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CREAMERY
BUTTER-MAKING
BY
‘JOHN MICHELS, B.S. A., M. S.
Editor: Butter, Cheese and Egg Journal, and Author of “Dairy
Farming’’ and ‘‘Market Dairying’
Formerly Professor of Dairying in the N. C. State College
of Agriculture
ILLUSTRA TED
SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR
1911
All Rights Reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1904, 1909 AND 1911
BY JOHN MICHELS
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PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
The author’s experience in teaching creamery students
has demonstrated to him the need of a suitable reference
book to be used in conjunction with the lectures on cream-
ery butter making. An attempt to supply this need has
resulted in the preparation of this work, which embodies
the results of a long experience both as a practical butter
maker and as a teacher of creamery management.
Special emphasis has been laid upon starters, pasteur-
ized butter making, methods of creamery construction,
and creamery mechanics, subjects which have usually been
treated only in a very elementary way in similar publica-
tions that have appeared heretofore.
he historical side of the various phases of butter mak-
ing has in the main been omitted, not because it was
deemed uninteresting, but for fear of making this volume
too bulky.
With the appended glossary explaining all unavoidable
technical terms, this treatise is offered to the public as
a suitable hand-book for the student as well as for the
butter maker who cannot attend a dairy school.
JoHN MICHELS.
Michigan Agricultural College,
March, 1904.
PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION
In preparing the sixth edition of Creamery Buttermak-
ing, a thorough revision has been made of the entire
book, and six new chapters have been added. The new
chapters are: “Creamery Ice Cream Making,” “Eggs
As a Creamery Side Line,’ “Creamery By-Products,”
“Advice To Young Buttermakers,”’ ‘Gasoline Power”
and “Determination of Salt in Butter.”
Nothing has been left undone to bring the book strictly
up-to-date in every particular. All available sources of
information have been made use of, including scores of
leading buttermakers and creamery managers whose as-
sistance has been especially valuable in determining the
soundness of many new features that have recently sprung
up in creamery work. Much information relating to the
latest developments in creamery work has been secured
at first hand by visiting the leading creamery sections of
the country. |
The general adoption of the book as a text and refer-
ence book in American Dairy Schools and the warm re-
ception that has been accorded it in foreign dairy coun-
tries, naturally has been a source of much satisfaction to
the author and has prompted him more than ever to leave
nothing undone in the present revision to make the book
worthy of the confidence in which it is being held.
INTRODUCTION.
The “rule of thumb” butter making days are gone by.
No one at the present time can hoid any important posi-
tion in the profession of butter making unless thoroughly
grounded in the principles that underlie it.) TE as true
many obscure problems yet remain to be solved, but by
the aid of the bacteriologist and chemist butter making
has now been fairly placed upon a scientific basis.
Bacteriology has shed no less light upon the various
processes involved in the manufacture of butter than it
has upon the nature and causes of the diseases with which
mankind is afflicted. The souring of milk, the ripening
of cream, the causes of the various taints common to milk
and cream are now quite thoroughly understood. Along
with this understanding have come many radical changes
in the handling of milk and cream and their manufacture
into butter as well as in the handling of butter itself.
The best butter makers at the present time are the men
who are the most diligent students of bacteria and their
relation to butter making processes. Above their doors
is written in emblazoned letters ‘Cleanliness is next to
Godliness.” For cleanliness is the foundation of success
in butter making.
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page.
Chemical and Physical Properties of
BV EMMG teem, oo g she ardivae sto ccna deaths wth II
Phey bapuock Leste sy.2 hue cal tae Sete 23
he Lactometer and dts Use.4...2. 42... 34
Bacteria and Milk Fermentations...... 42
Composite? Gamma BU5 ain fe ee a Ss 51
Shea. eo tes aso Sapity asd seancc ews pakelas 57
Cheam Ripenine’. 2 2.25 So csear. 2s Seek 66
SSESEREGES dee aeelens Saas ho a AS ln bite ae 84
CARESS ete oA ae te ce ea ae aha < SR 96
Packing and’ Marketing > Butter... .... . III
Calcilatuia Dayidemds) jes2 fies. Sai. .3 119
Pcie Cimer riety, Are Ua cc toute ole 527
ALHEOPelitah AOMEETON 45004. l ee hace 128
Handling of Skim-milk and Buttermilk 130
Banter, i dpatio Sah. Gc hace alocn ome 137
Pasteurization as Applied to Butter-
po Fa olga eee I a a ak EE > 145
Control ot Water in Butter 602. neces 154
Sampling, Weighing and Testing Gath-
Stree rere sleet reco ay ike ag GN a 0 101
Location and Construction of Cream-
Chess SRR AME See eet Se amine ae ‘71
ice + House and Refrigerator... <3... 182
pewace, Disp@sat sc. vd pea bakes 188
Washing and Sterilizing Vessels....... 194
Detection of Tainted Milk and Cream 200
Mechanical Refrigeration: i024. ex.s 2 205
Creamery, Book-Keéepine ra. ..6 soe 6.0.8 215
Co-operative Creameries .............. 224
Handling Milk and Cream at the Farm 230
wamitary Maik Production..s... 200.0%. 241
10
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
TABLE, OF “CONTERIS
XXVITI.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXL.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVIT.
XXXVIII.
Page
‘Transportation of (ream: ous: caer eae 251
Water Supply for Farm and Creamery 256
Marketing Cream: 2 santa aw oa 262
Grading Mill and Cream. 702 sae ee 267
Creamery Mechaties '> 20h: <.0e ine 272
Creamery Ice Cream Making.......... 307
Eggs as a Creamery Side Line........ 317
Creamery By-Products’... 2c 326
Advice to Young Buttermakers....... 333
Gasoline Power sv.4! oh. ss enkaea he gee «a9
Determination of Salt in Butter....... 343
Appendix, ..) Parca Se 345
Glossary (28 ss Fi os ed eee ae ee 352
Inde We8 o4.5 oh. asa oes eee. ae ee 357
CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING.
CHAPTER I.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK.
‘Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle
their young. It is the only
food found in Nature con-
taining all the elements
necessary to sustain life.
Moreover it contains these
elements in the proper pro-
portions and in easily di-
gestible and assimilable
form.
Designed by Nature to
nourish the young, milk
was originally used entirely
for this purpose and secre-
ted only a short time after
parturition. For many cen-
turies, however, it has been
used as an important part of the human dietary and cows
at the present time yield milk almost incessantly. Because
of its nutritive qualities its use as a dietetic is rapidly
increasing.
Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid .
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint ordor suggestive
of cow’s breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is,
11
Weigh can showing gate opener.
12 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small
quantities of organic acids.
Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032,
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 and 1.033. After
standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character.
Evidence of this we have in the “rising of the cream.”
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension.
In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water,
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature.
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great
absorption properties. ‘This teaches the necessity of plac-
ing milk in clean pure surroundings.
Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol-
lowing figures:
Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com-
pilation of figures from various American E.x-
periment Stations.
Waterton id tos iw dtc Pee ee 87.1%
Duttersiats 6.005. 223. eee eee 3.9%
Caseig. (525% ie Ohi oh Cee eee 2.9%
Albuniei es ot 0. . ly de eee Dae ee 5%
SUSAE yep, aia ae ss On ee 4.9%
A she bow Sy dank te teridea: <, «cae agate icine re aan 7%
Babette < Sin fee de SEs ce oe ee ee Trace
Galaetasé :..:.'03 55 oik cae ee ee eee Sere Trace
100.0%
The great variations in the composition of milk are
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below:
PROPERTIES OF MILK 13
Maximum. Minimum.
BA ieke ihaee Swe da ad. ha 90.69 80.32
Jc ERA ise a a a 6.47 1.67
De EME te oa Ae es tite 5 kaa 4.23 1.79
. PRUPISIMIETY ayy 2 cB cacds asics 1.44 25
MURPAT Hse oS Gake Ae aye hs 6.03 aoe
Pere, OM A a emtate ve ohcete “Plat 35
These figures represent quite accurately the maximum
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi-
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests
even higher than this.
BUTTER FAT.
This is the most valuable as well as the most variable
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and
cheese production.
Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con-
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five
times as large as others. The size of the globules is
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the
size decreases and the number increases with the advance
of the period. In strippers’ milk the globules are some-
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the
cream and the churning of same impossible.
The size of the fat globules also varies with different
breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule
14 CKEAMERY BUTTER MAKING
is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is
about one ten-thousandth. .
Night’s milk usually has smaller globules than morn-
ing’s. The size of the globules also decreases with the
age of the cow.
The density or specific gravity of butter fat at 100° F.
is .gt and is quite constant. Its melting point varies
between wide limits, the average being 92° F.
Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond,
butter fat has the following composition :
BAY TIME a ton eee 3.85
Capromi! seg tae eee 3.60 \ Soluble or volatile.
Capryhin ic otacestnmea ete 55
Caorin- cr iee ost ankorenee! Lee
atin 7.9 ates wee ore 7.40
Weyristiticy.:. oe auc bata’ 20.20 Insoluble or
Paliitais vette os oa ae eee non-volatile.
Stearin: <). Ha kiesere dies tO
Cieins 6c Feces eee ee 35.00
This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty-
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid; palmitin,
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and
butyric.
Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats.
Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the
basis of soft fats.
4 PROPERTIES OF MILK 15
Butyric acid is soluble and is ‘a liquid which solidifies
at —2° F. and melts again at 28° F.
Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem-
perature is such a variable one.
The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ-
enced by:
E. Breeds.
2. Feeds.
3. Period of lactation.
4. Individuality of cows.
The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol-
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning
temperature, the difference being about six degrees.
Feeds have an important influence upon the character
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example,
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft
butter fat.
With the advance of the period of lactation the per-
centage of hard fat increases. ‘This chemical change, to-
gether with the physical change which butter fat under-
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac-
tation.
The individuality of the cow also to a great extent
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent
16 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed.
Soluble Fats. The soluble or volatile fats, of which
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable
and other animal fats.
The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo-
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of
June butter.
It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par-
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly
due to abnormal volatile fats.
Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom.
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking.
Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen,
globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the
casein and albumen being by far the most important.
Casein. ‘This is a white colloidal substance, possessing
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue-
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an
almost endless variety of cheese.
PROPERTIES OF MILK iF,
The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its
exact composition still undetermined.
Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat.
Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re-
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing
sulphur. . It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F.
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein
and albumen radically differ.
Milk Sugar. ‘This sugar, commonly called lactose, has
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste.
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom-
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there-
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk.
All of the milk sugar is in solution.
Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that
18 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to
“whip.” Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig-
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent
of milk.
Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel-
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu-
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and
causes it to coagulate on application of heat.
According to Eugling the average composition of colos-
trum milk is as follows:
NV AUER Ses ch wrists cates Ww Uchea ea seers 71.60%
ieee ks Sh he wens eeaeremen 5.27
Cages niches .cce wee ee biatine Teel 4.83
ITCH. ias |... ape boat oie er tans ors 15.85
OBOE hsrca hs Kom Soi epee ad ot ahs ope 2.48
PORTA VS hers Wr ait at arate ek cist ake eva 1.78
The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura-
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it
assumes all the’ properties of normal milk. In some cases,
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of
the animal.
A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis-
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness
for butter production. |
Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con-
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes
PROPERTIES OF MILK he
;
place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows
as gently as possible, especially during the process of
milking.
How Secreted. The source from which the milk con-
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup-
posed, however, that all the different constituents already
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein,
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi-
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac-
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known
as osmosis.
Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif-
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition,
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the
20 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo-
sition. ‘The causes of these variations may be assigned
to two sets of conditions: I.—Those natural to the cow.
II.—Those of an artificial nature.
I. QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY NATURAL CONDI-
TIONS.
I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes
a change with the advance of the period of lactation.
During the first five months the composition remains prac-
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes
gradually richer until the cow “dries up.” The following
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change:
Month of . Per cent of fat
lactation. in milk.
Be tithe cd Moats stialkd o bce eiarmea sche’, Dae ae cae 4.54
BIS ney eel ek ean oath sokoe us eae Mage adeereis 4.33
Aiea lal Need ck a Pk sects Mia cath Gs Rea ah ee 4.28
A Sy ol CMG Ry a Mat hein dA CA PE ts Sf 4.39
Biss debe ca Val eats Wat ate aa rein ee 4.38
Busy it ete sae ico pe tok see wae 4.53
Feit 2 habia e Pobsta $i hana s sata oe ets ona ets 4.506
£5). saat Niatntels, Ke ee HAR tc Et Mate SU ole ste 4.66
Da Siti lod. Seace wiack 3a, t Dee tata Pee 4.79
Mss PET Cit ve Gat SOR Regine ar ae 5.00
It will be noticed from these figures that the milk
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries
up, it may test as high as 8%.
2. The quality of milk also differs with different
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those
of the individual cows of any particular breed.
Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor
PROPERTIES OF MILK 21
milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey
Experiment Station illustrates these differences:
Breed. ee Fat. ines Proteids.| Ash.
ee ft
Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.)/Per cent./Per cent.
Bydhine!. ss. 12.70| 3.68} 4.84] 3.48 69
Guernsey ...... 14.48 5.02 4.80 3.92 yf)
Holstein 2... 12.12| 3.51] 4.69] 3.28 64
ee cy. OS Se 98 1s Apel. 806 1
3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually
to be ascribed to the individuality or “make up” of the
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk,
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness,
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful
selection and breeding for a number of generations.
II. QUALITY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL CON-
DITIONS.
1. When cows are only partially milked they yield
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as
high as 14%.
2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers
are so much preferred to slow ones.
22 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general,
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for
the differences we often find in the richness of morning’s
and night’s milk. Sometimes the morning’s milk is the
richer, at other times the evening’s, depending largely
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not,
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times
in stead of twice a day.
4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction
of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced.
5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat.
6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the
richness of milk, but only temporarily.
So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter
what the character of feed composing the ration.
7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity
and the quality of milk produced.
CHAPTERS EE.
THE BABCOCK TEST.
This is a cheap and simple device for determining the
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-muilk, buttermilk,
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M.
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions
of modern times. ‘The chief uses of the Babcock test may
be mentioned as follows:
1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord-
ing to its quality.
2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect
undue losses in the process of manufacture.
3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds
by locating the poor cows.
4. It has, ina large measure, done away with the prac-
tice of watering and skimming milk. |
Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made
possible:
1. By the difference between the specific gravity of
butter fat and milk serum.
2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester.
3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid.
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested,
always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires
23
24 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob-
‘
‘SS
Fig. 1.—Babeock tester.
tained by measuring which is the method universally em-
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance
to be tested.
THE BABCOCK TEST 25
Apparatus. ‘This consists essentially of the following
parts: A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ;
D, skim-milk bottle; E., pipette or milk measure; F, acid
measures; G, cream scales; H, mixing cans; I, dividers.
A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 1,
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi-
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles.
This wheel is rotated by means of a steam turbine wheel
in the bottom or at the top of the tester. When the tester
stops the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand
up. As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out
causing the bottles to assume a horizontal position. Both
wheels are enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a
cover. :
B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones,
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled
with water it would hold two grams; but fat being only
.g as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine-
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10%
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing.
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 2.
C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 3. Since cream
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided
when the 30% bottles are used. See p. 167.
26 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
.
aN
eee er ed
~owtsesesne=
seeeecee ss
Fig. 2.—Milk Fig. 3.—Cream Fig. 4.—Skim-milk
bottle. bottle. bottle.
D. Skim-milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 4,
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into
ten subdivisions eacn subdivision reads .05%. ‘The same
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk.
THE BABCOCK TEST 27
Fig. 6.— Fig. 7 —
Acid meas- Acid meas- *
ure. ure.
E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c., as shown
in Fig. 5. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex-
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c., which is equiva-
lent to 18 grams of normal milk.
F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock
Pig ete ~—- test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and
milk are used. The acid measure, shown in
Fig. 6, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one
test. The one shown in Fig. 7 is divided into six divisions,
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where
28 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time
in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges.
H. Xt | | iI | i} \ | |
Sa f 1 Ni! i
i SS ll Mi HN
TA = S ~ ee, i |
NUTS S HI
_———\
‘ —>=
_=————=
——
Fig. 25.—Victor combined churn and butter worker.
Nu —© |i]
t Wa ty
sil Cay — = 3
SN MTT TTT HAT
H H HI / HH
hy | ) 7
{
aE AIA
Null a Mi Hh)
Wes i
ti.
Gin ii ATT ii i}
WAN
il Mi Hl Wi
workers (Figs. 25, 26, 29) placed upon the market a little
more than a decade ago. These are provided with
rollers inside, which remain stationary during churning,
but can be made to revolve when it is desired to work
the butter.
101 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
The combined churns have to a great extent replace.|
the old box and barrel styles because of the many advan-
tages they possess over the latter. The principal advan-
tages may be stated as follows:
Fig. 26. —Disbrow combined churn and butter worker.
1. They occupy less space.
2. Require less belting and fewer pulleys.
3. The churn can be kept closed while working which
keeps the warm air and flies out during the summer.
4. The butter can be made with considerably less labor.
A few disadvantages might be mentioned such as the
greater original cost and the greater difficulty of cleaning
and salting. But with proper care the butter may be
evenly salted and the churns kept clean.
CHURNING OPERATIONS.
Preparing the Churn. Before adding the cream, the
churn should be scalded with hot water and then
thoroughly rinsed with cold water. This will “freshen”
CHURNING 102
the churn and fill the pores of the wood with water so
that the cream and butter will not stick.
Straining Cream. All cream should be carefully
strained into the churn. This removes the possibility of
white specks in butter which usually consist of curd or
dried particles of cream.
Adding the Color. The amount of color to be added
depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year,
and the market demands.
Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color
than Holstein because it contains more natural color.
During the summer when the cows are feeding on
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed-
ing on dry feed.
Different markets demand different shades of color.
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market
to which it is shipped.
In the winter time about one ounce of color is required
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient.
In case the color is not added to the cream (through an
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter
the color will also be uniform throughout.
Finds of Color. ‘There are two classes of butter color
found upon the market. One is a vegetable color having
its origin in the annatta and other plants, the other is a
mineral color, a product of coal tar. Both are entirely
satisfactory so far as they impart to butter a desirable
color. But from a sanitary standpoint the vegetable color
103 CREAMERY. BUTTER MAKING
seems to be preferred and this is the color now used in
creameries.
Gas in Churn. During the first five minutes of churn-
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure
according to Babcock “‘is chiefly due to the air within
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free
from the cream.”
Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per-
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the
granules have reached the right size, cold water should
be added to the churn to cause the butter to float. Salt
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off.
Washing Butter. One washing in which as much
water is used as there was cream is usually sufficient.
When butter churns very soft two washings may be
advantageous. ‘Too much washing is dangerous, how-
ever, as it removes the delicate flavor of the butter.
Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments
conducted at various experiment stations have shown
that impure water seriously affects the flavor of butter.
When the water is not perfectly pure it should be filtered
or pasteurized.
SALTING.
It is needless to say that nothing but the best grades
of salt should be used in butter. This means salt readily
CHURNING 104
soluble in water and free from impurities. If there is
much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid appear-
ance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumbler
of clear water.
Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon
market demands. Some markets like Boston require much
salt in butter while some buyers in the New York market
require scarcely any. The butter maker must cater to the
markets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he
does with regard to color.
The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per-
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is
lost than under others.
The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent upon:
I. Amount of drainage before salting.
2. Fineness of butter granules.
3. Amount of butter in churn.
1. When the butter is salted before the wash water
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better
under these conditions.
2. Small butter granules require more salt than large
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows: The
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin
105 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater.
Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuffi-
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt.
3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost.
Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in
butter made in the combined churns comes close to one
and a half ounces per pound of butter. But the rate de-
manded by different commission men may vary from no
salt to two and a half ounces per pound of butter.
With the combined churns great care must be exercised
to get the salt evenly distributed from one end of the
churn to the other as it can not redistribute itself in the
working.
Brine Salting. This consists in dissolving the salt in
water and adding it to the butter in the form of a brine.
This will usually insure an even distribution with less
working since the salt is already dissolved. Where butter
containing a high percentage of salt is demanded the
method of brine salting is not practical, because it limits
the amount that can be incorporated in butter.
Where there is difficulty in securing an even distribu-
tion of the salt without excessive working, an oversatu-
rated brine may be used to advantage. Salt added to
butter in this form very quickly dissolves and a butter
with any degree of salt is possible.
But it is believed that where butter is drained little and
a somewhat higher rate of salt is used, dry salting will
never require overworking and will insure greater uni-
formity than is possible with brine salting.
Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and
CHURNING 106
materially increases its keeping quality. Very high salt-
ing, however, has a tendency to detract from the fine
delicate aroma of butter while at the same time it tends
to cover up slight defects in the flavor. Asa rule a butter
maker will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his
butter rather high.
Salt an Absorbent. Salt very readily absorbs odors
and must therefore be kept in clean, dry places where the
-air is pure. Too frequently it is stored in musty, damp
store rooms where it will not only lump, but become
impregnated with bad odors which seriously impair the
quality of the butter.
WORKING BUTTER.
The chief object in working butter is to evenly incor-
porate the salt. Working also assists in expelling
moisture.
After the wash water has sufficiently drained away, the
salt is carefully distributed over the butter and the churn
revolved a few times with the rollers stationary. This
will aid in mixing the salt and butter. The rollers are
then set in gear and the butter worked until the salt has
been evenly distributed. To work butter twice reduces
the water content.
How Much to Work. Butter is worked enough when
the salt has been evenly distributed. Just when this point
has been reached can not always be told from the appear-
ance of the butter immediately after working. But after
four or six hours standing the appearance of white
streaks or mottles indicates that the butter has not been
sufficiently worked. The rule to follow is to work the
butter just enough to prevent the appearance of mottles
107 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
after standing about six hours. Just how much working
this requires every butter maker must determine for him-
self, by experiment, for the reason that there are a number
of conditions that influence the length of time that butter
needs to be worked in a combined churn. These condi-
tions are:
1. Amount of butter in the churn.
Temperature of the butter.
Time between workings.
Size of granules.
Solubility of salt.
1. When there is a moderately large amount of butter
in the churn the working can be accomplished with fewer
revolutions than with a small amount. Satisfactory work-
ing can not be secured, however, when the capacity of the
churn is overtaxed. :
2. Hard, cold butter is difficult to work because the
particles will not knead together properly.
3. A moderately long time between workings allows
the salt to dissolve and diffuse through the butter and
hence reduces the amount of working.
4. Coarse or overchurned butter needs a great deal
of working because of the greater difficulty of distribu-
ting the salt.
5. A salt that does not readily dissolve requires exces-
sive working and is therefore productive of overworked
butter. With such salt the brine method of salting is
undoubtedly preferable.
Fe ee
CHURNING 108
DIFFICULT CHURNING.
The causes of trouble in churning may be enumerated
as follows: (1) thin cream, (2) low temperature, (3)
sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of cream, (5) churn too
full, (6) too high or too low speed of churn, (7) colos-
trum milk, (8) advanced period of lactation, and (9) ab-
normally rich cream.
Foaming. ‘This is usually due to churning a thin
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the
-churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and
two churnings made instead of one.
CLEANING CHURNS.
After the butter has been removed, the churn should be
washed, first with moderately hot water, next with boiling
hot water containing a little alkali, and finally with hot
water. If the final rinsing is done with cold water the
churn dries too slowly, which is apt to give it a musty
smell.
This daily washing should be supplemented once a week
with a washing with lime water, which is prepared as
follows: Gradually slake half a bushel of freshly burned
lime by adding water to it at short intervals until about
150 pounds of water has been added. Stir the mixture
once every half hour for several hours, after which allow
it to remain undisturbed for about ten hours. This
permits the undissolved material to settle. The clear
liquid is now poured off and added to the churn, which is
109 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
slowly revolved for at least half an hour so that the lime
water may thoroughly penetrate the pores of the wood.
Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre-
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns
not so treated. i
The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of
alkali.
Churning Cream Immediately After Adding the
Starter. Where much hand separator cream is handled,
it is usually received with varying amounts of acid, rang-
ing in some cases from 0.15% to 0.8%. When the
average acidity of the cream is such that when treated
with a large amount of starter the mixture will show
0.5% acid or more, the cream should be churned as soon
as the proper churning temperature can be secured. If,
for example, the vat of cream shows 0.4% acid and the
starter 0.7%, then one part of starter to two parts of
cream would give an average acidity of 0.5%, the right
amount for churning cream of moderate richness.
Pumping Cream into the Churn. Cream may be
forced into the churn either by means of air pumps,
sanitary milk and cream pumps, or with pumps working
on the principle of an ordinary well pump.
The air pumps require air-tight cream ripeners for
their successful operation. The air is pumped into the
ripener to create sufficient pressure to force the cream
into the churn. Forcing air into the ripener has the
advantage of permitting the cream to be conducted to
the churn through an open spout.
Pumps worked with a handle have the advantage of
CHURNING 110
enabling the buttermaker to put his cream into the churn
in the morning before there is sufficient steam pressure to
work pumps with the engine.
Fig. 27 shows a very satisfactory cream pump which
Fig. 27.—Cream pump.
can be made by any tinner. It simply consists of a heavy
tin cylinder four inches in diameter which is provided with
two brass valves having two inch openings. This pump is
attached to the cream ripener and the cream pumped by
hand into the churn through an open spout. Both valves
can be removed so that there is not the slightest difficulty
in cleaning the pump. Such a pump will readily pump 25
gallons of cream per minute.
CHAPTER X.
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER.
Butter is usually in the best condition for packing
immediately after it has been worked. It can then be
packed solidly into the packages without the vigorous
ramming necessary when the butter becomes too cold.
When allowed to stand in the churn some time after work-
ing during the warm summer days, the butter will usually
get too soft for satisfactory packing. 3
There is a great variety of packages in which butter
may be packed. for the markets. These may be con-
veniently divided into two groups: (1) those used for
nome trade, and (2) those designed for export trade.
Home Trade Packages. The bulk of the butter for
home trade is packed in ash and spruce tubs, the former
holding 20, 30, and 60 pounds, while the latter are made
in 10, 20, 30, and 50 pound sizes.
Before adding the butter, the tubs must be thoroughly
scrubbed inside and outside, the hoops carefully set, and
then soaked in hot water for about half an hour. After
this they are steamed for three minutes and then allowed
to soak in cold water not less than four hours. The sides
and bottom of the tubs are next lined with parchment
paper which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty-
four hours. See “paraffining tubs,” page 114.
The wet liners are easily placed in the tubs by allowing
them to project an inch and turning this over the edge.
The tubs are now weighed and the butter packed into
111
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 112
them directly from the churn, adding about five pounds
at a time and firmly packing it with a wooden packer made
for this purpose. The butter should be packed solid so
that when stripped of its package on the retailer’s counter
no open spaces will appear in it.
When ash tubs are used they are packed brim full
and trimmed off level with the tub by running a string
across the top. The tubs are then weighed and the weights
marked on the outside, allowing not less than half
a pound for shrinkage for a sixty pound tub. A cheese
cloth circle is next placed over the top and an oversatu-
rated brine is pasted upon this. After careful cleaning
place the covers on the tubs and fasten them with not
less than three butter tub fasteners.
With spruce tubs the method of packing is the same
with the exception that most markets require an even
number of pounds in a tub, as 30 or 50 pounds. The tubs
are, therefore, trimmed down till the required weight, plus
half a pound for shrinkage, is reached. Some markets
do not require the spruce tubs to be lined but it is always
better to do so.
Prints. Considerable quantities of butter made in
creameries are put up in one pound oblong blocks called
prints. Where many of these prints are made a printer
like that shown in Fig. 28 is most. serviceable. This
makes twenty-five prints at a time.
The prints are carefully wrapped in parchment paper
which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty-four
hours, and then packed in cheap wood boxes which
usually hold about fifty of them. These boxes should be
held not less than one day in a refrigerator before they
are shipped. Print butter is growing in popularity.
There are various other packages in which butter is
113 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
packed, such as five pound crocks, gem fibre paper boxes
lined with parchment and holding 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10
pounds, and the wooden bail boxes holding from 5 to 10
pounds. Most of these packages are used for local trade.
Fig. 28.—Butter printer.
Foreign Trade Packages. For export trade butter is
preferably packed in cubical spruce boxes lined with
paraffin and holding 56 pounds. These boxes are pre-
pared by rinsing them with cold brine and then lining
with parchment paper (double thickness at top and
bottom) which has been soaked in brine. The boxes are
now weighed and carefully packed, after which they are
trimmed down to a weight of 57 pounds, which allows one
pound for shrinkage. Finish the packing by placing a
8
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 114
Fig. 29.—Simplex churn.
double thickness of parchment paper over the top and upon
this oversaturated brine.
Butter shipped to tropical countries is packed in tin
cans which are hermetically sealed.
Paraffining Butter Packages. During recent years
buttermakers and butter dealers have suffered consider-
able losses from moldy butter caused by the growth of
mold on the liners and on the inside of the tubs. Rogers
of the United States Department of Agriculture has shown
that this trouble can be prevented with certainty by coat-
ing the inside of the tub with a layer of paraffin. He
says: “With paraffining not only are the molds and
their spores already on the tub prevented from growing,
but the wood is covered with a surface from which molds
Pts CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
can not get nourishment. The wood is made impervious
to water, and the space between the tub and the liner
remains filled with water, so that the molds which may
be on the liner can not get the supply of air necessary
to their growth.” He has also shown that loss from
shrinkage is largely prevented in this way.
Testimonials from buttermakers indicate that the prac-
tice of paraffining tubs is giving good satisfaction and
many have already adopted it as a permanent feature in.
creamery work.
To secure the best results from the paraffin, it should
be applied at a temperature of about 240° F., immediately
after steaming the tub. The steaming may or may not
be preceded by soaking; under present conditions, how-
ever, soaking is recommended, if for no other reason than
to givetubs their full weight. ‘Butter dealers are
accustomed to handle soaked tubs and where they are
not soaked, the creamery is liable to lose an amount of
butter equal to the difference between the weights of the
soaked and unsoaked tubs.
Special machines are now upon the market for paraf-
fining tubs. The paraffin may, however, be applied by
pouring the same into the tub and rotating the latter until
it is entirely coated. A brush may also be used for this
purpose. ‘Those who contemplate paraffining should in-
vestigate the merits of the machines now upon the market.
Printing Cold Butter. Until recently the common
practice has been to print butter directly from the churn
by using printers of the style shown in Fig 28. With
the advent of the “cold” butter printers or cutters, much
butter is being printed outside the creameries, and the
latter are also adopting the practice of cooling the butter
before printing. Cold butter makes better looking prints,
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 116
injures the butter less, causes less water to be lost, facili-
tates the wrapping, and makes it easier to pack the butter.
The butter is preferably packed directly from the churn
into square boxes of a size to fit the printer. Where butter
is printed from tubs, there is too much butter left in
irregular pieces, which are hard to repack and must be
disposed of in bulk.
MARKETING BUTTER.
The producer of any commodity is always confronted
with the problem of finding the best markets for his
product. Indeed his success is measured more or less by
his ability in handling this end of the business.
Buttermakers lose thousands and thousands of dollars
every year because they do not fully understand how to
manage the sale of their product.. They fall into the
clutches of men without credit or credentials who offer
big prices but no returns. Swindlers are always on the
lookout for victims and every year many buttermakers
are entrapped by them. To the one who is just beginning
to seek a market for his butter the following course of
procedure is recommended.
1. Find the names of three or more leading reputable
butter firms in the leading butter markets by inquiring of
men from whom trustworthy information may’ be ex-
pected.
2. Divide a day’s standard make among these butter
firms and instruct each to send you statement as to the
price they can give you net (f. 0. b.) at your station for
regular shipments, the price to be based on quotations of
some leading ‘market. Inform them further that you are
ready and willing to comply with their demands as to
color, package, and salt, in future shipments.
be brs CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
3. Ship your butter to the firm that offers you the best
price, but do not deal with this firm exclusively. A tub
should occasionally be sent to a new and reliable firm
with a view to securing better prices.
4. Remember, however, that it requires time to estab-
lish a good trade for butter. Frequent changes from one
firm to another are therefore undesirable.
5. Do not sell butter on commission, but ask for prices
f. o. b. your station, based on some market quotation like
New York, Chicago or Elgin.
6. Demand that payment shall be made for each ship-
ment of butter within two weeks after it is sent out.
7. Never send a firm a third shipment until the first
has been paid for.
8. Butter that is not up to the standard should be
marked and the firm properly instructed regarding its
disposition. An attempt to crowd in an inferior ship-
ment may cost you your regular trade.
9. Do not feel hurt when criticisms come regarding
defects in your butter but seek to overcome them.
10. Always allow one-half pound of butter for shrink-
-age on fifty and sixty pound tubs. If this allowance proves
inadequate it indicates that the tubs have not been properly
soaked or that the ‘‘house”’ is cutting you on weights.
11. Never contract butter for more than a year at a
time.
How to Sell to Commission Houses. A common
mistake in marketing butter is to sell it at prices based
upon the score of the butter. This places the butter-
maker at the mercy of the commission matt who may, or
may not, give an honest score. If he is not strictly
honest he may easily place butter that would
naturally grade as extras in the class of firsts, and butter
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 118
that would naturally grade as firsts in the class of seconds.
One of the best methods of selling butter to commis-
sion houses is as follows: Furnish the buyer enough
samples of butter to give him a good idea as to the aver-
age quality of the butter produced by the creamery. An
agreement can then be made as to the price the creamery
shall receive for regular shipments, the price to be based
upon some standard market quotation. If, for example,
the buyer agrees that the quality of the butter merits one-
half cent above Elgin, and the seller is satisfied with this
price, future shipments shall be paid for at the rate of
one-half cent above Elgin until such time as either party
may become dissatisfied with the original agreement. If
the butter maker feels that he is receiving a good price
for his butter, he will do his best to maintain the standard
of his product.
Selling to Retailers and Wholesalers. Wherever pos-
sible creameries should try to sell their butter direct to
retailers and wholesale houses and in this way save the
commission man’s profits. This method of marketing, of
course, necessitates visiting retailers and .wholesalers in
nearby cities, but this trouble will be more than compen-
sated for by bringing the buttermaker in closer touch
with the markets and with general market requirements.
Branding Butter. As with hundreds of other com-
modities, the branding of good butter is absolutely essen-
tial in creating a strong demand for it. A high quality
butter without a distinguishing mark is bound to sell at
a disadvantage because consumers are not willing to pay
high prices for products about whose quality they have
no positive assurance. The brand advertises the butter
and increases the demand for it, and an increased demand
is always followed by better prices.
CHAPTERS AE
CALCULATING DIVIDENDS.
Milk and cream yield butter in proportion to their
butter fat content. That is the reason why practically
all milk and cream made into butter are now bought by
the “Babcock test,” that is, on the “butter fat basis.”” In
discussing the method of paying for milk and cream,
therefore, only the “butter fat basis’’ will be considered.
The periodical payments made for milk and cream at
creameries are known as creamery dividends. These pay-
ments or dividends are sometimes made daily, as in the
case of some gathered cream plants; more often, how-
ever, they are made weekly, semi-monthly and even
monthly.
The different steps in the calculation of dividends at
creameries are as follows:
First, find the total pounds of butter fat received from
all the patrons. This is done by finding the total amount
of butter fat furnished by each patron separately and
adding together the totals so found. In finding each
patron’s total butter fat, every delivery of cream is mul-
tiplied by its test and the results of the different deliv-
eries added together.
Second, find the net money from the sale of butter by
multiplying each sale of butter by its price and deducting
from the amount thus found the cost of making the butter.
Third, find the price per pound of butter fat by divid-
119
CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 120
ing the total net money by the total pounds of butter fat
delivered by all the patrons.
Fourth, find each patron’s share of the money by mul-
tiplying the total pounds of butter fat delivered by him
by the price per pound of butter fat.
To make the ahove steps perfectly clear, let us cal-
culate a weekly dividend at a creamery where only cream
is received and where A, B and C are the patrons:
. .IIMustrating the First Step. The total butter fat de-
livered by A, B and C is as follows:
Pounds Pounds of
ofcream. Test. butter fat.
Rae eer eos vo tse w oela te 42 X-» 35.4 = 14.87
A are e rhe wipers, mci at eis ws ate BOs A *8O eT == TS-05
Ria Ger BS see od eee AB: > 30.5). = 14.64
MAEMO hl vee ot came Per 20° OX. 3616. SH 7. 32
Peta Ge Dire Oa eS tans whe sae 3 ead 51.88
iearia te oe tok eee ets BR Kx AOLeeh = a7 32
B Mie Nis ba Shs tekee ae Se 29 X 30.0 ~— _ 8.00
UREN. Se oof oa Ay ake wae c# 25 X 36.4 = 9Qg.10
ile cir Ao gag eS 1 Ke SO. Sa
ae as er ta tatig BE HEE oe WANN ters 30.97
Aye ee, oko ae ent e ea GA ae 33 = 21.12
C iS ay ce Mie asda Pa eee arg 69 X 31.1 = 21.46
Wee G i eke oe ee Somes erie SERS
aes ot oat a yas Seo os 8 Mew Gaia v) = “TO. 32
oa IR aceite ual gated be ow SiR gat inet Nae 74.05
The total butter fat delivered by A, B and C equals 51.88 +
30.97 + 74.63 equals 157.48 pounds.
Illustrating the Second Step. The net money is
found as follows:
121 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
Pounds of Price per
butter sold. pound. Amount.
a Fos cacy otnn ora we ah eres 86 X 26%c = $22.79
CE he MeN co an tia eens SOR 103° X"- ane = 26.78
‘Botal lbs. pubteriys). a. 189 Total money $49.57
At 3% cents a pound for making, the cost of manu-
facture will be 3% X 189, or $6.62. Deducting this
amount from the total money, there remains $42.95,
which is the total net money due the patrons.
Illustrating the Third Step. The price per pound of
butter fat is obtained by dividing the total net money
found in step two by the total pounds of butter fat found
in step one. Thus: $42.95 — 157.48—= 27.27 cents——
price per pound of butter fat.
IHlustrating the Fourth Step. Find the money due
each patron by multiplying the butter fat furnished by
him as determined in step one by the price per pound
of butter fat as determined in step three. Thus:
51.88 X .$.2727 = $14.15 = A’s money.
30.97. X .2727 = 8.44 = B’s money.
74.65 X .2727 = 20.36 = C’s money.
WHERE WHOLE MILK IS RECEIVED.
The method of calculating dividends at whole milk
creameries is the same as that at hand separator creamer-
ies except that a test is not made of each delivery of milk.
Where whole milk is received a composite sample is made
of each patron’s milk; that is, each patron is provided with
a pint jar to which samples of his milk are added daily .
for one or two weeks when the composite sample is
tested. A test of the composite sample represents the
CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 122
average per cent of butter fat in the milk for the period
during which the sample was gathered.
The method of composite sampling employed by whole
milk creameries is also used to some extent at hand sepa-
rator creameries, but unless the cream is delivered in a
fine, sweet condition, sufficiently accurate results cannot
be obtained with this method. Usually hand separator
cream is delivered in a more or less sour condition which
does not permit of composite sampling. The fact that
the deliveries of cream vary considerably in quantity and
richness is a further reason why the composite method of
testing cream is liable to lead to inaccurate results.
WHERE BOTH MILK AND CREAM ARE RECEIVED.
The calculation of dividends at creameries receiving both
milk and cream differs from the method used where only
milk or cream is received in that allowance must be made
for the fat lost in the milk skimmed at the creamery. On
an average 2 per cent of the total fat of milk is lost in the
skimming process. Hence, if cream patrons are credited
with all the fat they bring in the cream, it will be neces-
sary to deduct 2 per cent of the fat brought in the milk
by the whole milk patrons, which represents the amount
carried home by them in the skimmed milk.
Heretofore most creameries have equalized the pay-
ment for milk and cream by increasing the butter fat
from cream patrons by 2 per cent, which, so far as dol-
lars and cents are concerned, will have the same effect
as deducting 2 per cent from the fat delivered by whole
milk patrons. The latter method, however, results in a
ereater overrun and therefore in a greater price per
pound of butter fat. In order, therefore, to put cream-
123 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
eries receiving both whole milk and cream on a par with
those receiving only cream, so far as overrun and price
per pound of fat is concerned, it will be necessary to
deduct 2 per cent from the fat delivered by whole milk
patrons and not, as commonly done, add 2 per cent to
the fat delivered by cream patrons.
The following example illustrates how milk and cream
patrons are credited with butter fat in making dividends
at creameries receiving both milk and cream:
Patron A delivers 6,500 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per
cent.
Patron B delivers 600 pounds of cream testing 30 per
cent.
A’s total fat 6,500 X .o4== 260 pounds. B’s total
fat = 600 X .30 = 180 pounds.. To decrease A’s fat by
2 per cent, multiply 260, the total pounds of fat furnished
in his milk, by .g8, which equals 254.8.
In making the dividend, therefore, A is paid for 254.8
pounds of fat and B for 180 pounds.
THE TWO PER CENT—HOW CALCULATED.
In a well conducted creamery the average loss of fat
in the skim-milk should not be more than .078%. Di-
viding this figure by the average percentage of fat in
milk, 3.9, we get .0o2. So that in the separating process,
.02 pound of fat is lost in the skim-milk for every pound
of fat present in the milk.
From the above calculation it will be seen that the
cream factor (2%) would necessarily vary with the
efficiency of skimming and the average test of the milk.
To determine what this shall be for any particular cream-
ery divide the average loss of fat in the skim-milk by the
average test of the milk at the creamery.
CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 124
METHODS OF PAYING FOR MILK AND CREAM.
While practically all creameries buy milk or cream ac-
cording to the amount of fat contained in it, the method of
paying for same varies with different creameries. With
proprietary whole milk creameries, the usual custom has
been to guarantee patrons a certain price for butter
based upon some leading market quotation and charge a
fixed price for making the butter, say 3% cents per
pound. All of the butter made belongs to the patrons.
Cooperative creameries, as a rule, pay for butter fat
according to the net returns from the creamery; that is,
they deduct from the total gross returns the actual cost
of making the butter, plus a small sinking fund, and di-
vide the balance on the basis of the amount of butter fat
furnished by each.
Many hand separator creameries, and most of the cen-
tralizers, pay for butter fat according to market quota-
tions on butter. The price paid averages, as a rule, from
one to three cents below the average market price for
butter, transportation charges being paid by the creamery.
AVERAGING TESTS.
~In whole milk creameries, where the amount of milk
delivered from day to day and the tests of the same vary
but slightly, reasonably accurate results may be obtained
by averaging two composite tests, each representing, say,
one week’s milk. With cream the matter is different.
Cream deliveries from the same patron vary considerably
in quantity and quality and hence averaging cream tests
is almost certain to lead to fallacious results, as may be
seen from the following example:
125 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
The quantity and quality of cream delivered by a cer-
tain patron for three days is as follows:
Date. ).20" Lbs. cream. Per cent fat.
Dubey re ol Wa os Bary eta at onvoncee ea ! I ae account of their unusual
SSS —iiength. These long-
Fig. 36.—Torsion cream scales. necked bottles have the
advantage of permitting the use of a full sample of
cream which insures a more accurate reading than is pos-
sible where only half a sample of cream is put in an
168
CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
ordinary cream bottle, or where shorter wide-mouthed
50% bottles are used.
Fig. 37.—Cream scales.
A cream bottle commonly used is the Winton 30%
bottle, shown in Fig. 3. With this bottle only
half a sample (9 grams) of rich cream can
be used. To the half sample of cream a scant
half-measure of acid is added, and the testing
finished in the usual way. What is better,
however, is to add to the nine grams of cream
approximately 9 c.c. of water and then use
the full amount of acid. Obviously where only
half a sample of cream is used in the ordinary
bottle, the test must be multiplied by 2 to get
the correct reading.
Lately, a small bore cream bottle (Fig. 38)
| has been placed upon the market in which only
‘7 iliil half a sample of cream is used, but which gives
bottle.
a reading for a full sample. This does away
GATHERED CREAM 169
sample is used, and reduces the error in reading by one-
half. The small bore of the neck also lessens any error in
reading the test. |
In testing cream with this bottle, add 9 grams of
cream, 9 c.c. of water, 17.6 c.c. of sulphuric acid and
proceed with the test in the usual way, remembering that
the fat column gives the reading for an 18 gram sample.
Preparing the Sample. Before weighing the cream on
the balance, care should be taken to thoroughly mix the
sample by pouring and repouring a few times. Should
the samples show any dried or churned cream, the sample
jars must be placed in water at a temperature of about
110° F. until the lumps of cream or butter have melted.
When this is done the sample for the test bottle must be
taken instantly after mixing, as the melted fat separates
very quickly. In general, warming the sample jars some-
what before sampling by placing them in warm water
will facilitate the mixing and sampling of the cream.
Making and Reading Cream Tests. ‘The different
steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in testing
milk. However, as already stated, the cream must be
weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore,
special precautions must be used in reading the test.
It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat
column gives too high a reading. This error is due to
the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of
which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington
and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity
of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus.
This is the method commonly employed in reading tests.
Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus
by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red)
170 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests add-
ing a few drops of fat-saturated alcohol to the top of
the fat as a means of removing the meniscus. Ordinary
alcohol has a solvent action on butter fat, hence the neces-
sity of using fat-saturated alcohol.
Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub-
ject, has found ‘‘glymol” best suited for the removal of
the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white
mineral oil and is used for typewriters, sewing machines,
etc. It will give satisfactory results without the addition
of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by plac-
ing a small cheese cloth bag containing ‘“‘alkanet root’
in a bottle of glymol for a day or two. One ounce of
alkanet root will color one quart of glymol.
A few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should
be carefully added to the top of the fat column before
reading the test.
To get accurate readings the bottles should be read
while the temperature of the fat is between 135° and 140°
F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed
in a water bath having a temperature of 140° F. and
kept there several minutes, or long enough to cool the
fat to 140° F. The water in the vessel should extend
to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably
a little above. Accurate readings cannot be obtained by
reading the bottles directly from the tester; the first
bottles removed have too high a temperature while those
removed last have too low a temperature.
*Bulletin 145, Indiana Experiment Station.
CHAPTER XVIII.
LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES.
The creamery industry has had a marvelous growth
during the past decade and at no time in its history has
it been in a more healthy, flourishing condition than
it is at the present time. This growth has been the result
of a gradual change in agricultural methods, necessitated
chiefly by the need of conserving the fertility of lands now
under cultivation. As our lands become older, an agri-
cultural practice that will have for one of its objects the
preservation and restoration of soil fertility, must grow
more and more imperative. We have, therefore, much
assurance that the creamery industry will flourish in the
future as it has in the past, and that the creamery has
come to stay as a permanent institution. The same care
and attention should therefore be given to the location
and construction of creameries that is now given to our
schools, churches, and other institutions.
Location of Creamery. In deciding upon the location
of a creamery, we should carefully consider the following
points: (1) the number of cows in the community ; (2)
the slope necessary to insure good drainage ; (3) the center
of the milk producing territory; and (4) the supply of
pure water.
(1.) Before building a creamery we must first ascer-
tain the number of cows available for its support. There
should be an assurance of not less than 400 cows in a
radius of five miles of the creamery to start with. Too
171
172 _ CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
frequently creamery “promoters” are the cause of cream-
ery failures because the creamery has been placed in a
territory containing too few cows.
(2.) The ground upon which the creamery stands
should slope at least one foot in ten. This amount of slope
is necessary for two reasons: (a) to secure sufficient drain-
age, and (b) to permit the construction of a creamery
with an ideal interior and exterior arrangement, such as
will do away with extra can lifting, and extra pumps and
piping.
(3.) Locations far removed from railroad stations are
undesirable. It makes transportation to and from the
station too expensive. Besides, during the summer the
butter is liable to get too warm before it reaches a refrig-
erator car. .
(4.) Pure water is absolutely indispensable to the suc-
cess of acreamery. Experiments have abundantly demon-
strated that butter washed with impure water will be
inferior in flavor and particularly poor in keeping quality.
Fireproof Creamery. The best and most permanent
creameries are constructed of brick or hollow concrete
blocks. They are the most sanitary and cheapest in the
long run. The original cost may be somewhat greater
than that of a frame building but the insurance and re-
pairs are considerable less. A brick or concrete block
creamery with galvanized iron roof, cement floors, and the
walls partly of cement, is practically fire proof. Fires
occur too frequently in creameries to permit their con-
struction without regard to protection against fire. In-
deed scarcely a week passes but that from one to three
creameries are burned to the ground. In Denmark, the
great butter producing country, the creameries are nearly
all constructed of brick.
CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 173
A good solid concrete or stone foundation adds much
to the durability of a creamery building.
It matters not whether the creamery is constructed of
wood or brick, a shingle roof is undesirable because of
the danger from fire. ‘Twenty-six gage galvanized iron,
when properly laid, will make a cheap and very durable
roof. The roofing should be laid with standing seams to
allow for expansion and contraction of the material. To
protect the under side of the roof from moisture and
_corroding gases it is desirable to lay the galvanized iron
on acid and waterproof paper.
Slate makes the neatest and most durable roof but it is
rather expensive. :
Creamery Dimensions. ‘These should be such as
* not to crowd the machinery, nor to leave a great deal of
unnecessary space. Where the machinery and vats are
placed too close together they cannot be conveniently
cleaned and attended to. On the other hand, too much
space means extra steps, extra pipes and conductors, and
added cost to the creamery, to say nothing of the addi-
tional cleaning.
Plan of Creamery: There are two general plans upon
which creameries have been constructed in the past. One
is known as the gravity plan, the other as the one floor
plan. In the gravity plan the milk flows by gravity from
the intake to the separator, thus dispensing with the use
of a milk pump. It necessitates, however, two floors on
a different level; one for the receiving vat, the other,
five feet lower, for separators and cream vats. In the
one floor plan all vats and machinery stand on one floor,
the milk being forced into the separators by means of
a pump.
174 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
The chief objection to the gravity plan is that it neces-
sitates the climbing of high steps, which makes going
from one floor to the other difficult and tiresome. Yet,
not many years ago, such steps were preferable to the un-
ll =
as a 8 |
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Fig. 39.—Floor plan of combined gathered cream and whole milk creamery.
sanitary milk pumps then in use for elevating the milk
into the separators. With the vanishing of the old un-
CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 175
cleanable milk pumps and with the advent of pumps for
forcing cream into the churn, vanish the chief objec-
tions that have always been raised against the one floor
creamery. Our present sanitary milk pumps can be
cleaned as readily and thoroughly as our milk and cream
vats.
Fig. 39 illustrates a floor plan of a combined gathered
cream and whole milk creamery. Only the intake in this
plan is elevated so as to permit the milk and cream to
flow by, gravity into the receiving vats.
Some preter to dispense with the cream can shown in
the intake. In such cases the cream receiving vat is placed
against the intake and the cream is conducted into it by
means of a wide spout running through the intake par-
tition, in a manner similar to dumping grain at grain
elevators.
The ceiling in the storage room should be six feet
high, allowing just one tier of salt barrels to be stored
there. The space above is utilized for storing butter
tubs. The engine room is ceiled and the space above
utilized for a hot water tank and butter tub storage. The
water and steam gauges should be placed in the make
room next to the boiler room where they can be observed
from all points of the creamery.
In regard to the cold water tank, it is well to remem-
ber to locate this where it is easily accessible. This tank
should be frequently cleaned, a matter whose importance
is too often underrated by buttermakers. Both the hot
water and cold water tanks should have overflow pipes
about twice the size of the inlet pipes to prevent slop
and damage from overflowing tanks. |
Location of Refrigerator and Ice House. It is a
176 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
great mistake to have the ice house detached from the
creamery. Where this is the case much unnecessary labor
has to be performed in filling the refrigerator. The ice
house and refrigerator should adjoin with only a well
built wall between them.
Intake for Whole Milk Creamery. Nowhere in the
creamery can so much labor be economized as in the in-
take when properly constructed. The author can. state
from years of experience at the intake, handling from
10,000 to 15,000 pounds of milk daily, that the work in a
poor intake is by far the hardest that falls to the lot of
the butter maker. Where cans weighing from 100 to
200 pounds have to be raised one or two feet to get them
from the wagon onto the platform, and then three feet
more to get them emptied into the weigh can, the amount
of work necessary in weighing in 15,000 pounds of milk
is easily imagined. Intakes of this type are numerous.
On the other hand, an intake that dispenses with all
this can lifting offers comparatively easy work. Fig. 40
illustrates such an intake. The top of the wagon box
is on a level with the platform. The can after reach-
ing the platform is dumped without practically any lifting.
When ten gallon cans are used (and these are always
preferred) and a moderately strong boy draws the milk,
the butter maker need not step upon the platform at
all. He smells of every can before it is dumped, weighs
and samples the milk, and distributes the skimmilk and
buttermilk. Any creamery that is located where there
is a moderate slope can have an intake like that here
referred to with the little extra cost of the platform.
Construction of Floor. Construct a six-inch concrete
floor upon a well tamped foundation consisting of gravel,
CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 177
cobble stones and cinders. ‘These materials afford good
drainage and thus prevent the cold and dampness usually
associated with concrete floors. In preparing the concrete
for the floor use one part cement, two parts clean, coarse
sand and four parts gravel or crushed stone. Finish with
one part cement and one part sand.
All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in
the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor
with concrete to make them more easily cleanable.
MN DORAN
NY y H
ES A SR ||
scsi" pa
\ ———
SS SS SN Sy
WQS WWD DD SS-SASLCE_T—'
<
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~y
N
NN
Ss
N
x
N
N
®&
l
i]
Fig. 40.—Section through whole milk creamery.
To provide insulation for the concrete floor of the re-
frigerator, asbestos, hollow brick or tile is used as shown
in Fig. 42, p. 185. The asbestos must be protected from
moisture by covering both sides with waterproof paper.
Construction of Walls and Ceiling. The inside of
the brick or block walls are preferably finished with cement
plaster as follows: First apply about one inch of cement
plaster, consisting of one part cement, three parts clean,
coarse sand, and one part slaked lime paste. Follow this
with a finish consisting of one part cement and one part
sand and trowel off as smoothly as possible. The appear-
ance of a wall thus constructed is much improved by coat-
178 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
ing it with a cement filler which produces a uniform,
grayish color.
The ceiling should be built of the best ceiling lumber
and must be kept well painted.
Sewerage: [Effective sewerage must be provided at
the time the floor is laid. A bell trap (Fig. 41) should be
placed in the center of each room and carefully connected
with the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to
keep its odors a safe distance from the creamery. See
chapter XX.
Ventilation. Hitherto this subject has received
little or no attention whatever from creamery builders.
The influence of foul,
moist air upon the qual-
ity of the butter and the
general health of the
buttermaker is too little
appreciated. We _ hear
much about that ‘‘pecu-
liar creamery odor’’
which is simply an-
tac paibbaseeen ali other expression for
the foul, moist, stifling air that prevails in a great many
of our creameries. Almost daily we learn of butter
makers who are forced into retirement or compelled to
take up other lines of work because of lung trouble,
rheumatism, or general ill health. Unsanitary creamery
conditions are held accountable.
Ventilating shafts, extending from the creamery room
to the top of the building where they end in cupolas, are
serviceable but inadequate for the best ventilation. The
most effective ventilator with which the author is ac-
CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 179
quainted is installed in the Michigan Dairy School. This
ventilator consists of a galvanized iron pipe, fifteen inches
in diameter, which is suspended from the ceiling. The pipe
starts from the middle of the creamery room, where it
is expanded into a cowl five feet in diameter, and is
placed right up against the ceiling. It ends in a fan or
blower four feet in diameter which is located in the boiler
room. Here the blower connects with a chimney extend-
ing from the floor through the roof of the building. The
fan is so run that it will suck the air from the creamery
room into the ventilating pipe whence it is discharged
into the chimney. With a speed of two hundred revolu-
tions per minute the air of an ordinary creamery room
can be changed six to eight times per hour. Less than
one horse power is required to run the fan.
Sucking the air out of the room will, of course, neces-
sitate an inlet of air from the outside. A two-inch screen
under a few windows will answer this purpose very well.
The cost of pipes and blower will not exceed $125, an
amount that should be no consideration where the health
of the butter maker and the quality of the butter are at
stake.
Bath Room. Some, no doubt, will look upon a bath
room as a novelty and luxury rather than as a neces-
sary adjunct to the creamery. But where everything
needs to be kept so scrupulously clean, it must be im-
portant for the butter maker and his assistants to keep
themselves clean also. The sweaty smell of the butter
maker can certainly have no favorable effect upon his
produce, so sensitive to all odors, nor upon his own pre-
cious health. A light daily bath after the work is done
can not fail to add much to the comfort and health of the
180 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
butter maker and his helpers. The bath room will add to
the sanitary aspect of the whole creamery and will teach
the patrons an object lesson in personal cleanliness in the
care and handling of their milk.
Where a septic tank is used there is no reason why
the bath room should not be equipped with a water closet.
This should be done both as a matter of sanitation and
convenience.
Heating of Creamery. Creameries should be heated
by steam, not with stoves. Either the exhaust steam
from the engine or steam taken directly from the boiler
may be used for this purpose. The heating pipes should be
so arranged that either may be used when desired.
Where the exhaust steam is used to heat water for the
boiler and for washing, it may be best to heat the build-
ing with steam taken directly from the boiler.
A very satisfactory method of piping is the following:
Run one and one-half inch pipes from the boiler to within
two feet of the floor, and close to the walls of the creamery
room. The pipes should pass all around the creamery
room and end in a steam trap which discharges the con-
densed steam into a hot well located near the injector,
so that the hot water may readily be drawn into the boiler.
The heating pipes must all slope towards this well. Where.
the boiler floor is lower than the creamery floor an oil
barrel sawed in two may be made to serve the purpose
of a hot well.
A reducing valve should be placed near the boiler so
that any amount of pressure may be carried in the heat-
ing pipes. With a good valve of this kind a pressure
as low as one pound may be carried when the boiler
pressure varies from twenty to fifty pounds.
CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 181
The cost of steam trap and reducing valve should not
exceed $15.
Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is
absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can
easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies
are a prolific source of milk contamination and must
therefore be rigidly excluded from the creamery.
‘ | CHAPTER XIX.
ICE, ICE HOUSE AND REFRIGERATOR.
ICE.
Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for
mechanical refrigeration, an abundant supply of ice be-
comes indispensable in making the best quality of butter.
A low refrigerator temperature can not be maintained
without the use of a great deal of ice. The increased use
of starters and pasteurizers also demands increasingly
large supplies of ice.
Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can
be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This
is due to the latent or “hidden” cold in ice. Thus to
convert one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same
temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words,
enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of
142 pounds of water one degree Fahr.
Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available.
Lake ice usually proves very satisfactory. Where the
. source of ice is at too great a distance from the dairy,
an artificial pond should be made upon ground with a
reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural con-
cave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded
with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply
of ice will be available in a very short time.
Cost of Making Ice. Where ice can be obtained
within a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling
and packing should not exceed one dollar per ton.
182
NATURAL REFRIGERATION 183
ICE HOUSE.
Location. The ice house should be joined to the
creamery, preferably at the north end, which affords the
greatest protection from the sun. Where the ice house
is detached from the creamery, too much unnecessary
labor must be performed in filling the refrigerator. See
Fig. 39, page 174.
Size of Ice House: ‘The size of the ice house will
depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used.
When this has been determined, calculate the necessary
storage space by allowing 57.5 pounds for every cubic
foot of ice. For a creamery making on an average 1,000
pounds of butter a day, an ice house 16 feet high, 32
feet long and 16 feet wide will usually be found adequate.
It should be remembered, however, that the amount of
ice necessary to make a given amount of butter will
depend, to no small extent, upon the degree of insula-
tion of ice house and refrigerator and the amount used
for cooling cream, making ice cream, selling cream, etc.
Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily
three things are necessary, (1) good drainage at the bot-
tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation
at the top.
Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be
secured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole
being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust
should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly
upon the sawdust.
Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards
on the outside of the studs and common rough boards on
184 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty.
The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of
sawdust.
Solid foundation walls must be provided to prevent the
entrance of air along the base.
The space between the sawdust covering on top of
the ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the
gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro-
jecting through the roof, should be provided to insure a
free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only
remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the
roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust.
The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust
except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on
top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one
foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice.
As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the
ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the
sill to the gable at one end of the building.
REFRIGERATOR.
Location. When convenience in filling is desired, the
refrigerator should be built in a corner of the ice house,
as shown in Fig. 39.
Size. This will depend, of course, upon the amount
of butter made. For a creamery making from 800 to
1,000 pounds of butter a day a refrigerator 8 to 10 feet
wide by 10 feet long will be found large enough.
Refrigerator With Ice Overhead. From the stand-
point of efficiency, the ice should be placed overhead,
and not at the end or sides of the refrigerator as is com-
monly done. With ice placed overhead it is possible to
NATURAL REFRIGERATION 185
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Fig. 42—Refrigerator with ice overhead,
186 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
secure a drier and cooler air. This method of refrigera-
tion is illustrated in Fig. 42. The entire inside of this
refrigerator is finished with cement plaster making it both
durable and sanitary. Two dead air spaces are provided:
a three-quarter-inch space between the concrete and the
boards to which the wire lathing is fastened and a four-
inch space between the 2x4-inch studding. These two
spaces together with the four layers of paper used, pro-
vide a high degree of insulation.
The concrete floor of the refrigerator is constructed
upon a foundation of twelve inches of cinders, overlaid
with hollow brick, tile, or asbestos wrapped in water-
proof paper. This construction provides the necessary
insulation.
The floor of the ice chamber is built of 2x4-inch stud-
ding running the length of the refrigerator. These studs
are laid about three inches apart to allow the water from
the melting ice to drip through. Below the ice chamber
is a shallow pan, which catches the drip from the ice
and conducts it into the sewer. The pan is supported by
means of two 2x4-inch studs running the full length of
the ice chamber. Both ends of the studs are provided
with hooks by means of which the pan is readily attached
to, and detached from, the ice chamber. This method of
attachment is necessary to permit the easy removal of the
pan for cleaning.
The refrigerator must be provided with a door having
at least two dead-air spaces and two flanges which fit
snugly into the frame of the refrigerator.
The ice is admitted to the ice chamber through a door
in the rear end of the refrigerator.
Refrigerator With Ice at End. This style of refrig-
NATURAL REFRIGERATION 187
erator, while less efficient than that using ice overhead, .
is commonly preferred because of the greater ease of
filling the ice chamber. Fig 43 illustrates the general
plan of construction. he details as to floor and wall
construction are the same as those shown in Fig. 42.
Fig. 43.—Refrigerator with ice box at end.
Refrigerator Cooled with Ammonia. Such a re-
frigerator may be constructed in the same way as the one
escribed 1
described the preceding pages, with the except
hahe. 1 ber) Tn place: of th t
frigerat used as show 6
For further particulars regarding tl thod of refrig
tion pter on Mechanic
CHAPTER XX.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL.
To secure a high degree of sanitation in and about
the creamery it is necessary to see that proper disposal
is made of the sewage from both the creamery and the
dwelling of the buttermaker. Where the latter is situated
close to the creamery its surroundings may do about as
much harm as those of the creamery itself.
With open privies and the careless dumping of kitchen
slops near the dwelling, we have a double means of en-
dangering the creamery. If the ground near the dwelling
and privy slopes in the direction of the water supply, the
latter is likely to become contaminated through seepage in
the manner indicated in Fig. 69. In addition to this there
is the danger of flies carrying various kinds of bacteria
from these places to the creamery. Flies not only carry
the obnoxious, putrefactive species, but too often also
the deadly pathogenic kinds, such as cause typhoid fever,
to say nothing of the offensive excrementitious matter
conveyed in this manner.
Obviously the accumulation of sewage about the cream-
ery itself is attended by even greater dangers than those
arising from the unsanitary surroundings of the dwelling.
Moreover there is certain to be trouble also from bad
odors.
SEPTIC TANK.
The best means of taking care of the sewage from
188
SEWAGE DISPOSAL 189
both the creamery and the dwelling is to run it into a septic
tank (see Fig. 44, designed by the author) and from
this into a net-work of tile laid underground where it
will irrigate and fertilize the soil.
Object of Septic Tank. The main purpose of the
tank, as its name indicates, is to thoroughly decompose
all organic matter entering it. This is accomplished by
numerous species of bacteria, and the tank may be
_properly designated as a germ incubator. Where the
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Fig. 44.—Septic Tank.
sewage is emptied into underground tile, the tank also
serves as a storage, discharging its contents intermittently.
This is necessary to force the liquid to all points of the
system and to allow time for each discharge to soak away
before the appearance of the next.
Construction of Tank. The general plan of construc-
tion is illustrated in Figs. 44 and 45. The tank is located
in the ground with the top within a foot or two of the
surface. For durability it is preferably constructed of
brick, stone or concrete. The tank is so constructed as to
190 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
retain all sediment and floating material, since the dis-
charges permit the withdrawal of the liquid from near the
middle of the tank only. This is one of the main features
of the tank. All inorganic matter entering the tank will
gradually settle and, of course, remain in it. Some of
the organic matter tends to settle during the first 24 hours,
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Fig. 50.—Cross-section of concrete sterilizer.
and is secured by six one-half inch iron rods, two feet
long and embedded in the concrete walls, one being placed
at each corner, and one on either side midway between the
corners. This arrangement not only strengthens the tank,
but also makes the cover fit tighter.
198 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
The cover consists of two thicknesses of one and one-
eighth inch tongued and grooved flooring three and one-
half inches wide. The upper boards run lengthwise and
the lower crosswise of the tank. The lower boards fit
into a shoulder projecting from the base of the 2x4-inch
studding. The entire inside portion of the cover is cov-
ered with zinc. To insure additional tightness of the
cover, a layer of asbestos is placed on top of the 2xq4s.
A heavy weight attached to a one-half inch rope running
over a pulley fastened to the ceiling, raises the cover and
holds it open when desired. The cover is strengthened
by running three pieces of 2x4-inch studding crosswise
of the tank, one at the middle and one at either end. The
hinges by which the cover is fastened are attached to
these 2x4s, as shown in Fig. 50.
A safety valve, set at ten pounds pressure, is inserted
through the top of the cover at the most convenient place.
A bell trap (see Fig. 41) placed in the bottom of the
sterilizer serves as an outlet for the condensed steam.
The steam is admitted either through the sides or
through the bottom of the sterilizer, and both inlet and
outlet pipes should be laid in the concrete at the time the
sterilizer is being built. .
A false, perforated metallic bottom is placed one inch
from the bottom of the sterilizer, on which all vessels are
placed in an inverted position.
The following is an itemized statement of the cost of
the material used in the construction of this sterilizer,
‘whose inside dimensions are: length, 7 1-3 feet; width,
2 1-4 feet; depth, 2 1-3 feet.
WASHING AND STERILIZING Roo
Sennis- or Portiatie, Cement. «acc . oe cel nde va code ue Ores $5.20
era A RT MACHIOE £0 oP Ns Gs « shun ios Tk «eae ee aes .30
110 ft. of 1% tongued and grooved flooring, 314 wide...... 4.40
BEET RAO ed ser anata hc a res naar eS Comte RS Ie aR .40
TOS LINS G0 2s ae ee eatin ee aie 4 ag ha rl 2p ORR ge OR ra .20
© ->-inen iron: reds / 254 teeb Ions: oom. et ee nes eh ie te 1.20
ET SERR Cones jcScer Sel Sk SS ae Up IE ord casas 6 3 RE ee ON keaton a .30
OI RES NRCG e ote od GAEL Oa ae a ae. tence Poot fe task ae 1.75
Poth and lever -satety wal Ve... <2. sone wot REA, 1.00
Per Biss SHEET -ASEStOS 4 oe. rs od os oh oe oo Dobe hehe ee 30
<5 ]27s Fa Poet Stele Paes NAN ok Polen + Sau mR ist Sten SS og G $15.05
Elevated Hot Water Tank. A tank providing hot
water should be located in or near the boiler room and ele-
vated so that hot water can be conducted to the churn, but-
ter printer and vats. A few coils of gas pipes placed in
the bottom of the tank, through which the exhaust steam
from the engine can be conducted, will furnish all the
hot water necessary. This tank should be covered and
provided with a vent to permit the escape of steam during
excessive heating of the water within,
CHAPTER XXII.
DETECTION OF TAINTED MILK AND CREAM.
In well regulated creameries the head butter maker
will usually be found at the intake every morning care-
fully examining the milk as it arrives at the factory. It
requires skill and training to detect and properly locate
the numerous taints to which milk is heir. It also requires
considerable tact to reform patrons who have been care-
less in the handling of their milk. The best skill available
in the creamery should therefore be placed in the intake.
In the daily examination of milk, defects can usually be
detected by smelling of it as soon as the cover is re-
moved from the cans. When, however, milk arrives at
the creamery at a temperature of 50° F. or below, it
becomes more difficult to detect taints; indeed during the
winter when milk is often received in a partly frozen
condition, experts may be unable to detect faults which
become quite prominent when the milk is heated to a
temperature of 100° F. or above.
Frequently milk is seeded with undesirable kinds of
bacteria which have not had time to develop sufficiently
to manifest themselves at the time the milk is delivered
to the creamery, but which later in the course of cream
ripening produce undesirable flavors. It is necessary,
therefore, in making a thorough examination of milk to
heat it to a temperature of from 95° to 100° F. and to
keep it there for some time to permit a vigorous bacterial
development. Such bacterial development can be carried
on in what is known as the Wisconsin Curd Test and the
Gerber fermentation test.
200
DETECTION OF TAINTS 201
WISCONSIN CURD TEST.
This test originated at the Wisconsin Dairy School.
The name of the test implies that the samples of milk
to be tested are curded, which is accomplished in a man-
ner similar to that in which milk is curded for cheese
making. |
The Wisconsin Curd Test is frequently spoken oT as
“fermentation test,’ since the process involved consists in
fermenting the milk by holding it at a temperature at
which the bacterial fermentations go on most rapidly.
Apparatus. ‘This consists of one pint cylindrical tin
cans placed in a tin frame, and of a well insulated box
made so that the tin frame will nicely slide into it. Added
to this is a case knife, and a small pipette used to measure
rennet extract.
The construction of the box and the position of the cans
inside is illustrated in Fig. 51. This box consists of
three-eighths inch lumber, the inside of which is lined with
a quarter inch thickness of felt. Narrow strips are tacked
on the felt and tin upon these, the object of the strips
being to prevent conduction of heat by contact of the tin
with the felt. The cover of the box is constructed in the
same way and made to fit tight. This construction makes
it possible to maintain a nearly constant temperature of
the samples which are surrounded by water as shown in
the illustration.
Making the Test. A curd or fermentation test is made
at the creamery by selecting from each patron about two-
thirds of a pint of milk and placing this in the tin pint
cans after they have been thoroughly sterilized. Each
pint can should be provided with a sterilized cover which
is placed upon it as soon as the sample has been taken.
202 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
The sample cans are next placed in the insulated box
provided for them. Here they are warmed by adding
water at a temperature of 103° F. to the box, a tempera-
ture which should be maintained throughout the whole
test.
Sed
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Fig. 51.—Section through curd test.
With a sterile thermometer watch the rise in tempera-
ture until it has reached 86° F. when Io drops of rennet
extract are added to each sample and mixed with it for a
few moments with a sterile case knife. This knife must
be sterilized for each sample to avoid transferring bacteria
from one can to another.
As soon as the milk has curdled it is sliced with the
case knife to permit the separation of the whey. After
the whey has been separating for half an hour, the sam-
ples should be examined for flavor, which can be told far
better at this stage than is possible by smelling of the milk
as it arrives at the creamery.
After the samples have all been carefully examined,
the whey is poured off at intervals of from twenty to
forty minutes for not less than eight hours. At the end
DETECTION OF °F AINTS 203
of this time a mass of curd will be found at the bottom
of the can in which there has been a vigorous develop-
ment of bacteria throughout the test.
If the sample of milk is free from taint, this curd when
cut with a knife will he perfectly smooth and close. If,
on the other hand, the sample contains gas germs, these
in course of eight hours’ development will have produced
enough gas to give the curd an open spongy appearance
when cut. The openings are usually small and round,
"hence the name “pin holes” has been applied to them in-
dicating holes the size of a pin’s head.
Whenever, therefore, milk produces a curd that an-
swers this description it may be taken for granted that it
contains undesirable bacteria.
Sometimes the milk may be tainted and vet produce a
close textured curd, but in such cases the taint can be
detected by carefully smelling of the curd.
Precautions. In making a test as above outlined two
things must constantly be kept in mind: first, that to se-
cure the desired bacterial development, the temperature of
the samples must be maintained as nearly as possible at
98° F., which is accomplished by surrounding them with
water at a temperature of 103° ; second, that to avoid con-
taminating one sample with another, the knife used for
mixing the rennet with the milk and cutting the curd
must be sterilized for each can. The thermometer used
must also be sterile.
The temperature of the samples can easily be main-
tained by using a well insulated box like that shown in
Fig. 51. When a common tin box is used it becomes
necessary to change the water in it about once every half
hour.
204 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
GERBER FERMENTATION TEST.
This test is simpler than the Wisconsin Curd Test and
can be used for both milk and cream. Where milk need
not be examined specially for gas-producing organisms,
this test will give as satisfactory results as the curd test.
The essential difference between the two tests is the elim-
ination of rennet extract with the Gerber.
Making the Test. The samples of milk or cream are
placed in glass tubes which are numbered to correspond
with the names of the patrons. These tubes are warmed
in a tin tank containing water whose temperature is main-
tained at 104° F. throughout the test by placing a lamp
under the tank. At the end of about six hours the samples
are examined for flavor, color, taste and consistency. After
this examination, they are put back into the tank to be re-
examined after another interval of about six hours. Any
“off” condition of the milk or cream can usually be told at
the end of six to twelve hours.
CHAPTER XXIII.
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.
In warm climates and in localities where ice is not
obtainable or only so at a high cost, cold may be produced
by artificial means known as rmechanical refrigeration.
This system of refrigeration is also finding its way into
creameries that are able to procure ice at a moderate cost
but which are seeking more satisfactory means of control-
ling the temperature of their cream, refrigerator, make
room, etc.
Refrigerating Machines. ‘There are four kinds of
machines used for refrigerating purposes: (1) vacuum
machines in which water is used as the refrigerating
medium; (2) absorption machines in which a liquid of a
low boiling point is used as the refrigerating medium, the
vapors being absorbed by water and again separated from
it by distillation ; (3) compression machines which operate
practically the same as the absorption machines except
that the vapors in this case are compressed instead of
absorbed ; and (4) mixed absorption and compression ma-
chines.
Most of the machines in use at the present time
belong to the compression type; the following discussion
will therefore confine itself strictly to this class of
machines.
Principle. The principle employed in mechanical re-
frigeration is the production of cold by the evaporation
of liquids which have a low boiling point, like liquid
ammonia, liquid carbonic acid, ether, ete.
205
4
206 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
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7 (ot)
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| REFRIGATING Room
iia
Fig. 52.—Showing circulation of ammonia in mechanical refrigeration.
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 207
When a liquid evaporates or changes into the gaseous
state it absorbs a definite amount of heat called heat of
vaporization or “latent” heat. Thus to change water from
212° F. to steam at 212° F. requires a considerable
amount of heat which is apparently lost, hence the term
latent (hidden) heat.
Ether changes into its gas at a much lower temperature
than water which is illustrated by its instant evaporation
when poured upon the hand. The heat of the hand in this
caSe is sufficient to cause vaporization and the sensation
of cold indicates that a certain amount of heat has been
abstracted from the hand in the process.
Manifestly for refrigerating purposes a liquid must be
used that can be evaporated at a very low temperature;
for the cold in mechanical refrigeration is produced by
the evaporation of the liquid in iron pipes, the heat for
the purpose being absorbed from the room in which the
pipes are laid. Anhydrous ammonia has thus far proven
to be the best refrigerant for ordinary refrigeration.
Anhydrous Ammonia (Refrigerant). This substance
is a gas at ordinary temperatures but liquifies at 30° F.
under one atmospheric pressure. In practical refrigera-
tion the ammonia is liquified at rather high temperatures
by subjecting it to pressure. The ammonia is alternately
evaporated and liquified so that it may be used over and
over again almost indefinitely.
Circulation of Ammonia. The cycle of operations in
mechanical refrigeration is as follows: The liquid am-
monia starts on its course from a liquid receiver, and
enters the refrigerating coils in which it evaporates, ab-
sorbing a large amount of heat in the process. By means
of a compression pump, operated by an engine, the am-
monia vapors are forced in the condenser coils where the
208 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
ammonia, under pressure, is again liquified by runnins
cold water over the coils. From the condenser coils i
enters the liquid receiver, thence again on its journe
through the refrigerating coils.
The intensity of refrigeration is regulated by an ex
pansion valve, which is placed between the liquid receive
and the refrigerating coils. This-valve may be adjuste
so as to admit the desired quantity of liquid ammonia t
the coils.
Systems of Refrigeration. ‘There are two ways i
which the cooling may be accomplished by mechanica
refrigeration: (1) by evaporating the liquid ammoni
in a series of pipes placed in the room to be refrigerated
and (2) by evaporating the liquid ammonia in a series 0
coils laid in a tank of brine and forcing the cold brin
into coils laid in the room to be refrigerated. The forme
is known as the direct expansion system, the latter as th
indirect expansion or brine system.
Brine System. In creameries where the machinery i
run only five or six hours a day the brine system is thi
more satisfactory as it permits the storing of a large
amount of cold in the brine, which may be drawn upot
when the machinery is not running.
The brine tank is preferably located near the ceiling i1
the refrigerator where it will serve practically the same
purpose as an overhead ice box. In addition to this, the
refrigerator should contain a coil of direct expansior
pipes which may be used when extra cold is desired.
Brine from the above tank may be used for cooling
cream by conducting it through coils which are movable
in the cream vat; it may also be conducted through sta.
tionary pipes placed in the make room for the purpos«
“al
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 209
of controlling the temperature during the warm summer
months.
The brine is kept circulating by means of a brine pump.
Strength of Brine. The brine is usually made from
common salt (sodium chloride). The stronger the brine
the lower the temperature at which it will freeze. Its
strength should be determined by the lowest temperature
to be carried in the brine tank. The following table from
Siebel shows the freezing temperature as well as the
specific heat of brine of different strengths:
Pounds of j :
Percentage of salt by weight. eotien ct See eS: Bers :
solution.
I Vette og Roe bb See we oe 0.084 30.5 . 992
RE lee one a cis a opaiee «3 00 6 80's 0.169 29.3 . 984
MES CFs cdo dace ete ata e ss 0.256 27.8 976
Ee eb cP ae iad ad hie clita 6 cvates 0.344 26.6 . 968
on Ca a ae 0.523 23.9 . 946
EIA fe dt ho aha leravs) © eye, eons 0.708 4 Apa .919
ee olarak La a8, a's saree 0 0.897 18.7 .892
rn A a aia 'e Welk 0 oCa's ons.v St 1.092 16.0 874
MR a a sc dalolsicia'p ves ok 1.389 12.2 850
reer oe cy aug Goat. areas So ate 1.928 6.1 .829
TEM tik, aroha Set nate als eitia acave 2.488 0.5 . 783
Ne ey oa ata Bas wl eraleht ob 2.610 -l.1 PRE
The fact that the specific heat grows less as the brine
becomes stronger shows it to be wise not to have the
solution stronger than necessary, because the less the
specific heat the less heat a given amount of brine is able
to take up.
Refrigerating Capacity. When speaking of a machine
of one ton refrigerating capacity, we mean that it will
produce, in the course of twenty-four hours, the amount
of cold that would be given off by one ton of ice at 32° F.
210 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
melting into water at the same temperature. Its actual
ice making capacity is usually about 50% less.
Size of Compressor. In a moderately well insulated
creamery handling from twenty to twenty-five thousand
pounds of milk daily, a four-ton compressor will be large
enough. With a compressor of this size the machinery
will not have to be run more than five or six hours a day.
If the machinery is run longer than this a smaller com-
pressor will do the work.
Power Required to Operate. The power required per
ton of refrigeration is less the larger the machine. With
a four-ton compressor the. power required is from two to
two and one-half horse power per ton of refrigerating
capacity in twenty-four hours.
Refrigerating Pipes. The refrigerating pipes vary
from one to two inches in diameter. With moderately
good insulation it is estimated that by the direct expansion
system one running foot of two-inch piping will keep a
room of forty cubic feet content at a temperature of 32°
F. With brine nearly twice this amount of piping would
be necessary. .
For cooling the brine in the brine tank, about 140 feet
of 14-inch pipes are required per ton of refrigerating
capacity.
Expense of Operating. When a refrigerating plant
has once been installed and charged with the necessary
ammonia, the principal expense connected with it will be
the power required to operate the compressor. ‘This
power in a creamery is supplied by the creamery engine.
The ammonia, being used over and over again, will add
but a trifle to the running expenses. Nor can the water
used for cooling the ammonia vapors add much to the
cost of operating. It is true, however, that the refrigera-
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION ZA.
ting plant will require some of the butter maker’s time
and attention, but this is probably no more than would be
consumed in the handling of ice in the creamery.
Charging and Operating an Ammonia Plant. This
subject is so ably discussed in The Engineer by H. H.
Kelley that the author feels he can do no better than
present the following extracts from that article.
“When about to start an ice or refrigerating plant, the
first thing necessary is to see that the system is charged
with the proper amount of ammonia. Before the ammonia
is put in, however, all air and moisture must be removed ;
otherwise the efficiency of the system will be seriously
interfered with. Special valves are usually provided for
discharging the air, which is removed from the system
by starting the compressor and pumping the air out, the
operation of the gas cylinder being just the reverse of that
when it is working ammonia gas. It is practically impos-
sible to get all the air out of the entire system by this
means, so that some other course must be taken to remove
any remaining air after the compressor has been started at
regular work. This can be accomplished by admitting the
ammonia a little at a time, permitting the air to escape
through a purge valve, the air being thus expelled by dis-
placement. The cylinder containing the anhydrous am-
monia is connected to the charging valve by a suitable
pipe, and the valve opened. The compressor is then kept
running slowly with the suction and discharge valves wide
open and the expansion valve closed. When one cylinder
is emptied put another in its place, being careful to close
the charging valve before attempting to remove the empty
cylinder, opening it when the fresh cylinder is connected
up.
‘From sixty to seventy-five per cent of the full charge is
212 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
sufficient to start with so that the air may have an oppor-
tunity of escaping with as little loss of ammonia as possi-
ble. An additional quantity of ammonia may then be put
in each day until the full charge has been introduced.
When the ammonia cylinders have been emptied and a
charge of, say, seventy-five per cent of the full amount has
been introduced, the charging valve is closed and the ex-
pansion valve opened. The glass gauge on the ammonia
receiver will indicate the depth of ammonia. The appear-
ance of frost on the pipe leading to the coils and the
cooling of the brine in the tank will indicate that enough
ammonia has been introduced to start with. It is some-
times difficult to completely empty an ammonia cylinder
without first applying heat. The process of cooling being
the same when the ammonia expands from the cylinder
into the system as when leaving the expansion valve, a
low temperature is produced and the cylinder and con-
nections become covered with frost. When this occurs the
cylinder must be slightly warmed in order to be able to
get all the ammonia out of it. The ammonia cylinders,
when filled, should never be subjected to rough handling
and are preferably kept in a cool place free from any lia-
bility to accident. The fact that ammonia is soluble in
water should be well understood by persons charging a
refrigerating system, or working about the plant. One
part of water will absorb about 800 parts of ammonia gas
and in case of accident to the ammonia piping or machine,
water should be employed to absorb the escaping gas.
Persons employed about a plant of this kind should be
provided with some style of respirator, the simplest form
of which is a wet cloth held over the mouth and nose.
“After starting the compressor at the proper speed and
adjusting the regulating valve note the temperature of
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 213
the delivery pipe, and if there is a tendency to heat open
it wider, and vice versa. -This valve should be carefully
regulated until the temperature of the delivery pipe is
practically the same as the water discharged from the
ammonia condenser. With too light a charge of am-
monia the delivery pipe will become heated even when
the regulating valve is wide open. As a general thing
when the plant is working properly the temperature of
the refrigerator is about 15° lower than the brine being
used, the temperature of the water discharged from the
ammonia condenser will be about 15° lower than that of
the condenser, the pointers on the gauges will vibrate the
same distance at each stroke of the compressor and the
frost on the pipes entering and leaving the refrigerator
will be about the same. By placing the ear close to the
expansion valve the ammonia can be heard passing
through it, the sound being uniform and continuous when
everything is working properly.
“When air is present the flow of ammonia will be more
or less intermittent, which irregularity is generally notice-
able through a change in the usual sound heard at the ex-
pansion valve. The pressure in the condenser will also be
higher and the effect of the apparatus as a whole will
be changed, and, of course, not so good. These changes
will be quickly noticed by a person accustomed to the
conditions obtaining when everything is in order and
working properly.
“The removal of air is accomplished in practically the
same manner as when charging the system, permitting
it to escape through the purging valve a little at a time
so as not to lose any more gas than is absolutely necessary.
“The presence of oil or water in the system is generally
detected by shocks occurring in the compressor cylinder.
214 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
“Tn nearly all plants the presence of oil in the system of
piping is unavoidable. The oil used for lubricating pur-
poses, especially at the piston rod stuffing boxes, works
into the cylinders and is carried with the hot gas into the
ammonia piping, where it never fails to cause trouble.
The method of removing the air from the system has
already been referred to, but the removal of oil is accomp-
lished by means of an oil separator. This is placed in
the main pipe between the compressor and the condenser,
and is of about the size of the ammonia receiver. Some-
times another oil separator is placed in the return pipe
close to the compressor, which serves to eliminate any
remaining oil in the warmer gas and to remove pieces of
scale and other foreign matter which, if permitted to enter
the compressor cylinder, would tend to destroy it in a
very short time. |
“The oil, which always gets into the system sooner or
later and in greater or less quantity, depending upon the
care exercised to avoid it, acts as an insulator and pre-
vents the rapid transfer of heat from the ammonia to the
pipe that ought to obtain, and also occupies considerable
space that is required for the ammonia where the best re-
sults are to be obtained.”
CHAPTER. XV:
CREAMERY BOOK-KEEPING.
The object of book-keeping is to keep a record of busi-
ness transactions, enabling the proprietor or proprietors
at any time to determine the true condition of the business.
In most businesses usually one of two forms of book-
keeping is followed: either double entry which makes use
of three books—day book, journal, and ledger—or single
entry which makes use of only two books, a day book or
journal, and ledger.
The day book contains a detailed record of business
transactions. Entries are made in this book as soon as
the transaction occurs.
The journal contains the debits and credits arranged
in convenient form for transferring to the ledger.
The ledger contains the final results.
Debits and Credits. These words are usually abbre-
viated Dr. and Cr. respectively. The debits and credits in
any business transaction are determined by the following
rule: debit whatever costs value; credit whatever pro-
duces value. Ina journal entry the sum of the debits and
the sum of the credits must be equal.
Double and Single Entry Book- eae: While
double entry is the most complete form of keeping a busi-
ness record, it entails too much work for creameries,
which have but a limited time to devote to keeping books.
Single entry book-keeping when properly carried out
has proved very satisfactory and most creameries follow
this method in a more or less modified form.
215
216 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
In the following pages a simple and approved method of
book-keeping is presented which may be followed by any
creamery whether proprietary, co-operative, or otherwise.
In this method the following books and papers are made
use of:
(1) Day book, (2) order book, (3) sales book, (4)
cash book, (5) pay roll register, (6) ledger, (7) milk
sheet, (8) milk book, (9) test book, and (10) butter slips.
Day Book. All transactions made at the creamery
should be at once recorded in the day book. At the close
of the day or at some convenient time the records made in
the day book are transferred to the order book, sales book,
or cash book, according to the transaction. The following
examples illustrate the manner of making records in the
day book,
January 6, 1900.
Sold to J. D. Steele & Co. on account
1,100 Ibs. of butter@ Bic... oes $264 | 00
Bought of Newman & Co., for cash, 1 san-
iiery Tbe PENIS ccs. gcc ae heads ee $20 | 00
ogal butter.color :@ SL 10.05... ...55%08 8 | 50
20 gal. separator oil @ 20c............. 4 | 00 32 | 50
Bought of H. Chandler on account 11
cords of wood @ $3.00.............0... 33 | 00
When payment is made for goods at the time the
transaction occurs the term ‘‘for cash” is used. When
payment is made some time after the transaction occurs
the term ‘‘on account”’ is used.
214
CREAMERY BOOK-KEEPING
Order and Sales Books. All purchases and sales are
recorded in the manner illustrated below:
OO'OFE 9 = | 06 6FG 16 O6I'T | OBIT | 02 Ae OTSERE | es? OOD 29 UOSTITM | 8I »
OS FLE 0S $$ | 00 8LE 16 oos't | 008'T | 08 “KUO CAN | OSkT 2 UOSTOUSIN | cl »
COL S0Ghe ers ck al, 00 80¢ 0G oFO'T | O CZ) SAVES eLter
results in churning, and (8) makes pasteurization easier
238 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
Too rich a cream must be avoided, however, since this
sticks too much to the cream vessels; 40% is about the
right richness.
sy - i
» ee AES] )
—_ FELT FELT — a
VSS Gig
SI |\EY PAIN
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~ ye Se 333
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o77
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ae ©,
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1OGALLON CAN
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iy K ye
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Fig. 60. —A cross section of ice box.
MILK AND CREAM AT FARM 239
THE VALUE OF AN ICE HOUSE.
Where cream- can not be delivered daily, ice is in-
dispensable in keeping it in satisfactory condition. In
addition to cooling milk and cream, ice can be employed to
good advantage in several other ways. Its value in the
household in preserving meats, vegetables and fruits can
not be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as cold
drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months!
Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness. Care-
ful study will show that these advantages will far more
than offset the small cost. of laying in a store of ice.
For further particulars regarding ice and the construction
of ice houses, see chapter on Ice House and Refrigerator.
A CHEAP ICE. BOX.
A simple, cheap, and effective ice box for keeping milk
and cream cold is shown in Fig. 60. This box was de-
signed by the author and has been in successful use for
nearly two years. It consists essentially of two boxes
separated by one-inch strips, placed at intervals of about
one foot. Double thickness of building paper is placed on
both sides of the strips and tacked to the boxes. The in-
side is lined with galvanized iron.
Three-quarter inch tongued and grooved lumber is
used in the construction of the sides, bottom and cover,
while the ends are built of one and one-eighth inch
tongued and grooved flooring, three and one-half inches
wide.. A heavy weight attached to a one-half inch rope
running over a pulley fastened to the ceiling, raises the
cover and holds it open when desired.
A short piece of gas pipe is inserted through the bottom
240 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
of the box to provide drainage, the outlet of this pipe
being connected with a trap to prevent entrance of air
into the box.
The total cost of the ice box used by the author was
$27.40, including labor. ‘The inside dimensions of this
box are: Length, 7 1-3 feet; width, 21-4 feet; depth,
2 1-3 feet. A box half the size of this would answer for
the average sized dairy.
CLEAN MILK.
This is the basis of high quality in all dairy products.
The method of securing clean, sanitary milk is fully dis-
cussed in the following chapter.
COOLING WITHOUT SPECIAL COOLERS.
When no special coolers are at hand milk and cream
should be cooled in small cans by placing them in a tank
or an oil barrel cut in two. Cold water is pumped into
the tank or barrel in such a way that the cold water drops
into the bottom of the tank, thus forcing out the warm
surface water.
Water should be pumped into the tank at frequent
intervals until the milk or cream has nearly reached the
temperature of the water. The time of cooling is mate-
rially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very es-
sential part in cooling milk and cream in cans.
Where milk is placed in large cans and stirred little,
farmers lose in having the test lowered by hard particles
of cream forming at the top. Where milk is properly
cooled, hard flakes of cream or churned cream will not be
found on top of the milk.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION.
Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in
which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria,
is reduced to a minimum.
Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of
clean, pure milk is one of the most important subjects
which confronts buttermakers at the present time. Fur-
ther improvements in the quality of butter must largely
be sought in the use of cleaner milk.
No matter how skillful a buttermaker may be, he can
not produce the highest quality of butter from milk of
inferior quality. Skill may do much to improve quality
but it can never make perfection out of imperfection. It
should, therefore, be as much a duty of the butter maker
to keep his patrons properly instructed in the care and
handling of milk as it is to keep himself posted on the
latest and most approved methods of making butter.
The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani-
tary milk are as follows: (1) Healthy cows; (2) sani-
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5)
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole-
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10)
dust-free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after
milking; (14) sanitary milk room.
Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im-
portance in the production of sanitary milk, All milk
241
242 _CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
from cows affected with contagious diseases should be
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro-
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms.
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application
of the tuberculin test.
Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be
discarded.
Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean-
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect-
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro-
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im-
portance,
Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur-
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air.
To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters
should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed
daily, and care should be taken to keep the walls and
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must
also be cleaned after each feed.
The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible.
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut-
SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 243
ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows
clean.
The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible.
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a
striking sanitary appearance.
Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk.
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To
secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields,
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access
to it.
Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani-
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every
precaution to guard against contamination from this
source,
To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu-
larly once a day. ‘This should be done after milking to
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean,
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to
drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles
244 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
and hairs at milking time. This practically means that
the milker must always have one or two cows, washed
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean
water after each washing.
Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest
source of milk contamination. ‘The rubbing of the milker
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing
instructions are rigidly followed.
Attention should also be given to the cow’s switch,
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual
switching during milking is no small matter in the con-
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean.
Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con-
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be
bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk.
f
Fig. 61. Unflushed seam. Fig. 62. Flushed seam.
Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during
milking.
Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of
SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 245
milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and,
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig.
61 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam; Fig. 62
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value.
Fig. 63 illustrates a modern sanitary nilk pail. The
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re-
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during
Fig. 63. Sanitary Milk Pail.
milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that
the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs
this disadvantage.
All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of
cleaning them is as follows:
First, rinse with warm or cold water, Second, scrub
246 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
with moderately hot water containing some sal soda.
The washing should be done with brushes rather than
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. ‘Third, scald
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding,
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust,
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun’s rays.
Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani-
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors
is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind
should always be fed after milking.
Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex-
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored
water. The need of pure water is further evident from _
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of
milk,
SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 247
The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially
dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health
of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated
with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may
later find their way into the milk.
Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so
clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This
operation is frequently done under the delusion that so
long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been
“entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves
as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them.
These bacteria are so small that no method of straining
will remove them. Straining can not even remove all
of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution.
A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese
cloth with a layer of- absorbent cotton between. The
strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the
milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces
the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk-
ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would
be more than off-set by greater carelessness in milking;
especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who
are apt to think that the strainer witl make up for any
carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on
the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of
milker.
New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking
and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized.
Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once.
Dust-Free Air; Great precaution should be taken not
248 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should,
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just
before or during milking.
Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed
before or during milking may so charge the air with dust
as to make clean milk an impossibility.
Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre-
vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get-
ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made
even in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the
cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner
cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off-
set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later,
materially increases the germ content of the milk. The
carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min-
utes before the milking commences.
Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw
should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping
and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create
a dusty barn air.
Milking With Dry Hands. A prolific source of
milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where
the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound
to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil-
lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness
of the milker’s hands and the cow’s udder. There is no
excuse for the filthy practice of wet milking, since it
is just as easy to milk with dry hands.
Fore-Milk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de-
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat,
as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason
SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 249
for this rich development of germs is found in the favor-
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of
the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access.
Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a
dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests
visit places of the worst description and their presence
in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414
flies examined by the Bacteriologist of the Connecticut
Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly
was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly
excluded from all places where they are apt to come in
contact with the milk.
Experimental Data. To show to what extent the
bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting
the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few
experimental data are herewith presented.
In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment
Station, Stocking reports the following: |
1. When the cows were milked before feeding the
number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im-
mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656,
or three times as many.
2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped
with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was
716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or fen times
as great.
3. When the cows were not brushed just before milk-
ing,the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when
brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or
nearly twice as great.
4. When students who had studied the production of
clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per
2, ¢. was 914; when the milking was done by regular
250 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or
three times as great.
Wiping or washing udders before milking not only
very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk,
but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent.
Frazer has shown that “the average weight of dirt which
falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times
as great as that which falls from the same udder after
washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is
eighteen times as great.”
Fig. 64.— Clean Milking, (From Da, Diy., U.S, Dept. of A.)
CHAPTER XXVIII.
TRANSPORTATION OF CREAM.
The two essentials in successful cream transportation
are cleanliness and low temperature. It is possible to
Fig. 65.—Mik can. Fig. 66.—Serew to can.
keep cream in good condition for two. days, if produced
and handled under cleanly conditions and cooled directly
after milking to 50° F. or below. This low temperature
251
2h2 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
must be maintained when long keeping quality is desired.
Cans. Various insulated cans are now upon the
market and a number of these have been tested by the
author. The tests showed that these cans possess about
the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that are
commonly wrapped around ordinary milk cans. The
latter, as a rule, are preferred on account of their greater
ease of handling. The insulated cans, however, have an
advantage in the extra cover inside,
which can be pushed to the top of the
cream, thus preventing it from churn-
ing when the cans are only partially
filled,
Hauling Cream. In gathering
cream the most satisfactory results
are secured by providing a separate
can for each patron. The driver
starts out with a load of clean, empty
cans which replace those picked up
along the route. This method gives the buttermaker
an opportunity to examine each patron’s cream, leaves
in his hands the important matter of sampling and
weighing and also insures clean cans for the patrons.
Where there are too many small producers the above
plan has the objection of requiring too many cans for
the amount of cream collected. With producers of this
kind the common method is to weigh and sample the
cream at the farm and empty the same in large collecting
cans. Where the patrons’ cream is hauled to the cream-
ery in separate cans, the latter must bear, upon brass
plates, either the patrons’ names or numbers corresponding
to the names.
Fig. 67.—Felt jacket.
TRANSPORTATION OF CREAM 253
Skimming Station Cream. In many localities where
there is not sufficient milk to warrant the establishment
of a creamery, skimming stations have been built which
separate the cream from the milk and deliver it to a
creamery for churning. Hundreds of such stations are
scattered throughout the country and they are serving
a most useful purpose. The cream from such stations
should te delivered to the creamery daily.
Shipping Cream. In shipping cream, have the name
and address of the
patron permanently
marked in brass up-
ou both” .ca nr and
cover; also have it
sewed or stitched on
the felt jackets. This
is necessary to insure
the return of your
Fig. 68.—Lead seal and seal press. own goods. The name
and address will be put upon the cans and covers by the
dealer from whom they are purchased, if so requested;
or, in case unmarked cans are already on the premises,
the brass plates with the name and address may be pur.
chased from dairy supply firms and placed upon the cans
and covers by a local tinner.
The empty cans should be washed before they are re-
turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well
as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived
unless washed and dried immediately after use.
Another matter of importance in shipping is to have
the cans full to prevent churning.
It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent
|
254 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
tampering with the contents. The sealing. is easily ac-
complished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig.
Ga)
Care of Cream During Transportation. During the
summer months a great deal of cream is damaged while
in transit to the creamery. If the cream is collected in
wagons, the latter should be covered and provided with
springs. The cans should be wrapped in felt jackets.
When no jackets are used, the cans must be covered with
heavy blankets. Too many precautions can not be taken
to protect the cream from either very a or very low
outside temperatures.
The felt jackets are also desirable in shipping cream.
Especially important is this where the cream is left ex-
posed to the hot rays of the sun at the station platform,
a matter of no unusual occurrence.
Mode of Shipping. The usual way of shipping milk
and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections
baggage rates are available. These rates are lower than
express rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by
special arrangement with the railroad companies.
Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance
of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. S57 fei ake thousand dollars to be used by
them solely for the purpose of building and equipping
a creamery.
Article VI.
Ten members of the association, or three of the board
of directors, shall constitute a quorum to transact busi-
ness.
Article VII.
Iach member shall be entitled to one vote only at any
meeting of the association. New members may be ad-_
mitted as provided by the by-laws. Members shall be per-
mitted to withdraw only as provided by the by-laws.
Article VIII.
The constitution may be amended at any annual meet-
ing, or at any special meeting, provided that two-thirds
of all the members present vote in favor of such a change.
Fey sl ODS OF the eos cess Ae eee Association.
1. The milk of each patron shall be tested not less
than twice a month.
2. No milk shall be received at the creamery later
than ten o'clock a. m.
APPENDIX 351
3. One cent for each pound of butter fat received at
the creamery shall be reserved to form a sinking fund.
4. The treasurer shall give bonds in the sum of
SURG ARANe cess dollars, the bond to be approved by the
board of directors. 7
5. Patrons shall furnish all of the milk from all the
cows promised at the organization of the creamery.
6. Nothing but sweet and pure milk shall be accepted
at the creamery.
7. All milk received at the creamery shall be paid for
on the basis of the amount of fat it contains.
8. Dividends shall be made on the twentieth aay of
each month.
Storch’s Test for Milk and Its Products. This test
makes it possible to determine whether milk, cream, skim-
milk or buttermilk has been heated to 176° F. or above.
It is made as follows: Put one teaspoonful of milk into
a test tube, add one drop of 2% solution of peroxid of
hydrogen and two drops of 2% solution of paraphenylene-
diamin; shake the mixture; if a dark violet color promptly
appears, the milk has not been heated to 176° F.
GLOSSARY.
ALBUMENOIDS.—Substances rich in albumen, like the
white of an egg which is nearly pure albumen.
ANAEROBIC.—Living without free oxygen.
CALIBRATING.—Determining the caliber of the neck of a
test bottle in order to ascertain the accuracy of the
scale upon it.
CARBOH YDRATES.—Substances like starch and sugar.
CENTRIFUGAL Force.—That force by which a body moy-
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion.
CHEMICAL ComPposiTtion.—This refers to the elements or
substances of which a body is composed.
CoLLOIDAL.—Resembling glue or jelly.
Concussion.—The act of shaking or agitating.
CONSTITUENTS.—The components or elements of a sub-
stance.
DEAD CENTER.—That position of the engine when the
crank arm and the piston rod are in a straight line.
Divipers.—An instrument used in reading tests.
EMULsIon.—A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain-
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance.
ENzYMES.—Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do
not possess life.
Fisrin.—A_ substance which at ordinary temperatures
forms a fine network through milk which impedes
the rising of the fat globules.
ForEMILK.—The first few streams of milk drawn from
each teat.
GALACTASE.—An unorganized ferment in milk which di-
gests casein.
352
GLOSSARY aon
INOCULATION.—To seed, to transplant; as to inoculate
milk with lactic acid germs.
INSULATION.—The state of being protected from heat and
cold by non-conducting material.
Leap.—The amount of opening of the steam ports when
the engine is on the dead center.
LoprereD Miik.—Milk that has thickened.
Mammary GLAND.—The organ which secretes milk.
Merpium.—The substance in which bacteria live. Thus,
milk furnishes an excellent medium for the growth of
bacteria.
Meniscus.—A body curved like a first quarter moon.
Mik SERUM.—Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-mill is
nearly pure milk serum.
Mrxinc Cans.—Small tin cans used for mixing milk pre-
paratory to testing.
NEuUTRAL.—Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop-
erties.
Non-conpuctor.—A material which does not conduct
heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty.
Osmosis.—The tendency in fluids to diffuse or pass
through membranes.
PARTURITION.—The act of being delivered of young.
PASTEURIZATION.—The process of destroying all or most
of the vegetative bacteria by the application of heat
from 140° to 185° F.
Preriop oF Lactation.—The time from calving to “dry-
ing up.”
Puysicat Properties.—The external characteristics of a
body, like color, odor, hardness, solubility, density,
form, etc.
PROPAGATE.—To continue to multiply. Thus, to propa-
gate a starter means to continue multiplying the lactic
354 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING
acid bacteria by daily transferring them to a new
medium such as sweet pasteurized skim-milk.
_ProtEips.—Nitrogenous substances like casein and albu-
| men.
Repucinc VaLve.—A valve used for regulating steam
pressure.
REFRIGERANT.—In mechanical refrigeration a substance
whose evaporation produces cold.
RENNET.—The curdling and digesting principle of calf
stomach. |
Scorinc.—A term used synonymously with judging.
SECRETION.—The act of separating or producing from the
blood by the vital economy.
SEPTIC.—Promoting decay.
Specific Gravity.—The weight of one body as compared
with an equal volume of some other body taken as
a standard.
SpeciFic Hreat.—The quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a body one degree..
SoLutTIon.—The state of being dissolved.
SporE.—The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain
kinds of bacteria.
STEAM Trap.—An arrangement by which condensed
steam may be taken out of heating pipes without the |
escape of steam.
STERILIZATION.—The process of destroying all germ life
by the application of heat near 212° F.
STRIPPERS’ Miix.—The milk from cows far advanced in
the period of lactation.
STRIPPINGS.—The last few streams of milk drawn from
each teat.
SUSPENSION.—The state of being held mechanically in a
liquid, like butter fat in milk,
GLOSSARY 355
Trypsin.—The active agent in the secretion of the
pancreas.
VEGETATIVE BaActTertA.—Those bacteria that are in an
actively growing condition.
Viscosity.—The quality of being sticky; stickiness.
VoLATILE.—The state of wasting away on exposure to the
atmosphere. Easily passing into vapor like ammonia.
Wao te Miix.—Milk which has neither been watered nor
skimmed,
9 8 h Or Bigs ne ss Us !
DE LAVAL
CREAM SEPARATORS
Ten years ago there were a dozen different makes of creamery or factory sepa-
rators in use. Today over 98 per cent of the world’s creameries use DE LAVAL
separators exclusively.
It means a difference of several thousand dollars a year whether a DE LAVAL
or some other make of separator is used in a
creamery.
Exactly the same differences exist, on a smaller
scale, in the use of farm separators. Owing to the
fact, however, that most farm users do not keep as
accurate records as the creameryman, they do not
appreciate just what the difference between a good
and a poor separator means to them in dollars and
cents. Nine times out of ten the farmer can’t tell
whether or not he is wasting $50 or $100 a year in
quantity and quality of product through the use of
an inferior cream separator.
If you were in need of legal advice, you would
go toalawyer. If you were sick you would consult
adoctor. If you had the toothache you would see
a dentist. Why? Because these men are all
specialists in their line, and you rely upon their
judgment and skill. When it comes to buying a separator why not profit by the
experience of the creameryman ? His experience qualifies him to advise you cor-
rectly. He knows which separator will give you the best service and be the most
economical for you to buy. That’s why 98 per cent of the world’s creameries use
the DE LAVAL exclusively.
There can be no better recommendation for the DE LAVAL cream separator
than the fact that the men who make the separation of milk a business use the
DE LAVAL to the practical exclusion of all other makes.
THE DE LAVAL SEPARATOR CO.
165 Broadway 29 E. Madison Street Drumm & Sacramento Sts.
NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO
173-177 William Street 14 & 16 Princess Street 1016 Western Avenue
‘MONTREAL WINNIPEG SEATTLE
INDEX.
Page
Acid, butyric ....-+seeeeee 15, 46
Acidity of cream,
effect of richness On...... 82
Acid MeASULeS ....ee ee eeeeee 2
ACid, OEIC ...cceseceeecceeeees 14
palmitic ......eeeeeeeeeeeees 14
SUIPNULIC ....eeee eee ee sere 28
Acid tests for cream....:.-. 77
IANDUMEN. ceccescssecccsee eee ss 17
AlbumenoidS .....-ss-eeeeeees 16
APPeCNdixX ...ceeeceeeeeerereeees 345
PASTae Of WML 3 o6 5 ccc ecie seine nie clone uly
Babcock teSt .....---eeeeeeee 23
directions for making.... 28
how to read.......... 29, 169
principle Of .....-+eeeeere: 23
sample fOr ....-+eeeeeeeess 23
Babcock Tester ....--++--++++> 24
calculating speed for.... 82
Bacteria (see fermentations) 42
butyric acid .........--+- 46
HeaGLIG’ ACIGQ Wises eevee ese ne 44
PACU AIL oc cc ce ceccrece ese sss 247
Barn, sanitary ......+sseeeeeee 242
yard, clean .......-se eres: 243
AAtAD TOOM © <5. .\vielewie en eee terse 179
Bearings, hot si neh SOO
Belting, size Of.......-..+++-- 298
acing Of |: css 6k eee 299
Bichromate of potash....... 52
Bitter fermentation ........ 47
Boiler, care Of........++.--+.- 281
Frings Of ...scsecressccedeess 279
ALOU Rete nae eisins ais, aperaia/o\~. 919: = 282
smoke stack for......... 285
Book-keeping .....--++++++: 2.
Bottles, Babcock,
how to calibrate........... 331
how (to: (Gleam. <5... vus.'s os 31
Brine salting ..........++-+++- 105
Butter, calculating water
Seite rete EV has 1k OS
Page
Butter. COlOM OLessds crs: 102, 143
composition Of ......-+++. 345
control of water in.....154
TATRA occa ciclars ate eisiole ein Stele oy 13
composition of .....-. 14
globules ........-e+eees 1A:
INSOLUDIE, 8 .. 5 octew cele = cog 14
melting point of...... 14
percentage of, in milk 20
physical properties of 13
SOI Die. celeste ieee 14
specific gravity OLate oak
AAVOI \Ols, ccs ober ens rw 66, 141
foreign packages for... 113
granules, size of.......-- 103
JUAZING ...- eevee eeeeceee 137
marketing Of ......-.++-: 116
packages fOr ...-.-seee: 111
preparing ...--++-eeee: itaki!
Packing .....seeeeeereeeees itll
PVinter, ...6..ceee cere eeeeeee 113
printing cold ......+-+++:: 115
salting TN Me ape ee ee!
sampling Of .....e:eeeeees 156
SCOPE CALS ...ee cee eeceres 138
texture Of ....c...eesiecees 142
tubs, paraffining Oberst 114
preparation of ...... 14
washing Of .....----se+e+: 103
WALTCTD 1) Ac ces cle cele cieisisanie oye 154
working Of ....-.eeeeeeees 106
VWiALUGH Ole aise oecie wie bse 8 ate 262
Buttermakers, advice to... ps:
Buttermilk, composition of 346
cottage cheese from... 6.0oL
feeding value of.......-- 331
for starter .....-+++++: 76, 86
handling Of ....-.eee+ees 136
skim-mMilK | .......2seeseeees 329
value of as a drink......332
Butyric fermentation ...--. 46
Calculating dividends ..... 119
357
358 INDEX.
Page : Page
Gans. “Starter ( ccs cst wees oan 93 Cream, marketing of......... 262
milk and cream.......... 251 pasteurization 4.2... .3s05 148
Cans Wel as. cweasctihs en oe 5 ha | pasteurization of gath-
IN sg Se Pande dels wiclnga hl tunis gic 16 ered 7.3 iene. eee 151
Ma wine OL Awe see saves 329 paying for: ;,\-o4%sccapeee 124
Chromogenic fermentation.. 49 PUMpS* 3). Fuse ateetee 109, 110
Chinn, (eas) MH den belieee se 103 rapid method of deter-
pumping cream _ into....109 mining acidity of..... 81
straining cream into....102 richness of, how regulat-
COUNTS Foe ons rb ie dees tees 96 GO oak ndsa vss clus Cee 63
AUAONGOs) cdr sla senars ceils 6 .109 TIPENELS:: 5650-05 ase eee 74
conditions that influence 96 ripening (05. sid fase 66
CUTTIGUULT eds cee Rikinchtorn aoetate ae 108 control of: :ieaen ee (i
Poaniine iN ee Se oe 108 methods of kssecau ie 4:
OPCTALIONS «wc. eecce codes set 101 objects of &.....cannea 66
CHUM 2k otc ta soon a a 99 sample ..5...«<¢-ashienieeenee 169
CIOANINED cob vcs vache cn ae aee 108 SaAMpIers .. ; csuncebce tes 53, 162
Color A putter. i ie. Paice Re 102 sampling at creamery...165
Colostrum. milk «..026.5.. sce 18 eat. farm (3 sist coe 164
Composite samples, care of 54 pathered >.<: Soe 161
frequency of testing..... 55 scales.) i ateer 28, 167, 168
SHUTTERS Ga ictene'e creteceutacn bs 51 “selling ::0f. ~; ..0.0 wecnene 263
BOSE ES ana vactre sheers 3.6 56 separator, choice of....... 59
Compressor, size. Of......... 210 efficiency: -of.. siceeeges 59
expense of operating....210 history of \. 3.5.22 eee 58
power required to oper- shipping = Of *.ices6 aide eabiber 253
TE eet ante’ reciente tose. 210 skim, station |...%+ So Samet 253
Cooling of milk and cream..231 standardizing (.c./eseees 264
Co-operative creameries ...224 straining ©... siscscee~ eee 102
Corrosive sublimate ji.i¢.5.. 52 taints, detection of ...... 200
Cottage cheese, making of..327 testing s..c....cceeepeeneee 166
marketing “OF: .. Ui wean. 328 frequency Of ..cwacsesu 166
Crean acid: Tests: ss). ss Sosa Te, transportation) “:....s ase 251
addine color 40... c60<<0% 102 CANIS ©, . ...4050 cectac dena eee 252
bottles, Babcock ....25, 167 value: Of «.2s.isid..eucneeeeee 262
enlibration: Gf.)..6i 5. 32 weighing at creamery...165
churnability: Of fi ..kh i 67 at:. farm ..x:<\ cennbenceeee 165
COMPOSITION Of" nds4's-g see 345 DOME co ovssss'nls themes 272
Coolers)! heii cc aioe 149, 233 accessories |... s..iasene 274
Cooling Of | sie. t. duawas Gaeo! Creamery bath room......... 179
danger of adding ice to.. 76 | book-keeping <4 .caeesees 215
effect of richness on by-products: ...5.3 «ot ftee «+ 8268
weipht. of ie. 3.3.kiwae. 167 construction: J: cs vaseee: <2
favor VOL Sl. soc sleet eee = 66 Creamery, co-operative ..... 224
frequency of delivering. .254 | constitution: for y.on0seeee 348
FROUMINE hE ocd nna deans as . 68 floor, construction of....176
eradin& Of Peis. seoccsecseseoe plan) svat eaisscendepeeeee 174
Hewline’, OF. seca sce samy «eee heating Of: 0: west.seseuee 180
INDEX.
Page
Creamery intake ...........+.-- 176
MEAGAEION! 5 esl pawphies betleteinys* shy Gil
management of .......... 226
MIGGHAMICS.7ecikisees Gated ene 272
method of organizing....224
SEWN sicheje.cte arias Sodas Unione 188
SEW CRAIC tins oie ce’ chin ¥ globies cia = 178
SUE CTIPOTII chan. oicliisiaia's's eisve sinincac 126
MEMUILACION . oss ccdercuscitec sss 178
“CUVEE Tah eR nt emake Sf
SMIGKENEY (OLS. akc. sie et. 59
Curdling fermentation ..... 45
PAI NGUSE WSS. ich eae ss sintetcekt 230
CONSCEVUCTION! “Se. \euexs.c% Sls - 230
SOUMIPMENE OL). os woneae orien ae
Digesting fermentation ..... 45
Dividends, calculating ...... 119
MPSS tas SO LMC ..5,32) 3 ears 317
ease “of shandline 5 2.34. 325
SACHOLIN Me Ole <2 caer se 318
BPAGES WOE 4 oc kaiiee Senses 323
MBNA OL ~ eos ee csi ees 2 319
JOSS TESTA 0s 0 eC eee ae eae SLT
mariketinis. Of. s..5.3 050i ok 324
Pavia: TOR ss .id wncsie say se 319
Sern WRI: 'Oln ib clec iene: oak 325
PENOINE Of-Jc ass. ncedacaneee oe
Engine, care and manage-
MIEN OF. Vet eee 293
horse power of............294
Warts VOL - is st tadadieagaanas 287
Meecsson, Starter 3.062533 joe0..0 88
Farrington acid test........ ea
lat PSOE Soh asia: d cule cla ols 13
AFIS AMES Se asics ba Slo ee oho 15
ONE Pe des oo eae tie 16
Fermentations, milk ........ 43
SV IMCAITENA AN: Oeste creteters iste 4 0 '.0, © 182
Tee cream, chocolate........ S12
GCOSET OL ese o, cele oeca teary 315
freezing sO) sc. deen 308
PU e TeaVOEEO fan ferrets cco 313
relatin,) use “in. tees a aes 314
kind: of cream fore..2. 5.6 307
NEMION 4 ce klecmatee So seres et aa lpe
making of 307
marixetine. Of) 5.25 1222Ns,.c 316
Nut favored © ....ccsnesees 313
GVELCTUN: IMs) sce stene cece ce 315
packing Of ........sscceeee 313
SULA W DEER - Festa. ols cineca 313
vanilla flavored .......... 311
Ice house, construction of..183
for CTreEAMETY ....-ceeeeees 183
fOr LAPIN sce ee onlae oa- a eee 239
LOCATION. “OF? ~. 0 he% 6 ceva sn 175.
hats > Gene Sa PeE ach hSAOO ior Cro St
Injector <.......- SATE L ded 275
Tnsolwbla: PAG sso. wie ss sionals a Hei’
ONtakG. | lek yaccs ur ecedndanokeeas's 176
360 INDEX
Page Page
FudeInNe WULtEH o/c ~ dairies = > 137 Oils 1 See ACTS Hasek eee ae see 300
Oleic sacidh: Vessco eee 14
rindi? Or eteaeniation "coe ne Overrun, actual Lac Pease 127
Lactometer, uSe of........... 34 factors that influence....127
We GUO he wee ck Tce ee ees 330 ice cream ........+....++ 6315
TALDTICA COM 0: suse tema mers ome mee theoretical .......seesseee -128
Mann's: “acid: testis) 0.6 200223 78 arses ai Be ea ek I es
Marketing butter ............ 116 na tae veer v0 ales on Ra
: Palmitice “Aeid \ o.ateacte ee 14
Or cariye Deke .o eke ee bat tue: 263 Sa ee cl: Se
fae cepmannaaiied ante Paraiftining. tubs~ ... cep ore. 12 pee ths dae Sa ee soe
A RGN 999. 939 Printing Utter ee. vecaes 11205215
rains a ae eae 924 Pulleys srherengarsecsndoanae gay 295
foarmMeNTALIONS yc a\sisiee cia 43 calculating size of....... 295
Sst Gilteg wat: scc0r sk eaatoecs 267 speed Of ..----++sssere 295
Meera) aieccite ot ee 62 Pumps: for” boiler.2,..saoerere 277
RE ae a ae 63 for (Cream * Jon. nero 109, 110
Dall Msanktarny . Principle im .........-.
at sea gravity of....... i strength of brine in..209
»~ : A ite ae P a eesouvneeneeee eee systems of 22 eee 208
ie oldies kaeahty a nepspss sie Refrigeration, natural .....182
Kae ee Sree sé Refrigerator ...........: 185, 187
1 .
St wiage il ena gee! pie Ss te Sr cooled with ammonia....206
Ae a i in quality pepe with ice at end........ 186
Moisture, control of........... 154 be Pao ae pte
Moisture tests (see water sts oP fe ee
LEStsehor sMbUtLteE) ~~ oc. oem 159 Huts ie Daloilee 2 aa
SPL ENS rT 143 ule for calculating butter-
Pua See en ei milk.) 2S eee
cream, from milk cs...<6 262
INVIELCINY 20s deter elelatile'a ELIE ice cream yield ..........263
INDEX. 361
Page Page
Rule for calculating size of Starters, natural vs. com-
HUMES Ses ae ets Me he eee TVET tert ee ae ee 8 89
(a et 00S) 000 1 Sear eS SC tT 128 ODI SEEROL es vee ose» Teo e as 84
MOMSEN Oba Tait s4 > on. beaten 36 DOINTETS MOMs ahd bose cee cee 94
HOLA “SOMOS! O55 Seats actlses spat MOTE Wield Ge aoe Seale ais se whan 92
for churning temperature 97 use of every other day.. 90
WhHOlEs MmUli Jo. cst nc eee 91
Stenmldatses cere oe so Ore
Salt an absorbent Sere «--- 106 Wee ate “dyyee co. os OBA
determination: Of ys 2...5%. 3438 Sterili books
CriliZer, MaAuUthor 82.2) asc ess 196
he) Gu age eS Se ere 104 Sterilizin ieee
: : as g mi vesSels...... 196
Satine. + ODIECE. Of ove sce sree 155 St orchetent 34
Rr ieeet Ea eee ae he TMA S LORCHIARESES ce octet ae Se ek eR 7
ample. .AMGUOL | Lh ovecceees oni 161 BG eeribecns 5
Sanitary milk production....241 Sttainin
Se erat teats Seaee 247
AU GLASS AIT DILOT . . ee cireccecctels © aR Sulphuric acid 98
Bnaraier are thod) OF £asteMaul | jk Sanity) 6g lent ye 4
NER eter At « faare. tans race aleeoe 236 Tester, calculating s d of 32
. 5 peed of 32
Septic tank .................188 } Testing cream ................ 166
construction of ........... sane Wests. dveragitig oft!......... 124
BOSE NOL ccs sjica'scs seco cence es 192 reading cream ............ 169
flow through ........+++++. 191 resding mites hs. 025.2. 2668 29
object ) eee 189 | Thermometer scales ........ 312
ee of cfc a Os eee ee set ale SITE Bevel Gaon. epero oonaoe hice nase te 77
_ Sewage disposal .......... 185 | Toxic fermentation ......... 49
from GreaMery «2.2.06. .188
from dwelling’ ............. 192 WARGESO on ecient hie re tt oecnione 303
Shattime, lining up..........305 Pensiine OL; ..cccui