3, c. 11 and 12.

ever the phrase " shall be put to ■* Levit. xix. 20.

death," or "shall die the death," is * Deut. xix. 15, xvii. 6, and

used, as they imagine stoning is by Numb. xxxv. 30.

the expression, "his blood shall be ^ Deut. xxii. 13-19.

upou him;" and hence it has been " Numb. v. 11, &c.

concluded by some that the woman ^ Vide Selden, ubi sup, I. 3, c.

taken in adultery mentioned in the 15 ; and Leon. Modena, de' Riti

Gospel (John viii.) was a betrothed Hebraici, parte iv. c. 6.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 211

of women during their courses,^ the taking of slaves to
wife,- and the prohibiting of marriage within certain
degrees,^ have likewise no small affinity with the insti-
tutions of Moses ; * and the parallel might be carried
farther in several other particulars.

As to the prohibited degrees, it may be observed that Prohibited
the pagan Arabs abstained from marrying their mothers,*
daughters, and aunts, both on the father's side and on the
mother's, and held it a most scandalous thing to marry
two sisters, or for a man to take his father's wife ; ^ which
last was, notwithstanding, too frequently practised,^ and
is expressly forbidden in the Quran.'^

Before I leave the subject of marriages, it may be joro- peculiar
per to take notice of some peculiar privileges in relation of Muhim-
thereto which were granted by God to Muhammad, as he marrfuVe'^
gave out, exclusive of all other Muslims. One of them
was that he might lawfully marry as many wives and
have as many concubines as he pleased, without being
confined to any particular number ;^ and this he pretended
to have been the privilege of the prophets before him.
Another was that he might alter the turns of his wives, '
and take such of them to his bed as he thought fit, with-
out being tied to that order and equality which others are
obliged to abserve.^ A third privilege was that no man
might marry any of his wives,^° either such as he should
divorce during his lifetime, or such as he should leave
widows at his death ; which last particular exactly agrees

* They, however, did permit a son to inherit his deceased father's
widows, which cnstom Mnhaminad aljolished. See Muir's Life of
Mahomet, voh ii. ]>. 52, and vol. iii. p. 303. E. M. w.

^ Quran, c. 2, v. 222. ® Vide Poc. Spec, p. 337, &c.

^ Ibid., c. 4, V. 24, &c. '' Quran, c. 4, v. 20.

3 Ibid., vs. 20-22. ^ Ibid., c. 33, v. 49. See also c.

* See Levit. xv. 24, xviii. 19, and 66, and tiie notes there.

XX. 18; Exod. xxi. 8-1 1 ; Deut. ** Ibid., c. 33, v. 51. See the

xxi. 10-14 j Levit. xviii. and xx. notes there.

5 Abulfed., Hist. Gen. al Sharis- " Ibid., v. 53.
tani, apud Poc. Spec, pp. 321, 338.

212 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

with what the Jewish doctors liave determined concerning
• the wives of their princes ; it being judged by them to be
a thing very indecent, and for that reason unlawful, for
another to marry either the divorced wife or the widow
of a king ; ^ and Muhammad, it seems, thought an equal
respect, at least, due to the prophetic as to the regal dig-
nity, and therefore ordered that his relicts should pass the
remainder of their lives in perpetual widowhood.
Laws con- The laws of the Quran concerning inheritances are also
horitance. in scvcral respccts conformable to those of the Jews,
though principally designed to abolish certain practices
of the pagan Arabs, who used to treat widows and orphan
children with great injustice, frequently denying them
any share in the inheritance of tlieir fathers or their hus-
bands, on pretence that the same ought to be distributed
among those only who were able to bear arms, and dis-
posing of the widows, even against their consent, as part
of their husband's possessions.^ To prevent such injuries
for the future, Muhammad ordered that women should be
respected, and orphans have no wrong done them ; and in
particular that women should not be taken against their
wiUs, as by right of inheritance, but should themselves be
entitled to a distributive part of what their parents, hus-
bands, and near relations should leave behind them, in a
certain proportion.^

The general rule to be observed in the distribution of
the deceased's estate is, that a male shall have twice as
much as the female ; * but to this rule there are some few
exceptions ; a man's parents, for example, and also his
brothers and sisters, where they are entitled not to the
whole, but a small part of the inheritance, being to have
equal shares with one another in the distribution thereof,

1 Mishna, tit. Sanhedr., c. 2, and notes there. Vide etiam Poc. Spec,

Gemar. in eund. tit. Maiinon. Ha- p. 337.

lachoth Melachim, c. 2. Vide Sel- ^ Qiirdn, c. 4, vs. 31, 32.

den, Ux. Heb., 1. i, c. 10. Prid., •* Ibid., vs. 10 and 175. Vide

Life of Mah., p. 118. Chardin, Voy. de Perse, t. 2, p.

^ See c. 4, vs. 21, &c., and the 293.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 213

without making any difference on account of sex.^ The
particular proportions, in several cases, distinctly and
sufficiently declare the intention of Muhammad, whose
decisions, exjDressed in the Quran,^ seem to be pretty
ecjuitable, preferring a man's children first, and then his
nearest relations.

If a man dispose of any part of his estate by will, two Law con-

1 T -1 11 cerning

Witnesses, at the least, are requn^ed to render the same wuis.
valid ; and such witnesses ought to be of his own tribe,
and of the Muhammadan religion, if such can be had.^
Though there be no express law to the contrary, yet the
Muhammadan doctors reckon it very wrong for a man
to give away any part of his substance frona his family,
unless it be in legacies for pious uses ; and even in that
case a man ought not to give all he has in charity, but
only a reasonable part in proportion to his substance. On
the other hand, though a man make no will, and bequeath
nothing for charitable uses, yet the heirs are directed, on
the distribution of the estate, if the value will permit, to
bestow something on the poor, especially such as are of
kin to the deceased and to the orphans.*

The first law, however, laid down by Muhammad touch-
ing inheritances was not very equitable ; for he declared
that those who had fled with him from Makkah, and those
who had received and assisted him at Madina, should be
deemed the nearest of kin, and consequently heirs to one
another, preferably to and in exclusion of their relations
by blood ; nay, though a man were a true believer, yet if
he had not fled his country for the sake of religion and
joined the prophet, he was to be looked on as a stranger;^
but this law continued not long in force, being quickly
abrogated.^

It must be observed that among the Muhammadaus ciiiWren of

J11-11 ni- !• 1 ConcubhuiS

the children 01 their concubines or slaves are esteemed as legitimate.

-: 1 Quriln, c. 4. v. 10. ^ Ibid., c. 5, v. 105. ^ Ibid., c. 8, v. 73.
2 Ibid., and v, 175. * Ibid., c. 4, v. 7. ^ ibid., and c. 33, v. 6.

214 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

equally legitimate with those of their legal and ingenuous
wives, none being accounted bastards except such only as
are born of common women and whose fathers are unknown.
Lawcon- As to private contracts between man and man, the
private con- conscientious performance of them is frequently recom-
mended in the Quran.^ For the preventing of disputes,
all contracts are directed to be made before witnesses,^
and in case such contracts are not immediately executed,
the same ought to be reduced into writing in the presence
of two witnesses ^ at least, who ought to be Muslims and
of the male sex ; but if two men cannot be conveniently
had, then one man and two women may suffice. The
same method is also directed to be taken for the security
of debts to be paid at a future day; and where a writer
is not to be found, pledges are to be taken.'^ Hence, if
people trust one another without writing, witnesses, or
pledge, the party on whom the demand is made is always
acquitted if he denies the charge on oath, and swears
that he owes the plaintiff nothing, unless the contrary be
proved by very convincing circumstances.^
Murder and Wilful murdcr, thougli forbidden by the Quran under
lib pena y. ^^^^ severest penalties to be inflicted in the next lif e,^ is
yet, by the same book, allowed to be compounded for, on
payment of a fine to the family of the deceased, and free-
ing a Muslim from captivity ; but it is in the election of
the next of kin, or the revenger of blood, as he is called
in the Pentateuch, either to accept of such satisfaction or
to refuse it ; for he may, if he pleases, insist on having
the murderer delivered into his hands, or be put to death
in such manner as he shall think fit.'^ In this particular

1 Qurdn, c. 5, V. i ; c. 17; c. 2, v. ■* Quran, c. 2. v. 282.

282, &c. * Vide Chardin, Voy. de Perse,

2 Ibid., c. 2, V. 2S2. t. 2, p. 294, &c., and the notes to
^ The same seems to have been Qurdn, c. 5, v. 106.

required by the Jewish law, even ® Qunin, c. 4, vs. 91, 92.

in cases where life was not con- ^ Ibid., c. 2, v. 178; c. 17, v. 35.

cerned. See Deut. xix. 15 ; Matt. Vide Chardin, ubi sup., p. 299,

xviii. 16; John viii. 17; 2 Cor. &c.

xiii. I.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 215

Muhammad has gone against the express letter of the
Mosaic law, which declares that no satisfaction shall be
taken for the life of a murderer ; ^ and he seems, in so
doing, to have had respect to the customs of the Arabs
in his time, who, being of a vindictive temper, used to
revenge murder in too unmerciful a manner," whole tribes
frequently engaging in bloody wars on such occasions, the
natural consequence of their independency, and having no
common judge or superior.

If the Muhammadan laws seem light in case of murder, Mansiaugh

. -I 1 1 1 1 j_ • • J! ter and its

they may perhaps be deemed too rigorous m case 01 man- penalty,
slaughter, or the killing of a man undesignedly, which
must be redeemed by fine (unless the next of kin shall
think fit to remit it out of charity), and the freeing of a
captive ; but if a man be not able to do this, he is to fast
two months together by way of penance.^ The fine for a
man's blood is set in the Sunnat at a hundred camels,^ and
is to be distributed among the relations of the deceased
according to the laws of inheritance ; but it must be
observed that though the person slain be a Muslim, yet
if he be of a nation or party at enmity, or not in con-
federacy with those to whom the slayer belongs, he is not
then bound to pay any fine at all, the redeeming a captive
being, in such case, declared a sufficient penalty.^ I ima-
gine that Muhammad, by these regulations, laid so heavy
a punishment on involuntary manslaughter, not only to
make people beware incurring the same, but also to
humour, in some degree, the revengeful temper of his
countrymen, which might be with difficulty, if at all, pre-
vailed on to accept a lighter satisfaction. Among the
Jews, who seem to have been no less addicted to revenue
than their neighbours, the manslayer who had escaped to
a city of refuge was obliged to keep himself within that
city and to abide there till the death of the person who

^ Numb. XXXV. 31. •* Qunln, c. 4, v. 91.

^ This is particularlj' forbidden in * See the notes to c. 37.
the Quran, c. 17, v. 35. ^ Qurin, c. 4, v. 91.

theft,

2i6 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. vi.

was liigli priest at the time the fact was committed, that
his ahsence and time might cool the passion and mitigate
the resentment of the friends of the deceased; hut if he
quitted his asylum before that time, the revenger of blood,
if he found him, might kill him without guilt ;i nor could
any satisfaction be made for the slayer to return home
before the prescribed time.^

Penalty for Tlicft is Ordered to be punished by cutting off the
offending part, the hand,^ which, at first sight, seems just
enough ; but the law of Justinian, forbidding a thief to
be maimed,* is more reasonable ; because stealing being
generally the effect of indigence, to cut off that limb
would be to deprive him of the means of getting his
livelihood in an honest manner.^ The Sunnat forbids the
inflicting of this punishment, unless the thing stolen be
of a certain value. I have mentioned in another place
the further penalties which those incur who continue to
steal, and of those who rob or assault people on the road.^

Law of re- As to injuries done to men in their persons, the law of
retaliation, which was ordained by the law of Moses,'^ is
also approved by the Quran ; ^ but this law, which seems
to have been allowed by Muhammad to his Arabians for
the same reasons as it was to the Jews, viz., to prevent
particular revenges, to which both nations were extremely
addicted,^ being neither strictly just nor practicable in
many cases, is seldom put in execution, the punishment
being generally turned into a mulct or fine, which is paid
to the party injured.^*' Or rather, Muhammad designed
the words of the Quran relating thereto should be under-

taliation.

1 See Numb. xxxv. 26-28. ^ Vide Grotium, De Jure Belli et

2 Ibid., V. 32. Pacis, 1. i, c. 2, § 8.

3 Qurdn, c. 5, v. 42. ^^ Vide Chardin, t. 2, p. 299. The
■* Novell., 134, c. 13. <aZw, likewise established among the
^ Vide Pufendorf, De Jure Nat. oldRomansby the laws of the twelve

et Gent., 1. 8, c. 3, § 26. tables, was not to be inflicted unless

^ See the notes to c. 5> v. 42, the delinquent could not agree with

^ Exod. xxi. 24, &c. ; Levit. xxiv. the person injured. Vide A. Gell.

20 ; Deut. xix. 21. Noct. Attic, 1. 20, c. r, and Festum,

^ Cap. 5, V. 49. in voce Talio.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 217

stood in tlie same manner as those of the Pentateuch most
probably ought to be — that is, not of an actual retaliation,
according to the strict literal meaning, but of a retribution
proportionable to the injury ; for a criminal had not his
eyes put out nor was a man mutilated according to the
law of Moses, which, besides, condemned those who had
wounded any person, where death did not ensue, to pay a
fine only,^ the expression "eye for eye and tooth for tooth"
being only a proverbial manner of speaking, the sense
whereof amounts to this, that every one shall be punished
by the judges according to the heinousness of the fact.^

In injuries and crimes of an inferior nature, where no Penalty
particular punishment is provided by the Quran, and crimes.^
where a pecuniary compensation will not do, the Muham-
madans, according to the practice of the Jews in the like
case,^ have recourse to stripes or drubbing, the most
common chastisement used in the East at this day, as well
as formerly ; the cudgel, which, for its virtue and efficacy
in keeping their people in good order and within the
bounds of duty, they say came down from heaven, being
the instrument wherewith the judge's sentence is generally
executed.*

Notwithstanding the Quran is by the Muhammadans in Distinction
general regarded as the fundamental part of their civil cfvi7and
law, and the decisions of the Sunnat among the Turks and caurw!'' '"
of the Imams among those of the Persian sect, with the
explications of their several doctors, are usually followed
in judicial determinations, yet the secular tribunals do not
think themselves bound to observe the same in all cases,
but frequently give judgment against those decisions,
which are not always consonant to equity and reason ;
and therefore distinction is to be made between the written
civil law, as administered in the ecclesiastical courts, and

^ See Exod. xxi. 18, 19, and 22. ^ See Deut. xxv. 2, 3.

^ Barbeyrac, in Grot., ubi supra. * Vide Grelot, Voy. de Constant.,

A^ide Cleric, in Exod. xxi. 24, and p. 220, and Chardin, ubi supra, p.

Deut. xix. 21. 302.

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

(if I may so call it)
courts, and has the

the law of nature or common law
which takes place in the secular
executive j^ower on its side.^
The com- Under the head of civil laws may be comprehended the
wa^agahist injuuctiou of warriug against infidels, which is repeated
in several passages of the Quran,^ and declared to be of
high merit in the sight of God, those who are slain fighting
in defence of the faith being reckoned martyrs, and promised
immediate admission into paradise.^ Hence this duty is
greatly magnified by the Muhammadan divines, who call
the sword the key of heaven and hell, and persuade their
people that the least drop of blood spilt in the way of
God, as it is called, is most acceptable unto him, and that
the defending the territories of the Muslims for one night
is more meritorious than a fast of two months ; * on the
other hand, desertion, or refusing to serve in these holy
wars, or to contribute towards the carrying them on, if
a man has ability, is accounted a most heinous crime,
being frequently declaimed against in the Quran.^ Such
a doctrine, which IMuhammad ventured not to teach till
his circumstances enabled him to put it in practice,*" it
must be allowed, was well calculated for his purpose, and
stood him and his successors in great stead : for what
dangers and difficulties may not be despised and over-
come by the courage and constancy which these senti-
ments necessarily inspire ? Nor have the Jews and
Christians, how much soever they detest such principles
in others, been ignorant of the force of enthusiastic heroism,
or omitted to spirit up their respective partisans by the
like arguments and promises. " Let him who has listed
himself in defence of the law," says Maimonides,'^ " rely

Jewish
doctrine
concern-
ing war in
defence of
religion.

^ Vide Chardin, ubi supra, p. 290, •* Reland, De Jure Milit. Moham.,

&c. p. 5, &c.

^ Cap. 22 ; c. 2, V. 190-193 ; c. 4, * Vide c. 9 ; c. 3, v. 143, &c.

V. 83, &c. ; c. 8 ; c. 9 ; c. 47 and c. ® See ante, p. 83.

61, &c. ^ Halach. Melachim, c. 7.

^ Cap. 2, V. 155 ; c. 3, V. 142 ; c.
47 ; c. 61.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 219

on him who is the hope of Israel, and the saviour thereof
in the time of trouble ; ^ and let him know that he fights
for the profession of the divine unity : wherefore let him
put his life in his hand,^ and think neither of wife nor
children, but banish the memory of them from his
heart, having his mind wholly fixed on the war. For
if he should begin to waver in his thoughts, he would
not only confound himself, but sin against the law ; nay,
the blood of the whole people hangeth on his neck ; for
if they are discomfited, and he has not fought stoutly
with all his might, it is equally the same as if he had shed
the blood of them all; according to that saying, Let him
return, lest his brethren's heart fail as his own." ^ To the
same purpose doth the Kabala accommodate that other
passage, " Cursed be he who doth the work of the Lord
negligently, and cursed be he who keepeth back his sword
from blood.^ On the contrary, he who behaveth bravely
in battle, to the utmost of his endeavour, without trem-
bling, with intent to glorify God's name, he ought to
expect the victory with confidence, and to apprehend no
danger or misfortune, but may be assured that he will
have a house built him in Israel, appropriated to him and
his children for ever; as it is said, God shall certainly
make my lord a sure house, because he hath fought the
battles of the Lord, and his life shall be bound up in the
bundle of life with the Lord his God." ^ More passages
of this kind might be produced from the Jewish writers,
and the Christians come not far behind them. " We are opinions of
desirous of knowing," says one,^ writing to the Franks crusadei"
engaged in the holy war, " the charity of you all ; for aubjecr"'''
that every one (which we speak not because we wish it)
who shall faithfully lose his life in this warfare shall
be by no means denied the kingdom of heaven." And

1 Jer. xiv. 8. ^ I Sam. xxv. 28, 29.

2 Job xiii. 14. ® Nicolaus, in Jure Canon., c.
^ Deut, XX. 8. omnium 23, qusest. 5.

* Jer. xlviii. 10.

220 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vr.

another gives the following exhortation : " Laying aside
all fear and dread, endeavour to act effectually against
the enemies of the holy faith and the adversaries of all
religions : for the Almighty knoweth if any of you die,
that he dieth for the truth of the faith, and the salvation
of his country, and the defence of Christians ; and there-
fore he shall obtain of him a celestial reward." ^ The
Jews, indeed, had a divine commission, extensive and
explicit enough, to attack, subdue, and destroy the ene-
mies of their religion ; and Muhammad pretended to have
received one in favour of himself and his Muslims in
terms equally plain and full ; * and therefore it is no
v^onder that they should act consistently Avith their
avowed principles ; but that Christians should teach and
practice a doctrine so opposite to the temper and whole
tenor of the Gospel seems very strange ; and yet the
latter have carried matters further, and shown a more
violent spirit of intolerance than either of the former.
Laws of war The laws of war, according to the Muhammadans, have
iims.° been already so exactly set down by the learned Eeland,^
that I need say very little of them. I shall, therefore,
only observe some conformity between their military laws
and those of the Jews.

While Muhammadism was in its infancy, the opposers

* Though Muhammad undoiTbteJly took IMoses as his pattern,
and supposed himself following in his footsteps when he gave the
command to fight against the infidels, yet there is no comparison
between them whatever so far as warring against infidels is con-
cerned. The Israelites were commanded to slay the Canaanites as
divinely ordained instrument of destruction y but Muhammad in-
augurated war as a means of proselytism. The Israelite was not
permitted to proselytise from among the Canaanites, Exod. xxiii.
27-33 ; but Muslims are required to proselytise by sword-power.

E. M, W.

1 Leo IV., op. cit., quaest. 8. Mohammedanor, in the third vol.

2 In his treatise De Jure Militari of his JJissertationes Miscellanese.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 221

thereof taken in Lattle were doomed to death without
mercy ; but this was judged too severe to he put in prac-
tice when that religion came to be sufficiently established,
and past the danger of being subverted by its enemies.^
The same sentence was pronounced not only against the
seven Canaanitish nations,^ whose possessions were given
to the Israelites, and without whose destruction, in a
manner, they could not have settled themselves in the
country designed them, but against the Amalekites ^ and
Midianites,* who had done their utmost to cut them
off in their passage thither. When the Muhammadans
declare war against a people of a different faith, they give
them their choice of three offers, viz., either to embrace
Muhamniadism, in which case they become not only
secure in their persons, families, and fortunes, but entitled
to all the .privileges of other Muslims ; or to submit and
pay tribute,^ by doing which they are allowed to profess
their own religion, provided it be not gross idolatry or
against the moral law ; or else to decide the quarrel by
the sword, in which last case, if the Muslims prevail, the
women and children which are made fcaptives become
absolute slaves, and the men taken in battle may either
be slain, unless they turn Muhammadans, or otherwise
disposed of at the pleasure of the prince.^ Herewith
agree the laws of war given to the Jews which relate to
the nations not devoted to destruction ; '^ * and Joshua is

* The difference seems to me to be very great. The Israelites
might make peace with idolaters on condition of their becoming tri-
butaries. The Muslims might not do so on any condition biit that
of conversion to Islam. With the Jew it was a case of policy — with
the Muslim, of religion. E. m. w.

^ See Qurdn, c. 47, v. 5, and the * Numb. xxxi. 17.

notes there ; and c. 4, v. S9 ; c. 5, ® See c. 9, and the notes there.

V. 38. ® See the notes to c. 47.

- Deut. XX. 16-18. '' Deut. xx. IO-15.

^ Ibid., c. XXV. 17-19.

223 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

said to have sent even to the inhabitants of Canaan,
before he entered the land, three schedules, in one of
which was written, " Let him fly who will ; " in the
second, " Let him surrender who will ; " and in the third,
" Let him fight who will ; " ^ though none of those nations
made peace with the Israelites (except only the Gibeonites,
who obtained terms of security by stratagem, after they
had refused those offered by Joshua), " it being of the
LoED to harden their hearts, that he might destroy them
utterly." ^
Law regn- Ou the first Considerable success of IMuhammad in war,
divisfon^of the dispute which happened among his followers in rela-
^°^ ^' tion to the dividing of the spoil rendered it necessary for
him to make some regulation therein ; he therefore pre-
tended to have received the divine commission to distri-
bute the spoil among his soldiers at his own discretion,^
reserving thereout, in the first place, one-fifth part ^ for
the uses after mentioned ; and, in consequence hereof, he
took himself to be authorised, on extraordinary occasions,
to distribute it as he thought fit, without observing an
equality. Thus he did, for example, with the spoil of the
tribe Hawazin taken at the battle of Hunain, whicii he
bestowed by way of presents on those of Makkah only,
passing by those of Madina, and highly distinguishing
the principal Quraish, that he might ingratiate himself

1 Talmud Hierosol. apud Mai- Girgashites are not mentioned

monid. Halach. Melacliim, c. 6, § among the other Canaanitish na-

5. R. Bechai, ex lib. Siphre. Vide tions who assembled to fight against

Selden, De Jure Nat. et Gent. Sec. Joshua (Josh. ix. i ), and who were

Hebr. , 1. 6, c. 13 and 14; and doomed to utter extirpation (Deut.

Schickardi, Jus Regium Heb., c. 5, xx. 17). But it is observable that

Theor. 16. the Girgashites are not omitted by

- Josh. xi. 20. The Jews, how- the Septuagint in either of those

ever, say that the Girgashites, be- texts, and that their name appears

lieving they could not escape the in the latter of them in the Sama-

destruction with which they were ritan Pentateuch : they are also

threatened by Ciod if they persisted joined with the other Canaanites as

in defending themselves, fled into having fought against Israel in

Africa in great numbers. (Vide Josh. xxiv. 11.

Talm. Hieros., ubi sup.) And this ^ Qunln, c. 8.

is assigned as the reasonvvhy the * Ibid.

1

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 223

with them after he had become master of their city.^
He was also allowed in the expedition against those
of al Nadhir to take the whole booty to himself, and
to dispose thereof as he pleased, because no horses or
camels were made use of in that expedition,^ but the
whole army went on foot ; and this became thence-
forward a law ; ^ the reason of which seems to be, that
the spoil taken by a party consisting of infantry only
should be considered as the more immediate gift of God,^
and therefore properly left to the disposition of his
apostle. According to the Jews, the spoil ought to be
divided into two equal parts, one to be shared among the
captors, and the other to be taken by the prince,-'^ and by
him employed for his own support and the use of the
public. Moses, it is true, divided one-half of the plunder
of the Midianites among those who went to battle, and
the other half among all the congregation ;*^ but this, they
say, being a peculiar case, and done by the express order
of God himself, must not be looked on as a precedent.'^ It
should seem, however, from the words of Joshua to the
two tribes and a half, when he sent them home into
Gilead after the conquest and division of the land of
Canaan, that they were to divide the spoil of their enemies
with their brethren after their return ; ^ and the half
which was in succeeding times taken by the king was in
all probability taken by him as head of the community,
and representing the whole body. It is remarkable that
the dispute among Muhammad"s men about sharing the
booty at Badr^ arose on the same occasion as did that
among David's soldiers in relation to the spoils recovered

1 Abulfed. in Vit. Moh., p. 1 18, c. 2. Vide Selden, De Jure Nat. et

&c. Vide Quran, c. 9, and the Gent. Sec. Heb., lib. 6, c. 16.

notes there. '' Numb. xxxi. 27.

- Quran, c. 59, v. 6, see the notes '' Vide Maim. Halach. Melach.,

there. c. 4.

"* Vide Abulfed., ubi sup., p. 91. " Josh. xxii. 8.

* Vide Qurdn, e. 59, v. 6. ^ See Quran, c. S, and the notes

® Gemar. Eabyl. ad tit. Sanhedr., therp.

224 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

from the Amalekites,^ those who had been in the action
insisting that they who tarried by the stuff should have
no part of the spoil ; and that the same decision was given
in both cases, which became a law for the future, to wit,
that they should part alike.
God's fifth The fifth part directed by the Quran to be taken out of
— how^tobe the spoil before it be divided among the captors is declared
to belong to God, and to the apostle and his kindred, and
the orphans, and the poor, and the traveller : ^ which
words are variously understood. Al Shafii was of opinion
that the whole ought to be divided into five parts ; the
first, which he called God's part, to go to the treasury,
and be employed in building and repairing fortresses,
bridges, and other public works, and in paying salaries to
magistrates, civil officers, professors of learning, ministers
of public worship, &c, ; the second part to be distributed
among the kindred of Muhammad, that is, the descendants
of his grandfather Hasham, and of his great-uncle al
Mutallib,^ as well the rich as the poor, the children as the
adult, the women as the men, observing only to give a
female but half the share of a male ; the third part to go
to the orphans ; the fourth part to the poor, who have not
wherewithal to maintain themselves the year round, and
are not able to get their livelihood ; and the fifth part to
travellers who are in want on the road, notwithstanding
they may be rich men in their own country.'* According
to Malik Ibn Ans, the whole is at the disposition of the
Imam or prince, who may distribute the same at his own
discretion, where he sees most need.^ Abu'l Aliya went
according to the letter of the Quran, and declared his
opinion to be that the whole should be divided into six
parts, and that God's part should be applied to the service
of the Kaabah ; while others supposed God's part and the

1 I Sam. XXX. 21-25. * Al Baid. Vide Reland, De Jure

^ Qurdn, c. 8. Milit. Moham., p. 42, &c.

* Note, al Shdfii himself was de- ^ Idem,
scended from this latter.

SEC. VI.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 225

apostle's to be one and the same.^ Abu Hanifa thought
that the share of Muhammad and his kindred sank at that
prophet's death, since which the whole ought to be divided
among the orphans, the poor, and the traveller.^ Some
insist that the kindred of Muhammad entitled to a share
of the spoils are the posterity of Hasham only ; but those
who think the descendants of his brother al Mutallib
have also a right to a distributive part, allege a tradition
in their favour purporting that Muhammad himself divided
the share belonging to his relations among both families ;
and when Othman Ibn Assan and Jubair Ibn Matam
(who were descended from Abd-as-shams and Naufal, the
other brothers of Hasham) told him that though they
disputed not the preference of the Hashamites, they could
not help taking it ill to see such difference made between
the family of al Mutallib and themselves, who were
related to him in an equal degree, and yet had no part in
the distribution, the prophet replied that the descendants
of al Mutallib had forsaken him neither in the time of
ignorance nor since the revelation of Islam, and joined
his fingers together in token of the strict union between
them and the Hashamites.^ Some exclude none of the
tribe of Quraish from receiving a part in the division of
the spoil, and make no distinction between the poor and
the rich ; though, according to the more reasonable opinion,
such of them as are poor only are intended by the text
of the Quran, as is agreed in the case of the stranger;
and others go so far as to assert that the whole fifth
commanded to be reserved belongs to them only, and that
the orphans, and the poor, and the traveller, are to be
understood of such as are of that tribe.* It must be
observed that immovable possessions, as lands, &c., taken
in war, are subject to the same laws as the movable,
excepting only that the fifth part of the former is not

1 Reland, De Jure Milit. Moham,, p. 42, <S:c.
- Idem. ^ Idem. * Idem.

226 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vi.

actually divided, but tlie income and profits thereof, or of
the price thereof, if sold, are applied to public and pious
uses, and distributed once a year, and that the prince may
either take the fifth part of the land itself, or the fifth
part of the income and produce of the whole, as he shall
make his election.

( 227 )

SECTION VII.

OP THE MONTHS COMMANDED BY THE QURAN TO BE KEPT SACRED,
AND OF THE SETTING APART OP FRIDAY FOR THE ESPECIAL
SERVICE OP GOD.

It was a custom among the ancient Arabs to observe The four
four months in the year as sacred, during which they months.
held it unlawful to wage war, and took off the heads from
their spears, ceasing from incursions and other hostili-
ties. During these months whoever was in fear of his
enemy lived in full security, so that if a man met the mur-
derer of his father or his brother, he durst not offer him
any violence.^ " A great argument," says a learned writer,
" of a humane disposition in that nation, who being, by
reason of the independent governments of their several
tribes, and for the preservation of their just rights, exposed
to frequent quarrels with one another, had yet learned to
cool their inflamed breasts with moderation, and restrain
the rage of war by stated times of truce." ^

This institution obtained among all the Arabian tribes,
except only those of Tay and Khuzaah, and some of the
descendants of al Harith Ibn Kaab (who distinguished no
time or place as sacred) ,3 and was so religiously observed,
that there are but few instances in history (four, say some,
six, say others *) of its having been transgressed ; the wars
which were carried on without regard thereto beincf there-

^ Al Kazwini, apud Golium in ^ Golius, ubi supra, p. 5.

notis ad Alfrag., p. 4, &c. Al Shah- ^ Al Shahristaiii, ubi supra. See

ristani, apud Poc. Spec, p. 311. ante, p. 190.

Al Jawhari, al Firauzab. ■* Al Mughultai.

228

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. vii.

Their

observance

Muslims.

fore termed impious. One of those instances was in the
war between the tribes of Quraish and Qais Ailan, wherein
Muhammad himself served under his uncles, being then
fourteen/ or, as others say, twenty ^ years old.
• The months which the Arabs held sacred were al Mu-
harram, Eajab, Dhu'l Qaada, and Dhu'l Hajja ; the first, the
seventh, the eleventh, and the twelfth in the year.^ Dhu'l
Hajja being the month wherein they performed the pil-
grimage to Makkah, not only that month, but also the
preceding and the following, were for that reason kept
inviolable, that every one might safely and without
interruption pass and repass to and from the festival.*
Eajab is said to have been more strictly observed than
any of the other three,^ probably because in that month
the pagan Arabs used to fast ; ^ Eamadhan, which was
afterwards set apart by Muhammad for that purpose,
being in the time of ignorance dedicated to drinking in
excess.'^ By reason of the profound peace and security
enjoyed in this month, one part of the provisions brought
by the caravans of purveyors annually set out by the
Quraish for the supply of Makkah,^ was distributed
among the people ; the other part being, for the like
reason, distributed at the pilgrimage.^

The observance of the aforesaid months seemed so
reasonable to Muhammad, that it met with his approba-

1 Abulfeda, Vit. Moh., p. ii.

^ Al Kudai, al Firauz. apud Poc.
Spec, p. 174. Al Mughultai men-
tions both opinions.

3 Mr. Bayle (Diet. Hist, et Crit. ,
art. la Mecque, Rem. F. ) accuses
Dr. Prideaux of an inconsistency for
saying in one place (Life of Mahomet,
p. 64) that these sacred months were
the first, the seventh, the eleventh,
and the twelfth, and intimating in
another place (ibid., p. 89) that three
of them were contiguous. But this
must be mere absence of mind in
Mr. Bayle ; for are not the eleventh,
the twelfth, and the first months

contiguous ? The two learned pro-
fessors, Golius and Eeland, have also
made a small slip in speaking of
these sacred months, which, they
tell us are the two first and the two
last in "the year. Vide Golii, Lex
Arab., col. 601, and Reland, De Jure
Milit. Mohammedanor, p. 5.

■* Vide Gol. in Alfrag., p. 9.

^ Vide ibid., p. 6.

® Al Makizi, ai)ud Poc, ubi supra.

'' Idem, and Auctor Neshk al
Ashiir, ibid.

^ See Quran, c. 106.

^ Al Edrisj, apud Poc. Spec, p.
127.

SEC. vii.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 229

tion ; and the same is accordingly confirmed and enforced
by several passages of the Quran,i which forbid war to be
waged during those months against such as acknowledge
them to be sacred, but grant, at the same time, full per-
mission to attack those who make no such distinction, in
the sacred months as well as in the profane.-

One practice, however, of the pagan Arabs, in relation Regulations
to these sacred months, Muhammad thought proper to Muharran?
reform ; for some of them, weary of sitting quiet for three
months together, and eager to make their accustomed
incursions for plunder, used, by way of expedient, when-
ever it suited their inclinations or conveniency, to put off
the observing of al Muharram to the following month,
Safar,^ thereby avoiding to keep the former, which they
supposed it lawful for them to profane, provided they
sanctified another month in lieu of it, and gave public
notice thereof at the preceding pilgrimage. This transfer-
ring the observation of a sacred month to a profane month
is what is truly meant by the Arabic word al Nasi, and
is absolutely condemned and declared to be an impious
innovation in a passage of the Quran ^ which Dr. Prideaux,^
misled by Golius,^ imagines to relate to the prolonging of
the year by adding an intercalary month thereto. It is
true the Arabs, who imitated the Jews in their manner of
computing by lunar years, had also learned their method
of reducing them to solar years by intercalating a month
sometimes in the third and sometimes in the second year,'^
by which means they fixed the pilgrimage of Makkah
(contrary to the original institution) to a certain season of
the year, viz., to autumn, as most convenient for the pil-
grims, by reason of the temperateness of the weather and
the plenty of provisions ; ^ and it is also true that Mu-

^ Cap. 9 ; c. 2, V. 194 ; c. 5, V. 3; ^ Life of Mahomet, p. 66.

C. 5, V. 98, &c. ® In Alfrag., p. 12.

- Cap. 9 ; c. 2, V. 194. "^ See Prid., Preface to the first

3 See the notes to c. 9, ubi sup. vol. of his Connect., p. 6, &c.

* Cap. 9, ibid. ® Vide Gol., ubi supra.

230 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vil.

liammad forbade such intercalation "by a passage in the
same chapter of the Quran ; but then it is not the passage
above mentioned, which prohibits a different thing, but
one a little before it, wherein the number of months in
the year, according to the ordinance of God, is declared to
be twelve ; ^ whereas, if the intercalation of a month were
allowed, every third or second year would consist of
thirteen, contrary to God's appointment.
Friday in- The Setting apart of one day in the week for the more
sacred day ^ peculiar attendance on God's worship, so strictly required
by the Jewish and Christian religions, appeared to Mu-
hammad to be so proper an institution, that he could not
but imitate the professors thereof in that particular;
though, for the sake of distinction, he might think himself
obliged to order his followers to observe a different day
from either. Several reasons are given why the sixth
day of the week was pitched on for this purpose ; ^ but
Muhammad seems to have preferred that day chiefly
because it was the day on which the people used to be
assembled long before his time,^ though such assemblies
were had, perhaps, rather on a civil than a religious
account. However it be, the Muhammadan writers be-
stow very extraordinary encomiums on this day, calling
it the prince of days, and the most excellent day on which
the sun rises ; * pretending also that it will be the day
whereon the last judgment will be solemnised ; ^ and they
esteem it a peculiar honour to Islam that God has been
pleased to appoint this day to be the feast-day of the
Muslims, and granted them the advantage of having first
observed it.*^

ThousT-h the Muhammadans do not think themselves
bound to keep their day of public w^orship so holy as the

1 Qui-an, c. 9. See also c. 2, v. * Ibn al Athir et al Ghazdli, apud

194. Poc. Spec, p. 317.
- See c. 63, and the notes there. ^ Vide ibid.

3 Al Baidhiiwi. « Al Ghazdli, ibid.

SEC. VII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 231

Jews and Christians are certainly obliged to keep theirs,
there being a permission, as is generally supposed, in the
Quran,^ allowing them to return to their employments or
diversion after divine service is over ; yet the more devout
disapprove the applying of any part of that day to worldly
affairs, and require it to be wholly dedicated to the busi-
ness of the life to come.'^

Since I have mentioned the Muhammadan weekly feast. The two
I beg leave just to take notice of their two Bairams,^ or ammai'
principal annual feasts. The first of them is called in
Arabic, Id ul Fitr, i.e., The feast of Ireaking the fast, and
begins the first of Shawwal, immediately succeeding the
fast of Eamadhan; and the other is called Id ul Qurban,
or Id ul Adha, i.e., The feast of the saerifice, and begins on
the tenth of Dhu'l Hajja, when the victims are slain at the
pilgrimage of Makkah.* The former of these feasts is
properly the lesser Bairam, and the latter the greater
Bairam;^ but the vulgar, and most authors who have
written of the Muhammadan affairs,^ exchange the epithets,
and call that which follows Eamadhan the greater Bairam,
because it is observed in an extraordinary manner, and
kept for three days together at Constantinople and in
other parts of Turkey, and in Persia for five or six days,
by the common people, at least, with great demonstrations
of public joy, to make themselves amends, as it were, for
the mortification of the preceding month ; '' whereas, the
feast of sacrifices, though it be also kept for three days,
and the first of them be the most solemn day of the
pilgrimage, the principal act of devotion among the Mu-
hammadans is taken much less notice of by the generality

1 Cap. 63, ubi supra. p. 109, and D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient.,

2 Al Ghazdli, ubi supra, p. 318. art. Bairdm.

^ The word Bairdm is Turkish, ® Hyde, in notis ad Bobov., p.

and properly signifies a feast-day or 16 ; Chardin, Voy. de Perse, torn,

holiday. 2, p. 450 ; Ricaut's State of the

* See c. 9, and ante, Sect. IV., Ottoman Empire, 1. 2, c. 24, &c.
p. 94. ^ Vide Chardin and Ricaut, ubi

^ Vide Reland, De Relig. Moh., supra.

232 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vil.

of x^eople, who are not struck therewith, because the
cereruonies with which the same is observed are performed
at Makkah, the ouly scene of that solemnity.*

* In India this feast is popularly known as the Baqr Id, or Feast
of the Cow, and is celebrated with great ceremony by all Muslims.
A goat or a sheep is sacrificed, and its flesh eaten by the family
making the offering. For a clear account of the manner of celebrating
the various feasts of the ]\Iuslims, the reader is referred to the excel-
lent work of the Kev. Edward Sell, entitled The Faith of Islam,
chapter vi. e. m. w.

SECTION VIII.

OF THE PRINCIPAL SECTS AMONG THE MUHAMMAD ANS, AND OF
THOSE WHO HAVE PRETENDED TO PROPHECY AMONG THE
ARABS IN OR SINCE THE TIME OP MUHAMMAD.

Before we take a view of the sects of the Muhammadans,
it will be necessary to say something of the two sciences
by which all disputed questions among them are deter-
mined, viz., their Scholastic and Practical Divinity.

Their scholastic divinity is a mongrel science, consist- Muhamma-
ing of logical, metaphysical, theological, and philosophical ti^am^°^^^'
disquisitions, and built on principles and methods of rea-
soning very different from what are used by those who
pass among the Muhammadans themselves for the sounder
divines or more able philosophers,^ and, therefore, in the
partition of the sciences this is generally left out, as un-
worthy a place among them.^ The learned Maimonides ^
has laboured to expose the principles and systems of the
scholastic divines, as frequently repugnant to the nature
of the world and the order of the creation, and intolerably
absurd.

This art of handling religious disputes was not known its ongin
in the infancy of Muhammadanism, but was brought in ^"
when sects sprang up, and articles of religion began to be
called in question, and was at first made use of to defend
the truth of those articles against innovators;* and while

^ Poc. Spec, p. 196. ^ More Nevoch., 1. r, c. 71 and

^ Apud Ibn Sina, in Libello de 73.

Divisione Scientiar., et Nasiru'ddin ■* Al Ghazdli, apud Poc. Spec, ubi

al Tusi, in Prasfat. ad Ethic. supra.

234 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

it keeps within those bounds is allowed to be a commend-
able study, being necessary for the defence of the faith ;
but when it proceeds farther, out of an itch of disputation,
it is judged worthy of censure.

This is the opinion of al Ghazali,^ who observes a
medium between those who have too high a value for this
science, and those who absolutely reject it. Among the
latter was al Shafii, who declared that, in his judgment,
if any man employed his time that way, he deserved to
be fixed to a stake and carried about through all the Arab
tribes, with the following proclamation to be made before
him : " This is the reward of him who, leaving the Quran
and the Sunnat, applied himself to the study of scholastic
divinity." 2 Al Ghazali, on the other hand, thinks that
as it was introduced by the invasion of heresies, it is
necessary to be retained in order to quell them ; but then
in the person who studies this science he requires three
things — diligence, acuteness of judgment, and probity of
manners ; and is by no means for suffering the same to
be publicly explained.^ This science, therefore, among
the Muhammadans, is the art of controversy, by which
they discuss points of faith concerning the essence and
attributes of God, and the conditions of all possible things,
either in respect to their creation or final restoration,
according to the rules of the religion of Islam.*

The other science is practical divinity or jurisprudence,
and is the knowledge of the decisions of the law which
regard practice, gathered from distinct proofs.
Muslim Al Ghazali declares that he had much the same opinion

prudence, of this scicnce as of the former, its original being owing to
the corruption of religion and morality; and therefore
judged both sciences to be necessary, not in themselves,
but by accident only, to curb the irregular imaginations
and passions of mankind (as guards become necessary in

1 Apud Poc. Spec, ubi supra. ^ Ibid.

2 Ibid., p. 197. * Ibn al Kossd, apud eund., ibid.,

p. 198.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 235

the highways by reason of robbers), the end of the first
being the suppression of heresies, and of the other the
decision of legal controversies, for the quiet and peaceable
living of mankind in this world, and for the preserving
the rule by which the magistrate may prevent one man
from injuring another, by declaring what is lawful and
what is unlawful, by determining the satisfaction to be
given or punishment to be inflicted, and by regulating
other outward actions ; and not only so, but to decide of
religion itself, and its conditions, so far as relates to the
profession made by the mouth, it not being the business
of the civilian to inquire into the heart : ^ the depravity of
men's manners, however, has made this knowledge of the
laws so very requisite, that it is usually called the Science,
by way of excellence, nor is any man reckoned learned
who has not applied himself thereto.^

The points of faith subject to the examination and points of
discussion of the scholastic divines are reduced to four to scholastic
general heads, which they call the four bases, or great
fundamental articles.^

The first basis relates to the attributes of God and his
unity consistent therewith. Under this head are compre-
hended the questions concerning the eternal attributes,
which are asserted by some and denied by others ; and
also the explication of the essential attributes and attri-
butes of action, what is proper for God to do, and what
may be affirmed of him, and what it is impossible for him
to do. These things are controverted between the Asha-
rians, the Karamians, the Mujassamians or Corporalists,
and the Mutazilites.^

The second basis regards predestination, and the justice
thereof, which comprises the questions concerning God's
purpose and decree, man's compulsion or necessity to act,

1 Al Ghazdli, Poc. Spec, pp. ^ Vide Abulfarag, Hist. Dynast.,
198-204. p. 166.

^ Vide ibid., p. 204. * Al Shahristdni, apud Poc. Spec,

ubi supra, p. 204, &c.

236 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

and his co-operation in producing actions by which he
may gain to himself good or evil, and also those which
concern God's willing good and evil, and what things are
subject to his power, and what to his knowledge ; some
maintaining the affirmative, and others the negative.
These points are disputed among the Qadrians, the Naj-
rians, the Jabrians, the Asharians, and the Karamians.^

The third basis concerns the promises and threats, the
precise acceptation of names used in divinity, and the
divine decisions, and comprehends questions relating to
faith, repentance, promises, threats, forbearance, infidelity,
and error. The controversies under this head are on foot
between the Murjians, the Waidians, the Mutazilites, the
Asharians, and the Karamians.^

The fourth basis regards history and reason, that is, the
just weight they ought to have in matters belonging to
faith and religion, and also the mission of the prophets
and the office of the Imiim or chief pontiff. Under this
head are comprised all casuistical questions relating to
the moral beauty or turpitude of actions; inquiring
wdiether things are allowed or forbidden by reason of
their own nature or by the positive law ; and also ques-
tions concerning the preference of actions, the favour or
grace of God, the innocence which ought to attend the
prophetical office, and the conditions requisite in the
office of Imam ; some asserting it depends on right of
succession, others on the consent of the faithful ; and
also the method of transferring it with the former, and of
confirming it with the latter. These matters are the sub-
jects of dispute between the Shiahs, the Mutazilites, the
Karamians, and the Asharians.^
The sects of Tlic different sects of Muhammadans may be distin-
isiam. guished into two sorts — those generally esteemed orthodox,
and those which are esteemed heretical.

1 Al Shahristdni, apud Poc, ubi sup., p. 205. " Idem, ibid., p. 206.
^ Idem, ibid.

SEC. viii.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 237

The former, by a general name, are called Sunnis or
Traditionists, because they acknowledge the authority of
the Sunnat, or collection of moral traditions of the sayings
and actions of their prophet, which is a sort of supple-
ment to the Quran, directing the observance of several
things omitted in that book, and in name as well as
design answering to the Mishna of the Jews.^

The Sunnis are subdivided into four chief sects, which, Divisions of
notwithstanding some differences as to legal conclusions the fouT ^ "
in their interpretation of the Quran and matters of prac- sects! °^
tice, are generally acknowledged to be orthodox in radi-
cals or matters of faith and capable of salvation, and
have each of them their several stations or oratories in
the temple of Makkah.^ The founders of these sects are
looked upon as the great masters of jurisprudence, and
are said to have been men of great devotion and self-
denial, well versed in the knowledge of those things
which belong to the next life and to man's right conduct
here, and directing all their knowledge to the glory of
God. This is al Ghazali's encomium of them, who thinks
it derogatory to their honour that their names should be
used by those who, neglecting to imitate the other virtues
which make up their character, apply themselves only to
attain their skill and follow their opinions in matters of
legal practice.^

The first of the four orthodox sects is that of theTheHanf-
Hanifites, so named from their founder, Abu Hanifa al
Numan Ibn Thabit, who was born at Kufa in the 80th
year of the Hijra, and died in the 150th, according to
the more preferable opinion as to the time,* He ended
his life in prison at Baghdad, where he had been confined
because he refused to be made qadi or judge,^ on which

^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 298. Prid., ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 293.

Life of Mahomet, p. 51, &c Re- * Ibn Khalliktin.

land, De E.el. Moh., p. 68, &c Mil- ^ This was the true cause of his

Hum, De Mohammedismo ante Moh., imprisonment and death, and not

pp. 368, 369. his refusing to subscribe to the

- See ante, p. 205. opinion of absolute predestination,

238 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

account lie was very hardly dealt with by his superiors,
yet could not be prevailed on, either by threats or ill-
treatment, to undertake the charge, " choosing rather to
be punished by them than by God," says al Ghazali, who
adds, that when he excused himself from accepting the
office by alleging that he was unfit for it, being asked the
reason, he replied, " If I speak the truth, I am unfit ; but
if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a judge." It is said
that he read the Quran in the prison where he died no
less than 7000 times.^

The Hanifites are called by an Arabian writer- the
followers of reason, and those of the three other sects,
followers of tradition, the former being principally guided
by their own judgment in their decisions, and the latter
adhering more tenaciously to the traditions of Muhammad.
The sect of Abu Hanifa heretofore obtained chiefly in
Irak,^ but now generally prevails among the Turks and
Tartars: his doctrine was brought into great credit by
Abu Yiisuf, chief-justice under the Khalifahs al Hadi and
Harun al Eashid.*
Malik um The second orthodox sect is that of Malik Ibn Ans, who
sect. was born at Madina in the year of the Hijra 90, 93, 94,^

or 95,*^ and died there in 177,'^ 178,^ or 179^ (for so
much do authors differ). This doctor is said to have paid
great regard to the traditions of Muhammad.^*' In his
last illness, a friend going to visit him, found him in tears,
and asking him the reason of it, he answered, " How
should I not weep ? and who has more reason to weep

as D'Herbelot writes (Bibl. Orient., ^ Idem.

p. 21), misled by the dubious accep- * VideD'Herbel.,BibI. Orient., pp.

tation of the word " qadd," which 21 and 22.

signifies not only God's decree in ^ Albufeda.

particular, but also the giving sen- ^ Ibn Khallikan.

tence as a judge in general ; nor ^ Idem.

could Abu Hanifa have been rec- ^ Abulfeda.

koned orthodox had he denied one of ^ Elmacinus, p. 114.

the principal articles of faith. ^'' Ibn Khallikan. Vide Poo. Spec,

^ Poc. Spec, pp. 297, 298. p. 294.

2 Al Sharistiini, ibid.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 239

than I ? Would to God that for every question decided
by me according to my own opinion I had received so
many stripes ! then would my accounts be easier. Would
to God I had never given any decision of my own ! "^ Al
Ghazali thinks it a sufficient proof of Malik's directing his
knowledge to the glory of God, that being once asked his
opinion as to forty-eight questions, his answer to thirty-
two of them was, that he did not know ; it being no easy
matter for one who has any other view than God's glory
to make so frank a confession of his ignorance.^

The doctrine of Malik is chiefly followed in Barbary
and other parts of Africa.

The author of the third orthodox sect was Muhammad Muhammad
Ibn Idris al Shafii, born either at Gaza or Ascalon, in shlfu."^ "^
Palestine, in the year of the Hijra 1.50, the same day (as
some will have it) that Abu Hanifa died, and was carried
to Makkah at two years of age, and there educated.^ He
died in 204,* in Egypt, whither he went about five years
before.^ This doctor is celebrated for his excellency in
all parts of learning, and was much esteemed by Ibn
Hanbal, his contemporary, who used to say that " he was
as the sun to the world, and as health to the body." Ibn
Hanbal, however, had so ill an opinion of al Shafii at first,
that he forbade his scholars to go near him ; but some
time after one of them, meeting his master trudging on
foot after al Shafii, who rode on a mule, asked him how
it came about that he forbade them to follow him,
and did it himself ; to which Ibn Hanbal replied, " Hold
thy peace ; if thou but attend his mule thou wilt profit
thereby." *^

Al Shafii is said to liave been the first who discoursed
of jurisprudence, and reduced that science into a method ;^
one wittily saying, that the relators of the traditions of

^ Ibn Khallik;(n, Poc. Spec, apud * Yet Abulfeda says he lived

eund. ibid. fifty-eight years.

- Al Ghaziili, ibid. ■' Ibn Khallikan.

^ Ibu Khallikiiu. ^ Idem. '' Idem.

240 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [SEC. viil.

Muhammad were asleep till al Shafii came and waked
them.^ He was a great enemy to the scholastic divines,
as has been already observed.^ Al Ghazali tells us that
al Shafii used to divide the night into three parts, one for
study, another for prayer, and the third for sleep. It is
also related of him that he never so much as once swore
by God, either to confirm a truth or to affirm a falsehood ;
and that being once asked his opinion, he remained silent
for some time, and when the reason of his silence was
demanded, he answered, " I am considering first whether
it be better to speak or to hold my tongue." The following
saying is also recorded of him, viz., " Whoever pretends to
love the world and its Creator at the same time is a liar."^
The followers of this doctor are from him called Shafiites,
and were formerly spread into Mawara'lnahr and other
parts eastward, but are now chiefly of Arabia and Persia.
Ahmad ibn Ahmad Ibu Haubal, the founder of the fourth sect, was
born in the year of the Hijra 164; but as to the place of
his birth there are two traditions : some say he was born
at Mini in Khurasan, of which city his parents were, and
that his mother brought him from thence to Baghdad
at her breast ; while others assure us that she was with
child of him when she came to Baghdad, and that he was
born there.* Ibn Hanbal in process of time attained a
great reputation on account of his virtue and knowledge ;
being so well versed in the traditions of Muhammad in
particular, that it is said he could repeat no less than a
million of them.^ He was very intimate with al Shafii, from
whom he received most of his traditionary knowledge, being
his constant attendant till his departure for Egypt.^ Ee-
fusing to acknowledge the Quran to be created,'' he was,
by order of the Khalifah al Mutasim, severely scourged
and imprisoned.^ Ibn Hanbal died at Baghdad, in the

^ Al Zcifariini, apud Poc. Spec, ^ Ibn Khallikan.
p. 296. ^ Idem.

2 gge ante, p. Il8. ^ See ante, Sect. III., p. ill, &c.

3 Vide Poc. Spec, pp. 295-297. ^ Ibn Khallikdn, Abulfarag, Hist.
* Ibn Khallikdn. Dyu-, P- 252, &c

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 241

year 241, and was followed to his grave by eight hundred
thousand men and sixty thousand women. It is related,
as something very extraordinary, if not miraculous, that
on the day of his death no less than twenty thousand
Christians, Jews, and Magians embraced the Muham-
madan faith. ^ This sect increased so fast and became so
powerful and bold, that in the year 323, in the Khalifat
of al Eadi, they raised a great commotion in Baghdad,
entering people's houses, and spilling their wine, if they
found any, and beating the singing-women they met with,
and breaking their instruments ; and a severe edict was
published against them before they could be reduced to
their duty ; ^ but the Hanbalites at present are not very
numerous, few of them being to be met with out of the
limits of Arabia.

The heretical sects among the Muhammadans are those Heretical
which hold heterodox opinions in fundamentals or matters Muhamma-
of faith. ^""^•

The first controversies relating to fundamentals besan
when most of the companions of Muhammad were dead ; ^
for in their days was no dispute, unless about things of
small moment, if we except only the dissensions concern-
ing the Imams, or rightful successors of their prophet,
which were stirred up and fomented by interest and ambi-
tion ; the Arabs' continual employment in the wars during
that time allowing them little or no leisure to enter into
nice inquiries and subtle distinctions. But no sooner was
the ardour of conquest a little abated than they began to
examine the Quran more nearly; whereupon differences
in opinion became unavoidable, and at length so greatly
multiplied, that the number of their sects, according to
the common opinion, are seventy-three. For the Muham-
madans seem ambitious that their religion should exceed
others even in this respect, saying, that the Magians are

^ Ibn Khallikan. ^ Al Shahristdni, apud Poc Spec,

^ Abulfar., ubi supra, p. 301, p. 194 ; Auctor Shaih al Mawiikif,
&c. apud eund., p. 210.

Q

242 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vili

divided into seventy sects, the Jews into seventy-one, the
Christians into seventy-two, and the Muslims into seventy-
three, as Muhammad had foretold ; ^ of which sects they
reckon one to be always orthodox and entitled to salvation.^
The Khdri- The first heresy was that of the Kharijites, who revolted

jites. -^ . J >

from Ali in the thirty-seventh year of the Hijra ; and not
long after, Mabad al Johni, Ghailan of Damascus, and
Jonas al Aswari broached heterodox opinions concerning
predestination and the ascribing of good and evil unto
God, whose opinions were followed by Wasil Ibn Ata.^
This latter was the scholar of Hasan of Basra, in whose
school a question being proposed, whether he who had
committed a grievous sin was to be deemed an infidel or
not, the Kharijites (who used to come and dispute there)
maintaining the affirmative, and the orthodox the negative,
Wasil, without waiting his master's decision, withdrew
abruptly, and began to publish among his fellow-scholars
a new opinion of his own, to wit, that such a sinner was
in a middle state ; and he was thereupon expelled the
school ; he and his followers being thenceforth called
Mutazilites, or Separatists.*

The several sects which have arisen since this time are
variously compounded and decompounded of the opinions
of four chief sects, the Mutazilites, the Sifatians, the Kha-
rijites, and the Shiites.^
The Mutazi- I. The Mutazilites were the followers of the before-
mentioned Wasil Ibn Ata. As to their chief and general
tenets : i. They entirely rejected all eternal attributes of

^ Vide Poc. Spec, iibi sup. p. i66) reckons six principal sects,

'^ Al Shahristiini, apud eund., p. adding the Jabarians and the Mur-

211. jians ; and the author of " Sharh al

3 Idem, and Auctor Sharh al Mawakif " eight, viz., the Mutazil-

Mawilkif, ubi sup. ites, the Shiites, the Kharijites, the

'* Idem, ibid., pp. 21 1, 212, and Murjians, the Najarians, the Jaba-

Ibn Khallikiin in Vita WiisiJi. rians, the Mushdbbihites, and the sect

^ Al Shahristiini, who also reduces which he calls al Ndjia, because that

them to four chief sects, puts the alone will be saved, being according

Qadarians in the place of the Muta- to him the sect of the Asharians.

zilites. Abulfaragius (Hist. Dyn., Vide Poc. Spec, p. 209.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 243

God, to avoid the distinction of persons made by the
Christians, saying that eternity is the proper or formal
attribute of his essence ; that God knows by his essence,
and not by his knowledge;^ and the same they affirmed
of his other attributes ^ (though all the Mutazilites do
not understand these words in one sense) ; and hence
this sect were also named Muattalites, from their divest-
ing God of his attributes ; ^ and they went so far as
to say that to affirm these attributes is the same thing
as to make more eternals than one, and that the unity
of God is inconsistent with such an opinion;* and this
was the true doctrine of Wasil their master, who de-
clared that whoever asserted an eternal attribute asserted
there were two Gods.^ This point of speculation con-
cerning the divine attributes was not ripe at first, but
was at length brought to maturity by Wasil's followers
after they had read the books of the philosophers.'^ 2.
Tliey believed the Word of God to have been created in
subjedo (as the schoolmen term it), and to consist of letters
and sound, copies thereof being written in books to ex-
press or imitate the original. They also went farther, and
affirmed that whatever is created in siibjecto is also an
accident and liable to perish.'^ 3. They denied absolute
predestination, holding that God was not the author of
evil, but of good only, and that man was a free agent ; ^
which being properly the opinion of the Qadarians, we
defer what may be further said thereof till we come to
speak of that sect. On account of this tenet and the first,
the Mutazilites look on themselves as the defenders of

^ Maimonides teaches the same, (hi Proleg. ad Pirke Aboth., § 8)

not as the doctrine of the Mutazi- asserts the same thinji'.

lites, but his own. Vide More, Nev. * Vide Poc. Spec, ibid.

1. I, c. 57. ^ Al Shahrist., ibid., p. 215.

^ Al Shahristani, apud. Poc. Spec, ^ Abulfarag and al Shahrist., ubi

p. 214; Abulfarag, p. 167. sup., p. 217. See supra. Sect. III.,

2 Vide Poc. Spec, p. 224. p. 112.

■* Sharh al Mawakif, and al Shah- ^ Vide Poc. Spec, p. 240.
rist., apud Poc, p. 216. Maimonides

244 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

the unity and justice of God.^ 4. They held that if a
professor of the true religion be guilty of a grievous sin
and die without repentance, he will be eternally damned,
though his punishment will be lighter than that of the
infidels.^ 5. They denied all vision of God in paradise by
the corpoteal eye, and rejected all comparisons or simili-
tudes applied to God.^
Various This sect are said to have been the first inventors of

divisions of .-,.... , it-it- i-f

this sect, scholastic diviuity,* and are subdivided into several infe-
rior sects, amounting, as some reckon, to twenty, which
mutually brand one another with infidelity.^ The most '
remarkable of them are : —

The Hudai- I. The Hudailiaus, or followers of Hamadan Abu Hudail,

lians.

a Mutazilite doctor, who differed something from the com-
mon form of expression used by this sect, saying that God
knew by his knowledge, but that his knoMdedge was his
essence ; and so of the other attributes : which opinion he
took from the philosophers, who affirm the essence of
God to^be simple and without multiplicity, and that his
attributes are not posterior or accessory to his essence, or
subsisting therein, but are his essence itself ; and this the
more orthodox take to be next kin to making distinctions
in the deity, which is the thing they so much abhor in the
Christians.^ As to the Quran's being created, he made
some distinction, holding the "Word of God to be partly
not in suhjcdo (and therefore uncreated), as when he spake
the word Kuoi, i.e., fiat, at the creation, and partly in
subj'ecto, as the precepts, prohibitions, &c.'' Marracci^ men-
tions an opinion of Abu Hudail's concerning predestina-
tion, from an Arab writer,^ which being by him expressed
in a manner not very intelligible, I choose to omit.

1 Al Shahrist. and Shai-h al Ma- ^ Auctor al Mawdkif, apud Poc,

wakif, ai3ud Poc, ubi sujj., p. 214. ibid.

" Marracc, Prodr. ad ref. Alcor., ** Al Shahristilni, apud Poc, pp.

part 3, p. 74. 215, 216, 217.

3 Idem, ibid. '' Idem, aj^ud eund., p. 2i7,[&c.

* Vide Poc. Spec, p. 213, anJ ^ In Prodr., part 3, p. 74.
D'HerbeL.art. Mutazilah. ^ Al Shahricstani.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 245

2. The Jubbaians, or followers of Abu All Muliammad The jubbd-
Ibn Abd al Wahab, surnamed al Jubbai, whose meaning

when he made use of the common expression of the
Mutazilites, that " God knows by his essence," &c., was
that God's being knowing is not an attribute the same
with knowledge, nor such a state as rendered his being
knowing necessary.^ He held God's Word to be created
in sicbjedo, as in the preserved table, for example, the
memory of Gabriel, Muhammad, &c.^ This sect, if Mar-
racci has given the true sense of his author, denied that
God could be seen in paradise without the assistance of
corporeal eyes, and held that man produced his acts by
a power superadded to health of body and soundness of
limbs ; that he who was guilty of a mortal sin was neither
a believer nor an infidel, but a transgressor (which was
the original opinion of Wasil), and if he died in his
sins, would be doomed to hell for eternity; and that
God conceals nothing of whatever he knows from liis
servants.^

3. The Hashamians, who were so named from their The Hdsha-
master, Abu Hasham Abd al Salam, the son of Abu Ali al ™'°''^^'
Jubbai, and whose tenets nearly agreed with those of the
preceding sect,* Abu Hasham took the Mutazilite form

of expression that " God knows by his essence" in a differ-
ent sense from others, supposing it to mean that God hath
or is endued with a disposition which is a known pro-
perty or quality posterior or accessory to his existence.^
His followers were so much afraid of making God the
author of evil that they would not allow him to be said
to create an infidel, because, according to their way of
arguing, an infidel is a compound of infidelity and man,
and God is not the creator of infidelity.^ Abu Hasham

1 Al Shahristani, apud Poc. Spec, •^ Marracci, ubi sup., p. 75, ex a

p. 215. Shahristani. ■* Idem, ibid.

- Idem, and Auctor al Mawdkif, ^ Al Shahrist., apud Poc, p. 215.
ibid., p. 218. ^ ^ Idem, ibid., p. 242.

246 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

and his father, Abu Ali al Jubhai, were both celebrated
for their skill in scholastic divinity.^
The Nnd- 4. The Nudhamians, or followers of Ibrahim al Nudham,

hamians. . . p i m

who having read books of philosophy, set up a new sect,
and imagining he could not sufficiently remove God from
being the author of evil without divesting him of his
power in respect thereto, taught that no power ought to
be ascribed to God concerning evil and rebellious actions ;
but this he affirmed against the opinion of his own dis-
ciples, who allowed that God could do evil, but did not,
because of its turpitude.^ Of his opinion as to the Quran's
being created we have spoken elsewhere.^

TheHAya- 5. The Hayatians, so named from Ahmad Ibn Hayat,
who had been of the sect of the Nudhamians, but broached
some new notions on reading the philosophers. His
peculiar opinions were: i. That Christ was the eternal
Word incarnate, and took a true and real body, and will
judge all creatures in the life to come : * he also farther
asserted that there are two Gods or Creators — the one
eternal, viz., the most high God, and the other not eternal,
viz., Christ^ — which opinion, though Dr. Pocock urges
the same as an argument that he did not rightly under-
stand the Christian mysteries,*" is not much different from
that of the Arians and Socinians. 2. That there is a
successive transmigration of the soul from one body into
another, and that the last body will enjoy the reward or
suffer the punishment due to each soul ; '' and 3. That
God will be seen at the resurrection, not with the bodily
eyes, but those of the understanding.^

Thejabi- 6. The Jahidhians, or followers of Amru Ibn Bahr,
surnamed al Jahidh, a great doctor of the Mutazilites,

1 Ibn Khallikan, in Vitis Eoreni. ^ Al Shahrist., al Mawnkif, et Ibn

- Al Shahrist., ubi sup., pp. 241, Kussi, apud Poc. Spec, ubi sup., p.

242. Vide Marracc, Prod., part 3, 219.

p. 74. * Vide Poc. Spec, ibid.

3 See supra. Sect. III., p. 1 13. '' Marracc. et al Shahrist. , ubi sup.

•* Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 218 ; ^ Marracc, ibid., p. 75.
Abulfarag, p. 167.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 247

and very much admired for the elegance of his com-
posures/ who differed from his brethren in that he
imagined that the damned would not be eternally tor-
mented in hell, but would be changed into the nature of
fire, and that the fire would of itself attract them, without
mj necessity of their going into it.^ He also taught that
]f a man believed God to be his Lord and Muhammad the
tpostle of God, he became one of the faithful, and was
obliged to nothing farther.^ His peculiar opinion as to
ttie Quran has been taken notice of before.*

7. The Muzdarians, who embraced the opinions of Isa The Muz-

dariaus.

Idu Subaih al Muzdar, and those very absurd ones; for,
besides his notions relating to the Quran,^ he went so
directly counter to the opinion of those who abridged
God of the power to do evil, that he affirmed it possible
for God to be a liar and unjust.^ He also pronounced
him to be an infidel who thrust himself into the supreme
government ; ^ nay, he went so far as to assert men to be
irfidels while they said " There is no God but God," and
e^en condemned all the rest of mankind as guilty of
irfidelity ; upon which Ibrahim Ibn al Sandi asked him
whether paradise, whose breadth equals that of heaven
and earth, was created only for him and two or three
more who thought as he did ? to which it is said he could
leturn no answer.^

8. The Bashariaus, who maintained the tenets of Bashar The Bash-
Ibn Mutamir, the master of al Muzdar,^ and a principal

man among the Mutazilites. He differed in some things
from the general opinion of that sect, carrying man's free
agency to a great excess, making it even independent;
and yet he thought God might doom an infant to eternal
punishment, but granted he would be unjust in so doing.

^ Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., ^ Vide ibid., and p. Ii2.

art. Giahedh. ^ Al Shahrist., apud Poc, p. 241.

^ Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 260. '' Marracc, ubi svip., p. 75-

^ Marracc, ubi sup._ * Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 220.

* Sect. III., p. 113.*^ ^ Poc. S^aec, p. 221.

inians.

nans.

248 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii-

He taught that God is not always obliged to do that which
is best, for if he pleased he could make all men true
believers. These sectaries also held that if a man repent
of a mortal sin and afterwards return to it, he will be liable
to suffer the punishment due to the former transgression. ■■

The Thama- 9. The Thamamiaus, who follow Thamama Ibn Bashar,
a chief Mutazilite. Their peculiar opinions were : i. That
sinners should remain in hell for ever. 2. That free
actions have no producing author. 3. That at the resui-
rection all infidels, idolaters, atheists, Jews, Christians,
Magians, and heretics shall be reduced to dust.^

TheQada- iQ. The Qadariaus, which is really a more ancient
name than that of Mutazilites, Mabad al Johni and Lis
adherents being so called, who disputed the doctrine of
predestination before Wasil quitted his master;^ for
which reason some use the denomination of Qadarians as
more extensive than the other, and comprehend all tbe
Mutazilites under it.* This sect deny absolute predes-
tination, saying that evil and injustice ought not to be
attributed to God, but to man, who is a free agent, and
may therefore be rewarded or punished for his actions,
which God has granted him power either to do or to let
alone.^ And hence it is said they are called Qadarians
because they deny al Qadr, or God's absolute decree;
though others, thinking it not so proper to affix a name
to a sect from a doctrine which they combat, will have it
come from Qadr or Qiidrat, i.e., power, because they assert
man's power to act freely.*^ Those, however, w^ho give
the name of Qadarians to the IMutazilites are their
enemies, for they disclaim it, and give it to their antago-
nists, the Jabariaus, who likewise refuse it as an infamous
appellation/ because Muhammad is said to have declared

^ Marracc, ubi sup. ® Al Shahrist. Vide Poc. Spec,

" Idem, ibid. pp. 235 and 240, &c.

3 Al Shahrist. ^ Vide Poc. Spec, ibid., p. 238.

•* Al Firauzab. Vide Poc. Spec, ^ Al Mutarrizi, al Shahrist. Vide
pp. 231, 232, and 214. ibid., p. 232.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 249

the Qadarians to be the Magians of his followers.^ But
what the opinion of these Qadarians in Muhammad's
time was is very uncertain. The Mutazilites say the
name belongs to those who assert predestination and
make God the author of good and evil,^ viz., the Jabarians ;
but all the other Muhammadan sects agree to fix it on
the Mutazilites, who, they say, are like the Magians in
establishing two principles, Light, or God, the author
of good ; and Darkness, or the devil, the author of evil ;
but this cannot absolutely be said of the Mutazilites,
for they (at least the generality of them) ascribe men's
good deeds to God, but their evil deeds to themselves ;
meaning thereby that man has a free liberty and power
to do either good or evil, and is master of his actions;
and for this reason it is that the other Muhammadans
call them Magians, because they assert another author of
actions besides God.^ And indeed it is a difficult matter
to say what Muhammad's own opinion was iu this matter ;
for on the one side the Quran itself is pretty plain for
absolute predestination, and many sayings of Muhammad
are recorded to that purpose,* and one in particular,
wherein he introduces Adam and Moses disputing before
God in this manner: "Thou," says Moses, "art Adam,
whom God created, and animated with the breath of life,
and caused to be worshipped by the angels, and placed in
paradise, from whence mankind have been expelled for
thy fault ; " whereto Adam answered, " Thou art Moses,
whom God chose for his apostle, and intrusted with his
Word by giving thee the tables of the law, and whom he
vouchsafed to admit to discourse with himself : how many
years dost thou find the law was written before I was
created ? " Says Moses, " Forty." " And dost thou not
find," replied Adam, " these words therein, ' And Adam
rebelled acrainst his Lord and transgressed ' ? " which

^ Al Mutarrizi, al Shahrist., &c., ^ Vide Poc, ibid., p. 233, &c.
ibid. - Idem, ibid. * Vide ibid., p. 237.

250 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec viil.

Moses confessing, " Dost thou therefore blame me," con-
tinued he, " for doing that which God wrote of me that I
should do forty years before I was created ? nay, for what
was decreed concerning me fifty thousand years before
the creation of heaven and earth ? " In the conclusion
of which dispute Muhammad declared that Adam had
the better of Moses.^ On the other side, it is urged in
the behalf of the Mutazilites, that Muhammad declaring
that the Qadarians and Murjians had been cursed by the
tongues of seventy prophets, and being asked who the
Qadarians were, answered, " Those who assert that God
predestinated them to be guilty of rebellion, and yet
punishes them for it." Al Hasan is also said to have
declared that God sent Muhammad to the Arabs while
they were Qadarians or Jabarians, and laid their sins
upon God : and to confirm the matter, this sentence of
the Quran is quoted : 2 " When they commit a filthy
action, they say, We found our fathers practising the
same, and God hath commanded us so to do : Say, Verily
God commandeth not filthy actions." ^
TbeSifa- II. The Sifatians held the opposite opinion to the

Mutazilites in respect to the eternal attributes of God,
which they affirmed, making no distinction between the
essential attributes and those of operation ; and hence
they were named Sifatians, or Attributists. Their doc-
trine was that of the first Muhammadans, who were not
yet acquainted with these nice distinctions: but this sect
afterwards introduced another species of declarative attri-
butes, or such as were necessarily used in historical narra-
tion, as hands, face, eyes, &c., which they did not offer to
explain, but contented themselves with saying they were
in the law, and that they called them declarative attri-
butes.* However, at length, by giving various explica-
tions and interpretations of these attributes, they divided

1 Ibn al Athir, al Bokhdri, apud ^ Al Mutarrizi, apud eund., pp.
Poc. Spec, p. 236. 237, 238.

2 Cap. 7, V. 29. * Al Shahrist., Poc. Spec, p. 223.

tians.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 251

into many different opinions : some, by taking tlie words
in the literal sense, fell into tlie notion of a likeness or
similitude between God and created beings ; to which it
is said the Karaites among the Jews, who are for the
literal interpretation of Moses's law, had shown them the
way:^ others explained them in another manner, say-
ing that no creature was like God, but that they neither
understood nor thought it necessary to explain the precise
signification of the words, which seem to affirm the same
of both, it being sufficient to believe that God hath no
companion or similitude. Of this opinion was Malik Ibn
Ans, who declared as to the expression of God's sitting
on his throne, in particular, that though the meaning is
known, yet the manner is unknown ; and that it is ne-
cessary to believe it, but heresy to make any questions
about it.2

The sects of the Sifatians are : —

I. The Asharians, the followers of Abu'l Hasan alTheAsha-
Ashari, who was first a Mutazilite, and the scholar of
Abu Ali al Jobbai, but disagreeing from his master in
opinion as to God's being bound (as the Mutazilites
assert) to do always that which is best or most expedient,
left him and set up a new sect of himself. The occasion
of this difference was the putting a case concerning three
brothers, the first of whom lived in obedience to God, the
second in rebellion against him, and the third died an
infant. Al Jobbai being asked what he thought would
become of them, answered, that the first would be re-
warded in paradise, the second punished in hell, and the
third neither rewarded nor punished. " But what," objected
al Ashari, " if the third say, 0 Lord, if thou hadst given
me longer life, that I might have entered paradise with
my believing brother, it would have been better for me ? "
To which al Jobbai replied, "That God would answer,
I knew that if thou hadst lived longer thou wouldst

^ Vide Poc. Spec, ibid., p. 224. ^ Vide eund. ibid.

252 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

have been a wicked person, and therefore cast into hell."
" Then," retorted al Ashari, " the second will say, 0 Lokd,
why didst thou not take me away while I was an infant,
as thou didst my brother, that I might not have deserved
to be punished for my sins nor to be cast into hell ? "
To which al Jobbai could return no other answer than
that God prolonged his life to give him an opportunity of
obtaining the highest degree of perfection, which was best
for him; but al Ashari demanding further why he did
not for the same reason grant the other a longer life, to
whom it would have been equally advantageous, al Jobbai
was so put to it, that he asked whether the devil possessed
him. " No," says al Ashari, '' but the master's ass will not
pass the bridge ; " ^ i.e., he is posed.
Opinions The opinions of the Asharians were : i. That they

thfattri? allowed the attributes of God to be distinct from his
bntes of essence, yet so as to forbid any comparisom to be made
between God and his creatures.^ This w^as also the opinion
of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, and David al Ispahani, and others,
who herein followed Malik Ibn Ans, and were so cautious
of any assimilation of God to created beings, that they
declared whoever moved his hand while he read these
words, " I have created with my hand," or stretched
forth his finger in repeating this saying of Muhammad,
" The heart of the believer is between two fingers of the
Merciful," ought to have his hand and finger cut off; ^
and the reasons they gave for not explaining any such
W'Ords were, that it is forbidden in the Qurau, and that
such explications were necessarily founded on conjecture
and opinion, from which no man ought to speak of the
attributes of God, because the words of the Quran might
by that means come to be understood differently from the
author's meaning : nay, some have been so superstitiously
scrupulous in this matter as not to allow the words hand,

1 Auctor al Mawdkif, et al Safadi, " Al Shahrist., apud Poc. Spec, p.
apud Poc, ubi sup., p. 230, &c. Ibn 230.
Khallikan in Vita al Jobbai., ^ Idem, apud eund., p. 228, &c.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 253

face, and the like, when they occur in the Quran, to be
rendered into Persian or any other language, but require
them to be read in the very original words, and this they
call the safe way.^ 2. As to predestination, they held that
God hath one eternal will, which is applied to whatsoever
he willeth, both of his own actions and those of men, so
far as they are created by him, but not as they are acquired
or gained by them ; that he willeth both their good and
their evil, their profit and their hurt, and as he willeth
and knoweth, he willeth concerning men that which he
knoweth, and hath commanded the pen to write the same
in the Preserved Table ; and this is his decree, and eternal
immutable counsel and purpose.^ They also went so far
as to say that it may be agreeable to the way of God that
man should be commanded what he is not able to perform.^
But while they allow man some power, they seem to
restrain it to such a power as cannot produce anything
new ; only God, say they, so orders his providence that
he creates, after or under, and together with every created
or new power, an action which is ready whenever a man
wills it and sets about it ; and this action is called Cash,
i.e., Acquisition, being in respect to its creation, from God,
but in respect to its being produced, employed, and
acquired, from man.^ And this being generally esteemed
the orthodox opinion, it may not be improper farther to
explain the same in the words of some other writers. The
elective actions of men, says one, fall under the power of
God alone ; nor is their own power effectual thereto, but
God causeth to exist in man power and choice ; and if
there be no impediment, he causeth his action to exist
also, subject to his power, and joined with that and his
choice ; which action, as created, is to be ascribed to God,
but as produced, employed, or acquired, to man. So that
by the acquisition of an action is properly meant a man's

^ Vide Poc. Spec, ibid. ^ Idem, ibid., p. 246.

" Al Shahrist., apud eund., p. 245, * Al Shahrist., apud Poc. Spec, p.
&c. 245, &c.

254 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

joining or connecting the same with his power and will,
yet allowing herein no impression or influence on the
existence thereof, save only that it is subject to his power.^
Others, however, who are also on the side of al Ashari,
and reputed orthodox, explain the matter in a different
manner, and grant the impression or influence of the
created power of man on his action, and that this power
is what is called Acquisition,^ But the point will be still
clearer if we hear a third author, who rehearses the various
opinions, or explications of the opinion of this sect, in the
following words, viz. : — Abu'l Hasan al Ashari asserts all
the actions of men to be subject to the power of God,
being created by him, and that the power of man hath no
influence at all on that which he is empowered to do, but
that both the power and what is subject thereto fall
under the power of God. Al Qadhi Abu Baqr says that the
essence or substance of the action is the efi'ect of the
power of God, but its being either an action of obedience,
as prayer, or an action of disobedience, as fornication, are
qualities of the action, which proceed from the power of
man. Abdal Malik, known by the title of Imam al Hara-
main, Abu'l Husain of Basra, and other learned men, held
that the actions of men are effected by the power which
God hath created in man, and that God causeth to exist
in man both power and will, and that this power and will
do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to
do ; and Abu Ishaq al Isf arayain taught that that which
maketh impression or hath influence on an action is a
compound of the power of God and the power of man.^
The same author observes that their ancestors, perceiving
a manifest difference between those things which are the
effects of the election of man and those things which are
the necessary effects of inanimate agents, destitute both
of knowledge and choice, and being at the same time

^ Auctor Sharh al Mawakif, apud ^ Auctor Sharh al Tawalij'a, apud
eund., p. 247. eund. ibid., p. 24S, &c.

^ Al Shahrist., ibid., p. 248.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 255

pressed by the arguments whicli prove that God is the
Creator of all things, and consequently of those things
which are done by men, to conciliate the matter, chose
the middle way, asserting actions to proceed from the
power of God and the acquisition of man ; God's way of
dealing with his servants being, that when man intendeth
obedience, God createth in him an action of obedience ;
and when he intendeth disobedience, he createth in him
an action of disobedience; so that man seemeth to be the
effective producer of his action, though he really be not.^
But this, proceeds the same writer, is again pressed with
its difficulties, because the very intention of the mind is
the work of God, so that no man hath any share in the
production of his own actions ; for which reason the
ancients disapproved of too nice an inquiry into this
point, the end of the dispute concerning the same being,
for the most part, either the taking away of all precepts,
positive as well as negative, or else the associating of a
companion with God, by introducing some other indepen-
dent agent besides him. Those, therefore, who would
speak more accurately, use this form : There is neither
compulsion nor free liberty, but the way lies between the
two ; the power and will in man being both created by
God, though the merit or guilt be imputed iinto man.
Yet, after all, it is judged the safest way to follow the
steps of the primitive Muslims, and, avoiding subtle dis-
putations and too curious inquiries, to leave the knowledge
of this matter wholly unto GoD.^ 3. As to mortal sin, the

^ Auctor Sharh al Tawdliya, ibid., free will is treated ex prqfesso.

pp. 249, 250. Therein the Moorish author, having

2 i(JeiT[j^ il3ij_^pp_ 250, 251. I trust mentioned the two opposite opinions

the reader will not be offended if, as of the Qadarians, who allow free

a further illustration of what has will, and the Jabarians, who make

been said on this subject (in pro- man a necessary agent (the former

ducing of which I have purposely of which opinions, he says, seems to

kept to the original Muhamniadan ajjproach nearest to that of the

expressions) I transcribe a passage greater part of Christians and of

or two from a postscript subjoined the Jews), declares the true opinion

to the epistle I have quoted above to be that of the Sunnis, who] as-

(§ 4, p. 85), in which the point of sert that man hath power and will

256

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

Their views Asliarians taught, that if a believer guilty of such sin die
without repentance, his sentence is to be left with God,
whether he pardon him out of mercy, or whether the
prophet intercede for him (according to that saying re-
corded of him, " My intercession shall be employed for
those among my people who shall have been guilty of
grievous crimes "), or whether he punish him in proportion
to his demerit, and afterwards, through his mercy, admit
him into paradise ; but that it is not to be supposed he

to choose good and evil, and can
moreover know he shall be rewarded
if he do well, and shall be punished
if he do ill ; but that he depends,
notwithstanding, on God's power,
and willeth, if God willeth, but not
otherwise. Then he proceeds briefly
to refute the two extreme opinions,
and first to prove that of the Qada-
rians, though it be agreeable to
God's justice, inconsistent with his
attributes of wisdom and power :
"Sapientia enim Dei," says he,
" comprehendit quicquid fuit et fu-
turum est ab seternitate in finem
usque mundi et postea. Et ita novit
ab seterno omnia oj^era creaturarum,
sive bona, sive mala, quae fuerint
creata cum potentia Dei, et ejus
libera et determinata voluntate, si-
cut ipsi visum fuit. Denique novit
eum qui futurus erat malus, et ta-
men creavit eum, et similiter bonum,
quem etiam creavit : neque negari
potest quin, si ipsi libuisset, potuisset
omnes creare bonos : placuit tamen
Deo creare bonos et malos, ciim Deo
soli sit absoluta et libera voluntas,
et perfecta electio, et non homini.
Ita enim Salomon in suis proverbiis
dixit, Vitam et mortem, bonum et
malum, divitias et paupertatem, esse
et venire h, Deo. Christiani etiam
dicunt S. Paulum dixisse in suis
epistolis ; Dicet etiam lutum figulo,
quare facis unum vas ad honorem,
et aliud vas ad contumeliam ? Cum
igitur miser homo fuerit creatus h
voluntate Dei et potentia, nihil aliud
potest tribui ipsi quam ipse sensus
cotrnoscendi et sentiendi an bene vel

male faciat. Qufe unica causa (id
est, sensus cognoscendi) erit ejus
glorise vel poense causa : per talem
enim sensum novit quid boni vel
mail ad versus Dei pr^cepta fecerit."
The opinion of the Jabarians, on
the other hand, he rejects as con-
trary to man's consciousness of his
own power and choice, and incon-
sistent with God's justice, and his
having given mankind laws, to the
observing or transgressing of which
he has annexed rewards and punish-
ments. After this he proceeds to
explain the third opinion in the fol-
lowing words : " Tertia opinio Zunis
(i.e., Sonnitarum) quae vera est,
affirmat homini potestatem esse, sed
limitatem h, sua causa, id est, depen-
dentem h. Dei potentia et voluntate,
et propter illam cognitionem qua
deliberat bene vel male facere, esse
dignum pcena vel prsemio. Mani-
festum est in seternitate non fuisse
aliam potentiam prseter Dei nostri
omnipotentis, e cujus potentia jjen-
debant omnia possibilia, id est, quae
poterant esse, cum ab ij^so fuerint
creata. Sapientia ver5 Dei novit
etiam quas non sunt futura : et po-
tentia ejus, etsi non creaverit ea,
potuit tamen, si ita Deo placuisset.
Ita novit sapientia Dei quae erant
imijossibilia, id est, qure non poterant
esse ; quse tamen nullo pacto pen-
dent ab ejus potentia ; ab ejus enim
potentia nulla pendent nisi possi-
bilia. Dicimus enim h, Dei potentia
non pendere creare Deum alium ipsi
similem, nee creare aliquid quod
moveatur et quiescat simul eodem

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.

'■57

will remain for ever in hell with the infidels, seeing it is
declared that whoever shall have faith in his heart but of
the weight of an ant, shall be delivered from hell-fire.^
And this is generally received for the orthodox doctrine
in this point, and is diametrically opposite to that of the
Mutazilites.

These were the more rational Sifatians, but the ignorant
part of them, not knowing how otherwise to explain the
expressions of the Quran relating to the declarative attri-
butes, fell into most gross and absurd opinions, making
God corporeal and like created beings.^ Such were —

2. The Mushabbihites, or Assimilators, who allowed aTheMushiib-

. . biUites.

resemblance between God and his creatures,^ supposing

tempore, cum hsec sint ex impossi-
bilibus : comprehendit tamen suc^
sapientia tale aliquid non pendere
ab ejus potentia. — A potentia igitur
Dei pendet solum quod potest esse,
et possibile est esse ; quse semper
parata est dare esse possibilibus. Et
si hoc penitus cognoscamus, cognos-
cemus pariter omne quod est, seu
futurum est, sive sint opera nostra,
sive quidvis aliud, pendere h, sola
potentia Dei. Et hoc non privatim
intelligitur, sed in genere de omni
eo quod est et movetur, sive in coelis
sive in terra ; et nee aliqua potentia
potest impediri Dei potentia, cimi.
nulla alia potentia absoluta sit, prse-
ter Dei ; potentia vero nostra non
est a se, nisi h, Dei potentia : et cum
potentia nostra dicitur esse a causa
sua, ideo dicimus potentiam nostram
esse straminis comparatam cum po-
tentia Dei : eo enim modo quo stra-
men movetur k motu maris, ita nos-
tra potentia et voluntas a Dei poten-
tia. Itaque Dei potentia semper
est parata etiam ad occidendum ali-
quem ; ut si quis hominem occidat,
non dicimus potentia hominis id
factum, sed seterna potentia Dei :
error enim est id tribuere potentire
hominis. Potentia enim Dei, ciim
semper sit parata, et ante ipsum
hominem, ad occidendum ; si sola
hominis potentia id factum esse

diceremus, et moreretur, potentia
sane Dei (quse ante erat) jam ibi
esset frustra : quia post mortem non
potest potentia Dei eum iterum occi-
dere ; ex quo sequeretur potentiam
Dei impediri h. potentia hominis, et
jjotentiam hominis anteire et ante-
cellere potentiam Dei : quod est ab-
surdum et impossibile. Igitur Deus
est qui operatur geterna sua poten-
tiS, : si vero homini injiciatur culpa,
sive in tali homicidio, sive in aliis,
hoc est quantum ad prfficejDta et
legem. Homini tribuitur solum
opus externti, et ejus electio, quse
est a voluntate ejus et potentia ;
non vero interne. — Hoc est punctum
illud indivisibile et secretum, quod
k paucissimis capitur, ut sapientissi-
mus Sidi Abo Hamet Elgaceli (i.e.,
Dominus Abu Hamed al Ghazdli)
affirmat (cujus spiritui Deus conce-
dat gloriam, Amen !) sequentibus
verbis : Ita abditum et profundum
et abstrusum est intelligere punctum
illud Liberi Arbitrii, ut neque char-
acteres ad scribendum, neque ullse
rationes ad experimendum sufficiant,
et omnes, quotquot de hac re locuti
sunt, haeserunt confusi in ripa tanti
et tam spaciosi maris."

1 Al Shahrist., apud Poc, p. 258.

^ Vide Poc, ibid., p. 255, &c. ;
Abulfar., p. 167, &c.

^ Al Mawakif, apud Poc, ibid,
li

258 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

him to be a figure composed of members or parts, either
spiritual or corporeal, and capable of local motion, of
ascent and descent, &c.^ Some of this sect inclined to
the opinion of the Hukilians, who believed that the divine
nature might be united with the human in the same per-
son ; for they granted it possible that God might appear
in a human form, as Gabriel did ; and to confirm their
opinion they allege Muhammad's words, that he saw his
LoED in a most beautiful form, and Moses talking with
God face to face.^ And
The Kara- 3. The Karamians, or followers of Muhammad Ibn
Mujassa- I^aram, called also Mujassamians, or Corporalists, who not
only admitted a resemblance between God and created
beings, but declared God to be corporeal.^ The more sober
among them, indeed, when they applied the word "body" to
God, would be understood to mean that he is a self-sub-
sisting being, which with them is the definition of body ;
but yet some of them affirmed him to be finite, and cir-
cumscribed, either on all sides, or on some only (as beneath,
for example), according to different opinions ; * and others
allowed that he might be felt by the hand and seen by
the eye. Nay, one David al Jawari went so far as to say
that his deity was a body composed of flesh and blood,
and that he had members, as hands, feet, a head, a tongue,
eyes, and ears ; but that he was a body, however, not like
other bodies, neither was he like to any created being : he
is also said further to have affirmed that from the crown
of the head to the breast he was hollow, and from the
breast downward solid, and that he had black curled hair.^
These most blasphemous and monstrous notions were the
consequence of the literal acceptation of those passages in
the Quran which figuratively attribute corjDoreal actions
to God, and of tlie words of INIuhammad when he said

1 Al Shahrist., apud eund., ibid., ^ Al Shahrist,, ubi sup.

p. 226. * Idem, ibid., p. 225.

- Vide Marracc, Prodr., part 3, ^ Idem, ibid., pp. 226, 227.

p. 76.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 259

that God created man in his own image, and that himself
had felt the fingers of God, which he laid on his back, to
be cold. Besides which, this sect are charged with father-
ing on their prophet a great number of spurious and forged
traditions to support their opinion, the greater part whereof
they borrowed from the Jews, who are accused as naturally
prone to assimilate God to men, so that they describe him
as weeping for Noah's flood till his eyes were sore.^ And,
indeed, though we grant the Jews may have imposed on
Muhammad and his followers in many instances, and told
them as solemn truths things which themselves believed
not or had invented, yet many expressions of this kind
are to be found in their writings ; as when they introduce
God roaring like a lion at every watch of the night, and
crying, " Alas ! that I have laid waste my house, and
suffered my temple to be burnt, and sent my children into
banishment among the heathen," &c."^

The Jabarians, %vho are the direct opponents of the The jaisa-
Qadarians, denying free agency in men, and ascribing his tiieir van-
actions wholly unto GoD.^ They take their denomination nations."'^''
from al jabr, which signifies necessity or compulsion ;
because they hold man to be necessarily and inevitably
constrained to act as he does by force of God's eternal and
immutable decree.^ This sect is distinguished into several
species, some being more rigid and extreme in their opi-
nion, who are thence called pure Jabarians, and others
more moderate, wdio are therefore called middle Jabarians.
The former will not allow men to be said either to act or
to have any power at all, either operative or acquiring,
asserting that man can do nothing, but produces all his
actions by necessity, having neither power, nor will, nor
choice, any more than an inanimate agent ; they also de-
clare that rewarding and punishing are also the effects of
necessity; and the same they say of the imposing of

^ Al Shahrist., ibid., pp. 227, 22S. ^ Vide Abulfarag, p. 168.
- Talm. Berachoth, c. I. Vide * Al Shahrist., al ^fawakif, et Ibn
Poc, ubi sup., p. 228. al Kussa, apud Poc, ibid., p. 23S, &c.

26o THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

commands. This was the doctrine of the Jahmians, the
followers of Jahm Ibn Safwan, who likewise held that
paradise and hell will vanish or be annihilated after
those who are destined thereto respectively shall have
entered them, so that at last there will remain no existing
being besides God ; ^ supposing those words of the Quran
which declare that the inhabitants of paradise and of hell
shall remain therein for ever to be hyperbolical only, and
intended for corroboration, and not to denote an eternal
duration in reality.^ The moderate Jabarians are those
who ascribe some power to man, but such a power as hath
no influence on the action ; for as to those who grant the
power of man to have a certain influence on the action,
which influence is called Acquisition, some ^ will not admit
them to be called Jabarians, though others reckon those
also to be called middle Jabarians, and to contend for the
middle opinion between absolute necessity and absolute
liberty, who attribute to man Acquisition or concurrence
in producing the action, whereby he gaineth commendation
or blame (yet without admitting it to have any influence
on the action), and therefore make the Asharians a branch
of this sect.* Having again mentioned the term Acquisi-
tion, we may perhaps have a clearer idea of what the
Muhammadans mean thereby when told that it is defined
to be an action directed to the obtaining of profit or the
removing of hurt, and for that reason never applied to any
action of God, who acquireth to himself neither profit nor
hurt.^ Of the middle or moderate Jabarians were the
Najarians and the Dirarians. Tlie Najarians were the
adherents of al Hasan Ibn Muhammad al Najar, who
taught that God was he who created the actions of men,
both good and bad, and that man acquired them, and also
that man's power had an influence on the action, or a

^ Al Shahrist., al Miitarizzi, et Ibn ^ Al Shahrist.
al Kussu, apud eund., pp. 239, 243, * Ibn al Kussd et al Mawdkif.
&c. ® Ibn al Kussii, apud Poc, ubi

- Idem, ibid., p. 260. sup., p. 240,

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 261

certain co-operation, which he called Acquisition ; and
herein he agreed with al Ashari.'- The Dirarians were the
disciples of Dirar Ibn Amru, who held also that men's
actions are really created by God, and that man really
acquired them." The Jabarians also say that God is abso-
lute Lord of his creatures, and may deal with them
according to his own pleasure, without rendering account
to any, and that if he should admit all men without dis-
tinction into paradise, it would be no impartiality, or if
he should cast them all into hell, it would be no injus-
tice.^ And in this particular likewise they agree with the
Asharians, who assert the same,* and say that reward
is a favour from God, and punishment a piece of justice ;
obedience being by them considered as a sign only of
future reward, and transgression as a sign of future pun-
ishment.^

5. The Murjians, who are said to be derived from the TiieMur-
Jabarians.*^ These teach that the judgment of every true
believer, who hath been guilty of a grievous sin, will be
deferred till the resurrection ; for which reason they pass
no sentence on him in this world, either of absolution or
condemnation. They also hold that disobedience with

^ Al Shahrist., apud eund., p. 245. creatura sit ejus, nee facit cuiquam

^ Idem, ibid. injuriam, etsi earn tormentis et

^ Abulfarag, p. 168, &c. poenis Eeternis afficiat : plus enim

* Al Shahristani, ubi sup., p. 252, boni et commodi accepit creatura

&c. quando accepit esse a suo creatore,

^ Sharli al Tawaliya, ibid. To the quiim incommodi et damni quando

same effect writes the Moorish au- ab eo damnata est et affecta tor-

thor quoted above, from whom I will mentis et pcenis. Hoc autem intel-

venture to transcribe the following ligitur si Deus absolute id faceret.

passage, with which he concludes his Quando enim Deus, pietate et mise-

Discourse on Freewill : — " Intellec- ricordia motus, eligit aliquos ut ipsi

tiis fere limiine naturali novit Deum serviant, Dominus Deus gratia suS

esse rectum judicem et justum, qui id facit ex infinita bonitate ; et

non aliter atficit creaturam quam quando aliquos derelinquit, et pcenis

juste : etiam Deum esse absolutum et tormentis afficit, ex justitia et

Dominum, et banc orbis machinam rectitudine. Et tandem dicimus

esse ejus, et ab eo creatam ; Deum omnes pcenas esse juistas quae a Deo

nullis debere rationem reddere, cum veniunt, et nostra tantum culpa, et

quicxuid agat, agat jure proprio sibi : omnia bona esse h, pietate et miseri-

et ita absolute poterit afficere prsemio cordia ejus infinita."

vel pcena quem vult, cum omnis ® Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 256.

262 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vill.

faith hurteth not, and that, on the other hand, obedience
with infidelity profiteth not.^ As to the reason of their
name the learned differ, because of the different significa-
tions of its root, each of which they accommodate to some
opinion of the sect. Some think them so called because
they postpone works to intention, that is, esteem works to
be inferior in degree to intention and profession of the
faith; 2 others because they allow hope, by asserting that
disobedience with faith hurteth not, &c. ; others take the
reason of the name to be their deferring the sentence of
the heinous sinner till the resurrection ; ^ and others their
degrading of Ali, or removing him from the first degree to
the fourth ; * for the Murjians, in some points relating to
the office of Imam, agree with the Kharijites. This sect is
divided into four species, three of which, according as they
happen to agree in particular dogmas with the Kharijites,
the Qadarians, or the Jabarians, are distinguished as Mur-
jians of those sects, and the fourth is that of the pure
Murjians, which last species is again subdivided into five
others.^ The opinions of Muqdtil and Bashar, both of a
sect of the Murjians called Thaubanians, should not be
omitted. The former asserted that disobedience hurts not
him who professes the unity of God and is endued with
faith, and that no true believer shall be cast into hell. He
also taught that God will surely forgive all crimes besides
infidelity, and that a disobedient believer will be punished
at the day of resurrection on the bridge*^ laid over the
midst of hell, where the flames of hell-fire shall catch hold
on him, and torment him in proportion to his disobedience,
and that he shall then be admitted into paradise.'^ The
latter held that if God do cast the believers guilty of
grievous sins into hell, yet they will be delivered thence
after they shall have been sufficiently punished ; but that

1 Abulfarag, p. 169. ^ Idem, ibid.

2 Al Firaiis. ^ See supra, Sect. IV., p. 147.

'^ Ibn al Athir, al Mutarrizi. ^ Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 257.
* Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 254, &c.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 263

it is neither possible nor consistent with justice that they
should remain therein for ever ; which, as has been ob-
served, was the opinion of al Ashari.

III. The Kharijites are they who depart or revolt from The klaii
the lawful prince established by public consent; and"'
thence comes their name, which signifies revolters or
rebels.^ The first who were so called were twelve thou-
sand men who revolted from Ali, after they had fought
under him at the battle of Saffain, taking offence at
his submitting^ the decision of his right to the Khalifat,
which Muawiyah disputed with him, to arbitration, though
they themselves had first obliged him to it.^ These were
also called Muhaqqimites, or Judiciarians, because the
reason which they gave for their revolt was that Ali had
referred a matter concerning the religion of God to the
judgment of men, whereas the judgment, in such case,
belonged only unto God.^ The heresy of the Kharijites
consisted chiefly in two things : — i. In that they affirmed a
man might be promoted to the dignity of Imam or prince
though he was not of the tribe of Quraish, or even a
freeman, provided he was a just and pious person, and
endued with the other requisite qualifications ; and also
held that if the Imam turned aside from the truth, he
might be put to death or deposed; and that there was
no absolute necessity for any Imam at all in the world.
2. In that they charged Ali with sin, for having left an
affair to the judgment of men which ought to have been
determined by God alone ; and went so far as to declare
him guilty of infidelity, and to curse him on that account.*
In the 38th year of the Hijra, which was the year follow-
ing the revolt, all these Kharijites who persisted in their
rebellion, to the number of four thousand, were cut to
pieces by Ali, and, as several historians ^ write, even to a

^ Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 261. ^ Idem, ibid.

- See Ockley's Hist, of the Sara- ^ Abulfeda, al Janndbi, Elma-

cens, vol. i. p. 60, &c. cinus, p. 40.
^ Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 270.

264 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

man ; but others say nine of them escaped, and that two
fled into Oman, two into Karman, two into Sajistan, two
into Mesopotamia, and one to Tel Mawriin, and that
these propagated their heresy in those places, the same
remaining there to this day.^ The principal sects of the
Kharijites, besides the Muhaqqimites above mentioned,
are six, which, though they greatly differ among them-
selves in other matters, yet agree in these, viz., that they
absolutely reject Othman and Ali, preferring the doing of
this to the greatest obedience, and allowing marriages
to be contracted on no other terms ; that they account
those who are guilty of grievous sins to be infidels ; and
that they hold it necessary to resist the Imam when he
transgresses the law. One sect of them deserves more
particular notice, viz. —
Peculiar The Waidlaus, so called from al Waid, which signifies

w.-iidians. tlic threats denounced by God against the wicked. These
are the antagonists of the Murjians, and assert that he
who is guilty of a grievous sin ought to be declared an
infidel or apostate, and will bo eternally punished in hell,
though he were a true believer ; " which opinion of theirs,
as has been observed, occasioned the first rise of the
Mutazilites. One Jaafar Ibn Mubashshar, of the sect of
the Nudhamians, was yet more severe than the Waidians,
pronouncing him to be a reprobate and an apostate who
steals but a grain of corn.^
Theshiahs IV. The Sliiahs are the opponents of the Kharijites:
distinguish- their name properly signifies sectaries or adherents in
ufnes^' general, but is peculiarly used to denote those of Ali Ibn
Talib, who maintain him to be lawful Khalifah and Imam,
and that the supreme authority, both in spirituals and
temporals, of right belongs to his descendants, notwith-
standing they may be deprived of it by the injustice of
others or their own fear. They also teach that the ofl&ce

^ Al ShahrisMni. See Ockley's " Abulfar., p. 169 ; Al Shahrist.,
Hist, of the Saracens, ubi sup., p. apud Poc. Spec, p. 256.
63. •* Vide Poc, ibid., p. 257.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 265

of Imam is not a common thing, depending on the will of
the vulgar, so that they may set up whom they please,
but a fundamental affair of religion, and an article which
the prophet could not have neglected or left to the fancy
of the common people : ^ nay, some, thence called Imam-
ians, go so far as to assert that religion consists solely in
the knowledge of the true Imam.^ The principal sects of
the Shiahs are five, which are subdivided into an almost
innumerable number, so that some understand Muham-
mad's prophecy of the seventy odd sects of the Shiahs
only. Their general opinions are — i. That the peculiar
designation of the Imam, and the testimonies of the
Quran and Muhammad concerning him, are necessary
points. 2. That the Imams ought necessarily to keep
themselves free from light sins as well as more grievous.
3. That every one ought publicly to declare who it is
that he adheres to, and from whom he separates himself,
by word, deed, and engagement ; and that herein there
should be no dissimulation. But in this last point some
of the Zaidians, a sect so named from Zaid, the son of
Ali surnamed Zain al Abidin, and great-grandson of
Ali, dissented from the rest of the Shiahs.^ As to
other articles wherein they agreed not, some of them
came pretty near to the notions of the Mutazilites, others
to those of the Mushabbihites, and others to those of
the Sunnis.* Among the latter of these, Muhammad al
Bakir, another son of Zain al Abidin's, seems to claim a
place ; for his opinion as to the will of God was that
God willeth something in us and something from us, and
that what he willeth from us he hath revealed to us ; for
which reason he thought it preposterous that we should
employ our thoughts about those things which God willeth
in us, and neglect those which he willeth from us : and
as to God's decree, he held that the way lay in the middle,

1 AlShahrist., ibid.,p.26i ; Abul- ^ Idem, ibid. Vide D'Herbel.,
farag, p. 169. Bibl. Orient., art. Schiah.

- Al Shahrist., ibid., p. 262. '^ Vide Poc, ibid.

-66 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

and that there was neither compulsion nor free liberty.^
A tenet of the Khattabians, or disciples of one Abu'l
Khattab, is too peculiar to be omitted. These maintained
paradise to be no other than the pleasures of this world,
and hell-fire to be the pains thereof, and that the world
will never decay : which proposition being first laid down,
it is no wonder they went further, and declared it lawful
to indulge themselves in drinking wine and whoring, and
to do other things forbidden by the law, and also to omit
doing the things commanded by the law.^
Their vene- Many of the Shiahs carried their veneration for Ali and

ration of Ali

and his de- his descendants so far that they transgressed all bounds
of reason and decency, though some of them were less
extravagant than others. The Ghulaites, who had their
name from their excessive zeal for their Imams, were so
highly transported therewith that they raised them above
the degree of created beings, and attributed divine pro-
perties to them ; transgressing on either hand, by deifying
of mortal men, and by making God corporeal ; for one
while they liken one of their Imams to God, and another
while they liken God to a creature.^ The sects of these
are various, and have various appellations in different
countries. Abdallah Ibn Saba (who had been a Jew, and
had asserted the same thing of Joshua the son of Nun)
was the ringleader of one of them. This man gave the
following salutation to Ali, viz., " Thou art Thou," i.e., thou
art GoD: and hereupon the Ghulaites became divided
into several species, some maintaining the same thing, or
something like it, of Ali, and others of some of one of his
descendants, afiirming that he was not dead, but would
return again in the clouds and fill the earth with justice.
But how much soever they disagreed in other things, they
unanimously held a metempsychosis, and what they call
al Huliil, or the descent of God on his creatures, meaning

^ Al Shahrist., ibid., p. 263. ^ Idem, ibid.

2 Idem, et Ibn al Kussjl, ibid., p. •* Idem, ibid., p. 264. Vide Mar-
260, &c. rac, Prodr., part 3, p. So, &c.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 267

thereby that God is present in every place, and speaks
with every tongue, and appears in some individual per-
son;^ and hence some of them asserted their Imams to
be prophets, and at length gods.^ The Nusairians and
the Ishaqians taught that spiritual substances appear in
grosser bodies, and that the angels and the devil have
appeared in this manner. They also assert that God hath
appeared in the form of certain men ; and since, after
Muhammad, there hath been no man more excellent than
Ali, and, after him, his sons have excelled all other men,
that God hath appeared in their form, spoken with their
tongue, and made use of their hands ; for which reason,
say they, we attribute divinity to them.^ * And to sup-
port these blasphemies they tell several miraculous things
of Ali, as his movinfj the gates of Khaibar,* which they
urge as a plain proof that he was endued with a particle
of divinity and with sovereign power, and that he was the
person in whose form God appeared, with whose hands he
created all things, and with whose tongue he published
his commands ; and therefore they say he was in being
before the creation of heaven and earth.^ In so impious
a manner do they seem to wrest those things which are
said in Scripture of Chkist by applying them to Ali.
These extravagant fancies of the Shiahs, however, in
making their Imams partakers of the divine nature, and
the impiety of some of those Imams in laying claim
thereto, are so far from being peculiar to this sect, that

* Talboys Wheeler, in his History of Ivdia, vol. iv. part i. p. 86,
attributes these notions to all Shiahs. He says, "They believe in
God as the Supreme Spirit ; in Muhammad and his family as emana-
tions from the Supreme Spirit." This statement is too sweeping ; the
views here attributed to all belong to the Sufi portion of the sect.

E. M. w.

^ Al Shahristdni, ibid., p. 265. ^ Idem, ibid., Abulfar., p. 169.

2 Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., * See Prid., Life of Mah., p. 93.
art. Hakem Beamrillah. ^ Al Shahrist., ubi sup., p. 266.

268 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

most of the other Muhammadau sects are tainted with the
same madness, there being many found among them,
and among the Siifis especially, who pretend to be nearly
related to heaven, and who boast of strange revelations
before the credulous people.^ It may not be amiss to hear
what al Ghazali has written on this occasion. " Matters
are come to that pass," says he, " that some boast of an
union with God, and of discoursing familiarly with him,
without the interposition of a veil, saying, ' It hath been
thus said to us,' and ' We have thus spoken ; ' affecting to
imitate Husain al Hallaj, who was put to death for some
words of this kind uttered by him, he having said (as was
proved by credible witnesses), ' I am the Truth,' ^ or Abu
Yazid al Bastami, of whom it is related that he often used
the expression, ' Subhaui,' i.e., ' Praise be unto me ! ' ^ But
this way of talking is the cause of great mischief among
the common people, insomuch that husbandmen, neglect-
ing the tillage of their land, have pretended to the like
privileges, nature being tickled with discourses of this
kind, which furnish men with an excuse for leaving their
occupations, under pretence of purifying their souls, and
attainins: I know not what degrees and conditions. Nor
is there anything to hinder the most stupid fellows from
forming the like pretensions and catching at such vain
expressions ; for whenever what they say is denied to be
true, they fail not to reply that our unbelief proceeds from
learning and logic; affirming learning to be a veil, and
logic the M'ork of the mind ; whereas what they tell us
appears only within, being discovered by the light of
truth. But this is that truth the sparks whereof have
flown into several countries and occasioned great mis-
chiefs ; so that it is more for the advantage of God's true
religion to put to deatli one of those who utter such things
than to bestow life on ten others." ^

^ Poc. Spec, p. 267. ^ Vide ibid., art. Bastham.

2 Vide D'Herbel, Bibl. Orient., •* Al GhaziUi, apud Poc. Si)ec.,
.irt. Hallage. ubi sup.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 269

Thus far have we treated of the chief sects among the Main points

f<Tr> •• ,. of difference

Muhammadans or the first ages, omitting to say anything between the
of the more modern sects, because the same are taken the'sunnis.
little or no notice of by their own writers, and would be
of no use to our present design.^ It may be proper, how-
ever, to mention a word or two of the great schism at this
day subsisting between the Sunnis and the Shiahs, or
partisans of Ali, and maintained on either side with im-
placable hatred and furious zeal. Though the difference
arose at first on a political occasion, it has, notwithstand-
ing, been so well improved by additional circumstances
and the spirit of contradiction, that each party detest and
anathematise the other as abominable heretics, and farther
from the truth than either the Christians or the Jews.^
The chief points wherein they differ are — i. That the
Shiahs reject Abu Baqr, Omar, and Othman, the three
first Khalifahs, as usurpers and intruders; whereas the
Sunnis acknowledge and respect them as rightful Imams.
2. The Shiahs prefer Ali to Muhammad, or at least esteem
them both equal, but the Sunnis admit neither Ali nor
any of the prophets to be equal to Muhammad. 3. The
Sunnis charge the Shiahs with corrupting the Quran
and neglecting its precepts, and the Shiahs retort the
same charge on the Sunnis. 4. The Sunnis receive the
Sunnat, or book of traditions of their prophet, as of cano-
nical authority, whereas the Shiahs reject it as apocry-
phal and unworthy of credit. And to these disputes, and
some others of less moment, is principally owing the anti-
pathy which has long reigned between the Turks, who are
Sunnis, and the Persians, who are of the sect of Ali. It
seems strange that Spinoza, had he known of no other
schism among the Muhammadans, should yet never have
heard of one so publicly notorious as this between the
Turks and Persians; but it is plain he did not, or he would

^ The reader may meet with some ^ Vide ibid., c. 10, and Chardin,
account of them in Ricaut's State of Voy. de Perse, t. 2, jip. 1 69, 1 70,
the Ottoman Empire, 1, 2, c. 12. &c.

270

THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vili.

never have assigned it as the reason of his preferring the
order of the Muhammadan Church to that of the Eoman,
that there have arisen no schisms in the former since its
birth.i

As success in any project seldom fails to draw in
imitators, Muhammad's having raised himself to such a
degree of power and reputation by acting the prophet
induced others to imagine they might arrive at the same
height by the same means. His most considerable com-
petitors in the prophetic office were Musailama and al
Aswad, whom the Muhammadans usually call " the two
liars"

The former was of the tribe of Hunaifa, who inhabited
the province of Yamama, and a principal man among
them. He headed an embassy sent by his tribe to Mu-
hammad in the ninth year of the Hijra, and professed
himself a Muslim ; ^ but on his return home, considering
that he might possibly share with Muhammad in his
power, the next year he set up for a prophet also, pre-
tending to be joined with him in the commission to recall
mankind from idolatry to the worship of the true God ; ^
and he published written revelations in imitation of the
Quran, of which Abulf aragius '^ has preserved the follow-
ing passage, viz. : " Now hath God been gracious unto
her that was with child, and hath brought forth from
her the soul which runneth between the peritonaeum and
the bowels," Musailama, having formed a considerable
party among those of Hunaifa, began to think himself
upon equal terms with Muhammad, and sent him a letter,
ofFerinfj to so halves with him,^ in these words : " From

■^ The words of Spinoza are : —
"Ordinem Romanse ecclesiae — poli-
ticum et plurimis lucrosum esse
fateor ; nee ad decipiendam plebem,
et hominum animos coercendum
commodiorem isto ci'ederem, ni ordo
Mahiimedanse ecclesiae esset, qui
longe eundem antecellit. Kani h,

quo tempore hsec superstitio incepit,
nulla in eorum ecclesia schismatJi
orta sunt." Opera Posth., p. 613.

" Abulf ed., p. 160.

^ Idem, Elmac, p. 9.

^ Hist. Dynast., p. 164.

^ Abulfed., ubi sup.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 271

Musailama the apostle of God, to Muhammad the apostle
of God. Now let the earth be half mine and half thine."
But Muhammad, thinking himself too well established
to need a partner, wrote him this answer : " From Mu-
hammad the apostle of God, to Musailama the liar. The
earth is God's : he giveth the same for inheritance unto
such of his servants as he pleaseth; and the happy
issue shall attend those who fear him."^ During the
few months which Muhammad lived after this revolt,
Musailama rather gained than lost ground, and grew very
formidable ; but Abu Baqr, his successor, in the eleventh
year of the Hijra, sent a great army against him, under
the command of that consummate general, Khalid Ibn
al Walid, who engaged Musailama in a bloody battle,
wherein the false prophet, happening to be slain by
Wahsha, the negro slave who had killed Hamza at Ohod,
and by the same lance,^ the Muslims gained an entire
victory, ten thousand of the apostates being left dead on
the spot, and the rest returning to Muhammadism.^

Al Aswad, whose name was Aihala, was of the tribe ai Aswad
of Ans, and governed that and the other tribes of Arabs of "the"
descended from Madhhaj.* This man was likewise an
apostate from Muhammadism, and set up for himself the
very year that Muhammad died.^ He was surnamed
DhuT Hamar, or the master of the asses, because he used
frequently to say, " The master of the asses is coming unto
me ; " ^ and pretended to receive his revelations from two
angels, named Suhaiq and Shuraiq.'^ Having a good
hand at legerdemain and a smooth tongue, he gained
mightily on the multitude by the strange feats which he
showed them and the eloquence of his discourse ; ^ by
these means he greatly increased his power, and having

■'■ Al Baidhawi, in Quran, c. 5- "* -A^l Suhaili, apud Gagnier, in

2 Abulfed., ubi sup. not. ad Abulf. Vit. Moh., p. 158.

^ Idem, ibid. ; Abulfarag, p. 173 ; * Elmac, p. 9.

Elmac, p. 16, &c. See Ockley's ^ Abulf eda, ubi .sup. ,

Hist, of the Saracens, vol. i. p. I5) ^ Al Suhaili, ubi sup.

&c. ^ Abulfeda, ubi sup.

272 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viil.

made himself master of Najran and the territory of al
Tdyif,^ on the death of Badhan, the governor of Yaman for
Muhammad, he seized that province also, killing Shahr,
the son of Badhan, and taking to wife his widow, whose
father, the uncle of Firuz the Dailamite, he had also
slain.2 This news being brought to Muhammad, he sent
to his friends and to those of Hamdan, a party of whom,
conspiring with Qais Ibn Abd al Yaghiith, who bore al
Aswad a grudge, and with Firiiz and al Aswad's wife,
broke by night into his house, where Firuz surprised him
and cut off his head. While he was despatching he
roared like a bull; at which his guards came to the
chamber door, but were sent away by his wife, who told
them the prophet was only agitated by the divine inspira-
tion. This was done the very night before Muhammad
died. The next morning the conspirators caused the fol-
lowing proclamation to be made, viz., " I bear witness
that Muhammad is the apostle of God, and that Aihala
is a liar ; " and letters were immediately sent away to
Muhammad, with an account of what had been done ;
but a messenger from heaven outstripped them, and
acquainted the prophet with the news, which he imparted
to his companions but a little before his death, the
letters themselves not arriving till Abu Baqr was chosen
Khalifah. It is said that Muhammad, on this occasion,
told those who attended him that before the day of judg-
ment thirty more impostors, besides Musailama and al
Aswad, should appear, and every one of them set up for
a prophet. The whole time, from the beginning of al
Aswad's rebellion to his death, was about four months.^

In the same eleventh year of the Hijra, but after the
death of Muhammad, as seems most probable, Tulaiha
Ibn Khuwailid set up for a prophet, and Sajaj Bint al
Mundar * for a prophetess.

^ Abulfeda et Elmacinus, ubi sup. ^ Idem, al Janndbi, ubi sup.

^ Idem, ibid.

■* Ibn Sholmah and Elmacimis call her the daughter of al Hflrith.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 273

Tulaiha was of the tribe of Asad, ■which adhered to Tuiaiha and
him, together with great numbers of the tribes of Ghatfan ^^ ^'
and Tay. Against them likewise was Khalid sent, who
engaged and put them to flight, obliging Tulaiha with his
shattered troops to retire into Syria, where he stayed till
the death of Abu Baqr; then he went to Omar and
embraced Muhammadism in his presence, and having
taken the oath of fidelity to him, returned to his own
country and people.^

Sajaj, surnamed 0mm Sadir, was of the tribe of Tamim,
and the wife of Abu Qahdala, a soothsayer of Yamama.
She was followed not only by those of her own tribe, but
by several others. Tliinking a prophet the most proper
husband for her, she went to 'Musailama, and married
him ; but after she had stayed with him three days, she
left him and returned home.^ What became of her after-
wards I do not find. Ibn Shohnah has given us part of
the conversation which passed at the interview between
those two pretenders to inspiration, but the same is a
little too immodest to be translated.

In succeeding ages several impostors from time to time
started up, most of whom quickly came to nothing, but
some made a considerable figure, and propagated sects
which continued long after their decease. I shall give
a brief account of the most remarkable of them in order
of time.

In the reign of al Mahdi, the third Khalifah of the race Hakim ib
of al Abbas, one Hakim Ibn Hasham,^ originally of Meru and w"
in Khurasan, who had been an under-secretary to Abu ^''^'^ ^°^^'
Muslim, the governor of that province, and afterwards
turned soldier, passed thence into Mawaralnahr, where he
gave himself out for a prophet. He is generally named
by the Arab writers al Mukanna, and sometimes al Burkai,
that is, "the veiled," because he used to cover his face with

1 Elmacinus, p. 16 ; al BaidhiCwi, in Quran, c. 5.
- Ibn Shohnah. Vide Elmacinus, p. 16.
^ Or Ibn Atii, according to Ibn Shohnah.

S

274 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

a veil or a gilded mask, to conceal his deformity, having
lost an eye in the wars, and being otherwise of a despicable
appearance ; though his followers pretended he did it for
the same reason as Moses did, viz., lest the splendour of
his countenance should dazzle the eyes of the beholders.
He made a great many proselytes at Nakhshab and Kash,
deluding the people with several juggling performances,
which they swallowed for miracles, and particularly by
causing the appearance of a moon to rise out of a well for
many nights together ; whence he was also called, in the
Persian tongue, Sazindah-mah, or the moonmaker. This
impious impostor, not content with being reputed a pro-
phet, arrogated divine honours to himself, pretending that
the deity resided in his person ; and the doctrine whereon
he built this was the same with that of the Ghulaites above
mentioned, who affirmed a transmigration or successive
manifestation of the divinity through and in certain pro-
phets and holy men, from Adam to these latter days (of
which opinion was also Abu Muslim himself ^) ; but the
particular doctrine of al Mukanna was that the person in
whom the deity had last resided was the aforesaid Abu
Muslim, and that the same had, since his death, passed
into himself. The faction of al Mukanna, who had made
himself master of several fortified places in the neighbour-
hood of the cities above mentioned, growing daily more
and more powerful, the Khalifah was at length obliged to
send an army to reduce him, at the approach whereof al
Mukanna retired into one of his strongest fortresses, which
he had well provided for a siege, and sent his emissaries
abroad to persuade people that he raised the dead to life
and knew future events. But being straitly besieged by
the Khalifah's forces, when he found there was no possi-
bility for him to escape, he gave poison in M'ine to his
whole family, and all that were with him in the castle ;

1 This explains a doubt of ]Mr. and corrected by Bespier. Vide
Eayle concerning a passage of El- Bayle, Die. Hist., art, Abumusliinus,
niacinus, as translated by Erpeuius vers la fin, et Rem. B.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 275

and when they were dead he burnt their bodies, together
with their clothes, and all the provisions and cattle ; and
then, to prevent his own body being found, he threw
himself into the flames, or, as others say, into a tub of
aquafortis, or some other preparation, wdiich consumed
every part of him, except only his hair, so that when the
besiegers entered the place they found no creature in it,
save one of al Mukanna's concubines, who, suspecting his
design, had hid herself, and discovered the whole matter.
This contrivance, however, failed not to produce the effect
which the impostor designed among the remaining part of
his followers ; for he had promised them that his soul
should transmigrate into the form of a grey-headed man
riding on a greyish beast, and that after so many years he
would return to them, and give them the earth for their
possession : the expectation of which promise kept the
sect in being for several ages after under the name of
Mubayyidites, or, as the Persians call them, Safaid jamah-
ghian, i.e., the clothed in white, because they wore their
garments of that colour, in opposition, as is supposed, to
the Khalifahs of the family of Abbas, whose banners and
habits were black. The historians place the death of al
Mukanna in the i62d or 163d year of the Hijra.^

In the year of the Hijra 201, Babik, surnamed al Khur- BdHkand
rami and Khurramdin, either because he was of a certain
district near Ardaibil in Adhairbijan called Khurram, or
because he instituted a merry religion, which is the signi-
fication of the word in Persian, began to take on him the
title of a prophet. I do not find what doctrine he taught,
but it is said he professed none of the religions then known
in Asia. He gained a great number of devotees in Adhair-
bijan and the Persian Iraq, and grew powerful enough to
wage war with the Khalifah al Mamiin, whose troops he

^ They were a sect in the days of ^ Ex Abulfarag, Hist. Dyn., p.

Abulfaragius, who lived about five 226 ; Lobb al Taw^rikh Ibn Shoh-

hundred years after this extraordi- nah, al Tabari, and Khondamir.

nary event, and may, for anght I Vide D'Herbel., Bibl. Orient., art.

know, be so still. Hakim Ben Haschem.

376 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii

often beat, killing several of his generals, and one of them
with his own hand ; and by these victories he became so
formidable that al Miitasim, the successor of al Mamiin,
was obliged to employ the forces of the wh'ole empire
asfainst him. The general sent to reduce Babik was
Afshid, who having overthrown him in battle, took his
castles one after another with invincible patience, not-
withstanding the rebels gave him great annoyance, and
at last shut up the impostor in his principal fortress ;
which being taken, Babik found means to escape thence
in disguise, with some of his family and principal fol-
lowers ; but taking refuge in the territories of the Greeks,
was betrayed in the following manner. Sahel, an Armenian
officer, happening to know Babik, enticed him, by offers
of service and respect, into his power, and treated him
as a mighty prince, till, when he sat down to eat, Sahel
clapped himself down by him ; at which Babik being
surprised, asked him how he dared to take that liberty
unasked ? " It is true, gieat king," replied Sahel, " I have
committed a fault ; for who am I, that I should sit at
your majesty's table ? " And immediately sending for a
smith, he made use of this bitter sarcasm, " Stretch forth
your legs, great king, that this man may put fetters on
them." After this Sahel sent him to Afshid, though he
had offered a large sum for his liberty, having first served
him in his own kind by causing his mother, sister, and
wife to be ravished before his face ; for so Babik used to
treat his prisoners. Afshid having the arch-rebel in his
power, conducted him to al Miitasim, by whose order he
was put to an ignominious and cruel death. This man
had maintained his ground against the power of the
Khalifahs for twenty years, and had cruelly put to death
above two hundred and fifty thousand people, it being
his custom never to spare man, woman, or child, either
of the Muhaunnadans or their allies.^ The sectaries of

• Ex Abulfarag, p. 252, &c. ; Elmacinus, p. 141, &c., and Khondamir.
Vide D'Herbel., art. Bibik.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 277

Babik which remained after his death seem to have been
entirely dispersed, there being little or no mention made
of them by historians.

About the year 235, one Mahmiid Ibn Faraj pretended Mahmud
to be Moses resuscitated, and played his part so well that
several people believed on him, and attended him when
he was brought before the Khalifah al Mutawaqqil. That
prince, having been an ear-witness of his extravagant dis-
courses, condemned him to receive ten buffets from every
one of his followers, and then to be drubbed to death;
which was accordingly executed ; and his disciples were
imprisoned till they came to their right minds.^

The Karmatians, a sect which bore an inveterate malice The Karma-
against the Muhammadans, began first to raise disturb- tiieir '
ances in the year of the Hijra 278, and the latter end
of the reign of al Mutamid. Their origin is not well
known, but the common tradition is that a poor fellow,
whom some call Karmata, came from Khuzistan to the
villages near Kiifa, and there feigned great sanctity and
strictness of life, and that God had enjoined him to pray
fifty times a day, pretending also to invite people to
the obedience of a certain Imam of the family of Muham-
mad ; and this way of life he continued till he had made
a very great party, out of whom he chose twelve, as his
apostles, to govern the rest and to propagate his doctrines.
But the governor of the province, finding men neglected
their work, and their husbandry in particular, to say those
fifty prayers a day, seized the fellow, and having put him
into prison, swore that he should die ; which being over-
heard by a girl belonging to the governor, she, pitying the
man, at night took the key of the dungeon from under
her master's head as he slept, and having let the prisoner
out, returned the key to the place whence she had it.
The next morning the governor found the bird flown, and
the accident being publicly known, raised great admira-

1 Ibn Shohnah. Vide D'Herbel., p. 537.

278 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

tion, his adherents giving it out that God had taken him
into heaven. Afterwards he appeared in another pro-
vince, and declared to a great number of people he had
got about him that it was not in the power of any to do
him hurt ; notwithstanding which, his courage failing him,
he retired into Syria, and was not heard of any more.
Doctiincs His sect, however, continued and increased, pretendincr

and prac- '. ' j. o

ticcs. that their master had manifested himself to be a true

prophet, and had left them a new law, wherein he had
changed the ceremonies and form of prayer used by the
Muslims, and introduced a new kind of fast, and that
he had also allowed them to drink wine, and dispensed
with several things commanded in the Quran. They also
turned the precepts of that book into allegory, teaching
that prayer was the symbol of obedience to their Imam,
and fasting that of silence, or concealing their dogmas
from strangers : they also believed fornication to be the
sin of infidelity, and the guilt thereof to be incurred by
those who revealed the mysteries of their religion or paid
not a blind obedience to their chief. They are said to
have produced a book wherein was written (among other
things), " In the name of the most merciful God. A1
Faraj Ibn Othman of the town of Nasrana saith that
Christ appeared unto him in a human form and said,
' Thou art the invitation : thou art the demonstration :
thou art the camel : thou art the beast : thou art John
the son of Zacharias : thou art the Holy Ghost.' " ^ From
the year above mentioned the Karmatians, under several
leaders, gave almost continual disturbance to the Khali-
fahs and their Muhammadan subjects for several years,
committing great disorders and outrages in Chaldea, Arabia,
Syria, and Mesopotamia, and at length establishing a con-
siderable principality, the power whereof was in its meri-
dian in the reign of Abu Dhahir, famous for his taking of
Makkah, and the indignities by him offered to the temple

^ Apud Abulfarag, p. 275.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 279

there, but which declined soon after his time and came to
nothing.^

To the Karmatians the Ismailiaus of Asia were very The ismaii-
near of kin, if they were not a branch of them. For these,
who were also called al Mulahidah, or the Impious, and
by the writers of the history of the holy wars. Assassins,
agreed with the former in many respects ; such as their
inveterate malice against those of other religions, and
especially the Muhammadans, their unlimited obedience
to their prince, at whose command they were ready for
assassinations, or any other bloody and dangerous enter-
prise, their pretended attachment to a certain Imam of the
house of Ali, &c. These Ismailians in the year 483 pos-
sessed themselves of al Jabal, in the Persian Iraq, under
the conduct of Hasan Sabah, and that prince and his
descendants enjoyed the same for a hundred and seventy-
one years, till the whole race of them was destroyed by
Holagu the Tartar.^

The Batinites, which name is also given to the Ismail-
ians by some authors, and likewise to the Karmatians,^
were a sect which professed the same abominable prin-
ciples, and were dispersed over several parts of the East,*
The word signifies Esoterics, or people of inward or hidden
light or knowledge.

Abu'l Tayyab Ahmad, surnamed al Mutanabbi, of the Abui Tay- _
tribe of Joufa, is too famous on another account not to prophewcai^
claim a place here. He was one of the most excellent
poets among the Arabians, there being none besides Abu
Tamam who can dispute the prize with him. His poetical
inspiration was so warm and exalted that he either
mistook it, or thought he could persuade others to believe
it, to be prophetical, and therefore gave himself out to be

1 Ex Abulfar., ibid. ; Elmacin., p. ^ Vide Elmacin., pp. 1 74 and 286;
174, &c. ; Ibn Shohnah, Khondamir. D'Herbel., p. 194.

Vide D'Herbel., art. Carmath. •* Vide Abulfar. , jjp. 361, 374, 380,

2 Abulfar., p. 505, &c. ; D'Herbel., 483.
pp. 104, 437, 505, 620, and 784.

career.

28o THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. vili.

a prophet indeed, and thence acquired his surname, by
which he is generally known. His accomplishments were
too great not to have some success; for several tribes
of the Arabs of the deserts, particularly that of Qalab,
acknowledged him to be what he pretended. But Liilii,
governor in those parts for Akhshid, king of Egypt and
Syria, soon put a stop to the further progress of this new
sect by imprisoning their prophet and obliging him to
renounce his chimerical dignity ; which having done, he
regained his liberty, and applied himself solely to his
poetry, by means whereof he got very considerable
riches, being in high esteem at the courts of several
princes. Al Mutanabbi lost his life, together with his
son, on the bank of the Tigris, in defending the money
which had been given him by Adad-ud-Daula, sultan of
Persia, against some Arabian robbers who demanded it of
him, with which money he was returning to Kiifa, his
native city. This accident happened in the year 354.^
Brfba and The last pretender to prophecy I shall now take notice
of is one who appeared in the city of Amasia, in Natolia,
in the year 638, and by his wonderful feats seduced a
great multitude of people there. He was by nation a
Turkman, and called himself Baba, and had a disciple
called Isaac, whom he sent about to invite those of his
own nation to join him. Isaac accordingly, coming to the
territory of Sumaisat, published his commission, and pre-
vailed on many to embrace his master's sect, especially
among the Turkmans ; so that at last he had six thousand
horse at his heels, besides foot. With these Baba and his
disciple made open war on all who would not cry out
with them, " There is no God but God ; Baba is the
apostle of God ; " and they put great numbers of Muham-
madans as well as Christians to the sword in those parts,
till at length both Muhammadans and Christians, joining
together, gave them battle, and having entirely routed

' Prsef. in Opera Motanabbis MS. Vide D'Herbel., p. 63S, &c.

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 281

them, put them all to the sword, except their two chiefs,
who being taken alive, had their heads struck off by the
executioner.^

I could mention several other impostors of the same
kind which have arisen among the Muhammadans since
their prophet's time, and very near enough to complete
the number foretold by him ; but I apprehend the reader
is by this time tired as well as myself, and shall, there-
fore, here conclude this discourse, which may be thought
already too long for an introduction.*

* The Walilidbis of Arabia and India have figured too prominently
in history and still exercise too powerful an influence upon Islam to
justify the omission of any mention of them in a work like this ;
accordingly we add the following account of this sect, taken by per-
mission from Hughes' Notes on Muliammadanism, second edition : —

" This sect was founded by Muhammad, son of Abdul Wahhab,
but as their opponents could not call them Muhammadans, they have
been distinguished by the name of the father of the founder of their
sect, and are called Wahhabis.

" Shekh Muhammad was born at Ayina, a village in the province
of Arad, in the country of Najd, in the year a.d. 1691. Having
been carefully instructed in the tenets of the Muslim religion
according to the teachings of the Hamball sect, he in due time left
his native place, in company with his father, to perform the pil-
grimage to Mecca. At Madina he was instructed by Shekh Abdullah-
ibn-Ibrahim of Najd, and it is supposed that whilst sitting at the
feet of this celebrated teacher the son of Abdul Wahhab first realised
how far the rigid lines of Islam had been stretched, almost to break-
ing, in the endeavour to adapt its stern principles to the supersti-
tions of idolatrous Arabia. He accompanied his father to Harimala,
and after his father's death he returned to his native village of
Ayina, where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. His
teaching met with acceptance, and he soon acquired so great an
influence over the people of those parts that the Governor of Hassa
compelled him to leave the district, and the reformer found a friendly
asylum in Deraiah, under the protection of Muhammad-ibn-Saud, a
chief of considerable influence, who made the protection of Ibn-
Abdul-Wahhab a pretext for war with the Shekh of Hassa, Ibn

^ Abulfarag, p. 479 ; Ibn Shohnah ; D'Herbel., art. Baba.

282 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. [sec. viii.

Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abdul-Wahhab, and established
in his family the Walihabi dynasty, which, after a chequered exist-
ence of more than a hundred years, still exists in the person of the
Wahhdbi chief at Eyadh.^

" The whole of Eastern Arabia has embraced the reformed doctrines
of the Wahhabis, and Mr. Palgrave, in his account of his travels in
those parts, has given an interesting sketch of the Wahhabi religion-
ists, although he is not always correct as to the distinctive principles
of their religious creed.

" In the great Wahhabi revival, political interests were united with
religious reform, as was the case in the great Puritan struggle in
England, and the Wahhdbis soon pushed their conquests over the
whole of Arabia. In a.d. 1803 they conquered Mecca and Madina,
and for many years threatened the subjugation of the whole Turkish
Empire ; but in a.d. 181 i, Muhammad Ali, the celebrated Pasha of
Egypt, commenced a war against the Wahhabis, and soon recovered
Mecca and Madina; and in 181 8 his son, Ibrahim Pasha, totally
defeated Abdullah, the Wahhdbi leader, and sent him a prisoner to
Constantinople, where he was executed in the public squai'e of St.
Sophia, December 19, 181 8. But although the temporal power of
the Wahhdbis has been subdued, they still continue secretly to pro-
pagate their peculiar tenets, and in the present day there are numer-
ous disciples of the sect, not only in Arabia but in Turkey and India.
It is a movement which has influenced religious thought in every
part of Islam."

After giving a brief account of the Wahhabi movement in India,
under the leadership of Sayyid Ahmad, who was slain in battle by
the Sikh general Sher Singh at Balakot in 1831, our author de-
scribes the tenets of the Wahhabi faith as follows : —

" I. They do not receive the decisions of the four orthodox sects,
but say that any man who can read and imderstand the Quran and
the sacred Hadis can judge for himself in matters of doctrine.
They therefore reject Ijma"^ after the death of the companions of
the Prophet.

" 2. That no one but God can know the secrets of men, and that
prayers should not be offered to any prophet. Wall, Pir, or Saint ;
but that God may be asked to grant a petition for the sake of a saint.

^ The following are the names of TurkI, assassinated 1830 ; Fayzul,
the Wahhdbi chiefs from the estab- died 1866 ; Abdullah, still living,
lishment of the dynasty : — Muham- ^ By Ijma is meant "the unani-
mad - ibn - Saud, died a.d. 1765; mous consent of the learned doc-
Abdul - Aziz, assassinated 1803; tors " = " the unanimous consent of
Saud-ibn- Abdul Aziz, died 1814 ; the Fathers."
Abdullah-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818 ;

SEC. VIII.] THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 283

" 3. That at the last day Muhammad will obtain permission (izn)
of God to intercede for his people. The Sunnis believe that per-
mission has already been given.

"4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the shrines of departed
saints, or to prostrate before them, or to perambulate (tcncuf) round
them.

" 5. That women should not be allowed to visit the graves of the
dead on account of their immoderate weeping.

"6. That only four festivals ought to be observed, namely, 'Id-
ul-Fitr, 'Id-ul-Azhd, 'Ashiiraa, and Shab-i-BarAt.

" 7. They do not observe the ceremonies of Maulud, which are
celebrated on the anniversary of Muhammad's birth.

" 8. They do not present offerings (nazr) at any shrine.

" 9. They count the ninety-nine names of God on their fingers,
and not on a rosary.

"10. They understand the terms 'sitting of God' and 'hand of
God,' which occur in the Quran, in their literal (haqlqi) sense, and
not figuratively (majdzi) ; but, at the same time, they say it is not
revealed hoiv God sits, or in what sense he has a hand, &c."

From this description it therefore appears that Wahhdbiism is
Muslim Protestantism. It rejects everything contrary to the teach-
ing of the Quran and the Hadis, or inspired sayings of Muhammad.
It asserts the right of private judgment in the interpretation of
Scripture. Yet how different from Christian Protestantism! This
delivers man from the thraldom of a priestcraft born of the dark
ages of Christianity, and sweeps away that accumulation of error
which had hidden for centuries the light of that Gospel which
guides the world to wisdom founded on the fear of God, to civilisa-
tion based on human freedom and brotherly love. But Wahhdbiism,
whilst reforming the religion of Islam, would sweep away the
civilisation and learning which have been added to a narrow and
imperfect faith, and carry the world back " to the dark age of the
Arabian Prophet," and keep it there to the end of time.

E. M. w.

THE QURAN.

THE Q.URAN.

— »
CHAPTER I.

ENTITLED SURAT UL FATIHAT (tHE PEEFACE).
Bcvealed at Makhali.

INTRODUCTION.

The chapters of the Qurd.n are entitled Suras. Muir, in his Life
of Mahomet, Introduction, p. 7, says, " Weil has a learned note
(Mohammed, p. 361) on the meaning of the word Sura as nsed by
Mahomet. It was probably at first employed to designate any
portion of his revelation, or a string of verses ; but it soon afterwards,
even during Mahomet's lifetime, acquired its present technical
meaning."

This chapter is held in the highest esteem among all Miislims,
" who," says Sale, " give it sevex'al other honourable titles ; as the
chapter of grayer, of j^raise, of thanksgiving, of treasure, &c. They
esteem it as the quintessence of the whole Quran, and often repeat
it in their devotions, both public and private, as the Christians do
the Lord's Prayer."

The author of the Tafsir-i-Ravfi declares that " he who has read
the Fdtihat has, as it were, read the whole Quran." According to
this author, its separate clauses contain the sum of the divine attri-
butes, ascriptions of praise, promises to believers, and threatenings of
judgment against infidels, &c., as contained in the Qurdn. Mus-
lims always say Amen after this prayer.

The following transliteration will give the English reader an idea
of the rhyming prose in which the Quran is written : —

CHAP. I.] ( 288 ) [INTROD.

" Bismilld-hi'rahmiini'rrahlm.
Al-hamdulillahi Rabbi'lalumin,
Arrahmdni'rrahim ;
Milliki yomi-d-dln.
lyaka Ndbiidu, waiydka nastdin.
Ihdina'ssirat al mustaklm ;
Sirat alazina au niamta alaihim,
Ghairi-'l-m;(ghdhubi alaihim waladhdlina."

Muir regards tliis as the daily prayer of Muhammad during his
search for light, previous to his assumption of the prophetic office.
" It was afterwards recast to suit the requirements of public worship."
— Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 59.

Muslims are here met with a difficulty as to the divine author-
ship of their Scriptures, arising out of the form of address in this
chapter. The orthodox belief in regard to the origin of the Quran
is that it was copied literally from the divine original, which is
engraved on the Luh-i-IfahfUz, or Preserved Table close by the throne
of God. The speaker throughout is God. It is God's Word. But
this chapter contains a prayer apparently suitable for sinful men
groping after divine light and heavenly guidance. As the text
stands, the chapter clearly claims a human origin, and would express
very well the desire of the Makkan reformer. Muslim commentators,
however, avoid this difficulty by explaining this chapter as an inspired
model of prayer, revealed to instruct the faithful how to pray, and
they understand it as introduced by the word " say." Abdul Qadir
says, "God has enunciated this chapter in the language of his servants,
in order that they might thus address him."

To us it seems that in the mind of a Muhammadan, boasting of
the absolute perfection and purity of the text of the Quran, and
stickling for the very jots and tittles of the text, the omission of
this word — a word without which the status of this whole chapter
is changed — should arouse serious objection to such a mode of avoid-
ing a difficulty.

As to the prayer itself, the Christian reader cannot but admire
its spirit. It is throughout earnest and devout. Interpreting its
language in a Christian manner, any one might respond to it
" Amen."

Supposing this prayer to express the feelings and aspirations of
the Makkan reformer at the time it was written, we could hardly
regard him as a deliberate impostor. Had he continued his search
after truth in the spirit of this prayer, how different would have
been his religfon from that which he proclaimed in later years !

Concerning the formula, " In the name of the most merciful God,"
Savary says, " It is prefixed to all the chapters (with the exception

SIPARA I.] ( 2S9 ) [chap. I.

of one\ It is expressly recommeudeil in llie Quran. The Muham-
maJans pronounce it whenever they shinghter an animal, and at the
commencement of their reading, and of all important actions. Giaab,
one of their celebrated authors, says that when these words were
sent down from heaven, the clouds fled on the side of the east, the
winds were lulled, the sea was moved, the animals erected their ears
to listen, and the devils were precipitated from the celestial spheres."

It is almost certain that Muhammad borrowed the idea of the
Bismillah from the Jews and Sabains. The latter introduced their
writings with the words, " Banam i yazdan bakhshaishgar dadar,"
i.e., In the name of God the merciful and the just.

Rodwell says, "This formula is of Jewish origin. It was iu the
first instance taught to the Koreisch by Oiiiayah of Taief, the poet,
who was a contemporary with, but somewhat older than, Muham-
mad, and who, during his mercantile journeys into Arabia Petrjea
and Syria, had made himself acquainted with the sacred books and
doctrines of Jews and Christians. Muhammad adopted and con-
stantly used it."

The two terms, "Rahman," the merciful, and " Rahim," the blessed,
have nearly the same meaning. The 2\(fsir-i-RauJi explains the
former as only applicable to God, while the latter may be applied to
the creature as Avell as to God. Others explain the former epithet as
applicable to God as exercising mercy towards his creatures, the
latter as»applicable to the mercy inherent in God.

IX THE NAME OF THE MOST MERCIFUL GOD. Fikt

Manzil.

II (1) Praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures ; (2) si'pfL.
the most merciful, (3) the king of the day of judgment, "n i_

(4) Thee do we worship, and of thee do we beg assistance.

(5) Direct us in the right way, (6) in the way of those

(1) Lord of all creatures. "The original words are Rabbi'lalamina,
which literally signif}'. Lord of the worlds ; but dlamina, in this
and other places of the Quran, properly means the three species of
rational creatures, men, genii, and angels." — Sale. Savary translates
it, " Sovereign of the worlds." Rodwell has it, " Lord of worlds."
Abdul Qadir of Delhi has it, "Lord of the whole w^orld." In the
Persian translation it is rendered "Cherisher of the worlds."

(5-7) "This last sentence," says Sale, "contains a petition that
God would lead the supplicant into the true religion, by which is
meant the Muhammadan, in the Quran often called the right way :

T

CHAP. I.] ( 290 ) [SIPARA I.

to whom tliou hast been gracious ; (7) not of tliose against
whom thou art incensed, nor of those who go astray.

in this place more particularly defined to be the way of those to whom
God hath been gracious, that is, of the prophets and faithful who
preceded Muhammad ; under which appellations are also compre-
hended the Jews and Christians, such as they were in the times of
their primitive purity, before they had deviated from their respective
institutions ; 7iot the way of the modern Jews, whose signal calamities
are marks of the just avger of God against them for their obstinacy
and disobedience; nor of the Christians of this age, who have departed
from the true doctrine of Jesus, and are bewildered in a labyrinth
of error (Jalaluddin, Baidh^wi, &c.) This is tlie common exposi-
tion of the passage, though al Zamakhshari and some others, by a
different application of the negatives, refer the whole to the true
believers, and then the sense will run thus : The way of those to
whom thou hast been gracious, against ivhom. thou art not incensed, and
who have not erred, which translation the original Avill very well
bear."

These two views really coincide, inasmuch as the claim of Islam
is that all true believers among Jews and Christians were Muslims.

Abdul Qadir says that by these words we are to understand four
classes — the prophets, the righteous, the martyrs, and the good ;
and by "those against whom God is incensed," the Jews are indicated ;
and if any other class be iacluded, it is that of the Nazarenes.

INTROD.] (291 ) [CHAP. IT.

CHAPTER II.

ENTITLED SUEAT UL BAQR (THE COW).
Revealed partly at MahJcali and iMrtly at Madiiia.

IKTEODUCTION.

"The title of this chapter was occasioued by the story of the red'
heifer " (in vers. 66-73). — Sale.

" In this Sura are collected the passages composed in the first two
or three years of Mahomet's stay at Medina. The greater part
relates to the Jews, with biblical and rabbinical stories, notice of
the change of the Kibla, &c. The disaflected citizens are also de-
nounced in it. There is likewise much matter of a legislative
character, produced during the first Medina stage, with additions
and interpolations from the revelations of later stages."— iWitir's
Life of Mahomet, vol. iii., Appendix.

The following is a brief analysis of this chapter, based for the
most part on Noeldeke's Origine et Compositione Swarura Qurani-
carum -ipsmsque Qurdni, showing Makkan and Madina revelations,
probable date of composition, and principal topics treated.

Makkan Revelations.

These are found in verses 21-38, 164-172, and probably 254-257,
285, and 286. They belong to the period of Muhammad's mission
previous to the Hijra.

Madina Revelations.

These make up the bulk of the chapter, and are found in verses
1-20, 39-i53> 173-253, and 258-284.

As to the date of composition, verses 1-20, 39-153, 173-185, 203-
253, and 258-284, belong to the interval between the Hijra and
the early part of a.h. 2. Verses 154-163 were revealed soon after
the battle of Badr, a.h. 2. Verses 186, 187, belong to a.h. 3, and

CHAP. II.]

( 292 )

[INTROD.

vejses 188-202 must be referred to a period shortly before the
pilgrimage to Makkah in a.h. 7.

Analysis of the ChaiHer as to its Teaching.

Unbelievers and hypocrites reproved

Exhortation to the worship of the true God

Jews and Christians urged to accept the claim of

Muhammad to be a prophet of God .
The opposition of Jews and Christians to Muham

mad's prophetic pretensions combated
The doctrine of abrogation enunciated
A Qibla declared to be unnecessary ...
The Jews denounced and the religion of Abraham

declared to be the true Islam ....
The Jews finally abandoned and the Arabs accepted

by the adoption of Makkah as the Qibla of Islam

. The bereaved friends of those slain at Badr comforted

Makkans exhorted to faith in God, and directed to

observe the law respecting forbidden meats
Law concerning lawful and unlawful food (delivered

at Madina)
The sum of Muslim duty
The law of retaliation
The law concerning bequests .
The law concerning fasting
The fast of Ramadh^n

The pilgrimage to Makkah and war for the faith
Hypocrites and true believers contrasted
Exhortation to a hearty acceptance of Islam .
The (loom of infidels pronounced

The Jews reproached

Suffering to be patiently endured .

Sundry laws relating to almsgiving, war, wine, lots,

orphans, marriage, women, oaths, and divorce
The duty of warring in defence of religion enjoined

by precept, and illustrated by the history of

former prophets ....

The I' krone Verse .....

The doctrine of the resurrection illustrated
Exhortation and encouragement to almsgiving
Usury forbidden ......

The law concerning contracts and debts .
The prophet's confession and prayer

verses 1-20
21-38

„ 39-102

„ 102-112
III

116-141

142-153
154-163

164-172

5!

173-176

5)

177

J)

178, 179

))

180-182

55

183-185

55

186, 187

55

188-202

55

203-206

55

207, 208

55

209

55

210-212

55

213

'5

55

d

214-242

)f

55

243-253

55

254-257

55

258-260

55

261-274

55

275-277

55

278-284

55

2S5, 286

SIPARA I.] ( 293 ) [CHAP. II.

IN THE NAME OF THE MOST MERCIFUL GOD.

II (1) A. L. M. (2) There is no doubt in this book; it R i-
is a direction to the pious, (3) who believe in the mysteries
of faith, who observe the appointed times of prayer, and
distribute alms out of what we have bestowed on them,
(4) and who believe in that revelation, which hath been
sent down unto thee and that which hath been sent down

(1) A. L. M. There are twenty-nine chapters which begin with
certain letters, and tliese the Muhammadans believe to conceal pro-
found mysteries that have not been communicated to any but the
prophet ; notwithstanding which, various explanations of them have
been proffered (see Prelim. Disc, sec. iii.) Sale says, "None of the
numerous conjectures as to the meaning of these letters is more
l)lausible than that of Golius, who suggests the idea that they were
originally inserted by the amanuensis, and that they stood for the
phrase Amar li Muhammad, i.e., by the command of Muhammad."

(2) There is no doubt in this book. The author of the notes in
the Eoman Urdu Quriin well observes, that Muhammad has cast
doubt upon his Quran by the constant effort to show that there is
no room for doubt. For where there is no consciousness of guilt,
there is no anticipation of a criminal charge. The contrast between
the Quran and the Christian Scriptures in this respect is very
striking.

The Tafsir-i- Raufi explains that when the infidels charged Mu-
hammad witli being a juggler, a poet, and a -collector of stories, many
were in doubt about the truth of the Quran. Accordingly some said
one thing, some another ; wherefore God settled the minds of the
faithful by the declaration of this verse. The same writer regards
these words as an answer to the prayer of the previous chapter.

(3) Mysteries of faith. " The Arabic word is Ghaib, which properly
signifies a thing that is absent, at a great distance, or invisible, such
as the resurrection, paradise, and hell. And this is agreeable to the
language of Scripture, which defines faith to be the evidence of things
not seen (Heb. xi. i j 2 Cor. iv. 18, and v. 7)."^ — Sale. Eodwell trans-
lates it '■'■unseen."

Are not Muslims chargeable with disobedience to this precept of
the Quran when they refuse to believe the mysteries of the former
Scriptures, the Trinity in unity, the Sonship of Christ, &c. ?

Api^ointed times of 'prayer. See Prelim. Discourse, sec. iv. p. 169.

(4) That ivhich hath been sent down before thee. " The Muhamma-
dans believe that God gave written revelations not only to Moses,
Jesus, and Muhammad, but to several prophets, though they acknow-
ledge none of those which preceded the Quran to be now extant
except the Pentateuch of Moses, the Psalms of David, and tlie Gospel
of Jesus, which yet they say were, even before Muhammad's time,

CHAP. II.] ( 294 ) [SIPARA I.

unto tlic 'pro'plieU before thee, and have firm assurance of
the life to come : (5) these are directed by their Lord, and
they shall prosper. (6) As for the unbelievers, it will be
equal to them whether thou admonish them, or do not ad-
monish them ; they will not believe. (7) God hath sealed
up their hearts and their hearing ; a dimness covereth their
sight, and they shall suffer a grievous punishment.
Iv- t- II (8) There are some who say, We believe in God, and

the last day ; but are not really believers : (9) they seek

altered and corrupted by the Jews and Christians, and therefore will
not allow our present copies to be genuine." — Sale.

Sent down. For the ]\Iuslim belief as to the manner in which God
revealed the Scriptures, see Prelim. Discourse, sec. iii. p. 108.

Firm assurance of the life to come. " The original \:o\A, al ahhirat,
properly signifies the latter 2Mrt of anything, and by way of excel-
lence the next life, the latter or future state after death; and is opposed
to al dvuija, this world, and al aula, the former or present life." — Sale.
Rodwell translates, " And full faith have they in the life to come."

The assurance predicated of the true believers is in regard to the
fact of a judgment-day and a future state, not of their certain par-
ticipation in the joys of heaven. Muhammadans regard anything
like assurance of faith, in a Christian sense, as gross presumption,
and as tending to sin by breaking down the barriers against its com-
mission. Nevertheless, the plain teaching of the Qurt'in and of the
traditions — see Mishqdt-ul-Masdbih, chap, i.- — clearly en^snres final
salvation to all Muslims. Why any Muslim should express a doubt,
or rather hesitate to confess his assurance as to salvation, may be
accounted for partly by his unwillingness to anticipate the divine
decree, partly because of the teachings of the theologians resjiecting
purgatory, and lastly, becai^se of the protest of the conscience against
apian of salvation without atonement.

(6) They ivill not helieve. The ^'a/s/r-i-T^a^f/i raises the inquiry why
God sent prophets to infidels whom he knew would not believe,
and in reply says they were sent (i) to pronounce condemnation
against them, and (2) to deprive them of the pos.sible excuse that no
prophet had been sent to them.

(7) The doctrine of this verse is that infidels "who will not be-
lieve " have been condemned to judicial blindness, which portends
the more awful punishment of hell. Sale says : "Muhammad here
and elsewhere imitates the truly inspired writers in making God,
by operation on the minds of rej^robates, prevent their conversion."

(8-10) The persons referred to here were probably hypocritical
disciples from among the Jews. Abdul Qadir says the reference is
to Ibn Al)i and his friends, who, when reproached by the prophet
for his hypocrisy, declared themselves to be true followers of Islam.
Muslim commentators, however, never want for historical characters
wherewith to illustrate the Quran.

siPARA I.] ( 295 ) [chap. ir.

to deceive God, and those who do believe, but they
deceive themselves only, and are not sensible thereof.

(10) There is an infirmity in their hearts, and God
hath increased that infirmity ; and they shall suffer a
most painful punishment, because they have disbelieved.

(11) When one saitli unto them. Act not corruptly in
the earth; they reply, Verily we are men of integrity.

(12) Are not they themselves corrupt doers ? but they
are not sensible thereof. (13) And when one saith unto
them. Believe ye as others believe ; they answer, Shall we
believe as fools believe ? Are not they themselves fools ?
but they know it not. (14) When they meet those who
believe, they say. We do believe : but Mdien they retire
privately to their devils, they say, We really hold with
you, and only mock at those 2Jcople : (15) God shall mock
at them, and continue them in their impiety ; they shall
wander in confusion. (16) These are tlic nvcn who have
purchased error at the price of true direction : but their
traffic hath not been gainful, neither have they been rightly
directed. (17) They are like unto one who kindleth a

(11) Act not corruptly. " Some expositors iinderstancl by this the
sowing of false doctrine, and corrupting people's principles." — Sale.

(13) Believe ye as others believe, i.e., as the tirdt followers of Islam
believe.

(14) Devils. Their leaders and friends, so Tafsir-i-Raufi.

(15) tihall ivaiider in confusion. For the manner see next verse.

(16) llieir trajfic hath not been gainful, dbc. According to the
Tafsir-i-Raufi, the reward of their hypocrisy is that they are infidels,
whilst regarding themselves as of the faithful ; heretics, whilst
thinking themselves sound in doctrine ; ignorant, whilst thinking
themselves learned ; doomed to destruction, whilst fancying them-
selves in the way of salvation, Compare this with the teaching of
Paul in 2 Thess. ii. 11, 12. Was there ever a more striking example
of this very kind of reprobation than the Arabian prophet himself?
The earnest reformer of Makkah becomes the cruel and sensual de-
ceiver, and yet the apparently self-deceived politician of Madina.

(17) Like 2mto one who kindleth a fire, etc. The author of the
notes in the Roman Urdil Qur^n, referring to the claim that the
Quran is in every res]iect absolutely perfect, and therefore in itself
a standing miracle, calls attention to the want of agreement in the
number of the first and last parts of this verse. The first half of the
sentence, and consequently the parable also, is incomplete. Sale

CHAP. II.] ( 296 ) [SIPARA I.

tire, and when it hath enlightened all around him, God
taketh away their light and leaveth them in darkness, they
shall not see ; (18) thcij arc deaf, dumb, and blind, therefore
will they not repent. (19) Or like a stormy cloud from
heaven, fraught with darkness, thunder, and lightning, they
put their fingers in their ears because of the noise of the
thunder, for fear of death ; God encompassetli the infidels :
(20) the lightning wanteth but little of taking away their
sight ; so often as it enlighteneth them, they walk therein,

suggests the number may have been thus changed in affectation of
the prophetic style, and that the sense " may be completed by adding
the words, he turns from, it, shuts his eyes, or the like." "Muhammad
compares those who believed not in him to a man who wants to
kindle a fire, but as soon as it burns up and the flames give a light,
shuts his eyes, lest he should see. As if he had said, You, 0 Arabians,
have long desired a prophet of your own nation, and now I am sent
i;nto you, and have plainly proved my mission by the excellence
of my doctrine and revelation, you resist conviction, and refuse to
believe in me ; therefore shall God leave you in your ignorance." —
Sale.

(19, 20) Or like a stormy cloud from heaven, etc. " Here Muhammad
compares the unbelieving Arabs to people caught in a violent storm.
To jjerceive the beauty of this comparison, it must be observed that
the Muhammadan doctors say this tempest is a type or image of the
Quran itself : the thunder signifying tlie threats therein contained ;
the lightning, the promises ; and the darkness, the mysteries. The
terror of the threats makes them stop their ears, unwilling to hear
truths so disagreeable ; when the promises are read to them they
attend with pleasure ; but when anything mysterious or difficult
of belief occurs, they stand stock-still, and will not submit to be
directed." — Sa le, J a Idluddin.

Abdul Qadir observes that iip to this point three classes have been
described — true believers, infidels, and hypocrites. This latter class
is referred to in this parable. They fear the difficulties of their pro-
fession as a traveller fears the thunder in a dark night. As a
traveller guided by the lightning moves on, but finding himself
enveloped in darkness again stops stock-still, so the hypocrite some-
times professes his faith, at other times denies it, according as his
circumstances are those of peace or danger.

The Tafsir-i- Raufi explains the storm as symbolic of the dangers
incurred in fighting against the infidels. The hypocrites through
fear hid themselves, desiring to escape the danger ; but as soon as
they saw the glitter of the booty, they made great professions of
loyalty to Isldm. "In short, while the\^ had the hope of securing a
share in the booty, they professed themselves friendly and were ful-
some in i^i'aises ; but when they were confronted by the fear and toil
(of the battle), they became inimical fault-finders."

SIPARA I.] ( 297 ) [chap. II.

but when darkness cometh on them, they stand still;
and if God so pleased he would certainly deprive them
of their hearing and their sight, for God is mighty.

II (21) 0 men of Makhah, serve your Lord who hath I'i 3-
created you, and those who have been before you :
peradventure ye will fear him; (22) who hath spread
the earth as a bed for you, and the heaven as a cover-
ing, and hath caused water to descend from heaven,
and thereby produced fruits for your sustenance. Set
not up therefore any equals unto God, against your
own knowledge. (23) If ye be in doubt concerning that
revelation which we have sent down unto our servant, pro-

(21) Omen of Makhah. The passafje beginning with this verse and
ending with verse 38 belongs to the Makkan period of Muhammad's
mission.

(22) Set not up therefore any equals unto God, dx. This is the
rational conclusion from the considerations before mentioned. It
reveals to us the grand motive-power within the bosom of the Makkan
reformer. He has listened to the testimony of conscience to a
Supreme Being, the Creator, Preserver, and Benefactor. He here
appeals to his countrymen to come to this same source of light, and
to abandon idolatry, which contradicts their own reason. The pas-
sage has something of the sublimity of similar passages in the Old
Testament.

(23) If ye he in donht . . . produce a chapter like unto it. In chap,
xvii. ver. 90, this challenge is presented in the following boastful
declaration : " Verily if men and genii were purposely assembled
that they might produce a hook like this Q,uran, they could not pro-
duce one like nnto it, although the one of them assisted the other."
Will those who wouki exonerate Huhammad from the charge of
being an impostor explain how an honest man could put these words
into the mouth of God 1 If Muhammad be the author of the' Quran
— and all apologists regard him as such — he must have known that
even the most excellent human composition had no claim to be called
inspired ; yea, further, it is inconceivable that he should have been
so self-deceived as to fancy that when he put these words into the
mouth of God, he was speaking the words of God, and not those
of his own invention. Which is greater, the credulity which can
believe an honest man, of high intelligence and poetic genius, capable
of such self-deception as this, or that which believes a wicked man
and a deliberate impostor capable of feigning sincerity and honest
piety 1 Let it be observed this claim was ever set up atJIakkah. It
was there that the question of being an honest reformer or a prophet
of Arabia was decided.

" If any one has a mind to test this boastful claim, let him read

CHAP. II.] ( 298 ) [SIPARA I.

duce a chapter like unto it, and call upon 3'our witnesses
besides God, if ye say truth. (24) But if ye do it not, nor
shall ever he able to do it ; justly fear the fire whose fuel is
men and stones, prepared for the unbelievers. (25) But
bear good tidings unto those who believe, and do good
works, that they shall have gardens watered by rivers ; so
often as they eat of the fruit thereof for sustenance, they
shall say. This is what we have formerly eaten of ; and they
shall be supplied with several sorts of fruit having a mutual
resemblance to one another. There shall they enjoy wives
subject to no impurity, and there shall they continue for

the 4otli chapter of Isaiah, the 145th Psalm, the 38th of Job., and a
hundred other passages in the Christian Scriptnres, wliich are in
style and diction snperior to the Qurdn. It may be said that the
beanty of the original cannot be rendered in a translation. Very
well ; this is eqnally true of the translations of the Christian Scrip-
tures. Besides these there are hundreds of books which, in point of
matter, arrangement, and instruction, are superior to the Qurdn."
Thus writes the author of the notes on the Roman Urdu Quran.
The same author gives the names and titles of a number of Arabic
antliors and books, which deny the claim of Muhammad and Mu-
hammadans respecting the divine perfection of the Quran, among
whom are the founder of the sect of the Muzdaryans, Isa-bin-St'ibih,
al Muzdar, and others. Gibbon describes the Quran as an " incohe-
rent rhapsody of fable, and precept, and declamation, which some-
times crawls in the dust, and sometimes is lost in the clouds." —
Decline and Fall of Roman Empire, vol. i. p. 365, Milman's edition.
See also Prelim. Discoirrse, sect, iii. p. 103.

Your witnesses besides God. Your false gods and idols — said in
ridicule.

(24) Whose fuel is men and stones. Men and idols. The Tafsir-i-
"^aufi gives the opinion of some commentators that clouds, apparently

laden with refreshing showers, will pour down torrents of stones,
which will greatly increase the heat and torments of hell !

(25) This is what we have formtrly eaten of. " Some commentators
(Jalalain) approve of this sense, supposing the fruits of paradise,
though of various tastes, are alike in colour and outward appearance ;
but others (Zamakhshari) think the meaning to be, that the inhabi-
tants of that place will find there fruits of the same or the like kinds
as they used to eat while on earth." — Sale.

There they shall enjoy wives subject to no imjjurity. " It is very
remarkable that the notices in the Coran of this voluptuous paradise
are almost entirely confined to a time when, whatever the tendency ot
his desires, Mahomet was living chaste and temperate with a single
wife of threescore years of age.

" It is noteworthy that in the Medina Sura^, that is, in all the

siPARA I.] ( 299 ) [chap. ir.

ever. (26) Moreover, God will not be ashamed to pro-
pound in a parable a gnat, or even a more despicable thing:
for they who believe will know it to be the truth from
their Lord ; bnt the unbelievers will say, What meaneth
God by this parable ? he will thereby mislead many, and
will direct many thereby : but he will not mislead any
thereby, except the transgressors, (27) who make void the
covenant of GoD after the establishing thereof, and cut in
sunder that which God hath commanded to be joined, and
act corruptly in the earth : they shall perish. (28) How is
it that ye believe not in God ? Since ye were dead, and he
gave you life ; he will hereafter cause you to die, and will
again restore you to life ; then shall ye return unto him.
(29) It is he who hath created for you whatsoever is on
earth, and then set his mind to the creation of heaven.

voluminous revelations of the ten years followin.c,' the Hep;ira, women
are only twice referred to as constituting one of the delights of para-
dise, and on both occasions in these simple words : And to them
(believers) there shall he therein pure wives. "Was it that the soul of
Mahomet had at that period no longings after wl]at he had then to
satiety the enjoyment of? Or that a closer contact with Jewish
principles and morality repressed the budding pruriency of the reve-
lation, and covered with merited confusion tlie picture of his sensual
paradise which had been drawn at Mecca?" — Muir's Life of Mahomet,
vol. ii. p. 143.

The paradise of Islam is the garden of Eden inhabited by men and
women with carnal appetites of infinite capacity, and with ability
and opportunity to indulge them to the full. We strain our eyes in
vain to catch a glimpse of a spiritual heaven anywhere in the Qurdn.

(26) God will not he ashamed to propound in a parahle a gnat.
" God is no more ashamed to propound a gnat as a parable than to
use a more dignified illustration." — Savary. This was revealed to
refute the objection of infidels, that the employment of such parables
was beneath the dignity of God. — Abdul Qddir, Yahya, dx.

The transgressors. Infidels and hypocrites: The Tafsir-i-Raiiji
says the transgressors are distinguished by tliree characteristics :
covenant-breaking, dissolving all connection with one's relatives,
and quarrelsomeness. This is, of course, a mere j^iaraphrase of the
next verse.

(28) Ye were dead, &c. Sale, on the authority of Jalaluddin,
paraphrases thus : " Ye were dead while in the ioins of your fathers,
and he gave you life in your mothers' wombs ; and after death ye
shall again be raised at the resurrection."

(29) Seven heavens. See the same expression in chapters xli. 11,

Ill 4-

CHAP. II.] ( 300 ) [SIPARA I.

and formed it into seven heavens ; he knoweth all
things.

II (30) When thy Loud said unto the angels, I am going
to place a substitute on earth; they said, Wilt thou place
there one who will do evil therein, and shed blood ? but
we celebrate thy praise, and sanctify thee. God answered,
Verily I know that which ye know not ; (31) and he
taught Adam the names of all things, and then proposed
them to the angels, and said, Declare unto me the names
of these things if ye say truth. (32) They answered, Praise
be unto thee ; we have no knowledge but what thou
teachest us, for thou art knowing and wise. (33) God

Ixv. 12, Ixvii. 3, and Ixxi. 14. It is probably borrowed from the
Jews.

(30) A suhstitute on earth. Literally, a Jchal/fah, vicegerent.

" Concerning the creation of Adam, here intimated, the Muham-
madans have several peculiar traditions. They say the angels Gab-
riel, Michael, and Israfil were sent by God, one after another, to fetch
for that purpose seven handfuls of earth from different depths and
of different colours (whence some account for the various complexions
of mankind) ; but the earth being apprehensive of the consequence,
and desiring them to represent her fear to God that the creature he
desigmed to form would rebel against him and draw down his curse
upon her, they returned without performing God's command ; where-
upon he sent Azrail on the same errand, who executed his commis-
sion without remorse ; for which reason God appointed that angel to
separate the souls from the bodies, Ijeing therefore called the an(jel of
death. The earth he had taken was carried into Arabia, to a place
between Makkah and Tayif, where being first kneaded by the angels,
it was afterwards fashioned by God himself into a human form, and
left to dry (Qur4n, chap. Iv. v. 1 3) for the space of forty days, or, as
others say, as many years, the angels in the meantime often visiting it,
and Iblis (then one of the angels who are nearest to God's presence,
afterwards the devil) among the rest ; but he, not contented with
looking on it, kicked it with his foot till it rung, and knowing God
designed that creature to be his superior, took a secret resohition
never to acknowledge him as such. After this God animated the
figure of clay, and endued it with an intelligent soul, and when he
had placed him in paradise formed Eve out of his left side (Jalalud-
din, &c.)" — Sale.

They said, Wilt thou place there one, ci-c. This knowledge on the
part of the angels, says the Tafsir-i- llauji, was either derived from a
divine revelation to that effect, or from a perusal of the writings on
tlie preserved tables.

(32, 33) God said, 0 Adam, tell them their names. "This story
Muhamnuid borrowed from the Jewish traditions, which say that the

SIPARA I.] ( 301 ) [chap. II.

said, 0 Adam, tell tliem their names. And when he had
told them their names, God said, Did I not tell you that
I know the secrets of heaven and earth, and know that
which ye discover, and that which ye conceal ? (34) And
when we said unto the angels, Worship Adam ; they all
worshipped Icim, except Iblis, iclio refused, and was puffed
up with pride, and became of the number of unbelievers.

angels having spoken of man with some contempt when God con-
sulted them al)out his creation, God made answer that the man was
wiser tlian they ; and to convince them of it he brought all kinds of
animals to them, and asked them their names ; whicli they not being
able to tell, he put the same question to the man, who named them
one after another ; and being asked liis own name and God's name,
he answered very justly, and gave God the name of Jehovah." —
Sale.

(34) When we said unto the angels, Worship Adam. Sale says the
angels' adoring Adam is mentioned in the Talmud. " The original
word signifies properly to prostrate oneself till the forehead touches
the ground, whicli is the humblest postiire of adoration, and strictly
due to God only ; but it is sometimes, as in this place, used to ex-
press the civil worship or homage which may be paid to creatures.
(Jalaluddin.)"

Except Iblis. The story of Iblis and. the angels jirobably owes its
origin to Jewish tradition. The name Ihlis, from halas^ a wicked
person, may have been derived by translation from the 6 7ro;'7;/5ds of
the New Testament, Matt. xiii. 19, 38; i John ii. 13, 14. The
Tafstr-i-Ravfi says the name of Iblis before this disobedience was
Azazll., and that this name was given to indicate his now hopeless
condition. Muhammad probably adopted the name most familiar to
his countrymen whilst relating a story derived from Jewish sources.
Muslim commentators, believing the angels to be impeccable, and
denying that they propagate their species, argue that Iblis is of the
genii, and the Quran, cliap. xviii. 48, seems to proA^ethat Muhammad
regarded him as the father of the genii.

The whole doctrine of the Qurdn concerning Iblis and the genii, or
Satans of the Quran, has been borrowed for the most part from the Magi
of Persia, and the attempt to identify them in the Quran with the Satan
and evil spirits of the Bible is so unsuccessful as to form a plain indi-
cation of the forger's hand. A comparison of the two books on this
subject will reveal more than one instance wherein the Qurdn, not-
withstanding its boast that it preserves and confirms the teaching of
the former Scriptures, fails to attest the teaching of the Bible.

Because of the number of unbelievers. Sale says, " The occasion of
the devil's fall has some affinity with an ojiinion which has been
pretty nu^ch entertained among Christians (Irenteus, Lact., Greg.
Nyssen, &c.), viz., that the angels being informed of God's intention
to create man after his own image, and to dignify human nature by

CHAP. II.] ( 302 ) [SIPARA r.

(35) And we said, 0 Adam, dwell tliou and thy wife in
the garden, and eat of the fruit thereof plentifully wher-
ever ye will ; but approach not this tree, lest ye become of
the number of the transgressors. But Satan caused them
to forfeit jJct'i^adise, and turned them out of the state of ha/p-
piness wherein they had been ; whereupon we said, Get ye

Christ's assuming it, some of tliem, thinking their glory to be eclipsed
thereby, envied man's happiness, and so revolted."

(35) Dwell thou and thy 'wife in the garden. Muhammadans believe
the residence of Adam and Eve before the Fall to have been paradise
or heaven, the place to which all good Muslims go.

lliis tree. " Concerning this tree, or the forbidden fruit, the Mu-
hammadans, as well as the Cliristians, have various opinions. Some
say it was an ear of wheat ; some will have it to have been a fig-tree,
and others a vine. The story of the Fall is told, with some further
circumstances, in the l)eginning of the seventh chapter." — Sale.

Bat Satan. Jlodwell calls attention to the change from Iblis, the
calumniator, to Satan, the hater. " They have a tradition that the
devil, offering to get into paradise to tempt Adam, was not admitted
by the guard ; whereupon he begged of the animals, one after an-
other, to carry him in, that he might speak to Adam and his wife ;
but they all refused him, except the serpent, who took him between
two of his teeth, and so introduced him. They add that the serpent
was then of a beautiful form, and not in the sliape he now bears." —
Sale.

We said, Get ye doion. " The Muhammadans say that when they
were cast down from paradise, Adam fell on the isle of Ceylon or
Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah (the port of Makkah) in Arabia ; and
that after a separation of two hundred years Adam was, on his re-
pentance, conducted by the Angel Gabriel to a mountain near Makkah,
where he found and knew his wife, the mountain being thence named
Arifat, and that he afterwards retired with her to Ceylon.

" It may not be improper here to mention another tradition con-
cerning the gigantic stature of our first parents. Their prophet, they
say, affirmed Adam to have been as tall as a high palm-tree ; but this
would be too much in proportion, if that were really the print of his
foot, which is pretended to be such, on the top of a mountain in the
isle of Ceylon, thence named Pico de Adam, and by the Arab writers
Rahun, being somewhat above two spans long (though others say it
is seventy cubits long, and that when Adam set one foot here he had
the other in the sea), and too little, if Eve were of so enormous a size,
as is said, when her head lay on one hill near Makkah, her knees rested
on two others in the plain, about two musket-shots asunder." — Sale.

The Taislr-i-liaufi regards these words as being addressed to the
serpent as well as to Adam and Eve.

The one of you an enemij imto the other, i.e., Satan an enemy of man,
or the allusion may be to enmity between Adam and Eve, typifying
the enmity between the faithful and the intidels. — l\(foir-i-Iiauji.

SIPARA I.] ( 303 ) [chap. II.

down, the one of you an enemy unto the other ; and there
shall be a dwelling-place for you on earth, and a provision
for a season. (36) And Adam learned words of 'prayer
from his Loed, and God turned unto him, for he is easy
to be reconciled and merciful. (37) We said, Get ye all
down from hence ; hereafter shall there come unto you a
direction from me, and whoever shall follow my direction,
on them shall no fear come, neither shall they be grieved ;
(38) but they who shall be unbelievers, and accuse our

(36) Adam learned words affrayer, d-c. There is a difference of
opinion among the commentators as to what these ivords were. The
Tafsir-i- Ravfi accepts the opinion that they were the words of the
creed, " La-ilaha-iUal-laho, Muhammad-ur-Rusul-ullah," God he is
God, and Muhammad is the aimstle of God. But all such traditionary
statements are the outgrowth of a desire to exalt Muhammad. One of
the traditions makes Adam say that " As soon as the breath came
into my body I opened my eyes, and saw the words, Ld-ildha-illal-
Idho, Muhainmad-ur-Rustd-uUdh written on the heavens."

The purport of the verse seems to be that God taught Adam, in a
general way, the words he then revealed for the benefit of himself
■ and his children, Adam being regarded as the prophet of God to his
generation.

God turned to him, for he is easy to he reconciled. Eodwell trans-
lates, " For he loveth to turn." All the Quran requires to secure the
favour of God is to repent, i.e., to submit to the will of God and ask
pardon for sin.

(37, 38) Hereafter shall cause ... a direction. " God here pro-
mises Adam that his will should be revealed to him and his posterity ;
which promise the Muhammadans believe was fulfilled at several
times by the ministry of several prophets, from Adam himself, who
was the first, to Muhammad, who was the last. The number of books
revealed unto Adam they saw was ten " (Jalaluddin). — Sale.

And whoever shall follow my direction, d-c. The Tafsir-i- Raiifi
conceives the idea that the story of Adam was placed at the very
beginning of the Quran as a warning to all his posterity. He says,
" God has narrated the story of Adam before he tells of others, in
order that by showing his people how they were adored by the
angels, through Adam, in whose loins they were hidden, and yet,
instead of being drawn to him by his goodness, they have turneci
from him, broken his commandments, and have not been ashamed.
Then in the expulsion of Adam from paradise, as here related, he
intimates that notwithstanding the nearness of Adam to himself, and
the adoration of angels bestowed upon him, yet, for one act of dis-
obedience, was expelled from paradise. Wherefore he says, Fear me,
and dare not to disobey my commands, lest I refuse to receive you
into paradise at the judgment-day."

And accuse our signs of falsehood. Concerning the word here trans-

CHAP. II.] ( 304 ) [SIPARA I.

signs of falsehood, they shall be the companions of hell-
fire, therein shall they remain for ever.
Kg- II (39) 0 children of Israel, remember my favour where-

with I have favoured you ; and perform your covenant with
me, and I will perform my covenant with you ; and revere
me : (40) and believe in the revelation which I have sent
down, confirming that which is with you, and be not the first
who believe not therein, neither exchange my signs for a
small price ; and fear me. (41) Clothe not the truth with
vanity, neither conceal the truth against your own know-

lated signs Sale says, " This word has various significations in the
Quran ; sometimes, as in this passage, it signifies divine revelation or
Scripture in general, sometimes the verses of the Quran in particular,
and at other times visible miracles. But the sense is easily distin-
guished by tlie context."

They shall he the companions of hell-fire, therein shall they remain
for ever. The suff'erings of the damned are described in chap. xiv.
19-21, xxv\ 11-15, xxxvii. 61 71, and Ivi. 40-56. Tliis punishment
is eternal, and varies in intensity according to the heinousness of sin.

Hell is divided into seven apartments. For description of eacli
see Preliminary Discourse, sec. iv. p. 148.

(39, 40) 0 children of Israel, . . . believe in the revelation which I
have sent down confirming that ichich is irith you. " The Jews are here
called upon to receive the Quran, as verifying and confirming the
Pentateuch, particularly with respect to the unity of God and the
mission of Muhammad. And they are exhorted not to conceal the
passages of their law which bear witness to those truths, nor to cor-
rupt them by publishing false copies of the Pentateuch, for which tlie
writers were but poorly paid." — Sale, on the authority of Yahya and
Jaldluddin.

For passages of the Quran attesting the genuineness of the Chris-
tian and Jewish Scriptures, see Index under the word Quran.

A careful consideration of the import of such passages as this ought
to convince every honest Muslim of the fact that Muhammad cer-
tainly did regard the Scriptures then current among Jews and Chris-
tians as the pure Word of God. If he did not, then the Quran
attests, verifies, and confirms a lie ! See chap. iii. 93, v. 70, vi. 90,
91, x. 97, and xlvi. 11.

(41) Clothenot tlie truth with vanity, neither concecd tlie truth agaiust
your own knowledge. Eodwell translates the latter part of the verse
thus : Hide not the truth when ye know it. On this he writes as fol-
lows : " Muliammad rarely accused the Jews and Christians of cor-
rupting, but often of misrepresenting, their sacred books, in order
to evade his claims. His charges, however, are always very vaguely
worded, and his utterances upon this subject are tantamount to a
strong testimony in favour of the unimpeachable integrity of the

SIPARA I.] ( 305 ) [chap. II.

ledge ; (42) observe the stated times of prayer, and pay
your legal alms, and bow down yourselves with those who
bow down. (43) Will ye command men to do justice, and
forget your own souls ? yet ye read the book of the laio : do
ye not therefore understand ? (44) Ask help with perse-
sacred books, both of the Jews and Christians, so far as he knew
them." The Tafsir-i-Raufi confirms the position taken above. It
paraplirases thus : " Do iiot min,f(le with the tmth that the praise of
Muliammad is recorded in the Pentateuch the lie of a denial, and do
not liide the truth that lie is the prophet of the last times, for you
know that this prophet is a prophet indeed. Why then do ye deli-
berately hide his praise and title (of prophet), and make yourselves
the prisoners of hell ? "

The whole force of this exposition rests on the admission that the
Jews were in j^ossession of the imcorrupted Scriptures.

Again, it is noteworthy that the corruption charged is not directed
against the Scriptures, but against i\\Q\v interpretation of those Scrip-
tures. The author of the notes on the Roman Urdu Quran calls
attention to the fact, that while Muhammad would conciliate Jews
and Christians by the pretence that his Qurdn confirms their Scrip-
tures, he constantly misrepresents and falsifies them. This is true
of both their doctrinal teaching and historical statement. It must,
however, be observed that this inconsistency was not always due to
the intention of the Arabian prophet, but generally to his ignorance.

(42) Stated times of 'praynr . . . leffcd alms. The prayer (sm^a^) of
the Muslim differs from what the Christian calls prayer in that it
consists invariably of the repetition of ascriptions of praise to God
and of petitions for divine blessing uttered in the Arabic lanffiiage,
and is almost entirely mechanical. The mind and the heart of the
worshippers are alike shut up to the words and forms of the stereo-
typed prayer. The Arabic d^a expresses more nearly the Christian
idea of prayer. This, too, probably corresponded more nearly to
Midiammad's own idea of suldt.

Legal alms {zihit) are levied on money, grain, fruit, cattle, and
merchandise. The object for which it is levied is the sujiport of the
poor. It amounts to about two and a half or three per cent, on
annual profits.

Although these words are addressed to Jews, the prayer and alms,
concerning which exhortation is made, are Muslim, i.e., of the kind
and form belonging to the last dispensation of the one true religion.

For nearly all the rites and forms of religion, Islam finds sanction
in the volume of traditions. This fact aftbrds a strong argument
against the Quran as the inspired Scripture of a new dispensation.

(43) Ye read the hook of the law, i.e., the Pentateuch. This verse
affords another proof that Muhammad believed the Jewish Scrip-
tures then extant to be the genuine Word of God.

(44, 45) Ash helj) with -perseverance and prayer, d'C. Abdul Qadir
translates, " Get strength l>y toil and prayer," &c., and paraphrases,
" Make it (prayer) a habit, and the duties of religion will become
easy." U

R

6

CHAP. II.] ( 306 ) [SIPARA I.

verance and prayer ; this indeed is grievous unless to the
humble, (45) who seriously think they shall meet their
Lord, and that to him they shall return.
\i B' II (46) 0 children of Israel, remember my favour

wherewith I have favoured you, and that I have pre-
ferred you above all nations ; (47) dread the day
wherein one soul shall not make satisfaction for another
soul, neither shall any intercession be accepted from
them, nor shall any compensation be received, neither
shall they be helped. (48) Remcrtibcr when we delivered
you from the people of Pharaoh, who grievously oppressed
you, they slew your male children, and let your females

The humble, who seriousl// t/iinh they shall meet their Lord, and that
to him they shall return. Sentiments like these exhibit the vast moral
superiority of Muhammad's teaching with regard to God and man's
relation to him over that of his idolatrous countrymen and of idola-
ters of any countr3^ The influence of passages like this must be
taken into account if we would underetaud the ]30"\ver which the
Quran exerts over Muslims.

{A.%) 0 children of Israel, remember my favour, etc. The object of
passages like this was to conciliate the Jews by appeals to their
national pride, and by an attempt to imitate the style of their pro-
phets in his exhortations to them. Passages of the Quran like this
concerning the children of Israel evince considerable knowledge of
the history of the chosen people. And yet the error which is here
mixed up with the truth, without any apparent design, would seem
to show that Muhammad had not access to the Jewish Scriptures
directly. It is therefore most probal)le that he obtained his infor-
mation from Jewish friends, who had themselves an imperfect
knowledge of their own Scriptures. See on this subject Muir's
Life of Ilahomct, vol. ii., supplement to chap. v.

(47) Dread the day wherein one soul shall not make satisfaction for
another soul. " This verse, often rej^eated, contradicts the notion of
Muhammad as an intercessor, and, of cmirse, contradicts Scripture
also, unless understood thus : — ' Tlie guilty shall not atone for the
guilty.'" — Brinckman's Notes on Is'dm.

The author of the Tafsu-i-Ravfi thinks this verse is addressed to
ttnbelievers, and regai'ds it as teaching the certain damnation of all
who have not secured the intercession of Muhammad.

(48) The/f slew your male children. The Tafsir-i-Ravfi gives a
story which illustrates the habit of Muslim commentators of invent-
incf history to explain the indefinite statements of the Qurdn. The
story is that Pharaoh had a dream, in which he saw a tire issue
forth from the Temple at Jerusalem. The fire consumed him and
his people. Calling his wise men, he asked the meaning of his
dream. They told him that a person would be born from amon g

SIPARA I.] ( 2)'^^ ) [chap. II.

live : therein was a great trial from your LoPvD. (49) And
when we divided the sea for you and delivered you, and
drowned Pharaoh's people while ye looked on. (50) And
when we treated with Moses forty nights ; then ye took
the calf for your God, and did evil; (51) yet afterwards
we forgave you, that perad venture ye might give thanks.
(52) And when we gave Moses the book of the law, and

the children of Israel who would destroy both him and his nation.
Accordingly he ordered all the male children of the Israelites to be
destroyed. When some twelve thousand — according to others seventy
thousand — infants had been destroyed, his subjects interfered, and so
far modified Pharaoh's intention that he spared the children born
every alternate year. During one of these years Aaron was born ;
but Moses, being born the following year, was placed in a basket
and allowed to float down the Nile. On its reaching the palace,
Pharaoh drew the basket to shore and found the infant Moses in it.
His wife at once declared that the child did not belong to the Jews,
and proposed to adopt it as their own, inasmuch as they had no
children. Thus Moses was preserved by his enemy. See also
Quran, chaps, vii., xx., and xxvi., &c.

•-- (50) Then took ye the calf for your God, and did evil. " The person
who cast this calf, the Muhammadans say, was (not Aaron, but) al
S^mairi, one of the principal men among the children of Israel, some
of whose descendants, it is pretended, still inhabit an island of that
name in the Arabian Gulf. It was made of the rings and bracelets
of gold, silver, and other materials which the Israelites had bor-
rowed of the Egyptians ; for Aaron, who commanded in his brother's
absence, having ordered Samairi to collect those ornaments from the
people, who carried on a wicked commerce with them, and to keep
them together till the return of Moses, al Samairi, understanding
the founder's art, put them all together into a furnace to melt them
down into one mass, which came out in the form of a calf. The
Israelites, accustomed to the Egyptian idolatry, paying a religious
worship to this image, al Sdmairi went further, and took some
dust from the footsteps of the horse of the Angel Gabriel, who
marched at the head of the people, and threw it into the moutli
of the calf, which immediately began to low, and became ani-
mated ; for such was the virtue of that dust." — Sale, on aiU/iority
of Jaldluddin.

Some writers explain that Samairi discovered the virtue of this
dust of the footsteps of Gabriel's horse by observing that wherever
such footsteps were there green grass immediately appeared. Others
account for the voice in the golden calf by referring it to Satan,
who, entering it, began to say to the people, " I am your preserver,
wherefore worship me."

(51) Yet cfteriDcirds we forgave you, i.e., those who did not actually
worship the golden calf. See ver. 53.

(52) ]yhen we gave Moses the book. We have here one instance, of

CHAP. II.] ( 30S ) [SIPARA I.

the distinction heticccn good and evil, that peradventure ye
might be directed. (53) And when Moses said unto his
people, 0 my people, verily ye have injured your own
souls, by your taking the calf for your God ; therefore be
turned unto your Creator, and slay those among you u-ho
have heen guilty of that crime ; this will be better for you

which this chapter furnishes many, wherein the Quran shows the
ignorance of I\Iuhammad with respect to tlie history of the Jews as
contained in the books of Moses. The "Book" of the haw (the
Torah or Pentateuch) is here represented as given to Moses in the
Mount, whereas the story refers to the giving of the two table.?
{Arabic, Alwah, meaning tablets) containing the ten commandments
only. See Exod. xxxiv. 28.

For further exposition of discrepancy between the Quran and the
Pentateuch, see comments on chap, vii., vers. 104-163, where is
recorded the most detailed account of the exodus of Israel from
Egypt and God's dealings with them in the wilderness to be found
in the Quran.

And the distinction between good and evil. Eodwell translates,
" and the illumination," chap. xxi. 49.

The Arabic word here translated distinction is Furqdn, a name
which, among Muslims, is given solely to the Quran. The author
of the notes on the Roman Urdu Qurdn argues from the use of this
word, which is derived from the Syraic, that IMuhammad must have
had access to the writings of Syrian Christians, and especially to the
commentary of the Old and Kew Testaments by Epliraim, a Syrian,
in which a great many stories similar to those of the Qur4n are
saiil to be recorded, and in which the Pentateuch is uniformly called
the Furqdn.

That this word may have been introduced into Muhammad's
vocabulary from Syrian sources is altogether probable, but the
stories of the Qurdn bear no traces of having been copied from, or
even learned from, any written record. On the contrary, they every-
where bear the marks of having been recorded in the Quran from
hearsay sources. Any written record in the hands of Muhammad
would have enabled him to give more accurate statements of fact,
and thtis would have better confirmed his claim that the Quran
attests the former Scriptures.

The meaning of the term Furqun, as applied to Scripture, is not
"that which is divided into sections" (Hughes' Notes on Miiliam-
madanism, p. 11), but that which divides beticeen good and evd, "that
peradventure ye might be directed."

(53) Ye have injured your own soids. Rodwell has it, " Ye have
sinned to your own hurt." The allusion is to the slaying of certain
of their nimiber for the sin of idolatry.

Slay those among you. d-c. Lit. slai/ one another.

" In this particular the narration agrees with that of Moses, who
ordered the Levites to slay every man his broUur ; but the Scripture

SIPARA I.] ( 309 ) [chap. II.

ill tlie sight of your Creator: and thereupon lie turned
unto you, for he is easy to be reconciled, and merciful.
(54) And when ye said, 0 Moses, we will not believe
thee, until we see God manifestly ; therefore a punish-
ment came upon you, while ye looked on ; (55) then we
raised you to life after ye had been dead, that peradven-
ture ye might give thanks. (56) And we caused clouds
to overshadow you, and manna and quails to descend
upon you, saying, Eat of the good things which we have
given you for food : and they injured not us, but injured

says there fell of the people that day about three thousand (the Vulgate
says 23,000) men; whereas the commentators of the Quran make the
number of the slain to amount to 70,000 ; and add, that God sent a
dark cloud which hindered them from seeing one another, lest the
sight should move those who executed the sentence to compassion." —
Sale and Jaldluddin.

(54) When ye said, 0 Moses, we loill not helieve thee, xintil we see God
manifestly. " The persons here meant are said to have been seventy
men, who were made choice of by Moses, and heard the voice of God
talking with him. But not being satisfied with that, they demanded
to see God ; whereupon they were all struck dead by lightning." —
iSalc, Ismail ihi AH, Tafsir-i-liaufi.

As this statement is nowhere corroborated in the Bible, it is pro-
bably derived from Jewish tradition.

(55) Then we raised you to life. The Tafsir-i- Raufi states that
Moses, seeing his seventy companions stricken dead, immediately
interceded for their restoration to life, on the ground that the people
might suspect him of their murder. God tlien, on Moses' interces-
sion, restored them to lite. See also Rodwell's note on this passage.

(56) We caused clouds to overshadoiv you. The pillar of cloud, and
may be the pillar of fire also (Exod. xiii. 21, 22). Some conunentators
say that the cloud was as a canopy over the Israelites to shield them
from the heat of the sun {Tafsir-i- Rauji).

Manna and quails. " The Eastern writers say these quails were of
a peculiar kind, to be found nowhere but in Yaman, from whence
they were brought by a south wind in great numbers to the Israelites'
camp in the desert. The Arabs call these birds Salun, which is
plainly the same with the Hebrew Salivim, and say they have no
bones, but are eaten whole." — Sale,

A great variety of opinions have been entertained among Muslim
commentators as to what manna represents, e.r/., Hour, honey,
heavenly gifts bestowed secretly, &c. As to the quails, some have
it that they were dressed in the air and baked by the heat of the
sun before they fell on the ground.

As to the Salwa having no bones (see Sale's note above), the fact
is, their bones are so tender that many eat them along with the flesh.

CHAP. II.] ( 310 ) [SI PARA I.

tlieir OM-u souls. (57) And when we said, Enter into tins
city, and eat of ilic 2^rovisions thereof plentifully as ye
will ; and enter the gate worshipping, and say, Forgive-
ness ! we will pardon you your sins, and give increase
unto the well-doers. (58) But the ungodly changed the
expression into another, different from what had been
spoken unto them ; and we sent down upon the ungodly
indignation from heaven, because they had transgressed.
Iv 7 • (59) And when Moses asked drink for his people, we said,

Strike the rock with thy rod ; and there gushed thereout
twelve fountains according to tlic numhcr of the tribes, and

And then injured not us, but injured their oivn souls. Savary
translates this passage, "Your murmurs have been injurious only to
yourselves."

The Tafsir-i-RavJi seems to refer the injury spoken of in tliis verse
to the wandering in the wilderness.

(57) Enter this cit//. Some commentators suppose this city to be
Jericlio, others Jerusalem. — Sale.

The author of the notes on the Roman Urdu Quran takes the
allusion to be to a " city of refuge." This mixing up of events,
some of -which happened in the wilderness, others in the Holy
Land, and still others wliich happened nowhere, added to which is
the narration of events as occurring successively, whose chrono-
logical order is widely different, shows the ignorance of the Arabian
prophet.

iSay forgiveness. "The Arabic word is Hittaton, which some take
to signify that profession of the unity of God so frequently used by
the IMuhammadans, La ildha ilia 'lldho, T/ure is no God hut God." —
iSale, Jaldluddin.

(58) B}it the xmcjodhj changed the expression, dx. "According to
Jahiluddin, instead of Hittaton, they cried Huhbat fi shairat, i.e., a
grain in an ear of barley y and in ridicule of the divine command to
enter the city in an humble posture, they indecently crept in upon
their breech." — Sale, Yahya.

Indignation from heaven. " A pestilence which carried off near
seventy thousand of them." — Sale.

(59) Strike the rock. " The commentators say this was a stone
which Moses brought from Mount Sinai, and the same that fled
awa}^ with his garments wliich he had laid upon it one day while he
washed.

" They describe it to be a square piece of white marble, shaped
like a man's head ; wherein they differ not mucli from the accounts
of European travellers, who say this rock stands among several lesser
ones, about a hundred paces from Mount Horeb, and appears to have
been loosened from the neiglibouring mountains, having no cohe-
rence with the others ; that it is a huge mass of red granite, almost

SIPARA I.] ( 311 ) [chap. II.

all men knew their rcsjKctive diinking-place. Eat and
drink of the bounty of God, and commit not evil on the
earth, acting unjustly. (60) And when ye said, 0 Moses,
we will by no means be satisfied with one hind of food ;
pray unto thy Lord therefore for us, that he would pro-
duce for us of that which the earth bringeth forth, herbs
and cucumbers, and garlic, and lentils, and onions ; Moses
answered. Will ye exchange that which is better, for that
which is worse ? Get ye down into Egypt, for tlicre shall
ye find what ye desire : and they were smitten with vile-
ness and misery, and drew on themselves indignation
from God. This they suffered, because they believed not
in the signs of God, and killed the prophets unjustly ;
this, because they rebelled and transgressed.

II (61) Surely those who believe, and those who Judaize, Jti "S""

round on one side, and flat on the other, twelve feet high, and as
many thick, but broader than it is high, and about fifty feet in
circumference." — Sale, Jaldluddm.

Twelve fountains. " Marracci thinks this circumstance looks like a
Rabbinical iiction, or else that Muhammad confounds the water of
the rock at Horeb with the twelve wells at Elim." — Sale.

All men hneiv their drinking -place. Rodwell translates, "all men,"
but understands "each tribe." He adds, "This incident is perhaps
inadvertently borrowed from Exod. xv. 27."

(60) ^Yc will by no means be satisfied ivith one kind of food. This
refers to the second murmuring of the Israelites. See Num. xi.
5, &c.

Moses answered . . . Get ye down to Egypt. According to the Pen-
tateuch, this is not only not what Moses said, but what he would not
have said. Cf. Exod. xxxii. 9-14, with Num. xiv. 13, &c.

This they suffered, because they . . . hilled the froyhets. Muslim
commentators, following the anachronism of this passage, instance
John Baptist and Zachariah as being among the martyred prophets
referred to here !

(61) Surely those who believe, d-c. "From these words, which are
repeated in the fifth chapter, several writers have wrongly concluded
that the Muhammadans hold it to be the doctrine of their prophet
that every man may be saved in his own religion, provided he be
sincere and lead a good life. It is true some of their doctors do
agree this to be the purport of the words ; but then they say the
latitude hereby granted was soon revoked, for that this passage
is abrogated by several others in the Quran, which expressly declare
that none can be saved who is not of the Muhammadan faith ; and
particularly by those words of the third chapter (ver. 84), Whoever

CHAP. II.] ( 312 ) [SIPARA I.

and Christians, and Sabians, whoever believeth in God, and
the last day, and doth that which is right, they shall have
their reward with their Loed ; tlicre shall come no fear on

followeth any other religion than Islam (i.e., the Muliammadan), it
shall not be accepted of him, and at the last day he shall be of those u-Jio
perish. Hov/ever, others are of opinion that this passage is not
abrogated, but interpret it differently, taking the meaning of it to
be, that no man, whether he be a Jew, a Christian, or a Sabian,
shall be excluded from salvation, provided he quit his erroneous
religion and become a Muslim, which they say is intended by the
following words. Whoever believeth in God and the last day, and doth
that which is right. And this interpretation is approved by Mr.
Eeland, who thinks the words here imj^ort no more than those of
the apostle. In every nation lie that feareth God and ivorheth righteous-
yiess is accepted of him (Acts x. 35) ; from which it must not be
inferred that the religion of nature, or any other, is sufficient to save,
without faith in Christ {Relig. Moham., p. 128)." — Sale.

Kodwell identifies the Sabeites with the so-called Christians of
St. John. See his note on this passage.

Brinckman thinks the fairest interpretation of this passage to be
as follows : — "Jews, Christians, Sabians, whoever become Moslems,
shall be saved if they become Moslems, and they shall be safe no
matter what was their previous religion." — Notes on Islam, p. 53.

Abdul Qadir and the Tafsir-i-Rniifi render the passage as making
faith in God and the last day and the performance of required duty
the condition of salvation, no matter what a man's infidelity may
have consisted in before he believed. They agree in regarding Jews
and Christians as infidels.

The true explanation of this jiassage, so often quoted in contro-
versy, will be made evident from the following considerations : —

(i.) The passage is addressed to the People of the Book (Ahl-i-
kitab), as appears from the context. Kodwell describes the " Sabeans "
correctly.

(2.) Muhammad did not regard all Jews and Christians as infidels
(chap. iii. 113 and 199). He everywhere describes Isldm as the one
only true religion given by God to men tlirough the medium of the
prophets. It was the religion of Adam, of Noah, of Abraham, of
Moses, and of Jesus. Jews and Christians, &c., therefore, who
believed " in God and the last daj'," and did " that which was right,"
were true Muslims. Only those Jews and Christians who rejected
Muhammad as the prophet of God are stigmatised as infidels. In
this passage and passages of similar jiurport Muhammad assumes
that he is the ]irophet of the true faith, and really strives to con-
ciliate Jews and Christians by endorsing their religion as true. He
would have tliem al)jure the errors into which they had fallen, and
return to the simple faith and practice of their, or rather God's
religion, as now taught by the prophet of God.

It follows from this, that as a true Jew must receiA^e Jesus Christ,
and hence become a Ciiristian, if he would be saved, so a true Chris-

SIPARA I.] ( 313 ) [chap. II.

them, neither shall they be grieved. (62) Call to mind also
when we accepted your covenant, and lifted up the moun-
tain of Sinai over you, saying, Eeceive the law which we
have given you, with a resolution to keep it, and remember
that which is contained therein, that ye may beware.
(63) After this ye again turned back, so that if it had
not been for God's indulgence and mercy towards you, ye
had certainly been destroyed. (G4) Moreover ye know
what hefcll those of your nation who transgressed on the
Sabbath day; We said unto them, Be ye changed into
apes, driven a.waj from the soeiety of men. (G5) And we

tian must receive Muliammad, aud lieuce become a Muliammadan, if
he would be saved.

Granting, as Muslims do, that Muhammad is the prophet he
claimed to be, there is nothing in this passage inconsistent with his
usual teaching as to the way of salvation.

(62) Lifted up the moxintaia of Sinai over you. " The Muliam-
madan tradition is, that the Israelites refusing to receive the law of
Moses, God tore up the mountain by the roots, and shook it over
their heads to terrify them into a compliance." — Hale and Abdul
Qddir.

Rodwell has clearly demonstrated the Jewish origin of this state-
ment.

(63) After this ye again turned back. Some commentators {Taftir-i-
liauji) think these words refer to the rejection of Jesus, but more
probably they refer to the rebellion at Kadesh-Barnea, or some
similar event connected with the journey in the wilderness.

(64, 65). Be ye changed into ajies, d:c. "The story to which this
passage refers is as follows : — In the days of David some Israelites
dwelt at Ailah or Elath, on the Eed Sea, where on the night of the
Sabbath the fish used to come in great numbers to the shore, and
stay there all the Sabbath to tempt them ; but the night following
they returned into the sea again. At length some of the inhabitants,
neglecting God's command, catched the fish on the Sabbath, and
dressed and ate them ; and afterwards cut canals from the sea for
the fish to enter, with sluices, which they shut on the Sabbath, to
prevent their return to the sea. The other part of the inhabitants,
who strictly observed the Sabbath, used both persuasion and force
to stop this impiety, but to no purpose, the offenders growing only
more and more obstinate ; whereupon David cursed the Sabbath-
breakers, and God transformed them into apes. It is said that one
going to see a friend of his that was among them, found him in the
shape of an ape, moving his eyes about wildly, and asking him
whetlier he was not such a one, the ape made a sign with his head
that it was he : whereupon the friend said to him, ' Did not I advise
you to desist i ' at which the ape wept. They add that these unhappy

CHAP. II.] ( 314 ) [SIPARA I.

made them an example unto those wlio were contemporary
with them, and unto those who came after them, and a
warning to the pious. (66) And when Moses said unto
his people. Verily God comraandeth you to sacrifice a
cow ; they answered, Dost thou make a jest of us ! Moses
said, God forbid that I should be 07ie of the foolish.

people remained three (Lay.s in this condition, and were afterwards
destroyed by a wind which swept them all into the sea," — >Sale.

Rodwell says there is no trace of this legend in the Talmudists.
Comp. chap. vii. 164.

The Tafnir-i-Raufi says the number thus chani^ed into apes was
seventy thousand, a number very commonly assigned by Muslim
writers to every display of divine judgment.

(66) Verily God comviamleth you to sacrifice a cow. " The occasion
of this sacrifice is thus related : — A certain man at his death left his
son, then a child, a cow-calf, which wandered in the desert till he
came to age, at which time his mother told him the heifer was his,
and bid him fetch her and sell her for three pieces of gold. When
the young man came to the market with his lieifer, an angel in the
shape of a man accosted him, and bid him six pieces of guld for her ;
but he would not take the money till he had asked his mother's
consent, which when he had obtained, he returned to the market-
place, and met the angel, who now offered him twice as much for
the heifer, provided he would say nothing of it to his mother; but
the young man refusing, went and acquainted her with the addi-
tional offer. The woman perceiving it was an angel, bid her son go
back and ask him what must be done with the heifer ; whereupon
the angel told the young man that in a little time the children of
Israel would buy that heifer of him at any ])rice. And soon after it
happened that an Israelite, named Hammiel, was killed by a rela-
tion of his, who, to prevent discovery, conveyed the body to a place
considerably distant from that where the fact was conmiitted. The
friends 1 of the slain man accused some other jiersons of the murder
before Moses ; but they denying tlie fact, and there being no evi-
dence to convict them, God commanded a cow, of such and such
particular marks, to lie killed ; but there being no other which
answered the description except the orphan's heifer, they were
obliged to buy her for as much gold as her hide would hold ; accord-
ing to some, for her full weight in gold, and as others say, for ten
times as much. This heifer they sacrificed, and the dead body
being, by divine direction, struck with a part of it, revived, and
standing up, named the person who had killed him, after which it
immediately fell down dead again. The whole story seems to be

^ The Tafsir-i-Ravfi has it that compensation against bis neigh-
the murderer himself became the bours.
accuser, and set up a claim for

SIPARA I.] ( 315 ) [chap. II.

(67) They said, Pray for us uiito thy Lor.D, that he would
show us what cow it is. Moses answered, He saith, She
is neither an old cow, nor a young heifer, but of a middle
age between both : do ye therefore that wliich ye are
commanded. (G8) They said, I'ray for us unto thy LoED,
that he would show us what colour she is of. Moses
answered, He saith. She is a red cow, intensely red, her
colour rejoiceth the beholders. (69) They said, Pray for
us unto thy Lokd, that he would/wr^/ic?- show us what cow
it is, for several cows with us are like one another, and we,
if God please, will be directed. (70) Moses answered. He
saith, She is a cow not broken to plough the earth, or water

borrowed from the red heifer, wliicli was ordered by the Jewish law
to be burnt, and the ashes kept for purifying those who happened
to touch a dead corpse (Num. xix.), and from the heifer directed to
be sLain for the expiation of a certain murder. See Deut. xxi. 1-9."
— Sale, on authority of Ahulfeda.

The Tafsir-i-RauJi, dihiting on this story at great length, gives it
with some variations from the version given above, yet substantially
the same story.

This piece of history is manifestly manufactured by the commen-
tators to explain a very obscure passage. The s^ibstance of the story
is gathered from the Quran (see succeeding verses). The passage is
an additional proof that Muhammad was not in possession of a copy
of the Jewish Scriptures. His information must have been received
from some one who was himself ignorant of the Scriptures. Cer-
tainly Muhammad could not have garbled the Mosaic account to
make his Quran appear as a new revelation, as has been charged
upon him (Azotes on Roman Urdfo Quran). A deliberate garbler,
with the Pentateuch before him, would have done better work. The
passage is ]ierfectly incoherent, as the invented history of the Muslim
commentators shows.

(68) She is a red cow, intensehj red. "The original is yellov:, but
this word we do not use in speaking of the colour of cattle." — Hale.

It seems to me the peculiar colour is here intended as a sign to
indicate tchat cow. The succeeding question, as well as the preced-
ing, desiring that Moses should pray for them, is presented to show
the tmhelief and hardness of heart on the part of the Jews. They
doubt the inspiration of Moses, wherefore these numerous questions.
See Tafsir-i-Ranfi, in loco.

(70) Muses ansivered. He saith, d:c. J\luhanimad liere presents
Moses as a prophet of God like himself. He, like Muhammad, the
inspired prophet, delivers the precise message of God word for icord.
But the inspiration here and elsewhere attributed to the prophets
in the Quran is a very different thing from that attributed to them

ll y •

CHAP. IL] ( 316 ) [SIPARA L

the field, a sound one, there is no blemish in her. They
said, Now hast thou brought the truth. Then they sacri-
ficed her ; yet they wanted but dittle of leaving it undone.
II (71) And when ye slew a man, and contended among
yourselves concerning him, God brought forth to light
that which ye concealed. (72) For we said. Strike the
dead liody with part of the sacrificed covj : so God raiseth
the dead to life, and showeth you his signs, that perad-
venture ye may understand. (73) Then were your hearts
hardened after this, even as stones, and exceeding them in
hardness : for from some stones have rivers bursted forth,
others have been rent in sunder, and water hath issued
from them, and others have fallen down for fear of GOD.
But GoD is not regardless of that which ye do. (74) Do

in tlie Bible. Tliis fact affords another instance of the falsehood of
the chiim that the Quran attests the Christian Scriptures (cli. xii. in).
The>/ wanted but little of having it undone. "Because of the exor-
bitant price which they were obliged to pay for the heifer." — Bale,
and the I'afsir-i-Ravfi.

(71) When ye slew a man, etc. The commentators are troubled to
reconcile this charge of murder against the whole nation, when,
according to their history of the transaction, it was the act of only
o7ie man. The Tafsu-i-liaufi conceives the Jews generally as becom-
ing partners in crime wuth the one guilty person by their unwilling-
ness to use the divine instrumentality to discover the murderer, and
their readiness to charge the crime upon one another.

(72) Strike the dead hodi/ ivith pari of the sacrificed cou\ There is
considerable learning displayed in the discussion as to what part of
the cow was used for this purpose. The weight of learning is pretty
well divided between the tongue and the end of the tail !

(73) Hardened after this, i.e., after the sacrifice of the cow, the
restoration to life of the murdered, and the conviction of the mur-
derer. The events here alluded to are not, for a wonder, described
by the commentators. From what follows, it appears to me the
allusion is to their rejection of the prophets, and especially of
Muhammad (ver. 74).

Otluivs have fallen down for fear of God. Some think the allusion
here to be to the tottering of tlie rocks from the mountain-side under
an earthquake shock. Others have quoted much tradition to show
the literal fulfilment of this in connection with the prophet, stones
doing obeisance to liim. See Tttfsir-i-llaufi.

(74) Do ye therefore desire the Jews should believe you ? Eodwell
translates, " Desire ye then that for your sakes (i.e., to please you, O
Muslims) the Jews should believe ? "

The negative here suggested as an answer to this question throws

SIPARA I.] ( 317 ) [CHAP. II.

ye therefore desire that the Jews should believe you ? yet
a part of them heard the word of God, and then perverted
it, after they had understood it, against their o^Yn con-
science. (75) And when they meet the true believers,
they say, We believe : but when they are privately assem-
bled together, they say, Will ye acquaint them with what
God hath revealed unto you, that they may dispute with
you concerning it in the presence of your Lord ? Do ye
not therefore understand ? (76) Do not they know that
God knoweth that which they conceal as well as that
which they publish ? || (77) But there are illiterate men nisf.

some light on the various examples of Jewish unbelief related in the
preceding: context, the narration of which closes with the preceding
verse. The object of these statements is primarily to show the simi-
larity of Arabia's prophet to Moses, and, secondarily, to arouse in
Arab minds that fanatical hatred of the Jews which was soon to vent
itself on the Bani Quraidha and other tribes. See Muir's Life of
Mahomet, vol. iii. pp. 255-291.

Yet a part of them heard . . . then pierverted it. They listened
with apparent interest to the words of the Quran, and gave Muham-
mad reason to believe they received it as the Word of God, but after-
wards were led to change their minds, probably through the influence
of their more stable-minded brethren.

(75) And when they meet the true believers, they say, We believe.
These are the hypocrites referred to in ver. 74. More likely they
were ignorant Jews, who were really drawn toward Muhammad
when in his presence and under his infliience, but who were drawn
away again by the influence of other Jews who were adverse to
Muhammad. Failure to ally themselves to him was quite sutDcient
to put them under the ban of hypocrisy.

The Tafslr-i-Raufi instances Qab, who was assassinated about this
time by the order or consent of Muhammad, on account of his oppo-
sition to Islam, as one of these hypocrites.

When they are privately assembled together, they say, d;c. Abdul
Qddir translates " one says to another," instead of " they say." He
comments as follows : — " The hypocrites were in the habit of telling
the Muslims, in order to win their favour, what was written in their
books concerning Muhammad ; but his enemies, finding fault with
them, objected to their placing such proofs in their hands," i.e., of
the Muslims. Does not this verse throw some light on the source
from which Muhammad obtained the garbled accounts of the history
and experience of the prophets found in his Qurdn '? Ignorant Jews
related the stories imperfectly to the followers of Muhammad, who
repeated them still more imperfectly to their j^rophet, who embodied
them in the Quran.

(77) Illiterate men . . . icho know not the booh. " Among them the

CHAP. II.] ( 318 ) [SIPARA I.

among them, who know not the book of the law, but only
lying stories, although they think otherwise. (78) And
woe unto them, who transcribe corruptly the book of the
Laiu with their hands, and then say. This is from God :
that they may sell it for a small price. Therefore woe
unto them because of that M'hich their hands have written ;
and woe imto them for that which they have gained.
(79) They say. The fire of hell shall not touch us but for
a certain number of days. Answer, Have ye received any
promise from God to that jpurpose f for God will not act
contrary to his promise : or do ye speak concerning GOD
that which ye know not ? (80) Verily whoso doth evil, and

vulgar know the Pentateuch, only by tradition. They have but a
blind belief." — Savary.

The author of the notes to the Roman Urdu Quran well observes
that this passage implies that, in Muhammad's estimate, the Jewish
Scriptures were extant and entirely credible, and that they were read
and understood by their doctors.

(78) Woe. unto tkem^ who transcribe corrujMy the hoolc of the Law with
their hcihcU, and tlien say, This is from God. " These are they who
form sentences as they please for the people, and then ascribe them
to God or his prophet." — Abdul Qudir.

The inference drawn by modern Muslims from passages like this,
that, according to the Quran, the Jewish and Christian Scriptures
have been corrupted, and are therefore no longer credible, is entirely
unjustifiable. Admitting the charge made here against certain Jews
to be true (and the Christian 7ieed not deny it), it proves nothing
concerning the text of present copies. On the contrary, the charge
implies the existence, at that date, of genuine copies.

That they may sell it for a small yrice. This formula occurs rejJeat-
edly in the Quran. Its meaning is, that the gain arising from such
a course would be small compared Avith the loss of the soul in helL

The Tafsir-i-Bavfi relates a story to the effect that certain Jews
were bribed to pervert the Mosaic description of Antichrist or
Dajjal, so as to make him correspond in size, complexion, and
otherwise to Muhammad.

(79) A certain numbur of days. " That is, says JaMluddin, forty,
being the number of days that their forefathers worshipped the
golden calf, after which they gave out that their punishment should
cease. It is a received opinion among the Jews at present that no
person, be he ever so wicked, or of whatever sect, shall remain in
hell above eleven months, or at most a year, except Dathan and
Abiram and atheists, who will be tormented there to all eternity."
— Sale.

(80) Whoso doeth evil. " By evil in this case the commentators
generally understand polytheism or idolatry, which sin, the Mu-

SIPARA I.] ( 319 ) [CHAP. II.

is encompassed by his iniquity, they shall he the companions
of hdl-^ve, they shall remain therein forever : (81) but they
who believe and do good works, they shall be the com-
panions of paradise, they shall continue therein forever.

II (82) RemcDiber also, when we accepted the covenant ii To*
of the children of Israel, saying, Ye shall not worship
any other except God, and ye shall show kindness to your
parents and kindred, and to orphans, and to the poor,
and speak that which is good unto men, and be constant
at prayer, and give alms. Afterwards ye turned back,

Lammadans believe, unless repented of in this life, is unpardonable,
and will be punished by eternal damnation ; but all other sins they
hold will at length be forgiven." — Hale.

The final pardon of sin, however, is true only of Muslims. For
the kdfir or inlidel, i.e., any one who rejects Islam, there is eternal
burning (chaps, xi. 53 and xli. 28).

ComiMiiions of fire. The Quran everywhere represents the pains
of hell as being those produced by fire. Everywhere the prophet
seems to gloat over the horrors of the punishment meted out to the
lost in perdition. See references in Index under the word Hell.

(81) But they who believe and do good works, i.e., Muslims per-
forming the duties required by their profession.

The statement made in these verses would seem to contradict that
of such passages as speak of salvation by the grace of God, e.g., chap,
xxiv. 21. But there is not necessarily any more contradiction here
than in similar passages of the Bible, where the doctrines of faith
and works seem to be inconsistent with each other. The grace of
God is bestowed upon the ground of faith, which is inseparable from
good works.

(82) I'lue covenant of the cldldren of Israel, &c. It is noteworthy
that the Quran nowhere makes allusion to the ceremonial rites of
sacrihce as a sin-offering, when narrating the religious duties of the
Jews. Even the famous jiassage in chap. xxii. 36-40, where sacrifice
is recognised as a rite appointed by God unto every nation, and the
story of the " Yellow Cow " (vers. 66-70), do not indicate a sacrifice
in any Jewish sense as having atoning efficacy. IMuhammad could
hardly have known so much of Judaism as is manifest in the Quran
— could not have met with so many Jews as he did in Madina,
Avithout knowing something at least of their ideas of sacrifice. The
conclusion would seem well founded that he deliberately eliminated
the whole idea of atonement Irom what he declared to be the Word
of God, and, therefore, never permitted the doctrine of salvation by
atonement to appear as having divine sanction in any dispensation.
With facts like this before us, it is very difficult to exonerate the
author of the Quran from the charge of deliberate forgery and con-
scious imposture.

CHAP. II.] ( 320 ) [SIPARA I.

except a few of you, and retired afar off. (83) And when
we accepted your covenant, saying, Ye shall not shed your
brothers blood, nor dispossess one another of your habita-
tions ; then ye confirmed it, and were witnesses thereto.
(84) Afterwards ye were they who slew one another, and
turned several of your hrtJnrn out of their houses, mutu-
ally assisting each other against them with injustice and
enmity ; but if they come captives unto you, ye redeem
them : yet it is equally unlawful for 3"ou to dispossess
them. Do ye tlierefure believe in part of tlie book of the
law, and reject other part thereof ? But whoso among
you doth this, shall have no other reward than shame in
this life, and on the day of resurrection tliey .shall be sent
to a most grievous punishment ; for God is not regardless
of that wliicli ye do. (85) These are they who have pur-
chased this present life, at tlie price of that which is to
come ; wdierefore their punishment shall not be mitigated,
neither shall they be helped.
li Ti- II (8(5) We formerly delivered the book 0/ the law unto

(83) Shall not shed your brother^s blood. Eodwell translates, " your
own blood," and explains as follows : " The blood of those who are
as your own flesh."

(84) Yet it is equally unlaivful for you to di'fpossess them. " This
passage was revealed on occasion of some quarrels which arose
between the Jews of the tribes of Quraidha, and those of al Aws, al
Nadhir, aud al Khazraj, aud came to that height that they took arms
and destroyed one another's habitations, and turned one another out
of their houses ; but when any were taken captive, they redeemed
them. When they were asked the reason of their acting in this
manner, they answered, that they were commanded by their law to
redeem the captives, but that they fought out of shame, lest their
chiefs should be despised." — Sale, on authority of Jaldludnlii.

(85) 117(0 have purchased this present life, <Cr. This clear recog-
nition of the importance of seeking happiness in the life to come,
together with the personal character given to the Judge of all men,
have not been the least potent factors in gaining inlhience for Islam
among its votaries.

Shall not he helped. By the intercession of prophets and angels to
save them from wrath on the judgment-day.

(8G) And caused apostles to succeed him. " It is recorded that there
were four tliousand prophets, more or less, between IMoses and Jesus, all
of whom obeyed the precejits of the Pentateuch, cf/., Joshua, Simeon,
Job, David, Solomon, Elijah, Zacharaya, and John Baptist. They

SIPARA I.] (331 ) [chap. II.

Moses, and caused apostles to succeed him, and gave
evident miracles to Jesus the sou of Mary, aud streng-
thened him with the holy spirit. Do ye therefore,
whenever an apostle cometh unto you with that which
your souls desire not, proudly reject him, and accuse

were sent in order to proclaim and enforce the law, for the corrup-
tions (of the text of the Word of God) made by Jewish doctors had
been spread abroad. Wherefore these apostles were, so to speak,
divine teachers and renewers of the true religion. Such are referred
to in this verse." — Tafsir-i-RauJi.

This authority states, in this same connection, that a prophet was
sent at the beginning of every century, and that at the beginning of
each millennium a great prophet (Nabi ul Azim) was sent. This
state of things continued until the coming of Muhammad, who, being
the last of the prophets, closed the book of inspiration and established
the true faith in perfection. He does not, however, seem to see the
inconsistency of this theory with the fact of the four thousand prophets
belonging to the Mosaic dispensation before mentioned, nor does he
show by what process the disposition of doctors of divinity to corrupt
the text of Scripture has been changed in the last dispensation. If
the former Scriptures were corrupted in spite of the four thousand
prophets, how about the Qurdn in a dispensation devoid of prophets ?

And gave evident miracles to Jesus the son of Mary. These were —
(i) speaking when an infant in his mother's arms ; (2) making birds
of clay when a child, and causing them to fly away ; (3) healing the
blind-born ; (4) cleansing lepers ; and (5) raising the dead. See
chaps, iii. 48 and v. 1 1 o.

These passages, while recognising Jesus as a worker of miracles,
everywhere ascribe them to divine power external to him. He is
only " the son of Mary."

And strengthened him with the holy spirit. " We must not imagine
!Muhammad here means the Holy Ghost in the Cliristian acceptation.
The commentators say this spirit was the angel Gabriel, who sancti-
fied Jesus and constantly attended on him." — Sale, Jaldhiddin.

In chap. iv. 169, Jesus is said to be "a sjnrit proceeding from
God," so that he would appear, according to the Quran, to be the
Holy Ghost. Muslims even accord to his followers the creed,
" There is one God, and Jesus is the Spirit of God," as exj^ressive of
the truth. In chap. xxi. 91, Mary's conception is said to have been
due to the breathing bi/ God of his spii'it into her. And in chap. iii.
45, Jesus is called the "Word 2Jroceeding from Himself,^' i.e., God.
Now, while it is certain that these expressions, and many others of
a similar import in the Quran, do express the doctrine of the divinity
of Jesus, as well as of the Holy Ghost, it is perfectly clear that
Muhammad never intended to express that idea. For instance, in
chap. iii. 47, it is evident that Muhammad regarded Jesus as a
creature. And in chap. iv. 169, 170, where Jesus is called the
"word which he (God) conveyed into Mary, and a spirit i^roceediug
from him," this very expression, which is one of the strongest in the

X

CHAP. II.] ( 322 ) [SIPARA I.

some of imposture, and slay others ? (87) The Jews say,
Our hearts are uncircumcised : but God hath cursed them
with their infidelity; therefore few shall believe. (88)
And when a book came unto them from God, confirming
the scriiJtures which were with them, although they had
before prayed for assistance against those who believed
not, yet when that came unto them which they knew to he
from God, they would not believe therein : therefore the
curse of God shall be on the infidels. (89) For a vile
2yrice have they sold their souls, that they should not

Quran, is followed by the command, " Say not, there are three Gods,"
which is evidently intended to deny the idea of the divinity of Jesus
as well as of Mary. Nevertheless, the fact of siich expressions being
used in the Quran can only be explained on the ground that they
were in use among the Arabs in Muhammad's time in a Christian
sense, and that Muhammad either used them, while explaining away
their meaning, in order to commend his doctrine to Christians, or,
as is more probable, he used them without understanding their
Christian import himself. See ^ilniv's Life of Mohaviet, vol. ii. p. 138.

The unintentional testimony of IMuhammad to the character of
Jesus is a sulyect worthy the study of the Christian controversialist.

The Tafsir-i-Husaini gives four opinions of Muslim commentators
as to the import of the expression " holy spirit : " (i.) The holy soul
of Jesus ; (2.) the angel Gabriel ; (3.) a potent name whereby he was
able to raise the dead ; and (4.) the Gospel.

And accuse some of imposture. The prophet of Arabia, as is his
wont, here likens the treatment he received at the hands of the Jews
to that endured by Jesus, whom they rejected as an impostor. The
passage shows that Muhammad was regarded as an impostor by the
Jews of Madina at least.

(87) But God hath cursed them with their infidelity, therefore fexo
shall believe. Eodwell renders it, " God hath cursed them in their
infidelity : few are they who believe."

Savary has it: " God cursed them because of their perfidy. Oh,
how small is the number of the true believers !"

(88) And token a booh came unto them from God. The Qurdn,
which Muhammad here distinctly claims to be the Word of God.

21iey liad before prayed, d-c. " The Jews, in expectation of the
coming of Muhammad (according to the tradition of his followers),
used this prayer : 0 God, help us against the unbelievers by the prophet
who is to be sent in the last times.^' — Sale.

Which they knew to be from God. Another charge of deliberate
rejection of his claims.

(89) Out of envy, because God sendeth doion his favours to sicch of his
servayits as he pfeaseth. Envious of " the gift of the prophetic office,
&c., to a pagan Arab, and not to a Jew." — Ilodwell.

SIPARA I.] ( 323 ) [chap. II

believe in that wliicli God hatli sent down ; out of envy,
because God sendetli down his favours to such of his
servants as he pleaseth : therefore they brought on them-
selves indignation on indignation ; and the unbelievers
shall suffer an ignominious punishment. (90) When
one saith unto them, Believe in that which God hath
sent down; they answer, We believe in that which

" It is remarkable that Muhammad accuses the Jews of rejecting
him for the same reason their eklers and priests had refused Christ,
namely, for envy." — Brinckman, Notes on Islam.

This assumption of ]Muhammad, like that of deliberate rejection
of him whom they knew to be the prophet of God, and of that which
they knew to be the Word of God {i.e., the Qurdn, see ver. 88), is
purely gratuitous. He had failed to give his Jewish hearers one
single good reason for believing him to be sent of God as a prophet.

R. Bosworth Smith {Molimmnied and Mohammedanism, p. 14, second
edition) is surprised " that the avowed relation of Christianity to
Judaism has not protected Islam from the assaults of Christian
apologist?, grounded on its no less explicitly avowed relation to the
two together." But surely " avowed " relationship can afford no
protection to any religion against assault. The avowed relationship
must be proven to be genuine. Mere assertions on the part of Jesus
never could have established any relationship between Christianity
and Judaism. This relationship is only established by showing
Christianity to be a development of Judaism — a development de-
manded by Judaism itself. • Until it can be shown that Islam is a
further development of both Judaism and Christianity, all " avowed "
relationship counts for nothing. The graund of assault on the part
of Christian apologists is the manifest disagreement between Islam
and its " avowed relation " to Christianity.

(90) Tlutt tvliicli Ood hath sent down. The Quran. The Tafsir-i-Raufi
understands the allusion to be to the Gospel also, but this opinion is
not well founded. The latter part of the verse undoubtedly refers
to the Quran alone, and the allusion here must be to the same thing.

That which hath been sent doiun to us. The Pentateuch.

They reject . . . the truth, confirming that which is with them. See
note on ver. 40. This statement, so frequently reiterated, is one of
the chief of the points inviting attack upon the Quran. The question
to be decided is one of fact. Does the Quran confirm the doctriue,
the history, and the plan of salvation by atonement set forth in the
writings of Moses '] If not, then the Quran is a forgery, and Mu-
hammad an impostor, the Quran being witness.

Muslims are so thoroughly convinced of the force of this argument
against them that they see no way of evading it except in the claim
that the Pentateuch now in use among Jews and Christians is either
in whole or in part a forgery.

Say, Why therefore have ye slain theprophets of God ?■ See Matt, xxiii.
37. fcjo Rodwell ; but see also notes on ver. 60.

CHAP. II.] ( 324 ) [SIPARA I.

hath been sent down unto us : and they reject what
hath hccn revealed since, although it be the truth, con-
firming that which is with them. Say, Why there-
fore have ye slain the prophets of God in times past,
if ye be true believers ? (91) Moses formerly came unto
you with evident signs, but ye afterwards took the calf /or
your god and did wickedly. (92) And when we accepted
your covenant, and lifted the mountain of Sinai over
you, saijing, Eeceive the law which we have given you,
with a resolution to perforin it, and hear ; they said. We
have heard, and have rebelled: and they were made to
drink down the calf into their hearts for their unbelief.
Say, A grievous thing hath your faith commanded you, if
ye be true believers ? (93) Say, If the future mansion with
God be lorepared peculiarly for you, exclusive of the rest
of mankind, wish for death, if ye say truth ; (94) but they
will never wish for it, because of that which their hands
have sent before them ; God knoweth the wicked-doers ;

(91) The calf. See notes on ver. 50.

(92) Lifted the mountain of Sinai over you. See note on ver. 62.
TFe have heard and rebelled. Muslim, commentators express a

variety of opinions in regard to these Avords, e.g., they cried aloud
"we have heard," but said softly "and rebelled," or "we have heard"
with our ears " and rebelled " with our hearts, or that their fathers
heard and they rebelled; or that some said "we have heard," and
others " and rebelled ; " or, finalh', that two different occasions are
referred to, one of obedience and another of rebellion. See Tafslr-i-
Raufi.

Say, A grievous thing, etc. "Muhammad here infers from their
forefathers' disobedience in worshipping the calf, at the same time
that they pretended to believe in the law of Moses, that the faith of
the Jews in his time was as vain and hypocritical, since they rejected
him, who was foretold therein, as an impostor." — Sale, Yaliya, Bai-
dk'nn.

(93) // the future mansion . . . wish for death, if ye sa?/ truth.
Tlds same claim can be set up with equal justice against Muslims,
who hold out no hope of salvation to such as reject Islam. The
TafsVr-i-Pumfi regards the words as being addressed to believers as a
test of their faith. Tried by such a test, there are indeed very few
true Muslims.

(94) lliat which their hands have sent before them. "That is, by
reason of the wicked forgeries which they have been guilty of in
respect to the Scriptures. An expression much like that of St. Paul

SIPARA I.] ( 325 ) [CHAP. II.

(95) and thou shalt surely find them of all men the most
covetous of life, even more than the idolaters : one of them
would desire his life to be prolonged a thousand years,
but none shall reprieve himself from punishment, that his
life may be prolonged : God seeth that v^^hich they do,

II (96) Say, Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel (for he hath ix x^"-
caused the Quran to descend on thy heart, by the permission
of God, confirming that which was before revealed, a direc-
tion, and good tidings to the faithful); (97) whosoever is an
enemy to God, or his angels, or his apostles, or to Gabriel,
or Michael, verily God is an enemy to the unbelievers.
(98) And now we have sent down unto thee evident

where he says, that some me7i's sins are open beforehand, going before
to judgment." — Sale.

God hioivetk the wicked-doers. This, with a multitude of similar
passages in the Quran, clearly emphasises the truth of God's omni-
science. It is one of those truths which has given IsMm so much
moral power, and which asserts its superiority over the various
forms of heathenism with which it comes in contact. Such truths
regarding God account in great measure for its influence as a " mis-
sionary religion."

(96) ]yhoever is an enemy to Gabriel. "The commentators say that
the Jews asked what angel it was that brouglit the divine revelations
to Muhammad ; and being told that it was Gabriel, they replied that
he was their enemy, and the messenger of wrath and punishment ;
but if it had been Michael, they would have believed on him, be-
cause that angel was their friend, and the messeng^er of peace and
plenty. And on this occasion, they say, this passage was revealed.

That Michael was really the protector or guardian angel of the
Jews we know from Scripture (Dan. xii. i); and it seems that Gabriel
was, as the Persians call him, the angel of revelations, being frequently
sent on messages of that kind (Dan. viii. 16; ix. 21 ; Luke i. 19, 26);
for which reason it is probable Muhammad pretended he was the
angel from whom he received the Qurau." — Sale, Jaluluddtn, Yahya.

(98) Evident signs, " i.e., the revelations of this book." — Sale. " The
Qurdn and miracles." — Tafsir-i- Eaiifi. The word Aydt, here trans-
lated signs, is that which is used to denote the various sections or
verses of the Quran. As these verses were claimed to be a standing
miracle, and were for this reason called signs, the allusion of the pas-
sage is to the revelations of the Quran, as Sale has it.

As to the claim of Muslim tradition and of modern Muhamma-
dans that Muhammad wrought miracles, it is sufficient to say that
such a claim is made directly in opposition to the repeated declara-
tion of the Quran to the contrary. See vers. 118, 119; chap. iii.
184, 185 ; chap. vii. 34-36, 109, iii ; chap. x. 21, &c.

CHAP. II.] ( 326 ) [SIPARA I.

signs, and none will disbelieve tliem but the evil-doers.

(99) Whenever they make a covenant, will some of them
reject it ? yea, the greater part of them do not believe.

(100) And when there came unto them an apostle from God,
confirming that scripture which was with them, some of
those to whom the scriptures were given cast the book of
God behind their backs, as if they knew it not : (101) and
they followed the device which the devils devised against the
kingdom of Solomon, and Solomon was not an unbeliever ;
but the devils believed not; they taught men sorcery, and
that which was sent down to the two angels at Babel,
Hariit and Mariit : yet those two taught no man until they
had said, Verily we are a temptation, therefore be not an

(100) An apostle from God, confirming that scripture which was with
them. Mulmmmad here reiterates Lis claim to be an apostle con-
firming the Jewish Scriptures. He would also be recognised as an
apostle of God because he confirms the Jewish Scriptures. He there-
fore attests the divine character of the Scriptures eoctant in his time.
See also note on ver. 90.

(101) The device lohich the devils devised. "The devils having, by
God's permission, tempted Solomon ^vithout success, they made use
of a trick to blast his character. For they ^\Tote several books of
magic, and hid them under that prince's throne, and after his death
told the chief men that if they wanted to know by what means Solo-
mon had obtained his absolute power over men, genii, and the winds,
they should dig under his throne ; which having done, they found
the aforesaid books, which contained impious superstitions. The
better sort refused to learn the evil arts therein delivered, but the
common people did ; and the priests published this scandalous story
of Solomon, which obtained credit among the Jews, till God, say
the Muhammadans, cleared that king by the mouth of their prophet,
declaring that Solomon was no idolater." — Sale, Yahya, Juldludd'm.

" Babel is regarded by the Muslims as the fountain-head of the
science of magic. Thej^ suppose Harut and M^riit to be two angels
who, in consequence of their want of compassion for the frailties of
mankind, were sent down to earth to be tempted. They both sinned ;
and being permitted to choose whether they would be punished now
or hereafter, chose the former, and are still suspended by the feet at
Babel in a rocky pit, and are the great teachers of magic." — Lane on
chap, iii., note 14, of the 'Thousand and One Nights. See also Eod-
well's note.

Hdrdt and Mdrfct. " Some say only that these were two magicians
or angels sent by God to teach men magic and to tempt them ; but
others tell a longer fable, that the angels expressing their surj^rise
at the wickedness of the sons of Adam, after prophets had been sent

1 3

SIPARA I.] ( 327 ) [chap. II.

unbeliever. So men learned from those two a charm by
which they might cause division between a man and his
wife ; but they hurt none thereb}^ unless by God's per-
mission, and they learned that which would hurt them,
and not profit them ; and yet they knew that he who
bought that art should have no part in the life to come,
and woful is the 2yricc for which they have sold their souls,
if they knew it. (102) But if they had believed, and feared
God, verily the reward the?/ would have had from GoD
would have been better, if they had known it.

II (103) 0 true believers, say not to our aiwstlc, " Eaina ; " li tli
butsay "Undlmrua;" and hearken : the infidels shall suffer
a grievous punishment. (104) It is not the desire of the un-
to them with divine commissions, God bid them choose two out of
their own number to be sent down to be judges on earth. Wliere-
upon they pitched upon Harut and Marut, who executed their othce
with integrity for some time, till Zuharah, or the planet Venus, de-
scended and appeared before them in the shape of a beautiful woman,
bringing a complaint against her husband (though others say she
was a real woman). As soon as they saw her they fell in love with
her, and endeavoured to preA^ail on her to satisfy their desires ; but
she flew up again to heaven, whither the two angels also returned,
but were not admitted. However, on the intercession of a certain
pious man, they were allowed to choose whether they would be
punished in this life or in the other ; whereupon they chose the
former, and now suffer punishment accordingly in Babel, where
they are to remain till the day of judgment. They add that if a
man has a fancy to learn magic, he may go to them, and hear their
voice, but cannot see them.

"The Jews have something like this of the angel Shamhozai,
who having debauched himself with women, repented, and by way
of penance hung himself up between heaven and earth. (See
Bereshit Kabbah in Gen. vi. 2)." — Sale, Tahya, Jaldluddin, d;c.

(103) >Say not to our apostle, ^'■Raina; " hut say " Undhurna." " Those
two Arabic words have both the same signification, viz.. Lock on us,
and are a kind of salutation. Muhammad had a great aversion to
the first, because the Jews frequently used it in derision, it being a
word of reproach in their tongue. They alluded, it seems, to the
Hebrew verb J^Tl, ma, which signifies to be bad or mischievous." —
Sale, Jaldluddin.

" Raina," as pronounced, means in Hebrew, " our had one ; " but in
Arabic, "look onus." — Rodwell, Abdul Qudir.

(105) Whatever verse we shall abrogate, or carise thee to forget, we
will bring a better than it, or one like %mto it. "Init^m Baghawi says,
that the number of abrogated verses has been variously estimated

CHAP. II.] ( 328 ) [SIPARA I.

believers, either among those unto whom the scriptures have
been given, or among the idolaters, that any good should
be sent down unto you from your Loud : but God will
appropriate his mercy unto whom he pleaseth ; for God is
exceeding beneficent. (105) Whatever verse we shall abro-
gate, or cause thee to forget, we will bring a better than

from five to five liundred." — Hughes' Introduction to the Roinan Urdu
Quran, 1876, p. xix.

The Tafsir Fatah-ul-Asiz describes three classes of abrogated pas-
sages : (i.) where one verse or passage is substiticted for another;
(2.) where the meaning and force of a passage is abrogated by the
addition of another passage, both passages being retained in the
book ; and (3.) where the passage is removed entirely from both
the book ami the memory of those who may have heard it. See
on this suliject Introduction to Muir's Life of Mahomet, pp. xxii. and
xxvi., also Preliminary Discourse, p. no.

Brinckmaii, in his Notes on Islam, draws from this passage the
following conclusion :— "If God gave verses to Muhammad and then
cancelled them, it utterly destroys the notion that the original of
the present Quran, as we now have it, was written on the preserved
table from all eternity by God. If it be said that God thought it
better to withdraw some verses after declaring them, it looks as if
God, like man, did not know the future ; and as we do not know
for a certainty what words were cancelled, we cannot tell which
verse it is best for lis to attend to."

The doctrine of abrogation, as taught in this passage and others
(xiii. 39 and xvi. 103), sprang up during Muhammad's prophetic
career as a matter of necessity. The prophetic passages being deli-
vered piecemeal, and generally as the religious or political circum-
stances of the prophet demanded, it came to pass that some of the
later deliverances were contradictory to former ones. The Jews,
ever alert in their opposition to the pretensions of the new religion,
pointed out the discrepancies already manifest in the so-called reve-
lations. Objections of this order could not but seriously influence
the popularity of the prophet among his countrymen, and even
jeopardise his credit in the eyes of his own followers. Under cir-
cumstances like these Muhammad promulgated the doctrine of abro-
gation, a doctrine whicli not only secured the allegiance of those
whose faith had been shaken by Jewish objections, but which has
served to strengthen his followers in all ages in their controversy
with Jews and Christians.

The claim of the commentators is: (i.) That God is a sovereign,
and is therefore at liberty to change or abolish his laws at his own
discretion ; (2.) that abrogation on his part does not imply any
imperfection in the laws changed or abolished, as Jews and Chris-
tians had declared, but that circumstances of time, place, &c., called
forth new laws, rites, and ceremonies. All God's laws, rites, and
ceremonies, ordained for the guidance of his creatures, are good and

siPARA I.] ( 329 ) [chap. ir.

it, or one like unto it. Dost thou not know that God is
almighty ? (106) Dost thou not know that unto God be-
longeth the kingdom of heaven and earth ? neither have
ye any protector or helper except God. (107) Will ye
require of your apostle according to that which was for-
merly required of Moses ? but he that hath exchanged faith

true for the time and under the circumstances in which they were
given and for which they were intended.

Now, while it may be admitted that the abrogated passages of the
Quran may thus be upheld against the objection that they militate
against the perfection of the divine character, assuming, as Muslims
do, the inspiration of the Quran, yet this doctrine will not serve
their purpose when applied to the alleged abrogation of the Scrip-
tures of the Old and New Testaments.

On this point it becomes us to admit freely that God has abro-
gated in one age rites, ceremonies, and laws which were commanded
in another. We claim this much in our controversy with Jews con-
cerning the rites and ordinances of the Mosaic dispensation relating
to clean and unclean meats, sacrifices and offerings, the observance
of certain feasts, holy days, pilgrimages, &c. This doctrine is clearly
maintained by the Apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Galatians and
by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

But when the Muslim seeks to apply this principle of abrogation
to the great cardinal doctrines of tlie Christian faith, as taught con-
sistently throughout the whole Bible, and thus attempts to reconcile
the former Scriptures with the contradictory teachings of the Quran
concerning the being and attributes of God, the Trinity, the Sonship of
Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the Atonement, not to mention historical
facts and the spirit of prophecy, the Christian does fairly take excep-
tion to this doctrine of abrogation. No amount of argument can
ever so reconcile the Qurdn with the former Scriptures, which it
professes to confirm, as to make it possible to accept both as the
Word of God. If the Bible be acknowledged to be the Word of
God (and every Muslim is bound to do so), then, all reasonable con-
cession to the doctrine of abrogation being made, the Quran must
still be rejected.

Dost not thou know that God is AlmigJity? This is given as the
reason why God may abrogate any portion of his Word. It is the
reason given by all Muslim commentators. " He can do as he
pleases." But God cannot lie. He cannot deny eternal truth, his-
torical facts, and his own nature. " He cannot deny himself."
Compare the teaching of Jesus in ^latt. v. 17.

(107) That which was fonnerly required of Moses ? " Jalaluddin
says that what the Jews required of Moses was that they might
see God manifestly. The Tafslr Husaini, however, has it that they
demanded that Muhammad should show them such a complete book,
given at one time, as was given to Moses. Whatever the allusion
may be, one thing is evident, viz., that Muhammad was troubled

CHAP. II.] ( 330 ) [SIPARA I.

for infidelity, hath already erred from the straight way.
(108) Many of those unto whom the scriptures have
been given, desire to render you again unbelievers, after
ye have believed ; out of envy from their souls, even
after the truth is become manifest unto them; but for-
give them, and avoid them, till God shall send his com-
suLs. mand ; for God is omnipotent. (109) Be constant in
prayer, and give alms ; and what good ye have sent
before for your souls, ye shall find it with God ; surely
God seeth that which ye do. (110) They say, Verily none
shall enter paradise, except they who are Jews or Christians:
this is their wish. Say, Produce your proof of this, if ye
speak truth. (Ill) Nay, but he who resigneth himself to
God, and doth that which is right, he shall have his reward

and displeased at the disposition of his followers to reqiiire of him
similar evidence of his prophetic mission to that given by Moses." —
Notes 071 Roman Urdfi Quran.

(108) Out of envy from their souls, ct'C. See notes on ver. 89.

But forgive them, and avoid them. These words indicate the policy
of Muhammad, so long as he was too weak to use the more convincing
argument of the sword in the controversy with the powerful Jewish
trilaes'of Madina. The faithful were not to wage war against them,
but to forgive them, and to prevent their exercising any evil
influence, they were to be avoided. The Tafsir-i-Ii'auJi paraphrases
this passage thus : " Forgive and pass them by, until God reveal his
command concerning their slaughter or their payment of tribute."

(109) Be constant in prayer. Prayer is the first of the five prin-
cipal duties of the Muslim. It consists in the ofiering of ascriptions
of praise to the deity with supplication for divine blessing five times
a day. The times for prayer are : (i.) In the evening at four minutes
after sunset ; (2.) just after nightfall ; (3.) at daybreak in the morn-
ing ; (4.) at noon, as soon as the sun begins to decline from the
meridian; (5.) midway between noon and sunset. See also note on
ver. 42.

And alms. The giving of zakdt, or legal and obligatory alms, is
another of the five duties. The idea was probably borrowed fi'om
the Jewish tithes. See note on vei\ 42, and Preliminary Discourse,
p. 172.

(110) They say, Verily none shall enter "paradise, except they who are
Jews or Christians. " This passage was revealed on occasion of a
dispute which Miihammad had with the Jews of ^ladina and the
Christians of Najrdn, each of them asserting that those of their
religion only should be saved." — Sale, Jaldluddin. See note on
ver. 61.

(111) JVay, hut he who resigneth himself to God, and doth that which

SIPARA I.] ( 331 ) [chap. II.

with bis Lord : there shall come no fear on them, neither
shall they be grieved. -n 1 4

II (112) The Jews say, The Christians are grounded on li i4
nothing ; and the Christians say, The Jews are grounded
on nothing; yet they loth read the scriptures. So like-
wise say they who know not the scripture, according to
their saying. But God shall judge between them on the
day of the resurrection, concerning that about which they
now disagree. (113) Who is more unjust than he who pro-
hibiteth the temples of God, that his name should be re-
membered therein, and who hasteth to destroy them ? Those
men cannot enter therein, but with fear: (114) they shall

is right, d;c. Here we have first a denial of the teaching of Jews
and Christians that a profession of, and obedience to, the require-
ments of their religion is necessary to salvation. As this is also
the teaching of the Muslims, the force of this denial of it by
Muhammad can only be evaded by the convenient doctrine of abro-
gation. Secondly, we have here a declaration that resignation to
the will of God and right doing, which Jalaluddin interprets as
" asserting the imity of God," are the sole conditions of salvation.
If so, then men are still under the law, and so cannot be saved,
seeing none can fulfil its requirements. If so, then the Gospel of
Jesus, which the Quran claims to have attested, is untrue.

(112) The Jews say, The Christians are grounded on jwthing, dix.
" The Jews and Christians are here accused of denying the truth
of each other's religion, notwithstanding they read the Scriptures ;
whereas the Pentateuch bears testimony to Jesus, and the Gospel
bears testimony to Moses." — Sale, Jalaluddin.

Yet they both read the Scriptures. This is further testimony to the
Jewish and Christian Scriptures, as not only extant and in general
use among Jews and Christians, but also to their credibility. The
plain inference from this passage is that IMuhammad regarded them
as genuine. Whence then the ground for the cliarge made by Idm
that the Jews and Christians changed and corrupted their Scriptures
(ver. 41) 1 The answer is, that he did not charge upon them the
crime of corrupting the text, but of perverting and concealing the
meaning of their Scriptures.

The charge made by modern Muslims as to the corruption of the
Bible text cannot be justified by any fair interpretation of the
Quran. This is an arrow borrowed from the quiver of Christian
infidelity.

They who know not the Scripture. The heathen Arabs, who sided
with Jews and Christians in their debates.

(113, 114) Who is more unjust than he ivlio ^wohihiteth the temples
of God, &c. " Or hiudereth men from paying their adorations to

CHAP. II.] ( 332 ) [SIPARA I.

have shame in this world, and in the next a grievous
punishment. (115) To God hclongcth the east and the
west ; therefore whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray,
there is the face of God; for God is omnipresent and
omniscient. (116) They say, God hath begotten children:
God forbid ! To him helongeth whatever is in heaven, and
on earth; (117) all is possessed by him, the Creator of

God in tliose sacred places. This passai^e, says Jalaluddin, was
revealed on news being brought that the Romans had spoiled the
temple of Jerusalem ; or else wlien the idoLatrous Arabs obstructed
Muhammad's visiting the temple of Makkah in the expedition of al
Hudaibiya, which happened in the sixth year of the Hijra." — Sale.

But Rodwell points out that this verse is misphiced liere, in case
it has reference to tlie Makkans who obstructed Muhammad's visit to
the Kaabah in the sixth year of the Hijra.

" Muhammad little thought how this verse foreshadowed his suc-
cessors. The Mosque of Omer at Jerusalem and the Mosque of St.
Sophia will occur to the reader."- — Brinckman's Azotes on Islam.

Those inen cannot enter therein hut with fear. This verse is referred
to as authority for excludiug Christians from the Musjid, especially
from the Kaabah.

(115) Whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray, there is the face of God.
This verse is regarded by all commentators as abrogated by ver.
145. It is said to have been revealed injthe interval between the
abrogation of the command to pray toward Jerusalem and the final
command to turn toward Makkah. A multitude of stories have been
invented to explain the verse, but their recital would be unprofit-
able.

For God is omnipres'ent and omniscient. This is given as the reason
for requiring no Qibla. Even the Muslim must be struck with the
very strange inconsistency between this reasonable statement and
the reason assigned in ver. 145 for the command to turn to Makkah
as the Qibla.

(116) They say, God hath begotten children. "This is spoken not
only of the Christians and of the Jews (for they are accused of
holding Uzair or Ezra to be the Son of God), but also the pagan
Arabs, who imagined the angels to be daughters of God." — Sale,
Tafsir-i-Baufi.

This charge indicates the ignorance of the Arabian prophet.
Neither Jews nor Christians ever said God begot children in the sense
here ascribed. The charge was probably due to an inference drawn
from the langiiage used by Christians, and perhaps by Jews, in speak-
ing of Christ and his people as the " Son of God " and "the children
of God." The charge against the Jews that they called Ezra the Son
of God (chap. x. 30) is entirely without proof, and altogether beyond
the region of probability.

(117) Be, and it is. The doctrine that God creates out of nothing
is here clearly recognised. Also his entire sovereignty over all things.

siPARA I.] ( 333 ) [chap. it.

heaven and earth ; and when he dreceeth a thing, he only
saith unto it. Be, and it is. (118) And they who know
not the scriptures say, Unless God speak unto us, or thou
show us a sign, ive vnll not hclieve. So said tliose before
them, according to their saying : their hearts resemble
each other. We have already shown manifest signs unto
people who firmly believe; (119) we have sent thee in
truth, a bearer of good tidings and a preacher ; and thou
shalt not be questioned concerning the companions of
hell. (120) But the Jews will not be pleased with thee,
neither the Christians, until thou follow their religion ;
say, The direction of God is the true direction. And
verily if thou follow their desires, after the knowledge
which hath been given thee, thou shalt find no patron or
protector against God, (121) They to whom we have

(118) Or thou show us a sign. This passage points to the strong
pressure brought to bear upon Muhammad, not only by Jews and
Christians, but also by the Arabs, in their constant demand for
miracles. Such passages also clearly show that Muhammad wrought
no miracles.

We have already shown manifest signs. Muhammad here probably
alludes to the verses {Ayut, signs) of the Quran as manifest signs to
believers.

(119) We have sent thee , . . a preacher. This is Muhammad's
claim concerning himself. He ever sets himself forth as a preacher,
yet as a messenger of God, an apostle, by whom the Quran was to be
conveyed to and enforced upon the world. The power by which it
was to be enforced, at the time this passage was written, was jjersua-
sion. The pains consequent on unbelief Mere the pains of hell- fire.
Believers were not yet made by the power of the sword.

71iou shalt not he questioned concerning the companions of hell. The
Tafstr Husaini says these words were spoken in reply to the inquiry
of Muhammad concerning his parents, who had died in idolatry.
The meaniug, however, seems to be that the prophet was not to
dispute, but simply to j^^oclaim the truth. If men would not believe,
the responsibility rested with them. They thereby proved them-
selves to be companions of hell.

(120) Until thou follovj their religion. We learn from this passage the
growing division between the Jews and Christians and Muhammad,
who is now regarded as teaching doctrine which is far from attesting
the faith of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Even Muhammad recognises
" their religion " as different from his own, but yet dili'erent only as
heresy differs from orthodoxy.

(121) They to whom we have given the book. Sale, in his translation,

CHAP. II.] ( 334 ) [SIPARA I.

given the book of the Quran, and who read it with its true
reading, they believe therein ; and w^hoever believeth not
therein, they shall perish.
i^ lis' II (122) 0 children of Israel, remember my favour
wherewith I have favoured you, and that I have pre-
ferred you before all nations ; (123) and dread the
day wherein one soul shall not make satisfaction for
another soul, neither shall any compensation be accepted
from them, nor shall any intercession avail, neither shall
they be helped. (124) Bemember when the Lord tried
Abraham by certain words, which he fulfilled : God said,
Verily I will constitute thee a model of religion unto
mankind ; he answered, And also of my posterity ; God
said. My covenant doth not comprehend the ungodly.

supplies the words " of the Quran " after this sentence. Some Muslim
commentators understand the passage in the same way ; but the
sentiment of the whole passage, as well as the interpretation of most
Muslim commentators, is against it. The reference is to the Jewish
and Christian Scriptures, aud the meaning of the passage then is,
" The direction of God is the true direction," i.e., Islam, and those
Jews and Christians who read their own Scriptures " with its true
reading," i.e., who do not change or twist the evident import thereof,
" they believe therein."

We have in this passage a distinct witness of Muhammad himself
to the genuineness and credibility of the Scriptures extant in his
own time, and in use among Jews and Christians.

(122) 0 children of Israel. . . . I have preferred yoii, before all
nations, i.e., "until the time of Muhammad. Then the descendants
of Ishmael were not so approved by God." — Brinchnan's Notes on
Islam.

This verse and the next are identical with vers. 46 and 47.

(124) Remember when the Lord tried Abraham. " God tried Abraham
chiefly by commanding him to leave his native country and to ofl'er
his son. But the commentators stippose the trial here meant related
only to some particular ceremonies, such as circumcision, pilgrimage
to the Kaabah, several rites of purification, and the like." — Sale.

Which he fuljilled. Which Abraham fulfilled by leaving his home
and country, and, as Muslims believe, by ofi'ering up Ismail as a sacri-
fice. See chap, xxxvii. loi-i 07.

Verily I will constitute thee a model of religion. " I will establish
thee the leader of the people." — Savar//.

" I have rather expressed the meaning than truly translated the
Arabic word Imdm, which answers to the Latin Antistes. This title
the Muhammadans give to their priests who begin the prayers in
their mostj^ues, and whom all the congregation follow." — Sale,

siPARA I.] ( 335 ) [chap. ir.

(125) And when we appointed the holy house of MakJMh to
"be a place of resort for mankind, and a place of security ;
and said, Take the station of Abraham for a place of
prayer ; and we covenanted with Abraham and Ismail,
that they should cleanse my house for those who should
compass it, and those who should be devoutly assiduous
there, and those who should bow down and worship. (126)

(125) The holy house. "That is, the Kaabah, which is usually called,
by way of eminence, the house. Of the sanctity of this building and
other particulars relating to it, see the Preliminary Discourse, p.
1 8o." — Sale.

The station of Abraham. "A place so called within the inner
enclosure of the Kaabah, where they pretend to show the print of his
foot in a stone." — Sale.

According to the Tafsir-i-Raufi, Abraham visited the house of
Ismail in his absence, but not liking the treatment he received
from his wife, left with her a message for his son, which was under-
stood by Ismail to express a desire that he should divorce his wife.
This he did, when he married another. Abraham came again in the
absence of his son, and being urged by his daughter-in-law to descend
from his camel and to permit her to wash his head, he declared that,
owing to a vow not to leave his camel till he had completed his
journey, he could not get down. Being pressed, however, he so far
consented, that with one foot on his camel and the other on a stone
he had his head washed ! This is " the place of Abraham."

And we covenanted with Abraham and Ismail, etc. The j^urpose of
this passage seems to have been: (i.) To confirm in Arab minds their
own traditions respecting Abraham and Ismail as the founders of
the temple at Makkah, and (2.) to present the prophet of Arabia as a
reformer of Makkan idolatry, as Abraham was said to have been.

Throughout the Quran Muhammad endeavours very adroitly on
the one hand to imitate the Old Testament prophets, and on the
other to make it appear that the circumstances of trial and opposition
under which the Old Testament prophets laboured were precisely
similar to those under which he laboured.

For most satisfactory reasons for regarding this whole Muslim
history of Abraham and Ismail as utterly unworthy of the least
credit, see Introduction to Muir's Life of Mahomet, pp. cxciii., cxciv.,
and ccix. note.

The adoption of Arab and Jewish legend current in his day as
true, and the promulgation of it as of divine authority, might be
reconciled with the theory that Muhammad, though self-deceived,
yet was honest in his prophetic character. But when we add to this
his vacillation between the temples at Makkah and Jerusalem, fixing
on the latter first, then expressing himself indifterent to either, and
finally settling on jMakkah, the inconsistency is a little too striking
to tally with such a theory.

CHAP. II.] ( 336 ) [SIPARA I.

And when Abraham said, Loed, make this a territory of
security, and bounteously bestow fruits on its inhabitants,
such of them as believe in God and the last day ; God
answered. And whoever believeth not, I will bestow on
him little ; afterwards I will drive him to the punishment
of Ac/Z-fire; an ill journey shall it be! (127) And when
Abraham and Ismail raised the foundations of the house,
saying, LoED, accept it from us, for thou art he who heareth
and knoweth: (128) Loed, make us also resigned unto thee,
and of our posterity a people resigned unto thee, and show
us our holy ceremonies, and be turned unto us, for thou
art easy to be reconciled, and merciful. (129) Loed,
send them likewise an apostle from among them, who
may declare thy signs unto them, and teach them the
book of the Quran and wisdom, and may purify them ; for
thou art mighty and wise.

(127) And when Ahraliam and Ismail raised the foundations of the
house, d-c. Muir, in his Life of Mahomet, Introduction, pp. cxci.
and cxcii., shows the whole story to be most clearly a legendary
fiction.

(128) Lord, make iis also resigned. " The Arabic word is MusUmuna,
in the singular Muslim, which the Muhammadans take as a title
peculiar to themselves. The Europeans generally write and pro-
nounce it Musalman." — Sale.

Rodwell has greatly improved the translation by retaining the
original form of the word, " Lord, make us also Muslims, and our
posterity a Muslim people," &c.

(129) Lord, send them likewise an apostle from among them, who may
declare thy signs unto them, ttc. If these words had been put into
the mouth of Moses, we might regard them as an allusion to Deut.
xviii. 15. As they stand, and regarded in the light of Muhammad's
prophetic pretensions, the resemblance is probably accidental.

Underlying these words there is the claim of the Quraish to be
the children of Abraham, a claim which has little positive evidence
in its favoiir. The negative proof derived from the fact that the Jews
never denied it is, after all, very much weakened when we consider
that a claim to be an Ishmaelite would be a matter of small interest
to a Jew ; besides, the general ignorance of Arabia and its people
prevalent everywhere would naturally lead them to regard all Arabs
as Ishmaelites. Under such circumstances, the silence of the Jews
carries little weight with it.

^^ And wisdom, i.e., the meaning of the Qur^n, or its declarations
as to things required and forbidden, as to things clean and unclean,
and thus through the law to purify them." — Tafsir-i-IlauJi.

siPARA I.] ( 337 ) [chap. II.

II (130) Who will be averse to the religion of Abraham, li i
but he whose mind is infatuated ? Surely we have
chosen him in this world, and in that which is to
come he shall be one of the righteous. (131) When
his Lord said unto him, Eesign thyself unto me; he
answered, I have resigned myself unto the Lord of all
creatures. (132) And Abraham bequeathed this religion
to his children, and Jacob did the same, saying, My
children, verily God hath chosen this religion for you,
therefore die not, unless ye also be resigned. (133) Were
ye present when Jacob was at the point of death ? when
he said to his sons. Whom will ye worship after me ?
They answered, We will worship thy God, and the God
of thy fathers Abraham, and Ismail, and Isaac, one God,
and to him will we be resigned. (134) That people are
now passed away, they have what they have gained, and
ye shall have what ye gain ; and ye shall not be questioned
concerning that which they have done. (135) They say,
Become Jews or Christians that ye may be directed. Say,

(130) The religion of Abi'aham, i.e., Isl-Ain. Whilst such language
was intended to serve the purpose of winning the Jews, it expresses
no real concession to them. In so far as they differed from Islam,
just so far had they departed from " the religion of Abraham."

(132) And Abraham bequeathed this religion to his children, and Jacob
did the same, d-c. That the reUgion referred to here is IsMm is
evident from the latter part of the verse. Understood in the sense
intended by Muhammad, viz., that the Muslim faith was the religion
of Abraham and the patriarchs, this statement is false. Accordingly,
we have here a statement, which, if overthrown, carries with it the
whole fabric of Muhammadanism built upon it. Either the religion
of Islam was the religion of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or it was not.
If it was, let us have the evidence of the former Scri|)tures, the
M'itness of the former prophets. Failure here must stigmatise the
whole system as a forgery.

(134) They have ivhat they have gained. " Or, deserved. The
Muhammadan notion, as to the imputation of moral actions to man,
which they call gain or acquisition, is sufficiently explained in the
Preliminary Discourse," p. 156. — Sale.

Ye shall not be questioned concerning that which they have done.
Neither their virtues nor their vices will be accredited to you.
Every man shall answer for his own sin. See chap. xxxv. 19.

(135) Thei/ say, Become Jews or Christians, that ye may be directed.
Say, Nay, d-c. We here learn the estimate which Muhammad put

Y

16
6*

CHAP. II.] ( 338 ) [SIPARA I.

Nay, we follow tlie religion of Abraham tlie ortliodox, who
was no idolater. (136) Say, We believe in God, and that
which hath been sent down unto us, and that which hath
been sent down unto Abraham, and Ismail, and Isaac,
and Jacob, and the tribes, and that which was delivered
unto Moses, and Jesus, and that which was delivered unto
the prophets from their Lord : We make no distinction

upon the Judaism and Christianity of liis day. They were systems
oi' idolatry : the Jews regarding Ezra as the Son of God, as the
commentators allege ; the Christians holding to a Trinity which,
with Mnhammad, consisted of God^ Alary, and Jesus. See chap. iv.
169; comp. chap. v. 116, and chap. xix. 36. The Muslim is
taught to regard himself as a follower of that faith from which both
Jew and Christian had wandered, the faith of Abraham, " who was
no idolater."

llie orthodox, Arabic Hanif, meaning one %oho has hirncd from
good to bad, or from bad to good. Here the meaning is one who
has turned from idolatry to the worship of the true God. See Rod-
well's note on chap. xvi. 121.

(136) ISay, We believe in God, and that which hath been sent down
to us, &c. No passage in the Qurdn sets forth more clearly than
this the claims of Islam. /;; is the one true religioyi of all the j^'ro-
fhets and apostles of God. It was the religion of Abraham, of Moses,
and of Jesus. Upon this foundation the whole structure of Islam
stands. The controversy between the Christian and the ]\Inslim is,
mainly, one as to fact. The principal question is, Does Islam con-
serve within itxelf the system of spiritual truth, the historical facts,
and the flan of salvation set forth in the teachings of the patriarchs and
prophets of the Old Testament disjyensation, and of Jesns and his Apostles
in the Neio ? This is the point which Muslims ever seek to evade,
and yet this is the point which, above all others, they are bound to
establisli (see also above on ver. 132).

That which hath been sent down unto Abraham, cC'c, . . . ice
make no distinction hetiveen any of thein. Two points of import-
ance in the controvers}^ with Muslims may be noted here : — First,
it is here asserted that written revelations (books) like unto the
Qurdn were "sent down" from God "unto Abraham, and Ismail,
and Isaac, and Jacob." Where is the eviiience of the truth of these
statements] Where the proof that Ismail was a prophet at all?
The Muslim will say that the testimony of the Quran is sufficient
evidence. This is the argument of Muhammad himself in the next
verse. But this same statement declares that the writings of Moses
and Jesus are, equally with the Quran, to be regarded as the inspired
AVord of God. This is our second point. If, now, the Scriptures of
the Old and New Testaments contradict or fail to corroborate these
assertions of the Quran, then the Quran points to the evidence which
refutes its own statements. The assertion of modern Muslims, that
these books, the writings of Moses and Jesus included, are no longer

siPARA I.] ( 339 ) [chap. II.

between any of them, and to God are we resigned. (137)
Now if they believe according to what ye believe, they
are surely directed, but if they turn back, they are in
schism. God shall support thee against them, for he is
the hearer, the wise. (138) The baptism of God have we
received, and who is better than God to baptize ? him do

extant, and that the books in the hands of Jews and Christians are
either forgeries or old copies of the Scripture so full of corruptions
as to be no longer credible, is itself evidence of the desperation of
the Muslim apologist. Such an assertion is, of course, incap)able of
proof. Notwithstanding, it is marvellous with what pertinacity the
assertion continues to be made.

(137) If they turn back, they are in schism. This last clause is
translated in Rodwell, "they cut themselves off from youy" in the
I'afsir-i-Raufi, "are in opposition and enmity to you;" in Abdul
Qadir's translation, " are opposed to you."

On his entry into Madina, Muhammad courted the favour of the
Jews. Hoping to bring them over to acknowledge his prophetic pre-
tensions, he expressed much reverence for the patriarchs of the Jews,
and especially for Abraham, "the orthodox." A similar desire to
win the influence of the Abyssinian "Najashi," and the Christian
tribes of Yaman, drew forth from him similar expressions of respect
for Jesus. His was the religion of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Why should they not acknowledge him, seeing he had been sent to
confirm the Scriptures of both Jew and Christian ? His neighbours
and fellow-townsmen, the Jews, demanded of him the proof of his
claim. Failing to satisfy this very reasonable demand, he soou found
the Jews to be his keenest opponents, whose objections he could not
silence, save by the assassin's knife and the fanatic's sword. This
verse marks the growing antipathy towards these. Failure to obey
the "prophet" was now evident apostasy from God ; refusal to accept
the doctrines of Islam, evidence of enmity toward the Muslims.

God will support thee against them. The bloody triumph over the
Bani Quraidha and the Bani Nadhir is here foreshadowed. Argu-
ment and miracle being denied him, Muhammad still relies on God.
With this faith he instigates the assassination of Abu Afak, of Kab,
and Ibn Sanina ; exiles the Bani Nadhir and Qainucaa ; and orders
the slaughter of eight hundred men of the Bani Quraidha in cold
blood.

It is said that the blood of the Khalifah Othman, which was shed
by an assassin's hand while reading the Quran, fell upon the words
of this verse. See Rodwell in loco.

(138) 21ie baptism of God have we received. Rodwell translates
this passage, " Islam is the baptism of God," but says, " The original
simply has ^Baptism of God.' This may be understood either of
Islam generally, or, with Ullman, in the more restricted sense of
circumcision."

Sale says, " By baptism is to be understood the religion which God

CHAP. II.] ( 340 ) [SIPARA 11.

we worship. (139) Say, Will ye dispute with us con-
cerning God, who is our Lord, and your Lord ? we have
our works, and ye have your works, and unto him are we
sincerely devoted. (140) Will ye say, truly Abraham,
and Ismail, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the tribes were
Jews or Christians ? Say, are ye wiser, or God ? And
who is more unjust than he who hideth the testimony
which he hath received from God ? But God is not regard-
less of that which ye do. (141) That people are passed
away, they have what they have gained, and ye shall have
what ye gain, nor shall ye be questioned concerning that
which they have done.
Second |1 (142) The foolisli men will say, What hath turned

^^\rj them from their Qibla, towards which they formerly
■t^ 1 ' prayed ? Say, Unto God helongcth the east and the
west : he directeth whom he pleaseth into the right

instituted in the beginning ; because the signs of it appear in the
person who professes it, as the signs of water appear in the clothes
of him that is baptized."

Abdul Qddir translates it " The Colour of God," and comments thus
in the margin : " The Christians had a custom that when any one
was introduced into their religion, they prepared a yellow colouring
matter with which they coloured the man's clothes and person.
This verse was spoken in opposition to this practice." The Tafsir-i-
Raufi gives the same translation, and refers it to the baptism of
infants by immersion in water coloured yellow, which was used for
their purification. He understands the verse to mean, " that purifi-
cation of iMuslims from the contamination of idols by faith in God."

(139) Will ye dispute with us concerning God, cDc. ? " These words
were revealed because the Jews insisted that they first received the
ScrijDtures, that their Qibla was more ancient, and that no prophets
could arise among the Arabs ; and therefore if Muhammad was a
prophet, he must have been of their nation." — Sale, Jaldluddln.

(140) Jc7ijs or Cliristians. The author of the notes on the Roman
Urdii Quran calls attention to the anachronism of applying the
names "Jew" and "Christian" to those who were dead centuries
before these titles had any existence.

Who hideth the testimony, <£-c. " The Jews are again accused of
corrupting and suppressing the prophecies in the Pentateuch relating
to Muhammad." — Sale.

On this subject see further Prelim. Disc, p. io6, and notes on
verse 74.

(142) What hcdh turned them from their Qibla, d-c. ? "At first,
Muhammad and his followers observed no particular rite in turning

SIPARA 11.] ( 341 ) [chap. II.

way. (143) Thus have we placed you, 0 Arabians, an
intermediate nation, that ye may be witness against the
rest of mankind, and that the apostle may be a witness

their faces towards any certain place or quarter of the world when
they prayed, it being declared to be perfectly indifferent (ver. 115).
Afterwards, when the prophet fled to Madina, he directed them to
turn towards the temple of Jerusalem (probably to ingratiate himself
with the Jews), which continued to be their Qibla for six or seven
months ; but either finding the Jews too intractable, or despairing
otherwise to gain the pagan Arabs, who could not forget their respect
to the temple of Makkah, he ordered that prayers for the future should
be towards the last. This change was made in the second year of
the Hijra, and occasioned many to fall from him, taking offence at
his inconstancy." — Sale, Jaluluddin.

The "foolish men" were the Jews and the disaffected among the
people of Madina. Their folly consisted in their inability to recon-
cile the statement of Muhammad in ver. 115, and his practice, for
fifteen months, in turning towards Jerusalem, with the new command
to turn towards the temple of the idolaters. Every appeal to reason
was deprecated, and those claiming the right of private judgment
"were stigmatised as fools. All vvlio failed to acquiesce in every
proposal of the " prophet " were disaffected. Islam then, as now,
demanded the entire sxibmission of the intellect, as well as the will, to
the dictum of the infallible prophet of an unattested revelation.

Say, Unto Ood belougeth the east and the west. This is used as an
argument to justify the change of Qibla. God may do as he pleaseth
with his own. The same statement is used in ver. 1 1 5 to show that
no Qibla was necessary on the ground that God is everywhere present.
"Whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray, there is the face of
God." It is a very convenient argument that will both prove the
rationality of turning from one Qibla to another, and at the same
time disprove the necessity for a Qibla at all !

(143) Thus have lue flaced you, 0 Arabians, an intermediate nation,
etc. Savary translates thus : " We have established you, 0 chosen
people, to bear witness against the rest of the nation, as your apostle
will bear it against you."

Rodwell says, " A central people," instead of " intermediate
nation."

Sale says, " The commentators (Jaldluddin, Yahya, &c.) will have
the meaning to be, that the Arabians are here declared to be a most
just and good nation."

The idea intended seems to me to be this : Makkah with the Kaabah
being now constituted the sacred city of Islam, as Jerusalem with
the temple was the sacred city of the Jews, Arabia was thereby made,
so to speak, the centre of the world in matters of religion, and, con-
sequently, the Arabians were constituted witnesses for the true
religion against the rest of mankind, even as Muhammad was a
witness for Islam against them, or, as Rodwell translates, " in regard
to them."

CHAP. II.] ( 342 ) [SIPARA II.

against you. (144) We appointed the Qibla, towards
which thou didst formerly ipray, only that we might know
him who followeth the apostle, from him who turneth
back on the heels ; though this change seem a great matter,
unless unto those whom God hath directed. But God
will not render your faith of none effect ; for God is
gracious and merciful unto man. (145) We have seen
thee turn about thy face towards heaven witli uncertainty,
but we will cause thee to turn thyself towards a Qibla
that will please thee. Turn, therefore, thy face towards
the holy temple of MaTihah ; and wherever ye be, turn your
faces towards that place. They to whom the scripture
hath been given, know this to be truth from their Loed.

Thus early we see the idea of a universal Isldm developed in the
mind of IMuhammad.

(144) lie appointed the Qibla, . . . only that xve might knovj him
tvho follotveth the apostle, from him ivho turneth hack on the Jieels. Many
of ]\iuhammad's followers, especially those who had come out from
among tlie Jews, were offended at the manifest inconsistency of
changing the Qibla from Jerusalem to the idolatrous city of Makkali
with its pantheon. They naturally apostatised and returned to the
faith of their fathers. Muhammad now pretends that the change
was made as a test of their faith, whereas nothing is clearer than the
fact, that, failing in his attempt to win over the Jews by the deference
he had shown to their religion and the holy city, he now adopts a
similar policy in recognising the Kaabah as the holy place, towards
which prayer is to be made, in order to conciliate the favour of the
Arabians. The duplicity and worldly policy of the "prophet" was
too manifest to escape the notice of even many of his own disciples.
These are the "fools" and "disaffected." When facts were against
the prophet of Arabia, it was only so much the worse for the facts !

But God will not render your faith of none effect. " Or will not
suffer it to go without its reward, while ye prayed towards Jeru-
salem."— Sale.

(14.5) Turn, therefore, thy face towards the holy temple, dv. Abdul
QAdir says that whilst Jervisalem was the Qibla, Muhammad desired
to turn toward the Kaabah, and accordingly prayed " toward heaven,"
hoping for the command to change the Qibla to Makkali ! ■

They to u'hom the Scripture hath been given hnoio this to be truth
from their Lord; i.e., the Jews know that this change of Qibla is in
accordance with the divine command. The Tafsir-i-Ravfi under-
stands Christians to be also alluded to under the expression "they to
whom the Scripture hath been given ; " but the circumstances under
wliich the passage was written, viz., the final breach between Mu-
hammad and Judaism, would limit the application here to the Jews.

siPARA II.] ( 343 ) [chap. II.

God is not regardless of that which ye do. (146) Verily
although thou shouldest show unto those to whom the
scripture hath been given all kinds of signs, yet they will
not follow thy Qibla, neither shalt thou follow their
. Qibla; nor will one part of them follow the Qibla of
the other. And if thou follow their desires, after the

Of course, the words liave an equally fit application to Christians.
In this verse we find distinct traces of deliberate deception and
falsehood on the part of Muhammad, (a.) In his pretending to have
been displeased with Jerusalem as the Qibla. He had been praying
toward it for fifteen months, had taught others to pray in like
manner, and had even built the first mosque of Islam with the pulpit
towards Jerusalem. His " displeasure," therefore, evidently grew out
of his failure to win over the Jews, coupled with his desire to gain
influence among the Arabs by constituting their sacred city the
Qibla of his religion, (b.) Again, the assertion that the Jews knew
by the teaching of their Scriptures that such a change was from the
Lord, is so plainly false as to render it impossible to account for it
on any rational ground other than that of deliberate fabrication.

It may be said that Muhammad was deceived by the representa-
tions of his converts from Judaism. If so, it would truly show him
to be the " ignorant prophet." But it must be remembered that this
is not the woi\l of Muliammad, but, according to Muhammad's claim,
the Word of God. He it is who is here made to sanction "the re-
presentations " of such converts. But regarding these statements as
made by j\Iuhanimad, we think his character, his shrewdness, his pro-
found knowledge of the men he had to deal with, all combine to make
the theory of his being himself deceived exceedingly improbable.

(146) Verily although thou shouldest show . . . all kinds of signs, dec.
The opposition of the Jews had become so decided, as to leave no
hope of a reconciliation. They now charged him with worshipping
toward a heathen temple, and with fickleness. These objections he
now strives to meet by such " revelations" as this. "But it was the
victory at Badr, one or two months after, and tlie subsequent hos-
tilities against the Jews, which furnished the only eflective means
for silencing their objections." — Muir's Life of Mahomet^ voL iii. p. 45.

Nor tuill one part, of than follow the Qibla of the other. " That is,
each religion has its own (appointed) Kibla ; he refers, apparently,
to Christians turning towards the east, and Jews towards Jerusalem ;
whence Mahomet would argue a propriety in his having a peculiar
and distinctive Kibla for Islam." — Midr's Life of Mahomet, vol. iii.
p. 45, note.

]\luslim commentators refer the words to the Jews and Christians.
I think the reference is to the Jews entirely. The preceding
and succeeding context seems to demand this limitation. The his-
tory of the passage seems also to demand it. The reference, then,
may be to one of three possible ditt'erences of opinion among the
Jews: (a.) Some may have questioned the propriety of worshipping

1 s

T.H

CHAP. II.] ( 344 ) [SIPARA II.

knowledge wliicli hath been given thee, verily thou M'ilt
become 07ie of the ungodly. (147) They to whom we have
given the scripture know our ajjostle, even as they know
their own children; but some of them hide the truth,
against their own knowledge. (148) Truth is from thy
LoED, therefore thou shalt not doubt.

II (149) Every sect hath a certain tract of heaven to
which they turn themselves in j^rai/cr ; but do ye strive
to run after good things ; wherever ye be, God will
bring you all back at the orsurrection, for God is al-
mighty. (150) And from what place soever thou comest
forth, turn thy face towards the holy temple ; for this
is truth from thy Lord ; neither is God regardless of
that which ye do. (151) From what place soever thou
comest forth, turn thy face towards the holy temple ;
and wherever ye be, thitherward turn your faces, lest
men have matter of dispute against you ; but as for
those among them who are unjust doers, fear them not,

towards any Qibla, seeing the lioly temple was destroyed ; or
{b.) the allusion may be to those who had espoused the cause of
Islam ; or, (c.) what is most probable, reference may be had to the
ancient ditference in the holy mounts of Jew and Samaritan (John
iv. 2o and references\

(147) They to whom we have given the Scripture know our apostle,
even as they hiow their own children. " That is, the Jews are really
convinced of the truth of IMuhammad's mission." — Rochvell,

Is not the allusion to those who had now become the converts
of Islam 1 Such a view is favoured by the concluding sentence,
"but some of them hide the truth," &c., referring to the unbelieving
Jews. If it do not have such a reference, then we must place this state-
ment in the catalogue of deliberate fabrications. See note on ver. 145.

According to Abdul Qadir's translation, the reference is not to
Muhammad but to the proi)riety of the change of Qibla. The pas-
sage then merely reiterates the statement of ver. 145.

(148) IVuth is from thy Lord. The "truth" referred to here is
the new doctrine of the QibUx. See the same expression in vers.
145 and 150.

(151) Lest men have matter of disjmte against vou. Muhammad had
acquired sufficient experience of the injury likely to be inflicted
upon his religion by disputes concerning the proper Qibla to allow
the possibility of any such disputes in the future. All must here-
after turn toward Makkah in prayer.

Unjust doers J i.e., Jews and disaffected Arabs.

SiPARA II.] ( 345 ) [chap. II.

but fear me, that I may accomplish my grace upon you,
and that ye may be cUrected. (152) As we have sent
unto you an apostle from among you, to rehearse our signs
unto you, and to purify you, and to teach you the book of
the Qurdn and wisdom, and to teach you that which ye
knew not : (153) therefore remember me, and I will re-
member you, and give thanks unto me, and be not unbe-
lievers.

(152) An cqjostle from among you. The former nations, thus dis-
tinguished, having rejected their prophets, are here regarded as
apostates. Compare with chap. x. 14. The Arabs are now declared
to be the chosen people of God, and, by implication, the Jews are
stigmatised as rejected of God. The policy of the "prophet" is now
to flatter the national pride of his countrymen, and to quicken their
zeal for religion by the doctrine tliat they are now, as believers, the
favourites of Heaven.

To rehearse our signs, i.e., the verses of the Quran, regarded as self-
evidently divine.

7'o 2^^'''>'ify you from idolatry and ceremonial defilement. The
Tafsir-i-Ra%ifi adds, " He (the apostle) asks pardon for you, that you
may be pure from your sins." Muhammad, however, never claimed
any such mediatorial office. In the Quran he repeatedly rejects the
idea of a mediator altogether. See chap. vi. 50 ; vii. 188 ; xxxix. 42,
&c. Islam requires no mediator ; Muslims will be saved because the)/ are
3Iuslims.

The fact, however, that Muhammad has been constituted a medi-
ator by his followers, notwithstanding the teaching of the Quriin,
constitutes a powerful argument against Islam. Muslims, like other
fallen men, feel their need of a mediator. They chose Muhammad
for their intercessor ; but the Qurdn rejects the idea altogether. See
chap. xliv. 41, 42, and references noted above. Islam, therefore, fails
to satisfy the felt wants of sinful men everywhere.

The book of the Quran. The term book, which is here used to de-
scribe the collection of passages of Muhammad's revelation, gives us
reason to believe that the Quran w^as recorded in book form in the
days of IMuhammad himself. It is so often referred to under this
appellation — the same as is applied to the writings of Moses — as to
leave the impression that numerous copies were extant among the
Muslims.

(153) Remember me, and I will rememher you. The Tafsir-i-Raufi
comments on this as follows : — " Remember me with gifts, that I
may remember you with favours ; or remember me with worship, that
I may remember you wdtli benefits ; or remember me with prayer,
that I may remember you with blessings ; or remember me among
the people, that I may remember you among the angels."

This passage, with the commentary, expresses the legal spirit of
INIiihammadanism, notwithstanding the constant declaration that
God is "merciful and fTacious."

R

CHAP. II.] ( 346 ) [SIPARA II.

-19

\i 3 ' II (154) 0 trire believers, beg assistance with patience
and prayer, for GoD is with the patient. (155) And say
not of those who are slain in fight for the religion of
God, that thcT/ are dead ; yea, they are living : but ye do
not understand. (156) We will surely prove you hj
ajfflicting you in some measure with fear, and hunger, and
decrease of wealth, and loss of lives, and scarcity of fruits :
but bear good tidings unto the patient, (157) who, when a
misfortune befalleth them, say. We are God's, and unto
him shall we surely return. (158) Upon them shall be

(155) And say not of those luho are slain ui fight for the religion of
God, that they are dead. Rod well renders "in tight" by the phrase
" on God's path."

" The original words are literally, ivlw are slain in the way of God ;
by which expression, freqnently occurring in the Qurdn, is always
meant war undertaken against unbelievers for the propagation of
the Muhammadan faith." — Sale.

Abdul Qadir says "that believers are here encouraged to labour
and gather strength for the crusade."

Yea, they are living. " The souls of martyrs (for such they esteem
those who die in battle against infidels), says Jalaluddin, are in
the crops of green birds, whicli have liberty to fly wherever they
please in paradise, and feed on the fruits thereof." — Sale.

(156) ITe ivill surely 2Jrove you by afilicting you in some oneasiire
with fear and hunger, d;c. This passage, beginning with ver. 1 54,
was intended to comfort those who had lost friends among the slain
at the battle of Badr, and also those of the companions who, having
suffered loss of property and health in the emigration from Makkah,
had not yet enriched themselves by the plunder of the caravans of
the unbelievers.

(157) We are God's, and unto him shall toe surely return. "An
expression frequently in the mouths of the Muhammadans when
under any great affliction or in any imminent danger." — Sale.

This sentence is believed to be laden with merit to those who use
it in circumstances of trial and affliction. Even when the trial is
past, if the pious repeat it at tlie remembrance of their grief, it is
said to bestow great merit. The commentators have drawn from
this verse and the one following the doctrine that sin is washed
away from the souls of believers by means of suffering. The Tafsir-i-
Rauji declares, on the authority of Tirmuzi and others, that tlie man
who has lost three sons by death may be absolutely certain of enter-
ing paradise ; the gates of hell, or rather purgatory, are closed
against him, and much more to the same effect. Affliction is there-
fore submitted to by the ]\Iuslini in the j^erfect assurance that he
will be the recipient of blessing hereafter. Thus it is robbed of its
uses as a warning or as a judgment from God on account of sin.

SIPARA II.] ( 347 ) [chap. II.

blessings from their Lord and mercy, and they are the
rightly directed. (159) Moreover Safa and Marwah are
tivo of the monuments of God : whoever therefore goeth on
pilgrimage to the temple of MaJikah or visiteth it, it shall
be no crime in him, if he compass them both. And as for
him who voluntarily performeth a good work ; verily God

(159) Moreover Safd and Marivali are tM'o of the monuments of God,
ct-c. Savary translates this verse as follows : — "i/e lolio shall have
performed the "pilgrimage of Makkah, and shall have visited the holy house,
shall he exempted from offering an expiatory victim, provided that he
maheth the circuit of those tioo mountains. He who goeth beyond what
the p)recept rcquireth shall expierience the gratitude of the Lord."

" Safa and Marwa are two mountains near Makkah, whereon were
anciently two idols, to which the pagan Arabs used to pay a super-
stitious veneration (Prelim. Disc, p. 42). Jalaluddin says this
passage was revealed because the followers of Muhammad made a
scruple of going round these mountains, as the idolaters did. Eut
the true reason of his allowing this relic of ancient superstition seems
to be the difficulty he found in preventing it. Abul Qasim Hiba-
tullah thinks these last words are abrogated by those other. Who ivill
reject the religion 0/ Abraham, except he loho hath infatuated his soul ?
(ver. 130). So that he will have the meaning to be quite contrary
to the letter, as if it had been, it shall he no crime in him if he do not
compass them. However, the expositors are all against him, and
the ceremony of running between these two hills is still observed at
the pilgrimage" (Prelim. Disc, p. 187). — Sale.

The Tafsir-i-Ravfi and Tafsir Fatah al aziz relate that in former
times two pillars were erected on these two hills to commemorate
tlie judgment of God upon two notable sinners, Asaf, a man, and
Naila, a woman, who had committed adultery in the holy Kaabah.
When the people fell into idolatry tliey worshipped these as images
of God. This worship Lluhammad abolished, whereupon some
doubted the propriety of going round these hills. This verse was
revealed to remove their scn;ples.

The true reason for this " revelation " is given by Sale in his note
quoted above. Muhammad found it easier to break the idols of his
countrymen than to overcome their superstitions, hence the tolera-
tion of an idolatrous custom, which the commentators would have
US believe to be a relic of the religion of Abraham.

Ood is grateful. The author of the notes on the Eoman Urdvi
Quran says, " The teaching of this verse is that whoever performs
the pilgrimage to the Kaabah, according to the commandment, has
great merit ; but he who of his own accord makes the circuit of these
two mountains, has such great reward that God becomes grateful
and ohligated to him ! " He then compares with this the contrary
teaching of the Bible (see Job xxii. 3, and Luke xvii. 10).

But surely gratitude may be ascribed to God on the same principle
that repentance is attributed to him in t^ie Bible.

CHAP. II.] ( 348 ) [SIPARA II.

is grateful and knowing. (160) Tliey who conceal any of
the evident signs, or the direction which we have sent
down, after what we have manifested unto men in the
scripture, God shall curse them; and they who curse
shall curse them. (161) But as for those who repent
and amend, and make known what they concealed, I
will be turned unto them, for I am easy to be recon-
ciled and merciful. (162) Surely they who believe not,
and die in their unbelief, upon them shall be the curse
of God, and of the angels, and of all men; (163) they
shall remain under it forever, their punishment shall not
be alleviatecl, neither shall they be regarded. (164) Your
God is one God ; there is no God but He, the most mer-
ciful.
R ^~' II (1^^) No^v i^ the creation of heaven and earth, and

(160) Tliey who conceal any of the evident signs, d'C. ; i.e., the Jews.
See note on ver. 145.

In the Scriiiture. Eodwell says, " in tlie Book," tlie allusion Leing
to the Jewish Scriptures.

They who curse. The Tafstr-i-Raufi understands the reference to
the " angels, men, and genii." He also promulgates the strange
doctrine that when Muslims curse one another, seeing that curses
cannot affect one of the faithful, they fall upon the Jews and others,
who are justly exposed to a curse.

"Yahya interprets it of the curses which will be given to the
wicked, when they cry out because of the punishment of the
sepulchre (see Prelim. Disc, p. 127), by all who hear them, that is,
by all creatures except men and genii." — Sale.

(161) Make hnoivn what they concealed. Eodwell translates
" make known the truth," i.e., of Islam.

(162, 163) U-pon them shall he the curse of God. These verses clearly
teach that all are lost except Muslims. Their punishment is also
eternal.

Neither shall thei/ he regarded. " God will not wait for their re-
pentance."— Jaldluddin.

(164) Yotir God is one God. The passage beginning with this verse
and ending with verse 172 is probably Makkan. The truth here
enunciated is taught with equal clearness in the Bible (Deut. vi. 4,
Mark xii. 29). It might have been addressed to Jews at Madina, but
the verses following, being addressed to idolaters, decide against this
view. The idolaters of the I\Iadina period of Muhammad's ministry
were spoken of in different terms.

(165) This verse, says the Tafsir-i-Raufi, contains eight signs of
divine power, thereby demonstrating the superiority of the one true

siPARA II.] ( 349 ) [chap. it.

tlie vicissitude of night and day, and in the ship which
saileth in the sea, laden with what is profitable for man-
kind, and in the rain water which God sendeth from
heaven, quickening thereby the dead earth, and replenish-
ing the same with all sorts of cattle, and in the change of
winds, and the clouds that are compelled to do service
between heaven and earth, are signs to people of under-
standing : (16G) yet some men take idols beside God, and
love them as with the love due to God ; but the true be-
lievers are more fervent in love towards God. Oh, that
they who act unjustly did perceive, when they behold
their punishment, that all power belongeth unto God,
and that he is severe in punishing. (167) When those
who have been followed shall separate themselves from

God over the three luindrecl and sixty idols which the Makkans wor-
shipped. The Christian will be reminded of a similar style of
argument used by the Apostle Paul at Lystra, and also at Athens
(Acts xiv. 15-17, and xviii. 24-29).

Compelled to do service. " The original word signifies properly that
are pressed or compelled to do p)ersonal service without hire, which kind
of service is often exacted by the Eastern princes of their subjects,
and is called by the Greek and Latin writers angaria. The Scripture
often mentions this source of compulsion or force, Matt. v. 41, xxvii.
32, &c."— &6/e.

(166) True believers are more fervent in love towards God. Love to-
wards God is here recognised as a characteristic of believers. And
yet this is a doctrine rarely taught in the Quran. In the Christian
Scriptures this doctrine may be compared to Jordan, flowing conti-
nually in an ever- widening stream through the length of the Holy
Land ; but, in the Quran, it is like the occasional spring in the de-
sert. The love of God is rarely presented as a motive to obedience.

Oh, that they who act unjustly did perceive. " Or it may be trans-
lated, Although the ungodly loill perceive, &c. But, some copies, instead
oiyara, in the third person, read tara, in the second ; and then it
must be rendered, Oh, if thou didst see when the ungodly beheld their
punishment, &c."—Sale.

We have here an illustration of the fact that the Quran, in its
original text, is not entirely pure, as some writers seem to think. It
has its various readings, like other ancient writings. A critical exa-
mination of any considerable number of old manusci'ipts would pro-
bably reveal a great many more such readings than are now known.
Yet it may be safely asserted that the text of the Quran is the purest
of all works of a like antiquity.

(167) Those who have been followed, d:c. " That is, when the

CHAP. II.] ( 350 ) [SIPARA ir.

their followers, and sliall see the punishment, and the
cords of relation betM^een them shall be cut in sunder ;
(168) the followers shall say, If we could return to life, we
would separate ourselves from them, as they have now
separated themselves from us. So God will show them
their works ; they shall sigh grievously, and shall not
come forth from the fire of hell.
\, ^-' II (1G9) 0 men, eat of that which is lawful and good on
the earth ; and tread not in the steps of the devil, for he
is your open enemy. (170) Verily he commandeth you
evil and wickedness, and that you should say that of God
which ye know not. (171) And when it is said unto them
wlio believe not, Follow that which God hath sent down ;
they answer, Nay, but we will follow that which we found
our fathers practise. "What ? though their fathers knew
nothing, and were not rightly directed ? (172) The unbe-
lievers are like unto one who crieth aloud to that which
heareth not so much as his calling, or the sound of his
voice. Theij are deaf, dumb, and blind, therefore do they

broachers or heads of new sects sliall at the last day forsake or wash
their hands of their disciples, as if they were not accomplices in their
superstitions." — Sale.

(168) The followers shall say, &€. There shall be mutual antipathy
between the leaders of false systems of religion and their followers.
They shall spend an eternity of sighing and regret in the flames of
hell.

(169) Eat of that which is laivful. Addressed to the IMakkans, who,
in the " times of ignorance," had departed from the religion of Abra-
ham, and being idolaters, ate things forbidden, especially swine's
flesh. So faithfully do Muslims obey this command that they regard
even the name of the forbidden meat as polluting.

The devil. Satan is the avowed enemy of mankind, and the insti-
gator to idolatry and blasphemy. See chap. vii. 16, 17.

(171) We will follow that which we found our fathers jyractise. The
reproof here ailministered contains an important rule which may well
be urged upon modern Muslims themselves. Nothing is more mani-
fest than their perfect satisfaction with the religion of their fathers,
and their unwillingness to consider even the possibility of their
fathers having been mistaken. Such texts as this are very useful for
those who would arouse them to examine the grounds of their faith.

(172) Like one tvho crieth aloud, ci-c. Abdul Qadir paraphrases
thus : " Teaching infidels is like calling to wild animals, who may
hear a sound, but who do not uuderstand."

SIPARA II.] (351 ) [CHAP. II.

not understand. (173) 0 true believers^ eat of the good
things which we have bestowed on you for food, and re-
turn thanks unto God, if ye serve him. (174) Verily he
hath forbidden you to cat that which dieth of itself, and
blood and swine's flesh, and that on which any other name
but God's hath been invocated. But he who is forced by
necessity, not lusting, nor returning to transgress, it shall
be no crime in him if he eat of those things, for GoD is
gracious and merciful. (175) Moreover they who conceal
any part of the scripture which God hath sent down unto
them, and sell it for a small price, they shall swallow into

(173) A true believer. Addressed to the people of Madina. See
Rod well on ver. 21. The exhortation corresponds with that of ver.
169, addressed to the Makkans. Tlie teaching here is, however,
more explicit, detailing the articles forbidden.

The redundancy found here is probably due to the judgment of
those who compiled the Quran imder the direction of Othman. Had
this portion of the chapter been recited by Muhammad himself, we
should not have this medley of Makkan and Madina passages. A
tradition, on the authority of Hudhaifah, relates that INIuhammad
was in the habit of repeating the chapter of the Cow several times
during a single night, besides other portions of the Qurdn (Matthews'
Mishqdt-ul-Masahih, chap, xxxii.) Such an exercise, in addition to
ordinary sleep, would be impossible. It is therefore probable that
much additional matter was added to these chapters by the compilers
of the volume now called the QurAn, though tlie names of the chap-
ters and some portions of them were undoubtedly in use in the days
of Muhammad. To these were added other revelations gathered
from the contents of the box in Hafza's keeping and from the memo-
ries of men.

(174) He hath forbidden, d-c. Godfrey Higgins, in h\s Aj^ology for
the Life and Character of Mahomet, p. 33, expresses the belief that
these ])rohibitions were made for sanitary reasons. But it is much
more likely that he adopted them from the religion of the Jews.
Sanitary considerations would have required the prohibition of
camel's flesh as well as that of swine. Yet modifications were made
out of deference to Arab prejudice, as was done in the changing of
the Qibla. An illustration of this is found in the permission to eat
camel's flesh, already alluded to.

On which any other name, d-c. " For tliis reason, whenever the
Muhammadans kill any animal for food, they alwaj's say Bismdlah,
or, In the name of God ; which, if it be neglected, they think it not
lawful to eat of it." — Sale.

Forced hy necessity. That is, if forbidden meats be eaten under
compulsion, or to save one's life. — Abdul Qddir, Tafsir-i-Raufi.

(175) See notes on ver. 160.

CHAP. II.] ( 352 ) [SIPARA II.

their bellies nothing but fire ; God shall not speak unto
them on the clay of resurrection, neither shall he purify them,
and they shall suffer a grievous punishment. (176) These
are they who have sold direction for error, and pardon for
punishment : but how great will their suffering be in the
fire ! This they shall endure, because GoD sent down the
book of the Qurdn with truth, and they who disagree con-
cerning that book are certainly in a wide mistake.
RuBA. II (177) It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces

p 2^. in prayer towards the east and the west, but righteousness
is of him who believeth in God and the last day, and the
angels, and the scriptures, and the prophets ; who giveth
money for God's sake unto his kindred, and unto orphans,
and the needy, and the stranger, and those who ask, and
for redemption of captives ; who is constant at prayer, and
giveth alms ; and of those who perform their covenant.

(176) Sold direction for error, <£-c. An exposition of tlie j^lirase,
*' Selling for a small price," ver. 175.

Ood sent down the hook of the Qurdn. Llany Muslim commentators
agree in referring the " book " to the Pentateuch. The meaning
then would be that the Jews shall be accounted worthy of tlie pun-
ishment above described, because, having the Pentateuch by them,
with its prophecies concerning Muhammad, they have " concealed
the Scriptiires which God hath sent down unto them." The passage
is not explicit, and may refer also to the Qurdn. The former view
agrees best with the preceding context, the latter with what follows.
Modern ]\Iuslims, by their " concealment of the former Scriptures,"
and their constant disputing " concerning that Book," bring them-
selves under the condemnation of their own prophet.

(177) Righteousness is of him who believeth in God, d-c. Tliis is one
of the noblest verses in the Qurdn. It clearly distinguishes between
a formal and a practical piety. Faith in God and benevolence to-
wards man is clearly set forth as the essence of religion. It contains
a compendium of doctrine to be believed as well as of precept to be
practised in life.

The Scriptures. Not only the Qurdn, but the "former Scrip-
tures," accepted by Jews and Christians, besides the writings '(Sahife)
of Adam, ten, of Seth, fifty, of Enoch (Idris), thirty, and of Abraham,
ten, in all one hundred and four books.

The iirophets. This word being in the masculine plural, Muslim
commentators generally agree that there were no prophetesses. For
doctrine and practice set forth here, see Preliminary Discourse,
p. 117.

siPARA II.] ( 353 ) [chap. II.

when they have covenanted, and who behave themselves
patiently in adversity, and hardships, and in time of vio-
lence ; these are they who are true, and these are they who
fear God. (178) 0 true believers, the law of retaliation is
ordained you for the slain : the free shall die for the free,
and the servant for the servant, and a woman for a woman ;
but he whom his brother shall forgive may be prosecuted,
and obliged to inake satisfaetion according to what is just,
and a fine shall be set on him with humanity. This is
indulgence from your Loed, and mercy. And he who
shall transgress after this, hy killing the murderer, shall

(178) For the Mosaic " law of retaliation," see Levit. xxiv. 17-22.
The Qurdn modifies this law, which was probably nearly identical
Avith the ancient Arab law, so as to distinguish between the life of a
freeman and that of a slave, between the life of a woman and that
of a man, and to provide for the settlement of a blood-claim by the
payment of money. It is scarcely necessary to point out the fact that
this law deals a blow at the equality of man, based on a universal
brotherhood, and that it opens the door to untold oppression and
tyranny of masters over servants, of hvisbands over wives, and of man
over woman. It cannot be fairly claimed that the moral and social
laws of Islam are even an advance on those of Judaism, much less
on those of Christianity. The law as here stated is abrogated by
chap. V. 49, and xvii. 35.

The free shall die fur the free, . . . u-oman for icoman. "This is
not to be strictly taken ; for, according to the Sunnat, a man also is to
be put to death for the murder of a woman. Eegard is also to be
had to difference in religion, so that a Muhammadan, though a slave,
is not to be put to death for an infidel, though a freeman. But the
civil magistrates do not tliink themselves always obliged to conform
to this last determination of the Sunnat." — Sale, Jaldluddm.

He who7n his brother shall forgive, d:c. — Rodwell translates this pas-
sage : " He to whom his brother shall make any remission (that is,
by killing the manslayer), is to be dealt with equitably ; and to him
should he pay a fine with liberality." Savary translates thus : " He
who forgiveth the murderer of his brother (brother used in a religious
sense) shall have the right of requiring a reasonable reparation, which
shall be thankfully paid." So, too, in the main, Abdul Qadir, Hus-
aini, and Taisir-i-Kaufi. The meaning is, that whenever a murderer
has been spared by the avenger of blood, he must pay a fine to the
said avenger. This must tlien be regarded as a final settlement.
If, after receiving the amount of the fine, the avenger kill the man-
slayer, he " shall suffer a grievous punishment." Presumably he
would be regarded as a common murderer. Sale says, " This is
the common practice in Muhammadan countries, particularly in
Persia."

R^'

CHAP. 11.] ( 354 ) [SIPARA 11.

suffer a grievous punishment. (179) And in this law of
retaliation ye have life, 0 ye of understanding, that per-
adventure ye may fear. (180) It is ordained you, when
any of you is at the point of death, if he leave any goods,
that he lequeath a legacy to his parents, and kindred,
according to what shall be reasonable. This is a duty
incumbent on those who fear God. (181) But he who shall
change the legacy, after he hath heard it hcqitcathcd ly the
dying persoji, surely the sin thereof shall be on those who
change it, for God is he who heareth and knoweth,
(182) Howbeit he who apprehendeth from the testator
any mistake or injustice, and shall compose the matter
between them, that shall be no crime in him, for God is
gracious and merciful.
^ ~^' II (183) 0 true believers, a fast is ordained you, as it
was ordained unto those before you, that ye may fear

(179) In this law . . . ye have life; i.e., tliis law has been enacted
as a benevolent measure, whereby blood-feuds might be finally settled,
and thus life be saved.

(180) A legacij to his ixircnts, d-c. Muslim commentators, on the
authority of Baidhawi, say this law was enacted to correct the custom
of the ancient Arabs, whereby parents and relatives were sometimes
disinherited in favour of the religious mendicant. These translate
the words rendered in the text, " This is a duty incumbent on," cL-c, so
as to read, " There is a duty toward the temperate," i.e., faqirs or men-
dicants ; and they understand that not more than one-third of the
property of the testator may be devoted to such persons. How-
ever, they believe this law to have been abrogated by the law con-
cerning inheritance in chap, iv., and that there is therelbre now no
law requiring them to will any of their substance to charitable
objects. See Abdul Qadir in loco.

The principal passages of the Quran relating to the law of inherit-
ance are the following : — chaps, iv. 6-13, 175, and v. 105-107.

(181, 182) These verses contain a warning to those who Avould
tamper wdth a will after it has been made, and at the same time pro-
vide for the correction of a will made contrary to law. Some writers
understand them to refer to the friendly mediation of those who suc-
ceed in securing a change in the will, in the interest of justice, before
the death of the testator. See Taj'slr-i-Raufi.

(183) A fast is ordained, dc. Muir, in his Life of Mahomet, vol.
iii. pp. 47, 48, conjectures that fasting w\is not observed by the ]\ius-
lims till after the flight to Madina. The following is his account of
its institution : —

" Tavo or three months after his arrival in Medina, Mahomet ob-

siPARA II.] ( 355 ) [chap. II.

God. (184) A certain number of days shall ye fast: but
lie among you who shall be sick, or on a journej , shall fast
an equal number of other days. And tliose who can keep
it, and do not, must redeem their neglect by maintaining of
a poor man. And he who voluntarily dealeth better with
the poor man than he is obliged, this shall be better for
him. But if ye fast, it will be better for you, if ye knew

served the Jews, on the tenth day of their seven month, keeping the
great fast of the Atonement, and he readily adopted it for his own
people. Prior to this, fasting does not appear to have been a pre-
scribed ordinance of Islam, It was established at a period when the
great object of Mahomet was to symbolise with the Jews in all their
rules and ceremonies.

" But when it became his endeavour to cast off Judaism and its
customs, this fast was superseded by another. Eighteen months
after his arrival in Medina, Mahomet promulgated, as a divine com-
mand, that the following month, or Ramadhdn, was to be henceforth
observed as an annual fast. Although the new ordinance was
professedly similar in principle to that of the Jews, the mode of its
observance was entii'ely different."

This verse is said to be abrogated by ver. 187.

(184) A certain number of days ; the whole of the month Rama-
dh4n. See next verse.

Those %oho can keep it, d;c. Sale says, " The expositors differ much
about the meaning of this passage, thinking it very improbable that
people should be left entirely at liberty either to fast or not, on com-
pounding for it in this manner. Jalaluddin, therefore, supposes the
negative particle not to be understood, and that this is allowed only
to those who are not able to fast, by reason of age or dangerous sick-
ness ; but afterwards he says, that in the beginning of Muhammad-
aiiism it Avas free for them to choose whether they would fast or
maintain a poor man, which liberty was soon after taken away, and
this passage abrogated by the following : Therefore let hwn loho shall
he present in this month, fast the same month. Yet this abrogation, he
says, does not extend to women with child or that give suck, lest
the infant suffer.

" Al Zamakhshari, having first given an explanation of Ibn Abbas,
who, by a different interpretation of the Arabic word Tutikftndh^i,
which signifies ca7i or are able to fast, renders it. Those who find great
difficult;! therein, &c., adds an exposition of his own, by supposing
something to be understood, according to which the sense will be,
Those who can fast, and yet have a legal excuse to break it, must
redeem it," &c.

Abdul Qadir understands that those who are able to fast and do
not are here required to redeem their neglect, as Sale has it in the
text, by feeding a poor man for one day. So, too, the Tafdr-i-Raufi.
Eodwell, also, in his translation, recognises the same meaning.

CHAP. II.] ( 356 ) [SIPARA II.

it, (185) The month of Eamadhan shall ye fast, in which
the Quran was sent down from heaven, a direction unto
men, and declarations of direction, and the distinction
between good and evil. Therefore, let him among you who
shall be present in this month, fast the same month ; but
he Avho shall be sick, or on a journey, shall fast the liJce
number of other days. GoD w^ould make this an ease unto
you, and would not make it a difficulty unto you ; that ye
may fulfil the number of days, and glorify God, for that
he hath directed you, and that ye may give thanks.
(186) When my servants ask thee concerning me, Verily
I am near; I will hear the prayer of him that prayeth,
when he prayeth unto me : but let them hearken unto

(185) Ramadhdn. The iiiutli month of the Muslim year, in the
latter part of which occurs the Laylut ul Qadr, or Night of Power, in
which the Quran was brought down to the lowest heaven. See
Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism, chap. xx. ; also Prelim. Disc,

P- ^77-

The distinction. The Arabic word is furqdn, a term derived from
the Hebrew, and applied to the Pentateuch as well as to the Quran.
See ver. 52.

Shall he present; i.e., "at home, and not in a strange country, where
the fast cannot be performed, or on a journey." — Scde.

Cliildren who have not reached the age of j^uberty are exempt
from the observance of this fast.

God woidd make this an ease unto you. This is said in reference to
the sick and others exemjsted above. It may also refer to what is
said below in ver. 187. With all these alleviating circumstances,
however, the strict observance of this fast, during the long days of a
tropical summer, is anything but an ease to the Muslim. Muir
thinks Muhammad did not foresee the hardship that would ensue in
the observance of this fast, when he changed the Jewish intercalary
year for the lunar {Life of Mahomet, chap. iii. p. 49). But there is
reason to believe the month occurred originally during the hot
season, the word Ramadhdn being derived from ramadh, to burn.
The words of the text, therefore, proliably refer to the present ob-
servance as being easy in comparison with the more rigid practice in
the beginning. This interj^retation presumes that this passage was
revealed sonie time after ver. 183.

(186) 1 ivill hear the jiraycr. The special reference is to praj'ers
offered during the fast. Faith and obedience are here declared to be
necessary to successful prayer. A tradition says, " The person who
observes the prayers particularly appointed for the nights of Eama-
dhan, shall be forgiven all his past faults ! " Surely if the fast be of
difficult observance, the way of pardon seems easy enough.

SIPARA II.] ( 357 ) [chap. II.

me, and believe in me, that they may be rightly directed.
(187) It is lawful for you, on the night of the fast, to go
in unto your wives ; they are a garment unto you, and ye
are a garment unto them. God knoweth that ye defraud
yourselves therein, wherefore he turneth unto you, and
forgiveth you. Now, therefore, go in unto them ; and
earnestly desire that which God ordaineth you, and eat
and drink, until ye can plainly distinguish a white thread
from a black thread by the daybreak : then keep the fast
until night, and go not in unto them, but be constantly
present in the places of worship. These are the prescribed
bounds of God, therefore draw not near them to transgress
them. Thus God declareth his signs unto men, that ye
may fear him. (188) Consume not your wealth among
yourselves in vain ; nor present it unto judges, that ye
may devour part of men's substance unjustly, against your
own consciences.

I) 2-'
Is

moon : Answer, They are times appointed unto men, and

(187) This verse seems to show clearly that the Muslims at first
felt bound to continue, in some measure, the rigour of the fast
during the night.

Theij are a garment unto you, d-c. " A metaphorical expression, to
signify the mutual comfort a man and his wife find in each other." —
Sale.

Earnestly desire. Some (Commentators understand this to have
special reference to the desire for children.

A white thread from a black thread. A form of expression used by
the Jews also (see Rodwell), signifying early dawn.

Be constantly pressing, etc. This seclusion is called 'Itiqaf, and is
observed by remaining in the mosque during the day, abstaining
from all -worldly thoughts and conversation, and by reading the
Qurdn aud religious books. Hughes' Notes on Muhaminadaiiism,
chap. XX.

(188) This verse is understood by Muslim commentators to for-
bid every species of prodigality and dishonesty in dealing with one
another. If so, scarcely any precept of the Qurdn is so universally
transgressed as tliis.

(189) Enter your houses, dc. "Some of the Arabs had a supersti-
tious custom after they liad been at Makkah (in pilgrimage, as it seems),
on their return home, not to enter their house by the old door, but
to make a hole through the back part for a passage, which practice is
here reprehended." — !<ale.

2 4

S

CHAP. II.] ( 358 ) [SIPARA IT.

to sliovj the season of the pilgrimage to Makkah. It is not
righteousness that ye enter your houses by the back parts
thereof, but righteousness is of him who feareth God.
Therefore enter your houses by their doors ; and fear GoD,
that ye may be happy. (190) And fight for the religion
of God against those who fight against you ; but trans-
gress not hy attaeldng them first, for GoD loveth not the
transgressors. (191) And kill them wherever ye find
them, and turn them out of that whereof they have dis-
possessed you ; for temptation to idolatry is more grievous
than slaughter; yet fight not against them in the holy

(190-193) Fight for the religion of God. Tliis is, perhaps, the first
expressed command of the Arabian propliet to establish his religion
Tjy tlie sword. Whilst in Makkah he appeared in the simple garb of a
preacher, and this he retained for a while at Madina (ver. 119 snpra).
There he advised his persecuted followers to flee from their enemies.
Even at Madina he advises them to "forgive and avoid " their adver-
saries (ver. 108). He now finds himself in circumstances to take a
bolder, thongli certainly a less noble stand. The Muslims are now to
figlit not only in defence of their faith, but are enjoined to overthrow
idolatry by the sword (see ver. 193). It is probable that a number
of injunctions, delivered at different times at Madina, are gathered
together in this passage, inasmuch as the strong language of vers.
192 and 193 is scarcely reconcilable with the injunction of ver. 190
to fight simply in defence of Lslam.

(191) Kill them, d-c. Much is made of expressions like this, by
some Christian apologists, to show the cruel character of the Arabian
prophet, and the inference is thence drawn that he was an impostor
and his Quran a fraud. Without denying that ]\Iuhammad was
cruel, w^e think this mode of assault to be very unsatisfactory to say
the least, as it is capable of being turned against the Old Testament
Scriptures. If the claim of Muhammad to have received a divine
command to exterminate idolatry by the slaughter of all impenitent
idolaters be admitted, I can see no objection to his practice. The
question at issue is this. Did God command such slaughter of idola-
ters, as he commanded the destruction of the Canaanites or of the
Amalekites ? Taking the stand of the Muslim, that God did so com-
mand j\Ii;hammad and his followers, his morality in this respect may
be defended on precisely the same ground that the morality of Moses
and Joshua is defended by the Christian.

Fight not . . . in the holy temjile ; i.e., the Kaabah. Ordinarily,
the sanctity of the temple at IMakkah would have been a safeguard
to an enemy, but the antipathy between the ]\Iakkans and the
Muslims was now so great as to make it probable that the latter
might be attacked even in the Kaabah. This permission is, however,
abrogated by chap. ix. 5.

SIPARA II.] ( 359 ) [chap. II.

temple, until they attack you therein ; but if they attack
you, slay them there. This shall be the reward of infidels.
(192) But if they desist, God is gracious and merciful.
("193) Fight therefore against them, until there be no
temptation to idolatry, and the religion be God's; but if
they desist, then let there be no hostility, except against
the ungodly. (194) A sacred month for a sacred month,
and the holy limits of MahTiah, if they attack you therein, do
ye also attack them therein in retaliation ; and whoever
transgresseth against you hy so doing, do ye transgress
against him in like manner as he hath transgressed against
you, and fear God, and know that God is with those who
fear him. (195) Contribute out of your substance toward
the defence of the religion of God, and throw not your-
selves with your own hands into perdition ; and do good.

(192) If they desist, d;c. If they repent and accept Islam, Tafsu-i-
Raufi.

(193) Until . . . the religion he God's. This expresses the breadth
of the claim of Islam. Idolatry must be extirpated, and the religion
of Islam be vindicated by God as his own, through the overthrow of
idolatry. It is probable that Muhammad had as yet no idea of ex-
tending his religion beyond the borders of Arabia, but the idea here
attached to it would logically lead to its propagation everywhere.

Excei^t against the ungodly ; i.e., those who were worthy of punish-
ment on other grounds than that of their faith.

(194) A sacred month. See Prelim. Disc, p. 228. Eodwell trans-
lates : " The sacred month and the sacred precincts are under the
safeguard of reprisals," and says, " The meaning of this difficult
passage is, that in wai's for the cause of religion, the sacred month
and the temple of Mecca may be made the time and scene of con-
tests, which then and there are usually proliibited."

Transgress agaiiist him. Contrast this with the teaching of Christ
(Luke vi. 27-31). Love to enemies is a doctrine unknown to Islam.
Forgiveness of such, whenever enjoined (ver. 108), was dictated as a
matter of policy, not of compassion or love.

(195) Contribute of yo2ir substance. The duty enjoined here is not
identical with that of giving Zihdt or legal alms. It means more,
having reference to all that may be necessary to carry on a holy war.
The verse is closely connected with those preceding. The faithful
are therefore not only to kill the infidels, but spend their substance
freely to help others, especially the Ghdzis or fanatical crusaders of
Isl4m, by supplying them with food and the materials of war.

Jliroio not yourselves . . . into perdition j i.e., "be not accessory to
your own destruction, by neglecting your contributions towards the

CHAP. II.] ( 360 ) [SIPARA II.

for God loveth those wlio do good. (196) Perform the
pilgrimage of Mahkali, and the visitation of God ; and, if ye
be besieged, send that offering which shall be the easiest ;
and shave not your heads, until your offering reacheth the
place of sacrifice. But, whoever among you is sick, or is
troubled with any distemper of the head, must redeem

wars against infidels, and thereby suffering tiiem to gather strength."
— Sale,

Do good. Do good to the Ghdzis. If they are in ^yant, give them
money ; if on foot, give tliem carriage ; if married and unprovided,
give them equipment. Without doubt God is a friend of them that
do good. — 7afsir-i-Eaufi.

This passage illustrates how easily readers of the English transla-
tion of the Quran may be misled.by the bias of tlieir own language.

(196) Perform the inlgrimage and the visitation; i.e., the Hajj or
greater pilgrimage, and Umrah or lesser pilgrimage. The former is
absolutely necessary, provided tlie Muslim possesses the means
necessary for the journey. Tlie latter is meritorious, and its rites
may be performed at any time, while the rites of the Hajj may only
be i^erformed on the three days intervening between the seventh
and tenth of the month Dh\d Hajja. See Prelim. Disc, pp. 186-188,
and Hughes' Notes on MiiJiammadanism, second edition, chap. xxii.

The rites and ceremonies connected with the Hajj and Umrah are
exceedingly puerile, and decidedly inconsistent with tlie spirit of
Islam. The idolatrous customs of the ancient Arabs, though sancti-
fied by the teaching of the Quran and the example of Muhammad,
but poorly comport with the monotheistic teaching of the reformer
of Makkah, and come far short of " confirming the former Scriptures."
Its sanction by Muhammad is one of the darkest blots on his religion,
and shows at the same time how far the politician of Madina differed
from the preacher of Makkah. How his apologists fail to see the
inconsistency of his conduct and teaching here, not only with the
dignity of a projihet of God, but with the character of an honest
man, is beyond our comprehension. The kissing of the Black Stone
and the Yamdni Pillar was so manifestly inconsistent with the doc-
trine of Islam, that naught but the example of the prophet and the
implicit obedience of his followers secured its perpetuation. The
fiery Omar, kissing the stone, said, " Verily I know that thou art a
stone ; thou dost no good or harm in the world, and if it was not
that I saw the prophet kiss thee, I would not kiss thee ! " — Matthews'
Mishqdt it/ Masubih, book xi. chap. iv. part iii.

If ye be hesicfjed. By sickness as well as by enemies.

Send that offering, cbc. The offering must be at the rate of one
goat for a single person, or a cow or a camel for every seven persons.

Shave not your heads, tt'C. " For this was a sign they had com-
pleted their vow, and performed all the ceremonies of the pilgrim-
age."— Sale, Jaldluddin.

SIPARA II.] ( 361 ) [chap. II.

the shaving his head, by fasting, or alms, or some offering.
When ye are secure froin enemies, lie who tarrieth in the
visitation of the temple of Makkah iintil the pilgrimage, shall
hring that offering which shall be the easiest. But he who
findeth not anything to offer, shall fast three days in the
pilgrimage, and seven when ye are returned : they shall
be ten clays complete. This is incumbent on him whose
family shall not be present at the holy temple. And fear
God, and know that God is severe in punishing.

II (197) The pilgrimage must he performed in the known it "9
months : whosoever therefore purposeth to go on pilgrim-
age therein, let him not know a woman, nor transgress,
nor quarrel in the pilgrimage. The good which ye do,
God knoweth it. Make provision for your journey ; but
the best provision is piety ; and fear me, 0 ye of under-
standing. (198) It shall be no crime in you, if ye seek
an increase from your Loed, hy trading during the pil-

Fasting, or alms, or some offering; i.e., " either by fasting three days,
or feeding six poor people, or sacrificing a sheep." — Sate.

He ivho tarrieth, &c. " This passage is somewhat obscure. Yahya
interprets it of him who marries a wife during the visitation, and
performs the pilgrimage the year following. But Jalaluddin ex-
pounds it of him who stays within the sacred enclosures, in order to
complete the ceremonies which (as it should seem) he had not been
able to do within the prescribed time." — Hale.

(197) Tiie loiown months; i.e., Shawal, Dhul Qaada, and Dhul
Hajja. See Prelim. Disc, p. 186.

(198) It shall be no crime, cfcc. In the days of Muhammad, as at
the present time, Makkah was dependent for its importance as a city
upon the great annual pilgrimage. Situated in a comparatively
barren region, not only its own food-supply was brought from a dis-
tance, but also the provisions necessary for the multitudes flocking
to it from all parts of Arabia had to be procured by caravans from
the surrounding country. For this reason it was possible for many
pilgrims to carry on a profitable trade while fulfilling the require-
ments of their religion. The service of God and mammon could
thus be undertaken at the same time. The temporising policy of
the Arabian prophet is here again apparent in sanctioning a practice
which he either could not prevent, or which, if condoned, would
minister to the purposes of his religion. He not only does so, but
actually suggests a worldly motive as an incentive to the perform-
ance of an otherwise hard duty. The gifts of mammon now became
" an increase from your Lord." Compare with our Lord's treatment
of the servants of mammon at Jerusalem (John ii. 14-16),

CHAP. 11.] ( 362 ) [SIPARA II.

grimage. And when ye go in procession from Arafat
remember God near the holy monument; and remem-
ber him for that he hath directed you, although ye were
before this of the 7iuvihcr of those who go astray. (199)
Therefore go in procession from whence the people go in
procession, and ask pardon of God, for God is gracious

Procession. "The original word signifies to rush forward impetu-
oiishj, as the pilgrims do wlieu they proceed from Arufat to Muz-
dalifa." — Sale.

Arafat. " A mountain near Makkah, so called because Adam there
met and Icneiv his wife after a long sejoaration. Yet otliers say that
Gabriel, after he had instructed Abraham in all the sacred cere-
monies, coming to Arafat, there asked him if he knew the ceremonies
which had been shown him, to wliich Abraham answering in the
affirmative, the mountain had thence its name." — Sale. These
stories are probably inventions, suggested by the meaning of the
word Arafat. See also note on ver. 35.

The holy monument. " In Arabic, Al Mashar al hnrdm. It is a
mountain in the farther part of Muzdallfa, where it is said Muham-
mad stood praying and praising God, till his face became extremely
shining." — Sale. This legend is probably adapted from the story of
the shining of Moses' face on Sinai.

Remember him, etc. The heathen customs of circling round the
Kaabah, kissing the Black Stone, capering between Arafat and Muz-
dallfa, and throwing pebbles in Mina, are to be sanctified by prayers
and praise to Allah. The skeleton of Arab stone-worship and
magianism was thus clothed in the habiliments of Islam. See, on
this subject, Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. i., introduction, pp. ccxii.
and ccxiii.

(199) Go in procession. Rodwell translates, " Pass on quickly."
Abdul Qcidir has it, " Go to the circling," i.e., of the Kaabah {tawdf).
It is generally understood by the commentators to refer to the return
from ]\Iuzdalifa to the Kaabah.

Ask pardon of God. The Mishqdt ul Masdlih gives a tradition, on
the authority of Ibn Omar, as follows : " The apostle of God said,
When you see a pilgrim, saldm to him, and shake him by the hand ;
and tell him to ask pardon for you, before he enters into his own
house ; because his faults have been forgiven, and his supplications
are approved." — Book xi. chap. i. part 3.

The duty of asking pardon was commanded the prophet himself
as well as his followers (see chap, xlvii. 21). Tradition repeatedly
represents Muhammad as seeking pardon for sin. " Verily I ask
pardon of God, and turn from sin towards him, more than seventy
times daily." " I ask pardon of God one hundred times a day."
Such are the sayings ascribed to Muhammad. — Mishqdt id Masdbih,
book X. chap. iii. part i. In another place in this same chapter
IMuhammad is declared to have taught the monstrous doctrine, that
when a Muslim says, " 0 my patron ! I have been guilty of a fault,

SIPARA II.] ( 363 ) [CHAP. TI.

and merciful. (200) And when ye have finished your holy
ceremonies, remember God, according as ye remember your
fathers, or with a more reverent commemoration. There
are some men who say, 0 Lord, give us our portion in this
world; but such shall have no portion in the next life; (201)
and there are others who say, 0 Lord, give us good in this
world and also good in the next world, and deliver us from
the torment of licll fire. They shall have a portion of that
which they have gained : God is swift in taking an account.

II (202) Eemember God the appointed number of days ; N'sf.
but if any haste to depart from the valley of Mina in
two days, it shall be no crime in him. And if any
tarry longer, it shall be no crime in him, in him who
feareth God. Therefore fear God, and know that unto
him ye shall be gathered. (203) There is a man who
causeth thee to marvel by his speech concerning this

forgive it," God says to tlie angels, " Did my servant know that he
had a defender who forgives and punishes % I have pardoned him :
then tell my servant to commit faults as often as lie likes, as long as
he asks pardon ! " With such doctrines implicitly received, is it any
wonder that Muslims are immoral 1 that ordinary sins should seem
to them a light thing '/ Is it any wonder they should fail to see the
need of an atonement, seeing God may even license sin for the
delight he has in hearing his servants asking pardon ? This is
perhaps the most damning doctrine of Islam. It says, Peace, peace,
where there is no peace ; it lulls the vilest sinners to the sleep of
death ; it dishonours the God of holiness, and saps the foundations
of morality and true piety.

(200) Rememler God according as t/e remember your fathers. Abdul
Qddir tells us that the Arabs, after completing the rites of pilgrimage,
spent three days in Makkah in rejoicing, during which they reconnted
the deeds performed by their fathers. The Muslims are here com-
manded to spend these three days, called Aydm-ut-Tashriq, in remem-
bering God instead of remembering their fathers.

There are some men; i.e., unbelievers. — Tafsir-i-RavJi.

(201) Tliere are others; i.e., hypocrites. — Tafsir-i-Eanfi.

They shall have a portion. They will be rewarded according to
their works.

Swift in taking account. " For he will judge all creatures, says
Jaldluddin, in the space of half a day." — Sale.

(202) Appointed number of days. Three days (see note on ver. 200).

(203) There is a man, d;c. " This person was al Akhnas Ibn
Shuraiq, a fair-spoken dissembler, who swore that he believed in
Muhammad, and pretended to be one of his friends, and to contemn

CHAP. II.] ( 364 ) [SIPARA II.

present life, and calleth God to witness that wliicli is in
his heart, yet he is most intent in opposing thee ; (204)
and when he turneth away from thee, he hasteth to act
corruptly in the earth, and to destroy that which is sown,
and springeth up : but God loveth not corrupt doing.
(205) And if one say unto him. Fear God ; pride seizeth
him, together with wickedness; but hell shall be his
reward, and an unhappy couch shall it be. (206) There
is also a man who selleth his soul for the sake of those
things which are pleasing unto God ; and God is gracious
unto Jiis servants, (207) 0 true believers, enter into the
true religion wholly, and follow not the steps of Satan,
for he is your open enemy. (208) If ye have slipped
after the declarations of our will have come unto you,
know that God is mighty and wise. (209) Do the infidels
expect less than that God should come down to them over-

ttiis world. But God here reveals to the prophet his hypocrisy and
■wickedness." — Sale^ Jaldluddin.

(204) To destroy, d-c. " Setting fire to his neighbour's corn, and
killing his asses by night." — Sale, Jaldludaln.

The Tafsir-i-Pumfi regards these verses as descriptive of all
hypocrites.

(206) A man who selleth, d-o. "The person here meant was one
Siihaib, who being persecuted by the idolaters of Makkah, forsook
all he had, and fled to Medina." — Scde, Jcddluddln.

A great variety of stories have been invented by the commentators
to illustrate passages like this. See Tafsir-i-Raufi in loco.

(207) Enter into the true religion icholly. This exhortation is
thought to refer to such Jewish and Arab converts at Madina as
had not yet adopted all the rites and customs of the new religion.
Jewish converts had scruples about using the flesh and milk of
camels for food, being contrary to the teaching of the Mosaic law.
The Arabs were not all hearty in accepting the innovations made
upon the customs of their fathers in order to make a difference
between them and the unbelievers, especially in the rites and cere-
monies of the pilgrimage described above. The temptation of such
to apostatise from Islam is here ascribed to Satan.

(208) If ye have slipped, Eodwell's translation is preferable : " If
ye lapse."

God is mighty and wise. IMighty to puni.sh apostasy, and wise to
discern it.

(209) Overshadoiced with clouds. The allusion here is to the storm
which destroyed the infidels in the days of the prophet Shuaib, See
chap. vii. 92.

SIPARA II.] ( 365 ) [chap. II.

shadowed with clouds, and the angels also ? but the thing
is decreed, and to God shall all things return.

II (210) Ask the children of Israel how many evident li 10
signs we have showed them ; and whoever shall change the
grace of God after it shall have come unto him, verily God
will be severe in punishing him. (211) The present life
was ordained for those who believe not, and they laugh the
faithful to scorn ; but they who fear GoD shall be above
them, on the day of the resurrection : for God is bountiful
unto whom he pleaseth without measure. (212) Mankind
was of one faith, and God sent prophets bearing good

Anfiels. Referred to as the ministers of judgment and the keepers
of hell. See chap. Ixxiv. 29.

(210) Evident signs; i.e., the mirotcles wrought among them by
former projihets, e.specially by Moses. — Taf-sir-i-limifi.

Whoever shall change the grace of God. By the grace (translated
boon) of God, Rodwell understands the Quran to be intended. The
Tufsh-i-Rcmfi seems to refer the expression to the Pentateuch or
Jewish Scri])tures. The meaning would then be that those Jews,
who ol)jected to IMuslim practice on the ground that it contradicted
their Scriptures were guilty of changing or perverting the Word of
God. This I believe to be the true interpretation of this passage,
inasmuch as there is no reason to believe the Jews ever attempted
to change the Quran in any way. Certainly they did not at this
stage in the history of Islam. Such being the case, Muhammad lays
himself open to the charge of having committed the crime he here
threatens with the " severe punishment" of God. The fear of incur-
ring this punishment is one of the reasons whj- Muslims have been
so scrupulously careful to preserve the text of the Qunin.

(211) The present life, d-c. Savary translates thus: " The life of
this world is strewed with flowers for the unbelievers. They make
a scoff of the faithful. Those who have the fear of the Lord shall be
raised above them at the day of resurrection. God dispenseth as he
pleaseth his innumerable gifts."

The Tafslr-i-liavfi tells us that the veTy reason why infidels are
prospered is that they may be filled with contemptuous pride and
run madly on the way to destruction. Eut although they scoff at
the poor slave-followers of Muhammad, such as Bilal and Amar, yet
these shall be exalted far above them at the resurrection day.

This kind of consolation satisfied the poor companions diiring the
trials of the early days of their exile in Madina, but the successes of
Muslim arms soon secured a glorj- sufficiently comforting to the Arab
mind for the present life at least. Their prosperity has brought
with it a 2^1'ide not unlike that ascribed to the unbelievers by the
commentators.

(212) Manliind teas of one faith. Muhammad here teaches the
tiuth, that originally there was but one religion in the world. But

CHAP. II.] ( 366 ) [SIPARA II.

tidings, and denouncing threats, and sent down with them
the scripture in truth, that it might judge between men of
that concerning wliich they disagreed : and none disagreed
concerning it, except those to whom the same scriptures
were delivered, after the declarations of God's ivill had
come unto them, out of envy among themselves. And
God directed those who believed, to that truth concerning
which they disagreed, by his will : for God directeth whom
he pleaseth into the right way. (213) Did ye think ye
should enter paradise, when as yet no such thing had
happened unto you, as hath hcqypcned unto those who
have been before you ? They suffered calamity, and tribu-
lation, and were afflicted; so that the apostle, and they
who believed with him, said : Wlien will the help of God

this religion from time to time became corrupt. Hence prophets
were sent to correct abuses and restore the religion of God to the
children of men. They brought with them Scriptures, breathing
"good tidings and denouncing threats," and "judging between men
concerning which they disagreed." This religion, according to the
Quran, is Islam. The Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments
are then " the Scripture in truth." IF, therefore, Muhammad be a
prophet of God, his doctrine must agree in all essential particulars
with the teachings of Moses and Jesus. Do they ? If not, Muham-
mad is a false prophet, on his own showing.

iA^oue disagreed . . . excejyt those, etc. The reference is to the Jews
who refused to accept the Quran as the "Word of God. The state-
ment, however, is not literally true, for multitudes of heathen in
India, China, and Africa still " disagree." The passage, however,
shows that at this stage Muhammad had only the Jews and Arabs
in mind. The idea of a universal Islam, though logically involved
in his doctrine, does not seem to have been yet fully developed in
his mind.

God directeth whom he pleaseth. The doctrine of election is here
expressly taught.

(213) Did ye think ye should enter paradise ? dec. This verse was
addressed to the Makkan fugitives who suffered grievously from
hunger and poverty during the first years of their exile. They are
pointed to the sufferings of God's people in former ages. So Tafsir-
i-Raufi. The allusion may, however, be to the sutferings endured by
himself and the first believers in Makkah, when persecuted by the
Quraish. There is apparently evidence of great courage in adversity
and firm trust in God in the words, " Is not the help of God nigh ? "
The expression may, however, simply point to the prospect of suc-
cess due to the now growing political power of the Muslims at
Madina.

SIPARA II.] ( 367 ) [chap. II.

come? Is not the help of God nigh? (214) They will
ask thee what they shall bestow in alms : Answer, The
good which ye bestow, let it he given to parents, and kin-
dred, and orphans, and the poor and the stranger. What-
soever good ye do, God knoweth it. (215) War is
enjoined you against the infidels; but this is hateful
unto you : yet perchance ye hate a thing which is better
for you, and perchance ye love a thing which is worse for
you : but God knoweth and ye know not,

. T) 2 7

II (216) They will ask thee concerning the sacred month, H YT*
whether they may war therein : Answei", To war therein is
grievous ; but to obstruct the way of God, and infidelity
towards him, and to keep men from the holy temple, and
to drive out his people from thence, is more grievous in

(214) What they shall bestow in alms. That " cliarity begins at
home " was a truth of Islam as well as of Christianity is evident from
the injunction in this verse. The contributions of the Muslims were
as yet too meagre to supply the wants of any outside their own com-
munity, yet we see the " stranger" is still to share the benefit of Arab
hospitality and generosity. On the subject of legal alms, see notes
on vers. 42 and 109. This verse was afterwards abrogated. See
chap. ix. 60.

(215) ^yar is ev joined you. See note on ver. 191.

This is hateful unto you : yet, d:c. The hatefulness referred to here
was probably due to the reluctance of some of the Muslims to fight
against their own relatives and fellow-townsmen. By the infidels we
must understand the Makkans specially to be designated. Muham-
mad had now determined to resort to the sword to accomplish what
his preaching had failed to do. The divine sanction to his belligerent
purpose was now promulgated. But the doctrine was unjialatable to
some, and Muhammad had no little difficulty in securing obedience
to it. Even the rule limiting the distribution of booty to those who
assisted in the fight for it was scarcely sufiicient to arouse their
martial spirit. See chap, xlviii. 15, 16.

(216) To tear therein is grievous. See notes on vers. 190-194.
The commentators agree in assigning the occasion of this revelation

to the attack of Abdullah Ibn Jahash and his party of Muslims upon
a Quraish caravan at Nakhla, between Makkah and Tayif, during the
sacred month of Rajab. The attack was made by the express order
of Muhammad, though afterwards he denied having ordered them to
attack during the sacred month. The unbelievers taunted him and
his Muslims, charging them with perfidy and cowardice in attacking
men secured from assault by the customs of the times. Even the
Muslims felt the disgrace thus brought upon them. They reproached
Abdullah and his followers for what they had done. But the prophet

CHAP. II.] ( 368 ) [SIPARA II.

the sight of God, and the temptation to idolatry is more
grievous than to kill in the sacred months. They will not
cease to war against you, until they turn you from your
religion, if they be able : but whoever among you shall turn
back from his religion, and die an infidel, their works shall
be vain in this world, and the next; they shall be the
companions of 7ie//-fire, they shall remain therein forever.
(217) But they who believe, and who fly for the sake
of religion, and fight in God's cause, they shall hope
for the mercy of God ; for God is gracious and mer-
ciful. (218) They will ask thee concerning wine and
lots : Answer, In both there is great sin, and also some things
of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than their

was equal to the occasion. He affected displeasure. The booty was
put aside without division until this revelation was made, declaring
war at such a time to be " grievous," but assuring the Muslims
that the conduct of the Makkans and the temptation to idolatry was
more grievous than killing in the sacred months. After the recep-
tion of this revelation the booty was divided among the marauders,
Muhammad receiving the fifth part thereof, thus condoning, if not
actually sanctioning, the conduct of the transgressors. Can it be
believed that Muhammad was not guilty of imposture in producing
such a revelation under such circumstances ? For a fuller account
of this affair, see Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. pp. 70-74.

(217) They who . . . jight in God's cause. Literally, They who
strive earnestly in the way of God. " The word (Jihad) is the same as
that subsequently used for a religious war; but it had not yet
probably acquired its fixed application. It was employed in its
general sense before the Hegira, and probably uj) to the battle of
Badr." — Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 74, note.

This verse is said to have been revealed for the special purpose of
comforting Abdullah and his companions.

(218) Concerning ivine. " Under the name of wine all sorts of
strong and inebriating liquors are comprehended." — Prelim. Disc,
p. 191.

And lots. " The original word, al Maisar, properly signifies a par-
ticular game performed with arrows, and much in use with the pagan
Arabs. But by lots we are here to understand all games whatsoever,
which are subject to chance or hazard, as dice, cards, Ac." — Sale.

Though lots are forbidden to Muslims on the ground that they are
"a great sin" and "an abomination of the work of Satan " (chap.
V. 92), yet the angels are said to have cast lots to determine which of
them " should have the education of Mary " (chap. iii. 44).

Some things of use unto men. " From these words some suppose
that only drinking to excess and too frequent gaming are prohibited.

SIPARA II.] ( 369 ) [chap. IL

use. They will ask thee also what they shall bestow in
alms: (219) Answer, What ye have to spare. Thus GoD
showeth Ids signs unto you, that peradventure ye might
seriously think of this present world, and of the next.
(220) They will also ask thee concerning orphans : Answer,
To deal righteously with them is best ; and if ye inter-
meddle with the management of ivhat belongs to them, do
them no wrong ; they are your brethren : God knoweth
the corrupt dealer from the righteous ; and if God please,

And the moderate use of wine they also think is allowed by these
words of the i6th chapter (ver. 69), And of the fruits of palm-trees
and graces ye obtain inebriating drink, and also good nourishment. Bat
the more received opinion is, that both drinking wine or other strong
liquors in any quantity, and phaying at any game of chance, are
absolutely forbidden." — Sale, on the authority of Jaldluddln and Zam-
alchskari.

Comparing this passage with cliap. iv. 42, chap. v. 92, and chap,
xvi. 69, the conclusion seems fairly drawn that wine and lots were
forbidden on the ground that their abuse was fraught Avith great evil,
as stated in the text, though their occasional use to men is admitted.
Muslims came to jarayer in a state of drunkenness, and quarrels and
blood-feuds grew out of the use of lots. They were therefore totally
forbidden.

(219) What ye have to spare. See note on ver. 214. There the
question relates to beneficiaries, here to the amount to be bestowed.
But see also notes on ver. 42.

(220) Concerning orj)hans. The following, from R. Bosworth
Smith's Mohammed and Mohammedanism, p. 251, second edition, is
eloquently misleading : — " The orphan was not less than the slave
the object of the prophet's peculiar care, for he had been an orphan
himself ; and what God had done for him, he was anxious, as far as
might be, to do for others. The poor were always present with him,
and their condition never absent from his mind." He should
not have forgotten to say that this solicitude, so far as it went, did
not go beyond the Muslim circle ; that, having made thousands of
orphans by his wars against the infidels, he was in duty bound to
care for them ; and that orphans being Muslims (for the children of
infidels and Jews or Christians, slain for their unbelief, were made
Muslims by compulsion) were to be cared for, not only because they
were orphans, Init because they were brethren. Whilst giving the
Arabian prophet due credit for that kindliness of feeling which he
sometimes exhibited towards the poor and helpless, and which finds
expression in the Quran, we cannot shut our eyes to tlie fact that
he was an utter stranger to that universal charity which is the chief
glory of Christianity.

If ye intermeddle J i.e., if you make use of their money or property
in carrying on your own business affairs, " do them no wrong."

2 A

CHAP. II.] ( 370 ) [SIPARA II.

he will surely distress you, for God is mighty and wise.
(221) Marry not uwiien wJio are idolaters, until they be-
lieve : verily a maidservant who believeth is better than
an idolatress, although she please you more. And give
not icotiun tvJio helieve in marriage to the idolaters, until
they believe : for verily a servant who is a true believer
is better than an idolater, though he please you more.
They invite unto hcU-iire, but God inviteth unto paradise
and pardon through his will, and declareth his signs unto
^ men, that they may remember.
-t^ T2' II (222) They will ask thee also concerning the courses
of women : Answer, They are a pollution : therefore sepa-
rate yourselves from women in their courses, and go not
near them, until they be cleansed. But when they are
cleansed, go in unto them as God hath commanded you,
for God loveth those who repent, and loveth those who
are clean. (223) Your wives are your tillage; go in there-
fore unto your tillage in what manner soever ye will :
and do first some act that may le profitaUe unto your
souls ; and fear God, and know that ye must meet him ;
and bear good tidings unto the faithful. (224) Make not

Will surely distress you, viz., "By his curse, whicli will certainly
bring to nothing what ye shall wrong the orphans of." — Sale.

(221) Harry not . . . idolaters. This law was probably copied
from the requirements of both Judaism and Christianity (c/. Deut.
vii. 3, 4, and 2 Cor. vi. 14-16). Abdul Qadir says this prohibition
does not apply to Jews and Christians, and that Muslims are per-
mitted to intermarry with them.

(2i.2, 223) These verses, with the disgusting comments of Muslim
expositors, too indecent to find a place in this work, reveal the sen-
sual character of the Arabian prophet and his followers. They
account for the degradation of Muslim women. And yet this licen-
tious mandate is clotlied in the garb of piety, and its performance
is to be accompanied by acts of devotion and charity. See Sale in
loco.

(224, 225) Make not God the object ofyoxir oaths j i.e., " So as to swear
frequently by him. The word translated object properly signihes a
butt to shoot at with arrows." — Sale.

Yet the example of the prophet himself, as testified by scores of
traditions, and the teaching of the Qnran (see chaps, li., Ixxix.,
Ixxxvi., xci., xcii., xciv., &c.), justify the most promiscuous and

SIPARA 11.] (371 ) [chap. U.

God the object of your oaths, that ye will deal justly, and
be devout, and make peace among men; for God is he
who heareth and knoweth. (225) God will not punish
you for an inconsiderate word in your oaths ; but he will
punish you for that which your hearts have assented unto :
God is merciful and gracious. (226) They who vow to
abstain from their wives are alloioed to wait four months :
but if they go back frojn their vow, verily GoD is gracious
and merciful; (227) and if they resolve on a divorce, God

varied use of oaths by all things in heaven and earth, Allah not
excepted. Compare oiir Lord's teaching on this subject (Matt. v.
34-37, xxiii. 16-22), and it will be seen how far the Quian comes
short of " confirming the former Scriptures " on this point.

That ye will deal jttdly, cL-c. " Some commentators (Jaldluddiii,
Yahya, &c.) expound this negatively, That ye tviU not deal justly, nor
he devout, c{;c. For such wicked oaths, they say, were customary
among the idolatrous inhabitants of Makkah, which gave occasion to
the following saying of Muhammad : When you stcear to do a thing,
and aftencards find it better to do otherioise, do that lohick is letter,
and make void your oath." — Sale.

The positive rendering is clearly the right one. The exhortation
then seems to be, that by abstaining from the use of God's name in
ordinary oaths, men would leel at liberty to break their rash vows
when their fulfilment would involve the performance of a wicked
act. This view is borne out by the teaching of the next verse.

(226) Those ivho voio to abstain, &c. Rodwell translates thus :
" Tliose who intend to abstain," &c. The Tafsir-i-Raufi and Abdul
Qadir understand an oath, and not an intention, to be meant, and
translate accordingly. The passage therefore supplies an instance
in which an oath may be violated, but the oath must not be in the
name of God (ver. 224). Indeed it seems to us that this is the special
case provided for by the general principle enunciated in ver. 225.

Four months. " That is, they may take so much time to consider ;
and shall not, by a rash oath, be obliged actually to divorce them." —
Bale.

Others are of opinion that such an oatli does not have the force of
an actual divorce for the period of four months. If, however, it be
maintained for that period, a divorce is thereby declared, and the
parties would have to be married again to render tlieir living together
lawful. See Tafsir-i-Raufi in loco.

(227) If they resolve on a divorce; i.e., within, or at the termination
of, the four months.

God is lie who heareth and knoweth. These words, so often repeated
in the Quran, express alike the pleasure and displeasure of God.
The context decides which is intended. Compare vers. 127, 137,
244, and 256. They generally have reference to matters oi faith.
Exliortations in regard to the ^ntc^ice of religion usually end with tlie

CHAP. 11.] ( 372 ) [SIPARA II.

is he '^lio heareth and knoweth. (228) The women wlio
are divorced shall wait concerning themselves until they
have their courses thrice, and it shall not be lawful for
them to conceal that wdiich God hath created in their
» wombs, if they believe in God and the last day ; and their

husbands will act more justly to bring them back at this
time, if they desire a reconciliation. The women ought
also to leliave towards their husbands in like manner as
their husbands shoidd behave towards them, according to
what is just: but the men ought to have a superiority
over them. God is mighty and wise.
13* II (229) Ye may divorce your loives twice; and then

expression, "God knoweth that which ye do," or " God seeth that
which ye do." Here, while divorce is permitted and legislated for,
the will of God seems to be against it.

(228) The divorced shall ivait, <i-c. " This is to be understood of
those only with whom the marriage has been consununated ; for as
to the others there is no time limited. Those who are not quite past
child-bearing (which a woman is reckoned to be after her courses
cease, and she is about tifty-five lunar years, or about fil'ty-three solar
years old), and those who are too young to have children, are allowed
three months only ; but they who are with child must wait till they
be delivered." — Sale, Jaldluddin.

For the various kinds of divorce recognised by Muslim law, see
Prelim. Disc, pp. 207, 208, and Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism,
p. 182.

That which God hath created, <£'C. "That is, they shall tell the
real truth, whether they have their courses, or be with child, or not ;
and shall not, by deceiving their husband, obtain a separation from
him before the term be accomplished, lest the first husband's child
should, by that means, go to the second, or the wife, in case of the
first husband's death, should set up her child as his heir, or demand
her maintenance during the time she went with such child, and the
expenses of her lying-in, under pretence that she waited not her full
prescribed time." — Sale, Yahya.

The ivomeii ought also to behave towards their husbands, <L-c. Hus-
bands were exhorted to "bring back" their wives during the pre-
scribed period of waiting, provided the wives desired a reconciliation.
The only meaning of the exhortation to the women is that they
should be willing to go back to their husbands, provided the husbands
desired to be reconciled. Lest such a statement should jaedicate
equality between the sexes, the clause is added, " but the men ought
to have a superiority over them."

(229) Ye may divorce your wives twice. Compare the Mosaic law,

siPARA II.] ( 2)73 ) [chap. II,

eitlier retain them with humanity, or dismiss them with
kindness. But it is not lawful for you to take away any-
thing of what ye have given them, unless both fear that
they cannot observe the ordinance of God. And if ye
fear that they cannot observe the ordinance of God, it
shall be no crime in either of them on account of that
for which the wife shall redeem herself. These are the
ordinances of God ; therefore transgress them not ; for '
whoever transgresseth the ordinances of God, they are
unjust doers. (230) But if the husband divorce her a third
time, she shall not be lawful for him again, until she

Deut. xxiv. 1-4. Here we find the Quran, which professes to attest
the former Scriptures, giving sanction to that which is declared by
Moses to be "abomination before the Lord." The doctrine of abro-
gation cannot be made to fipply in sucli a case, unless it be admitted
that what is "abomination before the Lord" in one age may be
acceptable to him in another.

What ye have given them ; i.e., the dowry, which must not be less
than ten dirhams (Hughes' JS^otes on Jfuhammadanism, p. 177). The
ditficulty of divorce among Muslims is greatly increased by their
insisting on large dowries being settled upon their daughters when
given in marriage. Unless this dowry be voluntarily remitted by the
wife, it must be paid by the liusband divorcing her against her will.

Unless both fear, d-c. In this case the wife consents to the divorce-
ment, thereby forfeiting her doM'ry.

It shall be no crime, &c.; i.e., "If she prevail on her husband to
dismiss her, by releasing part of her dowry."- — Sale.

This release is usually obtained by the most outrageous abuse of
the wife, often making her willing to forfeit the whole of her dower
rather than live with her brutal husband. This law of the Qurtin is
responsible for such treatment of women. It makes her the helpless
victim of her husband's cupidity and tyranny.

(230) But if her husband divorce her a third time, ci-c. See Prelim.
Disc, p. 207. The Mishqdt ul Musdhih relates a number of tradi-
tions ou this subject, too indecent for reproduction here, showing
liow this law is to be fulfilled, and how pious Muslims have vainly
sought to evade the rigour of its requirement. See Bombay edition
in Urdu, voL iii. pp. 176-17S.

Muir, in his Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 306, new edition, p. 349,
referring to this law, says : " In the rules regarding divorce there is
one which (much as I might desire) cannot be passed over in silence.
A husband may twice divorce his wife, and each time receive her
back again. I5ut when the words of separation have been thrice
repeated, the divorce is irreversible. However unjust or injurious
the action, how much soever the result of passion or of caprice, how-
ever it may afl'ect the interests not only of an innocent wife but also

SULS.

CHAP. II.] ( 374 ) [SIPARA 11.

marry another husband. But if he also divorce her, it
shall be no crime in them if they return to each other, if
they think they can observe the ordinances of GoD, and
these are the ordinances of God ; he declareth them to
people of understanding. (231) But when ye divorce
women, and they have fulfilled their prescribed time,
either retain them with humanity or dismiss them with
kindness ; and retain them not by violence, so that ye
transgress ; for he who doth this surely injureth his own
soul. And make not the signs of God a jest : but remem-
ber God's favour towards you, and that he hath sent down
unto you the book of the Qiirdn, and wisdom admonish-
ing you thereby ; and fear God, and know that God is
omniscient,

II (232) But when ye have divorced your wives, and
XI iTi' they have fulfilled their prescribed time, hinder them not

of her innocent children, however desirous the husband miiy be of
undoing the wrong, the decision cannot be recalled ; the divorced
wife can return to her husband but on one condition, and that is that
she shall first be married to another, and after cohabitation be again
divorced. The tone of Mahometan manners may be imagined from
the functions of the temporarij husband (Mostahil), hired to legalise
remarriage with a thrice-divorced wife, having passed into a pro-
verb.i Sucli flagrant breach of decency, such cruel violation of the
modesty of an unoffending wife, may be an abuse the full extent of
which was not at the time contemplated by Mahomet, but it is not
the less an abuse for which, as a direct result of the unnatural and
revolting provision framed by him, Mahomet is justly responsible."

But if he also divorce her. The Qurdn everywhere presumes that
divorce is the sole prerogative of the husband. The idea of a wife
claiming the right was foreign to ]\Iuhammad's mind. He regarded
women as a lower order of beings, interveuing between the slave and
their lords. The elevation of woman to her true position is imjjos-
sible under Islam.

It shall be no crime, d-c. This is a direct contradiction of the teach-
ing of the Bible. See note on ver. 229.

(231) Retain them not by violence^ i.e., by obliging them to pur-
chase their liberty with part of their dowry. — Sale.

(232) Hinder them not from marrying their husbands; i.e., their
former husliands, from whom they have been divorced. If the
]iarties are willing to remarry, their relatives are not to interfere. —
Tafsir-i-Raufj.

1 "A thousand level's rather than one Mostahil." — BurcUiardt's Arabic
Prova'hs, p. 21.

siPARA II.] ( 375 ) [chap. II.

from marrying their liiisbands, when they have agreed
among themselves according to what is honourable. This
is given in admonition unto him among you who believeth
in God, and the last day. This is most righteous for
you, and most pure. God knoweth, but ye know not.
(233) Mothers after they are divorced shall give suck unto
their children two full years, to him who desireth the
time of giving suck to be comj^leted ; and the father shall
be obliged to maintain them and clothe them in the mean-
time, according to that which shall be reasonable. No per-
son shall be obliged beyond his ability. A mother shall not
be compelled to what is unreasonable on account of her child,
nor a father on account of his child. And the heir of the
father shall be obliged to do in like manner. But if they
choose to wean the child before the end of two years, by
common consent and on mutual consideration, it shall be
no crime in them. And if ye have a mind to provide a
nurse for your children, it shall be no crime in you, in
case ye fully pay what ye offer her, according to that
which is just. And fear God, and know that God seeth
whatsoever ye do. (234) Such of you as die, and leave
wives, their wives must wait concerning themselves four
months and ten days, and when they shall have fulfilled
their term, it shall be no crime in you, for that which
they shall do with themselves, according to what is reason-
able. God well knoweth that which ye do. (235) And
it shall be no crime in you, whether ye make public over-
tures of marriage unto such women, within the, said four
months and ten days, or whether ye conceal such ybur
designs in your minds : GoD knoweth that ye will re-

(233) And the heir, d-cy i.e., in case the father die before the child
is weaned.

(234) Four months and ten days. " That is to say, before they
marry again ; and this not only ior decency sake, but that it may
be known Avhether they be with child by tlie deceased or not." —
Sale.

It shall be no crime; i.e., "if they look out for new husbands." —
Sale.

CHAP. II.] ( 376 ) [SIPARA II.

member them. But m.ake no promises unto them privately,
unless ye speak honourable words ; and resolve not on the
knot of marriage until the prescribed time be accomplished ;
and know that God knoweth that which is in your minds,
therefore beware of him and know that God is "racious

and merciful.

I") 3 1
\ 15" II (236) It shall be no crime in you if ye divorce your

wives, so long as ye have not touched them, nor settled,
any dowry on them. And provide for them (he who is at
his ease must provide according to his circumstances, and
he who is straitened according to his circumstances) neces-
saries, according to what shall be reasonable. This is a
duty incumbent on the righteous. (237) But if ye divorce
them before ye have touched them, and have already
settled a dowry on them, ye shall give them half of what
ye have settled, unless they release any part, or he release
part in whose hand the knot of marriage is ; and if ye
release the whole, it will approach nearer unto piety. And
forget not liberality among you, for God seeth that which
ye do. (238) Carefully observe the appointed prayers,

(237) Unless they release anypart, d-c; i.e., "unless the wife agree to
take less than half her dowry, or unless the lii;sband be so generous
as to give her niore than half, or the whole, which is here approved
of as most commendable." — Sale.

(238) Carefully observe the aiofointed prayers. The command has
reference to the five daily prayers. See Prelim. Disc, p. 165. Four
of these are distinctly mentioned in chap. xxx. 16, 17, and all Muslim
commentators understand the fifth to be included in the "evening"
prayer of ver. 16. Mr. Bosworth Smith is therefore mistaken in
saying that " the five daily prayers, like the rite of circumcision, are
not enjoined in the Koran itself." — Mohammed and Mohammedanism,
note on p. 196.

Apologists for Mnhammadanism are fond of dilating at great
length u).on the fervour of Muslims in prayer, and "missionaries
and the like" are severely condemned for bringing against Muslim
prayers the charge of being " merely lifeless forms and vain repeti-
tions." ^ If fervour in prayer consists in ]iunctilious perfurmance of
a prescribed round of bowing and prostration, or the repetition of a
formal service of prayer in a foreign tongue, then the fervour and

1 Introduction to Lane's Selections from the Koran by Stanley Lane Poole,
p. Ixxxiii.

siPARA II.] ( y]l ) [chap. II.

and the middle prayer, and be assiduous tlicrcin, with
devotion towards God. (239) But if ye fear any danger,
j)ray on foot or on horseback ; and when ye are safe
remember God, how he hath taught you what as yet ye
knew not. (240) And such of you as shall die and leave
M'ives, ought to bequeath their wives a year's mainten-
ance, without putting them out of their houses: but if
they go out voluntarily, it shall be no crime in you, for
that which they shall do with themselves, according to
what shall be reasonable ; God is mighty and wise. (241)
And unto those who are divorced, a reasonable provision

reality of Muslim prayer must be acknowledged. But, whatever may
be thought of the probable character of Muslim prayer in the earlier
days of Islam, we think no man acquainted with the worship of
modern Muslims can accredit them generally with having any true
conception of the spiritual character of j^rayer, much less of striving
alter real heart counnunion with God. Granting that Muhammad
lu\d a correct idea of prayer, no system could have been invented to
destroy all vestige of real prayer which would have succeeded better
than this stereotyped service of Islam. So far as the great mass of
Muslims are concerned, the merit of prayer consists in its performance
according to the external rite, and not in putting forth heart desires
after God.

The middle prayer; i.e., ^Asar.

With devotion. The devotion consists in the punctilious perform-
ance of the prescril)ed round of bowing and prostration, previous
ablution, and perfect silence during prayer. Here again the English
reader is misled by the language of an English translation. See any
Muslim commentary on the passage.

(240) Abdul Qailir says tliis law was abrogated by the law of
inheritance, in which each heir's portion is definitely fixed (see chap,
iv. 1 1, which refers to the wife's share) ; and the Tafsir-i-Ravfi
declares it abrogated by ver. 234. Rodwell says this jjassage "is
certainly older tiian the commencement of Snra iv." The view of
Abdul Qddir is therefore probably correct. So far as we are aware,
the Muslim law of inheritance is based upon chap. iv. 11, in so far as
it relates to the share of the wife or wives in the property of a deceased
husband. It is fortunate for the millions of Muslim widows that
the spirit of the prophet became more liberal in this respect as the
years rolled by. It is difficult to estimate the amount of misery that
Avould have resulted had the law of this verse remained in force.

(241) Unto those ivho are divorced. The husband, in making his
bequest, is required to provide for the support of his divorced wives
during the period of waiting (ver. 228), provided such period be not
accomplished at the time of making bequest. The Tafsir-i-Eaufi
regards this law as still in force.

CHAP. II.] ( 378 ) [SIPARA II.

is also due ; this is a duty incumhent on those who fear
God. (242) Thus God declareth his signs unto you, that
^ ^ ye may understand.
i^ 1 G* II (243) Hast thou not considered those who left their
habitations (and they were thousands), for fear of death ?
And God said unto them, Die ; then he restored them to
life, for God is gracious towards mankind ; but the greater
part of men do not give thanks. (244) Fight for the
religion of God, and know that God is he who heareth
and knoweth. (245) Who is he that will lend unto God

(243) Those who left their habitations. " These were some of the
children of Israel, who abandoned their dwellings because of a
pestilence, or, as others say, to avoid serving in a religious war ; but,
as tliey lied, God struck them all dead in a certain valley. About
eight days or more after, when their bodies were corrupted, the
prophet Ezekiel, the son of Buzi, happening to pass that way, at the
sight of their bones wept ; whereupon God said to him, Call to thevi,
0 Ezekiel, and I will restore them to life. And accordingly on the
prophet's call they all arose, and lived several years after ; but they
retained the colour and stench of dead corpses as long as they lived,
and the clothes they wore changed as black as pitch, Avhich f[ualities
they transmitted to their posterity. As to the number of these
Israelites the commentators are not agreed ; they who reckon least
say they were 3000, and they who reckon most, 70,000. Tliis story
seems to have been taken from Ezekiel's vision of the resurrection of
dry bones.

" Some of the Mohammedan Avriters will have Ezekiel to have been
one of the judges of Israel, and to have succeeded Othoniel the son
of- Caleb. They also call this prophet Ihn al ajfiz, or tlie son of the
old tvoman, because they say his mother obtained him by her prayers
iu her old age." — Sale, Jaldluddin, Yahya, &c.

This is another instance of the failure of the Qurdn to confirm the
teaching of the " former Scriptures." The purpose of Muhammad in
relating this story appears in the exhortation of the next verse.
Muslims must not fear death, lest they be punished with death and
disgrace.

(244) Fight for the religion of God. (See notes on vers. 190 and 191.)
Rod well regards the exhortation of these verses as having special
reference to the coming struggle with tlie people of Madina. We
think the purpose of Muhammad had a much wider range. He
certainly had special reference to the conflict with the Makkans in
the exhortations of vers. 191-193. All his teaching concerning the
Qibla and the pilgrimage, all his legislation for the company of the
faithful, points to the conquest of Arabia, and the establishment of
Ishini throughout its bounds by the sword.

(245) Who is he that will lend, d-r.; i.e., "by contributing towards
the establishment of his true religion." — Sale.

siPARA II.] ( 379 ) [chap. II.

on good usury ? verily he will double it unto him mani-
fold ; for God contracteth and extendeth his hand as he
pleaseth, and to him shall ye return. (246) Hast thou
not considered the assembly of the children of Israel,
after the time of IMoses ; when they said unto their prophet
Samuel, Set a king over us, that we may fight for the
religion of God. The ijrophet answered, If ye are enjoined
to go to war, will ye be near refusing to fight ? They
answered. And what should ail us that we should not
fight for the religion of God, seeing we are dispossessed of
our habitations and deprived of our children ? But when
they were enjoined to go to war, they turned back, except
a few of them : and God knew the ungodly. (247) And
their prophet said unto them. Verily God hath set Taliit,
king over you : they answered, How shall he reign over
us, seeing we are more worthy of the kingdom than he,
neither is he possessed of great riches ? Samuel said,
Verily God hath chosen him before you, and hath caused
him to increase in knowledge and stature, for God giveth
his kingdom unto whom he pleaseth ; God is bounteous

(246) That we may fight for the religion of God. The children of
Israel said, " We will have a king over us ; that we also may be
like all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out
before us, and fight our battles" (i Sam. viii. 19, 20).

The garbled rendering of Israelitish history in this verse and those
following illustrates at once Muhammad's ignorance of the Bible
story, and his unscrupulous adaptation of Jewish tradition to the
purposes of his prophetic ambition. Granting that he was un-
acquainted with the Scripture narrative, and that he was de2:)endent
for his information on Jewish tradition, I cannot see how he can be
fairly exonerated from the charge of deliberate imposition here.

Seeing we are dispossessed, d:c. The commentators relate a story in
illustration of this j^assage to the effect that God, on account of their
defection from the true faith, permitted Goliath to invade their
country, and to destroy their habitations, and carry their children
into captivity.

(247) And their j^rophet. The name of this prophet is not given
in the original. Some commentators think he was Ishmuil (Samuel);
others, that Joshua is referred to ; and others, that his name was
Shi maiin. — Tafsir- i-Raufi.

TdlM, Saul.

CHAP. II.] ( 3S0 ) [SIPARA II.

and wise. (248) And their prophet said unto them, Verily
the sign of his kingdom shall be, that the ark shall come
unto you : therein shall be tranquillity from your LoED,
and the relics which have been left by the family of
Moses and the family of Aaron ; the angels shall bring it.
Verily this shall be a sign unto you, if ye believe.
K^' II (249) And when Taliit departed with his soldiers he
said, Verily God will prove you by the river ; for he who

(248) The sign of his hingdom, d-c. Compare this story with, tlie
Biblical account (i Sam. chap, xi.)

The ark. Arabic CJyllJl = Coptic Hebrew T\2Pi. "This ark,

says Jalaluddin, contained the images of the prophets, and was
sent down from heaven to Adam, and at length came to the Israelites,
who put great confidence therein, and continually carried it in the
front of their army, till it was taken by the Amalekites. But on
this occasion the angels brought it back, in the sight of all the people,
and placed it at the feet of Taliit, who was thereupon unanimously
acknowledged for their king.

" This relation seems to have arisen from some imperfect tradition
of the taking and sending back the ark by the Philistines." — Sale.

Tranquillity. Arabic <uj-C«:. See Rodwell's note in loco.
Also Penrice's Dictionary and Glossary of the Kor4n under •

" Tranquillity. That is, because of the great confidence the Israelites
placed in it, having won several battles by its miraculous assistance.
I imagine, however, that the Arabic word Sah'mat, which signifies
tranquillity or security of mind, and is so understood by the com-
mentators, may not improbably mean the divine 2)'>'esence or glory,
which used to appear on the ark, and which the Jews exj^ressed by
the same word, Shechinah." — b'ale.

The relics. " These were tlie shoes and rod of ]\Ioses, the mitre
of Aaron, a pot of manna, and the broken pieces of the two tables of
tlie law." — Sale, Jalaluddin.

The angels shall, bring it. The author of the Notes on the Roman
Urdic Quran points out that these angels were " two milch kine ! "
Abdul Q4dir says the angels drove the kine.

(249) God will inove you by the river. The story of Saul is here
confounded with that of Gideon (comp. Judges vii.), and with David's
conflict with Goliath ! And yet this ridiculous jumble is declared
below (252) to be rehearsed by God xinto Muhaumiad " with truth."
Is it possible to believe Muhammad sincere and consciously truthful
while making a statement like this? He must have received his
information respecting Israelitish history from the Jews or Jewish
converts to Islam, either directly, or, as is more probable, indirectly.
How could he imagine that he had received it by a divine revelation ?
I confess my entire inability to reconcile such facts wilh any theory
of hallucination or self-deception.

SIPARA III.] ( 3S1 ) [chap. II.

drinketh thereof shall not be on my side (but he who shall
not taste thereof he shall be on my side), except he who
drinketh a draught out of his hand. And they drank
thereof, except a few of them. And when they had passed
the river, he and those who believed with him, they said,
We have no strength to-day, against Jaliit and his forces.
But they who considered that they should meet God at
the resurrection said, How often hath a small army dis-
comfited a great one, by the will of God ! and God is with
those who patiently persevere. (250) And when they
went forth to battle against Jaliit and his forces, they said,
0 Lord, pour on us patience, and confirm our feet, and
help us against the unbelieving people, (251) Therefore
they discomfited them, by the will of God, and David slew
Jaliit. And God gave him the kingdom and wisdom, and
taught him his will ; and if GoD had not prevented men,
the one by the other, verily the earth had been corrupted ;
but God is beneficent towards his creatures. (252) These
are the signs of GoD : we rehearse them unto thee with
truth, and thou art surely 07ie of those who have been sent
Jy God.

!| (253) These are the apostles ; we have preferred some third
of them before others ; some of them hath God spoken
unto, and hath exalted the degree of others of them. And
we gave unto Jesus the son of Mary manifest signs, and
strengthened him with the holy spirit. And if God had

(2.51) And God . . . tmight liim his loill. " Ox what he pleased to
teach liiiu. Yahj^a most rationally understands hereby the divine
revelations wliich David received from God ; but Jalaluddin, the
art of making coats of mail (which the Muhammadans believe was
that prophet's peculiar trade) and the knowledge of the language of
birds." — Sale.

(252) Tiiou art surely . . . sent by God. Look at this statement in
the light of my note on (249).

(253) Jesus the son of Mary. " Christ was, with Mohammed, the
greatest of prophets. He had the power of working miracles ; he
spoke in his cradle ; he made a bird out of clay. He could give sight
to the blind, and even raise the dead to life. He is the Word pro-
ceeding from God ; his name is the Messiah. Illustrious in this
world and in the next, and one of those who have near acce.'^s to God.

CHAP. II.] ( 382 ) [SIPARA III.

SO pleased, they who came after those apostles would not
have contended among themselves, after manifest signs
had been shown unto them. But they fell to variance ;
therefore some of them believed, and some of them believed
not; and if GoD had so pleased, they would not have con-
tended among themselves ; but God doth what he wilL
" 2 • II (254) 0 true believers, give alms of that which we
have bestowed unto you, before the day cometh wherein
there shall be no merchandising, nor friendship, nor in-
tercession. The infidels are unjust doers. (255) God !
there is no God but he ; the living, the self-subsisting :
neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him ; to him helongcth
whatsoever is in heaven, and on earth. Who is he that

' He is strengthened by the Holy Spirit,' for so Mohammed, in more
than one passat^e, calls the Angel Gabriel." — R. Bosicorth Smith, Mo-
ham/niecl and Mo/iammedanism, p. 271, second edition.

But that which, beyond all question, exalts Jesus above all the pro-
phets of Islam, Muhammad himself not being excepted, is Ids sinless-
ness. Both the Quran and the Sunnat attribute a sinful character
to all the prophets excepting Jesus, wlio a2)pears evcryichere as being
absolutely immaculate. He is the Sinless Prophet of Islam.

With the holy spirit. " It is clear that at a later period at least, if
not from the hrst, Mahomet confounded Gabriel with the Holy Ghost.
The idea may have arisen from some such misapprehension as the
following : — Mary conceived Jesus by the power of the Holy Ghost
which overshadowed her. But it was Gabriel who visited Mary to
announce the conception of the Saviour. The Holy Ghost was, there-
fore, another name i'or Gabriel. We need hardly wonder at this
ignorance, when Mahomet seems to have believed that Christians
held Mary to be the third person in the Trinity." — Muir's Life of
Mahomet, new edition, p. 47, note. See also notes on A^er. 86.

Thcij fell at variance. The allusion is to the various sects into
wdiich the followers of former " apostles " became divided. This was
in accordance with the will of God. It would seem that God willed
that the followers of Muhammad should be no exception in this
respect.

(254) Give alms. See notes on vers. 42, 109, and 214.

(255) God! there is no God, dec. " This verse contains a magnifi-
cent description of the divine majesty and providence ; but it must
not be supposed the translation comes up to the dignity of the ori-
ginal. This passage is justly admired by the Muhamniadans, who
recite it in their prayers ; and some of them wear it about them,
engraved on an agate or other precious stone." — Sale.

This verse is called the 'Ai/at id Kurd, or Tiie Throne verse, and
is frequently used by Muslims in prayer. The Jlishcidt id JIasabih

SIPARA III.] ( 383 ) [chap. II.

can intercede with liim, but through his good pleasure ?
He knoweth that wliich is past, and that which is to come
unto them, and they shall not comprehend anything of his
knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is ex-
tended over heaven and earth, and the preservation of both
is no burden unto him. He is the high, the mighty.
(256) Let there be no violence in religion. Now is right
direction manifestly distinguished from deceit : whoever
therefore shall deny Taghiit, and believe in God, he shall
surely take hold on a strong handle, which shall not be
broken ; God is he who heareth and seeth. (257) God is
the patron of those who believe ; he shall lead them out of
darkness into light : but as to those who believe not, their

(Matthews' edition, vol. i. p. 203) records the following tradition con-
cerning it :— " Ali Ibn Abu Tiilib said, ' I heard the prophet say in
the pulpit, "That person who repeats 'Ayat ul Kursi after every
prayer, nothing prevents liim entering into paradise bnt life ; and
Avhoever says 'Ayat ul Kursi when he goes to his bedchamber, God
will keep him in safety, his house, and the house of his neighbour." ' "

His throne. " This throne, in Arahic called Kursi, is by the Mu-
hammadans supposed to be God's tribunal or seat of justice, being
placed under that other called al Arsh, wliich they say is his impe-
rial throne. The Kursi allegorically signifies the divine providence,
which sustains and governs the heaven and the earth, and is infi-
nitely above human comprehension." — /Sale.

This is, without doubt, one of the grandest verses of the Quran.
Its place in the text does not seem natural. Itsonnds more like one
of the impassioned effusions of the preacher of Makkah than the utter-
ance of the Madina politician.

(256) No violence in religion. " This passage was particularly
directed to some of Muhammad's first proselytes, who having sons
that had been brought up in idolatry or Judaism, would oblige them
to embrace Muhammadism by force." — iSale, Jaldladdin.

There is an apparent contradiction between this verse and verses 191-
1 93 and 244 of this chapter. The comment of Jalaluddin given by Sale
as quoted here affords a key to reconciliation. It was still politic to
exercise moderation at Madina, but being at war with the JIakkans,
and anticipating the coming conflict with the unbelievers elsewhere,
the Muslims were incited to " fight for the religion of God." This
■warfare was for the present ostensibly in self-defence, but the war-
riors were being educated for a career of conquest in the not distant
future.

TdgJiM. " This word properly signifies an idol, or whatever is
worshipped besides God — particularly the two idols of the Makkans,
al Lat and al Uzza ; and also the devil, or any seducer." — Sale

CHAP. II.] ( 384 ) [SIPARA III.

patrons are Taghut ; they shall lead them from the light
into darkness ; they shall be the companions of hell-^ve,
.^ they shall remain therein for ever.
1'^ 's"' II (258) Hast thou not considered him who disputed with
Abraham concerning his Lord, because God had given
him the kingdom ? When Abraham said, My Loed is he
who givetli life and killeth : he answered, I give life and
I kill. Abraham said, Verily God bringeth the sun from
the east, now do thou bring it from the west. Whereupon
the infidel was confounded ; for GoD directeth not the un-
godly people. (259) Or hast thou not considered how he
behaved who passed by a city which had been destroyed,
even to her foundations ? He said. How shall God quicken
this city, after she hath been dead ? And God caused him
to die for an hundred years, and afterwards raised him to
life. And God said. How long hast thou tarried here ? He
answered, A day, or part of a day. God said, Nay, thou
hast tarried here a hundred years. Now look on thy food
and thy drink, they are not yet corrupted ; and look on
thine ass : and this have we done that we might make thee
a sign unto men. And look on the bones of thine ass, how

(258) Hivi who disputed with Abraham. " Tliis was Nimrod, who,
as the commentators say, to prove his power of life and death by-
ocular demonstration, caused two men to be brought before him at
the same time, one of whom he slew and saved the otlier alive. As
to this tyrant's persecution of Abraham, see chap. xxi. (vers, 52-70),
and the notes thereon." — Sale.

(259) He who passed by a city, d-c. " The person here meant was
Uzair or Ezra, who riding on an ass by the ruins of Jerusalem, after
it had been destroyed by the Chaldeans, doubted in his mind by
what means God could raise the city and its inhabitants again ;
whereupon God caused him to die, and he remained in that condition
one hundred years ; at tlie end of which God restored him to life,
and he found a l)asket of iigs and a cruse of wine he had Avith him
not in the least spoiled or corrupted ; but his ass was dead, tlie bones

, only remaining, and these, while the prophet looked on, were raised

and clothed with flesh, becoming an ass again, which being inspired
with life, began immediately to bray {Jaldhuldin, Yahya). Tliis
apocryphal story may perhaps have taken its rise from Nehemiah's
viewing of the ruins of Jerusalem " (Neli. ii.) — Sale.

The Quran is here again at variance with the facts of Jewish
history.

SIPARA III.] ( 385 ) [chap. II.

we raise them, and afterwards clothe them with flesh. And
when this was shown unto him, he said, I know that God
is able to do all things. (260) And when Abraham said,
O LoED, show me how thou wilt raise the dead ; God said,
Dost thou not yet believe ? He answered. Yea, but / ask
this that my heart may rest at ease. God said, Take there-
fore four birds, and divide them ; then lay a part of them
on every mountain ; then call them, and they shall come
swiftly unto thee : and know that God is mighty and wise, -pv 3 e
II (261) The similitude of those who lay out their sub- ^ 4 '
stance, for advancing the religion of God, is as a grain of
com which produceth seven ears, and in every ear an
hundred grains ; for God giveth twofold unto whom he
pleaseth : God is bounteous and wise. (262) They who
lay out their substance for the religion of God, and
afterwards follow not what they have so laid out by
reproaches or mischief, they shall have their reward
with their Loed ; upon them shall no fear come, neither
shall they be grieved. (263) A fair speech and to for-
give is better than alms followed by mischief. God is

(260) Show me Jwwthou ivilt raise the dead. " The occasion of this
request of Abraham is said to have been on a doubt proposed to him
by the devil, in human form, how it was possible for the several parts
of the corpse of a man which lay on the seashore, and had been partly
devoured by the wild beasts, the birds, and the fish, to be brought
together at the resurrection." — Sale.

Take four hirds and divide them. "These birds, according to the
commentators, were an eagle (a dove, say others), a peacock, a raven,
and a cock, which Abraham cut to pieces, and mingled their flesh and
leathers together, or, as some tell us, pounded all in a mortar, and
dividing the mass into four parts laid them on so many mountains,
but kept the heads, which he had preserved whole, in his hand.
Then he called them each by their name, and immediately one part
flew to the other, till they all recovered their first shape, and then
came to be joined to their respective heads.

" This seems to be taken from Abraham's sacrifice of birds men-
tioned by Moses (Gen. XV.), with some additional circumstances." —
Side, Jaldluddin, Ahdul Qddir.

(262) Eef roaches or mischief ; i.e., either by reproaching the person
whom they have relieved with what they have done for him, or by
exposing his poverty to his prejudice." — Sale, Jaldluddin.

See notes on vers. 42, 109, and 214.

2 B

R

CHAP. II.] ( 3S6 ) [SIPARA III.

rich and merciful. (264) 0 true believers, make not your
alms of none effect by reproaching or mischief, as he who
layeth out what he hath to appear unto men to give ahns,
and believeth not in God and the last day. The likeness
of such a one is as a flint covered with earth, on which
a violent rain falleth, and leaveth it hard. They cannot
prosper in anything which they have gained, for God
directeth not the unbelieving people. (265) And the
likeness of those who lay out their substance from a desire
to please God, and for an establishment for their souls, is
as a garden on a hill, on which a violent rain falleth, and
it bringeth forth its fruits twofold ; and if a violent rain
falleth not on it, yet the dew falleth thereon : and God
seeth that which ye do. (266) Doth any of you desire to
have a garden of palm-trees and vines, through which
rivers flow, wherein ye may have all kinds of fruits, and
that he may attain to old age, and have a weak offspring ?
then a violent fiery wind shall strike it, so that it shall be
burned. Thus God declareth his signs unto you, that ye

37 may consider.

^ II (267) 0 true believers, bestow ahns of the good things

which ye have gained, and of that which we have pro-
duced for you out of the earth, and choose not the bad
thereof, to give it in alms, such as ye would not accept
yourselves, otherwise than by connivance : and know that
God is rich and worthy to be praised. (268) The devil
threateneth you with poverty, and commandeth you
filthy covetousness ; but God promiseth you pardon from

(266) A garden of palm-trees, dec. " This garden is an emblem of
alms given otit of hypocrisy or attended with reproaches, which
perish, and will be of no service hereafter to the giver." — Bale, Jaldl-
uddin.

(267) Otherwise than by connivance. "That is, on having some
amends made by the seller of such goods, either by abatement of tlie
price, or giving something else to the buyer to make up the value."
— Sale.

(268) The devil threateneth . . . but God promiseth. Satan deters
from giving by suggesting possible poverty. God encourages to give
by the promise of pardon and salvation. Compare ver. 271, w/m.

SIPARA III.] ( 387 ) [chap. II.

himself and abundance : God is bounteous and wise.
(269) He giveth wisdom unto whom he pleaseth ; and he
unto whom wisdom is given hath received much good: but
none will consider, except the wise of heart. (270) And
whatever alms ye shall give, or whatever vow ye shall vow,
verily God knoweth it ; but the ungodly shall have none
to help them. (271) If ye make your alms to appear, it
is well ; but if ye conceal them, and give them unto the
poor, this will he better for you, and will atone for your
sins ; and God is well informed of that which ye do.

(272) The direction of them belongeth not unto thee ; but
God directeth whom he pleaseth. The good that ye shall
give m alms shall redound unto yourselves ; and ye shall
not give unless out of desire of seeing the face of God.
And what good thing ye shall give in alms, it shall
be repaid you, and ye shall not be treated unjustly ;

(273) unto the poor who are wholly employed in fighting
for the religion of God, and cannot go to and fro on the
earth ; whom the ignorant man thinketh rich, because of

(271) If you make your alms to appear, it is loell. This contradicts
the teaching of our Lord (Matt. vi. 1-4). The whole of Muhammad's
exhortation in these verses (271-274) is based upon tlie idea that
almsgiving is profitable both in this world and the world to come.
As an additional motive, he condones and thereby encourages that
human pride which is willing to give for the sake of the reputation
for liberality acquired thereby.

If ye conceal them . . . this will he better for you. This translation
agrees with that of Abdul Qadir, the Tafsir Hussaini, and the Tafslr-
i-Raufi. This part of the exhortation is then in agreement with that
of Matt. vi. 1-4. Both public giving and private charity are com-
mended. See also ver. 274.

But Rodwell translates this clause thus : " Do ye conceal them
and give them to the poor 1 This, too, will be of advantage to you."

Abdul Qddir paraphrases the verse thus : " If you make j'our
alms to appear, it is well, for others will be encouraged to give ; but
if you conceal them, it is better, because the poor will not be made
ashamed by exposing their poverty."

Will atone for your sins. This sentiment contradicts the teaching
of the Bible, that " without shedding of blood there is no remission."

(272) Ye shall not give unless, d-c.; i.e., "for the sake of a reward
hereafter, and not for any worldly consideration." — Sale.

(273) The poor wholly employed infifihting (see notes on ver. 195).
Here we observe that Muhammad's exhortations to the performance

CHAP. II.] ( 388 ) [SIPARA III.

their modesty : thou shalt know them by this mark, they
ask not men with importunity ; and what good ye shall
give in alms, verily God knoweth it.
RuBA. II (274) They who distribute alms of their substance

1) 3^8^ night and day, in private and in public, shall have their
reward with the Lord ; on them shall no fear come,
neither shall they be grieved. (275) They who devour
usury shall not arise from the dead, but as he ariseth
whom Satan hath infected by a touch : this shall hap'pen
to them because they say, Truly selling is but as usury :
and yet God hath permitted selling and forbidden usury.
He therefore who when there cometh unto him an admoni-
tion from his Lord abstaineth from usury for the future,
shall have what is past forgiven him, and his affair be-
longeth unto God. But whoever returneth to usury, they
shall be the companions of hell-Hre, they shall continue
therein forever. (276) God shall take his blessing from
Tisury, and shall increase alms : for God loveth no infidel,
or ungodly person. (277) But they who believe and do
that which is right, and observe the stated times of prayer,
and pay their legal alms, they shall have their reward

of religious duty were closely connected with liis scheme for political
advancement.

T/ieir modesty. If ever this virtue belonged to a ghdzi or Muslim
warrior, it has long since been sui)planted by the most impudent and
cruel audacity.

(274) See notes on ver. 271.

(275) Whom Satan hath infected; viz., "like demoniacs or pos-
sessed persons ; that is, in great horror and distraction of mind, and
convulsive agitation of body." — Sale.

Usvuy is one of the seventeen habira or great sins. Hughes' Notes
on Muhammaclanism, p. 139.

Shall have what is jxist forrjiven. Repentance thus atones for past
sin. This, again, contradicts the teaching of the " former Scriptures."
The Tafslr-i-Ravfi, wliile recognising the above as a possible inter-
pretation, prefers another, viz., that those who had borrowed money
before the date of tlie prohibition of usur}^, are hereby relieved from
the responsibility of payment of interest on their debts. This is
ex post facto law of a kind scarcely creditable to IsMm. And yet
this interpretation seems to be borne out by the exhortation of ver.
278.

(277) See notes on vers. 3-5, 37, 38, and 177.

SIPARA III.] ( 389 ) [chap. II.

with their Lord : there shall come no fear on them, neither
shall they be grieved. (278) 0 true believers, fear God,
and remit that which remaineth of usury, if ye really
believe ; (279) but if ye do it not, hearken unto war,
which is declared against you from GoD and his apostle :
yet if ye repent, ye shall have the capital of your money.
Deal not unjustly with others, and ye shall not be dealt
with unjustly. (280) If there be any dehtor under a diffi-
culty of "paying his debt, let his creditor wait till it be easy
for him to do it ; but if ye remit it as alms, it will be
better for you, if ye knew it. (281) And fear the day
wherein ye shall return unto God ; then shall every soul
be paid what it hath gained, and they shall not be treated
unjustly.

II (282) O true believers, when ye bind yourselves one K
to the other in a debt for a certain time, write it down ;
and let a writer write between you according to justice,
and let not the writer refuse writing according to what
God hath taught him ; but let him write, and let him
who oweth the debt dictate, and let him fear God his
LoED, and not diminish aught thereof. But if he who
oweth the debt be foolish, or weak, or be not able
to dictate himself, let his agent dictate according to
equity ; and call to witness two witnesses of your neigh-

(278) Remit that which remaineth; i.e., "the interest due before
usury was prohibited. For this some of Muhammad's followers
exacted of their debtors, suj^posing they lawfully might." — Sale,
JaldhMin. See also note on ver. 275.

(280) Wait till it be easy for him, d;c. This regulation does great
credit to Muhammad, and is yet carried out in practice by many of
his followers.

(281) And fear the day, d-c. "The fear rather than the love of
God is the spur of Islam." — Poole in Introduction to Lane's Selections
from the Koran, p. Ixxx.

(282) His agent. "Whoever manages his affairs, whether his
father, heir, guardian, or interpreter." — Sale, Jaldluddin.

A man and two women. Another illustration of the Muslim esti-
mate of woman. She is but half a man ! A man, too ignorant to
dictate an article of agreement, may still be equal to any two women,
however intelligent ; for " if one of those women should mistake, the
other of them will cause her to recollect ! "

39

7 '

CHAP. II.] ( 390 ) [SIPARA III.

louring men ; but if there be not two men, let there he a
man and two women of those whom ye shall choose for
witnesses : if one of those women should mistake, the
other of them will cause her to recollect. And the wit-
nesses shall not refuse, whensoever they shall be called.
And disdain not to write it down, be it a large debt, or be
it a small one, until its time of -payment : this will be more
just in the sight of God, and more right for bearing wit-
ness, and more easy, that ye may not doubt. But if it be
a present bargain which ye transact between yourselves,
it shall be no crime in you, if ye write it not down. And
take witnesses when ye sell one to the other, and let no
harm be done to the writer, nor to the witness ; ivhich if
ye do, it will surely be injustice in you : and fear God,
and God will instruct you, for God knoweth all things.
(283) And if ye be on a journey, and find no writer, let
pledges he taken : but if one of you trust the other, let
him who is trusted return what he is trusted with, and
fear God his Lord. And conceal not the testimony, for
he who concealeth it hath surely a wicked heart : GoD

knoweth that which ye do,

I) 40 •'

I s' II (284) Whatever is in heaven and on earth is God's;

and whether ye manifest that which is in your minds, or

conceal it, God will call you to account for it, and will

forgive whom he pleaseth, and will punish whom he

pleaseth; for God is almighty. (285) The apostle be-

lieveth in that which hath been sent down unto him from

(283) Return wliat he is trusted with. ForLids a breach of trust
and all embezzlement. — Tafsir-i-Raufi.

(284) Whether ye manifest that tvldch is in your minds, etc. Abdul
Qadir saj's that on hearing these words, one of the companions said
that this command was exceedingly diMcult to perforin, whereupon
the following two verses were revealed. He understands these verses
as mitigating in some degree the rigour of this command. Modern
Muslims generally agree that thoughts of evil only acquire a moral
character by their manifestation in word or deed.

Will forgive whom he pleaseth. Pardon of sin here depends on the
will of God alone. Compare notes on vers. 271 and 275.

SIPARA III.] ( 391 ) [chap. II.

his Lord, and the faithful also. Every one of them be-
lieveth in God, and his angels, and his scriptures, and his
apostles : we make no distinction at all between his
apostles. And they say, We have heard, and do obey;
we implore thy mercy, 0 Lord, for unto thee must we
return. (286) God will not force any soul beyond its
capacity : it shall have the good which it gaineth, and it
shall suffer the evil which it gaineth. 0 Loed, punish us
not if we forget or act sinfully : 0 Lord, lay not on us a
burden like that which thou hast laid on those who have
been before us ; neither make us, 0 Lord, to bear what
we have not strength to hear, but be favourable unto iis,
and spare us, and be merciful unto us. Thou art our
patron, help us therefore against the unbelieving nations.

(285) We make no distinction at all between his apostles. This verse
contradicts ver. 253 and chap. xvii. 57.

" But this, say the Muhanimadans, the Jews do, who receive Moses,
but reject Jesus ; and the Christians, who receive both those prophets,
but reject Muhammad." — Sale, Jaldluddin.

(286) A hurden like that which thou hast laid on those who, d:c.
*' That is, on tlie Jews, who, as the commentators tell us, were ordered
to kill a man by way of atonement, to give one-fourth of their sub-
stance in alms, and to cut off an unclean ulcerous part, and were for-
bidden to eat fat, or animals that divide the hoof, and were obliged
to observe the sabbath, and other particulars wherein the Muhamma-
dans are at liberty." — Sale, Jaldluddin, Yahya.

See note on ver. 284.

Abdul Qadir says, " God approved of this prayer and accepted it.
This command no longer rests heavily upon us, so that the thoughts
of the heart are no longer taken into account, and sins of carelessness
are forgiven ! "

The Qurdn, then, seems to be responsible for the general insensi-
bility of Muslims to sin, and especially to sinful states of the heart.
The doctrine of personal holiness is alike foreign to the Quran and
the experience of the followers of Islam.

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