et elltaeletist A aera atten terebberetitoes egntete lee a! ii stat Gorin tt i i ohne bit Pek at ty tothe ie ira ti s} ace shay alley cf Past eaeeeat Fay at igh Bees Cornell University Library SF 487.K21 1921 Poultry culture Sanitation and hygiene / DT 3 1924 000 001 788 vet Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924000001788 POULTRY CULTURE SANITATION AND HYGIENE BY B. F. KAUPP, M.S., D. V. M. POULTRY INVESTIGATOR AND PATHOLOGIST, ANIMAL INDUSTRY DIVISION, NORTH CAROLINA EXPERIMENT STATION; PROFESSOR OF POULTRY SCIENCE, NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WEST RALEIGH SECOND EDITION, RESET PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 1921 he Copyright, 1915, by W. B. Saunders Company. Revised, entirely reset, reprinted, and recopyrighted February, 1920 Copyright, 1920, by W. B. Saunders Company Reprinted September, 1921 PRINTEO In AMERICA PRESS OF W. wu. SAUNDERS COMPANY PHILADELPHIA FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION Tue fact that a new edition has been made necessary in so short a time is a gratifying sign that this book has filled a need. In this second edition the book has been revised and partially rewritten to bring it down to date, for poultry work is constantly progressing. B. F. KAUPP West Ratetrayu, N. C. ~ FOREWORD Ir is to meet an ever-growing demand for a more accurate knowledge of the underlying fundamental principles which mean success in the poultry work that this volume has been prepared. : It is dedicated to the Poultry Science Courses of our Univer- sities, Agricultural,Colleges, Agricultural and other High Schools, to the Lower Grades Teaching Poultry Work, to the Institute workers and lecturers on Agriculture and Poultry Sanitation, to the Boys and Girls Poultry Clubs, to the Poultry Fancier and Poultry Producer, to the business-man who raises poultry on a town lot, and to the farmer who follows Poultry Culture as a side line. The book consists of twenty-eight chapters. After a hurried look into the magnitude of the poultry industry and short study of the names of the various plumage parts, the student is made familiar with the terms used in poultry culture work, that he may be the better prepared to study the following pages. It is deemed necessary for one to know the names, breeds, and varieties of poultry and the fundamental principles underlying the selection, breeding, and fixing of the characters one breeds for. A thorough discussion is given of hygiene and sanitation, tak- ing into account the proper methods of ventilation, poultry- house construction, equipment, and the proper method of car- ing for same. 5 6 FOREWORD The importance of poultry enemies and means of ridding them of same is dwelt on, and includes animal enemies, vermin, and internal parasites, as well as contagious and non-contagious dis- eases. An insight into the gross structure and the normal functions of the digestive organs, followed by a complete discussion of the processes of digestion, assimilation, and nutrition, is given. A complete discussion of feedstuffs used in compounding rations for poultry is given, as well as the method of computing rations and the proper methods of feeding breeding stock, laying stock, broilers, capons, turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons, and for fat- tening work. A discussion is given of diseases connected with the feeding of spoiled feeds, and a discussion of diseases of plants and seeds that may be injurious to birds consuming such diseased food. Space is devoted to a discussion of the methods of finishing, dressing, refrigeration, packing, and selling of dressed poultry of all kinds, as well as to the proper care of eggs, including collect- ing, handling, grading, storing, packing, and shipping of same. A thorough discussion of the methods of preserving and handling feathers, giving grades, methods of packing and shipping, as well as a discussion of the proper methods of caring for the droppings and their value as a fertilizer, and ways of using same to obtain the best results. Considerable time has been devoted to the careful discussion of selecting eggs for sitting, their proper care, both natural and artificial methods of incubation and brooding. The proper way to sit a hen, the care of the sitting hen and properly housing her with her brood, as well as how to properly feed her and her brood. Space is devoted to telling the boys and girls how they can construct cheaply their poultry club poultry house, and how to care for their flock. Some time is spent in a discussion of the method of caponizing FOREWORD 7 and care of the capon, as well as preparing birds for the show- room. A complete discussion of the anatomy, parasitism, diseases, their symptoms and treatment, forms a volume within itself, and the reader is referred to The Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl, and Poultry Diseases. For a complete discourse on standard breed requirements the student is referred to the American Standard of Perfection. The author wishes to give credit for the article on Line Breed- ing to Mr. I. K. Felch, who has so kindly contributed this illus- trated article; to Mr. Frederic Thayer for his idea of a modern poultry plant; to the Candee Incubator Company who have allowed the use of their material, as well as the Robert Essex Incubator Company, and to the various experiment stations and colleges for the use of their materials. B. F. KAUPP. West Rateiag, N. C., CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY sco cases aoa aleve eae a bona Wothe M alae kd oa SR wea oe The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry................... Outline for Course in College Instruction................... The External Anatomy of the Fowl......................... Classification of Fowls.........0.00.0.0000000 0000 cee cece eee Glossary ‘of Terms: s.ssuok. oyu oh bed vulen enone kgeneganee CHAPTER II BRENDES OF PROULDRY. 225560 ANG Vani Ay aden a's dans Sa eet oe Breedsiof PIgeOnSi cues cedves eeses Ly eee gees Gaeta ales The Cornell Study Outline................. eee Teer Variety Markings.............. Dre Wegemed suas ogee kerccsucehos History of the Breeds............00..0000..0000. 0000 ‘Lhe American, Classuas:boacig. dytnceesedtewweereeteeene es ‘The. Plymouth: Rocks, 504 a4 24up sor hoe Ked Musdshi bade The Wryandottes: :sccsied ved cd phos showed huaadanawy The Rhode Island Reds................0.... ccc. cn. WG: JANES a 2st Satiaee Ate gs erica: dodo h ud Seats cdprumbdi dep lius 4 Ther DominiquesiiccccacharRemageis uy sek: aqeeeatauds The Buckéyess.24 sis 4522424 8he¢ 40% $e a8daed baSea ds The Asiatic Class.........00.0.00 000620 66 cece eee Che Bra bias: 2 ciad ehcp rAd raw Coteus slew kOe ae me Dass The Cochins..........0....... E cpnr ri tesedadateeaedaa se The Vane shansecacg decane wi gant ea paki adonsedey die The Mediterranean Class........ EG: Bae senda ver Ses TENE eG HORNSS icites cikataty uses EO ay AG eae EB ie Ob THE: MinOrCaSiis:. 2225.0 eka akeeaude Aha dnnesaw ea gs The Spanish. ciccantaceddasdcne mage at cadupeedeen ged “Pie ANCOnaS cass ass sopnteaig 1ika Atha wag lagi ee ewe The Blue Andalusians...........0.6 00000 ccc eee ee ec eeeee Whe: Bnglish Class wer joya sian dig: ch ids Mab ng Aes: Pig ema wg wr ae The: DOPkingsxsciiew ican sénct ce Ci Gdn DNERER DOE AAE REM The Orpingtons case sey ee been eee hs ab ed Sinadd donee 10 CONTENTS’ Pace The Redcaps.... eRe Tdew. Gaede Gar eGe RSS EAR ae .... 64 The. SUS8@X s ecccies occ een xeuaans bp ice eet neAG is wae caer 64 RRS COMMS isnt es aay, «Fee A ehh ahem g dat Ra Bae he ae 65 DEE OSH GLASS aes scene ah eeektion wien Gea. areata totem 66 ‘The Hamburg -Class.ccs -:4 04x ga 8 Fe 2EGKE Ges) Shee 67 The French Class....... Seer | cata 67 TheHGUGans: cu; dustakaere eG B Ge. Salons 67 The Creveceeurs............00.00.0 00. 2. eee 68 The Continental Class..... 2.00000.) oe, 68 The Campines.............. , Btn Btn) satus 68 Games and Bantams Class . , pth 2 69 Brereps or Pouttry— The Oriental Class........0000;°0 70 "ERE MAIS iiccaanuas Geakwie § pear mane Waedin 70 The Sumatras......... 2 © ©chmeeas man & CLO The Malay Bantams.... . , . Eatin Denne: a, Catal The Ornamental Bantams Class. , ity ‘teens CCL The Sebright Bantams...... : e “REGSae Te ee eal The Rose Comb Bantams.... . 2. 20...) eee val The Booted Bantam............... 0.2.0.0 0. vee vee 71 The Brahma Bantams. ..... sedi 1h) = Galieknl ae -ge xe 73 The Cochin Bantams............ Glass ee ee ere 73 The Polish Bantams........ ... Ba cote: Marts Tit Cho The Japanese Bantams..... — ng Be. SEE gewze 74 The Miscellaneous Class.... ....... ..... re Sue es ered . 74 Whe Sultansecss yee keadtus go phe ge: Bae Powe eke Rinteee 74 PRC SUIKICR amma Rel Men Giches ae Cette ch tecauen ty hanes 74 THE RRiGaCSiccaunseeueakiaten- —eamom. wzdiordageeh ne 74 THE LUTKEY ClaSG nce cate gx ued sn Seema btlc Odes ayaa ss 74 HEN: MPC YS: G0 2 cver/2 c-thelnmenlein Oeneilgides jet pasnche yoheer nde et 74 whe Bronzer. osdccess ae po Boeesers- ase: does e whee 75 Phe: Whites acta ot Beek eeeS ai: hd —So ae dda 1. The Nartagansetts.- 2205.2 ueevdueuure bese anvana tess 75 The Big nc 2eG as eieee Pas ch tdeaks cde eee Se Seemed ewe 75 hie! Bitths.2bS ace Gace 8. Beek th edes Sey pew ed Ba dow A pedo mined eles 75 Mes laCe ssh essai cnalay ecm athe Satanic. etirarediaeotne mee 75 The Bourbonvsese.wearepeaks Wize Sten Sy eke Gas dae 76 The Dueck: Classeco.cou8 Seesaw FPR hdd Sua baleee med 76 FEWE: DiWCK Ss. Sanco cabaeaw gee wad ob ied RAD ot a am Dee. O aemede 76 ERONPER AMG cece das Auste eretn neta ied cation ach Gees baa te'g enue 77 Elie: Aviles pUT yosocncr st nns Sip decane weed mages ¢ Puedes 77 he ROWCiimaaki ceive vee he ee danGa ct Boca kn ote we eee 77 CONTENTS 11 Pace Whe Cayuiparia cas 2 Gogh $aos ha daleweees ah ageless Bes 77 The ‘Call dita tk ach iad oe 5 orm PEAS i ayant Ae 77 Whee Bast Indias soc 2 pees ees sm ciaden payee, ora o agra ei vata The Crested......... SGN S id= Sed “aegis 77 Whe: Mustovysers sevsulordaus Geek Gad Ges ausenaaas var The Indian Runner..... ... Sai A -taasesee a The Swedish.......... # cH : nor ceassheetes a 78 The Orpington....... Saeraehl . : oo ee OS The Penciled Runner. ... . ... i e .. 8 The Geese Class........... : 78 The Geese Breed........ |. 4 ; tees 78 The Toulouse....... 1 1a. SA9. her Chinés@igicast inde ook os % Sem etee 79 The African........ 79 The Embden............ 2p Goke 1 oy cies HAE igre aa 80 The Egyptian........... ee eS ee eee a . . 80 The Wild or Canadian...........0.0.00.0.00 000 ccc ee 80 CHAPTER III THE PRoBLEMS IN MATING AND IN Eaqa PropwucTion.......... 82 Selection of Birds for Breeding..............00 0... ..... .. 87 Selection of the Gochins..;:54 34.4: o. s04se600e08s54e4 084 88 THe ProspLteMs IN Martina, Selection of Birds for Lessee Selection of the Brahmas. . os $i Ss mses Bi. c.ct ~ dase seoeen Ateneo 89 Selection of the Barred Gimoat: Bade... Scere aerate 91 Selection of the Rhode Island Reds..................... 92 Selection of the Wyandottes.........0......0..0 0000055 93 Selection of the White Leghorns.............0.......... 94 Utility ‘ClissiicatiObiaice< iis enc anirnegigrareeatada dena Sikes 95 Fixing and Intensifying of the sd ae Characters. ....... 96 Rhythm in Egg Production. . nee io. REWER GI GS Se ee ee 97 Distribution of Egg Production, ssid ath yk aR battadaeroa EMS axe 98 Results of Breeding from Unselected Stock... ....... .. 100 Physical Indications in Egg Production...............-. ... 107 Key to Physical Index in ene for Egg Production. .... . 110 Selection for Meat Quality... sidiviek Pia aeeheen) Kee 113 Judging, for Utility... cp wegews eee eee ee sede d nana pag LT Mendelistii sos) 23:2 sy eignye.d Gab d Hee as Hee Res Whe Hs Mies 116 Line Breeding, Outcrossing, and Inbreeding.............. ... 180 Pedigree Breeding....... 0.0.00 eee ee tte tenets 134 12 CONTENTS CHAPTER IV Gimmes: Pow Siac ca acne gee ca GB enarteg siooy aon n agy Bud Renn nig deeb PIS6ONSs3i.100ee-ey cota nes Sees Fae oes Racing Homers................. Squab Raising Age of Birds Affecting Production.... Housing. . Neda ween Interior Hieanes:, Feeding......... . ; Pen Management......... Selecting Breeders..................... Cleaning. . Killing, Coulines, Packing, Shipping............. CHAPTER V HYGIENE AND SANITATION................ Waters 2044 Svea s o3254.4 Re sR de do AUT nance te atette dione Lile- sts pees ige Respitation: ss svacs Scenes eae ea est Ventilation................ ge ce iNereens CHAPTER VI Tue Construction or Poutrry Housms...................... Construction of the Unit System House Fencing Materials.................... Up-to-date Poultry and Fruit Farm... . The Farm Flock................. -.. SANITATION......0000 0000 cee eee Molting. . CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII Non-contacious DisEases CHAPTER IX Conracious Diseases Blackhead INTERNAL PARASITES Roundswonts: fcc es cheers oe fhe Be bee oh Fae Large Round-worms................ Smal! Round-worms........... Gizzard Worm..............000.00000. ere nen ee Gape-WOIMs eee ecenek ies ean rag eeeaue & Tapeworms........... Tue Freep PROBLEM....................-5. Plant Growths ceevaigsin cap oe aines nasa Physiology of Digestion............... CHAPTER XIII NUTRITION............... oping AEA RW Raewa Dak Mineral Requirement of Fowls........... Essential Food Nutrients.......... CHAPTER XIV DIGESTIBILITY AND NuTRITIVE RaTIo................52.2005- CHAPTER XV PREDSTURES) coy wen scone badd Pe PSs SEL OE Ge CEG ee eee See SES ae: Average Digestible Nutrients in Poultry Feeds......... Poultry Feedsws.cccasreerGapwtse Sagihssew esa aeniegahe is : 14 CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI Pace Diseases CONNECTED WITH FEED....... .......00 00.00 eee eee 308 Spoiled and Diseased Feeds..... 2.00.00... 00002 eee 308 Diseases.of Feed son. ccyn enews — Paceseaeneane sheer eves Sends s 311 CHAPTER XVII Rations AND Mrtuops or Frmpina.................... 315 Wor Laying HONS sonia cama we wmaea ea ad Lede eR eke am a OLE The Influence of Ayatsel Veh on Egg Production....... .. 329 Chick Feeding. . 331 Turkeys and Pevalice, bear awy Hats, setceeake GE yal muah & 336 Ducks and Geese. . : 337 Home-made Reeder: and Byurdeer. 348 Other RatiGnsiaccorvacetecaraa am ances oman od ues 348 Finishing Birds. . . 353 Cornell Fattening Ration. . ei 356 Commercial Fattening Hétablishments ESSE. wi ~Eeanad 360 CHAPTER XVIII BrRorters AND Dressinc or Fow.u.... ......... 363 Dressed Poultry. . 368 Dressing Poultry. ne) a coe 368 Poultry Box Menbaremente., 382 MPUSSINGS te seu-woasen Soles ghig. oS 2 Qe bE duateehs Geen: 386 Bonitie-Howlseccs: sg a He AE A be baa eng 389 CHAPTER XIX THE Care AND MarKmTING OF FEATHERS..................... 392 CHAPTER XX Tue PRESERVATION OF PoutTtry MANURE.............. ...... 397 CHAPTER XXI SELECTING Eacs FOR SITTING...... 0.00000. cece eee ae 400 CHAPTER XXII INCUBATION: O03 eRe Cea tee a ashy dee deh eptee ta een meatal dent Oath ie out 405 The Small Incubator and Brooder.......................... 417 CHAPTER XXIII sabe ecndthy aOe-T toh Ades web MGes hike a cues Pa Shes 417 THe Mammots INcUBATOR AND BROODER.......... 426 CHAPTER XXIV BROODING: cxve ta geere S4ob 545 S324 g RSS SEs See od beens 438 CONTENTS 15 Pace Construction of Fireless Brooder........................ 445 Brooding on a Large Scale..... 0....0...00...000. 000 450 Rearing Commercial Chicks........0..00..0.00 0000. cece ee. 456 Shipping the Baby Chicks..........0.0.0... 00.02. 000... 457 CHAPTER XXV MarketTina Eacs.. : nity i G18 haying Mea rein Sha . . 459 Car Lot Shinment of Hous, sigan teense hoe Sikes “Bays see 470 How to Load Cars of Eggs.............. 0 ......... wo... ..470 Route of the Egg from the Producer to the Consumer..... ... 474 Refrigeration ss. su 5 nen jan daw Peek ap ADEE ahw ERS woe... 476 Factors Affecting Cost of Marketing............... a, ees 477 Construction of Storage Houses........... & & OR er Sew Rens 479 Egg Cases and Fillers. . : Sieh a Ae, emits 480 Collecting of Eggs on Crown Ranies SAMs - Palo aat oo... 481 Co-operative Marketing................. BS: Pirie tend dee 482 Organizing an Egg Circle............ 00.0... sf. beaks 22. 483 How to Candle Eggs............... ea ee ee ere 493 Student’s Laboratory Chart.................000.... oo. 2. 494 Student’s Candling Test..............0000...00 fee. 496 JUMLING HES ina enes egoxtaedewaewiGs eenbaashe ceade tds 498 CHAPTER XXVI CASTRATION OF THE BirRD (CAPONIZING).............0 000000005 504 Spaying the: Hetie 3c iast ca cedak Meas ange ae ee Ride «46 tral AOh 510 CHAPTER XXVII PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW-ROOM........ ogee Eeeyesas 511 Réanng: Show Birdie saduee ccheaceak pew kee. Sedtia weeswae 514 CHAPTER XXVIII THe Construction or Pouttry House EQuipMENT.. 516 The Construction of a Dry Mash Hopper............. 516 The Construction of a Trap-nest................005- e. Bate EBLE The Construction of Storage Feed Bin............ 7 : Hi The Construction of Dropping Box ....................-. 522 The Construction of Combination Sitting and Brooding Coop 522 Records: Cards «cscs hisece sila! suede opal aseielp biedeck eased dee: RMS wn EROS 525 Poultry Accountant Work..........0. 0000.00 eee eee 529 INDEX tsa eeoavaviey sooo wales Gee ee See e es dees eee sawed Cae 557 POULTRY CULTURE, SANITATION, AND HYGIENE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY THE 1910 census of the United States reports for North Carolina a total egg production in 1909 of 23,556,124 dozen, or an increase of 33.1 per cent. in ten years. These eggs were valued at $4,256,769, or an increase valuation of 67.2 per cent. over 1899 or ten years previous. This ratio has practically been kept up throughout all the states. That this estimate is far too low is shown by the fact that the total number of fowls on 223,808 North Carolina farms on April 15, 1910, was 5,054,000 leaving 25,990 farms not report- ing any poultry raised in that year. This report does not include poultry in cities, towns, or villages, which would greatly swell the amounts. It does not go into sufficient details in that it does not give the number which were chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, and other birds. Some means should be devised whereby fairly accurate data could be obtained of the entire poultry population, its prod- ucts, its value, as well as the consumption and exports and imports of each state and their values. The 1911 report of the United States Secretary of Agri- culture places the national annual income from poultry prod- ucts at $750,000,000. The state ranking first in poultry products on the farm is Rhode Island, where the average farm income from poultry is $267.70. 2 17 13 POULTRY CULTURE The average state income from poultry products is $5,227,- 403, of which $1,536,194 is credited to poultry carcasses sold, and $3,691,239 is credited to eggs. The average annual farm income from eggs for all the farms in the United States is $60.57, while the income from carcasses is $31.82. Eggs are excellent human food, high in albuminous content and high in digestibility. The demand for eggs is growing faster than the increase in output. In 1899 the average farm price was 11.15 cents per dozen for the whole United States, while in 1909 the average had advanced to 19.7 cents per dozen, and this year, 1919, it is safe to say that it will far exceed this sum. Live and dressed poultry have made a corresponding increase in values. The 1910 United States census report gives over 88 per cent. of all farms in the United States as keeping poultry. At that time there was 295,876,176 head, making an average of 6,038,- 289 birds for each state or 53 birds to each farm, with a value per bird of 52 cents. It is significant that nearly 54 per cent. of the total number is found in ten states. The volume of poultry on farms in the United States has increased over 18 per cent. in the last ten years. Poultry growing is an adjunct of every properly conducted farm and of many back yards of town lots. No class of live- stock is so universally raised as poultry. The flesh of fowl is highly nutritious and palatable and is relished by all. Eggs are very high in point of digestibility and are being used as a meat food more and more since the high price of other meat- food products. The products of poultry rank next to those of the dairy or to the animals slaughtered for food. About one-sixth of the total value of animal products in the United States is credited to poultry. The contribution to the nation’s wealth is more than half a billion dollars. The value of poultry is equal to the total value of barley, rye, buckwheat, broom-corn, rice, kaffir corn, flax, small fruit, grapes, orchard products, sugar-cane, and beets. The value of poultry is three times that of the wool crop. Itisas great as the combined potato and oat crops. INTRODUCTORY 19 OUTLINE FOR COURSE IN COLLEGE INSTRUCTION . History and scope of Poultry Industry. Bibliography . Nomenclature. Origin, history, classification of breeds. Judging for fancy; utility—meat and egg production. Fitting fowls for exhibition. Laboratory. Plant exercises in breed study and judging. Routine plant work. . Hygiene and sanitation. Elementary study of diseases and their control. Poultry house construction and equipment. Designing, building and remodeling houses. Poultry farm management. Distribution of labor, capital, general business manage- ment. . Feeds, feeding and fattening. Care of plant flock, fattening market fowls. Seminar Advanced study of literature, thesis. . Incubation, brooding, rearing, breeding. Laboratory. Incubator practice. Brooding practice. Advanced study of literature on incubation and brood- ing. Thesis. . Study of markets and market conditions. Marketing poultry. Fattening, killing, picking, drawing, trussing, packing, refrigerating, and shipping dressed poultry. Fattening and shipping live poultry. Testing, candling, grading, packing, and shipping eggs. Storage and preservation of poultry products. Advertising and market accounting. Food distribution and market organization. 6. Anatomy, physiology, and embryology. 7. Advanced study of diseases and their control. 20 POULTRY CULTURE The External Anatomy of the Fowl.—Before entering into the study of breeds and breeding, the student should be famil- iar with the external anatomy of the fowl, which is illustrated and shown in the accompanying figure. Classification of Fowls.—Fowls are classified from a zodlogi- cal standpoint as follows: Branch, Vertebrata; Class, Aves; and Order, Galline. In poultry science they are classified as follows: Class, Breed, and Variety. Points. ska : Base of comb Eye Blade of comb Se Face Beak — Ear Wattles Ear lobe Hackle Breast Wing bow Main tail Tail coverts Wing bar Thighk—— en ae "3 ; Saddle feathers Fluff Primaries coverts Tibia or drumstick Hock Shank leg big ——S Spu LEC Toe or cla eG iy Fig. 1.—The external anatomy of the chicken. o The locality of the origin of the fowl is the basis upon which the class is named; thus, the Brahma originated in Asia and they are placed in a class called Asiatics. The shape or conformation is the basis upon which the breed is named, as the Wyandottes possess a distinct type or shape. The color and the feather pattern is the principal factor INTRODUCTORY 21 upon which the variety is named. Thus the Silver-spangled Hamburg. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE TEXT It is essential for the student to possess a sufficient knowledge of terminology to intelligently comprehend the text. The following gives a comprehensive glossary: Abdomen. That part of the body between the thorax and the pelvis. Albuminoid. The more complex forms of protein. They are in- soluble in water or may be rendered so by heat. Alfalfa. A leguminous plant used as roughage. Sometimes ground and placed as a part of the mash. Alimentary Tract. The whole digestive tube, including the esophagus, crop, stomach, gizzard and intestines. Antiseptic. An agent which prevents the growth of or destroys bacteria (germs). Artificial Selection. The selection or mating of birds by the breeder to produce certain features which he desires to perpetuate. Ash. The portion of feeds left after they have been burned. It con- tains the mineral matter. Assimilate. The conversion of digested nutrients into fluid or solid substances of the body. Balanced Ration. A combination of farm foods in such proportions and amounts as will nourish an animal or bird for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of food nutrients. Barring. Stripes extending across feathers at right angles to its shaft. Beard. A group of feathers pendent from the throat, as in Polish or Houdans. In male turkeys, a tuft of coarse, bristly hair, 4 to 6 inches long, projecting from the upper part of the breast. Breeding Pen. Is usually made up of from 6 to 14 hens and a male bird. By some 4 hens and a cock is considered a pen. Broiler. A bird weighing 244 pounds or less and from six to twelve weeks old. Brood. All the young birds hatched and brooded by the mother at one time. Calorie. The amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water 4° F., or 1 kg. of water 1° C. Cape. The short feathers on the back, shaped like a cape and lying underneath the hackle. Capon. A male bird deprived of his generative organs for the purpose of improving the weight and quality of flesh. Capacity. Extent of abdominal room for digestive and reproductive organs. Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients containing hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions that they form water. They do not contain nitrogen. They include starches, sugars, gums, resins, and other similar substances. 22 POULTRY CULTURE Carriage. The attitude of the bird. Caruncles. Small fleshy protuberances, as on the head of a turkey. Carunculated. Having caruncles. Casein. The protein portion of milk which is coagulated by acid or rennit. Cavernous. The hollow protruding nostrils of the crested breeds. Cellulose. The hard, woody portions of the plants and grains. Chickens. The young of the domestic hen prior to the development of the adult plumage. Chicks. Fowls less than one year old. In a restricted sense it is the young of the domestic hen until the sex can be determined. Cock. A male fowl one year or more old. Cockerel. A male fowl less than one year old. Comb. The massive protuberance growing from the top of the fowl’s head. Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the ration, such as corn, wheat, and oats. A large quantity of nutrients in a small bulk. Condition. The state of a bird as regards health, order of plumage, and cleanliness and flesh. Contagion. That which is contagious. Corn. Indian Corn. A grain used in poultry feeding. Cow-pea. A leguminous plant, the seeds of which may be used in poultry feeding. Crest. A tuft of feathers on the top of a fowl’s head. Crop. An expansion of the esophagus, just below its center. It isa storehouse for food till needed. Crude Fiber. The framework forming the walls of the cells and frame- work of the plant. Cellulose. Cushion. The mass of fluffy feathers at the rear of the bird and partly covering the tail. Diastase. A ferment existing in seeds which makes germination pos- sible by causing the starch to be changed into sugar under certain conditions. Digestible Matter. The part of the food-stuffs that can be brought into solution by the digestive juices. Digestible Nutrients. The portion of the food-stuff that can be digested by the birds. Digestive Tract. Alimentary tract. Disinfection. A complete destruction of all germs. Disinfest. To rid of parasites. Disqualification. A serious defect or deformity which will not allow it to enter competition as a pure-bred exhibition fowl. Down. The first hairy covering of chicks. Sometimes tiny tufts of down develop on the shanks. It is considered a feather if a quill and web can be recognized; otherwise it is down. Drake. A male bird of the duck breed. Dry Matter. The portion of the food-stuff that remains after the water has been driven off by heat, INTRODUCTORY 23 Dubbing. Cutting off the comb is called dubbing and the comb so cut off is dubbed. Duck-footed. When the hind toe points forward the bird is said to be duck-footed. Ducklings. Young ducks prior to the development of feathers. Ear-lobes. The folds of bare skin just below the ears. Emulsion. A fine, mechanical suspension of fat or other substances. Ensilage. Forage preserved in a silo. Epiornithics. An outbreak of contagious disease among birds. Ergot. A fungus parasitic on the seeds of cereals and grasses. Established Points. Certain characteristics of a variety which, through length of time and breeding, have become so fixed that the prog- eny have these points established. Ether Extract. The material that can be dissolved from a water-free feed-stuff, by means of ether. Excrement. The indigestible matter of feeds voided by birds. Eye-ring. The outer edge of the eyelids. Fancy and Exhibition Poultry. Fowls kept and bred for their fancy points or particular qualities mainly to exhibit or keep as a hobby; the utility side may be taken into consideration, but is of a secondary nature. Face. The nude skin on the head, around the eyes. Feather. Consists of a web supported by a quill. Flight Coverts. The short feathers located at the base of the wing primaries. Flights. Primary wing feathers, for the most part folded out of sight during rest. Frizzled. The descriptive term applied to fowls having their feathers turned in the opposite direction to that which is usual. Furnished. In full feather—when the hackle and sickle feathers are developed. Fluff. The soft downy part of the feathers, and is also applied to the soft feathers about the vent. Foot-ton. The amount of work required to raise one ton one foot high. Footings. Term used to describe foot or leg feathering in Cochins, Brahmas and Langshans. Frosting. In spangled or penciled varieties showing an edging of color. Fryer. A young chicken weighing 2!4 to 4 pounds. Fresh Blood. The introduction into a breeder’s yard of either male or female birds either totally unrelated to or a sub-strain of his own for some special purpose, generally to improve the stamina of a strain where inbreeding is resorted to. Germicide. An agent destroying germs. Gills. The wattles. Glucose. Grape-sugar found in honey, fruit, etc. Glycogen. An animal starch manufactured by the liver from the digested carbohydrates absorbed from the digestive tract. Gram. A metric weight, 15.5 grains. 24 POULTRY CULTURE Green Bone. Bone that is fresh-cut, not cooked. Green Goose. A gosling that is ready to be, or has been, “killed off the grass.” Gullet. The passage in the neck through which food passes to the stomach. Esophagus. ‘The loose part of the lower mandible. Hackle. The neck feathers of either sex. Hatchability. The number of fertile eggs capable of hatching. Hangers. The shorter sickle-like feathers at base of cock’s tail. Hard Feathered. Feathers having a hard, close-fitting appearance— on birds carrying little fluff. Heavy Breeds. The sitting, as distinct from the non-sitting varieties. Hen. A female bird over one year old. Hen Feathered. A male bird without sickle featheres and thus re- sembling a hen. Hock. The first joint above the foot. Intestine. That part of the alimentary tract extending from the gizzard to the cloaca. Jaw. The upper or lower mandibles. Kilogram. Abbreviated Kilo. A metric weight amounting to 2.2 pounds. Knee-joint. A term sometimes applied (though wrongly) to the hock- joint. Laced. A feather in which the body differs from the edge color. Lacteal. Minute tube of the villus for the purpose of absorption of the chylous or milky emulsified fluid fat from the intestines. Lay-Bones. The pubic bones. Lateral Sternal Processes. The thin flat bones projecting backward from the body of the sternum or breast bone. Leaf-comb. Consists of two small single combs serrated at the free borders. Leg. The shank, tibia, and thigh. Leg-feathers. Asin Asiatics, where the feathers grow on the outside of the shank. Legumes. A plant that belongs to the family Leguminacea. A pod- bearing plant, as the clover, beans, and peas. Lesser Sickles. Tail coverts or the sickle feathers, except the two central large ones. Levulose. Invert sugar obtained from dextrose. Lopped Comb. The comb falling over to one side. Lymph. The colorless fluid of the lymph-vessels. Lymphatic System. A system of tubes or vessels like blood-vessels, carrying the lymph. Mash. A mixture of ground grains or of by-products fed either dry or wet. Mating. The putting together of birds by selection for breeding purposes so as to accentuate the good points and correct the bad points of such parents mated. INTRODUCTORY 25 Maintenance Ration. An amount of food sufficient for a resting animal, neither loosing or gaining in weight, for twenty-four hours. Mangles. A root crop—the Beta Vulgaris. Masticate. To crush or grind food with teeth. Mealy. In buffs, where the color is broken by specks of lighter color appearing as if meal had been sprinkled on the feather. Metabolism. The processes in the living cells, consisting of anab- olism—building up, and katabolism—tearing down. Meter. A metric measure equaling 3.28 feet. Mineral Matter. The ash of the food. Mossy. Dark irregular penciling appearing in the center of laced feathers. Mottled. Surface of plumage marked with spots of different colors. Muffs. Tufts of feathers on the face below the eyes. Natural Selection. The mating of birds of their own will. Nitrogen-free Extract. The food-stuff remaining after the crude fiber and fat have been removed. It includes starches, sugars, and gums. Nitrogenous Substances. Any food-stuff containing nitrogen. Nutrients. Groups of substances, as protein and carbohydrates, that are capable of nourishing an animal. : Nutritive Ratio. The proper proportion of protein to carbohydrates and hydrocarbons in a feed or ration. The fat is reduced to a carho- hydrate equivalent by multiplying by 2.25. Oil Meal. Linseed-oil cake reduced to fineness by grinding. Organic Matter. That part of the food-stuff destroyed by burning. Parasiticide. An agent killing parasites. Parasitism. Being infested by parasites, as lice and chiggers. Parti-colored. A feather presenting two or more colors. Pea Comb. A triple comb presenting the appearance of three single combs placed parallel to each other and joined at the rear and base and showing serrations at the free margins. : Pen. Four females and a male. Penciling. Small stripe-like markings on a feather. They may follow the outline of the feather or run crosswise. Peppered. A mealy appearance produced by asplattering with black or gray. Pepsin. A digestive ferment found in stomach juices. Pelvic Arch. The arch formed by the overreaching pelvic bones. Plumage. The feathers of a fowl. Poularde. A pullet deprived of the power of producing eggs, with the object of greater size. Poult. A young turkey. After the sexes can be determined they are then called cockerels or pullets. Poultry. Domestic fowls. Poultry Breeder. One who regulates the reproduction of poultry. Poultry Keeper. One who keeps poultry without regard to skill, experience, or success. Poultry Raiser. One who hatches and rears poultry. 26 POULTRY CULTURE Poultryman. A poultry keeper who is an expert. Primaries. The wing-flight feathers, which are nearly hidden when the wing is closed. Protein. The nitrogen, containing food nutrient. Provender. Forage or grain feed of any kind. Progeny. The offspring or young birds of birds mated. Puberty, Age of. The age at which a pullet commences to lay. Pubic Bones, Also Called Lay-bones. The rib-like bones lying at the lower edge of the pelvis, or pelvic arch. Pullet. A female fowl less than one year old. Quill. The stem of the feather. Respiration. The act of breathing. Roaster. A chicken weighing 4 or more pounds. Rooster. A male fowl. Rose Comb. A solid, low, thick comb, terminating posteriorly in a spike. The top is covered with small rounded points. Fig. 2.—Head of a Single Comb White Leghorn Male showing defects: 1, side sprig; 2, fish-tail; 3, crooked beak; 4, uneven serration. Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration. Rutabaga. A Swedish turnip. A root crop used in winter feeding to supply succulent feed. Saddle. The posterior part of the back and that part just anterior to the tail. Saddle Feathers. The feathers covering the saddle. Saddle Hackle. The narrow, long-pointed feathers developing from the saddle. Secondaries. The large feathers that grow on the second joint of the wing. Serrated. Saw-like notching. Serration. The projections of the serrated comb. Shaft. The stem or supporting part of the feather. Shafting. The shaft of the feather, being either darker or lighter than the web of the feather. INTRODUCTORY 27 Shank. The part of the leg extending from the foot to the hoek. The scaly portion of the leg. Sickles. The two central long curved tail feathers of the male. Side Sprigs. Spike-like growths from the side of the comb. Silage. The feed stored in a silo. Silo. An air-tight structure in which green feed is stored for winter feeding. Single Comb. A single leaf-like structure raising from the top of the head which in the male should stand erect. It is provided with spikes at the free border. Solid Color. Of one color—that is, a uniform color unmixed with other colors. Sorghum. A plant possessing a stalk like corn and containing much sugar. The seeds growing on the top are sometimes used in poultry feeding. Fie. 3.—The head of a white Minorca cock, showing at a the so-called thumb mark. Soy Bean. A leguminous plant, the seeds of which are sometimes used in poultry feeding. Spangle. The colored spot at the free extremity of a spangled feather. Spangled. Consisting of spangled feathers. Spring Chicken. A young bird weighing over 2 pounds. Spur. The horn-like rounded or pointed growth from the inferior third of the shank. Squab. A young pigeon. Squab Broiler. A young chicken weighing from 34 to 1}4 pounds. Squirrel Tail. A tail projecting forward toward the head. Storage Egg. A storage egg is one held in cold storage at a temperature of 45 degrees or lower for a period of thirty days or more. 28 POULTRY CULTURE V-shaped comb at 1, also showing at 2 the crest; 3 the muffs; 4, the beard. 6b, The strawberry comb. c, The rose comb. d, The pea comb. e, Single comb and white ear-lobes. f, Crest of female. g, Crest of male. h, A white face. INTRODUCTORY 29 Stag. A young male. Applied to game birds. Stewing Chicken. A chicken weighing about 3 pounds. Stipple. Small dotted or speckled appearance of a feather. Strain. Successive breeding of one variety of fowls by one fancier always using the same blood line. Strawberry Comb. One resembling a strawberry. Stock. Usually spoken of in connection with fowls kept for breeding purposes; that is, ‘breeding stock”’ or ‘‘stock birds.” Succulent Feed. A feed containing much water, as sprouted oats, cab- bage, and root crops. Symmetry. The standard shape and harmony of proportions of a fowl. Tail-coverts. The curved feathers to the side and in front of the tail. Tail Feathers. The straight stiff feathers of the tail are known as the main tail feathers. Thighs. The portion of leg above the knee. The femoral region. Thumb Mark. A depression at the side of the comb. It has some- what the appearance of an impression made by the thumb. Throwing Back. plumage, black and white. I3 plumage, red, white, and bay. D2 COMB, STRAWBERRY. A3 plumage, dark brown. A4 large. B4 small. B1 Ear-lobes, white. B2 COMB, ROSE. A8 plumage, white. B3 plumage, buff. C3 plumage, brown. C2 COMB, SINGLE. A3 plumage, white. B3 plumage, buff. C3 plumage, black. D3 plumage, brown. E3 plumage, silver. F3 plumage, mottled black and white. Buckeyes. Dark Cornish. White Cornish. White Laced Red Cornish. Buff Wyandottes. Golden Wyandottes. Partridge Wyandottes. Silver Wyandottes. Silver Penciled Wyandottes. White Wyandottes. Columbian Wyandottes. Dominiques. ° R. C. Rhode Island Red. Barred Plymouth Rocks. Buff Plymouth Rocks. Columbian Plymouth Rocks. Partridge Plymouth Rocks. White Plymouth Rocks. White Jap Bantams. Rhode Island Red. Black Jap Bantams. Black Tailed Jap Bantams. Red Pile Game. Black Breasted Red Malay. Black Breasted Red Malay. White Leghorns. Buff Leghorns. Brown Leghorns. White Leghorn. Buff Leghorn. Black Leghorn. Brown Leghorn. Silver Leghorn. Anconas. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 43 VARIETY MARKINGS! Columbian——The neck hackle, smaller tail coverts, and saddle feathers at the root of the tail have a greenish-black center with a white edging. The primary and secondary wing feathers are black with a lower edge of the inferior web white. The main tail and sickle feathers are black. The balance of the surface is white. The under color is bluish- white. Partridge——Male: Neck hackle, back, saddle feathers, and tail coverts black edged with brilliant red.- The primary and secondary feathers are black with the lower edge of the lower web reddish-bay. The main tail and sickle feathers arc black. Female: The surface plumage of the hen shows each feather a mahogany-brown with three distinct black outlines conforming to the shape of the feather. Penciled (Silver)—Male: The neck hackle and saddle feathers are greenish-black with an edging of white. The wing bow and back are white. The primary and secondary wing feathers are black with edging of white on lower part of lower web. The balance of the surface plumage is black. Female: Hackle similar to that of the male. Balance of surface color gray with three dark pencilings conforming to the shape of the feather. Buff.—The surface color is a golden buff with a lighter under color. The wing bow, saddle and neck are a glossy golden buff. White.—Pure white free from brassiness. Barred.—Applied to a variety of Plymouth Rocks. Alter- nate bands of white and black. Silver——Applied to a variety of Wyandotte in which the feathers of the hen in their surface color are white edged with black making a laced effect. The main tail feathers are black. The wing bow and back of the male are white. Golden.—Applied to a variety of Wyandotte similar to the Silver except that a golden color replaces the white or silver color. 1English Guide to the Breeds. The Student is also referred to the American Standard of Perfection. 44 POULTRY CULTURE Black.—A solid black in all surface color. Mottled.—The surface color is speckled, usually black and white, the black predominating. Light.—Applied to a variety of Brahma which has similar markings as the Columbian variety. Brown.—Applied to a variety of Leghorn. Male: Neck hackle, saddle feathers black edged with red. Primary and secondary wing feathers black with lower edge of lower web red. Undercolor slate. Female: Neck similar to the male. Tail mostly black and surface color brown, finely striped with a darker brown. Red Pyle.—The front of neck, shoulders, wing coverts and fronts, tail, coverts, and body of the male are white. The back and wing bows are red. Neck hackle light orange. The neck, wings, back, tail and body of female is white. The neck feathers may be tinged with gold. Breast of female is salmon. Blue.— Neck hackle of female and neck hackle, back, wing bow, saddle and tail of the male are dark blue. The balance of the surface color is a slaty-blue. Speckled.—Applied to a variety of Sussex in which the plumage for the most part is a mahogany red, the feathers being tipped with a barring of black and a tip bar of white. Red.—The surface color for the most part is a cherry red. Spangled.— The feathers are tipped with black. The bal- ance of the feathers may be white or golden. Silver Gray.—Applied to a variety of Dorking. The neck hackle, back and saddle feathers of the male are a silvery white. The breast, body, tail and wing bow of the male are black. The neck hackle of the female is black edged with silvery white. The balance of the surface color is gray with silvery white lines, or stipple. Dark.—Applied 1o a variety of Cornish. Male: Hackle, wing fronts and bars, tail, breast and body black. A mixture of red and black in back and saddle. Female: neck similar to male. Balance of surface mahogany with two or three black lines conforming to the shape of the feather. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 45 HISTORY OF THE BREEDS THE AMERICAN CLASS The American class includes the following breeds: Ply- mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Javas, Domi- niques, and Buckeyes. The American breeds are noted for their adaptedness as general utility fowls. They are of good size, furnishing a Fie. 6.—Barred Plymouth Rock hen. A representative of the American class and good utility stock. One of the best breeds for the farm. goodly amount of meat, and are good egg producers. They are rather quiet in disposition and are adapted to the farm. The American breeds have their origin in America. The Plymouth Rocks.—There are six standard varieties— namely: Barred, White, Buff, Partridge, Silver Penciled, and Columbian. The Barred Plymouth Rock is the most popular fowl in America and had its origin in the New England States. 46 POULTRY CULTURE The first product was produced by crossing the Asiatic fowls and Dorking. This was about 1850. It is quite possible that the Black Java entered into its makeup. This breed is perhaps the best utility bird of the American class; the skin and legs are yellow and the body of good size, thus meeting the market demands. They develop to a good size and produce a goodly number of eggs. The hens make rood sitters and mothers. Ee ieee ee Fic. 7.—Barred Plymouth Rock cock. The Barred Plymouth Rock, as developed in feather pattern at the present time, is a beautiful bird. He has earned his berth in the hearts of all Americans and is named after the Plymouth Rock, the memory of which was held so dear by our forefathers. Mr. Frost, of Maine, produced the white Plymouth Rock in 1875 and claimed they were ‘‘sports’”’ from his barred breed. Mr. I, K. Felch says: ‘‘The Barred and the White are the Fie. 8.— White Plymouth Rock hen. Fi THE BREEDS OF POULTRY Visecioii a ie af Gg. 9.—White Plymouth Rock cock. 47 48 POULTRY CULTURE only Plymouth Rocks of absolute purity of Plymouth Rock blood.” The foundation of the Partridge Plymouth Rock is the Partridge Cochin and the Silver Penciled Plymouth Rock and is founded on the Dark Brahma. The Buff Plymouth Rocks are a conglomeration. The first ancestors were bred by Mr. Wilson, of Massachusetts, who crossed the Buff Cochin on the Light Brahma, and Mr. Fig. 10.—A pen of Silver Wyandottes. Aldrich who crossed the White Plymouth Rock on the Rhode Island Reds. The progeny of the union of these different leas constitute the ancestors of our present Buff Plymouth Rocks. The standard requires the following weights of Plymouth Rocks: Cocks, 9.5 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; hens, 7.5 pounds; pullets, 6 pounds. The Wyandottes.—There are eight standard varieties of this breed, as follows: Silver, White, Buff, Partridge, Silver Penciled, Black, Golden, and Columbian. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 49 The Silver Wyandotte is an American product, and is sup- posed to have originated from a cross of a Light Brahma on a Silver Hamburg, though the exact cross making up the ances- tors of this very useful breed is wrapped in obscurity. The Silver Wyandotte was the first variety perfected and the first to be admitted to the standard. They are quiet, lovable, excellent layers, good sitters and mothers. They make an excellent table fowl, as the chicks Fig. 11.—A Silver Wyandotte pullet. feather early, grow rapidly, and on proper feed are plump at seven or eight weeks old and ready for the table. The second variety to be developed was the Golden, which Mr. McKeen, of Wisconsin, produced by crossing the Rose Comb Brown Leghorn on the Pea Comb Partridge Cochin and Buff-colored females. “This progeny was crossed with Buff Cochins and Golden Sebrights. In the Golden Wyandotte a golden bay is substituted for 4 50 POULTRY CULTURE the white of the silver, otherwise they are the same in confor- mation and feather pattern. The Wyandottes lay a small egg because there is Silver Spangled Hamburg blood in the original Silver Wyandotte. The ancestors of the present White Wyandotte were “sports” from the other varieties. ‘The standard requires plumage of a chalky white throughout. It is difficult to determine just what crosses produced the Buff Wyandotte. Various crosses, some of which contribute Fie. 12.—A Silver Wyandotte hen. to the present variety, were made. These were Silver Wyan- dotte on Rhode Island Reds, Golden and White Wyandottes on Buff Cochins, Golden Wyandottes on Buff Cochins, Buff Cochins on Golden Spangled Hamburgs, Golden Wyandottes bred to White and Golden crosses. In all buffs the surface color must be even—there should be a rich buff under-color extending to the skin. The feathers THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 51 must be free from shafting or mealy appearance. White and black in the wing feathers is considered a serious defect. Buff birds have a tendency to fade with age, thus a good breeder may not be a good show bird so far as plumage goes. The Patridge Wyandotte appears to be a mixture of Golden Penciled Hamburg, Golden Wyandotte, and Partridge Cochin. Fic. 13.—Buff Wyandotte pullet. The Silver Penciled Wyandotte is a mixture of Dark Brahma, Partridge Wyandotte, and Silver Penciled Hamburg. The Black Wyandotte, according to Mr. Clements, is a “sport” from the Silver Wyandotte. The Columbian Wyandotte was probably the progeny of crosses between the Light Brahma and the White Wyandotte. The Columbian Wyandotte is one of the most popular of this breed. 52 POULTRY CULTURE The standard requires Wyandotte cocks to weigh 8.5 pounds; cockerels, 7.5 pounds; hens, 6.5 pounds; pullets, 5.5 pounds. The Rhode Island Reds.—It would be a rather difficult task to determine just what breeds contributed to the production of the Rhode Island Reds, but it appears that fanciers and Ys Ny Fic. 14.—A single comb Rhode Island Red Cockerel. Note length of body. This is another good breed for the farm, being good egg producers and possessing flesh of good quality. farmers in Rhode Island selected red male birds as far back as 1850 which were bred on common hens. These origins ap- parently involve a mixture of Cochin China. The state of Rhode Island appears to be their birthplace, and in that state there was bred, according to Mr. Taylor, imported birds, the cock of which was a peculiar red or yellowish Dominique and THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 53 the hens a bay or reddish bay, and that the progeny of these crosses varied in color. A little later the Malays were intro- duced and it is not beyond a possibility that these entered into their makeup. About fifty years ago, in Little Compton, Rhode Island, Red Cochin China cocks and Red Malay cocks were selected and crossed on these flocks. Later Brown Leg- horns were introduced into Compton territory, but whether E Ie: PRT oe Fie. 15.—A single comb Rhode Island Red pullet. Note the length and depth of body. these entered into the makeup of the Reds appears to be uncertain. The Rhode Island Reds are said to be an out-cross and have been criticised by many, but the fact remains that they are very popular in America, make a good utility bird, lay a goodly number of eggs, and their meat is of excellent flavor. The color of the Reds must be uniform, asa lack of uniformity 54 POULTRY CULTURE positively disqualifies them. The undercolor should be a rich red. The feathers must be free from shafting. The Red has a long, broad back, full breast, and long keel and is thus qualified as a general-purpose fowl. Of the Reds there is the Single Comb and the Rose Comb. The standard requires the cock to weigh 8.5 pounds; cockerel, 7.5 pounds; hen, 6.5 pounds; pullets, 5 pounds. The Javas.—The Javas are of two varieties—namely, the Mottled and the Black. Their origin appears to be wrapped in obscurity, but seems to have originated in that cradle of development of American breeds, the New England States. From the Black Java “sports”? were derived from which the Whites originate. The standard weight requirements are for cocks, 9.5 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; hens, 7.5 pounds; pullets, 6.5 pounds. The Dominiques.—This, another American production, was first produced in the New England States and in many respects resembled the Barred Plymouth Rock, but by careful selection and breeding their semblance is gradu- ally getting farther apart. They are provided with a rose comb, whereas the Plymouth Rock develops a single comb. It has never ‘become popular as has the Barred Plymouth Rock. Of the Dominiques there is one variety which by some has been supposed to have something to do with the ancestry of the original.Barred Plymouth Rocks. The standard requires the cock to weigh 7 pounds; cockerel, 6 pounds; hen, 5 pounds; pullet, 4 pounds. The Buckeyes.—This is another American breed whose ancestry appears to be wrapped in obscurity. The breed has never become popular. In body they have some semblance to the Rhode Island Reds. The general plumage color is a mahogany bay. The standard requires the cock to weigh 9 pounds; cockerel, 8 pounds; hen, 6 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The Buckeyes have a pea comb. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 55 THE ASIATIC CLASS The class of Asiatics includes the following breeds: Brah- mas, Cochins, and the Langshans. The Asiatic breeds are noted for their large size. They are particularly valuable in capon production, developing to large size and are of good quality of meat. The Light Brahmas are most used for this purpose. For standard characteristics of all breeds one should refer to the American Standard of Perfection. The Asiatics have their origin in Asia. The Brahmas.—There are two varieties of Brahmas— namely, the Light and the Dark. ALWILDA— SOME PULLET WEA HENDRICKSON-MILTON, Mass, Fie. 16.—A Light Brahma cock. Fie. 17.—A Light Brahma pullet. It appears that the ancestors of the Brahmas were brought to America from China, and by breeding and careful selection the Brahmas of to-day have been developed. When first imported into this country on a ship—the “‘ Hast Indiaman"’—they were first known as the short-legged Chitta- gongs, later Brahma Pootra, and later dropping the last half of the name, calling them just Brahma, finally, the develop- ment of the two varieties, the Light and the Dark. 56 POULTRY CULTURE The breed was introduced into America about 1847, and in 1866 the varieties, Dark Brahma and Light Brahma, were recognized. The Dark Brahma was the product of a cross between a Gray Chittagong male and Marsh, or Gray Shanghai or Gray Cochin. This product was sent to Mr. Bailey, of London, England, by Mr. Burnham, of Massachusetts, in 1854, and ‘Fie. 18.—A Light Brahma hen. This breed is used to a great extent in capon and soft broiler production. by crosses on the Pea Comb Brahmas the present Dark Brah- ma was developed. The Brahmas are used in some parts of the country in the production of soft roasters. They are credited with laying a fair quantity of eggs, and THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 57 laying well in the colder months when the price of eggs is highest. Care must be taken not to overfeed this heavy breed, as the hens are apt to become too fat and cease to lay. The Asiatics are of a rather lymphatic type of temperament and are not active like the Mediterranean breeds, as the Leghorns. The Brahmas, particularly the light variety, are used exten- sively in broiler production. The American Standard of Perfection requires the Light Brahma cock to weigh 12 pounds; cockerel, 10 pounds; hen, 9.5 pounds; pullet, 7 pounds. The Cochins.—The standard recognizes four varieties, as follows: Buff, Partridge, Black, and White. The Cochins originated in China, the first birds being im- ported into England in 1843. America and England apparently each have their own type of Cochin, differing both in form and feathering. While the English call for long legs, long stiff vulture hocks, and flat high carriage breast; the American Standard calls for short legs, full soft fluff and hock, full round breast, and a forward carriage. The Cochins in their native land, China, vary in color and shades, thus there may be found round red or cinnamon, buff, brown, partridge, pale buff, white, and black. The buff variety is perhaps the more popular. The standard weight of the Black Cochin cock is 10.5 pounds; cockerel, 9 pounds; hen, 8.5 pounds; pullet, 7 pounds. The Buff, Partridge, and White Cochin cock must weigh 11 pounds; cockerel, 9 pounds; hen, 8.5 pounds; pullet, 7 pounds. The Cochins are provided with feathered legs. Like other Asiatic breeds they are quiet and stand confinement well. They produce a goodly number of eggs and are reported as good winter layers. They are slow in developing, hence they are not best adapted to squab-broiler raising. Their body is well feathered with fluffy plumage, thus pro- viding them with one essential point for good sitters and mothers. The Langshans.—There are two standard varieties of Lang- shans—namely, Black and White. 58 POULTRY CULTURE The Black Langshan was introduced into England from China about 1870. Following 1880 the breed was imported into America from England. The Langshans have long feathered legs. They present a rather erect appearance and are of good weight. The cock must weigh 10 pounds; cockerel, 8 pounds; hen, 7 pounds; pullet, 6 pounds. The Langshans, while of good size, may be considered as a utility fowl. They are good egg producers and develop into good roasters. The White Langshans are said to be “‘sports”’ from the Black. THE MEDITERRANEAN CLASS The Mediterraneans had theiv origin in the countries border- ing on the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean class includes five breeds, as follows: Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, Anconas, and Blue Andalusians. These breeds while small in size, yet by their activity and production of eggs have become one of the world’s best com- mercial fowls. The Leghorns.—There are eight varieties of Leghorns, as follows: Single and Rose Comb White, Single and Rose Comb Brown, Single and Rose Comb Buff, Single Comb Black, and the Silver. By careful selection and breeding the Leghorns constitute a type of non-sitters. They are the most popular of the non- sitters and had their origin in Italy. They have been bred in America for more than fifty years. The original Italian Single Comb White and Brown Leghorns have been modified, thus there is an American development of a Rose Comb White and Brown varieties. The Leghorns were imported by America from Italy, from which country England later made importations. As egg producers the Leghorns have no peer. The White Leghorns are sometimes used for the production of squab broilers on account of the fact that they develop quickly and possess a yellow skin and legs, together with their white feathers, makes this procedure profitable. Being small in THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 59 size they are not adapted to large broiler raising or for roaster or capon production. The Rose Comb White Leghorn was produced by crossing the Single Comb White Leghorn on the White Hamburg. BP Fic. 19.—A Single Comb White Leghorn cock. A representative of the Mediterranean breed and noted for their superior egg production. This breed is used quite extensively in commercial egg production and to some extent for squab-broiler raising, but too small for medium or large broiler production. The Black Leghorn is an English production, probably pro- duced by a cross between the Brown Leghorn and the Black Minorca, although it may have been a “sport.” England has also introduced two other varieties—namely, the Duckwing and the Pile. The Pile Leghorn was produced by a cross between the Brown Leghorn and White Leghorn. 60 POULTRY CULTURE The color of the Duckwing Leghorn closely resembles that of the Duckwing Games. Standard weights for the Leghorns are as follows: Cock, 54 pounds; cockerel, 44 pounds; hen, 4 pounds; pullet, 34 pounds. Fig. 20.—A White Leghorn of the laying type. (Pennsylvania Depart- ment of Agriculture.) The Minorcas.—The Minorca of to-day is an English prod- uct, and were originally called the Red-faced Spanish. It is apparent that their ancestors were imported from the East. The Minorcas find the White-faced Black Spanish as a basis of their ancestry. The Minorcas are of four standard varieties, as follows: Single and Rose Comb White, Single and Rose Comb Black. According to Mr. Northup, the Rose Comb Black Minorca is a ‘“‘sport”’ from the Single Comb Black and the White Minorca is probably a ‘‘sport”’ from the Black. The Minorcas lay large white eggs and are very prolific layers. The standard requires that the cock weigh 9 pounds; cock- erel, 7.5 pounds; hen, 7.5 pounds; pullet, 6.5 pounds. The Spanish.—The White-faced Black Spanish is the oldest THE BREEDS OF POULTRY te 61 of the so-called Spanish breeds. It is characterized by a white pendulous face and a rich glossy black plumage. The Spanish were imported from the East through the Mediter- ranean Sea. The Spanish are great layers. The egg is white and of good size. The standard requires the cock to weigh 8 pounds; cockerel, 6.5 pounds; hen, 6.5 pounds; pullet, 5.5 pounds. The Anconas were produced in England, and have as a part of their ancestry the blood of the Black Spanish. There are two varieties of Anconas—namely, Single Comb and Rose Comb. They are non-sitters, and good layers. The standard weights for the Anconas are: For the cock, 51g pounds; cockerel, 414 pounds; hen, 414 pounds _pullet, 314 pounds. The Blue Andalusians.—The Blue Andalusian is a direct descendant from the White-faced Black Spanish. This breed has its origin in England. This bird has been accused of wearing the American National colors, as its face is red, its ear-lobes white, and its plumage blue—red, white, and blue. The Andalusian is difficult to breed true to color, as they readily revert to the color of some of their ancestors, throwing black and white feathers. The Andalusians are good egg producers. The standard weights for the Blue Andalusians are: For the cock, 6 pounds; cockerel, 5 pounds; hen, 5 pounds; pullet, 4 pounds. THE ENGLISH CLASS The English class was apparently brought to light in England. The English have done much in the development of the breeds of poultry. Next to America they are great lovers of birds and of beautiful feather patterns. The Dorkings.—There are three standard varieties of this breed—namely, White, Silver Gray, and Colored. The Dorking is one of the oldest breeds of fowl. Its real 62 POULTRY CULTURE origin is wrapped in obscurity, but it is possible that this breed is one of those referred to by the Romans in their early writings. The Dorkings are a short-legged, five-toed fowl. The standard requires the White Dorking cock to weigh 7.5 pounds; cockerel, 6.5 pounds; hen, 6 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The Silver Gray Dorking cock must weigh 8 pounds; cock- erel, 7 pounds; hen, 6.5 pounds; pullet, 5.5 pounds. In addition to these two standard varieties there is a colored Dorking, which is required by the standard to weigh more than | i Le oh £ Fic. 21.—Silver Gray Dorking hen. (Pennsylvania Department of Agri- culture.) the above two. The cock must weigh 8 pounds; cockerel, 8 pounds; hen, 7 pounds; pullet, 6 pounds. The Orpingtons.—There are three varieties of this breed— Single Comb Buff, Single Comb White, and Single Comb Black. The Orpingtons were originated by Mr. Cook, of England. The Single Comb Black Orpington was the first variety, which appeared about 1886. This was from the careful breeding of the black ‘‘sports”’ of the Barred Plymouth Rocks THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 63 bred to Black Minorcas and pullets from this cross mated to Black Langshan males. Black “‘sports’”’ from Barred Plymouth Rocks bred to Black Minorcas, and the pullets from this mating bred to a Rose Comb Black Langshan (a ‘‘sport’’) produced the Rose Comb Black Orpington. Fic. 22.—White Orpington Cockerel. First prize and champion male at the great Pittsburgh show, January, 1915. Second prize at New York Madison Square Garden, February, 1915. (Bred and owned by J. J. Cooley, Dormont, Pittsburgh, Pa.) The Single Comb Buff Orpington was also originated by Mr. Cook. These were produced by mating colored Dorking pullets to Golden Spangled Hamburg males, and pullets of this mating were bred to male Buff Cochins. By mating a White Leghorn cock to Black Hamburg females 64 POULTRY CULTURE and these pullets mated to a male White Dorking produced the Single Comb White Orpington. The standard requires the cock to weigh 10 pounds; cockerel, 8.5 pounds; hen, 8 pounds; pullet, 7 pounds. Fic. 23.—White Orpington pair. The Redcaps.—This is one of the oldest English breeds. They are non-sitters. They are good egg producers. The Redcaps have a distinctive massive rose comb. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 65 The standard requires the cock to weigh 7.5 pounds; cock- erel, 6 pounds; hen, 6 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The Sussex.—This is an old, distinct, and excellent breed of English origin, and has just been admitted to the American Standard of Perfection. There are two varieties—namely, Speckled and Red. The standard weights for the Sussex are: For the cock, 9 pounds; cockerel, es 714 pounds; hen, 7 pounds; pullet, 6 pounds. The Cornish.— There are three varieties of the Cornish breed— namely, Dark, White, and White Laced Red. The Cornish fowl originated in Cornwall, England, from which its name is derived. They were pro- duced by crossing a Black Breasted Red Game on a Red Aseel ay Fic. 24.—Dark Cornish cock, three years old. ported from India. Weight, 13!4 pounds. Later there was introduced into this cross blood of the Sumatra Game. The Cornish is characterized by having short, thick legs, large thighs, and a deep, broad breast. They are broad across the shoulders and have a rather short, thick neck. They like other games have a rather erect carriage. The Cornish have an excellent flavored flesh. The Cornish have been bred for meat alone. They are 6 66 POULTRY CULTURE usually poor layers. A meat fowl has short legs with large breast. The standard requires the Dark and White Cornish cocks to weigh 9 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; hens, 7 pounds; pullets, 6 pounds. The White Laced Red Cornish standard weight is as follows: for cock, 8 pounds; cockerel, 7 pounds; hen, 5 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. Fig. 25.—Dark Cornish hen ‘‘Helen.’’ Supposed to be the best dark Cornish hen in the country to-day. First hen, Madison Square Garden, February, 1915. Weight at two years, 916 pounds. Note breast. Owned by Ward. THE POLISH CLASS The class of Polish include just one breed—namely, Polish. The Polish were formerly called Polands. Their origin is wrapped somewhat in obscurity and they may not have origi- nated in Poland, but the fact remains that history shows that races of fowls with crests and beards existed throughout South Russia in the early day. There are eight varieties belonging to the Polish breed—namely, White Crested Black, Bearded THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 67 Silver, Golden and White, Buff Laced, Non-bearded Silver, Golden, and White. The White Crested Black Polish present a pleasing picture by their black plumage and white crest. The Polish are of medium size and good egg producers. Gold and Silver Spangled Polish have also been bred. Fanciers are inclined to regard the Polish as ornamental, but in this case it may be said they are useful as well as ornamental. The standard does not apparently place any required weight. THE HAMBURG CLASS The Hamburg class includes just one breed, that of the Hamburg. The Hamburg breed has six recognized varieties— namely, Silver Spangled, Golden Spangled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White, and Black. The Hamburgs originated in Holland and derived their name from the city of Hamburg. They are one of the oldest bereds and their blood goes to make up many of the best American and other breeds. While being classed by fanciers as an ornamental fowl, yet they are great egg producers. They are among the smaller breeds. The eggs are white, but rather small. The standard does not apparently fix the weight. THE FRENCH CLASS The French class includes four breeds, as follows: Houdans, Crevecceurs, La Fleche, and the Faverolle. These breeds have been conceded to belong to France, so far as their origin is concerned. The Houdans.—There are two varieties of this breed— namely, Mottled and White. The Houdan is to the French what the Plymouth Rocks are to America. They are the most popular fowl in France. There is a possibility that the Houdan originated from a cross between the Polish and the Dorking, however by some this is doubted. 68 POULTRY CULTURE The essential characteristics are a plumage of black and white, a half crest, and five toes on each foot. They are excellent layers. The standard requires the cock to weigh 7 pounds; cockerel, 6 pounds; hen, 6 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The Crevecceurs.—There is just one variety of this breed— namely, Black. This is one of the oldest of the French breeds. It has never become very popular in America. These birds take their name from the city of Crevecceur. The plumage is a solid, rich, glossy black throughout. The standard requires the cock to weigh 8 pounds; cockerel, 7 pounds; hen, 7 pounds, pullet, 6 pounds. The Faverolle——Of this breed there is but one variety, namely: Golden. The Faverolle was produced in France by a cross between the Dorking and the Houdan. The standard weights are for the cock 8 pounds; cockerel, 7.5 pounds; hen, 7 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The La Fleche present a striking appearance with their solid black plumage and large long massive bodies. There is just one variety—namely, Black. The standard requires the cock to weigh 8.5 pounds; cock- erel, 7.5 pounds; hen, 7.5 pounds; pullet, 6.5 pounds. THE CONTINENTAL CLASS The Continental class has one breed—namely, the Campine. The Campine is an old breed and, like many others, their early history is wrapped in obscurity. It appears that in Bel- gium and other European countries they have been bred for many decades. Their change in feather pattern has been an evolutionary one, as the plumage on the birds of the present day is far different from what it was fifty years ago. The Campines are of the smaller breeds. They are good layers. The eggs are large in size and white in color. The Campines.—Of this breed there are two varieties— namely, Silver and Golden. The Campines, and especially the proud Silver Campine, THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 69 have grown in great favor during the past few years in America. It is barely possible that the Silver Campine has some Silver Spangled Hamburg blood in it. Their origin, like many others, has never been fully explained. The standard weights for the Campines are for the cock, 6 pounds; cockerel, 5 pounds; hen, 4 pounds; pullet, 315 pounds. Fie. 26.—A pair of Silver Campines; a representative of the Continental class. They are great egg producers and are very beautiful. GAMES AND BANTAMS CLASS Games.—The American Standard of Perfection recognizes many games, as follows: Black, White, Birchen, Red Pile, Golden and Silver Duckwing, Brown Red, and Black Breasted Red. The games are, so far as we know, as old as time. These birds by their pluck and fearlessness to fight were bred to con- 70 POULTRY CULTURE siderable extent by the Greeks and Romans, who enjoyed seeing animals and beasts tear themselves to pieces and writhe in their agonies. In ancient times cock fighting was as much in vogue among the Greeks and Romans as it is at the present time in Mexico, Cuba, India, and China. The present game fowl differs considerable from the type of ancient fighting birds. The exhibition game of to-day carries a rather erect posture, with characteristic shape and carriage. The game stands high on its legs, its head 1s narrow and long, with thin long neck and fiery eyes. Game Bantams.—The standard recognized the following varieties of game bantams: White, Black, Birchen, Red Pile, Golden and Silver Duckwing, Brown Red and Black Breasted Red. In shape, color, and carriage these Game Bantams are the same as the large breeds. They have been bred to bantam size, hence are ornamental. Dwarf fowls have been known since time immemorial. The standard weight of Game Bantams are for cock, 22 ounces; cockerel, 20 ounces; hen, 20 ounces; pullet, 18 ounces. The Black Breasted Red Game appears to be the most popular of all the bantams in America. THE ORIENTAL CLASS The Oriental class consists of three breeds, as follows: Malays, Sumatras, and Malay Bantams. The Malays.—This breed has one variety—namely, Black Breasted Red. The Malay appears to be one of the ancient types of fowl. The blood of the vigorous Malay is to be found in many of our present breeds. The standard requires the Malay cock to weigh 9 pounds; cockerel, 7 pounds; hen, 7 pounds; pullet, 5 pounds. The Sumatras.—This breed has only one variety—namely, the Black. This breed, possessing many of the characteristics of the heavy game, is an old variety and its history is little under- THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 71 stood, but probably came originally from the Orient. lt is a fair producer-of eggs. The breed is not popular, though once quite numerous. The Malay Bantams.—Dwarfed Malays or bantams are recognized as among the standard breeds. The cock weighs 26 ounces; cockerel, 18 ounces; hen, 18 ounces; pullet, 15 ounces. THE ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS CLASS Among the recognized ornamental bantams may be found the following breeds: Sebright, Rose Comb, Booted, Brahma, Cochin, Polish, and Japanese. The Sebright Bantams.— |~ There are two varieties of the © Sebright Bantams—namely, Golden and Silver. Sir John Sebright, of Eng- land, originated this breed, and it is said to be one of the most beautiful combinations of feather patterns ever assem- bled by nature in a fowl. By in and in breeding, using a small hen resembling a — Golden Hamburg, and these fie. 27.—Black Cochin Bantam hen- crosses later used on a white cockerel, he developed beautiful silvery markings, making a brilliant contrasting array of colors artistically designed by nature. The standard places the weights at 26 ounces for the cock, 22 ounces for the cockerel, 22 ounces for the hen, and 20 ounces for the pullet. Thirty ounces will disqualify the cock, 26 the cockerel, 26 the hen, and 24 the pullet. The Rose Comb Bantams.—There are two varieties of the Rose Comb breed—namely, Black and White. The weights are the same as for the Sebrights. The Booted Bantam.—There is one variety of this breed, the White, with the same standard weights as for Sebrights. 72 POULTRY CULTURE THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 73 The Brahma Bantams.—There are two varieties of this breed, as follows: Dark and Light. The Light and Dark Brahma bantams have similar markings as the larger type fowl. The standard weight for the cock is 30 ounces; cockerel, 26 ounces; hen, 26 ounces; pullet, 24 ounces. The Cochin Bantams.—There are four varieties of this breed—namely, Black, White, Partridge, and Buff. Fic. 30.—Partridge Cochin Bantam cock. The Cochin Bantams resemble the larger fowls in shape and color. The standard weights for these bantams is the same as for the Brahma Bantams. The Polish Bantams.—This breed has three varieties, as follows: Buff Laced, Bearded White, and Non-bearded. Their weights are the same as for the Rose Combs. 74 POULTRY CULTURE The Japanese Bantams.—There are four varieties of this breed—namely, Black, White, Gray, and Black Tailed. The standard weights are the same as for the Rose Combs. THE MISCELLANEOUS CLASS The Sultan fowl is a native of Turkey. They have a full crest, muff, and beard, with vulture hocks and profuse shanks and toe feathering. Their coat is white. The standard does not fix the weight. The Silkies.—Like the preceding breed there is just one variety, that one is white. This is a very old variety of fowl and has been described as having “hair like a cat.”” They have a soft, flossy plumage. Their skin is of a deep pink color. The comb, face, and wattles are of a deep mulberry color. The shanks are of a deep bluish black. Their name Silkies comes from their silky-like coat. The standard does not fix the weight. The Frizzles.—In this breed any color is allowable. This is a very queer appearing fowl, as the feathers curl backward and upward at the ends. The colors are those of Black, White, Red, and Bay. This is one of the breeds of olden times and its origin is un- known. THE TURKEY CLASS The turkey class is given one breed, that of turkey. The Turkeys.——The Turkey breed is divided into seven recognized varieties, as follows: Bronze, Bourbon, Slate, Buff, Black, White, and Narragansett. The male turkey or tom should be of large frame with a deep body. The breast should be broad, round, and full. The male presents a stately appearance. The head should be of good size and the eyes alert and rather bold expression. The female turkey or hen should possess a large, deep body with broad, round, full breast. She should be provided with a head of good size with eyes alert and watchful, THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 75 The turkey is of American origin, many at this day being wild in some of our forests. The turkey is the king of the poultry, and is sought as the appropriate bird for Thanksgiving as well as for Christmas. The most popular variety is the Bronze, which the standard fixes in weight at 36 pounds for the cock, 33 pounds for the yearling cock, 25 pounds for the cockerel, 20 pounds for the hen, and 16 pounds for the pullet. Haseecrmnmmyt agg a] Fig. 31.—A Bronze Turkey tom. This is the most popular breed of turkeys. A bird raised for the feasts for Thanksgiving and Christmas. The White Holland Turkey is said to have been originated in Holland. The cock should weigh 26 pounds; cockerel, 18 pounds; hen, 16 pounds; pullet, 12 pounds. The Narragansett Turkey is a black plumage bird. The cock should weigh 30 pounds; cockerel, 20 pounds; hen, 18 pounds, pullet, 12 pounds. The Black, Buff, and Slate Turkeys have the same standard weights as the Narragansett. 76 POULTRY CULTURE The Bourbon Red Turkey is a native of Bourbon County, Kentucky, and are bred up to the conception of the Wild Yellow Turkey. The standard calls for 30 pounds weight for the cock, 22 pounds for the cockerel, 18 pounds for the hen, and 14 pounds for the pullet. Fic. 32.—A Bronze Turkey hen. THE DUCK CLASS There are twelve breeds in the Duck class, as follows: Pekin, Aylesbury, Rouen, Cayuga, Call, East India, Crested, Muscovy, Indian Runner, Swedish, Orpington and Penciled Ruaner. ; Ducks are bred for two purposes—namely, for the produc- tion of eggs and the production of meat. The best egg types are not necessarily the best meat types. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 77 The most favorite meat type is the Pekin because of its rapid development and good size, arriving at 6 pounds in weight at eleven weeks of age. The Indian Runners are developed to a high state of egg production, but on account of their smaller size are not so well adapted for meat production (broiler duck-raising). The Pekin Duck is a native of China. These ducks have pure white plumage and orange-colored legs, feet, and beak. The standard requires the drake to weigh 8 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, the duck, 7 pounds; young duck, 6 pounds. The Aylesbury Duck is a native of England and derives its name from the town of Aylesbury. They have a pale flesh with orange-colored shanks and feet. Their plumage is white. Their weight is similar to the Pekin. The Rouen Duck is a native of France. It resembles the wild Mallard Duck in color. Its color is a combination of greenish black and brown. The standard weight is for the drake, 9 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds; duck, 8 pounds; young duck, 7 pounds. Cayuga Duck is purely of American product, having been originated in New York. It resembles the Ceylon Duck. The standard weights are the same as the Rouen. The Call Duck is of a steel-gray color, and in some respects it resembles the Mallard. They are not given any standard weight. The Black East India Duck is a native of East India. Their plumage is a solid black. They have no standard weight. The Crested White Duck is a native of Holland. The head is provided with a crest. They are white in color. The standard weight of the drake is 7 pounds; young drake, 6 pounds; duck, 6 pounds; young duck, 5 pounds. The Muscovy is a native of Brazil. Of this breed there are two varieties—namely, White and the Colored. The plu- mage of the Colored is a blue black. The plumage of the White Muscovy is pure white. The standard weight of the drake is 10 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds; duck, 7 pounds; young duck, 6 pounds. The Indian Runner Duck is a native of India. There are three varieties—namely, Fawn, Gray, and Penciled. They are 78 POULTRY CULTURE great egg producers, often laying upward of 300 eggs in a single year. The standard weight of the runners is for the drake 4.5 pounds, and the duck 4 pounds. The Blue Swedish Duck is a native of Sweden. Their plumage is blue with white in the breast. The standard weight of the drake is 8 pounds; young drake, 6.5 pounds; duck, 7 pounds, young duck, 5.5 pounds. great egg production. Often a single duck will lay close to 300 eggs in a single year. They are light of body, so are not adapted to broiler production. The Buff Orpington Duck and the Penciled Runner Ducks are recent breeds created and have just been admitted to the standard. THE GEESE CLASS The Geese class consists of six breeds, as follows: Toulouse, Ea African, Embden, Egyptian, and the Wild or Cana- jan. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 79 Of the Toulouse there is one variety—namely, the Gray. The Toulouse is one of the most popular of the breeds of geese. Itisanative of France. Its color is gray throughout. The standard requires the gander to weigh 25 pounds; young gander, 20 pounds; goose, 20 pounds; young goose, 16 pounds. Of the Chinese Geese there are two varicties—namely, the White and Brown. The native home of the Chinese Geese is China, from which they derive their name. Fie. 34.—Toulouse Geese. They are good layers and are becoming a very popular fowl. Their weight is not excessive, making one goose about the right size for the average American family, which is not large in number. The standard requires the Chinese gander to weigh 12 pounds; young gander 10 pounds; goose, 10 pounds; young goose, 8 pounds. Of the African there is just one variety, that of the Gray. The African Geese are natives of Asia and Africa. They probably originated in Asia, from which place they are supposed 80 POULTRY CULTURE to have been taken to Africa more than a century ago. Their color is a light gray shading into a darker color as the neck is approached. The standard requires the gander to weigh 20 pounds; young gander, 16 pounds; goose, 18 pounds; young goose, 14 pounds. Of the Embden there is one variety, that of the White. The Embden is a native of Germany, and their name is derived from the name of the town of Embden, which was at one time the center of the goose market of that empire. The plumage of the Embden is a pure white throughout. The standard requires the gander to weigh 20 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds; goose, 18 pounds; young goose, 16 pounds. The Egyptian goose has one variety—that of the Colored. It is a native of Egypt, from which country it takes its name. The color is gray with black on the upper part of the body. The under part of the body is a pale buff and yellow penciled with black lines. The standard requires the gander to weigh 10 pounds; young gander, 8 pounds; goose, 8 pounds; young goose, 6 pounds. They are the baby of the goose family. The wild or Canadian Goose is gray in color. The head is black with a white stripe nearly covering the sides of its face. The neck is black, shading into a light gray at the base. The wings and back are dark gray and the tail is black. The standard requires that the gander weigh 12 pounds; young gander, 10 pounds; goose, 10 pounds; young goose, 8 pounds. > THE CORNELL OUTLINE FOR STUDENT PRACTICE Each student is requested to handle the 20 fowls in the coops, observing carefully and recording their judgment of the sex, age, weight, and condition of each. Indicate cock by ¢; hen by h; cockerel by ckl; pullet by plt. 81 THE BREEDS OF POULTRY Remarks Variety Condition Age | Weight Sex Band No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 CHAPTER III THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION In poultry breeding the foundation of success is the correct mating of the breeding pens. The cock should possess the characteristics of his breéd and variety and an abundance of vitality. His crow should be strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the hens marked, his comb and wattles ruddy, which indicates health. He should not show any effeminancy, not look like a hen with sickle feathers, but show masculine all over. The breeding hens should show the characteristics of their sex, a refinement of head and body lacking in the cock. They should not suggest hen-feathered cocks, but look feminine all over. They should be active, industrious in scratching and foraging, and sing considerable, showing health, vigor, and happiness. As perfect breeders cannot be expected, some provision must be made to correct excesses and deficiencies. This is done by exposing an excess in one sex to deficiency in the oppo- site sex. If a cock is too long legged, correct this excess of length by mating to hens that are short legged. The re- sulting progeny will consist of chickens, some of which, like the cock, are too long legged, some like the hen are too short legged, and some with the uniting characteristics of the sexes are correct in the length of leg. The last are the ones which it was desired to produce, and while in subsequent breeding these will show reversion to both the long-legged and short- legged ancestors, according to Mendel’s law, one-half of their progeny will be like the parents, with legs of medium length. This rule will hold good of all excesses and deficiencies, except as it may be modified by prepotency, reversion, and sudden variations in either sex. By prepotency is meant the power 82 THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 83 that enables the male to beget progeny like himself, irrespec- tive of the characteristics of the females he may be mated with, or a female to produce progeny like herself, regardless of the properties of the male with which she is mated. The fe- male may be equally prepotent with the male. Birds for the breeding pens should have the right kind of ancestry, for unless they have been bred true to standard for many generations and their various desirable points thoroughly fixed reversion to undesirable points are more likely to occur. In this instance, if reversion takes place, it is more likely to be of the desirable qualities, and if variations take place it is more likely to be a favorable variation. Qualities, good or bad, can be intensified by mating together fowls possessing such qualities. If one desires to produce good length of body he should mate together both males and females with good length of bodies. In this instance not only will the quality be likely to be inherited, but inherited in an increased and intensified degree. If fowls closely related in blood have some constitutional weakness and are mated to- gether, it is reasonable to suppose that such weakness will be inherited in an intensified form and that such inbreeding will be disastrous; if both fowls are vigorous and healthy, even though nearly related in blood, there is no reason to believe that their progeny will be conscitutionally weak. The great- est factor in inbreeding is the intensifying of the qualities common to both parents, either good or bad, which if bad produces an impairment of vigor and a decline in health. Two-year-old hens are preferable to pullets, they lay a larger egg, hatch a larger chick, and the chicks develop into larger fowls. If pullets are used they must be full grown. The first batch of eggs a pullet lays should never under any considera- tion be set. Cockerels should be mated with hens and not pullets. Pullets should be mated with cocks and not cockerels. The number of females to be mated with one male depends upon the breed, age, and activity of the male. This is, in part, determined by observation. In mating see that the birds conform to the American Stand- ard of Perfection in shape, height, length of body, neck, 84 POULTRY CULTURE length of back and breast, and length of legs. The eyes must be of proper color and the comb of proper size and shape. They must stand squarely on the legs and the legs wide apart. The plumage should be of proper shade or color. The birds in one pen should all be of the same type and color. See that the tails are carried at the right angle. Do not have quarrelsome hens in the pen. Such a hen should not be used for breeding purposes, of if her good qualities overshadow this defect then it is better to mate her alone. The color problem is one of the difficult items in breeding. The three primary colors in the poultry-breeders spectrum are white, black, and red; and when a breeder understands the relative values of these to one another he has mastered the first principle of color breeding, and can, with practice, pro- duce almost any desired shade of color in the plumage of the fowl. Physical science teaches us that black is not, strictly speaking, a color, but that the word is applied to the absence of all color; also that white is not a color, but is the result of a combination of seven primary colors; for the poultry breeder it is convenient to consider both black and white as actual colors, and to place them alongside of red. Working with these three as primary colors, the breeder has produced the many beautiful shades and markings which characterize our numerous varieties of domestic fowl. Red is the most persistent of the three colors. Accepting the view that all domestic fowls are descended from the common ancestor, Gallus Bankiva, it is not surprising that this should be so, for in the male of this wild ancestor of our domestic races red is the predominating color and completely overshadows black, the only other color in his plumage. Thus we get at the reason why red should be the most permanent of all colors in the plumage of fowls, and we also see why black should be more permanent than other hues, it being the color of secondary importance in the wild ancestor. White plumage is probably produced in one of three ways: There can be but little doubt that the true source of white as a fowl color is albinoism, and the proof of this is that fowls coming as “sports” or albinos from parents which are black, or of some other color, are much more permanent in shade ‘THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 85 of their plumage than white fowls which are produced by crossing or selection. Albinos almost invariably reproduce themselves in the progeny and seldom revert to the colors of the parents from which they came; white fowls produced in other ways have a decided tendency to reversion. White plumage fowls may be produced by selecting speci- mens of a breed which show the most white in their plumage, and by continuous mating along these lines finally produce some pure white. The third way of producing white plumage fowl is by crossing with a white fowl of different breeds which, re Ok cae mee “ Fic. 35.—Feathers from Hackle of Prince ee UI (Baned Plymouth Rock). This is wonderful neck barring. (Holterman.) in appearance, does not differ greatly from the variety which it is the desire to produce. It has been seen that the male ancestor of the domestic fowl possessed considerable black in his plumage, and it may be surmised that the black plumage varieties were originally produced by selection of the darkest red and black of certain varieties through their evolutionary stages. The present method of producing black is by introducing a cross of a black variety, care being taken to select one which it is desired to produce. 86 POULTRY CULTURE When white and black fowls are crossed the general tend- ency is the production of white fowls, yet by careful selection other colors may be produced. The Barred Plymouth Rock is one of these examples; another is the Mottled Ancona, also the Houdan. Red fowls crossed with fowls of other colors will invariably produce progeny having more or less red in their plumage, a car ee tee -- - -- 7 1 \ ' : Fig. 36.—Feathers from a Barred Plymouth Rock cockbird and two hens, showing a perfect cockerel mating in color. hs SR ieee Pe ted Saar eae though the exact shade may be variable, and may be lighter or darker than the red in the plumage of the parent, or a shade may be produced that cannot be called red, but which is closely allied to that color. When red and white birds are crossed the shades produced are straw, lemon, cinnamon, and orange. There will also be noted in breeding this progeny that there is a tendency to revert to the original red, thus red mixed with white producing some shade of color in between. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 87 When red fowls are crossed on blacks, black-breasted red males are usually produced. White-breasted red cocks are known as “piles” and are produced by crossing white with black-breasted red. If we cross a White Leghorn with a Brown Leghorn the progeny will be a Pile Leghorn, because the Brown Leghorn cock is really a Black-breasted Red. THE SELECTION OF BIRDS FOR BREEDING Select only mature birds for breeders. Do not select birds under standard weight. It is much to be desired to keep the weight up to standard. In selecting breeders avoid crooked breasts, crooked backs, wry tails. The birds must be free from disease or from any indication of having been affected by disease. Strong consti- tution and great vigor are essential. These points are indi- cated by the bright red comb and wattles and by the full prominent bright eyes and general alertness and also by its lustrous plumage. Males should be decidedly masculine and females should not show masculine appearance. Breeding stock should be selected in December, and the matings should be made three weeks before it is the desire to save eggs from them for sitting. Card says, ‘‘The type of a bird can be changed in three years, but ten years are required to change feather pattern.” Brown says, ‘‘The male primarily influences the external characteristics—namely, breed, type, plumage, and action. The female primarily influences size of body, color of skin, and legs, constitution, temperament, and habits. . It has been the observation of many poultrymen that there is a tendency of light dry sandy soils to bleach the legs and also to have an influence on the color of the flesh. MceCon- nel says, ‘‘Heavy soils have a tendency to deepen the color of the legs. Heavy clay lands are most suited for egg produc- tion, and medium and light soils for the production of broil- ers.” Brown of England recommends that three fowls per acre be kept on farms, using portable houses and the fowls in flocks of 10 to 25. It is necessary to divide the birds into 88 POULTRY CULTURE flocks of 10 to 25. The houses should be widely separated. Too many birds in one lot will damage the crops. It is well to always reject, as breeders, undersize and stunted birds. Likewise reject all immature birds. Cochins.—In the selection of the Cochin, Mr. Hanchett says: ‘‘size comes more from the female side than the male side. So does type. Color and head points depend more on the male.” The progeny of any parent up to standard size will deterio- rate unless given proper food for the upbuilding of the body bone and muscle, etc.). The parent at time of production of eggs must likewise be in proper condition and receive proper feed. The male Cochin should have short legs. The body should be short and blocky, the breast must be full and round, the back full and as short as possible. A big full-cushioned back in males is desirable. Look to the hens to assist along this line in production of the proper males. The tail should be carried rather low and should be short. He should lean slightly forward, that is, well down in front with cushion well up. The male should be of good deep shade, and in the buff the color must be even with rich undercolor. The tail and wings must be of solid desirable color. The females should be blocky in type and full in feathering. The breast should be deep and rounded, the tail should be short and carried low, the back should be broad and full. In buffs select females whose feather color corresponds to the color of the breast of the male, provided you have been fortunate enough to secure a proper buff-colored male. The females should be of even color and strong in undercolor. They should be a solid buff in tail and wings. An injury to a new feather just coming in, or one which has been pulled while developing, may cause a white feather to develop in its place. This should not be considered sufficient cause to reject the bird from breeding, as that would not be an inherited factor, but an accident as a result of environment (postnatal). Buffs fade with age if allowed in the sunlight. White birds tend to sunburn and show brassiness of the wing-bows, THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 89 In selecting for breeding, for instance, in whites or blacks, it is well. to breed from birds who are known not to show off colors, but that breed true to color. It is well to keep in mind in purchasing birds for standard breeding to secure them from reliable breeders who will furnish birds from the proper ancestry or blood lines. This is desirable to the utmost ex- treme in those whose color factors have not been firmly estab- lished, as in buffs and some others where there seems to be a fight for an equilibrium between black and white. Thus it may be said, in general, using the buff again as an illustration, a too light undercolor is likely to throw white in the progeny unless the bird be of sound ancestry, and too dark in under- color in birds of dark shade have a tendency to throw black in wings and tails of the progeny. “It is not advisable to select pullets that show white in the undercolor of the neck, or a cockerel that shows red on his wing-bows. It is to the best interest of the breeder to select those birds that feather fastest and develop quickest and reach the full standard weight. Brahmas.—In the selection of Brahmas do not select a short-limbed male as a breeder. The males contribute as much to the size of the progeny as do the females. The male must be bright, active, and vigorous. The male must be strong, ready to banter, and to crow. Do not select a male that is always looking for a place to sit down. He will be adisappointment. The male should be strong in color. In the Brahma the chicks are apt to run a shade or two lighter than the male. A bird strong in color has the best chance in the show room. The male Brahma must be reasonably tall, large, long bodied, legs and toes well feathered, and strong in color. In selecting the female Brahma it will be well to keep in mind that small hens mean small progeny. The hens should have good length of body. The hens must be active, alert, on the go, and with fairly long legs. The best female breeders are those that have gone through one adult molt and who have retained their color, 90 POULTRY CULTURE Fic. 37. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 91] See that your birds for breeding have the proper colored eyes. Too often this point is overlooked. In selecting males of laced varieties for illustration, the Silver Laced Wyandotte do not breed from a male showing white in the back or secondary white edging on the breast or thigh feathers. Barred Plymouth Rocks.—Proper mating of Barred Ply- mouth Rocks is of the more difficult problems. It appears impossible to produce males and females all the same shade of color from any one mating. The males may be lighter than the females. If the females from the mating are of standard color, the males are likely to be too light for exhi- bition purposes, or if the males are of standard shade of color feather pattern, the females may be too dark. Therefore, mating of dark birds is essential to produce cockerels of the right color and character of barring, and lighter matings to produce females of proper barring. Female birds showing white undercolor should not be bred from. The barring should extend to the skin. Owing to the origin of the Barred Plymouth Rocks, the natural tendency is for the females to come darker in color than the males. This is true if you breed just one male and one female together. Double mating then in Barred Ply- mouth Rocks means a. that you must mate a dark colored male bird with dark colored females for one mating; 6b. that you must mate a light colored male with light colored females for the other mating. In other words, to-day there are two kinds of Barred Plymouth Rocks—a light one and a dark one. It may be considered that these are two strains separate and distinct from each other. These two strains should never be crossed on each other. If light male and dark females are bred together or vice-versa the result will be very disappointing. So long as light birds are bred together their progeny will be Fic. 37.—Plate showing feather patterns: a, A wry-tail hen. Do not breed from wry-tailed birds; 6, showing the fifth toe, which is character- istic of the Dorking; c, lacing as required of the Dark Cornish; d, a double- laced feather; e, a silver spangle; f, a stippled feather; g, a ticked feather; h, a barred feather, as noted in the Barred Plymouth Rocks;’, a feather marking characteristic of the Partridge variety, as the Partridge Rocks; j, a fully penciled feather. 92 POULTRY CULTURE light, and if dark birds are bred together their progeny will be dark. That is, in this case like begets like, but when you cross the shades the results will be disastrous as you will have neither, but a mixture. Three points are then to be remem- bered. These are as follows: There are two varieties of Barred Plymouth Rocks, the dark colored and the light colored. To breed them right, you must keep them absolutely separate. You must mate dark colored males to dark colored females and light colored males to light colored females. In the selection of the Rocks it is essential to pay particular attention to conformation. ‘The Rocks are required to havea long back, deep breast, and a large body. The male White Plymouth Rock must possess plumage pure white and free from brassiness. He must be strong, vigorous, and active, and his comb should be rather low and he should possess a full hackle. The back should be rather long and broad with a concave sweep toward the tail. The tail should be fairly well spread, carried rather low, and should be short. The breast should be broad and full. His legs should be yellow in color, wide apart, and he should stand squarely on his feet. In all matings type is of first importance. The Rhode Island Reds should possess proper length of body, possess an even red, not a buff, and a rich undercolor free from sooty or slatiness. The greatest difficulty in breeding reds is in color. There aremany color factors not yet fixed, though careful selection and breeding has been in progress a long time. Card says, ‘‘the darker or blood-red variety produces birds of almost an exact even shade, very rich and brilliant and red. Light-colored males are likely to throw buff and even white; on the other hand, very dark males may produce smut in the undercolor or black on the surface. Some breeders maintain it is best to select a male of medium red color. Another serious tendency in male defects is white in undercolor of hackle and saddle. Such 2a male should not be bred from. The quill of the feather should always be red, not white or THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 93 black. The undercolor should be of about the same shade as the surface color. In mating reds the birds should be of uniform brillianey— cherry red in both surface and under color. It is maintained by some of the leading breeders that a small amount of smut in either sire or dam is practically essential to obtain the best surface and undercolors for exhibition purposes. The neck hackle, wing bow, and saddle should be a uniform dark bril- lant cherry red and the balance of the surface an even uniform rich red color. In mating pluck a feather from the breast of the cock or cockerel and compare it with the back feathers of the hen. To obtain the best results with the mating these colors should blend. The hen gives type and size to the progeny. The male gives the color. These two points should be kept in mind in mating Reds. If you do not make proper matings to produce proper color, you lose variety characteristics. If you do not make proper matings to produce the proper shape in the progeny, you are losing the principal breed characteristics. Wyandottes.—In selecting Wyandottes it is well to keep in mind that the breed characteristics call for a broad, deep, well- rounded breast, with full saddle and hackle, raising with con- cave sweep to the tail. Breed from cockerels and pullets that are slow in developing tails. In selecting the male it will be well to keep in mind the fact that a male that is ugly and crabbed to his hens, driving them away from their food, is not likely to make a good breeder. An old experienced breeder of Partridge Cochins, in dis- cussing the mating of this breed, says, ‘‘If you will take a standard female and a male with rich dark standard surface color, but white undercolor, you will get half of the pullets show birds.” Proper attention to undercolor is of the most vital impor- tance in breeding parti-colored fowls. In selecting breeding birds in the Golden and Silver varie- ties, see that the lacing is well marked on the thighs. In mating Silver Penciled Wyandottes for the production of pullets, the cockerel should have some frosting on his breast 94 POULTRY CULTURE which, of course, would debar him from the show ring but will have a tendency to produce the proper colored females, provided all other markings in both sire and dam are correct. In buffs the birds selected for mating should have proper undercolor. That is, not too light; though too dark may have a tendency to produce too much objectionable black, notice- able particularly in the tail of the progeny; and too light may cause white, particularly in the wing flight feathers. Buff pullets are likely to lose their even buff color as soon as they begin to lay. To get the proper color markings, proper slaty undercolor is essential in Silver Spangled, as the 8. 8. Hamburg, and in Columbian varieties, as the Columbian Wyandotte. Care need be exercised in selecting parti-colored birds for breeding. In the Columbian varieties the black of the hackle, wing, and saddle also of the proper portion of wing and tail should be dark as the tendency of the progeny, especially in the cockerels, is to be lighter than the parents. In most parti-colored birds, to obtain the best show birds it is necessary to make a mating for the production of exhibi- tion cockerels and another for exhibition pullets. In Mottled Houdan the male should be rather dark for pullet production, as here white has a tendency to dominancy over black and the pullets have a tendency to be lighter than their parents. It is impossible to tell just what kind of plumage a bird will have until it has its last coat. Black chicks may have white baby feathers which come in black after these are shed. This is also the case with Reds and many other breeds. The baby feathers do not have that correctness of marking that the same bird will in its mature plumage. We should there- fore not be too hasty in discarding our promising youngsters until we have had time to see the adult plumage. White Leghorns.—In selecting the Single Comb White Leg- horn attention should be given to the proper weight. Too often in selecting for the fixing of the laying character and other important items the subject of weight is entirely over- looked. A bird should possess proper weight and not allow of the tendency toward a bantam type. The cockerel should THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 95 be of proper proportions, head up, active and alert, ready to banter and to crow. His plumage should be pure white and free from brassiness. Utility Classification.—Birds are classified as being of egg type, meat type, or dual purpose. Brown’s method of determining whether a bird is of any certain one of these Lg, Fie. 38.—A Single Comb White Leghorn hen of laying type. Note the wedge-shaped body as indicated by the lines, also long back and keel, head erect, eyes alert, legs wide apart, of medium size, free from coarseness, and of fine texture. (Rancos.) types is to draw a perpendicular line transversely through the body of the fowl on a line with the legs. If the greater bulk of the body lies in front of the line the fowl may be classed as among the meat type. If the greater bulk of the body lies behind this imaginary line it is classified as belonging to the egeg-producing type. If the bulk on either side the line is equal then it is classed as a dual purpose fowl. 96 POULTRY CULTURE The fixing and intensifying of the egg-laying characters is beyond the experimental stage. While the jungle fowl Ban- kiva only layed one or two clutches of 12 or 15 eggs each year, the present Leghorn, as well as some carefully selected and bred fowls of other breeds, lay close to 300 eggs a year and close to 1000 eggs in their lifetime. After weight, constitu- tional vigor, and conformation comes their egg-laying faculties. It is well, in building up an egg-laying strain, to hatch the birds the first week in April, as then by proper care and feed these birds will be mature and begin laying by the time the high price of eggs is on, and will probably not molt till the second fall. Whereas, if hatched earlier, they may commence to lay while eggs are still a low price, and by the time the high prices come the birds go into a molt and cease laying for a while and thus interfere with their egg production at a time when eggs are most desired from a commercial standpoint. In making the selections one should select for longevity, use carefully selected early producing pullets, use fall and winter layers, select heavy eaters, select early risers and late retirers, and select mature birds. The pubic bones should be wide apart and straight; the bird should possess capacity, that is, at least four finger’s-breadth from the posterior point of the sternum or breast-bone to the pelvis; the ischium should be thin, as a thick, meaty ischium means a meat type. The market prefers a white egg and the number ones are required to weigh at least 24 ounces to the dozen eggs. In selecting the hen the skull should not be too broad; the eyes should be prominent; the comb, face, and wattles fine in texture; the eyes snappy and the bird alert; they must stand square on their feet, legs wide apart, front end of body slightly higher than the posterior end; they should be wedge shaped (Fig. 38); the back should be long and a long breast-bone or keel; they should be of happy disposition; the breast should be full; the legs not too coarse and of fine texture and not too long. The body medium size with no coarseness, tail carried rather high. It is noted that the legs should be yellow, but in heavy layers as laying season progresses the legs become bleached out. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 97 The first or earliest cockerels to crow are the most vigorous and make the best breeders. High egg production is transmitted by both sire and dam. ) uw |= Z A B\ES z eae > oo \e™ | vicor/St s/f L © %\t 0 ze a/o § or KZN ST Oss S/& © Ye \ SA ZF S/e Sy ACE LEE Se Vv. g > GaN", i ~) INE CLE © Sy, Or Op or eh “Opp, Nig &n. pre io) FED pErw0le WHOLE Some R s Miete HOP Foop FED REMOVAL WHOLESOME WEAKUNGS FooD 8 SANITATION] SANITATION G00D SUFFICIENT fa BROODING e > EXERCISE 600D PROPER |e INCUBATION HOUSING PROPER CARE OF RIGID EGGS SELECTION} mESELECTED PURE BRED EGGS STOCK BREEDERS LAYERS WITH WITH VIGOROUS BUSINESS METHODS VIGOROUS) Fe BACONSTITUTION SReReM CONSTITUTION] J TRAINING { a. | ADAPTABILITY. | \ l J LOVE OF THE BUSINESS THE MAN AND THE LAND Fre. 39.—Rice’s arch of poultry success. It will be noted from this illustration that constitutional vigor is the keystone, the summit and prin- cipal stone to the arch of success. Pullets should be selected at eight weeks of age. Select at this time those with best developed head, eyes, comb, and body. Those well feathered over the back. The term rhythm of egg production is used rather than rate, q 98 POULTRY CULTURE in order to emphasize the rhythmical character of egg extrusion. Most hens lay for a period of several days and then skip one or more. ‘The first day of the series the hen lays early in the morning. The time she lays the next day depends largely on the character of her particular rhythm. If the rhythm is such that she lays only every other day, she usually lays about the same time each day—that is, 10, 0, 11, 0, 10, 0, 11. If she lays two days out of three, the first egg is laid during the morning and the second during the afternoon—that is, 10, 3, 0, 10, 2, 0, 9, 1, 5, 0. As the period lengthens, the number laid in the morning increases until the larger proportion are laid before noon, thus: 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 9, 10, 9, 5, 11, 11, 5, 11, 11, 2,2, 4,0. There is however much variation. Pearl found on the basis of winter egg production that his birds fell into three classes, as follows: high, mediocre, and zero producers. The dividing line between the high and mediocre producers came at about 30 eggs. Goodale has confirmed this work. It has been found that broodiness, age, and the time at which laying commences in the fall all influence the number of eggs laid. Various causes interfere with the nor- mal egg rhythm, as environment, season, method of manage- ment, and such internal factors as broodiness. Distribution of Egg Production.—From 52 to 55 per cent. of the eggs are produced during four months—March, April, May, and June. The remaining 45 to 48 per cent. are dis- tributed over the remaining months of the year. The follow- ing data illustrate the distribution of egg production. This pen averaged 152 eggs per hen a year, distributing their pro- duction as follows: January, 4 per cent.; February, 10 per cent.; March, 14 per cent.; April, 14 per cent.; May, 13 per cent.; June, 10 per cent.; October, 4 per cent.; November, 3 per cent.; December, 3 per cent. The report of the Storrs laying competition ending in Novem- ber shows a very unusual distribution of egg production, as heavy in July as in March—the latter month being abnormally low. That competition is therefore not suitable to use in a general average of figures from a small number of cases. For that reason the distribuiéion of production in the preceding Storrs contest is taken, the average egg production in this case being THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 99 145 eggs per hen per year. For comparison and tabulation with these carefully kept and accurate records the percentages of general egg production as indicated by the receipts at New York are taken—setting the figures back one month to allow for the time required to get the eggs to market. To show the annual variations as they occur on a large scale the following table is given. The figures for the months are the percentages of the receipts for the year which arrived in each month. Year Jan. | Feb. |Mar.| Apr. | May | June| July | Aug. |Sept.) Oct. Nov.) Dec 1911..... 4/6/13); 15/19;11} 7} 8/6/51) 3 143 1912..... 3] 4 9}/16/19/12}/9) 8s |]7]5)44) 4 1913. 4} 6/10/15/16/12)/9}]8 }]7/5) 4 | 4 1914..... 4/6 /10)15/17]/12)8}s8 }]716|]4!3 1915..... 4/5 }12/17/14)/11/} 9] 8/745 44 | 4 1916..... 4/5 |11/16/16/12/}9|]8 | 6]6]4 3 1917..... 3 | 3 S| ar | i? | is] oe] 8) 8) 6 | 4] 3 Average.| 4 | 5 |10| 16/17/12) 9] 8|/7/5|4 3 In the average percentages fractions are adjusted to give the percentages in the whole numbers that will express the situation most satisfactorily. Thus a number of small frac- tions omitted in figures for the reason of heavy production are added to the figure for one or more months of light pro- duction where the error is of less effect when the percentages are applied to show the actual egg production month by month. In the next table the Beltsville and Storrs distributions are given first, then the averages from the first table—adjusting | Jan. | Feb. ,Mar.) Apr. | May | June | Beltsville..| 4 10 14 14 13 10 10 9 6 4 3 3 2 July | Aug. |Sept.} Oct. |; Nov | Dec. Storrs. . .| 3 7 12 13 13 12 12 1l 7 4 2 4 New York Rec......) 5 10 16 17 12 9 8 7 5 4 3 4 Average...| 4 9 14 15 13 10 10 9 6 4 3 3 100 POULTRY CULTURE them to the production situation by setting them back a month—and the average of these three sets of percentages is given as a general average of the percentage distribution of egg production. In the next table is given the actual egg production month by month when different amounts of yearly production are distributed according to the percentages established. Lay Jan. | Feb. |Mar.| Apr. | May | June| July | Aug. |Sept.| Oct. |Nov.| Dec. 72 eggs 3 6 10 11 9 7 7 6 4 3 3 3 100 ” 4 9 14 15 13 10 10 9 6 4 3 3 120’ 5 11 16 18 15 12 12 11 7 5 4 4 150 ’ 6 13 21 23 19 15 15 13 9 6 5 5 180 ’ 7 16 25 27 23 18 18 16 nig 7 6 6 200 ” 8 18 28 30 26 20 20 18 12 8 6 6 In the examination of records of pens and flocks making high averages it is found that as a rule production is more evenly distributed through the year than in the general average, and especially that egg production is heavy through the sum- mer and early fall. In no case either in this or in the next competition at Storrs did a pen approximating an averge of 200 eggs per hen to as high as 28 and 30 eggs amonth. Indi- vidual hens may do so; some must when averages for 10 hens go to 25 and 26. In the extremely high averages good laying— far better than usual for the season—is the rule at all times, except the short period in spring when nearly all hens lay well; but where egg production runs at averages of 120 to 150 or 160 per hen per year the result is usually due more to good laying in summer than to good laying in early winter. RESULTS IN BREEDING FROM UNSELECTED BIRDS The production of unselected White Leghorns varies widely in different years as influenced by the environment; but from all available records it averages about 130 for the first year, 120 for the second and less than 110 for the third, drops to about 85 in the fourth, and falls about 10 eggs a year after this up to the eighth year. Selected flocks have averaged THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 101 160 in America and 190 in Australia. The American record corresponds closely to the average of the upper one-half of the unselected flocks and indicates that the selection has been able to eliminate the lower half. The first year production of a flock of White Leghorns is no indication of their total production. If the first year is high the second may be low, if the first is low the second may be high; but the total production in three years will in all cases be about the same. If the first year record of a flock is high, selection of the high layers will materially improve the later production of the flock. If the first record is low there will be little value in selection as even the lowest producer will make a second year record above the general average. The three-year average is in all cases a much more reliable indication of productivity. The average life of a White Leghorn appears to be about six years. The average production of the fourth year is equal to the average production given for the United States. The average total production is above 500 eggs and the maximum possible production above 1000. The White Leghorn is the most important egg producing breed at the present time, over one-half of all contest entries being Leghorns. Their average production has been decidedly above the average of the general purpose breeds. Three- fourths of all contest entries have been white. In the pullet year, as a rule, the bird lays the bulk of the eggs from November to February inclusive. A hen commences to lay later in the second year but in the more favorable time of the year, which is the latter part of February. From this time on she may lay as many eggs in the favorable months as in the first year. She will be slightly slower commencing to lay in her third year but will produce approximately as many eggs as in either of the other two years, possibly laying into the late fall. Dryden has found that from different matings where the son was bred to the mother, the pullet offspring showed a lower average egg yield than others not inbred. There was greater variability in production from the inbred pullets; that is, there was a wider range between the highest and lowest CULTURE POULTRY 102 OTT zo | 1g | $9 | ¥L | $8 | 9OT | GIT | PST (PIGL SUIj}IUIO) BdBIBAV SI6I e9 | 9 OZL | OTT | 9ST | OTT ITT an ths cg | 26 |Z) G8 | 26 | ast LIT “* 1G. | PpOL| SSL} FIT) eZ | POT) Set | PIT OZT €¢ 92 | 9ST) LET) 98 | eS |9L | 9ET | LET 98 S21 1p | 99 | SOL} SIT | TOL Sst | 24h | G9 | SOL | STL) TOT | ST 801 e¢ | se | 68 106 | zs | SOT |9ET 8G |8e | 68 [06 [ZS | GOT 9ET) 8061 al ze | pr | g6 | 28 | 8L | LIT] SST a i pr |&6 | 248 | SL | LIL) Set] 20T L061 4s UL 49 | qye UVP pe PZ 4ST | SI6T rt6r e161 ZIGI | [I6L O16t| 606t S061 astioav | | Iva VdIJ, ButAzy jo vad ay} 1Oj syooH jo osvi9aAy IB9k IO} SYDOH Jo oBvVIOAV ‘VE ‘dXo] HYLG +(SCUOOTY SUVA AUOJ YO ANC DNILATANOD SNAP TY ONIGAIONT) SHOOTY JO NOILOAGOUd ATUVAA ADVATAYV THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 103 individual records than was the case with those not inbred. The vigor of the laying stock as shown by the mortality rec- ords was lowest in the inbred stock. The vigor of the off- spring as shown by the mortality records of the chicks was lowest in the inbred stock. There was a lower fertility of eggs in the inbred stock. Sterility of hens is often due to a closure of the anterior or funnel portion of the oviduct, or to an adhesion of the lips of the funnel. In all such cases the sex organs pass through the same changes from non-laying to laying condition as in the birds which actually produce eggs. When the eggs cannot enter the egg canal they are discharged into the body cavity and absorbed. If they enter the duct and the duct be obstructed they may be returned and fall into the body cavity. If the duct is ruptured, the eggs pass along the canal, developing normally till they reach the rupture, then pass into the body cavity. A large number of eggs may be absorbed from the abdominal cavity without causing any inconvenience to the bird. One abdominal cavity examined showed all stages of absorption of such eggs, and a large mass of shell membranes were found in the cavity. The ovary of this bird was the same as the ovary of any laying bird, containing a normal series of developing yolks. Prepotency is the ability of the parent to fix his characteris- tics in the offspring. The male should not only be pure bred, but have the purity of breeding that extends to a high degree of egg laying. Prepotency does not always follow blood lines. One in- dividual may be prepotent and another of the same blood line or of the same parentage may not. But an individual bred pure to a certain type and other essential characteristics for many generations is more likely to transmit his character- istics than one that is not or is simply a “grade.” The reasons of the above are explained by the Mendelian law. Some characters segregate, others unite or blend. The eggs produced by a cross bred hen, for example the progeny of a Barred Plymouth Rock and a White Leghorn cross, usually show the influence of both parents. That is, they have neither 104 POULTRY CULTURE the pure white which is characteristic of the Leghorn entity nor pure black and white barred characteristic of the Rock. There is noted a blending of the two factors. The high egg laying character is transmitted, and it is also necessary that the bird possess excellent vigor. Some sires from high fecundity dams will transmit this character and some will not. It has been definitely shown that there is a progressive increase each year when the parents have been selected among individuals that have production records higher than the average of the flock This is in keeping with the law of progression. There is sure to be regression or decrease in production unless the breeding stock be selected from among the individuals of high producers. When no selection is practised the tendency is downward. The Oregon Experiment Station states that by trap-nesting in the pullet year during November, December, and January one can tell the high producers; that those who lay 30 eggs or more during these three months will lay during the year ap- proximately 200 eggs. These should be kept for breeders. Those that lay 10 to 12 or less will prove unprofitable, and those that lay 20 may make a profit. The pullets that lay before six months of age will lay about 200 eggs. Egg Expectancy.—Philips has given the following as a fair estimate of percentage egg production expectations: Expected egg production by per cents.—White Leghorns. Month Pullets| Hens Month Pullets} Hens Month _|Pullets) Hens November....} 20 4 December..} 15 & January....| 25 15 February..... 32 25 Nlarehtscus 5 50 45 Aptis <3 ccc 65 60 May.........| 62 60 June....... 50 50 July... 40 40 August.......{ 30 30 September..| 20 15 October.... 10 5 No. eggs...... 127.1] 108.7 Per cent. Per cent. broken and cull eggs each month......... 4 These would be sold at half price making the totalloss 2 Per cent. mortality, pullets....................00, 12 Per cent. mortality, hens............... pareaen 10 THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN £GG PRODUCTION 105 Time of Laying.—In the study of egg production we note that the season of the year and time in the bird’s life are factors. Some birds lay in the late fall, winter, and spring; others lay in the spring and early summer. On account of the fact that eggs command the highest price in the fall and winter, we should select for breeders those that lay in the fall and winter. In culling the offspring will probably not produce as high as the culled flock. Hatching quality may be taken as an index to good vitality. The following relative terms have been proposed for degrees of productiveness of birds. (Average opinion of 13 persons.) The figures indicate number of eggs per year. Phenomenally low................ .... .. .. 82.83 Exceptionally low. ..... 0 ........... .. 48.0 Wety LOW cess ceveah ince abd) ak Seo hah anda seas “G2 TOW epetser ky O44 nese Ree) se Goer e de Gans 84.2 ELBE ete A Dhaesgicn. ecu eede eames atta tees 103.8 MCA is ike eka ee. Ra TARR E coe Aine 119.6 GOO sisccces Ged BRoeuk, sublease Ras tS 137.7 Sa lag eerie ayaa ct gh Sane weg Ba esos So eis eee 156.9 Very High cc 2 chcane (du hersen pace nereyems 2% 176.9 Exceptionally high... 2 ............. . 195.4 Phenomenally highs ce20 gees Gaede ie S238 ec se 213.8 Inheritance and environment influence a hen as to her performance. The quicker we can determine a hen’s productive possi- bilities the better from a commercial viewpoint. In arriving at this determination we consider her habit of laying, as indi- cated by the physical examination. This examination should give us what she is or has been doing, precocity and persist- ency being taken into consideration. It has been shown that the longer we wait to see the quality of production the more accurate we will be. Birds may lay too heavily the first year and partially break down and not lay so many eggs the second year. Too much forcing may cause a physical breakdown. In a breakdown from forcing, the hen may not be able to fulfill her inherited tendency. Climate conditions of late fall and winter affect high egg production in that season of the year. 106 POULTRY CULTURE A bird with a physical impediment, as deformed feet, cannot secure ample feed. In making a physical examination to determine what a bird is doing we must bear in mind that the condition of the . comb, vent, pigmentation, and width between the breast bone and pelvis are indications of what the bird is doing or is going todo. The time when a bird commences to lay or ceases to lay is not dependent on the size of the bird. In a heavy laying bird the intestines become larger and longer, and again shrink after her laying period. This lengthening may be as much as 30 to 40 per cent. This same fact holds true of the oviduct. The laying hen is large posteriorly, and when she ceases to lay, the tendency is to become smaller posteriorly. A hen in a non-laying period stores up fat and with it yellow pigment (zanthophyll) which is used when the hen commences to lay. This fat and pigment disappears more rapidly from those parts with best blood supply, and consequently in the following order—vent, eyelids, ear-lobes, lower mandible, base of upper mandible, middle of upper mandible, tip of upper mandible. Of the shanks the fat first disappears from the sides and in front and later at the back; the last to disappear is on the heel just below the hock. Soil and vegetation is a factor in the amount of zanthophyll supplied and will be one governing factor in the amount of pigment stored. Such feeds as tender succulent alfalfa and alsike clover furnish much zanthophyll. Birds have a tendency to bleach out on sandy soil or soil containing much alkali. Wood ashes will cause bleaching. The greatest fat reservoir or storehouse in the bird is the retroperitoneal region; that is, the lower and lateral walls of the abdomen (Fig. 40, No. 5). When the hen ceases to lay, this storchouse begins to fill with fat covering over the pelvic arch, causing the arch to become blunt. The abdomen now takes on a hard texture. The pelvic arches come closer to- gether and as the intestine and oviduct shorten and become smaller the distance from the breast bone to the pubic bone becomes less. A hen cannot hold enough reserve material to form an egg a day, so she skips. The power to take in and metabolize food THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 107 varies with individuals and is an inherited character. The laying period commences slow, then is intensive, and slows down again near the end, or as the bird passes into her vaca- tion period. The later in the year a hen lays, the less the chance to pick up large amounts of pigment. For this reason late layers laying over a period of eight to ten months are not so likely to regain high color during their vacation. Fig. 40.—Normal functionating reproductive organs of a Single Comb White Leghorn hen. 1, Ova forming yolks; 2, folds of the oviduct; 3, an egg in the shell-gland portion (uterus); 4, rectum; 5, the retroperitoneal fat storehouse; 6, the liver. Birds may have an inherited tendency to high egg produc- tion but by improper feed and no animal feed, as milk or meat meal, will lay poorly and hence molt early, whereas if they had been properly fed and given milk or meat meal or both, they would have laid more eggs and molted later. Therefore in culling care and feed must be taken into consid- eration. Culling should be done in July and August. A METHOD OF JUDGING FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION As Formulated at the Judging School held at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. July 1—6, 1918, and Approved by 108 POULTRY CULTURE the American Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry. In order to lay well a bird must have a sound body, As a first consideration a bird must be vigorous and healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set body, a comparatively active dis- position, and a good circulation. Further, the bird must be free from physical defects such as crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, eyelids that over- hang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly leg or anything else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an abun- dance of food. Loss of Fat Due to Laying.—Color or pigmentation changes. These should be observed by daylight. A laying fowl uses up the surplus fat in the body; especially it removes the fat from the skin. In yellow-skinned breeds this loss of fat can readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The different parts of the body tends to become white, according to the amount of fat stored in the body and the amount of circula- tion of blood through that part The changes occur in the following order: The vent changes very quickly with egg production so that a white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned bird generally means that the bird is laying, while a yellow-vent means a bird is not laying. It should be recognized that all yellow color changes are dependent on the feed, coarseness of skin, and size of bird. A heavy bird fed on an abundance of green feed or other material that will color the fat deep yellow will not bleach out nearly as quickly as a smaller or paler, colored bird. The eyering, that is, the inner edges of the eyelids, bleach out a trifle slower than the vent. The ear-lobes on Leghorns and Anconas bleach out a little slower than the eyering, so that a bleached car-lobe means a little longer or greater produc- tion than a bleached vent or eyelid. The color goes out of the beak, beginning at the base, and gradually disappears until it finally leaves the front part of the upper beak. The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper but may be used where the upper is obscured by horn or black. On the average-colored, yellow-skinned bird, a THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 109 bleached beak means heavy production for at least the past four to six weeks. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out and hence indicate a much longer period of production than the other parts. The yellow goes out from the scales on the front of the shanks first and finally from the scales on the rear. The scales on the heel of the shank are the last to bleach out and may generally be used as an index as to the natural depth of yellow color of the bird. A bleached-out shank usually indicates fairly heavy production for at least fifteen to twenty weeks. The yellow color comes back into the vent, eyering, ear- lobes, beak, and shanks in the same order that it went ‘out, only the color returns much more quickly than it goes out. A vacation or rest period can sometimes be determined by the outer end of the beak being bleached and the base being yellow. Body Changes Due to Laying.—A laying hen has a large, moist vent showing a dilated condition and looseness as com- pared with the hard, puckered vent of a non-laying hen. The whole abdomen is dilated as well as the vent so that the pelvic arches are widespread and the keel is forced down, away from the pelvic arches, so as to give large capacity. The more eggs a bird is going to lay the following week the greater will be the size of the abdomen. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course, influenced by the size of eggs laid and by the size of the bird. Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches. Fat goes out from the skin and body with production, so that the heavy producers have a soft velvety skin that is not underlaid by layers of hard fat. The abdomen in particular is soft and pliable. The sternal processes are very prominent and are generally bent outward. The thicker and blunter the pelvic arches and the greater the amount of hard fat in the abdomen the less the production or the longer the time since production. One of the finer indications, but yet one of the most valu- able in picking the high layer, is the fineness of the head and the closeness and dryness of feathering. The head of a high layer is fine. The wattles and ear-lobes fit close to the beak 110 POULTRY CULTURE and are not loose and flabby. The face is clean-cut. The eye is full, round, and prominent, especially when seen from the front. The high layer is trimmer; that is, the feathers lie closer to the body, and after heavy production the oil does not keep the plumage sleek and glossy but the plumage be- comes worn and threadbare. Changes in Secondary Sexual Characters——The comb, wattles and ear-lobes enlarge or contract, depending on the ovary. If the comb, wattles, and ear-lobes are large, full, and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is laying heavily. If the comb is limp the bird is only laying slightly, but is not laying at all when the comb is dried down, especially at molt- ing time. If the comb is warm it is an indication that the bird is coming back into production. Molting.—When a bird stops laying in the summer she usually starts molting. The later a hen lays in the summer or the longer the period over which she lays, the greater will be her production, so that the high producer is the late layer and hence the late molter. The length of time that a hen has been molting or has stopped laying can be determined by the molting of the primary feathers. It takes about six weeks to completely renew the primary feathers next to the axial feathers and an additional two weeks for each subsequent primary to be renewed. A bird molts one feather tract at a time, usually alternate ‘tracts. A bird may grow feathers and lay, but does not lay while dropping feathers. All secondary feathers may be dropped at the same time, but this is not true of the primaries. Temperament and Activity——A good layer is more active and nervous and yet more easily handled than a poor layer. A high layer shows more friendliness and yet elusiveness than a poor bird. A low producer is shy and stays on the edge of the flock and will squawk when caught. KEY TO PHYSICAL INDEX METHOD OF JUDGING LAYING CAPACITY (AS WORKED OUT ON 8. C. WHITE LEGHORNS) Vent.—The vent becomes bleached after about 3 eggs have been laid. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 111 Eyering.—The eyerine becomes bleached after the hen has laid about 5 eggs. Ear-lobes.—The ear-lobes are bleached after the hen has laid about 10 eggs. The ecar-lobe scores are as follows: Enamel white, 1; Light cream, 2; Light lemon, 3; Lemon, 4; Light orange, 5. Beak.—The base of the upper beak becomes bleached after about 15 eggs have been laid. The lower beak becomes bleached after about 20 eggs have been laid. The middle of the upper beak becomes bleached after about 25 eggs have been laid, and all yellow leaves the tip of the beak shortly after the 30-egg limit has been reached. Note: With pullets indoors getting no green feed, and with Leghorns in _par- ticular, the bleaching will be much faster than where the birds run at large and secure plenty of green feed. Shanks.—Shank scores are as follows: Pink or white, 1; Cream, 2; Lemon, 3; Light orange, 4; Orange, 5. Note: The color will be laid out of the front of the shanks of a Leghorn when about 40 eggs have been laid, and of a Red when about 60 eggs have been laid. Black shanks will lose pink and be- come white and lose its shininess. Comb.—Comb texture scores are as follows: Oily, soft, and pliable, 1; Very pliable, 2; Slightly pliable, 3; Quite hard, 4; Dry, hard, and stiff, 5. Note: The comb is an expression of the ovary. The comb of a laying hen at the time of ovula- tion becomes filled with blood, congested, red, and oily, soft, and pliable, not coarse and pebbly, but with a certain degree of firmness and heat. As a hen takes a short vacation the tips of the comb shrink first. Molt.—Molting scores are as follows: Not molting, 1; Neck molt, 2; Body molt, 3; Wing molt, 4; Complete molt, 5. Abdomen.—In a non-laying hen the fat accumulates in the abdonimal wall and the wall becomes hard to the touch. As she again comes into laying the abdomen becomes soft and the skin becomes kid-glove-like in texture. The abdominal scores are as follows: Soft, 1; Hard, 2. Capacity.—As indicated by span from the sternum to the pubic bones: 5 finger’s breadth, 1; 4 finger’s breadth, 2; 3 finger’s breadth, 3; 2 finger’s breadth, 4; 1 finger’s breadth, 5. 112 POULTRY CULTURE Pubic Span.—aAs indicated by the space between the pubic bones: 4 finger’s breadth, 1; 3 finger’s breadth, 2; 2 finger’s breadth 3; 1 finger’s breadth, 4. Thickness of Ischium.—Score as indicated by thickness of bone: Thin, 1; medium thick, 2; thick, 3. Position of Lateral Sternal Processes.—Score as indicated by position of process: Tendency to be forced down and out, 1; tendency to be parallel to the long axis of the sternum, 2. Length of the Toe Nails—Short, 1; medium short, 2; long, 3. Disease.—Absence of disease, 1; presence of disease, 2. Laying Now.—As indicated by full, moist, flabby, large vent. Positive, 1; negative, 2. Estimate laying past year on above indications. Actual laying as told by the trap nest. Score Carp ror JupGcina ror Eca PRopUCTION ischium ster. processes Vent Eye-ring Ear-lobe Beak Shanks Comb Molt Abdomen Capacity Pubic span Thickness of Position of lat. Toe nails Disease Laying now Estimate Actual Age Identifications—As a bird becomes older the scales do not lie so closely, have a tendency to become rough and possibly scaly leg develops, though the scab parasites may be contracted by the chick from the hen brooding it. There may be a loss of points of the comb due to freezing. Thespurs have a tendency to turn up with age. The degree of develop- ment of the spur is useful in estimating the age. As arule the primary feathers, one each year, commencing at the axillary feathers, become shorter each year; however this is not always THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 113 accurate. The posterior point of the keel changes from cartil- age to bone and becomes less flexible as the bird ages. The pubic or ‘‘lay-bones”’ also become less flexible as age progresses. The scale at the base of the toe covering the joint in the pullet is flexible, but not so in the old hen. The pads of the feet are softer in the pullet than in the hen. The expression of the face is a factor in telling age, the face of the old hen becom- ing wrinkled. Selecting for Meat Quality.—In all utility fowls the breast should be well covered with flesh. The bird should be strong, vigorous, and true to the type of the breed to which it belongs. The back should be broad with well developed muscles. A fattened bird with best meat qualities should have a kid- glove texture or feel to the skin. The skin should be thin, not thick and rough. A bird not bred for full breast or not fattened will have a rough harsh touch. There is a possi- bility of having too deep a breast; if deep it must be well covered ‘with flesh so as to make a plump appearance. A bird with a warped or sprung keel, one with knots and dents, should not be bred. Select birds with straight keel, with deep well covered breast bones. Avoid the deep prominent edge. The flesh should not be too hard. Observe the posterior edge of the ischial bone to determine for fatness. If the bird is fat this prominent point will show yellow and plump. A meat type bird has a thick pelvic arch with muscles well developed. The flavor of the meat depends largely upon the kind of feed upon which the bird is fed. A bird of 5 pounds’ weight is sufficient for a family of six. In a market bird the two most important points are fullness of breast and quality. JUDGING FOR UTILITY General Considerations.—Allow for standard shape, 50 points; for standard color, 50; for egg production, or for meat production, characteristics, 100; total score; 200. Pen.—When pen contains 1 male to 4 females allow one- half of score to the male, one-half to the females. When pen contains 1 male to 9 or 10 females, allow one-third to male, 8 114 POULTRY CULTURE two-thirds +o females. Uniformity should be considered. Individuals of same general shape, size, type, and color are always more desirable than a pen of good individuals but of different types. Size.—Preference to be given to birds medium to large in size. Extremely small hens usually lay small eggs. Ex- tremely large ones not best layers. Highest producers usually medium in size. Disqualifications.—Evidence of contagious disease. De- cided evidence of mongrel or cross breeding. DESCRIPTION OF MALE Condition—Good health and reasonably well fleshed. Ex- cessively pale, purple or yellow comb denotes poor health. Drooping tail denotes poor condition. Free from parasites. Carriage.—Slightly more erect than female as this is natural characteristic of male. Extremely erect not desirable. Activity, Intelligence, and Friendliness.—Active and busy. Elusive but not flighty. Tame and friendly when handled. Gallantry and Fighting Ability— Calling the females con- tinually. A good scrapper and crower. Head-shape.—Moderately fine, without over-hanging eyebrows or other signs of extreme coarseness. Loss of fat from the head not expected as in the female. The comb medium to large but not excessive in size. Body-shape.—Broad, indicating full capacity and vitality. A triangle from front to back but not excessively so. This desirable character may be transmitted to his daughters. Legs, Toes, Neck, Wings, and Tail.—Strong shanks well apart, indicating good vitality, and of fair length to give him free action so he can work and forage well. The nails fairly well worn, indicating that he has been scratching for food and calling the hens to eat what he could find. Neck and wings well proportioned. Tail carried according to standard re- quirements of the breed. Plumage.—Comparatively close feathering with due allow- ance for breed. The American and English classes naturally have looser feathering than the Mediterranean class. Loose THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 115 feathering with heavy layers of fat underneath the skin is indicative of meat type. Skin Texture.—Thin, soft, pliable, oily, and loosely fitting on body, indicating good condition and activity. No change in the skin color as in the female. FEMALE Condition.—Good health. An excessively purple, pale or yellow comb indicates poor health. Drooping tail denotes poor condition. Free from parasites. ‘Carnage.—High producers tend to carry body so that back is horizontal, not erect. Activity, Intelligence, and Friendliness.—Elusive but not flighty. Poor layers are sluggish or wild. Good layers are active, hunting for food, and are tame and friendly when handled. Head (Including Comb, Wattles and Ear-lobes).—Head and face fine, free from wrinkles and fat deposits. Not thin enough to give crow-headed appearance or indicating low vitality or sickness. Comb should be full and firm, prefer- ably firm enough to be waxy, an indication of heavy laying. It is usually pale red during or just following heavy laying. Medium to large in size as there is a certain amount of rela- tion between size of comb and size of the egg the hen lays. Wattles should be in proportion to the comb and well up toward lower part of beak. TEar-lobes should be full and smooth. Body.—Large enough for good capacity. Broad and deep enough to afford room for good sized digestive organs. A triangle from front to rear. Not excessively long. Legs, Toes, Wings, Neck and Tail.—Legs well apart, sturdy but in hens thin and fine on the back side, denoting production. Plump on pullets. Toenails worn short by work, the length depending upon nature of henhouse floor. The wings should be held up well to denote production. The neck moderate in length. Excessively high tail a matter of breeding and undesirable. Tail liable to be pinched during laying period. 116 POULTRY CULTURE Plumage.—Varies according to season. Heavy layers are busy, hence feathers soon become worn. Preference to be given to late molting hens in the fall and early winter months. Pullets will become closer feathered as the body fat is used in ege production. Skin Color.—In varieties having yellow skin the color of the skin all over the body, especially vent, eye-ring, ear-lobes, beak, and shanks will indicate egg production by bleaching ‘out. The more they bleach or fade the greater has been the production. This color returns in the order named when laying ceases. Meat Qualities—In birds bred for meat production the breast should be deep and well fleshed out. The breast bone should be free from deformities. The skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch. The pelvic bones thick with well developed muscles. The body should have good depth and length and well developed muscles giving an abundance of meat. The back should be moderately broad. MENDELISM Mendel first gave to the world the proved fact that anatomic units were characters inheritable. Altered anatomic units due to environment, that is, post- natal deviations, are not inheritable. Thus a dog’s tail may be cut off, but his progeny would not be tailless dogs due to the fact that their parent had his tail cut off. A cow may be dehorned, but her progeny will not be hornless due to the fact that their mother had her horns cut off. Tailless dogs and hornless cattle are originally ‘‘sports’’ and are readily ex- plained by the laws of Mendel. The Jews have practiced circumcision since time immemorial, yet they still find circum- cision possible. No better concrete example can be given than this for the Orthodox Jew is supposed to marry only within his own race. It was Weismann who first showed that the inheritable factors we may call unit characters are transmitted through the germ plasm. There remains little doubt, after his ex- haustive studies, but that it is the microscopic granules or micro- THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 117 somes composing the chromosomes of the nuclear network that transmit characters good, bad, and indifferent. In regard to reproduction it may be said that in mammals, where the young are parasitic upon the mother during the earlier stages of their growth, the egg or germ cells are minute (microscopic in size) and contain only a small amount of yolk, called deutoplasm, that enables them to reach the stage at which they develop the processes for attaching themselves to the wall of the mother’s uterus. In the bird the contents of the egg form the source of food or nutrients for the developing young and for more than seventy- two hours after emerging from the shell, and hence are very large in comparison to the size of the animal producing them. The sexual cells of the male are very small (microscopic in size) and are produced in the testes or male generative gland. The ova does not possess the power of movement while the male element or spermatozoa are endowed with active move- ment. In the bird they take the form of a long whip, with slender lash or filament. By aid of this flagellum they move about in any liquid they happen to be deposited in in search of the ova. In the reproduction of animals or plants there are two sexual cells. The female cell in the animal is called ovum and in plants ovule. The male element is called a spermatozo6n in the ani- mal and pollen (a grain) in the plant. These are known by a general term, gametes or marrying cells. The new individual is formed by the union or fusion (yoking together) of a male and female gamete and is called a zygote. Therefore the zygote is a double structure, in which com- ponents brought in by each of the gametes remain intimately fused in a form of partnership. When later this zygote in turn forms gametes this partner- ship is broken and the process is reversed. In other words, the component parts of the double structure are resolved, with the formation of gametes, into single structures. From this the life cycle of a bird may be divided into—Furst, a period of isolation in the form of a gamete and living as a single unit awaiting the union with the gamete of the opposite sex to make possible further development; second, the period 118 POULTRY CULTURE of union of the two gametes forming the zygote and cell division and formation of a fully developed individual, and third, the separating out of the single structured gametes from the individual or double-structured zygote through its generative gland. Nature’s scheme of inheritance was first worked out on plants. Mendel crossed the tall pea (6 fect in height) on a dwarf pea (1.5 feet high), and, although each kind of plant had been proved to breed true to height, if they were crossed artificially, using either as the pollen parent, the other being used as the ovule parent, the result of crossing tall with dwarf was in every T+D Parent i Fi Generation r p 7) D F2 Generation | Le (aS a —— D0 F3 Generation | T TO TO) D T TW)7TO) D | va D— F+Generation Fig. 41.—Mendel’s illustration of inherited characters: T is for dominant tall,-D is for recessive dwarf. case nothing but talls. This tall character, because it domi- nated, was called the dominant character. The dwarf charac- ter was called the recessive character. The progeny was the F, generation (Fig. 41). Seeds from this F, generation sown the following year gave rise to talls and dwarfs with no inter- mediates. This formed the F2 generation, the talls numbering three to the dwarfs one. From the F2 generation the seeds collected from the dwarf recessive always produced dwarfs. On the other hand, the seeds of the talls, though in physical appearance indistinguishable, some bred tall and some pro- duced both tall and dwarfs in the usual proportion of three THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 119 of the talls to one of the dwarfs, and the number of talls that produced some dwarfs was two to one. The diversity of characters which followed the laws of trans- mission appears before our eyes every day in observing the progeny of birds we breed by the character produced in feather pattern—from the feathers and of comb. Mendel taught that in each gamete there was either a definite faculty for the production of a recessive character or a dominant character These he called factors. These factors, then, may be considered the unit characters which appear in the development of the zygote. Foose R+P Pea [So Sy are ey w w————F Generation Ww R P S P2Generation g 3 3 7 Fie. 42.—Mendel’s chart showing the result of breeding various varieties of combs of fowl. R, Rose comb; P. pea comb; VW’, walnut comb; S, single comb. In our example above tallness in the pea would be considered a unit character, therefore the gametes containing this unit character contain the factor for the production of tallness. Thus, in the structure of the feather we find the shape of the common type feather formed by barbules holding together the barbs preserving the usual shape. In the silky fowl the bar- bules are absent, and the barbs without support are not held together and a silky coat presents itself. This silky condition is recessive, In the production of the proper comb the breeder is con- stantly battling in an effort to secure and fix the proper unit character or factor. Thus, experiments have shown that the rose comb is dominant in the ordinary way to the single comb, such as 120 POULTRY CULTURE possessed by the Single Comb White Leghorn, and it has also been shown that the pea comb is dominant to the single comb. Thus we see two dominants in the rose and pea combs. When a rose comb is crossed on a pea comb a new type is formed, that of the walnut comb (so-called because it resembles half of a walnut). According to Fig. 42, we will see that the F, generation, that is, the progeny of the rose comb and pea comb crossed on each other, produced four types of combs, as follows: 9 walnut, 3 rose, 3 pea, and 1 single. According to Punnett, these are always produced in this proportion. In the analysis of the above we conclude that the walnut comb contains both dominant characters, the pea comb and rose comb one dominant each, and the single comb as a pure for both recessive characters. The pea comb and rose comb factors are distinct and sepa- rate entities which, when combined, have an influence on each other in the zygote, producing the walnut comb which is not an intermediate between the two. When one of these factors are alone in the zygote its influence in the single comb factor is different; that is, producing a pea comb if a pea comb factor or a rose comb if a rose comb factor. The single comb is the form found in the wild jungle fowl, the Bankiva, which is said to be the ancestor of all our domes- tic fowl. If this be true the reversion to the single comb in the F, generation is easily explained. It is a reversion pure and simple, the recessive factor coming to the surface. This is considered as due to the association of two complimentary absences. Punnett found that by crossing a White Dorking on a White Silky fowl, both of which had been shown to behave as simple recessives to color, the F; generation consisted of colored birds; the F, generation consisted of colored and white, in the ratio of nine to seven. This is, in reality, the 9:3 :3:1 ratio as ob- served in a study of the crossing of comb characters. The 3:3:1 factors are indistinguishable because they cannot pro- duce visible effects without the co-operation of each of these section factors. Another excellent illustration is shown in the breeding of THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 121 the Blue Andalusian fowl. It is difficult to secure a slaty-blue color, with darker hackle and with dark lacing of feathers on the breast. The off colors are white splashed with black and blacks. By making a careful study in breeding these blues it will be found that there will always be produced one black, one splashed white, and two blues; the blues are heterozygous, and the splashed whites and blacks are homozygous, forms. If the whites are bred together they will be found to always breed white. Likewise, if the blacks are bred together they will always breed black, but if the blacks and white are bred together they produce nothing but blues; that is, the off colors breed twice as many blues as when the blues are bred together. Therefore the blacks and the whites are the pure breeds, while the blue is a mongrel who can never be bred so as to always breed true. There are a few instances where a visible distinction can be drawn between a pure dominant and a heterozygote. Certain white breeds, as the White Leghorn, in which white behaves as a dominant color; heterozygous whites, made by crossing the dominant white birds with pure colored forms, as the Brown Leghorn or even the Spangled Hamburg, almost in- variably show ticks in their plumage. This shows the white dominance is not quite complete in the White Leghorn Punnett suggests that the dominant white fowl may be a colored bird plus a factor which inhibits the development of the color. The Spangle in the Silver Spangled Hamburg is a gen- etic factor and is carried in the sex chromosome of the male. It follows the sex link of inheritance. MONOHYBRIDISM AND DIHYBRIDISM Mated pairs differing only in a single pair of characters are known as cases of Monohybridism. Where the original parents differ in two pairs of characters the case is termed one of Dihybridism. Take the case of a cross between the rose-comb Black 122 POULTRY CULTURE Hamburg and the single-combed White Leghorn. In this case the rose-comb is dominant over the single-comb and the white plumage is dominant over the black. Let the rose-comb be represented by R, dominant. Let the single-comb be represented by s, recessive. Let the white plumage be represented by W, dominant. Let the black plumage be represented by b, recessive. Then Rs X Rs = RR + 2Rs + ss, and Wb X Wb = WW + 2Wb + bb. i.e. when two hybrids are mated together the resulting pro- geny (on the average) is one like the dominant parent, one like the recessive and two with the qualities of both the domi- nant and the recessive, 7.e., in mating a white fowl with a black fowl (in cases where the white is dominant), the result will be one pure white (W), which will continue to breed white; one pure black (b), which will continue to breed black; and two white fowls, which carry black as a dominant or recessive quality. These two are hybrids, which will breed the same as their parents. What is true of white plumage applies to the rose-comb. Dihybridism.—In the cross between the Black rose-combed Hamburg and the White single-combed Leghorn we have a case of dihybridism. The average result of such mating will be shown by the algebraic formula (RR + 2Rs + ss) X (WW + 2Wb + bb) In working out this simple formula we may place the symbols multiplied, in any order, thus WR, which expresses the domi- nance of white plumage and rose-comb, is equally correct if put down as RW. If I wish to express the white plumage I put the W first, and the result is— WWRR WbRR WbRs bbRR WWRs WbRR WobRs bbRs WWkRs Wbss WbRs bbRs WWss Wbss WbRs bbss This shows that out of every 16 of the progeny there will be on the average 12 chickens with white plumage and 4 with THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 123 black, 7.e., 3 white to 1 black. It also shows that of the 12 whites 4 will be pure, since each gamete is pure (WW), and 8, though white because white is dominant will carry black as a recessive (Wb). By the same table of symbols I find there are 12 rose-combs as R. is present in 12 cases, but only 4 pure, where (RR) occurs, and 8 impure (Rs), and that there are 4 pure single-combs (ss). If I tabulate for rose-combs it appears more simple as— RRWW RsWW RsWb ss WW RRWb Rs WW RsWb ssWb RRWb Rsbb RsWb ssWb RRbb Rsbb RsWb ssbb The tables show me that I get 3 rose-combs to I single- comb, 3 whites to 1 black, and that taking both pairs of charac- ters together there will be out of every 16 chickens, 9 roge- combed whites, 3 rose-combed blacks, 3 single-combed whites, and one singled-combed black. A glance at the table will show me the proportion of chickens which will breed true, viz., those which are homozygous for both pairs of characters, e.g., RRWW will breed pure rose- combed whites, and RRbb will breed pure rose-combed blacks, ssWW will breed pure single-combed whites, and ssbb will breed pure single-combed black. If the 9 rose-combed whites are taken to breed together, on the average only 1 will breed true, designated above RRWW, 2 will throw a proportion of single-combed whites (RsWW). 2 will throw also rose-combed blacks (RRWb), while the other 4 will throw both single-combed whites and single-combed blacks (RsWb), as well as rose-combs of both colors. The awkward part for the breeder is that he is not able, with present knowledge, to tell which will breed true, from outward appearance, but has to test his breeders in these cases by actual experiments, except in the cases above men- tioned, for he knows, e.g., that the single-combed black will breed true. These results may be tabulated as below, showing both the outward appearance and the breeding qualities of each chicken, taking the first of the above lists in order— 124 POULTRY CULTURE | Outward Appearance No. Symbol |_ Breeding Qualities | Color Comb 1/*WWRR;| White |Rose | Will breed white rose-combs with no taint of cross. A new variety. Will breed } pure white rose-comb. 2} WbRR ‘ Will breed 4 pure black rose-comb. 3 WbRR | White” | BOS 1) seit breed 4. impure aphite hetero zygotes like parents. 4 |*WWss White [Single | Will breed white single combs only, with no taint of cross. 5 | WbRs | These organisms having both pairs of 6 | WbRs | White |Rose characteristics are dihybrids like the 7 | WbRs | parent stock, and will breed as rep- 8 | WbRs resented in this table. { These will breed white rose-combs | and white single-combs in the pro- 9 | WWRs : portion of 1 rose-comb white pure, 10 | WWRs | White: | Hose 1 single-comb white pure, and 2 rose-comb white heterozygotes like their parents (WRs). | These will breed white single-combs | and black single-comhs, viz., 1 11) Whss |) ... ; single-comb white pure + 1 single- 12 | Wbhss j White [Single comb black pure 2 single-comb impure whites, represented by for- mula sW + 2sWb + sb. These black rose-combs will breed in the proportion of 1 black rose-comb 13 | bbRs_ |} Black |Rose pure + 1 black single-comb pure 14 | bbRs and two impure singe rose-comb blacks = bR + 2bRs + bs. 15 |*bbRR Black |Rose | Pure black rose-comb with no taint of cross. 16 |*bbss Black (Single | Pure black single-comb with no taint of cross. A new variety. *Those marked* are pure for both characters. The example of the Black rose-combed Hamburg with the single-combed White Leghorn has been worked out in such THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 125 detail to show the nature of Mendel’s discovery of the law of Gametic Segregation. It is one of the most marvellous of the discoveries of science that by means of this law the breeder is able to predict before- hand the result of mating his stock. He may take a pair of these cross-bred fowls, both white plumage and rose-combs, and knowing their pedigree, 7.e., their gametic heritage, can tell the number of rose-combs and single-combs of white plumage or black plumage which he will get. The gain to the breeder is enormous. Although the parents were hetero- zygous (¢.e. in common parlance mongrels), he gets four birds out of the sixteen, one-fourth of the group, which will breed true, viz., the rose-combed white (WWRR), the single-combed white (WWss), the rose-combed black (bbRR), and the single- combed black (bbss), and that of these four two of them, the (WWRR) and the (bbss), are new forms, new varieties, proof of the theory of Discontinuous Variation. These are marked with an * in the tabulated list. Mendel’s Theory Summarized.—‘Mendel discovered an im- portant set of facts, and he also suggested a theoretical interpre- tation—the theory of gametic segregation. As Mr. Bateson says: ‘The essential part of the discovery is the evidence that the germ-cells or gametes produced by cross-bred or- ganisms may in respect of given characters be of the pure; paternal type, and consequently incapable of transmitting the opposite character; that when such pure similar gametes of opposite sexes are united in fertilization, the individuals so formed and their posterity are free from all taint of the cross; that there may be, in short, perfect or almost perfect discon- tinuity between these germs in respect of one of each pair of opposite characters’” (Professor Thompson, Heredity, p. 347). “The essential feature of Mendel’s discovery is the segrega- tion in the gametes of the factors corresponding to the dominant and the recessive characters” (R. C. Punnett, Men- delism, p. 30). “The breeding pen is to us what the test tube is to the chem- ist, an instrument whereby we examine the nature of our organisms and determine their genetic properties” (Bateson). 126 POULTRY CULTURE This principle of gametic segregation and the modes of its action in the breeding pen I have endeavored to point out in the tabulated list. Each group of symbols represents a number of characteris- tics, sometimes containing both units of pairs of character- istics, e.g., WbRs represents that the fowl in question has the gametes for white plumage and black plumage, for rose-comb and single-comb, and possesses them in equal numbers. In the sperm-cell or egg-cell which it imparts it may give off a gamete representing white plumage (W) or a gamete representing black plumage (b), but not both at the same time, Z.e., not a gamete representing half white and half black. The gametes are distinct units. They are segregated, 7.e., divided, separated, one from the other. What is true of color applies in the same way to the comb, and also to other Mendelian characteristics, if present. As an illustration, it may be said that they lie side by side like the numerous sections or ‘quarters’? in an orange, each contained in its own envelope, while the cell-like fruit within the segment may represent as many distinct units of many pairs, but not the two distinct characteristics of any pair. How this segregation of the gametes, which represent the dominant and recessive characters, takes place in the or- ganism is at present unknown, though it is not impossible that the further studies and researches of embryologists may discover it. What is important is the fact, proved by abundant experi- ment, that these two “potential unit characters” do segregate, and that the adult organism cannot have both. ‘Interme- diate forms or blends do not occur in Mendelian phenomena.” In describing the ratio of their transmission by hybrid organisins, the expression ‘“‘on the average’? has to be used. There is no proof that they are given off alternately, though it is assumed that they are present in equal numbers. It is not to be taken as proved that the group of sixteen inheritances I have given will be present in the exact order in each sixteen of the offspring, though if the number be multiplied by ten it would be found that they would be very near the number - given, THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 127 Chance Fertilization —It is much the same as in a game of chance. If there were ten sets of the table of sixteen placed in a lucky bag we should not expect the one (WWRR) and the one (bbss) to be drawn with each sixteen, although we know that there would be ten of each drawn by the time the one hundred and sixty tickets had been drawn. This is the common experience of breeders. It sometimes happens that the best birds of the year’s breeding come all at once, at some period of the season, while at other times they are fairly evenly distributed all through. It is like the game of whist. Each player knows that there are four aces in the pack, and that four out of fifty two cards are of this nature and are dealt every time. The average is absolute, but the individual chance of getting one ace each hand is uncertain. In an experiment there were bred a number of Rose-comb Buff Orpingtons. Both parents had rose combs, but there was produced a fair proportion of single comb chickens. These were the recessives, bred because one of the parents was a D.R. and not a pure dominant. The single-comb reces- sives were not bred together, but there were mated two single- combed pullets bred in this way to a pure single-combed Buff Orpington cock. In this case there was a pure single comb and a recessive single comb, which should have bred pure single combs, but the result was a third of apparently pure rose combs, and some of the single-combed chicks has side spikes, as if a trace of the rose-combed blood showed itself in the hinder part of the single comb. These rose-combed chicks continued to be bred from the single-combed progeny for two generations. This shows the dominance of the rose comb, but it also shows that the domi- nance may lie dormant in a recessive character, and when fresh blood is introduced may take the opportunity of a new combination to reassert itself. The recessive character may therefore be incomplete as well as the dominant; but the occurrence is so rare that the excep- tion may be taken as proving the rule. 128 POULTRY CULTURE List oF Dominant AND Recessive CHARACTERS IN POULTRY No Character Dominant Recessive Notes 1 | Comb Rose Single As Wyandotte or Hamburg, over any single-breed. 2 | Comb Leaf Single Cf. Houdan-Leghorn. 3 | Comb Rose Leaf 4 | Nostril Narrow, High low nostril nostril Shown in crosses with Polish, or 5 | Cerebral No hernia Hernia Houdan, and fowl like Minorca and hernia Game with normally shaped heads. 6 | Crest Crested Smooth All first crosses with Houdan or Polish head show traces of crest. 7 | Muff Muffling No muff Crosses with Houdan or Faverolles 8 | Beard Bearded No beard show diminished muffs and beards in the progeny, which segregate in F2, 9 | Ear-lobe Red White White is a new character, and red is difficult to breed out. The red eye is the ancient character 10 | Eye Black iris Red iris of the Gallus Bankiva, and though 11 | Eye Red iris Pearl iris recessive to black yet is a stubborn 12 | Eye Dark brown | Red iris recessive, and though latent con- stantly reasserts itself. Pearl is frequently dominant over red. 13 | Beak White Horn Both ancient colors. Sometimes one 14 | Beak Black Yellow is dominant and sometimes the 15 | Beak Yellow Horn other. Black the most dominant | character, then yellow. 16 | Skin color Black White White and yellow skin are both ancient. Cf. Silkie with black skin is dominant, Davenport. 17 | Skin color White Yellow E.g. Dorking over Indian Game, or Cochin. Cf. Cochin-Leghorn. Cochin 18 | Shanks Feathered Clean feathering has been bred out in the 19 | Shanks White Yellow Orpington, but still reappears, and the Dorking white has conquered the Cochin yellow. 20 | Shanks Black Yellow Black usually dominant, as breeders of Wyandottes and Leghorns know. But yellow sometimes dominates and has covered the Minorca cross in Black Leghorns. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 129 List or Dominant AND ReEcEssIVE CHARACTERS IN PouLTRY. (Continued) No. Character Dominant Recessive Notes 21 22 23 234 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Shanks Shanks Hock Plumage Plumage Plumage Wing- coverts Shaftiness Hackle Pencilling Splashing Mottling Yellow Blue Plain White White Black Red Shaftiness Solid black Pencilled feathers Splash Mottle Willow Yellow Vulture Black Pigmented Red Other colors No shaft Laced Plain Plain Plain Both ancient. Willow too often re- asserts itself. Rose-comb Leghorn breeders with Hamburg cross will find this a crux, also Blue Leghorn if contaminated with Andalusian blood. In crosses with Asiatic (vulture- hocked) and Mediterranean breeds (Plain), the plain dominates and disappears much more rapidly than shank feathering. All colored plumage is more or less recessive to white, which is a new character, but black sometimes dominates and sometimes mingles to form ‘‘blue.”’ But frequently albinism results. Black is imperfectly dominant over red. Red wing-coverts are an ancient heritage from the Jungle fowl and Red constantly reasserts itself, e.g., Brown Leghorn, Buff Orpington. A fault in Brown Leghorns, Buff Orpingtons, etc., hard to eradicate. E.g., Silver Laced Wyandottes crossed with Black Rocks lose the laced hackle, and many laced birds throw black hackles. Black is imperfectly dominant. Said to be ‘‘a fundamental form of. coloration in the genus Gallus.’’ “A concentric repetition on the feather of alternating bands of the lacing and ground-color,” e.g., Partridge Wyandottes. Said by Davenport to be dominant, but is certainly incomplete, and can be easily dominated by black. E.g., when a white and a splashed or a mottled bird are crossed the mark- ings persist through them in a diluted form. 130 POULTRY CULTURE List or Dominant anD Recessive CHARACTERS IN POULTRY. (Continued ) No. Character | Dominant Recessive ! Notes 7 = | 32 | Tail Black Other Black pigments persists in the tail colors e.g., Cochin and Orpington), much more than in any other part of the plumage. It is an ancient heritage of the race. 33 | Tail Tailed Rumpless The Rumpies are modern and eccentric. Tail Tail Normal tail | £.g., the Yokohamas are dominant unlimited over normal tails. 34 | Color of Brown White When the Mediterranean breeds egg-shell (white-shelled eggs) are crossed with Asiatic (brown), the brown domi- nates, and the eggs are tinted. And the tinted egg is one sign among others of a cross, cf., Leghorn and Minorca eggs often tinted. 35 | Broodiness Sitting Non-sitting | Incomplete dominance until the ‘‘sit- ting’ blood preponderates, e¢.g., a “sitting’’ Minorca or Leghorn is not reliable in its broodiness. }o- . LINE BREEDING, OUTCROSSING, AND INBREEDING Breeding together of sire and offspring, or of dam and off- spring, or of brother and sister, is inbreeding, or breeding in and in. That veteran breeder of pure-bred poultry, I. K. Felch, has to say of line breeding, ‘‘ deterioration commences the moment there is no change in the blood proportion in the chick with that of sire and dam. The accompanying chart (Fig. 43) shows the progeny of a single pair of birds, a male and a fe- male. It is possible to raise a thousand chickens from a single pair, retaining their health and vigor and egg production inherited by the original pair by careful selection and mat- ing of the progeny.” In the chart the dotted line represents the females as having been selected from the upper group, while the solid line shows the males as having been taken from the indicated upper group. Each circle represents the progeny. Female THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 131 number 1 is mated with male number 2, having produced group number 3, which is one-half the blood of the sire and dam. Females from group number 3, mated to their own sire number 2, have produced group number 5, which is three- fourths of the blood of the sire number 2 and one-fourth the blood of the dam number 1. oy s & iy Ceo Sasa vee s Sees Fre. 43.—The Felch breeding chart. Line breeding. A male from group number 8, mated back to his own dam, number 1, produces group number 4, or vice versa, which will produce group number 7, which is mathematically half the blood of each of the original pair, numbers 1 and 2. This is a second step toward producing a new strain. Females from number 8, mated back to the original male, 132 POULTRY CULTURE number 2, produce group 8, that are seven-eighths the blood of number 2, and a cockerel from number 4, mated back to the original dam, number 1, produces group number 6, that is, seven-eighths the blood of the original dam and only one-eighth the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from number 8 and female from number 6, and for a third time produce chicks (in group num- ber 2) that are half the blood of the original pair. This is the third step and the ninth mating in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we have not broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in which the pre- ponderance of blood was that of the original sire. Numbers 2, 8, 13 and 18 are virtually the blood of number 2. We have reached a point where we would establish a male line whose blood is virtually that of the original dam, and we mate with a female from number 4 and produce group number 9, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original dam, number 1, and three-sixteenths the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from number 9 and a female of the new strain, number 11, and produce group number 14, which becomes twenty-one thirty-seconds of the blood of the original dam, thus preserving her strain of blood. A male from number 13, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, number 2, mated to females from number 10, which are five-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, number 2, gives us group 17, which is nine-sixteenths the blood of the sire. While in number 16 we have the new strain and in number 18 the strain of our original sire, number 2, we have three distinct strains, and by and by, with this systematic use, we can go on breeding for all time. .By the accompanying chart it is easily seen that if one was to mate sire and dam from either of the groups 3, 7, or 11 there would be no change in the blood, and if we should continue these with their offspring for three generations we would find it difficult to hatch more than 3 per cent. laid by these three generations from either of the half-blood groups; for all that these 3, 7, and 11 groups are in main spokes in the wheel of line breeding. = ' THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 133 So long as we mate so as to create a group of half the blood each of groups 1 and 2, we have a reservoir of blood to mate back to the two lines of blood we have chosen for our line breeding. These groups are the invigorating well of blood that sustains our flocks for all time. When we create a pen of half-bloods in our own yards we have that which renews the energy and vigor of both numbers 1 and 2 strains, while if we go out of our flock for new blood it serves only to invigor- ate the one, being our male line, number 2. Our male line should never be crossed by sex, only as we would create a line representing number 1, or the female line as in our chart; where we used male birds from 6 and 9 to establish the strain of the females, we used in our first cross that produced group number 3. While we fave made three matings to produce the half- blood cross for numbers 3, 7, and 11, yet the blood in all three is identically alike, being half the blood of each of numbers 1 and 2, male and female. In all other groups the percentage of blood differs as per the amount we increase the blood of the two strains we employed. To line breed is simply, in all our matings, to get a prepon- derance of the blood we desire to maintain; we have produced these flocks to full blood of the sire in group 8 for the male line and in group 6 for the female line. If one wishes to preserve his flocks in one shape, color, and vigor, his line of sires should never be broken (see black lines of the chart). Let us suppose a cross were carelessly made. Suppose you mate numbers 15 and 17, and, being pleased with the chicks in 16, you again mate numbers 10 and 12, and again 9, 13, and 18, where would you be? Every chick would be half- bloods, and you are forced back to the old cocks or to intro- duce new blood to get you out of the trouble. The whole art of line breeding is to not make mistakes, and to keep each strain of family alone and to each year create a new reservoir of blood. Halpin’s inbreeding experiments show a rapid decrease in fertility and hatchability. The ratio ran as follows: Inbred first generation, 67 per cent. fertility; second generation, 49 134 POULTRY CULTURE per cent. fertility; third generation, 41 per cent. fertility; fourth generation, 18 per cent. PEDIGREE BREEDING Meaning of Pedigree.—The pedigree of a fowl is its an- cestry. The term is also used to cover the record of this an- cestry. In this latter sense, the pedigree of a fowl shows the foundation stock of the breed that enters into his line of an- cestry, and then sets forth the various links in the chain of life, including all the various strains introduced by the use of new blood for certain definite purposes. What Such a Record Will Show.—A study of such arecord will often serve to explain cases of reversion to type, as, for instance, how a black feather now and then apy®ars in a white plumage, or blue or yellow legs where they should be white. Keeping an Accurate Record.— When once the principles of breeding have been mastered, and their importance thor- oughly understood, the next step is to apply these principles and keep a complete and accurate record of all the work done. A Descriptive Record of Each Fowl.—It is important to study each fowl in your breeding pens, point by point, and to write a full description of each bird somewhat as follows: Name or number, sex, date of hatching, weight. Head—size, shape, how held. Beak—length, shape, color. Eyes—color, expression. Face—color. Comb—diagram, kind, lopped or straight, size, color. Wattles—size, color. Ear-lobes—color, size, shape. Neck—length, arch, color. 10. Back—shape, length, color. 11. Tail—length, angle, spread, color. 12. Shoulders—form, size, color. 13. Breast—breadth, depth, shape. 14. Wings—-size, setting, color of various parts, how carried. 15. Legs—length, size, distance apart, feathering and color of all parts from thigh to toes. 6 OR O2 TS ee RO THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 135 Value of Such a Record.—Such a record will help you in case you wish to make a sale, or a new mating, as you will as Ze a as So so Fig. 44.—Keeping pedigree records of eggs. Taking hen from nest, read- ing its number, marking number on small end of egg and recording date and hour egg is laid. not be compelled to examine a lot of fowls to discover just the one you want for a particular purpose. And you ean still further save your time by having a record 136 POULTRY CULTURE Fia. 45.—Incubating the pedigree eggs and leg-banding the chicks for identification. Upper tray testing eggs 7th day. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 137 as to the pen where each bird is kept so that you can easily find it when wanted. This should be supplemented by exact notations as to the characteristics of each fowl, whether alert or slow, timid or assertive, a hustler, up early and late or sluggish. Trap Nest Records and Leg-banding.—The construction of the trap-nest is given on page 517. The daily egg record card on page 525. The individual annual egg and hatch- ability record on page 528, and the leg-bands on page 145. When the eggs are taken from the trap nest, the hen’s number is read and placed on the small end of the egg. On the eighteenth day of incubation all of one hen’s eggs are placed in a mosquitoe netting sack and the incubator closed till the hatch is over. When the hatch is over each baby chick is leg-banded and the number recorded together with the num- ber of the dam. The band may be placed around the leg, or it may be placed in the web of the wing or patagial duplicature. If the band is placed on the leg it must be loosened once a week as the chick develops. When the bird is nearly grown a permanent seal band may be placed on the leg. It is a good plan to leave the wing band on as this will give a double check on the bird. (See Figs. 44 and 45.) CHAPTER IV FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS BREEDING poultry on the farm has two objects in view— first, to bring a flock of mixed breeding up toa level of the better individuals of that flock and, second, to fix certain characters, such as large egg production. The purpose of selection is to prevent the hatching of indi- viduals not suited for production. In selecting we wish to fix the following characters: First, constitutional vigor; second, high fertility, third, high egg production; fourth, long-lived birds; fifth, early maturing; sixth, other varied characteristics the breeder may wish, such as feather pattern and standard requirements. Constitutional Vigor — While proper housing, feeding, incuba- tion, and general care help to conserve the health of the flock the above characters are inheritable. In inbreeding a consti- tutional weakness may be intensified, and the same as to other characters which are sought, hence great care must be used in selecting breeding stock and mating, and especially keeping uppermost in mind the defects one tries to breed out of the flock. The greatest manifestation of vigor and vitality are present only where the vital functions, as digestion, assimilation, circu- lation, respiration, and nervous functions, perform their work in a normal and efficient way. Under such conditions the highest type of vitality and vigor is manifested in the repro- ductive cells. If the hen producing the eggs for hatching does not receive the proper quantity of food, there is another chance that a chick of weak constitutional vigor may be produced. The embryo may die before hatching, or the chick may be weak and develop into an adult of low vitality and poor constitution. Evidence of sexual strength in the male is indicated hy his 138 { POULTRY PROBLEMS 139 Fie. 46.—A cockerel of weak constitution. Note the lack of vigor and development and attitude. Fic. 47.—A cockerel showing strong constitutional vigor. Note his head development, broad breast, and erect attitude. 140 POULTRY CULTURE great gallantry, persistence in crowing, challenge, fearlessness in fighting, and sidling strut before the hens. Heavy laying or high egg production does not decrease hatchability or livability. Fig. 48.—Hen of weak constitution. Note the lack of head development [cnn cen ene age tee ae ry Fic. 49.—Head of hen showing strong constitutional development. The body of a laying hen is always in good condition, which indicates that the process of reproduction requires good diges- tion and assimilation. ; FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 141 Egg Production.—It must be remembered that the happy hen is the laying hen, and that fright, improper food, damp, cold floor and yard, too cold, excessively hot weather, irrita- tion by vermin, internal or intestinal parasites, too close con- finement with no exercise, causing them to become too fat, or any other discomfort, will radically affect ege production. Not only this but the above conditions tend to lower vitality in both parent and offspring. It is the desire to have hens that lay a large white ege where we are selling to a market demanding this color shell, or a large Ce et ee es Fic. 50.—Two chicks fourteen days old, one weak the other strong in constitution. The smaller one weighs 0.14 pounds and the larger 0.31 pounds. They were fed the ration given on page 332. Both were from the same breeding pen, eggs stored in the same storage tray, incubated in same incubator tray, brooded in the same brooder, and ate of the same ration. brown egg if we are selling where the market demand requires this color of shell. Mixed breeds or scrub breeds do not lay a uniform egg, which eggs do not bring the top market price, and the undersized egg likewise brings a lower price than the large egg. It is the desire that each hen lay a large number of eggs each year. It is well to select those which have light pin-feathers and can be easily kept within the yards. Inselling dressed carcasses we find that the market looks with disfavor on the dark pin-feathers, and in some markets dressed car- casses with dark pin-feathers bring as much as two cents less than other kinds. Likewise, there is a difference of four or 142 POULTRY CULTURE more cents discrimination in most large markets in favor of the large white eggs as compared to the brown or mixed eggs. There is a relation between the size of the comb and the size of the egg. The size of the individual governs to a certain Fie. 51.—Showing the effects of cross breeding and the progeny of the breeding of the cross. (Buss.) extent the size of the egg; and the comb, an index to sexual development, governs the size of the egg. The Minorca has a large comb and lays a large egg. The Hamburg has a small FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 143 comb and lays a small egg. The Brahma has a large body and a small comb and lays a medium egg. Asa rule a bird that has a white ear-lobe lays a white egg and those with red ear-lobes lay brown eggs. Longevity is of the greatest importance, and there is no reason why the -average of active breeding, in both males and females, should not be at least five years. In selecting breeders one should look to the individuality of the bird, its ancestry; that is, it must be from a good strain for the purpose for which it is being bred, whether for egg pro- duction, dual purpose, or for meat. The character of the progeny must be taken into consideration; that is, if it has been used for breeding purposes other years. All hens and male birds should be put off not later than five years of age, and, if forced in laying, the probability is that three years will see their usefulness ended. As a rule, it may be said that eggs from hens make a greater hatch than those from pullets. Some experiments show 9 ‘per cent. in favor of hens. One- and two-year-old hens are preferable. That the chicks from hens are a trifle larger than from pul- lets is shown either by weighing the progeny at hatching or by weighing the eggs at the commencement of sitting. It is impossible to have a baby chick develop larger than the shell it develops in and larger than you have material for it to de- velop from, and pullet eggs always average smaller than hens’ eggs. Chicks from hens are stronger and have a greater con- stitutional vigor than those from pullets. As a result of these facts, we would expect a greater number of chicks to die coming from pullets as compared to hens. Records of the ages of birds on the farm can be kept by toe- punch marks; thus, the hatch of 1915 can be marked by means of a punch between the first two outer toes on the left foot, and the next year between the next two toes, andsoon. These holes can be punched with a punch made for the purpose or with an ordinary leather punch. Fig. 52 is an illustration of toe marking, which has often been told and illustrated. 144 POULTRY CULTURE Early Maturing.—The best period of egg production, as in- dicated before, is the first three years. In many cases the largest yield is during the first year. Quick growth means less cost of production of eggs as well as of meat. In rapid-maturing birds egg production comes earlier and is likely to be more persistent. The early layers are usually the heavy layers. As an egg machine the Mediterranean breeds, as the Leghorns and Minoreas, come closer to fitting ~M. M2 ZN AN ef PV # MX AS 2M WC % AN A a/\ $I. 2@ AN AN e/\ My # AX A 6 fy (WN # AN AD z/\ AX AN AS a/\ A # AN AD Fic. 52.—How to toe-punch baby chicks for the purpose of identifying them later. Sixteen different lots can be marked without duplication. the requirements, owing to the fact that they mature early and lay a white egg of good size. Leghorns hatched the first week in April, and properly cared for as to feed and housing as well as to sanitation, begin laying early in the fall, usually when they are about five to fiveand one-halfmonthsold. They will probably not molt till the following fall, whereas if hatched two months earlier they may begin laying in the summer while e are ch i i ie cheap and later go into a molt and cease laying for a FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 145 The larger breeds, as the Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orping- tons, should be hatched about two months earlier than the Leghorns and other light breeds, as it requires about two months longer for them to reach the same degree of maturity. SC) 5 BAS ee Fic. 53.—A collection of leg-bands. These bands are used where it is the desire to obtain individual records of birds or as an ownership mark. Some are provided with colored celluloid with white rings in which the num- bers are black; others are aluminum and are adjustable, others can be sealed, that is, clinched like a rivet, others are celluloid rings. There are different sizes—thus one for Asiatic breeds, American breeds, Mediterranean breeds, pigeons, and baby chicks. Usually February and March is the best time to hatch the larger breeds and about the first week in April for the lighter breeds. 10 146 POULTRY CULTURE Some breeders make a practice of mating the cockerels that crow earliest, which they take to indicate early sexual ma- turity or development and constitutional vigor. In the lighter breeds that are naturally active, as the Leg- horns, Minorecas, and Campines, the male may be mated with a larger number of females than in the breeds that are more sluggish, as the Cochins, Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons. In the heavier breeds not more than eight or ten hens should be placed with each male, while in the lighter breeds as many as twelve to fifteen ‘hens may compose the pen. If the hens mated have been running with mongrel cocks, all spermatozoa in the oviducts of the hens should be dead by the 18th day, thus making it safe to save the eggs after that time. The fertility of the eggs from small and large flocks will reach a level of at least 80 per cent. by the sixth day, and that fertility rate should be maintained throughout the breeding season. Under ordinary conditions we should obtain a fertility of 80 to 90 per cent., and of those fertile eggs 80 to 90 per cent. should hatch. This is by natural incubation. If artificial incubation be employed, the percentage hatched may be from 15 to 20 per cent. less. Fertility rapidly declines after the removal of the cocks. It is not advisable to save eggs for hatching after the male birds have been removed from the pens five days. Cobb says, ‘‘Place a male bird among a number of hens, and in a short time you will find him surrounded by the layers and those on the point of laying, and if careful watch is made of his movements, you will observe that he pays special at- tention to those that are near him. This practice continues throughout the whole season; and as he becomes vigorous, his attentions are confined to the latest to commence to lay, and the older ones are gradually discarded. “When a cockbird is given all the hens he can care for and kept with them constantly through the summer, fall, and win- ter, when the breeding season comes he is incapable of prop- erly fertilizing a goodly percentage of the eggs. Therefore the.cockbirds should have separate yards and compartments FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 147 after the breeding season and to within three weeks before the breeding season when matings should be made. “The eggs of a pullet are more pointed than those of hens and smaller in size.’”’ The first few pullet eggs are likely to be low in fertility. The economic importance of broody hens in time lost from laying is indicated by the following table compiled by the Conn. Agri. College. Number | Average oe eee aes Breed Aes a nummbe = eae lost py Jest per | cent. broody peri od asouly va a Plymouth Rocks.... | 129 56—43 |] 2.9 19.3 56 24.3 Wyandottes........ 99 62—63 3.3 18.8 62 38.9 R. I. Reds......... 143 98—69 3.1 18.8 58 39.9 Leghorns.......... 345 33—10} 1.5 21.6 32 3.1 Miscellaneous...... 100 58—58| 3.0 19.7 59 34.3 816 307—38) 2.9 19.2 56 20.9 It is not necessary to have a male bird or birds with the hens out of the breeding season, or those kept solely for egg production. The male bird has no influence whatever on egg production. The male has to do with fertility alone. Experiments have shown that just as many eggs are formed where no male runs with the hens as where male birds are constantly present. On the farm both breeders and layers should have free range of the fields nine months of the year. During the breeding season mature hens, preferably one year old or not more than three years old, should be selected and mated with proper males purchased for the purpose and which possess constitutional vigor. These birds should be mated not less than three weeks before eggs are to be saved for sitting purposes. At the end of the breeding season the male birds may be sold or kept in a separate enclosure and the hens turned out with the balance of the flock, 148 POULTRY CULTURE TURKEYS In selecting turkeys for breeding purposes one must take those with good-size bone in the shank, heavy weight, mature birds, and they must possess constitutional vigor and breed true to type. The turkey reaches maturity at the age of about three years. Birds two or three years old are most suited as breeders. Turkey hens give fairly good result when about twelve months of age. The turkey hen begins laying at about ten months of age. There are two laying periods during the year, at spring and at mid-summer. One mating is sufficient to fertilize a whole litter of eggs. The turkey hen shows that she wants to sit by remaining on the nest a little longer than usual. The nests should be 30 inches square. The nests are prepared on the ground with straw or hay. Sitters should be so placed that they can- not see each other. A barrel turned face toward the wall is a good nesting arrangement. Turkeys like to lay “away” when they are allowed range; they usually make their nests in thickets. On account of the fact that, at times, it is hard to make the hens lay in nests prepared for them, some breeders make a practice of shutting them in a room till noon. Others pen them during the breeding season. Unless the range is large the birds will not receive many kinds of feed, as bugs and green feed, unless these are carried to them in different forms each day. When a turkey hen is sitting she should always be attended by the same person. The number of eggs laid by a turkey hen will vary from 20 to 50. One large hen can cover as many as 25 eggs. One turkey hen can take care of about 25 poults. Turkeys are very delicate and frail till they are two months old. Cold, rain, dew and hot sun may prove fatal. The caruncles and fleshy part which surrounds the lower part of the head and throat develop at the age of two months. This is the critical time in the life of the young turkey. Dur- ing this time they must be kept in a warm, dry, clean place and have wholesome food, including buttermilk and green feed, FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 149 Turkeys do not need extensive and expensive housing facilities. The roosts should be put up under a shade tree and should be several feet off the ground. Turkeys roost on the limbs of trees, roofs of low buildings, and fences. During the day turkeys range over a large territory gather- ing bugs, worms, fruit, and in the fall acorns. Usually turkeys will come home to roost at about sunset. At this time supple- mentary feed should be given them in the form of a wet mash or a mixture of equal parts corn, oats, and wheat. Do not breed birds that are deformed, such as wry tail, crooked toes or legs, crooked back, blindness, lameness, or any defect or deformity likely to be inherited. It must be remembered that while the turkey breeders aim at large size, yet the popular market demand, which is gov- erned by the demand of the average American family, which is not large in number of members contained in it, is from 9 to 18 pounds. A bird larger than this is too large for the average family. One tom should be mated to not more than fifteen hens. A building 40 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 10 feet high will accommodate 40 turkeys. DUCKS In selecting ducks for brecding purposes one should take the most vigorous, best shaped, and heaviest. birds. By selecting the largest specimens to breed from the rapidity of growth of the young may be increased. The average weight of the young duck grown for the broiler market, if properly fed and cared for, should be about 6 pounds dressed at the end of eleven weeks. A drake is considered at his best the first two years of his life, while the duck should be over two years old for breeding purposes. There should be one drake to every four or five ducks. In determining the duck from the drake in the solid white, one will note that the drake seldom quacks, but has a harsh voice and is usually larger than the ducks. He is a trifle coarser’ about the head and neck, and has two feathers near the base of the tail which curl up toward the head. 150 POULTRY CULTURE GEESE In geese the gander may be used the first season, but the geese should not be used for breeders till after they are one year old. Their best breeding ages is from two to five years of age. One gander may be placed with two to three geese. Geese should be mated early in the winter, not later than the first of February. If mating is too long delayed the females may not lay any fertile eggs during the spring. When a goose walks around holding straws or bits of wood in its beak, it is a sign that laying time is near. The sitting goose should have grain, green feed, and water. GUINEA FOWLS Guinea fowls are natives of Africa. There is no fowl that needs less “given”? food than Guineas, or that needs less roosting accommodations. There are said to be about twelve breeds of Guinea fowls in their native country, but only one has been domesticated in this country. There are three colors of this one breed— namely, pearl, lavender, and white. Given suitable trees, the old birds will roost in the upper branches out of the way of vermin and are as good as any watch dog to give alarm. Guinea fowls are monogamous in their wild state, but the cock will successfully mate with two or three hens. The male birds are usually larger than the females, and have a peculiar habit of strutting about on tiptoe with the back arched. The wattles of the male are more prominent, and are inclined to stick out. The call of the female is much differ- ent from that of the male; the call of the male is a more shrill and chattering, a prolonged scream, while that of the female sounds more like ‘‘come back!” ‘‘come back!’ The hens usu- ally begin to lay at the commencement of April and lay con- tinually till the middle of August. The eggs are of medium size, brown in color, spotted with red and pointed. The hens seldom lay in the roosting house, but often select a‘nest in the open. The eggs should never be removed from the nest FARM POULTRY. PROBLEMS 151 while the birds are in sight, and two or three eggs should always be left in the nest, or the birds will probably seek a new one. Guinea-hens seldom become broody till late in the season. It is better to hatch early under hens. A medium-sized hen can cover as many as eighteen eggs. The eggs have a strong shell and are seldom broken in incubation. The young are strong on their legs and can run around when only a few hours old. Feed the same as baby chicks. Guineas are prolific layers and have a tendency to hide their nests in the field. The young are very wild and should be confined in a yard for a while. The Guinea eggs are of good flavor, but small in size. Guinea-hens are not good mothers, as they wander in the wet, dewy grass in the early morning. PIGEONS Pigeons breed by pairing off. Only those breeding should be kept in the breeding loft. A separate compartment should be arranged for the balance of the birds. Racing Homers.—The races consist of distances of 100 to 1000 miles. The old bird races are flown in the spring and the young bird races in the fall. The birds are put through a regular course of training. Then are kept flying around the loft one hour night and morning, besides being taken on numerous short training spins from 15 to 75 miles. This course of training begins about a month before the first regular race is scheduled. Two lofts exactly alike are maintained. One is used for the race team and the other for the breeders. Racing pigeons should be fed good sound grain, as much as they will eat up clean twice a day. Corn, buckwheat, kaffir corn and Canada peas in equal parts makes a good feed. The pigeons must be given clean drinking water in such a way that they cannot dirty it. They should have a bath pan set before them every two or three days, but it should be left before them only an hour or so, as they would dirty it and then drink the water. Squab Raising —Probably at the present time the improved Homer Carne4ux and white King are regarded as the leading 152 POULTRY CULTURE tiie D fy to 177 if Fie. 64.—A Red-chek Gitts hen. Owned by N. C. Exp. Sta. Points of a Homing Pigeon. 1, Top of skull; 2, cera; 3, eye; 4, back of skull; 5, neck; 6, hackle; 7, wing-bow; 8, back; 9, rump; 10, tail, 11, flights; 12, vent; 14, aluminum message holder, 15, leg; 16, feet; 17, breast; 18, throat; 19, beak. ze Bbon te eA es Z ¥ a Fie. 55.—A pair of prize-winumg White King pigeons and their young. Owned by Mr. Rall. FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 153 birds for squab production. They are prolific, hardy, good feeders and mothers, and produces plump, sound squabs. The Carneaux tends to produce squabs of slightly greater weight than does the Homer. Crosses of the Carneaux and Homer are being tried out by some breeders with the hope of combining the prolificacy of the homer with the larger size of the Carneaux. Careful selection of breeders will go far in increasing the size of the squab. Age of Birds as Affecting Production—At the age of 214 to 6 years, the production of squabs is highest. per pair of Fie. 56.—A pigeon loft and fly. Forty to fifty pairs constitute a unit. breeders. While they will mate and commence breeding at 6 to 7 months and are doing fairly good work at one year, the best years are those mentioned. On the other hand, birds 12 years old have produced 4 pairs of squabs per year, on the average, for a considerable sized flock. It is fairly safe to figure on 8 to 10 squabs per year for old birds and 11 to 15 for birds from 2!4 to 6 years of age. Housing—The general principles applying to poultry house construction apply to pigeon houses. The houses should be dry, provide for fresh air, sunlight, air drainage, be sufficiently large to permit the attendant to work conveni- 154 POULTRY CULTURE ently, and give space for the birds. Pens 8 by 8 to 9 feet and 6 feet high, will hold from +40 to 50 pairs. The side-line squab producer can utilize a small building, an upper floor near a window, or two piano boxes placed together. The single long house may be of the shed roof type, about 14 feet wide with a 3-foot alleyway at the rear or at the front. Tf at the front, boxed-in outlets leading over the alleyway are necessary. A door into each pen is an advantage. Both glass and muslin are desirable in the front. It will be much cheaper and undoubtedly as efficient, to build a wide, gable roof house, 22 feet wide or thereabouts, having a 3-foot alleyway through the center and doors opening intoeach pen. This type of house should run north and south. The flies should extend away from the building on either side. This should be as wide as the pen and about 24 feet long by 8 feet high. This size is sufficiently large for 50 pairs of birds, is a convenient size for saving waste of lumber, and is low enough to allow ease of catching a bird in the fly. A tread board 6 inches wide is usually placed along the side of the fly. The roof may be of matched boards covered with paper. The sides and back should be warmly constructed. Founda- tion walls and floor of concrete are giving excellent satisfac- tion. The ease of cleaning and the safety from rats and mice make it a very desirable investment. Interior Fixtures——Until the plant is sufficiently large to warrant the use of an automatic water supply, the water must be given fresh two or three times per day, depending on weather conditions. Small fountains, self-feeding, with the sides flaring out over the edge of the drinking dish, protect the water from becoming contaminated. A feed pan or box should be in the pen, as it seems more desirable to feed in a pan or trough than to scatter on the floor. Bath pans about 2 feet in diameter and 4 inches deep should be provided. The nests should be simple in construction and easy to clean. The inside dimension of the nest should be about 12 inches square. Two nests are required for each pair as the FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 155 birds frequently brood eggs while rearing a pair of squabs in the other nest. A simple method of nest construction is to place a 12-inch board from the floor to the ceiling with one edge against the rear. The 12 inches away on either side place boards 18 inches wide, ina similar way. Cleats may now be placed on these boards the required distance apart up and Fig. 57.—By having each front painted differently the pigeon always knows his home. The nests should be 12 inches * 12 inches 12 inches. down. Boards 18 inches long and 12 inches wide, are now eut to slide on these cleats. A strip 12 inches long and 2 inches wide is nailed on the sliding board 6 inches back from the front, which brings it flush with the 12-inch upright board just erected. This method of constructing provides for each pair two nests which are not connected with the 156 POULTRY CULTURE others. When cleaning the slide is pulled out, the nest or manure scraped off, and the slide put back. This proves to be an efficient nest. Nest-bowls may be used. These should not be over 9 inches in diameter. They should be of wood and not earthen ware. Feeding A wide variety of grains may be fed. All of the ration consists of grains, grit, shell, charcoal, and salt, no mash being fed. While it is possible to use several combina- tions of grains which may give results in the growth of squabs, the following has been found to give satisfaction: Cracked corn, 33 per cent.; red wheat, 25 per cent.; kaffir corn, 25 per cent.; split peas or lentils, 10 per cent.; rice, 5 per cent.; hemp, 1 per cent.; and millet, 1 per cent. This ration is varied according to the prices; and peanuts, hulled oats, buck- wheat, barley, rape, vetch, and about any kind of grain, may be used. White wheat is not considered as good as red wheat. Other rations for pigeons: Cracked Corie. css 2 eres-ce ys oR eee pe Sees 45 parts WIRE tas carci: 4.54 ica tre Ae oe aia aeeds Bawtand satis s 45 parts Canad Peas. ou cce ceca ede mennhouae aa 10 parts MiG tall, zie 36-36 nua!s dams Se ai eamin’d gos AE Rare 100 parts Cracked CORE. 44 34 Sack Sones Peak deed dueede 45 parts WIN SA Bos ie a teh ccatdoie dad ok Ghd auishd soaha tech Oda ok 45 parts Cracked peanutsss esa ecedseegecemasueieed 10 parts Do tals oj Gh Aucde a haip hh DH Ada eadee one Re 100 parts Cracked: Cries xc escgaerdegyalee oie. ehehe 25 parts AGAMT COD nev hy ox heat ioniv nga daeades 25 parts WiheatouGds tase oS se heey aan se ne coe eee 25 parts Bread crumbs............0...00.0 0000005 25 parts Totalen cic wiwe eee ae Ad ont eased oe 100 parts Wheat ccs yseeeeh oe See hee Wee dee eee 40 parts Hemi BCC eo: ase edee nance See hemo n bs 10 parts Cracked) COR jseis a8 tins aon oO A eek Rac ek 10 parts Buckwheaiten cer edek aaos gece o2e5 ... 10 parts KATH COM. s Sassy 8d en San ee oe EER 10 parts Canada POaS) choke es du ke ew see e ee x es 10 parts Millet seed... 2.2... .....0 00.0000. ... l0parts Totalat cmd sed ee eR eats .... ... 100 parts FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 157 The grain is fed in the morning and afternoon, and enough given so that it is about cleaned up in 114 to 2 hours. Only clean, wholesome grain should be fed. Small hoppers of grit, charcoal, oyster shell, and salt are provided. Some breeders use a health grit, which i is a mixture of shell, grit, salt, and other substances, and which is much relished by the pigeons. Special care must be paid to the feeding as the old birds go directly to their young and food is transferred from the crop of the old bird to that of the squab, through the mouths. For the best results, it is necessary that sufficient feed be given at regular feeding periods. Pen Management. Pairs per Pen.—About 50 pairs per pen seem to be a good working unit. Nest Material.—A slatted frame with removable top may be: placed against the side of the building. This should be kept filled with cut straw 8 inches in length. The mixture should be about half and half. The birds make their own nests. Selecting Breeders.—It is not a good policy to select the largest bird from a pair to save as breeders, as by so doing, a larger percentage of males is likely to result. A better way is to save only from those nests which contain two large, well developed squabs. By selecting for size, shape, and strength, any breeder can improve the type of market squabs. Plum- age color may also be a factor, although some pigeons, as e.g. the Homer, come in many different colors. Mating.—As these squabs are selected, they are banded with an aluminum band and placed in a pen along with other youngsters. Here they continue their development and even- tually mate and breed. Careful watching should be kept and when a nest with eggs is discovered, the birds should be trapped. The male bird broods the eggs from 10 a.m. to 4 or 5 p.m., and the female the rest of the time. Making use of this fact, the breeder is able to determine the sex. When a bird is caught it is banded with a colored band, the male on one leg and the female on the other. It is but rarely that brother and sister mate, as they are in a pen with 50 other unmated pairs. The aluminum band placed on at the time they were selected shows whether they are related or not, 158 POULTRY CULTURE In case it is found that this sort of mating has occurred, they are placed in different pens and mated again. Inbreeding is not desirable. Pigeons as a rule are monogamous, and are faithful to each other until death. It is this fact which makes it possible to keep so many pairs in a pen and have them work successfully. Occasionally a bird will be untrue and cause a great deal of trouble in the pen. This bird should be removed and either disposed of or forced mating applied to. Forced mating consists in placing a male and female in a coop with a wire partition between, and leaving them there for from 6 to 10 days, then letting them go together. If they appear properly mated they may be placed in the breeding pen. Banding—Colored leg-bands show at a glance the mated pairs in a pen and are convenient in many ways. For a pen of 50 pairs, 50 color combinations are used, each mated pair wearing a certain color, the male on one leg and the female on the other. It is a simple matter to enter a pen and pick out a mated pair when banded in this way. Records.—If it is desired to know the color markings of a pair, a sheet may be ruled off for each pen, males on one side and females in the corresponding space on the other. A key of letters showing the color markings may be made, and as a pair are mated and put in their permanent pen, their band colors and key letter showing the color is entered in the re- spective space on the sheet. If at some future time there is a prospective sale of a pair of a certain color, the chart will give the color of each bird in the pen and save considerable time. Baths.—Baths should be given at least three times per week in summer and on warm days in winter. The bath pans are filled and left for an hour, during which time the pigeons bathe themselves. The bath is essential for maintaining the health of the birds. If the flies can be constructed over run- ning water, the labor of preparing the bath and emptying the pans may be dispensed with. Cleaning—The old nests should be removed at weekly intervals. ‘Any wide, flat piece of metal with a handle is very FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 159 efficient in scraping the type of nests previously mentioned. The floors should be cleaned monthly. _ Killing, Cooling, Packing, and Shipping —The period of incubation of pigeon eggs is about 17 days, and the squabs are ready for market at about 4 wecks of age. When the body feathers under the wings are just past the pin feather stage, squabs are ready to kill. At this time they have no pin feathers and pick easily. If they are left a few days longer, they will be flying, which is not desirable. Squabs should be collected in the morning before feeding the old birds, as this insures empty crops and leaves them in better condition for killing. From 18 to 22 squabs may be dry picked in an hour. The feet are slipped into a wire which is bent to hold their legs apart. The neck may be held by one finger while picking. As this is likely to prevent free bleeding, a better method is to fix a small can with a sharp prong on the inside of the can over which the beak is hooked. This stretches the neck out, holds the squab, and the can catches the blood. ree bleeding and clean picking is desired by marketmen. White-skinned squabs are worth more on the market than those with dark skin. A killing room is desirable where much killing is to be done. A cement floor which can be cleaned readily, and removable cans, boxes, and shelves for holding the squabs, are important. After the squabs are picked they may be hung in a cool place or placed in cold water to cool. Squabs may be shipped in egg cases or other carriers. An egg case will hold 10 dozen squabs without ice. During warm weather a layer of ice (cracked) is placed on the bottom, then a layer of squabs, followed by more ice and squabs. Barrels are used with good results. Express shipments should be made. Special rates may be obtained in certain cases from express companics on squab shipments. Prices of Breeders and Market Squabs.—Prices for breeders usually run from $1.75 to $2.25 per pair according to age. Marketmen like a heavy squab, and the prices vary from -- 50 to 75 cents for culls to $5.50 or $6.00 per dozen for 10 and 12 lb. squabs. Prices are usually sent weekly by the commis- sion men to those having squabs for sale, if requested. Business 160 POULTRY CULTURE is conducted on a 5 per cent. commission basis. Prices are quoted on 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 lb. squabs. The live poultry markets usually furnish a better market for the squabs of inferior quality. Live pigeons are shipped in baskets or in crates, with self- feeders and water cups attached, and a supply of feed suffi- cient to last the birds the entire trip. With this arrangement birds can be shipped any distance and arrive at their destina- tion in first-class condition. CHAPTER V HYGIENE AND SANITATION WATER Rain is the original source of all water. The water from wells, deep and shallow, springs, and rivers all come from the clouds. When rain descends it drains from the watersheds to brooks, which make rivers, or percolates through the ground, or evapo- rates. The amount of water that will percolate through soil de- pends on the porosity of that soil, and upon the slope of the ground as well as the time of year. The amount of water that evaporates from the surface of the soil depends on the time of year and the temperature of the atmosphere. A dry, warm air absorbs water from moist sur- faces rather rapidly. Percolation occurs more rapidly in sand and gravel, where the percentage may run as high as 90 per cent. of the rainfall upon it. Red sandstone may absorb or percolate 25 per cent., while magnesium limestone may percolate as much as 20 per cent. Water which percolates through the soil again returns to the surface by wells and springs. As the water percolates through the soil and follows the cracks and fissures of the rock it absorbs carbon dioxid gas from the air, which aids in its erosive and soluble action in dissolving mineral matter. The original water as it reaches the earth is free of any mineral matter, and is termed “soft water.”’ After reaching the earth the absorption of considerable lime-salts causes the so-called ‘hard water.’ Springs are surface outlets of underground water. The 11 161 162 POULTRY CULTURE amount of water coming from such a spring depends on the rainfall and upon the collecting area. An inch of rain delivers a little over 414 gallons on the square yard surface, which is 101 tons on each square acre. In falling during rainfall the water absorbs the impurities of the air which, in certain manufacturing communities, may be nitrous or nitric acid, ammonia salts, sulphurous acid, and products of combustion of coal and other combustive prod- ucts used in generating power. The first rain that falls contains more of these products or impurities as well as bacteria. Water collected in large lakes or reservoirs or ponds is attacked with vegetable growth on account of the organic matter contained in the water, which organic matter has been gathered from the watershed during the rain and drainage. The vegetable growth appears as a green scum. Most vegetable matter of this kind is not poisonous, though in India a poisonous kind has been found. Vegetable growth has a tendency to purify the water, as it utilizes the organic matter the water contains. River water usually contains more impurities than pond water. It is common practice for cities and private individ- uals to empty sewage and to dispose of other waste matter by aid of the rivers. Often rivers are polluted with germs of disease and form one means of spread of contagious diseases. Wells are classified as shallow, deep, and artesian. These form a source of pure water-supply, provided they have not become polluted through soil seepage. One of the sources of pollution of shallow wells and springs is cesspools and barnyards, as well as outdoor privies. The impurities found in water are of two kinds—namely, inorganic and organic. The inorganic impurities are the salts of metals. Inorganic material may gain entrance into the water by passing through pipes, canals, from river beds, from watersheds, from irrigation ditches, and by percolation through soil and over rock. The inorganic impurities depend upon the geologic forma- tion. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 163 The organic impurities are animal and vegetable substances. Water will be so contaminated if it comes in contact with animal excreta or animal refuse of any kind, including dead animals and bowel discharges. In percolating through the soil the earth acts as a filter and there is a tendency to purify polluted water There is a con- stant oxidation, by aid of germs, of all kinds of organic matter on and in the soil. Water from cultivated lands is usually very impure on account of the large amount of organic matter gathered from it. Certain diseases are said to be water-born, that is, the germs causing the disease gain entrance into the water, and fowls drinking the polluted water may become inoculated and con- tract the disease. A bird may die of cholera and be thrown into the stream or close to the stream, so that seepage in time of rain may carry the contagium into the water and thus form a source of danger; or drainage from a yard containing in- fected droppings from birds with cholera or other contagious bowel diseases may find its way into the stream, and this contaminated water may pass for miles down country and other fowls consuming the germ-laden water may contract the disease. As a rule, it is considered that germs of disease do not live indefinitely in the water, but after a while die. Puddles of polluted water in the barynard or hen yard may contain embryo of intes¢inal worms or harmful germs. Moist places are favorable locations for the preservation of the em- bryonic worm outside the body, awaiting a time to be taken up by a susceptible bird. : AIR Pure air is of the utmost importance to successful incuba- tion brooding, and to any class or age of birds. While the bird may do without water and food for hours, or even a day, it must have a constant supply of fresh air. Polluted air soon makes an alarming change in the organism. Since the living processes are going on in the animal body every minute, and even every second, it must be remembered that this means a 164 POULTRY CULTURE constant tearing down and building up, which means a con- stant supply of oxygen from the air by way of the lungs and the circulation and a return of a poisonous gas, carbon dioxid, by the reverse route, lest the bird dies of oxygen starvation and carbon dioxid poisoning. The body then is a great oxidizing apparatus and must have a constant and abundant supply; hence ample ventila- tion of all types of poultry houses is imperative. Air is a mechanical mixture of three gases—namely, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxid, with traces of other gases, as ozone, ammonia, argon, and bacteria, and other impurities that chance to be floating in the air. The usual accepted formula of air is as follows: Nitrogen ...... Dh. ieee eengee 78.00 per cent. ORV REM oa oid doo B Rees ees 20.96 an ATCO eaves deeckees, se eaca’s 1.00 eh Carbon dioxid................ 04 a 100.00“ Air has a tendency to be purified by washing in time of rain. Plants utilize the carbon dioxid from the air as plant food and is used in the construction or building up of starch in the plant, and in return the plant gives off to the air oxygen as a by-product in this starch construction. Since oxygen supports combustion in the body it is a con- stant and essential element. When the air contains as great an amount of carbon dioxid as 5 to 10 per cent. it becomes poisonous, hence ill effects in improperly ventilated brooder houses and incubator rooms, as well as rooms for other kind of birds. The earth contains two hundred and fifty times more carbon dioxid gas than the atmosphere. During dry, dusty, and windy times there may be consider- able organic and inorganic matter in the atmosphere. These dust particles contain germs, some of which may be germs of disease, and this is one way contagious diseases are spread. The infected dirt particles are blown from an infected yard to other premises by the wind. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 165 To summarize, the impurities of the air may come from the respiration products of man and animals, by decomposition of organic matter, by various offensive trades, as copper smelt- ing, alkali works, smelters, and by combustion of gas, coal, and artificial lights. CoMPposITION OF ExpireD AIR N O CO. Expired air.......... 79.01 16.02 4.38 RESPIRATION The organs of respiration in the fowl are the nasal passage, larynx, trachea, lungs, and air-sacs. The lungs occupy the thoracic or chest cavity, pushing out between the ribs, leaving only a thin muscular wall between them and the skin. The process by which the lungs are filled with air is known as inspiration. The process by which the air is forced out of the lungs is called expiration. The fowl is provided with six air-sacs, as follows: two at the anterior portion of the thorax, two at the posterior border of the same, and two rather long and large sacs, called the abdom- inal air-sacs, which lie along either side of the abdominal cavity. These communicate with the lungs. In addition to these, in the birds of flight there are air spaces in the larger bones, as the femur and humerus. Before the air reaches the lungs it is normally warmed by passing through the nasal cavities, but air may pass through the mouth into the lungs; thus, in excessive body temperature as in hot weather the body temperature is lowered by the bird holding its wings out from the body to give a chance of greater cooling surface (the action of the atmospheric air against the skin capillaries), and by opening the mouth, and by rather short, quick pants, which rapidly changes the air in the lungs, thus through the watery vapor and cooling the temperature is lowered. In this latter process the air is not warmed by the nasal passage before entering the trachea to the lungs. The anterior nares are small and are immovable, hence the volume of air cannot be increased through that channel. The nasal 166 POULTRY CULTURE chamber is divided into two parts by the turbinated bones, whicb are very thin and rolled like a coil of paper. It is probable that the sinuses of the head (infra-orbital and nasal) furnish a large mucous area which warms the air to a certain extent before passing into the long trachea (windpipe). There are certain changes that take place in the air that passes into the lungs. It was seen from the above discussion of air that it consisted of 20.96 volumes of oxygen, 78.00 volumes of nitrogen, 1.0 volume argon, and about 0.04 volume of carbon dioxid. The carbon dioxid, as shown before, is an impurity in the air. It is essential to plant life, but poisonous to animal life when in concentrated quantities. The air is spoken of as dry or saturated, depending upon the amount of watery vapor it contains. Dry air contains about 14 of 1 per cent. watery vapor. When air passes into the lungs oxygen is absorbed from it by the capillaries of the air tubules. In return for this there is given off to the atmosphere carbon dioxid, a by-product of combustion in the body. The volume of carbon dioxid given off is slightly less than the amount of oxygen absorbed. Expired air is warmer than inspired air and is saturated with watery vapor. The blood is composed of plasma, an unorganized body or liquid in which floats the organized constituents of the blood. In the fowl these organized bodies or cells are the red blood-cells, the thrombocytes, and several types of white blood-cells. The oxygen from the inspired air is absorbed through the wet membrane, the capillary wall, into the blood-plasma, from whence it is absorbed by the hemoglobin of the red blood-cells. The oxygen forms a loose chemical union with the hemo- globin, in which form itis known as oxyhemoglobin. In this form, through the blood-vessels, the cells laden with oxygen are carried to all tissues of the body, where through the single- layered cell capillary wall oxygen is given off to the cells of the tissues through the laws of diffusion of gases, thus the oxygen is enabled to support combustion in the body. A forced cessa- HYGIENE AND SANITATION 167 tion in respiration means immediate oxygen starvation and death. It is a continuous process, never ceasing a minute or second till death of the bird. Such cessation and death by shutting off the air-supply is called asphyxiation. The pressure of the carbon dioxid is lower in the systemic capillaries than in the tissues, and the result is that there is a constant diffusion through the capillary walls into the blood- plasma, as the carbon dioxid is formed in the tissues through combustion processes. The carbon dioxid thus passing into the blood-plasma is carried to the lungs, where the venous capillaries which are spread out, forming a network on the surface of the lung tubules, allows it to diffuse through into the air and is gotten rid of from the body. It is possible that the sodium carbonate of the blood unites with the carbon dioxid in the blood-plasm, thus aiding in its transportation. When birds are shut in a close coop or room, that is, one without proper ventilation, so that there may be a proper exchange of fresh air for the birds in the room, they will breathe the air over and over again, and there is a gradual loss of oxygen and an increase in the carbon dioxid content. If the amount of oxygen falls from 20 per cent., the amount normally in the air, to 11 per cent. there is noted distressed breathing, and when it falls to 4 per cent. there is rapid asphyx- iation and death. Respiration is presided over by the nervous system. The respiratory nerve-center is located in the floor of the fourth ventricle in the medulla oblongata (at the base of the brain). Excessive bodily temperature or exertion causes accelerated respiration. The fright caused in handling birds is sufficient in most instances to more than double the number of respirations. VENTILATION The object of ventilation is to supply pure air to the lungs, to dilute and remove from the hen house the noxious gases off from the lungs and from the fluidy portions of the excreta or droppings evacuated from the bowels. Jt is not considered ventilation if the incoming air is derived 168 POULTRY CULTURE from a contaminated source. It is essential that pure air be supplied. In ventilation we have three factors to consider—namely: 1. The amount of fresh air required. 2. The method by which fresh air can be supplied. 3. The method of examining to determine whether ventila- tion be sufficient. S searee LI Paper Ship Lap Fig. 58.—Diagram showing currents of air through a poultry house. The air entering at a passes under the dropping board and above the dropping board at b and g, but no draft strikes the birds on the roosts at f. Theair passes through the house as indicated by the arrows and out at c.. For cold climates it is desirable to have a front drop curtain immediately in front of the birds and at the front of the house, as indicated in the drawing. The curtain material must allow of the passage of air through it. The amount of fresh air required by average size fowls is 8278 cubic feet per thousand pounds live weight each twenty- four hours. Russel estimates that an average sized fowl breathes about 1.2 cubic feet of air per hour or one foot per minute. Each bird should be provided with ten cubic feet air space. Geese and turkeys should have 40 cubic feet per bird. There is a method whereby a physical test may be made to fairly accurately arrive at the amount of carbon dioxid that is HYGIENE AND SANITATION 169 present in the air. The test is as follows: The sense of smell is immediately recorded upon entering a building from the out- side. If no sensible difference in smell can be determined, Fria. 59.—1f a house be constructed as indicated the vitiated air would rise at the highest point in the house, which is at c, and unless provided with a ventilator would stagnate there. With the ventilator the air enters the house at a (an open front), passes backward over the roosts at 6, and takes an upward course and out the ventilator at e. ——« ! | 2 2 | Fic. 60.—The half monitor is a good building from a hygienic standpoint. The air enters the open front at a and passes backward to the roosts at d, and the vitiated air being lighter rises and passes out at e, and some cur- rents, taking the course indicated by f, pass eut the upper part of the open front ata. the inside air smelling as fresh as that outside, the amount of organic matter is at its Jowest point, and such air is given on analyses 0.6 per thousand or per cent. carbonic acid; that is, 170° POULTRY CULTURE 0.2 per thousand added to the already 0.4 normally existing in the air. It has been determined that the greatest amount of carbonic acid that can exist in the air without impairing the “freshness’’ is 0.2 per thousand. If the air smells rather close of respiratory impurities it is 0.4 per thousand. If the air is close then the impurities are recorded as 0.6 per thousand. If very close, that is, offensive, the carbonic acid present 4s a J WEES 3 a a > Cat Fic. 61.—A small open front colony house. Plenty of fresh air is essential in successful poultry culture. recorded as 0.9 per thousand. The smell cannot differentiate beyond this degree. A poultry house should be ventilated so that it will not have more than 0.2 per thousand. One difficulty in carrying out this test is the odor of ammonia and other products originating from the droppings. Fresh air may be supplied in two ways—namely: 1. The process of diffusion. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 171 2. The action of the winds. In the process of diffusion the various gases present in the building mix. This process is slow. It may mix by diffusion through more or less porous walls or by cracks. The latter is extremely dangerous should the draft be directed over the roosts and strike the roosting birds. ~Winds are a great natural power of ventilation. The wind sets the masses of air in motion, and is a means of flushing and renewing the air in the buildings. Wind blowing 3 miles an Li} = = in oe | | Ee alt= = = = ie — LI | i | = ie = = > EE = ro = | a = H\_\6 a aS == Ph KH Fic. 62.—Methods of hanging windows. 1, Swings from the side; 2, the sash may be raised or lowered; 3, slides to one side; 4, swings in from the top; 5, swings out from the bottom; 6, swings out at the top; 7, swings from pivots in the center; 8, swings from pivots from the ends; 9, upper half sash swings out from hinges above. hour (which is a little more than is perceptible) through a ventilator 1 foot square in size will force the passage of 15,840 cubie feet of air in one hour time. Thus, through such a ventilation in a space of 1000 cubic feet the carbon dioxid content of the air may be reduced from 0.6 per thousand to 0.1 per thousand. The objection to using wind as a ventilating agent is that the velocity may mean a draft. In supplying heat to brooders and in their ventilating prob- lems the fact that heated air becomes light and rises must: be kept in mind, thus the monitor and half monitor houses fur- 172 POULTRY CULTURE nish ideal conditions for the escape of the light vitiated air arising from the birds, while the cooler outside air comes in at a lower level, causing an upward current, relieving the building of polluted air by the process of diffusion and air currents. Air shafts or tubes may be used, and can be used as either inlets from the sides or outlets from the top or roof. Air passing along a tube suffers loss from friction; thus, air moving through a tube at a velocity of 8 feet per second would be reduced to 4 feet per second on striking a right angle. The =e Fic. 63.—Methods of hanging doors. 1, The upper half swings out; 2, the door swings both ways on s two-way hinge; 3, each half swings out; 4, the door swings out; 5, the door slides to one side on a track. TUT WATT ® UT TTT HN) smaller the tube, the greater the friction and the greater inter- ference with the velocity per volume of air. Tubes should be made with rounded or U-shaped curves instead of abrupt straight right angles. One foot square will admit 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour with a calm air; that is, with the velocity of 3 miles per hour. Light air, that is, 8 miles per hour velocity, 0.4 square foot will admit 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour. A light breeze, or 13 miles an hour, 0.2 square feet will admit 15,000: cubic feet of air per hour. CHAPTER VI THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES Some of the essential features is the economic construction of the houses, to provide sufficient room, proper ventilation, proper equipment, and durability. As a rule, the old farm buildings can be utilized, using the principles here laid down, and thus making a saving and at the same time meet. every necessity. ETO a His sees RS Shae TEES Fig. 64.—A group of model houses constructed by the students of the Poultry Science Department, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh, N. C. This work is done in the laboratory of the mechanical department: a, Monitor type; b, a half monitor; c, even span; d, two-thirds span; e, shed roof. The construction of proper flooring, drainage, and foundation are the first essentials. Heavy sills of good material are essen- tial. Number 2 pine siding may be used for boarding up the back and two ends. The roof should be covered with boxing boards and then with a good grade of tar paper. 173 . 174 POULTRY CULTURE Where winds cause trouble in tearing off the rubberoid by getting underneath it, the boxing boards should be replaced by tunged and grooved flooring and the edges of the roofing paper or rubberoid brought over the edge and securely nailed using strips of tin made for the purpose. The back and two ends are thus made tight, leaving the properly constructed open front, as illustrated in Fig. 61. In constructing the interior the labor-saving devices should be provided. By referring to Figs. 68 and 72, which are repro- ductions of blue prints of the North Carolina Experiment Station, these devices are seen to consist of drinking vessels ae eB sates | Gee Fic. 65.—A unit system house and yard: A, B, C, D, F, G, H, I repre- sent separate runs for the separate compartments; # is an alleyway. which are quickly and easily cleaned, a mash hopper of suff- cient capacity to carry sufficient mash to last the flock a week, hopper compartments for grit, charcoal and oyster-shells, nests properly constructed, roosts and dropping boards con- structed according to instructions. The open front ensures sunlight, which in warm climates can be left open all the year and in cold climates may be protected with a muslin curtain or drop sash during the cold spells. It is essential that the floor be free from moisture, as a cold, wet floor means unthrifty flocks, and thus unprofitable. In a house where the floor is noted to be wet it will also be found that there is water of con- THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 175 densation—that is, drops of water has formed on the walls and equipment, which makes an unhealthy condition. Witha dry floor and plenty of head room and ventilation there will be a dry condition, and the water of condensation will not be noted. In cold countries, by the substitution of muslin for the glass windows, it will be found that with other conditions being correct there will be no water of condensation form and the building will be dry. po Srey paar ad 5 ewe fo? Se es ao Fic. 66.—A partial view of 2 poultry plant, showing at a a half monitor house; b, two-thirds span house; c, a shed roof house; d, an outdoor dry mash hopper. As stated before, good ventilation is essential and that there be no drafts on the birds. Birds contract colds if they are in the draft, and a bird with a cold will not-produce eggs. Plenty of fresh air is essential to health of the birds. Proper ventila- tion so as to ensure an exchange of air. Pure air means plenty of oxygen, and foul air means a lack of the proper amount of oxygen and an excessive amount of carbon dioxid or poisonous gas that must not be allowed to accumulate. In Figs. 58, 59, and 60 will be seen illustrated three principles of ventilation. 176 POULTRY CULTURE The laying hen must have exercise. Exercise is essential to good health and egg production, as well as for fertility. By a study of the blue-print sketch, it will be seen that the entire floor of the buildings is to be used for scratch room, and that it is planned to provide 4 square feet of floor space for each hen. The compartments in Fig. 68 are 20 by 20, which will give a floor space of 400 square feet or room for 100 birds, It must not be overlooked that it is essential to make the house as nearly rat-proof as possible. Rat-proof floor con- p= Fie. 67.—A partial view of colony house poultry plant, with a group of students in poultry science in the foreground. structed of concrete is the best. Rats sometimes cause death of the pullets and consume large quantities of mash, unless the mash hopper be provided with a proper drop door and kept closed during the night. The amount of mash a family of rats will eat will amount to quite a number of dollars in the course of a month. The internal construction of the house should be as plain as possible, so as to allow of as little chance of the harboring of filth and vermin as possible. By simple construction the THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 177 NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION WEST RALEIGH N.C. if / Lea) PouLTRY DEPARTMENT “foo Biase Both rity 200Birds Qpen Front, Bligh Multiple Unit i arly 100 Birds are kept a only One unt ay / ng House ierogitnate Cost of rea for Double Onit+ 1802 Floor Flan i ra — T 7 Tr Fo T lroppin oars rop|for ter ck i "eoost frees | bose Coop ‘oI Sele eh ee Ea SSE RErer cas Gee is bea | cy 4 = F hoe ir One Unit ; One |\Unit rie 2, if Maga tout Ere elite aut C1 | ne Q eri 44 ri my { fare pt ie ee teee fn teed k3. = i) 4 + i=] mM 1 oh] 20 ., Cross Section. nit 4n-~* First Gat == Our O cat ee | Concrile Walt LEN Drainage faterral Ol Cia dey ar Crested | 2o- Stor Front View. t . ; Whicker, Wire 1 Chicka Wire | (Ast — os R ne 4 * by “on Door k Window Fr 1 20- a] aS Ss bi Fia. 68.—Photograph of blue print from the North Carolina Exp. Station. This is a double unit system house, each unit accommodating, 100 birds. 12 178 POULTRY CULTURE buildings may be kept clean. All fixtures, dropping boards, roosts, nests, and other equipment should be made movable so that they can be taken out and thoroughly cleaned and disin- fected and rendered free from vermin. Figure 68 is a plan for a double unit system house. A similar house was first designed and advocated by Prof. H. R. Lewis, of New Jersey Experiment Station; blue prints of this are furnished the residents of North Carolina, together with bill of lumber, to assist them in constructing suitable houses for that mild climate. The house is 40 feet long and 20 feet wide (outside dimensions). The sills are to be of yellow pine, Fic. 69.—Six-sided mesh poultry wire. This is » poor netting, and to hold it in shape in the fence it is necessary to make a frame for it so that it is possible to staple it on all four sides of the panels. 4 by 6 inches, and to be bolted to a concrete foundation, 4 inches wide and 24 inches deep. This wall is laid in tamped crushed rock or cinders, the entire foundation trench being 3 feet deep. This allows of good drainage and prevents the floor from being wet. The entire floor-surface consists of 10 to 12 inches of tamped crushed rock or cinders and 3 to 4 inches of cement. The cement should be of smooth finish, using a mixture of 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand for the finish coat and 1 to 7 for the balance. It will be noted that the roof is of the shed type, which is one of the cheapest THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 179 types to construct. The front studding is 9 feet long and the rear studding 414 feet. The rafters, like the other frame- work, may be made of yellow pine. A 2 by 6 girder extends the whole length of the building, the rafters resting on this girder; 4 by 4 posts support this girder, the same being placed every 4feet. These posts are set on concrete piers. The ends, sides, and roof should be boarded up with 6-inch tonged and grooved yellow pine. It is customary in cold countries to cover the back with roofing paper. The top is to be covered with good tar roofing paper. All paper joints must be care- fully lapped and cemented. AWAN, AW/AAW AAW AAW DAW AW AAW AWA WAVAVAWAVAWAN L\L \ Lo LALAL Ad Ad Ab VAAL VL LV LIVE AV AV AV AV AVAVAVAVAVAWA IA AV AV AW AV AW AV AWA L Ah AL Ad ALALALVIV INVA MVAVAWVAVAVAWAWAWAW/ WAVAVAVAVAVAVAWAWAWAI WAVAVAVAVAWAVAWAW AWA TAVAVAVAVAVAVAN WAV AWAWAWAWAW AW AVAVAWAWAWAWAVAWAVWA DA AVA AN L\ EL, \t,\ 1 \ ae AVAVAWAVAVAVAVAVAWAWA wd UAV AN AW AN AN AV AW AWA Fig. 70.—Three-sided mesh poultry wire, which is an improvement over the six-sided mesh. The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top and can be lifted up and hooked at the top till stormy or intensely cold weather, when it can be let down. In order that there be an abundance of light at these times 3 by 5 feet glass sash are placed in thefront. In warm climates, where it is not essential to have muslin curtains, the expense of these windows can be saved by not constructing them. It will be noted that the dropping boards and roosts are at the extreme back, which takes the birds back into the recess and ensures that they are not in a draft which would be in- jurious to their health. The nests can be so constructed that the front, in which the hen enters, is rather hidden, and a trap 180 POULTRY CULTURE door arranged on the exposed side from which the eggs may be gathered. The dividing partition may be of either substantially strong wire or of a solid partition. If of solid partition, it should extend from the back wall to within 6 feet of the front wall. In this space there is constructed a wire partition, a part of which is made into a door between the compartments so that one may enter the other compartment without going outside. In the front the windows in each compartment can be made into a combination door and window, as illustrated. ——1 1-4 ae | |_f Mt wi ne dV Vf Lt ay Wy ee ineeee i WT Tr A_t if f r ii a i _ so Sime Fie. 71.—The rectangular mesh wire and the best adapted for poultry fences. The floor should be constructed as follows: (1) Lay 10 inches of cinders or crushed rock and tamp in well. This provides drainage and keeps the wet away from the top of the floor. (2) Place 4 inches of rough concrete, making about one-seventh cement. (3) Place on a finish coat made up of one part cement and two parts sand. Trowel out smooth and make rat-proof at all points. The following is a list of the materials needed to con- struct the 40 by 20 double unit system house. 181 THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES “SPI CG OF} GT. WOT aBpOUTWMODOR [IM 4IUN Youve ‘esnoy uleysAs pun eqnop st sty, ‘“worneig ‘dxy eurporwDy yWON oy} wor quid enjq vB jo ydeisoyoyg— zy ‘or = r rl woo 7 T | E —— 1 tT TT T n aa T TH T — — : i r z m1 = = a 5 7 H ly) | et = = i SEL: EB * = Le} || ey uayriy' |) aug vay2y | : rH E — = wy E =| | ARE LUT Uy I = , ; = - = ne : az = : : : = : {U0L J F 9 i 9 i A HH — xem Baie a { | I aT NG pouinpeotspu Va OY 2 BUID IG. (5 Wh P4B42U07 | eb 509 ybnoy N A A00ff UO UOHIAO — \ paag ysourg Lun aug Lunaug |" h~.9/- 7 . =| a =a © | pes sea) — 4 le | | a3 0G 7480) paywUuUul[s7 | B — SPAIG Sf {IUf) aUO r| ee (A SPN OL SLii7 es Myzvdoy pevogy budeoagy faa ISNOH Nid INIGIG I7ANIG 2 iif is0eu: Be) 400/-4 ‘IN HOTTA LSIM LNIWLY VIF = AXLINGS NOLLVLE LNIW IDF TWYNLINDIYI YN/TOHY] HLYOY 182 POULTRY CULTURE LIST OF MATERIALS FOR THE 40 BY 20 FOOT HOUSE STS, rina loncilscalpesnieel ic ee eal ae suche mde Gras MPLS CES a fu aa stenoses ovens guy settee sree gee, a beeade Bs PO SUSE io sazueed ube sult Soavavicdeeane tok Seed sae PS { Studdings cc as. dave cae cig ee-aeas ae aces { IRGItOIS2 . choniasd sodas ene neg G matetnet 2 Capacity, 200 birds pieces 4 X 6—20 ft. “ce 6 8 2 2 9 4 1 x 4—20 ft. x 4-14 ft. x 4—18 ft. x 4—18 ft. x 4-14 ft. xX 4-22 ft. NNnrP PRY Frame for nests and dropping boards, 5 pieces, 2 X 3—16 ft. 8-inch grooved yellow pine boards for roof, dropping boards, walls, and nests, 2200 sq. ft. 1 X 2 white pine for curtain frames and trim, 200 linear feet. 1 X 4white pine for nests, 100 linear feet. One bundle plaster lath for broody coop. Nails: 10 lbs, 20-penny nails; 50 Ibs. 10-penny wire; 20 lbs. 8-penny nails. If it is the desire to keep only 100 birds then build only one unit. There is another convenient plan for house construction, where it is the desire to keep only about 30 birds or two breed- ing pens of about 15 birds each. Figure 72 illustrates this plan. The bill of lumber is as follows: Allframing material hemlock or yellow pine. : 2 pieces 4 X 4—10 ft Sillecacunusawne a uaoeo anes RE as ie “ 4%4-19 ft PIBGESS rks Pie cutesy ae cae ane SEA Ree Les 4 “ 2X 4—12 ft ¢ © 2X 4—T2 ft Studding.<24.¢6ecedjcseardiedd ohne s [3 “2X 4-14 ft (5 “ 2x 4—16 ft Raftens: sci son24s tae Ade wae deme sees 8 ‘ 2X 4—12 ft. Boards for sides and ends..... ....., 250 sq. ft. novelty siding. ROO la eden a ach seedy ee Bee godess Ada Bea Be 200 sq. ft. yellow pine. 50 ft. extra for dropping boards, ete. 150 ithaca ete e cs ev eho ewds 1 X 38 in. white pine. LOOT itera eon te ae remeber 1 X 2 in. white pine. It is advisable to place 10 to 12 inches of cinders or crushed rock and 4 inches of concrete for floor. This insures good drainage and a dry floor. A house the size convenient for the boys and girls poultry clubs has been designed by Prof. Graham. It is 8 feet wide THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 183 and 10 feet long and will accommodate 12 birds. The bill of lumber is as follows: (Labor not included.) s 5 pieces 2 X 4—10 ft. 33 bd. ft. Baiseh sic soe aii Gaus 4 li & edie. 1 Studs........... SE iaenae g * 2x 4-—10ft. 60 “ Rafters) wore seer e pice eee 5 “ 2X4 12ft 40 “ Dropping boards (supports).............. 2° 2x3—8ft. 8 * Roosts oi 2242 bse eee hha 2“ 2xX3—8ft 8 © PIB Seciine aid vrhins dee ae 2°" 2416 ft. 22 “ Opening.................. 1“ 2X410 7 WRG Gat ei tan Bats ae gaa oat 18s $5.65 FOOT ssp niin oh ae Ese REE AG Ae PES RMA Re Re oe See 100. 2.80 FROOI ean Wien daly dpcven 214 Rie agen ghee © oy oe eden & Btls ARTS 120 3.36 Novelty siding......... S isecopdih aubaeh Incest doer ae were ae case 200“ 7.00 Dropping: boards); «252.225.0494 9484¢ BES ge oe ed helen 25 .70 Commercial roofing.............00...0 0000000000 1 roll 1.75 Cornice, frames, door............00 00 0c cece eee 50 bd. ft. 2.10 Wire (l-inch mesh)..............0 fee cece 15 sq. ft. 22 Cloths sche decomp aun iar nw damn s Meee weer are Sees 124 yds. 15 LADO WAT Oi c2sg4 eta cs sd doen @ cans ees ain od Gee Bas Goan eke 1.00 For illustration refer to Fig. 73. The extension department of the Ohio State University has a novel idea, which is illustrated in Figs. 74, 75, 76, and 77. Many persons who desire to keep a few birds desire a small colony house, but neglect to build one on account of the lack of sufficient funds and the high cost of lumber. The house is made of two piano boxes, which at times may be secured very cheaply, and the first part of the construction is illus- trated in Fig. 74. The boxes must be of the same size. The average piano box is 6 feet long, 5 feet high, and 32 inches wide at the bottom and 21 inches at the top. Make a founda- tion of 2 by 4 yellow pine scantling. Make the foundation level. Place the open boxes on the frame, with their open faces toward each other and 3 feet apart. Nail them securely to the frame. Take two boards, 6 feet long and 12 inches wide, and saw as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 77. Then nail the 6- 184 POULTRY CULTURE Floor NorrH CAROLINA ie ; M AGRicuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION le lelel Ino] Blo alr ! POULTRY DEPARTMENT LLL lols i West RALEIGH, N.C. IT ETE TT TT TTT ET FOR IZ2HENS '@x/O = COST OF MATERIAL lS lA Asour # 25.22 7 ati : ll L e’ | Side _ er u 10 /0 Front Rear 1 cnicwe ST = Wire i . Fic. 73.—Photograph of a blue print from the North Carolina Exp. Station. This is a house suitable.for the town lot or for the boys and girls poultry clubs. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 185 foot boards to the inside of the ends of the boxes, securely fastening them together at the top and also forming the sup- port for the roof of the house. Next remove the cleat xx from ee Fic. 76. Fias. 74, 75, 76.—Three stages in the construction of a boy and girl’s poultry house made from w piano box. the top of the piano boxes, and nail the triangular pieces that were sawed from the 6-foot boards on the outside of those boards at the top so as to make smooth gable ends to the Kee SSS S45) 1 ee Fb ns ee jo) Od gee lis a tL- 12 a sg ! g° 7 I k= — — — — — — 6 —~——————----+-y Fig. 77.—Diagram showing how to cut boards for the piano-box house. See deseription in body of text of how to construct the house. house (Fig. 75). Finish the floor of the house with a part of one of the backs from the boxes. Then nail a 7-foot cleat on the inside of the rear of the house about 3 feet from the floor 186 POULTRY CULTURE and enclose the rear with a part of the other box back. If the backs from the boxes have been carefully handled, they together with the top of the boxes will complete the roof. Then the cleats marked xx should be removed, and the outside of. the house presents flat surfaces to receive the roofing paper with which it is to be covered. LIST OF MATERIALS FOR THE PIANO-BOX HOUSE 2 piano boxes. ao .eeecnagu@nargrnieeeswe eke se saa $3.00 2 rolls 1-ply roofing paper............. 00000. e eee eee 3.50 1 piece 2 X 4 X 8 ft. yp. 1 piece 2 X 4 X 12 ft. yp. ariniseagni Neen Annee ee oes 62 1 piece 2 X 12 X 16 ft. yp. 1 piece 2 X 12 X 12 inch No. I. Y. P. brace........... soe Ipiece 1X 12) X Satiryps. | sooner n ose o ae samedi 52 2 pieces 1 X 4 X 12 ft. yp. 2 pounds 7-penny nails............. 00.6 e eee eee ee .06 1 pound 8-penny wire nails..............0 0.002 e eee 04 1 pound 16-penny wire nails.............0..0 0000-00. 05 J. pair strap: DINGS: os.cc.c0 acs pacd eaus Wee ee SE ee HaUR OS 10 1 piece poultry netting 2 X 2 X 6ft...............00.. 10 $8.31 The door is 3 feet wide and 5 feet 1 inch high, and is con- structed with an open top so as to admit fresh air and sunlight. The frame of the door is made of 4-inch strips. The lower half is filled with l-inch boards and the upper is covered with l1-inch poultry netting. The door is made to swing outward on a pair of 5-inch strap hinges. An opening, 8 inches wide and 10 inches high, is cut in the rear next to the floor through which the hens enter and leave. The roofing paper should first be placed on the front and rear and tacked temporarily. The paper on the sides should extend up one side over the roof, and down the opposite side and overlap the top and sides of the front and rear about 214 inches, making the house perfectly tight. A cheap and durable roofing may be made, as follows: Secure a sheet of brown paper, tar it on both sides, then tar the top of the roof, lay the paper on, and drive a few nails through; repeat this till several layers of tar and paper have been applied. Such a roof will last for years. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 187 This is an excellent house for the boys and girls poultry clubs. New Jersey Experiment Station in summarizing their experiments in housing fowls conclude that a large amount of glass in a poultry house is undesirable, that the shed roof fur- nishes ideal conditions at a minimum cost, and that the twenty- 50° 50' > OATS PASTURE s < + HOUSE \ HOUSE 0 S + ~ PASTURE OATS Jo’ Jo’ Fic. 78.—A diagram of a double unit system house, with two yards to each house. As indicated one pen is sown in oats, which aids in rendering the ground free from contamination, while the other yard is used for pas- ture. The oats should be pastured when it is from 2 to 4 inches high. foot house is more efficient for medium to large flocks than the smaller houses because it can be constructed more economi- cally. The birds are farther from the openings and hence better protected. In yarding fowls it is estimated that to maintain a perma- 188 POULTRY CULTURE nent sod there should be 150 square feet to each bird. It is difficult to maintain a permanent sod near the house. Where the double yardage system is used, that is, where the birds are allowed to run a while in one yard and green feed raised Fie. 79.—Showing housing methods in the three stages of poultry work. for them in the second yard, 75 square feet per bird will be sufficient. As soon as the green feed, as oats or rye, in the yard being cultivated is 4 or 5 inches high it is pastured by turning the birds into this lot and seeding down the first lot. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 189 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE UNIT SYSTEM HOUSE Like in the construction of all poultry houses, the unit system house should be so constructed that there will be a uniformity of temperature, general good health of the flock conducive to good egg production, economy of construction, and a saving in the work of care of the flocks that are to be kept in it. Poultry houses should always be provided with plenty of head room, so that the poultryman can work in the building without inconvenience. In the unit system house the front should be 10 feet and the rear 7 feet high. The deeper and wider the house, the higher the roof should be made to be in proper proportion. On the other hand, a colony house 8 by 10 feet could have a rear wall only 4 feet high and the front 6 feet and be in good proportion, while a building 14 feet square could have a rear wall 6 feet and a front wall 8 feet high and that be in good proportion. The floor material may be of boards, dirt, gravel, or cinders and concrete. Board floors should have a coat or two of asphalt, which should be applied hot. The fall of the year is a good time to give the buildings a new coat of paint as this preserves the wood. and gives visitors a good impression. The board floors are used to a considerable extent in the warmer parts of the country where there are no cold winters. The floor is located 2 feet above the ground. This allows of a free circulation of air and does not furnish a favorable place for rats and other nocturnal vermin of that character. This type is not so satisfactory for colder countries. Dirt is used to a great extent. The top of the floor should be at least 1 foot above the surrounding ground, so as to ensure it remain- ing dry in wet and rainy times. The dirt floors are more or less harbors for rats, who find hiding-places under the sills, and any other material of that nature that may be upon the floor. It furnishes a temptation not to be resisted by the hens in taking dust-baths, and the floor is not easily kept level. Gravel can be hauled from most creeks or rivers, and 12 inches on the floor of the house makes good drainage and ensures a dry floor. The same may be said of cinders, which may be secured in many localities for the hauling. The best POULTRY CULTURE 190 ePIs “BULA ONO OFUT doURI} TS OY} St IOOP ouL 'g ‘o1g9e OY} UI MOPUIA Tey pue ‘JOOP ‘SMOPUIA [DJ OM} OF sutMoys JISNOH ONIX/LI AYOLS Ff — ‘sareys JO WOI}BOO] SULMOTS ‘MOT}EAITS ; % oO" WOYOAHT PUO UOje Ul umousg so wor sasnot buikho7 {uosy $0 suleg Mey y20G (P3/!2D Asorg daddn 310N 7 3/g000 eid ‘SuIprng ureu JO UOTWEASTS PU ‘I—O8 “OW buyorey 299% ge a | SS TO —————_=— & Sto PV cine Srorage 16x 20'x2 100FT. Run 2 PLAN q Fee | Fane] fF | | | | i i: Dz ree Deore 1a" /a oa? g oO fal : T v U 1 1B" borer ate — ELEVATI _ Fig. 81.—1, Front elevation of new unit system laying and Main structure 20 by 24 feet, each wing 80 feet, entire building compartment. 2, The floor plan, showing double-run arrangem and concrete floor. (O'Crahed flock #°Conerete. 3 Sa 100F ¢ Rune. AV Ge House . ‘¢ a “rs Fea gees HES ~~ ry qs aa At eS (ON. 1 breeding house of the North Carolina Experiment Station and A. and M. College. 180 feet. It accommodates ten flocks of 50 birds each. Note the open front to each ent. 3, End elevation, showing section of concrete foundation, drainage, cinders, 191 THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES ‘Spuvj}si9}eM Pus ‘sjsou ‘s1oddoy YSeU ‘SIOOP BUIFUIMS ‘SUIC-95vIOYS JO WOTPBOOT OSTY ‘spre0q surddoip oy} yyIA S}USWyIVdWOO VveIY TT, ‘Z *19q(UINU Ul Noy spivoq surddoip ey], “spivoq surddoip oy} Yo 400] [ ‘g}]SOO1 OY} peVoO] ae YOryM uO ‘syroddns ‘dooo Apooiq pues ‘s}soor O1E SJSOOI OY} PUB IOOY 94} YO Joo} E o1B I10y} YPM sprvog Zuriddoip jo Mora pua ‘aonmied JO ZUI}JeU SILK ‘s}USTUIEdUIOD OM} UdEA\}Oq udT}T}IVd Ul JOOP SUISULMS ZSULIMOYsS ‘UOT}BAOTe puy ‘[—Zs ‘OlT ater Tt at wet! JISMOH ONIAVT 70D 424M i spiceg xg0r0w>e ol eee ae su2ddopy qo0ous hig Y aaa ats aaa aly mal at aia satellite 'aialy aie iia - @) 5 ; oO i gill sere, seeroye x } lung bumunig Z Ne / \ Z a eeA/ epeooy| pti dd ng ght Kucusrgoest 192 POULTRY CULTURE and most substantial foundation and floor is made of concrete. Figures 81 to 82 show views of the construction of the main part and one wing of the new 180 feet unit system breeding- house at the North Carolina Experiment Station. Figure 83, 4 shows the survey outfit and a means of finding the level. When this is not available a line can be stretched and, by aid of the level and straight edge, the level line can be obtained. Figure 83, 7 shows the forms in which the concrete foundation is made. This foundation is 4 inches wide and 1 foot above the ground at the highest point. It extends into the ground 1 Bees 7 - : i 5 aed Fie. 83—Construction of the foundation and floor. 1, The cinders, which are being leveled and tamped (2) after being wet down (3); 4 is the survey outfit to find the level; 5, mixing the concrete; 7, the forms which extend 1 foot into the ground and in which the 4-inch concrete wall is made; 8, the 3-inch coat of coarse concrete; 9, the bolts set into the concrete to which the 4 by 4 inch sills are to be bolted. foot. The floor space inside the frames is filled in with cinders of a good grade to within 4 inches of the top of the foundation frames. These cinders are wet down and tamped (Fig. 83, 2, 3). Figure 83, 8 shows 3 inches of crushed rock and sand and cement. The crushed rock and sand should constitute 7 parts and Portland cement 1 part. The gravel, sand, and cement are mixed dry, then wet down and mixed again to the proper consistency, loaded into wheelbarrows, wheeled to the proper places, and tamped down. On top of this is placed THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 193 1 inch of cement, made by mixing 1 part cement to 2 parts sand. In this construction the cinders were from 12 inches deep in the highest place to 18 inches deep in the lowest place. This, together with the deep foundation, makes the best kind of drainage and ensures a dry floor under any climatic conditions. Figure 84 shows the foundation finished, ready for the super- structure. Here will be noted the smooth floor and the bolts, which have been set into the cement and to which the sills are to be bolted. In warm climates it is not necessary to provide the house with drop curtains, so that windows are not necessary. In Fie. 84.—Floor: 1, The finished concrete floor ready for the super- structure; 2, the exposed wall 1 foot above the ground at the highest place and 1 foot into the ground. This has had a finish coat of cement; 3, the bolts set into the concrete to which the 4 by 4 inch sills are to be fastened. This floor varies from 1 foot to 144 feet thick—4 inches concrete, the bal- ance tamped cinders for underdrainage. This ensures a perfectly dry floor. colder countries it is necessary to provide windows and drop curtains, as indicated in the plans for the smaller houses. In this type of house ventilation is by the process of diffusion. The walls for the ten compartments for the accommodation of the birds are 10 feet high in front and 7 feet behind. Hach compartment is 14 feet deep and 16 feet long. The outside walls are constructed of shiplap siding of good grade and clear of knotholes. 1¢ will be noted that the roof is of single span or shed type. The roof extends 12 inches beyond the front and back walls. 13 194 POULTRY CULTURE The rafters are 2 by 4 inches and covered with sheathing or boxing boards, and are provided with a 4-inch facing. The roof is covered with a good grade of two-ply rubberoid. Each compartment in front is provided with an opening 12 feet long and 3 feet high, and covered with 114 inch mesh chicken netting. The lower edge of this spage is 30 inches from the floor. A hole 12 inches square with trap-door is provided in the rear of each compartment through which the chickens may pass. The lower edge of this opening is level with the sill. oe eee Sat See Fia. 85.—The frame work of the superstructure, showing the main building and one wing: 1, The main building; 2, the wing; 3, the foundation; 4, the cement floor seen through the end door of first compartment; 5, one of the 4 by 4 inch sills fastened by a bolt embedded in the concrete. The doors are 3 by 7 feet with proper door jams and sills. The main part of the building is provided with one in the front and one in the rear, and each wing is provided with one at either end. A partition is constructed between each of the five compartments for the birds. These partitions are con- structed of boxing boards to a height of 3 feet, with 2 inch chicken netting over the balance fastened securely to 2 by 4 inch studding placed 2 feet apart. Each partition is provided with a swinging door, made to swing out and in, and is 3 by THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 195 7 feet. Fasteners are provided so the doors can be fastened and opened from either side. (See Fig. 87, 2.) Each of the five compartments are provided with four roost poles, each extending the entire length of the compartment, and are located in the rear. These roost poles are made of 2 by 4 inch lumber, with top edges rounded a trifle and the entire pole planed. These are nailed to 2 by 4 inch lumber, ae : a ; Clg SR he Fe Fig. 86.—Equipment each compartment is furnished. 1 is the storage box for morning and evening scratch feeds. 2 are the trap-nests. 3 shows the dropping boards which are removable. 4 illustrates how the roosts are arranged so they can be suspended from the ceiling during cleaning of dropping boards. The roosts are hinged to the studding. 5 is the broody coop. which is blocked 8 inches high off the dropping board or plat- form. The rear roost pole is 10 inches from the wall and the poles are 14 inches apart. They are built on the level. The 2 by 4 inch lumber is bolted at the rear, so the roosts can be raised and fastened to the roof during cleaning of the dropping board. A solid platform is constructed under the roosts. These 196 POULTRY CULTURE boards are laid crosswise and constructed in sections, so that they are easily removed. The material used is No. 2 pine flooring. The platform is 39 inches off the floor. The plat- form extends 15 inches in front of the front roost. Each of the ten compartments are provided with twelve trap- nests, made in two sections. A mash hopper provided with compartments for dry mash, charcoal, grit, and shell; and a WS ‘ SOME ry s BO AAO een Fic. 87.—Equipment each compartment is furnished. 1 is the water faucet. 2, the partition door made to swing out or in. 3, a slide bolt made of wood that is not affected by wet or dry weather and can be manipulated from either side. 4, the mash hopper. 5, the partition boarded 3 feet high, and 6, 2-inch mesh wire netting over the balance. storage-box provided with a compartment for morning serateh feed and one for evening scratch feed; a water faucet to furnish water and a broody coop. The broody coop is made 2 feet wide with slatted bottom. These slats are 2 inches wide and laid 2 inches apart. The front is provided with a door which is hinged, so that it swings out, and is fastened with a button (Figs. 86, 87). THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 197 The main part of the building is 20 by 24 feet, and provided with a comb roof. The roof is of the same material as the ten compartments for birds. The roof may be covered with shingles, tar paper, rubberoid, asbestos roofing, tar and gravel, or metal. Each end is provided with two full windows.on the first Hoor and a half window on the second floor. This building is one and one-half stories high. It is 14 feet to the square or eves. The roof is one-third picch. The floor of the second story is constructed of tongued and grooved flooring, with 2 by 6 inch girders with two pillar supports. These pillar supports are 6 inches by 6 feet. A stairway 30 inches wide is provided to go from the first to the second story. The floor of the first story is of concrete, the same as the two wings. The interior is provided with storage-bins, grinding and mixing machinery. The studding in all the construction are not more than 2 feet apart. The outside is constructed of drop siding, in con- formity to the balance of the building. Buildings should be painied with a good white lead paint and linseed oil. This should be repeated once every three years. Brown of England recommends gas tar mixed with paraffin oil or creosote. These not only protect the wood but keep down parasite life. LIST OF MATERIALS CUM ETS ihn iuked ety seen Maayan Red bay tone Sains 80 yards Sand ook ieee eae Ree ReE Pheve Renee Beth ces 14 “ Gravel weak a wi Greenstd eal xe ened hee Weems gen, se) 788 CBT CTS Sir wean gator setee en AB ActA ota AGO To aot 65 barrels FRAMING: 16 pieces 4’ & 4’ 16’ long for base and corner studding. 24 pieces 4” x 4’ 14’ end sills front base. 2 pieces 4” x 4’ 12’ sides of 114 story. 1 piece 4” XX 6” 16’ long cross-beams for 114 story. 1 piece 4”” x 6” 8’ long cross-beams for 114 story. 2 pieces 4” x 6” 8’ long for column. 30 pieces 2” x 6” joists. 52 pieces 2” Xx 4” 16’ long studding and rafters for 114 story. 24 pieces 2” x 4” 12’ long for rafters. 10 pieces 2” x 4’ 10’ long. 38 squares rubberoid roofing. 198 POULTRY CULTURE 60 machine bolts 5g” X 8” for sill anchors. 4 pieces 2’ X 4’ 12’ long for end plates. 350 pieces 2” x 4” 10’ long for studding, braces, and perch poles. 140 pieces 2” 4” 16’ long for rafters, beams, top plates. 60 pieces 2” x 4” 12’ long for perches, trap-nest supports. 500’ strips 2144” & 34” for broody coops. 4500’ sheeting. 4600’ drop siding. 1800’ flooring for floor of second story of main structure and dropping boards. 150 stakes 2” & 3” & 4.5’. 150 braces 1” X 3” & 4’. 150’ 1” quarter round. 175 1” X 31,” corner boards. 250’ 146" & 115” door and window strips. 40’ 114” X 914” for stair treads. 500’ 1146” X 6” lineal feet. 2 pieces 2” X 12” for stair stringers. HARDWARE: 450 pounds wire nails (No. 8). 8 pair double swinging hinges. 6 pair 314” door hinges. 6 door locks. 40 13” & 446” bolts for perch hinges. 40’ well chain for hanging perches. 200’ 3.4”” galvanized pipe for water-supply. 1 stop and waste cut off. 10 34” hose bibs. 11 34” galvanized T’s. 534” galvanized L’s. 134” galvanized unions. 10 pair 115” hinges for broody coops. 130 buttons for trap-nests and broody coops. 120 trap-nests—600’ pine lumber. 10 storage-bins—500’ pine lumber. 10 mash hoppers—400’ pine lumber. 8 doors between compartments. 8 door latches. 4 door frames 3’ X 7’ 4 doors 3’ X 7’. 2 half windows with frames. 4 windows 3’ X 514’ (lights complete). 4 window frames. 6 paneled doors. WIRE NETTING: 40 yards wire netting 48” wide 114” mesh for open fronts. 165 yards wire netting 24’ wide 2” mesh—for partitions. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 199 10 yards wire netting 36’ wide 2” mesh. 54 yards wire netting 18” wide 1” mesh. 5 pounds staples for fastening wire. 10 trap-doors in rear of compartments—150’. 10 door slides 214” < 34’’—60 lineal feet. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NORTH CAROLINA PORTABLE POULTRY HOUSE List of Materials Size Length No. Board Use in. in feet pieces measure Sills (runners)................... 4X 8 16 2 86 BICEPELS. side hy ne wh aoa donk eves 2M A TO 6 39 SbuiddMerws «ss paescee.s eae eeee eye 2x 4 10 5 32 Plates aetsiistienaiets e-aierg gevquaagiisen eae FEEDSTUFFS 291 stituents of normal buttermilk. Dried buttermilk is also prepared. Milk Albumin.—In the process of the manufacture of milk sugar there is left over a by-product which is dessicated and sold as milk albumin. One pound of this dried material is added to 5 or 6 quarts of water and is used in mixing feed for the baby chicks and also as a drink for young and old stock. It is in fact the skimmed milk less the milk sugar.” In a study of the table of digestible nutrient it is found that ‘dried blood ‘contains’52.3 per cent. digestible protein and 2.5 ousey |] Fic. 101.—A green bone cutter sold Fig. 102.—A dry bone grinder sold on the market. on the market. per cent. digestiblefat. Meat scrap varies; thus, thereison the market what is termed a high-grade protein meat meal which contains 55 per cent. protein, and another as pure ground meat scrap or low-grade protein meat meal containing only 45 per cent. In addition to this, meat meal contains about 0.3 per cent. carbohydrate and 13.7 per cent. fat. There are many small slaughter-houses throughout the country where meat scrap can be purchased very reasonable. Some of these save the blood and dry it without cooking; it can be secured in a dried state and makes an excellent and cheap animal protein constituent in the mash. At these abattoirs the trimmings and stomachs and intes- 292 POULTRY CULTURE tines, after being opened and thoroughly washed, are placed in a closed tank and cooked. After the fat is run off the resi- due is drained of its water and the solid placed in a dryer and, by the application of heat furnished by steam-pipes and agita- tion, is dried, after which it is ground. This makes a low- grade meat meal, which is usually sold as tankage and carries a digestibility of from 40 to 60 per cent. Ground dry bone and cut green bone make excellent animal protein, furnishing at the same time much needed mineral matter, the mineral matter is principally calcium. The young and developing chick rapidly undergoes bone expansion and development requiring much calcium. Dried fish scrap is obtainable along the coasts, and usually contains about 44.1 per cent. protein and 10.3 per cent. fat. Fish scrap, fed in large quantities, may impart an objectionable flavor to the flesh and eggs. Jull reports that 10 per cent. fish scrap in the dry mash did not cause the eggs or meat of the fowl to be flavored of fish. Beet pulp, while constituting a valuable feed for cattle for both fattening and milk production and for finishing sheep, could not be strongly recommended for poultry feeding. It is rather woody, hard to digest, and contains but 0.6 per cent. protein, 7.3 per cent. carbohydrates, and no fat. When beet pulp is fed it should first be soaked in water for twelve hours. Hot mash given in the evening on cold days has a stimulating effect upon egg production. It is made by taking a quantity of bran shorts or middlings and scalding with boiling water. Sometimes mashed cooked vegetables, as potatoes, turnips, or rutabagas, are added. Ensilage is also fed in some localities in the midwinter season. Ensilage fed uncooked may cause sour crop which may be followed by diarrhea. If silage be fed it should be cooked. Succulent feed is essential to breeding stock as well as to egg production. Succulent feed may be furnished in the form of cabbage, mangel, rutabaga, turnip, sprouted oats, or pasture of rape, clover, oats, orrye. The pasture should be used when it is from 1 to 2 inches high. FEEDSTUFFS 293 Sprouting Oats.—Fig. 103 illustrates a sprouting rack, as used at the North Carolina Experiment Station. lt is 7 feet high and 2 feet square. The trays have a 4-inch marginal ay aE oy Fre. 103.—An oat sprouting rack. A basement or cellar where there is some light and temperature above 60° F. is a good place in which to sprout the oats. The trays are removable. board and a metal bottom, which is perforated so as to allow the excess of water to run out. The trays should not be too close together or the back parts will be shaded. They should be at least 12 inches apart. 294 POULTRY CULTURE To sprout oats the rack must be kept where the temperature is above 60° F. The incubator or other cellar will do, pro- vided there is enough light. Use only the best seed oats, as a poor grade of feeding oats that has a poor percentage of grains that will sprout will be very dear in the long run. The author has seen oats used in which no more than half the seeds would sprout, in which case the cost of production of the succulent feed, so far as the oat grains were concerned, was just double that paid for the oats. These trays will hold about 6 quarts of oats. Place that quantity in a metal bucket and cover with warm water. The water should be close to 100° F. Allow the oats to soak in a warm room for twenty-four hours and then place in a layer in the rack. Wet the oats thoroughly once every twelve hours. The sprouted oats should be fed when they are from 4 to 6 inches high. If the temperature is proper it will require about ten days for the oats to reach the proper size. Do not allow them to get old enough to turn yellow or woody. Likewise, do not allow the roots to turn yellow and spoil. They should be fed while the roots are white and in good condition. There is much succulence in the roots, and that part is just as essential as any other part of the young plant. About 370 pounds of succulent feed can be produced from 100 pounds of oats. Give one ounce of sprouted oats to each ten hens per day. Grazing Crops for Poultry.—Grazing crops can be provided most of the year for poultry. From November to March, it is necessary to either sprout oats or provide mangles or turnips. For best results in egg production, birds must be provided with succulent feed. The following tabulation will be found useful information for the beginner: Oats may be used for either summer or winter grazing. Rape may be raised spring, summer, and fall if there is suffi- cient rainfall. Soybeans and cowpeas can be raised spring, summer, and fall as a yard rotation crop if there is sufficient rainfall. Turnips and mangles make the best root crops for winter feeding. Collards and cabbage, as well as lettuce raised in cold frames, also make excellent succulent feed. In 295 FEEDSTUFFS 98N LoJUIM IO fot spunodg| | AvpT ccc sojsueu aqo[s eSuvio ‘sesueur per Suoy eztid Pouurepy UMOp poy Ug yt YsIy soypout QT 04 gf tc ‘spunod cz “TIAOTD YOOMG Bulids pue JozUIM ATIva azeTD | Teysnq [| T “gdag joc $18O Sulids puv JoyuIM ApIve azeIyH | IoAopO ‘q] GT ‘ada nq T “TOAOTD UOSUILIO puv oAY amnqeu [uy foe sry SOYOUI ZE ye ysng [/ OL ABW occ uvogsog SEU PVE [ee PRESS § Bae ee ea ee TSYSNG T | OT ABIL Pe yeoys yong SIT®} AMous Toug rs 0% “ydag SS ea a eR a og spunod Oo GQ aay Peete SES pa es sdruiny, uMOop pey Tauq rd "CT SVT ed spunod ral 0% ‘ony i a oe oe ee | ‘I9AOTO ped petwnsu09 Tyug Fe ee eee qsty soqout OL 04 8 ce? spunod e OL ABN BERG IR LI Ee Sa efor say eis adey uMmoig Ty Tuy a 02 ABI “* $180 nq Zz ‘geod nq I cl ady eens $780 pue stog uMOS WOTZBINp powsg 95%¢4s Burzeir) aioe red pees Jo yunowy | doig 296 POULTRY CULTURE raising mangles it is best to plough the ground deeply in the fall. The freezing will pulverize the ground and tend to make it in better condition for the crop. Good black loam soil is the best. The ground should be manured. If manure is not available, fertilize by distributing 400 to 500 pounds ferti- lizer to the acre. Plant the mangle seed in rows 214 to 3 feet apart, sow thick, later thin out, leaving one strong beet stock to each 10 inches. The rows should be ridged, the top of ridge being about 2 inches above the surface of the ground. The seed should be planted about 1 inch deep. Gather the root crops as late in the fall as possible. Bury in the ground until ready to use them. To do this, place about 6 inches of straw on the ground, then pile or make windrow; cover mangles, or turnips, with about 6 inches of straw or hay and cover with dirt. In securing the dirt take that close around the piles of roots so that there will be drainage away from the pile and thus keep dry. The roots thus prepared should keep till January and February, when they are most needed. During the fall and early winter grazing crops may be used. 297 FEEDSTUFFS “Buran UT 4SOT St [*(*O)EeD] ayeydsoyd wunyowor1} a[qviaprsuoo [vour suo puv yweuT UT put [esau UG TIOq Ut yey} aBqeqord sty] , ooo¢ze'0 | 000°0 060°0 Z¥L°O | 00¢F'0 Tg6'2€ | 000°0 | 0000'0 (a NRE a T2ys 103849 oooogs's | 000°0 000°0 000°0 | 0029°9 | 0026°0¢ | 000°0 | 0000°0 (RI Weal rece YU ouoysouryT 920000000 | 9¢01 ‘0 £60°0 | #S€0°0 | 9020°0 | #800°0 800°0 | o1¢z°0 Ej |) SS eae hes ae useis ‘advy s010'0 | zZ08'0 OST’O | Os6e'0 | es60°0 809°0 00z°0 | €0T0'0 oy eee reer Teys surpnpour ‘saqq 9€00°0 | 9e1'0 s90°0 | #2700 | 81000 es1'0 FPL O Isto OG) peices eee yn wag o00g0'0 | seZL'o £40°0 eze'0 9280 8ét'0 9380 LL T "* Qovrzxe 7e}) [Bow ynuBag 00g0'0 | #99°0 3£0'0 SEF 0 8620 8ez"0 SIF0 68T'T I “***(70€13Xx9 484) [eau uvaq fog 9z10'0 | #9L°0 ZES'0 ISst'0 802 "0 09e'0 IFL'0 98I°T To ees [woud weIq-7aAaA 0sso°0 | 09¢°9 o¢s'0 6g£'0 09F 0 908°3T | SFL°O g8t°0 b spans: pour au0g pus yeaT] 6010'0 | #9h°0 | 0280°0 402'0 | G9FT'O | gT60'0 £¢0°0 18°0 9 Sd cael “* "8780 porn 810°0 | 6rE"OT | 00600 OLT'O | OO8S°O | OLLTIZ | ¢EL0 6220 e gb SCs soau said peo suo zs00'0 | €82°0 | €090°0 ZE'0 | 89°0 | 0860'0 61z'T 676°0 9 iSO Lo SBur[pprar yea Ay ¥r00'0 | 862°0 | Iz¢g0°0 StI°O0 | TSOT'O | 221070 T¥0'0 zee 0 eI ees i Sea teeta ui0d 8fOUM 200°0 | 98%'0 | 0€90°0 €8I'O | 2ZIL‘O | Tzz0°0 6£0°0 eer'0 eI ee "Tress 9gaqak TOU, z900°0 | €L%°0 | 88200 986°0 | O9ST'O | O8F0'0 910 oe °0 z Pe PR ie ean toe 8780 pa]oy 6100'0 | 66%'0 | 0060°0 983°0 | F0L0'0 | 92100 60T 0 Thr '0 L corseeeesececss= "8980 proqurd ¥00°0 | Ibe°O | FZ0'0 o9t'o | 9eeT'oO | Z600°0 &20°0 6FE 0 ge | eros “Tress ss payog ‘Teauras0g snioyd uInIseu sess[eue wor] i Sie moTy | myding | Tey | RPIFO | wpog settee Hee ae peaq [perpuny sed syed se pessaidxa sy[nsey] saggy AYLTAOG dO INGLNOD IVUENIPY 298 POULTRY CULTURE AvEeRAGE DicEsTIBLE Nutrients IN Pouurry FEEeps The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived mainly from Bulletin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins), and Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Konig. Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Name of feed : Carbohy- Ether poungs | draten,” | extract CoNCENTRATES Corn, all analyses.............. 7.9 66.7 4.3 OT CHC OEM ceecneseprenrse grant ean anndne 7.8 66.7 4.3 Hint COM pancose xn dere emecee eae 8.0 66.2 4.3 Sweet: COrMsvcseyeeseseses fed hs 8.8 63.7 7.0 COPN=COD oie ide Sane d ese noedern 0.4 525 0.3 Corn and cob meal............. 4.4 60.0 2.9 Cott BEAN citoian cn Ape et nm 7.4 59.8 4.6 Gluten meal.............0..... 25.8 43.3 11.0 Germ-meal .cacicaea salve vea4 Ee ee 9.0 61.2 6.2 Starch refuse.................. 11.4 58.4 6.5 Grano-gluten............0...... 26.7 38.8 12.4 Hominy chops........4........ 7.5 55.2 6.8 Glucose meal.................. 30.3 35.3 14.5 Suparmedliysaiorssn super gaa reyes 18.7 51.7 8.7 Starch feed, wet............... 5.5 21.7 2.3 Hemp-seed.................... 10.0 30.4 20.5 WHHES the sannnnonareawets ae em eee 10.2 69.2 Lied High-grade flour............... 8.9 62.4 0.9 Low-grade flour............ 0... 8.2 62.7 0.9 Dark feeding flour............. 13.5 61.3 2.0 Wheat brati.ccccs eke ee ew cs ws 12.2 39.2 Dil Wheat bran, spring wheat. 12.9 40.1 3.4 Wheat bran, winter wheat... ... 12.3 37.1 2.6 Wheat shorts.................. 12.2 50.0 3.8 FEEDSTUFFS 299 Name of feed Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Protein, Carbohy- pounds | arate CONCENTRATES Wheat middlings............... 12.8 53.0 Wheat screenings.............. 9.8 51.0 Bread crumbs................. 6.9 44.2 RVC seen achd ae eanaeiee ees 9.9 67.6 RYy6 BrAaIN: ecco aaieca gainer ¥ a4 11.5 50.3 Rye shortsyecs ans ase agesa keene 11.9 45.1 Barle ye wivawecens duelcene ep aetak 8.7 65.6 Malt sprouts.............0.00. 18.6 37.1 Brewers’ grains, wet............ 3.9 9.3 Brewers’ grains, dried.......... 15.7 36.3 OatSS f2 wh itaetea dels aaa 9.2 47.3 Oatmeal sence bes Paver saya 11.5 52.1 Oat feed or shorts...... 12.5 46.9 Oat AUSticduyes sleet aw es eared 8.9 38.4 Oat: RWS asc e.cy se ery earn wk 1.3 40.1 Oats rolled, hulled, or pin-head. . 15.0 66.6 RICE iy hs nae aS Waa eed 4.8 (22 Rice hulls. ............0...0000- 1.6 44.5 Ricé: Braman sanwe sales Bode 12.5 62.0 Rice polish.................... 9.0 56.4 RICE THEA isi cncytacsun es Goes etl wane ak 11.0 51.0 Buckwheat................004. Tt 49.2 Buckwheat hulls............... 2.1 27.9 Buckwheat bran............... 7.4 30.4 Buckwheat shorts.............. 21.1 33.5 Buckwheat middlings........... 22.0 33.4 Milo maize.................... 8.7 66.2 Ether extract, pounds bho Ne CAA None OF NOP NOD wD 300 POULTRY CULTURE Name of feed Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds . Carbohy- Ether pounda’ | Grates” | extract, CONCENTRATES Sorghum seed................. 7.0 52.1 3.1 Broom-corn seed............... 7.4 48.3 2.9 Ha iir COiMiecescie< cccnasdeeed Bee 2 7.8 57.1 2.7 MEUM Giescscastasiers inlet easter eee race 8.9 45.0 3.2 MOLETIbAs + Gundy Sinaarnriae exo ees 9.3 66.6 2.5 Makseed cccxcakeas cawesacn ceded 20.6 17.1 29.0 Linseed meal, old process....... 29.3 32.7 7.0 Linseed meal, new process....... 28.2 40.1 2.8 Cotton seed............0...005 12.5 30.0 17.3 Cotton-seed meal.............. 37.2 16.9 12.2 Cotton-seed hulls ............. 0.3 33.1 1.7 Cocoanut meal................ 15.6 38.3 10.5 Palm nut meal................ 16.0 52.6 9.0 Sunflower seed................. 12.1 20.8 29.0 Sunflower-seed cake............ 31.2 19.6 12.8 Peanut in hulls................ 20.4 16.4 36.2 Peanut kernels................ 26.8 17.5 44.9 Peanut cake or meal from hulled nuts, fat extracted............ 42.8 20.4 7.2 Peanut cake or meal, hulls in- Cudednanieeeee ce sacn conndeun 28.4 27.0 11.1 Peanut hulls.................. 7.3 18.9 2. Rape-seed meal................ 25.2 23.7 7.5 PEAS ied drmintine Aiea, Snaemaunnsdinant 16.8 51.8 0.7 Soy Peat cx ne agnancedae renee 29.6 22.3 14.4 Soy-bean meal (fat extracted)... 38.1 33.9 5.0 COWEPE Si oca.is bce atsote did donnn cade w 18.3 54.2 1.1 TOTSE, DEAN cussteccescrany sla. ancs ners 22.4 49.3 1.2 Velvet bean meal (pods and DEAT) ceacmiecqendt mien dae uedabie wh cates 18.1 50.8 5.3 FEEDSTUFFS 301 Digestible nutrients in 100 pound: Name of feed Protein, Carbohy- Ether pounds | arates, | extract RovucHaGE Fresh grass Pasture grasses (mixed)......... 2.5 10.2 0.5 Kentucky blue grass........... 3.0 19.8 0.8 Timothy, different stages....... 1.2 19.1 0.6 Orchard grass, in bloom........ 1.5 11.4 0.5 Redtop, in bloom.............. 2.1 21.2 0.6 Oat fodder.....csssee0er ences 2.6 18.9 1.0 Rye fodder..............-..05. 2.1 14.1 0.4 Sorghum. ceccive case sas tenant 0.6 12.2 0.4 Meadow fescue, in bloom....... 1.5 16.8 0.4 Hungarian grass............... 2.0 16.0 0.4 Green barley.................. 1.9 10.2 0.4 Peas and oats................ 1.8 7.1 0.2 Peas and barley............... 1.7 7.2 0.2 Fresh legumes Red clover, different stages...... 2.9 14.8 0.7 Alsike, bloom.................. 2.7 13.1 0.6 Crimson clover................ 2.4 9.1 0.5 Alfalfa, 3.9 12.7 0.5 COW=PeAdxdccs sHaRe re vee Ss 1.8 8.7 0.2 Soja bean............6.-..005- 3.2 11.0 0.5 Legume hay Alaa onetane wii ne cette 11.0 39.6 1.2 Cow-pedns icc eke eee nn eens 10.8 38.6 1.1 Soja-bean straw. ......--.-..-- 2.3 40.0 1.0 Pea-vine straw.........-...4.- 4.3 32.3 0.8 Silage COT: eisai ae ene elon eas 0.9 11.3 0.7 Clover Ty Dene eae 2.0 13.5 1.0 Sorghum..........60.005e eee 0.6 14.9 | 0.2 302 POULTRY CULTURE Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Names of feed Protein, tartohye Ether pounds rates, extract, pounds pounds Silage AMANO d ccca.aeb es bibing and achens 15 bene eae Selb A 3.0 8.5 1.9 GIPASS is asada dean wiquts ted Reeeee em ak Gacane ee 1.9 13.4 1.6 Cowpea Vine... xc ccvateiers eq rites d wd nnciaanare moins ad 1.5 8.6 0.9 SOja Wea: ww leie ayteklaais otal ale mle wel edad ae ae Qa 8.7 1.3 Barnyard millet and soja bean.......... 1.6 “9.2 0.7 Corn and soja bean...........0 220-22. cee 1.6 13.0 0.7 Roots and tubers RAPChecccieagramrce Gages adem Ce a emate dines 2.6 10.0 0.3 POtaLO seins oa a sarees EMlemGkioaamimniae auleaoraeee = 0.9 16.3 0.1 Beet, COMMON. ne ee o pads dee bw EE SRE PERE EES 12 8.8 0.1 Beet Sears y pects ey ee oY GE es SO Gd ee 1.1 10.2 0.1 Peet, Manele co oss eigen Gogend bpd Sane’ 1.1 5.4 0.1 Plat Curiae voesave evs, schacgoha ne eased a bas 1.0 F2) 0.2 Riutab again ceses ser od 4a ead ats FARA ea ewe aR Es 1.0 8.1 0.2 Carrots. ccuissiccces swears ews eaanas wy rpinsttelnlncslS 0.8 7.8 0.2 (PATSNLDs sca eidiicien or aNerlt oqo aE ae emonwae ee 1.6 11.2 0.2 ATtIChOK Gy ie sage osly ow ndionsa eee HERA SOR ELRAE SEED Ee 2.0 16.8 0.2 TURD Dy 50's as Fee Ha ee Phage Ee So Shey ae 1.0 6.0 0.2 MIScELLANEOUS GOAN Gs secentts oar aa Suede aheeess ey oy a Phiabs 1.9 4.7 0.3 CBD WAS Od cccnags strana aeedimnnhs Sangh) Kethadenmena ais 1.8 8.2 0.4 DPULLYoct¢agcdriasaverionoweeekwns “seed oases 15 9.8 0.3 Sugar-beet leaves........0..0 02.220 c ee eee 1.7 4.6 0.2 Pimpkiny feldje geciss hoe chat Seg h SSS Bhe2 mode 1.0 5.8 0.3 Pumpkin, garden..... ........ Mee, Reese 1.4 8.3 0.8 Prickly COMET oc akGesd6 deel vale sary ewe 1.4 4.6 0.2 Rapesceens sraG wen int eg wn ggad eae Ee ee RE 15 8.1 0.2 Avortis, fresh: apsweamin ss oe sees Fame aay ewes 2.1 34.4 1.7 Brewer's grain, dried...... 2... 2. 22.2... lee 215 30.5 6.1 Ditied bloddiiis ngs euius ce eouhen sae REGK oy ok bade 52.3 0.0 2.5 MGat SCraD: 152-5. eeineeeg cows k 3 ae ee hate 50.2 0.3 13.7 Dried fish................. P : F : Se: 44.1 0.0 10.3 Beet pulp, dried.......,...00. 0.0.2: 4 4.6 65.2 0.8 Beet molasses........0 2.2.0 co.cc cece eee bee 9.1 59.5 0.0 BoneemMGalens sols de saree Hameo gaydaenes oe Seas 26.0 Cows! mille ..24 3y at iee ines Scenes tad adie ® tame 3.6 4.9 3.7 Cows’ milk, colostrum... . .. 2.0 we... 17.6 2.7 3.6 Skim milk, gravity... ........-.....2.-0000. mcaclee 3.1 4.7 0.8 Skimamilk, céntrifugall sss cna saws 48 ataca sen mda 2.9 5.2 0.3 Buttermilless ois dagaws go hrgylaaad show. gee eee ey 3.9 4.0 1.1 Wheyies cs4egte A geeukoR 0.8 4.7 0.3 FEEDSTUFFS Armspy’s Net Enercy Vauures For Frepine Sturr 303 The following net energy values for the most important American feeds are taken from Armsby, Pennsylvania Bul. 142. Digestible otal. | Net Feeding stuffs es Crude True alue. pounds | protein, | protein, | therms pounds | pounds Grains and seeds BATS Vi casheasitanie’ Sade tcanasoah Rtas! webaen eaeide bes 90.7 9.0 8.3 | 89.94 Bean RAV Yes nncccn ou wareee eal eases 86.6 18.8 | 16.4 | 73.29 Buckwheat.........................-] 87.9 8.1 7.2 | 59.73 Cory dette «cede s ueee bias Beads eS 89.5 7.5 7.0 | 89.16 Corn, fitt sco ogc Saelieeg aie pine gees 87.8 7.7 7.2 | 87.50 Corn-and-cob meal...............--. 89.6 6.1 5.7 | 75.80 Cotton seed.........0. 0.2 e eee eee 90.6 | 13.3] 11.9 | 78.33 Cowpea 88.4] 19.4] 16.9 | 79.46 OBS sendin sista, € ig erste ete 90.8 9.7 8.7 | 67.56 Pea. field.es osc yeadeoinle HNea eee aed 90.8 19.0 16.6 | 78.72 RYyC eae tg eo ggen ss ee Rie eae See D ee 90.6 9.9 9.0 |} 938.71 Soyb@atlwxicsc sy sis as dea les aide ees 90.1 30.7 27.3 | 81 29 WHESE a iidssa cae natan toes bees teas 89.8 9.2 8.1 | 91.82 By-products Buttermilk. scoes cad ce aww daa sais 9.4 3.4 3.4 | 13.32 Brewers’ grains, dried............... 92.5] 21.5] 20.2 | 53.38 Brewers’ grains, wet.................| 24.1 4.6 4.4 14 538 Buckwheat bran.................... 88.8 10.5 9.1 | 30.59 Cottonseed hulls...................-] 90.3). 0.3 ? 9.92 Cottonseed meal, choice...... ...... 92.5 | 37.0] 35.4 | 93.46 Cottonseed meal, prime..............] 92.2 | 33.4 | 32.0 | 90.00 Cows MK oashkwe ds ce en tenodin as aehd 13.6 3.3 3.3 | 29.01 Distillers’ grains, dried, from corn. .... 93.4 | 22.4) 18.3 | 85.08 Distillers’ grains, dried, from rye...... 92.8 | 138.6] 11.1 | 56.01 Glitenteed 524 cto edie cas aetieeee es 91.3 21.6 20.1 | 80.72 Gluten meal...........--. sled Rodsthase a2 Babi 90.9 30.2 28.1 | 84.15 304 POULTRY CULTURE Armssy’s Net Enercy VaLuss For Frepine Sturrs (Continued) Digestible Total Net Feeding stuffs Ao Crude True evaliag, pounds | protein, | protein, | therms pounds | pounds Hominy feed vx pcs gu gs gatalg ee es ea 89.9 7.0 6.5 | 81.31 Linseed meal, new process...........- 90.4 | 31.7 | 30.9 | 85.12 Linseed meal, old process...........- 90.9 | 30.2] 28.5 | 88.91 Malt sprouts..............-..405 ...-| 92.4] 20.3 | 12.5 | 72.72 Molasses, beet.................0-08- 74.7 1.1 0.0 | 57.10 Molasses, cane, or blackstrap......... 74.2 1.0 0.0 | 55.38 Rye: branes ses cigar eh eaueaenge oa 88.6 | 12.2] 10.5 | 79.35 Sugar-beet pulp, dried............... 91.8} 4.6 0.7 | 75.87 Sugar-beet pulp, wet................ 9.3 0.5 0.5} 8.99 Tankage, over 60 per cent. protein....| 92.6 | 58.7] 55.6 | 93.04 Wheat Dranin cede oe 40 dan oak eaees cave 89.9} 12.5} 10.8 | 53.00 Wheat middlings, flour.............. 89.3 | 15.7 | 14.0 | 75.02 Wheat middlings, standard........... 89.6 | 18.4] 12.0 | 59.10- Hay and dry, coarse fodder Alfalfa hay, all analyses.............- 91.4 | 10.6 7.1 | 34 23 Clover hay, alsike................0.. 87.7 7.9 5.3 | 34.42 Clover hay, red, all analyses.......... 87.1 7.6 4.9 | 38.68 Corn fodder, medium dry............ 81.7 3.0 2.3 | 43.94 Corn stover, medium dry............ 81.0 2.1 1.6 | 31.62 Cowpea hay, all analyses............ 90.3 | 13.1 9.2 | 37.59 Millet hay, Hungarian............... 85.7 5.0 3.9 | 46.96 Oat haynccasscereenieen teraes ayes 88.0 4.5 3.9 | 32.25 Red ‘top hays. ssei¢.ee426sedaee snes 90.2 4.6 3.9 | 51.22 MO VCAI WAY yc iasacdoe. Siydie shiv doned ba dant buh 91.4 | 11.7 8.8 | 44.08 Timothy hay, all analyses............| 88.4 3.0 2.2 | 43.02 FEEDSTUFFS 305 AVERAGE Composition or Eas, Eaa Propucts, AND CERTAIN OTHER -Foops (European Analyses) 5 ™ vey 2 & g 2.78.) %,] 2 [S8.) 2 | os oe 4 72 o 1a 2 3a #8} g2] 22) 3 |S888] & | se le) ee a a) I os ia E a a 2 Bs Hen: Whole egg as purchased....... 11.2 | 65.5 | 11.9 9.3 0.9 635 Whole egg. edible portion...... 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5 1.0 720 White.os saciteascacedacnieena os 86.2 | 12.3 0.2 0.6 250 YOM Sse 45a wakiz. coat one eens wee | 49.5 | 15.7 | 33.3 1.1 | 1705 Whole egg boiled, edible portion] .... | 73.3 | 13.2 | 12.0 0.8 765 White-shelled egg as purchased..| 10 7 | 65.6 | 11.8 | 10.8 0.6 675 Brown-shelled egg as purchased.| 10.9 | 64.8 | 11.9 | 11.2 0.7 695 Duck: : Whole egg as purchased........ 13.7 |} 60.8 | 12.1 | 12.5 0.8 750 Whole egg, edible portion...... 70.5 | 13.3 | 14.5 1.0 860 WH ccc nas cee ota BS Ha 87.0 | 11.1 0.03 0.8 210 Volks 5 sc 0teas eae delete eee Rs 45.8 | 16.8 | 36.2 1.2 | 1840 Goose: Whole egg as purchased........ 14.2 | 59.7 | 12.9 | 12.3 0.9 760 Whole egg, edible portion...... 69.5 | 13.8 | 14.4 1.0 865 WIG an etece ew Shyaadsed Gems 86.3 | 11.6 0.02 0.8 215 WOM. 3 heshenaeas Pages neseeae 44.1 | 17.3 | 36.2 1.3 | 1850 Turkey: Whole egg as purchased...... .-{ 13.8 | 63.5 | 12.2 at 0.8 635 Whole egg, edible portion...... dado | W840") VBe% | THs 0.9 720 WHitesc ccckusk ease akg eek 86.7 | 11.5 0.03 0.9 215 YAOI 2 sass gird Grmun'a dyetehovoe’ ss 8G Sass 48.3 | 17.4 | 32.9 1.2 | 1710 Guinea-fowl: Whole egg as purchased........ 16.9 | 60.5 | 11.9 9 0.8 640 Whole egg, edible portion...... cose | 72.8 | 13:5] 12 0 0.9 755 WIE» os. ccd SA SEOES Ho RS 86.6 | 11.6 0.03 0.8 215 Molle: nap cdaaass BLadtey Sun ia anol ansb estas 49.7 | 16.7 | 31.8 1.2 | 1655 Plover: Whole egg as purchased........ 9.6 | 67.3 9.7 | 10.6 0.9 625 Whole egg, edible portion...... oegs | V4 4) 1Os7 ) 11.7 | ss 1.0 695 Evaporated hens’ eggs........... oa 2 6.4 | 46.9 | 36 0 7.1 3.6 | 2525 Egg substitute.........-.....00. Sates 11.4 | 73.9 0.3 5.3 9.1 1480 Pudding (custard) powder........] .... | 13.0 2.1 3.4 | 80.9 0.6 | 1690 Cheese as purchased............. sew | O4e2 | 2559 | 33.7 2.4 3.8 | 1950 Sirloin steak as purchased........ 12.8 | 54.0 | 16.5 | 16.1 0.9 985 Sirloin steak, edible portion....... reve | 6159 | PLO | WWHb | cece 1.0 | 1130 Mia ees, seid vs yeseniornd akan mertena : sane | BHO 3.3 4.0 5.0 0.7 325 Oysters in shell as purchased...... 81.4] 16.1 1.82 0.2 0.7 0.4 45 Oysters, edible portion........... mpae | SOu9. 62 La S27 2.0 235 Wheat flour....,c0..024se8een4 <4 gangs 12.0} 11.4 1.0 | 75.1 0.5 | 1650 Potatoes as purchased........... 20.0 | 62.6 1.8 0.1 | 14.7 0.8 310 Potatoes, edible portion,......... geen er |p CSS 2.2 0.1] 18 4 1.0 385 20 306 POULTRY CULTURE As to the food value of eggs it may be said that one pound of eggs is more nutritious than a pound of steak. The only nonedible portion of the egg is the shell and outer membranes. In meat there is much bone and fiber of low food value. AVERAGE oF DiGEsTION COEFFICIENTS OBTAINED WITH POULTRY Fee cope | Cena Sate | tees | eee Bran, Wheat... ss6..c8ae hee s 3 46.70 | 71.70 | 46.00 | 37.00 Beef Scraps cc caren eee es 2 80.20 | 92.60] ..... 95.00 Beef, lean meat............. 2 87.65 | 90.20] ..... 86.30 Barley. 228.5602 eos dau necs 3 77.17 | 77.32 | 85.09 | 67.86 Buckwheat................- 2 69.38 | 59.40 | 86.99 | 89.22 Corn, whole................ 16 86.87 | 81.58 | 91.382 | 88.11 Corn, eracked............... 2 | 83.30 | 72.20 | 88.10 | 87.60 Corn meal...............0.. 2 | 83.10 | 74.60 |} 86.00 | 87.60 CLOVER a nchs Aonntea new Mawes 3 27.70 | 70.60 | 14.30 | 35.50 India wheat................ 3 72.70 | 75.00 | 83.40 | 83.80 Millet IDE || > east ae 62.40 | 98.39 | 85.71 OatSe son e ate hoe eeeeeeS 13 62.69 | 71.31 | 90.10 | 87.89 POAS ip eeg4 Sich Gaan sgn eae eon 3 77.07 | 87.00 | 84.80 | 80.01 Wihe ata os ota Gals ottiartussroses 10 82.26 | 75.05 | 87.04 | 53.00 RCo eid pe ear eh hekaue tees 2 79.20 | 66.90 | 86.70 | 22.60 PotatOesi. cacaeisen doko kese 6 78.33 | 46.94 | 84.46 Oats, rolled................. 1 84.00 | 81.00 | 84.80 | 86.20 WeicutT or VARIOUS CONCENTRATES In computing rations for poultry it is desirable to know the weight per quart, or the bulk, of the different concen- trates. The following table, compiled from Massachusetts Bulletin 136 by Smith and Perkins, Louisiana Bulletin 114 by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin 141 by Jones, Haworth, Cutler and Summers is therefore presented. FEEDSTUFFS 307 On . One | pound One | pound Feeding stuffs aeighs, meas- Feeding stuff eelete meas- pounds| quarts pounds) quarts Whole corn............. 1.7 0.6 Millet, foxtail.......... 1.6 0.6 Corn meal..............} 1.5 0.7 Rice polish............. 132 0.8 Corn-and-cob meal...... 1.4 0.7 Rice bran.............. 0.8 1.3 Hominy feed............ Lea 0.9 Buckwheat............. 1.4 0.7 Gluten feed............. 1.3 0.8 Buckwheat flour........ 1.6 0.6 Gluten meal............ 1.7 0.6 Buckwheat middlings...) 0.9 i le Germ oil meal........... 1.4 0.7 Buckwheat bran........ 0.6 1.7 Corn bran....... wisielees cos 0.5 2.0 Buckwheat hulls....... 0.5 2.0 Wheat seiisew-o cs maw 1.9 0.5 Cotton seed.. ......... 0.8 1.3 Wheat, ground.. Hee akevg 0.6 Cottonseed meal........ 1.5 0.7 Flour wheat middlings...| 1.2 0.8 Cottonseed hulls........ 0.3 3.3 Standard wheat middlings| 0.8 1.3 Mlaxseed ine ied oacy Reads 1.6 0.6 Wheat bran............. 0.5 2.0 Linseed meal, old process} 1.1 0.9 Wheat feed (shorts and Linseed meal, new proc- BEEN) paws io saewo ae 0.6 1.7 OSSiks pee Geen bees 0.9 1.1 Wheat screenings........ 1.0 1.0 Flax feed.............. 0.8 1.3 AR Cis 2 tears eed Sie. b otacaauday 1.7 0.6 Flax screenings......... 1.1 0.9 Rye meal: 5. sinen cae avas 1.5 0.7 Beans, navy............ 1.7 0.6 Rye middlings...... . 1.6 0.6 COWDCESs .kiles wes ae eae 1st 0.6 Rye braniiic ccoce sce 4 0.8 1.3 Rye feed (shorts and Peas, field..............] 2.1 0.5 Bran)c scmapecs At see eeva cs 1.3 0.8 Soybeans.............- 1.8 0.6 OBtSnece cigs seine « 1.0 1.0 Cocoanut meal....... 1.5 0.7 Oatmeéals :scces a sgeame 1.7 0.6 Cocoanut cake.......... 1.3 0.8 Oats, ground............ 0.7 1.4 Sunflower seed ......... 1.5 0.7 Oat feed........eeereeee 0.8 1.3 Beet pulp, dried........ 0.6 Pek Oat middlings........... key 0.7 Distillers’ grains, dried..| 0.6 1.7 Oat hulls. sa.2..2cssees 0.4 2.5 Molasses, cane, or black- Barleyi ¢ ciwecace oh see oF 15 0.7 BEAD aes: ek ale eae ah 3.0 0.3 Barley meal...........- 1.1 0.9 Molasses feed.......... 0.8 1.3 Malt sprouts...........+ 0.6 1.7 Alfalfa meal............ 0.6 1.7 Brewers’ grains, dried....| 0.6 1.7 CHAPTER XVI DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED SPOILED AND DISEASED FEEDS Many digestive derangements are caused through dietetic errors caused by spoiled feeds. It is a common and popular thought that spoiled feed, not fit for human consumption, is good enough for the chickens. Food that is injurious to the digestive canal of one group of animals is pretty likely to prove just as injurious to another. There are very few exceptions to thisrule. The fact that a buzzard can eat carrion and thus spread disease does not imply that all kinds of birds can eat spoiled feed with impunity. The anatomic and microscopic structure of the digestive tract of all animals is pretty much alike, as we may see under the section on Digestion. All animals make use of the same nutrients, assimilate them, and build organic structures out of them. So far as we know, fat in the body of a hen is built up by the same process as fat in the body of a cow ora human. Its sources may be the same. Al! eat similar food—that is, the same kind of carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, protein, and ash. All are affected in a similar manner when poisonous substances are taken into the body. Some withstand certain poisons better than others. It was formerly thought that it was impossible to poison birds with strychnin, and one author went so far as to say that pigeons ate strychnin with impunity, but that birds can easily be poisoned by strychnin is shown by the experiments of the author, in which experiments the medicinal dosage of sulphate of strych- nin was found to be from 14 to 4 grain to an adult hen. One grain in solution, given on an empty stomach, always proves fatal in a very few minutes. Therefore, birds have a greater resistance to strychnin per body weight than other animals, making the medicinal dose greater, and hence the lethal or poisonous dose correspondingly larger. 308 DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED 309 Birds readily succumb to ptomain-poisoning after eating rotten meat. Birds have been known to suffer from ptomain- poisoning after eating putrid canned corn. While the intestinal flora or bacteria which live in the diges- tive tract is somewhat similar to that of higher animals, yet they do not apparently suffer to any great extent with fermen- tation of the undigested food and with tympany. The carcass of a horse, cow, dog, or hog, in many instances, and especially in cases in digestive derangements, soon ‘‘bloat”’ to enormous size. This bloating does not readily take place in dead fowl, if at all. There appears-to be no fermentative trouble from digestive contents in dressed carcasses of fowl. Fermenta- tion and putrefaction is indeed slow, though it cannot be dis- puted that if the carcass be kept under the proper temperature the germs or bacteria from the intestinal tract grow by ex- tension through the intestinal wall, and ultimately contribute to degenerative changes as well as products given off by them in solution spreading by diffusion. This change, however, is slow if the carcasses be kept at a cool temperature (below 40° F.). In studying feeds and digestion, we take under consideration the possible alteration in quantity, conditions of quality, and conditions of digestibility. An excess of certain kinds of food, without sufficient exercise, may lead to a physiologic deposition of fat, especially in the abdominal cavity, which may interfere from two standpoints —namely, egg production and as breeders, affecting fertility and vitality of the progeny. As a pathologic result it may produce a febrile condition with blood and liver derangements, especially when the excess is protein. Spoiled feed may be-of such a nature as to cause diarrhea by acting as an irritant to the intestinal mucosa. The diarrhea is a natural result of nature, the intestinal canal trying to rid itself of the objectionable material. When feed is kept for a considerable length of time and under certain conditions it may be attacked by vegetable and animal organisms. Thus, mash, bran, middlings, and shorts kept in too damp a quarter are readily attacked by molds and sapro- phytic bacteria of decay, and the feed soon becomes bitter and 310 POULTRY CULTURE spoiled and unfit for feeding. (See Fig. 104, a, b, c, and d.) Weevil is another enemy of feed, especially grain. Rats and mice destroy large quantities. The storage-rooms should bemade and maintained rat- and mouse-proof, and the grain bins and mash hoppers in the poultry houses should be kept closed at night. It is good practice to have the mash hopper in the hen-house so constructed that the lid may be closed in the evening when the evening scratch feed is given, and again opened when the morning scratch feed is given; thus it takes no extra time to see that this precaution in feed saving is carried out. As hinted before, the quality of feed is affected by its mode of growth, care in saving and preservation, as well as cleanli- ness, and the inroads of vegetable and animal parasites. If grain be grown on land that is poor in quality, the product will also be poor in quality. Therefore the quality of the soil affects the quality of the crop. It has been noticed that oats grown on clay soil are superior to any other. Rye grows best on light sandy soil and barley on good loam. The age at which the crop is gathered is also an important factor exerting its influence upon the nutritive value. Wheat cut about fifteen days before it is ripe contains the most protein and starch and the bushel measureful weighs more. If it be cut late, there is found a less percentage of the floury part and an increase in the percentage of bran. The season has a great influence on the quality of feed, wet years producing parasitic diseases of the grain and stalk, and the crop is usually delayed in maturing. It is noticed that in a wet, hot summer ergot of the seeds of grains and grasses, especially rye and blue grass, is more common. There are certain chemical changes that take place in grain after it is stored which apparently removes any irritating properties it may contain, and renders its nutritive substances easier digested. This not only applies to grain, but to mangles and even hay. Food improperly taken care of in wet seasons may deterio- rate, that is, become moldy, and chemical changes of various kinds take place, affecting both the proteins and starches, and at times rendering them unfit for food and even poisonous. DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED 311 The risk which one takes in feeding any foodstuff which has kept badly depends upon the extent to which deterioration has taken place. The degree to which the food is damaged may range from a faint moldy smell to a decomposing and offensive-smelling material. Root-crops, under the conditions usually kept, may readily undergo decay. Rotten potatoes and other roots may produce digestive irritation and even poisoning. Cleanliness in feeding is essential. Baby chicks sometimes gorge themselves with sand, impac- tion of the crop being the result, and death often follows. DISEASES OF FEED Certain fungi attack plants during growth, and thus may be considered parasites of that plant. Those organisms which attack the grain or plant after death or at maturity are called saprophytes. Some organisms attacking foodstuffs are vegetable in nature, while others are animal organisms. The organisms here considered destroy the grain on which they live. The principal vegetable parasites are those causing ergot, rust, smut, and mildew. (See Fig. 104, 2, j, and k.) Those attacking plants and grain after death or at maturity cause moldiness and rottenness, and these molds belong to the genera of aspergillus, penicillium, and mucor, besides many kinds of saprophytic bacteria. (See Fig. 104, a, 6, c, and d.) Puccinia graminis is the fungus which under certain condi- tions attacks growing grain. It must necessarily pass through two hosts or plants to complete its life cycle. In each host it produces a distinct disease. The stems and leaves of all grasses and cereals may be attacked by it in the early summer. On these it produces yellowish-red lines or spots. The color is due to the spores or seeds of the fungus. This material when dry is dust-like, and gives the rusty appearance to the leaf or stalk attacked. The mycelia or mass of hyphe are composed of elongated cells, arranged end to end, and grow 312 POULTRY CULTURE into the substance of the leaf or stalk. The spores they form are called uredospores. Later in the summer the production of yellowish-red spores ceases and changes take place in the mycelia, when, instead of yellowish-red spores, there is now formed another kind, known as the teleutospore, and is not capable of producing the disease if placed on a fresh plant. It must undergo another change in which a small hyphe-like outgrowth is formed and which bears four spores; this is the third kind of spore produced in the cycle. These latter spores may be transmitted by the wind to other plants, where the fungus again repeats its cycle. Smut of corn is produced by a fungus, Ustilago maydis, and is said to be non-poisonous. Ustilago carbo is the fungus that produces smut of oats. (See Fig. 104, 7.) This fungus con- sists of mycelia and spores. The flowering heads of grains, as wheat, oats, rye, and barley, may be attacked. The diseased area appears at first as a small whitish spot which, after the spores have formed, appears black. This fungus completely destroys the flowering head and seed. Claviceps purpurea is a fungus which attacks the grains of grasses, as blue-grass and grains of rye. (See Fig. 104, &.) The grain becomes enlarged to twice or more in length, and varies from a brown to black in color. The attacked grain is known as an ergotized one. Grain and mash exposed to sufficient dampness become moldy. Figure 104, a, 6, ¢, d, illustrates various kinds of bacteria and molds, as stated before. The latter are made of hyphe and spores. Damp grain becomes dark in color and sprouts; the starch is changed into sugar, and other chemical changes take place, be- sides some of the nutrients are used up by the mold. Fermen- tation of the mass raises the temperature and, if much bulk, becomes quite hot to the hand. As soon as it is found that feedstuff becomes wet, it is advis- able to spread it out in a thin layer so that it can readily dry and thus produce unfavorable conditions for the growth of the fungi. A dry place is essential for the storing of feedstuffs. While the drying prevents sprouting, stops the fungoid growth, 313 DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED Fy ‘E'S ‘T YB Sureis yoS1a oy} Zurmoys pur yoss1a Jo snsuny ayy Aq payoezye peoy af1 @ y ‘qnuIs Aq poyoryye poy yvo ue £ ysnz Aq poyovyqe syev0 Jo y[BIs & ST tSUTvIS OY} Youre Yor sdnq ore y ‘6 ‘f ‘0 Syuesaid St Bey puev oinystow Jodord oy, usyM Pedy Aossop pue youyye YyoryM spjour O18 p pue 9 paw ‘Boop asned qey} stUIEs oIv q pues D :syNyspooy pue soyisered jo yieyo Y— POT ‘Ol w L anak PY eqdsé eqdigg ‘BIPISUT ‘By[ITIO} Byemspayg Th 199 manigaviodg eIpluog, ayeyexo TANTOTCD Jospeys{io AeMOR (smritAL iF) “upoeg Jo saddt~ imi th A) 2 ow (sumone ay 41/7) “poosorstww Jo sadét— yp B ta00 “es ED 314 POULTRY CULTURE and gets rid of the moisture, yet one should be apprehensive about feeding such spoiled feed. There are two kinds of animal parasites affecting grain, as mentioned before. One attacks the grain during growth and development, the other the cured grain. Thus, the ear of corn is attacked by a worm, and wheat, rye, and oats by the ear cockle, another kind of round-worm. The insects attacking cured grains are the Tenebrio forma. The larva of the Tenebrio of grain destroy the grains, reducing them to a powder. Certain acari also destroy grain, among which are the Gamasus and Argas. (See Fig. 104, f, g, A.) The acari (Fig. 104, e) reduce the grain content to a powder, consuming a part and contaminating the balance with their excrements and destroying it. Birds are capable of eating many kinds of insects and worms, and while some of these when ingested by other animals suffer, it is not proved that they are harmful to birds. CHAPTER XVII RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING TuE object of feeding is to transform the vegetable and ani- mal feeds into finished products in the form of eggs and meat which are edible, and to keep the body in a normal physiologic condition. The different processes in the body to be considered are growth, reproduction, storing of fat, maintenance of the body temperature, repair of body tissue waste, to supply muscular energy, and the elaboration of secretions. A chick develops or grows very rapidly if given proper food. The baby chick is one of the most delicate animals, and is capable of making the most rapid growth of any. The baby chick at hatching weighs about 114 ounces. By proper care and feed the chick should weigh 40 ounces at twelve weeks old, or an increase of approximately twenty-six times its original weight. Therefore, the process of digestion and assimilation is much greater than in other animals. Cell metabolism is very rapid. A chick requires a large amount of mineral mat- ter, as lime-salts, as well as much protein, hence it requires a narrow ration. The greatest primary increase is in bone and muscle. The bony structure is the framework for the support of the reproductive and other vital organs and attachment for the skeletal muscles. Many of the hollow organs, as the bowels, contain muscular coats, which are composed largely of albumen. This albumen is built up from the protein of the food, and the same may be said of the skeletal muscles and of the cells of the glands. The muscular structure is called lean meat. Protein is the nitrogen-containing portion of the food. As a result of rapid growth and development the bird must be supplied with food containing much protein. Body de- velopment or growth is largely completed when egg production or egg formation begins. 315 316 POULTRY CULTURE The length of time for a bird to reach the age of full develop- ment, as far as skeleton and muscle is concerned, varies with the care, feed, and breed. If the birds are properly fed the smaller breeds, as those belonging to the Mediterranean— namely, the Leghorn and Minorca—will be sufficiently de- veloped to lay at about five months of age, while the larger breeds, as the Asiatics and American—namely, the Cochins, Plymouth Rocks, and Wyandottes—may not lay till they are six or even seven months old. The workers at Cornell have determined by careful observa- tions that a young bird molts four times before growing its permanent adult feathers and does not lay till adult plumage is developed. The late molting hen is the heavy layer and it is therefore advisable to select the late molter for breeding. 8. C. White Leghorn pullets force fed from baby chick to maturity have laid at four months and four days to five months of age. In selecting hens for breeding one should take only the heavy layers if increased egg production is desired. An average- sized egg weighs about 2 ounces. Of this, 11 per cent. is shell, 32 per cent. is yolk, and 57 per cent. is white. The principal chemical constituents are ash or mineral matter, which con- stitutes 9 per cent.; fat or hydrocarbon, 93/9 per cent.; pro- teins or nitrogenous-containing substance, 1199 per cent.; water, 65570 per cent. Calcium, or lime-salts, is essential for the formation of the egg-shell. As the feeds commonly fed to poultry do not con- tain sufficient lime, it is necessary to feed shell, as oyster-shell, unless the birds are on range where they have an opportunity to pick up lime. Foods consist of three organic compounds as follows: Pro- tein, carbohydrates, and hydrocarbons. Protein contains the following elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. All the nitrogen of the foodstuffs is contained in the protein. The carbohydrates contain three elements—namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—and include the starches, sugars, gums, resins, and other similar substances. The third compound, the hydrocarbons, are composed of RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 317 three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and include the compounds, fats and oils. In addition to these three com- pounds we find water and ash or mineral matter, representing the inorganic compounds. The egg, as stated before, contains a large amount of albu- men or nitrogen-containing substances, which must be built up from the protein constituents of the food. The same may be said of a growing animal, hence feeds for these animals must contain considerable protein. Therefore, oats and wheat in different forms, as well as meat scrap and green feeds, make up the greater protein content of these rations which give the best results in egg production and growth and development. In mature birds, where it is the desire to finish them—that is, fatten them for market—it is necessary in order to obtain the best results to feed a ration containing much carbohydrates and hydrocarbons. To summarize, we might say that the protein, or nitrogen- containing compounds of the food, repairs the body-waste caused by exercise and living processes, as that. brought about by the beating of the heart and by respiration. The carbo- hydrates and hydrocarbons or starches and fats are utilized in the body for combustive purposes for the production of energy and to keep up the body temperature. Any nutrients in excess of the body requirements to make good tissue-waste are stored up as fat or go for egg production. FOR LAYING HENS To secure a goodly number of eggs it is necessary to make the proper selection of hens. In breeding, one should select for longevity, use late molters, select early producing pullets, use fall and winter layers, select heavy eaters, early risers, and late retirers, and procure mature birds. Pullets for fall laying should be hatched the first week in April. It pays to keep pure bred poultry because they are more reliable in breeding. They are greater egg producers, superior in meat quality. With pure bred one should secure better results in feeding, better hatching quality, less. broodiness, more attractive ap- pearance, and a more uniform egg in size, shape, and color. 318 POULTRY CULTURE Breeding stock can be sold at a higher price than butcher stuff. In order to build up a greater egg-laying strain trap nests are resorted to, and those showing a high egg-laying record are used to breed from. Male birds from these high-laying strains should be used, as inheritance of high egg-producers is also transmitted to the offspring by the male. An important factor in the success of winter egg production is the manner in which the pullets are started out in the fall. The young pullets that are expected to lay the high priced eggs in the fall and winter should be properly housed in their permanent winter quarters as soon after September 1st as possible, and with the least possible excitement accompanying this moving. New surroundings always occasion a setback in pullets just entering the laying age. The set back is more pronounced in the nervous, active breeds as the Leghorns than the heavy sluggish breeds. Decker relates an experience in which 60 White Plymouth Rock pullets were moved twice after September Ist, the last time being on October 10th. These pullets did not settle down to laying till after Christmas, whereas others of the same age and breed that had not been moved were laying regularly by November Ist. Some com- mercial egg producers shut their pullets in the house all fall, winter, and spring, force feed them for laying, and sell them in the summer when the eggs are a low price, and again take on a new lot of pullets raised that year. The youngsters are raised on range, and when it is time to take them to their new quarters they are fed gradually closer to their permanent house, are finally enticed into the house where they soon begin to feel at home, and roost at night. Finally when there is no danger of disturbance from closing the doors, they are shut.up and there remain for the winter. It is very important that the young pullets receive an abun- dance of green feed daily after they are confined in the laying house. This green feed may be cabbage leaves, lettuce, second growth clover clippings, sprouted oats, green corn blades and stalks cut fine, sweet corn planted closely and stalks thus grown cut finely in feed cutter. Lettuce may be planted each week from as early in the spring as it will grow to as late in the fall. In the South it may be grown all year round. RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 319 The pullets need an abundance of lime as the stronger the shells the fewer will be broken when shipping to market and the less loss to the producer. Then the pullet needs lime to complete growth. Three pounds of oyster shell, ground to a fine powder, added to each 100 pounds of mash has proven beneficial. An Estimate of Possible Production.—The Dominion of Canada gives the following summary: It may be of interest to outline what might be considered reasonable winter pro- duction in Canada from a flock of strong, vigorous, well- matured pullets intelligently housed, fed, and cared for. The figures indicated are percentages figured on the number of eggs laid per day in proportion to the total number of pullets in the flock: October from 14 per cent. to 5 per cent. November from 5 per cent. to 15 per cent. December from 15 per cent. to 20 per cent. Usually there is a slight falling-off early in December when the extreme cold weather commences; this shrinkage, however, is usually overcome as soon as the birds become accustomed to the changed conditions. January from 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. February from 20 per cent. to 30 per cent. The figures for February would be high in many cases, for birds that have laid well during the previous three months usually show quite a marked falling-off in February, evidently a provision of nature to prepare for the stress of the natural hatching season to follow: March from 35 per cent. to 55 per cent. April from 55 per cent. to 70 per cent. The period of highest production comes usually between the middle of March and the middle of April. The most valuable bird, however, is the one that lays in her pullet year thirty or more eggs before the first of March. Farm range conditions are best for health, vigor, and strong progeny. The food obtained from range consists of worms, slugs, insects, seeds, green feed, lime, various salts, and small sharp stones. Hot mashes at night in the winter time in which is incorpo- 320 POULTRY CULTURE rated green feed, milk, and meat scrap stimulate winter egg production. Laying hens should be kept warm and protected from storms. To keep the hens happy they should have about a foot of wheat or oat straw in the bottom of the houses, into which the scratch feed should be thrown. It is necessary to keep the birds free of lice and chiggers. Vermin weaken birds and lay them open to attacks of disease, and are indirectly the cause of more loss from death, egg production, and flesh than any other one cause. The birds should not be frightened by strangers and dogs, etc., entering the premises. ia i Fig. 105.—A comparison of the number of eggs laid by a scrub (75) and a hen bred for high egg production (224). For laying hens the following feeding program should be carried out: The first scratch feed should consist of clipped oats and wheat, of each equal parts, and should be given at about 7 o’clock in the morning and thrown in the litter, so they will have to scratch for it. The second scratch feed should consist of clipped oats, wheat, and the coarse particles of cracked corn, equal parts, and should be given at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon and placed in the straw. Dry mash should be kept in slatted hoppers in such a way that they cannot throw it out, and this feed should be kept before them at all times. This dry mash should consist of the following: RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 321 Wheat brant. co.cc suesdascuweenes para yes 2 parts. Wheat middlings....................000... 2 i Ground Ofte x 25s siete ce eA a ee Dad Qe Cormiiéalmasenssnase yee saws aerate nes 1 part, Cotton-seed meal........ deg ahicdoracseaningvengionesins Ls Meat scrap........... arishie cbs one eSienOicd oo Nye as oa qe Ground alfalfa....... pin Bu Batch teats Bie! har saee 1 « Thoroughly mix. In addition to this, skimmed milk, clabber, or buttermilk may be given. It has been found that milk will, at least toa certain extent, take the place of the meat scrap. Hehe OM Fria. 106.—a is a grain storage box to be kept in the hen house for storage of the grain feed: b for the morning scratch feed, c for the eveping scratch feed; @ is an inside dry mash hopper; e, the lid; f, compartment for grit; g, com- partment for charcoal; k, compartment for oyster shells; 7, compartment for the dry mash; j, the let-down lid so the rats cannot eat the mash at night; k is a commercial mash hopper; J, the let-down lid; m is a three-compart- ment mash or shell hopper; n is a metal mash hopper; 0, a netting over the mash to prevent the birds from throwing the feed out. It is convenient to have in each hen house a grain storage box, as illustrated in Fig. 106, a—b is the compartment for the storage of the morning scratch feed and c for the evening scratch feed. The lid is up to show the interior; d represents a dry mash hopper which should be provided for the interior of every hen house; ¢ is the lid; f, the compartment for oyster 21 322 shells; g, the compartment for grit; h, the compartment for charcoal; 7, the compartment for the dry mash; j, indicates the lid, which may be closed down at night, thus keeping out the rats and mice; & is a commercial metal mash hopper; / is a lid to let down at night; m is another mash hopper with three com- partments, and is excellent for chicks or bantams; 7 is still another type of mash hopper, with 0, a grating to keep the POULTRY CULTURE fowl from throwing out the mash. box. The New Jersey Experiment Station recommends the follow- ing ration for laying hens, in their Bulletin No. 2, vol. i, 1912: bi Fie. 107.—An outdoor mash hopper. The four compartments A, B, C, and D are for use as in Fig. 106, d. The dimensions are given on the It is covered with rubberoid. Dry Masa Wheat bran....... ee 200 pounds, Wheat middlings......... 200 = Ground oats............. 200 a Cornmeal..............- 100 " Gluten meal...........- 100 a Meat scrap...........05- 100 Me Short-cut alfalfa......... 100“ 1000 pounds, 1381 quarts. 380 quarts. 240 200 95 80 86 200 ial it3 RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 323 By referring to the table of digestible nutrients and adding up the fat, multiply this by 2.25 and add it to the carbohy- drates, and divide this by the amount of protein, it will be found that the nutritive ratio will be 1: 3.02. Mornine ScratcH FEED Wheat singe asaceaewasnuas 200 pounds, 53 quarts. Clipped oats .............. 100.“ OS = 300 pounds, 151 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:6.6. Nicgut Scratcu FrEp Cracked corn.............. 200 pounds, 120 quarts. WHEAT Attra en clang a ae 100 " 53 C Clipped oats............... 100. “ 98 Buckwheat................ 100 o 66 CO 500 pounds, 337 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:7.8. Another feed for laying hens, which has been recommended by the Poultry Review, is as follows: Mornine ScratcH FEED OBtSs cenwualee doe 10h RE ROE RY Rowe alee aes, LO POUnas: WHEAT ecancanae ace Sarat RA ANe aed 60 “ Buck WHEAG: ec. ape sk he kone as ye eam SuNS 24 os Millets cts onnt ier Sen cara ins corre vine 50 _ 454 pounds. Nutritive ratio, 1 :6.02. EVENING ScRATCH FEED Gracked Corts alll ee Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.1. The grain ration may consist of the following: Cracked COicnssoai oiiuiacuieeassiakes 10 pounds. Wists 20 cesses yew ee dea We eiae toa axe ‘os re OaTS ne Soak aed nae sone BAe aS onc ead a m. of Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.2. The rapid growth and development that take place in the bones make a greater demand for mineral matter than this ration supplies, hence the bones break easily, unless the ration contains a sufficient amount of mineral matter, and particu- larly calcium. The following mixtures have also proven excellent rations for chicks from hatching to range size which is about eight weeks of age. It should be fed five times a day, just what they will eat up clean. Better results are obtained when mixed with milk and the birds are given milk to drink. Penni teal. oes cis gia veadaalaee sae aaeselauad o 33 parts. Ground Gorns.a saws wvwies avew eee orccens Faroe 67. RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 335 Soybean meal........................ OBE Corn meal. ey °° Byaeayathd tae Sa thane .... 67 “ 100.“ Wheat middlings... ....... ............ O8.. 8 Corn meal. .......0 0.0... 00... 28° Ground oats.......00....... 0.0.02. 20. 28. (CS Meatscrap......... ..... of age aoe 26> 100.“ Milk-fed chickens undergo heavy shrinkage when shipped alive. The most profitable way is to dress them on the plant and ship dressed for market. The fattening period lasts from ten to fourteen days. Pullets raised for egg production or for breeding purposes should not be force-fed. Pullets and cockerels must be kept in separate yards after they reach a weight of about 2 pounds. In crate feeding as many birds are placed in the crate as can find room to eat feed from the trough placed along the side. The feed is fed sparingly at first, gradually increased. The birds are fed every twelve hours, that is, morning and evening. In feeding for eggs, fattening birds, or growing stock it is essential that the feeding be regular and done each time on the minute. Equalization of the time of feeding is essential for the best results. Chick Feeding.— Keep clean pure water and fresh sour milk before the chicks at all times. At first dip the bills of a few of the baby chicks into the milk and they will teach the balance to drink. If the milk gets into the eyes it may ferment there and cause sores. In this case wipe out the eye with clean absorbent cotton and drop one drop of a 1 per cent. solution of Sulphate of Zinc in the eye. The dishes must be washed clean each day and kept clean and sweet smelling. Do not allow chicks or ducklings to have musty grain or mash. Musty feed can be detected by its odor. Do not allow them to have feed that has become putrid. Feeding trays should be cleaned in one hour after the chicks are fed and the cleanings thrown where the chicks cannot get at it. 336 POULTRY CULTURE Fermenting putrid feed may cause diarrhea and loss of chicks in forty-eight hours, and those that are affected and do not die do not properly develop. Do not give frozen feed. The milk may be either fresh sweet milk or sour milk (clab- ber) or buttermilk. Do not feed sour milk at one time and sweet milk at another, as this method may result in serious bowel trouble. Charcoal to the baby chick aids digestion, prevents sour crop and bowel disorders. Feed chick size grit, charcoal, and shell in self-feeding hoppers. Clover, blue grass, rape, vetch, sprouted oats, lettuce, and alfalfa 4 to 6 inches high and this cut fine with a knife makes excellent green feed for the baby chick and should be fed not later than the sixth day. Dry Litter Feeding of Chicks.—Deep litter feeding of chicks after one week of age has been recommended. The first step is to clean and disinfect in a thorough manner the interior feed pen. Then place upon the floor about 2 or 3 inches of short cut straw or chaff and sprinkle upon this about 15 pounds of scratch feed, then another layer of about 2 inches of litter and more scratch feed. Repeat these layers till there has been sown down about 60 pounds to each 50 chicks, which is about what they will consume in about six weeks. TURKEYS AND POULTS In turkey raising an orchard will be found an excellent range. Cottage-cheese, buttermilk, or clabber milk is excellent. The breeders need green feed, but usually secure this by forag- ing. Bone meal, also meat scraps from the table, may be fed. The birds need plenty of grit. Oats and wheat make excel- lent grain feeds, and should be scattered over the ground and not fed from troughs. Examine the turkey hens and poults to make sure they are not infested with lice or other vermin. In case they are infested dust with louse powder, as in the case of hens. The young poults should not be fed for the first day after hatching, for the same reason that feed is withheld from the baby chicks. At the end of twenty-four hours feed hard- RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 337 boiled eggs with dried bread crumbs. After the fourth day this may be replaced with hulled oats, cracked corn, and cracked wheat. Fine grit and charcoal should be kept before them at all times. The young poult must not be allowed to wander over the farm till it has grown large enough to be strong and out of danger of the ills the baby poult is heir to. This will require about five to six weeks. It is a good plan to con- fine the hen turkey, as is the case of the hen with baby chicks. Poults must not be allowed to run in the dewy grass, or be out in a rainstorm. They must be protected from excessive heat by being provided with shade. If the turkeys begin to “hang around”’ the buildings it is an indication that they are not securing enough feed on the range. It is then necessary to feed them. This feed may consist of a grain ration, consisting of corn, wheat, and oats, equal parts. , When it. is desired to prepare them for market it is advisable to place them in yards, so as to limit their exercise. Gradu- ally bring them up to fu!l feed. Besides grain, such as corn, wheat, and oats, they should have all the milk they will drink, and they should be fed twice a day and given all they will clean up as soon as on full feed. DUCKS AND GEESE During the laying season ducks should be confined in the house till about 9 o’clock in the morning. By this time most of the eggs will be laid. Ducks have a tendency to lay their eggs in the yard. On Long Island, in 1914, there was 1,165,000 ducks hatched. Mr. Hallock, one of the largest and most successful breeders on the island, told the writer that his ration for old breeding ducks was as follows: WHERE: DIAM esc ccc ssuaca cake whe heuned argue oe meorsd 10 parts. Gormmesl,. . opi oa vatucs deep eee hanes 10 “ NO: 2 Molt: ieee ee usaeerayswasgeces Lpath Ground ‘alfalfais + cuss eraca can eee ime atin 2 parts. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.9. Mixed and fed as mash, using water in mixing. 22 338 POULTRY CULTURE His feed for-ducklings consists of the following: Cornmeal awe scan cag niin wade dda ibens 2 parts. Wheat bran.. ..... ..... Leite -amswe Qe Mt DeCT Slap cx scat aa ecaan ee wae eR OE 1 part. No. 2 flour... 2.02.0 cee ee eee te Greenistuihs sc wecinreee sesee whee e apes cl Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.4. The green feed consists of cut grass or sprouted oats. The mash is always fed wet. They are given all they will “clean up,” and are fed four times a day. Another well-established way of handling the young duck- lings is as follows: The ducklings should not be fed for the first day. After the first day, and for the succeeding seven days, the feed should consist of wheat bran, cornmeal, wheat middlings, of each equal parts. Grit must be furnished to young and old alike. The mash should be mixed with sour milk or buttermilk. There should be added to the mash after the third day about 5 per cent. meat scrap and the same amount chopped sprouted oats. 5 After the seventh day this feed may be replaced with the following ration: Wheat bran.................. ... .... 10 pounds. Wheat middlings..................... 5 me Cor ois occcat 4 stesa2 >) 17 16 84 | 56 | 3% 68 Ib. and over..........-.-- 18 17 9 54g 3 ‘Outside cleats on last three. National *For any later changes in box measurements, see The Bulletin, Chicago; or any trade paper. 384 POULTRY CULTURE Dry-pickEp Ducks, Two Layrrs (O. 8. CLEats) Length, | Width, | Depth, Ends, E.T.B., 1n. in. In. in. a i AD @) G2 Wessviciecesece esa: 20 13 | 734| 36 | 5-I6 53 (@: 62 lWanoteas eed s eyes 223 14 8 58 34 60 lb. and over.............. 24 1434 834 5g 3¢ Dry-pickeD Grrsr, Two Layprs (O. 8. CLEats) All weights.......00........ | | te Jae | ol & Dry-rickepD Turkrys (OuTsIDE CLEATs) Y. toms, 11 lb. and under....] 26 22 12 34 aA Y. toms, over 11 lb.......... 27 25 1244 34 “4 Hens, 11 Ib. and under....... 22 20 101% 34 yy Hens, over 11 lb............. 24 20 11% 34 A ScaupED Broiters, Breast Up 15 lb. and under............. 14 13 | bly 5¢ y V7? @ 2A Wises cence csninn wall 16 16 4 56 iy 22 @ 24 Wecccrcccceneacn el 16 16 4 5g 3¢ 20° @231 MW eecccmsan os acoecal) LS 16 416 56 36 ScaLtpeD Fryers, Breast Up STAD SO Wisssescioerenceess) US: [BE Th Sed ScatpeD Roasters, Two Laygrs, on SipEs 37 @ 42d. 17 15 | 7 5g 3 43 @ 46 Jb..................) 17% 15 74 5¢ 34 47 @ d4]b..................] 18% 17 8 5g 3 55 Ib. and over.........+.... 20 18 8 54 36 Last three with outside cleats. Scatppep Fow.i, Two Layers BS GreGbecewsiciG tances | AA TBP ope Tbe 3 BT OEE cmomeseseonnna| UG | Mie) ee) ae 34 eC (Yoo | oe ee 17 15 8 54g 36 58 © OO Winrsersiraveroess| 1S 16 gig | 5 36 67 Iby and OVerssseccecesena:| 18 17 9 56 3¢ Outside cleats on last three. Some wholesale merchants recommend that dressed poultry be packed in barrels, and when the weather is warm and no BROILERS AND DRESSING OF FOWL 385 refrigerator car service to be had, thorough icing, which con- sists of placing a layer of cracked ice in the bottom of the barrel, with one layer in the middle and one at the top. When the weather is warm putrefactive changes soon take place. In answer to an inquiry as to New York City demands, a leading commission firm gave the following advice: “The New York market requires the birds to be dry picked. There is little sale in New York City for scalded poultry. It is preferable to ship in boxes of twelve to twenty-four. The extremely small fowl, that is, those weighing 3 pounds and under, are not sold readily. Unless the weather is pretty cold the carcasses must be iced, or they will be struck green when they arrive.” There is another item of vast interest and importance, and that is the Express Companies should make prompt deliveries. In regard to the New York market, Knapp and von Nos- trand says, ‘‘ There is always a good market in this city except on Saturdays.” _ The most desirable weight for broiler ducks is 5 to 6 pounds to the pair, and for roasting purposes 5 pounds or over each. In shipping to wholesale markets it is necessary to select a reliable commission firm, and ship on the days dressed poultry are most in demand. The shipment should be so made that it will arrive late the preceding night. This will insure the commission man getting the product on the early market next day. If this precaution is neglected one runs a risk of the con- signment being too late for market, and becoming fly-blown or bad (in hot weather) while waiting for the next day’s market. If the local market is sufficiently large, it is the best channel through which the small producer can dispose of his product, as he has no icing or carriage expenses to pay. All towns of considerable size have a fairly good market for good grade products. The small producer will find it exceedingly profitable to build up a good private trade. This can be done by always furnishing a good product. This class of trade usually called for the birds to be trussed and ready for cooking. 25 386 POULTRY CULTURE Marketing Dressed Pigeons.—In dressing squab pigeons for market they are selected at 3.5 to 4.5 weeks of age or just at a time when they will leave the nest. Up to this time the parent birds have fed them and they are fat, plump and the flesh tender. On the day squabs are to be marketed catch them in the morning before they are fed by the parents, so that their crops will be empty. Squabs are killed in the same way as poultry, that is, by cutting the veins in the back of the neck and piercing and destroying the brain. They are then picked and cooled and shipped, iced in barrels. If they are to be shipped unpicked they are usually killed by wringing or breaking the neck. This is done by placing the thumbs against the place where the neck joins the head. In picking all feathers are removed except those on the head. Squabs should be graded according to size, quality, and color of the skin. The carcasses should be packed with breasts up. TRUSSING For local trade it is often necessary to prepare the fowl for the oven. This preparation is called trussing. In trussing roasters the carcass is washed and singed, then the tendons are removed by making an incision 2 inches long in the back of the shank, and the tendons one by one are pulled out by aid of a strong hook. This removal of the tendons from the leg greatly improves the quality of the meat of the drumstick as it re- moves the gristly tendinous portions. Cut the shanks off about 1 inch below the hock-joint. Cut the skin on the back of the neck from a point directly between the wings down to the base of the skull. Separate the bony part of the neck from the “gullet” (esophagus) and “windpipe” (trachea) and cut off the neck just in front of the wishbone. Pull the ‘‘ wind- pipe” and “gullet”’ out and cut off the skin at a point just back of the head. This leaves only the skin of the neck, which is rolled back from the front part of the carcass to expose the wishbone, Scrape the breast muscle from the wishbone and BROILERS AND DRESSING OF FOWL 387 remove it by aid of a knife. The wishbone removed makes it easier to slice the white meat. The neck flap is now folded over the breast. A small circular hole is cut around the vent, then a 2-inch cut crosswise just back of the posterior point of the breast-bone, and the abdominal organs are removed through this opening. The drumsticks are allowed to project through this slit and out the small vent opening. The wing- bones are folded on the back. Broilers are prepared by cutting through the backbone, carrying the incision from the tail to the head, and the organs removed through this opening. Or an incision may be made on either side of the backbone from the tail to the head, re- moving the bodies of the vertebra, neck, and head. By break- ing down the sides it is possible to remove the major part of the breast-bone or sternum. The legs are cut off at the hocks and the tendons are removed as in roasters. The Lancashire Method.—The object of trussing apart from removing the visceral organs is to give the bird an attractive appearance, and to enable it to retain its shape while cooking. In preparing for trussing have ready a perfectly clean board, a very sharp trussing knife, a trussing needle, two 15-inch lengths of thin string, a clean cloth, several squares of clean white paper, and an old bucket for the waste matter. Drawing.—Start with the bird on its back with its feet toward you. Cut off the toes at first joint and entire back toe. For older birds make a slit down outside of shank before cutting toes, and with a skewer or trussing needle twist the sinews, drawing them toward the foot. They will come loose easily from the top of the leg, and then the toes may be cut. Trim off the loose skin round the outside edges of the wings. Remove top joint and digit of wing. Lay bird on breast, feet toward you. Pinch up skin of neck and make a deep cut along the back, about 2 inches wide and 3 inches deep, to form a flap, which will subsequently hide the hole made on the removal of the neck. Cut through bone of neck, about 1 inch from the juncture with the body (not right at the joint, or the length of breast will be curtailed and an ugly gap show between the shoulders), 388 POULTRY CULTURE Do not cut through the underneath skin, but, having severed the bone, cut off 2 inches nearer the head. Separate out and cut off head and neck, saving the neck and laying to one side. Remove by peeling out the crop, cutting off as far down as possible, from the tube extending down into the body. Insert two fingers through the neck hole. Pass entirely round inside the fowl to loosen all organs. Particular care must be taken to loosen the lungs, which cause the bird to decompose quicker if left in. To do this the trusser must work carefully toward the backbone between each rib of the four nearest the neck, on either side. With the back of the trussing knife rap the joint of each shoulder sharply to break it. Wipe the flaps and surround- ings flesh clean and fold the flaps evenly over the opening, the back flap coming forward and inside, and the front flap being held in place by folding back the wings that they may lie flat across the back, the flap being under them. Stand the bird on its end, tail upward and feet toward you. With cloth, take firm hold of opening to intestine, and, with a sharp-pointed knife, cut in a complete circle round the vent, taking care to cut around, not into, the intestine. Into the cut, beside the intestine, insert fingers, pass round to loosen organs, take firm grip of gizzard, and draw all organs out in a pile on the board. Separate the heart, liver, and gizzard. Cut a slit along the outside edge of the gizzard, taking care not to cut too deep, pull apart and remove the grit bag. Thread the needle with one of the pieces of string, press legs firmly forward toward head, and at the commencement of leg insert needle, drawing out an exactly same point on the other side. The legs should be even. Insert the same needle and string through the space between the two wing-bones, then under and up through the skin of the fore wing. Proceed in the same manner with the other wing, beginning with the fore wing and ending between the bones of the wing itself. Tie ends of string tightly together at the starting-point. Rethread the needle, pass through skin at point of breast-bone, through hole in breast-bone, and out at same point on other side. Over the leg and through the hole in the hip, out on opposite side of BROILERS AND DRESSING OF FOWL 389 body, in under skin, over leg to breast-bone, through breast- bone again, and out of the original hole. Cut thread. The string should be hanging in equal lengths on each side of the breast-bone. Tie strings tightly behind legs, draw parson’s nose down, and tie firmly in a knot on back. Cut ends short. The Sussex Method.—Cut off shanks at knee-joint. Manipulate neck and loosen, as in the Lancashire method. Make a small shallow slit horizontally between the tail and vent, insert little finger, hook the intestine by passing finger round inside vent, insert knife point where finger is and cut outward. Finish drawing as in above method. Trussing.—Insert needle through space between two wing- bones, over flap of skin, and through between opposite wing- bones. Pull legs well forward, and pass needle through body at commencement of legs and out the other side. Tie tightly at starting-point. Rethread. Pass through parson’s nose and twist string round to make it firm; pass over legs, cross behind, and tie ends tightly. A small slit is made in the wing, and the liver inserted through one wing and the gizzard through the other. Boning Fowls.— With a sharp knife make an incision through the skin in the back of the neck. This incision is carried down to the base of the neck. After this incision down the neck is made, work out the neck separating it from the skin and sur- rounding structures and cut off at the head. Then cut off the neck at the base. Cut off the neck skin close to the head. After the removal of the head and neck, the next step is to remove the feet and shanks by unjointing at the hock. Before doing this slit the skin at the back part of the shank, work out the tendons, place over a hook and pull the tendons out from the muscle of the tibial or drum stick region and the legs will thus be free from “gristle’’ or tendons when cooked for table use. It is not necessary to remove the intestines for boning. After removal of the neck and shanks set the carcass on the posterior end, make a cut on each side of the two wings of the wish-bone, cut loose its attachments and remove. Next cut down and disarticulate the wings at the shoulder joint. Later the wing bones can be removed. One method is to leave the wings and thigh bones in but this is only partial boning. 390 POULTRY CULTURE It is more satisfactory to remove all bones. Next gradually work off the flesh from the body skeleton by gradually scrap- ing downward with the knife. Hold the knife at an angle against the bone. Turn the skin with the flesh over in a roll, like taking off a glove, by stripping downward. By this means the bones can be stripped clean of meat. After the meat has been removed down to the thighs disarticulate the hip joints The thigh bone and tibia can be removed later. It is now an easy matter to remove the balance of the flesh from the body case. The wing and leg bones are now easily removed by stripping the skin and flesh in the same manner as taking out the body case. After the bones are removed the meat can be tied at one end stuffed with dressing and the other end tied and after cooking it may be served on the table in slices making each slice contain dark and light meat and dressing. Or, the meat can be rolled, baked, and then served in similar slices without the dressing added. Loss in killing and dressing is illustrated in the following which is the result of one test: Live welght.. syyosyas qeesacakeeevads 348 pounds. Dressed weight (picked and bled)..... 306.8 a TEOBS i SAise cawid Shisss is Soe shaiedy dus bey > Bach we. 41.2 Ber cent: l0ss.c028% aecaeeesiaakees 11.8 This includes the weights with the heads and feet on. Trussed weights vary according to grade and condition of the carcass. The breed as well as the age is also a factor. Usually the trussed weight will range from 65 per cent. in thin fowls to 88 per cent. in fat hens. The percentage of edible meat varies with the breed, age, and condition of the carcass. In fat birds about 60 per cent. is found to remain after boning. The percentage then that consists of head, bones, and shanks varies with the age and condition of the bird, but may be only about 13.85 per cent. of the live weight in the very fattest birds and increase in percentage in birds not fat. The following score-card is recommended for student use: BROILERS AND DRESSING OF FOWL 391 Tue CorNELL Score-carp For Dressep Pouttry Disqualifications.—Unmistakable signs of disease, sore spots. Valuation ceetion Name of section Remarks 15 Appearance. Free from sores, not scalded, clean, well picked, well shaped and prepared, and having a young appearance. 5 Size. Medium. 5 Head. Small, with small, close-fitting furnish- ings. 10 Body. Rectangular in shape, wide between the legs. 5 Wings. Small, tucked up. 5 Back. Broad, medium in length, well fleshed, not roached. 10 Shanks and legs. | Short and thick. 10 Breast. Full and rounding, broad, well covered with flesh throughout. 15 Keel. Straight and long, not bending, well covered with flesh throughout. 5 Bone. Small and fine. 15 Skin and flesh. Soft, fine textured, medium to loose, flesh not flabby, not too much fat, es- pecially in the abdomen. Color, yel- low or white, according to variety, yellow in this country being preferable. 100 CHAPTER XIX THE CARE AND MARKETING OF FEATHERS Tuere are dealers who buy feathers. The prices vary according to the condition of the feathers and the quality. Pure white feathers bring a higher price than mixed or dark feathers, All body feathers will heat if sacked up before being thor- oughly aired and dried. The stock may be apparently dry when shipped, but unless the animal heat has been thoroughly removed the feathers will heat and mold in a short time. It is, therefore, necessary to spread all body feathers on a clean floor, not over 4 to 6 inches thick, and turn them every day until dry. They must have plenty of air, except in extreme weather. In many of the large establishments the buildings have their rooms floored with tonged and grooved flooring, and the walls and ceiling covered with tonged and grooved ceiling material. The most of these ducks are scald-picked. The feathers are then taken to these rooms and spread out in a thin layer and beat up with a long slender stick once a day till dry. The workmen find that if they stay in these rooms too long at a time they suffer from a catarrhal condition of the nasal passages, which appears to be due, at least in part, to a volatile fatty material which enters the air while the feathers are agi- tated. It apparently irritates the mucous membrane of the nasal passage, producing a thickening of the mucous membrane. If wet feathers are not beat up regularly while wet they become dried in lumps, which causes a reduction of the price when put on the market. If properly beat till dry, all the feathers fluff out and present a pleasing appearance. All chicken and turkey body feathers should be kept separate. All quills should be kept out of the body feathers . All quills, and particularly tail quills, should be thoroughly aired before packing. To bring the top market price they must be thoroughly dry. In plucking the short quills, pointers, tails, and wing feathers should be separated, having a receptacle in which to throw each 392 THE CARE AND MARKETING OF FEATHERS 393 Fig. 140.—A collection of market feathers, showing the different grades. Note the difference in appearance between the dry and scald picked. 394 POULTRY CULTURE kind. It will save much labor if this be done and will not require more time of the picker. The packing of stock should be looked after. carefully. Quills should be packed in boxes, each kind separate, and care taken to get exact tare of the box and cover. If quills are shipped any great distance sacks can be used, provided they are good ones and the quills are laid into them as straight as possible. Quills should not be dumped into bags without regard to condition. Most large shippers pack and ship body feathers of ducks and geese in white muslin sacks, the sacks being thirty inches wide and seventy-two inches long, and chicken body feathers in sacks 30 inches wide and 75 inches long. The sacks should be burlaped. The weight is approximately one hundred pounds. Quills and other grades are also shipped in sacks. In shipping see that each and every bag or box has your shipping tag or mark, with gross weight and tare. Your letter of advice to the buyer should have full particulars, separate weights, tare, and net weights. In order that the goods be handled quickly the buyer considers this very important. In regard to freight rates it may be of interest to the reader to know that the price of feathers is so low in some grades and the freight rate so high that it leaves very little profit after cost of handling and packing is paid. The freight rate from Raleigh, North Carolina, to Cincinnati, Ohio, is 114 cents per pound, and as the prices in the following list is ‘delivered in Cincinnati” it can be seen that the profit would be small. The distance from Raleigh, North Carolina, to Cincinnati is 569 miles. The following is a quotation sheet from a well-known feather merchant of Cincinnati, which was issued February 17, 1915, and will serve to give the relative value of each kind of feathers as well as the market grades. Geese Feathers Prarie aye dase cine ony 2 esas nese wh Wee we es eA ee eo Od ak ae $ .65 Good average white.................... ee tee ere oe 55 Viet OLY) BRAN i oS to, eens fo 3d apy Si alte BSE d edie Ul Ge WARS deemed & aoe aiabioee AT Largely gray, scalded ii. .