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66.
Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 87 ae 87
The church in Asia east of Rome already had the 01d Testament, of course, thanks to its Jewish-Christian roots. But it was Tatian who brought to those Judaic roots the good news of the written gospels. On the foundation of the record of the mighty acts of God through Israel he placed the cornerstone, the revelation of the might work of God in Jesus Chieist.
But neither the Old Testament nor the Gospels of the Syrians was quite like that of the western church. Their Old Testament was not the Septuagint Greek version used by Christians in the Hellenistic world, nor was it the original Hebrew text. The Syrian churches used the Aramaic version of the Palestinian synagogues. ‘This was a paraphrase which added to the text numerous explanations and illustrations. 65
Tatian's version of the gospels was also different in form from that in which they appear in our New Testaments. As we all know, in the fluid years of early church growth the New Testament did not take shape all at once. The earliest books were probably the gospel of Mark and some of Paul's epistles, written from about 60 AD, not long after the death of Jesus. By 100 AD the New Testament was substantially complete. 66 But it was still not gathered together into a single authoritative whole, which is why the personal testimony of the apostles who had actually seen and heard Jesus was considered so important. As the apostles died, and soon their disciples also, those who had heard from the apostles' lips the words of Jesus, others arose claiming to be disciples but with contrary teachings, like Marcion, or with different Scriptures and strange Gospels. It suddenly became of extreme importance for the churches to know which writings contained the real teachings of Jesus and the apostles.
The process by which the twenty-seven canonical books came to
65. A. Voobus, History of Asceticism:.; Vole), Op. cile.. P-. co.) seeuNls
Peschitta aus den altpalastinischen Targumim. Handschriftenstudien, in Papers of the Estonian Theological Society in Exile, vol. LX (1957), Stockholm.
F.F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents, 5th ed., (Leicester: Inter-Varsity,
1960), pp. 12 ff. Cf. P.R. Ackroyd and C.F. Evans, The Cambridge History of the Bible, vol. I, (Cambridge Univ. Press: 1970), pp.
Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 88 88
be recognized as the New Testament began about the middle of the second century and was completed in the west by the end of the fourth century.
The Synod of Hippo Regius in 393 AD and of Carthage in 397 AD made official what most western churches by then had already accepted. 67 But in the east, where the churches outside the Roman Empire were imperceptibly beginning to separate from the west, the process took longer.
As late as the beginning of the sixth century some of the books accepted in the west, like 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and Revelation, were still not generally read in most eastern churches. 68 On the other hand, some apocryphal books not recognized in the west as apostolic were widely popular in the east, such as the Acts of Thomas and to a lesser extent, the Gospel of Thomas. When Tatian came back from from Rome to his homeland he found the east full of such dubious and apocryphal gospels and "Acts". He set about, therefore, to produce an authentic life of Christ in Syriac, translated from the four canonical gospels as he had studied them in Rome,
a work which he may have already begun before he left the west. It was
not, however, a direct translation of the original Greek gospels. Instead, he arranged it as a harmony of the gospels, and called it the Diatessaron, which means "through Four". 69 So for the the first few centuries of the
Asian church, its most widely used New Testament collection of the apostolic scriptures began not with the four separate gospels but with Tatian's con- venient arrangement which wove together as consecutive history the four parallel accounts of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. There is some dispute as to which is the oldest translation of the gospels from the original Greek. Some say the Old Syriac separate gospels. Some say the Old Latin. But an emerging conclusion by many scholars is that the earliest of all was Tatian's Diatessaron, about 170 AD. 70 This would mean that the first translation of a major section of the New Testament into any language was made in Asia.
67.. FF. Bruce, ap. cit., pp. 21-28.
68, Tbid..;° p.226.
69. For the history of the text see Bruce Metzger, "Witnesses to Tatian's Dia-
ed. P.J. Hyatt, op. cit., pp. 352-355.
Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 89 89
It is a measure of the importance of Bible translation in the growth of the church that it was not until Tatian took the gospels out of what he considered to be its imprisonment in the Greek language, the language of Roman Asia, and put it into Syriac, the language of the common people in the villages, that Christianity began to spread outside the Greek-speaking cities into the Asian countryside. 1) Syriac, the language of Edessa and Adiabene and the Euphrates valley was, like the language of Jesus, a form of Aramaic. It was Syriac, not Palestinian Aramaic, moreover, that was the language of the whole Syrian and Mesopota- mian world, the trading lingua franca of the ancient Asian middle east.
It became the ecclesiastical language of the church of the east as Latin became the language of the western church. It was the literary cutting-edge for missionary expansion into Asia.
Tatian was emphatically and unashamedly Asian. "I am an Assyrian," he said proudly in his Address to the Greeks, 72 the only one of his writings to survive in its entirety. The whole thrust of that work is a re- capitulation of all the ways in which Asia (the whole non-Greek world, in fact, for he includes ancient north Africa) excels the west. Where did the Greeks learn their astronomy?, he asks. From Babylon (in Asia). Their alphabet? From the Phoenicians (also Asia). Their poetry and music? From Phrygia (Asia Minor). Their postal system? From Persia. "In every way the east excels," said Tatian (to summarize and paraphrase his argument), "and most of all in its religion, the Christian religion, which also comes
from Asia and which is far older and truer than all the philosophies and
crude religious myths of the Greeks". 73
- - = - - - = - - -— =—=—§ ss ses = = = = we = - = —-— — — =
70. "There can be little doubt that the first form of the gospels in Syriac
was the Diatessaron," says the Cambridge History of the Bible, P.R. Ackroyd and C.F. Evans, ed., vol. I, (Cambridge: 1970), p. 345. Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Oxford: 1968), pp. 69, 89-92, dates the Diatessaron about 170 AD; the Old Syriac "close of the second or beginning of third c."; and the Old Latin, "last quarter of the second century",'."But Altaner opines that Tatian used an Old Syriac translation already in existence. Patrology, op. cit. p. 128... See also A. Voobus, Early Versions of the New Testament.., in Papers of
the Estonian Theol. Soc. in Exile, (Stockholm: 1954).
71. F.C. Burkitt, Early Christianity Outside the Roman Empire, op. cit., p. 12
72. Tatian, Address to the Greeks, ch.42. Eng. tr. in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. IDI, (N.¥.: Seribner"s, 1903:
73. Ibid, “Gh, 1, 21,020, 3leae
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Syria and Palestine, centering around Antioch and Jerusa- tem. eOunG Use, COnVers ton. Of tiearural Semitic population, very: slow. But in eastern Europe, from Constantinople under the great preacher and patriarch Chrysostom, missionaries and monks spread the faith widely throughout Greece and particulerly emong the Gothic tribes on the border. "There would be no more heathen," said Chrysostom, "if we would be true Christians". But it was Rome which became the great center for the conversion of Europe. As late as the end of the 4th century the majority of..the Roman senetors were still pagan, but the decline of the emptre turned people's eyes to the church as their chief streneth in time of trouble. The greatest bishop of the period was Ambrose of Milan,
.and Bome's most famous missionary was Martin of Tours, born about
316 to a military family who carried the gospel as soldier, monk and missionery bishop far up into the French countryside, preaching, destroying temples and baptizine.
Outside the empire, also, the church began to move south and east and north. Frumentius, a castaway on the Ethopian coast of the Red Sea, preached to the emperor of Ethiopia at Axum, and in 341 journeyed to Alexandria to ask Patriarch Athanasius for missionaries. "Go back yourself," said Athanasius, and promptly consecrated him bishop of Ethopia. On the northern edges of the eastern Roman Empire, Ulfilas, though somewhat heretical as a moderate Arian, was so successful in reaching the barbarian Goths for. Christ that he was made their bishop in 341. His greatest achievement was to reduce the Gothic language to writing and translate the Bible into its alphabet,--the first or second instance of what became a great missionary pattern. But in the east, across the Roman border in Persia, the conversion of a Roman emperor brought persecution, not rejoicing, for Christians were immediately suspected of being Roman sympathizers. There, from 339 to 379, forty years of intense persecution brought missionary outreach to a standstill.
Nevertheless this was indeed the period of advance. In only a little more than four centuries the Christian church hed been transformed from an obscure Jewish sect in-a provincial corner of the empire into the unifying faith of the whole Roman world, and had begun to spread beyond its native Mediterranean culture north amone the European barbarians, south into Africa, and east across the, ereatest continent of all, Asia.
What was the secret of its success. Latourette lists some of the reasons historians have given: 1. The favour of the emperor. Fut by the time Constantine became Christian, it was already so strong it would have won without him. 2. The disintegration of so- ciety. But why Christianity, then, instead of one of the other new faiths like Mithraism, which was so strong in the Roman army? 3. Strong church organization. But where did the church get the VWitality Ter this Kind of strength? 4. Its inelusiveness. Judaism wes Tor Jews; Mithraism for men, but Christianity for all. But why? 5. The witness of the martyrs, and its moral character. But the Jews too had martyrs and high morals. 6. Miracles. But other faiths claimed miracles too.
The only satisfactory rason for the success of the Christian faith, concludes Latourette, is Christ. "Without Jesus Christian- ity would never have been, and from him came the distinctive qualities which won. it the victory" (I, p. 108) r
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half of the Christian church was as much through secular pressure as through gospel evang]ism.
In Scotland, much of the Christian advance of Columba's Irish monks, despite their evangelistic zea], was due to the fact that Columba himself was as prince, deaJing with clan chiefs who were his own relatives. England was reached by the missionaries from Iona, but basic decisions were often made by princes like Oswald, King of Northumbria, Ethelbert King of Kent (the first see Christian king among the Anglo-Saxons), and Oswy, King of Northumbr ja , acon, (OE:
Likewise,| fhe conversion of Clovis, King Of the Franks,,in 496 was bi dae a turning point in the history of the expansion of Christianity into northern Europe. Three years earlier, as a young and savage barbari 0 German chief fighting against Rome, he had married a Christian princest’ Fron Burgundy. Not long after, facing certain defeat and death in battle he cried out, “Jesus Christ, whom Chlotilda (his wife) praises as the Son of the living God" help me; and I will believe. He went on to win the battle, and Clovis kept his promise, and 5000 of his troops were baptized with him. This "conversion" of the Franks is often cited as a lesson in the superficiality of the Christ- janizing of nations through their rulers. The life of Clovis after his bap- tism showed little evidence of a true faith. He has been called "the most wicked Christian king in history". Nevertheless, the stubborn historical fact remains: as the conversion of Constantine turned the history of the Ro- man world decisively and permanently toward the Christian faith, so with the baptism of Clovis, France became Christian for the next 1300 years.
As at the beginning of this period, with Clovis, so at the end, with Charlemagne, an even greater king of the Franks, the German tribes were still being Christianized through a ruler and by methods which we must consider dubious at best. The celebrated account of how Charlemagne in 772 set out to convert the pagan Saxons, marching against them with a great army and "all the bishops, abbots and presbyters" he could muster, and "partly by persuasion and partly by arms and partly by gifts, he converted the greater part of the people." The first generation may not have been very Christian, but what if Luther's Germany had never become Christian? Perhaps God can use even the inadequacies and mistakes of our missionary methods for His own glory.
E. Nestorianism: Schism and Mission (400-800 AD)
While Christianity in the west in this period was recovering its unity and bringing the Celtic church back into conformity with Rome, the church in the east was tragically splitting into three major segments: Eastern Orthodoxy in Byzantium (Constantinople), Nestorianism in Persia, and Monophy- sitism in Syria (the Jacobites) and Egypt and Ethopia (the Copts). The causes of schism were as much political as religious. Persia and Rome were hereditary enemies; and African regionalism chafed under the dominance of Constantinople in the eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). But there were theological differ- ences as well. The sharpest controversy centered about the relationship be- tween Christ's deity and his humanity. All agreed that He was both God and Man: But Nestorians were dyophysite ("two natures"), insisting that Christ had two separate natures, his humanity and his deity, and in terms of practi-- cal, ethical Christian living his humanity is perhaps even more important than his deity. The Monophysites ("one nature") replied that one person could have
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Missiology: Fall of Rowe to Reformation - 3 V2 aes,
Aw Monastic Missions,
"In the conversion of Birope," writes Prof, Roland Bainton of Yale, "three Christian institutions were at work: nonastici sn, the papacy, and the civil state, Of the three, monasticism was the most important because monks were missionaries, whoreas popes and kings were not." (Christendom: A Short Hist. of Christianity and Its Ippast on iestern Givilization. vol. I. N.i,: Harpers, 1946. p. 136)
| Monasticism, like Christianity itself, came from Asia to the West. It was brought into westem Europe by Martin of Tours about 352 A.D,, aid was moulded into its distinctively western forn by St. Benedict whose monastery at Monte Cassino, founded in 529 AsDe, was not originally designed for missions tut rather for the glory of God and the cultivation of a spiritual life, There is, however, a explosive, outreaching quality in spiritual power, and what were at first only scattered comnunities of introverted, withdram, praying monks became soon, 2s Bainton puts it, “the church's militia in the winning of the West", (Ibid, p. 138)
In 2 eee ways the monasteries were well suited as agents of Christian missinn, Tirst, they were spiritually revived and deeply committed commnities in an age of secularized Christianity when too much of the Bnpixe had been only nominally converted, Net chy Ld utediy Sutule Segond, they were ganters of loarming, Biblical as well as classical, preserving the Bible and the writings of the fathers when so mich of the heritage of the asst was being swept away by the barbarian invaders, Third, they were self-supporting and unencumbered with families, living on the land wherever they were gathered or were s@mt, at a tine when centralized, papal missions would have been impossible to maintain due to the collapse of the financial structures of the Bnpire. Finally, they had a discipline, which is an almost indispensable wark of a successful Christian mission,
Two types of monasticism spearheaded the Christian conversion of Europe. ‘the first tas Irish-anthusiastic, independent and extrenely mobile, It resenbles in some respects the missionary strengths of modern faith missions. The second was Benedictino.~ more disciplined, organized, woderate and obedient to central ecclesiastical authority, like modexn caiominational missions (though the gonparison is, of course, over-simplified).
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The creat period of Irish monastis missions Ber the Sth and 7th centuries. The irish (Scots, or Celts as thay were then called) were the pionser missionariesd in nearly all of Burope north of the Alps, and in all of Saxon Egland north of the Thames, It is {mportant to remenber that since the withdrawal of the Roman legions from the British Lsles in the early fifth century (/10.440), the Celtic ahureh had grow up independent of the Roman papacy. Irish monasticism, therefore, was more free of church control, less restrained by vows and rules, and, in a curiously indigenous way, was rather closuly tied to familics end clans, The {rish monasteries, says one historian of monasticism, were nothing but ‘clans reorganized under a religious form" (Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the ‘lest
from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, 7 vols,, Edinburgh, 1841, ifi, p. 86)
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ew Theory — ‘Points to Model
For King Arthur
ral 39] 9S
By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD
BRITISH scholar has uncovered evidence that he says establishes the identity of the man who may well have been the model for the mythic Ar- thur, the once and future king of legend. The real Arthur, according to the new findings, was probably a fifth-century ‘‘high‘king”’ of the Britons known as Riotha- mus. ‘ In a detailed analysis of the few written accounts of, * ‘the time, the scholar, Geoffrey Ashe, a historian who has worked closely with archeologists, found a striking coinci- dence between Arthur’s supposed exploits in Gaul and the documented expedition of Riothamus. He is known to have led an army of Britons in a vain struggle to expel the barbarian Goths from the pro-Roman region of Burgun- dy. Like Arthur, he advanced into Bur- E a ary , gundy, was. be- trayed by an associ- xpe ition to ate, fought bravely
Gaul by a 5th but was defeated
a and disappeared
century ruler, (4177) from ay” in ’
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‘Riothamus,is ~ rier re. é search gave Mr. cited. Ashe reason to sus- gilt sa) pect that Arthur and Riothamus
were one and the same. He and Leon Fieuriot, a Celtic scholar at the Sor- bonne in Paris, working independently, discovered that Riothamus is not a name but a title, meaning “‘high king.”’ Since history records no other name for the king, Mr. Ashe decided, after years of what is called manuscript ar- cheology, that he had quite probably ‘‘found’”’ the man who was Arthur.
In “The Discovery of King Arthur,’’ published re- cently in association with Debrett’s Peerage, Mr. Ashe wrote: ‘‘In the High King called Riothamus we have, at last, a documented person as the starting point of the leg- end. He is the only such person on record who does any- thing Arthurian. Or to put it more precisely, he is the only one to whom any large part of the story can be related.”
The finding is not likely to diminish the Arthur of medieval romances, which are glorious fictions about a magic sword and the prophetic Merlin, gallant knights of the Round Table and the “‘brief shining hour’’ of Camelot, the adulterous love between Lancelot and Guinevere, Galahad’s quest for the Holy Grail, and the.king’s ulti- mate defeat and disappearance to Avalon. This Arthur, though he never lived, is immortal.
But Mr. Ashe’s conclusions are certain to stir contro- versy among the scholars who have long sought to estab- lish the historical basis, if any, for the Arthurian legend. Some scholars doubt that there ever was a real Arthur. Others believe he was a general, not a king, who fought the invading Saxons and after death was given heroic stat- ure in Welsh and Breton folklore. Still others question whether he ever extended his military reach to the Conti- nent.
Norris J. Lacy, president of the International Arthur- ,;
Continued on Page C
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MAR 80/HIS
agnus Sucatus Patricius, known to us as Saint Patrick, traveled to Ireland twice. He went once because of Irish pirates.
He went the second time because of God. He did
not want to go either time.
His first visit came at a time of great turmoil in Europe. The Romans, who had controlled Britain for five hundred years, left in A.D. 400 to provide replacement troops in the war against the Huns. Britain was left at the mercy of Norse, Saxon and lrish pirates. These roving bands raped, looted and took slaves for sale in their homelands.
| Patrick’s father was a deacon of the Christian
church anda Decurion, a local official of the national
government. He was also a minor member of the
| nobility and owned a seaside villa which was particularly vulnerable to pirate raids. When Patrick was sixteen, the villa was attacked.
Screaming barbarians charged up the slope from the sea, hacking down startled defenders and casting nets over fleeing victims. Although the rest of his family escaped, Patrick and many of his father’s servants were captured, bound and thrust into the bottom ofa pirate boat to wallow in the bilge water as the raid continued along the coast. Patrick ” as on his way to Ireland for the first time.
Land — bt ar be wntten, Wrlrrinn “f tea baz Cord. ain Slave to Saint
In Ireland, Patrick was sold as a slave to a druid tribal chieftain, who put the boy to work herding pigs. Patrick felt lost and helpless; he had gone from nobleman’s heir to swineherd overnight. Slavery beat all pride and dignity out of him. He had no chance for education, no friends, no possessions, no name, no hope.
He labored in filth and squalor among, the animals. Finally, deprived of every human consola- tion, he turned to God. In his book Confessions, he writes, . | was sixteen and knew not the true God but ina strange land the Lord opened my unbelieving eyes, and I was converted.”
The new convert spent much time in the presence of the Lord and eventually came to thank God for his captivity as an opportunity to know Christ. He became convinced that his slave state was a gift from God, so he served his barbarian master well, laboring as unto the Lord. “Anything that happens to me, whether pleasant or distasteful, | ought to accept it with equanimity giving thanks to God... who never disappoints.”
Patrick learned to pray as he worked or walked or rested. ‘Love and reverence for God came to me more and more, building up my faith so much that
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Wwe fm eo Vu
JOHN W. COWART, formerly a collector and classifier of mosquitos, is a writer in Jacksonville, Florida. His favorite hobby is sand sculpture.
daily I would pray a hundred times or more. Even while working in the woods or on the moun- tain I woke up to pray before dawn.... Now | understand that it was the fervent Spirit praying within me.”
Because of his devotion to God, Patrick was called “Holy-Boy.”” He remained a slave of the barbarian | for six years—then came escape.
Return to Britain
One night as he lay sleeping, Patrick heard a voice in a dream telling him, is waiting for you.” He sneaked away and struggled through two hundred miles of hostile territory to the coast where he found a boat preparing to sail.
The captain refused passage to the runaway slave, but as Patrick walked away praying, one of the crew called him back into the ship. After an arduous voyage and near starvation, he arrived home. ‘Again I was in Britain with my people who welcomed me as their son,” he writes.
In his own mind, Patrick was through with Ireland and the Irish. At twenty-two, he had many opportunities before him: he could continue his education, catch up with his social life, assume his responsibilities as heir of a nobleman.
Little is known about this phase of his life. Patrick may have studied in France or Italy; he may have entered the priesthood at this time. He does not tell us. The next event he relates in Confes- sions is how God called him to return to Ireland.
“I did not go. back to Ireland of my own accord,” he writes. “It is not in my own nature to show divine mercy toward the very ones who once enslaved me.” C oncerning, his return to Ireland asa missionary he writes, “It was the furtherest thing from me, but God de me fit, causing me to care about and labour for the salvation of others... .
This change of attitude toward his mission came in part as the result of another dream. He saw a messenger named Victoricus coming across the sea from Ireland bearing letters labeled ‘The Voice of the Irish.”
When Patrick began to read these letters he thought he heard the people in the Wood of Focluth, where he had been a slave, crying out to him, “Holy- Boy, we beg you, come walk among us again.” He awoke knowing he had to go back.
More Obstacles
Patrick still faced three major obstacles: his family, the opposition of clergy friends and fi- nancing. His Confessions reveals how God dealt with ‘each hindrance.
“Since [ was home at last having suffered such hardship, my family pleaded with me not to leave.” They were justly alarmed; [continued on page 4]
“Wake up, your ship |
HIS/IMAR 80
SAINT PATRICK [continued from page 1] as an escaped slave he faced horrible retribution. The druids were known to weave criminals and runaway slaves into giant wicker baskets and suspend them over a fire to roast alive
Patrick often lovingly mentions his family and refers to the pain of leaving them. ‘‘Leaving my home and family was a costly price to pay; but afterwards, I received a more valuable thing: the gift of Knowing and loving God.
“Many friends tried to stop my mission. They said, ‘Why does this fellow waste himself among dangerous enemies who don’t even know God?’ ”
These churchmen considered the Irish to be barbaric
enemies not worth saving.
But Patrick believed his enemies were worth saving. He could later say, “Once the Irish wor- shipped idols and unclean things, having no knowledge of the True God, but now they are among God’s own people. Even the children of their kings are numbered among the monks and virgins of Christ!”
Patrick insisted on paying his own way. “The reason I acted thus was to demonstrate prudenc C in everything... 1 did not want to give the unbelievers even the smallest thing to criticize.”
But if he refused to accept financial help, how could he finance his endeavor? “I was born free, the son of a Decurion; but I sold my title of nobility— there is no shame nor regret in this—in order to be- come the slave of Christ serving this barbaric nation.”
Back to Ireland
Patrick used his inheritance money to purchase a boat and finance his mission-He and his party sailed back to Ireland in ‘A.D. 432, Landing at the port of Inver Dea, they were welcomed by a rock- throwing mob.
They sailed along the coast of Ireland, landing and preaching ane the way. Patrick preached at isolated tarms, to hostile crowds on the beaches, to women and children drawing water at country wells.
Atone farm, tradition tells us, Patrick came upon an old man who was dying. Patrick sought to comfort him and lead him to salvation in Christ. The invalid argued for his old way of life. Finally Patrick asked him, ‘Why are you grasping ata life which is even now failing you? Why do you neglect to prepare for the life to come?”
The old man pondered the questions. Then he repented, believed and was baptized. He eventually recovered from his illness and became one of Pat- rick’s staunchest followers. As Christianity became more established Patrick assigned this man, Ros, the task of codifying Ireland’s laws, bringing them into conformity with Christian belief and morality.
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Patrick’s attempts at evangelism were not always so successful. He returned to confront his former owner, Miliuce, with the claims of Christ. Rather than forsake his heathen gods, Miliuce sealed himself inside his house and set it afire. The druid drowned out Patrick’s pleadings with screamed curses and invocations to his gods, while cremating himself and all his possessions.
Patrick traveled over the Irish countryside in a chariot, spreading the gospel and bringing with it social reform and a written alphabet. He con- ducted open-air schools to teach his converts to read and write.
Until this time, writing was the jealously guarded secret of druid wizards. But Patrick believed in educating his converts to read the Scriptures. — | A clash with the druids was inevitable.
Easter Crisis
The religion of the druids was firmly entrenched in lreland, They worshiped and tried to appease manifold spirits in the guise of stones, trees, storms and the sun. They constructed megalithic monu- ments to aid in their style of astrology.
Druid sorcerers claimed to be able to control weather, so it was important for them to be aware of celestial changes. One of their most important rites occurred at the vernal equinox when the sun begins its return to warm the northern hemisphere. In A.D. 433 the vernal equinox fell on March 26th— Easter Sunday. Patrick chose that day to challenge the wizards.
All the warlords of Ireland had met on a hill to seek the blessing of the druids.
In order to call the sun back to the north, the — |} druid custom was to extinguish all fires in the king- dom. The chief wizard then ignited a bonfire as part of the ritual. Runners bearing, flaming brands
raced through the fields carrying new fire to the hearths of the nation. Thus the druids showed that it was their enchantments which brought back the sun.
On the night of the ceremony, as the warlords and wizards worshiped in the darkness of the great stone circle, they saw a huge bonfire burning on the | opposite hill. Patrick had lita blazing fire this Easter | to commemorate Christ, the light of the world.
The druids were outraged. They dispatched troops to bring Patrick to the council and demanded an explanation for his blasphemy. Patrick spoke
/ to them about the Trinity, the mystery of the
Incarnation and the triumph of Christ’s resurrec- tion. Some believed; others attempted to kill him. Legend colors this encounter with fantastic miracles. No matter what actually happened that night, Patrick became a national figure and his controversial message was discussed everywhere.
$$» ——,
| MAR 80/HIS
Patrick believed that he was living in the last days before Christ’s return and that the Lord deserved to be worshiped by men from every nation, even the barbaric Irish. So he felt respon- sible ‘‘to preach the Gospel to the edge of the earth beyond which no man lives.’” He says that Christ called his people to be fishers of men, “therefore we must spread a wide net so we can catch a teeming multitude for God.”
He mentions one motive, though, which out- weighs all the others—he was grateful.
Sheer Gratefulness
Patrick’s sense of gratitude to God for creating and saving him permeates his writings. “I was an illiterate slave, as ignorant as one who neglects to provide for his future. And | am certain of this: that although I was as a dumb stone lying squashed in the mud, the Mighty and Merciful God came, dug me out and set me on top of the wall. Therefore I praise Him and ought to render Him something for His wonderful benefits to me both now and in eternity
This gratitude and burning love for Christ drove Patrick to challenge heathenism wherever he found it. He entered the stockades of the war- lords, preaching to hostile warriors dressed in strips of fur or naked with their bodies painted with blue clay and scarred with whorling tattoos.
He visited the waddle huts of slaves bearing comfort and hope. He even preached at the race- tracks, converting men in the midst of gambling, drinking and orgies. Thousands of rieaea were converted through his relentless evangelism motivated by loving gratitude.
The Whole Gospel
He not only preached but ministered to the whole person, bringing a gospel which raised the standard of life for the Irish. He paid judges’ salaries out of his own pocket so they could judge impartially rather than depending on a reward from the person who won a suit. Monasteries were founded which survived as centers of learning till the age of the Vikings.
Having been a slave himself, he was concerned with the plight of slaves. “The women who live in slavery suffer greatly,” he wrote. ‘‘They endure terror and are constantly threatened. Their masters forbid these maidens to follow Christ but He gives them grace to follow bravely.”
In one of the coastal towns, Patrick baptized a large group of converts. Shortly after the ceremony the town was raided by soldiers of King Coroticus, a nominal Christian king from Britain.
The raiders slaughtered the men and children The good-looking young women—still dressed
2s
in white baptismal gowns—were captured to sell to a brothel in Scotland.
Patrick was furious. He fired off a scorching protest to the people of Coroticus, excommunicating the perpetrators of this ‘horrible, unspeakable crime” and demanding restoration of the captives. “The Church mourns in anguish not over the slain but over those carried off to a far away land for the purpose of gross, open sin. Think of it! Christians made slaves by Christians! Sold to serve the lusts of wicked pagan Picts!”
Because of his stands for righteousness, Patrick suffered insult and persecution. The druids often tried to poison him. Once a barbarian warrior speared his chariot driver to death thinking he was killing Patrick.
Patrick was often ambushed during his evan- gclistic tours and at least once he was enslaved for a short time. He sometimes had to purchase safe passage through a hostile warlord’s territory in order to continue his mission. ‘‘Every day I expect to be murdered or robbed or enslaved; but I’m not afraid of these things because of the promises of Heaven.”
Brotherly Betrayal
Patrick faced opposition not only from nominal | Christians, pagan warlords and druid wizards, but from his church as well. Ecclesiastical au- thorities in Britain questioned his fitness to be a bishop and held a hearing at which he was not present and at which his dearest friend spoke against him. It is possible that for a time he was suspended or placed on probation.
Although Patrick was restored to his bishopric, the most important result of this crisis was that it prompted him to write his Confessions. This doc- ument, his hymn and his Letter to the People of Coroticus comprise the only surviving record ot his life and thought.
By the end of his thirty-year ministry in Ireland, Patrick had seen 100,000 souls converted and \ had established humerous churches. He had removed learning from the clutches of druid wizards and made it available for all. He influenced the eventual elimination of slavery and helped change | the status of women from possessions to persons. | His dignity, honesty and piety changed a whole | nation.
Near the conclusion of his Confessions he writes,
“The only reason | had to return to the people | once barely escaped from was the Gospel and its promises.”
Patrick preached this gospel to ‘‘the edge of the world.” His message to us? “I wish that you also would exert greater effort and begin more powertul acts for God.” &
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even more Strongly under Leo's adviser and eventual successor Hildebrand (Gregory VII, 1073-1085). Thus once again the reforming vitality of a "“sodality" was instrumental in breathing new life into the churchly "modality". The spiritual power of a Hildebrand, skillfully exercised and organized in his capacity as pope, proved more than a match for the secular power of an emperor. At Canossa (1077) the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV stood barefoot and penitent
in the snow for three days begging Hildebrand to release him from excommunication. (See Hildebrand's own account in Henderson, Hist. Documents of the Middle Ages, p. 386 ff.) This has been called ‘the most dramatic illustration in church history of the power of the church in the world. But as in the crusades, the use of spiritual power for temporal ends brings mixed results. In the end the good pope died in exile and the final resolution of the controversy between pope and emperor over which had authority to elect and invest bishops was a compromise. The Concordat of Worms (1122) ruled that both pope and emperor must approve the choice of bishops and abbots thus recognizing a touch of spiritual authority in the state, and of temporal power in the papacy.
E. The Decline of the Church in Asia.
1. Mohanmedan mastery of western Asia. The four hundred years from 800 to 1200 saw the great Christian centers of the mid-east--Antioch, Edessa, Ctesiphon (and Baghdad) transformed from radiating centers of Christian mission to ingrown Christian ghettoes in a Mohammedan sea. The ill-fated attempt of the crusades to rescue them only made their situation worse.
For more than a century after the Moslem conquest Nestorian Christians were treated with remarkable tolerance by the Ommayad dynasty (661-750 AD, but under the Abbasid Caliphs (750-c. 1100) repression aradually increased. Perse- cution flared for a time in the reign of a Moslem contemporary of Charlemaane, Haroun al-Rashid of Arabian Nights fame (786-809, when Christians were accused of alliance with Constantinople. By the end of the 10th c. (987) the Moslem Caliphs had taken from the Christian bishops the riaht of electing their Nestor- ian patriarch. The mad Caliph al-Hakim (1009-20) was the fiercest of the per- secutors, forcing Christians he did not kill to wear five-pound wooden crosses around their necks. Far more effective than violence, was the steady pressure of persecution by taxation. Ever since the conquest the only escape for a Christian from the ever heavier financial harrasment was conversion to Islam.
But the fate of the eastern church under the Moslems was, in the final analysis, the deliberate choice of the church and its people. What pro- duced the withered ghettoes of the Nestorians and Monophysites was not so much the sword of Islam as the law of Islam. The law permitted Christians to worship but forbade them to propagate their faith. Faced with a choice between survival and witness the churches of the eastchose survival. They ceased to evangelize. They survived, but what survived was no longer a whole and living church.
2. The disappearance of the Nestorians in China. Some time between 800 and 1000 AD the Nestorian mission in China vanished almost without a trace. Of the various reasons usually given for their decline, the following are most persuasive: the defeat of the Uigurs, a strongly supportive tribe; the qreat anti-Buddhist persecution (848-67) which spilled over against Christians; and the fall of the T'ang dynasty in 907. But the ultimate reason may have been in-, ner weakness, not guter opposition: superstition, moral decline, syncretistic compromise with oriental religions and failure to develop Chinese leadership.
But even as it disappeared in China, beginnina about 1000 AD a new inviooration of the faith appeared in Central Asia among tribes destined to become the new dominant power of East Asia, the Monaols.
400-800 AD - 5 -
half of the Christian church was as much through secular pressure as through gospel evanglism.
In Scotland, much of the Christian advance of Columba's Irish monks, despite their evangelistic zeal, was due to the fact that Columba himself was as prince, dealing with clan chiefs who were his own relatives. England was reached by the missionaries from Iona, but basic decisions were often made by princes like Oswald, King of Northumbria, Ethelbert King of Kent (the first Christian king among the Anglo-Saxons), and Oswy, King of Northumbria.
Likewise, the conversion of Clovis, King of the Franks, in 496 was a turning point in the history of the expansion of Christianity into northern Europe. Three years earlier, aS a young and savage barbarian German chief fighting against Rome, he had married a Christian princess from Burgundy. Not long after, facing certain defeat and death in battle he cried out, "Jesus Christ, whom Chlotilda (his wife) praises as the Son of the living God" help me; and I will believe. He went on to win the battle, and Clovis kept his promise, and 5000 of his troops were baptized with him. This "conversion" of the Franks is often cited as a lesson in the superficiality of the Christ- ianizing of nations through their rulers. The life of Clovis after his bap- tism showed little evidence of a true faith. He has been called "the most wicked Christian king in history". Nevertheless, the stubborn historical fact remains: as the conversion of Constantine turned the history of the Ro- man world decisively and permanently toward the Christian faith, so with the baptism of Clovis, France became Christian for the next 1300 years.
As at the beginning of this period, with Clovis, so at the end, with Charlemagne, an even greater king of the Franks, the German tribes were still being Christianized through a ruler and by methods which we must consider dubious at best. The celebrated account of how Charlemagne in 772 set out to convert the pagan Saxons, marching against them with a great army and "all the bishops, abbots and presbyters" he could muster, and "partly by persuasion and partly by arms and partly by gifts, he converted the greater part of the people." The first generation may not have been very Christian, but what if Luther's Germany had never become Christian? Perhaps God can use even the inadequacies and mistakes of our missionary methods for His own glory.
E. Nestorianism: Schism and Mission (400-800 AD)
While Christianity in the west in this period was recovering its unity and bringing the Celtic church back into conformity with Rome, the church in the east was tragically splitting into three major segments: Eastern Orthodoxy in Byzantium (Constantinople), Nestorianism in Persia, and Monophy- sitism in Syria (the Jacobites) and Egypt and Ethopia (the Copts). The causes of schism were aS much political as religious. Persia and Rome were hereditary enemies; and African regionalism chafed under the dominance of Constantinople in the eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). But there were theological differ- ences as well. The sharpest controversy centered about the relationship be- tween Christ's deity and his humanity. All agreed that He was both God and Man. But Nestorians were dyophysite ("two natures"), insisting that Christ. had two separate natures, his humanity and his deity, and in terms of practi- cal, ethical Christian living his humanity is perhaps even more important than his deity. The Monophysites ("one nature") replied that one person could have
400-800 AD ee
only one nature and emphasized the primacy of Christ's deity for only a
divine Saviour could rescue man from sin. The orthodox center (Eastern Ortho- dox and Roman Catholic) accepted a compromise formula, that of the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD): one Person in two natures, human and divine.
Beginning with two important councils in the early fifth century, the Church of the East (which only later was called Nestorian) developed its first national Persian organization (Synod of Seleucia, 410), and declared its independence from the authority of the western churches (Synod of Dadiso, 424) . Then began its great expansion from Persia in all directions across Asia. It moved south into the deserts and had almost won Arabia for the faith by the time Mohammed was born. Christian Arab kings ruled in the north- east (Lakhmid), the south (Yemen), and the northwest (Ghassanid) which however was not Nestorian but at times orthodox and at times monophysite.
Most impressive of all the Nestorian missionary achievements was the advance of the faith east across the Asian heartland as far as China. As early as 498 the White Huns or Turks of Bactria (Afghanistan) had begun to turn Christian. A remarkable combination of evangelistic, educational and agricultural missions commended the Christian witness to the nomadic tribes, of the Asian steppes and by the middle of the sixth century the Turkic chief was asking that the tribes be given their own bishops. By 781 they had their own archbishop. But already by then the wave of Nestorian missions had rolled on far beyond central Asia to reach the capital of China's mighty T'ang dy- nasty. In the year 635, while the successors of Mohammed (d. 632) were begin- ning to boil up out of the desert to conquer Persia, the first Christian Persian missionary, Alopen, entered Chang'an, was welcomed by the Emperor and asked to translate the sacred Christian books into Chinese. The Emperor Tai Tsung (627-650) even gave orders for the construction of the first Christian church in China in 638, and for the next two hundred years the church grew and established monasteries throughout the empire.
The history of T'ang dynasty Nestorian aE aie the earliest church in northeast Asia, can be divided into six- periods: (after J. Foster)
. The first Christian mission to China (635-638 AD)
The early growth of the church in China (638-683)
First opposition and persecution (683-712)
Recovery of the church (712-763)
Period of greatest influence (763-832)
Disappearance of the Nestorians from China (832-980 AD)
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It was in this period also that the Nestorians brought the ancient Thomas church of India into relationship with the Nestorian patriarch of Persia. Nestorian Christians fleeing from the great Persian persecution of 340-380 AD may have been the first point of contact, although there is a reference to a Persian bishop Dudi (or David) undertaking an Indian mission as early as 300 AD. But by about 450 AD Nestorian missionaries had firmly cemented the authority of the Persian patriarch in India and the lanquage of the Indian church, like that of the Persian church, was Syriac. Even the island of Ceylon, reported a Nestorian traveler in the 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes, has a church and clergy “ordained and sent from Persia.. and a multitude of Christians".
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Columba (521-597), "the apostle to Scotland" was the great pioneer of Irish monastic missions. Though of royal blood (his great-qrandfather i) was High King of Ireland yen Patritk was enslaved there, and three of his ¥ Le mgt hone
cousins were Irish kings)“fhe entered a monastery to study and became a keene Keng 4 jane - Priest. But in 563 after a typical Irish dispute with his teacher, he KeWell p.§ set out with 12 disciples in an open boat on an independent mission to @ ink convert his fellow Celts, the Pagan Savages of Scotland. His center of 2,00 cows - p 4 mission was the monastery of Iona which he founded on an island “off the hod Uy - stept one mack
Coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every church A sear Su ae planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be a copy of the Scriptures given, which was no easy requirement in days when it took a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy of the Bible. Lt was—from-lona—atso,in—the-next—centurythat-nerthern-faghand-was Successfully reached with the-gospel,—by Aidan abeut—635 AD-after—papal
mi re had_almost been wiped ou t—by Saxon -investons.
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Mission and Revival. While the Christian west (Rome) was falling to the barbartans (and converting them), and while the Christian east (Constantinople) was driving them back (but splitting apart into re- ligious factions), beyond the borders of the Roman Empire east and west new missionary movements arose to revive the church and spread the faith. The centers of new Christian mission in this time of gen- eral decline were Celtic monasticism in the west, the Roman papacy in the center and Nestorian missions to the far east.
. Celtic missions. Two important points should be first noted about
the Celtic church and its missions. First, its independence from Rome. Its center was in Ireland and Britain outside the empire, though its roots go back to Roman Britain. Second, its authority and vitality developed around monasticism and missionary abbots rather than diocesan bishops.
Its pattern, therefore, was sodality (voluntary, limited societies) rather than modality (inclusive, unlimited societies). Modalities stress the unity of the whole group, e.g. the church; sodalities express the need for wholesome diversity within the unity, and for voluntary initiative (See Winter/Beaver, The Warp and the Woof, esp. p. 52 ff.)
Patrick (c. 389-461) was "the apostle to Ireland". Taken as a slave from Britafn and held there for six years, he escaped, entered a monastery and later felt compelled by a vision almost against his will to return to Ireland as a missionary, in 431. He challenged the druid wizards, preached to the nobles and organized the church in bishoprics, but also encouraged the Irish monasteries, to become the real centers of learning and mission.
tg~ : Columba (521-597), "the apostle to Scotland" was the great pioneer of Irish monastic missions. Though of royal blood (his great-grandfather was High King of Ireland when Patritk was enslaved there, and three of his cousins were Irish kings) he entered a monastery to study and became a priest. But in 563 after a typical Irish dispute with his teacher, he set out with 12 disciples in an open boat on an independent mission to convert his fellow Celts, the pagan savages of Scotland. His center of mission was the monastery of Iona which he founded on an island off the coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every church planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be a copy of the Scriptures given, which was no easy requirement in days when it took a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy of the Bible. It was from Iona, also, in the next century that northern England was successfully reached with the gospel, by Aidan about 635 AD after papal missions ther had almost been, wiped out by Saxon invasions.
mn: A136. "Cll Aidan (d. 651) became thé instrument for the conversion of northern England where other missions had failed. On the first attempt from Iona the missionary returned discouraged to say the English were impossible to convert, "uncivilized, hard and barbarous". "Brother..," said Aidan, “you were too harsh. You should have followed the Apostles and given them the milk of simple teaching". And he went himself, invited by King Oswald who
had been converted in Scotland. He began to preach before he even knew
English,with the king acting as interpreter, and always traveled on foot so he could turn aside and ask people if they believed.
Columban (550-615), a younger namesake of Columba, carried the gospel Mag Sane onedhi beyond the British isles into Europe. He set up a monastery Wo eounl as Teeeaares &@ missionary center like Iona, b ut was so bold in his denunciation of the Selamic ; marion fo immorality of King Theodoric of Burgundy and his concubines that he was aie iy Mabie forced to flee into Switzerland and eventually landed up in Italy where he ..WamPrrt was not afraid to challenge the Pope. The onty authority he would accept Ole | Mente. was Scripture and the right. ‘
See Mun Vepy- y.4, “We boa dae Ue duegl, 4 St hele, « St Tonk Cwt' by (He) Gf in tA em loaf tbe soph
Cotte,
The Irish Monastic Schools:
Christianity with Culture
Jim McGee EC22 Final Paper Mawe2e0, 19864
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2
The rapid spread of Christianity in Ireland was largely due to the great influence of monasticism. My picture of a Celtic monk is an extreemly strict, ascetic, who has starved himself down to his bones and whose life is devoted to religious Anis. I do not Know any high school student in our day who would want to be an ascetic monk more than anything else. But during the fifth and sixth centuries, young people were flocking to the monasteries in droves. The Church historian, John McNeill, believes that "a larger percentage of the population than anywhere else entered monastic communities," and he goes on to say that "nowhere else in Christendom was the culture of a people sa completely embraced within monasticism."(1) What made the monastic life irresistably attractive to so many people in the fifth and sixth centuries? How is it possible to convert a whole nation by withdrawing into the wilderness to pray, fast, labor, and study? I believe that Celtic monasticism was so successful in spreading the gospel because it adapted itself so well to Irish culture.
I want to discuss two ways in which the Irish monasteries were strangely relevant to their culture. First, the monastaries were patterned after the communal life of Celtic clans. This communal life, which was already accepted in the culture, easily lent itself ta Christianity. Second, the monastic schools were similar in structure
1. John McNeill, The Celtic Churches ,(Chicago:University of Chicago Press), 1974), p.70.
to the bardic schools, where lay people received secular education.
a
The monastic schools worked in harmony with the lay schools, and they provided more people with the affordable opportunity to become educated. I propose to show how these two elements in Celtic monasticism helped to convert people in Ireland and to send out missionaries to the rest of the world. I will also touch on how the methods of Celtic missions might be relevant to contemporary missions.
The Celtic clans were composed of people who shared a common ancestory. Each clan had a chief, who was respected by all members because of his strength and his ancestoral relation to former chieftains. The successor to a chieftain was usually his son or an immediate relative who was fit for leadership. Celtic missionaries during the time of Saint Patrick succeeded in converting the chieftains of the clans. With the conversion of the chieftain, the rest of the clan was also converted. Each clan had a heirarchy of leadership which observed strict odedience to the chieftain.
Therefore it was natural for a clan to accept the Christian belief of their highest ranking, leader.
The tribal structure of Celtic clans provided a pattern for the organization of monasteries. A monastery was like a clan with the spiritual purpose of following Christ, resisting the flesh, and serving as soldiers of Christ. The abbot was the head of the monastery and functioned like the chieftain of an ecclesiastical clan. All of the members of the monastery were usually descended from the common ancestor of the abbot(2a). The monastic community served as a family. In fact the Irish name for the monastic community was
2a. Hugh Graham, The Early Irish Monastic Schools , (Dublin:Talbot Press hea |
ho
scripture to the whole family, allowing the family to pray together, and involving their children in the church at a very early age. The shared faith between family members might even help to Keep more families together. To spread the gospel we must work within the social structures of our society, of which the family is a part.
Monasteries were not only centers of prayer and devotion but they also had the mission of educating people. Monastic schools flourished in Ireland between 500 and 900 A.D. The monastic schools drew so many students because the learned Irish monks were among the greatest scholars of their day. Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of their scholarship was the blending of Celtic, classical, and Christian learning. Monastic education successfully introduced classical studies Be See into the Irish culture. In addition to the ecclesiastical schools, there were also lay schools, which provided secular education. The curriculum of lay schools was limited to Celtic: learning. Howvever, both the monastic and lay school complemented each other because the Irish monks integrated their educational system extreemly well into the celtic culture. Historians have found evidence not of conflict but of cooperation between the two types of schools. Let me describe the structure of the lay schools and how the monastic schools were adopted into the Irish educational system.
The Celtic lay schools existed from pre-Christian times, and since they were pagan, they were taught by druids.‘3) A person with the highest type of academic degree was called an ollamh , which
might be described as a medevil Irish PhD. Ollamina , or doctors, A
5. P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland ,{New York:Longmans, Green & Co., 1903), p. 408.
pre-Christian times. The fili were closely connected with druidism, and their songs and incantations were thought to have magical powers.(11) The fili would compose their verse by performing druidic rituals in which they would lock themselves in a dark room for a day, lie on their backs with a stone on their bellies and plads about their heads.(12a) As druidism died out and gave way to Christianity, the fili had a lower position in society. However, the poets who were not necessarily connected with druidism, maintained their high status and continued to function with some of the trappings of druid culture remaining. In spite of this distinction between these two types of poets, the term, fili is still used synonymously with "bard." Frank O’Connor says that monks and churchmen took over the roles of _fili and priests in the druid culture.‘12b) Almost everyone in ancient Ireland learned the art of story telling and reciting poetry. Though most people could not read or write, they had their own type of education by learning to recite poetry, historical tales, and ledgends for the amusement of people.(13) There were always amé tur reciters in every town.
Monks like Saint Columba had a high respect for the bardic educational system. Columba himself, after finishing at the monastic school ,Finnian of Moville, studied under an aged bard named Gemman. Coumba’s high respect for the bardic schools is evident from his defense of the bards at the convention of Drumceatt in 573 AD.(1i4a)
ij... Jbede 12a, Ibidns peo
12b Frank O’Connor, A Short History of Irish Literature , ‘(New York:GP Putnam’s Son’s,1967), pp. 20-21
13. Joyce, op. 5 Ann “jo untees PSI 14a yy bts )D. Dou a Bp Soy. jfe Historical Saint Columba , (Aberdeen:Milne
6
By 573, there were so many bards begging in the streets that the bardic vocation had been taken over by greed. Moreover, the bards had been Steins people in the aeeernt eiaeken the reputations of certain people. The sarcasm of the bards came to be hated so much that legal action was taken against them at Drumceatt. There was a proposal to abolish the bardic order all together. St Columbahad come to the Council to defend the Picts in Scotland. While he was at Drumceatt, he also stood up for the bards. Columba suggested that instead of abolishing the order, the educational system for bards should be reorganized, with one bardic school for each of the five regions. He proposed that the Ollamhna stiffen the requiements for membership to the order so that a surplus of bards would not flood the streets. As a result of Columba’s defense, the bardic schools were reorganized and the order cantinued to exist for the benefit of Ireland. Many bards praised Columba in song and Iyric for his help in restoring their order. Through the countless poems about Columba, more people were able to hear about the moral and spiritual character of this great saint. Columba’s effort at Drumceatt is an example of how monasticism worked hand in hand with the lay schools of the bards. Now let us examine the similarities between monastic schools and lay schools. Both types of schools had seven degrees that students could earn, and the degrees in the ecclesiastical schools corresponded with those in the lay schools.(14b) The seven degrees of the bardic school were spread over twelve years, but the monastic schools did not seem to have a twelve year schedule for the seven degrees. P.W. Joyce
gives a comparative list of all seven graduated degrees in both
schools, which I will now describe. (15) The first year in both schools was devoted to learning to read and to write. After the second year in the bardic school, the student would attain the degree of fochluc , which involved lessons japon tesogke: poems, and tales. The corresponding degree in the monastic school was felmac , in which a boy would learn specified Psalms in Latin. The second stage of bardic education was MacFuirmid , in which the boy was set to learn more advanced lessons in philosophy, poetry, phonics, and tales, During the second stage in the monastic school, freisneidhed , the student questioned the tutor, who gave the meaning of everything that was difficult for him. At the fourth year, the bardic student would earn
the dos degree, in which he learned the law of priviledges for
poets, more poems and tales. The monastic student progressed to the third stage of fursaindtidh , in which the tutor began to cross question the pupil to test his Knowledge of theological and philosophical difficulties. The fourth stage of the bardic study was called cana , involving the study of Gaelic articles and grammar. In monastic education, the fouth stage, sruth do aill , allowed the student to begin teaching younger pupils and explaining complex concepts in simple terms. Cli , the fifth stage oF t\e student bard, taught the secret language of poets and brought the student to an advanced stage of art and judgement. At the fifth stage , the monastic student attained advanced Knowledge of scripture and was called a professor of the cansfon. The sixth stage:the bardic student earned the anruth degree after studying bardic poetry, prosidy, and
Gaelic glosses. The monastic student also earned an anruth degree
15. Ibid. , 430-436
0
when he became preficient in every department of Knowledge including poetry, literature, and theology. He taught other students but did not reach the top of Knowledge. The final and seventh stage for the bard was ollamh . The student mastered 350 tales, and the four departments of Knowledge, thus becoming a man of learning, a poet, and a doctor. The final degree of the monastery was rosai , which means
great professor. He was a professor of literature and theology. When
Vale Wf
he visited the palace, he sat with Kings and knew th four departinents of Knowledge perfectly.
The curriculum for monastic schools, as indicated above, included the study of Celtic and Christian literature. Latin and the venacular language were used in instruction.1é6. Much attention was given to the study of scripture. Lay schools, however, focused more on secular learning in the Celtic language. The monasteries developed a more extensive curriculum and were therefore able to offer a mare quality education. However the two schools continued to exist without
conflict. A legal document called the "Sequel to the Critin Gabhlach"
states that the degrees of ecclesiastical schools and the bardic schools were both derived from the same wisdom:
The degrees of wisdom and of the church <i.e. in the monastic or ecclesiastical schools? correspond with the degrees of the poets and of the feine or story- tellers <i.e. of the lay or bardic schools>: but wisdom is the mother of each profession of them <whether clerical or lay>, and it is from her hand they all drink.¢1?7) According to this law, Christian learning was given at least as much
academic respect as the Celtic lay schools. The monks would have [ae problably said that theology comes from the higher wisdom of God while
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DN&lo- SAXoW Missions (PAPAL )
400-800 AD = OSS
2. Papal Missfons. There are also two important points to be noted about the Roman papal missions of this period. First, unlike the Celtic missions, they were more loyal to the papacy, more ecclesiastical (modal) and less independent. But second, they weee a mixture of modality and sodality, of episcopal and monastic forms. Their bishops were often former monks and their monasticism was not of the independent Celtic kind, but Benedict- ine and disciplined, following the rule of Benedict of Nyrsia who founded his monastery at Monte Cassino in Italy in 529 AD. Four important characteristics forged the monasteries into ef- fective instruments of Christian mission: first, they were deeply committed Christian communities in an age of nominal, Constantinian Chrittianity; second, they were centers of Bibli- cal and classical learning; third, they were economically self- Supportino; and fourth, they had a discipline.
Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), the "father of the mediaeval papacy” was the son of a rich Roman senator but aave up his wealth to found monasteries and enter one himself. Obedient to a call from the pope, however, he left the monastery to re-enter the world and assist in the administration of the Roman church, first as one of the seven deaoons of Rome and then as ambassador to Constantinople. Again he was allowed to return to the life of the monastery he loved but in 590 was called to become pope himself, in which capacity he served as virtual head of the western Roman empire, makina a separate peace with the invadina Lombards and more importantly for mission, granting to Benedictine monasticism as anents of papal missions a partial exemption from the control of local bishops. The well-known incident of the English slaves he saw in the Roman market ("They are Angles, but may they become angels") is said to have been the beain- ning of his interest in missions.
Gregory's principles of missionary stratecy are outlined in a famous letter ‘he wrote in 601 to the missionary team he sent to convert the English. First, the mission is to be church-centered and church-controlled; it must be organized as soon as possible. Second, missionaries are not to condemn everythina in the paaqan re= ligions but should "baptize" as much of what they find in them as possible, makina it Christian and using it as a bridae into the full Christian faith. ‘Third, the Christian mission 15 t6 be direct- ed toward the conversion of kinas and rulers in order that their in- fluence may be used to win the people.
Augustine of Canterbury (d. ca. 604) was the leader of Greaory's team o missfonaries. He landed in Enaland in 597 and following Gregory's third principle proceeded to convert the kina of the Saxon kingdom of Kent with the help of its Christian queen. Kent was the leading kingdom in the Saxon henemony of seven kinadoms, and within
a year ten thousand Saxons became Chr$stian. In line with the sec- ond principle he adapted the old heathen temples into churches, and then, as the first principle uraed, he quickly oraanized a national church under direct papal control with himself as the first Arch- bishop of Canterbury.
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To their lBiblical, evangelistic approach the wandering Irish missionaries (they were called peregrini, "wanderers" for Christ)
added a fiarce Irish independence, Golunban (550-615), a younger name Mn cued
sake of Columba, set out for Europe when he was forty, set upa . 7 mule —DF
monastery (Luxeuil) as a missionary center like Iona, but was soci), ne os. Sl «i bold in his denunciations of the immorality of King Thesdoric of “jane
Burgundy and his concubines that he was forced out of Burgundy into Switzerland and eventually ended up in Italy where he was not afraid
to tangle even with the Popb. The only authority he would acdept was Scripture and the ieut right. "We Irish," he wrote to Pope Gregory, #,.are the disciples of St. Peter and St. Paul and of the other disciples who have written under the dictation of the Holy Spirit. We receive nothing more than the apostolic and evangelical doctrine... With us
4t 4s not the person, it is the right which prevails." (quoted by C | Prat ern
H, Robingon, The Conversion of SEBS, | Londong Longmans, Green, 1917, See camedta
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Missiologys Fall of Rome to Reformation, - 4
It is only natural, therefore, to find that the outstanding missionary in Irish missions was a prince, a leader in his clan, St. Columba (521.597). He is known as the “apostle to Scotland" for in 563 A.D. he set out across the stormy waters of the Irish sea in a little hide-covered wicker boat on an evangelistic mission to convert his fellow Celts, the pagan savages,of Scotland, His center of mission was the famous monastery of Iona which he founded on an island off the coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every church planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be given a copy of the Scriptures, a difficult requirement in days when it took a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy of the Bible, (W. CG, Somerville, From Iona to Dunblane; The Story of the National Bible Society of Scotland to 1986, Edinburgh, NBSS, 1948, pe 8). it was from lona, also, that northern England was successfully reached with the gospel, by Aidan about 635 A.D., afterkke papal missions there had almost been wiped out by Saxon invasions,
To their lBiblical, evangelistic approach the wandering Irish missionaries (they were called peregrini, "wandsrers" for Christ) added a fierce Irish independence, Columban (550-615), a younger namee sake of Columba, set out for Europe when he was forty, set up a monastery (Luxeuil) as a missionary center like Iona, but was so bold in his denunciations of the immorality of King Thesdoric of Burgundy and his concubines that he was forced out of Burgundy into Switzerland and eventually ended up in Italy where he was not afraid to tangle even with the Popb. The only authority he would acdept was Scripture and the trut right. "We Irish," he wrote to Pope Gregory, W,.,are the discivles of St. Peter and St, Paul and of the other disciples who have written under the dictation of the Holy Spirit. We receive nothing more than the apostolic and evangelical doctrine... With us it 4s not the person, it is the right which prevails.” (quoted by C, H, oe The Conversion of Europe, Londons Longmans, Green, 1917, pe 197).
The papal mission to England at the end of the 6th century ww wa hil, Git)
{f was of a different kind, but no less notable. It was ecclesiastical, not independent, and though it, too, had monastic connections, its missionary monks were not Irish but Benedictine, The story of the beginning of the mission is familiar, Pope Gregory I saw Mnglish slaves in the Roman market, and impressed by their golden hair and huge size excaimed, “"Angli sunt, angeli fiant” (They are Angles, but may they be. come angels. And he promptly commissioned a missionary expedition to England, He himself had once wanted to be a Benedictine monk, and the man he picked to head the mission was a Renedictine, Augustine (know as Augustine of Canterbury to distinguish him from the theologian Aug- ustine of Hippo).
The Inglish mission, unlike earlier Irish missionary work, was under direct papal authority, and Gregory took an active part in determining its missionary policies, Three significant missiological principles are stressed in the Pope's correspondence with the mission, First, the mission 1s to be church-centered and church-controlled. In
22
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DECLINE OF ROMAN AUTHORITY
STH-oOLe CENT.
BY the tme of Theodosius | (3467-95) the tensions between the
Eastern and Western halves of the Empire were clearly evident in politics and religion. The Emperor was required twice to invade Italy to secure the rule of his “Co-Augustus™; the division of the realm became permanent under his sons. Under Theodosius II (401-50), Emperor in the East, the Theodosian Code was issued (438). But his rule was unstable and heavy tribute had to be paid Atula, King of the Huns (fl. 433-53). Under Justinian (Byzantine Enip.: 527-65), there was a resurgence of imperial power. Control of Italy was reclaimed from the Ostrogoths and North Africa was regained from the Vandals. Justinian issued a codification of Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis), expounded the doctrine of caesaro-papism. and built the great church of Hagia Sophia. His authority was severely checked, however, by the rise of the Monophysite churches.
In the West, the “wandering of the tribes” and the emergence of tribal kingdoms continued. Such continuity and stability as could be identfied centered in the Bishops of Rome, of which Leo the Great (pope: 440-61) was a representative type. By skillful diplomacy he extended the power of the Roman see throughout the West, and at the Council of Chalcelon his legates played a conclusive role in the settlements. He resisted the Huns and succeeded in getting their forces to withdraw beyond the Danube (452). Symbolic of the division in Christendom, as well as of the changed cultural base in
the Western churches, is the fact that Leo the Great wrote extensuely in Latin but had no use of Greek.
In Gregory the Great (pope: 590-604), who laid the founc dle for the papacy of the Middle Ages, the Western half of the Empire found one of its greatest leaders. Raised in privilege, he sg; property and distributed his wealth to the poor. He was a mak before joining the papal staff, and he remained a strong pat 4 monasticism and the works of charity. As pope he proved aq(t# administrator of the extensive church lands and a skillful peli leader. He resisted the Imperial power and the claims of the Pahoul of Constantinople, made a separate peace treaty with the invade Lombards, eliminated the power of the Byzantine exarch at Ravenna and launched the Latin missions to Britain (596) with Augusty< 4 Canterbury. Among Gregory's extensive writings on Chvs(vm« thought and practice were a book on the work of the bishop #1, became the textbook of the medieval episcopate, and commer on the Scripture. He also laid the foundations of “Gregorian ghe«t He contributed greatly to the mse of shrines expressing pei religious devotion, to the veneration of relics, and to the pejwl cult of miracles attributed to the martyrs and confessors.
In spite of a few leaders of ability, however, the numbe# 4 cultural condition of Christianity — rent by internal divisioas om suffering from the political instability of the times — deed generally from c S00 to c 950.
the Gsltic and Roman churshes were brought together, the combination
Missiology: Fall of Rome to Reformation - 5§
i ‘plan J) Teg ap Neo fe nis s Ulogiced Ngee! je Oe rae ibe he lags conwpnds, o mk, th hussom
VUSSim WH ke Chu cd bb June 601 Gregory wrote to he eee far the right to “ordain bishops in twelve,.places, to be subject to thy jurisdiction, with a view of a bishop of the city of London... receiving the dignity.. from en holy and Apostolical See, which by the grase of God I serve", quoted in B,J, Kidd, Documents Illustrative of the History of the = Church, vol. 144, p. 41). “yrl4
Gregory's second principle of misaionary policy was the policy of accommodation. Do not condemn everything in the pagan Meglish culture but "baptize® as mich of it as possible, he instructed his missionaries, using it as a bridge to bring the Mglish over inte the Christian faith, In another letter that same year he wrote, “The teuples of idols,,should not be destroyed, but the idols that are in “3/4 /' them should be, Let holy water be prepared and sprinkled in these temples.., since, if they are well built..thay should be transferred from the worship of idols to the true God,” He gives mech the same advice consceming pagan rites and ceremonies, Let them keep then, he writes, bus “in a changed form", "Let them no longer slay animals to the devil but..to the praise of God for their own eating, and retum thanks to the giver of all for thelr fulness... For it is undoubtedly impossible to cut away everything at onae from hard hearts, since one who strives to ascend to the highest place mst rise by steps or paces, and not by akin (Thid, pe 42 ff.) LA wise pla - bd wtarthay wh. Hows nee 4 Shilae, « secu |rdtav » (yo ale bts jum Sha cos deed”), cin Shame ; His ‘third pact a was one we heve already observed in earlier cmturies, Thos Christian mission was to be directed toward the conversion of kings and rulers, We shall note this point in greater detail later, But whatever the merits or demerits of the third principle, Pope Gregory's letters give us, as Stephen Neill points out, "almost the first example since the days of Paul of a carefully planned and calculated mission" (Hist. of Missions, p. 67) the success of which can be measured by the fact that only this week oy 6 “ht when @ new Archbishop of Canterbury was enthroned, he was hailed as ()-7 Pregrsivos 8 the 100th successor in direct line of Augustine of Canterbury, Pope Gregory's first missionary to England. d=
i SAz, ¥¥ Moreover, when in the 7th century at the Synod of Whitby as Ww ive ~
of Irish enthusiaga and Roman organisation sent a fresh wave of Anglo-Saxon missionaries to plant their Wenedictine monasteries
deep in the pagan forest of the Frisians, the Saxons and the Germans and assure the completion of the conversion of Murope. The biographies of the most eninent of these pioneers (The Life of St. Willibrord by Aleuin, The Life of St. Boniface by willibald, The Letters of St. Boniface, ~~ The Hodoeporicon of St. Willibeld by Huneberc, The Life of Ste Sturn by cil, The Life of St. Leoba by Rudolf, and the Life of i. Lebuin), all written by thar 8th century contemporaries, “have been translated and auticmiad in one volume be ©, H. Talbot, The Anglo~
_ Saxon Missionaries in Germany (N.Y., Sheed & Ward, 1954).
It 4s true that the principle of accommodation was an in portant part of papal missionary stratezy, at this was almost always held within limits, and pagan practices, where they were considered to compromise the purity of the faith were severely condemed, The mst
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3.Anglo-Saxon Missions, In 664 the two streams of western Christianity, inde- pendent Celtic and disciplined Roman, were brought together at the fate- ee, ful Synod of Whitby. The issue was what seemed to be a minor dispute over bali the date of Easter, but beneath it was the question of the authority of Rome. The Irish claimed the authority of St. John; the Romans that of St. Peter. Wilfrid argued for Rome but it was the king, Oswy, who made the final decision in favor of St. Peter (since he had the keys of heaven). The Celtic church only slowly and reluctantly surrendered its independence but the resulting combination of Irish enthusiasm and Roman organization sent a fresh wave of Anglo-Saxon missionaries to plant their Benedictine monasteries across northern Europe from Frisia to Germany. Unlike the earlier Irish pereaqrini (wanderers for Christ, or missionaries) who some- times iaaeesank missions as much from ascetic and penitential motives as for evangelism, the Anglo-Saxons systematically planned and organized the conversion of Europe around a. papally sp pn averae church structure.
ion he ngllly *pr Aetna , & tcdy bert (d. 729), a Saxon monk, in an Irish monastery was the pioneer who,
in 69 conceived ae vision of an organized mission specifically designed for
the conversion of the Frisians in what is now Holland. When a shipwreck kept
him from reaching his destination he stayed behind to train and send other,
challenging them that as their fathers had left the continent as pagans
some hundreds of years earlier, now as Christians they must take back the
gospelto their distant kinsmen who were still pagan. When the mission was
well under way, in 712 he retired to Iona to persuade that center of Celtic
missions to accept the authority of Rome.
Willibrord (658-739), "the apostle to Frisia" was also Saxon and studied first under Wilfrid the champion of Roman authority at the Synod of Whitby, before going to Ireland to train under Egbert and accept his challenge to missionary service in Europe. In 692 he crossed the channel to Frisia and evangelized against great opposition from the mouth of the Rhine to the edge of Denmark. In 695/6 on the advice of his friend King Pippin of the Franks (father of Charles Martel, grandfather of Charlemagne) Willibrord was made Archbishop ie Utrecht by the pope.
ponieaee teak 754)" "the ohh OS oy St el ‘9 Sprints Pett teed Seal MEALS Saas Che al ¢ Be
the Anglo- ace a Scien ibrord ‘in
sion to the Frisians and in 719 ia a pope's approval for a mission to the Germans. In a spectacular confrontation with pagan German religion he began to cut down the sacred oak of Geismar, and when a sudden gust of wind toppled the tree he was acclaimed as a miracle-worker. More importantly, he estab- lished missionary monasteries (Benedictine), strengthened the German and Frankish churches' ties with the papacy, and reformed the declining Frankish church at the request of the King, Charles Martel, who at the same time was Saving southern Europe from conquest by the advancing Mohammedans. Boniface is well described (by Latourette) as "a man of prayer..steeped in the Scrip- tures, a born leader of men..a superb pease .a great in o,f ue bho es
ef P (fe ere ae IDE Via Rea al a ann ee whe eee Pubs D. Kings and hd "the eae As Bee DP 3% a ie dain Bae flog on. nee ne
Perhaps the most questionable, but at the same time most effective feature of the church's strategy of development in this period (as also in the latter part of the preceding period) was its emphasis on converting nations through the influence of converted kings and princes. All too often the con- version of kings was more political than spiritual, and their influence on be-
Ba
RK See Lal anellr Te, yp 16
Chronological Chart YoULFACE
A.D. 675 (some scholars believe 672 or 673, even 680) St. Boniface
(NG 718
722 732 738-39 741
742-47
754
(Winfrith or Wynfrith) was born. His place of birth is a Matter of debate among the scholars--Devon or Crediton. Educated in a monastery in Exeter and then under Winbert at Nursling.
First missionary journey to Frisia where Wilfrid and Willibrord were pioneers.
Elected abbot at Nursling but refused
Went to Rome for the first time to seek papal support from Gregory II. Was sent to Bavaria and Hesse, but
on the way there from Rome, he heard of favorable conditions in Frisia. Went to help the aged Willibrord, remaining three years. Went then to Hesse and enjoyed great success. Reported the success to the Pope.
Called back to Rome and made Bishop. Gregory III made him Archbishop of Mainz Visited Rome once more.
Charles Martel died allowing Boniface to hold councils to overhaul to French church.
Series of councils were held to reform the churches of France under Canioman and Pepin. Monasteries were brought under the Rule of St. Benedict.
After returning to Frisia, he was killed at Dokkum by a band of angry pagans. Some fifty companions were killed with St. Boniface.
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Missiology: Fail of Rowe to Reformation - 3 Par LL)
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"In the conversion of Burope," writes Prof. Roland Bainton of Yale, "three Christian institutions were at work: monasticism, the papacy, and the civil state. Of the three, monasticism was the most important because monks were missionaries, whereas popes and kings were not." (Christendom: A Short Hist. of Christianity and Its Impact on Western Uivilisation. vol. I. Ne¥,: Harpers, 1946. p. 136)
Monasticism, like Christianity itself, came from Asia to the West. It was brought into western Europe by Martin of Tours about 362 A.D., and was moulded into its distinctively western fora by St. Benedict whose monastery at Monte Cassino, founded in 529 A.D, » ! was not originally designed for missions tut rather for the glory of God and the cultivation of a spiritual life, There is, however, a explosive, outreaching quality in spiritual power, and what were at first only scattered communities of introverted, withdrawm, praying monks became soon, 2S Bainton puts it, "the church's militia in the winning of the West", (Ibid, p. 138) In Fact PE ways the monasteries were well suited as agents of Christian mission, first, they were spiritually revived end deeply committed communities in an age of secularized Christianity é when too much of the Bnpire had been only nominally converted, Net chiky, Ld utedey Sethe, Segond, they were centers of learning, Biblical as well as classical, preserving the Bible and the writings of the fathers when so much of the heritage of the aast was being swept away by the barbarian invaders, Third, they were self-supporting and unencumbered with families, living on the land wherever they were gathered or were sent, at a tine when centralized, papal missions would have bee impossible to maintain due to the collapse of the financial structures of the Enpire, Finally, they had a discipline, which is an almost indispensable wark of a successful Christian micsicr.
Two types of monasticism spearheaded the Christian conversion of Europe. The first tas Irish-enthusiastic, independent and extremely mobile, lt resenbles in some respects the missionary strengths of modem faith missions, The second was Benedictine. more disciplined, organised, moderate and obecient to central ecclesiastical authority, like modern denominational missions (though the gomparison is, of course, oversimplified).
The great period of Irish monastis missions was the Sth and 7th centuries. The Irish (Scots, or Celts as thay were then called) were the pionser missionariesd in nearly all of Europe north of the Alps, and in all of Saxon England north of the Thames, It is {mportant to remember that since the withdrawal of the Roman legions from the British Isles in the early fifth century (410-440), the Celtic church had growm up independent of the Roman papacy. Irish monasticisn, therefore, was more free of ohurch control, less restrained by vows and rules, and, in a curiously indigenous way, was rather closuly tied to families and clans, The Lrish monasteries, says one historian of monasticism, were nothing but “clans reorganized under a religious form" (Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, 7 vols,, Edinburgh, 1841, 444, ps. 86)
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-“‘Misshologys Fall of Rome to Refornation of ¥
‘gifts, he converted the greater part of the people.. entrusting (them) to the care of the blessed Sturm..." Given the methods used in this royal mission, it is not surprising to find later on in the record of a combined military and missionary operation, that "the Saxons, that depraved and perverse people, abandoned the faith.. gave thenselves over to vein errors; and collecting an amy," broke out in rebellion, (Vita Sturm, oc. 22,23, in Bede Kidd, op. Cite, i141, pe 77).
Alcuin, the king's wise counselor, after a few more such unhoppy wissionary experiences in campaigns against the Huns, finally found the courage to give Charlemagne some advice on missionary strategy. But it is not, as we would expect today, a rebuke on the king's use of force to convert pagans, In the middle ages, that was too common and too wall-accepted a practice to arouse disagreement. In essence, what Alcuin suggests is that the king is expecting too mch from his new bear and he quotes Augustine (from On Catechizing the Unlearned)
who advises instruction in the faith in easy stages, sunita had also,
r Ke havrany <<) you reraaber, condoned he | use of force An conversion. ee E Ce fr ntti ra fe eth
eter tS ea ht ES (en rake Co Ogcpoetsy these Sell ¢ Thi's prevailing reliance “in the Middle Ages on political and military weans for Christian mission led straight to Ss oe missionary mistake in Christian history, the Crusades, first Gall of Pupe Urban IZ in 1096 to the kings and princes of Christendom to unite to drive the infidels from the Holy Land~ "An accursed race,, — a barbarous people estranged from God has invaded the lands of the
g Christians,. They have torn dow the churches of God,. (They) befoul
the altars with the filth oft of their bodies... torturing Christians..
bending their heads to try if their swordsman can cut through their ae necks with a single blow of a naked sword... ravishing the women Eee wll (Harold Lamb, The Crusades, N.Y. 1930. ppe ® f. Jemtosthe fall o ; Jerusalen in 1099 when the victorious crusaders poured like Christian
wolves through the streets trampling on severed Moslean heads and hands
and riding through hunan blood that switled above the fetlocks of
their horses (ibid, p. 236 f. from finestocckant the first crusade
to the last in 1271, neither the motivation nor the method of this
kind of Ghristian mission was anything but "irreparable disaster", as
Bishop Nieill calls it. (Hist. of Christian iissions, Pe 173)
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¢ Migstologys Fall of Rome to Reformation os
famous illustration of this in this period is the story of Boniface cutting down the sacred oak at Gelanar. Here is the account from willibald's Life of St. Boniface: (The date is 723 A.D.).
"Some (of the Hessians) continued secretly, others opmly, to offer sacrifices to trees and springs, to inspect the entrails of victims; some practised divination, legerdemain and incantations; some turned their attention to avguries, auspices and other sacrificial rites;... Others, of a more reasonable character, forsook all the profane practices of heathenism and committed none of these crimes, With the Counsil and advice of the latter persons, Boniface in thelr presence attempted to cut cown, at a place calbed Gaesmere, a certain oak of extraordinary size called by the pagans of olden times the Oak of Jupiter, Taking his courage in his hands (for a great crowd of pagans stood by watching and bitterly cursing in their hearts the enemy of the gods), he cut the first notch, But when he had made a superficial cut, suddenly the oak's vast bulk, shaken by a mighty blast of wind from above, crashed to the ground shivering its topuost branches into frag. nents bn its fall. As if by the express will of God.. tne osk burst asunder into four parts... At the sight of this extraordinary spectacle the heathens who had been cursing ceased to revile and began, on the contrary, to believe and bless the Lord. Thereupon the holy bishop took counsel with the brethren, built an oratory from the tiner of tim the a te oak and dedisated it to St. Peter..." (Ce H. Talbot, ODe eit. De As f. Bs x
B, Kings and Rulers,
Perhaps the most questionable feature of the missionary stratezy of this period, as also in the first five hundred years, was 4ts emphasis on converting nations through the influence of ruling kings and princes, All too often the conveysion of kings was more political than spiritual, and their influence on behalf of the Christian church was more often exerted through secular pressures than through gospel evangelisn,
In Scotland, mech of the Christian advance of Columba!s Irish monks, despite their evangelistic zeal, was due to the fact that Colunba himself was a prince, dealing with clan chiefs who were his own relatives, gland was reached through princes like Oswald, King of Northumbria, and Ethelbert, King of Kent, the first Christian king among the Anglo-Saxons, (Latourette, i1, p. 6). France, the German tribes, Bulgaria, Poland, Russia and the Scandinavian countries were all Christlanised through their rulers, and Christian kings, however nominal may have been their conversion often took Christian
mission into their own hands, (172-24 997,
Here is the celebrated account of how Charlemagne, ,King of Hz Frankg, set out to convert the pagan Saxons of Germany (772-602), The Life of Sturm, missionary abbot of Fulda records that "In the fourth year of King Charles's xekgn happy reign, the Saxons were a people savage and hostile to everyone, being mich give™m to heathen rites, King Charles, ever devout and Christian, began to consider how he could win this people for Ghrist. He took council with the servants of God,. Them he collected a large amy, called upon the nane of Christ, and marched to Saxony: taking in his train all the bishops, abbots, presbyters and all the orthodox and faithful... After the
king had arrived... partly by ams, partly by persuasion and partly by
\ Misslologys Fall of Rome to Reformation - 7
gifts, he converted the greater part of the people... entrusting (then) to the care of the blessed Sturm..." Given the methods used in this royal mission, it is not surprising to find later on in the record of a combined military and missionary operation, that "the Saxons, that depraved and perverse people, abandoned the faith.. gave themselves over to vain errors; and collecting an army," broke out in rebellion, (Vita Sturn, cc, 22, 23, in Bede Kidd, Ope Site, 444, Pe i7OF
Alcuin, the king's wise counselor, after a few more such unheppy missionary experiences in campaigns against the Huns, finally found the courage to give Charlemagne some advice on missionary strategy. But it is not, as we would expect today, a rebuke on the king's use of force to convert pagans, In the middle ages, that was too common and too well-accepted a practice to arouse disagreement. In essence, what Alouin suggests is that the king is expecting too much from his new converts, and ho quotes Augustine (from On Catechizing the Unlearned) who advises instruction in the faith in easy stages, Augustine had also, you reu@aber, condoned the use of force in conversion,
This prevailing reliance in the Middle Ages on political and military weans for Christian mission led straight to the greatest missionary mistake in Christian history, the Crusades, from the first Gall of Pupe Urban IL in 1096 to the kings and princes of Christendom to unite to drive the infidels from the Holy Land "An accursed race,, a@ barbarous people estranged from God has invaded the lands of the Christians.. They have tom down the churches of God,. (They) befoul the altars with the filth oft of their bodies... torturing Christians... bending their heads to try if their swordsman can cut through their necks with a aingle blow of a naked sword... ravishing the women .," (Harold Lamb, The Crusades, N.Y. 1930. ppe 3 f. j--to the fall of Jerusalem in 1099 when the victorious crusaders poured like Christian wolves through the streets trampling on severed Moslen heads and hands and riding through hunan blood that switled above the fetlocks of their horses (ibid, p. 236 f. je-from firstochaxkaut the first crusade to the last in 1271, neither the motivation nor the method of this kind of Ghristian mission was anything but "irreoarable disaster", as Bishop Neill calls it. (Hist. of Uhristian Missions, p. 173).
AX x ; 4
CHURCH IN THANG Kg
a eee
THE NSSTORTAN Bibliography:
IIT CHINA
“The 12S
2 *ogste 2T 5 Saeki, The Nestorian ionunent in
ae
John %
Pols The First Christian Mission to Growth of the Vharch in China (635-633 4.).) First Bape ae and cee Uy! 3-(12 see) Recovery Ah dvance (‘7l2é-
Outline:
S. The Period of f Greatest Tf wanee (756-751 A.D.) 64. The. Di Sy savantnae of the Nestorian Ohirch in Ohi
first Christian Mission to China (625-635)
H.G. Moule, Christians in China Before Church of the Ting Dyn
ear 1550 4 A.D
he
China
——
China (635-638 «.D.)
(781-980 A.D.)
Beyond the lands of the turkish and Wongol 1 ic onnural Asia day the great Empire of china. from early tiucs Western Ghristians have reflected traditions and talus of how the Guspel was preagchsd even to the Tninese who live at the end of the world where the sun rises from the sea, 3ut were the old traditions true? Did Christian Missionaries ever actually break throuc: th ring of fYerce warrior tribes that separated China from the a Wera they over
able to cross the huge deserts and high mountains that make ntral Asia the most iso,ated part of the world? When the Jesuits r3ached China in the sixteznth century, they und a
but no Shristians. £ tha out wishful thinkin Then came a dramatic discovery, Jn 1623
Hsian (the ancient Chang'an) uncovered a
colony of Jews inKaifang, missions to China were nothing
Parhao
a 0 he
sors }
of huge stons
r2ports
wen diggi
9 facet high
OL AHNCEG
ar the towm ee = Repel
gh 24
a-third feet wide, of black limestone, beautifully inseribed in Shinesc charactars deneath a dcsign at tho bep contering about a cross. Largs charactsrs Te eeerca it to be "A ionumont comienorating the Propagation of the Ta-ch'in (Syrian)
Luminous Religion in Unina", [t wis a lonament execto
tellin: of
the arrival of a Nestorian missionary named Alopen in China in 635 A.D. and with the discovery of this stone, the history of Christianity in the far Bast was push- ea back about 1000 years.
is shall diseuss thy monument agin La » bit first lot us trace someth- ing of the background history of Christianity; Sentral 43 fore it reached China in 635 A.D. We hava noted ths orogress of Caristinatty anone the Turks from ths Persian side, kot as now turn to obs the aporoach of Christianity on the chinese side of the bie iwbland, (S POSuex, Wake wert
Tho Turks, who beran to be recarmisad as a distinct unit of the Huns about 450 A.D. wer ished ont. of Liang territory into Kansw by the cxnanding Kingdom of Wel.” At that tise they wers 4 smell trivo of only SO fanilies. Troy became the servants of a rélated tribe of Huns called the THE ws In 5he, however, the Turkish soarvants defeuted their mastsrs and the Chief of the Turks bagan to call himself the Khan. They oegan to dominate the nears of the continent, lriving tha Bast Tartars toward Manchuria, ind defeating the Yeshthalite duns in 3actria, dere the Turks found Christians anong the Huns as xe have socn, and -began to turn Christian theinselves,
Shaporo, the lit. Knan of the Turks, was acknowled.2d4 as Eater of the Turks west of the desert by Yaina, and in return sent nominal tribute to the Sul Emperor, mach as Korea did on the other side of the gupiro. His SuUCCgSSOF, t the Sth Khan Duli (1. 599 4.9.), even warrisd a Shinese princess. - 3ut ha riled only t sagtern Turks, and .wsg depsndant on Chinase heln against the Vestern Turks of the Stenpes. His Son Sikir (the 6t Khan), ruled from the Great wall
3
“4c WAS
or of
e do 5) fall st Empero
eurk
The Sui dynusty fell in cit
Dynasty of China, The founier and pula named Li Yuan, was hislf popular man named Li Yuan, hg]
. S
family and was said to have oenn a ‘ies "Kk help~--3,009 Turkish cavalrv sont by ‘Sibir the Khan--that Li Yuan captured the ui, Bin
o
capital, Chang'an from the las ivevor.
But at this point the Turks welcomed some of tru oui princes ona soldicrs raiding the Shansi aorder. In 627 T'ai Tsung, joinod with the Western [Turks front and rear, routed them, took their land, Turkistan beyond Kansu. The Smpzror
Prom the West came
5) Hasternd leleys
pushed
himss to offer trib
ewbassigs
pions iS 2 }
His nae torian VUhristian.
“an to as refugecs. and 626 the second T'a ind smashed the
Lf took the
oy the ‘wreat T'ang
he new dynasty, a powerful, was a Tur the Tu-ka
7
Tt Turkish
ey, ws -
sianee and Also began
the sreat
ay ihe,
nv auiperor,
Bastern Turks from the frontiers of Shina into
7
i Lurks.
at
the amperor
tawL 2 9 Knan ite to the Khan
OL
Changan, and it wis with one of thuse embassies, says Foster (P. 17) that the first missionariss came, Fostcr gives ecridence that Alopen probably cam: with the embassy from
the frontier state of Khotan. Samarkand in 635 } ‘D.
+
t a lion as erie
sen
Kasheir sent ambassadors with vresents of nendess but the King of Khotan "sent his son" (and a Christian bishop? Whe ae is perhaos why the missionariss who accompsanicd him reacvived such an OEE reception. The "Chancellor, Duke
Fang Hsuan-ling (led) an sscort to the western
suburb
aa i a1] 1. " AS ¥ 1G Pablet
ithe es Stabe Sy
(Worstcr p, 22f.)
The wart welcome oy the great Emporor Tai Tsung (627-6550) as an unan- tic a 24 providenca, Yad the mission arrived earlier in his reign they might
yell | ean enetted for T'ai Tsun beg is rule with an aversion to
Ronse Dect toca He favored Confucianism, for it alone was thoroighly Chinsse,
Buddhism he rajocted as Western. "The Suddhs was of the West", his ad- viser Fu-'lih tole him, “Wis words wer: iwischievous,. and he was far from uSece. Tdlc vagaoonds donned the cowl in order to evoid the usu forced ie pour.... Lhey ese are always é a for yoars lator, bh 4 id toleration toward all reli tc ad the "hsisnll (of "Y%eavan-Spirit") rcelizion v @ capital. This S proonoiv Zoroastriasaisi (or Manichagism) from Persin. 17635 £,9,. he welcomed Christian? > Luree years lete: he issued an edict inj.versal toleration towird SGhristianit (Foster P, 1)
Ths ros for this tolorant attitude was vorobably the Smocror's intense
| interest in a revival of learnine. fe was not only 4 warrior, but patron of
learning. The library he built in his capital Ghangan right naxt to his palace is said to hava contained two hundred thousand volumes, "one of the greatedst libraries of the ancient world" (Lbid p. 39) It was the beginning of a universi-~ ty. Ho keot 1 ‘gt! riscied scholars there working on the Confici classics. When he discovered that the new faith which the Porsian missionaries brought
religion of a book, he euimgntianeied bara: flopen 4s an ed guest, translating Scriptures,
ssion to China.
=} honor
his It was an auspicious be
6 (
2ée The Growth of the Church in China (638-683)
é
; Tt was in the yaar 63% that the first Chris China for th. missionmirias from Persia, Rv that tin:
purniea some Chines
apital,
hay |
1.3 eet:
orsian, but "uction in the
9
lal honor
44 canst
Shina, probably rders for shag ind as a m
av)
brought him into tho library,
with funds from hi
at, J
3d. He
,
ad -cived Bishop rdersad him to begin stian
and
ginning for the
Oh iri
tian church was as in
thers ware The Emperor hi
Ge 13
a
own treast on the
t> be hun: W
Between 1916 and 1222 some important manuscript. aiscuvered in Shina ware identified by Japanese scholars as early Nestorian wtings, Saeki «nd Forstor bolieve thay are the original documents translate: by bha first Jestorian missionaries in the great library of duperor Tlai Tsung belwean 639 and oll, for one of them refers to the date of the Messiah's birth "sis hundred and fort»-one years (ago)," The four manuscripts whichave exceeding!’ ‘*mportant in throwing light on how those first ‘lastorians tried to explain t'zfr faith to the Emnsror of China (foster, pp. 45 ff.)
(1) Discourse the Second, a tract on monothasm
(2) Goncerning she Unity of Heaven, 2 more «inplete defense of monotheisa.
(3) Gonserntng the Vorld Hondradaone's Char-iy, contains the sermon on
the Mount and other deren Ue crucifixion, resurrection, Ascension, Pontecost, and the sprvad of the faith thifught Rome and Persia.
(4) An Trt eapctton to the vabbiate which 24 an outline of tue Lifs of
TJasiis; but which begias with a An accountof Man's fall, and idolatry,
and a summary of the 014 Tastament Law (including an extra-Bibdlical . command to serve the Emperor}) When Tac Tsung died in 650 A.D., he was sucecdsd by Hs son Kao Tsung (& ‘o Jong (650-653), who following in his father's footstaps "#ided the fingl embellishment to the truo suct", the tablet states, In every prefuter, it adds, he sstablished "Tllustrious nonastarias", which would mean 358°of thm-probably a puous exaggera} tion. There are records of at lorst nine sugh churclxys a3 the time, however, and there were probably many more. The nino were Chang! in (3), Lovanes Chow=Chin (forty miles from chang 4n; the ruins have been found), Miengtu, Mt. Omei, Lingwa and four others,
Sometime during his rcign be mide Alogen archb.shop of China, undoubdbte- dly with tho consont of the Persian patriarch, The tablit refers to Alopen receiving the title "great soiritual lord guardian", Th: date is uncertain, but it was after 650 4.0. and before 7°1 4,D. (Tt was after 150, becauso tha Patria- rch I sho Yahb ITI refers to 20 vishops and 2 archbisho,} "in the East", in 650; and the be archbishops werg Kashgar and Samerkarid, Andit was befor; 761 4.D because in that year the Patriarch Timothy. speaks. of appinting an archbishop in China— (Foster, P. h3)
3. First Opposition and Pers. 2cution, (663- -712)
Sut for all his kindnesses to the Shristians the Emperor Kao Tsung did them one almost fatal disservice, Hu took one of his fwher's concubines, Wu Hou, who had retired to A Buddist numery after the Emoctor's death, This was a sin by all stancards---Confucian and Buddnic) as yell as Christian, and he wid dearly for his sin, The strong-minde: ycrwlly ambiticus wu fiou in 656 A.D. murdered her own son born to the Emperor and ¢:amesd the Empress. The Sipross was degraded and "iu Hou took her place, finaly. forcing Kao Tsung to rec-
ognize her as his reigning equal, ‘Yhen he died in.6€), the first days of growth
for the Christian church ented, and nnder the Buddhis! Empress Dowazer, the wicked Wu BONG the days of adversity Negan.
Wu Hou quickly depogad her son the nowy Emp sor and took power herself, setting up a now dynasty. Sho was powlrful but sinf.., taking a Buddhist monk as a lover. Sho was fanatically pro~3uddhist, and «jvarontly privately encourag2 opposition to the Christians, Parsscution bagan in {78 4,D. when the monastery in Loyang, an ancient Buddhist strongholi for 600 yetS, wos sucked, The persecu- tion wis never official but fortzon years later it aid reachad the capital of - ;’ Qhang' an where the grat Nestorian Church, the fime in China, was invaded and Violated,
oi, MMe re ae A Visuing, WE Kovtom eornle auschid: Champlin ty 50, Hagel O11, Twamn’ Prithvi. Paselse
ee
he Recovery of of the Church (712. 63)
The violation of the great Chang!an Vhurch was the last dying spasm of the anti-Christian oppsition, for by that time tho power behind the persecu- tion hat: alpsady diced, [ho wicked gnpress, eighty years old hai retired in 705%
The next. strong Superor, after a fow puppets was Hsuan Tsung ( } whose reign was the longsst in the T'ang dynasty; (712-756). It was 2 period of rece ovary for the Church, ‘but of decline for the tynasty, us it faccd the riso of a new power in the Wost, the Arabs. j :
Tho Arabs, it will be romemoered swept through Persia in By 637 thay fad s-cked the capital, Otesiphon, and forced the Pers Kings to flee to Balkh where he Apoealed in vain for Chinese hein, He was killed, but his son uscAped’ ani fled east finally finding PoPUBts ITT: A ar in Chang'an, “When ha diad the Chinese gave his son the title "King of Persia", but he too dis in exile there in 707 A.D., the last of the great Sassanid royal linc,
%
Fortunately for the Nestorians in China,
enenies were the Turks and the Koreans, not the Arabs, asylum to the last of the Sassanids, he did not £9 tO war on their behalf against Such a war would have cut the Nestorian lifeline between its mission
the Arabs, in China and its home base .in Persia;
Moreover the Arab conquest of Persia did Nestorian home church’as had beon feared. Up wu
of Arabian Nights fame (786-809 A.D.), the “ohamnedan tt eemtenietin t
wine AL “i pion fae ee tolerant of the Nestorian minority in the lundds
Zoroastrianism in Persia, for it was the stnbe religion of the cox
But towards the Christian minority they were ve arch Ishoyabh TI (626.6)3) is aic 1a be rch Ishoyabh II (620-643) iss q to, have een
the Emperor Kao Tsung's tiajor So altho he gave
not prove as disatrous to the Myidi-the reign ~rans were conarkably they conquered, They destroved
ry Lenisnt.
Bibliotheca
Orientalis TIT, 11, 2)°95) Wohamnaedta successorg, the Onayvad Saliphs (661-750
A.De), granted the sume relisioy widely in high adwinistrative Arabs learned much of the Gr
,
ca
orians s2‘r rian missionas, Nestorian missionaries ariva
eee wee
to the rigors of the 014 Silk Road, T'ang court in ¢ bishop, Chi-lish, who is mentioned in the The Arabs saened to be mild iZ use of a
missionaries as interpreters and advisers
3y this time France, all acrogs China itself. Pome had shrun centurh were the Arabs and the Yvhinese, And as Chinese west, the to dmpires seemed to be on a frad armies moved east toward T Alarncd at Emdire and Tibet might Unite in a fearful allian Emperor Hsuan ‘sung (712-756) sent his syeatest e3ta1l the union, sitral Asta an one of
story, Gens Kao moved from Kashgar
rice
4sien-chih
iountains and ,
sush to the rection betwaan the Oxus and the Indus, ssful in breaking up the feared coalition, but four years later, in 751, at Talas,
0 the Nestorian mission to Shina wag vninterriotel,
(See 4.0. Luks, Mosul and its ¥ : “ aces ae RARE eS ae
accompanying Arab enbassics to vidua, intega of Arib sea and trade routes to the Far ast which were far superior
The first Arab embassy to China reached the the carly years of Kao Tsung (650-683) later, in 713 A.D. Andowith whe third, in ‘732 Aly, Nestorian experience
inscription on the 7
132-4.D,. the Arab world stretched f¢ 2)
8 freedom to the Nestoriaas aad employed them Soeeus, It was fron the Nestoriang that the eek science and learning which they were later to pass on to a Burope which had in the meantime lost: it
.
S$ ancient Greek heritage,
in fact, some histq
that tho spread of Arab emoire across Asia actually stimulates Yesto-
° 1
inorities) We find, for example, armarently taking
- A second followed much vnere came a Nestorian Nestorian Tablet, in China by anoloying
OM Spaia and Souvhern
>
North Africa and uhe wastes ol Central asia to the borders of sj the imperial giants in the world of the Sth
the Arabs movei1 east collision cours:. 37 Tir a.D. the prospect that the Arab 78 against hin, the Shinese general, a Korean, named Kao Uarching his troops over t' the most extraordinary Sampai ens across the Paitins and the Yindy Phereas in 747, he was suece-
“£3 +t?
v2st of the mountainous hdart of the continent, near Ferghana, he was defeatad
by an Arab arms, area ranots from the centers of Chinese and Arab ful battles of history, and tha Sdeinning of five aa, ItoiPsy Tt algo markad the San tha arGa Was odrmar BAS Gla Tin Ghd teadtsion,
SAX eats §
Pe ho ty}
>
ie ee ee > = Sw a as Se henge apres
"This encoun itor," says B.0, Reischauer, “Yalthou-n fought in an
power, was one of the most fate-
It marked the end of Chinese control over Sentral Asia cburiss of steady military. decline for the Chines3 Seginning ef the Arab canqucst of Sentral Asia, — ananbly convarhed to Tslam,!
(Reischauer and Fairbank,
of Haroun 4l-Rashid,
quered dynasty. The Vestorian Patri-~
given a promise of’ safety for all Christians by Mohammed binsdlLM (Stawaees p, 214, quoting Assemani,
34 4)) favorite concubina, Yang Kwoi-fel, had no will to fight, an
bteyar)hs
Phe Nestorian Tablet tolls us wore of this period of the recovery of the church than of auy other. The church, which had baon gravely threatened by tha
pessecutions of the Empress Wi Hou, was soon restored to life and vigour,
Tha Tablet tells of the arrival of Bishop Chi-lieh in Canton in 71h; and of his final reception in the capital in 732 after many frustrations. He was welcomed with the gift of 4 purple robe, (Fuster, p, 73) The Tavlet also tells of the restoration of she Nestorian churclics, and of the vranting of imperial ‘portraits to tha ehurch as a sign of its return to the favor of the court,
New missionariss arrivyad in 74, 4.0. and were invited to say mass in the palace. In that same year the official Chinese name for the Christ!an religion was chan- ged from "the Persian religion" to "the Syrian relivion, which was a help in avoiding its confusion with such Persian religions as Zoroastrians and Hanichae- ism. Tho edict readss sie ee:
"Tie Persian scriptural religion proceeded from Ta Ch'in (Syria).
. BY preaching and practice it came, and has long ago spread to China, Yrom the first it established iwonasteric&. Concerning the name which is used, it is for the futures wished that men should be instructed toat it is nesessary to restore the original, Its ‘Persian Monasteries! in the two capitals shall therefore be changed te 'Ta Chtin (Syrian) Monasteries! ,") (Foster, pp. 8, 89)
F3r 5. The Period of Greatest Influence. (768-888).
3}
volted and
In 756°A.D, a Turkish general of the Emperor Hsuan Tsunz t leath of his
nz re seized the capital, Changan. The Emperor, still mourning deat
abideated in favor of his gon, Su Tsung 96-763) who with the helo of his famous general, Duke Kwoh Tau-1, rallied three armies to dsfoat the rebels. With these three armies, three forsign religions rose to power in eighth contury China. The first was Buddhism, which was the religion of the Emperor aud his own royal armye The second wag islam, which was the religion of an Arab army seit by ths Galiph in Baghdad G@s @ gesture of friendship, The third was Nestorian Christianity, the religion of many of the Emperor's Uigur allies in later years, . and porhaps at this tine already strong among this warlike tribe, though they ware also strongly influenced by Manichagisn,
Q,
Three men also sband out in this period as influential in the Nestorian Church in China: (1) Duke Kwoh Tzu-I, (2) Issu (or Yazdbosed), and (3) Adan. They are all mentioned in the Nestorian Tablet.
Duke Kwoh Tausl, the greatest general of his time, has been called by | AN de "One of the finest characters in all Vhinese history". (J. MacGowan, The Imperial History of China, Shanghai, 1906, p. 325) Under Emperor Su Tsung ante the tn La-shan rebellion, Jaden PAR (hate Emperor, Tai ronan (763-780) he saved the country from 4 Tibctan iavasion and quelled a mutiny of the Vigurs. His very nane was enough to frighten enemies away, and he died in-honor at the grest age of G5, early in the reign of Teh~Tsung (called Chic:. Chung on the Tab- let; r. 780.808), “Nuch of the favor which the Nestorian church enjoyed at court during these years may have bean due ‘ta the patronage of this powerful mlitary leader. It is not sure whether he was himself a Shristian, but he was at least & eroat friand of tha church, (See Foster, p. 89, 97) He 4s a symbol of tha military protection which the church enjoyed,
bs
oe Shes ao £3 ib * 3
se Serra eer enero ee —S- Ek oy Se an aloe
Issu tho Priest was one of name was probably Yagdbozid,
Ae which is not surprising, since he
1 1s
the Duke's most trusted officers, Tablet hag a great deal to say about him, the man who arected the Tablet.
His Syriac
Ee is
called "Warden of the Palace Gate, Vice-Guard of the Northern Marches, Joint Probationary Tmper Age Chamberlain", and "claw and tusk" to the Duke, and "eye he was a griest, and thé
to the A riy
and ear"
son of a priest in Balkh (Afghanistan).
only .in Sauki,
He was powerful 10% titles indicate.
symbol of thea politic:
Bishop, as his He 15 @ China.
ee meron oe
Probably the third most w2o may well have becn, as Foster assar tion on the Tablet. His Shinese name the identification is correct, he was lar, a translator, and thse author works survive, discoverc| among notable of these is
: 5 + a
PRs cal 1, protuetion whiea the char:
Af Luentia
rt
$2
Tu o
7... More inportant for the church, hangan he became assistant to the the chureh out 63, Gls Foster, pp. 1
1 ny
civil :
yy
1 Christian of the
ae
the son. of Tssu.
documents his "yan of the Saved .to tha iT (Sae AG Ki
of the Syriac "Gloria in Rycelsis eo', Bishop Oyriacus, whose neme, Lliks Adsm! But Adam, and the Hastorians in csn
4+
Suddhist than Christian. So grest wis Adam's fame as a scholar that evan a Buddhist missiouary from India, naned Prajna, céme to hin in 7.6 for help in translating 3uddhist sutras into Shinaso3 and so tolerant was cdam that he agreed to do (foster p. 110 f,) -fhis-pliability of the Nestorians in their relation to other religions has op »enad thom to the charge of synicretisin,. It Cre willbe ramemoured that it was 3 Novcorian Atk the helped nohumicd write the Korca, Whathor it was raligions aynsretism, or wgssary cultural intcrchange,
he Tablet is full of Confucian, Saddnlst.and| Taoist conceasts,
6, Disapeorrance of the Nestorians from China, (81-990 -4.D.)
Sometime in tae two huadred ycarg between 761 aad 9604.0. the Nestorian church completely vanished in vhina, an Arab record written io 937%-reeis: : "Zahind the church in the-Cnristian ouarter (of Baghdad) I fs11 in #ith a cartain monks. who saven voars before had begn sgnt to Chins by the Patriarch with five other ecclesiastics to orine ths affairs o Christianity in thet cou- try into ovder,,.. Joaskad him adout bis trav3ls @nd ne told me that Jaristiani- ty had become axtinet in hina. Tha Christians hid verished in various ways, Their church had bean destroyed. 4nd there réeuainsd not on Christian in China,,"
(Aoulfarar, quoted by Poster; . 115)
This evidence of the di ated by tha fact that fron that period on ceas3 to be mentioned in Shines. historital What hapnensd to wipes out a
No one
EraAt gel akee & suceass in Uhnina? tory ansvor, Sut ws may List bolow sana Ain how tha Nest fF
Sy oral, have
of other works
fomd
» Ti
church which nas yout of - the
beside the Tablet. Tun-nuang cave.
az
en critic
r 2d CLA 4c
w
ti9
DES,
108.£.) the ai ms to have been Ching-ching, He was a classical
2 bhi
itfairs as well 102-10h),
enjoyed in T'ang
d was Adan, of the inscrip- and if scho-~ Three such The most
orio hor
inity", a Chinese translation
3 Saree.
ascribes this hym to
the Te iblet. Pe 248-265 doe ) iaed as being more
sanpecarance of “gstoriani until the Yuan 20rds
fiven \ tentative 4 borians could so somplotely idsapjear from Far distcorn history:
iS)
except in
seemed on the eompl ngwers
A
from Cnina is corrodor~ masty, the Nestorians the past tense,
verge of such sfac~ 2xpl-
sb3sly sati #iven to
ee OMe AS eat ae MENS Re es ie Pa > a uaa es oo ern
j
Loss of Uigur military and political Bippoct; The YVigurs, as we have niet yore fh Dowerful” Tarkish tribe which controlled the great slains and deserta of what 13 now Sinkiang, north of Tibet, throurh which the old Silk Read ran on its way‘to China. They were one of the principal : wilitary allies
+ .
of the Tang dynasty, strong enough to danand and receive for taeir Khun dau- ghters of the Chinese gmporor for wives, But in the 9h g2nkur ry a Viv red. tri:
ba, the Kiran Turks, began to rise to pover. In 032 A.D, they" Jigurs, gor of whom filtered 2s refugees into Shansi, wails others survi ree
as units only around the Tarim River basin, One pf their major religions was Vanichaaism.® Ae thoy fell from pow2r, this relizion was order21] destroyed by the Latar T'ang Emporors, In Uhangan ahone 70 Maniches nuns were killed, tom- ples onrned, and books obliteratcd. (Fostur, p. LIE f, 5)
The persecution and destruction of Manichicism probably also affected ths Nestorians, which, as anotheY "Persian r: ligion was often contused by ths Chinese with Manichasism and Zoroastricnisn, -& touple iascription dated 610-520 aD, says, "Of the three barbarian religious,—-those of ike i(tlanichac- ism), {a Chtin (Ghristianity) and Ysiea (prooably Zoroastrianisn)--thers are not mors’ monasturios in the whols Supire tha: one would find of Baddhist jaon~ astories in ona small city", (cuoted oy Foster, p, 119)
2, Anti-3Buddhist reastion and Cersccutions.: The nuxt "foreica peolic gion to fesl THS wolahs of porssculion was “aio sa. Ths superstitious ercdue lity of some of the wdaker Tang Bmperors in the doslining ycuars of thir power disgusted Confucian intollectuels., ‘Woen jmporor Asien. Tsung (£56-521) YOUNG an alleged bons of Buddha's finger into Changan and veve it sn Tiperial wele+ one, the Confuciinists pavlicly aa aye? In 840 Sonfuctanisces conbined with
ths Taoists in a great anti-. , 8 yearse By aps vial decree, 4,600 duddhi st monastaries and normituces were ordered closed or deutroyei, oxcept for particularly desucifiil ones, and ons in each of the 356 prefecturcs. Thu bells were ordered nieltcd into coins; the procious images wera given to the treasury; tho 261},500 uionks and nuns were ordcred to return to productive work, Buddhism never fully recovered from this erushing blow in Vhina, (See Foster, pv. 121-125)
The same decras dealt with the lesser foreirn religions, Christianit and Zoroastrianism, "43 for the Ta Ghtin ind Muh-hu forms of vorshin, Bae Buddhism has already haan cast out, those heresies must uct alone be 2Llore to survives. | Paople belonging to these also ara to be compelled to return the bh tats fs Jecons tax-payors, ss for FOES 2 let them os returnes to their mm. country..." (Ibid. 2. 123) The deercs statas that morc than 3,990 christian aid Zoroastrian inonks vywre compli saeko return ie) Boe world. If Buddhism, vowerful as it was, never comoletely pecoverad fron that oersuc- ution, how mach more Crippling it wist have bzen to the Littl. soristian
arouvs, When a new edict of toleration was issued in Oh7 4.D. it may heave besn too Late Ths astoriar misaiona apices Wst@ probably alr Hae sone, deport- ed. And the at Aes leadership probably scattered to their Villages, trying
to ‘naks a living.
2¢ The Pall of the Mang dvaasty, t+ this coint u fresh infusion of Lleadarsh*p Fro from Persia nent. have 5559 sble to ravive the Nestorisn remnants, but the death strurclas of ths great Ting dynasty, and its fall in 907 &.D. go diaruptod the linags of eomiasication ta the Woet that i+ is doubtful that
See HS
mies
ss
From the Stone Tower the road into China passed through lands of fierce
Turk and Mongol tribesmen, through citios which tho Romans called Issedon Scyth-
ca (probably Kashgar or Kucha in modern Sinkiang) and Lenedaneaeraes Giitah nalibo Kucha or Louelan) in the Tarim River valley bofore that river runs dry at Lop.-Ner in the burning sands of the desert. (This ig one of the inost isolated soots in the world, chosen therefore vv tha Red Chinese as the place to ex lode their first atomio bomb), Then the road from Antioch, the roal of te. Christian niisse jonaries, joined an even older road from India over which for 500 years Buddhist missionaries had been traveling into Shina, This was in the laid of the Uigurs, and among them too the missionaries were eventually to have great success,
3. Missionary Methods and Success (498-761 A.D.)
a ee e+
All along the old silk road the Nestorian missionaries preached to the nomads of the steppys, those restless shifting horssaen and fierce warriors that roamed like bandit gangs along the edges of the great ommires of Persia «and China, Individually they were the greatest fighters in the world, bit they rarely stuck together in any larze groups long enough to form a raal ariz Yet among these blood-thirsty warriors of the furkish tribes the gentle Gh stan faithe of the Nestorians b2gan to win converts,
Eng" missionary methods of the Nestorians are duscrived by a contemporary Jacobite Christian writing in 555 4.0. We deseribes how two Shristiaus who fled with King K eolea to Bactria in })95 penlgings there for thirty years, married and had choldren. They bogan to evangelize among the Huns (or Turks), and found Christian captives from. Byasnting Rome acong the Turks and ministered to then.
Both of these two missisnariss werc laymen, one of thei was a tanner, Latsr they were Joined by ordained missionaries. A Bishog of Arran, named Karadusat, arrived,
with four missionary Priests, These ordained missionaries stayed seven years, converting, baotizing and evan ordatisin riests from among the Turks. ‘These
missionaries, it is anit Lived on a rigorous diiiy ration of only saven loxves of bread and a jar of watcr a day for all. seven.
Vith their ovangslistic work they combined education. re; taugnt the Huns to write their own langusge. It was the Nestorians for examvle, who brought phonetic wri Tartar tribes’ Like the UJighurs. This is sh wmdtii: from which modern Mongolian and Manchu ars descended. Swoa Shu miss’ nari joined by a practical Arngnian bishop who taught thu Christian 72 .-ks verutables and sow corn. (i‘ingana, OD, Git. Ds 303f,)
Within 50 years, by the middl: of the sixth cantury (§59 A.D.) this eor- bination of evangelistic, educational and agricultural mission asd beourwlt such guccesg that the Bactrian Huns (intershangeaoly called Hyephthalite Yuns, «white Huns, or Turks - the Syriac name for then wis Haphtrayc) asked the Persian Expcror aud the Nestorian Patriarch Apa I to uppoint them a bishop of their ovm. The mnperor Chosroes was amagzcd to hear that even the wild Huns recognized the sythor- ity of the Nestorian Patriarch, and gave his parmission, So the m:ssenger £ far-off Bactria who was bimself a Hun and a ea: ib, wae ordaiis.d Si shopiof tre Huns-th3 first Turkish bishop. By 501 there were so many Chri.:tiais among the nung that whon Rome (Byzatine Rome, that is, the Groek Constantinoole) warred with the Turks, thay found that thair Turkish prisoners all had srosses tattooed on their foreheads. It is ironic that today the work "Turk" is practicall synonmmous lth Moslem, as Mingana observes, whereas in roality their ancasbeors were zealous Christians before Mohamaed was eveh born, (Thid. pis 31, 30k fap
Beginning about the middle of the next century (6h A.D.), just—aethe fyrahs +> syoaning into 2 the southwassers—reaches af tha fallins 2 Peysian timp >, 04 1$s sOrtheastorn frontiar the missionaries wo re exulting in mags-corrersions ) te Aue 5, A Hoste
Aad Mtn, Weer ae on oe | sae AL Wee < |r Ze yyes
ting
sean ia len atin caine eeenn eae
had surrounded himself ibn Shristians who wore assured that the imperor would: goon turn Christian {1,0. jestorian) himself. lis personal clerks were Nesto- rian, and Nestorian ohana was placed in front of the royal teat, with
public chants and tha beating of toblebs loudly taking place at apoointed horus, (W.W. Rockhill, ODe Cite De 29)
Gatholic envoy, Villiam of
second Ronan “arakormm, Mangu Khan (hsi-nsg ), son
Some years later, in 1253, 2 Rubruck, reached the Monzol court at of Tuli, was now Emperor. Wis mothor was the erait orincess, Soyorgnactani-~ bagi, whom Jenghiz had married to his son Tuli, Rubruck found that the capital had twelve haathen temtes, tro Nohsimmedan mosques, and one Nestorian church (Rockhill, Ope cit. De 221). claim that Mangu was fae ly baptized by
Armenian bishop, attributed to Yaithon (fist. Orient. p. 35f.) who dates the
ny 419
eer in 1253 when the Armenian kinz, Yer Thun ry Visited the Pate Court. La disputed by Rockhill, (op. cit. p. 239) In all of Rubruck's contacts with the Great Khan, Mangu, notably i che farious debate before ths court betveen Wanichees, Moslems, Nestorians aad Rubruck, revresenting Roman Catholicisn, the Zmperor only listened tolerantly, “o-vave no Bien of conversion. ‘In fact, afterwards he confided his ow faith to Rubruck as follows: "Jo...believe there is only one God,,..but as God ives us the ese finvers of the hand, so he gives to men divers ways..." His parting word was aliuost a confession that his basic faith remained shamanist, "God gave you the Scriptures," he said, "aid you do not keep them; ne save us diviners, we do what they tell us, and we,live’ in peace," (Rockhill, ov, cit. po. 230 ff., esp. 235, 236) +ne iby gna of the three brotusirs (angi, Uulagm and kholei), from 125) to 129h A.D., marked the ish ooint of Nestorianism in the Yuan dynasty, and under Khublai it wag brought back into China. The following Gynastic chart indicates tha central position of this oeriod ia the dynastic history: 1. Jenghiz Khan (4, 1227) — be 2, Iyvodai (r. 1229-1211) Tuli (dy 1232) - &. Soyerghackay -begi (Srrecan)
\
3, Koyuk (vr, 12h6-12h0) tod en er a ore he Maney (r. 1251-59) a) Hulaeu (ys 1263-65) 5, Khaublai (r. 3. Asia, 1260-129) a ULE Se | Malca (1265-02) nmed (2292.2) ae run (12 L) ae 4nar (129); ~1306) Six Bmperorsg Hudrpn- adwocti by a Western 13. Tovhon-imar (1333-64) Khabla- « 9 Chanter Sthtlan ~ BGR ve
Fan Gry - i do rad CO a hae)
The Keraits wore not the only important “Neateed an influence in seca China, Three of the powerful Mongol trives were in large part Christian. peat The Keraits, as has bean noted, were in high offices in the courts of Jenghiz, Ogodai and vangu, thanks to their marriage connection with the Khans. ‘The Onguts were snother tribe with a large concentration of Christians, They were strategically tinportant for their contro) of the major land routes between China and Mongolia, A third tribe, the Turkish Uighurs, were still militarily Simificant and had been converted by tho Nestorians jn ey Cs hoped bers .
; (ug since tha days of the Trang dynasty [de at a Y r dynasty. Ins « Fase ~ aide nag hel t Baghdad Be Msi rAd
Sometime around the yaar 1270, with the defeat of Sung China, Khublati a fhan becams @mperor of Ghina and moved his caoital from Karakorum in Mongolia “thy to Cambalue (Peking). With him the Nestorians came back into China to reastab— ‘Meld lish their archbishopric in the capital, and in Ehublai's reign Chinese lestor- ® lanism reached its avex of international significance, and for the first aise Nestorian missions ah if oe A » pepenpiced SSRN with the east sending its PARP et sh
to. the west. Yon oh ies Bde aga |
it: aay Ake
se aye i rah A tae Bante ac tek sh Me ‘e it L275 rela hark Lehs ne of a hye eee acol, and his
friend, Bnother Nestorian ai fis te Satna, left Poking for a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. Stopping on the way at tre Nestorian vabriarchate in 3aghdad, they visited some of. thd andiont liestor.an holy placeg--Arbela, and Nisibis, site of the ancient thedlogical semivary. Wien troubled political conditions pre- vented them from proceedins to Jerusalan, they decided to stay in Persia rathe® than return to oe although the Patriarch urgad Mark to go back und offerad hiin the vosition of Metrooolitain (Archbish nop) 9 f Ghina. Wark finally consent- edy:; and was Miganorsie archoigshop in L260 4.9. ug the age of 38 But tie Noung, hindgome, dascerbevded" “ine tane wag destined evar to ude hks homelund agains For more than two years he onde to cross the nigh roads of asia, but wars blocked his passage, In the neantime, tho Patriarch of the Nestorian Church had died, and una<pectedly bh high council chose a3 his Sidcessor the stranger from far-off China, He was shocked... "I cannot even speak Syriac (the mere of the church)," he said, But the wise Nestorians who fad lived successively under Roman, PsPsian and uray cdnauerors, knew that in the 13th céntury it was the Mongols who ruled the world, and they were therefore deter- mined for polibical reasons to hava a Mongol Patriarch.
Their visdom was soo Apparent. In 1257 Khublai Khan, ruler in tie east, acting on the advice of the Ilkhan Argun, tulor in the west, appointed the Patriarch! s Chinese friexn@ and companion, the bishoo Rabban Sauma, to repro- sent the Mongols on 4 diplomatic iission to Rome and Paris.. Once again the star of the Nestorian Shurch had risen highs as the bishop from the cast met with dignity the kings of the west, ey the Fair of France, and Edward the T of Sngland,- JAS Pula - ‘terial bree g k pani, 4 Wok (ore) *£ jie ie ith eu, Makes. Pajrtents 1 wdhiopeGlng ae 3 Politics, however, are a: tne Bens at best for pvowar and stability
in the Chrfstian church, aad thy Westorians who had pinned their hopes for revival tothe Mongrel Mois wero not to enjoy the results of solitienl favor for'ldtic,:
Reainah by a H
ine Mike rg
Site a a Coothand «
re ht eh sr pe
The immediate results of e¢lose connections with the Western Khans in Persia and Syria gave a temoorary illusion of a return to Nestorian power. Under Arghun, who died in 129], and under his two brothers who succaeded hin, Kaikhata (1291-95) and Baidu (1295), the Monczol Patriarchate had great influ- ence, The governmant gave lavishly to the building of magnificent Nestorian churches, particularly in and around Baghdad, But none of the Khans was actua- lly converted or baptized, When Baidu died soon after he ascerded the throne, his successor wags Kaikhata's sou, Ghazan. And Ghagan was an ardent Moslem.
swiftly the prospects of the Nestorians in Persia changed. Churches were destroyed by thea Moslems. The Patriarch, Mongol though he wis, did not escape arrest. Hung up, head dowrrard, with a handkerchief full of ashes ovser . his mouth, he almost suffocated and barely escaped with his Life. Intermittent persecution continued for years. Onl; the friendship of a Christian queen saved him, ‘hen churches were rebuilt, they were ouickly destroyed again. Christians ware heavily taxed, The Mongol Patriarch, Mark, known as Nar Yahballaha ITI, who had Seen crowned at Mar ok: nuar 3azhdad on Nov. 2, L26L with such high hopes of political suecess, diad anidst widcesoread persecution in 1344 Aes The Nestorians novor ies came back to power. (See E.G. Moule, Shristians in China before 1559 es Ope M-127) at
et ae ee
Prégacuted by tha last of the Sy oaag in Porsia, eid only bolorated or the Great Khans in Pekinz, the iestorians did not survive the >reak-uo of the Pets liongol Smpires In Persia the:riia of the ‘iongols crumbLad after 1335, and the sche Moslems once more todk over tho wear Basb, ae i
In China, where a renort adout 1330 4.9. declared tiat thore were wore than 30,000 Nestorians in Qathsy; the Mongol. Emperors fell to the victorious Chinese Ming dynasty in 130°, und sua Mesborians fell with thew. Peking wag almost re aa aS and di the massacres that followad, all thut had connection aye F with the Monogols was rootad ont. "Vith the Mongols Maps shed bueie probsges, ky oe the roketunanut mites Vichael Prawdin, in his The Mongol Binoire, Whe Chri- i oe | Stian settleme nbs and the Nohamredin colonies were ea ‘the bishoprices ey Fe ceased to exise;s the priusts were murdered, even the cemeteries were dismantle?," | fay (if. Prawdin, The Mongol Smpire: Its Rise and Legacy, London, allen &% Jmrin,
150. pe 388)., Tha lay word in the abova sanhanes, perhaps, is "forciener", Ag = | After seven hundred vears in C* ina, bhe Nestorians were still. foreien it * y ;
Syrians, then Keraits and Jiechurs and Monvols,. “ut not Chinase. cause they ais: . ; had failed to win the Ghinesoa to Shrist, they vanished from Ynina almost «ithe an i out a trace, ie
William of Rubruc]+, in his nlancholy description of Iestorian at the L a4) - ‘ ay L » \ court of the L3th century Khang suzceuts why thoy had host the voner to
22
yy, Lae Rama Aath $4 - nw ‘ -o = a * 1 convert. AS a Roman Catholic ho periavs axacceates Testorian AGAKNIeS3eAs, ob
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from the picture he resents it anism was any longer really Christian, aro Nestorians," he writes, about 1254 A.D.
they say their servica and hive sacred books they are
in Suriac
ignorant) from which they sing just like uneducated monks
is questionable whether Mongolian Nestori- "In fifteen cities of Cathay there "(They ) know nothing.
For
of which anongst they are
(a
lansuage
First
go Lato church they wash their
ourselves; and in this way they have become wholly corrupt.
usurers and drunkards. Soma of them also, who live with the Tartars, have several wives like the Tartars, When they
lower Limbs like tha Saracens, They eat flash on Friday...
out rarely in that Land--scarcely once perhaps all their boys, evon in the cradle, to be ordained ALL their men are priest, and after that they mar
contrary to the deerecs of the Fathers; and thoy the priest marry a second wife when the first is dead,
v
to simony, Administering no sacrament without a fee. ; g
in fifty years. priests, so that rv, which thing is commit bigamy, for
4 bishop comes cause almost dlainly even
are also given
™ r They
They
They are concerned for
their wives and children so they strive not for the spread of the faith but for gain, And so it comes to oe that when any of them bring up some of the sons ty the Moal (Monsol) r bles, althoush they teach them the Gospal
id the faith, yet by their =i Life and covetousness they still. more TE tham from the Christian religions sor the lives of the Moals them- SClveéSee arg mors innocent than their lives." (Qubruck, in Roc} ill, ope cit. ppe 157-159)
So completely did Christianity disapoear with the fall of the Mongols that it is not clear what roally hagpened to the Christians. Most of what was left of the Mongols became 3uddhiste So, too, probably did the Ncstor- lang in China, In Persia and Centr a asia the chet am becans Moslem,
Timur (Tamerlane, 1336-1405 4.0N.), last of the'Nongol conquerors rode out of is capitel in Samarkand and SED Nestorians all across Ceatral «sia ind Persia, Only a f sockets found refuge in the high mountains and sur-
; ° 4 vived, notably in Kurdistan (Assyria), whera sone
renna
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VLADIMIR THE RUSSIAN VIKING By Vladimir Volkoff. .
Illustrated. 384 pp. Woodstack, N.Y.:
The Overlook Press. $18.95:
By John Greppin
HIS is an impressive biography of Vladimir
I (9602-1015), the sainted ruler of Russia
who brought Christianity to that pagan land
by the force of his imperial power. Born-the bastard son of Prince: Svyatoslav of Kiev and a lady-in-waiting, he distinguished himself early for his uncommon wisdom, courage and guile in battle. He also distinguished himself for his prowess with women, and ‘‘Vladimir the Russian Viking,’’ by the novelist Vladimir Volkoff (‘‘The Turn-Around”’ and “The Set-Up’’), is to a great extent a lurching from gory battles to carnal sprees of gargantuan: proportions.
Many of the earliest Russian princes were in fact Scandinavians, Vikings if you will, who moved east from their traditional homes to the land of the pohitically backward Slavs. Following the extensive river systems, they settled as far south as Kiev,.and it is there that probable descendants of Rorik of Jut- land ruled. Indeed, the name “Rus” itself is of Swedish origin, and in the ninth and 10th centuries its use referred to Norsemen rather than Slavs. These Norsemen, however, having settled in Slavic lands, eventually adopted the Slavic language, and the blood of these two vigorous.peoples merged.
flowing Russian rivers; it was these rivers in part
that made the Slavic lands important, for they car-
H ried commerce. The Dnieper leads from the north
down through Kiev and on to the Black Sea, whence
larger ships could proceed to Constantinople, the
4 |capital of the Byzantine world. And taking the Volga, one debouched into the Caspian:Sea; from there one could go by another boat to Persia and thence to the fabled Baghdad of the Arabs and on to India for trade.
At this time in history the eastern Slavs were hard pressed by Turkic tribes coming from Central Asia. The Pechenegs, a Turko-Tatar people, were particularly meddlesome, a nomadic nation that harassed the settled Slavs with scant remission. But it was these Turkic people, as well as ather Slavs, that Vladimir managed to control during his impressive 37-year reign. Sent from Kiev to Novgo- rod far in the north as a 12-year-old prince, he even- tually, after the death of his father, took Kiev from his brother’s control and added to his own power many other cities, among them Smolensk, Rostov and Pskov. Thus Vladimir became the first to bring
under one rule the far-flung cities of ancient Russia. F He did this from his throne in Kiev; so was begotten _| Kievan Russia.
Vladimir was born a pagan, a worshiper of an- cient Indo-European gods: Perun, who controlled thunder; Volos, who guarded cattle; and other ob- scure dieties. These gods did not recommend the meekness urged on Christians by their Scriptures. Mayhem and rape were the rule. An ancient Rus- sian chronicle records that Vladimir had, before his conversion to Christianity, 300 concubines in one
city, 300 in another and 200 in a third. The monkish
| .|| chronicler notes that he was ‘‘insatiable in vice.” -
} His energies were apparently so great that Thiet- mar of. Merseburg, who traveled in Russia, called | him ‘‘fornicator immensus et crudelis.’’ But these comments might be exaggerated, attempts to show | the sordid state of Viadimir’s soul before he em- raced Christianity, for to this butchery and rape i must be added a theme of religious discovery. Viadimir was a thoughtful man. He respected
4 _ John Greppin is a pro 3 | Clev land State University.’
< A # aot? *)
5) Pagan Into Saint
There was considerable traffic on the south--
the Greeks in Constantinople and was intrigued by their God. He slowly came to see his paganism as a backward religion and sought out spokesmen for
. other religions to enlighten him. There were numer-
ous possibilities: the Islam of the Turkish tribes; the Roman Catholic Church in Germany; Judaism. as practiced by the Khazars; and, of course, the Or- thodoxy of Byzantium. Enlightenment was readily available to a prince so powerful. The believers of
_ Islam told him of their glorious god but informed
him he would be compelled to give up alcohol. This, Vladimir said in true Russian fashion, was prepos- terous. He was intrigued by the Jewish Khazars until hé was told that, as a punishment, their god) had banished them from their land. Vladimir had taken considerable pains to create his empire, and didn’t want to risk it for a god who might Send him
St. Vladimir (960?- 1015), icon in the cathedral, Archangel, U.S.S.R. Illustration from “‘Vladimir the Russian Viking.”’
from it. Inquiring of the Germans, he learned that one must fast to the limit of his strength.. This too was uninteresting to Vladimir. But the beauty of the Greek church, its ritual, its song, its grandeur, eventually prevailed. Vladimir was baptized by bishops from Byzantium in 988, as were the people of Kiev shortly thereafter. Others followed.
O Kiev, the site of the first capital of Rus- sia, became Christian. At this stage there was no distinction between the Ukraine and Russia. And though the Russian spoken in northern Russia was without question different
' from the language of Kiev in the south, it was not
until the 12th century that the Ukrainians were seen as a people separate from-the Russians. This fact now creates a difficulty, for 1988 will be the 1,000th anniversary of Russian Christianity. The people in the south of the Soviet Union see it as a Ukrainian event as it was initiated by Vladimir in Kiev, now the capital of the Ukraine; others see it as a Rus- sian event for it occurred in the land of the Rus. It is likely that the Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev; will wisely leave it to others to’decide the issue. Mr. Volkoff is a credible popularizer; he creates clear pictures, he has an eye for the attrac- tive, and he is knowledgeable as well. Yet he lacks . continuing insight. He does not write at the level of
-Robert K. Massie, for example, whose book on
Peter the Great was so successful. Nor does he match W. Bruce Lincoln, whose study of the Roma- novs has added so much to our understanding. But material on Vladimir I is hard to come by. ‘‘Vladi- mir the Russian Viking’’ answers a need. O
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w PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (2) C enh. pow re) CN82!1 7 PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 08540
SAMUEL H. MOFFETT
_ 31 Alexander Street Professor of Mission and Ecumenics
Princeton, N.J. 08540
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