W2.05 CRANIOMETRY OF NEW GUINEA BY WILFRID D. HAMBLY CURATOR, AFRICAN ETHNOLOGY THE LIBRARY OF THE .31940 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS •WniiMrtmmnpir JFIIP imnniiirnnnomni '■ ^/CAGO ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME XXV, NUMBER 3 FEBRUARY 29, 1940 PUBLICATION 465 THE UCBAHf OF THE UNIVERSITY Itf lUiMI 138 14-2 144 14-6 h 200 Kilometers About- 125 Miles MADANG Former FRIEDRICH WILHELM_| HAFEN 10 CENTRAL NEW GUINEA For explanation of numbers see tables, pages 88, 89 CRANIOMETRY OF NEW GUINEA BY WILFRID D. HAMBLY CURATOR, AFRICAN ETHNOLOGY THE LIBRARY OF THE MAR 18 1940 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME XXV, NUMBER 3 FEBRUARY 29, 1940 PUBLICATION 465 TKINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS Fft OS J v;26 3 CONTENTS PAGE List op Illustrations 85 I. The Nature and Provenance of the Field Museum Collection . . 87 II. Technique of Measurement 90 General Principles 90 Remeasurement of Fifty Skulls 92 III. Age and Sex in the Collection 122 IV. Grouping of the Data 126 V. Frequency Distributions and Sex Differences 222 Introduction 222 Interpretation of Diagrams 222 Measurements Made in situ near Merauke 225 VI. Contours of Skulls from New Guinea and Other Regions . . . 239 VII. Comparative Study of Craniometry of New Guinea and Adjacent Regions 244 Introduction 244 The Coefficient of Racial Likeness 244 Comparison of Average Measurements 263 Conclusions 270 Appendix: Tables Giving Coefficients of Racial Likeness . . . 273 Bibliography 282 Index 287 83 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES XXXI. Male (left) and female of Borbor. XXXII. A male of Watam, Kirau, front and side views. XXXIII. A male of Sissano. XXXIV. Two females of Merauke, front and side views. XXXV. A female of Merauke, front and back views. XXXVI. Head-hunting trophies of Merauke, photographed in situ. XXXVII. Two warriors of Merauke, and two newly acquired heads from a village west of Merauke. XXXVIII. A male of Merauke, front and side views. XXXIX-LXXIV. Skulls of various types that have been measured. Identifica- tion numbers are given in the legends. Reference should be made to pages 130-221 for details of measurement. TEXT FIGURES PAGE 12. Cranial capacities 226 13. Lengths of skulls 227 14. Breadths of skulls 228 15. Cranial indices 229 16. Skull heights, basion-bregma 230 17. Horizontal arcs over glabella 231 18. Horizontal arcs over ophryon 232 19. Sagittal arcs 233 20. Vertical arcs over bregma 234 21. Bizygomatic widths 235 22. Nasal indices 236 23. Facial indices 237 24. Facial triangles 238 25. Baining males, Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, front and side views . . 255 26. Melanesian male, Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, front and side views . 257 MAPS PAS Map of New Guinea 81 DRAWINGS Average Contour Drawings of Skulls of New Guinea (natural size) Vertical 238 Horizontal 238 Sagittal 238 Composite Contour Drawings of Skulls of New Guinea (natural size) Vertical 240 Horizontal 240 Sagittal 240 Average Contour Drawings of Skulls of New Guinea Compared with Those of New Britain, Australia, and the Wateita of East Africa (natural size) Vertical 242 Horizontal 242 Sagittal 242 85 CRANIOMETRY OF NEW GUINEA I. THE NATURE AND PROVENANCE OF THE FIELD MUSEUM COLLECTION The material studied in this publication was acquired mainly by the Joseph N. Field Anthropological Expedition to the South Sea Islands, 1909-13, under the leadership of Dr. A. B. Lewis, Curator of Melanesian Ethnology, to whom I am indebted for the explanations and notes given in the tables (pp. 88, 89, 223), also for some photographs of physical types (Plates XXXI-XXXVIII, Figs. 25, 26) and for some measurements made in situ near Merauke. A smaller number of skulls was collected by Curator G. A. Dorsey, who visited New Guinea in 1908. A few purchases were made from J. F. G. Umlauff, who obtained the material from Cap- tain H. Voogdt. Some of the skulls were obtained from F. Boas, W. D. Webster, and J. Nathan. The only research work on this collection is that of G. A. Dorsey (1897), who made a few measure- ments on fifteen skulls. Students interested in the general geography and ethnology of New Guinea will find a well-written article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (14th ed., vol. 16). A publication prepared by Dr. A. B. Lewis (1932) gives an entertaining and instructive account of the Melanesians. Seligman (1909) has given a helpful classification of the natives of British New Guinea. The general provenance of the material is fairly well established, but by no means can we be certain that each skull belonged to an inhabitant of the village from which the skull was obtained. The Merauke people are head-hunters; so also are those of Strickland River, and probably the inhabitants of Girara also. Skulls from the Purari Delta probably combine head-hunters' trophies and ancestral skulls. Skulls from Borbor, Murik, Kirau, Bure, Sissano, Warapu, and Dallmannhafen are probably ancestral (see Map). Yet the material, though inadequate for the study of family or village groups, is, in the aggregate, sufficient for the determination of the craniometrical characters of males and females of two main localities; namely, portions of the northern and southern coasts of the island of New Guinea. In the first place, measurements and statistical work took cog- nizance of the local groups however small, and of the two main topographical regions, northern and southern. Then statistical 87 88 Craniometry of New Guinea methods were used for determining the significance of the group differences, with a view to ascertaining with what validity the groups might be combined and considered as one population. The general scope of the research aims at: (1) Studying vital statistics by noting the ages of all skulls measured. (2) Establishing from the data the relative craniometrical characteristics of males and females. Forty-four charac- ters have been measured, and, from these, fifteen indices have Provenance of Skulls from Northern New Guinea Number of Skulls Male Female 1. Ibunda (lower Sepik River) 4 2 Topographically Nos. 1-7 may be considered as one region 2. Magim (lower Sepik) 4 3 Accent on last syllable (Magim) 3. Coast near mouth of Sepik 6 1 4. Borbor, east of Sepik mouth 5 4 5. Murik, near mouth of Sepik, and a few miles west of Kirau 10 4 Accent on last syllable (Murik) 6. Kirau, a little west of Sepik mouth 10 8 7. Bure, east side of Sepik mouth 7 8 Accent on last syllable (Bure) 8. Sissano village, thirty miles west of Eitipe, Berlinhafen 5 4 Melanesian-speaking people 9. Warapu, about eight miles inland from Sissano 21 7 Papuan-speaking people 10. Arop, about ten miles east of Sissano 9 10 Localities 8-10 form a Sissano group. Accent on last syllable (Arop) 11. Isle of Guilbert, Dallmannhafen 0 1 Localities 11 and 12 form a Dallmannhafen group 12. Dallmannhafen 5 0 Totals 86 52 Field Museum Collection 89 been worked out. The study includes a comparison of small local groups, and of northern and southern populations. (3) Instituting comparisons with other craniometric measure- ments from New Guinea and other areas. (4) Testing the value of formulae for estimating cranial capacity. This can be done by comparing the results obtained by use of formulae with the figures resulting from direct measure- ment by the mustard seed method. (5) Remeasuring fifty skulls as a test of accuracy in technique. The work was carried out in the Laboratory of Physical Anthro- pology, Field Museum of Natural History. For advice on points of technique and statistical method thanks are due to Dr. Gerhardt von Bonin, who generously co-operated. Dr. G. K. Neumann, of the University of Chicago, kindly assisted in making 360 contour drawings. Provenance of Skulls from Southern New Guinea Number of Skulls Male Female 1. Purari Delta, Papuan Gulf, British New Guinea 18 12 2. Twenty-two miles up the Strickland River, a tributary of the Fly River 3 0 3. Girara, British New Guinea, between Fly and Bamu rivers 4 0 People of Girara, east of the lower Fly River, are culturally different from tribes of the Fly and Bamu rivers 4. Arpooroo, Bamu River 4 1 Bamu River flows into the Papuan Gulf, east of Fly River 5. Merauke, Dutch New Guinea 9 5 Accent on middle syllable (Merattke). The Me- rauke are one of the con- quering tribes who came from the west along the coast Totals 38 18 II. TECHNIQUE OF MEASUREMENT General Principles A student who wishes to acquaint himself with the difficulties of technique will find that the literature falls into two categories. On the one hand there are general historical surveys dealing with anthropometric measurements since the time of Paul Broca, about eighty years ago; and on the other hand many papers have been devoted to discussion of the details of craniometrical and other techniques. From the long list of articles available I would specially recommend those of Miss M. L. Tildesley (1938) since these give a clear historical outline of the growth of the problem, together with a summary of the proposed work of the Comite de Standardisation de la Technique Anthropologique. Other useful summaries are those of Morant, Tildesley, and Buxton (1932), and Howells (1937b). For my own work I have relied chiefly on the definitions of the London Biometric School, whose technique is well summarized by Morant (1927, p. 417; 1928, p. 362). Morant clearly indicates the degree of agreement between his definitions and those of R. Martin (1928). At certain points I shall refer to Martin's technique and to his illustrations of instruments, but one cannot give a full account of Martin's technique here, since his definitions, explanations, and diagrams occupy a hundred pages. Some of the troublesome points in Martin's technique and definitions are discussed by Wagner (1937, pp. 32-38). I have derived great help from an article published by Buxton and Morant (1933), and if a student is in doubt about the technique I have followed he will find the explanation in that article. Buxton and Morant give clear photographs illustrating their definitions of porion, nasion, lambda, opisthion, basion, and the nasal spine. My method of making measurements on the palate is that shown by Buxton and Morant (1933, Plate XII, Fig. C). The following summary of points of measurement and definitions is given for ready reference. To aid comparative study the measure- ments include three methods of taking nasal height, three methods of measuring the orbits, and two methods of recording the length of the palate. Notes on the correlation of my H' and BQ' with other methods of recording the height of the skull and the trans- verse arc will be found in an article by G. M. Morant (1928, p. 362). 90 Technique of Measurement 91 List of Measurements and Indices Taken on the Skulls of New Guinea L= Length, maximum glabello-occipi- tal, in the median sagittal plane B = Breadth, maximum calvarial B'= Minimum frontal breadth between the temporal lines H'= Height, basion-bregma LB = Length of base, basion-nasion Si = Frontal arc, nasion-bregma S/= Frontal chord, nasion-bregma 82= Parietal arc, bregma-lambda S2,= Parietal chord, bregma-lambda S3 = Occipital arc, lambda-opisthion S3'= Occipital chord, lambda-opisthion S = Sagittal arc, nasion-opisthion GLU = Horizontal arc through glabella and the most prominent part of the occipital region U = Horizontal arc through ophryon and the most prominent part of the occipital region BQ'= Vertical arc over bregma from porion to porion GB = Breadth of face between the lowest points of the maxillo- zygomatic sutures J = Maximum bizygomatic breadth G'H = Height of upper face, nasion to alveolar point GL =Basion to alveolar point NHR and NHL = Nasal height, right and left. Nasion to the lowest edge of the pyriform aperture on the right or left side NH'= Nasal height, nasion to the base of the anterior nasal spine NB = Greatest breadth of the pyriform aperture OiR = Breadth of right orbit, from the point where the naso-frontal suture is cut by prolongation of the orbital margin 02R = Height of the right orbit OiL=Breadth of the left orbit 02L = Height of the left orbit Oi'(R and L) = Length of the orbit, right and left, measured from the point where the naso-lachrymal suture meets the naso-frontal suture Lac OiR and L = Right and left, from the point where the lachrymal crest meets the fronto-lachrymal suture SC =Interorbital width from dacryon to dacryon Gi = Length of the palate, from the tip of the posterior nasal spine to the intersection of the median sagittal plane and an imaginary line tan- gential to the inner alveolar margin of the middle incisors G; = Breadth of the palate between the inner alveolar walls of the second molars Gi'= Shorter length of the palate excluding the spine, measured from the base of the posterior spine EH = Height of the palate, taken with Pearson's uraniscometer in the median line between the second molars. The measurements were repeated with a more accurate in- strument supplied by P. Hermann of Zurich f ml = Length of the foramen magnum from opisthion to basion f mb = Breadth of the foramen magnum 100 B/L = Cranial index 100 H'/L= Height-length index 100 B/H'= Breadth-height index 100 (B-H') /L = Breadth -height -length index OcI=S3/S3'= Occipital index (see M. L. Tildesley, 1921) 100 G'H/GB = Facial index 100 NB/NHR=Nasal index 100 NB/NH'= Nasal index 100 O2/O1 = Orbital index, right and left 100 02/Oi'= Orbital index, right 100 02/Lac Oi = Orbital index, right 100 G2/Gi= Palatal index 100 G2/Gi'= Palatal index 100 EH/G2 = Palatal height-breadth index 100 fmb/f ml = Index of the foramen magnum A Z = Alveolar angle B Z= Basion angle N Z= Nasion angle P Z= Profile angle Pros P Z. The angles A, B, N were measured with a protractor from the facial triangle which was con- structed from the measurements LB, GL, and G'H. The alveolar P angle is the angle which the Frankfurt horizontal plane forms with a line joining nasion and alveolar point. This is the Frank- furt profile angle. The alveolar point is the lowest point of the alveolar margin, between the two upper central incisors. The pros- thion PZ is formed by the Frank- furt horizontal plane and the nasion-prosthion line. Prosthion is the foremost point in the mid- sagittal line. The instruments used for measuring the PZ and the prosthion PZ were Mollison's craniophore and the stativgoni- ometer 92 Craniometry of New Guinea Remeasurement of Fifty Skulls This experiment was made at the suggestion of Miss M. L. Tildesley during her visit to Chicago. A knowledge of the errors likely to occur when measurements are retaken by the original worker, using the same technique as that employed during first measurement, is essential to the standardizing of technique. It is also desirable that the same series should be remeasured by an- other worker. The designation numbers of the fifty male skulls selected at random for remeasurement, six months after the first measurement, are given in a table (pp. 98-121). Averages are given (pp. 116-121) for the first and second series of measurements, also the AP/A values for each pair of averages. Cranial Capacities. — The technique for measuring cranial capac- ities deserves particular study, since the subject has been one for argument since the time of P. Broca. A review of the methods employed by various workers has been given by Macdonell (1904), and a detailed criticism of technique has recently been published by Stewart (1937). For measuring cranial capacity I made three preliminary ex- periments with a crane etalon which was found to have a capacity for 1,315 cc. of water. The mustard seed needed to fill this skull weighed 1,026.7 gms.; this average resulted from three fillings. Therefore, we obtain the ratio 1.281 to express the relation between weight of seed and cubic centimeters of water. Dr. G. von Bonin (1934) gives a list of such ratios obtained in eight experiments per- formed by six different observers. On the average these observers found that the ratio 1.284 expresses the relation between weight of seed and cubic centimeters of water. Macdonell (1904) found that the discrepancy in average meas- urements for some fairly long series, measured by different workers who used the same technique, was likely to be 10 to 15 cc. Von Bonin (1934) concluded that the personal equation in measuring the aver- age of a series may vary from 10 to 20 cc. Todd (1923) thought that for the measurement of any individual skull the personal equa- tion might be as much as 40 cc. Wagner (1937, p. 38) states that, owing to different techniques, "it is best to disregard all average differences under 30-40 cc, for data given by different authors, and even this figure is sometimes too small." I believe that, so far as the personal error is concerned, there is a possibility of using the technique of filling with mustard seed more Technique of Measurement 93 accurately than most observers have believed. The use of sand or fine shot (No. 8) gives a result which is in excess of the true capac- ity as measured by water. Seed gives a result which approximates most closely to that given by water. My first experiment showed the average capacity of fifty skulls to be 1,258 cc, and the second experiment gave the almost identical result of 1,257 cc. This indicates that the mustard-seed method is reliable for obtaining the average capacity of a fairly long series; neither can the measurement of individual skulls be considered unsatisfactory. There were three instances of identical measurements of capacity, and 23 instances of differences of 5 cc. or less. For half the series, therefore, the error is very small. The greatest error was —30 cc. for skull No. 43502, but this is due to the fact that the base around the foramen magnum was broken away, and at best the measure- ment could be only an approximation. The average error is — 1 .33 cc. per skull. To get such accuracy half an hour must be spent in filling and tamping the seed in each skull, and the error in weighing the seed must be not greater than 1 gr. It is true that an approximate capac- ity of ±20 to 30 cc. can be obtained by spending only fifteen minutes in filling a skull and weighing the seed, but great patience is needed to get results diverging not more than ±5 cc. for an individual skull. The skull may seem to be full after ten minutes of filling and tamping, but in the last stages of filling, a small spoon should be used for feeding seed into the foramen magnum. If this is done, with constant tapping, about 20 to 30 cc. of seed can be introduced after one might think that the skull was really filled. Before leaving the subject of technique there is a further point of importance to consider. Filling a skull to full capacity with seed takes from twenty to thirty minutes, and the process of tamp- ing is extremely tedious. But, as previously explained, a second tamping of seed, which is poured from the skull into a measuring glass, can be avoided by multiplying the weight of the seed by a constant factor, and so calculating the volume. Yet some workers have imposed on themselves the task of measuring the seed in a graduated vessel, and there can be no doubt that the tedium of the experiment leads to a loose filling of the graduated cylinder, and consequently the volume recorded is too high. I am convinced that more research should be concentrated on developing a quick technique for measuring the capacity of skulls. 94 Craniometry of New Guinea I have tried measuring the sounder skulls by filling them with water, which was run from a graduated vessel. But, generally speaking, so much time is spent in plugging skulls with wax or plasticine in order to make them water-tight, that one might as well follow the method of filling with seed. Calculating Cranial Capacities. — The best known of the formulae for calculating cranial capacities are: (1) Isserlis' formula, based on measurement of male Negro skulls (1914, p. 189). C= .0003849 X BLH + 96 ± 65/VN" (2) Lee's general formula, based on the measurement of male skulls from Germany, the Ainu, and Naqada (Lewenz and Pearson, 1904, p. 390). C= .000337 X HLB + 406.01 (3) Hooke's (1926, p. 33) formula, based on a study of male English skulls. C= .000366 X LBH' + 198.9 ± 45.8/VN" (4) Bonin's (1934, p. 14) formula for estimating the capacity of skulls from New Britain. C=. 000263 X BLH + 404.9 ±35.1/VN" (5) Manouvrier's formula as used by van den Broek (1923a, vol. 7, p. 172). C = LBH/2.4 for males The measured capacity of 124 male crania from New Guinea was 1280 ±6.87 cc. The probable error was calculated by using the standard deviation for a long Egyptian series (Pearson and Davin, 1924). The table below indicates which formulae will give a cranial capacity nearest to that actually measured with mustard seed. Table of Calculated Cranial Capacities Calculated A, Measured and calculated Formula used capacity in cc. capacities in cc. a/Pa Isserlis 1277 ±5. 84 3 0.33 Lee 1440 160 Mean sq., noPE Hooke 1230±4.11 50 6.25 Bonin 1212 ±3. 15 68 9.01 Manouvrier 1279 1 The evidence indicates that two formulae give a very close approximation to the measured capacity. The calculations of Is- serlis and of Manouvrier, which show discrepancies of only 3 cc. Technique of Measurement 95 and 1 cc, respectively, between measured and calculated means, could well be used for estimating the capacity of any New Guinea series of male skulls in which the average L, B, and H' came close to Field Museum series. Lee's formula gives the greatest delta value, and would not be serviceable for estimating the average cranial capacity of male New Guinea skulls. Hooke's formula gives a rough approximation to the measured capacity. Bonin's formula for skulls from New Britain could not be satisfactorily applied to our sample from New Guinea. We need not be surprised that the formula of Isserlis gives such a close approxi- mation to measured capacity. The formula was worked out on Negro skulls from Africa, and, as we will show later, there is statisti- cal evidence for a Negro element in our New Guinea sample. Let us now apply the formula of Isserlis to estimate the capacities of further samples of skulls from New Guinea and Africa. Cranial Capacities by Formula of Isserlis and by Direct Measurement Region Observer Average measured capacity Calculated capacity in cc. A in cc. a/pa C Bondy-Horowitz New Guinea hr^Broek [ Wirz 1317±13.1 1250±11.7 1308=1=19.8 1345± 7.2 1314 1245 1281 1261 ±11.1 ± 6.5 ±16.8 ± 6.1 3 5 27 84 0.17 0.37 1.04 12.00* Wateita f Kitson } Tanganyika -j and [ Kaffirs I others J 1316±20.7 1299±18.7 1422 ±24. 8 1296 1270 1459 ±11.9 ±10.7 ±14.2 20 29 37 0.84 1.36 1.28 Dynastic f Pearson ] Egyptians and t 1439± 2.8 1424. 4± 2.37 15 3.95* 1 Davin J If we judge from A /Pa values, the formula of Isserlis might well have been used to calculate the capacities of all the series ex- cept the two marked with an asterisk, and in one of these instances the error arising from calculation instead of direct measurement would have been only 15 cc. The crux of our problem is that we do not know exactly when a given formula can be applied with the assurance that the calculated capacity will not differ significantly from the capacity which we should obtain by direct measurement with mustard seed. If only we had known how well the formula of Isserlis would have served, an enormous amount of time spent in the tedious process of measuring the capacity with seed might have been saved. Further Differences in First and Second Measurements. — From inspection of the column of differences in average measurements 96 Craniometry of New Guinea (pp. 116-121) we see that L, B, and B' have small differences (+0.5, +0.3, —0.1 mm., respectively). The difference in measurement of H' is zero. All the arcs and chords, St to S/, have differences in aver- age measurement of 1.0 mm. or less. The remeasurement of facial angles may be regarded as satis- factory, though the differences in averages are slightly greater than in case of linear measurements. The greatest discrepancy is —1.3° for the N angle. It is gratifying that the differences in averages for the P and for the prosthion P angles are only —0.7°. The skull was fixed in a craniophore (Martin, vol. 2, p. 604, Fig. 281) and the angles were measured with a stativgoniometer (Martin, 1928, vol. 2, p. 593, Fig. 272). There are chances of error associated with the latter instrument, since three readings have to be made: (1) on the upper arm, (2) on the lower arm, (3) on the graduated arc which finally gives the number of degrees. We have, however, to note two significant errors; namely, SC (interorbital width), and EH (depth of palate). The A/PA value for the former is 3.74 and for the latter 3.83. Let us repeat our experiment in remeasurement in the endeavor to find why EH and SC should give discrepancies greater than those for other traits. Possibly an improvement in accuracy in measuring depth of the palate may be effected by using an instrument supplied by P. Her- mann of Zurich, in place of Pearson's uraniscometer, which was employed in our first test. If we again take the same 50 skulls, we find that they yield 38 measurements for EH, and the full 50 measurements for SC. The results of remeasurement give the following data in which we have calculated our own standard deviations instead of taking those from other sources. Av. PE Av. PE Av. PE Av. PE for a of for a of for a of for <7 of EH, av. EH, av. Sd av. SC, av. 13.19 2.12 ±.23 13.63 2.35 ±.26 21.79 1.8 ±.17 22.56 1.7 ±.16 On testing the differences for EH (first and second averages), and similarly for SC, we find that they are 0.44 mm. and 0.77 mm. respectively. Then applying the expression M1-M2/V(PE1)2+ (PE2)2 we obtain for EH, 1.27, and for SC, 3.30. Evidently we have measured and remeasured the depth of the palate (EH) so closely that, statistically speaking, the averages show no significant difference, and I feel sure that the result may Technique of Measurement 97 be attributed to using a new instrument. In our first test of measure- ment and remeasurement the instrument used (Pearson's uranis- cometer) was in the form of a letter X of two strips of metal. After the adjustment was made the instrument was removed and the EH distance was measured on a scale graduated in millimeters. Probably a transferred measurement of this kind gives rise to discrepancies. In the instrument made by P. Hermann there is a graduated central plunger, at right angles to which are two laterally adjustable strips of metal worked by two screws and a ratchet. After adjustment the reading is made in situ. With regard to SC, the A/PA value of 3.30, though lower than in the first measurement and remeasurement of fifty skulls, is still the highest A/PA value recorded. I believe that one difficulty of measuring and remeasuring so accurately that the difference between the two averages is not significant, lies in the necessity for some estimation of the exact location of the intersection of the frontal, lachrymal, and maxillary bones. There is often slight damage to the thin bones forming the inner wall of the orbit, and one has either to discard the measurement or to rely on what seems to be a good approximation to the point of intersection of the sutures. Perhaps at some future time an independent worker will measure and remeasure this sample of fifty skulls. 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The interiors were thor- oughly cleaned, and illuminated by introducing through the fora- men magnum a small electric-light bulb. The age periods selected were seven in number, beginning at twenty years and proceeding by intervals of five years, as shown in the left hand column of the table. Determination of age was based on data published by T. Wingate Todd and D. W. Lyon, Jr. (1924), who state that "barring excep- tions which must receive attention in their turn, it is now clear that there is an orderly age sequence in the progress of suture closure and that sex, stock, cephalic index, and cranial capacity affect the age sequence only in a minor degree or not at all." Age Groups 20-25.. 25-30.. 30-35. 35-40 . 40-45. 45-50. Southern Group Females Males Totals 1 6 2.6 10.7 13 20 34.2 35.7 5 5 13.2 8.9 1 2 2.6 3.6 10 12 26.3 21.4 2 2 5. 3 6 15.8 38 5 27.8 / 7 \ 38.9 1 5.5 2 11.1 Ages of the Skulls Northern Group Females Males Totals 34 21 55 65.4 24.4 39.8 9 11 20 17.3 12.8 14.5 4 4 8 7.7 4.6 5.8 2 9 11 3.8 10.5 8.0 10 10 11.6 7.2 Combined Groups 3 16.7 . 18 5.8 50+ Totals . . Percentages are given in bold-faced type. 3.6 9 16.1 56 9.3 23 26.7 86 5.8 26 18.8 138 Females 39 55.7 16 22.8 4 5.7 3 4.3 2 2^8 8.5 70 Males 22 17.7 24 19.3 9 7.3 10 8.1 20 16.1 10 8.6 29 23.4 124 Totals 61 31.4±3 40 20.6±2 13 6.7±1. 13 6.7±1 22 11.3±2 10 5.1±1. 35 18.0±2. 194 The population is admittedly small, yet certain definite trends in the expectancy of life are observed, and these trends are similar for males and for females in both geographical groups. Southern Group. — In the southern group a high mortality of males and females occurs in the age period 20-30 years. If we con- sider the sexes together, about 46.4 per cent of the population suc- cumbs in this period. 122 Age and Sex in the Collection 123 A noticeable decline in mortality takes place in the age period 30-40 years, for at this time the death rate is only 12.5 per cent. An unmistakable rise is seen in the mortality figures for the period 40-45 years, but survivors of this period have a fair expectancy of reaching 50 years of age, since the mortality rate in the period 45-50 years is low. About 16.7 per cent of the females and 15.8 per cent of the males survive the 50-year mark. Northern Group. — If we now consider the larger northern group of 52 females and 86 males the death rate is again seen to be high in the period 20-30 years. The mortality of females in the period 20-25 years is exceptionally high; namely, 65.4 per cent. For young females of the 25-30 year group expectancy of life is improved, yet the death rate is still high. Males and females of the 20-30 year period, considered together, have a mortality of 54.3 per cent. That is to say, rather more than half of our sample population of 138 individuals failed to survive the age of 30 years. Then comes the better expectation of life, which was previously noted for the southern group. In the northern group, in the 30-40 age period, the death rate is only 13.8 per cent, and the expectancy of life is further improved in the period 40-50 years. In fact, those who survive the critical 20-30 year period have a fair expectancy of attaining the age of 50 years. The survivors of the 50-year period are almost the same in number for the southern and northern groups. In the southern group, 16.1 per cent (males and females) attain or surpass 50 years of age, and in the northern group the survivors of that age number 18.8 per cent. Combined Northern and Southern Groups. — Inspection of the columns "Combined Groups" emphasizes the facts adduced for the northern and southern groups. The totals in the extreme right- hand column summarize the facts for our total New Guinea sample of 194 persons. The general trend is unmistakable; firstly, the high mortality of 31.4 per cent, nearly one-third of the population, is in the age group 20-25 years. In the following quinquennium (25-30 years) the mortality falls somewhat but is still high (20.6 per cent). Again we have the conclusion that rather more than half the population fails to survive the age of 30 years. But the evidence is clear that after the age of 30 has been passed the expectancy of life is greatly improved. Abruptly the mortality for the period 30-35 years drops to 6.7 per cent and remains at ex- 124 Craniometry of New Guinea actly that figure in the age period 35-40. There is then a slight rise in mortality in the 40-45 period, but 18 per cent of the popula- tion reach 50 years. The ethnological facts, though by no means adequately studied, can provide a reasonable explanation of the incidence of mortality. For women the child-bearing age would be from 15 to 30 years, and in this period the most strenuous work would be performed. From 20 to 30 years of age all males would probably be engaged in warfare and head-hunting, both dangerous pursuits in which the mortality is likely to be high. But at the age of 30 the strenuous period of exposure to danger is passed. A woman of 30 years would be regarded as an older spouse in a polygynous family in which hard work would be relegated to the younger wives. And although no definite information is available, it is probable from what is known of primitive people that the active sexual and child-bearing life declines quickly after the age of 30 has been attained. Possibly males who have passed 30 years of age graduate into the governing class of village elders who are no longer exposed to the hazards of warfare and head-hunting. Moreover, in the early age period of 20-25 years a selective pro- cess would be at work eliminating those who were unable to stand the strain of life. The strong survivors who had proved their resist- ance to disease, and had in addition been fortunate enough to escape the hazards of childbirth in case of women, and of warfare in case of men, could anticipate that after attaining the critical age of 30 years their chance of survival to the age of 45-50 years would be fairly good when judged by the standards of longevity prevailing in their particular environment. The demographical questions raised by this brief survey of New Guinea skulls are of practical importance to present-day administra- tion, but the taking of census returns among backward peoples is fraught with many hazards of sampling and statistics. A student wishing to pursue the matter further will find an enormous literature, the statistical elements of which should be very critically surveyed. Hambly (1937, pp. 690-696) has given a brief survey of literature relating to morbidity and mortality among Negroes of Africa, and his research among the Ovimbundu (1938, pp. 65-71) shows a high birth rate and a high mortality. The data collated by Hambly (1926, pp. 22-27) were culled from British Government reports, and from the pages of Saunders (1922). Pitt-Rivers (1927) has dealt ex- tensively with the decline of primitive people as a result of European Age and Sex in the Collection 125 contacts. There is undoubtedly a social and psychological aspect of the problem; we are not dealing entirely with biological causes of decline. Technical papers on expectation of life in modern society are to be found in "Biometrika," "Human Biology," and the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology." A student who wants quick access to an enormous amount of data will take as his vade mecum "Primitive Society and Its Vital Statistics" (Krzywicki, 1935). IV. GROUPING OF THE DATA The table (pp. 214-218) gives the average measurements for a number of small local groups in northern and southern New Guinea, and a question arises concerning the possibility of combining the local groups into a northern and a southern population. Further, it may be permissible to consider a total male and a total female popu- lation, which will include both northern and southern groups. Skulls comprising the northern group were collected from twelve localities indicated on the map (Frontispiece), and on the grounds of geographical propinquity and easy coastal communication some homogeneity of population might be assumed. The factors selected for testing this homogeneity were head length, cranial index, bizygo- matic width, the total sagittal arc, and the facial height. The results obtained by comparing the "t" values with Fisher's table of probabilities indicated that the averages for the local groups were such as might be expected in drawing small samples from a common population. Local differences undoubtedly exist, but not to a degree which forbids compounding of the figures. The expression used in "Student's t-test" as explained by Fisher (1934, p. 122) reads as follows: yfe x* -t m — n2 A is the difference between the two averages for the traits we are comparing; a is the standard deviation of one of the traits; and n: and n2 are the respective numbers of terms in the two series. According to results given by the "t-test" we may group the figures for northern localities, and it is permissible to group the fig- ures for southern localities, provided the data for the sexes are kept separate. Let us go a step further to find whether the data for northern and southern groups may be pooled, still keeping the sex data separate. Inspection of averages for northern males and for southern males, also for northern females and southern females, suggests that the averages are so close as to warrant a pooling of the figures so as to give averages for our total population of 124 males and 70 females, respectively. This first impression of resemblance between the northern and southern populations is further tested by use of a coefficient of 126 Grouping of the Data 127 racial likeness (CRL) applied to 29 traits for the northern and southern males and females respectively. The traits selected were cranial capacity, L, B, B', H', LB, S, U, BQ', J, G'H, GL, NHR, NB, O.R, 02R, Glf G/, fml, fmb, 100 B/L, 100 H'/L, Ocl, 100 G'H/GB, 100 NB/NHR, 100 0,/U, 100 G2/G/, 100 fmb/fml, and the B angle. The formula used was as follows: Let the averages for the traits of the two series be a, b, c . . . x, and a', b', c' . . . x'. The numbers on which the averages are based are A, B, C . . . X, and A', B', C . . . X', respectively. The standard deviations used are o-a, In this equation 50 represents , and ^ and n, stand for 100+100 the average number of skulls on which the means of the first and second series are based, respectively. So, in order to reduce (adjust) the coefficient of 3.6 we have the expression 81.31 + 33.00 3.6X50 81>31X33.00 which gives 7.67 as the reduced coefficient for male groups, and by the same method we get 11.84 as the reduced coefficient of racial likeness for northern and southern female groups (Pearson, 1926, pp. 105-117; Morant, 1931, p. 214; Wagner, 1937, p. 120). 128 Craniometry of New Guinea By using the average number of skulls we allow for the fact that, owing to defects, not all traits yield the same number of measure- ments. For example, in the male population there are 86 northerners and 38 southerners, but the average numbers of measurements are 81.31 and 33. For females the average numbers of measurements are 46.31 and 16.65, for northern and southern groups respectively. Coefficients are affected as shown below: (1) The reduced CRL (male) is 6.83 when full numbers are used, and 7.67 when we use the average number of skulls measured. (2) In the same way the reduced coefficients for female groups are 10.84 and 11.84 according to use of the numbers of skulls in the groups, or the use of the average number of skulls measured. I have not calculated the actual standard deviations for these averages, since my series are long enough to assume that the stand- ard deviations worked out on a long Egyptian series of skulls can be used (Pearson, 1926, p. 108). Stoessiger and Morant (1932) also give a long list of standard deviations worked out from 199 old English crania. A student who is not satisfied with my use of standard deviations from the Egyptian series can work out an approximation. The table (pp. 214-218) gives averages for 18 groups of male skulls; these are g partial averages centering about the general average -, where S is n the sum of the terms, and n is 124 (the number of male skulls). The method is explained by Udny Yule (1937, p. 435), and the formula given is: Estimated standard deviation squared= — T S (x— x)2 n-1 Take the width of the nose as an example. By finding the sum of 124 measurements and dividing by 124 the average works out at 25.3 mm. Now subtract each of the 18 group means from the general mean of 25.3 mm., then square each of the differences and find the sum of the squares. The sum of the squares, that is, S (x — x)2=11.22 The value of -i- = — n-1 17 11 22 Therefore, by substitution, — : — =0.66 = the standard deviation squared Therefore a= V 0.66= 0.812 Probable error of a= n=X 0.674489=0.09 V2n Probable error of the mean is -?= X 0 . 674489= ±0 . 13 Vn Grouping of the Data 129 We have, therefore, for comparison (1) Pearson's standard deviation for nasal width (893 male Egyptian skulls) = 1 . 77 ±0 . 03 (2) Our own standard deviation for nasal width (124 male skulls) =0.81±0.09 (3) Pearson's probable error of the average = ±0 .04 (4) Our own probable error of the average = ±0 . 13 Naturally the probable error of our New Guinea average is larger than Pearson's error, since Pearson measured about eight times as many skulls as we have in our series. I believe, however, that his standard deviations will serve our purpose in subsequent chapters. 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FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND SEX DIFFERENCES Introduction Measurements for the sexes were kept separate throughout the statistical work in order to estimate the nature and extent of the differences. These differences are shown in a series of curves of fre- quency distribution (Figs. 12-24). The procedure has been to plot on each diagram two curves, one for 124 northern and southern males combined, the other for 70 northern and southern females combined. The sex differences are shown in tables (pp. 219-221), where averages are given for 44 cranial characters and 15 indices. Another table (p. 224) gives sex ratios for 59 measurements and indices. The sex ratio is found by dividing the average measurement for 124 males by the average measurement for 70 females. For com- parative purposes I have worked out sex ratios for measurements given by Pearson and Davin (1924) for a series of Egyptian skulls, and for other racial samples mentioned in the table (p. 224). Interpretation of Diagrams The points to which attention should be given in studying Figs. 12-24 are: (1) the smoothness of the curves; (2) the incidence of the modes; (3) the distance covered by the bases of the curves; and (4) the relative positions of these bases on the abscissae. The method of study may be illustrated by reference to Fig. 12, which gives data for cranial capacities of males and females: (1) Both curves are without important irregularities; they both conform to the curve of normal distribution. The smooth- ness of the curves indicates that the data are adequate for plotting and that they are homogeneous. (2) The modes occur definitely at the interval 1130-1190 cc. for females, and at 1250-1310 cc. for males. (3) The bases of the curves indicate that the range of cranial capacities is greater for males than for females. (4) The cranial capacities for females touch a class interval lower than that reached by the distribution for males, but they do not extend nearly so far into the high class intervals. The ranges are 1010-1310 cc. for females and 1070-1590 for males. 222 Frequency Distributions and Sex Differences 223 Measurements of Skulls in a Village of Head-Hunters on the Coast West of Merauke (Measurements made in situ by Dr. A. B. Lewis) L Sex and age (175 Juvenile J 164 166 { 168 Averages 168. Adult males. 185 170 195 170 183 189 165 185 191 175 . 188 Averages 181.4 ( 175 Adult females J 170 165 ( 171 Averages 170.2 175 183 177 182 182 181 166 181 188 175 175 175 177 181 176 173 Adults, sex?. .6 .3 .9 72.9 72.1 69.4 Averages 177.9 125.4 70.5 B 125 115 115 133 122 128 124 123 120 133 130 130 126 131 131 132 128 125 130 130 125 127.5 131 125 121 128 120 129 130 119 126 127 120 130 122 132 127 120 C.I. 71.4 70.1 69.3 79.1 72.5 69.2 72.9 63.1 70.6 72.7 68.8 78.8 68.1 68.6 74.8 70.2 70.7 71.4 76.5 78.8 73.1 74.9 74.8 68.3 68.4 70.3 65.9 71.3 78.3 65.7 67.0 72.6 68. 74. 68. Remarks M2 erupted, not M3 M2 erupting M2 erupted, not M3 M3 erupting 9 male Merauke skulls in Field Museum collection give average L 181.7; B 134.2; C.I. 73.9 Averages for all male skulls (124) in Field Museum collection are: L 177.6; B 131.3; C.I. 74 5 Merauke female skulls in Field Museum collection give average L 178.0; B 122.2; C.I. 68.7 Averages for all female skulls in Field Museum collection are: L 170.3; B 126.5; C.I. 74.3 Owing to the crude method of measurement, the small size of samples, and the doubt about sex, reliable comparisons with Field Museum series are difficult to make. As one might expect in small samples there is high varia- bility. This variability may be due to the acquisition of these trophies during head-hunting expe- ditions in different regions. The general cephalic trend, from low to medium dolichocephaly, is clear. There is no necessity to discuss Figs. 12-24 in detail since all can easily be interpreted by the same method. Fig. 22, showing curves for nasal indices, is of exceptional interest in indicating the high variability of the nasal index. The curve for females is ex- tremely irregular. The curve of facial index for males (Fig. 23) suggests two types of face differing in shape. The curve has two distinct peaks, one at index value 66-69, the other at 72-75. 224 Craniometry of New Guinea Capacity in cc. 1 1.110 2 1.043 3 1.063 4 1.105 L 1.043 1.047 1.066 1.038 S,' BQ' 1 1.048 1.037 2 1.037 3 4 1.036 GLU 1.047 u 1.040 1.038 1.052 B 1.038 1.025 1.049 1.046 GB 1.054 1.040 1.062 1.051 NHR 1.057 Sex Ratios B' H' 1.053 1.025 1.027 1.038 1.037 1.061 1.041 1.054 J 1.067 1.065 1.079 1.072 NHL 1.057 4 1.038 1.071 1.073 G'H 1.054 1.055 1.084 1.074 NH' 1.058 1.055 1.070 1.065 LB 1.031 1.053 1.065 1.053 GL 1.031 1.047 1.063 1.049 NB 1.033 1.034 1.048 1.046 S, 1.038 1.029 V 1.041 s3 1.035 1.033 8,' 1.029 1.025 1.041 1.026 OiR 1.036 1.031 1^012 02L 1 1.027 2 1.004 3 4 1.009 G,' 1 1.017 2 1.040 3 4 1.071 o,'R 1.031 l!058 1.028 EH 1.154 1.175 Oi'L 1.032 fml 1.050 1.034 1.031 1.014 Lac 0,R 1.029 1.021 fmb 1.033 1.041 1.045 1.020 Lac 0,L 1.032 100B L 0.996 .980 .984 1.009 100NB 100 0-,R 100 02R 100 02R 100 (B-H') NH' 0.983 .991 .975 .983 100G, 1.026 C^R 0.993 .972 ^997 G2 1.090 0.989 1.103 0,'R 1.016 ' !974 .981 lOOfmb fml 0.984 1.006 1.013 1.006 LacOiR 1.016 .985 0.934 AA 0.996 1.004 0.998 1.004 1.018 1.005 i!625 1 = Field Museum Series (New Guinea). 2 = Egyptian Series, Pearson and Davin (1924). 3 = New Britain, von Bonin (1936). 4 = Hythe Crania, Stoessiger and Morant (1932). sc 1.056 100H' L 0.985 .992 .996 1.015 Ocl 0.990 .993 .983 .976 Nz. 0.993 0.992 0.991 0.980 02R 1.024 1.007 1.031 1.009 G, 1.033 1.049 1.032 1.079 100B H' 1.008 .988 .998 .993 lOOG'H GB 0.997 1.015 1.025 1.021 PZ. 1.012 1.010 1.012 0.998 s2 1.043 1.037 1.043 1.045 1.035 s 1.036 1.034 1.055 1.040 0,L 1.036 1.031 1.015 G2 1.061 1.049 1.067 1.058 100NB NHR 0.990 .978 100 G2 G, 1.015 .999 !983 Pros PL 1.000 6^998 Conclusions. — Examination of frequency distributions, for traits recorded separately for males and females, indicates that the sex characters are clearly differentiated with regard to ten out of twelve cranial characters considered. Males have decidedly greater cranial capacity, have a longer and broader skull, and show greater doli- chocephaly than females. Frequency Distributions and Sex Differences 225 Males have the greater cranial height, also a longer vertical arc. The arcs over glabella, over ophryon, and from nasion to opisthion (sagittal arc) are appreciably greater for males. But in three respects, namely, nasal index, facial index, and facial triangle, the difference between the male and female popula- tions is not so well emphasized as in the other sex comparisons. In general, the figures clearly impress the desirability of treating statistics for males and females separately. The sex differences are so noticeable as to suggest that compounding of figures would give results that are not truly descriptive of either males or females. A pooling of figures would be strongly influenced by the relative proportions of males and females, and preponderance of one or the other sex would lead to appreciable divergence in estimates of the racial characters as shown by average cranial measurements. Measurements Made in situ by Dr. A. B. Lewis The table shown on page 223 gives a few measurements made on skulls in situ at a village a little west of Merauke. Dr. A. B. Lewis, who recorded these measurements, was obliged to use carpenters' callipers, and the distance between the limbs of these was measured on a linear scale graduated in millimeters. Plates XXXVI and XXXVII show the skulls measured in this way. The table includes Merauke data based on the Field Museum collection. These data are compared in the "Remarks" column with figures recorded by Dr. Lewis. _1_ /4-60 /3BO "930 ,„^„*iOO /P20/28(j/340/4DO^,'>'/S20- /04-0 Fig. 12. Cranial capacities. 226 Fig. 13. Lengths of skulls. 227 Fig. 14. Breadths of skulls. 228 22 20 IS ,6\ <4-\ 12 \ io\ 3 6 o} G* ee ee y0 Fw- 15. Cranial indices. 229 119 123 J27 131 135 139 /-^3 1-4-7 Fig. 16. Skull heights, basion-bregma. 230 Fig. 17. Horizontal arcs over glabella. 231 Fig. 18. Horizontal arcs over ophryon. 232 Fig. 19. Sagittal arcs, nasion to opisthion. 233 Fig. 20. Vertical arcs over bregma. 234 106 109 /l 2 //S //8 /£/ /2^t- /Z7" 13 O /33 /36 /39 1*4-5 Fig. 21. Bizygomatic widths. 235 %, ^3 45 4-7 4-9 S/ S3 &S 57 &9 6/ 63 6S Fig. 22. Nasal indices. 236 G*- sr eo e3 ee 69 72. v^ tb ei e«f- Fig. 23. Facial indices. 237 ^ / GU Northern Groups GL. Southern Groups Fig. 24. Facial triangles. Male in broken line, female in solid line. Scale 5:6. 238 [>ur ills THt UBHAHl OF THE Average Horizontal Contour, 124 New Guinea Male Skulls Average Vertical Contour, 124 New Guinea Male Skulls \ R s ( I 4 / \ •' / ? / .1 <. « \i 1 _y ^^~ F'i —-^ ^^ F Vi ~"\ / 2 N. / 3 / J 4 \ J l ft \ \ \ \ 10 / X^ 0 '4 ^S VI. CONTOURS OF SKULLS FROM NEW GUINEA AND OTHER REGIONS In order to give a quick visual impression of the contours (back, top, and side views) of 124 New Guinea male skulls, drawings have been prepared. Tables on which the contours were based are given on pages 240-242. The composite contours (facing p. 240) show back, top, and side views of 124 male skulls from New Guinea. Each figure has been made by superposing 124 drawings. Composite drawings of this kind have the advantage of showing extreme sizes, great and small, also the densest clustering of contours. Experiment has shown that a line drawn through the middle of the densest part of the superposed contours gives close correspondence with the average type contours (facing p. 238), whose calculation is a tedious process. Contour drawings (facing p. 242) show the degree of coincidence between the vertical, horizontal, and sagittal sections of 124 male skulls from New Guinea; 62 male skulls from New Britain (von Bonin, 1936); 46 male skulls from the Wateita tribe of east Africa (Kitson, 1931); and 82 male skulls from Australia (Wagner, 1937). The drawings indicate a close fit of the vertical contours of skulls from these regions, and the lines are in places coincident. The New Britain skulls have a somewhat higher vault than the others and they are the broadest across the porion line. Between the vertical contours of New Guinea and Wateita skulls there is practically no difference. The horizontal contours indicate that the east African and New Britain skulls are similar in length and general shape, and that both, though similar in shape and size to the New Guinea skulls, are appreciably longer. The sagittal contours indicate that east African and New Britain skulls have a fuller frontal region than those of New Guinea. The occipital region of the New Britain skulls is almost entirely coincident with that of the New Guinea skulls. But the occipital region of the east African skulls is more protuberant than any of the other occipital contours. The alveolar, palatal, and basion- sphenoidion lines are close; so also are suborbital points, two of which coincide. The positions of nasion, glabella, bregma, and lambda are close, so indicating similarity in the size and shape of the longitudinal arcs. 239 OS CJ (D CON co CO in t- 03 * • & ^ co COCO CM t- to ^ CO CO CO >< COCO I DO a CO CD P OCR o coin £ 03 p -tf IC c pi i— eo <-i o z co co o u < lO in pa 2 CO 00 t- mm p 0 £ i-HOO z C-l Oi tr- ie m fa C DO ij t- t- is 00 t- 2 iO LO uC H j 03 t- CD < V. oo t- ►J II t- co IO CO 05 IC in a p S3 cu ll Pi . . p> coco >> ,-HO DJ • • .? 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COCO 1 o t-00 1 00 0_ "J* ioco 1 co ICIO I lO CO CO 1 00 > - < >> Hia 1 t| oo to | co CO CO 1 CO * £Z C- t- 1 CO CO o \ ■>-* o . — . a P7 IB >> o-«* 1 -«* -* ^H CO IC 1T3 1 m x oZ m co 1 t- C OS OS n x' < >■ Tf co 1 o 00 CO 1 c- xiz 00 OS 1 i-H CO i-H 1 CO £ a-' KB >J t-00 1 L— E « X c M co os I t- CO CO CO w Z >> co os 1 co Ot> 00 lO h-h | ■«# E^ x :2 U5H I t- T- O © z 0 p in O IB Oh >. ©-<# CO in co co CO CO 1 CO x cZ ■>* Os 1 -<* | i i r? 1 3 3 i c •— a — z CI z a t- c a \ u < 1 242 Ne W in in< THE UCSARY Of THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Test of Random Choice of Traits for Working Out a Coefficient of Racial Likeness from Skull Measurements of Males from Northern and Southern New Guinea Designation Numbers of Traits Selected Are Given in Italics at the Heads of Columns in Tables, pp. 266-269 Av.'cRL Crude v. CRI 3.52 5.03 4.34 6.37 3.92 4.87 4.92 3.52 5.45 PE of each CRL when 30 traits are considered is ±0.04. Av. = 4.63±0.1 Crude Av. CRL 25 27 5 42 46 11 41 37 30 24 46 18 29 12 48 10 47 49 33 3 2 14 15 4 52 34 2.97 25 56 23 50 13 28 19 4 53 41 51 55 48 10 33 3 59 20 27 52 11 34 2 17 25 29 5.31 PE of each CRL when 25 traits are considered is ±0.05. •in 60 48 11 64 53 29 23 45 46 41 42 15 3 39 IS 24 16 34 35 47 4.04 20 57 28 37 65 40 33 44 58 48 38 29 27 22 11 7 52 12 14 17 4 6.74 20 27 60 32 49 20 30 51 34 1 56 6 44 58 42 47 53 65 11 40 52 6.31 20 16 40 37 47 16 41 31 36 44 10 53 14 7 29 6 54 27 2 56 3 3.87 on 48 24 23 2 27 9 7 36 42 55 54 3 16 12 47 50 39 45 11 29 4.63 20 37 65 44 33 36 38 18 54 16 1 46 4 12 16 10 32 39 6 43 7 5.61 90 49 1 64 12 16 10 34 41 15 5 4 40 22 55 44 56 32 62 3 2 5.65 20 24 60 31 10 39 9 42 13 35 57 19 36 17 34 47 3 44 55 28 33 6.95 PE of each CRL when 20 traits are considered is ±0.05. Av.=5.26±0.16 50 26 6 27 24 9 13 47 12 30 7 32 19 46 2 2.58 51 23 36 11 46 6 59 40 53 9 49 44 26 31 48 4.37 f each CRL when 15 traits are considered is ±0.24. Av.=3.92±0. Crude Av. CRL 56 48 46 6 43 41 36 33 37 1 4.21 50 9 27 28 16 21 20 47 53 13 2.92 19 63 51 23 65 7 31 47 1 68 10.85 60 42 12 21 38 48 19 69 10 57 5.40 8 22 9 5 46 24 41 62 33 4 1.92 15 46 47 21 39 3 13 25 22 40 3.99 1 36 46 16 26 14 44 54 48 43 4.51 29 3 41 26 50 14 48 62 65 39 5.07 2 55 32 69 44 11 28 13 48 52 9.36 58 34 31 12 9 1 54 53 30 43 6.92 f each CRL when 10 traits are considered is ±0.28. Av. = 5.51±1.50 Contour Studies 243 The technique of drawing the contours and of superposing them was taken from Benington and Pearson (1911), Tildesley (1921b), and Morant (1923). The style of my contour tables is based chiefly on those of Kitson (1931, pp. 305-307), with minor modifications. When superposing, the essential requirement is to have exact coincidence of the vertical axes, the horizontal axes, and the points at which the axes unite. The essentials of the tech- nique have been briefly summarized by Wagner (1937, pp. 35, 36). The instrument used was the "Universalstereograph" made by R. Schwarz of Basle. In a later chapter (pp. 264, 265, 266-269) a statistical study has been made of Negro craniometry in relation to that of Australia, New Guinea, and New Britain. These contour drawings give a good visual impression of the numerous resemblances and differences expressed by the table (pp. 266-269) of averages with their A/PA values. VII. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CRANIOMETRY OF NEW GUINEA AND ADJACENT REGIONS Introduction The desirable conclusion of this monograph would be a thorough comparative study of Field Museum New Guinea samples with skull measurements taken by different observers in other parts of the island. The inquiry might then be extended in order to compare cranial measurements from Australia, Melanesia, and Africa. Inclusion of Africa in the study is justified by the fact that there is apparently a strong Negro element in the Melanesian area. Such a study has indeed been attempted by Wagner (1937), who gives a large bibliography. His work is important enough to merit consideration in some detail. Our review must relate to two aspects of the problem: firstly, a consideration of general re- semblances between racial series by use of the coefficient of racial likeness; and, secondly, a study of average measurements for racial groups of skulls. We shall have to take cognizance of many statisti- cal difficulties. The Coefficient of Racial Likeness The points for discussion under this heading relate firstly to the nature of the coefficient itself, and secondly to the specific appli- cation of the coefficient as made by Wagner in his comparative study of the Oceanic races. Probably all statisticians are agreed that the concept of a co- efficient of racial likeness is desirable for expressing in one figure the sum total of the differences and resemblances between series of measurements made on two different groups of skulls. But the following quotations indicate that not all statisticians are satisfied with the coefficient as a valid means of comparison. Pearson (1926, p. 105) states: "The CRL should be a measure, not of how far the two races or tribes are alike or divergent, but of how far on the given data we can assert significant resemblance or divergence." Fisher (1936, p. 60) states that the term CRL "suggests that it affords a measure of the differences, or inversely of the likenesses between different races. This, of course, it does not attempt to do, nor is any special statistical device needed for doing this; for the differences between the averages of each particular measurement in 244 Comparative Study 245 the available samples afford the most direct estimates which we can have of such differences as may exist between the populations sampled. CRL is defective in that it takes no account of the cor- relation, or covariation of different measurements of the same skull, but treats them as if they were statistically independent." The criticisms of Seltzer (1937) relate to what he calls construc- tional defects in the formula, theoretical defects, and inconsistencies in the results obtained. To these criticisms von Bonin and Morant (1938, p. 96) have replied as follows: "This method has recently been criticized with little regard to the fact that its limitations and imperfections were fully recognized by its inventor, or to the way in which it has been used in practice for more than 10 years. For practical purposes, the crude coefficient of racial likeness remains still the best means to estimate whether two samples may be considered to represent the same population or not, and the reduced coefficient remains an effective criterion of the presence or absence of a racial bond between two differentiated samples. Past experience gives no reason to believe that the method of the coefficient of racial likeness fails to provide close approximations to the results which could be obtained by applying theoretically more correct formulae, such as those taking into account all the intercorrelations of the measurements used, but which have the disadvantage of involving many times as much arithmetical labor. The desirability of using a large number of characters has repeatedly been pointed out. But the method of the coefficient of racial likeness — being admittedly a 'stop-gap' — is not a simple rule of thumb. The way in which its values have to be interpreted in order to yield useful results has to be determined empirically." The main criticism of the use of coefficients of racial likeness for comparative study has centered about the number and nature of the traits which should be chosen for representation of the racial types. Wagner (1937, p. 122) points out that coefficients of racial like- ness which are calculated from a differing number of characters should not be compared. Measuring techniques should be identical or almost so. He notes truly that even if 20 to 30 traits are measured, some few characters can greatly affect the CRL. We shall see later that Wagner considers the CRL of some exceedingly small samples, and that the number of traits is often whittled down by him to as few as 14. 246 Craniometry of New Guinea But without further emphasis of difficulties let us consider the matter experimentally by detailed analysis of my New Guinea data. We are evidently at a stage in which each worker must squeeze from his records the maximum amount of information. My test by itself will not settle the points of dispute; yet the pooled results of many workers would help to solve our statistical difficulties in an empirical way. Referring back (pp. 127, 128), it will be found that the crude CRL for males of the northern and southern groups was 3.60 ±0.17 when 29 traits and indices approved by the Biometric School were selected as a basis of comparison. The crude CRL for females was 2,90 ±0.17. The following table includes the result of basing the comparison on the 30 traits and indices not preferred by the Biometric School, and the data also give the coefficients of racial likeness that have been calculated from all 59 traits and indices which are available. CRL Values for Males and Females of Northern and Southern New Guinea Traits chosen Males 1. Based on 29 standard traits (Biometric School) 3 . 60 ±0 . 17 2. Based on the other 30 traits . . 5 . 97 ±0 . 04 3. Based on all 59 traits 4 . 81 ±0 . 12 Reduced coefficients are in bold-faced type. The probable errors have been calculated from the expression 0.674489^(1-^) where M = the number of traits used for comparison. A/PA Values for Crude Coefficients of Racial Likeness Males and Females of Northern and Southern New Guinea Comparison of Males Females 1 and 2 13 . 62 8 . 62 land 3 5.82 3.65 2 and 3 9.21 5.87 The experiment shows that significant differences in the values of the coefficient are obtained by changing the number and character of the traits selected. But it is evident that great latitude can be allowed in the choice of traits since the ranges of the coefficients are only from 3.60 ±0.17 to 5.97 ±0.04 for males, and still less (1.40 ±0.04 to 2.90 ±0.17) for females. By varying the number and identity of the traits we have indeed produced a mathematical change in the CRL. But the change is not of great practical im- Females 7.67 2.90±0.17 11.84 13.66 1.40±0.04 6.16 10.62 2.14±0.12 9.07 u WNeONO«3^H«;MH!00«0>0 P3 Ht-MHOMOsooMooooi-iat-om .. 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Melanesia and Polynesia. — When proceeding from study of co- efficients relating to Melanesia only, to those linking Melanesia and Polynesia, we note at once a change in the values of the coefficients. The table shows no coefficients of the first order; but 9 coefficients of the second order, and 13 of the third order, have been worked out from the Melanesian and Polynesian series. A strong mathematical relationship is indicated between measure- ments from New Caledonia and Easter Island. The latter is in far eastern Polynesia, but details of measurements indicate that the craniometry of the Easter Islanders is significantly different from the general trend of averages for Polynesian islands (von Bonin, 1931). Apparently the Easter Islanders have many craniometrical features in common with the Melanesians of New Caledonia. Co- efficients in the section of the table (p. 252) dealing with Australia indicated a close connection between some Australian series and those of New Caledonia. The inference seems to be that there is a mingling of cranial types in New Caledonia. Our table also shows relationship between craniometrical data from New Guinea-Tahiti, New Guinea-Loyalty Islands, and between Tahiti-New Britain- New Caledonia. Polynesia. — The closeness of internal relationships of Polynesian islands is shown by 21 coefficients of primary value (pp. 252, 281). The Maori crania yield measurements that are very definitely allied to those of Marquesas Islands, Cook Islands, Society Islands, and Sandwich Islands. The Maori of New Zealand have also a tertiary relation with the Moriori, Easter Island, and Loyalty Islands. Primary coefficients link cranial series of the Marquesas Islands with the Hervey Islands, Tahiti, Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, and Moriori. Crania from Easter Island yield measurements showing a primary CRL value with the Cook Islands and the Loyalty Islands. If considered as a whole, the 37 coefficients give clear evidence of the close cranial relationships which exist between islands located over a vast area of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Easter Island. The historical and cultural aspects of the problem of racial migrations in the Pacific Ocean have recently been described by P. H. Buck Comparative Study 263 (1938). His postulated derivation of Marquesans from Society Islanders on the ground of place names, genealogies, and cultural resemblances is in close agreement with the evidence of physical anthropology. The coefficient of racial likeness between skulls from these regions is 1.17 ±0.20. Such a low coefficient indicates that the average measurements for various cranial traits in the two series are extremely close in value. The cranial data are completely in agreement with the cultural evidence. Negro Element in the Pacific. — Research shows (table, pp. 266- 269) that a series of cranial measurements from Wateita skulls, east Africa, bears many close resemblances to series of measurements from Australia, New Guinea, and New Britain. The CRL's given (tables, pp. 252, 253, 274-281) must not be our only criterion of racial likeness and unlikeness. We cannot emphasize too strongly the point that the CRL gives a general comparison of the series, but the co- efficient does not tell us how many traits have average measurements so alike that they might be from the same population. Traits so defined we will refer to as "like traits." The table (pp. 266-269) indicates that in 32 traits compared for Australia and east Africa 20 of the averages indicate like traits. New Guinea (Field Museum sample) and east Africa have 12 out of 32 like traits, and the same relationship is found between east Africa and New Britain. Therefore, the Melanesian samples (New Guinea and New Britain) have rather more than one-third (12 out of 32) of Negro traits. We notice that east Africa bears the closest relation to Australia, then to New Britain. There is a definite object in including a series of cranial measure- ments from Old London. We want a control as remote as possible from the area of our research, just to show how many like traits occur simply because human skulls have the same phylogenetic history. We can usually prove some likeness between two series of skulls, no matter how far they are removed in time and space. Comparison of Average Measurements In order to prepare the following tables of averages the whole of Wagner's (1937) crude data has been recast in the form of weighted averages. The probable errors for these have been calculated from the standard deviations for a long Egyptian series (Pearson and Davin, 1924). The tables include statements to show the number of samples and the number of skulls on which each average is based. 264 Craniometry of New Guinea The figures given need only a few comments, but a student who is particularly interested in any of the numerous comparisons which are possible can readily apply the formula Mi- M2/V(PEl)2 + (PE2)2 The term Melanesia (2) needs a word of explanation. Consul- tation of Wagner's many tables showed that several Melanesian regions bordering on Polynesia often gave averages that were ob- viously in good agreement with Polynesian averages, but a poor fit with averages for Melanesian samples. Melanesia (2) is undoubtedly geographically Melanesian, but apparently there is considerable ethnic relationship with Polynesia. Areas included in the heading Melanesia (2) are from Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Isle of Pines. Weighted Averages and Their Probable Errors (Worked Out from the Crude Data of Wagner, 1937) Region Samples Skulls Average Samples Skulls Average Cranial Capacity in cc. New Guinea 13 334 Australia 6 85 Tasmania 1 33 Melanesia (1) 11 397 Melanesia (2) 7 204 Polynesia 15 352 Field Mus. sample 1 124 1348. 5± 6.21 1290.1±12.31 1264.0±19.77 1317. 2± 1423. 7 ± 7. 1465. 4± 6. ro .95 .05 1280. 0± 6.87 Maximum Head Breadth New Guinea 14 425 131.2±0.23 Australia 6 90 130.5=1=0.50 Tasmania 1 60 136.0±0.41 Melanesia (1) 11 423 132.6±0.23 Melanesia (2) 7 217 131.0 ±0.32 Polynesia 18 678 139.5±0.18 Field Mus. sample 1 124 131. 3 ±0.29 Skull Height Basion to Bregma New Guinea 14 388 134.0±0.25 Australia 6 90 133.7±0.53 Tasmania 1 55 130.9±0.46 Melanesia (1) 11 416 135.7±0.25 Melanesia (2) 7 209 140. 6 ±0.35 Polynesia 18 656 139.4±0.20 Field Mus. sample 1 106 131. 6 ±0.33 Upper Facial Height New Guinea 10 273 66.6±0.25 Australia 6 87 69.0±0.44 Tasmania 1 36 62.5±0.47 Melanesia (1) 8 296 66.0 ±0.24 Melanesia (2) 2 111 69.1 ±0.39 Polynesia 12 338 70.7±0.23 Field Mus. sample 1 123 66. 5 ±0.25 14 6 1 11 7 18 1 Maximum Head Length 425 90 40 424 217 691 124 183.1±0.28 186.5±0.60 182.2±0.61 180.8±0.28 188.0±0.39 185.3±0.22 177.6±0.35 Length-Breadth Index (Cranial Index) 14 6 1 15 7 18 1 14 6 1 9 6 13 1 13 6 1 8 6 14 1 423 90 43 694 218 678 124 71.7±0.13 70.0±0.28 74.2±0.27 72.9±0.10 69.7±0.18 75.4±0.10 74.0±0.16 Bizygomatic Breadth 360 84 44 306 152 355 119 130.0±0.24 135.0±0.50 131.0±0.49 132.1±0.26 136.3±0.37 135.4±0.24 128.0±0.29 Nasal Breadth 363 90 22 300 151 377 124 26.2±0.09 27.0±0.19 26.5±0.38 26.0±0.10 26.5±0.14 25.9±0.09 25.3±0.11 Comparative Study 265 Weighted Averages and Their Probable Errors — continued Region Samples Skulls Orbital Index Average 100 0,R 0,R New Guinea 11 332 81.6±0.28 Australia 6 90 76.5±0.53 Tasmania ... Melanesia (1) 8 401 80.0±0.25 Melanesia (2) 5 144 79. 5 ±0.42 Polynesia 13 340 82.6±0.27 Field Mus. sample 1 123 83. 6 ±0.31 Prosthion P Angle New Guinea 8 245 78.5±0.21 Australia 6 86 78.0±0.35 Tasmania ... Melanesia (1) ... Melanesia (2) 6 282 77. 8 ±0.19 Polynesia 10 255 83.9±0.20 Field Mus. sample 1 112 80. 4 ±0.22 B Angle New Guinea ... Australia 6 78 39.2±0.30 Tasmania 1 32 36.9±0.47 Melanesia (1) ... Melanesia (2) ... Polynesia 6 183 39.9±0.20 Field Mus. sample 1 104 38. 7 ±0.17 Samples Skulls Average Nasal Indes . 100 NB ' NHR 13 359 52.2±0.20 6 89 53.7±0.40 1 22 55.8±0.62 9 418 52.9±0.19 6 151 54.2±0.31 10 280 47.9±0.34 1 124 50.7±0.23 A Angle 6 '78 70.4±o!39 1 32 69.6±0.61 6 178 73!9±6.26 1 104 68.1±0.23 N Angle 6 '78 76!i±o!37 1 32 73.5±0.58 6 183 66!i±6!24 1 104 73.1±0.22 Examination of Average Measurements. — The Polynesian skull is distinguishable from others in many important characters. The cranial capacity of 1465 cc. is appreciably larger than all others, whose capacities range from 1264 to 1423 cc. The Polynesian skull is also distinguished by its great length, breadth, and height. The cranial index of 75.4 ±0.10 is the highest average recorded; therefore the Polynesian skull is the roundest of the series. The facial height of 70.7 ±0.23 mm. exceeds all others and is noticeably larger than the facial height (66.6 ±0.25) for New Guinea, and 66.0 ±0.24 for Melanesia (1). The Polynesian skull has relatively round orbits, the smallest nasal width, the lowest nasal index, and the most orthognathous face. Other distinguishing features are the A angle and the N angle; the former is the largest of the series, and the latter is the smallest. The Australian skull (1290.1 ±12.31 cc.) is almost the smallest of the series. It is a relatively long skull (index 70.0 ±0.28). The bizygomatic width of 135.0 ±0.50 mm. is greater than those for Melanesia (1), Tasmania, and New Guinea. 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The face is relatively prognathous. The Tasmanian skull has the smallest cranial capacity of the whole series, and it has the lowest vault. The cranial index of 74.2 ± 0.27 is close to our Field Museum New Guinea sample with an index of 74.0 ±0.16. The Tasmanian skull has the lowest facial height (62.5 ±0.47 mm.) for the whole series. This trait gave the typical scowling appearance of Tasmanians. The same facial expression is noticeable in Bushmen of South Africa, whose upper facial height (62.1 ±0.51 mm.) is a little less than that of the Tasmanians (Kitson, 1931, p. 292). The nasal index for Tasmanian skulls is the highest of the whole series. Study of facial angles shows that Tasmanians have the smallest B angle in the series. A comparison of a Field Museum New Guinea sample with averages of 13 samples comprising 334 skulls from that island shows resemblances and differences (tables, pp. 259-261; 264, 265). The Museum sample shows a shorter skull with lower cranial capacity than that for Melanesia (1). But we must bear in mind that the Field Museum sample may be regarded as typically Papuan-Me- lanesian, whereas all samples, and especially Melanesia (2), may have admixture of both Australoid and Polynesian traits. Conclusions The main conclusions are: That the CRL is a valuable means of making comparisons between two series of average measurements for different traits. But we must have regard for the number of traits which have no significant difference. The CRL will give only a general measure of likeness and unlikeness, and (like any other average) the CRL obscures the number of identities; extremely close likenesses may be obscured by disparities between pairs of traits. Unless we are working with ideal data that give exactly what we want in size of samples, traits, and technique of measurement, we must not stress too much the small differences of CRL values. We have a right to say, however, that CRL values from 0-3 express a very close mathematical relationship between two series of aver- ages, and that CRL values from 3-10 leave us free to think that, in a statistical sense at least, the averages for the compared series are closely related. We have then to judge whether on ethnological principles the mathematical relationship implies ethnic affinity. Comparative Study 271 Consistent results in CRL values can sometimes be obtained with small samples of homogeneous material. This is apparent from consideration of Wagner's (1937, pp. 123, 165) coefficients expressing relationship between cranial series within Australia and within New Caledonia. The numerous small samples yield many coefficients between 0 and 10 in value, and these coefficients are consistent in showing homogeneity of cranial measurements. But we must not infer from these instances that small samples could always be used with reliability; much depends on the homogeneity of the individ- ual skulls which make up the total series. Comparison of craniometrical data from east Africa, Australia, New Guinea, and New Britain suggested a considerable mixture of Negro traits in the Pacific regions. We made an extensive survey of peoples of Australia, Melanesia, and Polynesia by (1) analysis and grouping of 244 coefficients of racial likeness; (2) comparison of averages, modes, and ranges of measurements. The smallest coefficients are those linking craniometrical measurements within Australia, within New Guinea, among the islands of New Caledonia, and among the Polynesian islands, even though they are far apart. There are mathematical grounds for believing in the probability that Tasmanians are an Australoid-Melanesian people. Values of the CRL are in harmony with general views on the inter-relationship of Melanesian peoples, and the mixture of Polynesian, Australoid, and Melanesian cranial characters. The correlation of craniometrical data with the results of blood tests on various racial groups offers an interesting field for future research. Finally, physical anthropologists should co-operate internation- ally to secure more uniformity in technique of measurement. It is fundamental to know what we intend to measure, how we shall make the measurements, and what we are aiming at in compara- tive study. At present, tables of measurements are published in so many different forms that much time is lost in extracting data. The form adopted in "Biometrika" is one that favors rapid comparative study. Samples which are available for comparative study are often unsatisfactory both in quality and quantity, and a research worker is between Scylla and Charybdis; he wishes to avoid the use of small samples, but fears to pool measurements that are not sufficiently homogeneous. A critical survey of measurements should (1) elimi- nate skulls of uncertain provenance; (2) cast out measurements 272 Craniometry of New Guinea made by different or unreliable techniques; (3) reject samples that are doubtfully sexed; (4) insist on having for measurement an adequate number of those traits which are of the greatest impor- tance in showing cranial differences; (5) retain the chosen traits for all comparisons. All these requirements are scarcely ever met by samples we wish to compare, and a severely critical attitude results in so much elimination of data that insufficient material remains for comparative study. Finally, I must take full responsibility for all the work in this monograph. And with regard to the last chapter, in which some comparative study is attempted, I am definitely between two schools. On the one hand, there are those who believe that much more might be squeezed from the data. For example, by "reducing" all co- efficients, we might by mathematical manipulation accept the cheer- ful belief that we have 100 skulls in each sample. Furthermore, it might have been possible to attempt further adjustments for known differences in technique, and so agree to the inclusion of data that have been disregarded. Some physical anthropologists are willing to go farther than others in making "adjustments" and "allowances." On the other hand, there are critics who would condemn the use of the coefficient entirely, and for this reason I have favored what seems to be a middle course, which results in the suggestion of some tentative conclusions of a general nature. APPENDIX Tables Giving Coefficients of Racial Likeness The letter following a coefficient is an acknowledgment of the source. B = Bonin, G. von (unpublished data including some unpublished figures from New Ireland, supplied to Dr. von Bonin by Dr. 0. Schlaginhaufen, see p. 278); Ha. = Hambly, W. D.; Hr— W=data of Hrdlicka, as treated by Wagner, K. A.; M=Morant, G. M.; W= Wagner, K. A. 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Plate LV SKULL NO. 411405 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LVII A \ '■/ SKULL NO. 43105 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LVIII SKULL NO. 43405 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LIX ' SKULL NO. 43455 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LX SKULL NO. 13455 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXII SKULL NO. 43455 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXIII { W % ^^ V SKULL NO. 43455 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXIV SKULL NO. 43406 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXV SKULL NO. -1310G Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXVII SKULL NO. 43106 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXVIII SKULL NO. 43406 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXIX SKULL NO. 43562 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXX SKULL NO. 13562 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXXII SKULL NO. 43589 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Vol. XXV, Plate LXXIII SKULL NO. 43589 THE LIBRARY OF THE 1940 UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 084204624