ee ek eos Sie ial Scale sine oa bee “5 6 EAVES peeiaers Sthy te perce 4m as sre sett ets xe est castan eaee ets Pia ee pete eee ha - wites rast PE he foes e Popa esa at af. Feet eee ae penor tor Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from University of Toronto htto://www.archive.org/details/contributionsO7brow ee | Ae. SRUS 4 WE & Ws BROWN UNIVERSITY PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY (formerly Anatomical Laboratory) ISSUED ROCTOBER, ) 1011 | PROVIDENCE, R. I. ye UasieA eS Ne “%y ~QH 30) B75 7 PREFACE The papers which are collected in this seventh volume of Contri- butions have been written by officers or students in the Department of Biology of Brown University, and have recently appeared in various scientific journals. In the table of contents and on the title page of each paper will be found the place and time of publication. At the end of the volume is a complete list of the papers published in the preceding volumes of this series. 95- 96. 97- 98. 99- 1oo. 1ol. 102. PABLE OF CONTENTS Vol. VII Tre Gas Propuction or Bacittus Cott. BY FREDERICK G. KEYES. The Journal of Medical Research, Vol. XXI, No. 1. New Series, Vol. XVI, No. 1, pp. 69-82, July, 1909. An Ipeat Course in Biotocy ror THE HicH Scoot. BY HERBERT E. WALTER. School Science and Mathematics, Vol. IX, 1909, pp. 717-724 and 840-847. An Improvep MerHop oF Co.iectinc GasES FROM THE Mercury Pump. BY FREDERICK G. KEYES. The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXI, No. 12. December, 1909. A Meruop oF Losster CuLture. BY A. D. MEAD. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, 1908. Issued February, IgIO. pp. 221-240. A New PrincipLe oF AQUICULTURE AND TRANSPORTATION OF Live Fiswes. BY A. D. MEAD. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, 1908. Issued April, 1910. pp- 761-780. Tue RELATION OF THE PsEUDODIPHTHERIA AND THE DipH- THERIA BaciLLus. BY PAUL F. CLARK. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. VII, No. 3, May 20, 1g1o. PP- 335-367- VariaTions IN URosALPINX. BY HERBERT E. WALTER. The American Naturalist, Vol. XLIV, October, 1910. pp. §77-594- Tue Hyciene oF THE Swimminc Poot. BY JOHN W. M. BUNKER. American Journal of Public Hygiene, Vol. XX, No. 4. November, gto. pp. 810-812. 103. 104. 105. AppitionaL Notes UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOBSTER. BY PHILIP B. HADLEY. Fortieth Annual Report of the Commissioners of Inland Fisheries of Rhode Island. 1909. Annotatep List oF Fishes Known To Innapir THE Waters or Ruope Istanp. BY HENRY C. TRACY. Fortieth Annual Report of the Commissioners of Inland Fisheries of Rhode Island. 1909. Pretiminary REPORT UPON THE SANITARY CONDITION OF Ruove Istanp Oyster Bens. BY FREDERIC P. GORHAM. Report of the Commissioners of Shell Fisheries of Rhode Island for 1910. 95 THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. BY FREDERICK G. KEYES. The Journal of Medical Research, Volume XXI, No.1. (New Series, Volume XVI,) pp. 69-82. July, 1909. iy th Carte aR Ta yori Aa . THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI.* FREDERICK G. KEYES. (From the Bacteriological Laboratory of Brown University.) Earlier investigations. — Since the isolation of Bacillus coli by Escherich in 1885 gas production by bacteria has received considerable attention. Theobald Smith! (’95) examined a number of gas-producing bacteria and divided them into three groups according to their gas production in sugar media: group A, with a gas production of fifty per 2 H _ Coy i? group B, with a gas production completely filling the closed : H I I 2 arm of the tube of which (4- = 2 OF , 3 group C, with a cent in the ordinary fermentation tube of which total gas production of eighty per cent with on = =. In the first group is Bacillus coli, in the second group Bacillus cloace, in the third group a capsulated bacillus morphologically like the Bacillus lactis a€rogenes. The carbon dioxid was estimated by filling. the tube with caustic soda and measuring the amount of diminution of the gas. As the remainder of the gas was combustible when mixed with air Smith concluded that all the remainder was hydro- gen. Smith simply made use of the carbon dioxid content as a method of diagnosis. Pammel and Pammel? (’96), working with B. coliin a beef broth medium containing one per cent peptone, two per cent dextrose and one-half of one per cent beef extract, obtained results for the composition of the gas as follows: Of thirty-eight cubic centimeters taken for analysis, 24.18 per cent was carbon dioxid, and 75.8 per cent hydrogen. The presence of nitrogen was not reported and the apparatus used to carry out the experiments is merely referred to as “ Hempel’s well-known method.” The authors very likely refer to the gasometric methods of Hempel, but do not state * Received for publication April 20, 1909. (69) 70 KEYES. as to whether water or mercury was used in the gas burette.. Obviously the latter point has considerable bearing on the accuracy with which the carbon dioxid was determined. M. L. Grimbert® (’99) found that B. coli evolved nitrogen when growing in peptone and nitrate media and that the amount of nitrogen so produced was in excess of the theo- retical quantity due to the potassium nitrate, showing, there- fore, that the organic matter present had evolved nitrogen gas. Grimbert does not state exactly what the volume of medium was that evolved a given volume of gas, but states that a one-hundred-and-twenty-five-cubic-centimeter flask three-quarters filled, or about ninety-four cubic centimeters of media were used in the tests. With this assumption, Grim- bert’s results for B. coli in neutral one per cent peptone would be as follows: Per cent of gas formed, 34.8, of which 28.4 per cent was carbon dioxid and 71:5 per cent nitrogen. From Grimbert’s work it does not appear that hydrogen gas was found in any case. A. Harden‘ (’99) states that he employed two different media. The first was composed of beef broth with twenty grams of glucose per liter, and the second, composed of ten grams of Witte’s peptone and twenty grams of glucose per liter. In each case ten grams of chalk were added and in the peptone medium two grams of calcium phosphate. The method used by Harden was to allow the organisms to grow in flasks in which the air had been displaced by atmospheric nitrogen. After some time the samples were taken and sub- mitted to analysis. The composition of the gas was as follows : Medium. CoO;. | = | Tea ayeregercieaee eicieleckertetel | 50.3% 49-7% 73%" 2 iatakoveinetafarelelele\ereiayatatet= 45-5% 54.5% * Harden obtained by his method an excess of 47 cc. of gas which he thought might be nitrogen. Since the total gas produced was 6,400 cc. this amount would © correspond to .73 per cent. ——- THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 71 In evaluating the amount of CO, which remained dis- solved in the culture medium Harden determined the CO, content in only one of the samples of medium. In this Harden found .620 cubic centimeter of gas dissolved in one cubic centimeter of the culture fluid. Since different amounts of CO, were present above the liquids, different amounts of CO, would enter into solution, depending on the partial pressure of the CO, in each case. Harden ® states later (01) that 7.5 per cent of nitrogen gas is produced in a peptone glucose medium. In Harden’s earlier paper no direct evidence of the presence of nitrogen is obtained. As Harden’s method of work consisted in growing the organism in an atmosphere of atmospheric nitrogen it is possible that the following will explain partially his later high value for nitrogen. On displacing all the air by atmospheric nitrogen the medium would become saturated with nitrogen at the barometric pressure. The amount of nitrogen dissolved at this rate would be about seventeen cubic centimeters per liter. Later, as the organism produced its gas the partial pressure of the nitrogen would fall and hence a correspond- ing portion come out of the solution. Now, as the amount of nitrogen previous to the growth of the organism was determined and subsequently allowed for, it will be evident that the nitrogen given up by the culture medium due to the fall in partial pressure of the nitrogen would thus appear to arise from the action of the organism on the material of the medium. This is not the case. The details as to the volume of the. flask, etc., are not stated in Harden’s paper, but, assuming that the partial pressure of the nitrogen fell to one-half, it will be seen that the liquid would give up about eight cubic centimeters of nitrogen gas per liter which would be ascribed to the action of the organism. According to A. Schittenhelm and F. Schrodter® (’03), a considerable quantity of the gas produced by B. coli on sugar media is nitrogen. They used Uschinsky’s synthetic medium, with and without glycerin and with the addition of sodium nucleate. 72 KEYES. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS BY THE VARIOUS INVESTIGATORS. | Total Gas co, H N Per Cent. Per Cent. | Per Cent. Per Cent. Theobald Smith............ 50 33:3 | 666 ammelandsbammel!srchetsiepetesieietetsist=tereteler= | 24.18 75.8 Grimbert mrescrebyateuteteletenestets tre 34.8 ZE.4i | iNietaisvaselofeiet= 71.5 Tard embatas;crssafalatotelrsyetetelsteteye 246.2 50.3 49-7 -73 SE aielstele(o.eie\s\s in \eisisieisie)eis)s 410.8 45-5 54-5 Schittenhelm and Schroter... 51 AsOF “|is\elecierorersiete 90.2 “ “ “ 35 25.1 73.8 As is evident, there is considerable uncertainty as to the gas production of B. coli, and while the results of the various workers are not strictly comparable, due to the differences in the composition of the media, yet it seems that much of the variation in observation may be due to a lack of methods where all the conditions are under control. Imperfections of the earlier observations. — It appeared to the writer that the methods thus far employed in the study of gas production might be improved if some way could be devised to obtain all the gas produced by an organism. At the temperature of the incubator considerable quantities of the gases, particularly the carbon dioxid, remain dissolved in the medium in which the organism is growing. The unsuitability of the ordinary fermentation tube for studying quantitative gas production is obvious from the fol- lowing considerations: First, as soon as the first portion of gas is evolved the liquid is forced over into the open arm and as the gas continues to be evolved the liquid continues to pass into the open arm. Hence from the first appearance of gas a smaller and smaller amount of the cultural liquid contributes gas to the closed arm, so that if the liquid in the closed arm evolved gas indefinitely the gas production would continue to be expressed by one hundred percent. Second, THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 73 depending upon the partial pressure of the gases in the closed arm, a proportionate quantity of gas will dissolve in the culture fluid. For instance, if the three gases, CO,, H, and N are present, each will contribute a component to make a total pressure equal to barometric pressure, and each gas will dissolve according to itspartial pressure regardless of the presence of the other gases. Now CO, dissolves in its own volume of water at seven hundred and sixty millimeters pressure and 15° C.,so that if the CO, present is one-third of the whole amount of gas, the pressure the CO, is under is one-third of the barometric pressure so that the medium dis- solves about one-third of its volume of CO,; furthermore, as the concentration in the open side is practically zero, the CO, in the closed side must necessarily diffuse out quite rapidly, there is therefore a continual transference or diffusion through the liquid from the closed arm to the atmosphere. This would continue until in the end the amount of CO, was alike on both sides of the liquid. In the case of CO, this effect would be greater than in the case of less soluble gases. In view of all these facts it appeared that the only way to secure exact data in regard to the gas production of any organism would be to grow it ina vessel from which all the atmospheric gases had been pumped out and then to recover the gases produced by the organism without the admixture of any foreign gases. Also as ordinary peptone and beef broth media contain substances of unknown composition and are never uniform in their makeup, it seemed best to use so-called synthetic media in which all the ingredients are of known chemical composi- tion and which can be exactly duplicated when required. It seemed as if a knowledge of the gas production under these conditions would have far greater value. Accordingly, methods and apparatus as described in the following pages were devised. It is of course true that the organisms may react very dif- ferently under the vacuum conditions than they would were the full pressure of the atmosphere present. The presence 74 KEYES. of the gases produced, however, has probably a greater influ- ence on the growth and metabolism of the organisms than the lack of pressure. With a vacuum bulb of sufficient ca- pacity the partial pressures of these gases would be relatively small. At any rate the colon bacillus grows well and appears to be perfectly normal when grown in vacuum. Apparatus and method.— The method employed by the writer for the collection of the gases produced was to grow the organism in a vessel in which a vacuum could be produced and maintained and from which the gases evolved could be completely recovered without loss and subjected to analysis. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic drawing of the mercury pump and Geissler tubes used for securing the vacuum and for examining the gases produced. Owing to the liability to leakage when working with high vacua, even with mercury- sealed joints, all connections were welded together, thus making the apparatus one continuous system. A is the pump head modeled after the well-known Tépler type with the exception that the tube leading to the P, O, tube is shortened by inserting a glass’valve to prevent the THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 75 mercury from passing over into the pentoxide tube. The gas is delivered into the tube B, which stands in a mercury trough. The tubes G and G are the Geissler tubes used for examining the residual gas spectroscopically. F isa McLeod gauge used to measure the vacuum. This gauge was subse- quently removed so as to leave less space to be exhausted, as it had served its purpose as soon as the efficiency of the apparatus was known. From the tube B the gas was trans- ferred to the gas burette for analysis. The bulb E was the container in which the organism was grown. Figure 2 is a more detailed drawing of this bulb. A and B are the stop- cocks and C a tube which contained a few cubic centimeters of culture fluid which were inoculated with the organism to be studied and later allowed to flow into the bulb to inocu- late it. The stopcocks were ground with jeweller’s rouge previous to use. The whole apparatus was set up in a cellar room where the temperature was very uniform. The complete manipulation was as follows: The vacuum culture bulb was thoroughly cleaned with concentrated sul- phuric acid and rinsed until every trace of acid was removed. The stopcocks were wiped dry with filter paper, greased very lightly to lubricate. The lubricant used was composed of the following substances: Gutta-percha three parts, hard white paraffin one part, and enough pure heavy mineral oil to make -the resulting mixture of the same consistency as ordinary lanolin. The bulb thus prepared is exhausted with 76 KEYES. an ordinary water pump. On opening the stopcock under the surface of the culture fluid the bulb may be filled with the desired quantity of liquid. The bulb is then inverted and exhausted as completely as possible with the water pump. The small tube, C, is then filled with a few cubic centimeters of the culture fluid, plugged with cotton, the stopcocks are tied tightly in place and the apparatus sterilized on three successive days. Since these experiments the writer has devised a vacuum stopcock which is especially adapted to this work. In this stopcock there is no need of tying in place, as it is so arranged that it is held in place in spite of the contraction and expansion of the glass due to the removal from room to incubator and wzce versa. This stopcock is described in ‘“Science.”’’ Previous to the final exhaustion by the mercury pump the stopcocks had to be lubricated a second time. To accomplish this rolls of filter paper of such a size as to be inserted into the bore of the stopcock were prepared and sterilized. The lubricant was placed in a test-tube into which was inserted a glass rod and the whole sterilized. The test-tube (C), Figure 3, was finally inoculated and by turning the stopcock the medium was forced by atmospheric pressure into the bulb, thus inocu- lating the main portion of the culture medium. By means of the sterile filter paper and lubricant the stopcocks were next put into gas-tight condition and connected to the pump as follows: Gum rubber of one-eighth-inch bore and one-quarter-inch wall was used. By means of this rubber a tight joint was secured by wiring tightly and painting the joint subsequently with the lubricant. The exhaustion with the mercury pump then began and was continued until the pressure due to the air contained in the apparatus was about .o1 millimeter (by actual measurement). The space above the liquid in the bulb was never as great as three hundred cubic centimeters, but assuming even that amount of free space the amount of air present would be only about .003 cubic centimeter, an amount which would be negligible. As the water in the bulb boiled vigorously during the pumping, the amount of air really THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 77 present in the bulb at the end must have been far less than the above, as most of it would have been swept out by the water vapor. The bulb was then disconnected and placed in the incu- bator for the desired time for the organisms to grow and pro- duce their gas, connection was then made with the pump as before and the whole pump and every part of the apparatus as far as the stopcock of the bulb exhausted completely. The tube B (Fig. 1.) was then filled with mercury, inverted over the end of the pump capillary and filled with the gas from the bulb by opening the stopcock of the latter. Pump- ing was continued until the bulb was exhausted. The gas in tube B could then be transferred to the gas burette and analyzed. In addition to the above described apparatus for securing every bit of gas produced by an organism when growing ina vacuum it was thought best to make some analyses of the gases produced in ordinary fermentation tubes for compari- son. For this purpose two tubes illustrated in Figure 3 were constructed. The capacity of the closed arms were about two hundred and twenty cubic centimeters and one hundred and twenty cubic centimeters. By means of the stopcock the gas formed could be transferred to the gas burette for analysis. Method of analysis. — The standard Hempel gas burette with glass stopcock and filled with mercury was employed to measure the gases. The Hempel gas pipettes were used to hold the various reagents. Inthe initial experiments palladium asbestos was employed to absorb the hydrogen, so that the presence of hydrocarbons could be tested for with greater surety. No evidence of any of the lighter hydrocarbons or heavy hydrocarbons could be detected ; H,S was also absent, as well as CO. Having once established the above, all sub- sequent hydrogen estimations were made by exploding with pure oxygen at reduced pressure. At ordinary pressure nitrogen is burned in the explosion, while at lower pressures the combustion of the nitrogen was found to be negligible. 78 KEYES. Further experiments on the explosion of oxygen hydrogen gas mixtures in the presence of small amounts of nitrogen have been planned and will be presented elsewhere. For the absorption of oxygen, pyrogallol solution was employed as recommended by Hempel. As pyrogallol does not appear to be a very suitable reagent for the absorption of oxygen when spectroscopic examinations are to be made on the residual gas, and also as phosphorus can only be used under certain conditions, some attempt has been made to make use of chromous chloride in a more convenient manner than hitherto. In accordance with this, a special pipette has been devised where a. given quantity of the reagent will last indefinitely for the absorption of oxygen. The absorption of oxygen by this reagent takes place quickly and completely and possesses the advantage that it can be applied in the presence of CO,. Further details as to the pipette and the conditions for use will also be presented in another paper. Culture media. — Because of the variable and unknown composition of all beef broth and peptone media most of the work was carried on with a so-called synthetic medium. | The medium was as follows: ANSpataginy 4) else oe 2 elOke rams Sodimmmdicphosphates=3 — 2.) san 2 umea Water Shite Cnr 0) foveal OOO Mme The synthetic medium was that which Dolt*® (’o8) found useful in his study of the growth of B. coli on synthetic media. The water used was obtained by distilling an alkaline permanganate solution of tap water, condensing in glass, rejecting the first few hundred cubic centimeters, and pre- serving the remainder in glass-stoppered bottles. The spray was prevented from being carried over by a Hempel column containing a few beads. In some of the experiments water distilled from alkaline permanganate and condensed in a glass condenser and then treated with carbon black® was used. No - A ——<_ THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 79 difference in the growth obtained by using water prepared by these two methods could be detected. For comparisons a few determinations were made with ordinary standard dextrose broth. Organisms employed. —The colon bacillus was selected for the study of gas production because it is a well-known organism and because the gases produced by it have been studied probably more than the gases produced by other organisms. In all cases the organisms employed were freshly isolated from feces. The first organism employed was isolated by Dr. M. L. Dolt and was said to respond to all the tests for Bacillus coli. We shall call this cuiture No. 1. The second organism was isolated by Mr. R. M. Miller of the Rhode Island State Board of Health Laboratory. This is culture No. 2 and gave all the usual reactions. The third organism was isolated by the writer. This is culture No. 3 and it also gave all the usual reactions for Bacillus colli. THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES OF THE GASES PRODUCED, BOTH IN VACUUM AND IN FERMENTATION TUBES, ON SYNTHETIC AND ON STANDARD MEDIA. Saeiesera=saea. ICs 6 5s a Sone as Composition of the ai é i : 229 = SE F Gas in Per Cent. ies | = | ee | see |sees-3 | 22 5 Ss | 5 Pai | = na eats hes co,| H N 1...| Synthetic. | Vacuum. 24 | 180} 25.1 13-9 | 66.50 | 30-70] 2.S Bene ae sh 24 146 34-22 23-4 | 65.32 | 34.67 | 0.00 2. ee s 24 150 42.98 28.7 | 63.22 | 36.32 | 0.46 3-6 se as 24 105 29.87 28.5 | 61.14 | 38-86 | 0.00 2. ss | ue 48 150 68.44 45-6 | 63.27 | 36.05 | 0.67 3 “ Ie ass 115 90.5 90-37 99-9 | 63.49 | 35.81 | 0.70 Zee. se Ferm. T 48 120 13.36 11.1 | 40.30 | 57-69 | 2.00 2. we s -s 72 220 33-14 15.0 ! 35.90] 61.51 | 2.51 3+°- v 2) ah 100 120 | 14.90 12.4 | 38.14] 59.04] 2.S2 3*- s Nga Yau 98 | 220 16.34 I-A e720) | | 3*. « CO) Ns ie | 120 7.82 6.5 | 38.21] — — 3---| Standard. | Vacuum. 48 55 107.7 196.8 | 55-73 | 43-56] 9-70 Zens a | Ferm. Hg 24 120 65.63 | 54-7 | 40.73 | 57-10 2.16 * Sterilized in the autoclav at 110° C., fifteen pounds pressure, for fifteen minutes. All the other members of the table were sterilized by steam on three successive days. 80 KEYES. The spectroscopic examination of the residual gas shown in the last column of the table was carried out in the ordi- nary Geissler tubes. The wave lengths of the principal lines were measured. The standard wave lengths are given for comparison. Observed. Standard. 10=S, Io —§; 509.0 509.8 Pliicker. 493-5 493 1 Huggins. 482.5 484.6 oe 473.0 473-2 Pliicker. 467.5 464.4 « 465.3 464.4“ 457-7 | 455-3 Huggins. 449.0 | 449.0 OG 420.0 420.6 ee 413.3 | 413.0 ‘* From a study of the table showing the analyses of the gases produced it will be noticed that in all cases the per- centage of CO, is lower when the organism is grown in the fermentation tube than when grown in vacuum, and the per- centage of hydrogen is higher. This is undoubtedly due to the diffusion of the CO? out into the open arm during incubation. From the results of the vacuum method it will be seen that gas production is very nearly proportional to time up to almost forty-eight hours. The effect of the autoclav method of sterilization is shown by the small amounts of gas produced in the two experi- ments thus treated. This is probably due to the decomposi- tion of the sugar at the high temperature and pressure of THE GAS PRODUCTION OF BACILLUS COLI. 81 the autoclav. The medium is always considerably darker after coming from the autoclav than after intermittent steam sterilization. The synthetic medium when sterilized by steam gave about twelve per cent of gas in the ordinary fermenta- tion tube, but when sterilized in the autoclav gave only from three to five per cent. SUMMARY. 1. No definite quantitative results can be obtained by the study of gas production in ordinary fermentation tubes. When working in an atmosphere of indifferent gas at atmos- pheric pressure, the law of gaseous partial pressures must be taken into account if accurate quantitative data are required. 2. The actual gas production of B. coli when grown on synthetic and standard media in vacuum and in the ordinary fermentation tube, for different time periods, may be averaged as follows: EEL OurS in Total Gas Com H | N eae Eocuceds Per Cent. | PeriCent:)|| ‘Per:Gent: | —— = —— Grown in _ synthetic | | medium : In vacuum apparatus. 24 26.7 | 63.23 30.61 | 0.15 ae co se 48 45-6 63.27 | 36.05 0.67 cae st NY 115 99-9 | 63.49 35-S1 | 0.70 In fermentation tubes. 70 11.1 40.30 57.69 2,00 wo ae G3 72 15.0 35.90 61.51 2.51 Ud ss st 100 12.4 38.14 59.04 2.82 Grown in standard | dextrose broth: | In vacuum apparatus. 48 196.8 | 55-73 43-50 | 0.70 In fermentation tubes. 24 54-7 | 40.73 57-10 2.10 REFERENCES. 1. Smith, T. Centralblatt fiir Bakt., xviii, 1895, 1. 2. Pammel and Pammel. Centralblatt fiir Bakt., II., xi, 1896, 633. 3. Grimbert, M. L. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, xiii, 1899, 67. 82 KEYES. 4. Harden, A. Trans. of the Jenner Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2d series, 1899, 126. 5. Harden, A. Journal of the Chemical Society, Ixxix, tgor, 612. 6. Schittenhelm and Schréter. Zeitschrift fiir Physiologische Chemie, xl, 1903, 70. 7. Keyes, F.G. Science, xxviii, 1908, 734. 8. Dolt, M. L. Journal of Infectious Diseases, v, 1908, 616. g. U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Bureau of soils, Bulletin 36, p. 63. THE JoURNAL oF MEDICAL RESEARCH, Vol, XXI., No. 1, July, 1909. t ) 1 : ' - . e wf 7 = w , iu ’ 7 ‘ 4 ‘ x _ ws dal ge a a7 . \ al) ° i = y A i =, ' = ~ - oe i-5 ’ ‘ S . ' t 96 ™ ' AN IDEAL COURSE IN BIOLOGY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL BY HERBERT E. WALTER. ra ’ & a Reprinted from School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 9, 1909, Pages 717-724 and 840-847. AN IDEAL COURSE IN BIOLOGY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL. By Hersert E. Watter, Pu.D., Brown University. The ideal course in biology for the high school is bound to be full of difficulties for the teacher, but the object ot the present discussion, as I understand it, is not so much to relieve the teacher of the burden he has assumed as to smooth the way for the pupil so that the energies of the latter may be more profitably distributed than at present. Consequently it is the pupil we should have in mind while planning an ideai course rather than the personal preferences of teachers or what the col- leges would like to have done in a preliminary way to their candidates for admission. It should be remembered that only a relatively small per- centage of secondary pupils reach the college or university. To the great majority of boys and girls the high school, if not the grades, marks the end of school days, and thus any course of study to be ideal, plainly should minister to this majority while at the same time providing suitable preparation and ad- vancement to those who are fortunate enough to go on. For this reason the high school course in biology should be general in its scope. Let us attempt to throw open the windows of the soul in many directions and so create as large horizon as possible for the pupil. Teach principles and ideas; teach methods of seeing and of interpreting what is seen; teach how to study things rather than facts about things; teach how to be an intelli- gent citizen in a world of life. It is the high calling of the teacher of biology in secondary schools to leave the pupil like a well-planted garden which is bound to develop naturally in after years into a thing of beauty and a joy forever, rather than like a hot-house in which a few selected plants have been forced artificially into premature bloom. ‘ A paper delivered Sept. 8, 1909, at the Conference on Biological Instruction held at the Clark University Twentieth Anniversary. 718 SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS Thus a pupil should emerge from an ideal course in biology __ with comprehensive ideas about living things and their more general relations, which will form a suitable background or — setting for the acquisitions of after life. He should appreciate the value of a biological fact and know how to place it in his general scheme of things, but he does not need to have collected a very large store of facts. Above all things he should never be blasted with the notion that he has finished biology, but he should retain, or have kindled within him, a lively, abiding in- terest in the world of life which surrounds him that shall ensure his continued growth. Plutarch has said: “The soul is not a vase to be filled but rather a hearth to be made to glow.” How is such an ideal to be attained? The plan I have to propose is brought forward for discussion with much hesitation, since a ten years’ apprenticeship as a high school biology teacher in the strenuous and progressive city of Chicago has placed me in a position to appreciate the im- perfections of any such plan, yet I feel confident that it offers on the whole a better means of attaining our object than the plan I last employed or the plans, so far as I know them, which are now in prevalent use. Before presenting this outline, however, it may be well to point out two of the pitfalls which it is intended to avoid. First: The danger of allowing the laboratory to assume too important a role. The laboratory method was such an emanci- pation from the old-time bookish slavery of pre-laboratory days that we may have been inclined to overdo it and to subject our- selves to a new slavery. It should never be forgotten that the laboratory is simply a means to the end—that the dominant thing should be a consistent chain of ideas which the laboratory may serve to elucidate. When, however, the laboratory assumes the first place and other phases of the course are made explana- tory to it, we have taken, in my mind, an attitude fundamentally wrong. The question is, not what types may be taken up in the laboratory to be fitted into the general scheme afterwards, but what ideas are most worth while to be worked out and developed in the laboratory, if that happens to be the best way of doing it, or if not, some other way to be adopted with perfect freedom. — Too often our study of an animal or a plant takes the easiest. — rather than the most illuminating path. What is easier, for in- stance, particularly with large classes of restless pupils who — COURSE IN BIOLOGY 719 apparently need to be kept in a condition of uniform occupation, _ than to kill a supply of animals, preferably as near alike as pos- sible, and set the pupils to work drawing the dead remains? - This method is usually supplemented by a series of questions concerning the remains which are sure to keep the pupil busy a while longer, perhaps until the bell strikes, and which. usually _ are so planned as to anticipate any ideas that might naturally crop up in the pupil’s mind during the drawing exercise. Such an abuse of the laboratory idea is all wrong and should be avoided. ‘The ideal laboratory ought to be a retreat for rainy = days; a substitute for out of doors; a clearing house for ideas brought in from the outside. Any course in biology which can be confined within four walls, even if these be the walls of a modern, well-equipped biological laboratory, is in some measure a failure. Living things to be appreciated and correctly inter- _ preted must be seen and studied in the open where they will be encountered throughout life. The place where an animal or plant is found is just as important a characteristic as its shape or function. Impossible field excursions with large classes within school hours, which only bring confusion to inflexible school programs, are not necessary to accomplish this result. Pupils can be aroused without hardship to do their best biological study outside of school hours. This is particularly true of bird study. However, it is far from my intention to minimize labora- _ tory work. Properly administered it is without doubt one of our ‘most efficient devices for developing biological ideas, but the laboratory should be kept in its proper relation to the other _ means at our disposal and never be allowed to degenerate either _ into a place for vacuous drawing exercises or a_ biological a morgue where dead remains are viewed. Second: The danger of over-emphasizing the Type-Study Method. When the revolt came against teaching biology by _ authority out of books, the other extreme found expression in the method of Louis Agassiz, who, as you remember, is reported _ to have isolated for days an uninitiated pupil with a pickled fish in a doubtful state of preservation and the sole direction: “Study the fish.” This method was felt to be too vague and impracticable to produce good results except in the hands of genius. The type-study method was, therefore, brought forward, a method 720 SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS Huxley’s was the master mind that initiated this method, and the old Huxley and Martin laboratory manual with its list of classic types has proved to be the sturdy ancestor of a large and varied line of descendants in the way of laboratory guides all dominated by the same idea. The original manual appeared at a time when the evolution of the forms of life was the dominant biological conception and when it seemed of the highest importance to make a morphological survey of the entire animate creation. The only possible method of covering so extensive and diversified a field in any manner whatsoever was plainly to select representative examples of the world’s population and to estab- lish these as standards by which all others could be measured. The Huxley and Martin scheme was originally designed for col- lege students, who afterwards as disciples and teachers carried the idea to the secondary schools. ‘Too often, therefore, the secondary course became simply a dilute decoction of the original college brew, with the result that frequently the pupil went to college only to encounter again the same old galaxy of sainted types—ameeba, hydra, earthworm, starfish, crayfish, clam, and frog—which he thought he had already disposed of in the high school. The living universe has thus come to be a rather limited affair, a sort of oligarchy of a few forms invested with an extra- ordinary significance, and any chance organism outside these Brahmin “types” comes to occupy an unimportant position in the pupil’s mind and to assume.somewhat the abnormal features of a freak. Another danger of the type-study method is that once begun it seems of the utmost importance to complete a particular series of types, and difficulties sometimes arise in attempting to com- press all this into a fixed school program. Furthermore, needless repetition of methods and ideas is likely to follow in the similar treatment of successive types, while the opportunity of retaining the pupil’s interest is lost. Since the subject matter in biological science is so varied and extensive it would seem to be an un- pardonable waste of resources to be confined year after year to the same classic series of types. Is it not possible to do your duty by your pupil without, for instance, impressing him with the fundamental importance of the earthworm as the morpho- logical corner stone on which all bilateral animals have been builded? I know it is heresy not to “do” the earthworm. Against the animal itself I have no prejudice. As a matter of fact I admire immensely its possibilities. Indeed, there are very COURSE IN BIOLOGY 721 good reasons for the selection of each of the sainted types, but has not the time now arrived when we can enlarge our concep- tion of the relative importance of the forms of life about us and break free from the dominance of a single line of approach in our study of living organisms? The repetition in our study of types may be compared to the arrangement of things in most museums, in which as many specimens as possible are on ex- hibition in a given space. The newer conception of what a public museum should be, as is being worked out in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, for example, is to utilize every inch of space not for the display of as many different specimens or types as possible, but rather for the pres- entation of ideas. The Esquimau room, for example, is no longer made up of numerous glass cases crowded with Arctic paraphernalia to the certain confusion of the ordinary observer, but rather a few well-chosen groups of life-sized models repre- senting Esquimaux in various phases of daily activity. From such a room one comes away with a definite picture in mind of what Esquimau life is like. But leaving the discussion of the dangers of overdoing type- study and set laboratory exercises, the promised plan of study I am here to advocate divides the subject matter not as usual, into botany and zodlogy, but into, first, THE DEPENDENCE OF LIVING THINGS UPON THEIR SURROUNDINGS, and, second, THE COMPARA- TIVE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANISMS. For the first half of the year, then, according to this scheme the dominant idea is: The dependence of living things upon their surroundings. Perhaps the word Ecology comes as near as any other single word to defining what is meant. At any rate it is a dynamic point of view—an attempt at a rational explanation of the living world as we find it in operation around us. In order to do this it is not a necessary prerequisite that the entire animate creation be reviewed through the study of various types. It is not neces- sary to acquire beforehand a very large technical vocabulary. Names of things will be forthcoming naturally enough when _ there is need for them. The procedure with the animal or plant will not be, kill it, name it, draw it; but rather, what does it do? How does it do it? How did it come to be doing this where it is? J realize that there are difficulties in successfully treating environmental studies with large classes within laboratory 722 SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS limitations, but the difficulties are by no means insurmountable and great rewards surely await pioneers in this field. The following arrangement of subject matter for the first half year is suggested in part by a plan given by Professor Karl Kraepelin of Hamburg in An Introduction to Biology just pub- lished (Einfithrung in die Biologie, Teubner, 1909). It should be said, however, that Professor Kraepelin is in no way re- sponsible for what follows. The work in the first half, then, may be divided into eight general topics, the first four of which are to be devoted more particularly to plant and the last four to animal life, minimizing so far as possible the barrier that has been erected by technical - science between the two cognate fields of zodlogy and botany. Of late years there seems to be a tendency to do this very thing. Biologists are coming to deal more and more with ideas about living things, and less and less with animals and plants as such. Professor Bateson in England, for example, is no longer to be reckoned simply as a zodlogist. He is now a student of heredity, dealing as readily with sweet peas as with rabbits, and any organism, be it animal or plant, that furnishes material for his central idea, he utilizes with equal facility. Toric 1, PLANTS IN THEIR PHYSIO-CHEMICAL RELATIONS. Under this heading may be grouped the effect of heat, light, gravity and such physical factors upon the existence of plant life; the adaptations of vegetation to frost on the one hand and to desert heat on the other; the optimum temperature for dif- ferent plants; the effect of sudden changes of temperature; the adaptability of plants through acclimatization to new conditions ; the display of green surfaces in the struggle for light; the ~ adaptations of plants to various light intensities and to changes in intensity; the effect of the succession of day and night and in general the great role of chlorophyll in nature. Furthermore, the relation of plants to surrounding media, such as the soil, air and moisture, are subjects easily lending themselves to labora- tory experimentation when the, problems involved are once un- derstood and clearly outlined. It is worth while to propose biological problems for the pupils to work out in the laboratory or outside in their own way. It does no harm if the piece of work cannot be completed within a single laboratory period or if the pupil has to start a second thing before the first is com- pleted. Life is full of incompleteness. It is, moreover, a mis- - COURSE IN BIOLOGY 723 take for the teacher to monopolize all the fun oi invention and discovery. A surprising degree of ingenuity and resourceful- ness wiil come to the surface if interest is once aroused and the pupils are given a chance, a fact brought very forcibly to my own mind by an incident that occurred while I was teaching in Chicago. In a certain text-book we were using with rather soporific results, reference was made to the fact that deep-sea temperatures are ascertained by using a thermometer that re- cords the temperature whenever it is reversed. The question arose, how can a thermometer be turned upside down at any desired level under water. The thing puzzled me, I will con- fess, and to gain time I resorted to a pedagogical device of which T do not have the exclusive copyright, by saying, “Oh, that is easy! It won’t do you any good for me to tell you. Think up a scheme that will work and demonstrate it to the class to-mor- row.” The next day three different models, constructed out of pieces of string, lead pencils, erasers and various other school- room wreckage were brought in and displayed. These models immediately fired the imagination of the beholders and those who had not contributed asked for an extension of time. On the third day we had 47 different devices hanging from the gas fixtures in the laboratory, contributed by about 125 pupils, and a halt was called when, finally, one boy, who had never dis- played any particular interest in his work up to that time, demonstrated with a jar of water to represent the ocean and a nail upon a wire to symbolize the thermometer, a device in which the reversal was brought about by the contact of two poles of a home-made battery held at the surface. It is appalling to imagine what the result would have been if those pupils instead of being to a large extent of foreign parentage, had been real, genuine New England Yankees! = Toric 2, THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, is, in general, an outdoor subject. It may be subdivided into, first: the distribu- ion of plants in the form of plant societies, as, for instance, the forest, the meadow, the pasture, the marsh, the roadside, the pond or the vacant city lot; and second: the distribution of _ plants in larger aspects, i. e., the great zones of vegetation as they occur from arctic to tropic latitudes extending from the poles to the equator, or in altitude from the base to the summit - of mountains. The parallel between distribution in latitude and altitude may be worked out successfully in a very limited area 724 SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS without the knowledge which comes from extensive travel or books although there is no reason for ignoring these sources of information as some extreme adherents of the laboratory method apparently would have us do. For example, the distri- bution of organisms at the seashore upon a sea wall exposed to tidal changes will be found upon close examination to be very definite and for each species surprisingly uniform. If now a neighboring salt marsh with a sloping beach be critically exam- ined these same organisms will be found arranged in the same relative positions not only with reference to each other but also to high and low water marks just as if the sea wall had been tipped over and stretched out flat. Here, of course, the dominant factor in determining distribution is moisture while in the gen- eral disposition of the great zones of vegetation in latitude and altitude temperature probably plays the more important part, yet the principle is the same in both cases. Toric 3. THE RELATION oF PLANTS TO EacH OTHER, sub- divides into, first: the relation of the sexes which may be briefly developed from an evolutionary standpoint without technical details and without the objections which arise in some minds against emphasizing the very important theory of sex upon animals; second: the relation of parents to offspring, i. e., the provision which parents make towards giving their offspring a suitable start in life and the devices with which they are pro- vided for securing a distribution of their seeds; third: the com- petition between plants both of the same kind and of different species, for standing room, for light, for the opportunity of com- pleting their life story successfully, etc., and fourth: the ways in which plants make use of each other, as climbing plants and epiphytes, which stand upon the shoulders of other plants with- out. necessarily causing them injury; symbionts, which live in relations of mutual helpfulness to each other, and parasites, which show how one plant obtains the upper hand of the other and seizes the spoils of the victor. (To be continued.) SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS _AN IDEAL COURSE IN BIOLOGY FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL. By Hersert FE. Wacter, PH.D., Brown University. (Continued from November.) Under Toric 4, THE RELATION oF PLANTS TO ANIMALS, there may be discussed, first: helpful relations as in the case of the transfer of pollen by insects; the distribution of seeds by ani- -mals, and instances of symbiosis; second: neutral relations, by means of which plants and animals may be associated together without of necessity being either a benefit or an injury to each other, and finally, hostile relations. Under this latter head a consideration of the injury done to plants by animals is sug- gested and the adaptations of plants against such injuries. Au- tumn is an especially favorable time for observing the relation of insects to vegetation—particularly to forest leaves. The rather unusual cases of carnivorous plants would naturally be taken up under this topic and particularly that very important phase of plant parasitism upon animals exemplified by the patho- _ genic bacteria. Perhaps this would be the place to develop the essentials of bacteriology, which should surely be included in every “ideal course in high school biology.” The fundamentals of bacteriology lend themselves easily to laboratory exposition ) even without the technical paraphernalia of a bacteriological lab- - oratory. The immense practical importance of correct ideas _ about man’s relations to his microscopic friends and foes, around F which so many brilliant biological discoveries have centered and 3 are bound to center still more in the future, demands a place in the training of every well-informed citizen. Toric 5, ANIMALS AND PLANTS IN THEIR PHysico-CHEMICAL RELATIONS, is a topic much like topic I except that it deals with animals more particularly than with plants. Animal behavior, that is, the adaptations of animals to the physical factors in their environment such as temperature, light, gravity, ete., may be laboratory-ized to a considerable extent especially with the lower forms, which react more directly to the changes in their surroundings than do the higher forms, the inhibiting action of whose more elaborate nervous system is likely to complicate results. The movement of copepods or flatworms with refer- ence to light; of slugs on a sheet of glass or banana-flies in a glass tube with reference to gravity; of fresh-water snails in an — Ss COURSE IN BIOLOGY 841 aquarium with reference to oxygen; and pill-bugs or cock- roaches in a box of chips with reference to contact, all make fruitful laboratory exercises. To be sure the results may not be as uniform as morphological studies upon the same animals dead—for the repertory of a living animal is considerably greater than that of a “pickled’? one—but, as pointed out in the printed announcement of this conference it is “not uniform but unified results” that we are after. Again, the subjects of color in the animal world, of the influence of light upon form and function. and the adaptations of animals who love darkness rather than light, may be treated here. The relation of animals to the soil, as, for instance, the development of the burrowing habit, which has occurred in so many diverse types; the relation to air and water as media in which to live and how changes in these media have been effected, are further suggestions for this topic. The isopods to be found under the stones and old boards in almost any locality will furnish excellent material for solving the prob- lem of how certain animals have come to live in the air, while the water beetles of any pond will help to solve the other side of the question of how air dwellers can become adapted to life in the water. It is a valuable and illuminating laboratory exer- cise to provide each pupil with an active earthworm and set him the problem of making the animal stop moving without killing it, a thing which although not so easy as it looks, can be done by properly manipulating the factors which make up the earth- worm’s environment. At the close of the period if the pupil has persevered half as much as the earthworm he will be fully as wise as if he had spent the time with a dead worm learning from a laboratory manual that its upper side, whichever that is, is “dorsal,” and that the bracelet-like thing up towards its front ond is named the “clitellum” with two Ils. Toric 6, THE DiIstRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, comprises the varied means of locomotion, the effects of sessile life, the migrations of animals with the conquests of new territory and interadjust- ments in animal communities. Particular species may be found with considerable certainty in definite localities for which fact there are usually good and sufficient reasons. It is worth while looking into the matter, for a laboratory pupil who always has his animals served up to him in glass is not likely to realize this important fact. The intimate examination of the fauna of ¢ very restricted area often discloses the widest horizon. I acci- dentally discovered this once while teaching biology, if I may Me Res Oy SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS > be allowed to illustrate the point from personal experience. A laboratory day had arrived with five large successive classes on , hand when at the last moment to my dismay the material, what- ever it was, upon which I had depended, proved to be worth- q less. There was no time to go for more. I happened to have - on hand no canned biology that I could substitute. Laboratory ; work had to be done because the program called for it and in ? desperation I rushed out of the building and seized upon about a square foot of weeds, soil and all, that had escaped the cinders _ in one corner of the school yard. It was about all the vegetation in sight, by the way, and it was not exactly what would be called __an attractive display but it proved a bonanza! In the course of * the day we discovered almost everything in that pan of dirt. There were fourteen species of plant life in the first place—each : one represented by battle-scarred veterans who had achieved Success in a dozen different ways; there were three earthworms, j a slug, a carabid beetle, two kinds of caterpillars, a staphylinid beetle, numerous spring tails, a portion of an ant society hard j at work trying to repair the damage done by the earthquake, a thriving aphid colony attended by ants upon a pigweed, and under a stone some pill-bugs and a myriapod. What more could one ask? Not only the distribution of animals upon land but also their ___ distribution in water would find a place here in the scheme of j study. Consider that home of life, the ocean, with its various habitats, the strenuous zone between tides, the shallow sea, the deep sea and the surface of the open water. Then fresh water ponds, pools, marshes and streams and finally that region where so many desperate biological problems have been worked out during the ages, the estuaries, which mark the transition region between fresh water and salt. Some of these various habitats are sure to be within the reach of the most denatured city school and a careful census of at least one restricted locality with an ‘analysis of the discoveries made in it is certainly worth while. Topic 7, THE RELATION OF ANIMALS OF THE SAME SPECIES . To Eacu OTHER, includes first: the relation of the sexes, sexual _ selection, secondary sexual characters, etc., and second: the care of the young by those parents who invariably die before their _ offspring develop, as for example, most insects, as well as those who live to incubate eggs, like the birds or to carry about eggs in safety like the lycosid spiders and crustaceans. The training COURSE IN BIOLOGY 843 of the young by the parents and also lastly the complex relations of communal life are topics to be considered here. Bees or ants can be made to carry on their highly interesting activities in ob- servation houses in the laboratory and it is highly desirable to have as many distractions in the form of living things in the laboratory as_ possible. Under Toric 8, THE RELATION OF ANIMALS OF DIFFERENT Species TO Eacu OTHER, briefly may be considered the struggle for existence and the balance of life among animals. ‘To follow intimately the changes in population from day to day in a stand- ing aquarium which has been stocked with a heterogeneous as- sortment of pond life is sure to be illuminating. Further sub- jects for investigation are animals of prey with their adaptations for the capture of prey as well as animals preyed upon with their special devices for defense and safety such as protective coloration, mimicry, armor, etc., and, finally, cases of commen- salism, symbiosis and parasitism, with their train of adaptations and modifications as compared with exponents of an independent life. One of the dangers in such a half year of ecology as outlined above is the liability to become indefinite and confused since there is so much from which to select. Since the object, how- ever, is to develop in the pupil the scientific attitude of the in- vestigator rather than to “salt down” any particular group of facts in his mind, it is the instructor’s business to see that each laboratory exercise shall have a definite object and to direct and unify the discoveries of all the pupils. There is no fundamental necessity for a certain inflexible number of laboratory hours each week or for a program so fixed and foreordained that the spirit of investigation shall be robbed of spontaneity. One of the chief joys of biological science is the fact that it contains - so much which has not been reduced to certainty and that it has such a large unexplored territory. Here the north pole has not been reached. Why should we be satisfied with a “Cook’s tour” through the realms of biology when undiscovered countries awaiting exploration extend to our very doors? The general subject for the last half year, which fortunately can be treated more briefly than was possible with that for the first half, is THE COMPARATIVE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANISMS. Here the emphasis is placed upon the comparative point of SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS view. Instead of a somewhat extended study of the entire mech- anism oi one or more forms it is believed that better results may be attained if one general feature after another of the organic mechanism, as, for example, breathing or reproducing, to be taken up comparatively in as many different forms of life as are available. This method, which has long been employed with suc- cess in teaching college students the anatomy of vertebrates, seems to me the most logical path to pursue with high school pupils in order to arrive at a comprehensive interpretation of the structure and functions of organisms. Aside from this it is bound to insure a wider acquaintance with forms of life since thus no single animal or plant is selected and laboriously finished - but rather the entire animate creation, as far as available, is made a foraging ground for illustrative material with the result that repeated encounters with certain forms thus sought out for a definite purpose will be sure to develop in the course of a year a natural familiarity with a considerable number of organisms. The plan of the last half year has been divided into eight topics which, like those of the first half year, are not of equal importance and consequently will not require equal intervals of time for development. Toric I, [THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ELEMEN- TARY ORGANISMS, includes a brief survey of the Protozoa, the Protophyta and the Protista in general. So far as time and microscopic equipment permit, this fairy-land of science should be explored at first hand by the pupils. It is in any case desir- able to develop certain general ideas such as the immense role the unicellular plants play in oceans and other bodies of water in transforming inorganic substances through the energy of sun- light into food available for other organisms, the part they play in the transmission or causation of disease, or the fundamental significance of these unit-like forms in the morphological evo- lution of the organic world. Topic 2, THE TRANSITION FROM ONE-CELLED TO Many- CELLED ORGANISMS, explains itself sufficiently and requires no elaboration here. Toric 3, THE PRINCIPLE oF Divison oF Lazor AND Mor- PHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION, is a general subject which could be worked out in a variety of ways—preferably with the lower forms where there are fewer complications. The object of this topic is to give a logical explanation for the diversity of forms COURSE IN BIOLOGY 845 among organisms and to furnish a general key for interpreting the organic adaptations, the study of which constitutes the chief lure to the biological student. Toric 4, INpIvipUALS AND COLONIES, is another general sub- ject of rather minor importance which nevertheless is well worth a briet treatment. Toric 5, THE Structure oF Many-CeLtep Prants, deals with the comparative anatomy of plants. The following list of sub-topics will make sufficiently clear the manner of treatment recommended for covering this rather familiar field of biology. 1. Cells, tissues and organs in general. Protective organs. Supporting organs. Organs of nutrition. Organs of respiration. Organs of transpiration and conduction. Organs of response to stimuli. Organs of reproduction. This to be followed by Toric 6, THe Functions oF PLANTS, under which is considered, first: their metabolism, second: their movements or reactions to stimuli, such as geotropism, helio- tropism, thigmotropism and the like. It is not intended to di- vorce structure and function as the arrangement of the matter under two topics might indicate. It would be absurd to try to separate them or to discuss which is the more important and the fundamental danger in limiting or even in introducing the study of an organism with the dead animal or plant as has so often been done, lies in the fact that the structure and function are thus made separate things. The most important fact about an organism is that it lives—consequently the logical avenue of approach in studying it is not, “Here is a dead mechanism. What could it do when it was alive?”—but rather: “Here is a living object. What is the mechanism by which it acts?” Toric 7, THE Many-CELLED ANIMALS, is designed to trans- fer attention to the animal world in particular without attempt- ing a separate treatment of structure and function. While cell- differentiation, and the germ-layers and tissues might naturally be developed from the morphological point of view, the organs and their functions would best be treated comparatively, being illustrated from the evolutionary standpoint with as wide a range of animals as possible. A brief scheme in detail takes up, 1 oes SN a SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS _ Protective organs, as typified particularly by the integument; 2. Locomotor organs, such as skeletal structures and muscles; 3. Organs of metabolism, that is, the digestive, circulatory, ex- cretory and respiratory organs; 4. Organs of reproduction, and 5. Organs. of sensation and correlation, as, for example, the central nervous system, the transmission systems and the sense organs. The final topic suggested, No. 8, is Man’s Place IN NaTurRE. This topic includes, first: an orientation of the pupil with respect to the theory of descent, that is, the evidences for evolution from classification, anatomy, fossils, embryology, distribution and ex- perimental breeding; Lamarck’s and Darwin’s explanations of how evolution has come about and a clearing up of the present day standpoint concerning this great epic of biological thought. I am firmly convinced that pupils of high school age are ready to appreciate much of this majestic canvas if only it is properly unrolled before their eyes. In its main lines it is a story that when simply told is sure to grip the imagination, illuminating and unifying the entire year’s work. A second sub-topic, intro- duced here, is the natural history of man as shown first by what we know of his prehistoric days and his particular ascent from humble origins to his present high estate, and second: by the examination of the existing races of mankind, their distribution over the earth and their conquests of the controlling forces of nature. Finally, has not the time come when we can conclude an ideal course in secondary biology with something of a prac- tical moral in the way of elementary eugenics? Some sort of correct knowledge of the remorseless laws of heredity as applied to man and of the immense possibilities in the hands of those who understand how to control those laws, is of the highest im- portance to every future citizen. The time is surely coming when the scientific breeding of the human species will be at least worthy of as much attention as the breeding of cows or cabbages, which for a long time have been objects of human solicitude. ; It will be seen that throughout this entire scheme of study no definite portion of time has been set aside for the identification and classification of animals and plants. It is assumed that the preceding nature-study in the grades has accomplished a general working vocabulary of the names of living things, not scientific names nor technical classifications, whose acquisition belongs COURSE IN BIOLOGY 847 largely to the advanced work of the college or university, but common usable names. If this scheme of study has any virtue © at all it is pretty sure to develop unconsciously and as a by- product, a working plan of classification and identification suffi- cient for all practical purposes. It is a mistake to advance the names of things before the pupil sees any sense in them. Too often learning the scientific name of an animal so exhausts the energy and dulls the interest that the pupil has no desire to go further. To summarize: the proposed ideal course in high school biol- ogy demands (1) a study of organisms in their living relations rather than a morphological inquest upon their dead remains; (2) less of classification and identification of species as an end in itself; (3) a more comparative study of structure and func- tion than the ordinary type-study method insures; and (4) de- velopment in the pupil of a greater power and independence in interpreting the living world than seems to be possible through laboratory directions so detailed and complete that he is robbed of the initiative which it should be the instructor’s attempt to foster. 97 i} m Uae AN IMPROVED METHOD OF COLLECTING GASES ; FROM THE MERCURY PUMP. _ BY FREDERICK G. KEYES. The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXX], No. 12. December, 1909. { Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXI. No.12. December, 1909.] AN IMPROVED METHOD OF COLLECTING GASES FROM THE MERCURY PUMP. By FREDERICK G. KEYES. Received October 4, 1909. The usual method of collecting gases from the mercury pump is to invert a tube filled with mercury over the end of the pump capillary. The writer wishes to point out the reason why this method is unsuitable in exact work and to describe an arrangement which overcomes the difficulties to be mentioned, simplifies the manipulation and enables the operator to obtain a high vacuum more easily, if necessary. In the writer’s work,’ it was required to transfer gases through the mercury pump into an inverted tube and then to transfer the gases to the gas analysis apparatus. In carrying out this latter operation it was noticed that even when great care was exercised in filling and inverting a perfectly clean collecting tube of 100 cm. capacity, minute bubbles were trapped. The presence of a film of air between the mercury and the glass walls of the collecting tube may |e demonstrated by setting the lower end of the tube upon a rubber stopper set into the bottom of the mercury trough and communicating, by means of a rubber tube, with a mercury reservoir. Upon lowering the reservoir the mercury will fall in the tube, producing a Torricellian vacuum. As the mercury falls bubbles of air will be observed to start from the walls of the tube and pass along the walls into the Torricellian vacuum. When the mercury reser- voir is raised and the pressure within the tube restored to that of the atmosphere, it will be found that an appreciable quantity of air has been freed from the walls of the tube. When operating a mercury pump of 500 (cm.”) capacity, having a capil- lary of about 1 mm. width, the bubbles passing down the capillary will be about 1 mm. long. (The writer ventures to suggest, as a result of his experience, that capillaries as small in bore as 4% mm. are to be preferred.) Now as the vacuum improves the difficulty of removing the air collected by the mercury rising in the pump head increases. To obviate this difficulty Morley? adopted the expedient of connecting a piston pump to the pump capillary and thus, by reducing the pressure on the capillary side, materially increased the size of the bubbles passing down the capil- lary. The modification represented in the figures is calculated to obviate the difficulties mentioned above. It is customary to allow the end of the capillary O (Fig. 1) to dip be- neath the surface of the mercury trough, placing the inverted tubes in- tended for collecting the gas over the upturned end of the capillary. Instead of this, the tube D-D’ is sealed directly to the upturned end of 1 Keyes, American Journal of Medical Research, 21, 69. ? Smithsonian Contributions, Vol. 29, p. 17. 1272 GENERAL, PHYSICAL AND INORGANIC. the capillary. A trap is also sealed to the bottom of D’. From the end of the trap communication is made with a mercury reservoir by means of rubber tubing. To the upper end of D’ is sealed a three-way stopcock provided with capillary leads. This latter may be constructed after the plan of the vacuum stopcock! as an extra precaution if desired. When it is a question of simple exhaustion, L is left open to the atmosphere with the mercury level as represented in the figure during the first few strokes. Toward the end of an exhaustion the reservoir may be raised to expel the air within D’ and again lowered. ‘This will leave a fair vacuum in D’, into which the bubbles passing down the pump capillary will be discharged. Fig. 2 Fig. 1. The collection of gases by means of the apparatus is very simple. When the gases are ready to be collected the gas burette M is connected after the manner represented in Fig. 2. The air is passed over from the burette into the collecting tube by raising the burette leveling tube. The burette stopcock may be closed and the air from the gas burette walls collected by lowering the leveling tube and subsequently pressing the gas over into D’. The air from D’ may be pressed out by turning the stopcock at the top of D’ so that it communicates with L. If the reservoir S is now ' Keyes, Science, 28, 735. ANALYSIS OF MIXTURES OF HALOGEN ACIDS. 1273 lowered until the mercury passes completely out of D’ and again raised, the air in contact with the walls may be passed out of L. By repeating the above-described operations several times the collecting tube is obtained practically free from gas. The gases to be collected are pumped directly into D’. At the conclusion of the pumping the gases may be passed over into the gas burette M by raising the reservoir and manipulating the stopeocks. Any minute bubbles which may have lodged between the mercury and the glass walls may, of course, be recovered completely, and thus another source of error avoided. The capillary tube G may be fastened to L’, if it is desired to transfer the gases to closed tubes in case the gases are to be preserved for a length of time. We have found the following stopcock lubricant more satisfactory than the one described by Travers. 18 grams of pure gutta-percha are added in small quantities to 26 grams of melted paraffin (m. 70°) kept at a temperature of about 150° until the gutta percha is dissolved. 20 grams of heavy mineral oil (that supplied with the Fleuss patent pumps answers admirably) are added and the whole maintained in an oven at a temperature of 125—130° for four or five hours. BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R.I. ae | -_ aiBirhaadotias ao esas Nyiasiiatig dla al Tee ‘alban wee 2) S RaR eR fo ned bela se ah Ati Si beahictila nba guitto aby SUS Hint Yats se aeOTe Petrie “boeing S¥A°h9255tton ad bay BAP OF f =e bee nae ‘Glut Beas Sa Heieinshig’ a6 sai noo F La ht © Aare rap ekg Pre sios pe | 2) wibby ed? 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Issued February, 1910. pp. 221-240. a) meee tHOpD OF LOBSTER CULTURE From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 Proceedings of the Fourth International Fishery Congress : : Washington, 1908 Se een WASHINGTON : : : : : : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : : : : : : 1910 BUREAU OF FISHERIES DOCUMENT No. 654. Issued February, 1910. ASMETEOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE 7 By A. D. Mead, Ph. D. Member of the Rhode Island Commisston of Inland Fisheries 2 2 Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress held at Washington, U. S. A., September 22 to 26, 1908, and awarded the prize of one hundred dollars in gold offered by Hermon C. Bumpus for an original and practical method of lobster culture 219 CONTENTS: ‘ a Page. bheyproblems a2 2. S222 i ess =a ee eee eee ee >: Characters and habits of larval lobsters__-________--___- Sp ee ter = = Matching 2 =2 Season 2 eee es ee oe ee ee ee Mode of swimming <__ =.= 2<-24:_2-- 32. S46252- eos ea eee R000 232 a = eos Soo oe es esas oe eee ee ee Moulting and, the larval-stagess2 9) Dificultiesin wearing = 2. =. 2.22 AS esse ee ces eee ee Shiaieavenbnyer ey ols jee oe — 2S (2523582 sok Sees ee ee ee . Lightreactions==— =.=. = Se eee eee ese eeeae tool eee Parasites 2) 3% = 5-522. 32 35 =o Sos c 5 snes nena apes oe ens eee Hood = 2Bas oo a2 = sbi w a ses Sess 2e ee eee eas eee Reqiusitesiof water, ete: <.-26 25 25525525 ae sees sane ea eee Fihesmethod ase ae > A Soe ne Ee ee Hssential features/and possible variations. _-=>— == == === ==. How, the:method meets the difficulties = ===" 22225 === 555 8s eee ‘ Apparatus! = 28. = 222. ee BES ee St he Bee ee Watchingmethodss= Ss 1322 22s ace. Se ee ee on Handling-ithe egg lobsters._ == £- =" 2292222 == ee Rrecatitionjas toracerof fry ses a ee epee > = = Girculationicurrént <= 222-2 42a 525 ee Containers forepggs and fry —--4-. ==. ==) = 332 eee Carcrolttheimy sah e=5 = - 3 22 ee eee See ot) nee sense ce ee eeréensi) 055. seat Sse abe SE ee ee ee INQ0d Se. ou 2S aces cl ees So es ae oe ee Parasitic; gtowth: =22=- 322525022. She5 Sos ee ee ee ee Resulfise. 62. ot tk oe. ns oe cs oe EE ee ee ee ee ee Criteria of efficiency == = 2 5222222 222-525 =- 2 go ee ee eee WMearlyprogressiand output. =. ___--.+- 2222252021 22-00) eee Manner of determining output. —-—__=.=-=.---.<..2 8 eo Summary andunterpretations=-.=2)=- 2.2 == 2st ee Capacity and efficiency: of plant==__.._ = -- === 2-2 ee Self-protective ability of fourth-stage lobsters______ A eee Bifth=stagé lobsters=<2- =. 2-23-54 Se se at eee Liberation of young lobsters: — --_-2.-222.---.-222) 2 Byidence of inerease.in lobster supply,- == >= = 22 e2 2 ee Economic efficiency ofithe method=—____ | _-__ 2 e 220 A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. & By A. D. MEAD, Ph. D., Member of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries. x THE PROBLEM. Artifical breeding ought not to be content to do at its best only what nature does unaided. It obtains its real justification only when it is in a position to surpass nature in her achievements. Only thus can it accomplish the task set it—to fill up the gaps caused by years of excessive fishing. (Professor Ehrenbaum, in Mitteilungen des Deutschen Seefischereivereins, Bd. 23, Juni 1907—Translated.) In the case of the lobster, nature has made adequate provision for the protection of the eggs up to the very time they are hatched. As is well known, the eggs laid in July or later in the summer or in the early fall are carried attached to the swimmerets under the abdomen of the female lobster, and there are protected until the following June or July, when they hatch out (fig. 9, pl. x1). The young lobsters, also, when they have successfully passed through three moults and have attained the so-called ‘‘ bottom stages” are equipped with structures and instincts which fit them exceedingly well for holding their own in the struggle for existence; but there intervenes between the hatching and the attainment of the first bottom stage a brief period of two or three weeks in which the young lobsters, having lost utterly the protection of the “mother animals, and not yet having acquired either the structure or the instinct _ which would give them a reasonable degree of individual security, are exposed _ and helpless to an extraordinary degree. : Those who have studied the question of lobster culture agree that this short interval may properly be called the “critical period” in the lobster’s ife—the one in which occurs by far the greatest mortality. That the species has maintained itself without diminution (until the recent inroads by man) in _ spite of this unprotected period may be explained by the enormous productivity of the individuals. A lobster of ordinary size—say 12 inches—produces at one time, according to Herrick, an average of about 20,000 eggs, which are so well ted that practically all of them hatch. This excessive productivity, how- - ever, though a potent means of protection to the species, affords no protection to the individuals. 222 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. To one confronting the problem of lobster culture these cardinal facts in the natural history of the lobster point out clearly and exactly the line of attack. We can hardly expect to increase the number of eggs per lobster (and fortu- ‘nately the number is at any rate very large) or to improve on the natural method of protecting and hatching the eggs, for up to the time when the eggs are actually hatched there seems to be little loss in nature. It is during that period directly after hatching, when in nature the larve are neither protected from without nor equipped for self-protection, that the great opportunity offers to “surpass the achievements of nature’ by protecting these individuals. Not only is this period the weak spot which artificial culture may be expected to strengthen, but the superabundance of larve normally produced for sacrifice is _ advantageous because it furnishes readily the material for cultivation. Still another condition particularly favors the cultivation of lobsters: It is that the _critical period between the perfectly protected eggs and the well-equipped bottom-living lobsterlings is so short (only two or three weeks). Altogether, then, there would seem to be no doubt that the greatest practical results of lobster culture can be obtained by concentrating efforts upon protecting the fry through the critical larval period. This has been quite generally and inde- pendently recognized as a fact by those who have studied the lobster problem, and it has been an incentive to the many attempts made by experimenters on both sides of the Atlantic to rear lobsters through the larval stages. It has been, likewise, the incentive to a continuous series of experiments and operations extending over exactly ten years, which have resulted in the method of lobster culture presented in this paper. CHARACTERS AND HABITS OF LARVAL LOBSTERS. It is a necessary preliminary to an intelligible account of the method itself to sketch briefly the habits of larval lobsters and to indicate some of the peculiar difficulties which the method has to overcome. Hatching.—The hatching of the ripe eggs of an individual female lobster is a gradual process requiring at least several days and varying with the tempera- ture of the water and perhaps with the lateness of the season. In the latter part of June, when nearly ripe lobsters are brought into the warm water of a shallow estuary, the hatching is accelerated. The fact of the gradual breaking loose of the eggs is undoubtedly of importance in the economy of the lobster under natural conditions, for it prevents the possibility of the swarming of the young fry and the attendant dangers of speedy recognition and capture. When the larval lobsters first break out of the egg membrane they are closely coiled in the form of an oval spheroid with the terminal segments of the abdomen bent over the rostrum. In a few moments they straighten out and expand and then immediately take up the pelagic life and instincts which they retain until they reach the so-called ‘‘fourth stage,’”’ after shedding their skins three times. A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 223 Mode of swimming.—The young lobsters swim by means of vibratory movements of their exopodite appendages, which stand out like blades from the thoracic legs, and the swimming is augmented by irregular jerky strokes of the © ; very muscular “tail” or abdomen, which, in all the larval stages, is bent at a considerable angle to the cephalothorax. The swimming must be characterized as slow and weak when we have in mind for comparison that of most young € fishes. At any time during the three larval stages the fry can easily be picked out by means of a small scoop, or even with the hand. ' In general, too, the swimming seems to be aimless in direction, so that the __ fry are easily carried along by the slightest current. This statement, however, 3 though generally true, requires qualification, for under the influence of special _ stimuli the movements often become directive. The larva respond to varying _ directions and intensities of light and, in experimental tests, to the direction of electrical currents. They avoid, in many cases, light-colored objects if near, and they are attracted by food to a rather slight degree. They will go only very short distances, however, after particles of food or living prey. During all the larval stages they exhibit practically no instinct of fear and, while they avoid light surfaces, they do not try to escape capture. The heliotropic and photopathic reactions and what may be described as the general aimlessness of movement are things to be reckoned with in developing a practical method of lobster culture. Food.—The natural food of the lobster must, of course, consist of pelagic _ organisms. . In an examination by Dr. L. W. Williams of the stomach contents of larve in all three stages taken from the rearing bags at our station,“ a large percentage were shown to have fed upon copepods and diatoms. The young lobsters, however, are not distinctly fastidious in this respect, and the nature of the stomach contents of the fry in their natural habitat would doubtless be found to vary according to the variety of available pelagic food. Moulting and the larval stages. —The instincts and behavior and the general appearance of the three successive larval stages are generally similar in respect to the features just referred to. The stages are, however, structurally well defined and readily recognized, there being for each a number of clearly diagnostic peculiarities. (See text figures p. 224 and 225.) Among the most obvious and easily recognizable are, for the first stage, the small size of the larve and the absence of swimmerets on the under side of the abdomen; for the second stage, ‘the somewhat increased size, the presence of several pairs of swimmerets and the absence of “tail fins” or the lateral appendages of the ES US segment; for the third stage, the presence of both swimmerets and “‘tail fins.’’ All stages have the exopodite swimming appendages and the corresponding pelagic habit; none has the functional chele or “big claws” of the adult lobster. According to the observations made by Doctor Hadley at our station the average measurements of the tliree successive larval stages are 8, 9 Y%, and 11 yO ~ own we a : \ @Station of the Rhode Island Commission of Fisheries at Wickford, R. I., on Narragansett Bay. 224 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. millimeters, respectively. There is, however, a considerable range of variation — in size, particularly in the second and third stages, and there is good evidence that in general the larger’ specimens are the better fed. For this reason the — average size of the lobsters of the various stages in particular rearing experi- ments forms, perhaps, a basis for judging whether the lobsters are doing well or not. The length of the combined larval stages varies greatly and is directly and powerfully influenced by the temperature and food. It ranges from nine to FiG. 3.—Third stage. LARVAL LOBSTERS, LATERAL VIEW. more than twenty-five days (twenty-one days is extremely long at Wickford). From the viewpoint of practical culture, the length of the total larval period is of very great importance, though the duration of the first, second, and third stages severally does not seem to be so. DIFFICULTIES IN REARING. In artificial culture, of course, the fry must be confined in large numbers, and it is practically impossible to separate them from one another. Therein appears an initial difficulty which all experimenters have had immediately thrust upon them. The fry, under these circumstances, at once exhibit a most A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. FIG. 5 —Second stage. Fic. 4.—First stage. Fourth stage. FIG. 7. LARVAL LOBSTERS, DORSAL VIEW. Fic. 6.—Third stage. B. B. F. r908—15 226 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. unnatural and vicious cannibalism which Professor Morgan might well have added to his enumeration of characteristics impossible of development through natural selection and the survival of the fittest, for it can hardly be exercised at all under natural conditions. But whether this evil instinct arises from one or another biological antecedent cause or is a special inspiration in each particu- lar case, its reality is a constant and serious menace to lobster-culture operations. The cannibalistic tendencies are manifested as soon as the fry are hatched and continue throughout the larval period and, for that matter, even far beyond it. Not only do the larger and stronger specimens devour the weaker, but individ- uals of equal strength attack one another, and, apparently, some initial advan- tage determines the outcome. During the moulting period the mortality from these sources is naturally aggravated, because it is easy to tear to pieces the soft-skinned, freshly moulted individuals, while they, on their part, are unable to fend off attacks. . Swimming habits —The comparatively aimless and weak swimming habit which characterizes the larve of the first three stages would seem, even in nature, to afford no protection, but for cultural operations, where large numbers of larve are given the restricted liberty of a small arm of the sea or are more closely confined in cars of any sort, it contributes to one of the most exaspera- ting difficulties. For example, it happened that when the fry in one of the early experiments of this series were placed in a small cove or inlet from the sea, especially prepared and apparently well adapted to their requirements, they were carried out by the first ebbing tide, and when, subsequently, a screen was stretched across the gateway they were carried against it and left stranded high and dry. In the many attempts to confine them in various forms of cars, when the current was allowed to pass through to prevent stagnation, a like result followed—the unresisting fry were always finally borne against the sides or bottom. Once upon the bottom the larval lobsters are utterly helpless; they lie upon their sides or backs beating the water with their exopodite “fins” and “kicking” with the whole body. They can not crawl; their only salvation is to “kick” themselves loose from entanglement and once more rise in the water. When confined in considerable numbers, even in still water, they inevitably find their way to the bottom as a consequence of their aimless drifting mode of swimming. There they accumulate in corners, pockets, or eddies, and, entangled in débris, they fight and eat one another until, from injury or suffocation, they all perish. For the full appreciation of these difficulties there must be, how- ever, the personal recollection of particular rearing bags in which from day to day the precious living larvee vanished from sight, and of the quarts of bright pink colored dead specimens mixed with dirt and silt and remnants of unused food that came into view when the bag was raised for inspection. In one of the A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 227 earlier experiments 5,000 handsome first-stage larvae, appropriately designated from their condition the “gilt-edged lot,’ were placed in a new scrim bag 12 feet square and about 4 feet deep and were carefully tended. Out of the number only two individuals came successfully through to the fourth stage. Light reactions ——As far as the movements of the larval lobsters are not aimless, they seem to be directed mainly by responses to light stimuli, and vary according to the intensity, color, and direction of rays. They also seem to be modified, indirectly, by background. Doctor Hadley in a study made at our station of the behavior of lobsters observed that the character and responses bore a fairly constant relation, not only to the stage, but to the period within the stage. In cultural operations, where cars are used, the photopathic responses of confined lobsters tend to bring them together into close quarters and are often therefore inimical because of the encouragement that this gives to cannibalism. In attempts to retain the fry in pounds or small estuaries, these responses would very likely tend to carry the lobsters to the shore, to be entangled in the vegetation or stranded at the ebb tide. Parasites —External parasites, including stalked protozoa, fungi, diatoms, etc., are often a plague to the confined larve. They grow upon the shell and so encumber the larve that feeding and moving and breathing also are difficult or impossible. Not infrequently, in fact, the larve are so completely covered with these foreign growths that they can hardly be recognized. The parasites are got rid of at each moult, but often they so weaken the larve that moulting itself is made impossible. The danger from this source is greatest when, by reason of the low temperature of the water, the duration of the periods between moults is increased. Food.—Not the least of the difficulties connected with rearing lobster fry is the providing of proper and available food. In small experiments the live copepods and other pelagic food natural to the lobsters in these stages can be supplied, but on a large scale this is not an easy matter. Naturally, food that sinks to the bottom can not be reached by fry that normally swim or float. Requisites of water, etc——The foregoing facts regarding the characteristics of the fry in general and the peculiarities which they manifest when in con- finement have to be taken into consideration in any attempt to rear the lobster through the critical period of its life. To these considerations must also be added the important question of an adequate supply of water, uncontaminated by chemical or bacterial impurities, constantly furnished with the proper _ amount of oxygen, and sufficiently free from injurious gases arising from the metabolism of animal or bacterial content. Finally, in any method of lobster culture there must be taken into consideration its practicability when applied _ on a large scale and its feasibility with regard to the cost of operating. 228 2 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. THE METHOD. ESSENTIAL FEATURES AND POSSIBLE VARIATIONS. A method by which lobsters can be reared through the larval stage in such proportions and numbers and at such a cost that it may be called a “ practical”’ method has been gradually evolved at the floating laboratory of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries at Wickford, R. I. (fig. 1, pl. vir). Essen- tially, the method consists of confining the larval lobsters in cars, either of porous material or provided with screen ‘‘ windows,” set into the ocean itself, and of maintaining within the cars, by mechanical means, a continuous gentle current of water having a rotary and upward trend. In details the method allows of wide variation. Good results have been obtained in small cars made out of water pails; in cars approximately 1 foot, 3 feet, 6 feet, and ro feet in horizontal diameter and 1, 3, or 4 feet deep; and in either square or circular cars of cotton or linen scrim, of bobbinet, of canvas, or of wood. Any constant motive power can be used, according to the exigencies of particular cases—steam, hot-air, or gasoline engines; spring, weight, or water motors; or the water can be stirred by hand, with much labor but good results, as in our early experience. Various forms of power transmission may also, of course, be utilized; belt and rope drives over pulleys and sheaves, and steel shafting with mitered gears, worms, etc., have all been successfully utilized. HOW THE METHOD MEETS THE DIFFICULTIES. The way in which this very simple method overcomes the many difficulties of confining larval lobsters may be described in general terms as follows: In the first place the rearing cars are placed directly in the sea, and thereby all the disturbing factors so difficult to control in case of aquarium water which has been pumped and forced through closed pipes, stored in tanks, aerated by air pumps, etc., are at once avoided, and at the same time the various known and the subtle unknown requisites of healthy sea water are assured. The continu- ous upward spiral current of the contained water is the panacea of numerous troubles. By the upward trend of the current the larve are kept always afloat, which is their normal condition and the only one to which they are by structure and habit adapted. The strength of the current easily overpowers their own weak efforts at swimming, sweeps them round and round, and effectually prevents their congregating in common response to the stimuli of light. When the fry are prevented from getting to the bottom and from congre- gating anywhere, several difficulties vanish. The effects of cannibalism, which constitute perhaps the most serious difficulty of all, are thereby greatly alle- viated, for the fry are to a comparatively great extent prevented from reach- ing one another, and of course the disastrous effects of their becoming stranded on the sides or lying entangled and fouled at the bottom are also obviated. A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 229 Another most important function of the current is the holding in suspension of solid particles of food, so that they come within easy reach of the larve. Incidentally, also, it increases the supply and availability of pelagic living food, for the latter is drawn into the car through the bottom and kept alive by normal conditions of the water. An adequate supply of available food is per- haps the most efficacious preventive of cannibalism. The maintenance of normal conditions of water in a car is also accom- plished by this method. The temperature and density of course vary little from that of the surrounding water. The water is constantly renewed either through the porous sides or, in the case of wooden cars, through screen windows in the bottom, egress being allowed for by screens in the sides. Since the cur- rent is internal and mainly tangential to the sides of the car, the fry are not carried violently against the ex-current screens, as in the case of a tidal current passing in one side and out the other. There is not much need of rapid renewal of water, however, because the water is continuously brought to the surface by the upward trend of the current, where by exposure to the air it is recuperated with oxygen and relieved of waste gases due to the metabolism of contained animals or the decomposition of unused food. In a word, it may be said that by this method the pelagic lobster fry may be kept in confinement and under observation in inclosures of natural water, protected from their usual predatory enemies, maintained in natural pelagic condition by being prevented from going to the bottom, provided with either living or artificial food held in suspension, and that the tendency to cannibalism, always evinced when the fry are confined, can be considerably mitigated. APPARATUS. The particular form of apparatus by means of which this method has been successfully applied to the rearing of lobster fry during the last few years at Wickford is in some respects a special adaptation to the establishment in connec- tion with which it has been evolved, and certain details of construction are ves- _tiges of former experiments too good to be cast aside, but not to be exactly copied ‘in new construction. As it stands to-day, the apparatus consists of a house- boat built like a catamaran of two pontoons, with a “well” or open space between them, originally intended and used, indeed, for holding experimental cars. At both ends the space between the pontoons is decked and on each deck is a small house. The houseboat floats on the water, moored securely in a small cove directly over the channel in a good tideway (fig. 1, pl. vm). It forms the nucleus of a collection of skeleton rafts which nearly surround it and which all together occupy a considerably larger area than the houseboat itself. Four | tafts, 19 by 75% feet, lying two on either side of the houseboat, contain the cars , for hatching and rearing lobster larve. The rafts of each pair are bolted fast together and buoyed by barrels (fig. 1). The inside rafts on either side of 230 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, the houseboat are fastened to the latter with eyebolts sliding over vertical rods — to allow solely for up-and-down motion. Each of the four rafts contains six _ rearing cars, 10 by 10 feet square and 4 feet deep, so arranged that they can be held — down in place or raised out of the water to be cleaned (fig. 4, pl. vm1). The rearing cars are provided with removable windows covered with 16-mesh bronze woven wire screens to allow for renewal of water and to prevent escape of fry. There are two windows about 2 feet square on the bottom and two long narrow ones in the middle of two opposite sides. For several years previous to last summer canvas bags about the dimensions — of these boxes and provided also with screen windows were used almost exclu- sively. They equaled or perhaps surpassed the boxes in point of efficiency when they were in perfect condition, but were less durable and were more diffi- cult to clean. The apparatus for keeping the water in motion consists of a two-bladed horizontally placed propeller of about 414 feet radius not unlike those sometimes in use over restaurant tables (fig. 3 and 4, pl. vim); the latter, in fact, suggested their adoption. The propeller blades are hung inside the car near the bottom and are made to revolve slowly—about nine revolutions per minute. The motive power for the propeller is furnished by a gasoline engine situated in one of the houses and connected with the propeller shaft by a system of steel shafting and mitered gears (fig. 1, 2, 3, pl. va and vim). Each propeller can be thrown in and out of gear independently. HATCHING METHODS. Handling the egg lobsters ——The method now used in hatching the eggs is simple. The old female lobsters carrying eggs about ready to hatch (fig. 9, pl. XI) are put directly into boxes and the paddles are set in motion. As the old lob- sters crawl about on the bottom of the cars, the eggs hatch out one by one and the larve, caught immediately by the upward revolving current, are carried up and off the bottom as they are in the ocean. Twenty to 30, or even 50 to 100, lobsters may be put in one car. When the number of old lobsters is large, we have found it well to replace the long propeller by a shorter one hung somewhat farther from the bottom so that the old lobsters will move freely over the bot-— tom with tails extended and not crowd up into the corners. Screens placed over the top of the box, thereby shading them from the strong light, also help — to prevent crowding (fig. 7, pl. x). As soon as a sufficient number of fry have hatched out the old lobsters are removed to another car to repeat the operation. The length of time required to hatch out a full complement of fry in one box varies, of course, according to the various conditions; that is, the number of egg lobsters, the condition of the eggs, the temperature of the water, etc. Precaution as to age oj fry.—It is of great practical importance to have a full complement of fry hatch out as quickly as possible—within at least one day— so that all will be about the same age. Otherwise, when the fry moult the older A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 231 individuals, having passed through the moult and recovered their strength and appetites, are very destructive to the smaller or freshly moulted larve. The effects of this discrepancy in the ages among lobsters of one batch are especially ~ injurious when the older individuals reach the fourth stage, for the fourth-stage lobsters are endowed with strength, sagacity, directive power of movement, and voracity of appetite far beyond that of the other stages. When, through a difference in age, a number of lobsters enter the fourth stage considerably in advance of the others, they become veritable “‘sharks,”’ as they are jocularly called by the attendants. On this account in the first experiments with wooden ears a considerable loss was sustained because certain boxes were reserved as hatching boxes and the fry rather than the “hens” were periodically removed (fig. 5, pl. 1x). It being impossible to get them all out at one time, those that remained were often taken out together with a younger lot and later on became “sharks” to this brood. Circulation current.—For the benefit of the fry there is no doubt an optimum current within the car. The current can be controlled to a surprising degree by manipulating the propellers, although the number of revolutions per minute remains constant. A slight inclination to the blades makes a current very _ slow, while the maximum inclination creates a current like a mill race. The length of the blades, the amount of taper from base to apex, and the height of the blades in the water cause different effects in the character of the current; ‘ for example, the relations of the rotary and the upward components of the cur- _ rent can be thus controlled and varied within wide limits. By these and other variations the fry can be made to scatter evenly at all depths and distances _ from the center or to occupy various zones or strata. Experience and judg- ment must decide the question of optimum current at each particular phase. In general, it may be said that a gentle, even current made by a long, well- tapered blade and slight angle of inclination is usually best. Containers for eggs and fry.—When the rearing was done in canvas bags the old lobsters were confined in crates suspended in the bags, because, if let loose in the bottom, they were apt to tear the canvas. The crates were neces- sarily less spacious and had the objection of being in the way of the newly hatched fry, which were sometimes swept against them with considerable force y the current. To the other advantages of the wooden car as compared with the canvas bag must be added its capacity to function as a hatching pen. The design and construction of these wooden cars, together with many other ‘recent improvements, should be credited to Mr. E. W. Barnes, the superintendent of the station. In the beginning of the experiments at Wickford the fry were transported from the Woods Hole hatchery by the Bureau of Fisheries, with whom we were in cooperation. Later experiments showed that the eggs could be stripped off in the usual way and placed in small rearing bags, where they would hatch. 232 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. From these the fry were transferred to rearing cars. This method gave place to that of putting the ripe egg lobsters in shallow crates floated near the surface in the big canvas rearing bags, and then the two modifications just described were introduced. CARE OF THE FRY. After the fry have been hatched and transferred to the proper rearing car they respond well to careful treatment, and the degree of success of an individual experiment depends to a large degree on the care that is given. Screens.—Attention to the condition of the screens is worth while, for the intake and outflow of water can thus be regulated and, incidentally, the fine particles of food can be retained in the car for longer or shorter time by this means. The screens which we have used have been made of copper wire, bronze, galvanized iron, galvanized steel, scrim, and painted wire of various meshes and sizes of wire or thread. None is thoroughly satisfactory. They are all apt to clog up or to tear easily. It is to be hoped that the perforated sheet brass or bronze, which has been tried by Professor Gorham to his satisfaction in small experiments, will prove to be a great improvement. Food.—An appropriate and available food supply sufficient in quantity to fulfill the demands of healthy growth is, of course, a prime requisite in any fish culture, but in the case of the lobster larva even this may not be adequate. Not only should the fry have food enough for their healthy growth, but they should never be allowed to go hungry. From hunger to cannibalism is a short step, and although, by means of the current, the fry are kept from congregating, and danger from cannibalism is, therefore, greatly lessened, there still occur chances of individuals coming momentarily in contact with one another, and, if hungry, they make the most of these opportunities. When not hungry, and when the cannibal instinct is not aggravated by the crowding together, they are fairly peaceable. The question of the best food for the lobster fry is still open. There are many kinds that the fry will eat, and fortunately by means of the stirring appa- ratus small pieces of almost any kind can be held suspended and therefore made available, but the fry have preferences, and, furthermore, the choice must involve the consideration of cost, the labor of preparation, waste, and the effect upon the water in the cars of the grease or decaying residue. In some of the earlier experiments several years ago the highly epicurean diet of lobster liver was offered, and the young larve, innocent of its antecedents and, as it proved, unaware of its consequences, devoured the finely divided morsels ravenously. This diet did not agree with them and was discontinued partly on this account and partly because for operations on a large scale there were financial objections to its use. Shredded codfish, finely cut or ground fish of various kinds, clams, mussels, raw beef, beef liver, boiled beef, and many other foods have been tried. The fry are extravagantly fond of fresh fish, A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 233 especially the strongly flavored and oily varieties, but the pieces uneaten foul the car and are therefore objectionable. Clams cut out and finely chopped or ground have been in very general use with us. The expense, however, of digging and opening and the considerable waste in the larger pieces of tough muscle, together with the amount of decayed residue which accumulates in the course of two weeks during which the fry usually remain in one car, are objections to its continued use. In a careful series of food experiments at our station Doctor Emmel decided, after using clam, liver, beef, and some other foods, that chopped raw beef gave best results, all points considered. However, with a large quantity of fry to feed, it was found to be difficuit to prepare cheap raw beef finely enough divided for practical use. Boiled beef coarsely ground (Hamburg steak), boiled, and ground again, and then beaten up in water with an egg beater, was used with gratifying results during the latter part of the present season. It has the advantage that it is easily prepared, even though the cheapest and toughest is chosen, and that when prepared in this way the pieces are small and corre- spondingly numerous. The particles are readily held in suspension, and when put into the water little by little with a long-handled scoop or shaken through a fine netting (fig. 6, pl. rx) they form a cloud of light-colored and easily visible particles and are distributed so evenly that they are available at every feeding to all the thousands of individuals in the car. Prepared in this manner, the beef leaves scarcely any residue; most of the uneaten finely divided pieces are carried out gradually through the windows. In its use one prime precaution must be taken; it must not be allowed to become stale or previously soaked with water. Care should also be taken to put the raw beef into boiling water and so to coagulate and conserve its albumens. For the reason alluded to, namely, to keep the larve not only well fed but constantly satiated, thereby preventing cannibalism, it is necessary to feed them often, and we adopted the schedule of feeding every two hours through the night and day. Even with the best possible food—and this has yet to be dis- covered—there is a ‘‘knack”’ in feeding, and it is one of the points in the care of __ the fry which repays careful attention, for, besides having the advantages just _ mentioned, adequate food undoubtedly increases the rate of growth and short- ens the larval period. Parasitic growth—The dangers from diatomaceous, fungous, and similar parasitic growths are especially serious when the time between moults, due to cold water or poor food, is relatively long. For this reason the temperature is a factor to be considered, when possible, in locating a hatchery. At our station e duration of the whole larval period is from nine to (rarely) twenty-one days, _ Most of the larve hatching in about twelve to fourteen days. We have found _ that shading the cars, as Professor Gorham recommended, seems to prevent to a _ itarked degree the growth of diatoms, and also that in the wooden cars recently 234 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, adopted the annoyance from this source is very slight when the cars are shaded. The insides of all of the boxes were painted, four of them white and the rest green. We could not see that either color had an advantage, judging from the output of fry. Whether the comparative immunity from diatoms of fry in boxes as compared with those in canvas bags was due to the painted surfaces of the wooden sides or to some other factor it is difficult tosay. Animal growths, barnacles, molgulas, oysters, mussels, etc., were abundant even on the painted surfaces, and were scraped off each time the cars were raised. Canvas screens on frames (fig. 7, pl. x), set up like the sides of a roof so as to afford shade and to shed rain water, which occasionally comes down in such quantities as decid- edly to freshen the upper strata of water, are strongly to be recommended. RESULTS. CRITERIA OF EFFICIENCY. As was stated at the outset, this series of experiments and operations was undertaken in the conviction that the paramount problem of lobster culture was to raise the larve to the fourth or lobsterling stage. It has been constantly borne in mind that a method of doing this to be practical must be able to pro- duce large quantities and without too great expense either for the cost of the plant or for operation. Further criteria of efficiency are, first, the proportion of fourth-stage lobsters to first stage, and, second, the number of ‘‘fours” to egg lobsters, provided, of course, that the egg lobsters on hand do not over- crowd the capacity of the particular plant. In placing a value upon propor- tions of ‘‘fourth stagers” to newly hatched fry, the number of fry dealt with in a single experiment has been considered; e. g., a proportion of 50 per cent carried through in an experiment with 500 or 1,000 fry can not fairly be compared with the same proportion in an experiment in which 5,000 or 20,000 fry are used. We have allowed ourselves also to mark our progress and the value of the method by comparison, first, with our former results, and, second, with the experiments undertaken elsewhere having the same end in view. YEARLY PROGRESS AND OUTPUT. Since this year happens to be the decennial of this particular series of experiments and operations, the presentation of a short summary of yearly results in regard to total output is appropriate. In 1898 Doctor Bumpus, now the honorable president of this congress, and at that time director of the United States Fish Commission laboratory at Woods Hole and member of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries, had the faith and courage to undertake a new series of experiments in rearing the larval lobsters. Judged by the ingenuity put into them, and the experience and encouragement got out of them, these experiments during the first year were See i \ \ A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 235 successful, though the number of fry reared wassmall. The total output is sum- marized in the report of the work in these words: Several lobsters were actually raised to the stage when the characters of the adult - are assumed—the fourth moult.? The next year, 1899, the results were better because of the use of “‘a large _ bag of scrim made after the fashion of a fish pocket and hanging down into the water from a square floating frame.” The output is given in the following _ words: By the methods above described, and after many failures, accidents, and reverses, we succeeded in raising several hundred lobsters to the fourth stage. During the following season, 1900, several lots of newly hatched fry were transported from the United States Fish Commission station at Woods Hole to the new floating laboratory of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries at Wickford, R. I. (the two commissions working in cooperation), where further experiments with scrim bags were started parallel to those still being conducted at Woods Hole. At the floating laboratory at Wickford the trials and reverses of _ the previous year at Woods Hole were again experienced, but the experiments : were under the eye of the person in charge, by night as well as by day, because the small houseboat functioned as a residence. The greatest virtue of the loosely hung scrim bags consisted in the undulatory “ peristaltic”? movements, _ due to wind and tide, which tended to keep the lobsters off the bottom, but it 7 was observed that during the nights there were periods of dead calm and of Y slack tide, when the fry sank to the bottom and died. This led to the simple _ conclusion that if the fry, left to themselves, persisted in sinking to the bottom _ to die they must be stirred up and prevented from sinking; so after this they were stirred with an oar continually night and day. The total reared to the fourth stage was 3,425. The results showed unequivocally that the proper principle had been discovered, and immediately plans were laid to substitute a mechanical apparatus by which this method could be less laboriously carried into effect. Curiously enough, some large two-bladed fans revolving over a restaurant table for the purpose of driving away flies suggested the type of appa- tatus suited to the purpose, and this type has been in use ever since. The next year, 1901, the United States Bureau of Fisheries again cooperated with the Rhode Island commission. Some of the fry were imported from Woods Hole and some were hatched at Wickford. An apparatus for using the two- laded propeller was designed and installed by Mr. G. H. Sherwood. The results confirmed the correctness of the principle, and the output for the year as 8,974. During the subsequent years the method has been developed and the appa- - ratus again and again remodeled to incorporate the results of our failures and @Bumpus, Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries, 1898, p. 98. 236 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. successes and in the effort to obtain results on a scale large enough and with cost small enough to deserve the adjective “practical.” The total outputs for the years are: Tools ae See ls (2) NOOQIs i see sae 2753008 | SL Q00ee == eee C189, 384 MSQQN Roe eo Se (>) 1903=-=22225255=255- 13, 500 | (20) ae 4294, 896 LQOOl= Se = 2 =seesel ese 37 4255| 904 = = 50,597) |) 1908222 === ee €322, 672 UGC 2S es EHO || ue e-osssaeiateacs = 103, 572 | The rearing of considerably over 300,000 lobsters in the small plant at Wickford recalls the confession of faith written ten years ago, at the conclu- sion of the first season’s work: We know perfectly well that many others have failed in doing what we attempt, but until we are thoroughly convinced that the young lobster can not be ‘‘brooded”’ we propose to continue our work./ Manner of determining output.—It was early realized that ‘‘estimates” of the number of lobsters in experimental work are practically worthless and therefore all the fourth-stage lobsters which are taken account of at all (many thousands of others have accidentally escaped) have been individually counted. Within the last few years, when the numbers have run up into hundreds of thousands, the operation of counting individuals has consumed much time, but the satisfaction of accuracy in results has been sufficient compensation. A comparatively easy and very accurate method of counting is now in use. The “lobsterlings”’ are dipped out of the hatching boxes with flat woven-wire strainers which take up from one to twenty at a sweep; these are recorded on an auto- matic counting register held in the hand. The count at each sitting is then posted (fig. 7 pl. x). It is of little use to estimate the number of a lot of first-stage fry. More than once the lots so estimated, even by experts, have yielded not more than 10 per cent of the estimated number; sometimes, no doubt, they would run considerably over. For this reason, in order to ascertain the proportion of newly hatched fry to the fourth stage, the individuals must be counted both before and after the experiment. This is a rather tedious process, but it is war- ranted and necessary when new methods or new devices of construction are tested for their relative efficiency. Tested by this method both the large canvas bags used until this year and the present boxes have yielded on several tests 40 per cent of fourth-stage lob- sters from lots of 20,000 newly hatched fry. In one test of the canvas bags 48.2 per cent were obtained in a 20,000 lot. In testing for relative value of foods in a “Several.” ¢ 24,800 to fifth stage. €5,481 to fifth stage. b “Several hundred.”’ @ 4,900 to fifth stage. f/ Bumpus, op. cit. e» A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 237 1907, 40.6 per cent and 39 per cent were obtained in two respective tests, while one of the boxes yielded 42 per cent. About 40 per cent may be considered a fair yield for lots of 20,000 under the present system of operation. By using more fry more fourth-stage lobsters can be obtained from a single car, but the percentage probably falls. There is another very different point of view from which the efficiency of the present method may be judged, namely, the number of fourth-stage lobsters which it will produce per egg lobster under fair conditions. Toward the latter part of the season two years ago, when the supply of eggs from the ordinary source had suddenly been cut off, 56 egg lobsters were received from Noank through the courtesy of the Connecticut Fish and Game Commission. From these there were hatched and reared to the fourth stage 84,896 young lobsters, giving an average of somewhat over 1,500 per egg lobster. SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION. Summarizing the actually obtained results of rearing lobster fry to the fourth stage by the method herein described: Since the present method was first put into operation in its crude form where the water was stirred by an oar the output has each year (with one exception) increased. The extremes are represented by the total of 3,425 in 1900 and of 322,672 in 1908. The grand total for the eight years is 1,014,320, more than half of which were pro- duced in the last two years. With lots of 20,000 newly hatched fry from 40 to 48 per cent (counted) have been carried through to the fourth stage fre- quently, and 40 per cent may be said to be a fair average to expect under good conditions. From 56 egg lobsters nearly 85,000 fourth-stage lobsters were _ obtained, showing an average of about 1,500 per individual. c In order to interpret these results fairly, there are certain things which _ deserve consideration. Even when operating on a practical scale, we have _ been feeling our way over new ground to further improvement of the method. Not a year has passed without decided changes in the method or the apparatus. While this procedure leads to the best final outcome, it does so at a sacrifice of immediate results. Accidents, also, of certain classes—for example, the loss of larve through broken screens—must be charged against the present apparatus and not against the method. Delays in construction, difficulty in getting egg lobsters, etc., may be due to misfortune or to mismanagement, but do not affect the permanent value of the method. Capacity and efficiency of plant.—The plant as it stands to-day must be dged by the results actually attained; but having watched closely its operation I may venture the personal opinion that it has not yet produced to its full eapacity and that the 24 cars are capable, under good conditions and with allow- ces for inevitable mistakes, of hatching and rearing 500,000 lobsters in the 238 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. six or eight weeks which constitute an average season. This is a conservative estimate based on the following deductions: [If all the 24 cars were filled three times, allowing two weeks for passing through the moults, with an average output per car of 10,000 each time (which is considerably below frequent actual production), the total output would be 720,000. With a constant supply of fry sufficient to fill the plant to its full capacity throughout the season, this estimate could probably be raised. As has been stated before, many features of the present installation are to be considered as vestigial structures and others as designed for one function and adapted to another in the course of the evolution of the plant. A new plant, therefore, built to operate the same rearing cars would be different in many details. The cost of a plant capable of duplicating the work of the one at Wickford has been calculated by Mr. E. W. Barnes, superintendent of the Wick- ford plant, at approximately $2,000, specified as follows: Cost oF A REARING PLANT CONSISTING OF 24 REARING BOXES CAPABLE OF TURNING OUT OVER 500,000 LOBSTERLINGS IN A SEASON. 2A MOTSePOWenengInG= =e — == eae = a $200) |/24boxes=2s=--=--—-—— == $350 Houseboaton<0= = ee = = —sas- eee eee 300 | Miscellaneous supplies_-__-_-_--__--/_-- 200 Hourirafitss == 22 222 oe ee ee ee 350 Gearinge ees o2- hereon se seca eae eee 400 Total ~~. --=-------=+-=-=—=e 1, 800 The above items have been figured economically but quite liberally, and in localities where materials can be readily secured the cost might be considerably lessened. The actual cost of rearing lobsters to the fourth stage is a little less than $3 per 1,000. This includes labor, food, gasoline, and in fact all necessary running expenses, but does not include the cost of egg lobsters. This amount would, of course, vary with the time and place where the plant was constructed and also with the kind of materials used. Self-protective ability of fourth-stage lobsters—An acquaintance with thou- sands of fourth-stage lobsters from personal observation and through the spe- cial scientific studies of members of our staff increases even our former estimate of their superiority over the larval lobsters. Immediately after arriving at this stage they are able to crawl over the bottom, to burrow and hide, to fight, and to forage in most striking contrast to the larval lobsters in any stage of devel- opment. In the first few days of the fourth stage the lobsterlings are good swimmers—this is their “redeeming vice’”—but the swimming is strong and bears no comparison to the aimless drifting movement characteristic of larval stages. The lobsterlings dart hither and thither in pursuit of food, and for the first time they show a decided fear and strive to avoid capture. When left in the rearing cars, which have a strong internal current of water, thousands of these lobsters are often seen all swimming mightily in one direction against the strong current for hours at a time; but these same lobsters when taken out of the car and put into another one provided with sand and gravel will often take immediately to the bottom and behave as if they had always lived in this habitat. ae a NNER I gk! A METHOD OF LOBSTER CULTURE. 239 It is an interesting and important fact that the tendency to swim decreases rapidly during their sojourn in the fourth stage and also that they can be encour- aged to live on the bottom by being brought into contact with it. These facts have suggested two modifications in the usual procedure in liberating lobsters— first, that of holding the lobsterlings in special rearing cars for a few days after they reach this stage, keeping up the current in order to keep the lobsters sepa- rated and to keep their food in suspension, and, second, that of liberating them in such a manner that they will immediately touch the bottom, in which case they are not so apt to make swimming excursions through the water. An ingen- ious device for the latter purpose has been invented by Mr. Barnes. The young lobsters are sunk in barrels which have the numerous holes for their exit so cov- ered up that while the lobster can get out predacious fishes can not get in. It is comparatively easy to care for fourth-stage lobsters. Space and plenty of food are about the only requisites. Like the fry,they are cannibals in pro- portion as they are hungry and crowded together; but unlike the fry, they con- trol their own movements and go where they please, whether swimming, or crawling, or burrowing, and they have, moreover, a strong instinct of self- preservation. Fijth-stage lobsters.—There is much to be said in favor of rearing lobsters _ to the fifth stage before liberating them, and this is not difficult to do, but requires space. In some experiments conducted without great care 80 per cent were car- tied from the fourth to the fifth stage in large lots of several thousand. In addi- ‘tion to the advantage in the matter of size, strength, and hottom-loving instinct, which favors the fifth-stage lobsters, an additional advantage lies in the fact that the duration of the fourth stage can be shortened by abundant feeding. Doctor Emmel showed in a most convincing manner that by feeding alone, all other conditions being identical, the duration of this moult can be varied from an _ average of eleven to an average of twenty-four days. ri Liberation of young lobsters ——Every visitor at the rearing plant asks the _ embarrassing question, ‘‘ What proportion of the liberated lobsters live to grow up?” Only once was a definite and satisfactory answer given to this question d that by a new recruit on his first day’s duty. In 1901 when the experiments began to indicate that a large number of lobsterlings could most likely be liberated from our establishment, investiga- tions were started to find out whether the physical conditions of the waters of Narragansett Bay were such that the young lobsters could live here throughout e year. Of this there is now no doubt, for the specimens reared from the egg ve year after year been kept over winter in cars sunk or floated in the harbor Wickford. Several were kept for three successive years and finally were ost through accident. 240 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. EVIDENCE OF INCREASE IN LOBSTER SUPPLY. The young lobsters have been liberated mainly in the upper half of Narra- gansett Bay, because for many years previous to our operations small lobsters have been conspicuously absent from these precincts, according to the statements of fishermen. Within the last three or four years a great many reports have eome in of small lobsters from an inch to 4 or 5 inches in length being caught in the lobster pots and escaping through the slats when the pots were drawn up; also of smail lobsters up to 8 inches in length dug out of the mud in the early spring by the clam diggers. These reports have been numerous and are increas- ing and apply to those particular districts in the upper part of the bay in which our lobsters have been liberated. They have occasioned remarks of surprise by the fishermen, because this region -has been so long barren of small lobsters. Whether this can be taken as good evidence of the effect of liberating in these waters about half a million of young lobsters reared to the bottom stage (the number up to two years ago) is at present of course entirely a matter of opinion. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF THE METHOD. At the end of an account of the method of rearing lobsters and of the results actually attained, a brief speculation with regard to the efficiency of the method from the economic standpoint may be permissible. It is often true in biology that one can draw conclusions as to causes and effects from observation and comparison of normal occurrences. in the breed- ing of animals we seem to have a case in point. Fishes which produce many — thousands of eggs at a time, but whose young are left almost utterly unpro- tected, often do not maintain so great a numerical abundance as do other species (like the dogfish), which produce only a very few individuals at a time, but give the young a high degree of protection. While the relative values of the larval and fourth-stage lobsters can not, — for a long time at any rate, be determined accurately by direct experiment, it would seem that a comparison of the breeding habits of the lobster and the crayfish would, as Ehrenbaum has pointed out, furnish data for a tentative valuation. Where the lobster produces at one time 20,000 fry (Herrick got an average of 21,351 eggs from 414 observations of 12-inch lobsters), the cray- fish produces approximately 100 young (Ehrenbaum), which it protects to a stage comparable with the fourth-stage lobster. Assuming, then, that the 100 young fourth-stage lobsters and the 20,000 newly hatched lobster fry are of equal value for maintaining the species, the ratio of individual values would be 200 :1. Our method of artificial culture is capable of obtaining 8,000 fourth- stage lobsters from 20,000 fry. It is able, therefore, by taking advantage i the lobster’s great productivity, to obtain 80 times as many young of this particular advanced stage as are necessary for the maintenance of the special under natural conditions. BUI Ue Os Bak, 1908: PLATE VII. Fic. 1.—General view of house boat with floats attached, looking forward. The ends of the pontoons show ati1and2. The general relation of the rearing cars, alleyway, and barrels is seen in the right-hand floats. Fic. 2.—Inside of box toward one corner. 1, Sleeve coupling for disjointing propeller shaft; 2, lever for throwing shaft out of gear; 3, train of mitered gears reducing speed of propeller shaft; 4, type of adjustable hangers in general use; 5, inside corner of box. Bur. U. S. B. F., 1908. PEATE VILLI: Fic. 3- Floats from outer corner looking forward and toward house boat. The appearance of the car in the water and the gearing of the propeller shafts are shown in the nearest car. Fic. 4.—One of the outside floats, car raised. The size and shape of the propeller is well shown. PLATE IX. 98 UWLOIF por : J uUsyxLYS poo} | [eUls Jo Toyo 5 unois jo suvout Aq Surpa: Ulot]} 10} poredoid mv9 oY} 0} UdYL} 9S} ‘10VVM JO Gn} v OJUL JfO UayxvyYsS A[o,VIPSUILUIT puv a[Aqs Sty Jo Jou JLEE B UO 4NO padooods a1 Ady} ‘pattojsuvsy oq 0} OAVY AIF OY} JT Fic. 7—Method of counting fourth-stage lobsters. The awning is laid aside. The lobsters are caught up in the woven-wire dipper and shaken off into a bucket of water. In the left hand is held the automatic counter. Fic. 8—Improved towing car designed by Mr. Barnes from an old model. The egg lobsters are towed in this car, and fishes of various kinds have been towed for many miles with the most excellent results. PLATE BUT On Sr Ba He LOO8: PLATE XI Fic. 9.—Lobster with eggs. 99 A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE AND TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISHES. BY A. D. MEAD. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII. 1908. Issued April, 1910. pp. 761-780. 4 A NEW RiNtINGIRLE OF -AQUICULTURE AND TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISHES From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 108 Proceedings of the Fourth International ee ee ss cs : Wa Se 1908 a a a a a a WASHINGTON : : : : : : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : : : : : : 1910 Ne} “2 : Be ; ; Q 2 t Bae is (eo) =) : ae) - A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE AND TRANSPORTA- TION OF LIVE FISHES ed By A. D. Mead, Ph. D. Member Rhode [sland Commission of Inland Fisheries & Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress, held at Washington, U.S. A., September 22 to 26, 1908, and awarded the prize of two hundred dollars in gold offered by the United States Bureau of Fisheries for a report describing the most useful new and original principle, method, or apparatus to be employed in fish culture or in transporting live fishes 759 CONTENTS. a . Essential features and development of the method Adaptation to fishes and other pelagic forms RequirementsS= 29232. Soe es a ee ae ee ee eee ee Requirements satisfied’ 92 =.= = S224 eee eS ene eee ee Adaptability of the method Apparatus. oo 2.9.2 222 les he ssek a2 322 oe eee san sts eee ee eee General description Details of structure. S22 = Sa a ee ee Possibility of variation Précautious=25-. -=..5--64 0 55 22k. oo ee ee ee eee Mests:of efficiency == = ° +2222 ~-_ ==. 22S se eae ee ee General application of the method in aquiculture Application in transportation of live fishes 760 as Bur. U.S: By Fs, 908: PLATE XC. Fic. 1.—Floating laboratory and rearing plant from the port side. The forward (left) house serves as a laboratory and the after one as the engine house and tool room. Most of the rearing cars are covered with white awnings. Fic. 2.—General view of the plant from the outer rear corner. In foreground one of the cars shows the propeller shaft and faint indication of propeller blades in the water A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE AND TRANSPORTA- TION OF LIVE FISHES. & By A. D. MEAD, Ph. D., Member Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries. & ESSENTIAL FEATURES AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHOD. The method and apparatus herein described as a novel and practical method of fish culture have gradually developed through eleven years of continuous experimentation at the marine station of the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries. It may be said, indeed, that the method and the station have developed together. The aim has been throughout to provide as simply as possible the essential features of the natural environment, biological and physical, for aquatic animals while kept in confinement, and to introduce as little as possible the unnatural features which are frequently considered necessary in artificial culture. Upon this principle there has been sought a feasible method of pro- viding water agreeable to the particular species in regard to the various com- ponent salts, well aerated but not over aerated, having the proper temperature, density, and current, and containing appropriate food in available condition; while providing at the same time for the elimination of waste products of animal respiration, and avoiding the dangerous chemical and bacterial impurities almost invariably present where the water is passed through systems of piston pumps, closed conduits, and storage tanks, and is aerated by means of forced air. The first step in the development of the method was a very direct and simple concession, namely, that of going to the ocean instead of trying to bring the ocean into a house on land. The floating laboratory and hatchery was therefore adopted as a feasible method of circumventing, if not surmounting, many difficulties. During the first and second seasons of work it was clearly demonstrated that the starfish (Asterias forbesit) could be reared in the course of the summer (four months) from the larval stage to over 50 millimeters measured from mouth to tip of arm (nearly twice the length of sexually mature specimens captured in June, the breeding season, and therefore a year old), in cars of 761 762 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. appropriate shape floating in the water between the pontoons of the houseboat. In this case living food was supplied at first in the form of small barnacles which had set on boards, and later, as the starfishes grew larger, clams, oysters, and mussels were given them to eat. The conditions in these cars were completely adequate for the healthy life of these slow-moving animals, and were abnormal only in that the young starfishes were protected from their enemies (excepting always their cannibal brethren) and were better fed than they often are under natural conditions. In many cases where they were especially well fed they far outstripped in rapidity of growth individuals found along the shore. They throve splendidly and were perfectly healthy. This way of raising starfishes may hardly be dignified by the term “ method,” and yet the better condition of these specimens as compared with those usually seen in an aquarium—even in an aquarium where many fishes live for a long time—is a striking fact. It suggests also that there is often something the matter with aquarium water which, whatever the cause, makes it unsuitable for the rearing of very sensitive animals. At the floating laboratory, animals with the burrowing habit can also be kept confined and protected and under constant observation by simply putting them into a box of sand suspended in the water. Specimens of the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) may in this way be very successfully and rapidly reared, and they give every indication of being in a perfectly normal environment. Indeed, in our experiments, when they were kept just under the surface of the water and in the tidal current, they grew more rapidly than in the most favorable shore locality I have ever seen. In one experiment with clams ranging from 5 to 17 millimeters the increase in bulk during five weeks and two days was 1,861 per cent. In the case of sessile animals like oysters, Crepidula, Anomia, Molgula, Botryllus, sea anemones, tubiculous worms, etc., and of those which spin a byssus, like the mussel, young clams, and pectens, it is only necessary to provide the proper surface for them to set on and protection from predatory animals. In case of the hatching of such eggs as those of the flatfish, Menidia, Fundulus, and the lobster, with which we have had experience in the course of our opera- tions, it would seem that the term ‘“‘ hatching” could hardly be used in a transi- tive sense, for, if the eggs are provided simply with water of proper constitution, | temperature, and conditions for respiration, the eggs inevitably hatch them- selves. These nonpelagic eggs, in fact, belong to the same category as the sessile or slow moving animals and may be treated accordingly. The method of stripping and swirling lobster eggs has been given up with us and instead the ripe-berried hen-lobsters are allowed to crawl about in the rearing cars with the result that the eggs hatch most satisfactorily. Similarly the eggs of the flatfish (Pseudopleuronectes) were hatched with almost no loss by placing them on a A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 763 piece of scrim which formed the bottom of a box about 6 inches deep floated on the top of the water in a protected pool. The eggs of Menidia and Fundulus are hatched successfully by practically the same treatment. ADAPTATION TO FISHES AND OTHER PELAGIC FORMS. REQUIREMENTS. In the development of the method of fish culture with which our station is identified the installation of a laboratory directly upon the water and the confining and rearing of animals in cars placed in the water marked the first step. For many animals of the types we have mentioned, the slow moving, or creeping, the burrowing, and the sessile animals, this is all that is necessary for rapid and healthy growth. For pelagic animals, however, like the young of most fishes and the larval forms of crustacea and other marine invertebrates, it is not sufficient. The very peculiarities of structure and instinct which adapt these creatures to their pelagic life make it difficult to confine them for a long time even in relatively large inclosures of the water in which they normally live. One is baffled now by one peculiarity and now by another. The larve or fry are often strongly heliotropic, and in going toward or away from the light soon strike the boundary wall of their confine, and when they are numerous, as they must be in practical culture, die from the effects of crowding, if, indeed, they are spared to this fate by their cannibalistic comrades. Often in the blind struggle to go toward the light regardless of the boundary wall, they grad- ually work their way to the bottom and become entangled in débris or covered with silt. If, for the sake of good circulation of water, the tidal current is allowed to pass through the car, as in the case of sessile or bottom-living forms, the pelagic fry are apt to be swept against one side, or to collect in eddies, with disastrous results. If, on the other hand, the current through the inclosure is not supplied, the water becomes stagnant and not well aerated, and since the time required to rear most animals to a considerable size is long, the stagnation under these circumstances is almost inevitable. The minuteness of many larval animals constitutes a fourth difficulty, for perforations or meshes large enough to permit sufficient circulation frequently permit also the escape of the fry, while meshes too small for the fry to go through become clogged with silt and do not allow free circulation. The fifth difficulty in the rearing of pelagic fry in inclosures of this kind depends upon the fact that normally they capture their prey ‘‘on the fly.” A dilemma presents itself: If the fry are fed upon smaller animals or plants, these too must be pelagic, involving all the difficulties over again, while, if artificial food is used, there is no provision for keeping it in suspension, in which condition only would it be available. 764. BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. REQUIREMENTS SATISFIED. After the first step was taken and the excellent result of rearing bottom- living animals in native water was recognized, it seemed most desirable to follow up the advantage gained in the rearing of other forms by extending and developing the procedure so that it would be applicable to pelagic fry. For- tunately we were able to hit upon a method which solved at once all the main difficulties arising from the peculiarities of pelagic existence of larve and other free swimming animals. This method consists essentially of creating and maintaining within an inclosure of ‘‘native” water a gentle upward swirling current. It obviates the several difficulties which we have enumerated as peculiar to pelagic fry in the following ways: It effectually prevents the crowding of the fry to one wall of the car, for the force of the current carries them round and round continuously, nor can they work their way to the bottom, for the current has an upward as well as a rotary direction. Even the cannibalistic propensities, which are so pronounced in the larval stages of lobsters and some other animals, are rendered innocuous to a great extent by the forced separation of the fry and are mitigated by the availability of other food. The current being wholly internal, and its main component circular in its course, it does not force the fry strongly to one side nor allow them to remain in one place as does the tidal current passing through the inclosure. The pressure of the current against the sides varies, of course, with the rapidity with which the outside water is drawn into the car, with the extent of the area through which the water can pass out, and with the rapidity of the current. Since any or all of these factors can readily be controlled there is no difficulty in obtaining a proper adjustment of current for the requirements of particular cases. Stagnation is prevented even when no new water is admitted from the outside, for the water in the car is constantly being turned over and the lower strata brought to the top and aerated. When, therefore, the water of a car of considerable size is kept cool by being sunk into the ocean and shaded from the sun and is continuously forced to the surface so as to be relieved of waste gases as well as recuperated with oxygen, there is comparatively little need of continuous or frequent renewal. It is at least reasonable to suppose that, in what we may call (after Birge) the “respiration” of a small inclosed body of — water containing a considerable quantity of animal life, the elimination of the waste or toxic gases is necessary, and that aeration which is accomplished by forcing more air into the water only partially fulfills the requirements of respi- ration. The analogy with the physiological process of respiration would seem to be real. In case of small, very thin, flat animals, where the ratio of surface = A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 765 to the bulk is large, respiration may be continuous and direct without special internal apparatus, and, likewise, shallow water with a large expanse of surface has been found by experiment to need no aeration in order to maintain animals alive for a long time. On the other hand, in bulky animals, the respiratory apparatus provides always for the elimination of gaseous products of metab- olism as inevitably as it provides for the acquisition of oxygen. Therefore the bringing of the lower strata of water continuously to the surface fulfills two necessary requirements. For keeping larval forms which are not exceedingly minute, windows covered with screens about 16 meshes to the inch in the bottom of the cars allowing for intake, and similar ones in the sides for the exit of water, are satis- factory. A much finer mesh can be used in this case than would ordinarily be practicable, because the water is drawn in through the bottom screens with considerable force by the upward tendency of the current. It is possible by means of a filter device, which will be described hereafter, to hold fry which would pass through even very fine screens. The rotary upward current keeps the particles of food suspended in the water even when artificial food heavier than water is used. When, on the other hand, a pelagic live food is used, it is also, of course, readily available, because it is kept in motion and suspended. The important problem of the distribution of food for pelagic forms is solved by this method in a most satis- factory manner. ADAPTABILITY OF THE METHOD. Before describing the apparatus as at present installed at our station, where it is applied to the hatching and rearing of young fishes and inverte- brates, a word should be said to indicate its general adaptability to various requirements. In any protected body of water, whether river, lake, pond, or in the ocean itself, the apparatus can be quickly and cheaply installed. For experimental work the containing cars may be small. Dr. V. E. Emmel, by use of this method, succeeded for the first time in the difficult task of making _mutilated lobsters of the first stage live to regenerate their appendages. His apparatus consisted of an ordinary ‘‘ paper” bucket provided with screens and the apparatus for keeping the water in motion. On the other extreme the ‘units in our regular installation at Wickford are square boxes measuring 10 feet on a side and 4 feet in depth, with capacity approximately 12,000 liters (fig. 4, 5, 6, pl. xcr, xc). The capacity of a plant of this sort is capable of unlimited extension by the addition of units. At present the plant at Wickford has a capacity of 24 units of the size mentioned. The method is capable of application to aquatic animals, fresh water or marine, varying in size from ~ those literally microscopic to those of a foot or more in length. We do not pe aa, : A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 767 foresee that there are any strictly aquatic animals the requirements of whose young may not be fulfilled by means of this method. We have developed and applied the method mainly in connection with the hatching and rearing of larval lobsters, but we may assert, without fear of contradiction by anyone familiar with the rearing of lobster fry, that we have done this not because of the comparative ease of rearing lobsters. In the case of all species of fishes which we have attempted to rear the problem is easier than in the case of lobsters. APPARATUS. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. The apparatus as at present installed has proved capable of rearing the larval and young stages of fishes and of invertebrates belonging to several different groups. The main features are as follows: A houseboat consisting of two decked pontoons 4 by 4 feet square in section and 50 feet long held 8 feet apart, the intervening space decked and covered by two houses 10 by 10 feet square and 10 by 20 feet, respectively, flanked on either side by two floats attached to the houseboat and made of 6 by 6 inch spruce timbers bolted together and buoyed up by barrels. The spaces between the timbers of the floats are divided into areas 12 by 12 feet, to contain the hatching cars, and into alleyways about 2 feet wide, to contain the supporting barrels. (See diagram, p. 766, and fig. 1, 2, 3, pl. xc, xct.) The inclosures for confining the fry are in the form of 10-foot square boxes (fig. 5, pl. xci1) having two windows in the bottom and two windows in two sides, the windows screened, in the case of lobster fry and very small fishes, with fine-meshed woven bronze wire. In each box or car a pair of propeller blades, adjustable to various angles, are horizontally placed, attached to a vertical shaft with proper bearings (fig. 4, pl. xcr; fig. 6, pl. xcm; fig. 18, pl. xcvi). By the revolution of the pro- peller blades the water is kept in circular and upward motion (fig. 4). The propeller shaft carries at its top a gear which engages a similar one with half the number of teeth borne on a horizontal longitudinal driving shaft. The pad- dle shaft can, however, be instantly thrown out of gear by a lever (fig. 22, pl.c). The longitudinal shaft transmits the power to all the propellers in one float (fig. 2, 3, and diagram). It receives its power from a shaft running trans- versely across the float, the two shafts being connected by mitered gears (fig. 4). The transverse shaft of the float is connected to a similar one across the houseboat by a set of universal ball joints and an extensible shaft and sleeve device, invented for this particular purpose, which allows for several inches of variation in the length of the shafting system (fig. 17, pl. xcvm1). The trans- verse shaft on the houseboat runs through the side of the house and inside the 768 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. latter is connected with the engine by two sets of pulleys and belts which greatly reduce the speed (diagram, p. 766). A small gasoline engine furnishes the power. The engine speed of 324 revo- lutions per minute is reduced to about 36 revolutions per minute in the trans- verse shafting; then, by gears, to 18 revolutions in the longitudinal shafting, and to 9 revolutions per minute for the propeller blades within the boxes. Four horizontal driving shafts running lengthwise of the float are each 6314 feet long. The transverse shafts connecting these back to the engine have a combined length of 43 feet. The four large floats are only skeletons in struc- ture. Both they and the houseboat to which they are attached float upon the water and are subjected to considerable motion from the waves and from the swells of passing vessels. A too rigid construction, therefore, is not per- missible. Indeed, a friend of the station who is familiar with mechanical construction facetiously observed that any reputable engineer to whom we might submit the plans of our apparatus would without hesitation assert that it probably would not work. However, it runs continuously with hardly an hour of interruption for three or four months at a time. Several devices have been adopted which together make sufficient allowance for the inevitable rocking movement of the floats and for the warping of the light timbers, viz, comparatively light shafting (1 inch), which in long pieces is flexible; adjustable hangers; large-tooth cast gears; and the sliding shaft and universal joint which has been mentioned. No trouble with the running of the apparatus has ever arisen from the motion of the water, though the latter is sometimes strong enough to break out the screen windows. DETAILS OF STRUCTURE. Houseboat.—A brief description of the houseboat with its materials and dimensions is as follows: Two pontoons 52 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, of 3-inch hard pine calked, completely decked with 2-inch hard pine calked; each pontoon with 3 bulkheads and 4 water-tight compartments acces- sible by hatches, painted all over, copper paint below water line; pontoons placed 8 feet apart securely fastened by crossbeams and heavy knees at each end; houses 10 by 10 feet near each end of the boat, with floors of 2-inch hard pine, roofs, sides, doors, shelves, closets, of North Carolina pine, painted out- side, natural-wood finish inside; roof of house 7 feet from floor and having a slight crown, covered with canvas and painted. An annex to the house (fig. 2, pl. xc) on one end, made of lighter material and of the same dimensions, has been added to give additional space for the engines and tools. Floats.—The four side floats, so-called, are merely skeleton rafts, buoyed with barrels, whose construction may be seen in the diagram and on plates A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 769 xcland xci1. Pieces of 6 by 6 inch timbers, spliced together if necessary, are bolted together to form a rectangle 19 by 75% feet. Parallel with the long sides and 214 feet inside are similar timbers, running the whole length of the raft. This makes an alleyway on each side for the supporting of barrels, and the spaces between the barrels are available for small rearing boxes used in preliminary experiments. Across the inner long timbers are placed 6 by 6 inch beams at intervals of 12 feet, dividing the whole raft into six compartments 12 by 12 feet square for the reception of the rearing cars. Except for occasional spaces this completes the lower part of the raft. Upon these beams short vertical pieces are set at the corners of the car pools to form a rest for the seven upper crossbeams which run parallel with the lower ones (p. 766, and fig. 3, 4, pl. xcr). These upper crossbeams of 4 by 6 inch stock support a longitudinal shaft beam, also 4 by 6 inches, which runs the whole length of the float through the middle and upon which are fastened the shaft hangers. The two floats on either side of the houseboat are fastened rigidly together with bolted timbers. The inside floats are attached to the houseboat by means of D irons and eyebolts to allow about a foot of up-and-down motion. The floats are built comparatively light and of cheap wood, in view of possible future change of plan as a result of experience. Rearing boxes.—The rearing boxes are square, made of 7¢-inch spruce tongued and grooved boards, nailed to a 2 by 3 inch frame with galvanized nails. The inside dimensions are 10 by 10 by 4 feet. The angles between adjacent sides and between the bottom and sides are truncated by boards 9 inches wide and beveled on the edges (fig. 6, pl. xem; fig. 13, pl. xcv1). The vertical corner frame pieces are left projecting above the top of the box about 2 inches, to serve as corner posts for fastening the box in place. Ring bolts are put into the four lower inside corners of the box for use in raising the box for cleaning. Window cases 9 by 36 inches are placed on two opposite sides of the box to receive the movable window frames (fig. 6, pl. xci1; fig. 10, pl. xctv). Two similar removable window frames 22 inches square are placed in the bottom about 3 feet from the diagonally opposite corners of the box (fig. 6). The size of the mesh in these screen windows varies, according to the size of the fry under experiment, from 16 to 2 meshes to the inch. The material is usually woven bronze or copper wire or galvanized ‘‘iron.”’ In the middle of both sides of the box not having windows a broad slot is - cut from the top to within about 8 inches from the bottom. It allows the box to be raised above the water, even though the shaft beam is low (fig. 5, 6, pl. xciz). When the box is down the doors (seen in fig. 9, pl. xcrv), which are fastened on the side of the slot referred to, are fastened shut by strong outside buttons. — B. B. F 1908—49 770 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. It should be said here that this construction was adopted to save rebuilding the floats which had formerly held canvas bags, in which case the low shaft beam was not in the way. In the case of new construction, the shaft beams should be high enough to escape the box when the latter is raised out of the water (fig. 5, pl. xciz). The boxes are buoyant and have to be forced down into position, where they are held fast by two planks across the top at the end of the box (fig. 4, pl. xcz). The planks are mortised into the corner posts before referred to, soas to prevent lateral movement, and are fastened down to the beams of the float by heavy adjustable cleats secured by bolts (fig. 4, pl. xcr; fig. 9, 10, pl. xcrv). The boxes are painted inside and out. When a box is to be raised, the cleats are loosened, the planks removed, and ropes from the drums of a transportable windlass are hooked into the ring- bolts of the bottom corners (fig. 9 to 12). The doors are then opened and the hand windlass put into. operation. One man has raised a box alone in fifteen minutes, and two men in five minutes. These boxes, the windlass, and many other things were designed and constructed by the superintendent, Mr. E. W. Barnes. Propellers.—The size and shape of propeller blades found to be most satis- factory vary according to the requirements of different fry. The form of those most used for lobster fry is shown in figures 6, plate xc; 8, plate xcm1; and 18, plate xcvu. They consist of two wooden blades, each 4 feet 2 inches long and 8 inches wide at the base, tapered to 5 inches at the apex, and painted / all over. Along the middle line the thickness is about 114 inches, but from this to either edge is a long bevel which leaves about 1% inch at the edge (fig. 8). Each blade is fastened with iron straps to a piece of galvanized gas pipe, which is screwed into a four-way cross coupling (fig. 18). The latter admits also the vertical gas-pipe shaft running upward toward the gears and a short vertical steel shaft below which sets into a socket consisting of a short piece of large gas pipe fastened to the bottom of the car by a flange. This serves as a lower bearing or guard to the propeller shaft (fig. 18). The upper part of the propeller shaft is continued by means of couplings through the longitudinal shaft beam and carries a mitered gear at the top (fig. 14, pl. xcv1). In order easily to disconnect and take out the propeller a heavy iron sleeve coupling is inserted into the propeller shaft. The two pieces of the latter are held into the sleeve coupling by set screws (fig. 19, pl. xcrx). As the set screws would be too heavy for galvanized piping, the lower part of the pro- peller shaft is continued upward by means of a piece of ordinary cold-rolled steel shafting (fig. 19). This is more easily shown in the figures than described. Driving shajts and gears.—The gear on the top of the vertical propeller shaft engages a similar gear with half the number of teeth on the longitudinal driving | | A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. igh shaft (fig. 21, 22, pl.c). The latter is supported above the shaft beam by adjust- able hangers. All the gears are cast instead of cut and have large teeth (fig. 20, © 21,22). For our purposes they are probably more satisfactory, and are certainly much cheaper, than cut gears. A nice adjustment is not necessary, and the speed of all the shafting is low, being 36 to 18 revolutions for the horizontal shafts and 9 for that of the propeller. The longitudinal driving shaft connects by means of mitered gears to a transverse shaft running back toward the houseboat and engine (diagram, p. 766; fig. 4, pl. xcr; fig. 20, pl. xcrx). Between this and the transverse shaft of the houseboat isa pair of ball joints of the common type and the peculiar extension device referred to before (fig. 3, pl. xcr; fig. 17, pl. xcvmr). The lat- ter consists of a sleeve made of two heavy castings fitting loosely over two pieces of square shafting. The two sleeve castings are provided with flanges and are held together by screws, and, to avoid their accidentally slipping off into the water, one end is made fast to the shaft with set screws. Several holes are bored through the sleeve for convenience in oiling. This device allows the square shafting to slide back and forth in the sleeve easily and it has the advantage of being very cheap. It is also very strong, because the shaft has a bearing on the sleeve on all four of its surfaces. Shajting, pulleys, and engine on houseboat.—The transverse shaft on the houseboat connects with that on both pairs of side floats in the manner described, and is itself connected with the engine within the house by two sets of ordinary pulleys and belt drives in which the speed of the engine is greatly reduced. Two engines are set up ready to connect with the shaft, so that if either one gives out the other may be used. The engines are 21% to 3 horsepower Fairbanks-Morse vertical type of gasoline explosion engines, and have proved exceedingly satisfactory. Boxes with filters for holding minute larve.—As a modification of the usual form of box or car, to be used for rearing larve so small that they would go through any screen with meshes large enough to permit an adequate renewal of water, the following has been adopted: The ordinary boxes are carefully calked in all the seams, and their windows, save one of those in the bottom, are covered with canvas. A gravel and sand filter, made by putting about 4 inches of gravel and sand into a shallow box with wooden sides and heavy gal- vanized 14-inch mesh wire in the bottom, is placed over the other bottom win- dow (fig. 21, pl. c). When the car is in place, an old-fashioned bucket chain is tigged on the longitudinal shaft, and the water is thus continually lifted and poured into the hatching box through a short trough. The buckets are painted with asphalt inside and the trough is lined with canvas to prevent contamination of the water from contact with metal or wood. The new water is added, there- fore, at the top of the box gradually—about 31% gallons per minute (fig. 14, pl. xevi; fig. 15, 16, pl. xcvi). 772 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. The amount of water passing through the bottom of the filter does not - create an appreciable outward current, and, at any rate, the fry are held above the bottom by the upward trend of the current created by the propellers. Two or three cars of this type have been operated for periods of four to ten weeks at a time. Several varieties of very young fishes and larval invertebrates have been reared with highly satisfactory results. Among the many hundreds or thousands of animals only three or four dead specimens of any kind have been observed. Canvas lining for boxes ——A further modification of this method has been adopted in order to prevent the escape of certain very small animals like crabs, which seek out and crawl into very narrow cracks in the wood. It consists of putting into the box a large canvas bag as a sort of lining and arranging the filter pump as usual (fig. 16, pl. xcvim). This apparatus has also proved satisfactory. POSSIBILITY OF VARIATION. So detailed a description of the apparatus as at present installed and in use might without a further word leave the impression that this apparatus alone fulfills the requirements of this general method of fish culture. On the con- trary, there is hardly a feature of the whole outfit that has not been represented, at one time or another during our experiments, by other materials or other forms. The present boxes, for example, have replaced bags of canvas and of scrim and bobbinet, not because the latter failed to give good results, but because they were less durable and otherwise objectionable. Three forms of power transmission have been operated successfully during the development of the plant. It is obvious that the gasoline engine might under other circumstances - properly give place to a different kind of motive power, such as steam or hot-air engines or electric, spring, weight, or water motors. For use in small experi- ments weight or spring motors, properly governed for speed, have much to recommend them, for individual cars could be independently operated in various localities without the inevitable expense and annoyances of running the engine and the apparatus for power transmission. PRECAUTIONS. There are, moreover, precautions to be taken in the construction of the cars and other devices. New wood, especially pine, and certain metals, par- ticularly copper and galvanized iron, which are frequently used as screens, are apt to injure, and often prove fatal to young animals even when under other circumstances the circulation through the car would be ample. A very striking instance of the effect of small quantities of copper and zinc-plated screening was furnished in an experiment made a year ago at our station by Dr. V. E. A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 773 Emmel in rearing fourth-stage lobsters to the fifth stage.* Ninety fourth-stage lobsters were put separately into glass jars, one lobster into each jar, and the whole crate of jars submerged in the water about 2 feet below the surface. A screen of woven copper wire was placed over the wide mouth of each jar to keep the lobsters from escaping. All these lobsters were found dead twelve hours later. Galvanized copper wire screen was then substituted in a new experiment and in twenty-four hours the whole lot were dead. Finally a cloth screen of bobbinet was used, and out of 75 lobsters which were fed, only 1 died before moulting into the fifth stage. Of 15 which were not fed 4 died at the end of a month. These difficulties, if recognized, may in most cases easily be overcome. TESTS OF EFFICIENCY. The method and apparatus which have been herein described have been developed, as we have said, mainly in connection with the rearing of lobsters through their pelagic larval stages. But as proficiency in this work has increased we have come to realize that the method is equally well adapted to the rearing of a great variety of fishes and aquatic invertebrates. Hatching and rearing lobsters —While the hatching of lobster eggs by this method presents no difficulties, and young lobsterlings, after reaching the fourth stage, can also be cared for without the use of special appliances, the larval lobsters, on the other hand, during the three free swimming stages of two or three weeks’ duration, seem to incarnate nearly all the perverse and intractable characteristics which, from the view point of fish culture, are difficult to deal with. They are pelagic and are safe only when floating, yet in confinement they persistently tend to go to the sides and bottom of the inclosure. They are comparatively slow of movement and weak in their instincts of self-preser- vation and of seeking food, yet their most distressing characteristic is canni- balism. A method of artificial culture, therefore, which will successfully cope with the various difficulties involved in the rearing of larval lobsters might, a priori, be expected to answer the requirements of the culture of fishes, few of which, perhaps, offer so many difficulties. While the report on the special method of rearing lobsters is given in another paper, it may here be said, as indicating the general efficiency of the plant, that during the months of June and July and the first few days in August of this year we hatched and reared through their successive larval stages more than 320,000 lobsters (counted) by means of the apparatus as above described. Fishes incidentally reared—While the apparatus was occupied with the rearing of lobsters, time and car space were not available for experiments on the rearing of fishes, but incidentally it was demonstrated that the young of many fishes would thrive and grow in the cars. Upon raising cars which had been @ Report of Rhode Island Commissioners of Inland Fisheries for 1907, p. 104. 774 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. down for two or three weeks there were nearly always found in them a consider- able number of small fishes of various species. Since all the water of the car must in these cases have entered through the screen windows of ;/; inch mesh, the fishes must have come in when they were very small. incomplete list of these fishes found in the cars.@ The following is an It should also be mentioned that among these fishes and the other young specimens placed in the cars there was no evidence of illness or mortality. Species. Size. Dates. Species. | Size. Dates Mm. | | Mm. Mummichog (Fundulus 5-25 | Throughout || Puffer (Sherotdes mac-| 4 | (2) 1908. sp.) season of ulata). 3-5 | July 9, 1908. 1907 and I | 18 | Aug. 3, 1908. 1908. Flatfish (Pseudopleu- 10-21 | From about Silversides (Menidia 4-21 | June 27 to July | ronectes americanus). June 15 to sp.) 8, 1908. about July Hake (Urophycis sp.)--| 28 July 26, 1907. 1, 1908, from Pipefish (Siphostoma 15 July 6, 1908. | 10 to 50 were juscum). 30 Aug. 6, 1908. found in 114 Aug. 7, 1908. every car m7 Do. when raised 144 Aug. 8, 1908. Tautog (Tautoga onitis) 3.2 | July 8, 1908. 66 Aug. 21, 1908. 4.8 | July 9, 1908. 73 Do. 20 July 25, 1908. Kingfish (Menticirrhus | 41 Aug. 4, 1908. yack July 28, 1908. saxatilis). 20, 18 | Aug. 3, 1908. Squeteague (Cynoscion 4.2 July 23, 1908. | 20, 2 Aug. 4, 1908. regalis). 19 July 30, 1908. 12.5 Aug. 7, 1908. 12.5 | July 28, 1907. 8,9 | Aug. 9, 1908. 6.5 Do. 23,25 | Aug. 10, 1908. 25 Aug. 8, 1907. 21,41 | Aug. 11, 1908. 18 Do. 8 July 28, 1907. 20 | Aug. 9, 1907. 55 July 25, 1907. 29 Aug. 13, 1907. 3I | Do. 37 Aug. 26, 1907. From July 6 to the last of August, 1908, small anchovies (Stolephorus mitchellt) continually entered the cars through the fine screens. In many instances hundreds of them, from 2 to 20 millimeters long, were found in these cars. @¥From data collected by H. C. Tracy. In August several cars were fitted out with coarse screens, one-fourth A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE, 775 inch mesh, and several thousands of anchovies entered one of the cars in a sin- gle night. Within the cars they lived and grew. Great numbers of very small specimens between 2 and ro millimeters in length were taken in July. Mr. Tracy points out a fact of particular significance, namely, that in the tight filter cars many specimens from 2 millimeters to 8 millimeters were found which must have been dipped up by the chain of buckets as eggs or as very small fry, since the fry of 10 millimeters are so quick and wary that they would hardly be caught in this way. There is no doubt whatever that the young anchovies of all sizes thrive perfectly well in the cars provided with screens, and also in the filter cars, and it is more than probable that the eggs of this species frequently hatched in the cars. About 20 anchovies placed in one of the filter cars on July 28, 1908, were doing well at the date of writing (September 19, 1908), and showed a very con- siderable growth. Hatching and rearing fishes —Near the end of the season for rearing lobsters, during the latter part of July, when the pressure of other work was relieved, some of the large cars were reserved for definite experiments to test the practi- cability of the method and apparatus as applied to the hatching and rearing of fishes. Unfortunately at this time of the year there were comparatively few fishes whose eggs we could obtain, and we were unable, therefore, to exercise much choice in our material. On July 17 a quantity of eggs of the “‘silverside’’ (Menidia) were obtained, and, after being fertilized, were put into a car with the filter and bucket-chain rigged as already described. A short-bladed paddle was used like that in figure 22. This was hung about 2 feet from the bottom, the lower bearing being dispensed with. The egg masses were teased apart into small clusters and placed on a piece of cloth mosquito netting which was tacked to a piece of soaked wood, so as to forma bag, and suspended inthe water. The bag thus formed was held extended and kept from collapsing by a coiled piece of insulated electric wire on the inside. (Practically the same method has been used very successfully in the hatching of the flatfish, Pseudopleuronectes.) The eggs hatched in about ten days with apparently no mortality. The young fishes readily escaped through the netting and seemed to thrive perfectly well in the car, where they were kept until August 21, when they were transferred to another similar car, which, however, had a canvas lining. Here they have continued to live until the date of writing (September 19, 1908). There has been no evidence of mortality of any kind during the experiment, although little attention has been given to the feeding, and the fry have had to depend upon the living pelagic food which entered with the water from the chain of buckets. 776 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. From the time of hatching to the transference of the fry to another car specimens were taken out daily and preserved. The average daily measure- ments are here given: Mm. Mm. Mm. yialys262 ee ee 3-85 | ATI otistg ein ee eee 7.90 || Atigust 1-72 (aaa 8.22 Nidlyi27 2-2 os Pa ee AAS OU WAUPISE Gina a eae eae 7.70)| VAUSUSE 125 922 — == 8.80 uly 2 oNeee see 5 82) Anpusti62=--2 82280525" 770) | PAUSTSH = === == =a 9. 20 ilys3ie ee eee see G20) fAttotist 7s ee ae 8:32) | Augustir4 === see 8.77 August tose) oe ae eee 6.905 “AliguSt Se a=- 2 eS = = eee 8:00) | “Aligust 5-2 =2= 9. 30 AlIgUSti2 sees e en ee eee 7aTO) | PAUPIISE O== eee =e === 7.98 : August: 3)sn) 52S == Bebbess POS eNUCTISh 1O== = eee aaa 8.2 On the afternoon of July 27 a portion of the eggs which had remained unhatched in the experiment thus described were transferred to another simi- larly rigged rearing car (known as S$ 4), and these eggs hatched within the next day or two. The measurements of specimens taken daily from this new car com- pare in an interesting way with those given in the previous table. Although they came from the same batch of eggs, and differed only in being slightly younger, they grew more rapidly than the first lot and soon so far outstripped those in the original car that the difference was noticeable upon casual observation. This difference was doubtless due to the fact that the second lot had more to eat because there were fewer specimens in the car, for, as we have said, the fry had to depend for their food upon the pelagic fauna. By towing in these cars with a small bolting cloth net the absence of copepods and larval animals was conspicuous, especially when compared with the towings taken from a neigh- boring control car which was in all respects similarly conditioned except that it supported no young fishes. In the latter the pelagic life was abundant. It was evident that the swarm of young fry used up the supply of pelagic food as fast as it came into the car. The following table gives the daily average length of specimens of Menidia in this second experiment: Mm. Mm. Mm. huly 72st escsaseoees5 Ausou| WAT ousts peo = eee 7.70 | AQgust TO>==———===—=—m 10. 04 iilyseSe— =e Se2 eee SSeS 4.91 | PAT SSH 4 ee ee ee ee 8.72) | AUgust 1 === 10. 34 Iialy.29 ae 5. 04 | ANISIIStIyS =~ =e eee 9.00) | August 122-2 = === 10. 12 uly230 Se se ee GeOlS |) Niet Gls 52 eee 9.98 | August 13222 --= == 10. 74 uilysgre ess see Sot | ANISISt Re ae eae g. 82 | August) 1452 - =e 10. 21 ATISUStST == Soe ee aa GSS 7a RASS ttG ee eee 10. 02 | August 15) =: 3-2>ee—=e II. 72 Aligust 2 sane een FRCS MBAS SHOE = =a ee eee 9. 25 || August 17-=-=-5--— == 10. 26 The regular measurements were discontinued after this date. On Sep- tember 8 the average measurement was 14.83 millimeters and on September 14) 14.45 millimeters. In all of these measurements different groups of individuals were caught up, and the averages, therefore, seem to show a decrease in size rather than an increase when there is not considerable rapidity of growth. A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 777 A few eggs of Fundulus heteroclitus were fertilized on July 27 and were placed in the original filter car. They were floated near the surface in a shallow bag of netting somewhat similar to that described in the case of Menidia. The eggs hatched on August 5 and 6 and the fry all lived in healthy condition until they were taken out at intervals and preserved. The daily averages of length for the first ten days are as follows: Mm. Mm. Mm, - SUSE Gs 2S eee He isiet |) UN BPO @)e oe ee pe 5 On| PAUSTISt IQ = sae ae 5-98 EIS CL oe OTe PATO ISel Om == oe ae eer Bo S7/) || GRIST ee 6.25 GEC 7 eee §=40}| -AUplst 1a ae Reon |PeAtietist Ge we eee ee eee 6. 30 AGS Se ee orsionl| fable tise tee 5.92 Specimens of this lot have continued to live in one of the cars until the date of writing (September 19). On July 17, 56 young toadfish, measuring from 15 to 17 millimeters, which had been raised from the eggs in a small car, were transferred to the original filter car. At more or less irregular intervals during the next four or five weeks specimens were taken out and measured. The following table of individual and average measurements indicates the rate of their growth:? Mm. Mm. Bryan (56 Specimens) __.___________ 15-O-17.0| IATIS St tt eon = te ee 26.0 OS) VO. ==: ea LG ONES 1S lifer ee ee 26.5 OM 31 52 22751 PAUSE b= a ere ee eee b 19. 0-33.7 Rh a re 18. 7, 22.0 In order to test these cars with as many kinds of fishes as possible, we introduced the young of some other species in lieu of fish eggs, which could not be obtained in great variety ‘at this season of the year. On July 17 a lot of pipefish taken from the brood pouch of a male were put directly into the original filter car. The individuals appeared to be of practically equal length and measured 10 millimeters. They apparently all lived and, like the other speci- mens in the cars, continued to thrive, showing no sign of disease, until they were taken out, on August 21. The following data show the rate of growth as indicated by the average sizes at the end of irregular periods. No food was given to them except that which came in with the water by means of the chain of buckets. Mm. Mm Mm. OO 7 LORGa | A ihys 30 ae ee ee AAS OU PATICUSE 5 = 2 == eee 8 = 67. 2 ily 1 Wee Ay Mbyte See AG STE MATIS IST, 20 Se = see 69.4 Bee ue 8 2, 84) Auguste: = R226) |i peptemiber 8=-=—---—- === €71.3 Mueeenmee = 5 -- ==. 24.5 ATIGUSHOS pee n= ese 61.6 | September 14___________ 70.0 Retaerree a 27.5) | August Ss. = J. 212 2 = 58.6 Sener 2s | 2625 || Atiotst m1. .2 3.2.2. 67-4 | e @J am indebted for these measurements to Mr. H. C. Tracy. b Average, 30.21 mm. Fifty-four specimens out of 56 put into the car were recovered. ¢ Measurements taken after transference to new car. 778 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. On August 21 the remaining specimens were transferred to another filter car with canvas lining, where they remained alive and well up to September 19. On July 21 another pipefish was caught with a brood pouch full of young which measured 10 millimeters. These young were placed, together with the second lot of Menidia, in a filter car rigged with a chain of buckets like the original one. These specimens lived and thrived equally well. No food was given them except on one or two occasions. The data of growth are as follows: Mm Mm. Mm, July 2gs ees 2 Se aoe TOs jal PAN SUStO== =a—= ae 37.8 | September 8-2. =2-===s-==— 59.0 sf ttlive2 77ers eae aa Se 19.08 | PANS UStIS 23a eae eae AqT..8: || September 14522 =. === 62.8 July 30-_---------------- 24-0 | August 11____-__-__-_-- 41.9 | NUSUSEB =~ = eee Bi Aa AUSUStM Gan oe a= 45-2 | On August 8 and 10 a number of young bluefish were caught in the seine and were placed in one of the rearing cars which had been provided with coarse window screens of 14 inch mesh. When put into the car there were already present in the water several thousand young anchovies, about 20 to 25 milli- meters in length. These the bluefish ate during the first day. On several occasions a few Menidia and Fundulus were given them to eat. On August 12 they were given as much raw meat as they could eat, and this they devoured ravenously. They were fed on meat again on August 15 and on Menidia two days later. The average size of these bluefish on August 18, about ten days after they were put into the car, was 140.8 millimeters, an average increase of about 10 millimeters. On September 1 they were measured again, having — been fed meantime on several occasions with Menidia, Fundulus, and other small fishes. The average length on this date, September 1, was 174 milli- meters. This measurement and the two which follow were taken from the nose to the end of the fin rays, whereas the previous measurements were taken from the nose to the base of the fin rays. Between September 1 and Sep- tember 8 the specimens were not fed. On September 8 they measured 175.1 millimeters, showing an increase during seven days of 1.1 millimeters. On September 8 a quantity of live fishes was put into the car to serve as food for the bluefish, and during the next seven days the bluefish showed an average growth of about 10 millimeters, the average length being 184.3 millimeters. . The filter cars which have been described, and in which the previously — mentioned eggs and young fishes were kept alive, have also proved themselves capable of maintaining a considerable variety of other fishes and invertebrates, — among which are the following: Tautog, flatfish, anchovy, oysters (both old and young), scallops, anomia, crabs, barnacles, polyzoans, Botryllus, Nereis larve, etc. Crabs and scallops —On August 2, 1908, a very large number of zoeze and megalops of the oyster crab were found floating at the surface of the water. A A NEW PRINCIPLE OF AQUICULTURE. 779 considerable number were caught with a net and transferred to one of the filter cars, in which they have remained ever since. On September 19 their average measurements were, length 85g millimeters and breadth 1014 millimeters (Mr. Sullivan). On August 3, 13 scallops, measuring between 45 and 65 millimeters in length, were placed in the second filter car after having a deep notch filed in the shell so that the rate of their growth could be determined accurately. On September 18, 11 of these specimens were taken out of the car and were in excellent condition. The notch and the zone of new growth indicated precisely the size and shape of the shell when the scallop was placed in the box. The increase in length was about 20 percent. The following table gives the measure- ments of these specimens: Length, Aug. 3. | Length, Sept. 18. |! Length, Aug. 3. Length, Sept. 18. Mm. Mm. | Mm. | Mm. 50 | 60 51 | 60 44 55 52 | 64 47 60 | 46 | 56 60 68 52 | 62 45 55 ; GENERAL APPLICATION OF THE METHOD IN AQUICULTURE. There are two great problems in the general question of fish culture to the solution of which the method herein described contributes: First, to the problem of hatching and rearing to an optimum size for libera- tion quantities of fishes of economic value for the direct purpose of stocking the waters. The comparative ease of hatching eggs of most fishes has resulted in the establishment of many prolific hatcheries; on the other hand, the number of establishments capable of rearing young fishes and the number of species so reared in confinement are few. A method of culture, therefore, which is capable not only of hatching but of rearing large numbers of fishes of widely different species marks, we hope, a new step in fish culture. The second general problem is the ascertainment of the appearance, habits, requirements, and rate of growth of economically important fishes in their early stages of post-embryonic development. As contrasted with the vast amount of investigation of the embryonic stages of development, which has been facilitated by the abundance of readily available material in the form of eggs of all stages, the data relating to the post-embryonic development are almost entirely lacking. Even the identification of the young of many food fishes abundant in their spawning season is at present impossible. A method by 780 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. which eggs of widely different species may be hatched and reared and by which the unidentified fry caught at large may be reared under observation will be able, we hope, to furnish the necessary material for the solution of this general problem. APPLICATION IN TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE FISHES. In our opinion the essential principle upon which this method of fish culture is based will be found of value in solving the problem of the transportation of live fishes and, moreover, the method and even a portion of the apparatus can be modified and adapted so as to carry this principle into effect. The principle is, briefly, to provide at the start native ‘‘unmodified” water; to maintain a proper temperature and density, and in some cases current; to secure the continuous ‘‘respiration”’ of the water, including the egress of waste gases of the metabolism of contained fishes and often of bacteria as well as the access of oxygen, and to avoid contact with injurious metallic substances. To carry into effect this principle we propose the following method: To use for transportation an iron tank enameled on the inside with a vitreous substance in order to prevent contact of the water with the metal; to use only water dipped from the water in which the animals have been living, in order to insure its proper constitution; to surround the tank with a jacket into which ice or warm water can be put to control the temperature (for many animals, at any rate, both among fishes and invertebrates, we have found by experience that a low temperature is a very important factor in maintaining life when the animals are crowded into a small amount of unrenewed water); to provide both the current and the continuous respiration by installing a propeller device of enameled iron kept in motion by means of a spring motor. Bur. WU. S2BsE., 1908: PLATE XCI. Fic. 4.—Car with propeller in motion. From proj to the universal joint. 1, propeller shaft; eve coup able shaft hanger; 5, gear trains from longitudinal to trans zontal shaft of float; 7, shaft hanger; 8, ball joint connecting shaft with that of house b 9, edge of rearing box; 10, brace across corner of rearing box; 11, holding-down plank mortised into corner post; 12, shaft beam. Bui U.S. Bu F., 1908: PLATE XCII. FIG. 5.—Rearing car raised and held up by portable windlass. 1, slot in end of car through which the longitudinal shaft runs when car is raised longitudinal shaft; 3, side window of car; 4, portable ‘ horse”? and windlass. 1, slot in end of car; 2, doors for closing the slot; de screen windows; 4 and 5, bottom windows; 6, box covering gear trains; 7, transverse Fic. 6.—Interior of rearing car, and propeller. Se s A . As 4 % shaft; 8, longitudinal shaft: 9, towing car. The arrangement of shafting on farther float can be seen. o Bul Wes. Be FL, 1908: PLATE XCIII. FIG. 7.—Lifting the disconnected propeller out of the water. The upper por- tion of the shaft with the sleeve coupling is seen at 1. Fic. 8.—The propeller removed, showing disconnected shaft. The upper part of the shaft and the coupling are faintly visible under the shaft beam. The photograph shows well the size and shape of the propeller blades. BUSES: Bb. B.,. 1908. PLATE XCIV. FIG. 9.—Cleat at the end of the holding-down plank showing the detail (1 — = 10.—The cleats being removed, the car rises part way by its own buoyancy. Opening doors of the slot at end of car to admit the longitudinal shaft beam allows the car to be entirely raised. 1, cleat; 2, holding-down plank; 3, longitudinal shaft beam; 4 and 5, side windows Buy... 8. B. F., 1908. PiArTE XCV. _—J) Fic. 11.—Interior of rearing car. Preparing tocalk small cracks before lowering the car I, side window; 2, end slot; 3, doors for same: 4, buttons to hold doors shut; 5 and 6, the trans- verse shaft, universal joint, and sliding sleeve; 8, exhaust and muffler Paani Fic. 12.—Raising the car by means of windlass. Ropes from the drums of the windlass are fastened by hooks to rings in the lower corners of the car Wis Se 1S Thgp, ioyorsh RrATE GVA. a EEE 4 FIG. 15.—Filter car, same as figure 14, plate xCv1I, showing bucket chain in operation. One of the buckets has just emptied itself and the stream of water is faintly shown running into the trough. Fic. 16.—Filter car with canvas lining. Chain buckets on left. The propeller blades may be seen in the water. But. U. S. B. F., 1908. Prate XCVIII. Fic. 17.—Detail of device for extension and universal movement. 1, adjustable shaft hanger on house boat; 2, ball joint; 3, square shafting, fastened by set screws into ball joint at left, and also (4) into sleeve; 4 and 5, screws through flanges of sleeve; 6, oil holes; 7, square shaft which slides in and out of sleeve; 8, shaft hanger upon side float Fic. 18.—Detail of lower portion of the propeller shaft and its socket in floor of car. 1, propeller shaft, made of gas pipe; 2, short portion of shaft made of steel, to fit into the socket (6); 3, four-way pipe coupling; 4, gas pipe to which blades are strapped; 5, strap holding propeller blades; 6 and 7, socket and flange; 8, upper disconnected steel portion of the pro- peller shaft; 9, shaft beam; 10, window in bottom of car; 11, base of propeller blade, showing in section the shape. BUIeno. Bas, LO08: PLATE XCIX. F1G. 19.—Detail of propeller shaft couplings. 1, underside of shaft beam; 3, upper steel portion of shaft, which bears gear on top and enters sleeve coupling below; 4, cast sleeve coupling; 5, set screws holding shafts in coupling; 6, short piece of steel shaft; 7, pipe coupling; 8, lower part of shaft, made of pipe; 9, measuring stick, made of sections 6 inches long. FIG. 20.—Detail of gears on float at junction of transverse and longitudinal shafts. (Compare fig. 4, pl. xcr.) 1, gear on horizontal shaft from house boat: 2, large gear on longitudinal shaft, reducing speed one-half; 3, gear on the inner end of transverse shaft (4); 4, shaft transmitting power to outer float; 5, longitudinal shaft on inner float; 6, oil box €. PLATE B. F., 1908. Ss. Buu. yOu sv os UMOD ur se doip ivos sjyt pue (‘12 sy areduo) l sdoid ay} 19AadT oy. Suryppne “1v93 JO JNO PUL UL ToT]aC OAY} 1OJ VdIAVp JO [Le}aq—'1z 100 THE RELATION OF THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS. BY PAUL F. CLARK. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. VII, No. 3, May 20, 1910. pp. 335-367. The Journal of Infectious Diseases FOUNDED BY THE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES VoL. 7 May 20, I9Ir0 INjO.23 THE RELATION OF THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS.* PTATGE, oH.) (Gol AVR. (From the Bacteriological Laboratory of Brown University.) CONTENTS. I. INTRODUCTION II. REvIEW AND DIscUSSION OF PREVIOUS WORK ON THE SUBJECT III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED IV. EvImENCE BEARING ON THE RELATION OF THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS A. From a series of cultures taken during the course of the disease B. From attempts to establish virulence in a non-virulent organism 1. By successive passages through susceptible animals a) Guinea-pigs, canaries, pigeons, and chickens 2. By the inoculation of large doses and hy the use of immature animals By sensitizing cultures with homologous serum 4. By growing cultures in an increased supply of oxygen By growing cultures in celloidin sacs in a succession of animals By inoculation of animals in combination with toxin, directly or in cel- loidin sacs 7. By a process of selection of those types approaching the morphology of 7 virulent organisms for a series of ‘‘ generations” C. From a study of the types of the organisms appearing at different stages in the growth of cultures D. From a study of the frequency curves of acid production of the pseudo- diphtheria and diphtheria organisms V. SUMMARY OF THE ABOVE EVIDENCE VI. Discuss1on VII. ConcLusions VIII. REFERENCES ios) nn * Received for publication December 28, 1900. 222 995 336 Paut F. CrarK INTRODUCTION. Wira the advance of our knowledge of the bacteria, both patho- genic and non-pathogenic, numerous organisms have been discovered similar to the normal type in most respects, but differing from it in certain characters. Bacteria are extremely variable organisms, altho the limits to this variability seem to be more sharply defined than was formerly supposed. ‘This variability depends largely upon two main factors. The first is the enormous number of generations which may develop in a short period of time. With the bacteria it is indeed true that “one day is as a thousand years.” ‘The second is the fact that because of the simple single-celled structure of bacteria, acquired characters can, to a certain extent, be inherited. The effect of the environment is, therefore, of great importance in any study of bacteria. Variations, caused by the nature of the conditions under which organisms have recently been living, must be considered as well as the ordinary fluctuating variations and mutations found in all forms of plants and animals. It is because of these facts that the idea of ‘‘groups”’ among the bacteria has developed in recent years. Within each group are found many different types or species which add greatly to the difficulties of identification and present puzzling problems as to the nature of the interrelationship among the several forms. The group of diphtheria organisms exhibits, possibly more than any other, a greater variety of these somewhat similar types. Léffler himself discovered the so-called pseudodiphtheria bacillus in 1887 and a few months later it was independently observed by Hofmann- Wellenhof (1888). B. xerosis was described by Kutschbert and Neisser (1884) and since that time a large number of other somewhat similar types, known generally as diphtheroids, have added to the general interest and confusion. In this group, also, the problem of relationship is of special importance because of its bearing on the bacteriological control of contacts, carrier cases, quarantine, treat- ment of epidemics, and other public-health methods. There have been, in general, two theories held by the different observers in regard to relationships of the different organisms of this group. On the one hand, we find such men as Roux, Yersin, Behring, Wesbrook, and others upholding the view that all of these types are THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 337 variants of the same species. On the other hand, we find by far the greater number of bacteriologists, including Loffler, Escherich, Frankel, Fliigge, etc., believing that at least the first three forms mentioned are three distinct species, while opinion seems to be about evenly divided as to the classification of the diphtheroids. Particularly among the earlier writers, considerable confusion existed as to the exact meaning of the term pseudodiphtheria bacillus. The descriptions of both Hofmann and Léffler in regard to this organism are rather indefinite. There can be little doubt that many of the discrepancies apparent in the literature are due to the inaccuracy of our definitions and that many of the writers have been dealing with atypical Klebs-Loffler bacilli. In later years, there has been a tendency to distinguish between the different organisms by the difference in pathogenicity and in their action in dextrose broth. Park and Beebe’s (1895) classification based on these points, is as follows: I. Bacilli identical in appearance, both in culture and under the microscope, with the diphtheria bacillus. a) Pathogenic acid producers equal virulent diphtheria bacilli. 6) Non-pathogenic acid producers equal non-virulent bacilli. II. Bacilli somewhat resembling, but shorter and stouter than diphtheria bacilli. a) Non-pathogenic, non-acid producers equal Hofmann’s or the pseudodiphtheria bacilli. The use of this scheme and also Wesbrook’s more elaborate classi- fication has given greater accuracy to the observations of the more recent workers in this field. REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS WORK ON THE SUBJECT. The distinctive features generally used for purposes of differentiation between the various members of this group are: 1. Cultural characteristics. 2. Staining reactions. 3. Action upon carbohydrates. 4. Serum reactions. 5. Morphology. 6. Pathogenicity. The first two of these may be dismissed very briefly as practically all recent observ- ers admit that, while these points are of service generally, they are not sufficiently con- stant to be made the criterion of specific difference. It is generally recognized that B. diphtheriae varies greatly on the different culture media and therefore no reliance can be placed upon that feature. Even the double stains of Neisser, Falieres, Ljubinsky, and others are unreliable, and many observers prefer the ordinary Loffler’s stain which is simpler and gives exactly as much information as any of the more complicated processes. The other characteristics are of more importance, however, and it may be well to review briefly some of the more recent researches upon these points. 338 Paut F. CLark Action upon carbohydrates.—Roux and Yersin (1888) appear to be the first to have noticed that the diphtheria bacillus produced acidin broth and most subsequent observers have agreed with them. Zarniko (1889) observed that Hofmann’s bacillus produced in broth cultures either an alkaline reaction or at first a weakly acid followed by an alkaline reaction. Escherich (1894) went so far as to declare that acid produc- tion was proof positive of the pathogenicity of a given strain. Spronck (1895) pointed out that if diphtheria organisms are grown in dextrose- free broth, the reaction remains alkaline; if small quantities of the muscle sugar are present, the reaction becomes at first acid and later alkaline; while if much dextrose is added, the broth attains an acid reaction which is permanent. Numerous observers have confirmed these results. Less work has been done on the other sugars, but according to L. Martin (1898) the diphtheria bacillus produces acid from dextrose, levulose, galactose, saccharose, and glycerin, but not from maltose, lactose, mannit, arabinose, raffinose, dulcite, glycogen, erythrite, and starch. Practically all other writers differ with him, however, as regards the action on saccharose. More recently Knapp (1904), in testing 27 cultures of diphtheria bacillus, ro of xerosis bacillus, and 4 of pseudodiphtheria bacillus, came to the conclusion that the action in saccharose and dextrin media will differentiate between these three species, as follows: The pseudodiphtheria bacillus ferments neither sugar. The xerosis bacillus ferments saccharose, : The true Klebs-Léffler bacillus ferments dextrin. Hamilton and Horton (1906) were unable to confirm Knapp’s work except as regards dextrin. Graham-Smith (1906) describes experiments on 23 cultures of diphtheria bacilli (18 fully virulent, 5 non-virulent), 20 cultures of Hofmann’s bacilli, 3 cultures of xerosis bacilli, and some other diphtheria-like bacilli. He used mostly the serum medium of Hiss with an incubation of ro days and concludes from this work that some of the contradictory results obtained by various investigators are due to the fact that many strains of organisms will not grow well in broth when first isolated from the throat. His tests show that under suitable conditions all strains of diphtheria bacilli produce acid from glucose, galactose, levulose, and maltose and the majority from dextrin and glycerin. The action on lactose is very variable and only a few strains act on sac- charose. Hofmann’s bacillus produced acid in no case. The xerosis bacillus pro- duced a small amount of acid from glucose, levulose, and glycerin, and a still smaller amount from saccharose. Zinsser (1907) working with 42 strains of B. diphtheriae, 21 strains of B. xerosis, and § strains of B. hofmanni confirmed Knapp’s results. Good- man (1908) examined the action of 103 strains of Klebs-Loffler bacilli on dextrose, dextrin, maltose, and saccharose. By titration, he found a wide range of variation in the amount of acid produced, that from dextrose extending from +o0.1to +4.0. From one strain, he made a series of artificial selections, choosing each time the highest and lowest acid producer. Starting with +2.3 and +1.9 as the high and low cultures, after 36 selections, he obtained +4.4 and —o.5 as the greatest and the least acid pro- ducers respectively. The morphology of these last two cultures was still similar to that of the parent culture. The pathogenicity, however, was not satisfactorily tested. He concludes that the division of the diphtheria group into several distinct species is probably based on a misconception. THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 339 Serum reactions.—Spronck (1896) describes a test in which he inoculates a guinea - pig with antitoxin and then with the organism to be examined. Complete protection against the organism denotes it to be the true diphtheria bacillus; local edema only, as in the controls, denotes the pseudodiphtheria bacillus. This test is, of course, valueless with wholly non-virulent organisms. C. Frankel (1897) confirms these results. Ber- gey (1898) could produce no immunity against the Klebs-Léfiler bacillus by several inoculations of Hofmann’s bacillus. Lubowski (1900) immunized a goat by inoculating with non-virulent diphtheria bacilli. The serum thus obtained agglutinated 23 strains of typical diphtheria organisms and two of non-virulent organisms at a dilution of 1:80. B. hofmanni and cocci were not agglutinated. Lesieur (rg90r) immunized a horse against Klebs-Léffler bacilli and obtained a serum which agglutinated some strains of diphtheria organisms but not others. It acted in a similar fashion toward the pseudodiphtheria bacilli. Fifty of his 70 strains were not agglutinated. Schwoner (1902) obtained a serum by injecting a horse first with dead and then with living B. diphtheriae. This agglutinated diphtheria bacilli at a dilution of 1: 500 and some strains as high as 1:10,000. It agglutinated pseudodiphtheria organisms at a dilution of 1:10 to 1:40 exactly as in the case of normal and antitoxic sera. He also (1904) shows that cultures of diphtheria bacilli from severe cases exhibit hemolytic power on rabbits’ corpuscles. Pseudodiphtheria bacilli do not show this action. Hamilton and Horton (1906) obtained a serum from goats and rabbits immunized against one strain of their virulent pseudodiphtheria bacilli. This proved to be bac- tericidal to the other virulent pseudodiphtheria strains but not to non-virulent pseudo- diphtheria bacilli nor to true diphtheria bacilli. Morphology.—Roux and Yersin (1890) discovered no morphological alteration of a strain of B. diphtheriae by growth at 39°5 C. Hewlett and Knight (1897) state that the pseudodiphtheria bacillus seems to replace the typical diphtheria organism during convalescence. They illustrate this with a list of bacteriological examinations of 24 cases. Wesbrook, Wilson, and McDaniel (1900) introduced a classification of the various types of diphtheria organisms based on an extensive study of the morphology in pure cultures. These types are divided into three main groups: granular, barred, and solid-staining forms with numerous subdivisions based upon size and shape. They observe that the granular types usually give place wholly or in part to barred and solid types shortly before the disappearance of diphtheria-like organisms. Gorham (1901) corroborates this and believes that the change is caused by the effect of the body fluids of persons becoming slowly immune or those entirely non-susceptible. Lesieur (1901), by growth for eight months in diffuse daylight in a dry room, trans- formed three diphtheria strains to pseudodiphtheria types. By passage in collodion sacs through three rabbits, B. pseudodiphtheriae took on the morphology of B. diph- theriae. He wasalso able to do this with two out of four strains of the pseudodiphtheria bacillus by repeated transfer in broth, and in one out of three, by a single pass- age through broth in symbiosis with Aurococcus aureus. Cobbett (1901) records a series of examinations made during the progress of the disease in a number of cases and came to the conclusion that D2 (Wesbrook’s classi- fication) does not replace typical forms during convalescence. He suggests that a possible cause of observations to this effect might be that in the early stages of the disease the diphtheria organisms are readily found so that a more careful examination is omitted. Later, the diphtheria organisms become fewer and a more vigorous search 340 Paut F. Crark must be made. In the course of this more thorough examination, naturally more D2 are met with and a false impression as to their relative prevalence is produced. He also states that D2 is not more frequently found in the noses and throats of persons in close relation with those sick with diphtheria than in those who apparently have had no contact with the disease: Ohlmacher (1902) changed a typical diphtheria organism to an organism resembling Hofmann’s bacillus by 48 hours’ subcutaneous growth in an immune animal, a white rat. He also changed a slightly virulent pseudodiphtheria type to a typical diphtheria form with increased virulence by one passage through a guinea-pig. Denny (1903) made a series of frequent microscopic examinations during the early growth of B. diphtheriae, B. pseudodiphtheriae, and B. xerosis. He found that in young cultures all three present striking similarities showing a large proportion of D2C2 types. In older cultures, the true diphtheria and xerosis bacilli displayed developmental differ- ences characteristic of the higher bacteria, such as granulation, segmentation, etc., altho the forms of the xerosis bacilli were usually shorter and thicker than those of the Klebs-Léffler bacilli. Hofmann’s bacillus always remained typical in form. He found that unfavorable conditions, such as symbiosis with a large number of other organisms, delayed the formation of granular types and suggests that this may explain the greater abundance of solid forms in the 15-hour cultures as convalescence advances _ and the proportion of ordinary throat bacteria increases. Graham-Smith (1903) reports that some B. hofmanni are clubbed and often slightly curved but are broader and take the stain more deeply than B. diphtheriae. They sometimes show stained segments which are very dark and well defined, the septa being narrow and running in all cases transversely across the bacilli. These forms always revert to the typical D2 type. Smirnow (1908), in using double-walled celloidin sacs to study symbiotic relations of B. diphtheriae with other organisms, recovered coccoid forms from the compartment originally containing the diphtheria bacilli. These reverted to typical form, however, after growth in broth and then on blood-serum. Pathogenicity.—Lé6ffler considered this the most unvarying feature of the diphtheria organism. ‘The gelatinous edema in the subcutaneous tissue at the point of inoculation, the congestion of various organs, and more especially the hyperemia and enlargement of the suprarenal capsules are certainly highly characteristic. Roux and Yersin (1890) were able to increase the virulence of slightly virulent diphtheria bacilli by injection together with erysipelas streptococci. They were unable to do this with non-virulent organisms, however. Trumpp (1896) transformed an avirulent D? type to a typical diphtheria organism by passage through three guinea-pigs together with a non-fatal dose of diphtheria toxin. His organism produced acid, however, and he does not believe it possible thus to transform a non-acid former. Hewlett and Knight (1897) changed a typical acid-producing virulent diphtheria culture into a non-virulent D2 by heating for seventeen hours at 45° C. By prolonged cultivation for 20 generations and then long incubation and passage through a guinea- pig they also changed a typical non-acid-producing D2 into an acid-producing typical diphtheria organism. They were unable to repeat these experiments successfully. Bergey (1898) was unable to give virulence to D? by passage through several animals. Martin (1898) increased the virulence of slightly virulent diphtheria organ- isms by growth in celloidin sacs in the body cavity of rabbits. Salter (1899) by five successive passages through goldfinches exalted the virulence of four separate strains of typical pseudodiphtheria bacilli to a point where they were capable of killing guinea- THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 341 pigs. The transformation was complete both as to morphology and acid production. The toxic action was entirely neutralized by diphtheria antitoxin. Nineteen strains of pseudodiphtheria bacillus proved virulent for goldfinches and chaffinches, 18 out of the 19 were virulent for canaries, and many of the strains were virulent for other birds. Davis (1898) isolated 12 strains of virulent pseudodiphtheria organisms which produced a general bacteremia and against which diphtheria antitoxin afforded no protection. Wesbrook, Wilson, and McDaniel (1900) report an outbreak of diphtheria in which the type most frequently found resembled D?. They all produced acid, how- ever, in dextrose broth and the toxin formed was neutralized by diphtheria antitoxin. Gorham (1901) says that type D2 has sometimes proved pathogenic to guinea-pigs. Cobbett (1901) isolated and tested 86 strains of the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus. They all proved to be non-virulent in doses of 2 c.c. of a 48-hour culture. Lesieur (1901), as already noted above under ‘‘ Morphology,” was able to make several strains of pseudodiphtheria bacilli virulent and also accomplished the reverse transformation. Neumann (1902) examined 78 strains of D? all of which proved to be non-virulent. Ohlmacher (1902) transformed a slightly virulent D2 type by one passage through a guinea-pig and at the same time increased its virulence. Williams (1902) made a careful series of investigations extending over a period of about seven years. Inoculations of large doses of typical D? proved to be innocuous to goldfinches. Successive peritoneal inoculations of D? produced no exaltation in virulence. Four strains of typical diphtheria bacilli showed no change after growing in an immune host (white rat) for 48 hours. Two non-virulent but morphologically typical strains of diphtheria organisms were grown with virulent streptoccoci in broth for go generations, transplanted every three or four days. When separated, no change whatsoever was observed. Two cultures of Klebs-Loffler bacilli were cultivated for several months at 40° C., transplanting them every week, and six cultures were grown for the same length of time at 43° C._—45° C., alternating every week to a temperature of 35°C. These organisms were somewhat smaller at the high temperatures but reverted to their normal size when placed at body heat. The author observed no sequence of types during the course of the disease and considered the morphology of the several species to be quite distinct. Graham-Smith (1904) observed no partially attenuated diphtheria bacilli, altho 25 strains out of 113 which he examined were entirely non-virulent. Ruediger (1903) and Hamilton (1904) describe three varieties of pseudodiphtheria bacilli, one of which is pathogenic to guinea-pigs. This produces a general bacteremia and is neutralized by the serum of a rabbit immunized against any of the virulent varieties, but not by regular diphtheria antitoxin. Wesbrook (1905) himself states that in dealing with epidemics, bearers of all forms other than A, C, and D may be safely disregarded. Hadley (1907) recovered D2 forms from inoculations of three strains of virulent C, Cr, “and C2 forms. Also one of his D2 types proved to be virulent but, when recovered after inoculation, proved to be of the barred type. Corbett (1906) states that D2, E2, and C2 types generally prove to be virulent. Zinsser (1907) found no virulent pseudo- diphtheria bacilli. No exhaustive analysis of this literature is necessary to make clear the fact of the many discrepancies in the results obtained by different observers. The fermentative action of the true diphtheria bacillus 342 Pau F. CLark upon dextrose and some other carbohydrates and the characteristic toxic action, however, stand out as the features about which there is the least dispute. It is almost universally conceded that B. ~ hofmanni produces little or no acidity in dextrose broth and is usually non-pathogenic to guinea-pigs or at most produces only a slight local edema at the point of inoculation. With the true Klebs-Loffler bacillus, however, the toxic action is peculiarly characteristic and it generally produces acid in dextrose broth. In view of the contradictory observations and diverse opinions in regard to the relation of the members of this group, the writer deter- mined to investigate further the question as to the identity of the pseudodiphtheria and the diphtheria bacillus. The investigation was not extended to.a consideration of B. xerosis and the other diphtheroid bacilli. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED. The crux of the situation then seems to be: Can a typical non- acid-producing non-pathogenic Hofmann’s bacillus be changed into a typical acid-producing pathogenic Klebs-Léffler bacillus whose toxic action can be neutralized by commercial diphtheria antitoxin ? And if this is true in the laboratory, does it necessarily hold true in nature? Further, does the reverse transformation take place? Do the varieties of virulent diphtheria change through the course of the disease from the granular to the segmented type, and, becoming less and less virulent, finally take on the form of the non-virulent pseudodiphtheria bacillus ? EVIDENCE BEARING ON THE RELATION OF THE PSEUDODIPH- THERIA AND THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS. From a series of cultures taken during the course of the disease.—A tabulation of the Wesbrook types obtained from smear preparations of cultures was made. These cultures were taken mostly from persons suffering from the disease, altho a few were from con- tacts. Most of the examinations were made by the writer as part of the routine work in the laboratory of the Rhode Island State Board of Health. Some, principally those taken toward the end of the disease from cases in Providence, were made by Professor F. P. Gorham, bacteriologist of that city. The results are shown in Table 1. SS” . THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 343 These results, while not sufficient to draw any far-reaching con- clusions, seem to point to a decision against the Wesbrook-Gorham theory. Solid-staining C? and D? forms are found fully as often in the earlier cultures as in those taken when the patient was convales- cing. Another point to be noticed is that the same types were not constantly present but appeared to vary considerably from time to time. In this connection, it is worthy of note that during the last year or two, the organisms from clinical diphtheria cases in Providence have very frequently been barred forms instead of granular types as was formerly the case. If, as some advise, a positive diagnosis should be given only when the granular forms are present, a large percentage of the cases of clinical diphtheria in this vicinity would be overlooked. From attempts to establish virulence in a non-virulent organism.—The first step was to obtain a number of pure cultures of B. hofmanni. These were isolated, some from cultures sent in to the Rhode Island State Board of Health Laboratory for diagnosis but mostly from cultures from contacts obtained from the City of Provyi- dence Laboratory. Following is a list (Table 2) of the different strains isolated with their action on guinea-pigs and reaction to phenolphthalein when grown in one per cent dextrose broth for three days. Most of these cultures were tested for purity several times before using them. During the first part of this investigation the cultures for inoculation were grown in ordinary nutrient broth. Subsequently, however, they were always grown in dextrose-free broth in order to have the media as favorable as possible for toxin formation. A growth of 48 hours was used in most cases, for inoculation, but occasionally a longer growth was employed, especially when the two- day cultures were not well grown. Smear preparations were in all cases stained with Loffler’s methylene blue. The 23 cultures of typical B. hofmanni (Nos. 1-9 inclusive and 14-27 inclusive) were tested for virulence upon half-grown guinea- pigs. They all proved non-virulent or only slightly virulent (i.e., producing local edema only) in doses of one per cent of the body weight. Most of the strains produced a slight local edema at the point of inoculation and some of the guinea-pigs showed a small loss oad Ord & ed {3 red £ Dele) b} qo. ‘d'V = Oe & Deed WO = cord Sj ed or 1 “M* : mee ox OD |] “O'A it + WeeO10 £ re) v Wid ta «O10 TH: ‘oJ « £ Wid z ate) O'W Helza te) £1 Helxate) ‘dW ; 49) vd Gere) ox pele) IE t ate) £ Cele) er re) OV (9) I 0) gt edeO1D | “SAIN v 5 2 eves s Feye) 9 Fey) ou pele) ‘WU © eyvive Jr , | Wid z ce) 9 ce) 1 9) £ O10 s ate le) o's a Deve) 8 Wer v1 Wer) aya oO OW 6 He) ay oh ede y O10 £ Felis) $1 C(t poy) Pat Ss intst : : 8) 9 cave) 6x Dele) ‘a'v ; fy CMP V1) s x0 | “MH uw 4 “ 4 alge lee) Cat ait ry 5 0) II pene) eal > a «d $ mal 11 7a (oho) vite : a eer) £ ate) $ Ratele) ‘daa he aoa | ft ae | "a'd : eUeWei) Ir FOV “'M 5 Word $ coed I Fakta) ||) aliopce Burw9a dura Autor Aura Suwa . CA] io) exaquy skug] MIMD -yojuyskeq]) MIMD | -yoyuzsavq] MIMO -aoquy sku) MIMD | yoquysduq| AMINO owen ; iz WIXIS yo ON Wl jo oN Wang Jo ON PAL jo “on puosas jo ON SALT “SASVO "IVOINITO “SANALTAY AAISSHIONG LO NOV INAV], T O1dv.L 344 WwW s+ on n p ia “WRYLOL ‘q ‘yf AOSSazOIg AG apPLU 919M JOIJVOIOY SUOLRULULXT » 4 YI0y) J Pp 1S) = so) Salle ose Momence eae dor we tO 1 Fic. 3.—Strain No. 12. Virulent B. diphtheriae. Twelve hours’ growth. X 2.000. staining clubs (A?) particularly in Strain 12. The D2 forms from the true diphtheria cultures were apparently a little more curved and pointed at the ends than those in the pseudodiphtheria preparations at this stage. Eight-hour cultures—The growth was barely visible on some of the tubes. The bacilli were all solid-staining, D? being the only type found in the pseudodiphtheria cultures. In the diphtheria cultures (see Fig. 2) the bacilli were longer, making a larger proportion of C? forms. Many of the D2 forms were curved, some of them being thick and swollen either at the ends or in the middle. Fewer of the short A? types are present than in the four-hour stage. Twelve-hour cultures——The growth was distinctly visible. The bacilli from the pseudodiphtheria cultures were all of the D2 type. Those from the diphtheria cultures 356 Pau F. CrarKk (see Fig. 3) were longer with a number of Ct types. There was still a large percentage of D2 types, however. Fijteen-hour cultures.—The bacilli from the pseudodiphtheria cultures were typical D2. The diphtheria organisms (see Fig. 4) exhibited some granular types along with the Cr, C2, D2, etc.; D? was still present in considerable numbers, particularly in Strain 13. Twenty-seven-hour cultures —In this state of development, the pseudodiphtheria bacilli, with the exception of Strain 16, were noticeably shorter than in the earlier stages. Fic. 4—Strain No. 12. Virulent B. diphtheriae. Fifteen hours’{growth. X 2,000. The diphtheria cultures (see Fig. 5) contained more granular types. There was still a predominance of barred types, Strain 13 showing no granular forms whatsoever. D2 was still present in three of the cultures, the only one in which it was not present being Strain ro, the non-virulent strain. Forty-nine-hour cultures.—All but Strain 16 of the pseudodiphtheria strains dis- played the short forms. In that culture the length of the earlier growths was retained and a few C: forms were observed. The B. diphtheriae showed no marked difference in morphology except that there were more granular forms. Many of the bacilli of both species took the stain poorly. Seventy-two-hour cultures—No particular differences were observed except that more organisms were faintly stained, more Ct forms were observed in Strain 16, and a very few in Strain 21. Ba Pe ¥ stp ipte aa THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 357 The results obtained coincided very exactly with Denny’s except that the cultures as a whole seemed to develop a little more slowly than his. The solid-staining forms of the true diphtheria bacillus, comprising all of the organisms grown in eight-hour cultures and a considerable number in the cultures of longer incubation of some strains, would certainly be confused with the similar types of the «bem 1 . As fn . ~ hg ea “~ 6 ‘ : 3 Fic. 6.—Strain 31. Virulent B. diphtheriae. Solid staining D? types in culture incubated for sixteen hours. X 2,000 from the original culture, in all except one instance, showed typical diphtheria organisms. That one showed long D? forms after incuba- tion for about 16 hours (see Fig. 6). On replacing this culture in the incubator, however, and growing for another 24 hours, the mor- phology became typical for B. diphtheriae. Strain 32 was isolated from a case of clinical diphtheria displaying large A, At, and C types. It was inoculated into a guinea-pig; the pig died; and the organisms recovered were typical D? types. The w+ _ a2 THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 359 culture recovered from this guinea-pig was again inoculated into a guinea-pig, killing the pig in 35 hours with symptoms characteristic for diphtheria poisoning. D,? C? were the types recovered (see Fig. 7). Still another item, in connection with morphological changes, may be worthy of comment. Two strains of B. hofmanni (8 and g) were grown in large, tall blake bottles containing slants of Loffler’s blood- Fic. 7.—Strain No. 32. Virulent B. diphtheriae. Solid staining types recovered from guinea-pig which showed characteristic symtoms of diphtheria poisoning. X 2,000. serum, for one week at 37° C., and for five weeks at room temperature. Examinations at the end of that period showed large club and dumb- bell shaped forms with bars and granules much resembling similar types of B. diphtheriae. A 48-hour broth culture from the bottle culture of Strain g was inoculated into a guinea-pig. As the animal showed no symptoms of illness, it was killed the next day and typical B. hofmanni were recovered. Strain 8 immediately reverted to its original form on being inoculated on a fresh blood-serum tube. 360 PauL F. CLarK From a study of the frequency curves of acid production of the pseudodiphtheria and diphtheria organisms.—The biometric method of studying variations having been so successfully used by Winslow (1908) in determining the systematic relationships among the Coccaceae, it was thought that that method might throw some light upon the conditions in this group. ‘The action of the organisms on dextrose broth was chosen as being a character that was definitely measurable by titration and, therefore, best adapted for work of this sort. One hundred and thirty-one pure cultures of the pseudodiphtheria bacillus obtained in carrying out the selection experiments described above, and 35 subcultures from the other strains tested in this investi- gation, were used in constructing the curve of B. pseudodiphtheriae. Sixty-two cultures of B. diphtheriae, mostly pure cultures from Strains 12, 13, and 28 and a few from the other strains, were used to determine the curve for that organism. The cultures were all grown in 1 per cent dextrose broth and incubated at 37° C. for 72 hours. They were then boiled one minute to drive off the carbon dioxide and immediately titrated with N/20 NaOH, phenolphthalein being used as the indicator. In all cases a considerable number of blanks were run and the average subtracted from the titration figures to obtain the amount of acid actually pro- duced by the organisms. The results of this experiment are given in Tables 3 and 4, arranged in ascending scales according to the amount of acid produced. Considerable variation will be noticed in the amount of acid produced by B. hofmanni but in no case is it in sufficient quantity to be acid to litmus, the indicator which has been used by most observers. Still wider variation is displayed by B. diphtheriae, many cultures not producing enough acid to turn litmus solution. This may be partly due to poor growth, altho Goodman (1908) obtained many results as low as these. The plotted frequency curves from these figures are shown in Chart tr. The curves certainly display marked differences, the mode of one falling at +-0.05 while that of the other falls at +o.90. The curve of the pseudodiphtheria bacillus is based upon enough figures from a sufficient number of strains to be fairly accurate. The curve of the true diphtheria organism, however, is not entirely satisfactory. AD 0 teen anasto. = | THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 361 Because of the wide range of variation in the amount of acid produced by different strains of this organism, a satisfactory curve on this umber of Cultures Pee ono Ni 3 Hoo nn hy nwW eH ANI WO Hon b iy Gs 3 ¢, Amounts of Onoun ONONO Acidity B. diphtheriae. ------- B. hojmanni. CHART I. scale could not be produced from less than five or six hundred pure cultures, preferably from at least one hundred separate strains. The writer believes, however, that the curves here presented are 362 PauL F. CLarK sufficiently accurate to show that there is a marked difference between the two organisms. TABLE 3. Acip Propuction oF B,. HOFMANNI. aise No. of \| en No. of | ee No. of Acidity Cultures | Acidity Cultures || Acidity Cultures —o.11 I 0.03 I 0.15 17 —o.09 | 2 0.05 19 |} 0.36 | 10 —o.08 2 0.06 II I sozzom || 7} —0.05 2 0.07 9 \| 0.21 | 4 —0.04 3 0.00 2 || 0.25 7 —0.03 7 0.10 14 \| 0.26 I ° 12 O.11 10 | 0.32 £ 0.01 6 o.12 4 0.45 I 0.02 | II |) foer3 2 Total number of cultures, 166. TABLE 4. Acip Propucrion OF B. DIPHTHERIAE. | | | | sae No. of at | No. of sae No. of Acidity Cultures |) Acidity | Cultures Acidity Cultures 1} 0.12 2 | 0.50 | I 0.87 7 0.25 I | 0.52 | q ©.90 2 0.27 I pmo I °.92 2 0.30 I | 0.62 3 0.07 I 0.35 I || 0.65 I 1.00 5 0.37 I | 0.67 I 1.10 2 0.42 2 | °.72 3 Ts 2 0.43 I || 0.77 I || 1.20 2 0.45 2 \| 0.78 I | 1.30 I 0.47 I | 0.82 7 | as 7) I 0.48 2 0.85 | I 1.50 I Total number of cultures, 62. SUMMARY OF THE ABOVE EVIDENCE. We may sum up the evidence as follows: The series of cultures taken during the course of the disease show no tendency, except in a few cases, toward a change to the solid-staining forms. We believe, from our observation, that the sequence of types during the develop- ment of individual cultures, together with the fact brought out by Denny, that symbiosis with a large number of other organisms inhibits the change to granular types, adequately explains any opposite results. The successive passage of a number of strains of B. hofmanni through many guinea-pigs, animals peculiarly susceptible to diph- theria toxin, did not change the morphology nor increase the viru- lence of the organisms. B. hofmanni also proved to be non-virulent to canaries, pigeons, and chickens, and successive inoculations through these birds produced no effect. THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 363 Doses as large as 7 per cent of the body weight inoculated into both half-grown and very young guinea-pigs produced no change in B. hofmanni, nor did these excessive inoculations have any other apparent effect on the animals than the production of a large amount of edema at the point of inoculation. Cultures sensitized by contact with the serum of normal guinea- pigs produced, when inoculated, no additional effects on the guinea- pigs and no change in the organisms. A large increase of the amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere in which the cultures of B. hofmanni were incubated did not produce any unusual effects. Three passages through guinea-pigs, constituting a total stay of 32 days, in celloidin sacs in the body cavity of a susceptible animal, produced no change in B. hofmanni. Simultaneous inoculation with B. diphtheriae and with Aurococcus aureus, both with and without celloidin sacs, also caused no metamorphosis. Cultures of B. hofmanni were inoculated into animals, together with diphtheria toxin, both directly and in celloidin sacs, with no change in the organisms inoculated. A series of selections of those types approaching the morphology of virulent organisms made from cultures of B. hofmanni and carried through a period of twelve “generations,” even in a strain which exhibited a number of barred types in the original culture, produced no permanent change. Each strain was as typical morphologically and in its action on guinea-pigs at the end as at the beginning of the experiment. In individual cultures of B. diphtheriae, as described by Denny and confirmed by our own work, there occurs a sequence of types ranging from the solid-staining D?, C? types through the barred to the granular types. We have even found one culture of virulent B. diphtheriae which presented only D? types even after 16 hours’ incubation, and one culture, also, which exhibited D? types both before and after inoculation into a guinea-pig. In considering the morphology, it should be further borne in mind that strains of B. hofmanni sometimes show occasional barred types, and in our observation, one culture of B. hofmanni, after 65 hours’ incubation, showed a considerable proportion of these seg- 364 PauL F. CLarK mented types. Most strains, however, exhibit much smaller forms than normally, when incubated for this period. Frequency curves of the acid production of the B. hofmanni and B. diphtheriae were markedly different. This seems to be positive evidence of specific difference between the two organisms. DISCUSSION. It seems to the writer that one reason for the confusion which has existed among bacteriologists in regard to these two species of bacteria may be traced to a misconception of the nature of species. There are always variations in a given species and merely because inter- mediate forms between one species and another can be found, it does not signify that the*two are necessarily one. Particularly is this true in dealing with unicellular organisms like bacteria. We should naturally expect to find connecting forms between closely allied species. Literally thousands of strains of pseudodiphtheria organisms have been tested for virulence only to find it lacking in all but possibly one or two cases. And as it is evident from our work that some strains of the true diphtheria organisms retain the solid-staining morphology much longer than is generally supposed, we think that most of these virulent D? types would have shown barred or granular morphology if they had been grown longer. _ If we could plot the curve of frequency of all these attempts conducted by many investigators in all parts of the world, it would present just the “mountain tops” and “valleys” we find in tabulating many admittedly different species. If only a hundred tests of the virulence of these organisms had been made, it would be the better part to suspend judgment in regard to this point until more data should be at hand. But as is well known, the number is not hundreds but thousands and is, therefore, sufficient basis for judgment. As has been shown in this paper, the frequency curves of the action of the two organisms on dextrose are different. Here too, indeed, intermediate forms are found and some diphtheria organisms produce even less acid from dextrose than some pseudodiphtheria strains, but the modes of the curves are decidedly different. In morphology, also, there is no question but that there is, as we THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 365 should expect, an intergrading of types between the two species. There is also little doubt, however, that in well-grown cultures the two organisms usually show distinct morphological differences. We think that a second very important cause for confusion lies in the failure to recognize that young forms of B. diphtheriae on blood-serum cannot be distinguished from the pseudodiphtheria bacillus. The morphology of the individuals of the two species should be compared only when they have been given proper oppor- tunities for development. The writer would suggest that a longer incubation than the cus- tomary 15 or 18 hours would probably in almost all cases settle the question as to the identity of a given bacillus. This would give opportunity for the D? forms of the diphtheria bacillus to develop into longer typical forms while the D? forms of the pseudodiphtheria bacillus would remain the same. It must be remembered, however, that very long incubation, 60 hours or more, may cause some strains of B. hofmanni to depart from the D? type. Also the virulent pseudo- diphtheria types, which produce quite distinct symptoms from the true diphtheria bacillus, and whose toxic effect is not neutralized by diphtheria antitoxin, must be kept in mind. Should not Wesbrook’s symbol of D? be restricted to those organ- isms which produce acid and diphtheria toxin and never applied to the typical non-acid-producing, non-pathogenic pseudodiphtheria bacillus? The writer would also venture to suggest that this latter name be discarded for the less cumbersome and less perplexing one of B. hofmanni. CONCLUSIONS. 1. Solid-staining types are not more prevalent at the end than at the beginning of a case of diphtheria. 2. Successive passages of B. hofmanni through guinea-pigs, chickens, pigeons, or canaries produce no effect either on the animals or on the organisms inoculated. 3. Doses as large as 7 per cent of the body weight of half-grown or young guinea-pigs do not kill the animals nor change the type of B. hofmanni. 4. Guinea-pigs inoculated with cultures of B. hofmanni sensitized with homologous serum show no unusual effects. 306 Pau F. Crark 5. B. hofmanni grown in an increased supply of oxygen shows no biochemical or morphological change. 6. By using celloidin sacs it was found that long-continued growth in the body cavity of guinea-pigs either alone or together with B. diphtheriae or Aurococcus aureus does not change B. hofmanni. 7. B. hofmanni, inoculated into animals in combination with toxin, either directly or in celloidin sacs, exhibits no change in the cultures recovered. 8. Artificial selection on the basis of morphology does not change the form of B. hofmanni. g. Solid-staining forms are common to both B. hofmanni and B. diphtheriae during the first 8 to 12 hours of growth. Occasionally, however, these types are retained by the B. diphtheriae for much — longer periods and some strains of B. hofmanni may show barred types on long incubation. 10. The frequency curves of acid production of B. hofmanni and B. diphtheriae show marked differences. tr. We would suggest that the term pseudodiphtheria bacillus be discarded for the less perplexing one of B. hofmanni and that the symbol D? be restricted to those organisms of the correct morphology which produce acid and diphtheria toxin. 12. From a careful study of the literature and from the experi- ments described in this paper, we are forced to take the position that the pseudodiphtheria bacillus or B. hofmanni belongs to a different species from the true Klebs-Léffler bacillus. Doubtless both organ- isms do belong to the same group and came from common ancestors, but the differences seem to be sufficiently constant to place them in separate species. REFERENCES. BERGEY. Univ. of Penn. Pub., 1898, N.S., No. 4. Cossett. Jour. of Hyg., tg0l, I, pp. 235, 228, 485. Corsett. Minn. State Board of Health Report, 1906, p. 6. Davis. Proc. N.Y. Path. Society, 1898, p. 170. Denny. Jour. Med. Res., 1903, 9, Pp. 117- De Stuont. Centralbl. j}. Bakt., 1899, 26, Abt. 1, p. 673. EscHERICH. Aetiologie u. Pathogenese der epidemischen Diphtherie, Wien, 1894. FRANKEL, C. Berl. klin Wehnschr., 1897, 24, p. 1087. GoopMaAn. Jour. Inject. Dis., 1908, 5, Pp. 421. GorHam. Jour. Med. Res., 1901, 6, p. 201. THE PSEUDODIPHTHERIA AND DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 367 Grawam-SmitH. Jour. Hygiene, 1903, 3, p. 216; 1904, 4, p. 258; 1906, 6, p. 286. Haptey. Jour. Inject. Dis., 1907, Suppl. No. 3, p. 95. Hamitton. Jour. Inject. Dis., 1904, 1, p. 690. HAMILTON AND Horton. Jour. Inject. Dis., 1906, 3, p. 128. HEWLETT AND Knicut. Trans. Brit. Inst. Prev. Med., Series I, 1897, p. 7- HorMANN-WELLENHOF. Wien. med. Wehnschr., 1888, 38, p- 65- Kwapp. Jour. Med. Res., 1904, 12, p. 473. KUTSCHBERT UND NEISSER. Deut. med. Wehnschr., 1884, 10, pp. 321, 341- LEsIEuR. Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol., tg01, 52, p. 819; Jour. Phys. and Path. Gen., IgOl, 3, p. 961. y LOFFLER. Centralbl. }. Bakt., 1887, 2, p. 105. Lusowskl. Zeit. }. Hyg., 1900, 35, p. 87. Martin, L. Ann. del’Inst. Pasteur, 1898, 12, p. 26. NEUMANN. Zeit. 7. Hyg., 1902, 40, p. 33- OxnLMACHER. Jour. Med. Res., 1902, 7, p. 128. : PARK AND BEEBE. N.Y. Board of Health, Scien. Bull., 1895. Roux AND YERSIN. Ann. de l’Inst. Pasteur, 1888, 2, p. 629; 1890, 4, p. 385- RUEDIGER. Trans. Chi. Path. Soc., 1903, 6, p. 45. (Cited by Hamilton.) Satter. Trans. Jenner Inst., 2nd Series, 1899, p. 113. ScHWONER. Wien. klin. Wcehnschr, 1902, 15, p. 1274; Centralbl. f. Bakt., 1904, 35, Abt. 1, p. 608. Smirnow. Jour. Med. Res., 1908, 18, pp. 249, 257- Spronck. Ann. de I’Inst. Pasteur, 1895, 9, p- 758; Deut. med. Wehnschr., 1896, 36, Pp: 571: 4 Troumpp. Centralbl. f. Bakt., 1896, 20, Abt. 1, p. 721. WESBROOK, WILSON, AND McDanieEt. Trans. Amer. Assoc. Phys., 1900, 15, p. 198; Jour. Boston Soc. Med. Sci., 1900, 4, p. 75- WeEsBROOK. Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc.,.1905, 44, P- 939- WHITE AND GRAHAM. Jour. Med. Res., 1909, 20, p. 67. Witiams. Jour. Med. Res., 1902, 8, p. 83. WixsLow. Systematic Relationships of the Coccaceae, New York, 1908. ZARNIKO. Centralbl. f. Bakt., 1889, 6, pp. 153, 177, 224- ZINSSER. Jour. Med. Res., 1907, 17, Pp. 277- 101 VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX. BY HERBERT E. WALTER. The American Naturalist, Vol. XLIV, October, 1910. pp. 577-594. [Reprinted from THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol]. XLIV., October, 1910.] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX DR. HERBERT EUGENE WALTER ~ Brown UNIVERSITY 1. Introduction—In a paper which appeared in 1898 Bumpus! showed that, in the case of Littorina littorea, an introduced species shows more variability than the same species in its original habitat. This Littorina was recently so rare on the Atlantic coast that two pioneer specimens were reported by Verrill from Woods Hole in 1875 while the first specimen found at New Haven was in 1880. Twenty years later it was probably the com- monest mollusk to be found along the new England coast and its range extended northward and southward con- siderably beyond this area. Three lots of 1,000 each, representing the former habitat of the species, were ob- tained from the coasts of Wales, Scotland and England, respectively, and these shells were measured so as to get an index of their variability. Then ten 1,000-lots of the introduced American shells were collected and measured for comparison and it was found that nowhere in any of the ten different localities, which extended from the St. Croix River in Maine to Newport, R. I., could shells be found that did not have a greater index of variability than did the British shells. Duncker? working over 1Bumpus, H. C., 1898, ‘‘The Variations and Mutations of the Intro- duced Littorina,’’ Zool. Bul., Vol. I, pp. 247-259. ?Duneker, G., 1898, ‘‘Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von H. C. Bumpus: The Variations and Mutations of the Introduced Littorina,’’ Biol. Cen- tralbl., Bd. 18, pp. 569-573. DTT 578 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vou. XLIV Bumpus’s data afterwards by the most approved tech- nical methods, confirmed his conclusion. The oyster-borer, Urosalpinx cinereus Say, offers an additional opportunity to test the relative variability of a species when introduced into a new environment as com- pared with the same species living in the original habitat. This mollusk is a native of the Atlantic coast, living par- ticularly on the oyster beds, where it causes considerable damage. In 1871 Mr. A. Booth, of Chicago, first trans- planted the Atlantic oysters to the Pacific coast where, with varying success, they have since been maintained. Two lots of these.shells were obtained from the San Francisco beds in 1898 and it was the original purpose of this paper to compare these introduced California shells with individuals from the Atlantic coast whence they were emigrated. The work was principally done at the Woods Hole re- search laboratory of the U. S. Fisheries Bureau and I wish hereby to acknowledge the many courtesies received from the officers connected with that bureau, and particu- larly to express my indebtedness to Professor Bumpus who suggested the original problem. I wish also here to thank the following persons for aid in obtaining speci- mens: Dr. Bumpus for 1,500 California shells; Dr. H. M. Smith for 1,700 from Prince’s Bay, Staten Island; Mr. G. W. Hunter, for 1,000 from Norwalk Harbor, Ct.; Miss M. E. Smallwood for 1,000 from Cold Spring Har- bor, Long Island; Mr. C. T. Brues and Mr. A. L. Melan- der for 8,000 from Woods Hole, Mass., in 1902 and 1903; and Mr. C. S. Bennett for 4,000 from Woods Hole in 1908. Finally, I am particularly under obligation to Dr. J. Arthur Harris, who very kindly passed the manu- seript under his statistical eye. It should be added that while Dr. Harris is responsible for much that does not appear he is in no way committed to what remains. 2. Methods.—In collecting, only living specimens were taken, thus eliminating beach-worn shells, and collecting was always done ‘‘ systematically at random’’ (Daven- No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 579 port) so that any lot would, as far as possible, be typi- cally representative of its locality. Lots of 1,000 were taken and shells not immediately measured were simply preserved in formalin until opportunity for making use of them arose. In ascertaining statistically the variability of any lot of shells it was necessary to select for measurement two easily definable dimensions common to every shell and take the ratio of these two dimensions for reasons which will directly appear. The dimensions selected were the total height of the shell (a to b, Fig. 1) and the greatest dimension of the shell-aperture (a to c, Fig. 1). It was possible to de- termine these standards on Urosal- ping by the use of calipers with a considerable degree of accuracy. Any other dimensions which would lend themselves equally well to ac- curate measurement would have served quite as well to establish a criterion from which a comparison of variability in different lots of shells could be computed, since it was the fact of variation, and not Fic. 1. a-b=height of the direction or character of it that S0i;,0.° ~ sreatest mouth was the object of the inquiry. The ratio of the two dimensions was used instead of a single dimension in order to eliminate as far as possible heterogeneity referable directly to growth. Had height alone, for instance, been used then groups of shells would be related to each other with reference to their variations in size or age only, and all that could be said in comparing lots from two localities would be that those in one locality averaged taller or shorter, and pre- sumably, therefore, were older or younger than those from another locality. This would not be a suitable index for variation in form. On the other hand, when the ratio of two dimensions is taken, then the factor of absolute 580 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vou. XLIV size is eliminated, while the factor of form remains. Thus a shell 20 mm. high with a greatest shell-aperture of 12 mm. would fall in the 60 per cent. class (20: 12 = 60 per cent.), as would also a smaller shell 15 mm. high with a greatest shell aperture of 9 mm. (15:9=—60 per cent.), while shells of the same height as the first, but with a 14mm. greatest shell aperture, would rightly represent a variation in form since they fall into a different (70 per cent.) class (20:14—70 per cent.). This distine- tion may be more apparent by reference to Fig. 2 where Height ta rgy illis ers Fercenl of greatest movil, aperture toine bg 7 GG G5 64 6S G2 GI GO 59 5Q 5] S655 54 Height of entire shell Fic. 2. The different classes of variants occurring in a specimen lot of one thousand shells to show how size, or the factor of growth, was eliminated in classifying the variants. The shells in the vertical lines all in the same per- centage class, although their size (height) differs. The shells in the horizontal lines are in different percentage classes, although their size (height) is alike. single representatives of all the different classes of var- iants that appeared in a certain thousand-lot of shells are arranged to show this point. Here the shells in any horizontal row are the same height, and have, therefore, presumably reached the same stage of growth, but at the same time they are all unlike in form since those at the left have larger ‘‘greatest shell apertures’’ than those at the right. On the contrary, all the shells in any vertical No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 581 row, although varying in size, fall into a single form- group as determined by the ratio between total height and the greatest shell-aperture. A measuring machine such as that used by Bumpus-for his work on Littorina made it possible to read the ratio of the two dimensions directly from a graduated arm without trouble of com- putation, thus greatly lessening the tediousness in ob- taining the data. 3. Are Variation Curves. of any Locality Distinctive for that Locality?—Tests were first made to ascertain how far the personal element in making the measure- ments could affect the results, since judgment in the use of calipers and in the manipulation of the measuring ma- chine are by no means invariable factors. One such test, which is typical of several which were made, is shown in Table I, where the same lot of shells was twice measured. TABLE I ] Tue Same Lot or A THOUSAND SHELLS TWICE MEASURED TO SHOW AMOUNT OF ERROR IN MANIPULATION. Percentage | 54 55 | 56 57/58/59) 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65/66/67) 68/69 |ATithmet- Standard? Probable | | Class. | ical Mean.| Deviation.) Error. First meas-| 1) 2) 2) 5 |28)/58)118/185)182)171 139 49 38/15) 5 | 2 62.101 | 1.992 | +.0300 uring OT ae Ca Second | | 2| 2| 4 | 25) 66/128)182)179/176)120/59/ 33/18) 4| 2) 62.071 | 2.088 | +.0314 measuring | pe] CoE: Difference 030 096 The numbers ought to be identical. Their deviation from exact similarity represents the imperfections of manipulation and it will be seen that according to this test a difference of .096 in the standard deviation with a probable error of about + .03 may be regarded due to imperfect technique. Now in order to test whether the variation is charac- teristic and constant for any locality whence the shells came, two 1,000-lots were gathered on the same day in 1898 from the same restricted group of rocks on Nobska Point, Woods Hole, by no means thereby exhausting the 582 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [ Vou. XLIV supply. The figures for these two lots are shown to- gether in Table IT. TABLE II Two Lots oF SHELLS OF ONE THOUSAND BACH TAKEN FROM THE SAME Rocks AT THE SAME TIME TO SHOW THE PROBABLE VALIDITY OF PLAcE-MODEsS. A.M, o | PLE. Fercentage | 54] 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | e2 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 ass. | fet | | me pea tee esse ole ee First lot | 2} 3) 20) 40) 80/150) 149 196,157 112! 57| 21) 10) 4 | 1 61.737, 2. 152. .0323 Second lot | 2 | 2 | 31 rr) 61) 79/144 148 185 160} 106 55| 25] 10) 7 | 61.694 2.234].0336 Difference | .043] .082| The close resemblance of these two lots, which show a difference in standard deviation (.082) less than that shown when the same lot is measured twice (.096) as just indicated in Table I, warranted confidence in the proba- bility that all the shells from a given place, when col- lected at the same time, exhibit the same characteristic sort of variation which may therefore be regarded as distinctive for that particular locality. Furthermore, a glance at Table III will show how widely the shells of various localities may differ with regard to the character and degree of their variability, a fact that assures us that in Urosalpinx we are dealing with a form whose varia- tion is considerable enough to furnish favorable mate- rial for quantitative treatment. * Formulas for standard deviation and probable error of standard devia- tion are found in Davenport’s Statistical Methods (Davenport, C. B., 1899), as follows: Standard deviation — Sum of aa \ [ (deviation of class from mean)* sx frequency of class] or “Number of variates — n Probable error of standard deviation — Standard deviation C 0.6745 or P. E. —=+ 0.6745 —— V2 x number “of ° variates \/2n No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 583 TABLE III Two Lots oF SHELLS OF ONE THOUSAND EACH TO SHOW EXTREMES OF VARIATION. pa S| - Percentage | 59 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 51 | a5 |*5e | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 Class. Devil’s Foot} 1} 0| 2) 6 | 22} 387) 99 | 144) 193) 217) 163) 73 | 25) 14 Prince’s Bay | 4| 5| 9] 36] 45] 65| 79 | 132) 84 l l | =|" alae Percentage 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | A. M. a |RIE Class. | Devil’s Foot 3 58.358 | 1.849 |.0279 Prince’s Bay | 83 | 117| 75 | 88 | 83 | 42 | 33 | 15) 2) 1 | 63.976 /3.407|.0614 the summer of 1898, following the method employed by Bumpus with Littorina, 7,006 Urosalpinz shells from various localities near Woods Hole were obtained and measured, with which were compared 1,528 introduced shells from two localities in California. From Table IV, in which these data are brought together, it will be seen that Bumpus’s work on Littorina is apparently confirmed, that is, there is more variability in the introduced than in the endemic form, although the margin of probable error permits an overlapping in some instances. TABLE IV ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC SHELLS COMPARED. Locality. Aaa A. M. o P.E. ( West Shore 1,001 48.928 2.339 Penzance Point | 1,002 | ~ 61.718 2.737 Nobska Point | 1,002 61.737 | 2.152 Woods } Nobska Point 1,001 61.944 2.23 Hole ) Nobska Point 496 | 66.944 2.366 Barnacle Beach 998 63.932 2.604 Big Wepecket 1,006 57.426 2.052 Mid Wepecket 500 57.606 | 2.098 ae = Average | 61.066 | 2.335 Cali- Belmont Beds 1,008 | 59.051 3.023 fornia | San Francisco Bay | 220 60.892 |: 3.361 _ Average 59.664 | 3.138 B Difference | 803 5. Shells from Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound Compared.—F or the sake of scientific peace of mind the 584 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vou. XLIV incident should have been closed at this point, but uncer- tainty as to the degree in which the element of time took part in influencing the place-modes of variability led to the examination during the following summer of several thousand more shells. Four convenient localities near Woods Hole (see Fig. 3) where Urosalpinxz was abundant were selected and three lots of 1,000 each were collected from each of these localities at intervals of two weeks apart. The data obtained from these shells is arranged in Table V. TABLE V Woops HoLe SHELLS ARRANGED TO SHOW PLACE VARIATION AFTER TWO WEEKS INTERVALS OF TIME. Locality: Bt MOTAMET IS fo aah z | P. E. July 5 1,000 | 58.669 2.137 | +.0322 West Shore | July 21 | 1,000 | 59.598 2.211 | =£.0333 | ~ | ? Aug.5 920 | 60.308 | 2911 | =.0398 Broeards Average | 59.503 ay Penzance |July5 | | 986 | 58458 | 243875 | 2.0304 Dare July 21 | 1,000 | 58.030 | 2135 | +.0392 : Aug.5 1,000 | 60.308 | 1.982 | +.0323 Average | 08.888 - Nobska | July5. | 1,000 | 62.085 | 2.040 | +0307 Snr | duly 21 | 1,000 | 62.690 | 2172 | +0327 om Aug.5 | 1,005 | 64.022 | 2312 | +.0347 Vineyard : Average 62.934 Sound 4 Barnacle | Jy 5 | 1,036 | 60.978 | 2093 | +0810 Beach | duly 21 | 1,001 | 61.925 | 2119 | 4.0319 aa Aug. 5 1,001 63.281 | 2.186 | +.0329 Average 62.048 | From Table V it will be seen that in each of the four localities the arithmetical mean (A.M.) increased stead- ily, except for the Penzance Point—July 21—lot of shells. This general increase may be due to the fact that, as the season advanced, there were fewer young shells in any 1,000 lot. The young are produced in May and June from individuals that have wintered over, so that early in July the Urosalpinx community is made up of old adults from the preceding year and of young of various sizes. A month later the population is more uniform, No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 585 Buzzarps Bar Vineyaro Souno Fic. 3. due to the rapid growth and approaching maturity of the young ones. That the ratio of the two dimensions used changes somewhat with age is shown in a later table (Table VIL), a fact that somewhat complicates a compar- ison between shells of any two localities. It will fur- thermore be observed that the variability of the Vine- yard Sound shells as indicated by their standard devia- tion increases steadily from July 5 to August 5, reaching its maximum upon the latter date, but that for both the Buzzard’s Bay localities the same is not true; on the con- trary, in the case of Penzance Point the August 5 collec- tions showed the least variability of any time. The fact that the maximum of the shifting seasonal variation does not occur at the same time in localities almost within sight of each other, as in the present instance, plainly indicates that comparisons of variabilities based upon the time-factor alone do not take everything into consid- eration. The shells from Buzzard’s Bay range in their arithmetical mean from 58.030 to 60.308 while those from Vineyard Sound, separated from the former only by the narrow tongue of land on which the village of Woods Hole is located, form a distinct class ranging from 60.978 to 64.022. Here is a distinct place difference in the shells of the two general localities in question. Shells obtained from other localities in Buzzard’s Bay 586 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vou. XLIV and Vineyard Sound conform quite closely with respect to their arithmetical means to the standards above men- tioned. 6. Time and Place Factors Compared.—When a com- parison of the standard deviation of these 1899 shells is made to ascertain whether the greater variability is as- sociated with time (due to inherent germinal modifica- tions), or with place (associated with environmental modifications), it appears that while time is rather the more important factor, yet the result is not uniform and convincing. This comparison is shown in Table VI, in which the difference between the standard deviation of the July shells of each locality with the July 5 shells of three other localities is obtained to indicate differences due to place, and second, the difference between stand- ard deviation of the July 5 shells in each locality and those of July 21 and August 5 for the corresponding lo- eality are reckoned to show the effect of time. TABLE VI A COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENCES IN THE STANDARD DEVIATION VARIA- BILITY O*# THE 1899 Woops HoLe SHELLS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PLACE-FACTOR AND THE TIME-FACTOR. Place Differences (July 5), sos = Time Differences. Nobska West Penzance | Barnacle | “5 12 5 Point. Shore. Point. Beach. | Tulse: Duly ities |e UeUBl a: = 097 | .025 053 Nobska Point 132 212 097 = 122 044 | West Shore 074 080 025 1224) — 078 | Penzance Point 120) 038 053 044 | . 078 | = Penzance Beach .026 093 058 | .088 075 | .058 | Average 088 | 119 In Table VI, if we first consider the case of the Nobska Point shells in the top line of the table and utilize those collected upon July 5 as a standard for comparison it ap- pears that shells from the same locality but collected two and four weeks later show a greater difference in varia- bility (standard deviation) than shells collected from any of the three other neighboring localities upon the same date of July 5. That is, the factors dependent upon time No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 587 play a greater part in determining the amount of varia- bility than do the factors dependent upon place. Furthermore, there is a greater difference of variability after four weeks (.272) than after two weeks (.132) have elapsed, just as would be expected if a progressive time change is taking place. The same general result appears also when an average of the four localities is reckoned, as shown in the bottom line of the table, but an examination of the second, third and fourth lines of the table reveals several instances in detail of non-con- formity to this apparently general conclusion that time has more to do with determining variability than place. It is apparently safe to conclude, however, that the fac- tors dependent upon time are at least as important, if not demonstrably more so, than those dependent upon space or locality. TABLE VII Woops Hote SHELLS ARRANGED ACCORDING T0 THEIR SIZE. = Ss Height in mm.| Actual No.of | 4_ yf. Per Cent. c P.E. Shells. | ri 96 64.070 3.487 == 2783 12 139 63.911 | 3.558 = 1445 13 252 63.372 3.465 — 1049 14 341 62.983 3.954 = 1029 15 524 62.940 3.602 + 0755 16 S66 61.960 3.020 = .0489 17 1,296 61.595 3.146 = 0417 18 2,033 | 61.171 3.124 += 0325 19 2,328 60.913 | 3.143 = (0311 20 3,366 61.004 3.209 = 0227 21 4,404 60.914 3.056 + 0219 22 4,807 60.739 | 3.122 = .0213 23 3,83 60.507 2.881 == 0229 24 2,854. 60.171 2.951 = 02.6 25 1,782 59.856 2.943 = 0322 26 949 59.706 2.663 = 27 539 59.520 2.704 = 28 239 59.213 2.520 = 29 109 59.654 | 2.907 = 1328 30 63 59.305 2.740 = 1646 31 30 58.334 2.182 = 2455 32 23 58.665 | 1.916 + 1905 33 6 58.332 4.015 + 7818 3 12 59.083 3.009 = 4141 35 5 57.600 2.059 + 4392 36 3 60.000 8.185 +2.9554 37 ] 54.000 Total 30,903 588 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vou. XLIV 7. Variations due to Age.—It is indeed true that as the snail grows older not only is there a change in the total height of the shell, as would be expected, but also the ratio of the largest shell-aperture to the height diminishes in a definite way and the standard deviation becomes generally less. In other words, the older the shell becomes the less is the relative size of the largest shell-aperture to the total height and the less does it tend to deviate from the arithmetical mean. In Table VII the total number of shells measured in 1898, 1899, 1900 are arranged according to their height to illustrate this fact. . 8. Staten Island and California Shells Compared.— Tn 1900 shells were obtained from several additional lo- ealities, among which were 1,665 from oyster beds on Prince’s Bay, Staten Island. This lot of shells has a special interest because it was from this particular lo- eality, according to Dr. H. M. Smith, of the U. S. Fish Commission, that the oysters, and accidentally with them the Urosalpinx, were obtained for transplanting to San Francisco in 1871. A comparison of the Staten Island shells with the California shells appears in Table VIII. TABLE VIII A COMPARISON OF CALIFORNIA SHELLS WITH THOSE FROM STATEN ISLAND. No 1A. M. o P.E California 1,528 59.741 3.286 +.0398 Staten Island | 1,664 63.166 | 3.508 ==.0412 From this table one of three conclusions must be drawn: (1) That the introduced California shells vary less in their new environment than they did in the place they came from or (2) that the Staten Island shells have increased remarkably in their variability since 1871, or (3) that place-modes in which time element is not known are of little value in working with organisms of this kind. 9. Shells of Successive Years Compared.—Further- No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 589 more, the analysis of the 1899 shells indicates that a proper comparison of place-modes of variability could be made only on material of the same relative age, which presumably could be approximated best by collecting the shells in neighboring localities at the same time or in any one locality at the same time in successive years. Consequently lots of 1,000 shells from each of the four Woods Hole localities mentioned in Table V were col- lected during the first week of August, with some omis- sions, for several years. These data are assembled in Tables IX and X. In Table IX it is made apparent that, when the time element is reduced to a minimum by comparing only August 5 shells of various years, the shells of Buz- zard’s Bay (West Shore and Penzance Point) fall into a group distinct from those of Vineyard Sound (Nob- ska Point and Barnacle Beach), at least so far as the A. M. is concerned. The A. M. of 11,476 Buzzard’s Bay— August 5 shells is 61.830 while the A. M. for 14,503 Vine- yard Sound—August 5 shells, is 64.303. In no individ- ual lot of Buzzard’s Bay shells does the A. M. reach as high as the Vineyard Sound average and in no one lot of the Vineyard Sound shells does the A. M. fall as low as the Buzzard’s Bay average of 61.330. The standard deviation of the August shells shows no decided grouping with reference to Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound, although those from the latter lo- eality show a slightly higher total average which is probably quite without significance. In general, then, it may be said that during the first week of August the Buzzard’s Bay shells show a lower ratio of greatest shell-aperture to height (and consequently may be re- garded as rather more advanced in their life cycle) than those of Vineyard Sound, but that they present no sig- nificant difference in variability. In each of the two general localities which were more exposed to the open water and the beat of the waves, viz., Nobska Point and Penzance Point, is the variabil- 590 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST TABLE IX A COMPARISON oF AUGUST SHELLS OF VARIOUS YEARS TO SHOW PLACE-VARIATION. A. M. [ Vou. XLIV Place Time | Number, | | o PLE r 1898 1,001 | 58.928 | 2.339 | +.0352 1899 920 | 60.308 2.057 +0323 1900 405 | 60.711 2.042 | +.0484 1901 sf = = 2s 1902 1,000 | 63.251 3.280 | -.0491 West Shore | 1903 1,000 | 61.419 2.234 | +.0836 1904 | — = =| 1905 1,000 | 61.086 2.012 | +.0303 1906 _- — — — 1907 =i PS = = 1908 1,000 | 60.380 | 2469 | +.0372 Buzzard’s Total | ~ 6,326 | 60.890 2.663 +.0160 Bay | 1848 1,002 | 61.718 | 2.737 | +.0412 1899 1,000 | 60.170 1.982 | +.0299 1900 1,001 | 60.617 2.008 | +.0316 1901 = ee aay hee 1902 1,000 | 64155 | 2988 | +.0443 near 1903 1,000 | 62.773 | 2.086 | +.0314 1904 — —_— } —_ | — 1905 1,000 | 61.381 | 1970 | +.0775 1906 = Sal oe = 1907 ‘Too scarce to collect 1908 ae A = = Total | 5,150 | 61.870 | 2814 | +.0187 Total for Buzzard’s Bay | 11.476 | 61.330 | 2.805 | +.0125 1s98 | 2,498 | 62.751 | 3.041 | +.0290 1899 | 1,005 64.022 2.312 +,0347 1900 1,000 | 66.396 2.449 | +—.0869 1901 ae ee = = NTS 1902 1,000 | 66.775 2707 | =5.0407 Pommt | 1908 1,000 | 64.605 2.128 | +.0321 | 1904 == ce Wee = 1905 1,000 | 63.765 2.653 | -£.0400 1906 > it Tea) Rete: = | 1907 —_ — = = 1908 1,000 | 63.296 | 2719 | +.0410 Vineyard Total | | 8,503 64.205 | 3.048 =.0158 Sound 1898 | 998 | 63.942 | 2.604 | +0393 1899 1,000 | 63.281 2.186 | .0329 1900 1,000 | 66.798 2.052 | £.0309 1901 = = = = een nare 1902 1,002 | 66.085 | 2.351 | +.0354 Beach» | 1908 1,000 | 63.526 | 2546 | +.0383 1904 = a a | 1905 | Too scarce to colleet 1906 a ne ee x 1907 = = = = 1908 1,000 | 63.017 2.300 | +.0347 L Total | 6,000 64.442 2.602 =.0160 Total for Vineyard Sound | 14,503 64.308 2.865 +.0113 No. 526] VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 591 ity (standard deviation) greater-than at West Shore and Barnacle Beach, respectively, which were somewhat more sheltered situations. Turning to Table X, where the August shells are grouped by years rather than by localities, the A. M. is seen to fluctuate with considerable regularity, reaching in 1902 the highest average ratio. It seems not improb- TABLE X AUGUST SHELLS GROUPED TO SHOW YEARLY VARIATION. Year. Locality. No. A.M. | o P.E. West Shore 1,001 58.928 2.339 +.0352 Penzance Point 1,002 61.718 2.737 +.0412 1393 | Nobska Point 2498 | 62751 | 3.041 0290 “| Barnacle Beach 998 63.942 | 2.604 =.0393 Average (5,499) 61.899 | 3.359 +0218 | West Shore | 920 60.308 2.057 | -.0323 | Penzance Point 1,000 61.170 1.982 = .0299 1899 Nobska Point 1,005 | 64.022 2.312 | =+.0347 Barnacle Beach 1,000 | 63.281 2.186 | =+.0329 Average | (8,925) |} 61.981 | 2.649 +.0202 | West Shore 405 | 60.711 2.042 | +.0484 | Penzance Point | 1,001 60.617 2.098 +.0316 1900 | Nobska Point 1,000 66.396 2.449 =+.0369 | Barnacle Beach 1,000 66.798 2.052 +.0309 | Average | (3,406) 64.139 | 3.459 +0281 West Shore 1,000 63.251 | 3.280 0491 | Penzance Point 1,000 64.155 2.938 =+.0443 1902 Nobska Point 1,000 66.775 | 2.707 +.0407 202’ | Barnacle Reach 1,002 66.085 2.351 +0354 | Average (4,002) | 65.067 3.012 =-.0227 fi | West Shore 1,000 61.419 2.234 =.0336 | Penzance Point 1,000 | 62.773 2.084 | =.0314 1903 | Nobska Point 1,000 64.615 2.128 | =+.0321 | Barnacle Beach 1,000 | 63.526 | 2.546 +.0383 Average (4,000) 63.083 2.542 | -.0291 West Shore 1,000 61.086 | 2.012 +0303 Penzance Point 149 61.381 1.970 +.0775 1905 Nobska Point 1,000 63.765 | 2.653 | +.0400 ‘ Barnacle Beach _ = = = Average (2,147) | 62.077 | 2718 +-.0280 West Shore 1,000 60.380 2469 | +.0372 Penzance Point _— = _ —- 1908 Nobska Point 1,000 63.296 2.719 | =-0410 Barnacle Beach 1,000 63.017 2300 4 =.0847 Average (3,000) 62.321 2.802 +.0244 592 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [ Von. XLIV able that the missing year 1901 would have furnished a higher maximum than 1902, and that in some future year the high average of 1902 may again be attained. 10. Dense and Sparse Population Compared.—Iwo lots of shells collected in 1899 deserve a separate para- graph. They represent the extremes among all the lots collected with respect to the density of the population. They came from localities on the eastern shore of Buz- zard’s Bay about five miles apart and were collected during the same week. TABLE XI coe * i j m oy A.M. z o P. Eb. Quisset-to-West-Shore | 862 60.464 | Bey | =.0507 West Falmouth : ; _ 1,000 59.091 1.913 +.0297 The Quisset-to-West-Shore lot was gathered over an area extending fully a mile along the rocky shore and they were so scarce that it was necessary to utilize the low-tide period of two successive days in order to ob- tain them, and even then only 862 were obtained instead of the usual 1,000. The West Falmouth lot, on the con- trary, were all taken within a few minutes from a single rock about five feet in diameter without by any means exhausting the supply. It may be that the latter, as would be inferred by their proximity, were more closely related to each other than were the former, and consequently they might be ex- pected to present less variation, or it is possible that the Quisset-to-West Shore lot—representing the pioneers or survivors in an apparently inhospitable area—suc- ceeded in maintaining themselves because of their greater variability (7. e., adaptability). Certain it is, at any rate, that they represent the greatest variability (standard deviation) of any lot of shells obtained from the Atlantic coast except a thousand from West Shore in August, 1902, and those already mentioned from Staten Island. 11. Variation of the Species Urosalpinx as a Whole. —By combining the data of all the shells measured—a | | } | : No. 526] ‘VARIATIONS IN UROSALPINX 5938 total of 50,424—it is possible to approximate a measure of the variability of Urosalpinx as a species much more nearly than is possible with smaller lots of 1,000. Such a combination is shown in Table XII, which will be seen to furnish the figures for a curve of considerable regu- larity in which the arithmetical mean is 61.662 and the standard deviation is 3.367+.0071. This standard devia- tion is exceeded in but a single instance among the smaller lots which make it up—namely, in the 1,664 shells from Staten Island which show a standard devia- tion of 3.508+.0412. TABLE XII Per Cent. 50be male Soe) ase bee SS 56s ey G8 No. 4 15 32 120 289 675 1,510 2.450 3,812 Per Cent. 59 GONE 6 63% 64 6 66 67 No. 5,052 5,491 5,861 5,515 5,115 4,225 3,647 2,357 1,714 Per Cent. 68 69 7 71 72 73 7a 75 76 No. Wiel. “737% 373 “181 5421 8 4 1 A. M., 61.662. c, 3.367. P. E., +.007. Total No., 50,424. 12. Summary.—l1. When two lots of 1,000 Urosal- pinx shells each are taken from the same locality they resemble each other sufficiently to indicate a character typical for the locality. 2. Lots of shells from different localities vary widely enough from each other to be easily distinguished, indi- eating thereby that the varying environment associated with different localities exerts a measurable effect. 3. Endemic Atlantic shells (with one exception noted below) vary less than shells introduced into a new en- vironment (California). 4. The shells of Buzzard’s Bay have a lower ratio of greater shell-aperture to shell-height than those of Vineyard Sound. 5. When shells from the same localities in successive fortnights are compared there is an increase in the ratio of greater shell-aperture to shell-height (A. M.) and also a slight increase in variability as shown by the standard deviation, except in the case of the shells from Penzance Point. 594 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vot. XLIV 6. When growth which we detect by taking into con- sideration the time-factor is compared with the environ- mental factors that depend upon place, the former ap- parently plays the greater réle in causing variations. 7. As Urosalpinxy grows larger (older) the ratio of its greatest shell-aperture to its height diminishes with regularity and its standard deviation tends to become somewhat less. 8. Shells from Staten Island whence the introduced California shells were originally derived show greater variability than the California shells. 9. When the August shells of successive years from the same localities are compared the A. M. of the ratio between the greater shell-aperture and_ shell-height fluctuates with noticeable regularity, reaching a maxti- mum in 1902. 10. Shells from the localities more exposed to the beat of the waves show greater variability than those from the more protected places. 11. When dense and sparse populations are compared the dense population shows less variability. 12. The average mean of the ratio of greater shell- aperture to height of shell for 50,424 Urosalpinaw shells is 61.662. The standard deviation is 3.367+.0071. 13. Conclusion—So far as the statistical method is able to reveal, it is extremely doubtful whether or not Urosalpinw when introduced into a new habitat ex- hibits greater variability than when in its native habi- tat. The change in the variability appearing in succes- sive fortnights in shells from the same locality as well -as in change showing itself in the August shells from the same locality in successive years is marked enough to indicate plainly the working of an ontogenetic variabil- ity independent of environmental modification, that is, a time-factor as distinguished from a place-factor. In consequence of this it is practically impossible to collect homologous lots of individuals of these shells upon which the place- (or environmental-) factor may be ac- curately determined. 102 THE HYGIENE OF THE SWIMMING POOL. BY JOHN W. M. BUNKER. American Journal of Public Hygiene, Vol. XX, No. 4. November, 1910. pp. 810-812. ; i . THE HYGIENE OE THE SWIMMING POOL. By JOHN W. M. BUNKER, A. M., Brown University Reprinted from the American Journal of Public Hygiene, Vol. XX, No. 4, November, 1910, ’ THE HYGIENE OF THE SWIMMING POOL.* By JOHN W. M. BUNKER, A. M., Brown University. Of late years the general use of swimming pools has brought up a new problem in sanitation, the problem of the hygiene of the swimming pool. It has been suggested that the swimming pool may be a source of danger as well as one of benefit to the user. To remove such possible danger has been the purpose of the experiments here described. All work was done on the pool at Brown University. This pool is seventy-five by twenty-five feet, three and one- half feet deep at one end and eight at the other, giving a total capacity of approximately seventy-five thousand gallons. The pool is emptied, cleaned, and filled from the city mains once in three months. The water is kept at a temperature of 68° F. The cost of the water necessitates the using of the pool water over and over. Therefore, at the opening of the pool in 1903, there was installed a gravity sand filter which proved inefficient, clogging repeatedly. In 1908 a new filter was installed similar to the one at Amherst College, designed and built by the Norwood Engineering Co. This plant combines a settling basin and sand filter of six feet in depth, grading from 2 inch crushed rock to fine sand. The water from the pool is at present drawn off at the rate of 125 gallons per minute, and pumped into the sedimenting tank, where once a week three pints of alum are added as a coagulant. The course of a particle of water through this tank is about twenty feet, due to the arrangement of baffle-beams. The outflow is spread through a butterfly valve over the surface of the sand filter, whence it goes down through and into the pool. Under this system an amount of water nearly equivalent to the content of the pool is passed through the filter each day, the pump being *Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Boston, Dec, 27, 1909. [810] SPECIAL ARTICLES 811 tun from 9 a. mM. to6 p.m. This method of filtration keeps the water in the pool clear and of good color but has little effect on bacterial content, although the efficiency of the filter is good. Samples taken from the surface of the pool three feet above the inlet, after a period of fifteen hours’ quiet, show counts of from 300 to 400 bacteria per cc. when grown on agar at 37°. At the same time samples from the deep end of the pool showed counts of from 400 to 500. Samples from the deep end when it is stirred up by those using it, show a content of from 500 to 1000. These analyses show that under this system of filtration, purification is incomplete. Under such conditions there must ever be danger of transmis- sion of disease. In the time that the pool has been in use at Brown it is true that there have been no epidemics of disease that could be even remotely connected with the use of the swimming pool. Cases of nose and ear affections have occurred occasionally among members of the swimming team which may or may not have been due to infection in the pool. Others have traced cases of this sort directly to swimming pool infection.* Meagre as are the statistics of disease contracted in this way, the danger of infection from a pool used by many, in which the bacterial content is not frequently destroyed or greatly reduced by some adequate means, is surely very real. The colon organism is known to flourish for long periods in water, and its sister organism B. typhosus has the same tendency. One can never tell when a carrier case will infect such a pool, and the warm water would offer an inviting habitat for the sojourn of the germs. The swimming pool, then, must ever be a menace unless preventive measures can be applied to overcome this danger. Inasmuch as filtration as usually employed yields only partial purification, the alternative seems to be disinfection. Disinfec- tion by heat is out of the question because of the expense. Dis- infection by chemicals would be applicable could one be found which would be unobjectionable to those using the pool. Dif- ferent chemicals have been tried out at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the case of sewage, and as a result of these experiments the practical application of chlorine as a dis- infectant has been made-in the case of the sewage and drinking *Carolus M. Cobb, M. D., Boston Med. & Surg. Jour., July 2, 1908. 812 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HYGIENE water. We have endeavored to apply these results to the water of the swimming pool. Two-litre samples of swimming pool water were treated with hyperchlorite of lime in the ratio of one part of available chlorine to 1,000,000 of water. The original bacterial content of 700 per cc. was reduced to 0 in fifteen minutes. The same experiments were repeated using one-half the amount of lime. Of six samples of treated water taken fifteen minutes after the addition of the chemical, two each had 1 colony per cc., and the others were sterile. All samples were incubated at 37° for twenty-four hours. The result of these experiments seemed to warrant the trying of the same experiment on the pool, and it was accordingly treated with hyperchlorite of lime in the strength of 1 part available chlorine in 2,000,000. No odor was noticeable in or out of the water nor was there any perceptible taste. The lime was finely pulverized, placed in a cheese-cloth bag and dragged about the pool until distributed. Surface samples before disinfection yielded a count of 500 per cc. Three samples after 15 minutes yielded a count of 30 per cc. After thirty minutes the count was 10. After one hour there was complete sterility. A sample eight hours later, when the pool was still in motion from those who had entered it, showed a content of 5 per cc. The pool remained practically sterile for four days, whereupon the count began to steadily rise. A second experiment yielded practically the same curve of purification. From these results it would seem that the application of hyperchlorite of lime offers at once a cheap, efficient, and conven- ient method of insuring a hygenic swimming pool. 103 ADDITIONAL NOTES UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOBSTER. BY PHILIP B. HADLEY. Fortieth Annual Report of the Commissioners of Inland Fisheries of Rhode Island. 1909. State of Rhode Asland and Providence Plantations. ADDITIONAL -NOTES DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOBSTER. BY Dr. Puinip B. HapDbey. PIO9K REPRINTED FROM THE FORTIETH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMIS- SIONERS OF THE INLAND FISHERIES OF RHODE ISLAND. PROVIDENCE, R. I. E. L, FREEMAN COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS. t 1910. Puate 1. First—-Stace Losster. Ficure 1. Left, first and second antenne# from below, M=40. In the first- stage lobster the first antennz project hardly to the end of the rostrum. The endopodite which later form the smaller inner branches, have just commenced to bud off on the inner side of the outer member, or exopodite, and is furnished with one seta. The exopodite has at its tip several smaller set. The second an- tenn# at this stage are composed of two parts: a broad leaf-like outer branch, the exopodite, whose inner margin is curved and furnished with a variable number of feathered setz, and whose tip has one sharp spine; also a more slender inner part, the endopodite, which bears sete chiefly at the tip, but whose divisions into antenne segments has not yet occurred. Figure 2. Rightsecond antennz from above, M=50. Description as above. = Se er sereuod aoaterem't \t moaut teed ott il re =H wolut mort stanstan berosve fue Jeni aft dase silt Yo baie odd of ~linsd Joojony sonnozan deal 8 of besaontiaos Jauy aval , sodonwtd tani sollerne adi aact dotal iftiw entwlasust at hee whitwngoss 10 radiant roto add to shia! ~60 boone off etoa vallucns leraved qid ati da eur Monet awtuh sdil-teal baotd a :atury ow) to hosoqaron oun a nofamaldgtay « dit bodeiasui bas beviwe 8t otgsan tonal: sont tobosle toc & vale iadiqa qpaita eto aad qit awowe bes ¢ ontt ettoinlvil gad dud Aietion te vHoido aise mined doidye cbariose tay fon wa ofodse aa moitqiioas O0=SM srrodt oxont anata Puate 2. First-Stace Lopster. Figure 3. Right first maxilla from above, M=125. In the first maxilla the exopodite is absent, and the endopodite (en) is unjointed. The large plates (b and c) represent the basipodite and coxopodite respectively. verrasal soxre—munh Gil) alliaeen dapit odd a OSE-EM sdvods sroxt slltzmen teil fur d) easel agtal od’? botsiojast «i (a9) atiboqbbrs edt haw ey PLATE 2. Piate 3. First—-Strace Lospster. Figure 4. Right second maxilla from above, M=120. The endopodite (en) is small, unjointed, and equipped with several long sete. The basipodite (b) and the cozopodite (c) are lamilla-like, and divided by deep fissures. The exopodite is absent, its place being taken by the plate-like scaphognathite (d). There is no gill or podobranch. walt fh) oiedlinn yos\epn ya oAil-sjaly add yd soled yniod ooalg ati Jagadast , antes! “sive-ranr'G , arart sMhogah wT Oe} Vyovoda cov! eliicaot boosee titel Lb swith .. oVilyogiodh afl ove utol Layee dine beqqivps bac -botalajay lareel -75 (3 dT) eeriseit qaob yd bebivil bas edil-ellione! one (0) sibonoene ae sbxnrdohon slg a ea > (e PLATE 3. Puate 4. First-Srace Lospster. Ficure 5. Right first maxilliped from above, M—125. Here the endopodite (en) and exopodite (ex) are unjointed. The end of the former is tipped with sey- eral long sete, while the latter is bordered on the outer side by feathered sete. The basipodite (b) and the coropodite (c) are not strongly divided, and form a large plate (b.c.). The podobranch is absent, but the epipodite (e), which is thin and plate-like, is strongly developed. We Bi tx af “ aaresdod aoare-reart + aratt Gnehite Seana ael> Me grads raorl Deqhtizann SeiD tigi _avan tithe baagit el asariot alt io bax adT -beiaiofay ete (a3) off iin boeradl yd shia wine ode de betebtod at settel edt olintye an @ atrol has bybivib goose Jon gm (4) siihoqonee adt Sea Cd) 98 ‘- PLATE 4. Puate 5. First-Srace Losster. Ficure 6. Right second maxilliped from below, M=40. The unjointed exopodite (en) is shown attached to the basipodite. The basai joint bears the epipodite and a rudimentary podobranch. Ficure 7. Right third maxilliped from behind, M=54. The strong and functional exopodite (ex) with its long feathered sete is shown attached to the basipodite. The endopodite is relatively weak and is divided into five joints: ischiopodite, meropodite, carpopodite, propodite, and dactylopodite. Both the epipodite and the gill (podobranch) are attached to the coropodite. Resse sith: Ghehbetride wt bas daew ylaviieler af of shai ade: dro& hi hae , dtebhacgorg miboroqw Stereo’ ares BALE ys wits stT .veoo ll leven hue bolted otowt doattosdy uti a “i Moishe eabvboecaing ad AUTRES only i Dedoayen, at ( xa) ot rads ailieg aa bmaqolginat aniaoqqo ps weds sohada sellowotih ont eb ear! agate eidt 2A adibocgona edit oth bere “ynigqit? abeinatoerets 21 aniedol edt to sheqiledts a tod sucte Jed leit .ogate dinia att lisay reaqqn tom ob e ; dndwainos tiyu Saelq levilrey @ ui i ewes oaqo ebtionb ait Puate 6. First-Srace Lopster. Ficure 8. Right cheliped from behind and above, M=37. The strong functional exopodite (ex) is attached to the basipodite. The endopodite, which is terminated by a non-functional claw, is comparatively weak,and the end of the propodite is much shorter than the opposing dactylopodite. The gills (podo- branchs) are attached to the coxopodite. At this stage there is no differentia- tion in the two chelipeds of the lobster. The characteristic “nipping” and “crushing” claws do not appear until the sixth stage. Until that stage, both claws are alike. The dactyls open upward in a vertical plane and somewhat outward. In the first stage there are no “teeth”’ on the dactylopodite or propo- dite. ae a we at 9 : “eee, a I erga, or el : ee vt ie ¥. ,, a ee Va Se, 0” Sted « | issih sini “sikeile ott habe aaa cil 2G based Ube lesa, “vlsvldmeginan,¥, weld A pena soning mi) ota ae, PLATE 6. Puate 7. First-Stace Logster. Figure 9. Right second walking leg from behind, M=46. The strong, functional exopodite is attached to the basipodite. The first two pairs of walking legs are equipped with non-functional claws which are somewhat smaller than the chelw, and are but slightly functional in this stage. They are tipped with long stout spines. The epipodite and podobranchs are shown attached to the coxopodite. The second pair of walking legs have the same general structure as the first pair. “ru tallecge deryronos oe Waathe ewals. Lenoitocnd-nory dliw j oedta, od'T: 8b Mi batstiod acozt gol yolslew Drogas ify gnbitlaw to evlag, ond deutt dT JAvboatians ald 01 barfosite al 4 dgivy bugis a2a Yad) anne: aitd a innoitoaod vlidgile tud § odt ad tadentio awotts. ore aibaperdobor berg obtlenpieys oft: mutounds levy, aga sift ove Ral goratlew to shed bacon PiatE 8 First—-Srace Logsrer. Ficure 10. Right third leg from behind, M=50. ‘The strong functional exopodite is shown attached to the basipodite. The endopodite is comparatively weak. The propodite has not grown out to form a claw with the opposing dactyl. The latter is tipped with a long spine. The gills and epipodite are shown at tached to the coxopodite. Lino yous a Ms re oak Wy VY Fy Z WV" V ; N\A An)! A) Aa ay Z VW IGE, Lag A yy We oy WEE (aE NW BE @/ Je eZ 10 PLATE 8S. Puate 9. Seconp-Stace Losster. Ficure 11. Right first antenna from inside and above, M=48. In the sec- ond-stage lobsters the inner rami of the first pair of antenne have grown out from the buds existing in the previous stage to half the lengths of the exopodites. The latter have developed along the inner margin a line of olfactory sete. Slight trace of segmentation is sometimes visible in both branches in this stage. The position of the auditory sack is suggested in the basal joint. Ficure 12. Right second antenna from above, M=40. By this second stage the endopodites of the second pair of antennz have grown out to more than equal in length the broad, leaf-like exopodites and traces of segmentation are more frequently visible. Ficure 13. Right mandible from inside, M=80. The endopodite or palpus is shown arising from the body of the mandible or propodite. The present mandible was taken from a lobster which was about to moult, and the body of the mandible is shown as it begins to draw away from the purely chitinous covering. Py ee Pa aap id alan etonanbon een pet 2) M6 ¢hadsibb ban tivo of ic adh “Cocoon illo tal one eee ee HOhg Ste KObTAhEAAT yam jo soe brie sstiboqexs odil-fusl saa i Asian si heqehas odT Ai@==M ablzat «ort atdtbasen aah fawn adT .oboqoiy vo aldibment af) Jo ybod anry et eee mort qa wath o oigad 3 se mwa Prate 10. Seconp-Stace Losster. Ficure 14. Right first maxilla from above, M=80. This appendage has changed little since the first stage. Ficure 15 Right second maxilla from the inside, M=76. The appearance is much the same as in the first stage. gone aah OTE obtent oat axont alttcan basse PLATE 10. Piate 11. Seconp-Srace Lospster. Ficure 16. Right first maxilliped from inside, M=58. Here the endopodite (en) has one joint. The exopodite is unjointed. The general appearance is as in the first stage. Figure 17. Right second maxilliped from inside, M=60. The general ap- _ pearance is as in the first stage. A trace of segmentation is sometimes visible at the end of the exopodite. Fb ~e Ieiseoy ad? d= Mo blant prow beqifitzent bossa wate aaare-anoow ee Hooluieradlt nk AOE M ehient most Haatltkzain des ‘d oldiainr sunnianros af noietinnges Jo sunt A oypte. teri si PLATE 11. wie Lay ~~ 2ot —_ Puate 12. Seconp-Srace Losster. Ficure 18. Right third maxilliped from behind and above, M=—44. The exopodite is still functional, but the endopodite is relatively larger and stronger than in the first-stage larve. ~«. “YEP ROSIE orate bee baited: oxo’ Dyatlltene bales talah B nogiotix’ hig regent ylavitelan ai aliboigahns adi ud’ damoimadt inepradod, sonte-anons “Sl watt Mi PLATE 12. PuatTe 13. Seconp-Srace Lospster. Ficure 19. Right cheliped from behind, M=22. The functional exopodite is still attached to the basipodite, but the endopodite is relatively larger and stronger than in the first stage. The end of the propodite nearly equals in length the opposing dactylopodite. The claw itself is better formed than in the first stage, although in the second it is hardly more functional. The podobranch and epipodite are attached to the coropodite. In this stage is shown the beginning of the torsion of the claw, of which the dactyl in the first stage opened vertically upward and somewhat outward. For further references see Herrick,* and Emmel.{ *F. H. Herrick, Biol. Bull., 1905, LX. 130-137. + V. E. Emmel, Journal of Exper. Zodl. 1906, IV, 603-618. In this paper Emmel shows the interesting parallel between the torsion in the development of the chela through the stages, and the torsion in the development of the claw during regeneration. seh Jo aninntgad alt code at agete sidd ab tshoqoxos od? af bs ad} evrorle fom teang nit al _Alo-£0n VI AON! 1608 asqxik lo . ~ Meboques lenoiaen? af! Ll=5M .oslited mow hagiteds tdigise inn toute! vlsviialor af o¥orotwes ali dud stthoqiend art oF digas! mi sinups ¢hwon stthequvg odd 10 big aT ~ spate ta sd seni of ai oad? boca? relied ai Uoadt walo aT 2ivbogs hawt Asorulobory set Sacrsitnctst sont iba ast ooeeipae waren aoave-axoow? (Bf atasT yinoittiey boasgo memetainnmne Sais # foment has * doivrl! 993 esonmoten rad rust 10 braeto $a a 4) SJEIA-O8E XAT 2008 lle foie aunts add Savors alsds ods to toscnqolevel ext? mi nosero? adt a7 PLate 118%; Puare 14. Seconp Stace Losster. Ficure 20. Right first walking leg from behind, M—41i. The exopodite is still strong and functional, while the endopodite is but slightly more developed than in the first stage. The claw issomewhat better formed, and the opposing end of the propodite is relatively longer. There are as yet no “teeth” on the inner edges of either. While a torsion has affected the chele, causing the dactyls to open upward in a vertical plane and somewhat inward, the dactyls of the claws of the walking legs still open upward and slightly outward. q 7 : ‘Ne ae Cer #aresad oan awoct Say y <2 ab Nibeqone off ibe Ml etc at a aaacara © buqobivali nem glsdyila sud at slibvoqabie adi olidy, 5 asivoqgo od? han bomol yattod dadwomve a walo ofT add no “dient on toy ae ote oroT aognol ylovitalor alyionb et gaisicas catads od) botyeRe aed aoieos w ofid macbiianngyabeariad yetecae 20 PLATE 14. Piate 15. Sreconp-Stace Losster. Right third walking leg from behind, M—40. This appendage Figure 21. Here is shown a is,in most respects, similar to that of the first-stage lobster. further stage in the progressive development of the gills, which takes place through ~ the early stages. . ¥ A io i 5 f ay Pi | hae A if a ; Ms # Es uh areal apat-avooss 8h atarT saabesyge Adl Obs M jbotded wort gel pabliaw bud) r , 2 wwods et ald Stadol sgatetead odd to sedi of ralionia ets te dysrondt-saulg cadet dolctv vallig ads to Saoumqaloveb sviersrgorg ont i ash : esata + mas e.. ¢ 21 PLATE 15 Puate 16. Tuirp-Stace Losster. Figure 22. (Second Stage.) Right third abdominal appendage (pleopod) from before, M=87. The pleopods of the second, third, fourth and fifth abdom- inal segments appear first, but in a non-functional state, in the second stage. Ficure 23. Right first antenna from above, M=48. In the third stage the segmentation of both exopodite and endopodite are clearly marked. The basal joint is of peculiar form and, the position of the auditory sac is suggested. Figure 24. Right second antenna from above, M—40. By the third stage the endopodite has grown out to exceed in length the exopodite. The former shows distinct traces of segmentation, and sete have appeared between the seg- ments. In this specimen the retraction of the body of the antenna due to the beginning of the moulting process is shown. , i Sm “ “t, oy on " - an ph - ; ew he a ia Eaa! Var caso >, rte WR J hes: { is ( ’ ie ee ee ad oy an * WA 5 - Tota: 7 5 : at Mt : 7 : al ; ; 2 - js" s Sa eter ee ks | ee * Cooqetig) spiibavage laalmohda Otis telat (ogai® gtobds dit has dio rid) baosge ani to shoyosby of E a ont buoys ould i beta Lewoitoarrengrt sai tad staf j gilt Sgasie fetid old ot PEM erode mom aassina teal M91 eel it! boda hooky sin siiboqobso haw, wibogoss dtad: -belaoyguie #f 288 ysotibusn oni Yo noitivog ad} has tite lite ol Ze Ob== “if toda oto! anasias boos We ila < Ags it. So x tomob el atihogoss ad? digo! ai boone of tuo°bworg ued Si a 4 birds gasmiod heresqqe ovrad,mioa bara acitatnourgs To as oe a ene jo Yhod sat to aoltentier add ' aworla at wesoing ae PLATE 16, (ZY Hy} VO, WY i \N a Uy | (> Puatse 17. Tutrp-Stacs Losster. Ficure 25. Right mandible from inside, M—about 60. The palpus or en- dopodite is now two-jointed. The inside edge of the cutting teeth shown; also the strong mandibular muscle. Ficure 26. Right first maxilla from above, M=75. In the basipodite and coxopodite is shown the retraction of the body of the maxilla due to moulting. _ The endopodite has now one joint. . Se a ra ~ _~ ee a ee ‘ F i ee oe a art a re ee a & . 3 e if eg i E it 5 zh & z PT eee FETS ee th ia ha z le om ee | EGA 17 Md — a a ESSE Prats 18. Turirp-Stace Lopster. Figure 27. Right second maxilla from inside, M—80. The general appear- ii\ \ \ a \ i \\y! AN PLATE 18. ees ast oad Puatr 19. Txiro-Sracre Lospster. Ficure 28. Right first maxilliped from inside, M=—86. The general ap- pearance is as in the second stage. The tegumental glands are shown in the broad leaf-like bastpodite. PLATE 19. Pirate 20 Tuirp-Stace Losster. Ficure 29. Right second maxilliped from the inside, M=56. Segmentation at the end of the exopodite is more clearly shown than in the previous stage. £ Fi f is \ ~ wares soun®-amts ws stn ——— PLATE 20. Puate 21. Tsirp-Stace Losster. Ficure 30. Right third maxilliped from behind, M=38. The appearance is similar to that of the second stage. Here the teeth bordering the anterior margin of the ischiopodite are suggested. The podobranch and the epipodite are developing toward the adult structural type. Giatue od pahtiod divat ods steht _enals. hacen act) Racdertelnteacs ‘yereiinge dish cbatesggia ou 9t PLATE 21. Puate 22. TxHirp-Stace Losster. Ficure 31. Right cheliped from behind, M27. The ezopodite is still strongly functional, but the claw, or chela, has further developed and the whole endopodite is stronger. In this stage is noticed especially the beginning of that torsion of the claw which, by the fourth stage, brings the dactyl to open toward the inside in a nearly horizontal plane. eo PSs; ae saan ofT aloitev oft Gk hegoteyab rodiw 26d ,elado 10 welo ot tad a0 tht bs suttheniged ont ellemoger booitom zi ogsts sid? af zsgmente oy e i ” rf a : a a), ’ S ‘ sf a Te a : 4 , ‘ . ee b ate a - Mok i ~ ~ ‘ i ‘sonaaest ansetecnint $8 srraal SSM hulddod gmat hagitoxs sist atlas cee aah ae ayate ditsvol add veh dainty walls & ng ono gh PLATE 22. —— ae Puate 23. Tuirp-Stace Logsrer. Figure 32. Right second walking leg from behind, M=27. The exopodite is still functional, and the chel are slightly functional in the third stage. The inner edge of the propodite and of the dactyl have a suggestion of teeth. The projecting propodite is relatively longer than in the preceding stage. The dactyl opens upward in a vertical plane and slightly outward, a position which is main- tained in the adult stage. ~ ailvagpcd: ot nc (boldad ibd ba eslulnc pao aif? agate bxidd 949 ai lerdivoras Untyita orn salody ads Bom, a at -dioes to salengos # aved Syn adi to bas stitingor PLATE 23. Puate 24. Txoirp-Stace Lopster. Ficure 33. Right fourth walking leg from behind, M=16. The endopodite is relatively stronger than in the preceding stage. 24, PLATE i, Ae ee oi te ail iy Puate 25. Tuirp-Srace Lopsrer. Figure 34. Right fourth abdominal appendage from behind, M=55. The pleopods are larger, stronger and more blade-like than in the second stage. They are not yet functional, but are thinly furnished along the edge with sete. Ficure 35. Right sixth abdominal appendage from above, M=45. o fl e) é it) Se al mS ih AN) cae ts i Beh oy Boats ' ? e te 4 vo i : ’ . oh 7) ae i A La = x . re he ‘ *, 7 ~ 1) fe l . ¥! * >" 7 ela et ¥ , ri Ne i _ : x me ad? 26—M firblod prov caahinagas igateobde arise | youtt opens hoooss ali ot mad odli-sbeld som eee ~ tan dit oghn lt role hortimt ds ona tt 2h> Ml jovrodes orert ssabmoggs (natvobds stele tu at 3 PLATE 25, Pirate 26. FourtH-Srace Lopster. Ficure 36. Right first antenna from above, M=—30. In the fourth stage the inner branch, or endopodite, is distinctly segmented and is slightly longer than the exopodite, which is also distinctly segmented and bears along the inner edge the olfactory sete. Throughout the life of the lobster the outer branch remains larger and stouter than the inner. Ficure 37. Right second antenna from above, M=—15. The cramped segments of the endopodite which were shown in Fig. 24, Pl. 16, have expanded to form a long lash, while the exopodite has degenerated to an equal extent. 2) ¥ aghy wngi ceicatsie Giana reget lecate ‘donifei cali a erin dousrd zetuo odt isfadal add to oli! add oa PLATE 26, » Puate 27. Fourtrsa-Srace Lospster. _ Fieure 38. Right second antenna from below, M=18. See description of figure 37. The endopodite is represented cut off. . Ficure 39. Right mandible seen from the inside and above, M—65. The _palpus has further developed since the third stage,and the toothed part of the _ mandible has become hard through the absorption of lime salts from the water. The same is true of other parts of the exoskeleton. eed ote odd mort atlas saril Io moitqoade odt dyirondt oil to draqq-hedtood alt bas egeta brid? ad? goxta hago! la aoisiiivee 994, 21M crolad mort gnnatad Basse Neal evade: an whist" si ela knee senate . ee i aie = ee iy ee a . a re, ers, ay ie ee) ky ee ee feel A " oe a PiatTe 28. FourrH-Srace Lopsrer. Ficure 40. Right first maxilla from outer side, M=75. The condition is much the same as in the third stage, save for the bend in the endopodite. arreaod goasA-arngat © Be ert PLATE 28. Puate 29. Fourtsa-Srace Losster. _ Ficure 41. Right second maxilla from inside, M—60. Except for the change _ in the shape of the scaphognathite, and the slight elongation of the endopodite, the condition is much as in the third stage. * , roe a, Je % te 7 7 \ ¥ SP heey ves re ses ; ab van P if 1 * 12 4 R yt i “a i’ thks ‘ ‘auraaod toare-wrayel 0S arat yy Pe ae ognate ad} tot qoox a= Bah tenant Rata odd yaiborraties wit 40 aoiteyaate dyite add haa, Satelite 4 nl i aa a — re a @ Fi Pp i 5. ‘a = Le PLATE 29. a i —< ee eee Tt a Prats 30. Fourta—-Srace Losster. Ficure 42. Right first maxilliped from inside, M=68. There has occurred, since the third stage, a slight change in the shape of the exopodite and endopodite, together with a modification in the epipodite. The tegumental glands are seen in the basipodite. + ‘ eee: "aie bed 2 42 PLATE 30. Puate 31. Fourta—Strace Losster. Ficure 43. Right second maxilliped from above and inside, M=38. This figure shows a continued modification of the exopodite which remains functional. The podobranch and the epipodite have undergone further development from the third stage. Figure 44. Right third maxilliped from above and in front, M=32. This figure shows the exopodite, which, though slightly degenerated in structure, still remains functional; also the teeth on the inner margin of the ischiopodite. The podobranch and the epipodite have undergone further development. Tres - yy G ae Peer f \ a PUR IR TL eetata A ty ve Ts is + ; 4 “a ; ~ Qe ; i sarasot spavé-mravol £6 araad y ‘ ‘ 7 ‘ hae eS 7 | eidT 282M binnt hae syoda mow hoqilitzam bnoooe Sats a Lancitonn? ecieuisn doidw stthoqoxs odf to noidasiibant bs tid P edt cscat Jagurqotovob tedhut snogisbau saved atiboqits ods ‘he 5 ait Sere eee Eee at oe eee Hite ynutouide oi betmwneveb ytdaila dquodt loli» ; Beis alihvonainised art Yo aigreut rari edt no dist ed oele iy inlet espe 7a aay J ye axel r S9) WY PLATE 31. Puate 32. Fourtu-Srace Lopster. Figure 45. Right cheliped seen from above and in front, M=15. Here is observed the culmination of the process of torsion which began in the second stage. The dactyl of the claw now opens inward horizontally, not vertically upward, and slightly outward as in the first-stage larve. Tactile hairs are shown on the propodite and on the dactyl. The non-functional rudiment of the exopo- dite is seen still attached to the basipodite. The coxopoditic sete show above the podobranch, which together with the epipodite is developed beyond the point of the third stage. v. A id i's a 7. a ts - ae wer to ; iy ons \ sareaol aparé-wravot 8 orard Lydon étad ltogT arnial oyptederi oid ot en brawise Yh ~orgoa odd to Jasuribur Lacoitoay?-non ad'T Ayiook od? ao baa ii - sxoia wore atv aittbuqouns afl stiboqiand ont 09 barfoaite a SL forza gor ol ions en ‘ i MS ' ‘ * - x | ‘ P 4 t . - ' Lh 45 PLATE 32, Pirate 33. Fourta-Stace Lopster. Ficure 46. Right second walking leg from behind, M@=—23. The walking legs of the fourth-stage lobster have elongated. The exopodite is reduced to a rudiment, still attached to the basipodite, but non-functional. The claw has now _ reached nearly the adult structural type, but the dactyl, which in the chelipeds underwent a torsion through about 99 degrees, still opens upward and slightly outward. The podobranchs have further developed, and coxopoditic setr are present. Ficure 47. Right third walking leg from behind, M=23. Except for the spike-like dactyl, the conditions are the same as in the case described above. F Utils bas buona aaa lis aa 0 Wud de won and walo act't nteban aod jd tone aid em lita aboqileds edd ai doidw Jylon add tud’ oqyd lemniorsa Hobe add rol dqoox .BS= 1M 01- Fores, 8. A. On the Food of Young Fishes; T. C., p. 71. Forsess, 8. A., and RicHarpson, R. E. The Fishes of Illinois, State Laboratory of the Natural History of Illinois. Futon, T. W. Biological Investigation of the Fishery Board of Scot- land; Jour. M. B. L. Ass., Plymouth, I, 79. Garman, S. Deep Sea Fishes; Reviewed in Amer. Nat. Vol. 34, 663. GitL, THEoporE. Bibliography of East Coast Fishes; Report, U.S. Fish Commission, 1871-72, 815. : Gitt, THEODORE. Bibliography, 1738-1870, Synopsis of the Great Standard Works of Descriptive Ichthyology; Smithson. Misc. Coll. XI, 247, 27. Grit, THEoporE. Flying Fishes and their Habits; Report Smithson. Inst. 1904, 495. Gitt, THEopoRE. State Ichthyology of Massachusetts. Report, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, 165. Science, XX, 1904, 321. Gitt, THEODORE, Parental Care among the Fresh-Water Fishes; Smith- sonian Report, Vol. 403. Gitt, THEODORE. The Family of Cyprinids; Smithsonian, Mise. Coll. 48, 195. 54 1907: 1907: 1884: 1903: 1895: 1880: 1880: 1887: 1905: REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Gitt, THEoporE. Life Histories of the Toadfishes, ete.; Smithson. Mise. Coll. Vol. 48, 388. Gitt, THEoporr. Some Noteworthy Extra-European Cyprinoids; Smithson. Mise. Coll., Vol. 48, 297. Goopr, G. B. The Natural History of Aquatic Animals; The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, Section 1, 1884. Goopr, G.B. American Fishes; New Edition, edited by T. Gill. Goopvr, G. B., and Bran, T. H. Oceanie Ichthyology; Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. No. 981. GintTHer, AtBeRT. An Introduction to the Study of Fishes. GitnrHer, AtBeRT. Report on the Shore Fishes Collected by H. M. 8. Challenger during the years 1873-1876; Challenger Reports, Pt. VI, Zoology I. 4 GunTHER, ALBERT. Report on the Deep Sea Fishes collected by H. M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876; Challenger Reports, Pt. LVII, Zoology XXII. GunTHER, ALBERT. Report on the Pelagic Fishes collected by H. M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876; Challenger Reports, Part LXXVIII, Zoology, XXXI. Gurury, R. R. The Habits of Fishes; Amer. Jour. Psychol. XIII, 408, Reviewed in Amer. Nat. Vol. 37, 72. HensHatt, J. A. Report upon a Collection of Fishes made in Southern Florida during 1889; Bull. U. 8. Fish Commission, LX, 371. HensuHatt, J. A. Notes on Fishes Collected in Florida in 1892; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XIV, 209. Hoxsrooks, J. E. Ichthyology of South Carolina. Hour, E. W. L. On the Eggs and Larval and Post-Larval Stage of Teleosteans; Scientific Transactions, Roy. Soc. of Dublin. 2. s, Vol. V, 1. Hout, E. W. L. Reproduction of Teleostean Fishes; Jour. M. B. L. Ass., Plymouth, V, 1897-99, 107. Houmes, E. On the Fishes of Maine; Report, Maine Board of Agri- culture, Vol. 10, 1865, and Reports of the Commission on Fisheries to the Forty-Seventh Legislature of the State of Maine, Jan. 16, 1868. Jounstonr, J. Some Results of the International Fishery Investiga- tions; Jour. M. B. L. Ass., Plymouth, VII, 1904-06, 437. Jorpan, D. 8S. On the Distribution of Fresh-Water Fishes; Amer. Nat. XI, 607. Jorpan, D.S. Exploration Made in the Alleghany Region; Bull. U. 8. Fish Com., VIII, 97 Jorpan, D.S. Guide to the Study of Fishes, 2 vols. 1907: 1896: 1902: 1894: 1896: 1902: 1908: 1908: 1882: 1844: 1899: 1899: 1904: 1872: 1904: 1895: 1897: 1890: 1896: REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. hs 55 JorpaNn, D.S. Fishes; American Nature Series, New York. Jorpan, D.S., and Evermann, B. W. The Fishes of North and Middle America; Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 47. JorpDAN, D.S., and EvermMann, B. W. American Food and Game Fishes. Kenpatu, W.C. Notes on the Fresh-water Fishes of Washington Co., Maine, Bull., U.S. Fish Com. XIV, 43. Kenpati, W.C. Notes on the Food of Four Species of the Cod Family; Report, U.S. Fish. Com. XXII, 177. Kenpautt, W.C. Notes on Some Fresh-Water Fishes from Maine; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XXII, 353. Kenpaii, W.C. List of the Pisces of New England; Occasional Papers of the Boston Society of Natural History, VII. KeEenpDALL, W. C., and GotpsporouGH, E. L. Fishes of the Connecticut Lakes and Neighboring Waters, with Notes on the Plankton Environ- ment; U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, 633. Kinestey, J.S., and Conn, H.W. Observations on the Embryology of the Teleosts; Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, III, 1882. Liystey, J. H. Catalogue of the Fishes of Connecticut; Amer. Jour. Sci. and Arts. Vol. 47, 1844, 71. Linton, Epwin. Parasites of the Fishes of the Woods Hole Region; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, X{X, 405. Linton, Epwry. Fish Parasites Collected at Woods Hole in 1898; Bull. U.S. Fish Com., XIX, 267. Linton, Epwin. Parasites of Fishes of Beaufort, N. C.; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XXIV, 321. Lyman, T. Fishes taken in the Waquoit Wier, April 18 to June 18, 1871; Report, Commissioners of Massachusetts Inland Fisheries, Vol. 6, 1872. MarsHatu, W.S., and Girpert, N.C. Notes of the Food and Parasites of Some Fresh-Water Fishes from the Lakes at Madison, Wisconsin; U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 513. MasterMan, A. T. On the Rate of Growth of Food Fishes; Report, Fishery Board of Scotland, XIV, 294. McIntosu, W. C., and Mastperman, A. T. The Life Histories of the British Marine Food Fishes. McInrosu, W.C., and Prince E. Life Histories of Food Fishes; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, XX XV, Part IT. McIntosu, W.C. Contributions to the Life History and Development of the Food and Other Fishes; Report, Fishing Board of Scotland, Vol. 14, 171. 56 1908: 1898: REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Meap, A.D. A Method of Fish Culture and of Transporting Live Fishes. Prize Paper 4th International Fishery Congress, Washington, 1908; Reprinted in Report, R. I. Fish Comm., 39, 1908, 79. Mircuity, 8. L. The Fishes of New York; Trans. Litt. Phil. Soc. New York, I, 1815. Mircuitt, S. L. Memoir on Ichthyology. Supplement to the Preceding paper; Amer. Monthly Mag. and Crit. Rev. I, 1817-1818, 241. Moore, H. F. List of Fishes collected at Sea Isle City, New Jersey, during the summer of 1892; Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, XII, 357. Norris, T. American Fish Culture, Philadelphia, 1868. Peck, J. I. The Sources of Marine Food; Bull. U. 8S. Fish Comm. XV, 1895, 351. Prince, E. E. The Eggs and Early Life History of the Clupeoids. Further Contributions to Canadian Biology. 1903-1905; Report, Dept. Marine and Fisheries, Vol. 39, 1907, 95. Rarupun, R. Special Observations and Experiments; Report, U. 8. Fish Commission, X VII, 1899-91, 155. Ryper, J. A. A Contribution to the Embryography of the Osseous Fishes; Report, U. 8. Fish Commission, X, 455. Ryper, J. A. On the Origin of Heterocercy and the Evolution of Fins and Fin-rays of Fishes; Report, U.S. Fish Commission, XII, 981. Ryver, J. A. On the Development of Osseus Fishes, including Marine and Fresh-Water Forms; Report, U. 8. Fish Commission, XIII, 489. Scort, G. G. Notes on the Marine Food Fishes of Long Island; Report, New York State Mus., Vol. 54, 214. Sretey, H.G. The Fresh-Water Fishes of Europe. Sarr, B., and Fowrer, H. W. On the Fishes of Nantucket; Proc. Acad. Phila. LVI, 1904, 504. SHeRwoop and Epwarps. Biological Notes, No. 2.; Bull. U. 8. Fish Commission, X XI, 27. Smirn, E. Fishes of the Vicinity of New York City; Proc. Linn. Soe. of New York; Reviewed in Amer. Nat. 32, 207. Smirn, H. M. Economie and Natural History Notes on Fishes of the Northern Coast of New Jersey; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XII, 365. Saito, H. M. Fishes of the Lower Potomac River; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XII, 63. Smiru, H. M. Notes on an Investigation of the Menhaden Fishery in 1894, with Special reference to the Food Fishes taken; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XV, 1895, 285. Smith, H. M. The Fishes Found in the Vicinity of Woods Hole; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XVII, 85. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 57 1898: SmirH, H. M. Fishes New to the Fauna of Southern New England, Recently Collected at Woods Hole; Science, N. §., VIII, 543. 1901: Smiru, H. M. Additions to the Fish Fauna of Woods Hole in 1900; Bull. U. S. Fish Com, XXI, 32. 1901: Siro, H.M. Notes on the Subtropical Fishes Observed at Woods Hole in 1900; Bull. U. 8. Fish Commission, XXI, 32. 1898: Sir, H. M., and Bean, T. H. List of the Fishes Known to Inhabit the Waters of the District of Columbia and Vicinity; Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XXVIII, 179. 1896: Sito, H. M., and Kenpaut, W.C. Extension of the recorded Range of Certain Fishes of the United States Coast; Report, U. 8. Fish Comm. XXII, 169. 1839: Svrorrr, D. H. Reports on the Ichthyology and the Herpetology of Massachusetts. 1904: THompson, J.S. Periodic Growth of Scales in Gadide as an Index of Age; Jour. M. B. L. Ass., Plymouth, VII, 1904-1906, 1. 1842: THompson, Zapock. Fishes of Vermont; Included in the “History of Vermont, Natural, Civil and Statistical.” 1906: Tracy, H.C. The Fishes of the Mackerel Family; Report, Rhode Island Fish Commission, Vol. 37, 33. 1906: Tracy, H.C. Rare Fishes taken in Rhode Island in 1906; Report, Rhode Island Fish Commission, Vol. 37, 65. ‘ 1907: Tracy, H.C. The Flat Fishes of Rhode Island; Report, Rhode Island Fish Commission, Vol. 38, 47. 1876: User, P. R., and Luacrr, O. List of the Fishes of Maryland; Report, Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland, 1876, 67; 1877, 57. 1871: Verrint, A.E. On the Food and Habits of Some of our Marine Fishes; Amer. Nat. V, 397. 1902: Zrmcuer, H. E. Lehrbuch der Vergl. Entwickelungsgeschichte der niederen Wirbeltiere. In the following list there are arranged in systematic order, by families, all species of fishes known to have been found in the waters of Rhode Island. In nomenclature and sequence of species, ‘‘The Fishes of North America,” Bull. U. 8. Nat. Mus. No. 47, 1896, by Jordan and Evermann, has been followed except in a very few cases where good authority seems to justify a change. The fishes enum- erated belong to 199 species, 160 genera and 87 families. Of these species about 30 are important food fishes, and about 75 may be 8 58 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. said to be rare, as far as present records go. About 30 have been taken but once, as far as is authentically recorded. The type speci- mens of six,or perhaps seven, were taken in Rhode Island waters. Twenty-four of these species are exclusively fresh-water fishes, 175 are salt water forms, thirteen of which are anadromous. One species, the common eel, is katadromous, that is, it passes the greater part of its life in the fresh water and comes down stream and enters the ocean to spawn. PETROMYZONID-®. The Lampreys. 1. Petromyzon marinus (Linnzus). Great Sea Lamprey; Lamprey Eel. Geog. Dist.: Atlantic coast of Europe and America, south of Chesapeake Bay. Common throughout New England and New York. ; Micrations: Ascends fresh-water streams in spring to spawn. Season in R.I.: Rare, sometimes caught in traps in Narragansett Bay, a few in Taunton River in spring. DeKay in 1842 described specimens from Providence. (De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, 1842, 381.) Ripe lampreys taken during the latter part of month of May, 1898, at East Taunton (Bumpus: 1898). Repropuction: Spawns in fresh water in May and June, dying after the process. Foop: Parasitic on other fishes. | Size: Three feet. REFERENCES: 1882: Goopk, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. XVII, 349: 1893: Gacr, Lake and Brook Lampreys, Wilder’s Quarter Century Book, 421. 1897: Surrace, Bull. U.S. Fish Com. XVII, 209. 1905: Jorpan, Guide to the Study of Fishes, I., 498. GALEID®. The Requiem Sharks. 2. Mustelus canis (Mitchill). Smooth Dogfish; Switchtail. GeoG. Dist.: Common south of Cape Cod to Cuba, and in southern Europe. On the Massachusetts shore this species is occasionally taken as far north as Salem. Season in R.I.: Very common from May to November. Small specimens, one foot long and over, common from August through the season. June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, half dozen specimens, one of which was female with young. 5. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 59 Repropuction: Viviparous. Foop: Crabs usually, also lobsters, squids, annelids and fishes. Size: Three to five feet. Carcharhinus obscurus (Le Sueur). Dusky Shark; Shovel-nose. Grog. Dist.: The Middle Atlantic. Occasional on Massachusetts shore; reported in Connecticut from Stratford (Linsley, 1844); occasional on shore of Long Island. Season 1n R.I.: Very common from May to November in outside waters; occasional in Narragansett Bay. Hapitat: Surface of the open water. Foop: Fishes. Stomach contents have shown skates, squeteague, young mackerel, menhaden. Size: Eight to fourteen feet, smallest at Woods Hole, 2} feet. (Smith.) (Bairp, S. F. The Sea Fisheries of Eastern North America. Report, U.S. Fish Comm. XIV, 1886, 3). Carcharhinus milberti (Miller and Henle). Blue Shark. Grog. Dist.: Cape Cod to Florida. Reported from Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Smith, 1898). Srason in R.I.: De Kay describes a specimen 7 feet, 4 inches long, weigh- ing 160 pounds, taken at Breton’s Reef, September 1842. (De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, 1842, 354.) Small specimens two or three feet long occasionally taken in the fish traps in August and September. Foop: Fishes. SPHYRNID®. The Hammer-Headed Sharks. Sphyrna zygzna (Linneus). Hammer-head. GeoG. Dist.: All warm seas. From Cape Cod and Pt. Conception south- ward. Reported occasionally on Cape Cod, northward to Provincetown; taken at Noank, Connecticut (Goode, 1879). Season in R. I.: Not common, but occasionally occurring from June to October. In 1905, a specimen three feet long taken August 2nd, in a fish trap in West Passage, and another reported about two weeks later. August 14, 1907, female 9 feet, 10 inches long, taken in trap at north end of Conanicut Island. A few specimens 3 feet long are taken in the traps each year in the lower part of Narragansett Bay. Repropuction. Viviparous. Thirty-seven embroyos have been taken from the oviducts of a female 11 feet long. (Gitnther, 1880, p. 318.) Foop: Fishes, especially menhaden; squids. (Gudger, Science, 25, 1907, 1005.) Size: Average 4 feet; specimens have been taken up to 13 feet in length. 60 6. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ALOPID®. The Thresher Sharks. Alopias vulpes (Gmelin). Swing-tail; Whip-tail; Thresher. Geoa. Dist.: Abounds in all warm seas, especially in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Frequent on Pacific Coast. Season In R.1.: Rare in Narragansett Bay. June 25, 1908, at Quonset Point, specimen 15 feet long taken in fish trap. A common shark in outside waters, especially after the scup season. It is a great nuisance to fishermen. At Woods Hole it is present from April until late in the fall. (Smith.) Foop: Mackerel, menhaden, herring, and other small fishes. Size: Sometimes as large as 300 pounds. From 4 to 20 feet long at Woods Hole. CARCHARID. The Sand Sharks. Carcharias littoralis (Mitchill). Sand Shark. Geog. Dist.: Atlantic coast, Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. Season 1n R.I.: From May to November it is common, but is less so than the dogfish. Foop: Fishes, such as flatfish, menhaden, squeteague, butter-fish, scup. Also crabs and squids. Size: Average 44 to 5 feet long, largest 12 feet long. LAMNID-®. The Mackerel Sharks. Isurus dekayi (Gill). Mackerel Shark. Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to West Indies. Season 1n R.I.: Said to be more common of late years, but not abundant. Rare in Narragansett Bay. Taken at Tiverton and Point Judith. (U.S. Nat. Mus. 1887.) Foop: Small fishes, squids, mackerel, conger eel. Size: They average 4 or 5 feet, the largest 10 feet, weighing up to 400 pounds. Lamna cornubica (Gmelin). Blue Shark; Mackerel Shark. Geoc. Dist.: Newfoundland to West Indies. Common on Massachusetts coast during mackerel season. In Maine, reported from off Monhegan, Casco Bay, off Cape Elizabeth; in Massachusetts, from Provincetown and Gloucester. Season in R.I.: Said by the fishermen to be more common than the mack- erel shark (Isurus dekayi), but this species is probably confused with others. Specimen about 9 feet long taken in trap off Quonset Point, August 15, 1907. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 61 SQUALID®. The Dog-Fishes. 10. Squalus acanthias (Linneus). Dogjish; Spiny Dogfish. Groca. Dist.: Atlantic, Nova Scotia (Cornish, 1907);> south to Cuba and from the North Cape to the Mediterranean. Micrations: Probably moves northward in spring a little after the mack- erel, returning from September to November. Season in R.1.: The last of April or first of May to November. Rare in the Bay, but so common outside as to be a nuisance to the fishermen. Follows the school of seup in spring. Hasitar: Open water, following schools of pelagic fishes. (Field, Report Mass. Fish and Game Comm., 1906.) REPRODUCTION: Viviparous. Foop: Fishes, especially herring, mackerel, and scup. Also crustacea and jelly fishes. Size: Two to three feet. SQUATINID®. The Angel Sharks. 11. Squatina squantina (Linneus). Angel Fish; Monkfish. Grog. Dist.: Warm seas; common in the Meditertanean; rarely on Atlantic coast from Cape Cod southward; common on the coast of California, especially from San Francisco to Monterey. At Woods Hole, specimen taken in fish trap at Menemsha Bight, Septémber 1, 1873, (Smith, 1898). One taken at same place a few years later. Not common in New York waters but occasionally seen at Gravesend Bay in summer. (Bean, 1903). Season in R. I.: Specimen in Agassiz Museum from Newport (Bean). Specimen taken West Passage trap, September 14, 1909. REPRODUCTION: Viviparous, producing about twenty young at a time. (Bridge, 1904.) Size: Two to five feet in length. RAJIDA. The Skates. 12. Raja erinacea (Mitchill). Swmmer Skate; Old Maid. Groc. Dist.: Virginia to Maine. Season in R.JI.: Abundant throughout the year. Specimens 4 inches long and upwards, taken in beam trawl south of Plum Beach Light, - December 22, 1908. Repropuction: Eggs common in fish traps in August and September, July 22, 1908, eggs taken in abundance in dredge to eastward of Hope Island. Eggs found in Gravesend Bay, Long Island, in March. (Bean.) (Putnam, Skates Eggs and Young, Amer. Nat. III, 1869, 617.) 62 13. 14. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Foop: Usually crustacea and annelids, but bivalve molluses, squids, and small fishes are frequently found in the stomach. Size: Average 1 to 2 feet. One young specimen, 2 inches long, taken in trap in Narragansett Bay, October 9, 1905. Raja ocellata (Mitchill). Big Skate; Winter Skate. Groe. Dist.: Atlantic coast northward from New York. Season in R.1.: Rare in summer. Occasional from October until May. April 16, 1906, Dutch Island trap—dozen specimens. September 11, 1905, Sand Blow trap; September 11, 1905, Dutch Island trap; October 9, 1905, Dutch Island trap; December 22, 1908, several specimens taken in beam trawl south of Plum Beach Light. Foop: Squids, annelids, crustacea. Size: Average, three feet. Raja levis (Mitchill). Barndoor Skate. Grog. Dist.: Nova Scotia to Florida. Frequently taken at Canso on the deep sea trawls of hooks. (Cornish, 1907.) Swason in R.I.: Rare in summer when probably it is in deep water, but common in spring and from August to October. July 30, 1900, two were taken off Gay Head by the “Grampus” in 65 to 70 fathoms of water. These had lobsters in their stomachs. (Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. XV, 1899, 431.) August 23, 1905, Dutch Island trap, 3 dozen speci- mens (?); August 27, 1906, Dutch Island trap, 3 specimens; August 27, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, 3 specimens; September 17, 1906, Wild Goose trap, 2 small specimens. Repropuction: Eggs found occasionally in September. Foop: Crustacea. Lobsters have frequently been found in their stomachs. Size: Four feet. NARCOBATID. The Electric Rays. Tetranarce occidentalis (Storer). Torpedo; Crampfish. Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to Cuba. In Maine, reported from Casco Bay and off Sequin; in Massachusetts, from various localities on the Cape Cod coast and Woods Hole; in Connecticut, from Stratford (Linsley, 1844). At Woods Hole they are most abundant in October and November. Season in R.I.: Caught off Sakonnet not uncommonly in midsummer. Foop: Fishes. Size: Two to five feet long. Maximum weight, 200 pounds: average 30 pounds; small ones infrequent. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 63 DASYTID®. The Sting Rays. 16. Dasyatis centrura (Mitchill). Sting Ray. Gxog. Dist.: Coast of Maine to Cape Hatteras. Reported from Woods Hole (Storer, 1842, 1863), Chatham (Storer, 1857, 1863), Woods Hole (Baird, 1873 and Smith, 1898), also from Stratford, Connecticut (Linsley 1844). Formerly common at Gravesend Bay, but now rare. (Bean, . 1903.) Season in R.I.: Said to have been very common formerly, but are small and few at present. Specimen three feet, four inches long, taken August 8, 1906, at Goose Neck, just south of Wickford Light. Repropuction: Moore records the birth of young in aquarium. Two broods were born, one of four young and the other of five, on August 10 and 15. In neither case did the mothers long survive the birth. The parents measured two feet across the “wings;’ the young were about five or six inches across. After August 20, all the specimens taken were the young of the year. (Moore, 1892.) Foop: Large species of invertebrates such as crabs, squid, clams, sea snails. Sometimes small fishes and annelids. Size: Reaches a length of ten to twelve feet. 17. Dasyatis hastata (De Kay). Geoc. Dist.: West Indies north to Rhode Island. The type specimen originally described by De Kay in 1842, was a female captured in September off the Rhode Island coast (De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, 1842, 373). Also reported from Massachusetts, Holmes Hole (Storer, 1842), and at Chatham (Storer, 1858). 18. Pteroplatea maclura (LeSueur). Butterfly Ray; Angel-Fish. Geog. Dist.: Woods Hole to Brazil. Woods Hole, is rare, and observed mostly in August and September (Smith). Reported from Saybrook and New Haven (Linsley, 1844). Rare at Gravesend Bay (Bean). Season 1n R.I.: Rare. The type specimen of this species described by LeSueur was taken in 1817. (LeSueur, Jour. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1817, 41.) In July, 1900, a specimen 23 inches long was taken in the southern part of Narragansett Bay by the Lewis Brothers of Wickford. MYLIOBATID®. The Eagle Rays. 19. Myliobatis freminvillei (LeSueur). Sharp-headed Ray; Sting Ray. Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to Brazil. Not common at Woods Hole (Smith, 1898). Found in Connecticut, Noank. (Garman, 1885.) 64 20. 21. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND IISHERIES, Seasonin R.I1.: Not verycommon. The original type specimen described by LeSueur was taken in 1824, from Rhode Island. (LeSueur, Jour. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., [V, 1824.) De Kay mentions specimens from Rhode Island. (De Kay, New York Fauna, 1842, 376.) Mr. John O. Lewis of Wickford says that several have been taken in traps in Narragansett Bay, near Saunderstown. Rhinoptera bonasus (Mitchill). Cow-nosed Ray; Sting Ray. . Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to Florida. Taken at Woods Hole, (Smith 1898), and Nantucket, (Sharp and Fowler, 1904), and at Stratford, Connecti- cut (Linsley, 1844). Season 1n R. I.: An immense school of these fishes once seen off Block Island by Captain Mason, of Tiverton. Said to have been more com- mon formerly. REPRODUCTION: Viviparous, breeding season lasting over five or six months. Foop: Chiefly molluscs; also crustacea, crabs, and lobsters. Size: 100 pounds. ACIPENSERID®. The Sturgeons. Acipenser sturio (Linneus). Sturgeon. Groa. Dist.: Ascends rivers of Atlantic coast of Europe and America; common from New England to Carolina. Reported from rivers and coast waters of Maine and Massachusetts and from Long Island Sound. Season 1n R. I.: Rather common in traps off Sakonnet from May to November. Said to have been more common formerly; 25 years ago 5 or 6 were caught in traps at a time. Small specimens two or three feet long now occasionally taken in summer in Narragansett Bay. Common at Block Island. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 65 The Following Table Shows the Distribution by Months and Years oj the Sturgeon Shipped from Rhode Island between 1903 and 1908. Oa + a esa ae a cd lie 3d eae tail Ue a Penne wibe i eriie oles | Be Iva = 5 Selle B ° Zz = 1903. By, llbceeoel be natea nor eee 1 (| lhacee 11 1905 | 14 3 By eae Renae | 9 4 26 GUD MEER cid cnn eee eee el ences Ia | Bese Whey © rT LULL scene pocwosdenaonosiaoas 2 S304 sogace 1 be oe 3 13 ODS Tee rene foe oe te Oa (essed al (Le ey Tl eee les aed octtaese 3 —s | TIRCCIE a decease che | 21 136 pul 1 2 | 64 ReEpRoDUcTION: Ascends rivers to spawn in spring and summer. Eggs, 2.6 mm. in diameter. (For development and description of eggs and young, see Ryder. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. VIII, 1881, 231, and Dean, Fishes, Living and Fossil, 1895, p. 202, 221; Brice, Report U. S. Fish Com. XXIII, 1897, 189. W.S. Tower, Pop. Sci. Mon., 73, 1908, 361.) Foop: Molluses and crustacea, which it obtains by grubbing in the mud. (See Ryder, loc. cit.) Size: Five to 12 feet, weighing 50 to 300 pounds. 22. Acipenser brevirostrum (LeSueur). Short-nosed Sturgeon. Groc. Dist.: Cape Cod to Florida, rare northward, extending further southward than other species. Reported from Boston Harbor, Waquoit, Rockport and Woods Hole, though none of the writers make very definite statements. Specimens taken at Gravesend Bay, May 13, 1896 (Bean, 1903). Season In R.I.: Occurs in company with the common sturgeon, which it resembles in habit. Ryder (Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. VIII, 1888, p. 231) has described the species and its natural history. Repropuction: In Delaware river, it spawns in May. Eggs are adhesive and deposited in depths of 1 to 5 fathoms in hard bottom in brackish water. Period of hatching is 4 to 6 days. (Dean, Zool. Anz. XVI., 1893, 473.) 9 23. 24. 25. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Foop: The young up to the third month feed on microscopic organisms in the water. Later, they feed on small crustacea, copepods, alge, annelids, etc. The adults feed on crustacea, and molluscs. SILURID®. The Cat-Fishes. Felichthys felis* (Mitchill). Sea Catfish; Gafftopsail Cat. Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to Texas, common southward. Specimens taken at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873), New Bedford (Goode, 1879), Menemsha Bight (Smith, 1898). ‘Season In R. L: Specimens from Newport in Powell Collection of the Bos- ton Society of Natural History. (Kendall, 1908). Specimen taken at Brenton Reef Light Ship, September 16, 1898. Hasirat: More common northward than G. milberti and more of a deep water fish than that species. Repropuction: Large eggs and similar in habit to G. milberti (Henshall). For an account of the incubation of the eggs of Marine Catfishes, see Pellegrin, (Comp. Rendu. French, Ass. Ady. Sci. 1907, and Sci. Amer., N.S. 64, 1907, 260.) Size: 26 inches. Galeichthys milberti* (Linneus). Sea Cat-Fish. Grog. Dist.: Cape Cod to Texas, common southward. Was formerly common in spring in Vineyard Sound, but now rare. (Smith.) Season in R.I.: Rare in R. I.; Narragansett Bay (R.I. Fish Com. 1894, 211). Hasirat: Bottom fish along sandy coast. Repropuction: Eggs, large and incubated in the gill cavity of the male. (Henshall, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 1894, 211.) Foop: Omnivorous; chief diet worms and crustacea. Size: 24 inches. Ameiurus nebulosus (LeSueur). Horned Pout; Bullhead. Geoc. Dist.: Great Lakes, Ohio Valley, to Maine, Florida and Texas; abundant in all New England States. Srasonrin R.I.: Generally present in all fresh water ponds in Rhode Island. Reported from Mashapaug, Randalls, Benedict, and Fenners ponds; Poneganset Reservoir, Pocasset River (Kendall, 1908); ponds and streams in North Kingstown, Carolina, and Pascoag. Also from the * These specific names are on the authority of Gtinther who examined Linneaus’ collection of fishes. See Jordan, Amer. Nat, 34, 1900, 70. ells a cindieodeeen Cw REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 67 following ponds: Roger Williams Park, Print Works, Spectacle, Dyers, Randall, Kings, Georgiaville, Olney, Scotts, Herring, Round, Wallum, Sucker, Bowdish, Keech, Moswansicut, Wordens, Hundred Acre, Thirty Acre, and Yawgoo; and from the following reservoirs: Slack, Sprague, Waterman, Wilson, Burlingame, Poneganset, Smith and Sayles, and from Silver Lake. Repropuction: Spawns in April and May, eggs 4-inch in diameter and are adhesive; they are deposited in shallow water and guarded by the parents. Foop: Feeds on all kinds of animal life, including young and ova of other fishes. (Kendall, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1902, 404.) Apparently feeds largely at night. REFERENCES: 1883: Ryper, Bull. U.S. Fish Com. III., 225. 1890: Dean, Report State Fish Com. N. Y, 1901: EycitesHymMer, Amer. Nat. oe Ns 911. 1902: Kenpatt, Bull. U. S. Fish yout XXII., 401. 1902: SmirxH and Harron, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. XXII, 151. 1903: SmrrH, Science, February 13th, 243. CATOSTOMID®. The Suckers. 26. Catostomus commersonii (Lacépéde). Common Sucker; Brook Sucker. Geog. Dist.: Quebec and the Great Lakes to Montana, Colorado, Missouri, and Georgia. Abundant in ponds and streams of Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont and Massachusetts. (Kendall, 1908.) In Connecticut, mentioned by Dé Kay (1842), and by Linsley (1844). Season iy R.I.: Probably common in R.I. Recorded from Larkins and Mashapaug Pond, Sucker Brook, Queens, Pawcatuck, and Moosup Rivers. Repropuction: Spawns in shallow, swift water, in May and June. Hasirat: Fresh water streams and ponds. Foop: Insects, worms, molluses, young fishes, and fish ova. The young feed on diatoms, desmids, and black fly larve. (IKendall and Golds- borough, Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 633, 1908, p. 24). Size: Maximum, 22 inches. 27. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus. Geoc. Dist.: Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley, eastward. Common in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts. Reported from Connecticut at ‘‘ Housatonic.” (Kingsley, 1844.) 68 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Hasirat: Very abundant in lakes and lowland streams. Season iy R.1.: Reported from Larkins Pond, Queens River, and ponds and streams in North and South Kingstown. Foop: Crustacea, insect larve and aquatic plants. Size: About ten inches. CYPRINID. The Carps. 28. Abramis crysoleucas (Mitchill). Golden Shiner; Roach; Dace. Grog. Dist.: Nova Scotia and Maryland to Dakota and Texas. Srason tn R. 1.: Reported from Benedicts, Mashapaug, Dyers, Cunliff, Sucker, Herring, Larkins, and Belleville Ponds, Queens and Pawtucket Rivers. Hasirar: Fresh water. Sluggish species, frequently found in ponds and cutoffs, preferring those where the bottom is covered with aquatic plants. (Gill, Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 48, 1907, 307.) Repropuction: Spawns in May. The young reach 1} inches long in December. (Bean, 1901.) Size: Adult is from 6 inches to a foot long. 29. Notropis cornutus (Mitchill). Shiner; Red-fin. GeoG. Dist.: Entire region east of Rocky Mountains, except South Atlan- tic States and Texas. Common throughout New England. Srason in R. I.: Reported by R. I. Fish Commission, 1899. Probably present throughout the State; reported from Belleville and Larkins Ponds, Queens and Ten Mile Rivers. Hasirat: Small streams. Repropuction: Spawns in spring and early summer; eggs are deposited in a hollow made in a gravelly shoal where the current is swift. (Ken- dall, 1908; Gill, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 48, 1907, 301.) Foop: Carnivorous, feeding on all small aquatic animals and insects. Size: Five to eight inches. 30. Rhinichthys atronasus (Mitchill). Black-nosed Dace. Grog. Dist.: New England to Minnesota, Northern Alabama, and Vir- ginia. Common throughout New England. Hasirat: Fresh water. Abundant in clear brooks and mountain streams. Season in R.1.: Probably present throughout streams of the northern and western parts of the State. (R. I. Fish Com., 1899.) Repropuction: Spawns in spring and early summer. (Gill, Smithsonian Mise. Coll., 48, 1907, 308; Holder, Harper’s New Monthly Mag., Dee. 1883, 100; Gregg. Amer. Nat. XIII, 1879, 321.) 31. 32. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 69 Foop: Feeds on small aquatic animals and insects; young specimens were found feeding on. diatoms, entomostraca, small aquatic worms and insects. (Kendall, 1908.) Size: Three inches. Carassius auratus (Linneus). Goldjish. Groc. Dist.: The goldfish or silverfish is a native of Asia, whence it was introduced into Europe and from there to America, where it now is one of the commonest aquarium fishes, and is abundant in many of our streams. De Kay says that the goldfish was introduced from China into Europe in the early part of the 17th century and probably shortly afterward found its way into this country. Hasirat: Introduced into aquaria, fountains, reservoirs, ponds, and lakes. In many streams and ponds it has run wild and returned almost entirely to the original olivaceous type. In the fauna of the moraine ponds and in quarry holes, the goldfish stands first. (E. Smith, 1898.) Season tn R.I.: This introduced species has run wild in certain ponds and streams of the State. Abundant in ponds in Roger Williams Park, in Easton’s Pond, Providence, and in Railroad Pond, East Providence. Repropuction: It spawns early in the spring. The eggs are about 1.5 mim. in diameter and are laid singly upon weeds and other fixed objects. _They hatch in 8 or 9 days after fertilization. (Ryder, Report, U.S. Fish Commission, XIII, 1885, 506.) Sizp: It grows to a length of about twelve inches. Cyprinus carpio (Linnzus). The Carp. Geoa. Dist.: Native of Asia and introduced into Europe and America. (The history of the carp in Europe has been summarized by Cole, Report Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, 537.) Introdyiced into America by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1877. Hasirat: Moderately warm, shallow waters with an abundance of aquatie vegetation and deeper places to which the fish can retreat are the most favorable conditions for the carp. They are very adaptable, however, and are often found, though in lesser numbers, in other places. During the winter they seek deep holes, where they remain in a semi-torpid con- dition. Season in R. I.: Abundant in Cunliff Pond, ponds in Roger Williams Park and connecting streams; found in Mashapaug Pond and vicinity; Slocum Pond and Queens River. Repropuction: The eggs are small, but laid in enormous numbers. The eggs sink; they are not laid in bunches or masses, but are scattered about 70 33. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. in the water; they are adhesive and become attached to the roots and stems of grass and other aquatic vegetation. The eggs develop rapidly and in temperate regions hatch in about 12 days, and from 2 to 6 days in the warm water of the south. (Cole, loc. cit.; Gill, Smithsonian, Mise. Coll., 48, 1907, 195.) Foop: Omnivorous, but vegetable matter normally forms the chief part of its diet. Much of its food the carp obtains by rooting in the mud. Often, however, they feed at the surface and eat small floating plants, insects and their larve, andvegetable material dropped or blown into the water. Size: Growth depends on temperature and food supply. In temperate regions it normally reaches 3 pounds in three years. Sometimes weighs over 30 pounds. ANGUILLID.®. The True Eels. Anguilla rostrata* (Rafinesque). el. Groa. Dist.: Gulf of St. Lawrence to Mexico. Ascends rivers east of Rockies and south of Canada. Mrerations: Adults move down the rivers into the ocean in the autumn to spawn. The young move from salt water into fresh in spring. Migration of young 2 to 3 inches long up Taunton, Warren, and Kickamuit Rivers takes place from about April 15 to May 15. Season in R. I.: Abundant throughout the year in both fesh and salt water, but are most numerous in the autumn when the females are descending the rivers. Reported at Newport by LeSueur in 1817. About April 15, 1905, the eels in Greenwich Bay, R. I., for a period of about three weeks, died in great numbers. Repropuction: Spawning takes place in the ocean in winter. The place of spawning is probably in water 500 fathoms or more deep, along the steep slope where the continental plateau shelves off into the great oceanic depths. The young when hatched are in a larval condition and known as Leptocephali, which require nearly a year for the metamorph- osis into young eels. In the meantime they gradually approach the coast and enter the rivers in April and May, 7. e., in the spring a year after hatching. The young eels, two or three inches long, which can be seen moving up the rivers in the spring are thus a year and two or three months old. The mature eels which migrate down the rivers in the autumn to spawn are probably eight to ten years old (Gemzée). They * Baan. Science, May 28, 1909. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 7fil die after spawning. (For a general summary of the life history of the eel and reference to the most important modern work on the subject, see Gill, 1908, and Tracy, 1908.) = Foop: The eel is an excellent scavenger, eating all kinds of dead animal matter. It also feeds on small fishes, shrimp, crabs, molluscs, worms, ete. Size: Four or five feet. Young taken when ice breaks up in the spring, one to one and a half inches long. Professor Jenks found specimens 2+ inches long April 19th. REFERENCES: 1864: Gitt, Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 1881: Goong, Bull. U.S. Fish Com., I., 71. 1886: Detarce, Compte, Rendu. CIII, 690. 1897: McInrosH and Masrerman, British Marine Food Fishes, 434. 1908: Gr, Science, N.S. XXVIII, 845. 1908: Tracy, Report R. I. Fish Com., 43. 1909: Enrpnpaum, Nordisches Plankton, 10, 280. LEPTOCEPHALID.®. The Conger Eels. 34. Leptocephalus conger (Linneus). Conger Eel. Geog. Dist.: Cosmopolitan, except not found in eastern Pacific. Micrations: Moves into deep water for spawning; does not run into fresh water. Hasitat: Salt and brackish water. Season in R. I.: Scattering specimens in spring and summer, common from August to November. Reported by Mitchill from Block Island, 1818. In the U.S. Museum are casts of two specimens taken at Block Island by the U. 8S. Fish Commission, September 26, 1874. One of these weighed eleven pounds. September 24, 1906, West Passage trap, two specimens; April 30, 1906, Dutch Island trap, one specimen; May 27,1905, Dutch Island trap; June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, three specimens; August 8, 1906, Goose Neck trap, three specimens; August 23, Dutch Island trap, specimen; August 27, 1905, Sand Blow trap, large specimen. Repropuction: Spawning takes place in deep off shore waters of the ocean, probably in late summer. On American coast, eggs taken by the “‘Grampus”’ in the beginning of August. Eggs are 2.4 to 2.75 mm. in diameter, have segmental yolk like Clupeoid eggs, and possess one to six oil globules. There is a larval stage and a metamorphosis, as in the case of the common eel. (For a brief statement of the life history of the “I i) 35. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Conger eel, see McIntosh and Mastermann, British Marine Food fishes, 1897, 450; Ehrenbaum, Nordisches Plankton, 10, 1909, 384. For a description of eggs and larve, see Higenmann, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. XXI, 1901, 37. For the American Leptocephalus forms, see Eigenmann and Kennedy, Bull. U.S. Fish Com., X XI, 1901, 81.) Foop: Fishes, snails, shrimp, worms. According to the Lewis Brothers of Wickford, small lobsters are frequently found in stomachs of congers. Size: Average, four to six feet. Smallest observed at Woods Hole are 15 to 20 inches long. ELOPID®. The Tarpons. Tarpon atlanticus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Tarpon. Groc. Dist.: Cape Cod to Brazil; common in the West Indies; on the coast this species is most abundant in Florida and Texas. Recorded from Massachusetts at South Dartmouth, Quisset, Menemsha (Smith 1898), Martha’s Vineyard, Woods Hole (Sherwood and Edwards, 1901). Migrations: On the southern coast of Florida it appears in February and increases rapidly in numbers in March, April and May; in Texas it appears early in March. About the first of December they disappear from Florida and Texas. In tropical seas, they may be found always; at Tampico, Mexico, they are most abundant from November first until April, which coincides with the time when they are absent from Florida and Texas. Hasitat: Tropical waters; ascends streams in pursuit of small fry. SrasoninR.I.: Rare. Stragglers are reported by the fishermen. Several on record from Newport and Sakonnet, all of which were taken in the month of August so far as is known. Specimen taken August, 1874, at Newport, by Mr. Samuel Powell (photograph No. 398, in U.S. Nat. Mus.). In 1895, two tarpon taken in trap in Coddington Cove, Newport, one weighing over 100 pounds; later, one was caught at Bailey’s Point, Middletown, and sometime after that another taken off High Hill, on Portsmouth shore of Sakonnet River; all these were taken in August (J. G. Costello, of the Newport News). Mr.J.M. K. Knowles, of Wakefield, is authority for the statement that a tarpon five feet long and weighing 30 pounds was taken near Dutch Island Harbor, Narragansett Bay, in 1900. On August 11, 1906, three tarpon caught in trap off Second Beach, near Purgatory, one weighing 97 pounds, and the other two together, 90 pounds; a few days later, two more were taken in the same trap, each somewhat smaller than the large one referred to just above. 36. 37. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 73 About the first of August, 1906, a medium sized tarpon was taken in a trap in Mackerel Cove. (Costello). Repropuction: Does not breed north of Cuba. Its larva will probably be found like that of its relatives, elongated ribbon-shaped animal, transparent and with small head and fins. (Gill, The Tarpon and Ladyfish and their Relatives, Smithsonian Mise. Coll., 48, 1907, 31.) Foop: Schools of small fishes, especially mullets. Rate or GrowTH: On the coast of Florida only mature fish are taken; these average about six feet long, but sometimes weigh as much as 180 pounds. Everman and Marsh collected young 2} to 33 inches long in a mangrove swamp at Fajardo, Porto Rico, in February, 1899; also in a brackish pool they found specimens 4.7 to 11.5 inches long. Elops saurus (Linneus). Yen Pounder; Big-eyed Herring. Grog. Dist.: Tropical seas to Carolina, straying north to Cape Cod. In Massachusetts reported from Woods Hole (Baird, 1873), New Bedford, Woods Hole (Bean, 1880), Vineyard Sound, Buzzards Bay (Smith, 1898), Nantucket (Sharp and Fowler, 1904). Appears occasionally at Long Island in October. At Woods Hole, according to Dr. Smith, it is “Common in fall, none appearing before October.” Season in R.I.: So rare that it is not usually recognized by fishermen. Specimen 14 inches long, taken in trap at Dutch Island Harbor, Nar- ragansett Bay, October 29, 1905. Repropuction: Does not breed on our coast. The young are ribbon- shaped, long, thin and transparent, and pass through a metamorphosis like the fishes of the eel family. (Jordan and Evermann, American Food and Game Fishes, 1902, p. 86.) Hasitat: Open seas. Foop: Shrimp and small fishes. Size: Three feet. At Woods Hole, average length 18 to 20 inches. ALBULID®. The Lady-Fishes. Albula vulpes (Linnezus). Lady-jish. Grog. Dist. Tropical seas on sandy coasts, north to Woods Hole. Speci- men taken at Great South Bay, L. I., late in the fall (Bean, 1903). Reported at Woods Hole in 1871, by Baird, and rarely since then. Haspirat: Shore fishes, feeding on muddy or sandy flats. (Gill, Smith- sonian Misc. Coll. 48, 1907, 40.) Season 1n R.I.: Specimens are reported by fishermen. A specimen from 10 74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Newport is in the U.S. National Museum. (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1880, 107.) Repropuction: The young are transparent, band-shaped, and have a small head; they pass through a metamorphosis as do the eels and the ten-pounder. In the Gulf of California the young are abundant and are often thrown up by the waves on the beach in great numbers. (Jordan and Everman, loc. cit.) Foop: Shell fishes, especially small bivalve molluses. Rate or GrowrH: In the metamorphosis they shrink from three or three and a half to two inches. (Gilbert). The adult reaches one and one- half to three feet. CLUPEID. The Herrings. 38. Etrumeus sadina (Mitchill). Round Herring. Geoa. Dist.: Cape Cod to Gulf of Mexico, on sandy shores; not rare southward. Reported at Woods Hole (Bean, 1880), Menemsha Bight (Smith, 1898). Apparently not rare on the southern coast of Long Island (Bean). Season in R. I.: Specimen in U. 8. National Museum taken at Newport by Mr. Samuel Powell. (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, 59.) Rare of GrowTH: Young specimens 44 inches long taken at Gravesend Bay, July 30, 1896 (Bean). Adults are ten inches long. 39. Clupea harengus (Linneus). Sea Herring; Blue Back. Geoa. Dist.: North Atlantic Ocean, Europe, and America. South to Cape Hatteras, but not abundant south of Cape Cod. Seasonin R.I.: Winter herring arrive in October or November and remain until very cold weather. The spring run arrive in May, and the fishes of that run are larger and more numerous. April 16, 1906, Dutch Island trap, half a dozen large specimens and a few small ones, six inches; April 30, 1906, Sand Blow trap, a dozen specimens; April 30, 1906, Dutch Island trap specimens; May 27, 1905, Dutch Island Har- bor trap, a few specimens; June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, a few specimens; October 29, 1905, Dutch Island Harbor trap. Hasirat: Surface of the water. Repropuction: Some schools spawn in the spring and others in the autumn. The fall schools spawn to west of Bay of Fundy, spring schools to the east of that point. Spawning takes place in Penobscot Bay, September and October; at Woods Hole, after middle of September; along the coast of Massachusetts, about October first; at No Man’s Land, REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 75 for three or four weeks, beginning October 15; at Block Island, Novem- ber. Spawning takes place at a temperature between 47° and 57° F., in the open coast waters not deeper than 30 fathoms. (H.F. Moore, Report U.S. Fish Commission, XXTI, 1896, 40.) Eggs are 1-20 inch in diameter, adhesive, and are deposited on the bottom. They hatch in a period varying from nine to fourteen days, depending on the temperature of the water. The young are then 7-24 inch (5 to 7 mm.) long. At Woods Hole, according to Dr. Smith, “schools of large herring in a spawning condition appear about October 15, and remain till very cold weather sets in.” Rate or GrowrH: At Woods Hole, in January, young herring one-fourth inch long are taken in tow nets, and in May they are 1 to 1} inches long; by August they have attained a length of 24 to3 inches. Fish three to ° five inches long are found from September Ist to the end of the season. About June Ist, for two weeks, there is large run of herring smaller than those of the fall run in Narragansett Bay. Schools of young, about two to four inches long, are common in Apriland May. Young specimens two inches long taken June 6, 1893 (Prof. Jenks). Young 42 to 6 inches taken in Gravesend Bay, November 23, 1897. Masterman summarizes the life history of the young herring, as fol- lows: ‘The young larva, hatched at about 5 to 7 mm. (4 inch) in length, lives near the bottom till some 10 mm. (2-5 inch) is attained by a rapid increase in length. The attenuated post-larval herring then migrates upward through the mid-water to the surface, the mid-water stage lasting from 10 mm. to 23-24 mm., and the surface stage from 24 mm. to 27-28 mm. (14 inch) when a movement shoreward takes place, and the littoral habit is acquired.” (Masterman, 1896.) Foop: Small pelagic invertebrates, chiefly copepods, and larve of worms and molluscs. REFERENCES: 1886: CunnrvGHAM, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 33, 97. 1890: McIntosxH and Princes, ibid. 35, 854. 1896: CUNNINGHAM, Marketable Marine Fishes. 1896: MasTermMAN, Report Fishing Board of Scotland, 14, 294. 1897: Bricr, Report U.S. Fish Com., XXIII, 225. 1897: McInrosH and MastrerMan, British Marine Food Fishes, 405. 1909: ExsrenBavm, Nordishes Plankton, 10, 361. 40. Pomolobus mediocris (Mitchill). Hickory Shad. Geoc. Dist.: Florida to Bay of Fundy. 41. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ' Spason In R. I.: Arrives in the spring; specimens are common from August first to November. April 30, 1906, Dutch Island trap; August 8, 1906, Goose Neck trap, half a dozen specimens; September 24, 1906, West Passage traps, half a dozen specimens; August 27, 1905, Sand Blow trap, two specimens; October 9, 1905, Sand Blow trap; also taken on August 10, September 11, October 2. Repropuction: The location of the breeding grounds is uncertain. Some authorities say that this species does not ascend rivers to spawn; others maintain that it spawns in fresh water under the same conditions as shad. Foop: Smal fishes, crustacea, squids. Siz—E: Maximum, 24 inches. Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson). Alewije; Branch Herring; River Herring; Buckie. Geog. Dist.: Atlantic coast of the United States. Nova Scotia to Vir- Micrations: Arrives off Virginia and Maryland about March 1. Said to arrive at Cape Cod about April first, a month before the scup. Season In R.1.: This is one of the first fish to arrive in the spring, the traps at that time sometimes being full of them. Comes in March, running up into fresh water through March, April, and the first of May. After that, in May and June, a few stragglers are taken on their way back to salt water. The dates of their arrival in Taunton River, kept by Mr. Elisha Slade, from 1871 to 1883, show that their earliest appearance during that time was February 28, 1880, and the latest, March 28, 1875- April 16, 1906, Dutch Island trap, 1,700 specimens; April 30, 1906, Sand Blow trap, 1,200 specimens; September 24, 1906, West Passage, traps, a few specimens. - Repropuction: Spawns during March and April in fresh water. Young taken all summer. (Bean). The eggs are 1-20 inch in diameter, adhesive, and deposited in shoal water. At hatching, the larve are 1-5 inch long (6mm.). (For description of eggs and young, see Ryder, Re- port of U.S. Fish Com. XIII, 1885, 505, and Prince, Further Con- tributions to Canadian Biology, 1907, 95; also Brice, Report U.S. Fish Com. XXIII, 1897, 186.) Foop: Minute free-swimming crustscea. Sometimes young squids and small shrimp. Rate or GRowrH: The young hatched from the eggs in the spring, become three or four inches long before winter. August 8, 1908, specimens acti me 42. 43. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. hd taken at Cornelius Island in seine, 14 inches long (61 mm.; 63 mm.; 65mm.) Bean took specimens in Great South Bay, Long Island, 23 to 3¢ inches long on August Sth; specimens 3} to 7} inches on August 9th, the larger ones probably being the young of the previous year; specimens 2? to 4 inches on August 23; specimens 2 to 44 inches in September, (Bean, 1901.). Young are hatched in June and treble their length in a month. Specimens from 3 to 64 inches (75 to 141 mm.) taken middle of August, St. John’s Harbor, N. B. The largest may not have been the young of that season. (Prince, 1907. Plates and descriptions of young.) Pomolobus estivalis (Mitchill). Glut Herring; Blackback. Groc. Dist. Coast waters of United States north to Maine. Less abun- dant northward than the preceding species. Micrations: Similar to the alewife (P. pseudoharengus), except that it appears later and remains in fresh water for a shorter time. Season 1n R.I.: It appears from two weeks to a month later than the alewife. ReprRopuctTion: Similar to the alewife, but about two weeks later. The spawning grounds are probably confined to brackish water in ponds, and in large streams not far above tide-water. July 20, 1905, young specimens two inches long seined at Cold Spring Beach; June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, a few large specimens. Foop: Free-swimming crustacea. Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). Shad. Grog. Dist.: From Alabama along the whole Atlantic coast. Introduced by the U. 8. Fish Commission into the rivers of the Pacific coast. Micrations: Probably lives in deep water in winter, or near Gulf Stream, coming into shore waters when the temperature reaches 60° F., running up rivers to spawn. When this process is completed they probably return to salt water. The young, when hatched, remain in rivers till autumn, then move into salt water. In Florida, shad ascends rivers in December; rivers of Georgia in January; the Potomac, April; rivers from the Delaware, northward to Canada, May and June. A month later the empty fish descend to the river in an emaciated condition, fol- lowed by the young somewhat later. Season in R.J.: Arrives last of March and runs for about six weeks. A large specimen taken August 3, 1905, at Rumstick Point. Specimen three inches long, taken October 29, 1905, Dutch Island Harbor; this was probably hatched from spawn of the previous spring, and was then 78 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. on its way to salt water. Dates of arrival in Taunton River from 1871 to 1883 range from March 10th, in 1880, to April 5th, in 1883. June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, two specimens; in 1906, arrived at West Passage traps middle of March. Specimen taken in Warren River, March 23, 1910. Repropuction: Spawning takes place in fresh water in April and May. Spawns in May and June. Theeggsafter being laid roll loosely on the rocks, sand, or shelving flats, in non-tidal parts of the rivers. Eggs are semi-buoyant, non-adhesive, one-eighth inch in diameter (3.24 mm.), and take eight days to hatch in water 60°F. Larva at hatching are nine twenty-fourths inch (9.29 mm.) long. The shad returns to salt water after spawning, as is shown by the capture of spent fish, “Racers ’’ on the opposite side of the net. Foop: Like other members of this family, its chief food supply consists of minute free-swimming crustacea. Rate or GrowrH: Young, six to eight inches long, are taken in large numbers in the fall at Long Island. (Bean, 1901.) Larva doubles its length in ten days after hatching, measuring 3-5 inch (15.73 mm.) in length; in 20 days it is 4-5 inches (19 mm.) long; in 40 days is 2 to 2} inches (56.95 mm.) long. On the seventieth day it reaches three or four inches (75 to 100 mm.), in four months, five to seven inches (125 to 175 mm.). Shad, three to five inches long taken in rivers from Sep- tember to February; in Potomac River specimens three inches long are abundant in November, at which time shad five to seven inches long are found in Maine rivers. Shad nine to thirteen and one-half inches are frequent in Canadian waters in October, which must. be the young of the preceding year. (Prince, 1907.) REFERENCES: 1872: Yarrew, Report U.S. Fish Com. I, 452. 1882: Ryper, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. II, 179. 8382: 1891: Worrtu, Bull. U.S. Fish Com. XT. 201. 1897: Bricr, Report U. 8. Fish Com. XXIII, 133. 1907: Prince, Further Contributions to Canadian Biology, 100. 44, Opisthonema oglinum (LeSueur). Thread Herring. Grog. Dist.: West Indian fauna, straying to Cape Cod. Taken at in- tervals at Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound, (Smith, 1898). Abun- dant in July and August at Gravesend Bay, (Bean.) Season in R. I.: The type specimen described in 1817 by LeSueur was taken at Newport. (Jour. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., I, 1817, 359.) In the saa REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 79 U.S. National Museum is a specimen taken at Newport by the U. 8S. Fish Commission. (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, 60.) A few have been taken very rarely since. 45. Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Menhaden; Pogy; Bony Fish. Geoe. Dist.: Nova Scotia to Brazil. Micrations: The migrations of the menhaden are largely determined directly by the water temperature; they enter the coast waters in the spring when the average harbor temperature reaches about 50° F., and leave in the autumn when the temperature falls below that point. The approximate time of the arrival of the first schools is given as follows, by G. Brown Goode: Chesapeake Bay, March and April; New Jersey, April and early May; south coast of New England, late April and May; Cape Ann, middle May; Gulf of Maine, last of May and June. They leave the Maine coast in September and October; Massachusetts, in October and November and December; Long Island Sound, November and December; Chesapeake Bay, December; Cape Hatteras, January; further south they remain throughout the year. It will be seen that they arrive somewhat later than the shad and alewife, about the same time as scup, and in advance of the squeteague and bluefish, and remain longer in the autumn than any of these, except possibly the two last- named species. This order of appearance is what would naturally be expected in view of the fact that the squeteague and bluefish are both carnivorous, and feed largely upon the schools of the menhaden. (Goode, History of the Menhaden, Report of the U.S. Fish Com. 1877.) Season 1n R.I.: They appear last of April or first of May and are present. throughout the summer and fall. Most abundant in May when first arriving, and in October when falling temperature is driving them away from northern shores. They finally leave in November and December. October 29, 1905, Dutch Island trap, few specimens; April 27, 1906, menhaden fishery opened off southern Rhode Island shore, and the “‘ Annie L. Wilcox” secured a small fare; April 16, 1906, Dutch Island trap, first specimen of the season; April 30, 1906, Dutch Island trap, six specimens; June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, 100 large specimens; July 9, 1906, Sand Blow trap, half barrel, medium size; August 8, 1906, Goose Neck trap, few small specimens; September 11, 1906, Dutch Island trap, one-half barrel; September 17, 1906, West Passage traps, one-half barrel, very fat ones. Repropuction: Spawns in December, probably, and in May and June; the location of the spawning grounds is at present uncertain. 80 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. (See Smith, Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, XV. 1895, 301, Rathbun Reports, U. S. Fish Commission XIX, 1893, 38, and XX, 1844, 94 and XXI, 1895, 82. The latest discussion of this question is by Kendall, Bull. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, XX VIII, 1908, 279.) An examination of the condition of the reproductive organs of menha- den from different localities in this vicinity was undertaken in an at- tempt to answer the question: Do females about to spawn have any decided tendency to approach the shore? Too few have been examined to justify an answer, but the following data are given as a matter of record. Records of examination of the condition of the reproductive organs of menhaden; made by H. C. Tracy, off the south shore of Long Island, eight miles west of Montauk Point, May 22, 1906: Time, noon. Weather, fair. Wind, southwest. 2 females, intermediate. 1 male, intermediate. 2 males, immature. 12 females, spent. (These taken from a catch of 8,000 fish.) Place, two miles off south shore of Long Island, five miles west of Montauk, 8 A. M., May 22, 1906. 22 females, spent. 35 males. 2 females, intermediate. 4 females, partly spent. (Taken from catch of 3,000 fish.) Date and place, as above. Time, 10 A. M. 21 males. 23 females, spent. 3 females, intermediate. (A very few males had large testes.) (Taken from haul of 2,000 fish.) Records of examination of the condition of the reproductive organs of menhaden; made by H. C. Tracy, June 5, 1906. Dutch Island Harbor trap: Time, 1 P.M. Weather, fair. Wind, southwest. 6 females, intermediate. 6 females, spent. 9 males, intermediate. 4 females, spent. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 81 Date, the same; time, 11 A. M.; trap, at Hazard’s Quarry. 20 females, intermediate. 8 females, spent. 6 males, spent. 6 males, spent. Foop: The whole food supply of this fish is obtained by filtering out from the surface stratum of water the organic life there suspended. The arrangement of the gill rakers forms a very effective filter of the water which the fish takes in by swimming actively in circles through the water with wide-open mouth and expanded gill-covers. The stomach generally appears comparatively empty, but usually has a small quantity of what appears to be a dark greenish or brownish mud, with a variable quantity of copepods and small crustacea intermixed. This may be demonstrated by observing the habits of the living fish, by the study of the gill rakers, and by collecting on a filter the organic matter suspended in a given quantity of surface water and by comparing the matter thus filtered out with the stomach contents of the menhaden. The following animals have been found: a few annelids, a few rotifers, the smaller crustacea, like Gammarus and young shrimp, Zoea larva, Nauplius larva, copepods. But the great majority of organisms were Gleno- dinium, Perdinium, Infusoria, and unicellular plants like diatoms, algal swarm spores, and bacterial masses. (On the Food of the Menhaden, by J. H. Peck, Ph. D., Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1893, 113.) Rate or GRowTH: Adultsare the large fish fifteen to eighteen inches in length. Schools of fishes from two to five inches long arriving at New England in midsummer are probably hatched from spawn of the previous fall and spring. Theseven to ten-inch fishes are two yearsold. The following speci- mens have been taken at Wickford: August 14, 1906, Sauga Point, seine, four specimens one inch; August 8, 1906, Mill Cove, with hoop net and lantern, at night, many specimens 1 to 1} inches (26 to 32 mm.); August 8, 1906, Point Wharf, seine, three specimens one inch; July 25, 1908, seine, 37 mm.; August 10, 1908, seine, 37 mm; August 13, 1909, seine, Cornelius Island, 42 mm., 40 mm., 37 mm., 41 mm. Bean gives the following measurements of young taken at Great South Bay, Long Island: July 24th, specimens 2? inches; August 8th, 33 to 44 inches; August 21st, 34 to 44 inches; August 23rd, 5} inches; September 14th, 54 to 5% inches. 11 45. 46. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ENGRAULIDID®. The Anchovies. Stolephorus brownii (Gmelin). Striped Anchovy; Anchovy. Geo. Dist.: Cape Cod to Brazil. Abundant southward. At Woods Hole: “ Much the most numerous species of Anchovy” (Smith, 1898); from August to late in the fall, also reported there by Baird, 1873 (?), and Bean, 1880; not otherwise recorded from New England. Sometimes very abundant at Long Island (Bean, 1903). Season 1n R.I.: Specimen 1} inches long, dredged by the ‘‘ Fish Hawk ” in Narragansett Bay, November, 1898. This species is undoubtedly rare in Narragansett Bay, but its abundance at Woods Hole would lead us to believe it to be common in outside waters. Repropuction: Young taken September first on Long Island (Bean). Foop: Annelids, copepods, sometimes univalve molluses, foramenifera. Size: Four to six inches. Stolephorous mitchilli (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Anchovy. Grog. Dist.: Cape Cod to Texas. Reported from Casco Bay, Maine (Kendall, 1908), and from Massachusetts, at Provincetown (Storer, 1859), and Woods Hole (Smith, 1898). Abundant at Long Island (Bean, 1903). Season in R.I.: Abundant from May to October. Forms an important part of the so-called “white bait.” Repropuction: Eggs and larve are very abundant in the tow in Narra- gansett Bay from about July 10th to August 15th. Eggs are pelagic, small (about .7 or .8 mm. in diameter), and have segmented yolk like almost all other Clupeoid fishes. Spawning probably takes place in the open waters of Narragansett Bay. Larva about 2.8 mm. long when hatched. Hasitat: Sandy shores, entering rivers. Foop: Miscroscopie crustacea and marine larvee; small shrimp amphipods. Size: Adults are about two and a-half inches. Following are the lengths of anchovies taken in rearing cars of lobster plant at Wickford in 1908: July 22, specimens 4.7 mm., 4.5 mm.; July 25, specimens 17 to 18 mm., none larger; July 31, many specimens 24 mm.; August 1, 5.2 mm.; August 3, 4.8 mm., 5.3 mm., 6.6 mm., 7.8 mm., 9.7 mm.; August 3, several specimens 23 mm. to 25 mm.; August 4, very many specimens 8 to 26 mm.; August 4, many specimens 14 to 20 mm. 2,000 specimens (measuring 15 to 20 mm.) on August 8 came into rearing car during the night through one-half inch mesh screen put in August 7; October 6, sample specimens in cars measured 29, REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 83 26, 39, 42, 47, 33, 53 mm. Probably several of the larger sizes were lost in taking out. Young are found in abundance, the remainder of the season, until the last of October, when they reach a length of 40 mm. to 55 mm. SALMONIDAE. The Salmon Family. 47. Salmo salar (Linnzus). Salmon. Grog. Disr.: North Atlantic, ascending rivers between Cape Cod and, Hudson Bay. Formerly south to Hudson River, and abundant in all New England States. Mierations: Ascends New England rivers in May and June. Season 1n R. 1.: Small fish, weighing two to three pounds, are taken in Sakonnet River in the spring nearly every year. May 8, 1907, a salmon weighing 22 pounds was caught by Captain Petty at Sakonnet Point. Repropuction: Eggs are about 1-5 inch in diameter and are laid from October to December in water not warmer than 50°; they are deposited in shoal water on sandy bottom in deep depressions made by the parent fish. The hatching period ranges from 140 to 200 days or more, de- pending on the temperature. When hatched the larva is about ? of an inch long and the yolk sac is absorbed in about a month or six weeks. Foop: The adult salmon in the sea feeds on herring, sand larve, smelt, and other small fishes, besides crustaceans, but during its stay in fresh water it takes no food. Size: Fifteen to forty pounds, maximum sixty pounds. At the age of ten months the lava measures about 14 inches. REFERENCES: 1890: McInrosH and Prince, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. 35, 886. 1898: Brice, Report U.S. Fish Com. XXIII, 27. 1903: Beran, Catalogue of the Fishes of New York, N. Y. State Museum Bulletin, 60, 246. 48. Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). Brook Trout; Speckled Trout. Geoc. Disr.: East of the Mississippi, Savannah to Labrador. Mierations: In fall, where communication exists, enters salt water, re- maining through the winter. Season iN R.I.: Common in fresh-water streams throughout the State. Reported from brooks and small streams in Foster, Scituate, Gloces- ter (Moosquitohawk and Huntinghouse brooks), North Smithfield, Burrillville (Sucker and Brandy brooks), Coventry, West Greenwich, Exeter, and North Kingstown. 84 49, REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Hapitat: Clear, swift, fresh-water streams where the temperature does not exceed 68°. Repropuction: Eggs are one-fifth inch in diameter, varying in color from pale lemon to orange red. The spawning season varies with the tem- perature of the water, but usually takes place from the last of September to December. Eggs are deposited in cavities made in the gravel and covered with pebbles. Period of hatching ranges from 32 days in water of 54° to 165 days in water of 37°. Yolk sac absorbed in 30 to 80 days. (Bean, loc. cit., p. 274; Brice, Report U.S. Fish Com. XXIII, 1897, 91.) Foop: Carnivorous. Feeds on nearly any small living creature, including insects, other small invertebrates, small fishes, its own eggs and young, tadpoles, water newts, etc. Size: Maximum eighteen inches, but average between eight and twelve inches. ARGENTINID®. The Smelts. Osmerus mordax (Mitchill). Smelt. Groc. Dist.: The Atlantic coast, Virginia to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Season in R. I.: Present throughout the year, but most abundant in March and April, especially at Narrow River where a commercial fishery of considerable importance exists. Abundant in Warren and Pawtuxet Rivers; also in the streams emptying into the salt water between Narrow River and Watch Hill. A few specimens taken in the seine throughout the summer and early fall on sandy shores in the vicinity of Wickford. July 17, 1906, six specimens about 6 inches long (150 mm.) seined at Cornelius Point. August 20, 1908, three specimens about 54 inches long (140 mm., 135 mm., and 130 mm.) seined at Cornelius Point. They were unusually common in 1909, several being taken frequently in the seine from July to September. Repropuction: Spawns in February and March, in fresh-water streams and brooks. The eggs are 1-20 inch in diameter and adhere to stones, twigs, ete., on the bottom (Brice, 1897). According to Ehrenbaum, the eggs are .9 mm. in diameter, contain numerous oil globules, and the period of incubation is four or five weeks. The newly hatched larva is one-quarter inch long (5.5 to 6 mm.). Foop: Shrimp and other small crustacea. Size: Maximum, 14 inches. REFERENCES: 1886: CuNnNiNGHAM, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 33, 98. 1897: Brice, Report U.S. Fish Comm. XXITI, 188. 1909: ExReNBAuM, Nordisches Plankton, 10, 343. 50. 51. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 85 SYNODONTID®. The Lizard-Fishes. Synodus foetens (Linnzus). Lizard-fish. Geog. Dist.: Cape Cod to Brazil, common in deep water from South Carolina southward, moving into shallow water in summer. A few taken nearly every September at Woods Hole (Smith, 1898). Common on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season 1n R. I.: Specimen from Narragansett Bay (R. I. Fish Com., 1899). Foop: A voracious fish, feeding on small fishes. (Holbrook, 1860.) Size: Twelve inches. LUCID. The Pikes. Lucius americanus (Gmelin). Banded Pickerel. Grog. Dist.: Massachusetts to Florida, east of the Allegheny Mountains. Not reported from Maine and New Hampshire, but common in Massa- chusetts. Found on Long fee a al i | 2 nc GROSS eae eels conan le atone 44 1 Boece tae legion 27 | RSP act | 45 PO eineste tee = ccaieverecs re Reena [Wy meet Tear syeie 14 tf De eats | O2a ee ya ae 74 OOM toc | 6] 38 Gal t624|2aul) a8 8 8 | 162 TOOO NE (asst: ol ce TOTS pale GSull aed Stalk, .okues| tee gaaelllacs say! | 166 HOO oak: jk oe oe 1 SO yl pee | ets ictal lt, ceed Pcs ciel oat ona i 24 102: aoc Aa ee eect a ee 5 tial) 73 ul| ee a oor ralneeere lane eke 179 (GTS, ng et Ree ae 18 || oat] "Aa GN beck sanes ieee 164 LOOM UEP Ip as 3. tia scectct 15| 160] 300| 47 Cull w2Sclisee ees see see 554 FL Eepae® -tetofovanc iscsi io | ee 67 mete 22 3 18 Dis cane |) e723) HSOOM ET Ces eee saa, eae all Pe aia peel tenes tal lente 2 eens | si IGOTPE etc lee Ewer. Wile AS ett) OMe Wines eel At cad al eal a | 263 NQOSMEE Ace oe ener ne 85 81 30 1 it senor poder me 1k) Totals............... 22] 980 |1,623 | 537] 68| 60| 62 8 3,360 Repropvuction: In the Mediterranean it spawns in spring and early sum- mer, probably in the open ocean. Foop: Contents of the stomach show fishes like mackerel, menhaden, cod, hake, and squids. Size: Ten feet, maximum sixteen feet. Young, 10mm and 37 mm., have been found by Liitken (Ehrenbaum, Nordishes Plankton, 4, 1905, p. 35; description and picture of 37mm. young). Specimen measuring two feet taken off Block Island, in July 1877 (Goode, 1880). Specimen taken in West Indies by the ‘“‘ Challenger,” 14 inches long. (For the nat- ural history of the swordfish see Goode, Report, U. 8. Fish Com., VIII, 1880, 289: Litken, translated by Bean, loc. cit. 375. Young described by Ginther, are referred to in Amer. Nat. X, 1876, 239.) CARANGIDA. The Pompanos, Amber-Fishes, ete. 92. Oligoplites saurus (Bloch and Schneider). Leather-jacket. Geoc. Dist.: Both coasts of tropical America, common in West Indies, north to Woods Hole and Menemsha Bight (Smith, 1898). Rare on Long Island (Bean, 1903). 108 93. 94, 95. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Season in R. I.: Very rare. Reported at Newport (Goode, 1884); specimen taken September 10, 1886, at Newport (Smith, 1898). Size: Specimen 9# inches long taken in January 1896, at Gravesend Bay (Bean, 1903). Naucrates ductor (Linneus). Pilot-fish. Groc. Dist.: Pelegie fish found in all warm seas. Occasional on our Atlantic coast from West Indies to Maine. In Maine reported from near Seguin (Bowdoin College). In Massachusetts at Provincetown (Atwood, 1859) and Woods Hole (Baird, 1871, and Smith, 1898). In Connecticut at Stonington (Linsley, 1844). Season in R.1.: Taken rarely from July to October in Narragansett Bay. More common in outside waters. Repropuction: Young are developed in the open ocean and are so differ- ent in appearance that they have been described as a different genus. Foop: Omnivorous. Van Beneden found stomach contents to consist of portions of fishes, crustacea, fucoid plants, and, in one case, parings of potatoes (Amer. Nat. V, 1871, 436.) Size: Two feet. Seriola zonata (Mitchill). Rudder-jish; Pilot-fish; Shark-pilot. GeoG. Dist.: Cape Hatteras northward from Cape Ann. Reported from several places in Massachusetts shore, from Long Island Sound (Linsley, 1844), and from Gravesend Bay, Long Island (Bean, 1903). Common at Woods Hole from July to October. Spason iy R.I.: Single specimens occasionally taken from July to October. A specimen in possession of the Commission is dated 1899. Three specimens from Newport are in the U. 8. National Museum (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1880, 91). Specimen one and one-half inches long in Roger Williams Park Museum from Warwick, R. I. Foop: Stomach of one individual contained fragments of a butter-fish. At Woods Nole, they have been observed to feed for weeks chiefly on Menidia (Smith). Also feed on small killifish (Bean, 1903). Rate or GrowtTH: Adults are two or three feet long. Young are common south of Cape Cod; specimens from 14 inches long up to six or seven inches at Woods Hole. Seriola lalandi (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Amber-jish. Gro. Dist.: Brazil to Cape Cod. In New England reported from Woods Hole (Smith, 1898) and Narragansett Bay (R. I. Fish Com. 1899). One specimen from Gravesend Bay, L. I., July 15, 1896 (Bean, 1903). 97. 98. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 109 Season IN R. I.: Rare. Taken in traps occasionally during summer months. Size: Five or six feet long and up to 100 pounds weight. Decapterus punctatus (Agassiz). Scad; Round Robin; Cigar-jish. Geoc. Dist.: Cape Cod to Brazil. Taken at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873, Bean, 1880, Smith, 1898), at East Haven in Connecticut (1884); occa- sionally taken from August to October on Long Island (Bean, 1903). Season my R. I.: Taken in Narragansett Bay (R. I. Fish Com., 1899). Three specimens, the largest measuring 4} inches, taken from the stomach of a horse mackerel (Pelamys?) at Newport, by Mr. Samuel Powell. (Fowler, Proc. Acad. Sci. Phil., LVI, 1904, 760). Rate or GrowTH: Only young and half-grown specimens are taken on Long Island and around Cape Cod (Bean, 1903). Adults reach a length of about one foot. Decapterus macarellus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Mackerel Scad. Grog. Dist.: Warm parts of Atlantic north to Nova Scotia. Cornish reports specimens at Canso (1907). Common every year in October at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873 Smith, 1898) and at Vineyard Sound (Smith, 1898). Taken in abundance at Southampton, Long Island, August 31, 1897 (Bean, 1903). Abundant along south Florida coast. Hasitat: Shallow waters and harbors, moving in small schools. Season 1n R.I.: Occasional in October. Prof. Jenks is authority for the statement that none over six inches long are ever taken in our waters. Specimen in the U. S. National Museum, taken at Newport by Mr. Samuel Powell (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, 42). Foop: Copepods and annelids. Rate or GRowTH: Specimens over six inches long not reported in northern waters. Adults reach a longth of one foot. Trachurus trachurus (Linneus). Saurel; Gascon. Geoc. Dist.: North Atlantic, chiefly on coast of Europe, south to Spain and Naples. Taken also at Newport; Pensacola; Cape San Lucas, and Long Island. Only four American specimens are known, but it occurs in enormous schools on the European coasts. The Long Island specimen was taken October 16, 1898, in Clam Pond Cove, in company with young bluefish and menhaden (Bean, 1901). Hasitat: Surface waters, with habits like mackerel. Season in R.I:. Goode describes specimen from Newport. (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 1882, 269). 110 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ReEpropucTIoN: Spawns in May in the English Channel; from June to August in the North Sea. The egg is 1-25 inch in diameter (.84 to 1.04 mm.), with segmented yolk and an oil globule. The larva at hatching is 1-10 inch (2.5mm.) long. (Egg and young are described by Ehrenbaum Nordisches Plankton, 4, 1905, 27.) Foop: Feeding habits, like blue-fish (Bean, 1903). Size: One foot. 99. Trachurops crumenophthalmus (Bloch). Big-eyed Scad; Goggler. Groce. Dist.: Both coasts of tropical America, straying north to Nova Scotia. Two specimens taken at Canso in fish-traps by Cornish (1907). Reported from Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Bean, 1880; Smith, 1898), where it is common every year from October fifteenth to November fifteenth. Common in all tropical seas and abundant in the Caribbean seas in winter. Taken the fall on Long Island shores (Bean, 1903). Season in R. I.: Common in October and November (Prof. Jencks). Specimen from Newport in the U. 8. National Museum. (Proce. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1880, 84.) Rate or GrowTH: Most northern specimens are from four to six inches long. The adult reaches a length of about two feet. Foop: Annelids, shrimp, small fishes. 100. Caranx hippos (Linneus). Crevallé; Jack. Geog. Dist.: Warm seas, both coasts of tropical America, north to Gulf of California and Cape Cod, also found in East Indies. Taken at Lynn Beach (Wheatland, 1852; Goode and Bean, 1879) and at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Bean, 1880; Smith, 1898). Abounds in Gulf of Mexico and East Florida and occurs throughout the West Indies. Season in R.1.: Occasionally taken from July to November. Specimen from Newport in U.S. National Museum (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1880, 90). Several specimens taken in West Passage during August and September of 1906. Usually associated with C. Crysos, but not so numerous as that species. September 24, 1906, specimen, West Passage trap. Foop: Fishes like mullet and menhaden; crustacea. Feeds in shallow water near the shore. Rate or GrowtH: Largest are two feet long. Young one inch long are taken at Woods Hole about July first. In Great Egg Harbor, N. J., small individuals are common in summer. Specimens from four to six and one-half inches taken at Ocean City and Longport late in Au- gust. The adult reaches about three feet and weighs thirty pounds. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ier 101. Caranx crysos (Mitchill). Hardtail; Yellow Crevalle. Groc. Dist.: Gloucester to Brazil. Reported from several places on Massachusetts shore (Kendall, 1908). Season In R.I.: Not uncommon from August to November. Most of those caught in traps are small, about eight to ten inches long, but one very large specimen, about eighteen inches long, taken in trap near Saunderstown, Narragansett Bay, August 10, 1905. Specimen from Newport in the U.S. National Museum (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1880, 90). August 23, 1905, Dutch Island trap—specimen. August 27, 1905, Dutch Island trap, six specimens. August 27, 1905 Hazard’s Quarry trap—specimen. September 24, 1906—West Passage trap, half-dozen small specimens. Repropuction: Probably spawns in West Florida in May in the salt-water bayous (Bean, 1903). Foop: Crustacea. Size: Fifteen inches. Young one to two and one-half inches long, taken at Woods Hole in summer (Smith). 102. Alectis ciliaris (Bloch). Cobbler-fish; Threadfish. Geoec. Dist.: Tropical America on both coasts, ranging north to Cape Cod. Reported from Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Bean, 1880; Smith, 1898) and from Connecticut, at Stratford (Linsley, 1844). Occasional on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season in R.1.: Rare. From June to November. The Commission is in possession of a specimen three and one-half inches long from Newport. Specimens from Newport are in the U. 8. National Musuem (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1880, 90.) Specimen in trap in West Passage, Sep- tember 15, 1906. Size: Three feet. Specimens from three to eight inches long at Woods Hole from June fifteenth to November first (Smith). 103. Vomer setipinnis (Mitchill). Pug-nosed Shiner; Dollar-jish. Geoc. Dist.: Tropical America, both coasts. Common south, young occurring north in Gulf Stream, northward to Gloucester. Reported from various places in Massachusetts and in Connecticut from Green- wich (Linsley, 1844). Occasional on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season iy R.1.: Of various abundance in different years. Adults usually rare. Occasional specimens in August, September, and October. Usually much more frequent than Selene vomer. The first recorded of this species from Rhode Island was a young specimen described by 112 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Cope in-1870 (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. Phila., 1870, 119). Specimens from Newport are in the U. 8. National Museum (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1880, 89). An adult specimen taken in Narragansett Bay at Newport by Mr. J. M. K. Southwick in 1899. Young specimens taken August 23 and October 9, 1905. In 1906 a remarkably large number of these fishes were present in Rhode Island waters, from the first of August until the last of September. In this season also, adults were numerous; the traps in West Passage were found at nearly every haul to contain from one to a half-dozen vf these fishes. On August 8, 1906, a specimen was taken in Hazard’s Quarry trap, and on September 17, 1905, two small specimens were taken at Wild Goose trap, where large size specimens were common for a month preceding. Repropuction: A male specimen taken in West Passage trap, Narra- gansett Bay, September 11, 1906, gave milt on gentle pressure. Size: Maximum, one foot. 104. Selene vomer (Linneus). Lookdown,; Dollar-jish. Grog. Dist.: Tropical seas, northward to Maine. Reported in Maine from Casco Bay, in Massachusetts from Dorchester, Woods Hole, Nan- tucket, and New Bedford, and in Connecticut from Stratford and Long Island Sound, middle ground (Kendall, 1908). Occasionally on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Spnason In R.1.: Rare. Specimens sometimes taken in late summer and early fall. Specimen taken October 5, 1906, at Second Beach, Newport. Foop: Small crustacea, shrimp, gasteropods, lamellibranchs. Size: Specimens on northern shores are usually from three to five inches long. Adults reach a weight of two pounds. 105. Trachinotus faleatus (Linneus). Rownd Pompano. Groa. Disr.: Cape Cod to Brazil. Taken at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873, Smith, 1898) and at Nantucket (Sharpe and Fowler, 1904). Common about Cape Cod in summer, but no adults are seen. Common on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season In R. I.: Reported in Narragansett Bay by Rhode Island Fish Commission, 1899. Rate oF GrowtH: In northern waters they are never over three inches in length. Young from one-half to one inch long appear at Woods Hole in July; in September, when they disappear, they are two inches long (Smith, 1898). On Long Island shore specimens one inch to one and REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 113 three-quarters inches long were taken August 10th and 11th; September 2nd, specimen one and one-half inches long; September 30th, several specimens over two inches in length were taken (Bean, 1903). Adults reach fifteen inches. 106. Trachinotus carolinus (Linneus). Common Pompano. Geog. Dist.: Abundant on South Atlantic and gulf coasts of United States, straying to Brazil and Cape Cod. Taken at Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Bean, 1880; Smith, 1898). At Nantucket (Sharp and Fowler, 1904) and at Noank, Connecticut (B.S.N.H.). The young are summer and fall visitors on Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season In R. I.: Reported in Narragansett Bay by R. I. Fish Com., 1899. Repropuction: Probably spawn on east coast of Florida in April and May. Full of nearly ripe spawn in April on the coast of Florida (Henshall, 1889). Foop: Stomach contents: fishes, small crustacea, amphipods, lamelli- branch shells, diatoms, and vegetable debris. Often seen rooting or digging in the sand for food (Jordan and Evermann, 1902, p. 318). Size: Eighteen inches. At Woods Hole, young from two to four inches in length appear between July 20th and August Ist and remain until September (Smith, 1898). POMATOMID®. The Bluefishes. 107. Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnezus). Bluefish. Geog. Dist.: Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Micrations: Its migrations are probably more influenced by the presence of food than by temperature. They move along the coast from the south toward the north in the spring, following the schools of menhaden. Immense schools appear off the coast of Carolina in March and April; reaching the Jersey coast in the early part of May; Newport, middle of May to first of June. In October they leave the northern coasts and appear off the coast of Carolina about the middle of November, where a very extensive fishery exists until late in December. Their presence off the Carolina coast in autumn is preceded by schools of menhaden and marked by flocks of birds (Prof. Baird, Report U.S. Fish Com., 1873). Season in R. I.: Common but not abundant. They arrive about June first and remain until the last of November. These fishes are 10 to 14 inches in length. About the first of September, young about 5 inches 15 114 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. long are caught in the traps; they remain the rest of the season, con- stantly increasing in size, and are about 8 or 9 inches in length when they disappear. August 7 to October 15, young taken at Red Bridge, Seekonk River. Repropuction: Young less than one inch in length are never taken in coast waters; specimens about the same length appear along the whole coast at about the same time. This fact makes it appear probable that the bluefish spawns in the open ocean in the winter or early spring, before they arrive on our shores. Well-developed spawn is found in a small proportion of the bluefish when they first arrive. (See Ehren- baum, Nordisches Plankton, 4, 1905, 27.) Foop: A very voracious, carnivorous fish, feeding particularly on men- haden and squeteague. Stomachs also sometimes contain herring, cunners, Squid, butterfish, marine worms, and crustacea. The young of the second year feed largely on schools of Menidia around the shores. Rate or GrowtH: The Fish Commission Steamer “ Albatross,” and the schooner “Grampus,” have taken specimens under an inch long off shore. There seems to be little room for doubt regarding the usual rate of growth of the bluefish in northern waters, during its first two years. June 5, 1908, a specimen one inch long was taken in the Dutch Island Harbor trap. A specimen 26 mm. (one inch) long was taken in a seine at Cornelius Island on July 1, 1908. Specimens 1 to 2 inches are fre- quently seen in Wickford Cove in June and early July. Bean seined individuals 14 to 14 inches long at Ocean City, N. J., the last of August (Bean, 1903). These small specimens probably grow to be from four to eight inches in August and September. On July 1, 1907, ten specimens were taken at Quonset Point which were 4 1-5 inches long. Five specimens were taken in a seine at Cornelius Point on August 7, 1908, which aver- aged 5 1-5 inches in length. The next day, August 8th, the average size of five specimens taken at Cornelius Point was 5} inches. On August 10, 1908, four specimens were seined at Cornelius Island that averaged 5 1-12 inches. On August 27, 1905, many specimens four to six inches long were found gilled in the meshes of the traps. A dozen five-inch specimens were taken ina West Passage trap on Sep- tember 24, 1906. In the trap, Sand Blow, on Conanicut Island, two specimens 6 inches long were taken October 2, 1905. September 15, 1908, the average of several specimens was 74 inches. At Woods Hole “young first appear early in July, being about three inches long”’ (Smith, 1898). Baird (1871), says that about the middle of REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 115 August, bluefish at Woods Hole are five inches in length and that by the end of September they are seven or eight inches long. Bean records the following specimens at Great South Bay, L. I., July 13, 3% to 3% inches; August 27, 74 inches; August 28, 34 inches; and August 29, 62 inches. Seal found young, 5 to 8 inches long in the Potomac River, September 20, 1899 (Bean, 1891). In October they reach a length of six to eight inches or nine inches. When the fish return in June they measure from eight to twelve inches. A specimen thirteen inches was taken at Sand Blow trap on July 9, 1906. On July 24, 1905, a few specimens eight inches long were taken at Dutch Island trap. On August 23, 1905, many specimens ten inches long were taken in the Sand Blow trap, and in the Hazard’s Quarry trap, on August 29, 1905, two specimens ten inches long were taken. Seven specimens taken in Ducth Island Harbor trap on August 16, 1909, were 124, 123, 12}, 13, 12 1-5, 134, and 12 inches long. At the end of the season they are fourteen to eighteen inches in length. The following is the record of certain feeding experiments carried on with On bluefish confined in the rearing cars of the lobster plant at Wickford Experiment Station: August 8 and 10 a number of young bluefish were caught in the seine and were placed in one of the rearing cars which had been provided with coarse window screens of one-fourth inch mesh. When put into the car there were already present in the water several thousand young anchovies, about 20 to 25 millimeters in length. These the bluefish ate during the first day. On several occasions a few Menidia and Fundulus were given them to eat. On August 12, they were given as much raw meat as they could eat, and this they devoured ravenously. They were fed on meat again on August 15, and on Menidia two days later. The average size of these bluefish on August 18, about ten days after they were put into the car, was 140.8 millimeters, an average increase of about 10 millimeters. On September 1, they were measured again, having been fed meantime on several occasions with Menidia, Fundulus, and other small fishes. The average length on this date, September 1, was 174 millimeters. This measurement and the two which follow were taken from the nose to the end of the fin rays, whereas the previous measurements were taken from the nose to the base of the fin rays. Between September 1 and September 8, the specimens were not fed. On September 8 they measured 175.1 millimeters, showing an increase during seven days of 1.1 millimeters. On September 8 a quantity of 116 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. live fishes was put into the car to serve as food for the bluefish, and during the next seven days, the bluefish showed an average. growth of about 10 millimeters, the average length being 184.3 millimeters. NOMEID4E. The Nomeids. 108. Nomeus gronovii (Gmelin). Portuguese Man-of-War-Fish. Geog. Dist.: Tropical parts of the Atlantie and Indian Oceans in rather deep water, swimming near the surface, very abundant in the Sargasso Sea, common north to Florida and Bermuda, straying to Panama and Woods Hole. At Woods Hole reported only twice, in Vineyard Sound, 1889, and off Tarpaulin Cove in 1894 (Smith, 1898). Hasitar: Found living under Portuguese man-of-war. Pelagic young are common in the tropics. Specimens 4 to 14 inches long were taken by the “ Challenger,’ September 16, 1875. Season 1n R.I.: Reported in Narragansett Bay by R. I. Fish Commission, 1899. CENTROLOPHID®. The Rudderfishes. 109. Palinurichthys perciformis (Mitchill). Rudder-fish; Pole-fish. Groc. Dist.: Atlantic coast of North American from Cape Hatteras to Nova Scotia. Reported from Canso (Cornish, 1907). Common at Woods Hole from June to November (Smith, 1898). Rare at Long Island, but common two or three miles off shore (Bean, 1903). Season in R. I.: Specimen from Newport in U. 8. National Museum (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1886, 91). Reported by R. I. Fish Commission in 1S0QMe nae Repropuction: Young in Atlantic under floating boxes and barrels (Bean). Foop: Small squids, snails, crustacea. Size: One foot in length. STROMATEID®. The Butter-Fishes. 110. Peprilus paru (Linneus). Harvest-jish. Geog. Dist.: Cape Cod to Jamaica. Usually rare at Woods Hole, but occasionally common (Smith, 1898); taken at Monomoy (Kendall coll., 1896). Not common along Long Island shore (Bean, 1903). Season in R.I.: Rare, only a few appearing each season in June or July — ee ae REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. ales with the butter-fishes. A large specimen taken July 24, 1905, and on August 16, 1909, a specimen was taken in the Conanicut Point trap. Size: Eight inches. 111. Poronotus tricanthus (Peck). Butter-jish. Groce. Dist.: Nova Scotia to Florida, rare south of Cape Hatteras. Com- mon at Canso, Nova Scotia (Cornish, 1907). Abundant along whole New England coast. At Woods Hole in 1898 the first were taken in a trap at Cuttyhunk on May 11th, although reported at West Dennis on the 5th. Micrations: Appears early in April off the Jersey coast. Season 1n R. 1.: Appears toward the last of May, usually a little later than the scup. The height of the spring run is during the first two weeks in June. A few are present throughout the summer. In Octo- ber occurs the fall run, and they finally leave in November. In 1905 butter-fish first appeared May 22. A few specimens were taken on October 29, in a Dutch Island trap. In 1906, off Newport, the butter-fish were first reported April 16, an unusu- ally early date. Two specimens were taken in Sand Blow trap, West Passage, on April 30. In 1907, the first reported from Newport were taken May 10. On May 24, 50 barrels were taken at one haul off Newport. On July 29, 1908, at Hazard’s Quarry trap they were very abundant and had been for several days preceding. Few squiteague were present, which fact may have accounted for the abundance of butterfish at this time. : In 1909 butter-fish appeared off Newport about April 21. First appearance of butter-fish in traps off Newport: 1905. | 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. May 22 | April 16. May 10. April 28. April 21. | ReEprRopuctTion: Spawns in June. Foop: Small fishes, small free-swimming crustacea, annelids. Rare or GrowrH: In Narragansett Bay young are frequently found in August living under the protection of the stringers of jelly-fishes. On August 2, 1908, specimens 1-5 inch (4.6 mm. and 5.5 mm.) were taken 118 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. at the surface near the lobster plant of the Wickford Experiment. Station. In the West Passage traps on October 2, 1905, half a barrel of specimens three or four inches long were taken, and two barrels were taken at Sand Blow trap on October 9, 1905. The maximum size is about 10 inches. CENTRARCHID®. The Sunfishes. 112. Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque). Rock Bass. Groc. Dist.: Vermont to Great Lake region and Manitoba, south to Louisiana, very abundant west of the Alleghanies. Found in many lakes and rivers in New York. Its geographical distribution has been much extended by artificial introduction. Season in R. I.: Taken at Newport (Mr. Southwick). This species is recorded from Vermont (Kendall, 1908), but not otherwise reported from New England. Probably the species has been artificially intro- duced into certain ponds and reservoirs near Newport. Repropuction: Spawns in May and June on gravelly shoals. (Brice, Report, U. 8. Fish Com., XXIII, 1897, 159.) Foon: Small fishes, worms, crustacea, insect larve. Sizp; Twelve inches. 113. Lepomis auritus (Linneus). Long-eared Sunfish. Geoa. Dist.: Maine to Louisiana, east of the Alleghanies. Recorded from ponds and streams throughout New England (Kendall, 1908). Hasirat: Abundant in al! fresh-water streams. Season 1n R.1I.: Reported from Rhode Island (R. I. Fish Com., 1899). Repropuciion: Spawns in early summer. Foop: Worms, insect larvee, crustaceans, molluses, and small fish. Size: Eight inches. 114. Eupomotis gibbosus (Linnzus). Sunfish; Pumpkin Seed; Kiver. Geoa. Dist.: Great Lakes region to Maine, and southward east of the Alleghanies to Florida. Occurs only in the northern part of the Mis- sissippi Valley. Common everywhere in New England. Hasirar: Clear brooks and ponds. Season in R. I.: Reported by R. I. Fish Com., 1899. Recorded from Mashapaug, Benedict, and Fenner’s ponds (Pope coll., 1894-96), also from Old Reservoir, in North Providence; Larkin’s Dyerc’s Benedict, REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 119 Cunliff, Blackmoor’s, Sucker, and Belleville Ponds; Pawcatuck River and its branches; also common in ponds and streams of Block Island. RepropuctTion: Spawns in the spring in nests made by hollowing out with the fins a depression in the mud or sand. The nests are guarded by the male; the eggs are only about 1-32 inch in diameter, and not very numerous. (Gill, Parental Care Among Fresh-Water Fishes, Smithsonian Report, 1905, 403.) Foop: Similar to that of the preceding species. (For food of the sunfish see S§. A. Forbes in Bulletins of the Illinois State Laboratory.) Size: Eight inches. 115. Micropterus dolomieu (Lacépéde). Small-mouthed Black Bass. Groa. Dist.: From Lake Champlain to Manitoba and southward on both sides of the mountains from James River to South Carolina and Arkan- sas. Indigenous to the upper parts of St. Lawrence basin, Great Lake region and Mississippi basin. East of the Alleghanies it is a native of the Ocurulgee and Chattahoochee rivers, but north of these streams it has been widely distributed by artificial introduction (Bean, 1903). Introduced throughout New England, where it is now common. Hasirat: Clear cold waters of running streams. Season in R.1.: Introduced by R. I. Fish Commission into the following ponds: Westerly, Pasquiset, Quidnick, Fenner’s, Chapman, and other small ponds throughout the State. (See Reports of the R. I. Fish Commission from 1897 to 1905.) ReEpropuctTIon: Spawning season begins in March and ends in July. Incubation period lasts from seven to fourteen days. Eggs are ad- herent and laid in nests. Nest guarded by the male. (The habits of the basses are described by Henshall, Book of the Black Bass, 2d ed., 1904; and, More About the Black Bass, 1898; and by Reighard, The Breeding, Habits, Development, and Propagation of the Black Bass. Bull. Michigan Fish Com., No. 7, 1905.) Foop: Small fishes, insects, and their larvee, fresh-water crustaceans. S1zh: Twelve to fifteen inches; maximum, two feet. 116. Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede). Large-Mouthed Black Bass. GeoG. Dist.: Rivers of United States from Great Lakes and Red River of the North to Florida, Texas, Mexico, everywhere abundant. Intro- duced into New England and Middle Atlantic States east of the Alle- ghanies. Hasirat: Lakes, bayous, and sluggish waters. 120 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES, Season 1n R.I.: Introduced by the Rhode Island Fish Commission into the following streams and ponds: Richmond, One Hundred Acre, Roger Williams Park, Skinflint, Hospital, and Fenner’s ponds; Quid- nick Reservoir; Penicatuck and Pawcatuck Rivers. Repropuction: Spawns from April to July. Eggs are adhesive and are attached to stones during the incubation period, which lasts from one to two weeks. The larve remain in the nest a week or ten days, and at the age of two weeks will measure about three-quarters of an inch in length (Bean, 1903). (Lydell, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com., XXII, 1902, 39; Brice, Report, U.S. Fish Com., XXIII, 1897, 159.) Foop: Carniverous, voracious; feeds on small fishes of all kinds, crawfish, frogs, insects, and all other aquatic animals of suitable size. Size: WHighteen inches or more. PERCID®. The Perches. 117. Perea flavescens (Mitchill). Yellow Perch. Groa. Dist.: East of the Alleghanies and in the Great Lakes region. Abundant everywhere throughout New England (Kendall, 1908). Season 1N R.1I.: Common in ponds and streams throughout the State. Reported from Benedict, Fenner’s Mashapaug, Larkin’s, Watchaug, and Roger Williams Park Ponds; reservoirs in North Providence, Poneganset Reservoir; Pocasset, Queen’s, Ten Mile, and Pawcatuck Rivers. Repropuction: Spawns in March and April. Eggs hatch in eight to ten days in water 60°. Eggs are about 1-7 inch in diameter (3.5 mm.), and have a large oil globule. The eggs are laid in flat bands consisting of a single layer agglutinated together by an adhesive material. These bands of eggs somewhat resemble those of the goose-fish (Lophius), but they are not so large and do not float on the surface. (Worth, Bull. U.S. Fish Com., X, 1890, 331.) The larve just hatched are about 1-5 inch long (5 to 5.5 mm.). For a time it grows slowly, since a sixteen- day larva is only a little over }-inch (6 mm.) in length. (For a deserip- tion of the eggs and young see Ryder, Report, U. 8. Fish Com., XIII, 1885, 518; also Brice, Report, U. S. Fish Com., XXIII, 1897, 182; Ehrenbaum, Nordisches Plankton, 4, 1905, 11.) Foop: Small fishes, crustaceous insects, etc. Size: Maximum, one foot. Perch spawns at the age of one year. (Seal, Forest and Stream, April 17, 1890.) = a SA O* pees 4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 121 118. Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi (Storer). Darter. Geoa. Dist.: Lake Ontario to Massachusetts, south to Virginia. Common in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Hasitat: Among weeds of clear streams. (Jordan and Copeland, Amer. Nat. X, 1876, 335.) Season in R.I.: Reported from Rhode Island by R. I. Fish Commission, 1899. Foop: Insect larve, crustaceans, and small molluses. (Forbes, Food of the Darters, Amer. Nat. XIV, 1880, 697.) Size: Three and a half inches. CHEILODIPTERID-®. The Cardinal Fishes. 119. Apogon imberbis (Linnzus). King of the Mullets. Geog. Dist.: Mediterranean and neighboring waters. Once taken at New- port and’once recorded from the Island of Fernando de Noronha. Season in R.I.: A specimen taken at Newport was described by Cope in 1870. (Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1870, 120.) SERRANID-®. The Sea Basses. 120. Roccus lineatus (Bloch). Striped Bass; Rockjish. Groc. Dist.: Atlantie coast of North America, Nova Scotia to Florida. Most common from Cape Cod to Cape May. Introduced into California. Common along the whole New England coast. Mrierations: It is said not to be migratory, but present along our coast in winter as well as summer. Taken through the ice in Long Island and Block Island Sounds in December (Goode, Nat. Hist. of Aquatic Ani- mals, 425). At Woods Hole, arrives in May (Bumpus). Season 1n R.I.: Arrives the last of March with the shad. The dates of arrival in Taunton River from 1871 to 1883 range from March 15 in 1880 to April 6, 1883 (Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, 1883, 478). On September 17, 1906, twenty-four specimens were taken in Wild Goose trap, and on September 24, 1906, another specimen was taken in the same trap. In the Hazard’s Quarry trap on June 5, 1906, a few speci- mens were taken, one of which weighed seven pounds. REPRODUCTION: Spawns from April to June in rivers or brackish waters. Eggs are buoyant, non-adhesive, 1-7 inch in diameter, and hatch in three days in water 58°. A remarkable peculiarity of this fish is its ability to hybirdize with other species. (White and yellow perch and shad, Ryder.) - 16 122 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. Foop: Voracious feeders, eating fishes, mollusks, and crustacea (Goode, loc. cit.). Rate or GrowtTH: Largest ever taken weighed 112 pounds. Young found in June one inch long; in October these reach 44-inches (Goode). REFERENCES: 2: Aceassiz, A., Proc. Amer. Acad. XVIII, 274. 1885: Ryper, Report, U.S. Fish Com., XIII, 502. 7: Brice, Report, U.S. Fish Com., XXII, 185. 1905: EnrensauM, Nordisches Plankton, 4, 17. 121. Morone americana (Gmelin). White Perch. Geoa. Dist.: Atlantic coast, South Carolina to Nova Scotia. Common in fresh and salt water along the whole New England coast. Season in R.1.: Present the year around. Taken in traps in the Bay in | October. Found in Mashapaug and Cunliff Ponds, Pawtuxet River, and in streams and ponds generally in the southern part of the State. Also found at Block Island. October 29, 1905, a specimen was taken in Dutch Island trap. Hasirat: Shallow shore waters, brackish and fresh water of rivers and ponds connected with salt water. Sometimes land-locked. Repropuction: Spawns in April, May, and June, in fresh water. The eggs are 1-34 inch in diameter (.73 mm) and very adhesive. They sink to the bottom and hatch in six days in water of 51° to 53°. (See Ryder, Report, U. 8. Fish Com., XIII, 1885, 518; Brice, Report, U.S. Fish Com., XXIII, 1897, 185.) Foop: Shrimp, fish spawn, insects, crabs, small fishes, and eels. Rate or GrowrTH: At the time of hatching, the larva is about 1-11 inch in length (2.3 mm.); in the first day it grows to } inch (3 mm.). The adult grows to eight inches. 122. Epinephelus niveatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Snowy Grouper. Geog. Dist.: Brazil to West Indies, often straying north to Cape Cod. The first specimens recorded from Woods Hole were taken in 1895; eight or ten other specimens recorded in the vicinity in the same year; two of these were 2? and 1} inches long; others taken in 1897 and 1900. All of these were taken between August and October, were under three inches, and mostly taken in lobster pots (Smith, 1898). Season in R.I.: Two young specimens, two inches long, taken by Samuel Powell at Newport, 1860 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1861, 98). Goode and Bean report the capture of another specimen at the same li Cee, % 7 b 4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 123 place in 1877 (Amer. Jour. Sci. and Arts, XVII, 1879, 545). Also three other specimens of this species from Rhode Island are in the U.S. National Museum; one 23 inches long is from Tiverton, the other two, 3, and 34 inches long, taken at Point Judith. 123. Centropristes striatus (Linneus). Sea Bass; Black Bass. Geoc. Dist.: Atlantic coast, Maine (Matinicus Island) to. Northern Florida. Common along Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut shores. Mrierations: Probably spends the winter in a torpid state around rocky bottoms without extensive migrations (Goode). Appears on the Jersey coast in April, at Woods Hole about the first or second week of May. In 1898, arrived on May 10th, and were taken in large numbers on the 12th. Hasirat: Rocky bottom in cavities and under stones. Season In R.I.: Arrives in May and is then most abundant. Leaves in October. June 5, 1906, Hazard’s Quarry trap, a dozen specimens were taken. In 1907, first specimen in the traps off Newport was taken May 8; in 1908, first specimen taken May 5; in 1909, first specimen taken May 4. Repropuction: Spawns in June. Eggs are ,,-inch in diameter, and hatch in 5 days in water of 60°. (Brice Report, U.S. Fish Com. XXIII, 1897, 223.) (For embryological development of this species see Wilson, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. IX, 1889, 209.) Sexual differences are very marked, especially during the breeding season. Foop: Bottom feeder. The various crustacea are its most important food; crabs, lobsters, shrimp; also squids, mollusks, small fishes. Rate or GrowrH: Young #-inch long seined at Woods Hole, July 31. Young two or three inches long were taken in October. Eigenmenn (1901) took the following specimens, July 24, 1899: nine, one inch long (ranging from 23mm. to 26 mm.); August 22, 1900, specimen 12 inches long (67 mm.); September 15, 1900, three specimens three inches long (ranging from 73 mm. to 82 mm.). 124. Rypticus bistrispinus (Mitchill). Geoc. Dist.: South Atlantic coast of the United States in rather deep water, strays north to Newport, R.I.; not otherwise recorded north of the Carolinas. Srason in R.I.: One specimen was taken at Newport by Samuel Powell and described by Cope in 1870. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1870, 119.) 124 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. LOBOTID. The Triple-Tails. 125. Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch). Triple-tail; Flasher. Geog. Dist.: All warm seas, Cape Cod to Panama. Recorded from Woods Hole (Baird, 1873; Smith, 1898), Menemsha Bight (Smith, 1898). Hasitat: Sept. 30..... 3 3 0 Condemned. POU ee orenyeing cA OOS Sept. 30..... 2 2 0 Condemned.* DOA Renate ersten «iain LOG UiStcoons 4 4 0 Condemned. is n.3400 oh oon See aoe Wcteytis seeicir 5 5 2 Condemned. PY) 35 op ocCAne Bao! 7a MeOE Cb tare seicrass 5 5 | 2 Condemned. PHI Gagnon genooosopaoes (Okc tisepeaee 5 5 3 Condemned. VA Boe5 hb oo edoDUaUPenOS Octen demas ole 5 5 1 Condemned. Oikos MasoonO Ree uaOOeD MctiiS yer ss § § Bil mts Condemned.* PTLD rete etste seis iia yeele ton Metal Stans 5 5 1 Condemned. Zilli ose S RRO AS TE BOSS Octelsisecier: 5 5 3 |Condemned. Dei otalopove el ueran=|okeests chose) ol. Octyl3eens. 0 0 | 0 Condemned.* Ti), Sao ee Goueiaeee. x. § Fm A clad ai Seared a So OF Bin andte CoN RED OSCE Oct 1S... 2 2 | 0 Passed conditionally. 27. dee eee ee Oct. 3 5 5 | 5 |Condemned. Sica sao Octeige. ...- § A ae ma aN ke i as De 273 eR ee [Oct.13......] § gO See ees cures ee meer ci OH eee ata oe ee |Sept. 28..... he 74 4 4 |Condemned. Cos Aree 6 PREIS Ee net eae Sept. 28 § § Netto epemortiocs non cedne *In those cases where the result is not in accord with the standard adopted (that if three or more of the five oysters examined show colon bacilli in 0.1 of a cubic centimeter a certificate is not given), other considerations, such as the location of the beds as regards sources of pollution, or the results of the water analyses, determined the result. _ i ate a few cases the shell liquor of the five oysters was mixed together and a single analysis made. 70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF SHELL FISHERIES. NuMBER OF OYSTERS IN : Datelct wuicH Coton BacILur No. or Bep on 1910 Map.) examination, TEES UGTREES Result. 1910. | | le.ec. |0.1e.c. |0.01 c. ¢.| DIDS Bio oe Ceisic omen ‘Sept 28 § § Veet PPAR AAS SAA h co DE0AN 27 te eal renee Sept. 28..... 5 5 3 |Condemned. PEO Bo iajco aes ents ctarisra cis Sept. 28..... 4 4 a Condemned. VAR Gosacaaapp oo sodeod OctiElS eer § § § laws. cee eae ene 01 VIB TARAS ISRO AR DOO AOAGS Octys. - sate 5 5 3 (Condemned. BS Nave bcs tarett ceeeteulotrectets Sept. 28..... § § $04 | Sejuet eee ieee DBE e miei cia cist jo: aporstatale hereon |\Sept. 28..... 4 4 0 Condemned Oe PORE C OAR CCR OCEE lOctsiS. SooOoe jOct. 15...... 3 3 1 ‘Condemned. DOR He So Ae ERI RI OE fe. Oct LSet 4 2: 1 Passed conditionally. Pao RRR inert nom ato GC Octalorcciect 1 1 0 Passed conditionally. Pa) Seno bo mone WOOnOOnee ci S. crcicters 5 5 3 Passed conditionally. Naa ja/s otatersintyyetes Sake sieret sie jOct.115...... 4 4 0 Condemned. PEAR cota oad oot ib oe aes ct WS, ates 4 4 1 Condemned. OL Vine Se sonte sceotosiosoee ic Oh tenets 3 3 1 Condemned. 293... 2.00... e sees sss /Oct LSA rerare 1 1 0 Passed DOL Toe ae Pa INeR RE Ao |Oct. 15...... 0 0 0 |Passed oA is ordaem id deca. seb aaoe loct LG meeyeretcs § § § |. cictalase\ io See ee CL ROd ag Addtaotn SAC anae ke TSG ac 6a § § eM ceoobaucsr 242042 - sIn a few cases the shell liquor of the five oysters was mixed together and a single analysis made. And the following beds in Great Salt Pond: piranicAWilson/yere it. ile cuir Abas O nsec ste 3 3 1 Condemned. North bed of Dykstra Bros. |Aug. 30...... 4 3 1 Condemned. James A. Wright..........|Aug. 30...... 0 0 0 Passed conditionally. Dykstra Bro., Thomas P’t.|Aug. 30...... 1 1 1 Passed. George A. Griffin.......... Aug.30.::-.. 4 4 0 Passed conditionally. (EW: Gilmores 3s. earn Aug. 30...... 1 0 0 Passed. Con oKenyonte een as Aue 3 Osan) fare 1 0 0 Passed. DDucker seem ccvere es ciel ciers)| AULA co Osieeetere 1 0 0 Passed. H. Tucker & Sons........- Aug. 30...... 1 0 0 Passed conditionally. REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF SHELL FISHERIES. 71 At the very beginning of the examination of the oyster beds it was decided, from the information secured by the sanitary survey, that no oyster beds in the Providence River above Conimicut and Nayatt Point, or in the Warren River above a line drawn from the southern end of Rumstick Point to the Warren and Bristol town line would be granted certificates. Accordingly, oyster beds numbered 1 to 64 inclusive, 79 to 83 inclusive, 189 to 210 inclusive, and 212, on the 1910 map, were condemned. Examination of some of these beds later in the winter, however, when the temperature of the water was near the freezing point, showed a great diminution in the colon content, and some of them were therefore granted conditional certifi- cates, to be revoked whenever examination showed the pollution to have returned. Also in a few cases further study of some of the beds by ourselves or by other authorities employed by the owners led to a “change from the original results. All of the above changes are given in the table below: 72 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF SHELL FISHERIES. | NumBer or OysTERS IN | wxicH Coton BaciLui INS Os WERE FouND IN | No. or Bep on 1910 Map. | examination, | | Result. 1910. | Z lec. | 0.1l¢.c. 0.01 c.c. | | Soadvoge eatin Ubtoarae ‘Dec, 29 0 0 0 Passed conditionally. RNG Sano ODO OCA SODDE TS Dee. 20 0 0 0 ‘Passed conditionally. Wiks sahippocucemenuoaan >> pee 2S aao8 0 | 0 | 0 Passed conditionally. RO SheoAGuobRaS ud adn \Dec 29 )o ee sle.cll 0 | 0 ho Passed conditionally. GO sees su eae aoe Wecr29 teste) 0 | 0 0 Passed conditionally. lla preiavevais crerere veil Seleiete ers Dec 29 0 0 0 ‘Passed conditionally. Oko oithdesdesémapehooso 3p Dec. 29...... 0 | 0 0 Passed conditionally. GAB Arroteroe eer ane seh ets \Dec. 29...... § | § § ‘Passed conditionally. [nls Wennnoe coponUboo.cbe. Derr 20 cele 1 fre 0 Passed conditionally. Silloonoonanocueoagnosnass (Dec. 20...... 1 | 0 | 0 Passed conditionally. CPhidnabe Gudea aeDasonnbus \Dec. 20...... 4 | 0 0 Passed conditionally. CB oepa cago oo SA Sepa S Dee. '20...... 0 0 0 ‘Passed conditionally. DIM cm euss ieee opel ad asl ae EN oe a Peet: Passed.t 1G a ane ben ee OnoO nas a0 Sept. Meo io las cae | Nee terete lefecaey eae |Passed.t With Cis oan oooh aon pak aoe Nov. 12 0 0 0 pase DOS rahe sso menses anak [Dec. 22...... 2 0 | 0 |Passed conditionally. DO Wire ravs Gitte er sietsrdvave storey ole Dec. 22 0 | 0 | 0 [Passed conditionally. DOM rermeteriteeecteieleisicieciciaee Dec. 22 0 0 | 0 lpaewed conditionally. ADE) ateicteasinietare eracareiatetc ates (Dec. 22...... i) 0 0 [Passed conditionally. Pail OP eid eee eras OTD Dee. 22 0 0 |) a0 ‘Passed conditionally. LAM eo oFesrsie nyhets faimieie oe Septei27jfeiscell nesescters lets letter reeks | adres ‘Passed.t QB ie aiseis ois) s\everohrolanrets iets Sept. 20..... OA in Artes |e ee Passed.t FARA VseGoapacdaane to abc DN io fase raparideal Madoraccl bantoca. Passed conditionally.t PUNO SA Seah sha sa de.cc ton an INO Vs Dis tells toneersastersl| epeseneta oasis] lecexeelsnentns Passed conditionally. §No oysters found. tExamined by Dr. L. F. Rettger of Yale University. tExamined by Prof. E. B. Phelps, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE. In conclusion then it remains only to be said that the investigations here reported mark but the beginning of the work. The sanitary survey is perhaps half completed. This should be pushed to its conclusion both as regards summer and winter conditions. Perhaps REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF SHELL FISHERIES. to the latter are even more important than the former, as it is during the winter that the bulk of the oysters are marketed. The study of the oysters thus far made has given us definite knowledge as to their con- dition during the summer. At present the evidence seems to point to the fact that conditions improve very materially in the ccld weather. The investigation of the oysters should continue until we know also their condition in the winter and should be made to include a special study of the exact conditions which determine the change. The in- vestigation of the special problems which have been mentioned should be continued as rapidly as possible, as they are of immediate import- ance to the oyster growers. I would recommend that for the proper prosecution of these investigations in the future, it would be time and money saved for the Commission to make use of a floating laboratory, which could be located in the immediate vicinity of the areas which are under inves- tigation. This would save the time at present expended in getting to and from the work, and would expedite the handling of the large number of samples which must now be transported considerable distances to be analyzed. The proper test by means of which to judge the value of the present agitation in regard to the purity of oysters is whether the oysters today being marketed from Rhode Island waters are any better than they were previously. The public can be assured that there is no question but what oysters grown in Rhode Island are purer this year than they have ever been before, and that they are far better than oysters grown elsewhere, where government and State supervision have not been so strict as here. The oyster growers of Rhode Island have heartily co-operated with the efforts of your Commission. They have greatly improved the conditions under which oysters are opened and handled. They have refrained from marketing oysters from areas which you have condemned. The sanitary quality of Rhode Island oysters can therefore be thoroughly relied upon. There is not a bit of evidence to show that a single case of disease in Rhode Island can be traced to eating oysters. Elsewhere there 10 74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF SHELL FISHERIES. are records of a few epidemics which have been traced to this source. Never, however, has the infection of the oysters occured while they on the beds on which they were grown. Always when infection has _ been found to have reached the oysters it has occurred when they have been taken from their natural beds and held near shore, in the vicinity of sewers or private drains. This practice of freshening or floating oysters is not carried on in Rhode Island. But even though there is possibility of infection reaching the oysters on their natural beds, we do not desire any food product to be exposed to filthy con- ditions, whether dangerous or not. Therefore it is necessary to take every step possible to remove from the waters of the Bay all sources of pollution. The activities of the Federal Government are therefore well advised, and your Commission has, I believe, acted wisely in undertaking a complete investigation and regulation of the sanitary conditions affecting shellfish. With the information which the oyster growers have been fur- nished by these investigations, they are in a position at the present time to do business in complete harmony with Federal and State authorities. The confidence of the public in the sanitary condition of Rhode Island oysters is an excellent business asset, and ought to warrant a very considerable increase in this important industry, al- ready one of the largest of the State. There is plenty of room in Rhode Island waters for its growth, and there is no reason why other shell-fish industries, under proper regulations, might not share in this increase. Rhode Island shellfish have long been noted for their excellent quality. Asa result of the present agitation they ought in the future to be equally well known because of their purity. Respectfully submitted, FREDERIC P. GORHAM. 15. 16. Contributions from the Biological (Anatomical) Laboratory of Brown University VOLUME I. ISSUED JUNE, 1898. TOWER, R. W. THE EXTERNAL OPENING OF THE “BRICK-RED” GLAND IN LixwtuLus PoLypHEMUS. Zool. Anz., No. 491, 1895. GORHAM, F. P. THe CLEAVAGE OF THE Eae OF VIRBIUS Zos- TERICOLA. J. Morph., Vol. XII, No.3, 1895. FIELD, G. W. ON THE MorPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ECHINODERM SPERMATOZOON. J. Morph., Vol. XI, No. 2, 1895. MEAD, A. D. THE ORIGIN oF THE EGG CENTROSOMES. J. Morph.. Vol. XII, No. 2, 1897. MEAD, A. D. THE Earty DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE ANNELIDS. J. Morph., Vol XII, No. 2, 1897. STONE, E. A. Some OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNC- TION OF THE PyLoric CAECA OF ASTERIAS VULGARIS. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXI, Dec., 1897. BUMPUS, H. C. THE VARIATIONS AND MUTATIONS OF THE IN- TRODUCED SPARROW, PasseR Domesticus. Biol. Lec. M. B. L., 1897. BUMPUS, H. C. A CoNnTRIBUTION To THE STUDY OF VARIATION. J. Morph., Vol. XII, No. 2, 1897. BUMPUS, H. C. THE VARIATIONS AND MUTATIONS OF THE IN- TRODUCED LitToRINA. Zool. Bul., Vol. 1, No. 5, 1898. VOLUME If. ISSUED OCTOBER, 1901. BUMPUS, H. C. THE ImpPoRTANCE OF EXTENDED SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION. U. S. Fish Com. Bul., 1897. MEAD, A. D. THE ORIGIN AND BEHAVIOR OF THE CENTROSOMES IN THE ANNELID Ecc. J. Morph., Vol. XIV, No. 2, 1898. MEAD, A. D. THE RATE OF CELL-DIVISION AND THE FUNCTION OF THE CENTROSOME. Biol. Lec. M. B. L., 1896-7. MEAD, A. D. THE CELL ORIGIN OF THE PRoToTRocH. Biol. Lec., M. B. L., 1898. MEAD, A. D. THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFLU- ENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE Empryo. Trans. R. I. Med. Soe., 1900. COGHILL, G. E. Tre RAMI oF THE Firtu NERVE IN AMPHIBIA. J. Comp. Neur., Vol. XI, No. 1, 1901. BUMPUS, H. C. Tue ELIMINATION OF THE UNFIT as ILLUS- TRATED BY THE INTRODUCED SPARROW, PASSER DOMESTICUS. Biol. Lece., M. B. L., 1898. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. BUMPUS, H. C. Facts anp THEORIES oF TELEGONY. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIII, No. 396, 1899. BUMPUS, H. C. ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF FISH ARTIFICIALLY Hatcuep. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXII, No. 378, 1898. WALTON, L. B. Tue Basan SecMENTS OF THE HExapop LEG. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIV, No. 400, 1900. BUMPUS, H. C. THe Work oF THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF THE U. S. Fish Commission aT Woops Hotu. Sci. N. S., Vol. VIII, No. 186, 1898. BUMPUS, H. C. Tue BreepiInc oF ANIMALS AT Woops Ho. DUBING THE MonTH oF Marcu, 1898. Sci. N. S., Vol. VII, No. 171, 1898. MEAD, A. D. Tue BREEDING OF ANIMALS AT Woops HOLL pur- ING THE MontTH oF Aprit, 1898. Sci. N. S., Vol. VII, No. 177, 1898. BUMPUS, H. C. THE Breepine oF ANIMALS AT Woops HoLi DURING THE MonTH or May, 1898. Sci. N. S., Vol. VIII, No. 185, 1898. BUMPUS, H. C. Tue Breevinc or ANIMALS AT Woops HOoLi DURING THE MontTHS OF JUNE, JULY AND AUuGuST, 1898. Sci. N. S., Vol. VIII, No. 207, 1898. THOMPSON, M. T. Tue Breepinc oF ANIMALS AT Woops Hoi DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER, 1898. Sci. N. S., Vol. IX, No. 225, 1899. MEAD, A. D. PERIDINIUM AND THE “RED WATER” IN NARRAGAN- setT Bay. Sci. N. S., Vol. VIII, No. 203, 1898. MEAD, A. D. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOFT-SHELL CLAM. 30th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1900. MEAD, A. D. ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE GROWTH AND Foop Suppty IN STARFISH. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIV, No. 397, 1900. MEAD, A. D. THe Naturat History oF THE STaRFIsSH. U. S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1899. BUMPUS, H. C. THE REAPPEARANCE OF THE TILEFISH. U. S. Fish. Com. Bul. 1898. BUMPUS, H. C. On THE MovEMENTS OF CERTAIN LoBsTERS LIB- ERATED AT Woops Hoty. U. S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1899. TOWER, R. W. IwerovEMENTS IN PREPARING FISH FOR SHIP- MENT. U.S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1899. GREEN, E. H. THe CHEMICAL CoMPOSITION OF THE SUB-DERMAL CoNNECTIVE TISSUE OF THE OcEAN SunFisH. U.S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1899. GORHAM, F. P. Tue Gas-BUBBLE DISEASE OF FISH AND ITS Cause. U.S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1899. VOLUME Ill. ISSUED OCTOBER, 1903. MEAD, A. D. THe SrarFisH. 29th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1899. MEAD, A. D. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOFT-SHELL CLaM. (Second paper.) 31st An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. L, 1901. MEAD, A. D. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOFT-SHELL CLAM. (Third paper.) 32nd An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1902. 38. 41. 42. 43. 44, 45. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. MEAD, A. D. and BARNES, E W. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SorFrT- SHELL CLAM. (Fourth paper.) 33rd An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1903. RISSER, J. Hasrrs anp Lire History or THE ScaLLop. 3ilst An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. L., 1901. MEAD, A. D. Hasrrs anp Growra or Youna LOogsTersS AND EXPERIMENTS IN LOBSTER CULTURE. 31st An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1901. MEAD, A. D. Hasits anp GRrowTH oF YOUNG LOBSTERS AND EXPERIMENTS IN LOBSTER CULTURE. (Second paper.) 32nd An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. L., 1902. MEAD, A. D., and WILLIAMS, L. W. Hapsirs ann GRowTH OF THE LOBSTER AND EXPERIMENTS IN LOBSTER CULTURE. (Third paper.) 33rd An. Rep. Com. In]. Fish. R. I., 1903. WILLIAMS, L. W. THE VascuLtark SYSTEM OF THE COMMON Sqump, Lotico Peat. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVI, No. 430, 1902. WALTON, L. B. THe MeETATHORACIC PTERYGODA OF THE HEXa- PODA AND THEIR RELATION TO THE WINGS. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXV, No. 413, 1901. THOMPSON, M. T. A RARE THALASSINID AND Its Larva. Proc. Bos. Soe. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX XI, No. 1, 1903. THOMPSON, M. T. A New Isorop PARASITIC ON THE HERMIT Cras. U.S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1901. GREEN, E. H., and TOWER, R. W. THE ORGANIC CONSTITU- ENTS OF THE SCALES oF Fisu. U. 8. Fish. Com. Bul., 1901. TOWER, R. W. THE GAS IN THE Swim BLADDER OF FISHES. U. S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1901. TOWER, R. W. Brutary CALCULI IN THE SQUETEAQUE. U.S. Fish. Com. Bul., 1901. ; GORHAM, F. P. Morrnorogicat Varieties oF BaciLLus Diren- THERIAE. J. Med. Res., Vol. VI, No. 1, 1901. GORHAM, F. P., and TOWER, R. W. Does Potasstum Cyan- IDE PROLONG THE LIFE OF THE UNFERTILIZED EaG oF THE SEA- Urcutn? Amer. J. Physiol., Vol. VIII, No. 3, 1902. COGHILL, G. E. Tae Crantat Nerves oF AMBLYSTOMA TIGRI- NuM. J. Comp. Neur., Vol. XII, No. 3, 1902. VOLUME IV. ISSUED DECEMBER, 1905. GORHAM, F. P. Recent Depts to Broroay. Proy. Med. J., Vol. VI, No. 2, 1905. THOMPSON, M. T. Tue METAMORPHOSES OF THE HERMIT CRAB. Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX XI, No. 4, 1903. MEAD, A. D. Tue ProsteM or LopsTER CULTURE. Proc. Amer. Fish. Soc., 1905. MEAD, A. D. EXPERIMENTS IN LOBSTER CULTURE AT THE WICK- ForD STATION OF THE RHODE ISLAND COMMISSION OF INLAND Fisneries, 1904. 35th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1905. HADLEY, P. B. Pretiminary REPORT ON THE CHANGES IN TorM AND CoLoR IN THE SUCCESSIVE STAGES OF THE AMERICAN LopsTer. 35th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1905 58. 59. 60. 61. 64. 65. 66. ba | bo 73. 74. HADLEY, P. B. Puororropism IN THE Larval AND EARLY ADOLESCENT StTaGes oF Homarus AMeERicaNus. Sci. N. S., XXII, No. 569, 1905. EMMEL, V. E. THE REGENERATION OF Lost PsRgTs IN THE LOB- STER. 35th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1905. MEAD, A. D., and BARNES, E. W. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOFT- SHELL CLam (Fifth paper). 34th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1904. FULLER, C. A. THE DisTRIBUTION OF SEWAGE IN THE WATERS or NARRAGANSETT Bay, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONTAMINATION OF THE OystTER Beps. Appendix to Rep. U. S. Com. of Fish, to Sec. of Com. and Labor, 1904. GORHAM, F. P. Tse Bacrerrotocy or DipaTHerta. Prov. Med. J., Vol VI, No. 3, 1905. MARSH, M. C., and GORHAM, F. P. THe Gas DISEASE IN Fisures. App. to Rep. U. S. Com. of Fish. to Sec. Com. and Labor, 1904. . SULLIVAN, M. X. Syntuetio CuLtturE MEDIA AND THE BIo- CHEMISTRY OF BACTERIAL PIGMENTS. J. Med. Res., Vol. XIV, No. 1 (N. S., Vol. IX, No. 1), 1905. SULLIVAN, M. X. THE PHysioLoGy oF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT IN THE ExLasMoBRANCHS. Amer. J. Physiol., Vol. XV, No. 1, 1905. VOLUME V. ISSUED JULY, 1907. MEAD, A. D. SponTANEOUS GENERATION AND EvoLuTion. Ad- dress delivered before the A soc. Alumni of Middlebury Col- lege, June 26, 1906. BARNES, E. W. Meruovs oF PROTECTING AND PROPAGATING THE LOBSTER, WITH A Brier OUTLINE OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY. 36th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1906. HADLEY, P. B. Recarpine THE Rate oF GROWTH OF THE AMER- IcAN LogsTer. 36th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1506. HADLEY, P. B. REGARDING THE RATE OF GROWTH OF THE AMER- IcAN LopsTeR. Biol. Bul., Vol. X, 1906. HADLEY, P. B. Osservations ON SomE InFLUENcES oF LIGHT UPON THE LARVAE AND EARLY ADOLESCENT STAGES OF THE AMERICAN LOBSTER. 36th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1906. HADLEY, P. B. THE RELATION oF OpTicaL STIMULI TO RHEO- TAXIS IN THE AMERICAN LopsTeR, HoMARUS AMERICANUS. Amer. J. Physiol., Vol. XVII, 1906. HADLEY, P. B. GaAtvaNoraxis IN LARVAE OF THE AMERICAN Lopster, (Homarus AMERICANUS). Amer. J. Physiol., Vol. XIX, 1907. EMMEL, V. E. TuE RELATION OF REGENERATION TO THE MOLT- ING Process IN THE LopsTER. 36th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1906. EMMEL, V. E. Torsion AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL PHENOMENA IN THE REGENERATION OF THE CHELIPED OF THE LOBSTER (Ho- makus AMERICANUS). J. Exp. Zool., Vol. III, 1906. EMMEL, V. E. Tse RrGENERATION oF Two ‘‘CRUSHER-CLAWS’’ FOLLOWING THE AMPUTATION OF THE NoRMAL ASYMMETRICAL CHELAE OF THE LoesteR (Homarus AMERICANUS). Arch. Entwich. Mech., Vol. XXII, 1906. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94, WILCOX, A. W. Locomorion ry Youne Conontrs oF Pecrina- TELLA MaGnirica. Biol. Bul., Vol. XI, 1906. WILLIAMS, L. W. Notes on Marine CoperopA oF RHODE Istanp. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, 1906. TRACY, H. C. A List ofr THE FISHES oF RHODE ISLAND. 36th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish., 1906. HADLEY, P. B. Rasies—Irs Onicin, Cause, Symptoms, Draa- NOSIS AND TREATMENT. Proy. Med. J., Vol. VIII, 1907. VOLUME VI. ISSUED OCTOBER, 1909. WILLIAMS, L. W. List or tHe RuopE ISLAND CopEpopa, PHYL- LOPODA, AND OSTRACODA, WITH NEW SPECIES oF COPEPODA. ke An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1907. Special Paper No. 30. EMMEL, V. E. REGENERATED AND ABNORMAL APPENDAGES IN THE Loss7ER. 37th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1907. Special Paper No. 31. WILLIAMS, L. W. THE Stromacn or THE LOBSTER. AND THE Foop oF LarvaL Lossters. 37th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1907. Special Paper No. 32. TRACY, H. C. Tue Fisues oF RucpDE ISLAND, V.—THE FLAT- FISHES. 38th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1907. Special Paper No. 36. TRACY, H. C. Tue Fisnes oF RuopEe Istanp. VI.—A Derscrir- TION OF Two YouNG SPECIMENS OF SQUETEAGUE (CYNOSCION REGALIS), WITH NOTES ON THE RATE OF THEIR GROWTH. 388th An. Rep. Com. Inl. Fish. R. I., 1907. Special Paper No. 37. HADLEY, P. B. THe Growrn AND Toxin PRODUCTION OF Bacititus DirpHTHERIAE UPON Protem-FrEE Mepia. Jour. Inf. Dis. Suppl., No. 3, May, 1907, p. 95. EMMEL, V. E. REGENERATION AND THE QUESTION oF “Sym- METRY IN THE Big CLAWS OF THE LopsTER.” Science, N. S., XXVI, 1907, p. 83. SULLIVAN, M. X. Tur Prystotocy or tHe Dicrstrve TRACT oF Erasmosrancus. Bul. U. S. Bureau of Fish., XXVII, 1907, jos Ue WALTER H. E. Tue Reactions or PLaANaRIans To Licur. Jour. Exp. Zool., V, 1907, p. 35. HADLEY, P. B. THE REACTION or BLINDED LOBSTERS To LIGHT. Amer. Jour. Phys., XXI, 1908, p. 180. WALTER, H. E. Tueorrs or Birp Micration. School Science and Math., April-May, 1908. HADLEY, P. B. JowaNNES Mutter. Pop. Sci. Mo., LXXII, 1908, p. 513. HADLEY, P. B. Tue BEeHAviork oF THE LARVAL AND ADOLESCENT STAGES OF THE AMERICAN LogsTeR (HoMARUS AMERICANUS). Jour. Comp. Neur. and Physiol., XVIII, 1908, p. 199. KEYES, F. G. A Vacuum Storcocx, Science. N. S., XXVIII, 1908, p. 735. DOLT, M. L. Smrere Syntwetic Mepis ror THE GrowTH or B. Cour AND For Irs IsoLtaTion rroM WareR. Jour. Infec. Dis., V, 1908, p. 616. a QH Brown University. Biological 301 Laboratory B75 Contributions v.7 Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY | STORAGE Wwesterate Dike) ete eer Md pe a9 Rendonaeth tren eoveited c a ory EPS aee gS leet on tean on gee tiED petite ens te hn a Pets Te Sora ie 2 fy . ay