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BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

Forester, GIFFORD PINcHOT.

- Assistant Forester, OVERTON WW. Price.
Assistant Forester, GEORGE B. StpwortH.-
Assistant Forester, Orro J. J. LUEBKERT.
Assistant Forester, WILLIAM L. Hau.
Assistant Forester, FREDERICK E. OLMSTED.

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U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF FORESTRY—BULLETIN No. 39.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING

AT

SEW ANEH, THN N ESSHE,

BY

JOHN FOLEY;

FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
19:03.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. 8S. DEPARTMENT or AGRICULTURE,
BureEAv OF Forestry,
Washington, D. C., January 8, 1903.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled ‘‘ Con-
seryative lumbering at Sewanee, Tennessee,” prepared by John Foley,
field assistant in the Bureau of Forestry, and to recommend its publi-
cation as Bulletin No. 39 of this Bureau. The illustrations (of which
there are twelve full-page plates) are believed to be necessary to a
perfect understanding of the text by the reader.
Very respectfully,
GirrorD PincHor, Lorester.
Hon. James WILson,
Secretary of Agriculture.

CON

Introductionves esse esse ce Se ceecs toes
The University Domain.......-......-
General description....-.---------

Influence of soil moisture __.--
Influence of shade..-........-

The forest divided into types---.--
inlateaw types ols. o2 sls 2.
Chestnut Ridge .-...----.
Einckonyislopewies- oss toe

Oa ate ese) ee iti Sel

IBottomen se sake Rane
Coveliypessas. eee seek
Gower Slope ---2.----2.-.
Northerly Slope...--....--
Southerly Slope--.....---

A study of the species -...---.----
Sources of harm to the forest.-_._-

TIENT Wasip

inepsevOrsy on-theplateai mei Seles Bee ae i Ae Te aie

@auses| offre: <a. 28524525

Effects of fire on the trees.

Fire burns away the forest

Evils of overgrazing -.---...--
Ravages of insects.-.--.----.--
Damage done by wind..-..----
Abuse of cutting privileges. --.
Past treatment of the forest .....-.
iuima Derim ops ns Se cr

FL OOH aes uaa aleip a)! SANSA ales ea

a Uramminewetimiberinsthe coves: 22202 Jee see

Roads at Sewanee -........---

The log market is excellent -- -
Management of the Sewanee forest .---
Treatment of the coves -.---------
Treatment of the plateau--..--.---

oor treesishould be'cut' for firewood... 22.0 .222 222. 22 eee eet tt
IMmfenionspeciessshouldsbe cut firsts sue. We eam Nee OS ee

Protection of the forest --....--.--
Mheplansimvoperation 2 28 4.2 ais 2.2
Trees native to The University Domain

bo bw bt po
OU OUR HB

w w ow &% &
Nw Nw Fe

ww
Ov cw oo

PLLUST RATLONS2

Page.
Puate, Ll. “he University Domains. 2222 esse eset e ee eee eae: Frontispiece
II. Fig. 1.—A rocky escarpment separates plateau from cove. Fig. 2.—
ViGWiOl 8: COV Son gee aaa eee ee ee ee 8
III. Plateau types. Fig. 1.—Hickory Slope. Fig. 2.—Bottom...-.-..- 16
IV. Cove types. Fig. 1.—The best growth is on Northerly Slope. Fig.
2.—Southerly Slope is dry and its timber is poor -............--- 16
VY. Damage done by fire. Fig. 1.—Land burned over every year. Fig.
2.—Black Gum still alive, though burned to a shell ............- 16
VI. Effects of fire. Fig. 1.—Leafless saplings in foreground killed by fire.
Fig. 2.—Yellow Oak, hollowed by fire and fungi, finally broken
by wind $2 s2c2 755.4 Soe. Cee on eee eae ree 16
VII. Bad effects of grazing. Fig. 1.—Seedlings stripped of their leaves by |
cows: “Hig. 2.—Land erazedievery year = ----2 9-2 ee 24
VIII. “Drumming.” Fig. 1.—Drawing the log from the cove to the
plateau. Fig. 2.—The log finally ascends the plateau by the help
Oba: Chultem. 25.32 532 esa e es eee see ee eee eee 24
IX. Fig. 1.—Bowlders make logging difficult. Fig. 2.—Good trees grow
onthe upper'slopes 22-22 s2s-c sce eee eee eee eee ae 24
X. Fig. 1.—The large tree should be removed for the good of the forest.
Fig. 2.—These White Oaks are limby because they grew too much
insthe pene: -Ss2 te a aetes See eee eo eee ae ee 24
XI. The Sewanee mill. Fig. 1.—Logs from the Sewanee forest. Fig.
2—Lum beriready forshipments- 22-22-2222. see see eee eee ees 32
XII. Logging at Sewanee. Fig. 1.—Hauling logs in Block I. Fig. 2.—
Young srowth left atter lumbering ).22.2.2-2.-2sce-s-eeececsaee 32

CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE,
TENNESSEE.

INTRODUCTION.

The Bureau of Forestry in 1900 undertook the management of the
forest at Sewanee, Tenn., owned by The University of the South. The
forest had been misused for many years and was steadily declining in
value, but the financial condition of the University prevented any
expenditure on its improvement and demanded that it be made to yield
immediate returns. In spite of these disadvantages a plan of manage-
ment was devised and applied which has been profitable and has left
the forest in good condition after lumbering.

Two types of forest grow at Sewanee—one confined to the plateau,
the other to the coves. Although $3,000 for all of the timber was
considered a fair offer by the University in 1899, yet under the plan of
management of the Bureau of Forestry the University made in 1900-
1901 a net profit out of its cove timber alone of about $1,500, and the
following year of about $1,200. The forest on the plateau had been
burned and grazed so long that its improvement in quality and com-
position was the urgent problem. A plan of treatment was made
whereby the labor expended on the improvement of the plateau forest
would be paid for by the returns it would yield. Although the work
of improvement done on the plateau was required to be self-supporting
only, it yielded a net profit of about $500.

Four more years of lumbering remain to be done, and for three
years at least there is an assured annual profit of $1,500, or half of
what the University was formerly willing to accept for all of the
timber. Ina word, timber formerly valued at $3,000 will have been
made to yield a profit of about $7,000.

The high profits were made possible through the careful planning
of the lumbering in order to prevent waste and to secure the largest
returns from the merchantable trees. Jn the cutting, provision was
made that the land should again produce valuable timber.

In the following pages the forest is described, recommendations for
management are given, and the results attained are stated. The recom-
mendations are general, since the treatment of the forest has necessarily
been such that rules to cover each particular case would have wrought
confusion. The plan submitted states the objects to be gained by

‘

8 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

conservative management, and indicates as closely as possible the
methods which should prevail in the treatment of the forest. The
working out of the plan was directed by the Bureau of Forestry.

The working plan for the Sewanee forest does not furnish such
specific instructions for the management of timberlands of a similar
kind that it can be applied to them without modification and expert
assistance. It illustrates, however, what may be done with such
timberlands; and especially does it emphasize that lumbering and
forestry may be practiced together in the South, as elsewhere, with
profit.

THE UNIVERSITY DOMAIN.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

The lands of The University of the South, in and around Sewanee,
Franklin County, Tenn., comprise about 7,255 acres, 6,655 acres of
which are timberlands. About 5,500 acres lie on the top of a spur of
the Cumberland Plateau, lined by sandstone escarpments of varying
height, from the base of which coves slope into the valleys below. (PI.
I, fig. 1.) The elevation of the land is from 800 to 1,900 feet above
sea level.

The seasons are mild, without extremes of temperature. The rain
is well distributed throughout the year, the greatest amount falling in
late winter and early spring. The average annual precipitation is
56.51 inches,

The Bangor limestone which lines the slopes of the coves is capped
on the plateau by Lookout sandstone, or, as in the extreme east of the
tract, by Walden sandstone. The soil of the plateau is a loamy sand;
that of the coves a clay mixed with sand washed down from the plateau.
On the surface of the coves little water appears, except in wet weather;
but streams fed from springs on the plateau flow continuously under-
ground through the coves into the valleys.

THE PLATEAU.

The surface of the plateau is rolling, with hollows where the water
has worn away the rock, and ridges where erosion has been resisted.
The soil is of poor quality, loose and sandy. It will grow grass, vege-
tables, and fruit ata profit, but is not generally adapted to agriculture.
The trees of the plateau are all broadleafs, and are of the following
species:

Pignut (Hickory). Black Jack. Poison Sumach.

Black Willow. Tulip-tree. Red Maple.

Chestnut. Sassafras. [Flowering] Dogwood.
White Oak. Sweet Gum. Black Gum.

Post Oak. Sycamore. Sourwood.

Chestnut Oak. Serviceberry. Mountain Laurel.
Chinquapin Oak. Locust. Persimmon.

Scarlet Oak. Ailanthus.

Yellow Oak. Dwarf Sumach.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fia. 1.—A Rocky ESCARPMENT SEPARATES PLATEAU FROM COVE.

Fia. 2.—VIEW OF A COVE.

THE COVES. 9

Originally these trees were distributed according to their prefer-
ences as to soil and moisture and their ability to hold their chosen
places against intruders. White Oak followed the deep, loamy soil of
the hollows; Tulip-tree grew a little higher up, where it mingled on
the slopes with Scarlet Oak, Yellow Oak, and Pignut; Chestnut took
for its own all the thin, dry, poor soil on the ridges; gums and Red
Maple confined themselves to the swampy hollows, Sourwood to the
creek slopes; Black Willow clung to the water’s edge, and Locust,
Persimmon, and Dogwood ranged among the trees on the levels.

But fire, grazing, and cutting have changed the character of the
forest and the distribution of its species. The plateau woodland is
now composed mostly of scrubby second-growth, with occasional
groups of old White Oak, Scarlet Oak, Chestnut Oak, Black Gum,
and Chestnut, many of which are decayed and hollow, and are dead at
the top. Repeated fires have destroyed the humus and grazing has
killed the underbrush. Few seed-bearing trees are found, and most
of the reproduction is by sprouts. No pure stands exist on the plateau.

THE COVES.

The coves are irregular in outline, with a series of terraced benches
along their sides. They contain hollows within them, which are exten-
sions of the cove beyond its main body into the plateau. The four
coves in the Sewanee spur of the Cumberland Plateau are Rowark
Cove, Crownover Cove, Hawkins Cove, and Lost Creek Cove. (PI. I,
fig. 2.)

Only one conifer, Red Juniper, grows in the coves. The broad-
leaved trees are as follows:

Butternut. Slippery Elm. Redbud.

Black Walnut. White Elm. Yellow-wood.
Bitternut (Hickory). Cork Elm. Locust.
Shagbark (Hickory). Wing Elm. Ailanthus.
Pignut (Hickory). Cucumber-tree. Dwarf Sumach.
Hornbeam. Umbrella-tree. Sugar Maple.
Beech. Tulip-tree. Yellow Buckeye.
Chestnut. Papaw. White Basswood.
White Oak. Sassafras. [Flowering] Dogwood.
Chestnut Oak. Witch Hazel. Blue Dogwood.
Cow Oak. Sycamore. Black Gum.

Red Oak. Serviceberry. Persimmon.
Scarlet Oak. Scarlet Haw. Sweetleaf.
Yellow Oak. Black Cherry. Fringetree.

The quality of the forest varies in the several coves. Crownover,
Hawkins, and Rowark coves are well timbered with good seedling
trees, and there is excellent seedling reproduction; but in Lost Creek
Cove fire has burned the reproduction and killed or scarred the mature
timber. In all the coves the north and northeast slopes are clothed
with tall, clear, sound trees, while those on the south and southwest

10 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

slopes are shorter, poorer in quality, and more apt to be doty. The
cove forest as a whole has reached its prime and needs cutting. The
older trees have begun to decay and die. !

REASONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TREES.

The distribution of the trees at Sewanee, both on the plateau and in
the coves, depends upon the quality of the soil, the soil moisture, and
the degree of shade.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL.

A comparison of plateau trees with cove trees brings out clearly the
influence of the quality of the soil. On the plateau, where the soil is
poor, the Black Walnut, White Ash, Bitternut, Cucumber-tree, White
Elm, White Basswood, and Shagbark of the coves do not grow.

The following list shows the relative soil requirements of the trees
at Sewanee, beginning with those that require the best soil. Trees listed
on the same line grow in about the same grade of soil:

Hornbeam, Papaw.

Butternut, Black Cherry, Black Walnut.

Slippery Elm, Yellow-wood.

White Ash.

Bitternut, Umbrella-tree.

Cucumber-tree, White Elm, White Basswood, Beech.
Red Oak, Cow Oak, Swamp White Oak.

Shagbark, Blue Dogwood, Persimmon.

Sycamore, Poison Sumach, Ailanthus.

Tulip-tree, Sassafras, Sugar Maple, Red Juniper.
Yellow Buckeye, Redbud, Fringetree, Sweetleaf.

Red Maple, [Flowering] Dogwood, Black Willow, Serviceberry.
Sweet Gum, White Oak, Post Oak.

Scarlet Haw, Scarlet Oak.

Witch Hazel, Locust, Dwarf Sumach.

Pignut, Yellow Oak, Black Gum.

Wing Elm, Cork Elm, Mountain Laurel.

Chinquapin Oak, Chestnut Oak, Black Jack, Sourwood.
Chestnut.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL MOISTURE.

While some trees require that the soil be fertile, the chief require-
ment of others is for soil moisture. In the following table the trees
are arranged in the order of their moisture requirement:

Black Willow, Sweet Gum.

Papaw, Cow Oak, Swamp White Oak.

Poison Sumach, Sycamore, Serviceberry.

Red Maple, Hornbeam, Bitternut.

Umbrella-tree, Slippery Elm, Cucumber-tree.

Butternut, White Elm, Black Cherry, White Ash, Beech.
Witch Hazel, Fringetree, Ailanthus.

White Basswood, Black Walnut, Tulip-tree.

REASONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TREES. 11

Yellow Buckeye, Redbud, Blue Dogwood, [Flowering] Dogwood.
Sugar Maple, SaSsafras, Red Oak, Shagbark, White Oak, Post Oak.
Scarlet Oak, Red Juniper, Sweetleaf, Persimmon, Yellow-wood.
Pignut, Yellow Oak, Dwarf Sumach, Black Gum.

Locust, Mountain Laurel, Scarlet Haw.

Wing Elm, Cork Elm.

Chestnut Oak, Chinquapin Oak, Black Jack, Sourwood.

Chestnut.

INFLUENCE OF SHADE.

When the soil is both fertile and moist the conditions are favorable
for all species and all struggle for a place in the ground. The factor
which decides the issue of the contest is the tolerance—that is, the
shade-enduring capacity of the competitors. The following table gives
the Sewanee trees in the order of their tolerance:

Sugar Maple, Blue Dogwood, [Flowering] Dogwood.

Hornbeam, Papaw, Fringetree, Yellow-wood.

Red Maple, Yellow Oak, Pignut, Black Gum, Serviceberry, Beech.

Black Willow, Butternut, Shagbark, Black Walnut, Red Juniper, Redbud.

Witch Hazel, Poison Sumach, Chinquapin Oak, Chestnut Oak, White Oak,
Post Oak.

White Ash, White Basswood, Slippery Elm, Umbrella-tree.

Sweet Gum, Sycamore, Swamp White Oak.

Persimmon, Mountain Laurel, Black Jack, Scarlet Oak, Red Oak.

Scarlet Haw, Locust, Sweetleaf, Cow Oak, Cork Elm, Wing Elin.

Yellow Buckeye, Black Cherry, Cucumber-tree, Sassafras.

Chestnut, White Elm, Bitternut, Dwarf Sumach, Sourwood, Ailanthus.

Tulip-tree.

OTHER CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT DISTRIBUTION.

While soil, soil moisture, and shade determine in a general way
where species grow at Sewanee, their effect is modified by the rate of
growth of the species, their seeding qualities, and their ability to
reproduce themselves bysprouts. Furthermore, cutting, grazing, and
burning have changed entirely the character of much of the forest.
Tulip-tree, White Basswood, Cucumber-tree, and White Elm grow so
fast that a slight start enables them to hoid their own. Tulip-tree, the
oaks, the walnuts, and Chestnut produce abundant seed, and the seed
of Tulip-tree, being winged, is scattered widely, enabling it to fill open-
ings in the forest. These advantages for reproduction are, however,
limited by the fact that only a low percentage of Tulip-tree seed will
germinate, and that walnuts, chestnuts, and the sweet acorns are the
favorite food of squirrels and hogs.

Grazing, burning, and careless cutting have wrought great mischief
in the plateau forest, intensified by the fact that the valuable trees are
those which suffer most. Cattle show a preference for the leaves of
Tulip-tree, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, and Chestnut; hogs prefer the
acorns from the more valuable oaks, because this fruit is the sweetest,

12 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

and fire does most harm to the sensitive Tulip-tree and to Pignut.
Lumbering has worked in the same direction, for it has removed only
the most valuable trees, leaving the openings in the forest to be occu-
pied by inferior species.

Repeated burning and grazing render of great i impor tance the ability
of the trees to repr roduce themselves by sprouts. When cattle, hogs,
and fire have destroyed all the young seedlings, when the hone and
ground cover are burned and the ground has become so hard and dry
that few seeds can germinate, the density and composition of the forest
depend on its ability to perpetuate itself by sprouts.

Chestnut possesses remarkable power for sprouting; Pignut and all
the oaks coppice freely; but the sprouts of the valuable Tulip-tree are
few, and usually they die early. In the following list the trees occur
in the order of their ability to coppice:

Sourwood, Chestnut, Ailanthus.

Red Maple, Locust, Black Willow.

Sassafras, Mountain Laurel, Sweet Gum, Sycamore, Yellow-wood.

Yellow Oak, Chestnut Oak, Chinquapin Oak, White Oak, Post Oak, Black
Jack, Serviceberry.

White Basswood, Umbrella-tree, Shagbark, Hornbeam, Bitternut, [Flower-
ing] Dogwood, Blue Dogwood, Butternut.

Black Walnut, Red Juniper, Scarlet Oak, Red Oak, Cow Oak, Swamp White
Oak.

Cucumber-tree, Black Gum, Tulip-tree.

Slippery Elm, White Elm, Cork Elm, Wing Elm, Beech.

Papaw, W ich Hazel, Scarlet Haw, Black Cherry, Redbud, Sugar Maple
Yellow Buckeye, Persimmon, Sweetleaf, White Ash, Fringetree.

THE FOREST DIVIDED INTO TYPES.

The division of the forest into types, simple enough in the coves,
where natural conditions are little changed, is rendered more difficult
on the plateau, where fire, grazing, and cutting have notably influ-
enced the composition of the forest.

<

PLATEAU TYPES.

Forest types on the plateau are Chestnut Ridge, Hickory Slope, Oak
Flat, and Bottom. (PI. III.)

CHESTNUT RIDGE,

On the summits of the sharper ridges, where the wind blows off the
fallen leaves, preventing the formation of humus, and fire does great
damage, where the sun beats down on a poor, naked soil, which sud-
den rains are constantly channeling and washing away, grows the
type of forest called Chestnut Ridge. It is composed of Chestnut,
Chestnut Oak, Yellow Oak, and Scarlet Oak. The Chestnuts, which
predominate in this type of forest, are nearly always old trees; many

THE FOREST DIVIDED INTO TYPES. 13

are dead, others are dying, and all are unsound. The Chestnut here
reproduces by coppice and not from the nut. Chestnut Oak, which
ranks next in abundance to Chestnut, although usually reproducing
by sprouts, occasionally grows from the acorn. Most of the Yellow
Oak on the ridges consists of undergrowth, although a few large trees,
always unsound, are scattered through the forest. Scarlet Oak, which
is short, branchy, and unsound, grows only in occasional groups.

HICKORY SLOPE.

The Hickory Slope type is found just below the ridges. The soil
here is richer and deeper and contains more moisture than on the
ridges. It supports, in consequence, a denser and better tree growth.
The quality of Hickory Slope varies with the aspect and the degree of
the slope. Northeast slope forests are superior to those that face
southwest, and a gentle slope grows a better forest than a steep one.

The predominating species is Scarlet Oak, represented. by trees of
all sizes and ages. Of the associated species White Oak is most
numerous, and through its tolerance crowds out Scarlet Oak on the
lower slopes and on the benches. Much Pignut grows on the slopes;
in the lumbered’ southwest area of the plateau this tree forms the
greater part of the growth. Black Gum and Chestnut Oak are scat-
tered sparingly throughout the forest. Post Oak occurs in little
groups of four or five trees. Sassafras and Dogwood are found where
the growth is densest. A few Tulip-trees—the best of those left on
the plateau—grow near the bottom of the slopes in moist soil. -Sumach
grows onthe steep slopes, and Locust and Mountain Laurel at the edge
of the plateau near watered ravines.

OAK FLAT,

The broad, level tops of some of the ridges, the wide benches on a
few of the longest slopes, and the extensive bottoms of some of the
swales are classed as Oak Flats. The soil of these flats is of good
depth, especially if they receive the wash from the slopes; it is moist
because, being practically level, the water does not drain off rapidly.
Almost all the large White Oaks on the plateau occur on the flats; the
smaller growth is made up of White Oak with a good proportion of
Scarlet Oak. A few large Yellow Oaks grow on the level ground,
and sprouts of this species form a large part of the underbrush. Pig-
nuts of fair size occur singly. Post Oak occurs here and there.

BOTTOM.

The soil of the lowland which lies at the foot of the slopes is always
the deepest and most moist on the plateau. Where the slope is insuf-
ficient for drainage, swamps are formed. Swampy bottoms contain
thickets of Ked Maple, Black Gum, and Sweet Gum. Bottoms through

14 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

which streams flow have a line of Black Willow along their banks, a
line of Sourwood sprouts behind, and a scattering growth of Black
Gum and Red Maple. In the drier bottoms Black Willow and Red
Maple are absent; White Oak reaches a good size, and Tulip-tree and
Scarlet Oak occur occasionally.

COVE TYPES.

In the cove forest, where there has been little interference with
forest conditions, the types may be readily distinguished. They are
Lower Slope, Northerly Slope, and Southerly Slope. (PIL. IV.)

LOWER SLOPE.

The forest for about 250 feet up from the bottom of the coves is
classed as Lower Slope type. This type. in the University’s holdings
at Sewanee, is confined to Hawkins Cove. The soil is a fresh clay of
slight depth, rich, with much limestone outcrop and a few loose
bowlders. The sun reaches Lower Slope for only a short time during
the day, and the species that grow in this type of forest are those that
require little light.

Trees that occur on Lower Slope and nowhere else at Sewanee are

Cow Oak, Swamp White Oak, and Papaw, with Red Juniper in almost
pure stands along the flats. Next to the creek, at the bottom of the
slopes, a few large Cow Oaks and Swamp White Oaks grow, but
there is no reproduction of these species. Scattered Papaws up to 6
inches in diameter grow at the bottom of the slopes on the steepest
places, with small thickets of seedlings beneath. On the upper edge
of Lower Slope grows Yellow Buckeye of good size, in mixture with
seattered Scarlet Oak, Black Gum, Yellow (ont Pignut, White Oak,
Black Walnut, Sugar Maple, and Locust. The oaks are neither so
numerous nor so large as those which occur farther up the slope.

NORTHERLY SLOPE,

That part of the coves above Lower Slope has been classed as North-
erly Slope and Southerly Slope, according to aspect. The soil of
Northerly Slope is a mixture of sand and clay of good depth and
quality, and is covered with a deep humus. It supports a dense
growth of most of the species of Lower Slope. The trees are tall,
with long, clear trunks. Pignut, Shagbark, and White Oak predom-
inate. .

Black Walnut, Black Cherry, White Elm, White Ash, White Bass-
wood, Cucumber-tree, Umbrella-tree, Red Oak, and Tulip-tree are con-
fined to Northerly Slope almost exclusively, where they are splendid
trees. With the exception of White Elm, all these species are light-

demanding, and not many seedlings of their own kinds have started

beneath them.

A STUDY OF THE SPECIES. 115)
SOUTHERLY SLOPE.

The soil of Southerly Slope is shallow and dry, with little humus.
The lack of moisture prevents the decay of the leaves, most of which
are blown away by the prevailing south winds. The forest is inferior
to that upon Northerly Slope. The trees are imby and short, and
stand in small groups. Many are hollow from decay. Valuable trees
such as Red Oak, Shagbark, Black Walnut, Black Cherry, Tulip-tree,
Sugar Maple, and White Ash never occur on Southerly Slope, and
White Elm, White Basswood, Cucumber-tree, Yellow Buckeye, and
Locust are seldom found. There is very little reproduction.

The scarcity of leaves on Southerly Slope tends to make fire rare.
The exposure of the trees to the south winds favors windfalls, which
are more common here than elsewhere, on account of the shallow soil.

A STUDY OF THE SPECIES.

The following tree descriptions, although made from observations
not confined to The University Domain, are intended to apply particu-
larly to the behavior of the forest at Sewanee.

Red Juniper is the only conifer indigenous to The University Domain.
Small seedlings occur occasionally along the mountain roads, but the
dense, nearly pure stands of Red Juniper are confined to Lower Slope
in Hawkins Cove. Here the trees are young, with low-branched
crowns. They average 17 inches in diameter, but reach, now and
then, a diameter of 2 feet. Red Juniper produces abundant seed, and
much of it germinates. The seedlings, which can endure a great deal
of shade, thrive under the mother trees. Neither insects nor fungi
have attacked the species at Sewanee, but fire sometimes kills the
younger trees.

Butternut is scattered sparingly by single trees on Northerly Slope
where the soil is rich and moist. Its root system is flat and does not
require a deep soil. Butternuts at Sewanee form long, clear trunks
with compact crowns and have an average diameter of 12 inches. The
tree is rather tolerant of shade. It bears fruit plentifully every few
years, little of which is left to germinate. Borers infest the wood
and bark of some of the trees, and defoliators have hurt the leaves
of all.

Black Walnut, which makes the most valuable timber in the Sewanee
forest, has been so heavily cut that few of the treesremain. It requires
a rich soil for its development, and confines itself to the ravines on the
mountain sides, where the soil is alluvial and contains considerable
humus. It has an average diameter of 15 inches, but in some cases
exceeds 30 inches. It forms a tall, straight tree with a small crown,
and is generally free from limbs for about two-thirds of its length.

Black Walnut seeds abundantly every three to five years. Some
seedlings have started about the old trees, but they are not numerous.

16 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

Forest rodents eat most of the nuts. While Black Walnut is very
tolerant, it does better with a fair amount of light. It stands fire well
and is free from insects and fungi. Large trees of the species do not
sprout.

Bitternut is scarce at Sewanee. In the moist clay soil near creeks
in the lowlands it makes a tall. straight. clear-boled tree with a large
crown. The few scattered specimens within The Universtiy Domain
occur on Northerly Slope benches and in Lower Slope forest. All the
trees are large, averaging 18 inches in diameter. Bitternut yields
many nuts about once in two years, but there is little reproduction of
the species at Sewanee. Light is required for the development of the
seedlings. The tree is attacked by borers after injury by fire and the
timber is often affected by wind shake.

Shagbark is, with one exception, the most common tree of the coves
at Sewanee. It is found throughout the mountain sides, but makes
its best growth on the good soil of Northerly Slope. Here it is a tall,
straight, narrow-crowned tree with a long, clear bole. Its average
diameter is 30 inches.

Shagbark is tolerant of shade, and seems to prefer shady slopes. It
seeds profusely every year. The reproduction is good, although many
of its nuts are devoured by hogs. Young Shagbarks sprout freely
from the stump. Borers enter the tree after fire has burned it, and
the timber generally suffers from windshake.

Pignut is the least fastidious and, in consequence, the best repre-
sented hickory at Sewanee. It is found in all situations and soils
within The University Domain, although its growth differs in char-
acter with the varying conditions. Like Shagbark, it grows best in
good soil, and on the rich Northerly Slope of the coves is a fairly tall,
clear-boled tree with an average diameter of 15 inches and a maximum
of 34 inches. On the poorer Southerly Slope, although not so good a
tree, it forms the greater part of the growth. On the plateau its
character is greatly changed. There it is short and low crowned, with
an average diameter of 15 inches and a maximum of 21 inches.

The abundant crops of nuts which the Pignuts bear are nearly all
devoured by hogs, and seedling reproduction is scant. When young,
the trees sprout readily, even after fire. Pignut is rather sensitive to
shade. Borers are common, and windshake generally affects the
timber.

Black Willow is confined to the streams on the plateau. Not many
specimens grow at Sewanee. The largest seen was 12 inches in
diameter. The tree occurs in groups, about which a little young
growth is occasionally found. The old trees have very short ‘trunks
and large srowns.

Hor aoe requires so rich a soil that it is found yery seldom, even
on benches of Lower Slope. It is commoner along the yalley streams.

PLATE III.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ev aint

HICKORY SLOPE.

Fia. 1

Fia. 2.—BoTTom.
PEATEAU. TYRES:

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

FiG. 2,—SOUTHERLY SLOPE IS DRY AND ITS TIMBER IS Poor.

COVE TYPES.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE V.

Fic. 2.—BLack Gum STILL ALIVE, THOUGH BURNED TO A SHELL.

DAMAGE DONE BY FIRE.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLaTeE VI.

i ow ey

he

Fig. 2.—YELLOW Oak, HOLLOWED BY FIRE AND FUNGI, FINALLY
BROKEN BY WIND.

EFFECTS OF FIRE.

A STUDY OF THE SPECIES. 1
The largest specimen measured on The University Domain was 8 inches
in diameter. No reproduction was found.

Beech occurs on The University Domain only by scattered specimens
in Lost Creek Cove, on Northerly Slope, generally between the
plateau’s edge and the first bench. Most of the trees are less than 20
feet high; the largest found was 75 feet high and 19 inches in diameter.
Beech seeds abundantly every five years. The nuts are eagerly
sought. The tree thrives in deep shade. It is sensitive to fire.

Chestnut, once very common at Sewanee, is now represented on the
plateau only by scattered specimens on the ridges and by sprouts from
the stumps of cut trees, while in the coves it seldom occurs below the
second bench. It makes a large, full-crowned tree with a good pro-
portion of clear length. Forty inches is the maximum diameter at
Sewanee; 15 the average.

Chestnut is not exacting in its demands upon the soil. It is con-
fined to the poor gravelly ridges of the plateau and to the sandstone-
littered parts of the coves. This is not because it prefers such situa-
tions, but because it can not bear the shade which it would have toendure
on better soils. As most of the other trees can not grow except in good
soil, Chestnut is left almost alone on the poor places. The trees bear
many nuts, few of which are left to germinate. The branches are
clubbed for the fruit before the frosts have made it fall, and what is
not picked up by the nut-gatherers becomes the food of hogs. The
abuse the trees receive by clubbing doubtless has much to do with the
limited representation of the species. It has been observed that those
Chestnuts clubbed by nut-gatherers lose their leaves in the autumn a
fortnight or more before the rest. Borers attack Chestnut, and fungi
are common to it.

White Oak is the important tree ot the Sewanee forest. It is found
in all situations and soils, but reaches its best dimensions in the coves,
where, in the good soil of north and northeast slopes, it becomes a
tull tree, with a long, straight, clear bole. Here it occurs singly in
mixture with Tulip-tree, Shagbark, Pignut, White Basswood, Cucum-
ber-tree, White Elm, White Ash, and Black Walnut. On south and
southeast slopes White Oak associates in groups of short, limby trees,
with Pignut, Scarlet Oak, and Yellow Oak. On the plateau the best
White Oak is found in the Bottom type, although there are many
large trees on Oak Flat. The tree is not so tall on the plateau as in the
coves, but it sometimes reaches a diameter of 30 inches. The open
plateau tends to develop large, low crowns,'and few of the White
Oaks found there have much first-class lumber in them.

Quantities of seed are borne almost every other year, but hogs get
most of the acorns. Germination is more apt to occur ona bed of
leaves than on bare soil. Few of the seedlings live more than a year,
on account of the fires and cattle. Young trees are tolerant of shade,

15263—No. 39—03

2)

18 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

but better growth is made in open situations. White Oak does not
sprout or resist fire so well as other oaks. The White Oaks of
Sewanee are infested with insects.

Post Oak is rather uncommon at Sewanee. It occurs mostly in
groups of four or five on Hickory Slope. The largest measured was 14
inches in diameter. Many of the trees seen had forked so early in life
as to grow into double trees. Post Oak bears an abundant crop of
acorns every few years, but no seedling reproduction was found. The
tree sprouts fairly well when small. It seems to have little preference
with regard to light and shade. Its thick bark protects it against fire
after it is about 6 inches in diameter.

Chestnut Oak is eagerly sought for lumber at Sewanee. It is found
with Chestnut in poor, rocky ground, especially near the edge of the
plateau, and mostly on the higher ridges. It is represented mainly by
scattered old trees and numerous small sprouts. In the coves it forms
a large tree, reaching a diameter of 46 inches, with a very large crown.
The rockier the slope, the more abundant and the better is the Chest-
nut Oak. Fire readily injures it, and it is severely grazed.

Chinguapin Oak is occasionally found near the edge of the plateau,
occurring singly with Chestnut Oak, for which it is often mistaken.
The largest of the specimens seen was 13 inches in diameter, and all
were short und crooked. No reproduction was present.

Swanp White Oak is common in the valleys below Sewanee, and
there are a few specimens in the Lower Slope ravines. The trees are
large and full crowned, with a maximum diameter of 22 inches.
There is no reproduction of the species.

Cow Oak is represented at Sewanee by a few large, broad-crowned
specimens along Boiling Fork that average 17 inches in diameter.
Acorns are borne in abundance every few vears. There is no repro-
duction, both because most of the seeds fall into the water and because
the light on Lower Slope is not sufficient for the development of the
young trees.

Red Oak does not grow in the plateau woodland, although Scarlet
Oak and Yellow Oak are commonly called by that name. It is found
scattered in mixture with Chestnut and Chestnut Oak on Northerly
Slope, where it forms a large tree with a rounded crown and averages
20 inches in diameter. Red Oak bears many acorns every year, but
few of them grow into trees. When young, Red Oak bears shade, but
later 1t requires more light.

Scarlet Oak predominates on the plateau, where it occurs in all situa-
tions except Bottom. It reaches a good size in the coves, especially
on the upper slopes, but forms no considerable part of the mixture.
Its maximum diameter was found to be 27 inches and its average
diameter on the plateau 11 inches. Scarlet Oak bears acorns plenti-
fully every few years, and seedlings are common. Young trees endure

A STUDY OF THE SPECIES. 8)

shade, but the species does not retain this characteristic late in life.
The ease with which young trees are injured by fire is counterbalanced
by their ability to sprout. The large trees are generally decayed, and
many of them have dead tops, killed by insects and fungi, which have
followed injury by fire.

Yellow Oak is common to all situations and soils at Sewanee. It
forms a large tree with short, clear bole, and large crown. The largest
tree measured was 40 inches in diameter. On-the plateau it occasion-
ally occurs in groups on Oak Flat, but its usual distribution is by single
trees. Yellow Oak seeds plentifully every few years. Seedlings start
profusely, but seldom attain good size before they are burned or
browsed. The tree sprouts freely, and much of the plateau under-
growth is Yellow Oak suckers. The large Yellow Oaks on the plateau
are usually hollow, and the species is much harmed by borers and
defoliators.

Black Jack is limited to groups of scrubby trees near the edge of
the plateau. It grows on the poorest, most gravelly places. The
largest specimen seen measured 6 inches in diameter and 25 feet in
height. The tree yields many acorns every other year, but there is
practically no reproduction. Bushes of sprouts are common in open
places near the old trees. Fire is the main source of injury, as the
tree is not lumbered and cattle generally leave it alone.

Slippery Hlm demands a deep, fertile soil. It occurs on Northerly
Slope as a short tree, less than 6 inches in diameter. It produces a
scant crop of seed about once in five years. There is no reproduction.
All the trees seen were growing in the shade.

White Elm is scattered on Northerly Slope benches, forming a tall,
straight tree, with a long, narrow crown. It requires good, moist soil.
The largest tree measured was 25 inches in diameter; the average was
11 inches. White Elm’‘seeds abundantly and often, but no young
growth was observed. High pole trees are growing vigorously under
shade. The leaves of many of the Sewanee Elms have been eaten by
insects.

Cork Elm grows in the gravel along the bluffs, where it does not
reach a good size and is always crooked. The largest tree measured
had a diameter of 9 inches. Scrubby seedlings occur near the older
trees.

Wing Elm is occasionally met with on Chestnut Ridge as a low shrub,
but makes a much better tree in the rich, moist soil of Northerly
Slope, where a specimen 7 inches in diameter was measured. Seed-
lings were observed only in the better situations, where light had
penetrated.

Cucumber-tree mingles with White Basswood, White Ash, and White
Elm in the fertile, moist soil of Northerly Slope. It develops a rather
short, scraggly crown, anda long, clear, slender bole. The largest tree

20 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

measured was 28 inches indiameter. Seed is borne about every three
years. Reproduction is very scant. Light is essential to the develop-
ment of the seedlings. Only a light fire is required to burn a hole in
Cucumber-tree, and rot soon follows.

Umbrella-tree is not distinguished from Cucumber-tree at Sewanee,
where the two associate. Umbrella-tree is considered a young or
stunted Cucumber-tree, for it never approaches mature specimens of
the latter species in size or form. The largest measured Umbrella-
tree was 11 inches in diameter. There is no reproduction.

Tulip-tree is the most valuable of the species that grow commonly
in the Sewanee forest. When at its best, in dense forest and good
soil, it forms a long, clear trunk and a narrow crown. It seldom
occurs in yery damp soil, where it is always unsound and of poor size.
It is confined to Northerly Slope and Hickory Slope. There is prac-
tically no reproduction of Tulip-tree, although it seeds plentifully every
year. Very few of the seeds germinate. The only reproduction of
importance that was observed had taken place on abandoned fields
where the seeds had found broken ground to sprout in and the seed-
lings had received plenty of light. Throughout its life Tulip-tree is
most intolerant of shade. It is very susceptible to fire at all ages, and
charred trees are likely to be hollow. Cattle are very fond of the
seedlings.

Papaw is confined to rich, moist soil along creeks through Lower
Slope. Only a few scattered trees were observed, the largest of which
measured 6 inches in diameter. Thickets of seedlings grew in deep
shade near these trees.

Sassafras forms a large part of the undergrowth on the upper
benches, below which it is plentiful on south slopes. It grows only in
the best places, and reaches a diameter of 17 inches. On the plateau
it is scarce, and seldom becomes more than a bush. Sassafras bears
fruit only occasionally. It seems to thrive equally well in the open or
in deep shade. If suddenly exposed to sunlight, however, it dies
immediately.

Witch [Hazel occurs above the creeks on the plateau and in the coves.
It is not plentiful, and is always small.

Sweet Guin is common in the valleys, but is found at Sewanee only
on the plateau, where it occurs in groups of three or four in wet Bot-
tom. All the specimens seen were old trees, the largest measuring
22 inches in diameter. Sweet Gum usually has a short bole and a
large, low crown.

Sycamore grows in moist, rich soil. Few trees of the species are to
be found on The University Domain. The largest of these are in the
coves, near springs, but a few grow near pools on the plateau. A
group of Sycamore saplings, far from any large trees of the species,
was the only reproduction observed.

A STUDY OF THE SPECIES. Mal

Serviceberry occurs principally in the heads of the cove hollows.
It may be found almost anywhere on the plateau in moist Bottom.
Most of the trees are bushy, and they often form thickets. The largest
specimen measured was 35 feet high and 5 inches in diameter. Service-
berry seeds every year. Seedlings are common in shaded places.

Scarlet Haw, which reaches 4 inches in diameter, is occasionally
found on the cove slopes, where it forms thickets in open places with
Slippery Elm, Redbud, and Huckleberry.

Black Cherry finds the cool, rich soil it requires only on Northerly
Slope. Most of it has been cut from The University Domain. The
largest specimen found measured 17 inches in diameter. Cherries are
borne by the tree about once in five years; but reproduction is very
searee, and only in openings. Fire may account for the hollowness
of most of the larger trees.

Redbud torms part of the undergrowth on the benches along North-
erly Slope. The largest specimen measured was 5 inches in diameter.
Many small saplings occur among the very young oak and hickory.

Yellow-wood is found only in the deep ravines of the cove streams,
where it grows in the rich soil which gathers among the rocks.
Nowhere is it more than a shrub. The largest diameter measurement
taken was 3 inches.

Locust occurs both in the coves and on the plateau—sparingly on
the latter. Most of the cove Locusts grow on the slopes as high as
the upper benches, where they form slender trees, not very tall, but
with long crowns. The largest cove Locust measured 29 inches in
diameter. The few Locusts found on the plateau grow singly near
its edge, on Hickory Slope. They have crooked stems and large,
irregular crowns. The largest Locust on the plateau measured 12
inches in diameter. The tree seeds about once in four years. Light
is required for the growth of seedlings. Reproduction is best on
Southerly Slope. On the plateau some of the Locusts killed by fire
have sprouted.

Aidlanthus is not common at Sewanee. Single trees may be found in
open places in the coves and on the plateau. The trees seen in the
woods were less than 8 feet high. Ailanthus reproduces abundantly,
both by seed and by sprouts.

Dwarf Sumach occurs both on the plateau and in the coves, wherever
there is plenty of light. It is very common near the edge of the
plateau. It grows in patches of scrubby growth. No specimens over
5 inches in diameter were observed. The tree seeds well every year,
and seedlings come up thickly around the mother trees if not shaded out.

Poison Sumach is found around the sources of some of the streams
that arise from springs. It is nowhere more than a little shrub, and
is not at all common. No young growth was observed.

Sugar Maple becomes a large, tall, big-crowned tree on Northerly

22 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

Slope and Lower Slope, where it reaches a diameter of 30 inches. It
requires good soil. Sugar Maple bears abundant seed every few years,
and the slopes below the old trees are thickly covered with seedlings,
which thrive in the deepest shade. The eagerness with which cattle
devour the seedlings limits the reproduction of the species.

Red Maple is confined to moist Bottom, where it associates with
Black Gum and White Oak. It is usually very crooked and has a low,
forking crown. One unusually large tree measured 27 inches in diam-
eter. Theaverage size is about 8 inches. Seed is plentiful every two
years, and a good part of it germinates where the ground is so wet
that fire can not burn. In drier Bottom the reproduction is wholly
from sprouts, which are sometimes so abundant as to form thickets.
Red Maple is very sensitive to fire.

Yellow Buckeye is found only in the coves, where, on the benches
of Northerly Slope, it forms a large, full-crowned tree, with an aver-
age diameter of 18 inches and a maximum of 38 inches. It occurs
also on Lower Slope, where it is of poor quality. Buckeye bears seed
about once in three years. The seedling reproduction is usually good.

White Basswood is scattered over Northerly Slope. It grows rather
tall, and has a large, tapering crown. The larger trees are usually
hollow. The average diameter was 17 inches, the maximum 37 inches.
White Basswood seeds about once in two years. Although it is
tolerant of shade and sprouts freely, its reproduction is poor. It is
sensitive to fire and is much harmed by the browsing of cattle. Borers
attack the wood.

[Flowering| Dogwood is common on Northerly Slope in the coves,
but is found sparingly on the plateau, where it is limited to Oak Flat.
In both situations it forms a short, crooked trunk and a flat crown.
The largest Dogwood found measured 17 inches in diameter. The tree
bears fruit almost every year, and reproduces well in deep shade.

Blue Dogwood occurs with [Flowering] Dogwood on the benches of
Northerly Slope, but is not nearly so abundant as the latter. No
specimen was seen over 4+ inches in diameter.

Black Gum grows in all situations and soils at Sewanee, but makes
its best growth in the rich, moist soils ef Bottom, where specimens
30 inches in diameter may be found. Black Gum seeds freely every
year, and its seedlings form a considerable part of the forest repro-
duction. Young growth of varying ages may be found wherever there
is a large Black Gum to scatter its seed. When well started, the
seedlings will bear a great deal of shade, and they have such dense
crowns that they shade out other species. Fire has hollowed out the
butts of many of the trees, but Black Gum seldom dies until blown
over.

Sourwood is common to the plateau. The largest trees are in Bot-
tom and far down on Hickory Slope. Most of the growth consists of
bushy sprouts. “Occasionally a tree attains a diameter of 14 inches.

SOURCES OF HARM TO THE FOREST. 23

Sourwood seeds abundantly every year, and seedlings are plentiful
wherever there is light enough. They are very easily injured by
fire, but sprout vigorously after burning. Cattle generally avoid
them.

Mountain Laurel occurs in dense thickets at the heads of the ravines
through which the plateau streams enter the coves. It is scattered
about in patches elsewhere on the plateau, but nowhere is it more than
ashrub. Seed is borne every year, and young plants are common.

Persimmon is scarce at Sewanee. The tree grows only in the best
soilin open places. The largest tree found measured 8 inches. Repro-
duction was found only in one spot, where there was no underbrush
and where no fires had run for several years.

Sweetleaf at Sewanee is confined to the ravines at the heads of the
coves, where it grows as a shrub in the scant soil of the rock crevices.
Its further distribution in the forest is limited by cattle, which eagerly
browse its leaves. It bears seed every year, but no reproduction was
observed.

White Ash is scattered by single trees on the benches of Northerly
Slope, where it grows to a good height and makes a clean bole. It
bears a full crop of seed about once in five years; but, while seed-
lings occur now and then, reproduction is not general. The tree is
easily injured by fire, after which decay enters the wood. Large trees
are usually doty at the butt, and the crowns of many are infested by
a defoliating insect.

Fringetree grows in shaded places along the cove Hea: but is sel-
dom more ean ashrub. Fruit is abundant every year, but the fact
that the flower is. gathered has doubtless limited the distribution of
the species.

SOURCES OF HARM TO THE FOREST.

FIRE.

The Sewanee forest suffers from many enemies. The overgrazing by
cattle, the ravages of insects, the decay induced by fungi, the uproot-
ing of trees by wind, and the injury done by careless lumbering, all
share in the deterioration of the forest. But of all the sources of
damage, fire is by far the most serious.

The ill effects of fire are not limited to the destruction of old timber
and of reproduction. It consumes the humus; it makes dead timber
in which harmful insects breed; it burns away the protective bark,
admitting fungi into the injured trees, and by lowering their vitality
renders them less able to fight against decay. (PI. V, fig. 1.)

FIRE IS WORST ON THE PLATEAU.

Fire is most common in the southern and eastern parts of the forest,
which adjoin the farms and the railroad; it does great mischief on
the plateau and very little in the coves. The level plateau offers no

24 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

obstruction to the wind which sweeps the Chestnut Ridges and sucks
out the leaves from the deeper hollows, depositing them on Hickory
Slope and Oak Flat. Fires therefore seldom burn on the Chestnut
Ridges and in the hollows, but occur very often and with disastrous
effect on the deeply littered Hickory Slope and Oak Flat.

Although their condition is favorable for fires, the coves are less
exposed to them than is the plateau, because of the absence of farms
and, except in the case of one cove, of the railroad. Trees with
charred butts occur here and there in the coves; but they do not, as on
the plateau, form the bulk of the forest. There is undergrowth in tlie
coyes, and plenty of humus—a favorable condition which, but for the
fires, would also exist upon the plateau.

CAUSES OF FIRE.

Most fires at Sewanee occur in the early spring and late fall. They
are usually set by railroad locomotives, farmers, nut-gatherers, or
visitors to the woods. The railroad is responsible for some fires, but
not for as many as are laid at its door. It is, for example, often
charged with setting fires which had their origin on the windward side
of the track, far beyond the reach of sparks. Farmers burn off the
leaves and underbrush to improve the pasturage; nut-gatherers set
the leaves afire in the fall to expose the nuts and crack the husks: and
visitors, thoughtless or careless of consequences, drop lighted matches
or burning tobacco in the forest.

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON THE TREES.

The susceptibility of the trees to fire depends largely upon the
protection their bark affords them. The bark of Tulip-tree, White
Ash, Cucumber-tree, and White Basswood is thick, but it burns
through very rapidly; while that of hickory, although much thinner,
is hard to ignite, and affords a better protection. The oaks, especially
Scarlet Oak, are protected by an excellent fire-resisting bark, thick
and corky. Young trees, because their bark is thinner and their
crowns nearer the ground, are more easily injured than old trees; and
seedlings a year old will die altogether if their leaves are burned away,
although in their second year and afterwards their roots will sprout.
The season in which the fire occurs, and the health of the tree, are
factors which have much to do with the damage done the forest by
burning. A tree burned ip the spring before the sap has begun to
rise is more likely to recover than one burned in the season of vege-
tation. Exhaustion due to attacks of insects and fungi, to previous
fires, or to its efforts to secure nourishment from a poor soil, renders
the trees less able to withstand a severe burning. Enfeebled by so
severe a drain on its strength, sprouting is unlikely after the death of

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fic. 2.—LAND GRAZED EVERY YEAR.

BAD EFFECTS OF GRAZING,

Bu!. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Fic. 2.—THE LOG FINALLY ASCENDS THE PLATEAU BY THE HELP OF A
CHUTE.

DRUMMING.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.

Fic. 2.—GooD TREES GROW ON THE UPPER SLOPES.

PLATE X.

culture

eri

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U.S. Dept. of A

Fic. 1.—THE LARGE TREE SHOULD BE REMOVED FOR THE GOOD OF

THE FOREST.

pee

Shank

$e

Fic. 2.—THE WHITE OAKS ARE LIMBY BECAUSE THEY GREW TOO MUCH IN THE OPEN.

SOURCES OF HARM TO THE FOREST. 25

the tree, or the sprouts, if they come up at all, will possess little
vigor.

Some species, under the severest fires, show great hardiness. The
oaks resist fires better than the hickories, even when their bark is
burned through. Black Gum seems almost indestructible. (Pl. V,
fig. 2.

FIRE BURNS AWAY THE FOREST FLOOR.

The most serious result of the repeated fires at Sewanee is the one
that is most lightly regarded. The destruction of the humus and the
exposure of the bare soil has disastrous consequences. Humus, the
dead organic matter in the soil formed from decayed vegetation, is as
important to the forest as manure to the field.. It not only enriches
the ground, but keeps it moist and prevents erosion. The sandy soil
of the plateau at Sewanee can not retain its moisture unless aided by
humus; when this is burned off the soil dries rapidly and, left unpro-
tected, is readily washed away. Fire renders the ground unfit for
germination. In burning off the humus it bakes the soil into a hard
crust which the tender rootlets of the few seeds that have survived the
flames can not penetrate.

A fire can not burn in the forest without doing harm to the forest
floor. Either a part or all of the humus, or of the material which
would have made humus, must feed the flames. Repeated fires gradu-
ally consume all of the forest floor and render the chances of its form-
ing again less and less likely.

Pl. VI, fig. 1, shows the present condition of a considerable part of
the southern end of the plateau. The forest has been burned more or
less every year. Nothing is left to feed the flames except the last
crop of leaves that fell and the low growth less than a year old. In
such a forest the fire crawls along the ground until it dies from lack
of material, or is put out by rain, or by a wind that blows it backward.
Such small fires do not generate enough heat to injure trees larger
than small saplings, but they serve to keep the ground constantly dry,
impoverished, and liable to erosion.

EVILS OF OVERGRAZING.

Cows, horses, and hogs have grazed the lands of The University of
the Scuth from the time the country was settled. Since very little
grass grows in the woods, cattle are forced to live on weeds and small
trees. The grazing is good early in the season, and the cattle take
only those leaves they prefer; but later, when the choice food is ex-
hausted, they devour every leaf and stem in reach.

Pl. VII, fig. 1, shows a bit of woods through which cows have just
ranged. The small saplings with bare stems are White Oaks, Yellow
Oaks, and Pignuts, propagated from the larger trees in the background,

26 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

The saplings grew to the size shown because of the absence for several
years of fires and cattle. When the cows did get in they stripped the
young trees bare of leaves. The condition of those parts of the plateau
erazed every year is shown in Pl. VII, fig. 2. Here fires and previous
grazing kad kept down the saplings. and there was nothing to graze
but clumps of sprouts, the toughest of which were passed over by the
cattle. But later in the season, when there is a lack of vegetation,
these also will be devoured.

A tree stripped of its leaves has received a serious hurt. Whether
it will die or not depends upon its species, age, condition, and the
season when it was injured. Species such as Tulip-tree, for whose
leaves and twigs cattle haye a great fondness, are usually damaged so
badly that they die. When an animal feeds on leaves it pulls them ort
with a jerk that often takes branches and bark with them. Hickory,
however, is so tough that it is seldom injured in this way. Grazing
is more fatal to the plant in the spring than in the fall. Young plants
suffer more than old ones, the youngest often being uprooted.

The whole plateau has been grazed, but that part lying nearest the
farms has suffered most. The signs of abuse are manifest in the
scarcity or entire absence of undergrowth, and in the distribution of
the trees, which stand far apart, with grass in the open places between
them. The grazed plants usually die down to the ground, then send
up sprouts year after year, which are also devoured by the cattle,
until the root, having lost its vitality, can sprout no longer and dies.

RAVAGES OF INSECTS.

Fires at Sewanee do still further damage to the forest by creating
conditions most favorable to insect development. Much of the timber
is destroyed by insects, especially by borers, which enter wounds -
made by the flames.

While from the nature of the work only general observations of the
damage done could be made, it is apparent that none of the species is
altogether free from attack. All the oaks have suffered more or less
from borers, and many of the larger trees are alive with beetles of dif-
ferent kinds. Yellow Oak has suffered most; Scarlet Oak and White
Oak are injured oftener than Post Oak, while in Chestnut Oak the
insects do no great harm.

The Pignuts on the plateau harbor both wood and bark borers, and
the fire scars at the ground are almost always filled with white ants.
Very few Chestnuts escape the borers, and many Locusts and Red
Maples suffer from the same enemy.

The coves, which are seldom burned over, show small damage from
insects. Chestnut is the only species in which the borers are frequent.
Hickories are entered by borers whenever burned, and White Ash,
Butternut, White Basswood, and White Elm suffer a little from the

SOURCES OF HARM TO THE FOREST. 97

same cause. The oaks,are much less badly damaged than on the pla-
teau. Of all the coves Lost Creek has suffered most from fire and
shows the greatest damage by insects. ;

Besides the wood and bark boring insects, there are many which
feed or live on the foliage and twigs of the trees. Leaf and twig
galls are common on the oaks, especially on young White Oak. The
leaves of the oaks, particularly Chestnut Oak, are eaten by miners,
which are common also on the foliage of Chestnut, Red Maple, Sugar
Maple, Black Willow, the dogwoods, Cucumber-tree, Umbrella-tree,
Locust, Tulip-tree, and Sycamore. The caterpillars of butterflies,
moths, and beetles eat many leaves from the elms, oaks, hickories,
Chestnut, Butternut, Sassafras, Locust, Black Willow, and Red
Maple. The rolled leaves of the Sycamore, Locusts, and Black
Willows show an injury caused by caterpillars. Plant lice and scale
insects are found on the oaks, White Ash, Red Maple, Locust, and
Tulip-tree. Acorns, chestnuts, and hickory nuts are muéh infested
by weevils.

DAMAGE DONE BY WIND.

Trees are blown down here and there on the exposed plateau, but
there is never a considerable windfall. Chestnuts on the ridges, espe-
cially when laden with nuts, and trees burned at the base, or decayed,
are unable to withstand a heavy wind. (PI. VI, fig. 2.) The shelter
of the coves prevents windfall, except in the case of those trees grow-
ing near the tops of the slopes whose crowns, rising above the plateau
edge, are imperfectly protected.

While few trees in the coves are overthrown by wind, the timber of
many of them is badly damaged by windshake. Shagbark suffers
most; Pignut and Butternut are also affected, and Tulip-tree has often
a crack half an inch wide following a ring in the timber.

ABUSE OF CUTTING PRIVILEGES.

Under the lax forest management of the University excessive abuse
of the forest was formerly tolerated. Tenants once cut timber with-
out restraint, not only from their own leaseholds, but from unleased
lands. The permission of the University was not always asked. The
result was that trees were cut for a bit of timber needed at the
moment and the unused portion left in the woods. Trees felled for
rails were discarded if they did not split readily. Sometimes a bare
2 feet were rived into boards from the butt of a good tree and the rest
went to feed forest fires. The practice of ‘* sampling” standing trees
was common. In the hunt fora piece of timber out of which good
boards could be made with a minimum amount of work the chopper
cut a deep hole in every promising tree and scrutinized its grain.
Sometimes a dozen trees were ruined betore one was selected.

28 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

PAST TREATMENT OF THE FOREST.

No part of the University’s forest has wholly escaped lumbering,
although in the coves it has been confined to the. removal here and
there of a single valuable tree and to the cutting under University
View of Chestnut Oak for tanbark. On the plateau the cutting has
been far more severe. About 1870 the forest northeast and east of
the railroad was culled for timber to supply a mill near the present
site of the railroad depot, which sawed lumber for buildings under
construction near the University. The same land has been cut over
more than once since then for ties, boards, and fence rails. Ties have
been cut from the extreme south end of the tract, and the best trees
from the rest of the forest extending north to Depot Branch have
been removed. East of Bubbling Spring road oaks have been cut for
their bark, and from Mississippi avenue halfway out to the Break-
field road, and on both sides of the road, firewood is now cut by the
University.

The forest was lumbered with no thought for its welfare. Logs
were cut only from the choicest oaks and Tulip-trees; boards, ties,
fence rails, and firewood were cut out of White Oak; Chestnut Oak
was used for its bark alone. The removal of the best trees has
given advantage to inferior species and changed very greatly the
composition of the forest. Large Tulip-trees are rare and the White
Oaks remaining are small or unsound. Scarlet Oak, Black Gum, and
Pignut now form the most of the larger growth.

LUMBERING.

Lumbering at Sewanee has never been followed as a regular busi-
ness. Men have worked at it only when an easier and better-paying
job was not to be had. It has not, therefore, received the benefit of
the specilization and intelligent management which come with long
practice.

** DRUMMING” TIMBER IN THE COVES.

The plateau is easily lumbered. The land is so level and the forest
so open that trees may be felled in the desired direction, and wagons
ean get about without difficulty. On the steep slopes of the coves,
however, the trees are hable to injure the young growth unless nice
judgment is used. Road construction on most of the steep, bowlder-
strewn slopes is so difficult that the transportation of cove timber to
the mill or railroad becomes a problem. When trees are felled near
the main road or near spurs from the main road, they are snaked or
skidded out, loaded on wagons, and hauled away; but if the logs are
not readily accessible by wagons, a different method, called ‘‘drum-
ming,” is practiced. The logs are drawn out of the cove upon the

LUMBERING. 29

plateau by a wire cable wound around a drum or cylinder that stands
close to the escarpment. The drum, however, is upright instead of
horizontal, and is made to revolve by a team of mules or horses hitched
toa long pole that serves asa lever. (Pl. VIII, fig. 1.) Attached by
one end to the lever, with the other end trailing on the ground, is a
short, stout pole, which acts as a brake when the team stops. The
longest cable used by a single team is about 2,000 feet long.

In operating the cable it is fastened by grab hooks to the log in
the cove below. When all is ready, the man at the drum is signaled
to start his team, and the log is slowly drawn up the slope. The
course is seldom straight. The log is directed this way and that to
escape obstructions, and it must generally be helped over the bowlders
strewn along the way. Arrived at the escarpment which separates
cove from plateau, it is drawn up a rough, inclined chute of logs, as
shown in Pl. VII, fig. 2.

‘**Drumming,” though simple and effective, is a leisurely method of
logging. The cable winds slowly, and stops whenever the log meets
an obstruction. Besides, the most is not made out of the method. A
set of leads through the timber, suitable to the location of the trees
and the contour of the ground and equipped with snatch blocks and
spools at the corners, is seldom planned out. ‘* Drumming” often
causes damage to large standing trees, whose bark is torn by the
friction of the cables, and to young growth which the logs crush in
their passage.

ROADS AT SEWANEE.

On the plateau the principal public roads lead to Cowan, Sherwood,
Alto, Monteagle, and Jasper. Besides, there are old wood roads and
- roads to the mines and to the different ‘‘ views.” Though numerous,
these are neither well graded nor well drained, and washouts are fre-
quent. In the coves roads are not so easily built or maintained. The
Cowan road in Hawkins Cove is the only cove road likely to be used
in lumbering The University Domain. The upper part of this road,
while steep, is kept in fine condition; farther down, where the grade
slackens, the drainage is poor, but from the foot of the mountain
until Cowan is reached the road improves.

The University desires better roads on its domain and is improving
them as fast as its funds allow.

THE LOG MARKET IS EXCELLENT.

The market for Sewanee timber is excellent. All qualities are in
demand. Lumber manufacturers at Tullahoma, about 25 miles north
of Sewanee, on the main line of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St.
Louis Railroad, can use the entire output of the Sewanee forest. The
freight rate to Tullahoma is $8.50 for a car of 30,000 pounds. A good

30 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

market exists also in Chattanooga, but the freight rate for logs to that
city is 10 cents per hundredweight.

The cheaper grades of timber need not go to waste. Even the butts
saved from first-class White Oak and Hickory logs are available for
spokes at the wagon factories. A demand exists for White Oak and
Chestnut Oak railroad ties, and for Chestnut Oak tanbark. At Sewanee
about 1,000 cords of firewood are burned every year, three-fourths of
which is cut by the University from its own lands.

MANAGEMENT OF THE SEWANEE FOREST.

The present condition of the Sewanee forest renders the application
of practical forestry an urgent matter. As the result of present
methods the property is steadily decreasing in value, and the best
interests of the University demand that careful attention replace the
lack of management that now prevails.

The University realizes the needs of its forest, but instead of invest-
ing money in the improvement of its woodlands it finds it necessary
to draw from them all the revenue they will yield. Their manage-
ment, therefore, if it is to accomplish any good, must be a compromise
between what the University demands and all that the forest requires,

The whole forest, both plateau and cove, has been divided, as shown
on the map (PI. I), into six blocks for greater convenience in lumbering.
The blocks are of such size that one block may be logged every year.
Another consideration that has influenced this division is that all the
timber in each block shall be got out by one road and in the cheapest
and most convenient manner. The blocks should be lumbered con-
secutively in the order of the numbering.

Block I contains the largest amount of timber that needs cutting and
contains the best young growth on the Domain. Mistakes made there
will not be so serious as elsewhere, and good results will be more
apparent. Most of the timber may be hauled out by team by the
Cowan road. By opening up the old Cowan road and making spurs to
the right and left of the Cowan road the timber on the second, third,
and fourth benches can be hauled out. The timber on the upper
benches and slopes can be drummed out with a few drum sets.

Block II is more difficult to iog. (Pl. LX, fig. 1.) Most of the tim-
ber in the cove portion will have to be drummed. A short extension
of the old quarry road will make it possible to get out the timber under
Claras Point; and a road from the plateau around and under Oteys
Prospect will tap the western part of the block. The trees in the cove
portion of Block II are not nearly so plentiful or so good as those in
Block I. Between Boiling Fork and University View many Chestnut
Oaks have been removed for tanbark. Fire has run over this area -
very often, and the larger trees are generally decayed. Good-sized

TREATMENT OF THE COVES. 31

trees are scarce on the upper slopes between Pinckney and Parson
branches. (PI. IX, fig: 2.)

Block III is mostly plateau land. The timber in Bowers and Millers
hollows might best go down hill to the Cowan road if the purchase of
the privilege to cross other property were not too expensive. All of
this timber will have to be drummed. The best plateau timber is in
Block III. This area has been comparatively free from grazing, fire,
and the ax, except around the Bennett place near Far Chalybeate
Spring.

Block IV has been much cut over. Large quantities of timber have
been drummed out of Crownover and Rowark coves. Much of the
University’s firewood comes from Block IV.

Block V in its eastern part illustrates the result of logging as prac-
ticed at Sewanee. After thirty years the forest has not yet recovered.
It is badly burned and grazed every year, particularly east of the
Jasper road. Improvement cuttings are needed throughout the block.

Block VI is the only one whose timber should not be taken to
Sewanee. Logging roads should be built along Wiggins Creek; the
timber should be snaked to them and thence hauled to Cowan. Prac-
tically all the Red Juniper on the Domain is in Block VI. Very little
of it, however, is merchantable.

TREATMENT OF THE COVES.

The plateau has been abused so long that it is not able to furnish
large profits and must be treated solely for its improvement. On the
other hand, the coves contain quantities of valuable timber ready for
the saw, much of which is overripe. It is desirable that this timber
be remoyed, not only because it is idle capital producing nothing, but
because its removal would increase the growth cf younger trees which
it now suppresses.

Ordinary lumbering would remove all the trees that could be taken
at a profit without regard to further crops. The land left after such
an operation would have no timber value. The best species removed,
the poor ones left would seed up the ground and the succeeding stands
would be practically worthless. By combining lumbering and forestry
many seed trees may be left and the land put in condition to grow
further crops, while the operations may be conducted with such a say-
ing as to yield immediate returns almost equal to those of ordinary
lumbering. In a word, without curtailing seriously the immediate
profits of lumbering, it is possible to practice forestry in the coves.

Definite rules covering the treatment of the Sewanee forest would
be impracticable. The problems presented are so numerous that no
general directions can be given to cover the treatment necessary on
the ground of so irregular and varied a forest. It wiil be necessary
for a forester to mark the trees to be cut, to superintend the logging,

32 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

and to insist upon the careful and systematic work necessary to make
the forest yield the highest profits.

It will be sufficient here to outline the considerations to be borne in
mind in the execution of the work.

Economy should be rigidly practiced in the lumbering. In mak-
ing contracts for logging the University should insist that the greatest
amount of timber possible should be cut out of each tree, and that no
damage be done to the young growth which care can prevent. The
trees should be sawed low at the stump. No trees should be removed
not marked by the forester, and all marked trees should be removed.

In deciding what trees are to be removed and what are to stand the
forester will be guided by these general considerations:

Merchantable trees will be left where they are needed to seed up
the ground, or where their removal would result in damage by wind
or from erosion. Unmerchantable trees will be removed where pos-
sible when they hamper the growth of promising young trees, or when
they are likely to seed up ground that would otherwise be taken by
better species.

TREATMENT OF THE PLATEAU.

Very little lumbering can be carried on with profit on the plateau,
where large timber is scarce and generally unsound. Instead of lum-
bering the plateau for profit, it should be treated solely for its benefit,
with the restriction that no improvements shall be made that will not
immediately pay for themselves. While little or no profit is expected
from the plateau, it can be made more valuable by removing the large,
unsound, and crooked trees, and the inferior species with which it is
cumbered, and selling them for ties or firewood. (Pl. X, fig. 1.)
Trees that can be sold at a profit should be made to pay for improve-
ments in which there is no immediate profit.

Most of the plateau forest is so open that the timber does not grow
clear and the soil rapidly dries out. (Pl. X, fig. 2.) To make more
favorable forest conditions the amount of cover should be increased.
No trees should be removed where the forest is not well stocked. This
will make it necessary to leave uncut parts of the plateau; but in the
eastern and western areas improvement cuttings may be made.

POOR TREES SHOULD BE CUT FOR FIREWOOD.

Firewood should be cut from dead, crooked, and unsound trees, and
from the tops and branches of trees cut for ties and sawlogs. No liy-
ing trees over 12 inches in diameter should be cut for firewood alone.

INFERIOR SPECIES SHOULD BE CUT FIRST.

Whenever a choice is to be made between species, the inferior:
species sbould be cut. Sourwood, Sumach, and Laurel should be

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Xl.

Fic. 2.—LUMBER READY FOR SHIPMENT.

THE SEWANEE MILL.

wn

-
Z :

PLATE XII.

Bul. 39, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fia@. 1.—HAULING LoGs IN BLOCK lI.

Fig. 2.—YOUNG GROWTH LEFT AFTER LUMBERING.

LOGGING AT SEWANEE.

PROTECTION OF THE FOREST. 33

removed whenever possible. The following list of oaks, in which the
least valuable occur first in the order, will give an idea of what species
should be cut: Black Jack, Gam napin, Yellow, Scarlet, Post, Chest-
nut, White. Pignut should be given the preference over all the oaks
except White, Chestnut, and Post.

In deciding what seed trees should be left, the value of the species
and the condition of the tree should have the most weight. Every
encouragement should be offered Tulip-tree, that it may again become
prominent in the composition of the plateau forest. No Tulip-trees
should be cut.

PROTECTION OF THE FOREST.

A systematic effort should be made to prevent fires. It is recom-
mended that the University, besides making every effort to create a
sentiment against forest fires, should be vigilant in extinguishing
them. An arrangement with the logging contractor is practicable,
requiring him to employ men to fig ht fires, when necessary—the men
to be paid by the University.

Danger from windfall should be kept in mind in marking trees on
southerly slopes, where the soil is shallow and exposure to wind is
greatest.

A more careful inspection of the property is necessary to prevent
the illegal cutting of timber, It should be insisted upon that all
applications for cutting privileges be considered by the forester. Any
violation of this rule should be treated as theft.

THE PLAN IN OPERATION.

The plan of management outlined under ‘*‘ Management of the
Sewanee Forest” was accepted by the University, and in May, 1900,
the Bureau of Forestry, cooperating with the University according to
the terms of Cireular No. 21, sent employees to Sewanee who marked
for cutting the timber in Block I.

A logging contract for the coves was made, which required that the
following rules be observed:

1. Only marked trees shall be cut.

2. All marked trees shall be cut, unless a reason satisfactory to the inspector is
given for leaving them.

3. Except in case of hollow or dote, no stumps higher than one foot above the
ground shall be cut.

4. Care shall be taken not to injure young growth while felling, cutting, or haul-
ing the timber.

5. As much as possible of each tree shall be cut into logs two inches longer than
the lengths called for by the mill.

6. The logs cut shall be well butted, and hauled to the mill.

7. Every effort shall be made to extinguish any fire which may be seen.

15263—No. 39—03——_3

384 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

A separate contract was made with the same man for logging the
plateau, containing the same rules, with this additional rule, that
‘such White Oak and Chestnut Oak trees and parts of trees that will
not yield sawlogs shall be cut into as many railroad ties as possible.”

An arrangement for the sale of the logs was then made between the
University and a millman of Tullahoma, who put up a sawmill at
Sewanee. (Pl. XI.)

In the fall and winter of 1900-1901 Block I was lumbered according
to contract, and over 656,000 board feet of timber were removed.
(Pl. XII.) The net profits of the first year’s work were about $2,000.

The second year’s logging was made under practically the same con-
tracts as those of the first year, except that Block II was more difficult
to log and therefore more expensive. About 475,000 board feet of
timber were lumbered. The profits amounted to about $1,200.

Four blocks remain to be lumbered. Estimating future profits from
what has already been accomplished, it seems safe to say that the
whole forest when logged will have yielded $6,500 to $7,000 above
expenses.

Small economies practiced in the lumbering made a surprising
increase in the profits. Thousands of board feet of lumber were
saved, which, with the kind of logging formerly practiced at Sewanee,
would haye gone to waste. The trees were cut about a foot lower at
the stump than ordinarily, and this, combined with the practice applied
of cutting high into the crown, made a saving of about 200 feet on
every 1,000 feet.

Much was saved by arranging the log lengths so as to get the most
out of the trees. Formerly many short logs were left in the woods
containing timber that might have been used had the merchantable
part of the trees been divided properly.

Under former logging methods no timber was taken above the place
where the tree branches. By the new system sawlogs were often
obtained from the large branches.

Trees that had been blown down but were still available for lumber
were used. The former practice at Sewanee was to leave such trees.

On the plateau sawlogs were taken from the butts of trees, while
the upper logs were used for ties and the tops and branches for fire-
wood.

All the conditions of his contract were faithfully ohserved by the log-
ging contractor, whose men soon acquired considerable skill in cutting
low stumps and in felling trees so as not to harm the young growth.

The task of marking trees for cutting was performed by the Bureau's
employees with careful regard for the conditions in each part of the
forest. Many seed trees of the valuable species were left that would
ordinarily have been removed. In leaving seed trees, advantage was
often taken of defects that rendered them less valuable for lumber.

TREES NATIVE TO THE UNIVERSITY DOMAIN. 85

Black Gum, which has no value at Sewanee, either for saw timber
or for firewood, was not cut. But wherever possible, valuable trees
like hickory and oak were left standing near Black Gum to fight
against it for the occupation of the soil exposed by the lumbering.

Regard was also paid to the exposure of the trees on Southerly Slope
to heavy winds. Fewer trees on this slope were marked for removal.

Wherever Tulip-tree, growing at the base of the escarpment, lifted
its top above the plateau, it was left in the hope that its seed would

fall on the plateau and germinate.

Lumbering on the plateau was confined to the removal of large trees
for sawlogs and ties. A profit of $500 was made on the plateau the
first year.

The University has not yet entirely stopped the cutting of valuable
trees for firewood on the plateau. Such cutting is still going on, to
the detriment of the forest. A great deal more might be made out of
such trees by cutting them into sawlogs and ties.

The restricting of grazing on the plateau has not yet been accom-
plished. An attempt, however, will be made to confine the grazing
to a definite part of the Domain.

The problem of keeping out fires has apparently been solved. The
logging contractor made an arrangement with the University by which
he agreed to hire men to put out any fire discovered on the Domain.
The men hired are paid by the University for the time actually
employed. Several dangerous fires have been pup ece by this
means at small cost—$9.10 in 1902.

TREES NATIVE TO THE UNIVERSITY DOMAIN.

Preferred name. Local names. Botanical name.
ReGgiHiniperzcecs--ss-5225- | Cedar, Red Cedar..........-.....- Juniperus virginiana Linn.
IBUULErIU Des seeem a iat cies * IBUGLETOUGi ee esc niecisme ose cisees Juglans cinerea Linn.
BlackiWalnut-s2s2+=-=-->-- Walnut, Black Walnut -........-.. Juglans nigra Linn.

Bitternut (Hickory) .-...-- | Spignut, Red-heart Hickory ...... Hicoria minima (Marsh.) Britton.
Shagbark (Hickory) .-.-...-. Scalvibarkie eset teo cen eec cates Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton.
Pignut (Hickory) .......--. Black Hickory, Hard Bargain | Hicoria glabra ( Mill.) Britton.
| Hickory.
Blacks Wallowiese spies sce 2 MAWVALI Oath cesaa es cocecseneces cee Salix nigra Marsh.
LOREM Cain ejects se etecie= WON WOOdeanc cso sec se ccinseiere Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch.
Beech.. meee saat oat ates IBeechgscem ces scrcincianccacissemccene Fagus atropunicea (Marsh.) Sud-
} worth.
Chestnuterssese-hocee cts. Ghestnutpeeect a essen een a Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.
WNL eA @ aig see foto orate | White Oak, Swamp White Oak ...| Quercus alba Linn.
Post Oakisee tee see sense te cel | Post Oak, White Oak -.....-....-. Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sargent.
ChesinutiOake=-se-~.--.-- 25 | Chestnut Oak, Tanbark Oak...... Quercus prinus Linn.
Chinquapin Oak..........- | Chestnut Oak, Chinquapin Oak ..| Quercus acuminata (Michx.) Houba.
Swamp White Oak......... White Oak,Swamp Oak, Swamp | Quercus platanoides (Lam.) Sud-
White Oak. worth.
CowOakie-ct oes e- 22.25 | Swamp Oak, White Oak .......... Quercus michauxii Nutt.
RediQakeve-s22----5 -----| Red Oak, Water Oak, Piss Oak....| Quercus rubra Linn.

36 CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING AT SEWANEE, TENN.

Trees native to The University Domain—Continued.

Preferred name.

Local names.

Botanical name.

Quercus coccinea Muenchh.

Quercus velutina Lam.

Quercus marilandica Muenchh.

UlImus pubescens Walt.
Ulmus americana Linn.
Ulmus racemosa Thomas.
Ulmus alata Michx.

| Magnolia acuminata Linn.

Magnolia tripetala Linn.
Liriodendron tulipifera Linn.

«simina triloba (Linn.) Dunal.
Sassafras sassafras (Linn.) Karst.

Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.
Hamamelis virginiana Linn.
Platanus occidentalis Linn.

Amelanchier canadensis (Linn.)

Medic.
Crataegus coccinea Linn.
Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Cercis canadensis Linn.

Cladrastis lutea (Michx. i.) Koch.

Robinia pseudacacia Linn.
Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.

Rhus copallina Linn.

Rhus vernix Linn.

Acer saccharum Marsh.
Acer rubrum Linn.
Aesculus octandra Marsh.
Tilia heterophylla Vent.
Cornus florida Linn.
Cornus alternifolia Linn. f.

| Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Scarlet.Oak 2222222. odesces Red Oak, Spanish Oak, Piss Oak,

| Water Oak. |
ellowsOalotc-o- ser 2nen=-= | Black Oak, Red Oak, Black Jack .
Black Jack 222.5.2-2..-=-=- | Black Jack, Scrub Oak ......-.---
Slippery Blm 5-2 .2-c225--4 (Slippery; lms eeeeeceeee eee
White’ Bim 22s22-..522-7-222 } Wm) cscsecscaecssseenecceasesces
Cork (il 325c2.52ececes eee | aes GO zastase eww ae cess eed neeeeece
Wide BUM <2 sen ceciemieseeisie ae Jace GO. 22222 tense danse eee secse cade
Cucumber-tree..........--- |
Umbrella-tree. . ..c2a2scesesfeesea
Tulip-tree:- 22-22. sascece see Poplar, Yellow Poplar, Tulip

| Poplar.
PAD ONW eeeen ose cae ree eee PADANY sa ceenlneceesneeas eeae sense
Sassafras - .| Sassatras. Sa eiraseeseceeees oes
Sweet Gum | Gum Sweet Gum 2.2. ....---se5
Witch Hazell es o-s--neecsee Hazel s Witch Hazel loco sescen eee
Sycamore joa. sen eseee eee Svcamolesjseen--s2een- sees aeesee
Serviceberry ........------- Savice, erviceberry.....--------- |
Scarlet Hayy, 2°s2-2--2--<--- | Haw, Red Haw, Black Haw ...-...
BlackiGherry 2 sscee ce. eee | Cherry, Red Cherry............--- |
Red budieesos-eeesece Redbud 22. =. ccc2cossceeseee see
Yellow-wood [nsec ee eeetee tees este este eeeses ee eees
DOCUSHjzs2-s222cceseessccee Locust, Black Locust .........-..- |
ATEN tC NUS sesso eae | Shumach, White Shumach, Tree |

| of Heaven.
DiyariiSumache..o--sscs-e- | Sumach, Shumach, White Shu-

mach.

Poison Sumach ...-----..--- | Poison Sumach, Poison Ash ....-.
Sugar Maple\-.22. 25. 2-ceee | Maple, Sugar-tree ...-.....--.-.--
Red Maple.................| Maple, Red Maple-...--..-....-..- |
Yellow Buckeye .........-- | Horse Chestnut, Buckeye...--..... |
White Basswood .......-....
[Flowering] Dogwood.....
Blue Dog woods. .essessessas see
BlackiGum i252-sccccsesn ee Gum, Black Gum
SOUT WOO S2 2525 foc2enaseee | SOUDY OOGtes- 255 eeeeeee see eee
Mountain Laurel .......... LDATGL eM ere es oe eae Sees ste ae
Persimmon\e=: 22sesecese ese PersmInOl ee eescac seen eeeees reas |
Sweetleaf:. 22-2 s2ssc5-< re ae Re eee eee See SR ean Sess
White Ash: <2. ceccccses LHASD ce cocida occa eeemmeseenceseeeer
BYINGCWCE oc ere ein nc amen HringeGiree@ sc. concecscccssecwnences

Oxydendrum arboreum (Linn.) de C.

Kalmia latifolia Linn.
Diospyros virginiana Linn.

Symplocos tinctoria (Linn. ) L’Her.

Fraxinus americana Linn.
Chionanthus virginica Linn.

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