ONSTRVCTIVE
ANATOMY

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CONSTRUCTIVE ANATOMY

By
GEORGE B. BRIDGMAN

INSTRUCTOR IN DRAWING AND
LECTURER ON THE CONSTRUCTION
AND ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN
FIGURE, ART STUDENTS' LEAGUE
NEW YORK. ALSO AUTHOR OF
THE BOOK OF A HUNDRED HANDS
AND BRIDGMAN's LIFE DRAWING

FOURTEENTH PRINTING

BRIDGMAN PUBLISHERS
PELHAM, NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT i'jZO, BY
GEORGE D. BRIDGMAN
I'ELHAM, NEW YORK
PUBLISHED MAT, I (j2Q
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

FOURTEENTH PRINTING

Lilho'd in U. S. A.

Dedicated

to

*My ^Mother

The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness
to Dr. Ernest E. Tucker for his assistance in the prep-
aration of the text, and to Mr. A. Wilbur Crane for

his helpful suggestions.

G. B. B.

Introduction

The drawings that are presented here show the
conceptions that have proved simplest and most
effective in constructing the human figure.

The eye in drawing must follow a line or a plane
or a mass. In the process of drawing, this may
become a moving line, or a moving plane, or a mov-
ing mass. The line, in actual construction, must
come first; but as mental construction must precede
physical, so the concept of mass must come first,
that of plane second, that of line last.

Think in masses, define them in lines.

Masses of about the same size or proportion are
conceived not as masses, but as one mass ; those of
different proportions, in respect to their movement,
are conceived as zvcdging into each other, or as
morticed or interlocking.

The effective conception is that of wedging.

General Anatomy

Bones constitute the pressure system of the body.
In them are expressed, therefore, laws of architec-
ture, as in the dome of the head, the arches of the
foot, the pillars of the legs, etc.; and laws of me-
chanics, such as the hinges of the elbows, the levers
of the limbs, etc.

Ligaments constitute the retaining or tension
system, and express other laws of mechanics.

Muscles constitute the contractile or power sys-
tem; they produce action by their contraction or
shortening. In contraction they are lifted and
bulged, while in their relaxed state they are flabby
and soft. Muscles, attached to and acting on the
bony and ligamentous systems, constitute the motion
system. In the muscles are expressed, therefore,
laws of dynamics and of power.

For instance, for every muscle pulling in one
direction, there must be the corresponding muscle
pulling in the opposite direction. Muscles are there-
fore paired, throughout the body. Every muscle on
the right side must be paired with one on the left;
for every flexor on the front there must be its
corresponding extensor on the back.

Muscles express also laws of leverage; they are
large in proportion to the length of the lever they
move. Those of the individual fingers are small and
can fit in between the bones of the hand. They grow
larger as we ascend the arm, the leverage being
longer and the weight greater. The muscles of the
forearm are larger than those of the fingers ; those
of the arm larger than those of the forearm, while
the muscles of the shoulder are larger still.

[»]

Masses and Movements
of the Body

The masses of the head, chest and pelvis are
unchanging.

Whatever their surface form or markings, they
are as masses to be conceived as blocks.

The conception of the figure must begin with the
thought of these blocks in their relation to each
other. They are to be thought of first as one thinks
of the body of a wasp, with only one line connecting
them, or without reference at all to connecting
portions.

Ideally, in reference to gravitation, these blocks
would be balanced symmetrically over each other.
But rarely in fact, and in action never, is this the
case. In their relations to each other they are lim-
ited to the three possible planes of movement.
That is, they may be bent forward and back in the
sagittal plane, twisted in the horizontal plane, or
tilted in the transverse plane. Almost invariably,
in fact, all three movements are present, to differ-
ent degrees.

In these various movements, the limit is the limi-
tation to movement of the spine. The spine is the
structure that connects one part of the body with
another. It is a strong column occupying almost the
centre or axis of the body, of alternating discs of
bone and very elastic cartilage. Each segment is a
joint, whose lever extends backward to the long
groove of the back. Such movement as the spine
allows the muscles also allow, and are finally con-
nected by the wedges or lines of the actual contour.

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CONSTRUCTION

Masses and Movements of the Body:
Tilting of the Masses

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CONSTRUCTION

The Horizontal. Sagittal and Transverse

Planes: Tilted and Twisted

16]

The Hand

Anatomy

In the hand arc four hones, continuous with those
of the lingers, called metacarpals (met a, beyond,
carpus, wrist). They are covered by tendons on
the hack, and on the front by tendons, the muscles
of the thumb and little finger, and skin pads.

There is a very slight movement like opening a
fan between these bones. They converge on the
wrist bones and are morticed almost solidly to them.
The hand moves with the wrist. The dorsal tendons
converge more sharply than the bones.

The short muscles of the hand, crossing only one
joint, the knuckle, and moving the lingers individ-
ually, lie deep between the metacarpal bones and so
are called interossei. They are in two sets, back
and front, or dorsal and palmar. The palmar inter-
ossei are collectors, drawing the fingers toward the
middle finger, and so are fastened to the inner side
of each joint except that of the middle finger itself.
The dorsal interossei are spreaders, drawing away
from the centre, and so are fastened to both sides
of the middle finger and to the outside of the other
joints. T n the thumb and little fingers the muscles
of this set are called abductors, and being in ex-
posed positions, are larger. That of the first finger
forms a prominent bulge between it and the thumb;
that of the little finger forms a long fleshy mass
reaching to the wrist.

Masses

The masses of the hand are two — one that of the
hand proper, the other that of the thumb.

1 iSl

The first of these is beveled from knuckles to
wrist on the edge; from wrist to knuckles on the
flat side, and from first to little finger from side
to side. It is slightly arched across the back.

Somewhat more arched are the knuckles, concen-
tric around the base of the thumb. The second
knuckle is larger and higher than the rest; the first
is lower on its thumb side, where it has an over-
hang, as has also the knuckle of the little linger,
due to their exposed positions.

Belonging to the hand is the pyramidal mass of
the first segment of the thumb, which joins on at
an angle, never quite flat with the hand, and bend-
ing under it to more than a right angle with its
flat surface.

The thumb may be drawn in until only its root
bulges beyond the lateral line of the hand, and may
be carried out to a great angle with it. In this latter
position its first segment forms a triangle whose
base is the side of the hand, equal to it in length;
whose height is, on the palmar surface, equal to
the width of the hand, and on the dorsal surface,
almost as great.

On the little finger side, the form is given by the
abductor muscle and the overhang of the knuckle,
by which the curve of that side is carried well up
to the middle of the first segment of the finger.

The pad of the palm overlaps the wrist below and
the knuckles above, reaching to the middle of the
first segment of the fingers.

On the back of the hand, nearly flat except in the
clenched fist, the tendons of the long extensors are
superficial, and may be raised sharply under the
skin. They represent two sets of tendons more or
less blended, so are double and have connecting
bands between them.

[i9l

The Wrist

Anatomy

Morticed with the bones of the hand are the bones
of the wrist ; the two make one mass, and the hand
moves with the wrist.

Eight bones (carpal bones) in two rows make
the arch of the wrist ; in size they are like deformed
dice. The two pillars of this arch are seen on the
palmar side, prominent under the thumb and the
little finger. The latter is the heel of the hand, but
the arch is thicker and a bit higher on the thumb
side. Under it pass the long flexor tendons to the
fingers and thumb.

The dome of the arch is seen on the back, with
an apex at the trapezium under the first finger.
It is crossed by the long extensor tendons of the
fingers, which converge on its outer half.

Masses

Its width is twice its thickness. It is narrower
both ways where it joins the arm, giving an appear-
ance of constriction.

There is always a step-down from the back of
the arm, over the wrist, to the hand.

Movements

Being solid with the hand, the wrist moves with
the hand on the forearm. Its movement is like
that of a boat in water; easily tipping sideways
(flexion and extension) with more difficulty tilting
endways (side-bending) which in combination give
some rotary movement, but having no twisting

[20]

movement at all. This movement is accomplished by
the forearm.

The inset of this boat-shaped joint with the arm
gives the appearance of constriction. The prow,
under the thumb, is higher than the stern under the
little finger.

When fully extended, the back of the hand with
the arm makes almost a right angle; when fully
flexed, the palmar surface makes almost a right
angle; the total movement therefore is slightly less
than two right angles.

When the wrist is fully flexed, it forms at the
back a great curve over which the extensor tendons
are drawn taut, so much so that the fingers can
never be closed when the wrist is fully flexed. In
this position the flexor tendons are raised promi-
nently under the skin.

When hand and arm lie extended along a flat
surface, it is the heel of the hand that is in contact,
the arm bones being lifted from the surface.

To the four corners of the wrist are fastened
muscles; two in front (flexor carpi radialis and
flexor carpi ulnaris) and two behind (extensor
carpi radialis and extensor carpi ulnaris, the former
being double). By their contraction the wrist is
moved in all directions, except twisting, which
movement is produced not in the wrist but in the
forearm. Only the tendons cross the wrist, the
muscular bodies lying in the forearm.

[21]

THE HAND

[22]

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THE HAND

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THE HAND
Muscles of the Hand, front palmar
i Abductor pollicis.

2 Flexor brevis pollicis.

3 Abductor transversus pollicis.

4 Lumbricales.

5 Annular ligament.

6 Flexor brevis minimi digit i.

7 Abductor minimi digiti.

26 j

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THE HAND

I 28]

THE HAND
Muscles of Back of Hand:
i First dorsal interossei.

2 Abductor pollicis.

3 Dorsal interossei.

4 Tendons of extensor communis

digitorum.

30]

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THE HAND
Wedging of the Wrist: Thumb Side

[32]

THE HAND
Wedging oe the Wrist: Little Finger Side

[34 I

THE HAND
Construction

In the hand as in the figure there is an action and
an inaction side. The side with the greatest angle
is the action side, the opposite is the inaction or
straight side.

With the hand turned down (prone) and drawn
toward the body, the thumb side is the action side,
the little finger the inaction side. The inaction side
is straight with the arm, while the thumb is almost
at right angles with it.

The inaction construction line runs straight down
the arm to the base of the little finger. The action
construction line runs down the arm to the base of
the thumb at the wrist, from there out to the middle
joint, at the widest part of the hand; thence to the
knuckle of the first finger, then to that of the second
finger, and then joins the inaction line at the little
finger.

With the hand still prone, but drawn from the
body, the thumb side is the inaction side, and is
straight with the arm, while the little finger is at
almost right angles with it. The inaction construc-
tion line now runs straight to the middle joint of
the thumb, while the action line runs to the wrist
on the little finger side, thence to the first joint,
etc., etc.

These construction lines, six in number, are the
same with the palm turned up, according as it is
drawn in or out. They place the fingers and indi-
cate the action and proportions of the hand.

36

THE HAND

[38]

THE HAND

40

THE HAND

[42]

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THE HAND
Turning of the Masses or Hand and Wrist

[44]

THE HAND

Masses of Fingers, Hand and Wrist
Step-down, Wedging, Interlocking

[46]

THE HAND

Interlocking of Hand and Wrist
Little Finger Side

[48]

The Thumb

Drill master to the fingers, the hand and the
forearm, is the thumb.

The fingers, gathered together, form a corona
around its tip. Spread out, they radiate from a
common centre at its base; and a line connecting
their tips forms a curve whose centre is this same
point. This is true of the rows of joints ( knuckles)
also.

Bent, in any position, or closed as in clasping, the
fingers form arches, each one concentric on this
same basal joint of the thumb. Clenched, each circle
of knuckles forms an arch with the same common
centre.

The mass of the thumb dominates the hand.

The design and movement of even the forearm
is to give the freest sweep to the thumb; while,
through the biceps muscle, its movement is seen to
begin really at the shoulder.

Anatomy

The thumb has three segments and as many
joints. Its bones are heavier than those of the
fingers, its joints more rugged.

Its last segment has a nail and a heavy skin pad.
The middle segment has only tendons. The basal
segment is a pyramidal mass of muscle reaching
to the wrist, the "line of life" of the palm, and the
base of the first finger.

The superficial muscles of this mass are a fat one,
a broad one, and a thin one. The fat muscle hugs
the bone (opponens), the broad one forms the bulk
of the pyramid (abductor) and the thin one lies

[50]

inside, toward the index finger (flexor brevis).
Between the thumb and first finger the skin is
raised into a web, which is bulged, especially when
the thumb is flattened, by the adductor policis
muscle.

Masses

The thumb is pyramidal at the base, narrow in
the middle, pear-shaped at the end. The ball faces
to the front more than sideways. It reaches to the
middle joint of the first finger.

The last segment bends sharply back, carrying
the nail. Its skin pad, broad at the base, gives it an
appearance not unlike a foot, expressing its pres-
sure-bearing function.

The middle segment is square with rounded
edges, smaller than the other two, with a small pad.

The basal segment is rounded and bulged on all
sides except where the bone is superficial at the back.

Movements

The last joint has about one right angle of move-
ment, in one plane, and may by pressure be twisted
toward the fingers.

The heavy middle joint moves less freely, also
limited to one plane.

The joint of the base is a saddle joint, with
movement like one in a saddle, that is, with easy
bending sideways, less easy forward and back;
which two in combination give some rotary move-
ment, but giving a twisting" movement only with
difficnltv and strain.

[5i]

THE THUMB

Extensors of the Thumb:

i Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.

2 Extensor brevis pollicis.

3 Extensor longns pollicis.

[52]

THE THUMB
Muscles of the Thumb, palmar view
i Flexor brevis pollicis.

2 Abductor pollicis.

3 Apponens pollicis.

[54 J

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THE THUMB

56]

The Fingers

Anatomy

Each of the four fingers has three bones (pha-
langes, soldiers). Each phalanx turns on the one
above, leaving exposed the end of the higher bone.
There are no muscles below the knuckles; but the
fingers are traversed by tendons on the back, and
are covered on the front by tendons and skin pads.

The middle finger is the longest and largest, be-
cause in the clasped hand it is opposite the thumb
and with it bears the chief burden. The little finger
is the smallest and shortest and most freely mov-
able for the opposite reason. It may move farther
back than the other fingers, and is usually held so,
for two reasons; one is that the hand often "sits"
on the base of the little finger; the other is that being
diagonally opposite the thumb it is twisted farther
backward in any outward twisting movement, and
so tends to assume that position.

Masses

All bones of the body are narrower in the shaft
than at either end, especially those of the fingers.
The joints are square, the shafts smaller but square,
with rounded edges; the tips are triangular. The
middle joint of each finger is the largest.

In the clenched fist it is the end of the bone of the
hand (metacarpal) that is exposed to make the
knuckle. The finger bone (first phalanx) moves
around it, and bulges beyond. The extensor tendon
makes a ridge on the knuckle and connects it with
the first phalanx; but on the middle and the last

[58]

joints the tendon makes a depression or groove in
the centre of the joint.

The masses of these segments are not placed end
to end, as on a dead centre, either in profile or in
back view. In the back view, the fingers as a whole
arch toward the middle finger.

In the profile view, there is a step-down from
each segment to the one beyond, bridged by a wedge.

A series of wedges and squares thus marks the
backs of the fingers. Into the square of the knuckles
a blunt wedge is seen to enter from above. From it
a long tapering wedge arises and enters the square
of the middle joint, from which a blunt wedge also
reaches backward. Another tapering wedge arises
here and moves half way down the segment. The
whole finger tapers from the middle joint, to be-
come embedded in a horseshoe form holding the
nail. This form begins back of the root of the nail
and bevels to below its end, at the tip of the finger.
The whole last segment is a wedge.

The palmar webbing opposite the knuckles, which
reaches to about the middle of the first segment of
the finger, in front, bevels backward and points to
the top of the knuckle in the back.

The segments of individual fingers are of dif-
ferent lengths, those of the middle finger being
longest. From tip to base, and on into the bones of
the hand, the segments increase in length by definite
proportions.

Movements

Each joint moves about one right angle except
the last, which moves slightly less; and limited to
one plane, except the basal, which has also a slight
lateral movement, as in spreading the fingers.

59]

FINGERS
Pad Between Thumb and First Finger
i First dorsal interosseus.

60

FINGERS
Mechanism of the First Finger

[62]

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FINGERS

Creases

While the segments of any finger, seen on the
back, are of different lengths, the pads seen on the
palmar side are of the same length, including the
pad of the base which is part of the palm, so that
the creases between them are not all opposite the
joints. The reason is immediately seen when the
finger is viewed closed on itself. The creases are
then seen to form a cross, the pads to meet in the
common centre, filling in the four sides of a
diamond.

In the first finger the creases are: short of the
last joint; opposite the middle joint; half way be-
tween middle and basal joint, and opposite the basal
knuckle (above the joint proper, which is consider-
ably beyond the point of the knuckle).

In the second finger they are: opposite the last
joint ; beyond the middle joint ; midway between
middle and basal joint, and opposite the basal joint.

In the other fingers they vary in different indi-
viduals.

The creases are all transverse except that oppo-
site the basal joint, which forms one long wavy
crease on the palm; and those next beyond, on first
and little fingers, which slope down on the outside,
in the spread fingers making a curve around the
base of the thumb.

[64]

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FINGERS
i Dorsal interossei of the hand.

2 Tendons, finger, dorsal side.

3 Tendons, finger, palm side.

[66]

The Forearm

Anatomy and Movements

In the forearm are two bones, lying side by side.
One is large at the wrist, forming two-thirds of the
joint; the other is large at the elbow, where it also
forms two-thirds of the joint. They are joined at
their sides and move like a long piece of cardboard
folded diagonally.

The one that is large at the elbow is the ulna.
It forms a hinge joint and moves in the bending of
the elbow. The other slides as the hinge moves.
This second bone is the radius, or turning bone;
it is large at the wrist and carries the wrist and hand.

Diagonally opposite the thumb, on the ulna, is a
hump of bone which is the pivot for both the radius
and also the thumb.

Muscles must lie above the joint they move, so
that the muscles that bulge the forearm are mainly
the flexors and extensors of the wrist and hand.
Overlying them and reaching higher up on the arm
are the pronators and supinators of the radius.

The flexors and pronators (flexor, to flex or
bend; pronator, to turn face down, or prone) form
the inner mass at the elbow, the extensors and
supinators form the outer mass. Between them at
the elbow lies the cubital fossa.

Both of these masses arise from the condyles of
the humerus, or arm bone. These are the tips of
the flattened lower end of that bone. From the
inner condyle, which is always a landmark, arises
the flexor-pronator group. This is a fat softly
bulging mass which tapers to the wrist, but shows

[68]

superficially the pronator teres (round), whose
turning function requires it to lie diagonally across
toward the thumb side.

The outer condyle is hidden by its muscular mass
when the hand is turned out. This mass is the
extensor-supinator group, which bulges higher up,
and becomes tendinous half way down. It is
dominated by the supinator longus, which rises
a third of the way up the arm, widens as far as
the elbow, tapers beyond, and loses itself half way
down the forearm. In turning, this wedge follows
the direction of the thumb, and overlies the condyle
when the arm is straight with the forearm.

From the back view, the elbow is seen to have
three knobs of bone; the two condyles above re-
ferred to, and between them the upper end of the
ulna, forming the elbow proper, or olecranon. The
latter is higher when the arm is straight and lower
when it is f.exed. The overlying muscular masses
meet over half way down, so that the ulna forms a
thin dagger of bone pointing to the little finger.

Masses

The masses of the forearm will be described in
connection with those of the arm and shoulder.

The Arm

Anatomy

The bone of the upper arm is the humerus. The
part facing the shoulder is rounded and enlarged
to form the head, where it joins the shoulder blade.
The lower end is flattened out sideways to give

[69]

attachment to the ulna and radius, forming- the con-
dyles. The shaft itself is straight and nearly round,
and is entirely covered with muscles except at the
condyles.

On the flat front side of the condyles, reaching
half way up the arm, is placed the broad, flat and
short brachialis anticus muscle; and on top of that
the thin, high and long biceps, reaching to the
shoulder; its upper end flattened as it begins to di-
vide into its two heads. One head passes to the
inside of the bone and fastens to the coracoid
process, under the shoulder; the other passes out-
side, grooving the head of the humerus, and attach-
ing to the shoulder blade above the shoulder joint,
under the deltoid or shoulder hood.

On the back, behind the flat surface made by the
two condyles, arising from the central knob or
olecranon, is the triceps (three-headed) muscle.
Its outer head begins near the condyle, and occupies
the outer and upper part of the back surface of the
humerus. The inner head begins near the inner
condyle and occupies the inner and lower portion
of the bone. The middle head reaches diagonally
in and up to the back of the shoulder blade. These
all converge on the broad flat tendon from the
olecranon, forming a wedge surrounded by two
wings of muscle. The triceps also is overlaid by the
deltoid above.

Between biceps and triceps are grooves. The in-
ner condyle sinks into the inner groove below, and
it is filled out above by the coraco-brachialis muscle,
entering the armpit.

The outer condyle sinks into the outer groove
below, while midway of the arm the apex of the
deltoid muscle sinks into it, overlying the upper
ends of both biceps and triceps.

[jo]

Bone of the Arm :
i Humerus.

Bones of the Forearm :

2 Ulna (little finger side)

3 Radius (thumb side).

THE ARM
Bones of the Upper Limb:
Humerus — arm.
Radius — forearm, thumb side.
Ulna — forearm, little finger side.

Muscles of the Upper Limb, front view
i Coraco-brachialis.

2 Biceps.

3 Brachialis anticus.

4 Pronator radii teres.

5 Flexors, grouped.

6 Supinator longus.

Coraco-brachialis: From coracoid process, to hu-
merus, inner side, half way down.
Action: Draws forward, rotates outward, humerus.

Biceps: Long head from glenoid cavity (under
acromion) through groove in head of humerus;
short head from coracoid process ; to radius.

Action: Depresses shoulder blade; flexes forearm:
rotates radius outward.

[72]

THE ARM

Supination and Pronation of the Forearm,
front view :

i Supinator longus.

2 Pronator radii teres.

3 Flexors, grouped.

Supinator Longus : From external condyloid ridge

to end of radius.
Action: Supinates forearm.

Pronator Radii Teres: From internal condyle and

ulna to radius, outer side, half way down.
Action: Pronates hand and flexes forearm.

Flexor group, page 92

[74]

THE ARM

Masses of the Arm, Forearm and Wrist

Wedging and Interlocking

[76]

THE ARM

Muscles ok the Arm, lateral view
( thumb side toward the body) :

i Coraco-brachialis.

2 Biceps.

3 Brachialis anticus.

4 Supinator longus.

5 Extensor carpi radial is longior.

6 Pronator radii teres.

7 Flexors, grouped.

Brachialis Anticus: From front of humerus, lower

half, to ulna.
Action: Flexes forearm.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior: From external

condyloid ridge to base of index finger.
Action: Extends wrist.

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THE ARM

Turning of the Hand on the Forearm
and the Forearm on the Arm

[80]

THE ARM
Muscles of the Upper Limb, outer view
i Triceps.

2 Supinator longus.

3 Extensor carpi radialis longior.

4 Anconeus.

5 Extensors, grouped.

Anconeus: From back of external condyle to ole-
cranon process and shaft of ulna.
Action: Extends forearm.

EXTENSOR GROUP
From External Condyle of Humerus

Extensor Digitorum Communis: From external
condyle to second and third phalanges of all
fingers.

Action: Extends fingers.

Extensor Minimi Digiti: From external condyle to

second and third phalanges of little finger.
Action: Extends little finger.

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris: From external condyle

and back of ulna to base of little finger.
Action: Extends wrist and bends down.

[82]

THE ARM
Muscular Mass of Forearm, back view:
i Extensor carpi ulnaris.
2 Extensor communis disritorum.

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Extensor group, page 82.

[84]

THE ARM

Wedging of the Arm into the Forearm,
back view

86

THE ARM

Wedging of Arm into the Forearm
at the Elbow:

i Biceps.

2 Triceps.

3 Supinator longus.

4 Flexors.

5 Extensors.

[88

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THE ARM

f9o]

THE ARM
Muscles of the Arm. inner view
i Triceps.
. 2 Biceps.

3 Supinator longus.

4 Flexors, grouped.

5 Pronator teres.

FLEXOR GROUP .
From Internal Condyle of Humerus

Flexor Carpi Radialis: From internal condyle to

first metacarpal.
Action: Flexes wrist and bends up.

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris: From internal condyle and
olecranon to fifth metacarpal, base of fittle
finger.

Action: Flexes wrist and bends down.

Flexor Sublimis Digitorum ( flexor sublimis perfor-
atus) : From inner condyle, ulna and radius to
second phalanges of all fingers; perforated to
admit passage of profundus tendons.

Action: Flexes fingers and hand.

[92]

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THE ARM

T94]

The Shoulder

Anatomy

Form is given to the shoulder by the deltoid
(triangle) muscle.

An almost perfect triangle is this muscle, its apex
downward and wedging into the outer groove of
the arm, its base upward and bent around to attach
to the shoulder girdle. Just below the base is a
ripple which marks the head of the arm bone.

The shoulder girdle is made up of the collar bone
and a ridge of the shoulder blade, meeting. They
both point outward, the ridge a bit the lower, but
both turn straight forward before meeting.

The collar bone is an S-shaped bone, its outer
curve and tail made by this forward turning. Over
the point of union is a flat space. From the hollow
of this S-curve a groove sinks first downward and
then at an angle outward, marking the border be-
tween the shoulder and the great breast muscle.

Behind the inner two-thirds of the collar bone
is a triangular depression between it and the
trapezius muscle behind; its base to the neck, its
apex pointing outward.

Movements

In the shoulder are found two joints. At the point
of the shoulder is the joint between shoulder blade
and collar bone, a flat hinge pointing straight for-
ward, allowing the shoulder blade to slide freely
over the flat surface of the back.

Not only may the shoulder blade slide freely over

[96]

the back, but may even lift from it at the point and
inner edge, slightly amplifying its range.

Helow it under the deltoid is the joint of the
shoulder blade with the humerus or arm bone, the
shoulder proper, facing sideways and a little for-
ward. It is a universal joint, with a right angle
and a half of movement in two planes ; but its sweep
is always increased by the movement of both
shoulder blade and collar bone.

At the juncture of the collar bone with the
sternum or breast plate is a universal joint, with
movement in two planes and also twisting, but with
very narrow range. Its movements are chiefly lift-
ing forward and up and twisting forward. Its shape
expresses an important spring function, it being the
only bony union of arm and shoulder with the trunk.

Masses

The masses of the shoulder, arm, forearm and
hand do not join directly end to end with each other,
but overlap and lie at various angles. They are
joined by wedges and wedging movements.

Constructing these masses first as blocks, we will
have the mass of the shoulder, or deltoid muscle,
with its long diameter sloping down and out, beveled
off at the end; its broad side facing up and out;
its narrow edge straight forward.

This mass lies diagonally across and overlaps the
mass of the arm, whose long diameter is vertical,
its broad side outward, its narrow edge forward.

The mass of the forearm begins behind the end
of the arm and passes across it at an angle forward
and out. It is made of two squares. The upper
half of the forearm is a block whose broad side is
forward, its narrow edge sideways ; while the lower

[97]

half, smaller than the upper, has its narrow edge
forward, its broad side facing out (with the hand
held thumb up).

These blocks are joined by wedges and wedging
movements, and to the straight lines are wedded
the curved lines of the contour of the muscles. The
deltoid is itself a wedge, whose apex sinks into the
outer groove of the arm half way down. The mass
of the biceps ends in a wedge which turns outward
as it enters the cubital fossa.

The mass of the forearm overlaps the end of the
arm on the outside by a wedge (supinator longus)
that arises a third of the way up the arm, reaches
a broad apex at the broadest part of the forearm
and tapers to the wrist, pointing always to the
thumb ; and on the inside by a wedge that rises back
of the arm and points to the little finger (flexor-
pronator muscles).

In the lower half of the forearm, the thin edge of
the mass, toward the thumb, is made by a continua-
tion of this wedge from the outside ; while the thin
edge toward the little finger is made by the end of
the wedge from the inside.

When the elbow is straight and the hand turned
in, the inner line of the forearm is straight with that
of the arm. When the hand is turned out, this line
is set out at an angle that corresponds with the
width of the wrist. The little finger side (ulna)
being the hub of its movement.

The flexor tendons on the front of the forearm
point always to the inner condyle; the extensor
tendons on the back point always to the outer
condyle.

The breadth of the hand corresponds with that
of the lower mass; not joining it directly, but with
a step-down toward the front.

[98]

In the back view of the arm, the mass of the
shoulder sits across its top as in the front view.
The back edge of this mass is seen to be a truncated
wedge arising under the deltoid and focusing on the
elbow. The upper end resolves itself into the three
heads of the triceps; the lower or truncated end is
the triceps tendon, to which is to be added the tiny
wedge of the anconeus (donkey's foot) muscle
bridging from outer condyle to ulna.

The Armpit

The hollow of the arm, filled with its friction
hairs, is made into a deep pit by the great breast
muscle (pectoralis major) in front, and the greater
latissimus dorsi behind.

Its floor slopes forward, downward and outward,
following the slope of the chest wall.

Its rear wall is deeper, since the latissimus attaches
farther down the back ; thicker because made of two
muscles (latissimus and teres major), and rounder
because its fibres turn on themselves before attach-
ing to the arm bone.

The front wall is longer because the pectoral
muscle attaches farther down the arm.

Into this pit the biceps and triceps muscles plunge,
with the coraco-brachialis between them.

The bottom of the pit may, when the arm is fully
raised, be bulged by the head of the arm bone and
the lymph glands that lie there.

[99]

THE SHOULDER

Mechanism of the Armpit, front view
i Biceps.

2 Triceps.

3 Latissimus dorsi.

4 Teres major.

5 Deltoid.

Latissimus Dorsi : From spine, sixth dorsal to sac-
rum and iliac crest; passes inside of humerus
to fasten to front side near head.

Action: Draws arm backward and inward.

Teres Major: From lower corner of scapula to
front of humerus.

Action: Draws humerus outward and rotates back-
wards.

[ ioo]

THE ARM

Wedging and Interlocking of the Masses
of the Arm and Shoulder

(See Masses, page 97)

[ 102]

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THE SHOULDER
Mechanism of the Shoulder, back view :
i Deltoid.

2 Triceps.

3 Teres minor.

4 Teres major.

Deltoid : From clavicle, acromion and ridge of scap-
ula to outside of humerus.

Action: Elevates, draws forward or backward,
humerus.

Triceps : Outer head, back of humerus above mus-
culo-spiral groove. Inner head, back of humerus
below musculo-spiral groove. Middle or long
head, shoulder blade below socket to olecranon
process of ulna.

Action: Extends forearm.

Teres Minor: From scapula to inner tubercle of
humerus.

Action: Draws humerus outward and rotates back-
ward.

Teres Major: From lower corner of scapula to
front of humerus.

Action: Draws humerus outward and rotates back-
wards.

[ 104]

The Neck

From the sloping platform of the shoulders the
neck rises, a cylindrical column, curving slightly
forward even when the head is thrown well back.

It is canopied in front by the chin. It is buttressed
on the sides by the trapezius (table) muscle. The
table shape of this muscle appears only from the
back, a diamond with lower apex well down the
back. Its lateral corners arise from the shoulder
girdle opposite the deltoid. Rising diagonally up-
ward it braces the back of the head.

The strength of the neck is therefore at the back,
which is somewhat flat and overhung by the base of
the skull.

From bony prominences back of the ears two
muscles (sterno-mastoid), aptly called the bonnet-
string muscles, descend to almost meet at the root
of the neck, forming a triangle whose base is the
canopy of the chin.

In this triangle below is the thyroid gland, larger
in women ; and above it the angular cartilage of the
larynx, or Adam's apple, larger in men.

Crossing its upper corners outward and down-
ward is a thready skin muscle (platysma myoides)
which lifts the skin into high folds and draws down
the corners of the mouth. It carries the imagination
back to the time in evolution when bared teeth were
important weapons of defense.

[106]

THE NECK
Muscles of the Neck:

i Sternocleidomastoid.

2 Levator of the scapula.

3 Trapezius.

Sterno-cleido-mastoideus : From top of sternum and
sternal end of clavicle to mastoid process (back
of ear).

Action: Together, pull head forward; separately,
rotates to opposite side, depresses head.

Levator of the Scapula : From upper cervical verte-
brae to upper angle of shoulder blade.
Action: Raises angle of shoulder blade.

Trapezius : From occipital bone, nape ligament and
spine as far as twelfth dorsal, to clavicle,
acromion and ridge of shoulder blade.

Action: Extends head, elevates shoulder and ro-
tates shoulder blade.

[108 |

THE NECK
Tongue-Bone and Larynx
i Hyoid bone.

2 Thyroid cartilage.

3 Thyroid gland muscles.

4 Digastric (has two portions).

5 Stylo-hyoid.

6 Sterno-hyoid.

7 Omo-hyoid.

8 Sterno-cleido-mastoid.

9 Trapezius.

Movements of the Neck

In the neck are seven vertebrae, each moving a
little. When the neck is turned to one side, that
side of each vertebra moves back as far as the per-
pendicular and then the opposite sides move for-
ward, lengthening the neck as they do so. This
motion is much freer at the second joint from the
skull, which turns on a pivot. The joint of the skull
itself moves only in nodding, in which the rest of
the neck may be quite stationary.

[no]

THE NECK
Muscles of Neck

Platysma Myoides: A sheathing from chest and
shoulder to masseter and corner of mouth.

Action: Wrinkles skin of neck, draws down corner
of mouth.

Digastric (double-bellied muscle) : Anterior belly,
from maxilla, behind chin ; posterior belly, from
mastoid process ; fastened by loop to hyoid bone.

Action: Raises hyoid and tongue.

Mylo-hyoid: Forms floor of mouth and canopy of

chin in front.
Stylo-hyoid : From hyoid to styloid process.
Action: Draws back hyoid and tongue.

Sterno-hyoid : From sternum to hyoid bone.
Action: Depresses hyoid and Adam's apple.

Omo-hyoid: From hyoid bone to shoulder, upper

border of scapula.
Action: Draws hyoid down and to one side.

[112]

The Head

For so long a time has the oval been used as the
basis for the construction of the human head and
face that the use of the block or cube seems quite
revolutionary.

Yet for many reasons the cube seems preferable.
The oval is too indefinite, and offers no points for
comparison, no basis for measurement. The eye
does not fix on any point in a curved line.

On the ground plan of a square, however, any
form may be built. The block moreover carries with
it from any angle its perspective and its foreshort-
ening, and it carries with itself the sense of mass.

Especially does it carry with itself the important
element of the bilateral symmetry of the head —
a symmetry that is present indeed in all living
things. A vertical line in the centre divides the head
or the trunk into parts equal, opposite, and comple-
mental. The right eye is the counterpart of the left ;
the two halves of the nose are symmetrical; the
limbs, except for changes of position, are exact
though reversed duplicates of each other.

How to construct such a block?

Camper, Professor Bell, and others have studied
innumerable human skulls trying to discover some
constant measurement by which to classify them as
ancient or modern or according to race. They finally
fixed upon two lines with the angle between them.
The first passes from the base of the nose to the
roof of the ear canal; the second passes from the
upper incisor teeth to the prominent part of the
forehead.

The angle between these lines is practically con-

[114]

stant for a given race or a given age of evolution.
Individual variations occur, but they are less than
the standard.

This angle is less in the older and less evolved
races, and the vertical line approaches nearer the
perpendicular in the newer races, especially the
Caucasian. In the classical Greek head it even passes
the perpendicular, although no actual Greek skulls
in which this is the case have ever been discovered.

This angle, in the Caucasian races, is about eighty
degrees. It is not easy to construct a block on such
an angle, and it is very desirable to have a right
angle. By dropping the horizontal line at its rear
end from the roof of the ear canal to the tip of the
ear lobe, and by drawing the vertical line from the
base of the nose where it joins the upper lip to the
bridge of the nose, where it joins the glabella, we
obtain such a right angle.

If on these straight lines a cage be built, bounding
the head and face, it will be found that the front and
back are oblong and the sides are square.

The top of the cage should be level with the top
of the head, the bottom with the bottom of the chin ;
the border of the cheek should fit the sides. The
length of the oblong front will equal one and three-
quarters times its width. The cheek bones set back
from the front of the cage about one-third of the
distance to the ear.

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BLOCKED
CONSTRUCTION OF THE HEAD

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Eminences, Ridges and Depressions
of the Skull

[118]

THE HEAD
The Angles of Construction

Text Page 114

[120]

THE HEAD
Muscles of Mastication:
i Temporal.

2 Masseter.

3 Buccinator (cheek muscle)

4 and 5. Lesser and greater
zygomaticus (muscles of
expression).

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THE HEAD
Construction Lines in Perspective

Masses

The masses of the head are the cranium, the
skeleton of the face, and the jaw.

Into the rounded mass of the cranium sets the
narrower mass of the forehead bounded by the
temples at the sides and by the brows below.

From the lower outer corners of the forehead the
wedge of the cheek bones begins; moves outward
and downward until it just passes the curve of the
cranium, then down and in, in a long sweep, to the
corner of the chin.

Outside of and behind this lower line is another
wedge, that of the corner of the jaw, with the line
itself for base, and a very low apex.

The two cheek bones form together the central
mass of the face, in the middle of which rises the
nose.

124]

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THE HEAD
Planes

The plane of the forehead slopes upward and
backward to become the cranium ; and the sides turn
sharply to the plane of the temples.

The plane of the face, divided by the nose, is
broken on each side by a line from the outer corner
of the cheek bone to the center of the upper lip,
making two smaller planes.

The outer of these turns to become the plane of
the jaw, which also is again divided by a line mark-
ing the edge of the masseter muscle, running from
the outer border of the cheek bone to the corner of
the jaw; and again making two secondary planes,
one toward the cheek and one toward the ear.

The relations of these masses and planes is to the
moulding of a head what architecture is to a house.
They vary in proportion with each individual, and
must be carefully compared with a mental standard.

The Head — Profile

In profile the masses of the head are the same —
the cranium, the skeleton of the face, and the jaw.

The front border of the temple is seen to be a long
curve, almost parallel to the curve of the cranium.

The top of the cheek bone is seen to be prolonged
backward toward the ear as a ridge (zygoma or
yoke) which also marks the base of the temple. It
slopes slightly down in front.

From cheek bone and zygoma, where they meet,
a lesser ridge is seen rising between the temple and
the orbit, marking the back of the orbit and the
first part of the long line of the temple.

Planes
The planes and divisions of planes of the face
are the same as in the front view, in different per-
spective.

[126]

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THE HEAD

[128]

Sis'-

The Eye

The upper part of the eye socket or orbit is
marked by the brow, whose bristles are so placed as
to divert moisture and dirt outward away from the
lid and eye.

Below it on the lid are three planes, wedging into
each other at different angles. The first is from the
bridge of the nose to the eye. The second is from
the brow to the cheek bone ; which is again divided
into two smaller planes, one sloping toward the root
of the nose, the other directed toward and joining
with the cheek bone.

The lower lid is quite stable. It is the upper lid
that moves. When the eye is closed, its curtain is
drawn smooth ; when opened, its lower part follows
the curve of the eyeball straight back, folding in
beneath the upper part as it does so, and leaving a
wrinkle to mark the fold.

The lower lid may be wrinkled and slightly lifted
inward, bulging below the inner end of the lid.

The transparent cornea or "apple" of the eye is
raised perceptibly, and is always curtained by the
upper lid, in part, so that it always makes a slight
bulge in the lid, whatever the position, and whether
open or closed. The eyeball has about half a righi
angle of movement in two planes.

At the inner corner of the lids is a narrow pit
(canthus), floored by a pinkish membrane, which
projects some distance beyond the walls of the pit
when the eye is turned far out. At the corners of
the pit are the openings of the tear ducts, which
drain off the excess of lacrymal (tear) fluid. There
is a continuous light secretion of this fluid, which

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is spread over the eyeball by the constant winking
of the upper lid. The thin film of liquid thus kept
there reflects light perfectly from its surface.

The lashes, projecting from the margin of the
lids, serve both as curtains to shade and as delicate
feelers to protect the eye.

The immovable masses of the forehead, nose and
cheek bones form a strong setting for this most
variant and expressive of the features.

Comparisons

In looking at any feature one naturally compares
it with his concept of the average of such features,
or with some mental standard or ideal.

The variations of such features will then fall
into classes which represent the more usual varia-
tions thereof.

Eyebrows may be level or sloping; straight or
arched; short or long: narrow or wide, thick, scanty
or penciled.

Lids may be thick or thin, although the upper lid
is always thicker along its margin, and always pro-
trudes if the eye protrudes, and is raised over the
cornea.

Eye sockets may be far apart or near together;
long or short : bulging or shallow.

The opening between the lids may be triangular
or round, a loop, or a button hole.

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THE EYE SOCKET
Wedges, Planes and Their Angles

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THE EYE
Angular Opening Between the Lids

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THE EYE

[136]

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The Nose

The nuse is made of a series of wedges based on
its bony structure.

Where the bridge of the nose wedges in under
the forehead, the two ridges of the glabella descend
to form a wedge with apex at the bridge.

The bony part of the nose is a very clear wedge,
its ridge only half the length of the nose, higher
as it descends: its base somewhat longer, wider as
it descends, making the second wedge.

Beyond the bony part, the nose narrows and the
ridge sinks slightly toward the bulb, making a third
wedge, base to base with the second.

The bulb rises as two sheets of cartilage from the
middle of the upper lip (septum of the nose), ex-
pands into the bulbous tip, flows over the sides,
and flares out to form the aire or wings of the
nostrils.

This cartilaginous portion is quite movable. The
wings are raised in laughter, dilated in heavy
breathing, narrowed in distaste, and wings and tip
are raised in scorn, wrinkling the skin over the nose.

Comparisons

Average variations in noses divide them into
classes.

They may be small, large, or very large; concave
or convex ; humped, Roman or straight.

At the tips they may be elevated, horizontal, or
depressed; flattened, tapering or twisted.

The wings may be delicate or puffy, round or flat,
triangular, square or almond-shaped.

[138]

THE NOSE
Cartilages of the Nose
i Upper lateral.

2 Lower lateral.

3 Wing.

4 Septum.

[ 140]

The Ear

In animals, the external ear is a smooth cornu-
copia of cartilage, freely movable, ending in a point.

In man it is practically immobile, and its muscles,
now mere elastic bands, serve only to draw it into
wrinkles. These vary widely, but there are certain
definite forms: an outer rim (helix) bearing the
remains of the tip; an inner elevation (anti-helix),
in front of which is the hollow of the ear (concha)
with the opening of the canal, overhung in front
by a flap (tragus) and behind and below by a
smaller one (anti-tragus). To the whole is ap-
pended a lobe.

The ear is vertically in line with the back of the
jaw, and lies horizontally between the lines of the
brow and the base of the nose.

In it three planes are to be found, divided by lines
radiating from the canal, up and back and down and
back. The first line marks a depressed angle between
its planes, the second a raised angle.

Average variations in ears present the following
classes: large, medium or small; round, oval or
triangular. The remains of the point of the ear
mav be marked or absent.

Cartilage of the Ear
i Helix.

2 Anti-helix.

3 Tragus.

4 Anti-tragus

[142]

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The Mouth

The shape of the mouth and lips is controlled by
the shape of the jaw. The more curved the jaw in
front the more curved the lips; the more flat it is,
the straighter the lips. A much bowed mouth does
not occur on a jaw bone that is flat in front, nor a
straight slit of a mouth on a curved set of upper
teeth.

The curtainous portion of the mouth ( from nose
to margin of red lip) presents a central groove with
pillars on either side, blending into two broad droop-
ing wings, whose terminus is at the pillars of the
mouth. The groove ends in a wedge entering the
upper lip (red portion). This portion is set at an
angle with the curtainous portion.

The upper and lower red lips, accurately adapted
to each other when closed, are yet quite different
in form: the upper being flat and angular, the
lower rounded.

The upper red lip has a central wedge-shaped
body, indented at the top by the wedge of the
groove above, and two long slender wings disap-
pearing under the pillars of the mouth.

The lower red lip has a central groove and two
lateral lobes. It has three surfaces, the largest de-
pressed in the middle, at the groove, and two smaller
ones on each side, diminishing in thickness as they
curve outward, not so long as the upper lip.

The base or curtainous portion of the lower lip
sets at an angle with the red portion less than that
in the upper lip. It slopes backward and ends at
the cleft of the chin. It has a small linear central

[U4l

ridge and two large lateral lobes, bounded by the
pillars of the mouth.

The oval cavity of the mouth is surrounded by a
circular muscle (orbicularis oris) whose fibres,
overlapping at the corners, raise the skin into the
folds known as the pillars of the mouth.

Its outer margin is usually marked by a crease
in the skin running from the wings of the nose out
and down to varying distances, paralleling the
pillars. Its lower end may blend into the cleft of
the chin. From this muscle radiate various facial
muscles of expression.

Average variations in lips present the following
comparisons : thick or thin ; prominent, protruding
or receding; and each may be compared with the
other in these respects : straight, curved or bowed,
rosebud, pouting or compressed.

The Chin

Below the cleft of the chin, the chin itself pro-
trudes. Its breadth at the base is marked by two
lines which, prolonged, would meet at the septum of
the nose, making a triangle that wedges upward
into the base of the lower lip. It is bordered on each
side by two planes which reach to the angle of
the jaw.

Variations in chins present the following com-
parisons: high or low; pointed or ball; flat, fur-
rowed or dimpled ; elongated, double, etc.

[145]

THE MOUTH
Details of Mouth and Lips

[146]

The Trunk— front view

Anatomy

The upper part of the body is built around a bony
cage called the thorax, conical in shape, and flat-
tened in front. The walls of this cage are the ribs,
twelve on each side, fastening to the spine behind
and to the sternum or breast bone in front. The
upper ribs are quite short and make a small circle;
they grow longer until the seventh, which is the
longest and the last to fasten to the breast bone.
The next three grow shorter and shorter, and reach
the sternum only through a long costal cartilage,
which with the projecting end of the sternum (ensi-
form cartilage) form the abdominal arch. The last
two ribs are quite short and are free at their front
ends. The first seven are called true ribs, the next
three false, and the last two floating ribs.

Collar Bone

To the breast bone at the top of this cone the
collar bones are attached, lifting the whole mass
away from the cone and making it a flat surface,
wedging downward. The inner ends of the S-shaped
bone are curved around the apex of the cone, but the
outer ends move forward again, bringing the mass
of the shoulders with them to form the flat front
surface.

Muscles

Thus, without the shoulders, the cage of the chest
is a cone with the apex upward. Under the muscles
this form may easily be seen.

[148]

With the shoulders, it is a wedge with the apex
downward. The profile of the sides forms a wide
wedsre, buttressed bv a mass of lateral muscles over
the iliac crest.

The front surface, formed mainly by the pectoral
and rectus abdominis muscles, forms a much more
slender wedge. Its upper third bevels more sharply
in, as far as the lower border of the breast muscle,
paralleling the edge of that muscle, bounded by a
line across the bottom of the breast muscle, just be-
low the nipple, through the epigastric pit. Its lower
two-thirds bevels more sharply down, following the
edge of the rectus muscle; its lines almost meet at
the symphysis pubis below.

A vertical central groove divides the symmetrical
halves of the front, running its full length. It be-
gins in the pit of the neck, between the collar bones.
Over the breast it marks the breast bone, and is
deepened by the bulge of the pectoral muscles on
either side. At the end of this, its upper third, is a pit
(epigastric pit) marking the divergence of the ribs.

At the end of its middle third is another pit, the
umbilicus or navel. At the end of its lower third is
the mound of the symphysis. This line is useful for
placing the masses of the chest, the epigastrium
Cover the stomach) and the abdomen.

Masses

The masses of the torse are the chest, the abdo-
men or pelvis, and between them the epigastrium;
the first two comparatively stable, the middle one
quite movable.

A straight line marking the collar bones defines
the top of the first mass; and paralleling it, a line
through the base of the breast muscles and pit of
the epigastrium forms its base.

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Although the shoulders are freely movable,
changing the lines of the first mass, and bulging
the pectoral muscles, yet the mass itself changes
little except the slight change in respiration. Even
in respiration the upper portion, as far as the level
of the epigastric pit, changes little; the lower ribs
perform most of the respiratory movement.

Centering on this pit is the abdominal arch, made
of the cartilages of the false ribs. At its centre,
the end of the breast bone (ensiform cartilage)
hangs pendent; on either side the arch descends
diagonally, variously curved, separating thorax
from abdomen.

Below this arch is the abdomen, the most mov-
able part of the mobile portion. It is bounded below
by a line passing approximately through the an-
terior points of the iliac crests. Its profile shows
the lines of the cone of the thorax diverging
downward, the lines of the wedge of the chest
and shoulders converging downward, and the but-
tressing of the lateral muscles.

In the bending or turning of the body the central
line of this portion bends always to the convex side,
always paralleled by the borders of the rectus
muscle.

By this movement the straight wedge of the front
is broken. It becomes not a bent wedge, but two
wedges; one the upper half of the original wedge,
prolonged but not completed downward; the other
the lower half, prolonged upward to meet the one
above.

More unchanging than either of the above is the
mass of the abdomen. The central groove is here
shallow and may lose itself below. The long wedge
ends in the symphysis pubis.

[i?ol

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THE TRUNK
Muscles of the Trunk, front view
i Pectoralis major.

2 Deltoid.

3 Rectus abdominis.

4 Serratus magnus.

5 External oblique.

Pectoralis major, page 154
Deltoid, page 104.

Rectus Abdominis: From symphysis pubis to car-
tilages of ribs, from fifth to seventh.
Action: Flexes thorax.

Serratus Magnus: From eight upper ribs to scap-
ula— spinal edge, under surface.
Action: Draws shoulder blade forward, raises ribs.

External Oblique: From eight lower ribs to iliac

crest and ligament to pubis.
Action: Flexes thorax.

[152 J

SKELETON OF THE TRUNK
Muscles Covering Upper Portion, front view

i Pectoralis minor.
2 Pectoralis major.

Pectoralis Minor : From third, fourth and fifth ribs

to coracoid process.
Action: Depresses point of shoulder.

Pectoralis Major: From inner half of clavicle, ster-
num, costal cartilages as far as sixth and
seventh ribs to humerus.

Action: Draws arm downward and forward.

f i54l

THE TRUNK

Trunk, front view

Armpit and Shoulder

156]

The Torse

Profile

The erect torse presents in profile the long curve
of the front, broken by depressions at the border
of the breast muscle and at the umbilicus or navel
into three lesser curves, almost equal in length. The
back presents the sharp anterior curve of the waist,
opposite the umbilicus, bending into the long pos-
terior curve of the chest, and the shorter curve of
the buttocks. The former, that of the chest, is broken
by the almost vertical shoulder blade and the slight
bulge of the latissimus below it.

In profile the torse presents three masses : that of
the chest, that of the waist, and that of the pelvis
and abdomen. The first and last are comparatively
unchanging.

Above, the mass of the chest is bounded by the
line of the collar bones; below, by a line following
the cartilages of the ribs, being perpendicular to the
long diameter of the chest.

This mass is widened by the expansion of the
chest in breathing, and the shoulder moves freely
over it. carrying the shoulder blade, collar bone,
and muscles.

It is marked by the ridge of costal cartilages that
forms its border, sloping up and forward, and by
the ribs themselves, sloping down and forward, and
by the "digitations" (finger marks) of the serratus
magnus (big saw-toothed) muscle, little triangles
in a row from the corner of the breast muscle,
paralleling the cartilages of the ribs, disappearing
under the latissimus.

['581

Below, the mass of the pelvis and abdom a slopes
up and forward. It is marked by the ilia^. crest and
hip, described later. In front it may be flattened by
contraction of the abdominal muscles. Over its sur-
face the hip moves freely, changing the tilt of the
pelvis.

Between these the central mass contains the waist
vertebrae, and is very changeable. Practically all of
the movement of flexion and extension for the
whole spine occurs here, and much of the side-
bending.

This mass is marked by a buttress of lateral
muscles, slightly overhanging the pelvic brim and
bearing inward against the side above. It changes
greatly in different positions of the trunk.

Torse — Back View

The back presents numerous depressions and
prominences. This is due not only to its bony struc-
ture, but to the crossing and recrossing of a number
of thin layers of muscles. It should be borne in mind
that the superficial or outside layers manifest them-
selves only when in action. For this reason, under
all changes of position, the spine, the shoulder-blade
with its acromion process, and the crest of the ilium,
must be regarded as the landmarks of this region.

The spine is composed of twenty-four vertebrae.
It extends the full length of the back, and its course
is marked by a furrow. The vertebrae are known as
the cervical, dorsal and lumbar. The cervical ver-
tebrae are seven in number, and the seventh is the
most prominent in the whole of the spine. It is
known as vertebra prominens. In the dorsal region
the furrow is not so deep as below. Here there are
twelve vertebrae. When the body is bent forward.

[i59]

the processes of the vertebrae in this section are
plainly indicated.

The spinal furrow becomes deeper as it reaches
the lumbar vertebrae, where it is marked by dimples
and depressions. It widens out, too, in this part of
the body, and as it passes over the surface of the
sacrum to the coccyx it becomes flattened. The
average length of the spine is about two feet three
inches.

The outer corner of the shoulder girdle is the
acromion process, which is the high outer extremity
of- a ridge rising from the shoulder blade. The
shoulder blade or scapula (spade) is a flat plaque
of bone fitting snugly against the cage of the thorax,
having a long inner vertical edge, parallel to the
spine; a sharp lower point: a long outer edge point-
ing to the arm pit ; and a short upper edge parallel
with the slope of the shoulder. The ridge, or spine
of the scapula, starts at the spinal edge, about a
third of the way down, in a triangular thickening,
and rises until it passes high over the outer upper
corner, where the shoulder joint ties, then turns
forward to join with the collar bone at the acromion.
The prominent portions are this ridge and the spinal
edge and the lower corner. The upper outer corner
is thickened to form the socket for the head of the
humerus, forming the shoulder joint proper.

Movements

Movement of flexion and extension occurs almost
entirely in the waist or lumbar vertebrae. Movement
of side-bending occurs throughout the whole length.
Movement of rotation occurs in the lumbar verte-
brae when the spine is erect, in the middle vertebrae
when it is half flexed, in the upper vertebrae when

f ifol

the spine is fully bent. In the lumbar vertebra?, the
axis of this rotation is behind the spine; in the mid-
dle vertebrae it is neutral; in the upper dorsals it is
in front of the spine.

Each vertebra moves a little, and the whole move-
ment is the aggregate of the many little movements.

The shoulder blade slides against the surface of
the cage of the thorax, in any direction, and may be
lifted from it so that its point or its spinal edge be-
come prominent under the skin. It produces easily
fifty per cent, of the whole movement of the
shoulder.

Masses and Markings

From the rear the mass of the torse presents a
great wedge, with apex downward, marked by a
complex of lesser wedges and diamonds, and the
shoulder blades.

The profile of the sides presents a wide incom-
plete wedge, whose lines if prolonged would form
an apex well below the buttocks. The surface proper
of the back presents a great wedge, with base at the
corners of the shoulders, with apex driven between
the buttocks, buttressed on the sides by the lateral
masses of waist muscle. With the addition of the
neck, this becomes a diamond with a very blunt top.

From end to end vertically runs the dividing line
of the spine; when bent, a series of knobs (tips of
vertebral spines) ; when erect a groove except at
the root of the neck, the spine of the seventh cervi-
cal vertebra. This serves as a sort of ridge pole for
muscular tendons for neck and shoulders; and
around it therefore is a flat unbroken fascia with-
out muscular fibres, forming a lesser diamond nest-
ling below the upper apex.

161

THE TRUNK
The Trunk, side view
i Latissimus dorsi.
2 External oblique.

Latissimus dorsi: From spine, sixth dorsal, to
sacrum and iliac crest; passes inside of humerus
to fasten to front side near head.

Action: Draws arm backward and inward.

External Oblique: From eight lower ribs to iliac

crest and ligament to pubis.
.let ion: Flexes thorax.

[ i6a I

THE TRUNK
Muscles of the Trunk, back view:
i Trapezius.

2 Deltoid.

3 Latissimus dorsi.

Trapezius : From occipital bone, nape ligament and
spine as far as twelfth dorsal, to clavicle, acro-
mion and ridge of shoulder blade.

Action: Extends head, elevates shoulder and ro-
tates shoulder blade.

Deltoid, page 104.
Latissimus dorsi, page 162.

[164]

THE TRUNK

Trunk, back view

Anatomy.

The trapezius is a diamond-shaped muscle; with
upper apex at the base of the skull, lower apex well
below the shoulder blades, and corners at the shoul-
der girdle opposite the deltoid, as though it were a
continuation of that muscle.

From the sacrum the muscles diverge upward,
while the lower ribs and lower corner of the
shoulder blade diverge downward, making lesser
diamonds of various definiteness of outline.

The ridge of the shoulder blade is always con-
spicuous, pointing diagonally toward the corner of
the shoulder. It sets at a fixed angle with the spinal
edge (more than a right angle) and at a right angle
with the lower turned-out corner.

In relaxation, both ridge and blade are ridges un-
der the skin, and are converted into grooves by the
muscles bulging in contraction.

Of these muscles, those on either side of the ridge
are easily recognizable — the deltoid, below and out-
side, and trapezius, above and inside, but the tra-
pezius also spreads from the inner end of the ridge
to well down the spine. Under this, helping to form
the bulge, are the rhomboidei, extending from the
blade diagonally upward to the spine, and the levator
anguli scapulae, from its upper corner almost verti-
cally to the top of the neck.

166

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THE TRUNK

Trunk, back view

Masses and Their Movements
Tilting and Twisting

[168]

THE TRUNK
The Cage of the Torse

[ 170]

THE TRUNK
Wedging of the Cage into the Hips

I 172]

The Pelvis

Anatomy

Three bones make the pelvis; two innominate
(without a name) bones and one sacrum (sacrificial
bone).

The sacrum is a wedge about the size of the hand
but more perfectly shaped, bent like a half-bent
hand, and carrying- a very small tip about as big as
the last joint of the thumb (coccyx). It forms the
central piece in the back, curving first back and
down and then down and in.

The two innominate bones are formed like two
propellers, with triangular blades twisted in oppo-
site directions. The rear corners of the top blades
meet the sacrum in the back, and the front corners
of the lower blades meet in front to form the sym-
physis pubis. The hip socket itself forms the central
point for the shaft. The two blades stand at right
angles to each other.

The upper blade is called the ilium, the lower is
called the pubis in front and the ischium behind,
with an opening between. The only superficial parts
are the top of the upper blade (iliac crest) and the
front tip of the lower (symphysis pubis).

Masses and Markings

The size of the pelvis is due to its position as the
mechanical axis of the body; it is the fulcrum for
the muscles of the trunk and legs, and is large in
proportion. Its mass inclines a little forward, and is
somewhat square as compared with the trunk above.

At the sides the ridge is called the iliac crest. It

[174]

is the fulcrum for the lateral muscles and flares out
widely for that purpose ; rather more widely in front
than behind.

Above the rim is a roll of muscle belonging to the
abdominal wall ; immediately below it a groove or
depression, made by the sag of the hip muscles, ob-
literated when these are contracted in action.

The Hip

So great are the changes in surface form of the
muscles in different positions of the hip that the
iliac crest remains as the one stable landmark. It is
a curve, but being beveled backward, it presents to
the side view two lines and almost an angle between
them at the top.

The posterior line is marked by two dimples where
it joins the sacrum, and the line continues down-
ward into the fold of the buttocks. From this whole
line the gluteus maximus muscle passes down and
forward, to just below the head of the thigh bone,
making the mass of the buttocks and hip.

Just in front of this, from the top of the crest,
descends the gluteus medius muscle, forming a
wedge whose apex is at the head of the thigh bone.
Between these two muscles is the dimple of the thigh.

Only part of the medius is superficial; its front
portion is overlaid by the tensor fascire femoris
muscle, which rises from the edge of the front line
of the crest and descends to form with the gluteus
maximus the wedge filled in by the medius. The
two fasten to the dense plate of fascia that guards
the outside of the thigh (ilio-tibial band). This

[i75]

muscle is always prominent and changes its appear-
ance greatly in different positions of the hip, form-
ing a U-shaped wrinkle when the* thigh is complete-
ly flexed.

On the front end of the crest is a small knob,
from which descends the sartor ius (tailor's) mus-
cle, longest in the body. It forms a graceful curve
as it lies in the groove of the inner side of the thigh,
passing to under the knee.

From just below the knob, overlaid therefore by
the sartorius, descends the rectus femoris muscle,
straight to the knee cap.

From the knob, the line continues down and in
to the symphysis, marking the boundary between
abdomen and thigh.

The Pelvis and Hip

i Tensor vaginae femoris.

2 Sartorius.

3 Rectus femoris.

4 Gluteus medius.

5 Gluteus maximus.

Tensor i

Sartorius. (Page 182

Rectus femoris .'

Gluteus Medius: From ilium, outer surface, to

femur, greater trochanter.
Action: Abducts and rotates inward thigh.

Gluteus maximus: From crest of ilium, rear por-
tion, sacrum and coccyx to femur.
Action: Extends, rotates and turns out thigh.

[176]

The Lower Limbs

Anatomy

The lower limb is divided into three parts — the
thigh, the leg, and the foot. These parts correspond
to the arm, the forearm, and the hand of the upper
limb.

The thigh extends from the pelvis to the knee,
and the leg from the knee to the foot.

The longest and strongest bone of the body is the
femur (thigh bone). It is joined to the bones of the
pelvis at the hip socket by a long neck, which carries
the shaft itself out beyond the widest part of the
crest. From there the femora (thigh bones) con-
verge as they approach the knees, bringing the knee
under the hip socket. At the knee, the femur rests
on the tibia (shin bone), the main bone of the leg,
and makes a hinge joint. The tibia descends to form
the inner ankle. Beside it, not reaching quite to the
knee, is the fibula, the second bone of the leg, which
descends to form the outer ankle. It is located on
the outside, and is attached to the tibia at the top
and bottom. These two bones are almost parallel.
Above the juncture of the femur and tibia lies the
patella (knee cap). This is a small bone almost tri-
angular in shape. It is flat on its under side, and
convex on the surface.

The great trochanter of the femur is the upper
tip of the shaft which reaches up slightly beyond
where the neck joins.

The lower portion of the femur widens to form
two great hinge processes, known as tuberosities.
They are on the outer and inner sides, and they are
both visible.

[ 178 1 "

The Thigh

Anatomy

From the head of the femur (trochanter) to the
outside of the knee runs a band of tendon called the
ilio-tibial band. It makes a straight line from the
head of the thigh bone to the outside of the knee.

The rectus femoris muscle makes a slightly
bulging straight line from just below the iliac crest
to the knee cap.

On either side of the latter is a twin mass of
muscles. That of the outside (vastus externus)
makes one mass with it, and slightly overhangs the
ilio-tibial band outside. That of the inside (vastus
internus) bulges only in the lower third of the
thigh, and overhangs the knee on the inside.

Behind and inside of this is the groove of the
thigh occupied by the sartorius muscle, passing
from the ilium above to the back of the knee below.

Behind the groove is the heavy mass of the ad-
ductors, reaching two-thirds of the way down the
thigh.

Behind groove and adductors, around the back of
the thigh and to the ilio-tibial band outside, is the
mass of the ham-string muscles, whose tendons are
found on either side of the knee at the back. It is a
dual mass of muscle, dividing above the diamond-
shaped popliteal space at the back of the knee, whose
lower corner is formed by the gastrocnemius mus-
cle, similarly divided.

Mass

The mass of the thigh is inclined inward from
hip to knee, and is slightly beveled toward the knee
from front, back and outside.

[i/9l

The Leg

Of the same width as the end of the thigh bone
is the head of the tibia, or shin bone. Immediately
below the head the shaft narrows on both sides,
but on the outside and a little to the rear is the head
of the fibula (which corresponds with the ulna of
the forearm) more than filling out the narrowing
on that side.

The ridge of the shin bone descends straight down
the front of the leg, a sharp edge toward the out-
side, a flat surface toward the inside, which at the
ankle bends in to become the inner ankle bone.

The outer bone of the foreleg (fibula) soon over-
laid by a gracefully bulging muscular mass, emerges
again to become the outer ankle bone.

On the back of the leg are two muscles. Beneath
is the low, flat and broad soleus (sole fish) muscle:
on top of it is the double-bellied calf muscle (gas-
trocnemius, frog's belly), covering its upper half,
but crossing the knee joint above and helping to
make the two knobs there. These two muscles
unite to form the tendon of Achilles at the heel.

[180]

LOWER LIMBS

Bones of the Lower Limb:

Hip — Pelvis.

Thigh — Femur.

Leg — Tibia and Fibula (outside).

Muscles of the Lower Limb, front view:

i Tensor of the fascia lata.

2 Sartorius.

3 Rectus femoris.

4 Vastus externus.

5 Vastus internus.

6 Tibialis anticus.

7 Peroneus longus.

8 Extensor longus digitorum.

Tensor Vaginae Femoris (tensor fasciae femoris) :
From crest of ilium, front end, to fascia lata,
or ilio-tibial band.

Action: Tenses fascia and rotates inward thigh.

Sartorius: From spine to ilium in front to tibia

inside.
Action: Flexes, abducts and rotates inward thigh.

Rectus Femoris: From anterior inferior spine of

ilium to common tendon of patella.
Action:' Extends leg.

Vastus Externus: From outer side of femur to

common tendon of patella.
Action: Extends and rotates outward leg.

Vastus Internus: From inner side of femur to

common tendon of patella.
Action: Extends and rotates inward lesr

»■

[182]

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LOWER LIMBS
Muscles of the Lower Limb, back view
i Gluteus medius.
2 Gluteus maximus.
• 3 Semi-tendinosus.

4 Semi-membranosus.

5 Biceps femoris.

6 Gastrocnemius.

7 Soleus.

Gluteus medius ) p ,

Gluteus maximus j

Semi-tendinosus: From ischial tuberosity to tibia.
Action: Flexes knee and rotates inward leg".

Semi-membranosus: From ischial tuberositytotibia.
Action: Flexes knee and rotates leg inward.

Biceps Femoris: Long- head from ischial tuberosity:

short head from femur, to head of fibula.
Action: Flexes knee and rotates thigh outward.

Gastrocnemius, page 188.
Soleus, page 192.

.84

LOWER LIMBS

Knee Joint, back view

Ham-Strings, Gastrocnemius and Popliteal

Space

i 86

,1

LOWER LIMBS
Muscles or the Lower Limb, outer view
i Gluteus maximus.

2 Gluteus medius.

3 Biceps femoris.

4 Vastus externus.

5 Gastrocnemius.

6 Peroneus longus.

7 Tibialis anticus.

Below the Knee

Gastrocnemius: From tuberosities of femur to

tendon of Achilles.
Action: Extends foot, raises body in walking.

Peroneus Longus: From head and upper part of
fibula passes beneath foot from outside, to base
of big toe.

Action: Extends ankle and raises outer side of foot.

Tibialis Anticus : From upper and outer two-thirds

of tibia to inner side of foot.
Action: Flexes ankle and raises inner side of foot.

188]

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LOWER LIMBS

[ 190]

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LOWER LIMBS
Muscles of the Lower Limb, inner view
i Rectus femoris.

2 Vastus interims.

3 Sartorius.

4 Gracilis.

5 Semi-tendinosus.

6 Semi-membranosus.

7 Gastrocnemius.

8 Soleus.

Below the Knee

Soleus: From upper part of fibula and back of

tibia to tendon of Achilles.
Action: Extends foot and lifts body in walking.

Extensor Communis Digitorum (extensor longus
digitorum pedis) : From tibia and front of
fibula to second and third phalanges of toes.

Action: Extends toes. Diagram, page 183.

192

The Knee

The knee must be thought of as a square with
sides beveled forward, slightly hollowed at the back,
and carrying in front the knee cap; like the stopper
of an ink well.

A powerful ligament connects the cap with the
high ridge of the shin bone below, the two sliding
together on the end of the thigh bone, which is
therefore exposed in flexion. The cap is always at
the apex of the angle made by thigh and leg.

From the knee cap at the top rise the three
muscles already described, the rectus by a tendon
narrowing upward ; the vastus externus by a tendon
angling slightly out; the vastus interims bulging
prominently from the corner of the cap.

When the knee is straight, its bursa, or water
mattress, forms a bulge on either side in the corner
between the cap and its tendon, exactly opposite the
joint itself; the knee cap being always above the
level of the joint.

The back, when bent, is hollowed out by the ham-
string tendons on either side; when straight, the
bone becomes prominent between them, making,
with these tendons, three knobs.

The inside of the knee is larger; the knee as a
whole is bent convex toward its fellow. The hip
socket, the knee and the ankle are all in line; but
the shaft of the thigh bone is carried some distance
out by a long neck, so that the thigh is set at an
angle with the leg.

i94

THE KNEE
Knee, outer view

[196]

a y

THE KNEE
Knee:

i Pad or sack.

2 Common tendon.

3 Patella or knee-pan.

4 Ligament of the patella.

[198]

THE KNEE
Knee, inner view

200 ]

The Foot

As the little finger side is the heel/side of the
hand, so the outside of the foot is the heel side.
It is fiat upon the ground, continuous with the heel ;
it is lower than the inside — even the outer ankle
bone is lower — and it is shorter.

The inside, as though raised by the greater power
of the great toe and the tendons of all the toes, is
higher. To the front of the ankle is the knob that
corresponds with the base of the thumb. Opposite
it, on the outside, is a similar knob corresponding
with the base of the little finger.

In the foot this symmetry adapted to the func-
tion of weight-bearing, has developed into a
wonderful series of arches. The five arches of
the foot converge on the heel ; the toes being flying
buttresses to them. The balls of the foot form a
transverse arch. The inner arches of the foot are
successively higher, forming half of a transverse
arch whose completion is in the opposite foot. Open-
ing gradually toward the ankle, this arching move-
ment finally culminates in the two columns of the
leg and the arch between; wherefore the leg is
placed somewhat to the inside of the central line
of the foot.

Movements

In all positions, the foot tends to keep itself flat
with the ground; the arches of the foot changing
accordingly. In action, the foot comes almost into
straight line with the leg, but when settling upon the
ground, the outer or heel side strikes first and the
whole foot settles toward the inside.

[ 202 1

THE FOOT

The Foot, outer view

Interlocking of the Ankle with the Foot

204 I

THE FOOT
The Foot, inner view

206 ]

TOES
Their Pads and Wedging

I 208]

/£/

ORIGIN AND COMMON MEANING
OF ANATOMICAL WORDS

Flexor Bender

Extensor Extender

Abductor Drawing away (from median line)

Adductor Drawing toward (median line)

Supinator Turning face up

Pronator Turning face down

Anterior In front

Posterior Behind

Longus Long

Brevis Brief, or short

External Outside of

Internal On inner side

Rectus Straight

Vastus Vast, or large

Minimus Smallest

Semi Half

Tertius Third

Infra Below

Bones

Frontal

In front

Temporal

"Time"

Parietal

From paries, wall

Occipital

From ob, over against, and caput, head;

so back of head

Nasal

Nose

Malar

From mala, cheek

Maxillary

Jaw

Superior

Above, upper

Inferior

Below, lower

Mastoid

Nipple-shaped

Sternum

Breast bone

Clavicle

Key, collar bone

Scapula

Spade ; shoulder blade

Humerus

Bone of upper arm

[2IC]

Ulna

Radius

Carpal

Trapezium

Trapezoid

Scaphoid

Semi-lunar

Cuneiform

Pisiform

Os magnum

Metacarpals

Phalanges

Digit

Os innominatum

Sacrum

Coccyx

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Calcaneum

Tarsal

Metatarsal

Phalanges

Cubit

Spoke (of wheel)

From carpus, wrist

Table

Like a table— two sides parallel, two not

Boat-shaped

Half -moon

Wedge-shaped

Pea-shaped

Great bone

Beyond the wrist

Ranks of soldiers

Finger

Bone without a name

Sacred (used in oracles)

Cuckoo (beak of)

Thigh

Little pan

Shin

Flute

From cal.v, heel

Instep

Beyond the instep

Ranks of soldiers

Temporal
Masseter
Sterno-cleido-

mastoid
Thyroid

Thyroid cartilage
Deltoid

Pectoralis
Major
Minor

Muscles

Pertaining to temporal bone

Chewer, masticator

Attaching to sternum, clavicle and
mastoid bones

Shield (and eidos, like); so shield-like.
(So all words ending in -oid. )

Adam's apple

Like Greek letter delta, triangular (equi-
lateral)

Pertaining to breast

Greater

Lesser

[211 1

Rectus abdominis
Oblique
Serratus
Teres
Biceps
Brachialis
Anticus
Triceps
Anconeus
Coraco-bracbialis

Gluteus

Maximus

Medius

Minimus
Tensor
Fascia

Lata
Rectus femoris
Vastus externus
Vastus interims
Abductor
Gracilis

Semi-tendinosus
Semi-membranosu
Plantaris

Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Achilles' tendon

Peroneus

Tibialis Anticus

Pollicis

Thenar

Hypo-thenar

Palmaris

Trapezius

Straight muscle of abdomen

Slanting

Saw-toothed

Round

Two-headed

Pertaining to arm

(Adjective) in front

Three-headed

Donkey's foot

From coracoid (beak-like) process of
scapula to brachium, or arm

Buttocks

Greatest

Middle-sized

Smallest

Tightener, or holder

Band

Broad

Straight muscle of the femur

Great muscle outside

Great muscle inside

Drawing away (from median line)

Slender, graceful

Half tendinous
sHalf membranous (broad, flat tendon)

Of the sole of the foot (compare pal-
maris of the hand)

Frog's belly

Sole fish, or flounder

The tendon by which Achilles' mother
held in dipping him into the River Styx
to make him invulnerable

Pin — another name for fibula

In front of tibia

From pollcx, thumb or big toe

Palm

Under (less than) the thenar

Of the palm

Table-shaped

[212]

Latissimus dorsi Broadest muscle of back

Infra-spinatus Below the spine (of scapula)

Supra-spinatus Above the spine (of scapula)

Teres major Larger round muscle

Teres minor Smaller round muscle

Rhomhoideus Rhomb shaped — quadrilateral but not
right-angled

[213]

INDEX

Origin, Insertion and A&ion
of Muscles

PAKK

Anconeus 82

Biceps — Arm 12

Biceps — Femoris 184

Brachialis anticus 1<S

Coraco-brachialis 72

Deltoid 104

Digastric 112

Extensor carpi ulnaris 82

Extensor carpi radialis longior ... 78

Extensor communis digitorum ... N2

Extensor communis digitorum pedis . 1W2

Extensor minimi digiti 82

External oblique 1G2

Flexor carpi radialis 92

Flexor carpi ulnaris !)2

Flexor sublimis digitorum .... !)2

Gastrocnemius 188

Gluteus maximus 1 TO

Gluteus medius 1T0

Latissimus dorsi H>2

Levator of the scapula 108

1 N D E X — continued

r.M.K

Mylohyoid 112

Omohyoid 112

Fectoralis major 154

Pectoralis minor 154

Peroneus longus 188

Platysma myoides 112

Pronator radii teres T4

Rectus abdominis 152

Rectus femoris 182

Sartorius 182

Semi-tendinosus 184

Semi-membranosus 184

Serratus magnus 152

Sterno-hyoid 112

Stylo-hyoid 112

Soleus 192

Sterno-cleido-mastoideus 108

Supinator longus 74

Tensor vagina? femoris 182

Teres major 104

Teres minor 104

Tibialis anticus 188

Trapezius 164

Triceps 104

Vastus externus 1<s2

Vastus internus 182

IITHO BY PASSANTINO