‘PHICE O100.
R. B. HINMAN
COLLECTION
PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
1921-1943
New York
State College of Agriculture
At Cornell University
Ithaca, N. Y.
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000678445
Gt. J. Gage & Co.'s Educational Series.
THE ELEMENTS
.
OF
STRUCTURAL BOTANY
WITIL SPECIAL REFERENCE 10 THE STUDY Or’
CANADIAN PLANTS;
TO WHICH IS ADDED A SELECTION OF EXAMINATION
PAPERS
¥ BY’
st H. B. SPOTTON, M.A., F.LS.,
PRINGIPAL UF HARBORD ST, COLLEGIATE [NSTITUTE.
.
Authorized for use in the Schools af Ontario.
Authorized for use in the School of Quebec.
Authorized for use in the Schools of New. Brunswick. y
Authorized for use in the Schools of Nova Scotia.
Authorized for use in the Schools af Manitoba,
’
Revised Edition, With many Illustrations by the Author and othera,
\
,
‘
W. J. GAGE & COMPANY,
: TORONTO.
Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the office of The
Minister cf Agriculture, by THe W..J. Gace Company (Limited), in
- the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
The work, of which the present little volume forms the
first part, has been undertaken, at the suggestion of several
eminent educationists, to supply a palpable want. The
works on Botany, many of them ‘of great excellence, which
have found their way into this country, have been prepared
with reference to climates differing, in some cases, very
widely from our own. They consequently contain accounts
of many plants which are entirely foreign to Canada, thus
obstructing the search for descriptions of those which happen
to be common to our own and other countries ; and, on the
other hand, many of our Canadian species'are not mentioned
at all in some of the Classifications which have been in use.
It is believed that the Classification which is to form the
second part of this work will be found to contain all the
commonly occurring species of the Provinces whose floras it
is designed to illustrate, without being burdened with those
which are either extremely rare or which do not occur in
Canada at all. :
The present part is designed to teach the Elements of
Structural _Botany in accordance with a method which is
believed to be more rational than that commonly adopted;
and ‘it will be found to supply all that is requisite for passing
the examinations for Teachers’ Certificates of all-grades, as
well-as any others demanding an elementary knowledge of
the subject. It contains familiar-descriptions of common
plants, illustrating the chief variations in plant-structure,
with a view to laying a foundation for the intelligent study
of Systematic Botany with the aid of the second part ; then
follow a few lessons on Morphology ; ; and the Elements of
iv PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
Vegetable Histology are treated of in as simple and brief a
manner as was thought to be consistent with the nature of
the subject. -
The Schedules, the use of which is very strongly recom-
mended, were devised by the late Professor Henslow, of
Cambridge University, to fix the attention of pupils upon the
salient points of structure. They will be found invaluable
to the teacher as tests of the accuracy of his pupils’ knowl-
edge. The cost of strikirg off a few hundred blanks of each
sort would be very trifling, and not worth considering in
view of the resulting advantages.
The wood-cuts are from drawings from living specimens,
except in two or three instances where assistance was derived
from cuts of .wéll-known excellence in standard works on
Botany. It need hardly be said that the engravings are not
in any sense intended to take the place of the living plants.
They are designed chiefly to assist in the examination of the
latter ; and whilst it is hoped that they may be of service to
those who may desire to read the book in the winter season,
it is strongly urged upon teachers and ‘students not to be
satisfied with them as long as the plants themselves are
available. : :
The works most frequently consulted in the preparation
of the text are those of Hooker, Gray, Bentley, and Oliver.
Finally, the Author looks for indulgence at the hands of
his fellow-tgachers, and will be glad to receive suggestions
tending to increase the usefulness of the work, and to extend
a taste for what must ever be regarded as one of the most
refining 2s well as one of the most practically useful. of
studies.
September, 1879, °
PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.
The re-arrangement of the course of study in Botany for
Yeachers’ Certificates and for Junior Matriculation has
afforded an opportunity for revising and, it is hoped, improv-
ing the present text-book, to which so kind a reception was
accorded on its first appearance some years ago.
The principal feature of the new curriculum is the addition
of certain Cryptogamous types. These are necessarily some-
what more difficult of study than the Phanerogams, because
their characteristics cannot be satisfactorily made out without
employing high powers of the microscope; but it is hoped
that the numerous illustrations which accompany the text, .
and which have been gathered from various sources, will
materially assist the stud um this part of the work.
The chapter relating .o minute structure has been re-
written, and, as will be seen, considerably extended... Though
it is still but a sketch, it is hoped that it will serve a useful
purpose in paving the way for the fuller study of the anatomy
and physiology of plants with the aid of advanced works.
Other changes and additions have also been made, chiefly
in the chapter on Morphology.
' ‘The writer need hardly add that in preparing this revision
he has Jaid under contribution the various text-books of
recognized merit. which have come within his reach, and that
beyond the mere presentation of the subject he lays no claim
to originality.
Barrie, August, 1887
TABLE OF COMMON PLANTS EXAMINED.
PHANEROGAMS.
Burrercur, HeEpatica, Mansi -
MARIGOLD ....
SREPHERD’S Douek. SSE Une ed
RounD-LEAVED MALLOW......... ;
GARDEN PEA.............0 0005 #5
Sweet Brier, STRAWBERRY, CRAB-
‘APPLE, CHERRY, RasPReRRY
Water- PARSNIP....
DANDELION...... 2a
CatTNIP...... ee deaminase es
CUCUMBER.......... stcteaaconuies ;
Orcuts. seeeg sotveees Seren seeseey
Timoruy, Rep -ToP, MEADOW -
Grass, CHess, Coucn-Grass,
OLp-wircH Grass, BARNYARD
Grass, POXTAT sctitccteccees
Waitt Ping, Grounp Hemtock
CRYPTOGAMS.
POLYPODY, «iis de nsecweaves nn be be
Common CuUB-Moss..
Common HoRSETAIL............-
Harr-MO88...... 0000 cece cee eee es
MARCHANTIA POLYMORPHA.>......
PARMELIA PARIETINA...........+
Common MusHroom.....
CHARA FRAGILIS idoaince ayn eee se
“ce
ay Sve tees meauvas »Yepresenting RANUNCULACEZ.
CRUCIFER®,
MALVACEA.
LEGUMINOS&,
ONAGRACE2.
RosAacEz.
UMBELLIFERA.
CoMPosIl&.
LaBtatTa,
CucuRBITACE.
CuruLIFERA.
SALICACEZ.
SAPINDACES, -
LIntaczea,
IRIDACER, _
ORCHIDACEA.
ARACEA,
GRAMINEA.
ConiIFERZ.
representing Frrns, :
Lycorops.
HOogSETAILS.
MossgEs.
LivERWworRT?.
LicHens.
MuvsHRooms.
THe CHaras,
CONTENTS.
PAGE,
INTRODUOTION #23 sy speried ca juavaaascs sy pesselntsniemenenet 1
Cuarrer I.—Examination of a Buttercup............2005 rar”
Cuarrer II.—Functions of the Organs of the Flower...... 11
Cuaprer JII.—Examination of ‘Hepatica and Marsh-Mari-
gold—Resemblances between their Flowers and that
_ of Butterowp............ eee, Beha arnyoiauacanaaess 14
CaaPTER IV.—Examination of other Common Plants with
Hypogynous Stamens — Shepherd’s Purse — Round-
leaved Mallow........... cc ceec cence cen eeneeuceevs 22
Cuarter V.—Examination of Common Plants with Perigy-
nous Stamens—Garden Pea—Great Willow-herb..... 29
CHAPTER VI.—Examination of Common Rosaceous Plants—
Sweet Brier — Strawberry — Cherry —Crab-Apple —
Raspberry i. cise cua oteedna gs os ee cned clea paasninn 35
Omaprer VII.—Examination of a Plant with Epigynous
Stamens—Water-Parsnip...............cee cence eee 41
- CHarTeR VIII.—Examination of Common Plants with Epi-
petalous Stamens—Dandelion—Catnip.............. 43
Cuarrer IX.—Examination of Plants with Monecious
Flowers—Cucumber—Oak ..... 0 - ccc ee eee ence e eee 48°
Cuarrer X.— Examination of Plants with Dicecious Flowers
—Willow—Maple.........- Ss been ale ugg maataovarcansarinGy 54
Cuarter XI.—Characteristics possessed in common by all
the Plants previously examined — Structure of the -
_ Seed in Dicotyledons...... isis beauties wien Basauasedeuarere 59
Gianna XII.—Examination of - Common Plants continued
Dog’ s-Tooth Violet—Trillium—Irig—Orchis, . ietbels . 6)
vu CONTENTS.
Ouarrer XIII.—Examination of Spadiceous Plants—Indian
Turnip—Calla............. uewak Gace Gebeaniesewens eh
CHAPTER XIV.—Examination of Glumaceous Plants-—Timo-
thy and other Grasses... ....ceeeeer ccc ceeeeeeeneee 78
Cuarren XV.—Common Characteristics of the Plants just
Examined—-Structure of the Seed in Monocotyledons... 84
CuarrTer XVI. —-Examination of Coniferous Plants—White
Pine—Ground Hemlock........... ie se diwrneaenee 87
Garter XVII.—Morphology of Roots, Stems, and Foliage-.
Leaves of Phanerogams..........60.0ee ee eseeeceeee 93
Cuarrer XVIII.—Morphology of Flower-Leaves — Inflor-
‘ escence—The Calyx—The Corolla- -The Stamens—
The Pistil—The Fruit—The Seed—Germination...: 128
CHAPTER XIX. —On'the Minute Structure of Plants—The
‘Cell — Tissues — Tissue - Systems — Exogenous and
Endogenous Stems........ 0c eee e cece ee eee eee ee eens 156
Cuarter XX.,.— Food of Plants — Chemical Processes —
Movements of Water—Phenomena of Growth..... ~ 177
Cuarrer XXL —Examination’ of a Fern—A Horsetail—A
Club: Mosi00 2 casi bs Sacxdbemegs SARE ica Lees 184
CuaptER XXII.—Examination of a Moss mind a Liverwort... 190
Cuaprer XXIII.—Examination of a Mushroom—A Lithen .
SAS CHUNG warenan.cs 3-04 sorvine a aeaainetacdsaenecGunmee 196
Cuarrer XXIV.—Classification of Plants according to the
Natural System ... 0.0... cece cece cece ec ene wees 206
INDEX 100 tesa eceeera autos de oop eben eas age ead Sink 216
THE ELEMENTS
or
STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
’
1. The study of Botany is commonly rendered unat-
tractive to the beginner by the order in which the parts
of the subject are presented to him. His patience be-
comes exhausted by, the long interval which must neces-
sarily elapse before he is in a position to do any practical
work for himself. In accordance with the usual plan,
some months are spent in committing to memory a mass
of terms descriptive of the various modifications which
the organs of plants undergo; and not until the student
has mastered these, and perhaps been initiated into the
mysteries of the fibro-vascular system, is he permitted to
examine a plant as a whole. In this little work, we
purpose, following the example of some recent writers,
to reverse this order of things, and-at the outset to put
into the learner’s ‘hands some common plants, and to
lead . him, by his own examination of these, to a know-
ledge of their various organs—to cultivate, in short, not
merely his memory, but also, and chiefly, his powers of
observation,
a HLEMENTS OF STRUCFKFORAL BOTANY,
It is desirable that the beginner should provide him-
self with a magnifying glass of moderate power for
examining the more minute parts of specimens ; a sharp
penknife for dissecting ; and a couple of fine needles,
which he can himself insert in convenient handles, and
which will be found of great service in separatin, delicate
parts, and in impaling fine portions for examination
with the aid of the lens.
CHAPTER IL
EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP.
2. To begin with, there is no plant quite so suitable
3s our common Buttercup. This plant, which has con-
spicuous yellow flowers, may be found growing in almost
every moist meadow. Having found one, take up the
whole plant, loosening the soil a little, so as to obtain as
much- of the Root as possible. Wash away the earth
adhering to the
latter part, and
then proceed to
examine your
_ Specimen. Begin-
“ning with the
Root (Fig.1),the
: first noticeable
Fig. 1 thing is that it js
not of the same colour as the rest of the plant. It is
Fig. 1.—Fibrous Root of Buttercup.
a
EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP, 3
nearly white. Then it is not of the same form as the
part of the plant above ground. It is made up of a num-
ber of thread-like parts which spread out in all directions,
and if you examine one of these threads through your
magnifying glass, you will find that from its surface are
given off many finer threads, called rootlets. These
latter are of great importance to the plant ; it is largely
by means of their tender extremities, and the parts
adjacent to these, that it imbibes the nutritious fluids
contained in the soil.
Whilst you are looking at these delicate rootlets, you
may perhaps wonder that they should be able to make
their way through the soil, but how they do this will be
apparent to you if you examine the tip of one of them
with a microscope of considerable power. Fig. 2 repre-
sents such a tip highly magnified. _ It is to
be observed that the growth of the rootlet
does not take place at the very extremity,
|.....6 but immediately behind it. The extreme
“tip consists of harder and firmer matter than
Fig, 2. that behind, and is in fact a sort of cap or
thimble to protect the growing part underneath. As-
the rootlets grow, this little thimble is pushed on. first
through the crevices of the soil, and, as you may sup-
pose, is soon worn away on the outside, but it is as
rapidly renewed by the rootlet itself on the inside.
Another difference between the root and the part
above ground you will scarcely have failed to discover :
the root has no leaves, nor has it any buds.
You may describe the root of the Buttercup as fibrous,
Fig. 2.—Extremity of rootlet ;.a, the harder tip ;b, the growing portion be-
hind the tip.
4 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
3. Let us now look at the
Stem (Fig.3). It is upright,
pretty firm, coloured green,
and leaves spring from it at
intervals. As there is scarcely
any appearance of wood in
it, we may describe it as
herbaceous, At several points
along the main stem branches
are given off, and you wili
observe that immediately be-
low the point from whicheyery
branch springs there is a leaf
on the stem. The angle be-
tween the leaf and the stem,
on the upper side is called the
axil of the leaf (awilla, an
armpit), and it is a rule to
which there are scarcely any
exceptions, that branches can
only spring from the axils of
leaves, _
The stem and all the
branches of our plant termi-
Fig. 3. nate, at their upper extremi-
ties, either in flowers. or in flower-buds,
4, Let us now consider the Leaves. A glance wil)
show you that the leaves-of this plant are not all alike.
Those at the lower end of the stem have long stalks (Fig.
4), which we shall henceforward speak of as petioles. .Those
a little higher up have petioles too, but they are not
Win 2 Stam nf Ruttavann
EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP. 5
quite so long as the lower ones, and the highest leaves
have no petioles at all. They appear tobe sitting on
the stem, and hence are said to be sessile, The lowest
; leaves of all, as they seem to spring from
the root, may be described as radical,
‘whilst the higher’ ones may ke called
cauline (caulis, a stem). The broad part
of a leaf is its blade. In the plant we
are now examining, the blades. of the
leaves are almost divided into distinct
pieces, which are called obes, and each of
these again is more or less deeply ‘cut.
Both petioles and blades of our leaves are
covered with minute hairs, and so are said
re i hairy.
Hold up one of these leaves to the light, and you will
observe that the veins run through it in all directions,
forming a sort of net-work. The leaves are therefore
net-véined. ae:
‘The points along the stem from which the leaves
‘arise are called nodes, and the portions of stem between
the nodes are called. ¢nternodes.
5. Let us next examine the Flowers. Each flower in
our plant is at the end either of the stem or of a branch
of the stem. The upper portions of the stem and its
branches, upon which the flowers are raised, ~
are called the peduncles of the flowers. Kt
‘Take now a flower which has just opened.
little spreading leaves, somewhat yellowish Pig.
Beginning at the outside, you will find five
Fig. 4.—Radical leat of Buttercup.
Fig. 5.—Flower of Buttercup, from the back.
6 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
in colour. Each of these is called a sepal, and the tive
-together form the calyx of the flower. If you look at
-a flower which is a little older, you will probably not
find any sepals. They will have fallen off, and for this
reason they are said tobe deciduous. So, in like manner,
the leaves of most of our trees are decidudéus, because
they fall at the approach of winter. You wi. sind that
you can pull off the sepals one at a time, without dis-
turbing those that remain, This shows that they are
not connected together. They are therefore said to be.
free, and the calyx is described ‘as polysepalous.
Inside the circle of sepals there is another circle of
leaves, usually five in number, bright yellow in colour,
and much larger than the sepals. Each of them is
called a petal, and the five together form the corolla of
the flower. Observe carefully that each petal is not in-
serted in front of a sepal, but in front of the space be-
tween two sepals, The petals can be removed one at a
time like the sepals. They, too, are free, and- the cor-
olla is polypetalous. If you compare the petals with one
another, you will see that they are, as nearly as possible,
alike in size and shape. The corolla is therefore regular.
6. We havg now examined, minutely enough for our
present purpose, the calyx and corolla. Though their
divisions are not coloured green, like the ordinary leaves
of the plant, still, from their general form, you will have
no difficulty in accepting the statement that the sepals -
end petals are in reality /eaves. It will not be quite so
apparent that the parts of the flower which still remain
are also only modifications of the same structure. But
there is good evidence fhat this is the case. Let us,
however, examine these parts that remain, There is
EXAMINATION OF A BUTTEROUP. ve
ae a TEES number of little yellow bodies, each at the
“ top of a little thread-like stalk. Each of
’ these bodies, with its stalk, is called a
stamen. The little body itself is the
anther, and the stalk is its filament. Your
Fig. 6. magnifying glass will show you that each
anther consists of two oblong sacs, united lengthwise, the
filament being a continuation of the line of union (Fig. 7).
If you look at a stamen of a flower which
has been open some time, you will find that
each anther-cell has split open along its
outer edge, and has thus allowed a fine
pollowiah dust to escape from it (Fig. 8)-
This dust is called pollen.
2 Hy is.| Two sepals
SianSEEs : peor ae Taye with a pair of
long ene
il £8. opposite each ;
sieasincitd the other two
, with one short}
Anthers. stamen opp.)
each, ~—
digti Syncarpous. The twocells
Pistil. ene ‘jof the ovary
Carpels. 2 separated by a
Ovary. Superior. thin partition.
Zo ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
32. Mallow. The ment leaved Mallow (Fig. 31)
growsalongevery
wayside, and’ is
a very common
weed in cultivat-
ed grounds. Pro-
cure, if possible,
a plant which has
vipened its seeds,
_as well as one in
flower. The root
, of this plant is of
of adifferent kind
from those of the
three plants first
examined. It
consists of a stout
tapering part, de-
_ scending deep in-
to the soil, from the surface of which fibres are given off
irregularly. A stout root of this kind is called a baproot
The carrot is another example.
33. Tile leaves are long-petioled, net-veined, and in-
dented on the edges. On each side of the petiole, at its
junction with the stem, you will observe a little leaf-like
attachment, to which the name stipule is given. The
presence or absence of stipules is a point of some import-
ance in plant-structure, and you will do well to notice it
in your examinations. You have now made yourselves
Fig. 31.—Round-leaved Mallow. Fig. 32.--Section of the flower.
~ Fig. 33.—Flower with calyx and corolla removed,
Fig. 34.—A ripened pistil with the persistent calyx,
ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW. 27
acquainted with all the parts that any leaf has, viz., blade,
’ petiole, and stipules.
34, Coming to the flower, observe first that the parts
of the calyx are not entirely separate, as in the flowers
you have already examined. For about half their length
they are united together-so as to formacup. The upper
half of each sepal, however, is perfectly: distinct, and
forms a tooth of the calyx; and the fact that there are
five of these teeth shows us uninistakably that the calyx
is made up of five sepals. We therefore speak of it as a
gamosepalous calyx, to indicate that the parts of it are
coherent.
As the calyx does not fall away when the other parts
of the flower disappear, it is said to be persistent. Fig.
31, a, shows a persistent calyx.
35. At the base of the calyx there are three minute
leaf-like teeth, looking almost like an outer calyx. A
circle of bracts of this kind is called an énvolucre. The
three bracts under the flower of the Hepatica also consti-
tute an involucre. As the bracts in the Mallow grow on
the calyx, some botanists speak of them as an epicalyz.
The corolla consists of five petals, separate from each
other, but united with the stamens at their base.
36. The stamens are numerous, and as their filaments -
are united to form a tube, they are said to be monadelphous.
This tube springs from the receptacle, and the stamens are
therefore hypogynous. Fig. 32 will help you to an under-
standing of the relation between the petals and stamens.
Having removed the petals, split the tube of the stamens
with the point of your needle, A little care will then
enable you to remove t'se stamens without injuring the
23 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
pistil. The latter organ will then be found to consist of
a ring of coherent carpels, a rather stout style, and num-
erous long stigmas (Fig. 33). If you take the trouble to
count the carpels and the stigmas, you will find the num-
bers to correspond. As the seeds ripen, the carpels separate
from each other (Fig. 34).
MALLOW.
Onean. No. CoHESION. ADESION. ReMAkKS.
Gamosepa- | Inferior. Three bracts,
Calyx. lous. growing onthe
Sepals. 5 calyx.
Corolla. Polypetalous. | Hypogynous.
Petals. ,
Stamens. « |Monadelphous| Hypogynous.
Filaments.
Anthers. ; One-celled. ¥
| Pistil. oe) Syncarpous. | Superior. Carpels as}
Carpels. many as the
Ovary stigmas,
37. Compare now the structure of the Hollyhock (single
flowers should be selected) with that of the Mallow, and
write outa description. Musk-Mallow. and Abutilon (a
common gfeen-house plant) may also be examined with
advantage.
38, The Order (Malvacee) of which Mallow is a type
is very distinctly marked by the following characteristics :
1. The sepals are always placed edge to edge (valvate)
in the bud, while the petals overlap and are rolled
together (convolute).
2. The stamens are numerous and monadelphous, and
their anthers are 1-celled. Although united at the
GARDEN PEA. 29
base with the claws of the petals, they are xeverthe-
less inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous). — -
3. The carpels are almost always united in a ring, which
breaks up at maturity. ;
4. It may be added that the leaves are furnished with
_ Stipules, and the juice of the plants is mucilaginous.
CHAPTER V.
EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS WITH PERIGYNOUS
STAMENS—GARDEN PEA—GREAT WILLOW-HERB.
39. Garden Pea. In the flower of this plant, the
salyx is constructed on the same plan as in the Mallow.
There are five sepals, coherent below, and spreading out
dnto distinct teeth above (Fig. 35). The calyx is there-
fore gamosepalous.
Examine next the form
of the corolla (Fig. 36).
One difference between
the corolla and those of
the previous plants will
strike you at once. In
the flowers of the latter
you will remember that
each petal was precisely
like its fellows in size and shape, and we therefore spoke
of the corolla as regular, In the Pea, on the other hand,
Fig. 37.
Fig. 35.—Flower of Garden Pea. Fig. 36.—Front view of the same.
Fig. 37.—Diadelphous stamens of the same,
Fig. 38,—The pistil. Fig. 39.—The same cut through lengthwise.
30 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
one of tke petals is large, broad, and open, whilst two
smaller ones, in the front.of the flower, are united into a
kind of hood. We shall speak of this corolla, then, and
all others in which the petals are unlike each other in
size or shape, as irregular.
_ As the Pea blossom bears-some resemblance to a butter-
fly, it is said to he papilionaceous,
40. Remove now the calyx-teeth and the petals, being
very careful not to injure the stamens and the pistil, en-
veloped by those two which form the hood. Count the
stamens, and notice their form (Fig. 37):- You will find
ten, one by itself, and the other nine with the lower halves
of their filaments joined together, or coherent. When
stamens occu in this way, in two distinct groups, they
are said to be diadelphous ; if in three groups, they would
ve txiadelphous; if in several groups, polyadelphous, In
ile Mallow, you will remember, they are united into one
group, and therefore we described them as monadelphous.
You will, perhaps, be a little puzzled in trying to
determine to what part of the flower the stamens are
attached. If you look closely, however, you will see
that the attachment, or insertion, is not quite the same
as in the* Buttercup and the other flowers examined.
Ia the present instance they are inserted upon the lower
part of the calyx, and so they are described as perigynous,
a term meaning “around the pistil.”
41. But the pistil (Figs. 38, 39) is not attached to the
calyx. It is free, or superior. If you cut the ovary
across, you will observe there is but one cell, and if you
examine the stigma, you will find that it shows no sign
of division. You may therefore be certain that the pistil
is a single carpel.
GARDEN
PEA,
31
‘You are now prepared to fill up the schedule descrip-
tive of. this flower.
GARDEN PEA.
“ORGAN. No. COHESION. || ADHESION, REMARKS,
r Calyx. . ~|Gamosepalous| Inferior.
Sepals. b | :
‘Corolla. Papilionace- | Perigynous. | Thetwo front
Petals. 5 _ |ous. Irregular. ' |petals united.
Stamens. 10 |Diadelphous. | Perigynous.
Filaments.
Anthers. - A
Pistil. |Apocarpous. ee ,
Carpels. l ei
Ovary. - Superior.
42, The beginner will be very likely to think, from its
appearance, that the largest of the petals is made up of
two coherent ones, but the following considerations show
clearly that this is not the case. In the Buttercup, and
other flowezs in which the number of sepals and petals is
the same, the petals do not stand before the sepals, but
before the spaces between them. In the Pea-blossom this
rule holds good if the large petal is considered as one,
but not otherwise. Again, the veining of this petal is
similar to that of a common leaf, there being a central rib
from which the veins spring on each side; and lastly,
there are some flowers of the Pea kind—Cassia, for
example—in which this particular petal is of. nearly the
_same size and shape as the other four.
43. The Pea is a type of a highly important pica of
plants—the Order Leguminose. To it belong many plants
32 ' ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
differing very widely in external appearance—the Locust-
Tree and the Clover, for example—but exhibiting in the
structure of their flowers so marked a similarity that their
relationship is beyond question. The characters by which
the Order is distinguished are chiefly these :
1. The corolla is more or less papilionaceous, and is
inserted on the base of the calyx (perigynous).
2. The stamens, almost tnvariably ten in number, are
also perigynous, and nearly always diadelphous.
= 3. The pistil is nearly always a legume, that is to'say,
tt is a single carpel which splits into two pieces at
maturity, like the pod of the Pea or Bean.
4. The leaves have stipules, and are nearly always com-
pound, that ts, of several distinct leaflets,
_ Plants which may be compared with the Pea are Red
Clover, White Clover, Sweet Clover, Medick, Locust-Tree,
Bean, Vetch, Lupine, Sweet Pea, &c.
44, Great Willow-herb. This plant is extremely
common in low grounds and newly-cleared land, and you
may easily recognize it by its tall stem ioe
and bright, purple flowers. )
Observe the position of the flowers, * ‘
In the three plants first examined we
found the flowers at the end of the
stem. In the Willow-herb, as in the
Mallow, they spring from the sides
of the stem, and immediately below |
the point from which each flower Fig, 40.
springs you will find a small leaf or bract (Fig. 40). Flowers
Fig. 40,—Flower of Great Willow-herb,
GREAT WILLOW-HERB, 33
which arise from the axils of bracts are saic io be axillary,
whilst. those which are at the ends of stems are called
terminal, and you may remember thab flowers can only be
produced in the axils of leaves and at the ends of stems
and branches.
45. Coming to the flower itself, direct your attention,
first of all, to the position of the ovary. You will find it
apparently under the flower, in the form of a tube tinged ,
with purple. It is not in reality under the flower, because
its purplish covering is the calyx, or, more accurately, the
caliyx-tube, which adheres to the whole surface of the
ovary, and expands above into four long teeth. The ovary,
therefore, is inferior, and the calyx, of course, superior, in
this flower. As the sepals unite below to form the tube
the calyx is gamosepalous.
The corolla consists of four petals, free from each other,
and is consequently polypetalous, It is also regular, the
ae petals being alike in size and
47 ~__.v shape. Each petal is narrowed
Fig. 49, | df A % the base into what is called
4 the claw of the petal, the broad
part, as in the ordinary foliage-
leaf, being the blade. The
stamens are eight in number
(octandrous), four short and.
four long, and are attached to
the calyx (perigynous).
46, The pistil has its three:
Fig. 41. parts—ovary, style,and stigma
—very distinctly marked. The stigma consists of four long
lobes, which curl outwards after the flower opens. The
. Fig. 41,—Ripened pistil of Willow-herb. Fig. 42,—Cross section of the same.
34 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
style is long and slender. The examination of the ovary
requires much care; you will get the best idea of its
structure by taking one which has just burst open and
begun to discharge its seeds (Fig. 41). The outside will
then be seen to consist of four pieces (valves), whilst the
centre is occupied by a slender four-winged column (Fig.
42), in the grooves of which the seeds are compactly
arranged. The pistil thus consists of four carpels united
together, and is therefore syncarpous. Every seed is
furnished with a tuft of silky hairs, which greatly facili-
tates its transportation by the wind.
47. The Willow-herb furnishes an excellent example
of what is called symmetry. We have seen that the calyx
and corolla are each made up of four parts; the “stamens
are in two sets of four each ; the stigma is four-lobed, and
the ovary has four seed-cells. A flower is symmetrical
when each set of floral leaves contains either the same
number of parts or a multiple of the same number.
Observe that the leaves of our plant are net-veined.
The schedule will be filled up as follows :
GREAT WILLOW-HERB.
oRGAN® No. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS.
Calyx. Gamosepalous} Superior.
_ Sepals. 4
Corolla, Polypetalous. | Perigynous.
Petals. 4 :
Stamens. 8 jOctandrous. { Perigynous. |Four ghortand
Filaments. ans ? four long,
Anthers.
Pistil, Syncarpous. | Inferior.
Seeds provided
Carpels. 4 with tufts of
ROSACKOUS PLANTS. 35
Flowers to compare with Great Willow-herb are Fuchsia
and Evening Primrose. Either of these will serve as the
ype if Willow-herb cannot be obtained.
CHAPTER VL
EXAMINATION OF COMMON ROSACEOUS PLANTS—-SWEET BRIER
——STRAWBERRY—CHERRY—CRAB—APPLE—RASPBERRY.
48. Sweet Brier. As in the flowers examined in
‘the last chapter,
the sepals of Sweet
Brier are not en-
tirely distinct;
their lower halves
‘cohere to form a
tube, and the calyx
is therefore gamo-
sepalous.
§ = The corolla con-
sists of five sepa-
rate petals of the
same size and
shape, and is there-
fore both regular
and polypetalous. ,
Fig. 43. . The stamens are
very numerous, and separate from each other. As in the
Pea and the Willow-herb, so in this flower they will be
Fig. 43.—Flower and leaves of Sweet Brier. !
50 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. c
found to be attached to the calyx. They are, therefore,
perigynous.
49, To understand the construction of the pistil, you
must make a vertical section through the roundish green
mass which you will find on the under side of the flower.”
You will then have presented to
you some such appearance as that
in Fig. 44. The green mass, you
will observe, is hollow. Its outer
covering is simply the continua-
tion of the calyx-tube. The lin.
ing of this caiya-tube ts the recep:
tacle of the flower ; to it are at-
tached the separate carpels which together constitute the
pistil (Fig. 45), just as the carpels of the Buttercup are
attached to the raised receptacle of that flower.
We must remind you again that whenever the ovary is
enclosed in the calyx-tube, and the calyx appears to spring
from the summit of the ovary, the latter is said to be
inferior, and the former superior. .
In the case of Sweet Brier and similar forms,
where the pistil is strictly apocarpous, and the
other part cohere at their base so as to form
a tube enclosing the really free carpels, the
pistil may be described as half-inferior, and
the calyx consequently as half-superior.
50. Strawberry. So far as calyx, corolla, and sta-
mens are concerned, the flower of Strawberry very
nearly resembles that, of Sweet Brier. Alternating with
the five calyx-lobes, however, will be found five bractlets,’
Fig. 44.— Vertical section through the pistil.
Fig. 45.—Vertical section through ripe fruit of Sweet Brier.
ROSACEOUS PLANTS, 37
Which constitute, as in Mallow, an epicalyx. The pistil
aust be carefully examined. In this case there will be
found a conical elevation in the centre of the
flower, on the surface of which are inserted
many separate carpels, much in the same way
as in Buttercup. At maturity this elevated
~ receptacle will have become greatly enlarged
and pulpy, with the real fruit, the ripened
carpels, dotted over its surface (Fig. 46).
51. Cherry or Plum. Here also the calyx, corolla,
and stamens are all adherent, and a hollow cup is formed,
in the bottom of which
(but entirely free from
these parts) the pistil is
developed (Fig. 47). It
consists of a single carpel,
in which there are at first
two ovules, though gen-
erally but one seed is
ripened. The fruit ig
‘called a drupe, the seed being surrounded by three distinct
~layers: (1) a hard shell (the putamen), (2) a mass of soft -
pulp, and (3) the outer skin. ~
52. Crab-Apple. Here, as before, we have a gamo-
sepalous calyx, the lower part forming a tube. The five
petals are separate and inserted on the calyx, as are also
the numerous. stamens. To understand the structure of
‘the vistil, make a vertical section through the centre of
the flower, and also a cross section. The cross section
Fig. 47.
Fig. 46.—Vertical section of Strawberry.
Fig. 47,—Vertical section through flower of Cherry. (Gray.)
38 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
(Fig. 50) will show you that in this case we have a
syncarpous pistil of five carpels, and the vertical section
(Fig. 49) shows that the Ga) is here truly inferior, the
calyx-tube be-
ing completely
adherent or
adnate to it,
The style is
~. divided into
five parts, cor-
responding to
the five car-
Fig. 48, Fig. 49. pels.
53, At maturity, whilst the pistil or central organ has’
enlarged considerably, it will be ‘found that the calyx-
tube, which is adherent to it, has also grown very much.
It is, in fact, the largely developed calyx-tube which con-
stitutes the edible part of the apple, the true pistil forming
the core. It is not very easy to distin-
guish the line which separates these two
parts of the ripe fruit, but if a cross-
section be made through the apple a circle
of greenish dots may generally be made
out at the outer limit of the core. A fruit
of this sort is called a pomg. The wither-
ed calyx-teeth may be found in thé hollow Fig. 50.
at the end opposite the stem, as also, generally, the
remains of the five styles,
— _—
Fig. 48.—Flower of Crab-Apple. Fig 49.—Vertical section of ova.y.
Fig. 50,—Oross section of fruit of Crab-Apple.
ROSACEOUS PLANTS. of
54. Raspberry. Calyx, corolla, and stamens have
the same arrangement as in Strawberry, and the pistil is
likewise apocarpous, the numerous carpels covering the
~ surface of a raised receptacle. But here the carpels do not
produce achenes. Hach of them at maturity forms a fruit
resembling a drupe, so that the raspberry is a mass of
drupes heaped upon a common receptacle,
55. Let us now sum up our observations upon the repre-
sentatives of the great Order of Rosaceous plants. We
have found them to possess the following characters in
“common:
.
Ll. The petals and the numerous stamens are inserted on
the calyx (perigynous).
2. The pistil, eacept in the Apple, ts apocarpous and
Sree Srom the calyx.
8. It may be added that the Jeaves are furnished with
stipules.
56. The differences (which lead to the en ‘of
the Order into subordinate groups) are chiefly in the fruit.
In Sweet Brier, with which may be compared any wild
Rose, the achenes are enclosed in the calyx-tube. In Straw-
‘berry the receptacle is conical ; so also in Raspberry. In
the Cherry the carpel is single, forming a drupe. In the
Apple the ovary is syucarpous and combined with the
fleshy calyx. Compare with the Apple the Hawthorn and
the Mountain Ash or Rowan Tree.
57. The following are the schedules descriptive of
weet Brier and Crab-Apple. Those relating to Cherry,
Strawberry, and Raspberry should be carefully: filled vp
by the pupil. :
40 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
SWEET BRIER.
OrGan. No. CouEsion. ApuEsion. | REMARKS.
Calyx. Gamosepalous| Half-superior.
Sepals. 5 |. s
Corolla. Polypetalous. | Perigynous. |
Petals. 5 ;
Stamens. © | Polyandrous. | Perigynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Half.inferior. |The hollow re-
i ceptacle lines
Carpels. a) the calyx-tube
CRAB-APPLE.
Orcan. _No. | Cougsion. ADHESION. REMARKS.
Calyx. @ Gamosepa- | Superior. ‘A
6 lous. ‘)
- Sepals. 5 - Bi
Corolla, ; Polypetalous. | Perigynous.
Petals. 5 =
Stamens. o | Polyandrous. | Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. | Inferior. |Fruit consists| °
C. chiefly of a
arpels. 5
fleshy enlarge-
eas ment of the]:
oa (he calyx-tube. .
EXAMINATION OF AN UMBELLIFER, 41
CHAPTER VII.
EXAMINATION OF A PLANT WITH EPIGYNOUS STAMENS—
WATER-PARSNIP.
58. Water-Parsnip. This is 2 common swamp
plant in Canada; but if any difficulty be experienced in
procuring specimens, the flower of the common Carrot or
Parsnip or of Parsley may be substituted for it, all these.
: plants being closely related, and dif-
fering but slightly in the structure
y, of their Aowers.
* Notice first the peculiar appearance
of the flower cluster (Fig. 51). There
areseveral pedicels,nearly of the same
length, radiating from the end of the
peduncle, and from the end of each
pedicel radiate in like manner a num-
ber of smaller ones, each with a flower
at its extremity. Such a cluster is
Fig. 52, Fig. 51. known as an umbel. If, as in the
present case, there are groups of secondary pedicels, the
umbel is compound. As the flowers are.very small we
shall be obliged to use the lens all through the examination.
Even with its aid you will have a little difficulty in making
out the calyx, the tube of which, in this flower, adheres to
the surface of the ovary, as in Willow-herb, and is reduced
above to a mere rim or border of five minute teeth. The
petals are five in number, and free ‘from each other,
Observe that each of them is zncurved at its extremity
Fig. 51.—Compound umbel of Water-Parsnip.
Fig. 52;—Single flower of same. Fig. 58.—Vertical section of the ovary.
42 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
‘Fig. 52). They are inserted on a disk which crowns the
ovary, as are also the five stamens, which are hence said
to be epigynous. In the centre of the flower are two short
styles projecting above the disk, and a vertical section
through the ovary (Fig. 53) shows it to be two-celled, with’
a single seed suspended fromthe top of each cell.
WATER-PARSNIP.
ORGAN. No. |. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS.
Calyx. Gamosepalous Sup erior. |Calyx-teeth al-
Sepals. 5 ‘ most obsolete.
Corolla. | Polysepalous.| Epigynous. | Petals in-
Petals. 5 curved,
Stamens. 5 |Pentandrous.| Epigynous.
Pistil. - | Syncarpous. | Inferior.
Carpels. 2
59. The Water-Parsnip is a type of the large Order
Umbellifeyee, which is well marked by the following
characters :
1. The flowers are clustered in umbels, and these are
generally compound. \
2. The calyx is perfectly adherent to the ovary, so that
almost none of tt projects above.
3. The petals and stamens (five. each) are epigynous. ~
4. The ovary is two-celled, and is surmounted by two
styles. At maturity the pistil separates into two
dry carpels, :
A. COMPOSITE FLOWER. 43
CHAPTER VIIL
EXAMINATION OF GOMMON PLANTS WITH EPIPETALOUS STA-
MENS—DANDELION—CATNIP.
60. Dandelion. The examination of this flower will
be somewhat more difficult than that of any we have yet
undertaken.
Provide yourselves with specimens in
flower and in seed.
The root of the plant, like that,of the
Mallow, is a tap-root.
I The stem is almost suppressed, and,
Fig. 54. as in the case of the Hepatica, the leaves
are all radical. They are also net-veined.
The flowers are raised on scapes, which are hollow. At
first sight the flower appears to have a calyx of many
sepals, and a corolla of many petals. Both of these ap-
pearances, however, are contrary to facts. With a
sharp knife cut the flower through the middle from
top to bottom (Fig. 54), It will then appear that
the flower, or rather flower-head, is made up of a
large number of distinct pieces. With the point of
your needle detach one of these pieces. At the
lower end of it you have a small body resembling
an unripe seed (Fig. 55). It is, in fact, an ovary.
Just above this thete is a short bit of stalk, sur-
mounted by a circle of silky hairs, and above this a yellow
tube with one side greatly prolonged. This yellow tube
is a corolla, and a close examination of the extremity of
Fig. 55.
Fig. 54.—Vertical section of Dandelion flower.
Fig. 55—Single floret.
44 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
its long side will show the existence of five minute points,
or teeth, from which we infer that the tube is made up of
“1 five coherent petals. As the corolla is on the ovary,
it is said to be Epigynous.
Out of the corolla protrudes the long style, divided
at its summit into two stigmas.
To discern the stamens will require the greatest
nicety of observation. Fig, 56 will help you in your
task, The stamens are five in number. They are
\ inserted on the tube of the corolla (epzpetalous) and
Fig.56. their anthers cohere (Fig. 57), and form a ring about
the style. When the anthers are united in this-way, the
stamens are said to be syngeneszous. ;
61. It appears, then, that the Dandelion, instead
of being a single flower, is in reality a compound of
a great many flowers upon a common receptacle, and
pz, What seemed at first to be a calyx is, in
reality, an tnvolucre, made up of many Fig.57.”
bracts, 7
But have the single flowers, or florets, as
they are properly called, no calyx? The
theory is that they have one, but that it is
adherent to the surface of the ovary, and that
the tuft of silky hairs which we noticed is a
prolongation of it.
Now turn to your specimen having the
seeds ready to blow away. The seeds are all single; the
little bit of stalk at the top has grown into a long slender
thread, and the tuft of hairs has spread out like the rays
of an umbrella (Fig. 58). But though the seeds are
Fig. 58,
- Fig. 56.—Corolla laid open to show epipetalous stamens.
Fig. 57.—Syngenesious anthers of Dandelion. Fig. 58.—Fruit of Dandelion,
A COMPOSITE FLOWER, 45
invariably single, it is inferred from the two-lobed stigma
that there are two carpels, The following is the schedule:
DANDELION.
ORGAN, No. | Cowzston. ADHESION. Remarks.
The numb
Calyx. Gamosepalous|Superior. of darile ts he
- ferred from|
Sepals, 5 analogy to be
ro |five, .- J
Corolla. Gamopetalous|Epigynous. ;
Petals. 5
Stamens. 5 |Syngenes'ous.|Epipetalous.
Number “of
ha : ‘ Syncarpous. |Inferior. eee
aE se ber of stigmas.
62. Flowers constructed on the plan of the Dandelion
are called Composite flowers. The Order (Composite)
comprises an immense number of common plants, in
some of which all the corollas in the head are, as in the
Dandelion, of, one sort, namely, with one side prolonged
into a strap, and hence called strap-shaped or Zgulate.
In most cases, however, the ligulate corollas form a circle
round the margin of the head only, as in Sunflower,
while the central disk is filled up with smail regular
‘gamopetalous corollas with a five-toothed border. Or it
may happen, as in Thistle, that all the flowers are regu-
lar, ligulate corollas being absent. These, however, are
minor-points, and, while serving to distinguish subor-
dinate groups, do not interfere with the great and salient
characters which mark the Order as a whole, So, also,
46 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
instead of the tuft of silky hairs (technically called the
pappus) which surmounts the ovary, there may be, as
in Sunflower, a few teeth-like projections, or scales, or
a mere rim hardly to be distinguished at all.
63, The Order is easily recognized by the following
characters :
1. The flowers, or florets, are in heads on a common re-
ceptacle, and surrounded by an involucre.
2, The stamens are inserted on the corolla, and_are
united by their anthers (syngenesious ).
&. The style is 2-lobed at the apex.
64, Representatives of this Family are so numerous
that it is needless to give a list. Specimens exhibiting
all the variations in regard to the corollas, pappus, &c.,
should be gathered and notes made of their structure.
In Part IT. will be found a very full account of all the
species likely to be met with, and the exercise book has
a number of blank schedules specially arranged for Com-
posites. :
65. Catnip. Note carefully the appearance of the
stem, It is square.
The figwers are in axillary clusters, The calyx is a
tube (Fig. 59), terminating in five sharp
teeth, and you may observe that the tube is
a little logger on the upper side (that is, the
side tcv“ards the stem) than on the lower.
The corolla is somewhat peculiar. It has
somewhat the appearance of a wide-open
mouth, and is known as a labiate or two-lipped _ Fig. 59.
corolla. The upper lip is erect and notched at the apex.
Fig. 59.—Flower of Catnip.
A LABIATE FLOWER. 47
The lower lip spreads cutward, and consists of a large
‘ central lobe and two small lateral ones. Altogether,
therefore, there are five lobes constituting the gamopetal-
ous corolla. Pull out the corolla, and with the point of
your needle split its tube in front. On laying it open,
the stamens will be found to be inserted upon it (epipet-
alous). They are four in number, two of them
longer than the other two. Hence they are
described as didynamous. The anthers are
J peculiar in not having their lobes parallel (Fig.
60), these being wide apart at the base, in con-
sequence of the expansion of the connective, the
Fig. 60. name given to that part of the anther which
unites its two lobes or cells. ,
The pistil consists of a two-lobed stigma, a
long style, and an ovary which seems at first as
if made up of four distinct carpels (Fig. 61).
But the two-lobed stigma will warn you against
this supposition. The ovary really
consists of two carpels, each of two deep
lobes, and, as the seeds ripen, these
Fig. 62. lobes form four little nutlets (Fig. 62), yy gs,
each containing a single seed.
66. The Catnip is a type of the Order Labiate (Mint
Family), so called because the corollas are usually
labiate. It is marked by the following characters :
1. The stem is square, and the leaves are opposite and
generally aromatic.
2. The corolla ts more or less labiate.
‘8, The stamens are mostly didynamous.
Fig. 60,—Front view of the same. Fig. 61.—Pistil of Catnip.
Fig. 62.—Ripe ovary of four separate nutlets.
48 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
4. The ovary is four-lobed, and at maturity breaks up
into four nutlets,
Other types are the various Mints, oo Thyme,
Yummer Savory, Pennyroyal, Bergamot, Sel*heal,
Horehound, &c., many of which are of very common
occurrence.
CATNIP.
ORGAN. No. | Conzston, ADHESION. REMARKS.
Calyx. |Gamosepalous| Inferior. 4 Calyx. tube
: nerved,.
Sepals. 5
Corolla, Gamopetalous| Hypogynous. | _Two-lipped.
Oe Upper lip of
Petals. 5 two, and lower
s of three, lobes.
Stamens.~ |. 4 | Didynamous.| Epipetalous. | Lobes of an-
thers not’ par-|_
Anthers. allel.
Pistil. Syncarpous. | Superior. The ripe
ovary of four
Carpels. _ 23 ; nutlets.
¢ j .-
CHAPTER IX.
EXAMINATION OF PLANTS WITH MON@CIOUS FLOWERS—
CUCUMBE
67. Cucumber. You can -hardly have failed to
notice that only a small proportion-of the blossoms on
a Cucumber vine produce cucumbers. A great many
MONGCIOUS FLOWERS. 49
wither away and are apparently of no use. An atten-
tive inspection will show that some of the blossoms
have oblong fleshy protuber-
ances beneath them, whilst N
others are destitute of these
attachments. Select a flower
of each kind, and examine first
the one with the protubérance
(Fig. 63), which latter, from
its appearance, you will pro-
bably have rightly guessed to be
the ovary. The situation of the
ovary here, indeed, is the same al
as in the- Willow-herb, The Fis. 63.
~ calyx-tube adheres to its surface, and is prolonged to
some little distance above it, expanding finally into five
teeth. The corolla is gamopetalous, and is adherent to
the calyx. Remove now the calyx and the adherent
corolla, and there is left in the centre of the flower a
short column, terminating in three stigmas, each two.
Jobed.
There are no stamens,
68. Now examine the other blossom (Fig. 64). Calyx
three stamens growing on the
calyx-tube, and slightly united
by their anthers (syngenesious).
Fig. 64, ‘There ts no pistil.
Fig. 63.—Pistillate flower of Cucumber,
Fig. 64.—Staminate flower of Cucumber.
50 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
You see now why some blossoms produce cucumbers
and others do not. Most of the blossoms have no pistil,
and are termed staminate or sterile flowers, whilst the
others are pistillate or fertile, Flowers in which either
stamens or pistils are wanting are also called imperfect.
When staminate and pistillate flowers grow on. the same
plant, as they do in the case of the Cucumber, they are
said to be monecious. .
69. In plants of this kind the pollen of one kind of
blossom is conveyed to the stigmas of the other kind,
chiefly by insects, which visit the flowers indiscrimin-
ately in search of honey. The pollen dust clings to
their hairy legs and bodies, and is presently rubbed off
upon the stigma of some fertile flower.
‘70. In order to describe monccious flowers, our
schedule will require a slight modification. As given
below, the symbol @ stands for “staminate flower,”
and the symbol. 9 for ‘pistillate flower.”
CUCUMBER.
ORGAN. No. CoHESION. Avuesron. | Remarxs.
Calyx. Gamosepalous| Superior.
Sepals. 5
Corolla.” Gamopetalous} Perigynous.
Petals. 5.
Stamens. 3 |Syngenesious.| Peri , | Lwo anthers
Ey yngenesious.| Perigynous. | oy Solledand
«_|one 1-celled,
& Pistil. #
Carpels. | 9° i
| 2 Stamens. Y
g ° a
Q Pistil. Syncarpous. | Inferior.
Carpels. | 3 s
CUPULIFEROUS PLANTS. 51
71. Oak. The Oaks are among our finest and most
valuable forest-trees, and while everyone is familiar with
Fig. 67. Fig. 65.
the appearance of the acorn, as the fruit of the Oak is
Fig. 66.—Twig of White Oak with sterile catkins.
Fig. 67.—Single staminate flower.
Fig. 68,—Fruit and leaf of Oak. (Wood and Steele.)
52 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
called, the fact that the flowers are not to be obtained
without effort on account of their distance from the ground,
as well as the circumstance of their being rather incon-
spicuous, may lead to their being overlooked unless special
attention is directed to them. The White Oak is perhaps
the best known species with us. It may be pretty well
distinguished from other species by its leaves, the lobes of
which (Fig. 65) are rounded. However, for the purposes
of this lesson, any other species may be used, if the White
Oak is not at hand. The flowers ‘are moncecious, the
sterile ones forming long and slender drooping catkins,
which are either single or, more generally, several in a.
cluster, from the same lateral bud (Fig. 66). Each sterile
flower (Fig. 67) consists of a perianth or calyx of a vari-
able number of sepals, mostly from four tc six, and gen-
erally eight stamens. The fertile flowers spring mostly
from the axils of the leaves of new shoots, and they occur
either singly or two or three in a cluster. Each flower
consists.of a syncarpous pistil of three carpels, The ovary
is three-celled, or nearly so, and two ovules are formed
in each cell. The flower is surrounded at the base by a
scaly involucre, which, at maturity, has become quite
woody, ang forms in fact the cup in which the acorn rests,
If you dissect an acorn you will observe that there is but
one seed in tt. Although the ovary contains six ovules at
starting, it always happens that all but one disappear
before the fruit is matured.
The White Oak ripens its acorns the first year. The
Red Oak, on the other hand, does not ripen its fruit till
the autumn of the second year. -
72. It will be a valuable exercise to compare flowers of
the Beech with those just described. They will be found
CUPULIFEROUS PLANTS. 53
to be moncecious also ; the sterile ones in small drooping
heads, with stamens and sepals variable in number, and the
fertile ones from the axils of new leaves, usually two
together, surrounded by an involucre of many bristle-
pointed scales. These develope into the familiar bristly
four-valved involucre which encloses the pair of three-
cornered nuts at maturity. Each nut is the product of
one flower, and contains but one seed; although at first
the ovary was (like that of the Oak) three-celled, with two
ovules in each cell.
These resemblances lead us to the conclusion that the
Oak and the Beech are nearly related plants. They belong
to the same Order (Cupuliferc), as do also the Ironwood,
the Chestnut, and the Hazelnut, all of which should be
examined and compared, if within reach. :
73. The following are the distinguishing characters of
the Order :
1. The flowers are moncectous, the sterile ones being in
catkins (or, in Beech, in close heads), the fertile
single or in small clusters, with an inuolucre form-
ing at maturity a cup or covering for the 1-seeded aut.
2. The ovary ts at first several-celled, but at maturity is
Lcelled and 1-seeded.
_ The pupil will’ write out descriptions of one or more
representatives of the Order, taking the description of
Cucumber for his.model.
54 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
CHAPTER X.
EXAMINATION OF PLANTS WITH DIGCIOUS FLOWERS—
WILLOW-——-MAPLE.
74, THON: The flowers of most kinds of Willow
appear in spring or early summer
before the leaves. They grow from
the axils in long, close clusters called
catkins or aments. Collect a few cf. .
R\ these from the samé tree or shrub.
Fig. 68. You will find them to be exactly.
alike. If the first one you examine is covered with yellow
stamens (Fig. 68), all the rest will likewise consist of
stamens, and you will search
in vain for any appearance
of a pistil., If, on the other
hand, one of your catkins is
evidently destitute of sta-
mens, and consists of oblong
‘pistils (Fig. 69), then all the
others will in like manner Fig. 69.
be found to be without stamens, Unlike our Cucumber
* plant, the staminate and pistillate flowers of the
Willow are borne on different plants. These
flowers are therefore said to be diavious, Asa
general thing, staminate and pistillate catkins
will be found upon trees not far apart. Procure
one of each kind, and examine first the stami-
nate one. You will probably find the stamens
Fig. 70, in pairs. Follo-y any pair of filaments down to
Fig. 68.—Staminate catkin of Willow. Fig. 69.—Fertile catkin.
Fig. 70.—Single staminate flower.
DIGCIOUS FLOWERS, 55
their insertion, and observe that ‘they spring from the
axil-of a ‘minute bract (Fig. 70). ‘These bracts are the
scales of the catkin. There is no appearance of either
calyx or corolla, and the flowers aré therefore said to be
achlamydeous, that is, without a covering. Now:
look at the fertile catkin. ach pistil will, like
the stamens, be found to spring from the axil of
y/ a scale (Fig. 71). The stigma is two-lobed, and,
on carefully opening the ovary, you observe that
though there is but one cell yet there are two
rows of seeds, We therefore infer that the pistil
Fig. 71. consists of two carpels. The pistillate flowers,
like the staminate, are achlamydeous. In dicecious plants
HEART-LEAVED WILLOW.
ORGAN. No. COHESION. ADHESION. RS MARKS,
Calyx. 0 :
. “Corolla. 0
3 dtamang 2 Diandrous. 0
& Pistil. 0
fe) asp hii 0
2 Pistil, . Syncarpous. 0
~ Carpels. 2
the process of fertilization is assisted by insects, especially
when the flowers are showy or odoriferous and nectar-
Fig. 71.—Singléepistillate flower of Willow.
d
56 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
bearing ; otherwise the wind is the principal agent.
Flowers which depend on insects to effect the transfer of
pollen from the anther to the stigma are said tu be ento-
mophilous. Those which depend upon the wind are
anemophilous. The Willow belongs to the former class.
75. Maple. In early spring, while the branches are
as yet bare. of leaves, our Red Maples are covered. with
a profusion of scarlet and yellow blossoms, and the: air
about them is alive with busy insects gathering honey for
themselves, and performing at the same time an impor-
tant service for the trees in return ; for it will be found
on examining. a few of the trees that, like the Willow,
t2g,- they do not all bear the same kind of
flowers. In some, the ends of the
reddish twigs will presenttheappear-
ance shown in Fig.72,withnumerous
stamens ‘protruding from the scaly
lateral buds. On looking into one
of these buds it will be found that,
there are several flowers on short
pedicels, each like that shown in
Fig. 73, except that the number of
stamens will‘probably be found to
be somewhat variable. Observe
the fleshy disk in the bottom of
the calyx, upon which the stamens
are inserted. These flowers with
the projecting stamens are without
Fig. 73. _pistils. They produce nothing but
pollen, and the tree upon which you find them produces.
no other kind.
Fig. 72.—Twig of Red Maple bearin® staminate flowers.
THE MAPLES. 57
Tn other trees, the twigs will be found to resemble Fig.
74, The scaly buds are present, and the clusters of flow-
crs within them as before, but the projecting stamens
are wanting. If stamens are present at all, they are
short and almost concealed in the calyx, as shown in Fig.
75, where two anthers are just visible over the edge of
the calyx. The centre of the flower
is occupied by a syncarpous pistil,
having a two-celled ovary and two
long styles, as shown in the figure.
The flowers of the Maple, there-
fore, being sterile or staminate upon
one tree, and fertile or pistillate upon
another, are, as in Willow, said to be
dicecious ; or, if we take into account
the fact that some of the flowers
have stamens as well as pistils, we
shall more accurately describe the
Se whole inflorescence (or mode of
Fig. 74. é er,
oO flowering) as polygamo-diccious,
ok In Maple, as in
Fig. 7. ‘Willow, the assist-
ance of insects is necessary to ensure
the transfer of the pollen to the stigma.
The flowers are, therefore, entomophilous.
After fertilization, a wing is devel- AC
oped from the back of each of the two Fig. 76.
carpels, and the pedicels lengthen, so that’ as the fruit
ripens it presents the familiar aspect of hanging clusters of
double samaras, as these winged fruits are called (Fig. 76).
Fig, 74.—Twig of Red Maple bearing pistillate flowers.
Fig. 75,—Single pistillate flower. (Wood & Steele.)
Fig. 76.—Winged fruit or samara of Maple.
58 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
The Red Maplevipens its seeds early in the summer,
and these, on falling, germinate immediately, so ‘that by the
autumn of the same year a vigorous young tree, a foot or
more in height, is produced. The seeds will not germi-
nate if kept over till the following spring.
The Sugar Maple, on the other hand, flowers later, the
leaves and flowers appearing about the same time, and
the seeds do not ripen till the fall. If kept slightly moist
through the winter they will germinate the following
Spring.
76, The several species of common occurrence should
be carefully studied and distinguished. Their character-
istics are given in the proper place in Part IT.
The Maples form a subordinate group of the natural
Order Sapindacew. They are distinguished by the.follow-
ing characters : : ;
1. The flowers are diwcious (or polygamo-diccious ), and
commonly unsymmetrical.
2, The ovary is two-lobed and two-celled, with two
ovules in each cell, only ons of which,. however, ts
ripened.
& The fruit is a double samara.
4. The leaves are opposite.
i
77. From this type there are important deviations in
other representatives of the Order. Horse-chestnut, for
instance, while its flowers are unsymmetrical and some-
what irregular, as in the Maples, produces a three-celled
ovary, with two ovules in each cell, But as in Maple,
again, only one ovule in each cell formsaseed. The fruit,
however, is not a samara, but a leathery pod which splits
into three pieces at maturity, liberating the three large
shining seeds,
CHARACTERS COMMON TO DICOTYLEDONS, 59
Schedules descriptive of the Maple should be filled up,
taking that of Willow as the model.
CHAPTER XI.
CHARACTERISTICS POSSESSED IN COMMON BY ALL THE PLANTS
PREVIOUSLY EXAMINED—STRUCTURE OF THE SEED
IN DICOTYLEDONS,
78. Before proceeding further in our examination of
plants, we shall direct your attention to some characters
of those already examined, which they all possess in
“common. The leaves of every one of them are net-veined,
Some leaves, at least, of each of them have distinct petioles
and blades. The parts of the flowers we found, as a gen-
eral thing, to be in fives. In one or two instances they
were in fours, that is four sepals, four petals, and so on.
fy 79. Now, in addition to these resem-
it blances, there are others which do not
so immediately strike theeye, but which,
nevertheless, are just as constant. One
of these is to be found in the structure
Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79, of the embryo. Take a Cucumber or a
Pumpkin seed, and ‘having soaked it for some time in
water, remove the outer coat. The body of the seed will
then readily split in two, except where the parts are joined
at one end (Figs. 77,78, 79). The thick lobes are called
cotyledons, or -seed-leaves, and as there are two, the embryo .
‘is dicotyledonous. The pointed end where the cotyledons
Figs. 77, 78, 79.—Diffcrent views of Pumpkin seed, showing radicle,
cotyledons, and plumule,
60 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
are attached, and from which the root is developed, is
called the radicle, a term meaning “little root.” As it is
strictly, however, a rudimentary stem, and not a root, the
term caulicle would be better. Between the cotyledons,
at the summit of the radicle, you will find a minute upward:
projection. This is a bud, which is known as the plumule.
It developes into the stem.
80. If you treat a Pea or a Bean (Figs. 80, 81) in the
same manner as the Cucumber seed, you will find it to be
’ Fig. 80. constructed on the same plan. The em-
bryo of the Bean is dicotyledonous also.
But you will observe that in these cases
the embryo occupies the whole of the in-
terior of the seed. In describing the seed
of the Buttercup, it was pointed out that
the embryo occupies but a very small
space in the seed, the bulk of the latter
consisting of albumen, Seeds like those of the Buttercup
are therefore called albuminous seeds, while those of the
Bean and Pea are exalbuminous, But, notwithstanding
this difference in the structure of the seed, the embryo of
the Buttercup, when examined under a strong magnifier,
is found to be dicotyledonous like the-others. In short,
the dicotyledonous embryo is a character common to all
the plants we have examined—common, as a rule, to
all plants possessing the other characters enumerated
above. From the general constancy of all these charac-
ters, plants possessing them are grouped together in a vast
Class, called Dicotyledonous plants, or, shortly, Dicoty-
ledons.
Figs. 80 and 81.—Sced of the Bean.
' LILIACEOUS PLANTS. 61
81. Besides the characters just mentioned, there is still
another one of great importance which Dicotyledons
possess in common. It is the manner of growth of the
stem. In the Willow, and all our trees and shrubs with-
out exception, there is an outer layer of bark on the stem,
‘and the stem increases in thickness, year by year, by form-
ing a new layer just inside the bark and outside the old
wood, These stems are therefore called exogenous, that is,
outside growers,
“Now, in all Dicotyledonous plants, whether herbs,
shrubs, or trees, the stem thickens in this manner, so that
Dicotyledons are also Hxogens.
CHAPTER XII.
EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS CONTINUED—DOG'S-TOOTH
VIOLET—-TRILLIUM—IRIS—ORCHIS.
82. Dog’s-tooth Violet. This plant (Fig. 82),which
flowers in spring, may be pretty easily recognized by its
peculiar blotched leaves. It may be found in rich, moist
pasture lands and low copses. The name “ Violet” is
somewhat unfortunate, because the plant is not in any
way related to the true Violets. To obtain a complete
specimen requires some trouble, owing to the fact that the
root is commonly six inches or so below the surface of the
ground ; you must therefore insert a spade or strong trowel
sufficiently deep to avoid cutting or breaking the tender
stem. Having cleared away the adhering earth, you will
find that the roots proceed from what appears to be the
62 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
swollen end of the stem. This swollen mass is coated on
the outside with thin’scales. A section across the middle
shows it to be more or less solid, with the stem growing’
et
Hee
Fig. 82,
up through it from its base. It is, in fact, not easy to say
how much of this stem-like growth is in reality stem,
Fig. 82.—Dog’s-tooth Violet, ss
: £
LILIACEOUS PLANTS. 63
because it merges gradually into the scape, which bears
the-flower, and the petioles of the leaves, which sheathe
the scape. The swollen mass is called a bulb, '
83. The leaves are two in number, gradually narrowing
at the base into sheaths, If you hold one of them up to
the light, you will observe that the veins donot, as in the
leaves of the Dicotyledonous plants, form a network, but
tun only in one direction: namely, from
end to end of the leaves. Such leaves are
consequently called straight-veined.
| 84, In the flower there is no appearance
of a green calyx. “There are six yellow
Fig. 83. leaves, nearly alike, arranged in two sets,
an outer and an inner, of three each. .In such cases, we
shall speak of the coloured leaves collectively as the pert-
anth. If the leaves are free from each other we shall
speak of the perianth as polyphyllous, but if they cohere
we shall describe it as gamophyllous. Stripping off the
leaves of the perianth, we find six stamens with long
upright anthers which open along their outer edges, If
the anthers be pulled off, the filaments will be found to
terminate in long, sharp points.
The pistil (Fig. 83) has its three parts—
‘ovary, style, and stigma—well marked. The
stigma “is evidently formed by the union of
three into one. The ovary, when cut across,
is seen to be three-celled (Fig. 84), andis, Fig. 84.
therefore, syncarpous.
Fig. 83.—Pistil of Dog’s-tooth Violet.
Fig. 84.—Crogs section of the pistil,
64 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET.
Orcaxn. _| No. i CoxESION. ADHESION. REMARKS
Perianth. _ | Polyphyllous.| Inferior.
Leaves. 6
. Filaments ter-|
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. | Hypogynous. |minating in
sharp points. |
Pistil. Syncarpous. | Superior. ise
Carpels. 8
,
85. Trillium. This plant
(Fig. 85) may be found in
flower about the same time as
the one just described. The
perianth of Trillium consists
of six pieces in two sets, but
in this case the three outer
leaves are green, like a com-
mon calyx. The stamens are
six in number, There are
three styles, curving outwards,
the whole of the inner side of
each being stigmatic, The
ovary (Fig, 86) is six-angled,
and on being cut across is seen
to be three-celled, .
Fig. 85.
Fig. 85.—Trillium, Fig. 86.—Cross section of the pistil,
Fig. 87.—Not-veined leaf of Trilliwna,
LILIACEOUS PLANTS, 65
86. Comparing this flower with that of Dog’s-tooth
Violet, we find the two to exhibit a striking resemb-
lance in structure. But in one respect the plants are
strikingly unlike: the leaves of the Trillium are net-
veined (Fig. 87), as in the Exogens, From this circum-
stance we learn that we cannot altogether rely on the
veining of the leaves as a constant characteristic of
plants whose parts are not in fives,
TRILLIUM.
Orean. | No. CowESION. ADHESION. Remanxs.
Perianth, Polyphyllous.|Inferior. Sepals persist-|.
ent, :
Sepals. |. 38
Petals. 3 =
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. |Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. |Superior. The inner face}
of each style
Carpels, 3 stigmatic. | -
Leaves net-veined.
87. The two plants just examined are types of the
natural Order Liltacee. The distinguishing characters
are as follows :
1. The parts of the flower are almost invariably tn sets
of three, the perianth being of two such sets, and
also the stamens. The flowers are therefore sym-
metrical ; they are also regular.
2. The stamens are opposite the divisions of the pertanth.
8. The ovary ts nearly always 8-celled, and is superior.
66 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
The representatives of this large Order are very nu.
merous. From the gardens may be had lilies of various
sorts, Asparagus, Star-of- Bethlehem, Tulip, Onion, Hya-
cinth, &c., whilst the fields and woods supply the Bell-
wort, Clintonia, Solomon’s Seal, Smi-
lacina, and others. Asa rule the plants
_ flower in spring and early summer.
88. Iris. For this lesson any variety
of the common garden Flag will answer
very well. In our marshes in early
summer abundant specimens of a wild
species may be obtained without much
trouble, but the cultivated, plants will
probably be more accessible. Note first
the fleshy underground stem or root-
stock, with the fibrous roots below
(Fig. 88), If you have a sufficient
length of this root- Fig. 89.
stock you willnotice _4s
the scars upon the’ €4
older portions, show-
ing where the leaves
of former seasons
have been sent up. ~
The new buds ex- x
pand into a crowded
cluster of leaves, the shape and arrangement of which
should be carefully observed. Cut the whole cluster
across near the base, and the section will be as repre-
sented in Fig. 89, the section of each leaf being V-shaped,
Fig. 88.—Root-stock and leaves of Iris. (Gray.)
Fie. 89.—Cross section of eluster of eanitant leaves. (Grav.\
IRIS. 67
and astride the next one within. Leaves disposed in this
manner are consequently said to be equitant (eques, a
horseman). As the leaf rises upward it alters in shape,
becoming flat and sword-like. Besides being equitant,
these leaves, on account of their direction, are described
as vertical, You will observe, also, that they are straight-
veined. s
From the centre of the cluster of leaves rises the scape
which bears the flower. If your specimen has a flower-
' bud upon it, as'is most likely, you will notice the way in
which its leaves are folded. The mode of folding here
exhibited is common to a great
many flowers, and is described
as convolute. In the full-blown
flower the perianth will be found
to consist of six pieces, in two
distinct sets of three each; the
outer three are considerably
larger than the others, and are
bent backwards or reflexed; the
Fig. 90. inner ones are erect. There are
three stamens, each of them beneath and close against
‘an over-arching body, the nature of which is not at first
quite manifest. Cut away the perianth and the stamens,
and you will then have left the three radiating coloured
arches (Fig. 90), which will be seen to.unite below into
a slender column, You have also left what is apparently
the swollen top of the scape. This, when cut across, is
found to be a three-celled ovary, which is thus, of course,
inferior. The slender column above is the style, and. the
Fig. 90.—Pistil of Iris. (Wood and Steele.)
yy
i
68 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
three petal-like arches are its branches, Immediateiy
beneath the tip of each arch will be found a thin lip or
plate, which is the stigma.
The anthers open outwards to_discharge the pollen,
and this fact, in addition to the peculiar situation of the
anther as regards the stigma, makes it almost impossible |
that self-fertilization should take place in this flower.
As was the case. with other flowers already examined,
the Iris is honey-bearing, and, besides, exceedingly showy.
The nectar is situated in a cavity at the bottom of the
flower, and cross-fertilization is accomplished by the aid
of insects. It will be remembered that flowers thus
fertilized are said to be entomophilous.
89. The Crocus and Gladiolus of the gardens and the
Blue-eyed Grass of our low meadows may be examined ,
and compared with the Iris. They are all types of the
natural Order Iridacec, which you will observe differs from
Liliacee chiefly in having flowérs with only three stamens
and an inferior ovary. :
IRIS.
e
ORGAN. No. | Coneston. ADHESION. REMARKS.
Perianth. Gamophyllous| Superior. 2sets. Outer,
: large and re-
Leaves. 6 flexed ; inner,
: erect. |
Stamens. 3 | Triandrous. | Perigynous. Opposite the
stigmas,
. Stigmas pet-
Pistil, Syncarpous. | Inferior. al-like,arching
over the ex-
Carpels. 3 trorse anthers.
a 4 + 7
ORCHIS, 69
_ 90. Showy Orchis. The flower of this plant (Figs.
91, 92) is provided with floral envelopes, all coloured like
a coroila. As in Dog’s-tooth Violet, we shall call them
collectively the perianth, although they are not all alike.
One of them projects forward in front of the flower,
forming the Zp, and bears underneath it a long, hollow |
spur which, like the spurs of Columbine, is honey-bearing.
.. The remaining five converge together, forming a kind of
Fig. 91.—Showy Orchis.
7U ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
arch over the centre of the flower. Each flower springy
from the axil of a leaf-like bract, and is apparently
raised on a pedicel. What seems to be a pedicel, how-
ever, will, if cut across, prove to be the ovary,
which in this case is inferior. Its situation is
similar to the situation of the ovary in Willow-
@ herb, and, as in that flower, so in this the
MA calyx-tubé adheres to the whole surface of the
) ovary, and the three outer divisions of the
perianth are simply upward extensions of this
tube. Notice the peculiar twist in the ovary.
The effect of this twist is to turn the lip away
from the scape, and so give it the appearance
of being the lower petal instead of the upper one, as it
really is.
91. The structure of the stamens and pistil remains
to be examined, and a glance at the flower shows you
that we have here something totally different from the
common arrangement ot these organs. In the axis of the
flower, immediately behind the opening into the
spur, there is an upward projection known as the
column. The face of this column is the stigma ; 5
en each side of the stigma, and adhering to it, is
an anther-cell. These cells, though separated by
the column, constitute but a single stamen. The
stamen, then, in this case is wntted with the pistil,
Fig. 98. a condition which is described as gynandrous.
92. If you have a flower in which the anther-cells are
bursting open, you will see that the pollen does not issue
from them in its usual dust-like form, but if you use the
Fig. 92.
Fig. 92.—Single flower of Orchis.
Fig. 93.—Pollen-mass of Orchis, greatly enlarged.
ORCHIS. 71
point of your needle carefully you may remove the con-
tents of each cell iz a mass. These pollen-masses are of
the form shown in Fig. 93. The grains are kept together
by a fine tissue or web, and the slender stalk, upon which
each pollen-mass is raised, is attached by its lower end
to a sticky disk on the front of the stigma just above the
mouth of the spur. Insects, in their efforts to reach the
honey, bring their heads in contact with these disks, and,
when they fly away, carry the pollen-masses with them
and deposit them on the stigma of the next flower visited.
In fact, it is difficult to see how, without the aid of
insects, flowers of this sort could be fertilized at_all.
SHOWY ORCBHIS.
Organ, No. Cougston, ADHESION. Remarks.
Perianth. _ |Gamophyllous| Superior.
Leaves. | 6
Pollen-grains
Stamens. 1 Monandrous. | Gynandrous. |collected in
i masses. t
Pistil. : Syncarpous. | Inferior.
Carpels. 3 Ovary twisted.
93. Showy Orchis is a representative of.the vast
Order Orchidacee, the members of which are chiefly
tropical. Some of our handsomest Canadian wild flow-
ers, however, belong. to it, such as the Lady’s Slipper,
the Rattlesnake Plantain, the beautiful little Calypso,
and the Habenarias. Most of our orchids will be found
in low.and wet situations, and they flower rather early
72 BLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
in the year, The most remarkable characteristics of the
Order are the gynandrous arrangement of the stamen or
stamens, and the cohesion of the pollen-grains, though
this latter peculiarity is exhibited also by other groups
—notably, the Milkweeds.
CHAPTER XTIT
EXAMINATION Or SPADICEOUS PLANTS—INDIAN TURNIP—
CALLA.
94. Indian Turnip. This plant may be easily met
with in our woods in early summer. If you are not
familiar with its appearance, the annexed cut (Fig. 94)
will help you to recognize it. Procure several speci-
mens: these will probably at first seem to you to be
alike in every respect, but out of a number some are
pretty sure to differ from the rest. Notice the bulb
‘from which the stem springs. It differs from‘that of
the Dog’s-tooth Violet, and Lilies generally, in having a
much Jarger solid part. Itis called.a corm. Between
the pair of leaves you observe a curious striped sheath,
having an arching, hood-like top, and enclosing an up-
right stalk, the top of which almost touches the hood
(Fig. 95), Can this be a flower? It is -certainly- the
only thing about the plant which at all resembles a’
flower, and yet how different it is from any we have
hitherto examined! Carefully cut away the sheaths
INDIAN TURNIP. 73
from all your specimens. Most, and perhaps all, of
them will then present an appearance like that in Fig,
96. If none of them be like Fig. 97 it will be well to
gather a few more plants, We shall suppose, however,
Fig. 94.
that you have been fortunate in obtaining both kinds,
and will proceed with our examination, Take first a
specimen corresponding with Fig, 96. Around the base
of the column are compactly arranged many spherical
green bodies, each tipped with a little point. Separate
Fig. 94.—Indian Turnip.
74
ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
one of these from the rest and cut it across. Jt will be
Fig. 95.
the Willow, the fertile, or pistillate,
‘flowers being clustered together separate-
ly. But in the Cucumber all the flowers
were ohgerved to be furnished with calyx
and corolla, and in the Willow catkins,
though floral envelopes were absent, each
pair of stamens and each pistil was sub-
tended by a bract.
found to contain several ovules, and
is, in fact, an ovary, the point at the
top being a stigma. Inthe autumn
a great change will have taken
place in the appearance of plants
like the one we are now examining.
The arched hood will have dis.
appeared, as also the long naked
top of the column, whilst the part
below, upon which we are now.en-
gaged, will have vastly increased in
size, and become a compact ball of
red berries. There can be no doubt,
then, that we have
here a structure anal-
ogous to that found
in the Cucumber and
In the present plant
there are no floral envelopes, nor does
each pistil arise from a separate bract.
Fig. 96. Fig. 97.
95. But, you will now ask, what is this sheathing
hood which we find wrapped about our column of pistils?
Fig. 95.—Spathe of Indian Turnip,
Fig. 96.—Fertile spadix of the same. Fio_ 97 —Stevile enadiv
INDIAN TURNIP, Vas)
There is no doubt that we must look upon it as a braci,
because from its base the flower-cluster springs. So that,
whilst the flowers of Indian Turnip are, like those of
Willow, imperfect and diccious, the clusters differ in
having but a single bract instead of a bract under each
flower.
96. We must now examine one of the other specimens ;
and we shall have no difficulty in determining the nature
of the bodies which, in this case, cover the base of the
column, They are evidently stamens, and your magni-
fying-glass will show you that they consist mostly of an-
thers, the filaments being extremely short, and that
some of the anthers are two-celled and some four-celled,
all discharging their pollen through little holes at the
top of the cells.
INDIAN TURNIP.
Ornean. No, ConHEsIon. ADIIFSION.
Stamens. 1 Monandrous. 0
Q Pistil. Apocarpous. 0
Carpels. 1.
Flowers crowded on a spadix, and surrounded by a spathe.
Leaves net-veined.
97. The column upon which, in plants like Indian
Turnip, the flowers are crowded, is known as a spadizx,
and the surrounding bract as a spathe.
You will observe that the leaves of this plant are ned-
veined, as we found them in the Trillium.
76 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
98. Marsh Calla. This plant must be looked for
in low, marshy grounds, where it will be found in flower
generally in the month of June. With the knowledge
which you have of the structure of Indian Turnip, you
i
Fig. 98. Fig. 99.
will hardly doubt that the Calla is closely related to it.
You will easily recognize the spadix and the spathe
(Fig. 98), though in the present instance the spadix
bears flowers to the top, and the spathe is open instead
of enclosing the column. Observe, however, that the
veining of the leaf (Fig. 99) is different, that of Calla
being straight, like the Dog’s-Tooth Violet. There is
also a difference in the flowers. Those of Indian Turnip
were found to be dicecious, but the spadix, in the present
Fig. 98.—Spadix and spathe of Marsh Calla,
Fig. 99.—Leaf of the same.
MARSH CALLA. U7
case, bears both stamens and pistils, and most of the
lower flowers, if not all, are perfect ;
sometimes the upper ones consist of sta-
/J, mens only. Fig. 100 shows one of the
' perfect flowers much enlarged. The sta-
mens, it will be.observed, have two-celled
anthers, opening lengthwise. +
Fig. 100,
MARSH CALLA.
Onean. No. CoxzsiIon. ADHESION.
Perianth. Wanting:
Stamens. 6 * Hexandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
Carpels, 1
99. These two plants, Indian Turnip and Marsh Calla,
are representatives of the Order Aracew. The characters
which distinguish it are very well displayed in the two
types we have selected for examination, The great feature
is the aggregation of the flowers on a spadix. Generally,
though not invariably, a spathe is also present. Among
wild plants the Skunk Cabbage and Sweet Flag (the latter
without a spathe) are common Araceous types, while the
familiar green-house and window plant, known as the
' Calla-Lily, will serve very well for examination in winter.
It may be added that the plants of this Order have a very
acrid juice. '
Fig. 100.—Perfect flower of Calla,
78 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
CHAPTER XIV.
EXAMINATION OF GLUMACEOUS PLANTS—TIMOTHY AND
OTHER GRASSES,
100. Timothy. The top of a stalk of this well-
known grass is cylindrical in shape, and upon examina-
tion will be found to consist of a vast number of similar
pieces compactly arranged on very short pedicels about
the stalk as an axis, Carefully separate one of
these pieces from the rest, and if the grass has
not yet come into flower the piece will present
the appearance shown in Fig. 101. In this
Fig. the three points in the middle are the pro-
truding ends of stamens, The
piece which you have separated is, in
fact, a flower enclosed in a pair of bracts,
and all the other pieces which go to
make up the top are flowers also, and,
except perhaps a few at the very sum-
mit of the spike, precisely similar to this Fig. 102.
one in their structure.
Fig. 101.
101. Fig. 102 is designed to help you in dissecting a
flower which has attained a greater degree of development
than the one shown in Fig. 101. Here the two bracts
which enclose the flower have been drawn asunder. To
these bracts the name glumes is applied. They are
present in all plants of the Grass Family, and are often
Fig. 101.—Closed flower of Timothy.
Fig. 102. —Expanded flower of the same,
GRASSES. 79
found enclosing several flowers instead of one as in
Timothy. Inside the glumes will be found a second pair
of minute chaff-like bracts, which are known as palets or
pales. These enclose the flower proper.
102. The stamens are three in number, with the anthers
fixed by the middle to the long slender filament. The -
anthers are therefore versatile. The styles are two in
number, bearing long, feathery stigmas. The ovary contains —
a single ovule, and when ripe forms a seed-like grain,
technically known as a caryopsis.
TIMOTHY.
ORGAN. No. CoHESION. ADHESION.
Glumes. 2
Palets. 2
Stamens. 3 Triandrous. ; Hypogynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior,
Carpels. A
103. It will be observed that the stalk of Timothy is
hollow except at certain swollen knot-like joints.. This
peculiar stem of the Grasses is called a cudm. Occasionally,
however, it is not hollow. The leaves are long and narrow
and straight-veined, and each of them at its base surrounds
the culm with a split sheath. Observe also that at the
80 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
junction of the blade and the sheath there is a thin
appendage which is called a ligule.
104, In many grass-flowers, besides the parts described
above there will be found one or two minute scales below the
pistil. These are known as
a lodicules, and are analogous
as to the perianth in ordinary
he flowers. They are, on ac-
ke count of their minuteness,
very liable to be overlooked
in a superficial examination.
105. The immense Order
Graminece (Grass Family)
includes all our valuable
grains, and is, on the whole,
the most important and
ze useful of all the Orders. Its
¢. vepresentatives are to be
“** found in every part of the
world, and they vary in size
from the stunted growths
of the polar regions to the
tree-like Bamboo of the
tropics. Wheat, Indian
Corn, Barley, Oats, Rye,
Sugar-cane, Rice, are all
Grasses, as well as the plants which make the verdure of
our meadows and pastures. The flowers of all are very
similar, but the Order is sub-divided on the basis of
Fig. 104. Fig. 103. F
Fig. 103.—Panicle of Red-top.
Fig. 104.—Single flower. (Gray.)
GRASSES, .- : 81
modifications which will be best understood by studying
a few examples.
106. Procure specimens of the common
we Red-top, and first compare the general
ie, aspect of the flower-cluster (Fig. 103)
wy oe with that of Timothy. Instead of a dense
spike we have here a loose, open inflor-
panicle. You will see that
it is an irregular branched
raceme, As in Timothy,
~ each pair of glumes encloses
but one flower (Fig. 104), and
we must observe that the
term spikelet, so far as
Grasses are concerned, is
applied to the pair of glumes
and whatever is contained in
them, whether one flower, or
many, as is often the case.
In Red-top and Timothy, the
spikelets are I-flowered. Ob-
serve the very thin texture
of the palets, and also that
one of them (the lower, ze.,
the one farthest from the
stalk) is nearly twice as large
as the other, and is marked
with three nerves.
Fig. 105.—Common Meadow-Grass. ~
Fig. 106.—Spikelet enlarged, showing the glumes at the base.
Fig. 107,—Single flower of same.
42 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
107. Next let us inspect a specimen of the Common
Meadow-Grass, The inflorescence of this very common
grass (Fig. 105) is a greenish panicle. The spikelets (Fig.
106) contain from three to five flowers, and are laterally,
compressed. The glumes are the lowest pair of scales, and
they are generally shorter than the flowers within them.
Observe the delicate whitish margin of the lower palet of
each flower (Fig. 107), and the thin texture of the upper
one. Count also, if you can, the five nerves on the lower |
palet, and observe the two teeth at the apex of the upper |
one. In this Grass the principal thing to notice is that
there are several flowers within each pair of glumes.
108. A common pest in wheat-fields is the Grass
known as Chess, Itis comparatively easy of examination
on account of the size of the
spikelets (Fig. 108) and flow-
ers. The spikelets form a
spreading panicle, eachof them
being on a long, slender, nod-
ding pedicel, and containing
from eight to ten flowers. Of
the two glumes at the base of
each spikelot one is consider-
ably larger than the other,
The outer or lower palet of each flower is tipped with a
bristle or awn (Fig. 109), ‘while the upper palet at length
becomes attached to the groove of the oblong grain.
‘Observe that the glumes are not awned.
_ ¢
Fig. 108. Fig. 109.
109, The Couch Grass is another very common weed
in cultivated grounds. In this Grass the spikelets are
Fig. 108.—Spikelet of Chess. Fig. 109,—Single flower. (Gray.)
+
GRASSES. ; 83
sessile on opposite sides of the zigzag peduncle, so that —
the whole forms a spike. Each spikelet is four- to eight-
flowered, and there is but one at each joint of the
peduncle, the side of the spikelet being against the stalk.
The glumes are nearly equal in size, and the lower palet
of each flower closely resembles the glumes, but is sharp-
pointed or awned. The grass spreads rapidly by running
root-stocks, and is troublesome to eradicate.
110. Old-Witch Grass is to be found everywhere in
sandy soil and in cultivated grounds. The leaves are
very hairy, and the panicle very large, compound, and
loose, the pedicels being extremely slender. Of the two
glumes one is much larger than the other. Unless you
are careful you will regard the spikelets as 1-flowered.;
observe, however; that in addition to the one manifestly
perfect flower there is an extra palet below, This palet
(which is very muchlike the larger glume)is a rudimentary
or abortive second flower, aid the spikelets may be
' described as 14-flowered.
111. Barnyard Grass is a stout, cvarse plant, common
in manured soil. It is from one to four feet in height,
and branches from the base. The spikelets form dense
spikes, and these are crowded in a dense panicle which is
rough with stiff hairs. The structure of the spikelets is
much the same as in Old-Witch Grass, but the palet of
the neutral flower is pointed with a rough awn or bristle.
112. In the common Foxtail the inflorescence is
apparently a dense, bristly, cylindrical spike. In reality,
however, it is a spiked panicle, the spikelets being much
the same as in Barnyard Grass, but their pedicels are
prolonged beyond them into awn-like bristles. In this
84 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
piant the bristles are in clusters and are barbed upwards,
The spikes are tawny-yellow in colour.
113. These examples, if conscientiously studied with
the aid of the plants themselves, will give you a good
general idea of the kinds of variation which may be looked
for in the Grasses. They may be said, roughly, to consist
in the presence or absence of glumes, of-awns, and of the
upper palet ; in the general aspect of the whole flower-
cluster ; in the number of flowers in the spikelets ; and
in the varying relative size of the glumes and of the palets,
114. The Order as a whole is distinguished by the
following characters :
1. The sheaths of the leaves are split on the side of the
culm opposite the blade,
2. The separate flowers are enclosed in glumaceous bracts .
called palets.
8. The perianth is represented by the lodicules.
4. The stamens are three in number, and the pistil is
syncarpous (two carpels), with a one-celled ovary
producing a single seed, which is always albuminous
with the embryo on one side.
CHAPTER XV
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANTS JUST EXAMINED—
STRUCTURE OF THE SEED 1N MONOCOTYLEDONS,
415, It is now to be pointed out that the plants
examined in the last three chapters, though differing in
various particulars, yet have some characters common te
all of them, just as the group ending with Maple was
CHARACTERS COMMON TO MONOCOTYLEDONS. 85
found to be marked by characters possessed by all its
members. The flowers of Dicotyledons were found to
have their parts, as a rule, in fours or fives ; those of our
second group have them in ¢hrees or sixes, never in fives,
116, Again, the leaves of these plants are straight-
veined, except in Trillium and Indian Turnip, which must
be regarded as exceptional, and they do not as a rule
exhibit the division into petiole and blade which was
found to characterize the Exogens.
117. We shall
now compare the
structure of a
grain of Indian
Corn with that of
the Cucumber or
Pumpkin seed
which we have already examined (page 59). It will
facilitate our task if we select a grain from an ear which
has been boiled. And, first of all, let us observe that the
gvain consists of something more than the seed. The
grain is. very much like the achene of the Buttercup, but
differs in this respect, that the outer covering of the
~~ former is completely united with the seed-coat underneath
it, whilst in the latter the true seed easily separates from
its covering. Remove the coats of the grain, and what is
left is a whitish, starchy-looking substance, having a
yellowish body inserted in a hollow (Fig. 110) in the
middle of one side. This latter body is the embryo, and
- may be easily removed, All the rest is albwmen. Fig.
111 is a front view of the embryo, and Fig. 112 shows a
vertical section of the same. The greater part of the
Fig. 110. Fig. 112. Fig. 111.
Figs. 110, 111, 112.—Sections of a grain of Indian Corn, (Gray.)
86 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
embryo consists of a single cotyledon. The radicle is seen
near the base, and the plumule above. Compare an Uat
(Fig. 113) with the grain of Corn and make out the corre-
sponding parts, In all essential particulars they are alike.
‘118, Comparing the result of our observations with what
we have already learned about the Cucumber seed, we find
that whilst in the latter there are ¢wo cotyledons, in the
present case there is but one, and this peculiarity is
common to all the plants just examined, and
to a vast number of others besides, which are
consequently designated Monocotyledon-
‘+ ous plants, or shortly Monocotyledons.
| The seeds of this great group may differ as to
jl, the presence or absence of albumen, just as
4f/ the seeds of Dicotyledons do, but in the num-
C ber of their cotyledons they are all alike.
& The Orchids, however, are very peculiar from
Sy-R having no cotyledons at all.
Fig.113, 119. In addition to the points just mentioned,
viz : the number of floral leaves, the veining of
the foliage leaves,the usual absence of distinct petioles, and
the single cotyledon, which characterize our secoud great
group, there is still another, as constant as any of these,
and that is, the mode of growth of the stem, which is
quite at variance with that exhibited in Dicotyledonous
plants. In the present group the increase in the thickness
of the stem is accomplished not by the deposition of circle
after circle of new wood outside the old, but by the pro-
duction of new wood-fibres through the interior of the
stem generally, These stems are therefore said to be
Fig. 113. — Vertical section of Oat grain; R, radicle; G, plumule; C,
cotyledon ; A, albumen (or endosperm); 0, hairs; T, testa, (Thomé.)
CHARACTERS OF MONOCOTYLEDONS, ) 87
endogenous, and the plants ‘composing the group are called
Endogens, as well as Monocotyledons. The term
Endogen, however, is used in quite a different sense by
some recent botanists, and is discarded by them as a
synonym for monocotyledon, as having been given originally
under a misconception as to the true mode of growth of
the wood in stems of this kind. We shall explain more
fully the structure of exogenous and endogenous stems
when we come to speak of the minute structure of plants
in a subsequent chapter.
120. The typical flower of the Monocotyledons is that
of the Lily ; it consists of five whorls, two belonging to the
perianth, two to the anthers, and one to the pistil. Other
flowers of the group, as we have zeen, exhibit departures
from the type, chiefly in the suppression of whorls or
parts of whorls. Thus in the Iris one whorl of stamens
is suppressed. In this plant, also, the ovary is inferior.
Tn the spadiceous plants the perianth is suppressed, and
in the Grasses there may be suppression in all the whorls.
CHAPTER XVI.
EXAMINATION OF CONIFEROUS PLANTS—WHITE PINE—
GROUND-HEMLOCK.
121. The cone-bearing trees are so striking and important
2 feature in Canadian vegetation that even an elementary
work like the present would be incomplete without a
notice of them. They form, besides, a very distinct group
é ga™
838 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTaNY.
of. plants, intermediate in structure, as we shall see,
between the groups upon which we have so far -been
Fig. 115. 4
Fig. 114.
engaged and others to which we shall presently direct
attention. :
122. As perhaps the commonest Canadian type of the
Coniferous Group, the White Pine first demands our
attengion. This noble tree, in its general aspect, is
familiar to every one. It produces a straight trunk,
which is continued upward year after year by the develop-
ment of a strong terminal bud, the new branches of each:
year being developed from a circle of lateral buds formed’
behind the apex of the stem or old branch. The general
aspect of the tree, therefore, unless it is a very old one, is
that of a broad-based cone or spire. The leaves are straight
Fig. 114.—Leaves and cluster of staminate catkins of White Pine, (Wood
and Steele.) =
Fig. 115.—Pollen-grain of Pine. (Wood and Steele.)
WHITE PINE. 89
needles, and are produced in clusters of five each. In the
Red Pine, on the other hand, there are but two leaves in
the cluster. Other species have bundles of three each.
These leaves, as is well known, are evergreen, that is to
say, they do not perish in the first autumn, but persist
through the winter and until the new leaves of the
following season are fully developed. 4
123. The flowers of the Pine must be looked for in
‘spring just before the new leaves are put forth. They are
moneecious or dicecious. The staminate flowers,
consisting of a single stamen each, are produced
around the bases of the new shoots, where they
form dense clusters of small eatkins (Fig. 114).
Each anther is two-celled, and the pollen-grains
(Fig. 115) are rather peculiar in shape, having, in
fact, the appearance'of three grains cohering
together. The two outer portions, however, are
only bladder-like developments of the outer coat
(catine) of the real grain, which’ occupies the
centre.
124. The pistillate or fertile flowers are aggregated
together upon an elongated axis, forming in fact the well-
known cone of the Pine (Fig. 116). The young cones
willbe found to occupy lateral positions on the branches ;
each of them is made up of many spirally arranged scales,
each scale being in the axil of a bract (Fig. 117), At,the
base of each scale, on the inside, will be found two ovules
turned downwards (Fig. 118). Observe that these ovules
are not enclosed in an ovary. Because of this fact the
group of plants of which the Pine is a type is said to be
Fig, 116.—Cone of Pine. (Wood and Steele.)
'
90 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
gymnospermous, that is, naked-seeded. All the plants
previously examined, on the other hand, have their seeds
enclosed in ovaries; hence they are all angiospermous. The
scales of the cone are to be regarded as open
carpellary leaves, and each of them, with its
pair of ovules, constitutes a fertile flower,
WWW The pollen is carried by the wind directly to
Fig. 117. the micropyle of the ovule, there being no
intervening stigma; but, as the quantity of pollen produced
is immense, the chances of failure to reach the ovules
are very slight. At the time of pollination, the air in a
pine forest is full of pollen. The yellow scum often
found on water after a summer saower is chiefly Pine
pollen. After fertilization the ovules develope into seeds,
and the scales of the cone, which are origin-
ally of rather soft texture, attain a woody
consistency. This process of maturing, how-
ever, in the Pine takes considerable time. W\ Jad
The cones do not ripen until the autumn of Fig. 118.
the second year, after flowering. At this time the scales
diverge from the axis, and the seeds are allowed to
escape, each of them being now furnished with a wing,
whicl*enables the wind more readily to waft it away.
The number of cotyledons in the embryo is variable,
» butis always more than two; sometimes there
EMA are as many as twelve.
8 The wood of the Gymnosperms is essentially
like that of the Dicotyledons, and the stem
thickens in the same way. Certain differences
Fig. 119. will be noticed in another place.
3\ »
Fig. 117.—Single scale of Pine cone with its bract. (Wood and Steele.) .
Fig. 118.—Inner side of the scale, showing the two naked ovules. (Wood _
Fig. 119.—Staminate catkins of Ground Hemlock. [and Steele,)
GROUND HEMLOCK 91
125. It will be interesting now to compare with the
structure of the Pine that of another member of the same
group—the Ground Hemlock, a low shrub common enough
in our Canadian woods. This, like the Pine, is evergreen.
The leaves, however, are not needle-shaped, but flat; and
they are not clustered, but project singly from the sides of
the stem.
126. The staminate flowers (Fig. 119) grow in small
catkins at the ends of very short lateral shoots which
bear about their bases
many scale-like
bracts. The stamens
are somewhat differ-
ent from those of
Pine, being umbrella-
shaped (peltate), and
bearing from three to
eight pollen-sacs upon
the under surface. The fertile flowers are also at the
extremities of short, scaly-bracted branches, but in this
plant the flowers occur singly, and are not aggreguted in
cones. Fig. 120 shows a section of a fertile branch with
its bracts and the single naked ovule at its extremity.
Around the base of the ovule there is a fleshy ring or disk
(shown in section at ain the figure). The pollen is conveyed
by the wind directly to the micropyle, and after fertiliza-
tion, and during the development of the seed, the fleshy
ring upon which it rests grows upward so as to surround
the seed and give the fruit a remarkable berry-like
_appearance (Fig. 121). This fleshy covering (which is
> Fig. 120. Fig. 121.
Fig. 120,—Section of fertile branch of Ground Hemlock ; 3, the apparently
terminal ovule; 7, its integument ; &, the nucellus; m, the micropyle; a a,
the rudiment of the aril, which finally surrounds the seed ; 6 b, bracts, (Prantl).
Fig. 121.—The same with mature fruit, f. (Prantl), f
92 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
bright ved at maturity) is-a good example of what is
called an aril.
127. We find, then, that although there is at first sight
little in common, apparently, between the cone of the
Pine and the berry-like fruit of the Ground Hemlock
(Taxus baccata), yet they both have the characteristic
naked ovules.
128. Among our cone-bearing trees will readily be
recognized the’ Arbor Vite (commonly called Cedar), the
Larch or Tamarack, which, however, is not evergreen,
‘and the various kinds of Spruce or Fir. The Juniper,
also, belongs to this group, but is marked by the
peculiarity that the few scales of the cone cohere together
in ripening and become succulent, thus forming what
looks like a berry.
129. To sum up the results of our observations upon
plant-structure, we have found
(1) That all the plants to which our attention has so
far been directed produce flowers, they are all,
therefore, flowering or phanerogamous plants, or,
riefly, phanerogams. -
(2) That in a large number of the plants there are
ovaries enclosing the seeds. All such plants are
grouped as angtosperms.
(3) That in others the seeds are not enclosed in an
ovary. Hence we have a group known as gymno-
sperms.
(4) That the angiosperms are either dicotyledonous or
monocotyledonous,
AIURPHOLOGY OF ROOTS, STEMS, AND FOLIAGE-LEAVES. 93
These conclusions may be conveniently shown in a
tabular form as follows :
‘PHANEROGAMS,
ANGIOSPERMS, GYMNOSPERMS.
DICCTYLEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDONS.
CHAPTER XVII.
MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS, STEMS, AND FOLIAGE-LEAVES OF
PHANEROGAMS,
130. Before proceeding with the examination of other
selected plants illustrative of other divisions of the
vegetable kingdom, we shall present in a systematic way
the more important facts in connection with the Phanero-
gams, dealing in turn with the organs of vegetation —
the root, the stem, and the foliage-leaves—and then with
the organs of reproduction as displayed in the flower.
The various forms assumed by these organs, whether in
different plants or in different parts of the same plant,
will have our attention, as also their various modes. of
., arrangement. We shall consider, also, rather more
minutely than we have hitherto been able to do, the
development of the seed from the ovule, the process: of
pollination and of fertilization, and the subsequent
germination of the seed and development of the new
plant. To this study of forms the name Morphology
has been given. It need hardly be said that effective
morphological work can only be accomplished by actual
oF ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
contact with and inspection of the forms which are, for
the time being, the objects of study. The young student
must provide himself with specimens, and learn to
associate the descriptive terms with the actual condition
which the terms describe. Only in this way can this
branch of botanical work be relieved of the element of
lrudgery, and made what it ought to be—a means of
developing in a high degree those powers of observation
with which the young are so exceptionally endowed. It
is believed that with proper management even the
more difficult technical terms, which are derived from
Latin and Greek, and specially devised for botanical
purposes, will be learned without extraordinary effort. It
is the writer’s experience that a term is insensibly
acquired and almost indelibly impressed upon the mind 7/
there ts first created the want of the term to describe what
is seen when some new form has been the subject of obser-
vation, and its peculiarities have been thoroughly grasped
through the medium of the eye. With a good many of
the terms there will be found no difficulty whatever,
since they have the same meaning in their botanical
applications as they have in their every-day use.
131? The Root. This organ is called the descending
axis of the plant, from its tendency to grow downward
into the soil from the very commencement of its develop.
ment. Its chief use is to imbibe liquid nourishment,
and transmit it to the stem, from which it is well distin-
guished by the presence of the root-cap (Fig. 122, a) and.
the absence of leaves. The absorbing surface of a young
root or rootlet is largely increased by the development of
root-hairs, the nature of which will be explained later on
when we come to treat of trichomes or hair-like growths
ROOTS. 95
generally, It must be mentioned here, also, that there are
some exceptions to the general statement that roots do
not produce buds, It is well known that new stems are
sent up by the roots of Poplars and of Apple trees, for
example, especially if the roots have been injured. These
cases must be regarded as abnormal,
132, You will remember that in our examination of
some common seeds, such as those of the
Pumpkin and Bean (Figs. 77-81), we found
at the junction of the cotyledons a small’
pointed projection called the radicle. Now,
when such a seed is put into the ground,
under favorable circumstances of warmth
and moisture, it begins to grow or germt-
nate, and the radicle, which in reality is a
. minute stem, not only lengthens, in most
Fig. 152. cases, so as to push the cotyledons
upwards, but developes a root from its lower
extremity. All seeds, in short, when they
germinate, produce roots from the extremity
of the radicle, and én a direct line with it, and
‘coots so produced are called primary roots. In
Monocotyledons the primary root is but very
slightly developed, the fibrous roots character-
istic of these plants bursting forth from the
sides of the radiele at an early period-of growth.
In other plants the primary root either assumes Fig. 123.
the form of a distinct central axis larger than any of its
branches, and called a ¢ap-root (Fig. 123), examples of
which are furnished by the Mallow, the Carrot, and the
Fig. 122.—Magnified tip of Hyacinth yoot; @, the root-cap, (Hooker.)
Fig. 123.—Tap-root of Dandelion,
————
=—_
——
—
=~
SSS
SKS
SSNS
SS
96 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
Bean, or it may branch at an early stage into numerous
similar threads, and so form a fibrous root, as in Buttercup. *
133. Tap-roots receive different names according +o
‘the particular shape they happen to assume.
Thus, the Carrot (Fig. 124) is conical, because
from a broad topit tapers gradually and regularly
to a point. The Radish, being somewhat thicker
at the middie than at either end, is spindle-
shaped. The Turnip, and roots of similar shape,
are napiform (napus, a turnip).
These fleshy tap-roots belong, as a rule, to
biennial plants, and are designed as storehouses
of food for the plant’s use during its second year’s
growth, Occasionally fibrous roots also thicken in the
same manner, as in the Peony, and then they are said to.
be fascicled or clustered.
(Fig. 125).
134, But you must have
observed that plants some-
times put forth, roots in
addition to those develop-
ed frofh the embryo of the
seed. The Verbena of our
gardens, for example, will
take root at every joint if
the stem be laid upon the ground (Fig. 126). The
runners of the Strawberry take root at their extremities;
and nothing is more familiar than that cuttings from
various plants will make roots for themselves if put-into
proper soil, and supplied with warmth and moisture,
~ Fig, 124,
Fig. 125.
Fig. 124,—Tap-root of Carrot. Fig. 125.—Faacicled roots of Peony.
ROOTS. 97
Ail such roots, not developed from the end of the radicle
and in.a straight line with it, are called secondary or
adventitious roots. Under this head should, of course, be
-placed the fibrous roots of all Monocotyledonous plants,
the true primary roots of which are but -very feebly
developed. So,
also,all branches
of primary roots
should be re-
garded as adven-
titious. When
such roots are
developed from
parts of the stem
which are not in
contact with the
ground, they are
aerial, as, for example, the roots developed from the
lower joints of the stem of Indian Corn. ©
135. There are a few curious plants whose roots never
reach the ground at all, and which depend altogether
upon the air for food. These are called epiphytes. There —
are others whose roots penetrate the stems and roots of
other living plants, and_thus receive their nourishment
as it were at second-hand. These are parasitic plants.
The Dodder and Beech-drops, of Canadian woods, are
well-known examples. Others, again, subsist upon
decomposing animal or vegetable- matter, and are hence
known as saprophytes. Indian Pipe and Coral-root are
good examples of saprophytic plants. Both parasites
and saprophytes are usually destitute of green leaves,
Fig. 126.—Adventitious roots of Verbena,
Fig. 126,
,
98 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
being either pale or brownish, The Mistletoe, however,
is a green parasite,
136. As to duration, roots (and, consequently, the
plants themselves) are either dnnual, or biennial, or
perennial, The plant is called an annual if its whole life,
from the germination of the seed, is limited to one
season, It is biennial if it flowers and ripens its seed
in the second season, Between these two classes it is
difficult to draw a sharp line, because, with proper care,
some annuals may be induced to live for two years; and,
on the other hand, some plants, as the Radish, which”
are properly biennial if the seed is sown in the fall, will
flower and produce seed in one season if sown in the
spring. Something, also, depends upon the climate in
which the plant is grown, its life, in some cases, being
prolonged in a more favourable situation. Perennials
live on year after year, as is the case with all our shrubs
and trees, and also with some herbaceous plants, as Peony
and. Dahlia, which only die down to the surface of the
ground in the autumn.
137. The Stem. As the root is developed from the
lower@end of the radicle of the embryo, so the stem is
developed from the upper end, but with this important
difference, that a bud always precedes the formation of
the stem or any-part of it or its branches. Ifa bud, such
as that of the Lilac, be picked to pieces, it will be found
to consist mostly of minute leaves closely packed together
on ashort bit of stem. A bud, in fact, is only a special
condition of the extremity of the stem, and is not to be
regarded as an organ distinct from it. As the bud unfolds,
the stem may lengthen so as to exhibit the internodes, or
STEMS. 99
it may remain short, in which case the expanded leaves
form a cluster or rosette; as in Dandelion. The tender
leaves of the bud are not uncommonly protected from the
weather by coverings in the form of tough scales, with the
additional safeguard sometimes of a wax-like coating on
the surface of the latter, as seen in the conspicuous buds
of the Horse-Chestnut, and the cap-like coverings of those
of the Spruce.
138. Between the cotyledons of the Bean (Fig. 81), at
the top of the radicle, we found a minute bud called the
plumule. Out of this bud the first bit of stem is developed
‘(leaving out of consideration the radicle itself), and during
the subsequent growth of the plant, wherever a branch is
to be formed or a main stem to be prolonged, there a bud
will invariably be found. The branch buds are always in
the axils of leaves, and so are called axillary, and it not
uncommonly happens that several buds are found together
in this situation. — :
139. Adventitious buds, however, are sometimes produced
in plants like the Willow, particularly if the stem hav
been wounded. As already mentioned, they are also
occasionally produced upon roots, as, for example, upon
those of the Poplars,
140. The bud from which the main stem is developed,
or a branch continued, is of course at the end of the stem
or branch, and so is terminal.
141. Branching or Ramification. By a branch
is meant an off-shoot similar in structure to the member
from which it springs. Hence the side-shoots of roots”
are root-branches ; so, also, the lateral out-growths of the
stem. which resemble the stem itself in structure are
100 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
stem-branches. It is found that the branching of stems
proceeds upon two well defined plans.
142. Monopodial Branching. This system is distin-
guished by the circumstance that all the branches are the
result. of the development of strictly lateral buds. In
other words, there is invariably a terminal bud at the
apex of the stem distinct from the lateral buds produced
behind the apex. Of this system there are several
y
kor
7
*
Fig. 180. Fig. 127, Fig. 128.
modifications. If the terminal bud develops regularly, as
well as the lateral ones, it is clear that we shall have a
straight and well-defined trunk, easily distinguished by
its vigorous growth from the branches. The Pine or
the Spruce is an excellent example of this effect.
Figs. 127, 128, 180.—Diagrams of various forms of monopodial branching.
(Sachs. )
MONOPODIAL BRANCHING. 191
But if the terminal bud, though produced, ceases
to grow, while the lateral buds are vigorously developed,
as is well exhibited in the spring by the annual shoots
of the Lilac, then it is clear that the
branches will cvertop the original stem,
and the latter will finally become unrecog-
nizable.
143. The Pine and the Spruce and
similar forms are said to be racemose or
botryose, and the Lilac, in the development
of its annual shoots, is said to be eymose.
Fig. 127 is a representation of the latter -
mode. Here 1 is the extremity of the
main stem, but the terminal bud at that
point has failed to grow, while two vigor-
ous branches have been produced. The
terminal buds of these branches (2 and 2),
have in their turn failed, and the laterals
immediately behind thom have, as before,
given rise to new shoots. This is the result, then, when
both the lateral buds grow with equal vigour, and it is
known as a forked cyme.
144, But sometimes one member of each pair of buds
is developed far more strongly than the other, If the
strong buds are developed in succession on the-same side
of the stem an effect will be produced like that represented
in Fig. 128. This is known as a helicoid cyme. Ii,
however, the strong buds are developed alternately on
both sides of the stem, we get the form shown in Fig.
129, which is then called a scorptoid cyme. Not un,
Fig, 129,
Fig. 129.—Diagram to illustrate scorvioid evme, (Sachs.)
102 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
commonly this latter form becomes straightened out, as in
Fig. 130, so that the successive branches are in the sume
line, and look like a stem developed from the termina{
bud. As the foot or
support is not in this
case the continuation
of a single axis, but
is made up of a num-
‘ber of: successive
branches superposed,
these forms are said
to be sympodial, the
prefix in this term
having the same sig-
nificance as in “syn-
carpous” and the like,
and implying that the
foot is composed of
severalcoherent parts.
In these cases, then,
we have a sympodial
monopodium.,
145. Dichotomous Branching. In this system the
growing point at the apex of the stem divides into two new
growing points, both of which are, therefore, terminal and
not lateral, as in the first mode. The growing points of
the branches, in their turn, are each converted into two
new ones, as shown in Fig. 131. As in the monopodial
mode, there may be helicoid and scorpioid dichotomy, :
due to the superior development of the grewing points on
\ Fig. 133, Fig. 132.
Figs. 131, 132, and 133.—Diagrams to illustrate dichotomous branching.
Gachs.)
DICHOTOMOUS BRANCHING. 103
one side, or on alternate sides of the stem, as shown. in
Figs. 132 and 133. These forms are, of course, sympodiai.
146. A comparison of-Figs, 127 and 131 will show
that there is a superficial resemblance between the forms.
On this account the forked cyme is sometimes referred to
as a dichasvum or false dichotomy.
147. Dichotomous branching is rare, but occurs in the
roots of Club-Mosses, and in Lichens, -In the phanero-
gams, monopodial branching is the almost invariable rule.
The flowering stems, which afford the best illustrations,
will be referred to hereafter.
‘148. If you examine a few stems of plants at random,
you will probably find sore of them quite soft and easily
compressible, while others will be firm and will resist
compression. The stem of a Beech or a Currant is an
instance of the latter kind, and any weed will serve to
illustrate the former. The Beech and the Cutrant have
woody stems, while the weeds are herbaceous. Between
the Beech and the Currant the chief difference is in size.
The Beech isa ¢ree, the Currant a shrub. But you are
not to suppose that there is a hard and fast line between
shrubs and trees, or between herbs and shrubs. A series
of plants could be constructed, commencing with an
unquestionable herb and ending with an unquestionable
tree, but embracing plants exhibiting such a gradual
transition from herbs to shrubs and from shrubs to trees,
that you could not say at what precise point in the series
the changes occurred.
*49: The forms assumed by stems above ground are
uuserous, and they are described mostly by terms in
common use. For instance, if a stem is weak and trails
104 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
along the ground, it is tradling or prostrate ; and if, as in
the runners of the Strawberry, it takes root on the lower
side, then it is
creeping. Such a
shoot as the run-
ner of the Straw-
berry, which takes
root at a distance
from the parent
plant, is commonly
called a stolon.
150. Many weak stems raise themselves by clinging to
any support that may happen to be within their reach,
In some instances the stem itself winds
round the support, assuming a spiral
-form, as in the Morning-Glory, the
Hop, and the Bean, and is therefore
distinguished as twining. In other
cases the stem puts forth thread-like
leafless branches called tendrils (Fig.
134), which grasp the support,.as in
the » Vitginia Creeper and the Grape.
In the Pea, the end of the extended
mid-rib of the leaf is transformed into a
tendril (Fig.135). Sometimes the leaf-
stalks themselves serve the same purpose, as in the
Clematis or Virgin’s Bower. _In these cases the stems
are suid to climb. Our Poison Ivy climbs over logs, &c.,
by the aid of its aerial roots.
The stems of wheat and grasses generally are known as
Fig. 135,
Fig. 134.—Leaf and tendril of Grape-vine.
Fig. 135—Tendril of the Pea,
UNDERGROUND STEMS, 105
culms. They are jointed, and usually hollow except at
the joints,
_ 151. Besides the stems which grow above ground,
there are varieties to be found below the surface. Pull
‘ up a Potato plant, and examine the underground portion
(Fig. 136). It is not improbable that you will regard the
whole as a mass of roots, but a very little trouble will
undeceive you. ‘Many of the fibres are unquestionably
Fig, 136.
roots, but an inspection of those having potatoes at the -
ends of them will show you that they are quite different
from those which have not. The former will be found to
-be furnished with little scales, answering to leaves, each
with a minute bud in the axil; and the potatoes them-
selves exhibit buds of the same kind. The potato, in
short, is only the swollen end of an underground stem.
-Sucn swollen extremities are known as tubers, whilst the
Fig. 136.—Tubers of the Potato. ‘
106 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
underground stem is called a root-stock or rhizome, and may
almost always be distinguished from a true root by the
presence of buds. The Solomon’s Seal and Toothwort of
: Canadian woods, and
the Canada Thistle,
are common instances
of plants producing
these stems. Fig. 137
shows a rhizome.
152. Take now an
Onion, and compare
it with a Potato. You
will not find any such
outside appearances upon the former as are presented by
the latter. The Onion is smooth, and has no buds upon
its surface. From the under side there spring roots, and
this circumstance will probably suggest that the Onion
must be a stem of some sort, Cut
the Onion through from top to bot-
tom (Fig. 138). It will then be
seen to be made up of a number of
coats. Strip off one or two, and ob-
serve tifat whilst they are somewhat
fleshy where the Onion is broadest,
they gradnally become thinner to-
wards the top. The long, green tubes
which project from the top of the
Onion during its growth are, in fact, the prolongations of
these coats. But the tubes are the leaves of the
plant itself. The mass of our Onion, therefore, consists
Tig. 137.
Fig. 188,
Fig. 137.—A rhizome.
Fig. 138.—Vertical section of bulb of the Onion.
- UNDERGROUND STEMS. 107
of the fleshy bases of the leaves. But you will observe
‘that at the bottom there is a rather flat, solid part
upon which these coats or leaves are
inserted, and which must consequently
be astem. Such a stem as this, with its
fleshy leaves, is called a dulb. If the
leaves form coats, as in the Onion, the
bulb is coated or tunicated,; if they do
not, as in the Lilies (Fig. 139), it is scaly.
153, Tubers and bulbs, then, consist chiefly of masses
of nourishing matter; but there is this difference, that
in the latter the nourishment is contained in the fleshy
leaves themselves, whilst in the former it forms a mass
more or less distinct from the buds.
‘154, The thickened mass at the base of the stem of
our Indian Turnip (Fig. $4) is more like a tuber than a
bulb in its construction. It is called a corm or solid
bulb, The Crocus and Gladiolus of the gardens are
other examples. The chief difference between the corm
and the ordinary bulb is in the relative space occupied
by the stem or solid part. In the former it is very much
greater than in the latter. The student should dissect
specimens of Indian Turnip, Crocus, Tulip, Hyacinth,
&c., when these differences will be readily apprehended.
155, In the axils of the leaves of the Tiger Lily are
produced small, black, rounded bodies, which, on
examination, prove to be of bulbous structure. They
are, in fact, bulblets, and new plants may be grown from
them.
156. Foliage-Leaves. These organs are usually
more or less flat, and of a green colour. In some plants,
Fig. 139.—Bulb of a Lily.
108 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
5S
however, they are extremely thick and succulent ; and -.
in the case of parasites and saprophytes, such as Indian
Pipe and Beech-drops, they are usually either white or
brown, or of some colour other than green. The scaly
leaves of underground stems are also, of course, destitute
of colour. The green colour is due to the presence of
granular particles of a substance called chlorophyll. It
is formed, as a rule, only in those parts which are
exposed to the action of sunlight, and it is intimately
connected with the process of assimilating nutritious
matter for the plant’s use during growth, Further
reference will be made to it later on.
157. As a general thing, leaves are
extended horizontally from the stem or
branch, and turn one side towards the
sky and the other towards the ground.
But some leaves are vertical, and in the
case of the common Iris (Figs. 88 and 89)
each leaf is doubled lengthwise at the
base,and sits astride the next one within.
Such leaves are called equitant.
158. Phyllotaxis or Leaf-Arrangement. As to
their arrangement on the stem, leaves are alternate when
only one arises from each node (Fig. 3). If two are formed
at each node, they are sure to be on opposite sides of the
stem, and so are described as opposite. If, as in Mint
and Maple, each pair of opposite leaves stands at right
angles to the next pair above, then the arrangement is
decussate, Sometimes there are several leaves at the same
node,in whichcase they are whorled or verticillate (Fig.140).
_ Fig. 140,
Fig. 140,—Whorled leaves of Galium.
PHYLLOTAXIS. 109
159. Even if the leaves are placed single and apparently
irregularly at intervals along the stem, it will be found on
examination that their arrangement is governed by defi-
nite laws. Take, for instance, a branch of Poplar with
a number of leaves upon it. Fix upon any one leaf near
the lower end of the branch, and then from its point of
insertion draw a line, by by the nearest way, to the insértion
of the next higher leaf, and from this to the next, and so
on till you reach a leaf which is exactly over the first one.
Tf the branch itself has not been twisted out of its normal
shape, it will be found that the sixth leaf is always pre-
cisely over the first, the seventh over the second, the
eighth over the third, and so on, and that the line joining
the points of insertion of successive leaves forms a spiral
round the stem. It will also be found that this spiral
goes twice round the stem before passing tnrough the
sixth leaf. The. sixth leaf, as standing exactly over the
first, begins a new set, which lasts in a similar manner till
we reach the eleventh. The leaves are therefore in sets or
cycles of five each, and the phyllotaxis in this case is
conveniently described by the fraction 2, the denominator
of which gives the number of leaves in the cycle, and the
numerator the number of turns in the spiral.
160. Now,if through the insertions of the leaves which are
vertically over each other—that is, through those numbered
1, 6, 11, 16, etc, and then through those numbered 2, 7,
12, 17, and so on—lines be drawn, it is evident we shall
have five such vertical lines on the stem. These lines
mark the ranks of leaves, or orthostichies. The number
of orthostichies in any case always corresponds to the
number of leaves i in the cycle,
110 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
161. In the Elm, the phyllotaxis is much simpler.
Here, starting with any given leaf, it will be found that
the next one is exactly. half way round the circumference
of the stem, and the third one exactly over the first, and
so on. So that the spiral completes the circuit in one
turn, and the number of orthostichies is only two,. the
phyllotaxis being therefore described as 4. The 4 arrange-
ment is also common. The Poplar, as we see, has a 2
arrangement ; this is extremely common.
162. If we set down these fractions in order, thus: 4,
4, 2, it will be noticed that the sum of the first two
numerators gives the third numerator ; so also with the
denominators. If we proceed to make other fractions in
this way, the series would read 4, 4, 2, 3, 8s, &, 3%, and these
are, as it happens, the actual cases of phyllotaxy which we
commonly meet with. The cone of the White Pine
furnishes a very good exercise. In this case the scales q
(which, of course, are leaf-forms) have a 35 arrangement.
163. The conclusion come to from a close examination
of the incipient buds is, that the newer leaves are produced
’ over the widest intervals between those next below. In
shoré, the arrangement is that which secures to the leaves
the most advantageous conditions for exposure to the light,
and at the same time economizes space. As has been aptly
said, the growth of the new leaves follows the “lines of
least resistance.”
164, When leaves are in whorls instead of in spirals,
the members of any whorl stand over the spaces of the
whorl below, as might be expected. As to leaves which
are clustered or fascicled, like those, of the Pine and Larch,
it may be pointed out that the clustering is due simply to
FORMS OF FOLIAGE-LEAVES. 111
the non-development of internodes. The clusters when
carefully examined, .show in some cases an alternate, and
in others a whorled, arrangement.
165. As branches are produced in the axils of leaves, it
is clear that the arrangement of branches will be the same
as that of the leaves. It rarely happens, however, that
all the buds develope into branches. Many of them fail,
so that generally branches appear to have no very definite
arrangement.
166. Vernation or Preefoliation. These terms have
reference to the mode in which the new leaves are folded
in the bud. Very commonly the leaf is simply doubled
lengthwise, the upper side of the leaf within; then its
vernation is said to be conduplicate. In the Maple and
Mallow the folding is fan-like, and is described as platted.
‘In the Cherry the leaf is coiled in a single coil beginning
‘with one edge: this is convolute vernation ; but if the
coiling is from both edges to the mid-rib, it is said to be
involute ; if both edges are rolled backward, it is revolute.
The vernation is ciretnate when the leaf is coiled from the
tip, as in Ferns.
167. Forms of Foliage-Leaves. Leaves present
an almost endless variety in their forms, and accuracy
in describing any given leaf depends a good deal upon
the ingenuity of the student in selecting and combining
terms. The chief terms in use will be given here.
Compare a leaf of the Round-leaved Mallow with one
of Red Clover (Figs. 141, 142). Each of them is
furnished with a long petiole and a pair of stipules. In
the blade, however, there is a difference. The blade of
the former consists of a single piece ; that of the latter
112 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
is in three separate pieces, each of which is called a
leaflet, but all.of which, taken collectively, constitute the
blade of the /caj, The leaf of the Mallow is simple ;
that of the Clover is compound. Between the simple _
‘and the compound form there is every possible shade of ’
gradation. In the Mallow leaf the lobes are not very
clearly defined. In the Maple (Fig, 148) they are well
ty
Fig. 141. _ Fig. 142. p
gt, , io
marked. In other cases, again, the lobes are so nearly
separate that the leaves appear at first sight to be really
compound,
168. You will remember that in our examinations of
dicotyledonous plants, we found the leaves to be invariably
net-veined. But,though they have this general character
in common, they differ considerably in the details of
their veining, or venation, as it is called. The two
leaves employed as illustrations in the last section will
Fig. 141.—Simple-palmately-veined leaf of Mallow.
Fig. 142.—Compound leaf of Clover.
4
FORMS OF FOLIAGE-LEAVES. 113
serve to illustrate our meaning here. In the Mallow,
there are several ribs of
about the same size, radiat-.
ing from the end of the
- petiole, something like the
spread-out fingersof a hand.
The veining in this case is
therefore described as digi-
tate, or radiate, or palmate.
mang The leaflet of the Clover, on
~ . “-the other hand, is divided
\ exactly in the middle by a
Fig. 148, 2 single rib (the mid-rib), and
-from this the veins are given off on each side, so that
the veining, on the woe see the appearance of a
feather, and is, therefore,/described as pinnate (penna, a
father),
a
“ 169. Both simfle and compound leaves exhibit these
two modes of venation. Of simple pinnately-veined
leaves, the. Beech, Mullein, and
“Willow supply familiar instances.
The Mallow, Maple, Grape, Cur-
rant, and Gooseberry have simple
radiate- veined leaves. S weet-
Brier (Fig. 43), Mountain “Ash,
and Rose have compound pinnate
Jeaves, whilst those of Virginia- Fig, 144.
Creeper (Fig. 144), Horse-Chest-nut, and Hemp are
compound digitate. s
Fig. 143.—Palmately-lobed leaf of Maple.
Fig. 144.—Palmate leaf of Virginia Creeper.
114. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
As has already been pointed out, the leaves of Mono-
cotyledonous plants are almost invariably straight-veined.
170, In addition to the venation, the description of a
.. Linear
-- Oblong
-. Oval
Orbicular
U|
Fig. 145. Fig. 146.
simple leaf includes particulars concerning: (1) the gen-
eral outline, (2) the edge or margin, (3) the point
or apex, (4) the base.
171. Outline. As to outline, i will be convenient tc
consider first the forms assumed ky leaves without Jobes,| Lk
me Oe
ems Lanceolate
_ Ovate
\. Deitoid
118 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
én the direction of the apex, it is serrate, and will be
coarsely or finely serrate, according to the size of the
teeth, Sometimes the edges of large teeth are themselves
finely serrated, and in that case the
leaf is doubly serrate (Fig. 162). It
the teeth point outwards, that is,
if the two edges of each tooth are of
the same length, the leaf is dentate;
but if the teeth, instead of being
sharp, are rounded, the leaf is crenate
(Fig. 163). The term wavy explains
Fig, 162, stoelf. ane
179. Base. There are two or three peculiar modifica-
tions of the bases of simple sessile leaves which are of
considerable importance in distinguishing plants. Some-
times a pair of lobes project backwards and
cohere on the other side of the stem, so that the
stem appears to pass through the leaf. This is
the case in our common Bellwort, the leaves of
which are accordingly described as perfoliate
(Fig. 164). Sometimes two opposite
sessile leaves grow together at the base
and clasp the stem, as in the upper
leaves of Honeysuckle, in the Triosteum, and in
one of our species of Eupatorium. Such leaves
are said-to be connate or connate-perfoliate (Fig.
165). In one of our Everlastings the margin
Fig. 164. of the leaf is continued on each side below the
point of insertion, and the lobes grow fast to the sides of
the stem, giving rise to what is called the decurrent form
(Fig. 166).
Figs. 162 to 164.—Various forms of foliage-leaves,
Fig. 163.
FOLIAGE-LEAVES, 119
The terms by which simple leaves are described are
applicable also to the leafiets of compound leaves, to the
sepals and petals of flowers, and, in short, to any flat forms,
Fig. 165, Fig. 166.
180, We have already explained that compound leaves
are of two forms, pinnate and palmate. In the former the
leaflets are arranged on each side of the mid-rib. Theremay
bea leaflet at the end, in which case the leaf is odd-pinnate,
or the terminal leaflet may be wanting, and then the leaf is
abruptly pinnate. In the Pea, the leaf is pinnate and
terminates in a tendril (Fig. 135). Very frequently the
primary divisions of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnate,
and the whole leaf is then twice-pinnate (Fig. 167). If
Figs. 165 to 167.—Various forms of foliage-leaves.
120 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
the sub-division is continued through another stage, the
leaf is thrice-pinnate, and so on. Sometimes, as in the
leaves of the Tomato, very small leaflets are found between
the larger ones, and this form is
described as interruptedly pinnate
(Fig. 168).
In the palmate or digitate forms
the leaflets spread out from the end
of the petiole, and, in describing
them, it is usual to mention the
number of divisions. If there are
three, the leaf is ¢ri-foliolate ; if there.
are five, it is quinque-foliolate.
181. In the examination of the
Mallow we found a couple of small
leaf-like attachments on the petiole
of each leaf, just at the junction .
with the stem. To these the name
stipules was given, Leaves which
have not these appendages are
exstipulate.
182. Besides the characters of
leaves mentioned above, there re-
main a few others to be noticed.
With regard to their surface,
leaves present every gradation from
perfect smoothness, as in Winter-
green, to extreme roughness or
woolliness, as intne Mullein. If hairs are entirely absent,
Fig. 168.
Fig. 169.
Fig. 168.—Interruptedly pinnate leaf.
Vig. 169.—Leaf of Pitcher-Plant.
FOLIAGE-LEAVES. 121
the leaf is glabrous ; if present, the degree of hairiness ‘is
described by an appropriate adverb; if the leaf is com:
pletely covered, it is vz2ous or véllose ; and if the hairs are
on the margin only, as ‘in our Clintonia, it is cildate.
Some leaves, like those of the Cabbage, have a kind of
bloom on the surface, which may be rubbed off with the
fingers ; this condition is described as glaucous.
183. A few plants have anomalous leaves. Those
of the Onion are filiform. The Pitcher-Plant of our
northern swamps has very curious leaves (Fig. 169),
apparently formed by the turning in and ‘cohesion of the
~ outer edges of an ordinary leaf so as to form a tube,
closed except at the top, and armed on the inner surface
with bristles pointing towards the base of the leaf,
184. . Finally, as leaves present an almost infinite
variety in their forms, it will often be necessary in
describing them to combine the terms explained above.
For instance, a leaf may not be exactly linear, nor exactly
lance-shaped, but may approximate to both forms. In
such a case the leaf is described as lance-linear, and so
with other forms.
The following form of schedule may be used with
advantage in writing out descriptions of leaves. Two
leaves— one of Maple and one of Sweet Brier —are
described by way of illustration. If a leaf is compound,
the particulars as to outline, margin, apex, base, and surface
will have reference to the leaflets.
The exercise-book prepared to accompany this work
contains a supply of blank schedules for leaf-description,
with space for drawings.
122
.
ELEMENTS OF STKUUIURAL BOTANY.
LEAY SCHEDULE.
1
Luar oF ., sete MaPte. Sweet Brier.
1. Position. Cauline. Cauline.
2. dvranpoment. Opposite. 2 Alternate.
3. Insertion. Petiolate. Petiolate.
4 4. Stipulation. Exstipulate, Stipulate.
5. Division. Simple. Odd pinnate, 7 lcaflets.
6. Venation. Palmate. ; :
7. Outline. Roundish or oval.
8. Margin. Deeply shel, Doubly serraic.
9. Apex. Pointed. Acute.
10. Base. Cordate. Hardly indented. *
1. Surface. Glabrous above ; . Downy above; covered
whitish beneath.
with glands beneath.
,
INFLORESCENCE, 123
CHAPTER XVIII.
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER-LEAVES—INFLORESCENCE—THE
CALYX—THE COROLLA—-THE STAMENS—THE PISTIL—
THE FRUIT—THE SEED—GERMINATION.
185. From an examination of the various forms
presented by foliage-leaves, we proceed now to those of
the floral ones, and we shall first consider the chief
modifications in the arrangement of flowers as a whole,
to which the term inflorescence is applied.
As the organs of which flowers are made up are strictly
leaf-forms, the special stalks upon which they are
produced (peduncles and pedicels) are true branches, and
their development is in strict accordance with the
principles enunciated in sections 141-144. As there
stated, the almost invariable mode of branching in phan-
erogams is monopodial, either after the botryose type or
after the cymose type. So inflorescence is found to
proceed upon one or other of these two plans,
186. To understand these let us recur to our specimens
of Shepherd’s Purse and Buttercup. You will remember
that in the former the peduncle continues to lengthen
as long as the summer lasts, and new flowers continue
to be produced at the upper end. Observe, however,
that every one of the flowers is produced on the side of the
stem, that as the stem lengthens new lateral buds appear,
and that there is no flower on the end of the stem. The
production of the flowering branches (pedicels) and the’
continuation of the main axis are, in fact, exactly
analogous to the growth of the Spruce, as explained in
section 142.
124 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
You will easily understand, then, that the production
of flowers in such a plant is only limited by the close of
the season or by the exhaustion of the plant, Such
inflorescence is, therefore, called indefinite, or inde-
terminate, or axillary. It is sometimes also called
centripetal, because if the flowers happen to be in a close
cluster, as are the upper ones in Shepherd’s Purse, the
order of development is from the outside towards the
centre.
187. If you now look at your Buttercup you will be
at once struck with the difference of plan exhibited.
The main axis or stem has a flower on the end of it, and
its further growth is therefore checked. And so, in like
manner, from the top downwards, the growth of the
branches is checked by the production of flowers at their
extremities. The mode of inflorescence here displayed
is definite, or determinate, or terminal. It is
also called centrifugal, because the development of the
flowers is the reverse of that exhibited in the first mode.
The upper, or, in the case of close clusters, the central,
‘flowers open first.
188. In either mode the flowers are said to be solitary,
if (1) single flowers are produced in the axils of the
ordinary foliage-leaves (botryose), or (2) if.a single flower
terminates the stem, as in Tulip (terminal).
189. Of indeterminate or botryose inflores-
cence there are several varieties. In Shepherd’s Purse
we have an instance of the raceme, which may be described
as a cluster in which each flower is supported on a
lateral pedicel of its own, usually in the axil of a bract.
If the pedicelg are absent and the flowers consequently
INFLORESCENCE, 7 125
£
sessile in the axils, the cluster becomes a spike, of which
the common Plantain and the Mullein furnish good
examples. The catkins of the Willow (Figs. 68 and 69)
and Birch and the spadix of the Indian Turnip (Figs.
96 and 97) are also spikes, the former having scaly
bracts and the latter a fleshy axis. If you suppose the
Fig. 170.
Fig. 171.
internodes of a spike to be suppressed so that the flowers
are densely crowded, you will have a head, of which
‘Clover and Button-bush supply instances, , If the lower
pedicels of- a raceme are considerably longer than the
Fig. 170.—Plan of the simple corymb.
Fig. 171.—Compound raceme. (Gray.)
126 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL RBOTAXY.
upper ones, so that all the blossoms are nearly on the
same level, the cluster is a corymb (Fig. 170). If the
flowers in a head were elevated on separate pedicels of
the same length, radiating like the ribs of an umbrella,
‘we should have an wmbel, of which the flowers of
Geranium and Parsnip (Fig. 51) are examples. A
raceme will be compound (Fig. 171) if, instead of a
solitary flower, there is a raceme in each aail, and a
similar remark will apply in the case of the spike, the
corymb, and the fmbel.
190. The inflorescence of most Grasses is what is
called a panicle, This is a compound form, and is
Fig. 172.
usually a kind of raceme having its primary divisions
branched in some irregular manner.
191, Of determinate inflorescence the chief
modification is the cyme. This is a rather flat-topped
Fig. 172.—A cyme. (Gray.)
INFLORESCENCE, 127
cluster, having something the appearance of a compound
corymb, but easily distinguished by this peculiarity : that
the central blossom opens first, then those at the ends of
the first set of branches of the cluster, then those on the
secondary branches, and so on until the outer buds are
reached, The Elder, Dogwood, and St. John’s Wort
furnish good examples of the cymose structure. Fig.
172 shows a loose, open cyme.
Helieoid and Scorptoid cymes have already been
described in section 144,
192. Besides the two distinct modes of inflorescence
just described, forms are met with which exhibit the
peculiarities of both modes. For example, the flower-
cluster of the Lilac is botryose or racemose as to the
production of its primary branches, but the development
of the flowers on the branches is according to the cymose
type. On the other hand it sometimes happens, in many
of the Composites for example, that the primary
branches are cymose while the secondary are botryose.
In the Lilac and the Horse-Chestnut the compact mixed
cluster is called a thyrse. Panicles, also, instead of being
altogether botryose, may be of a similar mixed character.
193. In many plants of the Mint Family the flowers
appear to form dense whorls at intervals about the stem.
Each of these whorls, when analysed, is found to consist
of two cymose clusters on opposite sides of the stem.
Such whorls are, therefore, mixed, and are often spoken
of as verticillasters,
194. It has already been pointed out that cauline
leaves tend to diminish in size towards the upper part
of the stem where the flowers are found, Such reduced:
128 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
leaves, containing flowers in their axils, are called bracts.
In the case of compound flower-clusters this term is
limited to the leaves on the peduncle or main stem, the
term bractlet being then applied to those occurring on
the pedicels or subordinate stems. In the case of the
umbel and the head, it generally happens that a circle of
bracts surrounds the base of the cluster. They are then
called, collectively, an ¢nvolucre, and in the case of
compound clusters a circle of bractlets is called an
involucel. Bracts are often so minute as to be reduced
to mere scales. On the other hand they are occasionally
very conspicuous and showy, as, for instance, in the
four white bracts resembling a flower in the Bunchberry.
From our definition it will be evident, also, that the
spathe surrounding the spadix in Indian Turnip is merely
a bract.
195. Floral symmetry. Before dealing with the mor-
phology of the separate leaf-forms'which go to make up
the flower, a few words are necessary in regard to the
relations of the different sets of floral organs, both as to
number and as to position. The leaves which constitute
the flower are arranged about the axis either in whorls,
when the flowers are said to be cyclic; or in spirals, after
the manner of most foliage-leaves, in which case the
flowers are acyclic. Occasionally the outer sets (the
perianth) are in whorls, while the stamens are spirally
arranged ; then the flowers are said to be hemicyelic.
The spiral arrangement prevails, as a rule, where the
floral organs are very numerous, as, for instance, in the
Water Lily and in Buttercup ; though Columbine, with
very numerous stamens, has cyclic flowers,
FLORAL DIAGRAMS. 129
a
196. In cyclic flowers, whilst there is usually one
whorl each of sepals, petals, and carpels, there are not
unfrequently two whorls of stamens. If each whorl is
made up of the same number of members the flower is
tsomerous, and will, at the same time, be monomerous,
dimerous, trimerous, tetramerous, or pentamerous, accord-
ing as each whorl contains one, two, three, four, or five.
members. If the numbers of the members in the whorls
do not correspond, the flowers are heteromerous.
197. The relations of the whorls to each other in any
particular case may be very conveniently exhibited by a
° diagram. Fig. 173, for example,
shows the plan of a Lily. The dot at
the top of the figure represents the
position of the axis of the plant, and
should always be shown in a floral
: diagram. The side of the flower
Fig. 173. towards the stem is the posterior side,
the opposite one being anterior, and a plane passing
through the centre of the flower and also through the
stem or axis is called the median plane. We have in the:
flower of the Lily an outer whorl of three members ; then
alternately with these (and this is the usual plan in
cyclic flowers) a second whorl of three members ; then
the outer whorl of stamens, also three in number; then
the three inner stamens ; and, finally, the three carpels.
198. The composition of this flower may also be
expressed by a formula, as follows: Kz, Cs, Asis, GO,
where K stands for éalyx, C for corolla, A for anthers,
G for gynecium. The brackets enclosing the figure
Fig. 173,—Diagram of Lily flower. (Prantl.) —
130 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
which follows G show the carpels to be united, and the
placing of the figure above the short line indicates that,
the ovary is superior; if inferior, the figure would be
° written below the line. Fig. 174 shows
the plan of a Grass-flower. Here parts
which are suppressed, and the position
of which can in general be easily
inferred from that of those which are
present, are represented’ by dots. The
Fig. 174. formula would be: Koy, Cz, Asso, GO.
199, The gynecium is very frequently made up of
fewer members (carpels) than the other whorls, and in
all such cases the. position of the carpels is more or less
irregular.
200. Fig. 175 gives the plan of Shepherd’s Purse.
This shows the four sepals to be in two whorls of two
sepals each; the four petals, however, are arranged
alternately with the four sepals, as if @
the latter were all in one whorl ; the 2
position of the stamens indicates that
the two posterior ones, as well as the
two anterior ones, occupy the place of
single stamens, and have, therefore,
‘probably arisen from the early division
of single stamens into pairs. The Fig. 175.
formula would be: Kato, Oy, Aoio G®), the expression
2’ indicating the reduplication of the inner stamens.
201. If there is no clear distinction between the calyx
and corolla, the letter P (for perianth) may be used to
include both ; and, finally, if the members of any whorl
Fig. 174.—Diagram of a Grass-flower. (Pranti.)
Fig. 175.—Diagram of flower of Shepherd’s Purse, (Prantl.)
THE ‘CALYX, 131
stand opposite those of ihe one exterior to > a vertical
line may be placed between the symbols, thus: C, | A,.
202. Other methods of indicating symbolically the
relations of the parts of the flower are in vogue ; the one
just given is recommended by Prantl, and is sufficiently
convenient.
203. It has already been mentioned that flowers are
said to be irregular when the members of any whorl are
.of different sizes or shapes, as, for example, in the Pea;
and regular, when the opposite is true. Fig. 173 repre- .
sents one of these regular flowers. A moment’s reflection
will show that any line whatever drawn across the centre-
of this diagram will divide it into two exactly similar
‘halves. The term actinomorphic, as well as “regular,” is
applied to all such flowers. Flowers, on the other hand,
which can be cut symmetrically in one vertical plane only
are zygomorphic.
204. In this book, as in.most English books, the term -
“symmetrical” is employed to indicate that the whorls
consist of the same number of members each, and it is, in
fact, the same in meaning as “isomerous.” The later
German botanists define a symmetrical flower as “one
which can be divided vertically into two halves resembling
each other like an object and its reflected image.”
We shall now proceed to consider in detail the variations
in form assumed by the floral organs individually.
205. The Calyx. As you are now well aware, this
term is applied to the outer circle of floral leaves. These
are usually green, but not necessarily so ; in some Exogens,
and in nearly all Endogens, they are of some other colour.
Each division of a calyx is called a sepal, and if the sepals
132 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
are entirely distinct from each other, the calyx is poly-
sepalous ; if they are united in any degree, it is gamo-
sepalous, A calyx is regular or irregular according as the
‘petals are of the same or different shape and size.
206. In a gamosepalous calyx, if the sepals are not
united to the very top, the free portions are known as
calyx-teeth, or, taken collectively, as the limb of the calyx.
The united portion, especially if long, as in Willow-herb,
_is called the calya-tube, and the entrance to the tube its
throat. In many plants, particularly those of the Com-
posite Family, the limb of the calyx consists merely of a
circle of bristles or soft hairs, and is then described as .
pappose. In other cases the limb is quite inconspicuous,
and so is said tc be obsolete. A calyx which remains after
the corolla has disappeared, as in Mallow (Fig. 31), is
persistent. If it disappears when the flower opens, as in
our Bloodroot, it is caducous, and if it falls away with the
corolla, it is deciduous.
We must repeat here, that ‘when calyx and corolla are
not both present, the circle which is present is considered
to be the calyx, whether green or fot.
207.¢The Corolla. The calyx and corolla, taken
together, are called the floral envelopes. When both
envelopes are present, the corolla is the inner one; itis
usually, though not invariably, of some other colour than
green. Each division of a corolla is called a -petal, and the
corolla is polypetalous when the petals are completely
disconnected ; ‘but gamopetalous if they are united in any
degree, however slight. The terms regular aud irregular,
applied to the calyx, are applicable also to the corolla, and
the terms used in the description of leaves are applicable
THE COROLLA. 133
slender portion towards the base, that portion is known
as the claw, whilst the broader upper part is
called the limb (Fig. 176). The leaf-terms
are then applicable to the limb.
or Tf, however, a petal is narrowed into a long and
208. Gamopetalous corollas assume various
forms, most of which are described. by terms
Fig. 176. easily understood. The forms assumed
depend almost entirely on the shape of the petals
which, when united, make up the corolla. If
these, taken separately, are linear, and are united
to the top, or nearly so, the corolla will be tubular
(Fig. 177). If the petals are wedge-shaped, they
will, by. their union, produce a /unnel-shaped
corolla (Fig. 178). In the campanulate or bell-
shaped form, the enlargement from base to sum-
mit is more gradual. If the petais are narrowed Fig. 177.
abruptly into long claws, the union of the claws into a
tube and the spreading of the limb at
73 vight angles to the tube will produce the
" salver-shaped form, as in Phlox (Fig. 179).
The rotate corolla differs from this in
having a very short tube. The corolla of
the Potato is rotate.
‘209. The most important d@rregular
gamopetalous corollas are the lgulate,
y which has been fully described in the
eee examination of the Dandelion, and the
labiate, of which we found an example in Catatp (Fig.
59). The corolla of Turtle-head (Fig. 180) is another
Fig. 176.—Single petal of a Pink. Fig. 177.—Tubular corolla of a Honeysuckle.
Fig. 178.—Funnel-shaped corolla of Calystegia,
Pgs
134 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
example. When a labiate corolla presents a wide opening
‘between the upper and lower lips, it is said to be réngent ;
if the opening is closed by an upward projection of the
lower lip, as in Toadflax (Fig. 181), it is said to be
personate, and. the projection in this case is known as the
palate. A good many corollas, such as those of Toadflax,
Dicentra, Snapdragon, Columbine, and Violet, have
protuberances or spurs at the base. In Violet one petal
only is spurred ; in Columbine the whole five are so.
Fig. 179. Fig. 180. *Fig. 181.
210. Aistivation. This is the term applied to the
mode in which the sepals and petals are folded in the
bud. In general, the members of a calyx or of a corolla
overlap in the bud, or they do not, If they stand edge
to edge, as in the calyx of Mallow, the estivation is
valvate. If there is overlapping, and one or more of
the members have both edges covered, the estivation is
imbricate ; and if each member has one edge covered
and the other uncovered, as in the corolla of Mallow;
Evening Primrose, Phlox, &ec., it is then said to be con-
volute. Gamopetalous corollas are frequently plaited in
the bud, and the plaits may be convolute, as in Morning
Glory.
Fig. 179.—Salver-shaped corolla of Phlox.
Fig. 180.—Labiate corolla of Turtle-head.
Fig. 181,—Personate corolla of Toadflax,
THE STAMENS. 135
211. The Stamens. As calyx and corolla are called
collectively the floral envelopes, so stamens and pistil are
‘spoken of collectively as the essential organs of the flower.
The circle of stamens alone is sometimes called the
andrecium. A complete stamen consists of a slender
stalk known as the filament, and one or more small sacs
called collectively the anther. The filament, however, is
not uncommonly absent, in which case the anther is séssile.
As a general thing, the anther consists of two oblong cells
witha sort of rib between them called the connective, and
that side of the anther which presents a distinctly grooved
appearance is the face, the opposite side being the back,
Fig. 182. Fig. 183. Fig. 184.
The filament is invariably attached to the connective, and
may adhere through the entire length of the latter, in
which casé the anther is adnate (Fig. 182); or the base of
“the connective may rest on the end of the filament, a
condition described as innate (Fig. 183); or the extremity
of the filament may be attached to the middle of the back
of the connective, so that the anther swings about: it is
then said to be versatile (Fig. 184). Inu all these cases, if
‘the face of the anther is turned towards the centre of the
flower, it is said fo be introrse; if turned outwards,
extrorse.
Figs. 182, 183, 184,—Stamens showing adnate, innate, and versatile attach-
ments of the anther.
136 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
The cells of anthers commonly open along their outer
edges to discharge their pollen (Fig. 185). In most of the
Heaths, however, the pollen is discharged through a
minute aperture at the top of each cell (Fig. 186), and in
our Blue Cohosh each cell is provided with a lid or valve
near the top, which opens on a kind of hinge (Fig. 187).
Occasionally, examples of barren or abortive stamens are
met with, as the fifth stamen in Turtle Head and
Pentstemon. These are filaments without anthers, and are
known as staminodes.
212. Stamens may be either entirely distinct from each
other—in which cise they are described as diandrous,
pentandrous, octandrous, &c., according to their number
(or, if more than twenty, as indefinite )—or
they may be united in various ways. If
their anthers are united: in a circle, while
the filaments are separate (Fig. 57), they
are said to be syngenestous; but if the
- filaments unite to form a tube, while-the
Figs. 185. 187. 186. anthers remain distinct, they are said to be
monadelphous (Fig. 82); if they are in two groups they
are diadelphous (Fig. 37) ; if in three, triadelphous ; if in
more than three, polyadelphous,
213. As to insertion, when stamens are inserted on
the receptacle they are hypogynous ; when borne on the
calyx, perigynous ; when borne on the ovary, epiqynous ;
and if inserted on the corolla, epipetalous, They may,
however, be borne even on the style, as in Orchis, and
then they are described as gynandrous.
214. If the stamens are four in number, and in two
Figs. 185, 186, 187.—Anthers exhibiting different modes of dehiscence.
THE PISTID. 137
pairs of different lengths, they are said to be didynamous
(Fig. 60) ; if six in number, four long and two short, they
are tetradynamous (Fig. 28); and, finally, if the stamens
are hidden in the tube of a gamopetalous corolla they are
said to be txcluded, but if they protrude beyond the tube
they are ewserted (Fig. 177).
215. The Pistil. This is the name given to the
central organ of the flower. It is sometimes also called the
gyneecium: As in the case of the stamens, the structure
of the pistil must be regarded as a modification of the
structure of leaves generally. The pistil may be formed
by the folding of a single carpellary leaf, as in the Bean
' (Fig. 188), in which case it is simple ; or it may consist
of a-number of carpels, either entirely separate from each
other or united together
in various ways, in which
case it is compound. By
some botanists, however,
the term compound is
restricted to the case of ~ Fig. 188.
united carpels. If the carpels are entirely distinct, as in
Buttercup, the pistil is apocarpous ; if they are united in
any degree, it is syncarpous. Such a fruit
Fig. 209. is called a cremocarp.
244, The Seed. The seed has already been described
as the fertilized ovule. During the formation of the
carpels, the ovules arise as outgrowths from the inner
surface of the ovary, mostly, as has been pointed out,
upon the margins of the carpellary leaves, but occasion-
ally also upon the surface generally. At first the ovule
Fig. 206.—Silicle of Stock, Fig. 207,—Pyxis of Purslane.
Fig. 208.—Samara of Maple.
Fig. 209.—Cremocarp of an Umbellifer; @, the fibre attaching the mericarp
to the axis. (Thomé.)
THE SEED, - : : 149
is a simple, soft mass with no indication whatever of
the covering so manifest in ripe seeds of all kinds, Very
soon, however, after the appearance of the body of the
ovule, a circular ridge is developed upon it, and thig
gradually extends upwards over the surface so as to form
a coat, which at length entirely covers it except at the
very apex, where a minute opening is left. Very
commonly, but not always, a second coat is developed
exactly in the same manner, outside the first, and an
opening is left in this coat also, precisely over the other.
This minute passage through both coats to the ovule body
has already been named the mcropyle. The two coats
are known as the primine (generally, though not always,
applied to the outer) and the secundine, and the central
body is the nucleus.
245. If the ovule appears to arise directly from the
placenta without the intervention of a stalk, it is sessile ;
but if a stalk is present, this is known as the funiculus.
~ In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 210) which represents
a section of the complete ovule, % is the nucleus ; az, the
_primine; 7, the secundine; m, the micropyle; /, the
funiculus. The point (¢) where the two coats, and the
nucleus are blended together is called the chalaza. The
portion of the nucleus marked em is the cavity called
‘the embryo-sac, already referred to in Chapter II.
246. It must now be pointed out that though the ovules
at the commencement of their growth are straight, as in
the diagram just described, yet they do not commonly
temain so. Very often the ovule bends over so as to appear
completely inverted, in which case the funiculus grows
fast to one side of the primine, becoming completely fused
1hO) ss ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
with it, and forming what is then called the raphe. Big.
211i represents this condition, » being the raphe, s the
chalaza, and the other letters corresponding to those, in
Fig. 210.
Sometimes the curving of the ovule upon itself is not
carried to this extreme, and an intermediate form is
presented, as in Fig. 212.
Fig. 212.
Fig. 210. fig. 211.
Tf the ovule remains straight it is said to he orthotro-
nous ; if completely inverted, anatropous; if half bent
over, campylotropous.
247. Pollination. The process of fertilization, by
which the ovule is converted into the seed, has been
briefly described in Chapter II. A few words may be
added here upon. pollination—the process of supplying
pollen to the stigma. In very many flowers which have
both stamens and pistil (and hence called hermaphrodite),
the process is very simple. Either the anthers and
stigma are so close together that the pollen cannot fail to
be deposited upon the stigma immediately upon the
opening of the anther, or the stigma is upon a lower level,
so that the pollen drops upon it, or, in special cases, as in
Figs. 210, 211, 212, —Diagrains of orthotropous, anatropous, and campylo-
tropous ovules, (Prantl. )
POLLINATION. 151
Tinpatiens and Wood Sorrel, besides the ordinary large
flowers, there are special small ones (known as cleistoga-
_ meus flowers) whose floral envelopes do not open, thus
rompelling self-fertilization.. But it is well established
that in a vast number of cases the ovules in any given
tower have. to depend for fertilization upon the pollen of
some other flower. Nature seems to have provided
against self-fertilization by various contrivances. Some-
times the relative positions of the anthers and the stigma
“in the same flower are such as to render it impossible.
Sometimes the pollen comes to maturity and is shed from
the anthers before the stigma is in a suitable condition to
receive it; whilst, on the other hand, the stigma is often
developed first and has withered before the opening of
the anthers. (Flowers showing these peculiarities are
said to be dichogamous.) When for any reason cross-
fertilization has become a necessity, the conveyance of the
pollen from one flower to another is ensured in various
ways. When the flowers are inconspicuous, as in Grasses,
the wind is the great agent, and flowers so fertilized are
said to be anemophilous. In other cases the flowers,
either by their brightness or their odour, attract insects in
quest of honey, and these then become the carriers of the
pollen. Flowers of this sort are said to be entomophilous,
and are usually so constructed as to the situation of their
honey receptacles, and the relative position of anthers and
stigma, as to ensure the transfer of the pollen from the
anther of one flower to its destination upon the stigma of
another, The case of the Orchids has already been
referred to in section 92.
248, After fertilization, the embryo, or young plantlet,
as exhibited in the seed, begins its growth in that end of
152 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. _
the embryo-sac which is next the micropyle, and about
the same time, in the cther end of the embryo-sac, there
begins a deposit of matter intended for the nourishment
of the embryo during the germination of the seed. This
deposit has been already referred to under the name of
albumen. It is also known as endosperm. As the embryo
developes, this endosperm or albumen may be completery
absorbed by it, so that at maturity the embryo will occupy
the whole space within the seed-coats, as in the Bean. in
this case the seed is exalbuminous. In other cases, as in
Indian Corn, the endosperm remains as a distinct mass
with the embryo embedded in it, or sometimes wrapped
round it. Seeds of this kind are albuminous. Rarely
this nourishing material is deposited outside the embryo-
sac, in the body of the ovule. It is then known as
perisperm.
249. Tke ripened seed presents very different aspects
in different plants. It may be resolved, however, into the
nucleus and the integument (the spermoderm of some
botanists). The former is made up of the embryo,
together with the endosperm or perisperm, if present,
while the latter consists of two layers: an outer, known
as the“esta, and an inner, the tegmen. The scar showing .
where the seed has been attached to the placenta is called
the hilum ; it is very distinct in the Bean.
250. Besides the integument just mentioned, occasionally
an additional outer coat is formed, to which the term aril
is applied. The fleshy red covering of the seed in our
Ground Hemlock is a good example.
251. The sceds of Willow-herb, Milkweed, and many
uther plants are furnished with tufts of hair-like bristles
GERMINATION. 153
which facilitate their dispersion by the wind. These
tufts grow from the testa of the seed, and are not to be
confounded with the pappus of the Thistle, Dandelion,
&c.; the latter, it will be remembered, is an outgrowth
of the calyx.
252, The embryo, as already explained, generally
consists of an axis or stem called the radicle (or, more
properly, the caudécle, because it is in all respects a true
stem and not a root), and one or more leaves called
cotyledons, with sometimes, also, a bud known as the
plumule. As to the number of cotyledons, it may be
repeated here that seeds are, as a rule, either dicotyle-
donous or monocotyledonous. Some plants of the Pine
Family, however, have six cotyledons, whilst, on «the
other hand, in the Orchids and a few other plants, these
organs are altogether wanting.
253, The cotyledons vary greatly in thickness, In the
Maple, for example, they are very thin, while in the Ya,
the Bean, and the Oak they are extremely thick and:
fleshy.
254. Germination. If a seed is supptied with
proper warmth and moisture it soon begins to swell and
soften by absorption of water, with the effect of bursting
the seed-coats to a greater or less degree. At the same’
time the process of growth is begun. This early growth
ofthe embryo is germination. The details of the process
vary scmewhat according to the structure of the seed. In
dicotyledons, if the seed-leaves are thin and leaf-like,
containing within themselves but scanty store of nourish-
ment, the radicle will grow throughout its length so as to
raise the cotyledons above the soil, where they at once
ae
1D4, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
expand and become the earliest leaves of the new plant;
and during this upward extension of the radicle a root
algo is being rapidly developed from its lower end. It is
important, also, to notice here that the mode of growth of
the root portion is at variance with that of the radicle or
stem proper, for while the latter grows throughout its
length, the former grows by the addition of successive new
portions to its extremity. (The protection of the growing
root by a root-cap has already been referred to.) As soon
as the root is prepared to absorb nourishment from the
soil, then, and not till then, the development of the next
bit of stem commences between the first pair of leaves.
255. But when the cotyledons are loaded with nour-
ishment, as in the Bean, it will generally be found that
the elements of additional bits of stem (the plumule) are
already present in the embryo, and although the radicle
may lengthen so as to lift the cotyledons above the
surface, yet these do not, as in the thin-leaved embryos,
fully perform the office of foliageleaves; their true
function is to supply the newly developing parts with
nourishment, and when this duty is performed they
usually drop off. In fact, it is not uncommon for such
extremely fleshy cotyledons to remain under the surface
altogether, as in the case of the Pea and the Acorn, In
these cases the growth of’ the radicle is but slight. The
plumule and the end of the radicle are liberated from
the seed, and the former at once grows vigorcusly upward,
being practically independent of the root as long as vae
stock of nourishment in the cotyledons holds viut.
Simultaneously with the development of the stem, the root
ie ttrongly developed from the end of the short radicie.
GERMINATION. : 155
256. In the monocotyledons the process of germination
is much the-same as that just described, with the
important difference, however, that the primary root
from the end of the radicle can scarcely be said to develope
at ail, a cluster of fibrous. roots bursting out almost at
once from its sides. Indian Corn answers very well as
an illustration. Here the seed, largely made up of
endosperm or albumen, remains in the ground. The
single cotyledon is wrapped round the plumule and
adheres by its back to the endosperm, acting thus as a
medium through which nourishment is absorbed, and of
course not being carried up to the surface. The plumule
is rapidly carried upward, developing alternate leaves,
and the numerous fibrous roots are given off from the
sides of the short radicle.
257. The young student is strongly recommended to
investigate for himself the phenomena of germination as
exhibited in common seeds. For this purpose he may
place a few Windsor beans and grains of Indian Corn
between layers of moist flannel or coarse paper in a
shallow dish. If kept damp, germination will begin in a
day or two, and if sufficient specimens have been provided
the process may be observed at various stages. Trial
should also be made of the length of time during which
‘seeds will retain their vitality. Many seeds, such as
those of Elm and Poplar, will be found to germinate.
only if they have been kept fresh and not permitted to .
dry up, whilst others, such as Indian Corn and Wheat,
and in general those containing starch, may be kept for
a very long time without losing their germinating power.
.
156 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
CHAPTER XIX.
ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS —THE CELL —~
TISSUES—-TISSUE-SYSTEMS—EXOGENOUS AND
ENDOGENOUS STEMS.
258, Up to this point we have been engaged in observ-
ing such particulars of structure in plants as are manifest
to the naked eye. It is now time to enquire a little more
closely, and find out what we can about the elementary
structure of the different organs, We have all observed
how tender and delicate. is a little plantlet of any kind
just sprouting from the seed ; but as time elapses, and the
plant developes itself and acquires strength, its substance
will, as we know, assume a texture varying with the
nature of the plant, either becoming hard and firm and
woody, if it is to be a tree or a shrub, or continuing ta be
soft and compressible as long as it lives, if it is to be an
herb. Then, as a rule, the leaves of plants are of quite a
different consistency from the stems, and the ribs and .
veins and petioles of foliage-leaves are of a firmer texture
than he remaining part of them. In all plants, also, the
newest portions, both of stem and root, are extremely soft
compared with the older parts. It will be our object in
this chapter to ascertain, as far as we can, the reason of
such differences as these ; and to accomplish this we
shall have to call in the aid of a microscope of much
higher power than that which has hitherto served our
purpose.
259. First let us examine under our microscope a very
thin slice of the pith of the Elder. You see at once that
THE CELL. 157
the whole slice is made up of more or less rounded,
nearly transparent bodies, rather loosely thrown together,
as shown in Fig. 213. Next let us examine, in the same
way, a thin slice of the tuber of the Potato. Here,
: again, it is evident that the object under
examination is wholly composed of en-
closed spaces, not so much rounded, how-
ever, as those of the Elder pith, because
they are more closely packed together.
Fig. 214 is a representation of two of
Fig. 213, these spaces. Now look at the leaf of a
Moss, and you see again that we have an aggregation of
enclosed spaces as before (Fig. 215). So, also, if we
examine a hair from the surface of a Petunia or a
Geranium, we have some such appearance presented to
us as that shown in Figs. 216 and 217, the hairs
manifestly consisting of several enclosed spaces placed
end to end, In short, the microscope reveals to us the
fact that every part of a plant is made up of such
enclosed spaces, varying greatly in shape and size and
general aspect, it is true, but always :
(except in some of the very lowest
plants) clearly exhibiting bound- /
aries; and since these boundaries
are Visible, no matter in what direc- eo
tion we make our cutting, it is clear Fig, 214.
‘that the spaces must be shut in on all sides. These
enclosed spaces are called ced/s, and their boundaries are
known as the cell-wails.
Fig. 213,—Loosely-packed cells of Elder-pith.
Fig. 214.—Two cells of Potato tuber containing starch-granules and crys-
talloids, (Gray.)
158 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
260. Whilst looking at the parts of plants just sub-
mitted to examination, it must have struck you that the
interior of the cell
presents a very dif-
ferent appearance in
different cases. The
Potato section, - for
example, is not at all
like the Moss-leaf
section in the matter.
of cell-contents, and
the cells of the Elder-
pith appear to be
quite empty. We
shall discuss these
differences presently.
In the meantime let
us study the appear-
Fig. 215. ance of some cells
taken fresh from some part of a plant where growth is
actually going on—say the point of a new rootlet. If our
section is taken
near enough to
the point we shall
get cells’ which : va
have just been %
formed. Such a es Fig. 217.
section is very well shown in Fig. 218. Here the cells
are seen to be completely filled with liquid having a
\
Fig. 215.—Cells from leaf of a Moss containing protoplasm and chlorophyll-
granules, ‘
Fig. 216.—Hair from Petunia leaf. Fig. 217.—Hairs from Geranium leaf.
THE CELL, 159
granular appearance, and in the centre of each a rounded
denser portion may be made out, each of these again
enclosing one or more smaller bodies. This liquid which
thus fills the newly-formed cells is
called protoplasm; the large rounded
central mass is the nucleus, consist--
-ing of denser protoplasm, and the
smaller enclosed masses are the
_nucleolt,
Now let us consider Fig. 219.
ihe. o P This is a representation of a section
of the same rootlet, taken a little
farther back from the point, so
that the cells now in view area
little older than the first ones.
They are manifestly larger ; that
is to say, they have grown. The
nucleus and the nucleoli can still
be made out in some of them, but
the protoplasm no longer entirely
fills the cell. There are now
transparent - spaces. (vacuoles)
which are filled with water, and
between these the protoplasm is
seen in the form of strings or
bands, as well as lining the cell. Fig. 219.
The water has been absorbed through the cell-wall, and
after saturating the protoplasm the excess has formed the
vacuoles.
Fig. 218.—Young cells filled with protoplasm (p) ; }, cell wall; h, nucleus;
ick, nucleolus, (Sachs.) .
Fig, 219.—Cells alittle older, exhibiting vacuoles (s), (Sachs,)
160 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
Fig. 220 shows some cells from the same rootlet taken
till farther back, It is clear that the change observed
m Fig. 219 has been carried to a still greater extent.
In some of these cells the proto-
plasm is restricted to the lining
of the cell and the nucleus.
261. It is now to be observed
that the protoplasm is the es-
sential part of every living cell.
Through its agency all the vital
processes of the plant are carried
on. Every cell of every plant
at some time or other contains
this substance, and when at
length it disappears the cells
which are deprived of it no
Alonger take any active part in
the growthof theplant, but serve
merely mechanical purposes, such
as that of support or conduction,
and are in that stage of their
history filled usually with air or
water. The pith of the Elder
is made up of such dead cells,
as is also the greater part of the
x wood and bark and older parts
Fig. 220, generally of all plants,
262. The most marked feature of the living protoplasm
is its activity. We may observe this property. by
Fig. 220,—Cells still older; Ah, the wall; », vacuoles; p, protoplasm; x,
nucleus ; xy, swelling of nucleus caused by water used in preparation of the
gection, (Sachs.)
THE CELL, 161
examining plant-hairs and other parts under high powers
of the microscope, when it will be seen that there are
movements of two kinds. The whole mass of protoplasm
has a rotary motion, sliding upon the cell-wall, down-
wards on one side and upwards on the other. This is
the mass-movement. Also, currents may be traced passing
across the protoplasm in different directions. This is
the streaming-movement.
In some of the very lowest plants, where there is no
cell-wall, and the whole is a mass of naked protoplasm,
these movements may be observed more readily because
they are less restricted.
263. There is some doubt as to the exact chemical
composition of protoplasm. It is, however, a very complex
substance belonging to a group of bodies known as
albuminoids, of which nitrogen is an important con-
stituent,
The consistence of protoplasm depends upon
the amount of water it eontains. In dry seeds,
for example, it is tough and hard, but when
the same seeds are soaked in water it becomes
partially liquid.
264. Forms of Cells. As cells become
older they tend as a rule to change their form,
though sometimes we find them differing but
little from their original conformation. Com-
monly a cell grows more rapidly in some one
direction, thus giving rise to long forms, as is Fig. 221.
the case in stems generally, and in the petioles and veins
of leaves, the superior toughness and strength of which
Fig. 221.—Prosenchyma of the wood. (Gray.)
162 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
are due to the lengthening and hardening of. the cells
of which they are composed (Fig. 221).
265. The Cell-wall. In the portions of plants just
selected for microscopic examination we have seen that
the protoplasm is in every instance bounded by a wall.
It has been ascertained that the wall is a chemical com-
pound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and to this
compound the name cellulose has been given.
We have said that the protoplasm is the active principle
through the agency of which all the vital processes of
the plant are carried on. It contains at some time or
other every constituent of the plant. The cell-wall is
itself, therefore, a product or secretion of the protoplasm, °
and is at first an extremely thin film, which, however,
gradually increases in thickness by the addition of further
material, This new material is deposited between the
molecules of the original film, and so extends not only
the surface of the wall, but, by deeper deposits, the
thickness also. This process of acquisition of new
material is known as intussusception.
266. As the wall between two cells increases in thick-
ness, a distinct middle layer is discernible in it, known as
the middle lamella. This portion of the common wall is
different in chemical composition from the rest, so that it
may, under proper treatment, be dissolved and the cells
thereby separated,
267. It is in the earlier stages of their history, while
the walls are comparatively thin, that the cells possess
the greatest activity. By these alone is carried on the
process of growth, which consists in the multiplication
and enlargement of cells.
THE CELL, 163
268. It is seldom the case that the wall is thickened
uniformly.” Often numerous round thin spots are left, so
that the cell has a dotted appearance (Fig. 222). When
® the thin spots in adjacent celis are contiguous,
as they commonly are, a ready means of inter-
communication is afforded. Sometimes the spots,
instead of being round, are oblong, so that ‘the -
cell under the microscope presents a ladder-like
appearance, and so is said to be scalariform. Then
again, the thickening may take the form of spiral
bands upon the inner surface; or, instead of a
continuous spiral band, we may find a series of
isolated rings, when the marking is said to be
pe Reticulated cells are also found, in which the
markings, as the name implies, form a sort ss
of network on the walls. Several of these
forms are shown in Figs, 223 and 224.
269. Sometimes round thin spots will ?
be left in the wall, and over each of these. fis
a thick-walled dome with an opening at PL
the top will be formed. At thesame time fF
a similar dome is raised at exactly the
same spot on the other side of the wall in §
~ the next cell; and, finally, the thin par- [f
__ tition between the opposite domes breaks |
away, permitting free communication.
Thus are formed what are called bordered Fig. 223. Fig. 224.
pits, which abound in the wood of Conifers. ‘
270. When cells stand end to end, and thin spots are
Fig. 222.—Dotted duct. (Gray.)
Fig. 223.—Spiral and annular markings on cell- wall, (Gray.)
Fig. 224,—Various markings on cell-wall, (Gray.)
\
164 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
left in the cross-partitions between them, steve-cells are
formed. Here, again, the thin spots finaliy_ disappear,
thus practicaliy uniting adjacent cells.
271. It sometimes: happens that the thickening takes
place throughout the length of a cell but in its angles
only, Cells of this kind, which are often found im-
“mediately under the surface of the stem in the higher
plants, are called collenchyma cells.
272. Besides the markings on the inside, cells often
show markings on the outside. The pollen-grains of the
Mallow, for instance, are seen under the microscope to be
covered with pointed projections. Other pollen-grains,
also, exhibit outside markings of different sorts.
273. The thickening deposit may be so excessive in
= some cases as to almost completely fill up
the cavity of the cell (Fig. 225). The
shells of nuts and the tough coatings of
seeds consist of cells of this kind ; but even -
in these cases the wall: may be seen to be
traversed by slender pores or canals, either
vimple or branched, radiating from the centre of the cell.
Yo these hardened cells the name sclerenchyma is applied.
274. The Contents of Cells, If you look at Fig.
215, or, better still, if you have the opportunity of
viewing a Moss-leaf through a good microscope, you will
see that in the ‘protoplasmic lining of the cells there
are numerous greenish, rounded granules. These are
the bodies to which the green parts of plants owe
their colour. They are called chlorophyll-granules, and
consist of protoplasmic matter in which particles of green
. Fig. 225,—Sclerenchyma, the cell-cavity being almost obliterated. (Gray.)
THE CELL, 165
‘colouring matte? are embedded. The colouring matter
itself is chlorophyll, and may be dissolved out of the
granules, leaving the latter as ordinary protoplasm.
Almost without exception chlorophyll requires the action
of sunlight for its production, and the chlorophyll dis-
appears from green parts when sunlight is withdrawn, as
is well seen in the process of bleaching celery... In many
of our brightly coloured foliage-plants the chlorophyll is
concealed from view by other colouring matters. In
flowers various colours are found in the protoplasm, but
these, unlike chlorophyll, are produced in darkness as
_well as in sunlight.
275. Chlorophyll is of the utmost fcaportanse to the
plant, seeing that only in the cells which contain it, and
in the presence of sunlight, can the materials which the ,
plant imbibes from the soil and the air be assimilated,
that is, converted into matter which the plant can use for
the purposes of growth.
276. Now consider Fig. 214. Here are exhibited cell- -
contents of an entirely different aspect. The rounded
bodies here visible are starch-granules, as may be easily
demonstrated by adding a drop of iodine solution to the
Potato section under the microscope, a characteristic blue
colour being at once produced. Such granules, differing
somewhat in shape in different cases, abound in the cells
of tubers and in grains of all sorts, where they have been
stored up for use during the process of germination.
They are originally formed during sunlight in the chloro- _
phyll granules of the green parts. When the light is
withdrawn, as at night, they are dissolved and carried in
solution to other parts to promote growth or to be
stored up.
~
166 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
(
277, If starch-granules be subjected, ‘tothe action of
saliva, it will be found that a portion of each granule is
slowly dissolved out, leaving an insoluble skeleton behind.
The granule, therefore, consists of two distinct parts, the
more soluble portion ‘being known as granulose, and the
less soluble framework as starch-cellulose,
278. Crystals. These are of common occurrence in
many plants, not only in the cell-cavities, but also
imbedded in the substance of the cell-wall, They are
also of various shapes, and may either occur separately or
be massed together in clusters. The needle-shaped forms
are known as raphides. These crystals consist for the
most part of calcium oxalate, but calcium carbonate
is also found, and may be readily distinguished from the
former by the effervescence occasioned on the addition of
‘hydrochloric acid. The oxalate dissolves in this acid
without effervescence,
Crystals may be readily observed under the microscope
in thin sections of scales from the Onion bulb, Rhubarb,
Indian Turnip, and many other plants.
279, In the leaves of plants of the Nettle Family it
frequently happens that a wart-like growth of cellulose
takes place on the inside of the cell-wall, the inwardly
projecting mass being attached to the wall by a slender
stalk, and having multitudes of small crystals imbedded:
in it. Such inward growths are called cystoliths; they
may be readily seen in cross-sections of the Nettle leaf.
280. Crystalloids. Seeds, especially those of an
oily nature, as they approach maturity and become dry,
develope in their cells multitudes of small rounded bodies
of an albuminous nature known as aleurone-grains, and
FORMATION OF NEW CELLS. 167
- these- often envelope minute substances of crystalline
aspect, which, however, under the action of potash and
other re-agents, undergo such changes of form as to lead
to the belief that they are not true crystals. They are
called crystalloids, and are to be regarded as forms of
protoplasm. ;
Occasionally crystalloids are observed. without the
albuminous envelope, as, for example, in the tuber of the
Potato. Fig. 214 shows a cell having two or three such
crystalloids of a cubical shape.
The aleurone-grains in seeds containing starch: fill the
spaces between the starch-granules. In oily seeds, such |
as the Brazil-nut, they replace the starch.
281. Other cell-contents. Besides the important
substances already enumerated as products of the proto-
plasm, many others are found, such as sugar, inuline (a
substance nearly related to starch, and found in a few
special plants), fixed oils (castor, olive, linseed, &c., chiefly
in seeds), essential oils (turpentine, oil’ of lemons, and
essences of different kinds), gums, resins, and various
- acids.
282. How new cells are formed. There are
several methods by which new cells are produced, but in
the higher plants the common method is that of ceil-
division. . We have already stated that only the newer
thin-walled cells are capable of éxercising this function.
The process is briefly as follows: in the cell about to
divide, the protoplasm first separates into two portions, .
each containing part of the nucleus ; then a partition-wall
of cellulose is developed between the two portions, thus
forming two cells out of the original one, Hach part then
168 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
enlarges and divides again, and so the process goes on,
When cell-division takes place in one direction only,
filaments or threads are formed; if in two directions,
surfaces are formed; while division in three directions
gives rise to masses.
It is evident that every part of a plant, however much
altered in its later history, must in its earlier stages have
consisted of this thin-walled cellular substance, or
meristem, as it is called from its power of dividing.
283. Cell-division, then, is the method of new cell
formation which prevails in the vegetative parts of the
higher plants. In the production of pollen, however, and
of the spores of vascular cryptogams, four new nuclei are
formed in the cell, and the protoplasm collects about
these, eventually secreting walls, so that-four new and
complete cells are formed within the original one, and
these sooner or later make their escape. This mode is known
as free cell-formation. In the production of the endo-
sperm cells in the embryo-sac and the spores of many of the
lower plants a similar process goes on; but here the
division of the nucleus is not limited to four portions, as
in thg cases just mentioned, but may be carried on to an
indefinite extent. :
284. In some lower plants the entire contents of two
adjacent cells may coalesce to form a single new cell.
This mode is known as conjugation. Also, the contents
of a cell may contract and develope a new cell-wall, a
process known as the rejuvenescence or renewal of a cell.
285. Tissues... An ageregation of similar cells is
talled a dissue, Originally, every part of a plant consists
of meristem, that is, of cells capable of dividing. But
TISSUES. 169
changes set in, as we have seen, at a very early stage, and
eventually all the cells assume permanent forms, some
developing in one way, others in quite a different way,
according to the function of each particular part. So that
in any given plant we find tissues, or groups of cells, of
very various kinds, and very different arrangements of
these tissues in different cases. By examining sections
taken in succession from the growing point backwards,
every degree of change from meristem to permanent tissue
may be made out.
286. In the growing parts of all plants, in the pulp of
fruits, in the pith, in the green parts of, leaves, and in
the entire substance of many plants of low organization,
we-find tissue composed of short and comparatively thin-
walled cells, to which the name parenchyma has been
given, On the other hand, in the substance of wood, in
the inner bark, in the petioles and veins of leaves, &c.,
we meet with tissue consisting of long, pointed, and
overlapping cells, and known as prosenchyma. That of
the wood is jibrous tissue, and that of the inner bark is
the bast, specially characterized by the extraordinary
length and flexibility of the cells. Sclerenchyma and
collenchyma have already been referred to. In the
former the cells are commonly, though not always, short;
while in the latter they are usually long, but the ends
are not, pointed.
287. Cells have been described which are characterized
by peculiar markings on their walls. When such cells
stand end to end, the cross-partitions commonly dis-
appear, with the-effect of forming long tubes, generally
of larger diameter than the other cells with which they
iy
170 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
are associated, Such large cells are known as vessels,
and tissue formed of them is called vaseular or tracheary
tissue. Hence we have spiral, scalariform, annular,
reticulated, and dotted vessels. These different kinds of
vessels are usually found associated with fibrous tissue,
and the combination of the two is known as the /ilro-
vascular system.
288. Many plants, such as Dandelion, Blood-root,
Milkweed, and Spurge, emit a coloured or milky juice
when wounded. This juice is technically called the latex.
It is contained in a special tissue which is peculiar to
such plants, known as Jaticiferous tissue. Its form
differs in different cases. In some instances it consists
of long tubes which may or may not branch. In others,
the cells composing it form a net-work. As in the case
of vessels, the latex tubes are commonly formed by the
coalescence of cells originally separate, but sometimes by
the continued apical growth of single cells. “
289.. Sieve-tissue has been already noticed. The
cells are usually rather wide, and the walls are not
hardened, but the cross-partitions between the cells are
thickened and perforated.
290, It may be added that single cells which resemble
vessels in their markings are often spoken of as tracheids.
291. Tissue-Systems. While groups of similar
cells are designated tissues, we may have also different
combinations of these tissues in different plants, or in
different parts of the same plant, and these various
combinations are known as tissue-systems. These are now
usually ranged under three heads: (1) The Epidermal
System, including those combinations of tissue which go to
TISSUE-SYSTEMS. 171
“form the coverings of young stems, roots, and leaves ;
(2) The Fibro-vascular System, including such combina-
tions as form the stringy masses which abound in the
substance of the higher plants ; and (3) The Fundamental
System, including the combinations of cells which have
undergone little or no change of form ; in short, all the
rest of the plant except the two systems first mentioned.
292. The epidermal system is most highly devel-
oped in Phanerogams. Fig. 226 shows a section through
— the thickness of a leaf. Here
. Zee oe it will be observed that there
is a closely-packed layer of
cells forming the upper sur-
face, and a similar layer form-
ing the lower surface. These
layers constitute the epidermis
or skin of the leaf. The outer
part of the epidermis is usu-
ally a continuous layer, and
is known as the cuticle. Tt
will be seen that the walls of these- cells are much
thicker than those of the cells in the body of the leaf,
and also that the epidermal cells, unlike the interior
ones, have been emptied of their protoplasmic contents
and are rectangular in shape. It sometimes happens
that the epidermis consists of two or three layers instead
of one, —
The outgrowths of the epidermis, included under the
general term trichomes, have already been referred to ;
- they. must be regarded as part of the epidermal system.
Fig. 226.— Cross-section of a leaf, showing epidermis above and below,
palisade cells under the upper epidermis, and loose tissue with intercellular
spaces below the palisade cells. (Gray.\
172 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
293. An examination of the under surface of almost
any leaf will show the presence of large numbers of oval
openings, somewhat similar to that shown in Fig. 227.
These are stomata. They are formed by two epidermal
crescent-shaped cells with a space between them, and
these have the power of separating or closing together
according to circumstances ; separating in the light, in
moist weather, and closing in dry. The
openings communicate with intercellular
spaces in the body of the leaf, a number of
which are seen in Fig. 226. In ordinary
leaves with an upper and a lower surface,
the stomata are far more numerous on the
lower side; indeed, many such leaves are
entirely without stomata on the upper sur-
Fig. 227, face. Vertical leaves have them rather
equally distributed on both surfaces, Immersed leaves
and underground stems have hardly any at all, and they
are never found on roots. The use of the stomata will
be referred to presently.
‘294. The stems of Dicotyledons lose their epidermis at
a comparatively early period, and a tissue consisting of
cells of cork, filled with air, takes its place. These cork-
cells are modifications of the cells beneath the epidermis,
and they form an effectual protection to the tissues
within. The skin of the Potato-tuber exhibits this corky
layer very clearly. The special tissue from which the
cork is developed is called phellogen.
295, In the fibro-vascular system different plants
exhibit a very different arrangement of the component
Fig. 227.—Stoma from the urface of a leaf, showing the crescent-shaped
guard-cells, :
TISSUE-SYSTEMS. 173
tissues. Asa rule, these tissues are capable of division
into two groups, in one of which the wood is developed,
and in the other the bast. To the former of these groups
the general term xylem is applicable, and to the latter the
term “phloem. The xylem is made up of the elongated
woody cells with pointed and overlapping ends, already
referred to as fibrous tissue, the wide tubes (vessels)
with variously marked walls, formed by the disappearance
of the cross-partitions between cells placed end to end,
and more or less short-celled tissue or parenchyma. The
phloem is likewise made up of three constituents: the
long, thick-walled, flexible cells called bast-cells, which
correspond to the fibrous tissue of the xylem; the wide
thin-walled sieve-cells, corresponding to the vessels; and a
certain amount of thin-walled parenchyma.
296. The fibro-vascular bundles, as they are called,
have their origin in the meristem of the growing point.
This meristem is at first-uniform, buf soon groups of long
cells arise in it, and these are then
known as procambium, to distinguish
them from the surrounding ground-
tissue. This procambium is gradually
converted into the fibro-vascular
bundles,
297. In dicotyledonous plants, the
fibro-vascular bundles are more or less
wedge-shaped, as shown in Fig, 228. The inner part of
each bundle consists of xylem and the outer of phloem,
and between the xylem and the phloem there is a layer
of meristem, known as the cambium. The soft cells of
Fig. 228,
Fig, 228, Cross-section of a young dicotyledonous stem, showing six bundles.
174 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
the cambium divide, and the new cells thus continually
being formed become modified on the one hand into tissues.
which increase the thickness of the xylem, and, on the
other, into tissues which are added to the phloem. Later
on cambium cells are formed in the ground-tissue between
the bundles, thus linking together the cambium-layers of
the various bundles, and forming a continuous ring. The
links are then known as interfascicular cambium, that of
the bundles themselves being the fascicular. Bundles of :
this kind, characterized by the cambium-layer, and so
capable of continuous enlargement, are called open bundles.
298. In monocotyledons,-on the other hand, there is no
cambium-layer, and consequently the bundle when once
formed is incapable of further in-
crease, and so is said to be closed.
Fig. 229 is a representation of the
cross-section of an endogenous stem
- in which manyof these closed bundles
are visible. Of course in such stems
no bark is formed.
299, It has been explained that
ingthe exogenous stem the xylem occupies one side of the
fibro-vascular bundle, while the phloem occupies the other.
In the closed bundles of Ferns and Club-Mosses, as well
as of some monocotyledons, however, a different arrange-
ment prevails, the xylem occupying the central part of
the bundle, and the phloem forming a circle around it.
The former arrangement is described as collateral, while
the latter is concentric. In many of the monocotyledons,
as well as in the exogens, the bundles are collateral.
Fig. 229.
Fig. 229,—Crosg-section of monocotyledonous stem, showing closed bundles.
TISSUE-SYSTEMS. 175
300. Fig. 230 shows a section of an exogenous stem
somewhat older than that shown in Fig, 228, Here new
bundles have been formed between the earlier ones, so
that the whole centre of the stem, except the pith and the
lines radiating from it, is occupied by
the wood. This cylinder of wood is
now encircled by a ring of cambium,
beyond which are the tissues of the
phloem,
301. The appearance presented by
the cross-section of an exogenous stem
Fig. 230. ‘is that of a series of concentric rings,
each ring showing the limit of a year’s growth. The
portions of wood formed late in the summer are more
compressed by the outlying tissue than those formed in
spring, and hence the outer part of each year’s ring appears
denser, and is sharply marked off from the ring of the
following year. No growth of the cambium takes place
in winter. The rays which intersect these rings as fine
lines consist of portions of the ground or fundamental
tissue which have been squeezed into their present form
by the increasing fibro-vascular bundles on each side of
them ; they are called medullary rays, and, as the stem
grows, new ones are formed from the cambium. Only the
primary ones, however, extend from the pith to the bark;
those formed later are shorter.
302. In roots a special arrangement of the tissues of
the bundles prevails, the xylem and phloem forming
alternate rays. This is the radial arrangement.
303. The fundamental or ground tissue com-
prises all the parts of the plant not already included in
. Fig. 230,—Section of an older dicotyledon, the bundles now forming a ring.
e
176 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
the epidermal and fibro-vascular systems. In the
2xogens it embraces the pith, the medullary rays, and
parenchyma generally. The collenchyma found just
beneath the epidermis, sclerenchyma occurring in different
parts, and laticiferous tissue are also constituents of the
fundamental system, as well as the cork cells already
referred to. In the monocotyledons ground-tissue in the
form of parenchyma fills the space between the closed
bundles of the stem; while in many plants in which
fibro-vascular bundles are not produced, ‘the ground-
tissue constitutes the whole of the interior.
304. In exogenous stems the wood developed from
the cambium is often different from that of the primary
bundle as developed from the procambium, Pines, for
example, have vessels in the primary xylem, but none in
the secondary, the latter being almost entirely made up
of the cells with bordered pits, already described.
305, The bundles of the leaves are continuous with
bundles in the stem. Leaves appear at first as protuber- :
ances on the side of the stem close to the growing point,
and the upper ends of the primary bundles almost at
the very’ beginning bend outwards towards the new
leaves, the lower part being continued down the stem.
In the monocotyledons these bundles first arch inwards
towards the centre of the stem, and then outwards and
downwards, thinning out as they descend. Hence, ina
cross-section (Fig. 229) the bundles appear more crowded
towards the circumference, and also smaller, Such a
stem is, therefore, found to be harder at the outside than
at the centre.
CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 177
CHAPTER XX
FOOD OF PLANTS—CHEMICAL PROCESSES—MOVEMENTS OF
WATER—-PHENOMENA OF GROWTH.
306. The materials of which the substance of a plant
is made up are various, and some of. them occur in far
larger quantities than others. Water forms a very
considerable percentage of the whole weight, but is
present to a greater extent in some portions of a plant
than in others. Fleshy roots, for example, may contain
as much as 90 per cent, of water, while dry seeds contain
only about 12 per cent,
307. The water may be expelled by careful drying,
and if what is left is.then burnt, what is called the
organic part of the plant disappears, and a small quantity
of ash remains behind. The organic part is found to
consist mainly of carbon, hydrogeh, oxygen, nitrogen,
and sulphur ; while the inorganic part (or ash) contains
very small quantities of phosphorus, iron, calcium, mag-
nesium, and potassium. All these materials are obtained
from the air or the soil. There is constantly present in
the air carbonic acid gas, a compound of carbon and
oxygen, which is exhaled from the lungs of animals, and
which is always found wherever wood or coal, or carbon
in any form, is being burned. This gas is absorbed
directly from the air by the leaves of land-plants, and
(being soluble) from the water in which they live by
immersed plants. In the presence of chlorophyll and in
sunlight the gas is decomposed into its carbon and
oxygen. The excess of oxygen is then exhaled and the
carbon chemically combined with the other elements to
178 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
form starch' for purposes of growth. The oxygen
required by the plant is derived chiefly from the carbonic
acid gas and from water. Hydrogen is obtained by the
decomposition of water, and nitrogen from the ammonia,
which, like the carbon didxide, is carried down from the
air by rain, and also from nitrates contained in the soil.
Sulphur is obtained from salts (such as calcic sulphate)
found in the soil, as are also, of course, all the inorganic
elements.
Of all these constituents of the dry plant, carbon is
the most‘abundant, amounting to about half of the entire
weight. —
308. The inorganic elements, though small in quantity,
are, nevertheless, essential. If, for: example, a plant be
altogether deprived of iron it will produce no chlorophyll;
while, if potassium is withheld, it will not produce starch.
These facts are proved by causing seeds to grow under
conditions which enable us to accurately control the
supply of nutrition in the form of carefully prepared
solutions of the different ingredients. Several substances
of common occurrence in the ash of plants, as silica,
sodium, and some others, are in this way shown not to
be essential to healthy growth.
309. The process by which the carbon, obtained from
the carbon dioxide, is combined with the elements of
water to form starch is called assimilation. As already
explained, the particles of starch which are formed by
the chlorophyll granules in sunlight are converted by
combination with oxygen into soluble forms, and carried
away, when the light is withdrawn, to other parts where
growth is going on, or to storehouses such as tubers and
seeds, This oxidising and converting process is metastasis,
RESPIRATION. 179
In consequence of having such a store of material,
tubers can grow in the dark as long as the material holds
out, but will not, of course, produce green leaves,
Besides starch, oil is a common form of reserve material,
particularly in seeds. Sugar, also, is found; as, for
example, in the Sugar-Beet.
310. Parasites and saprophytes, which are as a rule
without chlorophyll, do not assimilate, but obtain their
nourishment from the stores of other plants or from
decomposing organic matter.
311. The so-called carnivorous plants, such as the
‘Bladder-wort and the Pitcher-plant, obtain a portion of
their nitrogen by entrapping insects and other small
animal organisms, and absorbing thém as they decompose.
__Some such plants appear to cover their prey with an acid
secretion, and to go through a digestive process not
altogether unlike that performed by animuls.
312. Respiration. Plants, like animals, are continu-
ally inhaling oxygen, and the presence of this gas is
essential to their existence. The oxygen so inhaled is
combined with carbon to form carbon dioxide, and this in
the day-time is at once decomposed and the carbon
assimilated. The absorption of oxygen and its subsequent
combination with organic matters.in the plant is accom-
“- panied by evolution of heat, a fact well illustrated in the
process of malting, where damp barley is heaped together.
As soon as the grain begins to sprout, oxygen is rapidly
absorbed, and a very decided rise of temperature takes
place. The starch of the grain is oxidised and converted
into sugar, and the growth is then stopped by rapid drying.
The sugar, on fermenting, produces alcohol.
180 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL. BOTANY.
313. Transpiration. The openings in the epidermis, '
called stomata, have already been described. Through
these the excess of water-vapour in the plant is exhaled.
it may often be observed, in hot, bright weather, that the
leaves of plants droop if exposed to the sun. This is
because the rate of evaporation through the stomata is
greater than the rate of supply at the roots. At night,
however, the stomata close and the balance being restored
the plant recovers. The water which is thus supplied to
the leaves appears to be conveyed through the stem by
means of the cell-walls of the wood-prosenchyma, since the
supply is not diminished if a ring of bark and the under- -
lying bast.and cambium be removed. '
314. But water is also supplied to the growing points,
and ina different way. It is well known that if two
liquids (or gases) of different density are separated by a
porous diaphragm they will tend to change places, the
fluid of less density passing through the diaphragm more
rapidly than the other. This is the principle of osmose,
and wherever in a plant a cell-wall separates cell-contents
of different density it is found to apply. Hence, water is
absorbed by freshly-formed cells, containing dense proto-
plasm, from neighboring cells which are a little older and
in which the protoplasm has been diluted. These absorb
from the older cells behind them, and so on. Such water
is transmitted, not through the prosenchyma of the wood,
but through the parenchyma and the meristem.
315. It is a matter of common observation that the
stems of many plants “bleed” if cut in the spring. This
is due to the upward pressure of the water with which the
roots are charged at that time, and it takes place in the
GROWTH. 181
aosence of transpiration, When the leaves are formed
and transpiration sets in actively, the root-pressure is
relieved: and the stems will no longer bleed immediately
on being wounded. In some plants the excessive root-
pressure even causes drops of water to exude from the
leaves,
316. We may observe, then, three distinct movements of
water in the plant: (1) the rapid movement to make up
for the loss by transpiration, (2) the slow movement to
supply the growing cells with requisite moisture, and (3)
the movement due to root-pressure.
317. Growth. Growth has already been referred to
as consisting in the formation and subsequent enlargement
of new cells, accompanied in many cases by change of
form. It has also been mentioned that the enlargement
is the result of the introduction of new particles of
vegetable material into the spaces between the molecules
of the parts already formed—a process known as intussus-
ception. It is now generally admitted that each of the
molecules of which the plant-body is made up is enveloped
‘in a sheath of water. We know that the presence of
water is essential to growth; when it is absorbed by a
growing cell the immediate effect is to stretch the cell, as
it were, to its utmost capacity ; in other words, to separate -
the molecules as far as possible and so increase the amount
of water between them, thus making it possible to inter-
pose new molecules of solid matter. ‘The use of the water,
also, as a vehicle for conveying the new material is obvious.
This new material, the presence of which is essential to
growth, is commonly supplied to the growing points from
older parts which serve the purpose of storehouses, as seeds
and tubers, or of manufactories, as the leaves.
i
r
182 ELEMENTS -OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
318. Stems.and roots, as a rule, exhibit three distinct
regions according to tne stage of development at which
they have arrived: There is, first, the growing point,
the chief characteristic of which is the rapid formation of
new cells by division; secondly, the elongating puart,
chiefly characterized by the growth of the cells in length,
there being practically no further division here; and,
thirdly, the fully developed part, in which there is no
further division or enlargement, though the cells may
continue to discharge various important functions,
319. Growth, whilst dependent upon an adequate supply
of water and of new material, is also largely affected by
external conditions, such as temperature and light. Growth
may be stopped altogether by either too low or too high a
temperature, and between the limits within which any
given plant is found to be capable of growth there will be
found a particular degree of temperature more favourable
to growth than any other either above it or below it.
This may be called the optimum. The effect of tempera-
ture differs considerably according to the amount of water
present in the part affected, dry seeds, for instance, resist-
ing a temperature, either high or low, to which soaked
seeds would at once succumb.
320. Light is essential to assimilation, but seeds and
tubers, as well as many of the lower plants which are
without chlorophyll, such as Mushrooms, will grow in the
absence of light as’ long as the stock of assimilated
material upon which they draw is not exhausted. The:
growth which takes place in the cambium-layer of
dicotyledons and in roots is another example of increase
in size in the absence of light. The assimilated material
GROWTH. 183
in all these cases, however, has been previously elaborated
elsewhere,
321. Light is found to exercise a retarding influence
_upon growth. A plant, for instance, in a window will
bend towards the light, because the cells on the side
nearest the window grow. more slowly than those which
are shaded, thus causing curvature of the stem and
petioles.
322. Gravitation also affects growth, as we know that
the stem and root, or aais of the plant, are usually in the
line of the radius of the earth at the place of growth. If
a seedling plantlet be laid with the stem and root
horizontal, the stem will curve upward and the root
downward in the endeavour to restore the vertical direction.
323. The twining movement of the stems of many
plants is due to inequality of growth at successive points
in the sides of the stems. Leaves unfold from the bud
because the growth on the upper side at the time of
unfolding is more rapid than on the under side. These
movements are called nufations, and are not due to the
external action of light, but entirely to internal causes.
The movements of tendrils, however, ate affected by
contact with the object which they grasp.
184 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY,
CHAPTER XXI.
EXAMINATION OF A FERN—A HORSETAIL—A CLUB-MOSS.
324. We shall now proceed to the examination of some
common plants which will be found to be typical of groups
differing in important respects from the phanerogams.
Ferns. Fig. 231 is a representation of our com-
mon Polypody. You may find it in almost any shaded
rocky place. Running horizontally beneath the surface
you will find the stem of the plant, which in this case is,
therefore, a rhizome. A portion of the rhizome is shown
in the lower part of the figure, with fibrous roots on the
under side. From the upper side are developed the
leaves, which, as you see, have long petioles, and if you
find one which is still in the bud you will observe that it
is rolled up lengthwise, as shown in Fig. 232. The
vernation is, therefore, circinate, and this is the case in
nearly all the Ferns. On examining the back of the leaf
(Fig. 231 shows the back) we observe rows of brownish
dots on each side of the middle veins of the upper lobes,
Fig. 233 is an enlarged view showing the position of these
dots at the extremities of the veinlets. When we put one
of these dots under the microscope it is seen to be a
cluster of minute, stalked bodies, such as that shown in
Fig. 234, These bodies are further found to be saes filled
with extremely fine dust, and the dust consists of multi-
tudes of rounded particles all exactly alike. They are, in
short, spores, and the sacs wnich they are contained
are the spore-cases, or sporangia ; while the elusters of
sporangia are the jfrutt-dots, or sor’, Around each spor-
angium there is an elastic jointed ring which breaks at
- FERNS, 185
maturity, and by its elasticity ruptures the spore-case,
which then discharges its
spores, as shown in Fig.
234. The leaf of the Fern,
then, is something more
than an ordinary foliage-
leaf, and is known as the
Srond., The: petiole is
called the stipe, while the
mid-rib is the rhachis.
325. A spore under
proper conditionsdevelopes .
a slender thread-like cell
which eventually gives
rise to a thin, flat, green
expansion, resembling that
shown in Fig.
235. This is
called the pro-
thallium. From
the under sur-
face root-hairs
are produced as
shown in the
’ figure. On the-
same surface,
among the root-
hairs, arise mi-
Fig. 231. nute projections
Fig. 234,
Fig. 231.—Root-stock and frond of Polypody.
Fig. 232,—Circinate vernation of the frond.
Fig. 233.— Magnified view of the sori. i .
Fig. 234, -S_orangium discharging spores ; greatly magnified.
186 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.‘
of tissue in which are developed cells corresponding to the
pollen-grains of phanerogams. These projections are the
antheridia, they contain cells in which are fertilizing bodies
known as antherozoids, Also on the under surface of the
prothallium, near the notch,
we find structures analogous
to the embryo-sac of the
phanerogamousovule. These
are the archegonia. They
are mostly flask-shaped bod-_
ies, having a germ-cell—the
oosphere—in the lower end,
The antherozoids, on escap-
ing from the antheridia,
make their way down the
necks of the archegonia, and
coming in contact with the
oospheres fertilize them. As a result of this fertilization,
a plant is developed in all respects like the one which
originally bore the spores on its fronds.
Fig. 235.
326. It is manifest, then, that we have here two distinct
generations: first, the spore produces the prothallium
which bears the antheridia and archegonia ; secondly, the
interaction of these gives rise to a plant which bears the
spores. This phenomenon is spoken of as the alternation
of gencrations,
327. The stems and roots of Ferns are found to contain
vascular bundles which, like those of monocotyledons, are
closed. .
Fig. 235.—Prothallium of a Fern, under side ; h, root-hairs; a2, antheridia;
ar, archegonia, Magnified 10 times, (Prantl.)
THE HORSETAILS. 187 -
$28. From the account here given of the ‘mode of
reproduction in the Ferns, it will be evident that the.
Gymnosperms occupy an intermediate position between
them and the Angiosperms.
For a description of other common Ferns differing in
detail from the Polypody, the student is referred to Part
II.
329. The Horsetails. At the end of Part IT. will
be found a description of the common Horsetail, with an
illustration of the fertile stem, or rather branch, because
both the pale spore-bearing branch and the later green
shoots with whorled branches are sent upfrom an under-
ground stem or rhizome. The spores, upon germination,
give rise to prothallia bearing antheridia and archegonia
precisely as in the Ferns. The prothallium is usually
small, flat, and irregularly branched or lobed, developing
the antheridia at the projecting ends of the lobes, and the
archegonia in the angles between them; or, in other
cases, the prothallia may be diwcious. Fertilization of the.
germ-cell, which occupies a cavity at the base of the arche-
gonium, takes place exactly as in the Ferns, and, as a |
result of fertilization, the germ-cell developes into a spore-.
bearing plant similar to the original one. Here, therefore,
we have again exhibited an alternation of generations.
Other species of Equisetum of common occurrence,
instead of producing a special fertile branch, develope
sporangia at the extremities of the ordinary leafy stems.
330. These plants, like the Ferns, exhibi’ fibro-vascular
bundles, and the epidermis is especially characterized by
the excessive amount of silica contained in it, some of
the species being used for scouring or polishing by reason,
of this property.
188 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
331. The curious elaters (Fig. 236) attached to the
spores doubtless assist them to escape from
the spore-cases, and ‘subsequently aid in
dispersing them.
332, The Club-Mosses. Fig. 237 is
a representation of a branch
of Lycopodium clavatum, one of our com-
mon Club-Mosses. The creeping stem lies
flat upon the ground, and often attains a
great length, sending up at intervals erect
branches with crowded. linear-awl-shaped
‘ Jeaves, some of which, like the one shown
in the figure, are terminated by a slender
peduncle bearing one or more cylindrical
spikes. These are the fertile branches,
and the leaves upon them, or at all events
upon the slender upper part, are very much
smaller than upon the ordinary sterile
branches,
It is to be observed that the stems and
ronts of these plants branch dichotomously
(145,.
333. The sporangia are produced in the
axils of the leaves of the terminal spike.
One of these leaves, greatly magnified,
with its attached sporangium, is shown in
Fig. 238, The sporangium opens by a
slit at the top to discharge the spores.
334, It is only quite recently thet the
prothallium has been detected. It is
described in the case observed as a “ yellowish-white
Fig. 236.
cad part of a leaf or
petal, 4, 45. ;
Bleeding of jiants, 515.
Bordered pits, %5?.
Botryose, 143.
Botryose inflorecs1,ce, 185, 189.
Bracts, 19, 44, 194.
Bracteate :subtenCe1 by a bract.
Bractlets: secondary oracts grow-
ing on pedicels, 194. =
~)
Branches, 3, 182, 141.
Branvhing, Modes of, 141.
Broasoine pote (stomates), 298,
Bristles, 227.,
Bryophytes, 346.
Bud: an undeveloped stem or
branch, 137.
Buds on roots, 181, 189.
Bulb, 82, 94, 152.
Bulbiferous: producing bulbs.
Bulblets, 155.
Bulbous : like a bulb in shape.
Bundles, 296.
Caducous, 206,
Calcium, 307.
Calcium carbonate, 278.
Calcium oxalate, 278,
Calyptra, 341,
Calyx, 5, 13, 205.
Calyx-teeth, 206.
Calyx-tube, 206.
Cambium layer, 297.
Campanulate, 208.
Campylotropous, 246.
Capillary: fine and hair-like.
Capitulum: same as head, 189.
Capsule, 239, 341, ~
Carbon, 307.
Carbon dioxide, 307.
Carbonic acid, 307. =
Carina, or keel: the two coherent _
petals in the front of a flower of
the Pea kind, Fig. 36.
Carnivorous plants, 311.
Carpel 7.
Carpellary: relating to a carpel,
€.g., a carpellary leaf, &c.
Carpogonium, 354,
Cartilaginous: tough.
Caryopsis, 102, 241.
Catkin, 71, 74, 123, 189.
Caulescent: with an evidert stem.
Caulicle: another name for the
radicle, 79, 252.
Cauline: relating to the stem, ¢.g.,
cauline leaves, &c., 4, 18, 28.
Cell-contents, 260, 274.
| Cell-division, 282.
Cell-formation, 282.
Cells; 259.
Cellulose. 265.
.
a
218
Cell-wall, 259, 265.
Centrifugal inflorescence, 187.
Centripetal inflorescence, 186.
Chalaza: the part of an ovule
where the coats are united to
the nucleus, 245.
Chlorophyll, 156, 274, 307.
Ciliate, 182.
Circinate: curled up like the young
frond of a Fern, 166, 324.
Circulation in cells, 262.
Circumcissile: opening like a
pyxis, Fig. 207. y
Classification, 357.
Claw (of a petal), 45, 207.
Cleistogamous flowers, 247.
Climbing stems, 150.
Closed bundles, 298,
Club-shaped: with the lower part
more slender than the upper, as
the style of Dog’s-tooth Violet,
Fig. 82.
Clustered, 183, 164.
Coats of the ovule, 244.
Coherent: a term applied to the
union of like parts, 26.
Cohesion, 26. :
Collateral bundles, 299.
Collective fruits, 237.
Collenchyma, 271, 286, 303.
Colour of flowers, 274.
Columella, 341.
Column, 91.
Coma: a tuft of hairs,such as that
on the seed of Dandelion, Fig. 58.
Complete, 8.
Compound or Composite flowers,
INDEX AND
62.
Compotnd leaf, 43, 167.
Compound pistil, 215.
Compound spike, corymb, &c.,189.
Concentric bundles, 299.
Conduplicate vernation, 166.
Cone, 124, 223.
Conical, 133.
Coniferous: bearing cones.
Conjugation, 284, 355.
Connate: grown together.
Connate-perfoliate, Fig. 165.
Connective, 65, 211.
Convolute: rolled inward from ope
edge, 38, 88, 166, 210.
Cordate, 175.
GLOSSARY.
Cork, 294, 303.
Corm, 94, 154.
Corolla, 5, 13, 1b, 207.
Corymb, 189.
Corymbose: like a-corymb.
Cotyledons, 78, 117, 252.
Creeping, 149.
Cremocarp, 248.
Crenate, Fig. 163.
Cross-fertilization, 247.
Cruciform: cross-shaped, as the
flowers of Shepherd’s Pursve, &e.
Cryptogams, 359.
Crystalloids, 280.
Crystals, 278.
Culm, 103, 150.
Cuneate: wedge-shaped.
Currents of water, 315, 316.
Cuspidate, Fig. 161.
Cuticle, 292
Cycle, 159.
Cyclic flowers, 195.
Cyme, 191. 5
Cymose: like a cyme, 143,185.
Cystoliths, 279.
Decandrous: with ten sevarate
stamens...
Deciduous, 5, 206.
Decompound: applied to leaves
whose blades are divided and
sub-divided, Z
Decumbent: applied to stems
which lie on the ground but turn
upward at the extremity.
Decurrent, Fig. 166.
Decussate: a):plied to the arrange-
ment of leaves, when successive
pairs of opposite leaves are at
right angles, as in'tbe plants of
the Mint Family, 158.
Definite inflorescence, 187, 191.
Deflexed: bent down. > -
Dehiscence of anthers, Figs. 185,
186, 187.
Dehiscent, 281.
Deliquescent: applied to stems
which dissolve into branches.
Deltoid, Fig. 148,
Dentate, 178.
Depauperate: unnaturally wall.
Depressed : flattened down. :
INDEX AND GLOSSARY,
Descending axis: the root, 181.
Determinate inflorescence,187, 191.
erat tea applied to stamens,
Diandrous: with two separate
stamens, 212, :
Dicarpellary, 215.
Dichasium, 146.
‘Dichlamydeous : having both sets
of floral envelopes.
Dichogamous, 247.
Dichotomous branching, 145, 332.
Dicotyledonous, 78... ~
Dicotyledons, 80.
Didynamous (stamens), 29, 65, 214.
Digitate, 168.
Dimerous flowers, 196.
Dicecious, 74. ;
Disk: in flowers of the Composite
Family, the centre of the head
ag distinguished from the bor-
der,62; a fleshy enlargement of
we receptacle of a flower, 58,75,
26.
Dissected finely cut.
Dissepiment, 218.
Distinet: not coherent, (see Cohe-
. rent).>
Divergent: separating from one
another.
Dodecandrous: with 12 distinct
stamens.
Dorsal suture, 217.
Dotted ducts, Figs. 222, 287.
Double flowers: abnormal flowers
in which stamens and carpels
have been transformed into
petals.
Downy: covered with soft hairs.
Drupe, 51, 231.
Drupelet: a little drupe.
_ Ducts, 287.
Earthy constituents of plants, 307.
Elater, 331. :
Elementary constituents of plants,
307
Elliptical: same as oval, Fig. 146.
Emarginate, 177. :
Embryo, 12, 78, 117.
Embryo-sac, 16, 245.
Emersed: raised above the sur-
face of water.
219
Endocarp: ‘When the walls of a
pericarp form two or more lay-
ers of dissimilar texture, the
outer layer is called the Hpicarp, °
the middle one Mesocarp, and
the innermost Endocarp.” —
Gray.
Endogen, 119.
Endogenous growth, 119.
Endospore, 342.
Endosperm, 248.
Enneandrous: with nine distinct
stamens,
Entire, 178.
Entomophilous, 74, 75, 88, 247.
Epbemeral: lasting one day only.
Epicalyx, 35, 50.
Epicarp: see Endocarp.
Epidermal system, 291, 292.
Epidermis, 292.
Epigynous: inserted on the ovary,
58, 60, 213, 216.
Epipetalous: inserted on the cor-
olla, 60, 65, 213. ;
Epiphytes, 135.
Equitant (leaves), 88, 157.
Essential organs, 17, 211.
Evergreen: retaining foliage dur-
ing winter, 122, 125.
Exalbuminous, 80, 248.
Excurrent: said of main stems
which are distinct and well-
marked to the top, as in the
Pine and Fir; the reverse of
deliquescent.
Exogen, 81.
Exogenous growth, 81.
| Hxospore, 342.
Exserted: protruding, 214.
Exstipulate, 181.
Extine, 123.
Extrorse, 211.
False dichotomy, 146. ‘
Families, 363. ;
Fascicle: a close bundle, either of
leaves or flowers.
Fascicled (roots), 133; (leaves), 164.
Fascicular cambium, 297.
Feather-veined: same as pinnately-
veined, 168.
Fertile-flower, 68.
Fertilization, 17.
220 INDEX AND
Fibrous: thread-like, 2, 18, 22.
Fibrous tissue, 286,
cc ieee system, 287, 291,
Filament, 6, 211.
Filiform, 183.
Fimbriate: fringed.
Fleshy fruits, 232.
Flora: a description of the plants
of a district; a collective name
for the whole of the species of a
district.
Floral diagram,'197.
Floral envelopes, 14, 207.
Floral formula, 198.
Floral symmetry, 195.
Floret, 61.
- Flower: the part of a phanero-
gamous plant in which the sta-
mens and pistil are situated.
Flower-head, 60.
Flower-leaves, 11.
Flowering plants, 359.
Flowerless plants, 359.
Foliaceous: like a leaf in appear-
ance. -
Foliage-leaves, 11, 156.
Foliolate: having leaflets,
Foliose (Liverwort), 344.
Follicle, 238,
Foot, 144.
Forked cyme, 143,
Tree, 5, 7, 41.
Free cell-formation, 283, 353,
Free-central placentation, 221.
Frond, 324,
Fruit, 228.
Fruit-dotsg 324.
Fugacious: falling away early.
Fundamental tissue, 291, 803.
Funiculus, 245.
Funnel-shaped, Fig. 178.
FPurcate: forked.
er : same as spindle-shaped,
Galea: an arching petal or sepal,
ae sie uae upper ones in Catnip,
‘ ,
g. 59,
Gamopetalous, 207.
Gamophyllous, 84,
Gamosepalous, 84, 205.
Gemme, 345.
GLOSSARY.
Genera: plural of genus.
Genus, 363.
Germ: same as embryo.
Germ-cells, 347.
Germination, 182, 254.
Gibbous: swollen on one side,
Gills, 347.
Glabrous, 22, 182.
Gladiate: sword-shaped.
Glands: applied generally to cells
or hairs on the surfaces of plants,
in which resinous or oily mat-
ters are secréted; but the term is
also used to describe any. pro-
jection, the use of which is not
clear, 226.
Glandular: bearing glands, 226..
Glaucous, 182.
Globose; like a globe or sphere.
Glumaceous: bearing or resemh
ling glumes, 114, 359,
Glumes, 101.
Gonidia, 352. .
Gourd, 238... By
Grain, 102, snip, ’
Granules : parti eS,
Granulose, 277.
Gravitation,,322.
Ground-tissue, 303.
Growing point, 145.
Growth, 317.
Gum, 281. =
Gymnospermous, 124 22%, “
Gymnosperms, 124, 125, 259,
Gynandrous, 91, 238.
Gyneecium, 199
Habitat: a 4erm applied ta the,
region mést favourable tu tha
growth of a plant: the place
where it grows naturally.
Hairs, 226.
airy, 4..
Halberd-shaped, Fig. 154.
Half-inferior, 49, 216.
Half-superior; 49.
Hastate, Fig. 154.
Head, 189.
Heart-shaped, 175.
Helicoid cyme, 144.
Hemicyclic flowers, 195.
Heptandrous: with seven distinct
stamens, .
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 221
Herb, 148.
Herbaceous, 3, 89, 186, 148.
Herbarium : a botanist’s collection
of dried plants, 368.
Hermaphrodite, 247.
Heteromerous flowers, 196.
Hexandrous: with six distinct
stamens.
Hilum, 249.
Hirsute: rough with hairs.
Hispid: covered with stiff hairs.
_ Hoary: densely covered with fine
- grayish hairs.
Hortus siccus: same as herbarium.
Hybrids: plants.resulting from
the crossing of nearly related
species, .
Hydrogen, 307.
Hymenium, 347.
rhe 349, 352. - is
— 24, 29, 213.
Imbricate: overlapping like the
shingles on a roof, 210.
Tometaed : wholly under water.
-Impertect, 68.
ncluded, 214.
incomplete, 19.
Incurvedt{petals), Fig. 52.
Indefinite; 26, 212.
Indefiaiite inflorescence, 186, 189.
‘Indehiscertt, 231.
Indeterminate inflorescence, 186,
189. . * :
. » Indigenous: natyrally growing in
a country. |
. . Inferior: “undernéath ; farthest
~ from the axis; the ovary is in-
ferior when the cal}x adheres to
- it throughout; the calyx is in-
ferior when free from the ovary,
. 45, 49, 52, 88, 216.
Inflorescence, 75, 185.
Innate, 211.
Inorganic elements, 307.
Inserted: attached to.
Insertion: the point or manner
of attachment, 40, 212.
Integument, 249.
Intercellular space, 293.
Interfascicular cambium, 297.
Internodes, 4. ee
Interruptedly pinnate, Fig. 168.
Intine, 123.
Introrse, 211.
Intussusception, 265, 317.
Inuline, 281.
Involucel, 194.
Involucre, 35, 61, 71, 72, 194.
Involute: rolled inward from both
edges, 166.
Tron, 307, 308.
Irregular, 39, 205, 207.
Isomerous : having the parts equal
in number, 196.
Joints: a name sometimes given
to the nodes of a stem.
Keel, see Carina.
Kernel, 16. .
Key-fruit, 241.
Kidney-shaped, Fig. 156.
Labellum (or lip), 90.
Labiate, 65, 209.
Lamellie, 347.
Lanceolate, Fig. 148.
Latex, 288.
Laticiferous tissue, 288, 303.
Leaf, 4, 13.
Leaf-arrangement, 158,
Leaf-green, see Chiorophyll.
Leaflet, 167.
Leaf-schedule, 184.
| Leaf-stalk, 4.
Leaf-tendril, 150.
Legume, 43, 238.
Leguminous: producing or relat-
. ing to legumes.
Light, 320, 321.
Ligneous: woody.
Ligulate, 62, 209.
Ligule: a strap-shaped corolla; in
Grasses, a scale-like projection
between the blades of a leaf and
the sheath, 103. :
Limb, 207.
Linear, Fig. 146.
Lip, 90.
Lobe, 4, 167.
Loculicidal (dehiscence): splitting
midway between the partitions,
239. 7
Loculus, 219.
222 INDEX AND
Lodicule, 104.
Loment: a jointed legume, 242.
Lyrate: pinnately-lobed, with the
terminal lobe much larger than
the others.
Magnesium, 307.
Marcescent: withering persistent.
Margin of leaves, 178.
Marginal: relating to the margin,
221.
Markings (on cells), 268.
Mass-movement of Protoplasm,
262.
Median plane, 197.
Medullary rays, 301.
Membranous: thin, like a mem-
brane.
Mericarp, 242. _-
Meristem, 282, 285.
Mesocarp : see Endocarp.
Metastasis, 309.
Micropyle, 16, 244.
Middle lamella, 266.
Mid-rib, 168.
Mixed inflorescence, 192.
Monadelphous, 36, 40, 212.
Monand@rous: witha single stamen.
-Monocarpellary, 215.
Monochlamydeous: with only one
set of floral envelopes.
Monocotyledonous, 118.
Monocotyledons, 118.
Monecious, 68, 71.
Monomerous flowers, 196.
Monopodiaj branching, 142.
Morphology, 180.
Mucronate, 177.
Multifid, 176.
Multilocular, 219.
Multiple fruits, 237.
Mycelium, 347,
Naked flowers: those which are
destitute of calyx and corolla.
Naked seeds: those not enclosed
in an ovary, 127. ;
Napiform, 133.
Natural system of classification,
57, &e.
GLOSSARY.
Naturalized: introduced from
other countries, but grows
spontaneously from seed. ,
Nectary :_thatin which nectar is
secreted, 88, 224.
Needle-shaped, 122.
Net-veined, 4,18.
Neutral flowers: those having
neither stamens nor pistil.
Nitrogen, 307.
Nodding: hanging with the top
downward, like the flower ‘in
Fig. 82.
Node, 4.
Normal: regular; according to rule.
Nucleolus, 260. °
Nucleus (of an ovule), 16, 244, 249;
(of a cell), 260.
Nucule, 354.
Nut, 241.
Nutations, 323. -
Nutlet: a small nut or nut-like
body, 65.
Obcordate, 175.
Oblanceolate, 174.
Oblique: having the sides unequal.
Obliteration (of partitions), 220.
Oblong, Fig. 146.
Obovate, 174. i
Obsolete, 206.
Obtuse, 177. as
Ochrea: a tube formed by the
union of both edges of a pair of
stipules. "
Ochreate: having ochre.
Octandrous: having eight separ-
ate stamens, 45.
Odd-pinnate, 180.
Offset: a short, prostrate branch,
rooting at the end.
Oils, 281, 309.
Open bundles, 297.
Operculum, 341.
Opposite, 158. .
Optimum temperature, 319.
Orbicular, Fig. 146.
Orders, 363.
Organic elements, 307.
Organs: the parts or members ¢*
a livin DOA. r
Organs of Reproduction the part
of the flower.
INDEX AND GLOSSARY.
Organs of Vegetation : root, stem,
and leaves.
Orthostichies, 160.
Orthotropous: applied to ovules
when straight, so that the mi-
cropyle is as far as possible from
. the point of attachment, 246.
Osmose, 314.
Oufline of leaves, 171.
Oval, Fig. 146.
Ovary, 7, 25.
Ovate, Fig. 148.
Ovoid: egg-shaped,
Ovule, 7,16. -_
Oxygen, 307.
Palate, 209.
Palet, 101.
Palmate,; 168.
Palmately-lobed, 176.
Palmatifid, 176.
Panicle, 106, 190.
Papilionaceous, 39.
Pappose, 206.
Pappus: a circle of bristles or
hairs representing the limb of
the calyx in flowers of the Com-
posite Family, 62.
Parallel-veined: same as straight-
veined, 83.
Paraphyses, 353.
Parasites, 135, 136, 310.
Parenchyma, 286.
Parietal: on the walls, 221.
Parted: almost completely cut
through.
Pectinate: pinnatifid with lobes
__ like the teeth of a comb.
Pedate, Fig. 160.
Pedicel, 28, 58.
Peduncle, 5, 28.
Peltate, 126, 175.
Pentamerous flowers, 196.
Pentandrous: with five distinct
stamens.
Pepo, 233. .
Perennial: a plant which con-
tinues to grow year after year,
136.
Perfect: having both stamens and
pistil.
223
Perfoliate, 179.
Perianth, 84, 90.
Pericarp, 229.
Perigynous, 40, 48, 213, 216.
Perisperm, 248,
Peristome, 341.
Permanent tissue, 285.
Persistent, 34, 206. -
Personate, 209.
Petal, 5, 207. !
Petaloideous, 359.
Petiolate: having petioles.
Petiole, 4.
Phanerogamous or Phenogamous,
129, 359.
Phellogen, 294.
Phloem, 295.
Phosphorus, 307.
Phyllome, 225,
Phyllotaxis, 158.
-| Pileus, 347.
Pilose: having long, soft hairs.
Pinna: a primary division of a
pinnately-compound leaf.
Pinnate, 168. ~
Pinnately-lobed, 176.
Pinnatifid, 176. ;
Pinnule: a secondary division of
a pinnately-compound leaf.
Pistil, 7, 13, 215. Pia
Pistillate: having a pistil, 68, 70.
Pitcher-shaped (leaf), Fig. 169.
Pith, 300.
Placenta, 221,
Placentation, 221,
Plaited, 166, 210.
Plumose : feathery.
Plumule, 79, 117, 188, 252.
Pod: a dehiscent fruit, 25.
Pollen, 6, 16.
Pollen-masses, 92.
Pollen-tube, 16.
Pollination, 124, 247.
Pollinia: polien-masses, Fig. 92.
Polyadelphous, 40, 212.
Polyandrous: with numerous dis-
tinct stamens, 6, 24.
Polycarpellary, 215.
Polygamous: having perfect as
well as imperfect flowers.
Polygamo-dicecious, 75.
Polypetalous: having séparate
petals, 5, 207, :
224
\
Polyphyllous, 84.
Polysepalous: having separate
sepals, 5, 205.
Pome, 53, 232.
Posterior: next phe axis, 197.
Potassium, 307, 3
Preefloration, see CPativation.
Preefoliation: the disposition of
leaves in the bud, 166.
Prickles, 227.
Primary roots, 132.
Primine, 244.
Procambium, 206.
Procumbent: lying on the Bround
Proembryo, 354
Prosenchyma, 286.
Prostrate, 149.
Prothallium, 325. '
Protonema, 342.
Protoplasm, 260.
Pseudocarp, 236.
Pteridophytes, 337.
Pubescent: covered with fine down.
Punctate: having transparent dots,
like the leaves of St. John’s Wort.
Putamen, 51,231.
Pyxis, 240.
Quinquefoliolate : laving five leaf-
lets, 180.
Raceme, 189.
Racemose: like a raceme, 143.
Radial bundles, 302.
Radiate, 168.
ere fn to the root,
Radied leaves, 4, 28.
Radicle, 79, 117, 132, 252.
Ramification, 141.
Raphe, 246.
Raphides, 278.
Ray: the marginal florets of a
Composite flower,as distinguish-
ed from the disk.
Receptacle, 8.
Recurved: curved backwards.
Reduplication, 200.
Reflexed: bent backwards, 88.
Regular; with parts of the same
siz@ and shape, 5, 205, 207,
INDEX AND GLOSSARY.
Rejuvenescence, 284.
Reniform, Fig. 156.
Resin, 281.
Respiration, 312.
Reticulated cells, 268, 287.
Retuse: slightly notched at the
apex.
Revolute: rolled back, 166.
Bhachis: an axis,324. *
Bhizoid, 340.
Rhizome, 151.
Ringent, 209.
Root, 2, 13, 131.
Root-cap , 131.
Root- Bae. 131, 226.
Rootlet, 3,”
Root-pressure, 316.
Root-stock, 88, 151.
Rotate, 208. .
Rudimentary: imperfectly devel-
oped. ue
Rugose: wrinkled.
Runcinate: with teeth pointing
backwards, as in the leaf of
Dandelion, 176. ~
Runner, 134.
Sagittate, 28, 175.
Salver-shaped, Fig. 179.
Samara, Figs. 76, 2(8.
Saprophytes, 135, 156, 310.
Sarcocarp: the flesh of a drupe.
Scabrous: rough.
Scalariform calle 268, 287.
Scales, 74, 124, 187, 124.
Scandent: climbing.
Scape, 19, 60, 88. =
Scar, 88.
Schizocarp, 242.
Scion: a young shoot.
Sclerenchyma, 273, 286, 308.
. Scorpioid cyme, 144.
Secondary roots, 184.
Secundine, 244.
Seed, 12, 244. -
Seed-leaves, 78.
Seed-vessel, see Ovary.
Self-fertilization, 88.
Sepal, 5, 205.
Septicidal (dehiscence): splitting
open along the partitions, 239.
INDEX AND
septifragal, 239,
Septum: a partition.
Series, 359.
Serrate, 178.
Sessile, 4, 28, 211.
Seta, 341.
Betaceous: like a bristle.
Sheath: @ tube surrounding a
stem, 103.
Sheathing: surrounding like a
sheath.
Shield-shaped, see Peltate.
Shoot: a newly-formed branch.
Shrub, 148.
Sieve-tubes, 270, 289.
Silica, 308, 330.
Silicle, 240.
Silique, 240.
Simple (leaves), 167; (pistil), 215.
Sinuate: wavy on the margin,
Sodium, 308.
Solitary, 188.
Sori, 324.
Spadiceous, 359.
Spadix, 97, 98, 189.
Spathe, 97, 98, 194.
Spathulate, 174.
Species, 363, 364.
Sperm-cells, 347.
Spermoderm, 249.
Spike,-100, 189.
Spikelet, a secondary spike, 106.
Spindle-shaped, 183.
Spine, 227. 7
Spiral markings, 268, 287.
Spores: the reproductive bodies
in Cryptogams which correspond
to the seeds of Phanerogams,
324, 341, 347.
Sporangium, 324, 341.
Sporocarp, 354,
Spur, 90, 209.
Stamen, 6, 13, 211.
Staminate (flower): having no
pistil, but only stamens, 68, 70.
Staminode, 211.
Standard: the broad upper petal
of a papilionaceous corolla.
Starch, 276.
Starch-cellulose, 277.
Stem, 3, 13, 137.
Stemless, 18.
GLOSSARY.
Sterile (flower): having no pistil,68.
Sterigma, 847.
Stigma, 7.
Stigmatic: bearing the stigma.
Stinging-hairs, 226.
Stipe, 324.
Stipulate: having stipules.
Stipule, 33, 181.
Stolon: a short branch which
droops to the ground and takes
root, 149,
Stoma (of Moss), 341.
Stomata, 293, 313.
Stone, see Putamen.
Stone-fruit, see Drupe.
Straight-veined, 83.
Strap-shaped, see Ligulate..
Streaming of peteplage, 262.
Striate: marked lengthwise with
lines or furrows.
| Strobile: same as Cone.
Style, 7.
Subulate, Fig. 147.
Succulent: juicy; fleshy.
Sucker: an underground branch,
at length emerging and forming
a stem.
Sugar, 309.
Sulphur, 307.
Superior, 7, 41, 45, 49, 216.
Suppression: absence of parts. .
Surface of leaves, 182. ~
Suspended: hung from above.
Suture, 217.
Symmetrical, 47, 204.
Sympodial, 144,145. -
Syncarpous, 80, 215, 230.
Syngenesious, 60, 68, 212.
Tap-root, 32, 132.
Teeth (of calyx), 34.
Tegmen, 249,
Temperature, 319.
Tendril, 150. %
Terete: cylindrical.
Terminal: at the end of a stem or.
branch, 44, 122, 140, 187.
Ternate: in threes.
Testa, 249.
Tetradynamous, 29, 214.
Tetramerous flowers, 196.
226 INDEX AND
Tetrandrous: having four distinct
stamens,
Thalamiflorous: having the sta-
mens inserted on the receptacle.
Thalamus: the receptacle.
Thalloid (Liverwort), 344
Thallophytes, 356.
Thallus, 352.
Theca, 341. S
Thread-shaped, see Filiform.
Throat (of calyx), 206.
Thorn, see Spine.
Thyrsé, 192.
Tissue, 285.
Tissue-systems, 291.
Tomentose: woolly. :
Toothed, see Dentate, 112.
Torus: same as receptacle, 216.
Tracheary tissue, 287.
Tracheids, 290,
‘Trailing, 149.
Transpiration, 313.
Tree, 148,
Triadelphous, 40, 212.
Triandrous: having three distinct
stamens,
Trichomes, 131, 226, 292.
Triennial: lasting three years.
a aan : having three leaflet:,
Trimerous flowers, 196. #
Truncate, 177.
Trunk: the main stem.
Tube, 34, 128.
Tuber, 151.
Tuberous: like a tuber.
Tubular, 208.
Tunicated#92.
Twining, 150.
‘T'wo-lipped, see Labiate.
Types, 27.
Umbel, 58, 189,
Umbellet: a secondary umbel. -
GLOSSARY.
Unguiculate: having a claw.’
Unilocular, 219.
Urn, 341.
Vacuoles, 260.
Valvate: edge to edge, but mot
overlapping, 38, 210.
Valve, 46.
Valved: having valves.
Varieties, 364.
Vascular cryptogams, 337.
Vascular tissue, 287.
Veil, 347.
Veins: the finer parts of the
framework of a leaf.
Venation, 168.
. Ventral suture, 217.
Vernation, same as Preefoliatian,
166.
Versatile, 102, 211.
Vertical leaves, 88, 157.
Verticillate, 158.
Verticillaster, 193.
Vessels, 287.
Villose, 182.
Volatile oils, 281.
Water in the plant, 306, 315, 316.
Wavy: with alternate rounded
hollows and projections, 178.
Wedge-shaped: like a wedge, the
broad part being the apex.
Wheel-shaped, see Rotate.
Whorl: a circle of three or more
leaves at the same node, 23, 120,
158,
Wing, 75, 124, 241.
Woody stems, 148.
Xylem, 295.
Zygomorphic flowers, 203.
aS as
APPENDIX.
Selections from Cxamination Papers,
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.
1. Define suckers, stolons, offsets, runners, tendrils, thorns, and
prickles, describing their respective origins and uses, and giving
examples of plants in which they occur.
2. What are the functions of leaves ? Describe the different kinds
of compound leaves,
3. What is meant by inflorescence? Describe the different kinds
of flower-clusters, giving an example of each.
. «4. Mention and explain the terms applied to the various modes
of insertion of stamens.
5. How are fruits classified ? What are multiple or colléctive
fruits? Give examples.
6. Relate the differences in structure between endogenous and
exogenous stems. Describe their respective modes of growth.
"7, What is the food of plants? how do they obtain it? and how
do they make use of it? °
8. Describe the component parts of a simple flower. How is °
reproduction effected ?
9. Describe the anatomical structure of a leaf, and the formation
and office of leaf-stomata. :
10. Explain the consequences of flowering upon the health of a
plant, and show how these effects are remedied in different climates.
What practical bearing has this upon liorticulture ?
11. Trace the development of a carpel froma leaf. Describe the
different forms assumed by placente in compound ovaries, and
explain the origin of these variations.
12. Mention the principal modes in which pollen gains access to
thestigma. What are hybrid plants, and how are they perpetuated ?
13. Describe the anatomy of a leaf. What are stomata?
14. What is the placenta in a seed-vessel? Describe the different
“modes of placentation. Show how the varieties of placentation
agree with the “altered-leaf theory” of the pistil. :
15. Give the characters of the Composite. How is the order
sub-divided? Describe the composite flower, and mention some of
the common Canadian examples of this order.
228 EXAMINATION PAPERS.
. _ 16. Give the peculiarities of Endogens in seed-leaf, leaf, and stem.
Sub-divide the class. Describe shortly the orders Aracee and
Gramines,
i 17. Describe the wall of a seed-vessel, and notice its varieties of
orm.
18. What is meant by the dehiscence of a capsule? Show the
different modes in which pods dehisce, and give examples of each.
19. Give the characters and orders of Gymnospermous Exogens.
20. Give the'characters of Ranunculacez. Describe shortly some
of the principad plants of the order.
21. Give some account of the special forms which the leaves of
plants assume.
22. What are stipules? What their size and shape? /
23. What is meant by Imperfect, Incomplete, and Unsymmetrical
flowers respectively ?
94, Describe Papilionaceous and Labiate corollas. .
25. Write notes on Abortive Organs, Gymnospermous Pistil, and
Pollen Granule. ;
26. Distinguish between the essential and non-essential materials
found in plants, and notice the non-essential. if
27. What is vegetable growth? Illustrate by a reference to the
pollen granule in its fertilization of the ovary.
28. Whatis an axil? What is the pappus?
29. What are the cotyledons? Whatis their function, and what
their value in systematic Botany ?
80. Distinguish between Epiphytes and Parasites. Describe their
respective modes of growth, and give examples of each.
31. What is the difference between roots and subterranean
. branches? Define rhizoma, tuber, corm, and bulb, giving examples
of each. How does a potato differ botanically from a sweet-potato?
82. Describe the calyx and corolla. What modifications of parts
take place in double flowers ?
83. Whats a fruit in Botany ? Explain the structure of an apple, .
grape, almond, strawberry, fig, and pine-apple. .
34, What organs appear in the more perfect plants? In what two
divisions are they comprised ? ;
35. Weak climbing stems distinguished according to the mode in
which they support themselves, the direction of their growth, the
nature of their clasping organs.
36. Structure and parts of a leaf: What is most important in
their study? Give the leading divisions, and mention what
secondary distinctions are required in specific description ?
37. Function of the flower: its origin: its essential and accessory
parts: name of the circles and their component organs: circumstances
which explain the differences among flowers. :
88. Parts of the fully formed ovule and distinctions founded on
their relative position.
on”
EXAMINATION PAPERS, 229
89. Sub-kingdoms and classes of the vegetable kingdom.
40. What is meant by a composite flower? Llustrate your answer.
by reference to the dandelion, aud point out in what respect its
flower-head differs from that of the common clover.
41. Define what is meant by the terms Exogen and Endogen.
42, Explain what is meant by the following: Stamens and petals
are, from a morphological point of view, leaves. 7
What is the morphological nature of onion bulbs, and potato
tubers ?
43, Name and describe the different parts of stamens and pistils.
Why are these two sets of organs called the essential parts of a
flower? State what is meant Ee a staminate flower, and what by a
pistillate flower? How is fertilization accomplished in the case of
the latter ?
44, What is meant by the terms, berry, drupe, and pome? Why
cannot a raspberry or a strawberry be termed a true berry ?
45, Draw outlines of the following forms of leaves: ovate, deltoid,
lanceolate, reniform, peltate, sagittate, hastate, cordate, obcordate.
46. Define the following terms: involucre, glume, gyncecium,
micropyle, pappus, spadix, tendril, cyme.
SECOND AND THIRD CLASS TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES,
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.
1. Name the parts of the pistil and stamens of a flower and give
their uses. . : :
“2. What are Perennial plants? Describe their mode of life.
8. ‘There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way
the woody part.is arranged in the cellular tissue.” Fully explain this.
4. Describe the functions of leaves. How are leaves classified as
to their veining. ;
5. Name and describe the organic constituents of plants.
6. Name the organs of reproduction in plants, and describe their
functions.
7. Give, and fully describe, the principal parts of the flower.
8. What are the different parts of a plant? Describe the functions
of each part. : ;
9. State ail the ways by which an Exogenous stem may be
distinguished from an Endogenous. :
10. Describe the functions of leaves. What is the cause of their
fallin autumn? Draw and describe a maple teaf.
11. Name the different parts of a flower, and describe the use of
each part. Draw a diagram showing a stamen and a pistil and the
parts of each, ‘
230 EXAMINATION PAPERS.
12. What is the fruit? Why do some fruits fall from the stem
more easily than others ?
13. Of what does the food of plants consist? In what forms and
by what organs is it taken up, and how is it assimilated? Name
the substances inhaled and those exhaled by plants, and the uses of
each in the economy of nature.
14. Describe fully (1) the plant in Vegetation; (2) the plant in
Reproduction. :
15. Describe Fibrous roots, Fleshy roots, and different kinds of
Tap-root. 7
16. Describe the structure and veining of leaves.
17. “The nourishment which the mother plant provides in the
seed is not always stored up in the embryo.” Explain and illustrate.
18. Describe the various modes in which Perennials “‘ provide a
stock of nourishment to begin the new growth.”
19. Describe fully the organs of reproduction in a plant. Describe
the process of germination.
20. What are the parts of a flower? Give illustrations by diagram,
with a full description.
21. Name and describe the principal sorts of flowers.
22, What elementary substances should the soil contain for the
nourishment of plants?
283. How are plants nourished before and after appearing above
ground ?
24, Tell what you know about the various forms of the calyx and
the corolla. ‘
25. Explain the terms Cotyledon, Pinnate, Root-stock, Filament,
and Radicle.
26. Explain the terms Papilionaceous, Cruciferous, Silique, and
Syngenesious ; and in each case name a family in the description of
which the term under consideration may be properly applied.
27. Give the characters of the Rose family.
28.. Deficribe the various modes in which biennials store up
nourishment during their first season.
29. Explain the meaning of the terms Sepal, Bract, Raceme, and
Stipule. Describe minutely the-Stamen and the Pistil, and give
the names applied to their parts. «
30. Are the portions’ of the onion, the potato, and the turnip which
are capable of preservation through the winter, equally entitled to
the name of roots? Give reasons for your answer.
31. Describe briefly a vegetable cell in regard to its form, size,
contents, &c. ‘
What differences usually exist between cells found in pith and
those found in wood ?
32. Name two kinds of underground stems.
- How do we know that they are not roots?
State any uses of these stems (a) to the plant, (b) to man.
EXAMINATION PAPERS, 231
83. What are the functions of the leaf in plant life ?
State any differences between leaves which are surrounded by air
and leaves which float upon water.
ed any laws according to which leaves are arranged upon the
stem.
34, Give the names and relative positions of the parts of a com-
plete flower.
Can you name a flower which is perfect but not complete ?
_, 35. When a pea is soaked in water it splits into two parts, united
by a small ligament, but a-grain of corn does not. Explain the
meaning of this difference.
36. Is an apple a Botanical fruit? If not, what is it?
37. Name any plants belonging to the following natural orders :—
Crucifers, Carophyllacew, Composite, Labiate,
38. From what does the root of an exogenous plant originate?
What are the chief functions of roots? How may roots be distin-
guished from underground stems ? =
39. From what do stems originate? Compare in appearance
transverse sections of the stem cf an elm and of a stalk of maize.
How do these stems differ in their modes of growth ?
40. What are the functions of foliage-leaves? Describe briefly
the general structure and appearance of the leaf of (a) the Sugar
Maple (Acer saccharinum); (b) the Indian Turnip (Arisema
triphyllum). =
41. Name the parts ofa complete flower, and briefly describe the
chief modifications due to cohesion, adhesion, and suppression of
parts. (Name illustrative examples of each modification you
describe.) 7
42. Contrast a strawberry, a raspberry, and an apple, and compare
a gooseberry, a lemon, and a melon.
48, What are the general characters of the Cruciferm, the Legu-
minose, the Liliacew, and the Gramines ? ;
44, What are the morphological characters of roots’? How do
adventitious roots differ from normal roots as respects their origin?
Briefly describe the normal mode of growth of the roots of Gym-
nosperms and Dicotyledons.
45. Describe briefly the structure of the stem of the Sunflower
(Helianthus annuus). Mention the chief differences in the structure
and the mode of growth of the bark in different dicotyledonous
trees ? ;
46. What is meant by an inflorescence? Distinguish between
definite and indefinite infloreseence, and briefly describe the chief
kinds of indefinite inflorescence, giving an example of each.
47. Describe the structure and the process of germination of the
following named seeds: bean, buckwheat, marsh-marigold, oat.
48. What are stomata? On what plants and parts of plants are
they found? What are their functions?
232 EXAMINATION PAPERS.
4
49. Give the distinguishing characters of the Sapindacew, the
Rosacea, the Coniferm, and the Iridacesz. Name a Canadian plant
belonging to each of these orders, and mention any uses made of it
or.of any part of it.
50. Define the following terms: bract, scale, involucre, spathe,
scape, pedicel, asepalous, monccious, monadelphous, perianth,
stamen, pistil, pome, thallus, drupe.
51. Describe briefly the structure, the mode of growth, and the~
use to the plant of roots. Name an example of a plant with aérial
roots,
52. Name the enveloping and the essential organs of the flower,
and give a morphological comparison of foliage-leaves, floral en-
velopes, stamens, and carpels.
63. Describe briefly the general process of plant-nutrition, and
name the essential elements in the food of plants.
54, Give the chief distinctive characters of the Cruciferm, the
Leguminos», the Umbelliferw, and the Liliacex. Name three
common examples of each of these families.
55. Describe the modes by which the fertilization of a flower is
accomplished. é
56. Distinguish between “definite” and “indefinite” inflorescence.
57. Which are the nutritive and which the reproductive organs
of plants ?
Briefly describe the principal ones of each kind.
58. Describe the structure of a “follicle,” « “siliqua” and a
“legume.”
59. When is a~flower said to be ‘“‘ complete,” “regular,” and
“gymmetrical ? ”
60. Fill the accompanying’ Floral Schedule with an accurate
description of the specimen before you, referring it to its proper
order, &c.
61. Distinguish between (the series): Phanerogams and Crypto-
gams. State their divisions and note the distinctions of those of
the first (series). .
62. What is the foundation of all vegetable tissue? and of its
elements which is essential for its growth and development ?
63. Describe the functions of the roots, stems, and foliage-leaves
of plants. State the kinds and sources of their nourishment.
Mention the changes the nutritive elements undergo in their passage
through them and the agencies by which these changes are effected.
64. Name, describe, and give the functions of the several parts of
a typical flower. State which are essential and why.
65. Give the general characteristics of the Leguminosp, Rosace»
and Conifers.
66. Refer to their botanical orders, genera, etc.: the plum, pear,
orange, pumpkin, cucumber, carrot.
67. Describe the structure and mode of growth of exogenous and
endogenous stems,
EXAMINATION PAPERS, 238
68. Give the meanings of apocarpous and syncarpous, and name
two allied genera which may be distinguished by the difference
these terms express.
69. Where, in plants, are stomata most abundant? What is their
chief function? “Describe chlorophyll and explain its physiological
importance. a
70. By what means is fertilization effected (1) in Phanerogams,
and (2) in Cryptogams ?
71. How would you distinguish a root from a stem? Enumerate
the most important varieties of roots, giving examples. 4
72. Make a drawing of the leaf of the sugar maple (Acer Sacchari-
num) and of the beech (Fagus ferruginea), and describe them with
special reference to form, parts, and venation.
_ 73, Fill the accompanying Floral Schedule with an exact descrip-
tion of the specimen before you. Classify, if you can. ~ :
FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATES.
1. What are the cotyledons? Describe their functions, &c. State
their value in systematic botany. _
2. Describe the difference in structure and modes of growth of
exogenous and endogenous stems.
8. Describe the circulation in plants. ‘In the act of making
vegetable matter, plants purify the air for animals.” Explain this
fully.
4. What are Phanogamous plants? Define Raceme, Corymb,
Head, Panicle, Ament.
5. Give the characters of (a2) the classes Hxogens and Endogens;
(0) the Mint and Lily families.
6. To what family do the Cedar, Clover, Mustard, and Dandelion
respectively belong ?
7. Why does a botanist consider the tuber of the potato an under-
ground stem. ;
8. Give the philosophical explanation of the nature of a flower
considered as to the origin and correspondence of its different parts.
9. Draw a spathulate, an obcordate, 4 truncate, 4 palmately-
divided and an odd-pinnate leaf.
10. Explain the constitution of a pome or apple-fruit. ;
11. What organs appear in the more perfect plants, and in what
divisions are they comprised ? :
12. Give the function of the flower, its origin, and its essential
and accessory parts. .
- 18. Describe the nature and chief varieties of roots, and distinguish
between them and underground stems..
234 EXAMINATION PAPERS,
14. “As to the Apex or Point leaves are Pointed, Acute, Obtuse,
Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, Obcordate, Cuspidate, Mucronate.”
Sketch these different forms,
15. ‘“ There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes for the
sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people
generally suppose.” Comment on this passage. :
16. The great series of Flowering Plants is divided into two
classes. Describe these classes.
17. Give the cniet characteristics of the order Crucifere (Cress
Family), and name some common examples of this order.
18. State the difference between definite and indefinite inflores-
cence, and give examples of the latter.
19. Of wnat does the food of plants consist? In what form is it
found in the soil? How is it introduced into the plant? What
inference may be drawn respecting the culture of the plant?
20. Distinguish weak climbing stems according to the mode in
which they support themselves, the direction of their growth, and
the nature of their clasping organs.
21. Name the three classes of Flowerless Plants, and give an
example of each.
22. Explain the terms Spore, Capsule, Bract, Stipule, Albumen,
and Epiphyte. ;
23, What are tendrils, and of what organs are they supposed to
be modifications ? :
24. Give the characters of the Cress Family, and name as many
plants belonging to it as you can.
25. Tell what you know about the minute structure and the
chemical composition of vegetable tissue.
26. Describe the origin of the different kinds of placentas; and
of the different parts of the fruit of the plum, the oak, and the maple.
27. Describe fully the process by which it is supposed that water
is carried up from the roots of plants.
28. Give the meaning of the terms stomate, indehiscent, thyrse,
glume, pyxis. Distinguish epiphytes from parasites.
29. Describe any plant you have examined; if you can, tabulate
your description.
30. Name all the families of monopetalous dicotyledons which you
remember, and give the characters of any one of them. -
81. Describe the following: primordial cell (utricle), protoplasm,
cyclosis, mode of plant growth.
32. Describe the process of reproduction in a phanerogamic plant.
-33. How are the pulse family—order Leguminose—distinguished ?
Show the utility of the plants of this order.
34. What is Aistivation? Describe the different kinds, and men-
tion a natural order of which each is characteristic.
85. Describe the course of the sap through the root and trunk of
an exogenous tree. =
EXAMINATION PAPERS 235
36. Enumerate the chief nitrogenous and non-nit: -
etances which are found in planta, sats aac
387. Fill in eer penme Floral Schedule with a full and
accurate description of the specimen under observation.
McGILL UNIVERSITY.
1. Describe the germination of a plant.
2. Explain the differences in the structure of the embryo.
8. Explain the functions of the Root.
4. Describe the structures in a leaf, and explain their action on
the air.
5. Mention the several parts of the stamen and the pistil, and
explain their uses.
6. Describe an Achene, a Samara, a Drupe, and a Silique.
7. Describe the differences in the stems of Exogens and Endogens,
and the’ relations of these to the other parts of the plant and to
classification.
8. Explain the terms Genera, Species, Order.
7 9, What is an excurrent stem, an axillary bud, bud scales ?
10. Explain the terms primordial utricle, parenchyma, proto-
plasm, as used in Botany.
11, What are the functions of the nucleus in a living cell ?
12, Explain the movements of the sap in plants.
13. Describe the appearance under the microscope of raphides,
spiral vessels, and disc-bearing wood-cells.
14. Describe the structure of the bark of an Exogen.
15. Describe freely the anatomy of a leaf.
16. Describe shortly the parts and structures denoted by the
following terms: spine, aérial root, phyllodium, cambium, stipule,
rhizoma. :
17. Give examples of pnenogams, eryptogams, exogens, and
endogens, properly arranged.
18. Describe the principal forms of indeterminate inflorescence.
19. In what natural families do. we find siliques, didynamous
stamens, labiate corollas, or pappus-bearing achenes. Describe
‘these structures. -
20. State the characters of any Canadian exogenous order, with
- > examples.
21. Describe the cell-walls in a living parenchymatous cell.
22. Describe the fibro-vascular tissues in an Exogenous stem.
~ 93. Describe the appearance of stomata and glandular hairs under
the microscope.
24, Define prosenchyma, corm, cyclosis, thallus.
236 7 EXAMINATION PAPERS.
25. Explain the sources of the Carbon and Nitrogen of the plant,
and the mode of their assimilation.
26, Describe the pericarp, stating its normal structure, and naming
some of its modifications.
27. Explain the natural system in Botany, and state the gradation
of groups from the species upward, with examples.
ONTARIO COLLEGE OF PHARMACY.
1. What do plants feed upon ?
2, What do you understand by the terms Acaulescent, Apetalous,
*Suffrutescent, Culm ?
8. Name some of the different forms of Primary, Secondary, and
Aérial Roots, giving examples.
4. Explain the following terms descriptive of forms of leaves,
giving sketch :— Ovate, Peltate, Crenate, Serrate, Cleft, Entire,
Cuspidate, Perfoliate. ‘
5. Explain difference between Determinate and Indeterminate
inflorescence, giving three examples of each.
6. What organs are deficient in a sterile and a fertile flower ? 4
7. Give the parts of a perfect flower, with their relative position.
8. Give the difference between simple and compound Pistil, with
examples of each.
9, Name the principal sorts of buds, and explain how the position
of these affects the arrangement of branches.
10. Give description of multiple and primary roots, with two
examples of same; also explain the difference between these and
secondary roots.
11. Name the principal kinds of subterranean stems and branches,
and explain bow you would distinguish between these and roots.
‘12. In the classification of plants explain difference between
classes and‘orders: genus and species.
13. Name three principal kinds of simple fruits.
- 14. When roots stop growing does the absorption of moisture
increase or decrease? Give reason for it.
15. Upon what do plants live? Indicate how you would prove
your answer correct,
16. In what part of the plant, and when, is the work of assimila-
tion carried on ?
17. Name three principal kinds of determinate, and some of
indeterminate, inflorescence ; name the essential organs of a flower.
18. In what respects do plants differ from inorganic motter ? And
from animals ?
19. Describe a Rhizome, Tuber, Bulb; and say if they belon
to the root or stem. Which are Rheum, Jalapa, Sweet Potato, Ouion
sf
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 237
20. Define the difference between natural and special forms of
leaves; between simple and compound leaves. Give example of
each. Sketch a connate-perfoliate leaf,
21. Mention the parts of an embryo. Ofaleaf. Ofapistil. Ofa
stamen. Of a seed.
22. What is meant by an albuminous seed ? By diccious flowers ?
By a compound ovary ?
_ 23. What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate
inflorescence? How do they influence growth of the stem. Give
three principal kinds of each.
24, Name the parts of a flower. What office is performed by the
ovale? Name two kinds.
25. Name the parts of a vegetable cell. What are spiral ducts? «
26. In what parts of the plant is the work of absorption carried
on? In what part the work of assimilation? How do the plants
purify the air for animals? ;
97, Explain the natural system of classification in Botany? Name
and characterize the classes of plants.
28. ixplain the structure and functions of the Leaf, Bud, Root.
29. Give some of the terms used in describing the shape of a
simple lea? as concerns (a) its general contour, (d) its base, (c) its
margin, (d) its apex. ;
80. Name the organs in a perfect flower; describe fully the
structure of the anther and pollen. What is coalescence and adna-
tion of the parts of a flower?
81. Explain the terms Raceme, Pappus, Coma, Khizome, 'Pentas-
tichous. *
82.~State the distinction between Exogens and Endogens.
88. What are cellular structures as distinguished from. vascular?
What is chlorophyll ?
34, Mention the organs of fructification, and explain the process
of fertilization in a flowering plant.
85. Explain the structure of a seed, and describe in a few words
the process of germination. ed
86. Define what is meant by the following terms: Morphology,
Polycotyledonous, Epiphyte, Peduncle, Stipules. ;
87. Describe briefly the root, stem, leaf, and flower of the common
dandelion, giving the functions or office of each.
38. Name some of the most common forms of leaves, giving a
few rough outlines.
The WH. J. Gage Co.'s Educational Series. °
~
THE
COMMONLY OCCURRING
WILD PLANTS OF CANADA.
A FLORA FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS.
BY
H. B. SPOTTON, M.A., F.L.S.,
PRIN. HARBORD STREET COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, TORONTO.
REVISED EDITION.
The W. J. GAGE CO. Limited
TORONTO,
CONTENTS.
,
Preface to the First Edition....,....... 0.2... Poste v
Preface to the Third Edition... ...............0000005 vii
Abbreviations of Names of Authors 43 peeeMEmaER 2 pa viii
How to Use the Key and the Flora..... AGG EE dase TOE ix
Key to the Orders. ...... 0.0... 0c cc ee Be Aa eal Ne xii
Flora :—
Flowering or Phanerogamous Plants...........!. 1
DIGObylEdONS ici sce vasa cnt emer sa% 5 5 1
+ Anglospermss i004 sess kegs ee avencscess 1
° Polypetalous Division... aiden tone 1
Gamopetalous ‘ ..........eeee. 95
Apetalous ME scott iesadners lobe baie 182
GYMNOSPermMSs oie os se cw ve weconaie gees 214
Monocotyledons............--. 0.4.4. i mai Gini aoe 217
Spadiceous Division.............. maid LE
‘Petaloideous ‘¢ ....... eee eee QB4-
Glumaceous Wh aa Adenia & eeu 248
Flowerless or Cryptogamous Plante oss creases 282
Glossary’: iccsscey av gaciceoxtawesw evnsaceaness wean be (272)
- List of Common Cultivated Plants ........... eae Sued ‘ 280
TMG OX vicina o0.d a neler es Csbpdes 2a ela aastisat Mare oes oie nas * 291
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
A few words will not be out of place by way of preface to
the List of Common Canadian Plants contained in the fol-
lowing pages. It will be observed that the List is confined
to wild plants, the exclusion of cultivated Species having
been determined on, partly because of the difficulty of know-
ing where to stop when an enumeration of them has once
been entered upon, and partly because it was thought that,
on the whole, more important results would be attained by
directing attention exclusively to the denizens of our own
woods and fields. What is really desired is, to create among
our young people an interest in the Botany of Canada, and
it seems not unreasonable to hope that this end may he better
attained by placing within their reach some such handy
volume as the present, dealing only with such plants as grow
spontaneously within our limits.
The great majority of the plants described have been psr-
sonally examined, and their occurrence verified, by the writer,
his observations having been directed to what may fairly be
regarded as representative districts of the older Provinces,
but special acknowledgments are also due to Prof. Macoun,
of the Geological Survey, fur the free use of his valuable
notes, and other friendly assistance.
Whilst diligence has been exercised that no commonly
occurring plant should be omitted, yet it can hardly be that
such omissions do not occur, and the writer will be most
grateful to any observers into whose hands the List may
come, if they will kindly draw his attention to any such
defects, so that they may be remedied in subsequent editions.
The Classification and Nomenclature adopted are very
nearly those of the Sixth Edition of Dr. Gray's Manual of
vi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
the Botany of the Northern United States, and the writer
most gratefully acknowledges the great assistance he has
received from the admirable descriptions in that work.
Except in a very general way, no attempt has been made
to define the limits of the range of the various Species, as
observations tend to show that the range, in many cases, is
undergoing constant alteration from various causes, When,
however, a Species has appeared to be confined to a particular
locality, mention has been made of that fact, but, as a rule,
Species known to be of rare occurrence have been excluded.
Characters considered to be of special importance in the
determination of the various Species have been emphasized
by the use of italics, and where the Species of a Genus, or
the Genera of an Order, are numerous, a system of grouping
according to some prominent character has been adopted,
so as to reduce the labour of determination as much as
possible.
To assist the non-classical student, names which might be-
mispronounced have been divided and accentuated, the divi-
sion having no reference whatever to the. etymology of the
words, but being simply based upon their sound when
properly pronounced. = -
Tt need hardly be added that the writer's ELEMENTS OF
Srrverurat Borany is designed to be the constant com-
panion of the present Flora, in the hands of the young
student, fer the explanation of such technicalities as he may
not have previously mastered.
Barriz, November, 1883
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
The greatly increased interest in Botany as a subject of
study in the schools of the Dominion has necessitated a revi-
sion and enlargement of the List of Common Canadian Wild
Plants. The following pages now include most of the wild
plants of Manitoba and the prairie region generally, as well
as those of the older Provinces. Plants known to be pecu-
liar to the west are indicated by the addition of the letters
‘“N.W.” to the descriptions, while the note ‘‘ Atl. Prov.”
sufficiently marks those peculiar to the east. No attempt
has been made to enter the plants of the Pacific coast.
In accordance with suggestions from several teachers of
Botany a short list of the commoner cultivated plants has
been added, which it is hoped will be found useful.
In connection with this revision, grateful acknowledg-
ments are due to many friends for valuable assistance, but
more particularly to Mr. Wm. Scott, B.A., Vice-Principal
of the Toronto Normal School, who has placed his splendid
herbarium at the writer’s disposal and has revised all the
proofs; A. H. MacKay, LL.D., Chief Superintendent of
Education for Nova Scotia,-whose extensive acquaintance
with the flora of the Atlantic Provinces has been of the
greatest service; Professor Brittain of the. Provincial Nor-
mal School at Fredericton, who has described most of the
New Brunswick plants; Professor Bryce of Winnipeg ; and
last; but not least, Mr. Jno. Dearness of London, whose ;
accuracy in determination and diligence as a collector in
Western Ontario are well known.
Toronto, J une, 1897.
PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES
OF
AUTHORS CITED IN THE FLORA.
Adans for Adanson.
Ait. “Aiton.
Anders. ‘“ Anderson,
Bart. “ Barton.
Beauv. ‘ Palisot de Beauvois.
Benth. ‘ Bentham.
Bernh. ‘ Bernhardi.
Bigel. ‘* Bigelow.
Boiss. ‘* Boissier.
Borkh. ‘ Borkhausen.
‘Britt. “ Britton.
Cass. “ Cassini,
Carr. ‘* Carriére.
. Cav. * Cavanilles.
Cham. ‘ Chamisso.
Coult. ‘* Coulter. :
Darlingt.‘* Darlington.
DC. * De Candolle.
A.DC. “ Alphonse De Candolle.
Desf, “ Desfontaines.
Dill. “ Dillenius.
Dougl ‘ Douglas.
Eat. ‘. Eaton.
Ehrh, ‘© Ehrhart.
EI. “ Elliott,
Endl. ‘© Endlicher. .
Engelm. “ Engelmann.
Gert. “ Gaertner.
Ging. ‘* Gingins de Lassaraz.
Gr “ Gray.
Griseb. ‘ -Grisebach.
Gronov. ‘ @Gronovius.
Haussk. ‘* Haussknecht.
Haw. ‘* Haworth.
Hoffm. “‘ Hoffmann.
Holl. “ Holleck.
Hook. ‘“ W. J. Hooker. -
Hornem. ‘* Horneman.
H.B.is. ‘* Humboldt, Bonpland,
and Kunth.
Huds. “Hudson.
Jacq. “Jacquin.
_ Juss. “ Jussieu.
L. “ Linneus.
Lan. “ Lamarek,
Less.
L’Her.
Lehm.
Lindl.
Loisel.
Marsh.
Medic..
Michx.
Mill.
Mahl.
Murr.
Nees.
Nutt.
Pall.
Pers.
Poir.
R. Br.
Raf.
Rich.
Richards.
Rostk.
Roem.
Rottb.
Salisb.
Sav.
Schlecht.
Schrad.
Sehreb.
Schum.
Schwein.
Scop.
Sibth.
Spreng.
Torr.
Tourn.
Tratt.
Tuckerm.
Vaill.
Vent.
Vill.
Wahl.
Walt.
Waugh.
1 Willd.
“
we
“
‘ih
ae
a“
“
be
“
be
6
be
us
u
“
‘
«“
A
oe
Lessing.
L’Heriticr.
Lehmann.
Lindley.
Loiseleur - Deslong-
champs. — :
Marshall.
Medicus.
Michaux.
Miller.
Muhlenberg.
Murray.
Nees von Esenbeck.
Nuttall.
Pallas.
Persoon. ~
Poiret.
Robert Brown. ~
Rafinesque.
Richard. _
Richardson.
Rostkovius.
Roemer.
Rottboell
Salisbury.
Savi.
Schlechtendal.
Schrader. —~
Schreber.
Schumacher.
Schweinitz. ©
Scopoli. :
Sibthorp.
Sprengel.
Torrey.
Tournefort.
Trattenick.
Tuckerman.
Vaillant.
Ventenat.
Villars.
Wahlenberg.
Walter.
Wangenheitm.
Willdenow.
HOW TO USE THE KEY AND THE FLORA.
_ Assuming that the student has earefully read the Intro-
ductory part of this work, and is familar with the ordinary
botanical terms, and the chief variations in plant structure:
“as there set forth, it should, with the aid of the accompany-
ing Key, be a very simple task to refer to its proper Family
any Canadian wild plant of common occurrence. Toillustrate
the method of using this Key, let us suppose that specimens
of the following plants have been gathered, and that it is
desired to ascertain their botanical names, that is, the name
of the Genus and. the Species of each:—Red Clover,
Strawberry, Blue Flag and Cat-tail Flag. :
All of these produce flowers of some kind, and must
_ therefore be looked for under the head of Fiowsrine, or
| PuanErocamous, Puants.
With the specimen of Red Clover’in hand, and the book
open at page xii., we find that we have first to determine
whether our plant is Dicotyledonous or not. The veining of
the leaves suggests that it is so; and this impression is con-
firmed by the fact that the parts-of the flower are in fives.
Then, is the plantan Anciosperm? As theseed willbe found
enclosed in an ovary, we answer—Yes. Has the plant both
valyx and corolla? Yes. Are the parts of the corolla sepa-
rate? Here a little doubt may arise ; but suppose we answer
—Yes. Then our plant will be found somewhere in the
PotyreTaLous Division. Proceeding with the enquiries
suggested under this heading :—Are the stamens more than
twice as many as the petals? We find that they are not.
,
x HOW TO USE THE KEY AND THE FLORA.
Turn, then, to the heading marked B, page xv, ‘* Stamens not
more than twice as many as the petals.” Under this we find
two subordinate headings, designated by asterisks * and **.
The first of these is not applicable to our plant. Under the
second, marked thus **, we find two minor headings, desig-
nated by daggers,t-and+-+-. The first of these, ‘‘Corolla trreg-
ular,” is clearly the one we want. We have now, therefore.
five families to select from. We cannot choose any one
of the first four, because our plant has ten stamens, but the
characters of the fifth are precisely the characters exhibited
by Clover. Our Clover, therefore, belongs to the Order
Lxcuminosa#. Turning to page 50, and running through the
‘‘ Synop8is of the Genera” as there given, we observe that
No. 2, Trirotium, is the only Genus in which the flowers are
‘in heads. Clover answers the description in the other respects
also—viz. : ‘‘ leaves of three leaflets,” and ‘‘ stamens diadel-
phous.” Theonly question then remainingis, which Species
of Trurot1um have weinhand? Turning to page 52, we find
we have eight Species to choose from. No, 2, TriroLium
pratense, is the only one of them with purplish flowers.
TRIFOLIUM pratense must, consequently, be the botanical
name we are looking for.
Possibly the observer may decide that the parts of the
corolla are not separate from each other, because in some
instances it is really adoubtful question. He must then turn
to page xvii, and under II. Gamorrtatous Division, he must
pursue his enquiries as-before. Is the calyx superior? Plainly
not. Proceed then to the heading B, Calyx inferior.” Are
the stamens more than the lobes of the corolla? Yes. Then
the choice of the six Orders in the section marked * is easily
made as before, and the plant is referred to Lrcuminos.
Now let ustake the Strawberry. As with Clover, we decide
without difficulty that the plant is a DicoryLepon. The
carpels are separate, and produce achenesin fruit; the plant
must, therefore, bean ANciosPpERM. And there is no doubt
thatitis Polypetalous. Asthestamens are very numerous it
must come under the section marked A. Under thissection
HOW TO USE THE KEY AND THE FLORA. xi
we have three subordinate headings, marked by one, two, and
three asterisks, respectively. The stamensareclearlyinserted
on the calyx, and so our plant must be found under the
headIng marked **, Without hesitation, we refer it to the
Order Rosacrm. Turning to page 62, we find seventeen
Genera to select from. A very little consideration willshow
us that No. 11, Fracaria, is the Genus we must fix upon.
Referring to page 69, we have to choose between two species, + /
Virginiana and vesca, and the choice is found to depend upon
such obvious characters as,to furnish no difficulty. ,
The leaves of Blue Flag are straight-veined ; the parts of the
flower, also, are in threes. We therefore decide that the
plant is Monocotyledonous, and on turning to page xxii, we
find three Divisions of Monocotyledons. The Flag clearly
belongs to the Peranomprous Division. Then, is the peri-
anth superior orinferior? Clearly theformer. Next, are the
flowers dicecious or perfect? Clearly perfect. And as the
flower has three stamens, it must belong to the Order_
Inipacem, described on page 235.. The Genus is at once seen
to be Iris, and the Species is determined without difficulty.
TheCat-tail Flagisalso manifestly Monocotyledonous, from
the veining of the leaves. But itis not Petaloideous. The
flowers are collected on a more or less fleshy axis at the top
of ascape. It therefore belongs to the Srapicrous Drvision,
in which there are four Orders. The only practical question
is, whether our plant belongs to ARach# or TypHacrm. On
the whole, we choose the latter, and find our decision con-
firmed on reading the fuller account of the two Orders on
pages 217 and 219. The Genus is immediately seen to be
TypHa, and the Species latifolia.
These examples need not be extended here; but the
beginner is recommended to run down, in the same manner, a
few plants whose names he already knows. If successful in
these attempts, he will naturally acquire confidence in his
determinations of plants previously unknown to him.
KEY TO THE FAMILIES OR ORDERS
INCLUDED IN THIS WORK.
’
SERIES I. PHANEROGAMS.
Plants producing true flowers and seeds.
CLASS I. DICOTYLEDONS.
Distinguished ordinarily by having net-veined leaves, and. the
parts of the flowers in fours or fives, very rarely in sixes, Wood
growing in rings, and surrounded by atrue bark. Cotyledons
of the embryo mostly two.
SUB-CLASS I. ANGIOSPERMS,
Seeds enclosed in an ovary.
I. POLYPETALOUS DIVISION.
Two distinct sets of Floral Mnvelopes. Parts of the corolla
separate from each other.
A. Stamens more than twice as many as the petals.
+ Stamens hypogynous (inserted on the receptable ).
1- Pistil apocarpous (carpels separate from each other ).
RanuNcULACEs#.—Herbs. Leaves generally decompound
of much dissecteds.......eccecsceccececureees 2
ANONACES.—Small trees, Leaves entire. Petals 6, in 2
StS ener emierc eer Ceeeew sHas hoe ees ee oe - 10
Macwottaceai—Trees. Leaves truncate, Fruit resem-
DLING: a CON exmisremmchisinabic andi eee AS Tee 9
MENISPERMACEH.—Woody twiners. Flowers dicecious,
Leaves peltate near the edge.............-4005 10
Brasenia, in 2
NyMpu.xacee.—Aquatic, Leaves oval, peltate ; the peti-
ole attached to the centre............002. eee eee 12
Matvack&,-—Stamens monadelphous, Calyx persistent.
Ovaries in ATING.... 0... cee eee eee eee eee 38
KEY TO THE ORDERS.
Podophyllum, in
BeRBERIDACE#.—Calyx fugacious. Leaves large, peltate,
deeply lobed. Fruita large fleshy berry, 1-celled.
a-+- Pistil syncarpous. (Stigmas, styles, placente, or ceils,
more than one),
Actzea, in
RaNuNcULACE®, might be looked for here. Fruit a
many-seedy berry, Leaves compound.........
Nympuaace#.—Aquatics, Leaves floating, large, deeply
cordate
Sapracexraceas.—Bog-plants. Leaves pitcher-shaped. .-
PAPAVERACEA.—Juice red or yellow. Sepals 2, caducous.
CappaRipaceEa.—Corolla cruciform, but pod 1-celled.
Leaves of 3 leaflets...... 0.0... cece cece eee noes
Hyrericaces.—Leaves transparent,- dotted. Stamens
usually in 3, but sometimes in 5, clusters .....
Cistacr2. —Sepals 5, very unequal, or only 3. Ovary 1-
celled, with 3 parietal placente ..... .........
Maxtvacua:.—Stamens monadelphous, connected with the
bottom of the petals. Calyx persistent. Ovaries
AN APPIN Ge ets nice vara acres aravfhuyib aaeds aetee Raat anaes
Tit1acua.—Trees, Flowers yellowish, in small hanging
cymes; the peduncle with a leaf-like bract at-
tached ic.csis wererearsG $086 din dsh4 4 8a auarecseayete somnsieesi
+ * Stamens perigynous (inserted on the calyx).
Portulaea, in
PortTuLACAcEs.—Low herbs, with fleshy leaves. Sepals
2, adhering to the ovary beneath. Pod opening
by a lid..... snipisiatavalcieegsvevase dutta, eaten e nin Renee .
Rosack#.—Leaves alternate, with stipules, Fruit apo-
carpous, or a drupe, or a pome... ....... ere
Cactace4s.—Very fleshy (commonly prickly) plants, of
peculiar appearance ; either globose or of flattened
joints. Sepals and petals many. Stamens many,
inserted on the tube of sepals and petals.........
+ + * Slamens epigynous (attached to the ovary).
Nymphea, in
Nympuaces.—Aquatic. Leaves floating. _ Flowers
white, large, with numerous petals gradually
passing into BEAMENS.,.psrcre creer rererreceeee
xili
10
39
37
86
xiv KEY TO THE ORDERS.
B. Stamens not more than twice as many as the petals.
* Stamens just as many as the petals, and one stamen in front of
each petal.
Burseriwacsa.—Herbs (with us), Anthers opening by
uplifting valves........ceceeee serene eee renee 10
Porrunscace®.—Sepals 2. Styles 3-cleft. Leaves 2, _
fleshy... cc ccccee ce nene cece erences ee estenees 37
Virace#.—Shrubs, climbing by tendivila, Calyx minute. 44
RuamMnaces&,—Shrubs, not climbing..... WiiOmeTeeeacke 45
PLUMBAGINACES.—Herbs, Calyx plaited. Styles 5.
Ovary I-celled and l-seeded..............+.65 144
Lysimachia, in
PRIMULACE®, is occasionally polypetalous. Flowers yel-
low, in axillary spikes ; the petals sprinkled with
purplish dots..........: cece seer eee etree eens 145
* « Stamens either just as many as the petals and alenataby with
them, or not of exactly the same number.
+- Corolla irregular.
Fumaniace.—Corolla flattened and closed, Stamens6. 15
Viotace#.—Corolla I-spurred, Stamens 5. Pod with 3
rows of seeds on the walls..........0.-2eeee ee 26
BaLsAMINAcE#.—Corolla 1-spurred, the spur with a tal.
Stamens 5. Pod bursting elastically.......... 42
PotycaLace&.—Lower petal keel-shaped, usually fringed
at the top. Anthens 6 or 8, l-celled, opening at
the top. Pod 2-celled............eee0e weeny 48
Lxecuminosa.—Corolla mostly papilionaceous. Filaments
often united. Ovary simple, with one parietal
placenta. Leaves compound.................. 49
++ 4 Corolla regular, or nearly so.
1. Calyx superior (é.¢., adherent to the ovary, wholly or
partially).
(a). Stamens perigynous (inserted on the calyx).
Crategus, i in ‘ i
Rosacea.—Shrubs. Stamens occasionally from 5to10 only,
‘Leaves alternate, with stipules, Fruit drupe-like,
containing 1-5 bony nutlets..... sii vianrceiapa nae Tue 62
SAXIFRAGACEH, —Leaves opposite or alternate, without
stipules. Styles or stigmas 2; in one instance 4.
Ovary \l-celled, with 2 or 3 parietal placente.... 75.
KEY TO THE ORDERS. XV
HamameLace®.—Shrubs, Stamens 8; styles 2. Flowers
_ yellow, in autumn........ whee pw eee wei ae, 9
Hatoraces.—Aquaties, Stamens 4 or 8. Styles or ses-
sile stigmas 4....... 66.0 fee c cee cee cece ee een 79
OxNAGRACES.—Flowers symmetrical. Stamens 2, 4, or 8.
Stigmas 2 or 4, or capitate..,.. Ea Dahiges Meats 81
MrLastomacrea&.—Anthers 1-celled, opening by a pore at
the apex. Stamens 8. Style and stigma 1. Flow-
OPS PULPlEs: scsiiesironsmsniiwn ge dhaiweiewemmuirne 84
LytHrace#.—Calyx apparently adherent to, but really
free from, the ovary. Stamens mostly unequal.
Leaves mostly whorled. Flowers varying as to
relative lengths of stamens and style.......... 84
CucurBiTacE&.—Tendril-bearing herbs, Flowers mone-
HOLOUSY sc arrentasiaconnsa aw axnaeleEGts Mid ea ARRAN, na 85
(b) Stamens epigynous (on the ovary, or on a disk which covers
5 the ovary ).
Euonymus, in
CELASTRACE.Z.—Shrub, with 4-sided pranchlets, not climb-
ing. Leaves simple. Pods crimson when ripe.
Calyx not minute.......... So ee Lines 46
UMBELLIFER&.—Flowers chiefly in compound umbels.
Calyx very minute. Stamens 5, Styles2. Fruit
dry; !2-seeded swig: gin atwmecerig «sears agian ge 87
ARALIACE&.—Umbels not compound ; but sometimes pan-
icled, Stamens 5. Styles usually more than 2. _
Fruit berry-like...... 00... c cee cece e eee eenee 92
Cornack#.—Flowers in cymes or heads. Stamens4. Style
1
2. Calyx inferior (i.c., free from the ovary).
(a) Stamens hypogynous (on the receptacle).
CruciFrer&.—Petals 4. Stamens 6, tetradynamous. Pod
Q2celledd is scsigareis vo aweisigg emavers Brice acauaitev ita seee 16
Cistacem.—Petals 3. Sepals 5, very unequeal ; or only 3.
Pod partly 3-celled,....... 0... seeeeeeeeeeee es = 29
DroseRacka.—Leaves radical, beset with reddish glandu-
lar hairs. Flowers in a l-sided raceme........ 30
Elodes, in
Hypericaces.—Leaves with transparent dots. Stamens
9, in 3 clusters..........-.06: pe reine a iolecaratstapiniia 30
xvi KEY TO THE ORDERS.
CARYOPHYLIACER,—Styles 2-5. Ovules in the centre or
bottom of the cell. Stem usually swollen at the
_ joints. Leaves opposite...... Pains asesawais
Linace&.—Stamens 5, united below. Pod 10-celled, 10-
seeded ....... eh sydea diay nacktuiarayhacesyo eco aOR
GERANIACEE.—Ovaries or lobes of the ovary 5 or 3, with
a common central style or axis which remains
after the ripe ovaries separate from it........ os
OxaLipacez#,—Stamens 10. Pod 5-celled. Styles 5, dis-
tinct. Leaflet3, obcordate, drooping at night-fall.
Ericacr.—Anthers opening by pores at the top, or across
the top. Leaves mostly evergreen, sometimes
brown beneath ; but in some instances the plant
_ 4s white or tawny.......... 0... cs ecee cece ee ee
Rouracea.—Shrubs, with polygamous flowers and leaves
of 3 leaflets, dotted with transparent glands.
Stigmas 2, Fruit a 2-seeded samara winged all
round,.... baudea gabi al treba ae asi alee sah sh arene aisle
()) Stamens perigynous (plainly attached to the calyx). .,
SAXIFRAGACEH,—Leaves opposite or alternate, without
stipules. Styles or stigmas 2; in one instance 4.
Carpels fewer than the petals................ ..
CrassuLace&.—Flowers symmetrical. Stamens 10 or 8.
Leaves sometimes fleshy...............0ceeees
LytHrace®.—Stameng 10, in two sets. Calyx enclosing,
but really free from, the ovary. Leaves mostly
WHOLIED io cies gece cee eisai eee i's side Bea oharinpsnane sayin
43
84
(c) Stamens attached to a fleshy disk in the bottom of the calyzx-tube.
ANACARDIACEH.—Trees, or shrubs, not prickly. Leaves
confpound. Stigmas 3.. Fruit a 1-seeded drupelet.
CELASTRACE£.—Twining shrub, Leaves simple. Pods
orange when ripe :
SapinpDacEx. —Shrubs, or trees. Fruit 2-winged, and leaves
palmately-veined. Or, Fruit an inflated 3-celled
pod, and leaves of 3-leaflets. Styles 2 or 3
(d) Stamens attached to the petals at their very base.
Claytonia, in
PorruLacacrm.—Sepals 2. Leaves fleshy. Style 3-cleft.
AQUIFOLIACE. —Shrubs, with small axillary flowers, hav-
ing the parts in fours and sixes,’ Fruita red berry-
like drupe. Stigma sessile. Calyx minute...
43
46
145
KEY TO THE ORDERS.
\ TI, GAMOPETALOUS DIVISION.
xvii
Corolla with the petals united together, in however slight a
degree,
A, Calyx superior (adherent to the ovary).
* Stamens united by their anthers.
Cucursirace®.—Tendril-bearing herbs................-
Compostr:—Flowers in heads, surrounded by an involucre
Lopertack.£.—Flowers not in heads. Corolla split down
oue side
+ « Stamens not united together in any way.
a- Stamens inserted on the corolla.
Dipsace.£.—Flowers in heads, surrounded by an involucre.
: Plant prickly...... ccc ccs e eee ee cece nec e tenons
VALERIANACE.—F lowers white, in clustered cymes. Sta-
mens fewer than the lobes of the corolla........
Rveracea.—Leaves, when opposite, with stipules ; when
whorled, without stipules. Flowers, if in heads,
withoutan involucre........ ccc cee eee ee eee
CapRIFoLIacE&.—Leaves opposite, without stipules ; but,
in one genius, withappendages resembling stipules.
4- 4— Stamens not inserted on the corolla.
CampanuLaces.—Herbs with milky juice. Stamens as
many ag the lobes of the corolla..........
Ericace£.—Chiefly shrubby plants or parasites. Stamens
twice as many as the lobes of the corolla..... vere
B. Calyx inferior (free from the ovary).
* Stamens more than the lobes of the corolla.
Lrecuminos#.—Ovary l-celled, with 1 parietal placenta.
Stamens mostly diadelphous...... ES ye eo
Adlumia, in
Fumariicea.—Plant climbing. Corolla 2-spurred.....,
Matvace®.—Filaments monadelphous. Carpels ina ring.
Ericacra#.—Chiefly shrubby plants, with simple entire:
leaves. Stamens twice as many as the lobes of
the Corolla). csicareosesc se nese oh een nd he a see ner
~ Poryaataca.--Anthers 6 or 8, 1-celled, opening at the
top. Pod 2-celled. Flowersirregular ; lower petal
keel-shaped, and usually fringed at the top......
xviii KRY TO THE ORDERS.
Oxanipace#.—Stamens 10, 5 of them longer. Styles 5, —
distinct. Leaflets 3, obcordate, drooping at night- ~ ip
PAID ooecoy osbitseaie tussend aceoasepoiae RRR ATG Resale HA GO 5
+ « Stamens just as many as the lobes of the corolla, one in front
of each lobe. ;
PRIMULACE.—Stamens on the corolla. Style 1. Ovary ~
l-celled, with a free central placenta rising from
GHG Das rdsstis. Ao cesisiantewineeesaaraeee a wee ew memmEES 145
PLUMBAGINACESH.—Styles 5. Ovary l-celled and I-seeded. 144
%* « x Stamens just as many as the lobes of the corolla, inserted on
its tube alternately with its lobes.
+- Ovaries 2, separate.., ;
ApocyNAacE#&.—Plants with milky juice. Anthers converg-
ing round the stigmas, but not adherent to them.
Filaments distinct........ 0.00. c cece eee eer nes 179
ASCLEPIADACE#.—Plants with milky juice. Anthers ad-
hering to the stigmas. Filaments monadelphons.
Flowers in umbels ......... cece cece cece eee 179
4- + Ovary 4-lobed around the base of the style.
Mentha, in
Laerata.—Stamens 4, Leaves opposite, aromatic... -. 160
BorrRactnack&,—Stamens 5, Leaves alternate......... 167
4- + + Ovary I-celled ; the seeds on the walls.
HypropHYLLAcEm.—Stamens 5, usually exserted. Style
2-cleft. Leaves lobed and sometimes cut-toothed. 171
GENTIANACEH.—Leaves entire and opposite ; or (in Men-
yanthes) of 3 leaflets...... i :
ee Ovary with 2 or more cells.
Aqutrotiace®,—Shrubs, Corolla almost polypetalous.
. Calyx minute. Fruit a red berry-like drupe.
Parts of the flower chiefly in fours or sixes...... 145
PLANTAGINACER.—Stamens 4, Pod 2-celled. Flowers in
B Close Spikes cas cre wuaseao aw sind tems eodocesondne 148
Verbaseum, in
seeds small............. ay pastieah ct spsass ober teawaiee ete . 172
KEY TO THE ORDERS. xix
Convolvunacex.—Style 2-cleft, Pod 2-celled, generally
4-seeded ; seedslarge. Chiefly twining or trailing
WDISD ES ws. diveninincatsinign igri apna egesgure 173
Soranacka#,.—Style single. Pod or berry 2-celled, many-
RECUE occ. sar sng aiisatinaieeais eunieurtlueunieuten 174
+ % % ® Stamens Sewer than the lobes of the corolla ; the
: corolla mostly irregular or 2-lipped.
Lasrar&.—Ovary 4-lobed around the base of the style.
- Stamens 4 and didynamous, or occasionally only
2with anthers. Stem square......... ......-. 160
VERBENACEEH.—Ovary 4-celled, but not lobed ; the style
rising from the apex. Or, Ovary 1-celled and 1-
seeded. Stamens didynamous................- 158
LENTIBULARIACEH.—Aquatics. Stamens 2, Ovary 1-
celled, with a free central placenta............. 149
OrnoBancHace&® —Parasitic herbs, without green foliage.
Ovary l-celled, with many seeds on the walls.
Stamens didynamious..........-...0 cece e eee ee 150
ScROPHULARIACE#.—Ovary 2-celled, with many seeds.
Stamens didynamous, or only 2................ 151
ACANTHACE®.—Stamens 2, the anther-cells separated.
Ovary flat, 2-celled,*4-seeded. Aquatics........ 159
Ill, APETALOUS DIVISION.
Corolla (and sometimes calyx also) wanting.
A. Flowers not in catkins.
* Calyx and corolla both wanting.
Tipurace&.—Flowers white, in a dense terminal spike,
nodding at the end. Carpels 6 or 4, nearly separ-
BUG Se scsplecangy' ovansvcveccnsvanavanssaiat we viins Grate eratraacacnte eeata vaso 182
CERATOPHYLLACEX,—Immersed aquatics, with whorled
finely dissected leaves. Flowers monecious.... 213
+ « Calyx superior (i.e., adherent to the ovary)...
- SAXIFRAGACE.4, —Small, smooth herbs, with inconspicuous
greenish-yellow flowers. Stamens twice as many
as the calyx-lobes, on a conspicuous disk........
HaLoracex.—Aquatics. Leaves finely dissected or linear.
Stamens 1-8. Ovary 3-4-lobed or(Hippuris)1-celled. 79
OnaGrace.x.—Herbs, in ditches. Stamens 4, Ovary 4-
celled, 4-sided......... cc eee eeee eee Lege e teens 81
xX KEY TO THE ORDERS.
ARISTOLOCHIACE#.—Calyx 3-lobed, dull purple inside.
Ovary 6-celled si scusceseee tere rveses pee orvesss
SanTALACEa.—Low plants with greenish-white flowers in
terminal clusters, Calyx-tube prolonged, and
forming a neck te the 1-celled nut-like fruit.....
EL“#aGNacka#.—Shrubs with scurfy leaves, Flowers per-
fect or dicecious. Calyx 4-parted, in the fertile
flowers apparently adherent to the ovary, anid
becoming fleshy in fruit. ..............0. 000 ee
» « « Calyx inferior (plainly free from the ovary ).
194
a- Ovuries more than one and separate from each other.
RanuncuLacr.x.—Calyx present, colotired and petal-like.
Achenes containing several seeds, or only one..
Rutaces.—Prickly shrubs, with compound transparent-
dotted leaves, and dicecious flowers........ er
+~ ++ Ovary only one, but with more than one cell (eacept i
Glaux),
CRASSULACE.£.—Herbs, in wet places, Pod 5-celled and 5-
horned 2 sexscumeciains ood Bast due oh thickets; not common.
8. G. maerophyl'lum, Willd. Bristly-hairy, stout. Root-
leaves interruptedly pinnate, with a very large round-heart-
shaped terminal leaflet. Stem-leaves with 2-4 minute lateral
leaflets, the terminal 3-cleft, with wedge-form rounded lobes.
Petals yellow, longer than the calyx. Receptacle nearly
naked.—Atl. Prov. chiefly.
4, G. strietum, Ait. (YrEttow A.) Stem 2-3 feet high,
rather hairy. Root-leayes interruptedly pinnate; stem-
leaves 3-5-foliolate, leaflets obovate or ovate. Petals yellow,
longer than the calyx. Receptacle of the fruit downy.
Achenes tipped with the hooked style.—Dry thickets. 3
5. G. riva‘le, L. (Water or PurrLe Avens.) Petals pur-
' plish-yellow ; calyx brown-purple. Flowers nodding, but the
fruiting heads upright. The upper joint of the style Seathery,
persistent. ®&tem simple, 2 feet high. Root-leaves lyrate;
stem-leaves few, 3-foliolate, lobed.—Bogs and wet places.
6. G. triflo‘'rum, Pursh. Stem about a foot high, scft-
hairy. Flowers 3 or more, on long peduncles, purple.
Styles not jointed, feathery, at least 2 inches long in the fruit.
—Dry hills and thickets. Not common.
8. WALDSTEI'NIA, Willd. Barren STRAWBERRY.
W. fragarioi’des, Tratt. A low plant, 4-6 inches high.
Leaflets 8, broadly wedge-form, crenately toothed. Scapes
several-flowered. Petals yellow, longer than the calyx.—
Dry woods and hill-sides.
ROSACEA 67
9. POTENTILLA, L. CINQUE-FoIL. FIVE-FINGER.
*Styles thickened and glandular towards the base. I: nflorescence
cymose,
+ Style arising from near the base of the car pel.
_ 1. P. argu’ta, Pursh. Stem stout, 1-2 feet high, brown-
ish-hairy. Leaves pinnate, of 7-11 oval serrate leaflets,
downy underneath. Flowers in dense cymose clusters.
Petals yellowish or cream-coloured, deciduous. Stamens
about 80. Plant clammy above.—Dry thickets.
+ + Style arising from the top of the carpel.
2. P. Norve’gica, L. (Norway Crnqus-Forn.) Stem erect,
hairy, branching above. Leaves palmate, of 3 leaflets; leaf-
lets obovate-oblong, coarsely serrate. Flowers in cymose
clusters. Calyx large. Petals pale yellow, small, not longer
than the sepals: Stamens about 15.—Fields and low grounds.
3. P. riva’lis, Nutt., var. millegra’na, Watson. More
slender and branching than the last, softly villous; Leaves
all of 3 serrate leaflets. Cymes loose. Calyx small. Petals
- yellow, minute. Stamens 10-20, rarely 5.—N.W.
4. P. paradox’a, Nutt., (P. supi’na, L.) a plant of
spreading or decumbent habit, with pinnate leaves of 5-11
leaflets, loose leafy cymes, small petals, as long as the sepals,
and achenes with an appendage at the base, occurs along
the western shore of Lake Ontario.
5. P. Pennsylvan‘iea, L. Perennial; more or less white-
woolly. Leaflets 5-9, white-woolly beneath, less so above,
cut-pinnatifid, the segments linear. Stamens about 25.—
Chiefly eastward and N.W.
“Var. strigo’sa, Pursh, is silky-woolly throughout, 6-12
inches high. Leaflets deeply pinnatifid, the margins of the
narrow lobes revolute. Cyme short and close.—N. W.
6. P. reeta, L. Perennial, tall, sparingly villous, glandu-
lar-puberulent. Leaves palmate, of 5-7 leaflets, the latter
cut-pinnatifid. Flowers yellow, large, in a broad cyme.—.
Not common. F
68 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
** Styles filiform, not glandular at the base. Inflorescence
cymose.
+ Style arising from the top of the carpel.
7. P. Hippia’na, Lehm. Densely white-tomentose through-
out. Stemslender. Leaves pinnate, of 5-11 leaflets, dimin-
ishing regularly down the petiole. Leaflets sharply toothed
at least at the apex. Stamens 20.—N.W.
Var. puleher’rima, Watson, has the upper surfaces of the
crowded leaflets green and pubescent.—N.W.
8. P. effu'sa, Dougl. Tomentose throughout, with scat-
tered villous hairs, Stems diffusely branched above, 4-12
inches high. Leaflets 5-11, interruptedly pinnate. Carpels..
10.—N. W. :
9. P. Platten’sis, Nutt. Stems decumbent. Pubescenge
appressed silky-villous throughout. Leaflets 7-13, crowded,
deeply cut-pinnatifid into linear segments. Flowers few.
Carpels many.—N.W.
10. P. gra’eilis, Dougl. Stems 2-3 feet high. Leaves
palmate, of about 7 leaflets, the latter serrate, tomentose
beneath, green above. Carpels many.—N.W.
Var. flabellifor’mis, Torr. and Gray, has very deeply
pinnatifid leaflets.—N.W.
Var. rig’ida, Watson, is villous, but not tomentose, and
usually tall and stout.—N.W.
11. P. pifo’sa, Willd., is distinguished from the preceding
species by its tall rigid stems and light yellow flowers.—
Niagara Falls, not common.
12. P. argen’tea, L. (Sttvery C.) Stem ascending,
branched at the summit, white-woolly. Leaves palmate, of
5 leaflets, the latter deeply serrate towards the apex, with
revolute margins, and woolly beneath. Petals yellow, longer
than the sepals.—Dry fields and roadsides.
13. P. humifu’sa, Nutt. Stems decumbent, 2-4 inches
long, slender. Densely white-tomentose. Leaflets 5, serrate
at the rounded or truncate apex with 8 or 5 tecth.—N.W.
ROSACEA. 69
++ Style arising from the side of the carpel.
- @
_-l4. P. frutico’sa, L. (SurupsyC.) Stem erect, shrubby,
1-3 feet high, much branched. Leaves pinnate, of 5-7 leaf-
lets, closely crowded, entire, silky, especially beneath.
Flowers numerous, large, yellow, terminating the branches.
—Bogs.
15. P. tridenta’ta, Ait., (THrrr-roorHep C.) is common
eastward towards the sea-coast. Stem 4-6 inches high.
Leaves rigid, palmate, of 3 wedge-shaped leaflets, 3-toothed
atthe apex. Petals white.
16. P. palustris, Scop. (Mars Frve-rinerr.) Stem
ascending. Leaves pinnate, of 5-7 lanceolate, crowded,
deeply serrate leaflets, whitish beneath. Calyx an inch
: broad, dark purple inside. Petals purple.—Bogs.
*** Styles filiform, lateral. Peduncles axillary, solitary, 1-flowered,
17. P. Anseri’na, L. (Smrver-wrep.) A low plant,
creeping with slenderrunners. Leaves all radical, interrupt-.
edly pinnate; leaflets 9-19, serrate, green above, siluerg-silky
beneath. Flowers solitary, onlong sca pe-like peduncles, bright
yellow.—River and lake margins.
18. P. Canaden’sis, L. (Canapa C.) Stem prostrate or
ascénding, silky-hairy. Leaves palmate, of 5 leaflets, the
latter serrate towards the apex. Flowers solitary. Petals
“ yellow; larger than the sepals.—Dry soil.
10. CHAME’ RHODOS, Bunge.
C.. erecta, Bunge. Stem slender, 2-12 inches high,
branching above. Radical leaves many-cleft, forming a
-rosette ;‘ cauline ones 3-5-cleft.—N.W.. prairies.
‘ Ji. FRAGA'RIA, Tourn. STRAWBERRY.
1. F. Virginia’na, Ehrhart, Achenes deeply imbedded in
pits on the surface of the fleshy receptacle; calyx erect
after flowering. Leaflets firm.
2. F. ves’ea, L. Achenes not sunk in pits, but merely on
the surface of the receptacle; calyx spreading, Leaflets
thin. .
\
VV COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLAN'IS.
12. DALIBAR’DA, L, DALIBARDA.
D. repens, L. (Rubus Dalibarda, L., in Macoun’s Cata-
logue.) Stems tufted, downy. Whole plant with something
of the aspect of a violet.—Low woods.
13. RUBUS, Tourn. BRAMBLF.
1. R. odora’tus, L. (Purrie Fiowsrinc - Raspberry.)
Shrubby 8-5 feet high. Branches, peduncles, and calyx
clammy with glandular hairs. Flowers large and handsome,
rose-purple. Leaves large, broadly ovate, 3-5-lobed, the
lobes acute, minutely toothed. Fruit flat.
2. R. Nutka’nus, Mocino, is distinguished from No. 1 by
* its oval white petals, and its 5-lobed coarsely toothed leaves.
—N.W.
3. R. Chamezemo’rus, L. (CLoup-BERRyY. BAKED-APPLE
Berry.) A low herb with diecious flowers. Stem simple,
without prickles, 2-3-leaved, bearing one large white flower,
Leaves simple, kidney-form, 5-lobed,.serrate.—Sphagnous
swamps, chiefly eastward.
4. R. triflo’rus, Richardson. (Dwarr RasrBerry.) Stems
ascending or trailing, a foot high, not prickly. Leaflets
8-5, nearly smooth, rhombic-ovate, acute at both ends,
doubly serrate. Peduncle usually 8-flowered. Petals white;
sepals reflexed. Fruit red.—Cedar-swamps.
5. R. strigo’sus, Michx. (Wi~p Rep RaspBerry.) Steris
upright, beset with stiff straight bristles. Leaflets 3-5, ob-
long-ovate, pointed, cut-serrate, whitish beneath. Frwit
light red. —Hillsides and thickets.
6. R. oeeidenta’lis, L. (Brack Raspsrrry.) Stem glau-
cous, recurved, armed with hooked prickles. Leaflets 3, ovate,
pointed, coarsely serrate, white-downy beneath. Fruit
purplish-black.—Borders of fields, especially where the
ground has been burned over.
7. R. villo’sus, Ait. (Hich Biackgerry.) Stem shrubby,
furrowed, erect or reclining, armed with hooked prickles.
Leaflets 3-5, unequally serrate, the terminal one conspicu-
ROSACER. 71
ously stalked. Lower surface of the leaflets hairy and glan-
dular, Flowers racemed, numerous, large and white. Fruit
oblong, black. Var. frondosus is smoother and less glandu-
lar. Var. humifusus is trailing and smaller, and the flowers
are less numerous.—Borders of thickets.
8. R. Canaden’sis, L. (Low Brackserry. Dewserry.)
Stem shrubby, extensively trailing, slightly prickly. Leaflets
chiefly 3, oval or ovate-lanceolate, nearly smooth, sharply
serrate. Flowers in racemes.—Thickets and rocky hills.
9. R. his’pidus, L., (Running Swamp-BLackBERRY) occurs
occasionally in low meadows. Stem prostrate, with small
reflexed prickles, sending up at intervals the short flowering
shoots. . Leaflets mostly 3, smooth and shining. Fruit of
few grains, red or purple.
14. ROSA, Tourn. Rose.
* Styles cohering in a protruding column, as long as the stamens.
1. RB. setig’era, Michx. Stem climbing. Prickles nearly
straight, ‘Leaflets 3-5, ovate. Petals deep rose-coloured,—
changing to white.—Borders of thickets and along fences;
south-western Ontario. :
** Styles separate, included within the calyx-tube; sepals spreading
after flowering, and deciduous.
2. R. Caroli‘na, L. (Swame Rosz.) Stem 1-7 feet high,
erect, armed with stout straight or somewhat curved prickles,
Leaflets 5-9, very finely serrate, mostly narrowly oblong.
Stipules long and very narrow. ’ Flowers in corymbs, numer-
ous. Calyx and globular calyx-tube beset with glandular
bristles. —Wet places, Ontario. ;
3. R. lu’eida, Ehrhart. Stem 1-6 feet high, armed with
stout more or less hooked prickles. Leaflets 5-9, coarsely.
serrate, smooth and often shining above, rathér thick. Ped-
uncles 1-8-flowered.—Dry soil, or borders of swamps, chiefly
eastward.
4. R. hu’milis, Marsh. Low, more slender and less leafy
than the last, with straight slender spines. Stipules nar-
row. Leaflets thin and pale. Outer sepals always more or
less lobed. —Mostly in sandy soil.
5. R. nit’ida, Willd. Low. Stem and branches usually
thickly covered with prickles interspersed with straight
slender spines. Stipules mostly dilated. Leaflets bright
green and shining, mostly narrowly oblong. Flowers gen-
erally solitary. Sepals entive.—Margins of swamps, Atl.
Prov.
6. R. rubigino’sa, L. (Swuer - Brizr.) Stem tall.
‘Prickles numerous, the larger hooked, the smaller awl-
shaped. Leaflets 5-7, doubly serrate, glandular beneath,
aromatic. Flowers mostly solitary. Fruit pear-shaped or
obovate.—Roadsides and-fields.
*** Styles separate ; sepals erect and connivent after flowering,
persistent,
: : + Fruit globose.
7. R. blanda, Ait. (Earty Wixp Rosz.)- Stem 1-3 feet
high. Prickles (if any) few and scattered, straight. Leaflets
5-7, mostly oblong-lanceolate, cuneate at the base, fot
resinous, simply serrate. Sepals hispid, not lobed. Ped-
uncles 1-3-flowered.—Rocks and rocky shores, mostly east-
ward.
8. R. Say’i, Schwein. Stems 1-2 feet high, very prickly.
Leaflets 3-7, broadly elliptical to oblong-lanceolate, resinous, -
the teeth serrulate. Flowers large, mostly solitary. Outer
sepals usually lobed, not hispid.—Our most northern rose.
9. R. Arkansa’na, Porter. Stems low, very prickly.
Stipules narrow. Leaflets 7-11, broadly elliptical to oblong-
lanceolate, wedge-shaped at the base, simply serrate, not
resinous. Outer sepals lobed, rarely hispid.—N.W. prairies.
* = Fruit oblong-ovate to oblong.
10. R. Engelman’ni, Watson. Stems 3-4 feet high, often
very prickly. Leaflets 5-7, the teeth serrulate. Flowers
solitary. Sepals not lobed. Fruit $-1 inch long.—Shores
of Lake Superior and westward.
15. CRATE'GUS, L. Hawruorn.
1. C. eoeein’ea, L. (Scaruer-rrurrep Tuorn.) A_low
tree, with reddish branches, and stout chestnut-brown
ROSACEA. 73
spines. Peduncles and calyx glandular. Leaves rather
_ thin, roundish-ovate, on slender petioles ; acutely glandular-
toothed, sometimes cut-lobed. - Fruit bright red, globose or
obovate, ‘half an inch broad.—Thickets, common.
Var. macracantha, Dudley, (C. tomentosa, L. in part)
has longer spines and thicker leaves, wedge-shaped at the
base, on stout petioles and often deeply cut. The cymes
also are broader and the flowers and fruit rather large.—
Thickets.
Var. mollis, Torr. and Gray, (C. tomentosa, L., var. mollis, ;
Gray) has densely pubescent shoots and large slender-
petioled leaves, usually with acute narrow lobes. Fruit
bright scarlet with a slight bloom, an inch broad.—Queens-
ton and westward along Lake Erie.
2.-C. puneta’ta, Jacq. Not glandular. Branches hori-
‘zontal, Leaves rather small, wedge-obovate, tapering and
entire below, unequally toothed above, villous-pubescent
when young, not shining. Fruit globose, about an inch
broad.
8. C. Crus’galli, L. (Cocxsrur Tory.) A shrub or low
tree, glabrous. Leaves thick, shining above, wedge-obovate,
finely serrate. Petioles very short. Fruit globilar, dull
red, 4 of an inch broad. Thorns very long.—Thickets,
south-western Ontario.
4. C. Dougiasii, Lindl., has few short and stout spines,
ovate thin doubly’ serrate leaves, and small black-purple
fruit.—N. W. prairies.
16. PYRUS, L. PreaR. APPLE.
1. P. corona’ria, L. (American Craz-Arriz.) A small
tree, with ovate serrate simple leaves, tomentose beneath.
Flowers in umbel-like cymes. Styles woolly and cohering
‘at the base. Fruit a greenish apple.—Toronto and west
ward. :
2. P. arbutifo’lia, L. (CroKxu-perry.) A shrub, with
oblong or oblanceolate finely serrate simple leaves, tomentose
=x WU Une ee eee ne
beneath. Flowers in compound cymes. Fruit berry-like,
nearly globular, dark red or purple.—Swamps.
Var. melanocar’ pa, Hook., is nearly smooth throughout,
and has large black fruit.—Swamps.
8. P. America’na, DC. (Amurican Mounrain-Asu.) A
small tree with odd-pinnate leaves of 13-15 leaflets, the latter.
lanceolate, taper-pointed, sharply serrate, bright green.
Fruit scarlet, berry-like, not larger than peas. Flowers in
flat cymes.—_Swamps and cool woods, northward.
4, P. sambueifo’lia, Cham. and Schlecht., differs from
the last in having oblong, oval or lance-ovate, obtuse leaf-
lets, smaller cymes, and larger flowers and berries.—N.W.
17. AMELAN’CHIER, Medic. JUNE-BERRY. SASKATOON-BERRY.
1, A. Canadensis, Torr. and Gray. (SHapsusu. SuRvIcE-
Berry.) Leaves alternate, oblong or spathulate, with 3 rigid sharp
teeth at the end. Petals yellow.—Chiefly N.. and N.W.
* 8. §2 Aizo’on, Jacq. Scape 5-10 inches high. Leaves
thick, spathulate, with white finely-toothed margins. Petals
eream-colour, obovate, often spotted at the base. — Moist
rocks, Atl. sea-coast and northward.
3. SAXIF' RAGA, L. SAXIFRAGE,
4SMITEL'LA, Tourn. MrrrE-worr. “Brsnor’s-Car.
1. M. diphyl’la, L. (Two-neavep Mrrre-worr.) Stem
hairy. Leaves cordate, 8-5-lobed, those on the scape 2, op-
posite, nearly sessile. Flowers white, oblong.~-Rich woods.
2. M. nuda, L. (Naxep-statKep M.) Stem small and
delicate. Leaves kidney-shaped, doubly crenate. Scape
leafless, few-flowered. Flowers greenish.—Deep woods, on
moss-covered logs, etc.
5. FEAREL’LA, L. Fase Mrrre-wort.
T. cordifolia, L. Scapes leafless, 5-12 inches high.
Leaves heart-shaped, sharply toothed, sparsely hairy above,
downy beneath. Petals white, oblong.—Rich woods.
78 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
6. WEU'CHERA, L. ALUM-ROOT.
1. H. America’na, L. (Common Atum-roor.) Stems 2-3
- feet high, glandular and short-hairy. Flowers small, in
loose panicle. Petals not longer than the calyx-lobes.
Stamens and style exserted.—S. W. Ontario.
2. H. his’pida, Pursh, has larger flowers in a very narrow
panicle, and taller stems, with long spreading hairs. Sta-
mens short, but soon exserted.—N. W. prairies.
xe CHRYSOSPLE NIUM, Tourn. GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE.
C. Ameriea’num, Schwein. A low and delicate smogghy.,
herb, with spreading and forking stems. Flowers greenish-
yellow, inconspicuous, nearly sessile in the forks.—Shaihy
wet places.
OrpER XXXIV. CRASSULA’CEA. (Orpinn Famtny.))
Suceulent herbs (except in one genus), chiefly differing
from Saxifragacec in having symmetrical flowers, the sepals, °
petals and carpels being the same in number, and the
stamens either as many or twice as many.
Synopsis of the Genera,
1. Pen’thorum. Not succulent. The carpels united, forming a 5-
celled pod.
2, Sedum. Succulent. Carpels distinct.
1. PEN’ THORUM, Gronov. DitcH StonE-cror.
P. sedot des, Gronov. Notsucculent. Sepals 5. Petals
5, ifany; sometimes wanting. Stamens10. Pod 5-angled,-
5-horned, and 5-éelled. Leaves scattered, lanceolate, acute
at both-ends. A homely weed, with greenish-yellow flowers ‘
in a loose cyme.—Wet places. (Parts of the flowers occa-
sionally in sixes or sevens.)
2. SEDUM, Tourn. STONE-cRor. ORPINE.
1. S. aere, L. (Mossy Srove-cror.) Leaves very thick
and succulent, crowded, very small. Petals yellow. A
spreading moss-like plant, which has escaped from culti-
vation in many places.—Roadsides.
HAMAMELACEX, UALORAGER, 79
2. 8. Tele’phium, L. (Livz-ror-zver.) Stems tall and
stout. Leaves oval, toothed. Flowers in compound cymes,
petals purple. Sepals, petals, and carpels 5 each. Stamens
10. (nt. from Eu.)
3. S. Rhodi’ola, DC. (Rosz-roor.) Stems 5-10 inches
-high. Flowers dicecious, greenish-yellow or purplish.
Stamens mostly 8, other parts in Jfours.—Rocky shores, Atl.
Prov.
Orpen XXXV. HAMAMELA’'CEA. (Wrrcs-nazun F.)
Tall shrubs, with alternate simple leaves, and deciduous
stipules. Flowers in clusters or heads, often monccious.
Calyx 4-parted, adherent to the base of the ovary, the latter
of 2 united carpels. Fruit a 2-beaked, 2-celled, woody pod,
opening atthe top. Petals 4, strap-shaped, inserted on the
calyx. Stamens 8, 4 of them anther-bearing, the remainder
reduced to scales. The only genus with us is
HAMAME'LIS, L. WHI?CH-HAZEL.
H. Virginia’na, L. Leaves obovate or oval, erenate or
wavy-toothed, pubescent. Flowers yellow, appearing late
in the autumn.—Damp woods, chiefly west of Toronto.
Onper XXXVI. HALORA’GEH. (Warer-Mirrou. F.)
Aquatic or marsh plants, with small inconspicuous flowers,
sessile in the axils of the leaves or bracts. Calyx-tube ad-
herent to the ovary (but calyx and corolla wanting in Calli-
triche), the latter 2-4-celled (in Hippuris of a single carpel).
Limb of the calyx.minute or none. Petals small or none.
Stamens 1-8, Fruit indehiscent, a single seed in each cell.
Synopsis of the Genera.
1 Myriophy!'lum. Flowers monacious or polygamous, with the parts
in fours. Stamens 4or 8. Immersed leaves pinnately dissected
into capillary divisions.
2. Mippu’ris. Flowers perfect. Stamen, style, and carpel only one.
Leaves entire, linear, acute; in whorls of 8 or 10.
80 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLAN'ES.
3, Proserpina’ca. Flowers perfect, the parts in threes. Petals none.
Stems creeping at the base. Leaves alternate, the immersed ones
pinnately dissected.
4, Callit‘riche, Flowers moneecious. Calyx and corolla wanting.
Leaves entire, opposite. Staminate flower of a single stamen ;
pistillate flower a single 4-celled ovary. Fruit compressed, .4-
lobed, 4-celled, breaking up into 4 one-seeded pieces.
1. MYRIOPHYL’LUM, Vaill. Water-MiroiL.
1. M. spiea’tum, L. Stamens 8. Bracts ovate, entire,
shorier than the flowers. Leaves in whorls of 3 or 4.
Flowers greenish, in terminal spikes. Stems very long.—
Deep water.
2. M. verticilla’tum, L. Stamens 8. Leaves finely dis-
sected and whoried asin No.1. Bracts pectinate-pinnatifid,
much longer than the flowers, and the spikes therefore
leafy. Stem 2-4 feet long.—Stagnant water.
3. M. heterophyl’'lum, Michx. Stamens 4. Lower leaves
dissected, in whorls of 4or 5. Bracts ovate or lanceolate,
‘finely serrate, crowded, the lower ones pinnatifid. Stem
stout.—Stagnant or slow water.
4, M. tenel’lum, Bigel. Flowering stems nearly leafless.
Bracts small, entire. Flowers alternate, moncecious.
Stamens 4.—Borders of ponds.
2. MEPPU'RIS, L. Mare’s Tal.
H. vulga’ris, L. A perennial aquatic, with jointed erect
stem.—Muddy margins of ponds and streams.
3. PROSERPINA’CA, LL. MERMAID-WEED.,
P. palustris, L. (Mermarp-weep.) Low herb. Stem
creeping at base. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, sharply
serrate. Petalsnone. Stamens3. Fruit nut-like;3-seeded.
—Wet swamps, :
4. CALLIY RICHE, L. WaTER-STARWORT.
1. C. ver’na, L. Amphibious. Floating leaves obovate,
tufted; submersed leaves linear. Flowers monccious,
axillary, usually between a pair of bracts. Sterile flower a
single stamen; fertile flower @ single pistil with a 4-celled
ovary. Leaves beset with stellate scales.
ONAGRACEE. 81
2. C. autumna ‘lis. Growing under water. May be dis-.
‘tinguished from C. verna by its leaves being retuse and all
linear from a broader base, and its flowers without bracts.
OrpER XXXVII. ONAGRA’CEA, (Eveninc-Primrosz F.)
Herbs with perfect and symmetrical flowers, the parts of
the latter in twos or fours. Calyx-tube adherent to the
ovary, and usually prolonged above it. Petals and stamens
inserted on the calyx. Style 1. Stigmas 2 or 4 or capitate.
(See Part I., sections 44-47, for description of a typical
plant.) ;
Synopsis of the Genera.
1. Cirew’a. Petals 2, obcordate. Stamens 2. Stigma capitate. Fruit
bur-like,1-2-seeded, beset with hooked bristles. Delicate low plants
with opposite leaves and very small white flowers in racemes.
2. Epilo’bium. Petals 4. Stamens 8.-Calyx-tube hardly prolonged
beyond the ovary. Fruit a linear pod, many-seeded, the seeds p7'0-
_ vided with tufis of downy hairs.
3. Enothe’ra. Petals 4.. Stamens 8 Stigma’ 4-lobed or discoid.
Flowers yellow (white in one species), Calyx-tube much pro-
longed. Pods cylindrical or club- shaped. Seeds without tufts.
4. Gaw'ra. Petals 4,clawed and unequal. Stamens 8. Stigma 4-lobed, -
with a cup-like border. Calyx-tube much prolonged. Fruit hard
and nut-like, ribbed, indehiscent or nearly 80, few-seeded.
Flowers rose-coloured or white, turning searlet.
5. Ludwig’ ia. Petals 4, or none. Stamens 4. Calyx-tube not pro-
longed. Stigma capitate. <
~ 4. ChRC#’A, Tourn. Encuanrer’s NIGHTSHADE.
1. C. Lutetia’na, L. Stem 1-2 feet high. Leaves oppo-
site, ovate, slightly toothed. No bracts under the pedicels.
Fruit roundish, bristly-hairy, 2-celled.—Rich woods.
2. C. alpi’na, L. Stem low and delicate (3-8 inches).
Leaves cordate, coarsely toothed. Minute bracts under the
pedicels. Fruit club-shaped, soft-hairy, 1-celled.—Deep low
woods.
2. EPILO'BIUM, L: WILLOW-HERB.
1. EL angustifo’lium, L. (E. spica’tum, Lam.) (Guear
WILLow-HERB:) Stem 3-6 feet high, simple. Leaves lance-
olate, scattered. Flowers purple, very showy, in a terminal
82 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
raceme or spike. Stamens and style deflexed. Stigma of 4
long lobes.—Newly-cleared land. "
Var. caneseens, Wood, has white flowers and silvery pods.
2. E. hirsu’tum, L., is found about Niagara Falls. The
stem is tall, erect, and densely soft-hairy, with opposite _
Jance-oblong leaves. Flowers smaller than in No. 1, Fose-
purple, forming a leafy short raceme. Stamens- and style
erect.
3. E. panieula’tum, Nutt. Glabrous, or pubescent
above. Stem varying from 1 to 10 feet high, branching
above. Leaves narrowly linear, mostly alternate and fasci-
cled. Flowers few, small, terminating the spreading slender
and almost leafless branches. Stamens and style erect. ~
Stigma club-shaped.—Colpoy’s Bay, Lake Huron; and N.W.
4, E.linea’re, Muhl. (E. palustre, L., var. lineare, Gray.)
Stem 1-2 feet high, erect, slender, branching above, hoary-
pubescent. Leaves linear-lanceolate, nearly entire. .Flowers
small, corymbed at the ends of the branches, purplish or
white. Petals erect. Stigma club-shaped.—Bogs.
5. E. strietum, Muhl, (E. molle, Torr.) is occasionally:
met with. It differs from No. 4 chiefly in having the leaves
crowded, broader, and their points more obtuse. The petals
are rose-coloured.—Bogs.
6. E. palustre, L. Stem low, slender, and simple (about
a foot high), finely pubescent. Leaves erect or ascending,
sessile, lingar to linear-lanceolate, obtuse, with revolute
margins. Seeds roughened with points.—Atl. seacoast and
N.W.
7. E. colora’tum, Muhl. Stem 1-2 feet high; nearly ;
smooth, but with 2-4 hairy lines decurrent from the leaves,
the latter lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, serrate, with conspic-—
uous petioles. Flowers small, nana or less nodding,
corymbed. Petals pale, deeply notched. Coma, of the seed
brownish.—Not so common as the next.
8. E. adenocau’lon, Haussk. More glandular-pubescent -
than the last. Leaves abruptly contracted into short
ONAGRACER, 83
petioles. Flowers erect. Coma of the seed much lighter in
colour.—Common in wet places.
3. ENOTHE'RA, L. Eveninc PRimgose.
* Stigma-lobes. linear.
1. G&. bien’nis, L. (Common Evenine Primrosz.) Stem
2-4 feet high, hairy. ‘Leaves ovate-lanceolate. Flowers
yellow, odorous, in a leafy spike, opening in the evening or
in cloudy weather. Pods oblong, narrowing towards the
top.— Waste places.
Var. grandifio’ra, Lindl., has petals as long as the
calyx-tube.
Var. muriea’ta, Lindl. has rough-bristly stem and pods,
and petals rather longer than the stamens.
2. E. albicau'lis, Nutt. Flowers white, changing to
rose-colour, nodding in the bud. Stem white, and common-
ly glabrous.—N. W.
3. &. pumila, L. (SmariE.) Stem low, 5-12 inches high,
smooth or nearly so. Leaves I: nceolate or oblanceolate.
Pods nearly sessile, club-shaped, 4-angled. Flowers pale
yellow, opening in sunshine.—River and lake margins.
4, &. ehrysan’tha, Michx. Distinguished from the pre-
ceding by the orange-yellow flowers, and pedicelled pods, the
latter scarcely wing-angled. —Drier ground than the pre-.
cedi
me ** Stigma discoid.
5. &. serrula’ta, Nutt., var. Douglasii, Torr. and Gray.
A low and slender plant, with linear to lanceolate leaves.
Calyx-tube broadly funnel-form. Petals obovate.—N.W.
4. GAURA, L.
G. eocein’ea, Nutt. Hoary and very leafy, 6-12 inches
high. © Flowers small, in simple spikes.—N. W.
5. LUDWIG'TA, L. FALSE LOOSESTRIFE.
1. L. palustris, BU. (Water Purstane.) Stems creep-
ing in the mud of ditches or river margins, smooth. Leaves
opposite, tapering into a slender petiole. Flowers sessile,
solitary, usually without petals. Pod 4-sided.
84 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS. bs
2. L. alternifo'lia, L. (Szzp-nox.) Stem branching,
about 3 feet high, nearly smooth. Flowers yellow, conspicu-
ous, peduncled in the upper axils. . Leaves alternate, pointed
at both ends. Capsules wing-angled.—S. W. Ontario.
3. L. polyearp’a, Short and Peter. Stem 1-3 feet high,
erect and branching, but producing runners at the base.
Flowers small, sessile in the axils, with greenish petals or
none. eaves acute at both ends, those of the runners
oblong-spathulate, Bractlets at the base of the capsules
linear-awl-shaped.—S. W. Ontario, not common.
Orpen XXXVIII. MELASTOMA’CEH, (Mexasroma F.)
Low herbs with opposite 3-5-ribbed leaves. Calyx-tube
adherent to the ovary, the limb 4-cleft. Petals 4, showy,
convolute in the bud. Stamens 8, with 1-celled anthers
opening by a pore at the apex; these and the petals inserted
on the calyx. Style and stigma 1- Pod 4-celled, many-
seeded ; seeds coiled. The only representative with us is
RWEXEA, L. Dreesr-Grass. MEADOW-BEAUTY.
. R. Virgin’iea, L. Stem square, wing-angled. Leaves
oval-lanceolate. Petals purple.—Shores of the Muskoka
Lakes. ,
Orpen XXXIX. LYTHRA'CEH#. (Looszsrrirs F.)
Herbs, or slightly woody plants, with opposite or whorled
entire leaves, without stipules. Calyx enclosing, but Sree
from, the ovary. Petals and stamens inserted on the calyx,
Flowers axillary or whorled. . Style 1. Stigma capitate.
Synopsis of the Genera.
1, Lyth’rum. Petals mostly 6. Stamens mostly 6 or 12. Flowers
purple, solitary in the axils, or forming an interrupted spike.
Calyx-teeth with projections in the sinuses. Pod oblong, 2-celled.
2. Nesw’n. Petals 5 (rarely 4). Stamens twice as many, in two sets.
Pod 3-5-celled.
1. LYTH' RUM, L. Loosesrrire.
‘1. L. ala’‘tum, Pursh. Tall and wand-like. Flowers
solitary in the upper axils. Calyx-teeth often shorter than
CUCURBITACEE. 85°
tho projections between them. Petals deep-purple.—S. W.
Ontario.
2. L. Saliea’ria, L. (Sprkep Loosmstrirs.) More or less
downy and tall. Flowers purple, crowded, and forming an
interrupted spike. Stamiens twice as many as the petals, in
~two sets.—Atl. Prov. Also at Ottawa and opposite ‘Mon-
treal.
2. NESZ’A, Commerson, Juss. Swamp LOosEsrRire.
N. verticilla’'ta, H.B.K. . (Dec’odon verticillatus, Ell.)
Stems curving, 2-6 feet long, 4-6-sided. Leaves lanceolate,
mostly whorled. Flowers purple, in the axils of the upper
leaves. Calyx bell-shaped, with 5-7 erect teeth, with sup-
plementary projections between them. Stamens 10, exserted,
5 longer than the rest.—Swamps.
Orper XL. CUCURBITA’CEA. (Gourp Famity.)
Herbs, climbing by tendrils. Flowers monoecious. Calyx-
tube adherent to the 1-3-celled ovary. Corolla commonly
more or less gamopetalous. Stamens usually 3, united by
their tortuous anthers, and often also by the filaments.
Leaves alternate, palmately lobed or veined.
Synopsis of the Genera. —
1. Si'cyos. Flowers greenish-white, small; the staminate corymbed,
the pistillate clustered in a head on a long peduncle. Corolla 5-
cleft, with a spreading border. Style slender; stigmas 3. Ovary
‘T-celléd.. Fruit dry and indehiscent, prickly, bur-like in appear-
ance. '
2. Echinoeys'tis. Flowers whitish, small; the staminate in long
compound racemes, the pistillate in small clusters from the same
axils. Corolle 6-parted. Stigma broad, almost sessile. Ovary
2-celled, 4-seeded. Fruit fleshy, becoming dry, clothed with weak
prickles. .
1. SI'CYOS, L. STAR CUCUMBER.
S. angula’tus, L. A clammy-hairy weed in damp yards.
Leaves roundish heart-shaped, 5-angled or lobed.
2. ECHINOCYS'TIS, Torr. and Gray. WuLD BALSAM-APPLE. ,
E. loba’ta, Torr. and Gray. Climbing high about dwel-
lings. Leaves deeply and sharply 5-lobed, The oval fruit
2 inches long. ‘
‘
86 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
Orprr XLI. CACTA’/CEA. (Cactus Famtty.)
Very fleshy and commonly leafless plants; the stems
globose or columnar and angled, or of flattened joints, mostly
prickly. Flowers solitary, sessile, The numerous sepals
and petals adherent to the 1-celled ovary. Style 1, stigmas”
many. Fruita 1-celled berry with many seeds on the walls.
Synopsis of the Genera.
1. Mamilla’ria. Stems globose or oval, covered with spine-bearing
i tubercles, the flowers between these. ie
2. Opun’tia. Stems of flattened joints, bearing very small awl-shaped
leaves with clusters of bristles in their axils.
1. MAMILEA’RIA, Haw.
M. vivip’ara, Haw. Stems 1-5 inches high, the tubercles
bearing bundles of 5-8 reddish-brown spines, surrounded by
numerous grayish ones. Flowers purple.—N. W. plains.
2. OPUN'TIA, Tourn. PRICKLY PEAR.
0. Rafines’quii, Engel. Stem prostrate, deep green.
Bristles reddish-brown. Spinesfew. Flowers yellow, some-
times with reddish centre.—Point Pelee.
Orper XLII. FICOI’DEA. (Ice-Pianr Famity.)
A miscellaneous group, embracing plants formerly in-
cluded in Caryophyllacee and Portulacacee; differing,
however, from true representatives of these in having parti-
tions in the ovary. Petals wanting in our genus.
MOLLU'GO, L. CaARPET-WEED.
M. verticilla’ta, L. A prostrate much-branched herb,
growing in patches. Leaves spathulate, apparently verti-
cillate. Flowers on long axillary pedicels, clustered into a
sort of umbel. Sepals 5, white inside. Petals none.
Stamens mostly 8. Styles 3. Pod 8-celled, 38-valved, loculi-
cidal, the partitions breaking away from the many-seeded
axis.—Mostly in south-western Ontario,
#
UMBELLIFaRA. 87
Oxper XLITI. UMBELLIF’ERA, (Parsney Famity.)
Herbs with small flowers mostly in compound wmbels.
Calyx-tube grown fast to the surface of the ovary; calyx-
teeth minute or none. The 5 petals and 5 stamens inserted
on @ disk which crowns the ovary. Styles 2. Fruit dry,
2-seeded. Stems hollow. Leaves usually much cut. (See -
Part I., Chapter VIL., for description of a typical flower.)
Synopsis of the Genera.
§1. Seeds flat (not hollow) on the inner face. .
1. Hydrocot’yle. Umbels simple, or one springing from the summit of
another, axillary. Flowers white. Stem slender and creeping.
Leaves round-kidney-shaped.
2. Sanie’ula. Umbels irregular (or compound), the greenish flowers
capitate in the umbellets. Leaves palmately lobed or parted.
Fruit globular, covered with hooked prickles.
(In the Genera which follow, the umbels are regularly compound.)
3. Dauw’eus. Stem bristly. Leaves twice or thrice-pinnate, or pinna-
tifid. Bracts of the involucre pinnatifid, very long. Fruit ribbed,
the ribs bristly.
4, Meracie’um. Stem 3-4 feet high, woolly and grooved. Leaves 1-2-
ternately compound. Flowers white, the outer corollas larger _
than the others. Fruit wing-margined at the junction of the car-
pels, very flat. Carpels 5-ribbed on the back.
5. Pastina’ea. Stem smooth, grooved. Leaves pinnate. Flowers
yellow, all alike. Fruit as in No. 4.
6 Peuced’anum. Low acaulescent herbs, with spindle-shaped roots
and twice-pinnate leaves. No involucre; involucels of scarious-
margined (often purplish) lanceolate bractlets. Flowers white or
yellow. Fruit round, winged on the sides.—N. W. only.
7. Avchem’‘ora. Stemsmooth. Leaves pinnate, of 3-9 rather narrow ;
leaflets. Flowers white. Fruit broadly winged, flat, 5-ribbed on
the back. :
8 Archangel’/ica, Stem smooth, stout, purple. Leaves 2-3-ternately,-
compound. Flowers greenish-white. Fruit smooth, flattish on
the back, double-wing-margined, each carpel with 3 ribs on the
back. ¢
9. Conioseli‘num. Stem smooth. Leaves 2-3-pinnately compound, the
petiolés inflated. Flowers white. Fruit doubly wing-marginsd,
and with 3 narrow wings on the back of each carpel.
88. COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS,
10. Thaspium. Stemsmooth. Leaves1-3-ternately divided. Flowers
yellow. Fruit not flattened, 10-winged or ribbed.
11, Hthu’sa, Leaves twice or thrice ternately compound, the divisions
finely dissected. Noinvolucre: involucels of long narrow bract-
lets. Flowers white. Fruit ovate-globose, the carpels with 5
thick sharp ribs.
12. Ligus’ticum. Stem smooth, from large aromatic roots. Leaves
twice ternate, coarsely toothed. Flowers white. Fruit with pro-
minent acute ribs, having broad spaces between them.
"43. Zinta. Stem slender, smooth and glaucous. Leaves 2-3-ternately
compound. Flowers yellow. Rays of the umbel long and slender.
Fruit contracted at the junction of the carpels ; the carpels nar-
rowly 5-ribbed,
14. Cieu'ta. Stem streaked with purple, stout. Leaves thrice com-
pound, Flowers white. Fruit alittle contracted at the sides, the
carpels strongly 5-ribbed,
15. Carum. Stem erect, slender, smooth. Leaves pinnately decom-
pound, the divisions filiform. Roots tuberous. Flowers white.
Ribs of the ovate or oblong fruit inconspicuous.
16. Sium. Stem grooved. Leaves simply pinnate. Flowers white,
Fruit as in No. 10.
1% Cryptotz’nia. Stemsmooth. Leaves 3-foliolate. The umbels with.
very unequal vays. Flowers white. Friit nearly as in Nos. 10:
-and11.
‘
* §2. Inner face of each seed hollowed lengthwise.
_18, Buplew’rum., Stemsmooth. Leaves perfoliate, ovate, entire. No
involucre: involucels of 5 very conspicuous ovate mucronate
bractlets. Flowers yellow.
. Miuse’nium. Stem short, branching from the base. Flowers
yellow. @Leaves twice-pinnatifid. Roots spindle-shaped. No
involucre ; involucels 1-sided, of a few narrow bractlets. Ribs of
the ovate fruit slightly prominent.—N. W. only.
20. @smorrhi’za. Leaves large, 2-3-ternately compound. Flowers
white. Fruit linear-oblong, angled, tapering downwards into a
stalk-like base. Ribs of the carpels bristly upwards.
21. Co'nium. Leaves large,decompound. Flowers white. Fruit ovate,
flattened at the sides, 5-ribbed, the ribs wavy.
1
o
§ 3. Inner face of each seed curved inwards at top and bottom.
iw]
2. Erige’nia. Stem Icw and smooth. Leaves 2-3-ternately divided.
Fruit twin. Carpels nearly kidney-form. Umbels 3-rayed, small.
Flowers white. :
3 UMBELLIVERA. , 89
1, HYDROCOTLLS, Tourn.” Waren PEennywort.
H. America’na, L, Stém spreading and creeping,
very slender. leaves kidney-shaped, crenate, slightly -
lobed. Umnbels 3-5-flowered, inconspicuous, in the axils of:
the leaves.—Shady wet places.
2. SANICULA, Tourn. SaNicLe. BLAcK SNAKEROOT.
S. Marilan’diea, L. Leaves 5-7-parted. Staminate
flowers very numerous, and on slender pedicels. Styles long,
recurved.—Rich woods.
Var. Canaden’sis, L. Leaves 3-5-parted. A few stam-
inate flowers among the perfect ones, and on very short
pedicels. Styles shorter than the prickles of the fruit.—Low
rich woods, not so common. :
8. DAU'CUS, Tourn, Carrot.
D. Caro’ta, L. (Common Carrot.) Found wild occa-
sionally in old fields: In fruit the umbel becomes hollow
“Tike a bird’s nest.
4. HERACLEUM L. Cow-PaRsnip.
H. lana’tum, Michx. Umbels large and flat. Petioles
of the leaves spreading and sheathing. ‘Leaves very large ;
leaflets broadly heart-shaped, -deeply lobed. Low wet
meadows.
5. PASTINA’CA Tourn. PARSNIP.
P. sati’va, L. (Common Parsyip.) Found wild in old
fields and along roadsides. Leaflets shining above.
G. PEUCEDANUM, L.
1. P. nudieawle. Nutt. Pubescent. Peduncles 3-8 inches
high. Flowers white, in early spring.—N. W. : 4
2. P. villo’sum, Nutt., has yellow flowers.—N.W.
q. ARCHIEM'ORA, D.C. CowBANE,
A. rig’ida, DC. Calyx 5-toothed. Involucre almost none ;
involucels of many small bractlets.—Sandy swamps, south-
western Ontario.
90 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS. A
8. ARCHANGELICA, Hoffm. ARCHANGELICA.
1. A. atropurpu’rea, Hoffm. (Angelica atropurpurea,
L.) (Great ANGELICA.) Stem very tall (4-6 feet) and stout,
dark purple. Whole plant strong-scented. Petioles much
inflated at the base.—Marshes and low river-banks.
2. A. Gmel’ini, DC. Stem slightly downy at the top.
Involucels about as long as the umbellets. Plant but little
aromatic.—Rocky coasts; Atl. Prov. ,
9. CONIOSELI'NUM, Fischer. HEMLOCK-PARSLEY.
C. Canadense, Torr. and Gr. Stem 2-4 feet high.
Petioles much inflated. Leaflets of the involucels awl-shaped-
—Swamps.
10. THASPIUM, Nutt. MEraDow-PARSNIP. ‘
1, T. au’reum, Nutt. Stem 1-2 feet:high, angular-fur-
rowed. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate. Flow-
ers deep yellow. Fruit with 10 winged ridges, or in var. .
apterum with 10 ribs.—Dry or rich woods.
Var. trifoliatum, ¢ Coult. and Rose, is a far western
form. Leaflets crenate.
2. T. barbino’de, Nutt. Loosely branched, pubescent
on the joints. Leaflets ovate to lanceolate, coarsely cut-ser-
rate. Flowers light yellow.-—S. W. Ontario.
11. ZTHMU'SA, L. FOoOL’s PARSLEY.
A. Cyna’pium, L. A poisonous annual, with an un-
pleasant odour, found occasionally in cultivated grounds.
12. LIGUS'TICUM, L. Lovace.
L. Seot‘ieum, L. (Scorcsa Lovacs.) - Stem 1-2 feet high,
simple. Leaflets ovate. Fruit narrowly oblong.—Salt
marshes, Atl. sea-coast.
18. ZVZEA, DC. Zizta,
Z. integer’rima, DC. (Pimpinella integerrima, Benth.
and Hook., in Macoun’s Catalogue.) Stem slender, 1-2 feet
high, from a stout root stock. Involucelsnone. Plant
strong-scented.—Rocky hill-sides.
UMBELLIFERA. 91
14. CICUTA, L. Watrr-HEMLOcK.
1. C. maeula’ta, L. (Srorrep Cowsans. Braver
Porson.)\ Stem 3-6 feet high, purplish, smooth: Leaflets
ovate-lanceplate, coarsely serrate, pointed.—Swamps and low
grounds. ~
2. C.-bulbif’era, L., is easily distinguished from No. 1
by bearing clusters of bulblets in the axils of the upper leaves.
The leaflets, also, are linear.—Swamps and low grounds. .
15. CARUM, L. Caraway.
C. Car’ui, L. (Caraway.) Escaped from cultivation in
many places. ’
7 16. SIUM, L. WatTER-PARSNIP.
S. linea’re, Michx. (8. cicutewfoliwm, Gmelin, in Macoun’s
Catalogue.) Stem 2-3 feet high, smooth, furrowed. Leaf-
lets varying from lineax,to oblong, sharply pointed and ser-
rate. Fruit oblong or ovate, with prominent ribs.—Borders
of marshes usually in the water.
1. CRYPTOTE'NIA, DC. Honewort.
C. Canadensis, DC. Stem 1-2 feet high, slender. Leaf- |
lets large, ovate, doubly serrate. No involucre.—Rich
woods and thickets.
18. BUPLEU’ RUM, L. THOROUGH-WAX.
B. rotundifo’lium, L. Ballast-heaps.—Atl. Prov.,
19. MUSE'NIUM, Nutt.
M. divariea’tum, Nutt. Decumbent. Leaves glabrous
and shining, the divisions confluent with the winged rhachis.
Rather ill-smelling herbs.—N.W.
20. OSMORRMEWZA, Raf. SwrEET CICELY.
1. 0. longis’tylis, DC. (SmoorHEeR Swzet Cicety.) Stem
reddish, nearly smooth. Leaflets sparingly pubescent,
short-pointed. Styles slender, nearly as long as thé ovary,
- recurved.—Rich woods.
92 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
2. 0. brevis’tylis, DC. (Hairy Sweer Cicety.) Whole
plant hairy. Leaflets taper-pointed. Styles very short,
conical.— Rich woods,
21. CO'NIUM, L. Porson HEMLOCK.
C. macula’‘tum, L. Stem smooth, spotted. Leaflets
lanceolate; pinnatifid, pale green, with an offensive odour
when bruised. Involucels one-sided. Inner face of the
seed marked with a deep groove.— Waste places.
22. EREGE’NEA, Nutt. HarBINGER-OF-SPRING.
E. bulbo’sa, Nutt. Stem 4-6 inches high, from a tuber
deép in the ground, producing 2 leaves, the lower radical.
Leaflets much incised. Flowers few.—Alluvial soil.
OrveR XLIV. ARALIA’CEA. (Ginsenc Famtty.).
Herbs (with us) differing from the last Order chiefly in
having, as a rule, more than 2 style® and the fruit a drupe.
The umbels, also, are either single, or corymbed, or panicled.
Flowers often polygamous., The only Canadian genus is
ARA’/EYA, Tourn. Grinsenc. WILD SARSAPARILLA.
*Umbels corymbed or panicled. Petals, stamens, and styles each 5,
Frwit black or dark-purple.
1. A. pacemo’sa, L. (Sprxenarp.) Umbels in a large
compound punicle. Stem 2-3 feet high, widely branching.
Leaves very large and decompound ; leaflets ovate-cordate,
doubly serrate. Roots aromatic.—Rich woods. C
2. ‘A. His’pida, Michx. (Bristiy SarsaPaRiILtA. Wap
Exper.) Stem 1-2 feet high, bristly, leafy, somewhat
. shrubby at the base. Umbels 2-7, corymbed. Leaves twice-
pinnate. Leaflets sharply serrate. Fruit black.—Rocky or
sandy woods.
3. A. nudicau'lis, L. (Wirp Sarsapaniuta.) True stem
very short, sending up a naked scape bearing 3 or 4 long-
peduncled umbels at the summit, and one long-petioled leat,
ternately divided, and-with 5 leaflets on each division. Root
horizontal, aromatic.—Rich woods.
ARALIACEM CORNACEA., + 93
-** Umbel single, on along peduncle. Styles 2 or 3.
4, A- quinquefo'lia, Decaisne. (GinseNc.) Leaves in a
whorl of 3 at the summit of the stem, the latter a foot high.
Leaflets mostly 5, long-stalked.—Rich woods.
5. A. trifo’lia, Decaisne. Stem 4-6 inches high. Leaves
in a whorl of 3 at the sunmit, but the leaflets usually only 3,
and sessile.—Rich woods.
Orpen XLV. CORNA’CEZ. (Doewoop Famuity.)
Shrubs or trees (rarely herbs) with simple leaves. Calyx-
tube adherent to,the 1-2-celled ovary, the limb of the calyx
inconspicuous. Petals and stamens allepigynous. Stylel,
stigma flat or capitate. Fruit a 1-2-seeded drupe.:
Synopsis of the Genera.
1. Cornus. Flowers perfect (the parts in fours), either forming
cymes, or in close heads surrounded by a showy involucre
resembling a corolla, Leaves mostly opposite.
2. Nyssa. Flowers diceciously polygamous, the parts in. fives.
Leaves alternate, mostly crowded at the ends of the branchlets.
1. CORNUS, Tourn. CoRNEL. DoGwoopd. ~~
*Flowers in a@ close head, surrounded by a showy involucre of
4 white bracts. Fruit red. .
J. C. Canadensis, L. (Buncu-zerry.) Stem simple, .
5 or 6 inches high. Upper leaves crowded and apparently
whorled, ovate, the lower scale-like. Leaves of the involucre
ovate. Rich woods. ‘
2: ©. flor‘ida, L. (FLowexine Docewoop.) A small
tree, with opposite ovate pointed leaves. Leaves of the in-
voluere notched at the apex, very showy.—Rocky woods.
South-west Ontario.
ae Flowers (white) in flat cymes. No involucre. Fruit blue or white.
3. C. eircina'ta,. L’Her. (Rounp-tzavep Docwoop.)
A shrub 4-6 fect high, with greenish warty dotted branches.
‘Leaves opposite, broadly oval, white-woolly beneath, Fruit
light blue.—-Rich woods. :
94 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS. ~
4. C. serie’ea, L. (Smxy Cornet.) A large shrub
with purplish branches. Leaves opposite, narrowly ovate
or oblong, silky beneath. Branchlets often rusty. -Fruit
light blue. Distinguished from No, 3 by the colour of the
branches and the much smaller leaves.—Low wet grounds.
5. C. stolonif‘era, Michx. (Rxp-ostzr Doewoop.) A
shrub forming clumps by the production of suckers or stolons,
3-6 feet high. Branches bright red-purple, smooth. Leaves
opposite, ovate, roughish, whitish beneath. Fruit white or
whitish.— Low wet grounds.
6. C. panicula’'ta, L’Her. (Panictep Cornet.) A shrub
4-8 feet high, with erect, gray, and smooth branches.
Flowers white, very numerous. Leaves opposite, ovate-
lanceolate, taper-pointed. Cymes convex. Fruit white.—
Thickets and river-banks.
7. C. asperifo'lia, Michx., (RoveH-Luavep Docwoop)
is reported by Macoun as common on Point Pelee. Branches
brownish, the branchlets rough-pubescent. Leaves oppo.
site, rather small, oblong or ovate ; rough above, downy
beneath. Fruit bluish or white.
8. C. alternifo'lia, L. (ALTERNATE-LEAVED’CorNuL.) A |
large shrub or small tree, with alternate greenish branches
streaked with white. Leaves mostly alternate, oval, acute at
each end, crowded at the ends of the branches. Flowers
yellowish, in loose cymes. Fruit deep blue, on reddish
stalks,—Thickets.
2 NYSSA, L. PeprrRipcs. Sour-GumM TREE.
N. sylvat/ica, Marsh. A middle-sized tree with hori-
zontal branches, reported from Niagara and south-western
Ontario. Sterile flowers in dense axillary clusters, with small
calyx, and small fleshy petals or none. Stamens mostly 10, but
sometimes fewer. Fertile flowers in clusters of 3-8, at the
summit of a slender axillary peduncle, larger than the stam-
inate ones. Style revolute. Ovary 1-celled. Drupe ovoid,
bluish-black, about half an inch Jong.
CAPRIFOLIACEA, 95
Il. GAMOPET’ALOUS DIVISION.
Embracing plants with both calyx and corolla, the
latter with the petals united (in however slight a degree.)
Orpen XLVI. CAPRIFOLIA’CEH. (Honzysucxie F.)
Shrubs, rarely herbs, with the calyx-tube adherent to the
ovary, the corolla borne on the ovary, and the stamens on
the tube of the corolla. Leaves opposite and without
stipules, but some species of Vibur’num: have appendages
resembling stipules. Fruit a berry, drupe, or pod.
Synopsis of the Genera.
*Corolla tubular, sometimes 2-lipped. Style slender.
1, Linne’a. A trailing or creeping herb, with evergreen ovalcrenate
leaves and slender scape-like peduncles which fork at the top
into 2 pedicels, each of which bears a pair of nodding narrowly
bell-shaped purplish flowers. Stamens 4, 3 shorter than the
others.
2. Symphoricar’pus. Upright branching shrubs, with oval entire
short-petioled leaves, Fiowers in interrupted spikes at the
_ends of the branches, rose-coloured. Corolla bell-shaped, 4-5-
lobed, with as manystamens. Berrieslarge and white, 4-celled,
but only 2-seeded.
3. Lonice’ra. Upright or twining shrubs, with entire leaves.
Corolla funnel-form, more or less irregular, often with a pro-
jection on one side at the base. Berry several-seeded.
4, Diervilla. Low upright shrubs with ovate pointed serrate leaves.
Calyx-tube tapering towards the top, the teeth slender. Flowers
light yellow, peduncles mostly 4-flowered. Corolla funnel-form,
nearly regular. Pod slender-pointed.
5. Trios‘teum. - Coarse herbs. Lobes of the calyx leaf-like. Flowers
brownish-purple, sessile in the axils of the leaves. Corolla
bulging at the base. Fruit a3-seeded orange-coloured drupe.
** Oorolla rotate or urn-shaped, regular, 5-lobed. Flowers
white, in broad cymes,
6. Sambucus. Upright shrubs with pinnate leaves; the leaflets
serrate. Stigmas 3. Fruit purple or red, a juicy berry-like
~ drupe, with 3 seed-like stones.
7. Viburnum. Upright shrubs with simple leaves, and white
flowersin compound cymes. Fruita 1-seeded drupe.
i 4 :
96 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
1. LINNA'' A, Gronov. TWIN-FLOWER.
L. borea’lis, Gronov.—Cool mossy woods and swamps.
2. SYMPHORICAR'PUS, Dill. SNOWBERRY. 4
1. S. raeemo’sus, Michx. (SvowseRny.) Corolla bearded
inside. Flowers in a rather loosespike. Var. pauciflo’rus,
Robbins, is low, diffusely branched, and spreading, with two
or three flowers only, in the axils of the uppermost leaves.—
Dry rocky hill-sides. '
2. S. oceidenta'lis, Hook. (Wotrszrry.) Flowers in
denser spikes than the last, and with larger and more funnel-
form corolla and longer stamens. Corolla much bearded ~
‘within.—N.W.
3. LONICERA, L, HonrysuckLE. WoopsiNe.
1. L. parviflo’ra, Lam. (LZ. glauca, Hill, in Macoun’s
Catalogue.) (Smatt Honrysucnis.) Twining shrub, 2-4 feet
high, with smooth leaves which are glaucous beneath, the
upper ones connate-perfoliate ; corolla yellowish-purple.—
Rocky banks. ;
2. L. hirsu’'ta, Eaton. (Harry Honzysuckiz.) Stem
twining high. Leaves not glaucous, very large, downy-hairy,
the upper ones connate-perfoliate. Flowers in close whorls ;
corolla greenish-yellow, clammy-pubescent.—Deep thickets.
3. L. ‘Sullivan’tii, Gray. Twining. At length glacous-
whitened. ® Leaves oval and ovate-oblong, mostly connate on
the flowering stems. Corolla pale yellow.—N.W.
4. L. eilia’ta, Muhl. (Fiy-Honzysuckir.) A: branch-
ing, straggling shrub, with thin oblong-ovate ciliate leaves,
Peduncles axillary, filiform, shorter than the leaves, each
2-flowered at the top. Corolla greenish-yellow, almost
spurred at the base. The two berries separate.—Damp
woods.
5. L. eeru’lea, L. (Mounrain F,) Smaller (1-2 feet
high), and with upright branches. Leaves oval. Ovaries
united into one berry,—Kastward and ‘northward.
* CAPRIFOLIACEA, 97
6. L. oblongifolia, Muhl. (Swamp Fiy-Honrysuckte).
A shrub with upright branches, and oblong leaves, Peduncles
long and slender, 2-flowered. Corolla deeply 2-lipped.
Berries united at the base.—Swamps and low grounds.
7. L. involuera’ta, Banks, is at once recognized by the
involucre of four leaf-like bracts under the two flowers.
Corolla yellowish, viscid-pubescent, Berries dark-purple.—
Woods and banks of streams, Atl. Prov. and N.W.
4. DIERVIL'LA, Tourn. BusH-HIONEYSUCELE.
D. trif'ida, Mcench.—Rocky woods and clearings.
5. TEIOS'TEUM, L. FEVER-woRt.
T. perfolia’tum, L. A coarse herb, 2-4 feet high, soft+
hairy. Leaves oval, narrowed at the base. Fruit orange-
coloured.—Old clearings and thickets.
6. SAMBU'CUS, Tourn. ELDER.
1. §. Canadensis, L. (Common Exper.) Shrub 5-10
feet high, in clumps. Leaflets 5-11, oblong. Cymes flat.
‘Fruit black-purple.—Open grounds, and along streams.
2. S. racemo’sa, L. (S. pubens, Michx.) (Rep-BERRIED
Etprr) may be distinguished from No. 1 by its warty bark,
brown pith, 5-7 leaflets, convex or pyramidal cymes, and
red berries.— Rocky woods.
ro VIBUR'NUM, L. ARROW-WooD. LAURESTINUS.
1. V. Lenta’go, L. (Swerr Visurnum. SHEEP-BERRY.)
A small tree, with ovate finely-serrate pointed leaves, with
long and margined petioles. Cyme sessile. Fruit black.—
Along streams,
2. V. eassinoides, L. (Wirse-rop.) A smooth shrub
with somewhat scurfy shoots and tall straight stems.. Leaves
thickish, entire or wavy-toothed, dotted beneath. Cymes
with short peduncles, about 5-rayed. Fruit blatk.—Cold
swamps.
3. V. pubes’cens, Pursh. (Dowxy Arrow-woop.) A
_. Straggling shrub, not more than 4 feet high, with small ovate
98 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
coarsely serrate leaves, the lower surface soft-downy. Cymes
small. Fruit-oblong, dark-purple.—Rocky places.
4. V. acerifo’lium, L. (Marix-reavep A. DockMAckIE.)
A shrub 3-6 feet high, with greenish bark. Leaves 3-lobed,
3-ribbed, soft-downy beneath. ‘ Stipular appendages bristle-
shaped. Cymes small, on long peduncles. Fruit red, be-
coming black.—Thickets and river-banks.
_ 5. V. Op’ulus, L. (Crawpurry-trze.) An upright shrub,
5-10 feet high, with strongly 3-lobed leaves, broader than
long, the lobes spreading and pointed. Cymes peduncled.
Marginal flowers of. the cyme very large and neutral. .
Stipular appendages conspicuous. Fruit red, pleasantly
acid.—Low grounds.
6. V. paueiflo’rum, Pylaie. A low shrub, Leaves 5-
ribbed at the base, serrate, with 3 short lobes at the summit.
Cyme few-flowered. Stamens shorter than the corolla. Fruit
red, sour, with a very flat stone.—Cold woods, Atl. Prov.
chiefly. ’
7. V. lantanoi’des, Michx. (HoBBLE-BUsH.) A straggling
shrub with reclining branches. Leaves large, round-ovate,
heart-shaped at the base, serrate, many-veined, the veins
underneath and the stalks‘and branchlets very rusty-scurfy.
_ Stipular appendages corigpicuous. Cymes sessile, very broad
and fat, with very conspicuous neutral flowers on the margin.
—Moist woods.
Orper XLVII. RUBIA’‘CEA. (Mapper Famizy.) «-
Herbs or shrubs, chiefly distinguished from the preceding
Order by the presence of stipules between the opposite
entire leaves, or by the leaves being in whorls without
stipules. Calyx superior. Stamens alternate with- the
(mostly 4) lobes of the corolla, and inserted on its tube.
Ovary 2-4-celled. ,
RUBIACEA, 99
Synopsis of the Gencra.
Gallium. Leaves in whorls, Slender weak herbs with square
stems. Calyx-teeth inconspicuous. Corolla’ 4-parted, wheel-
shaped. Styles 2. Fruit twin, separating into two 1-seeded
carpels.
mr
2. Sherard'ia. Leaves in whorls. Stems square, slender, procum-
bent. Corolla funnel-form, 4-5-lobed. Calyx-lobes lanceolate.
Flowers blue or pinkish, with a gamophyllous involucre.
. Cephalan'thus. Leaves opposite, Shrubs with the flowers in a
. globular peduncled head. Lobes of calyx and corolla each 4.
Style very slender, much-protruded. Stigma capitate.
we
4, Mitchel'la. Leaves opposite. Shining trailing evergreen herbs,
with flowers in pairs, the ovarics united. Lobes of calyx and
corolla each 4, the corolla bearded inside. Style 1, Stigmas 4
Fruit a red 2-eyed berry.
. Mousto’nia. Leaves opposite. Low and slender erect herbs, with
the flowers in small terminal clusters. Lobes of calyx and
corolla each 4. Stylel. Stigmas 2.
~
1. GA’LIUM, L. BepstRAW. CLEAVERS.
1. G. Apari’ne, L. (Creavers. Goosz-crass.) Leaves
about 8 in a whorl, lanceolate, rough-margined. Peduncles
‘1-2-flowered, axillary. Fruit covered with hooked prickles.
Low grounds.
2. G. triflo‘rum, Michx. (Swzer-scentep BrEpsrRraw.)
Leaves chiefly 6 in a whorl, elliptical-lanceolate, bristle-
pointed. Pedunclés 3-flowered, terminating the branches.
Fruit covered with hooked prickles. — Woods.
3. G. pilo’sum, Ait. Leaves in whorls of 4, hairy, oval.
Peduncles twice- or thrice-forked.—Southwestern Ontario.
4. G. laneeola‘tum, Torr. (Witp Liquvoricz.) Leaves
all in whorls of 4 each, lanceolate, tapering at the apex, more
or less 3-nerved. Peduncles mostly once-forked. Flowers
few or several, remote. Fruit covered with hooked prickles.
5. G. cirese’zans, Michx., is similar to No. 4, but the
leaves are obtuse instead of tapering.— Woods,
100 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLAN'S.
6. G. Kamtsehat'ieum, Steller, has leaves orbiculiur to
oblong-ovate, and corolla yellowish-white and glubrous.—
Mountain woods, Atl. Prov.
;
7. G. asprel’‘lum, Michx. (Roveu Bipsrraw.) Leaves
in whorls of 6, or 4 or 5 on the branchlets, elliptical-lanceo-
late, very rough on the edges and midrib, Stem weak, 3-5
feet high, leaning upon and clinging to bushes by its rough
edges. Flowers numerous in panicled clusters. Fruit not
rough. Thickets.
8. G. trifidum, L. (Smarty Bepsrraw.) Leaves in
whorls of 4-6. Stem 6-18 inches high, roughened on the
edges, as are the leaves usually. Flowers few, not panicled.
Ports of the flowers generally in threes. Fruit smooth. Var.
latifolium, Torr., is easily known by its broad leaves and
widely branching stems.— Low grounds and swamps.
Var. tineto’rium, Torr. and Gray. Stem taller and
stouter, with nearly smooth angles. Peduncles 3-7-flowered.
Corolla-lobes and stamens 4.
9. G. borea‘le, L. (Norruern Bepsrraw.) Leaves in
whorls of 4, linear-lanceolate, 3-nerved. Flowers very
numerous, crowded in a narrow and compact terminal
panicle. Stem erect and rigid, 1-3 feet high.— Rocky
thickets and river-banks.
° 2. SHERARD'IA, Dill.
S. arven’sis, L. Sparingly naturalized.
3. CEPHALAN TUS, LL. ButTron Buss.
C. oecidenta'lis, L. A smooth shrub growing in swamps,
with ovate petioled pointed leaves, which ‘are opposite or in
-whorls of 3. Easily recognized by the globular head of
white flowers.
4. MITCHEL'LA, L. ParrripGe Berry.
M. repens, L.—Common in dry woods. Leaves round-
ovate, shining, sometimes with whitish lines.
VALERIANACEA, 101
‘5. HOUSTO'RTA, L, Hovusrontia.
1. H. purpu’rea, L. Stems tufted, 3-6 inches high.
Leaves varying from roundish-ovate ‘to lanceolate, 3-5-
-ribbed, sessile.— Woodlands.
Var. longifo'lia, Gray, has thinner oblong- lanceolate to
linedr leaves, and is lower.—Chiefly N.W..
2. H. exrwiea, L. (Buvets. Invocence.) A ‘slender
herb with erect stems, A single flower on each slender
peduncle. Leaves oblong-spathulate. Corolla light blue to
nearly white, with a yellowish eye and a long tube.—Moist
‘grassy places, Atl. Prov.
Orper XLVIII. VALERIANA’CEH. (Vacerran F.)
Herbs with opposite exstipulate leaves, and small eymore
flowers. Calyx-tube adherent to the ovary, the latter 5-
celled, but only one of these fertile. Stamens 1-3, fewer than
the lobes of the corolla. Style slender. Stigmas 1-3. The
only common genus is
WALERIA'NA, Tourn. VALERIAN.
1. V. sylvat‘iea, Banks. Not uncommon in cedar-swamps.
Root fibrous. Calyx-limb consisting of several bristles rolled
inwards in the flower, but expanding in fruit. Corolla
gibbous at the base. Stamens 3. Root-leaves ovate or
oblong, entire ; stem-leaves pinnate, leaflets 5-11. Stem
erect, striate, 1-2 feet high.
2. V. ed’ulis, Nutt. Root spindle- shaped, save: Flowers
in a long and narrow interrupted panicle, nearly dicecious.
Stem-leaves deeply pinnatifid.Low ‘grounds; western
Ontario.
Orpen XLIX. DIPSA’CEA. (TEaseL Famtty.)
Herbs with the flowers in heads, surrounded by a many-
-leaved involucre, as in the next Family, but the stamens are
distinct. Leaves opposite... Represented in Canada by the
genus
102 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS,
DIP’SACUS, Tourn, TEASEL.
D. sylves’tris, Mill. (Witp TzasrL.) A stout, coarse,
prickly plant, not unlike a thistle in appearance, Flowers
in oblong very dense heads, bluish. Corolla 4-cleft. Sta-
mens 4, on the corolla. Bracts among the flowers terminat-
ing ina long awn. Leaves generally connate.—-Roadsides
and ditches. Very common in the Niagara district, but
found also elsewhere. .
Orpen L. COMPOSITA. (Comrosirs Famity.)
Flowers in a dense head on a common receptacle, and sur-
rounded by an involucre. Calyx-tube adherent to the ovary,
its limb either obsolete or forming a pappus of few or many
bristles or chaffy scales, Corolla either tubular or with one
side much prolonged (strap-shaped or ligulate). Stamens
usually 5, on the tube of the corolla, their anthers united
(syngenesious). Style 2-cleft. (See Part I., sections 60-62,
for examination of a typical flower.) :
The heads of flowers present some variety of structure.
All the flowers of a head may be tubular ; or only the central
ones or disk-flowers, as they are then called, may be tubular, -
whilst those around the margin, then known as ray-flowers,
are ligulate or strap-shaped. Or again, all the flowers may
be strap-shaped. It is not unusual also to find a mixture of
perfect and imperfect flowers in the same head.
The bracts which are often found growing on the common
receptacle among the florets are known as the chaff. When
these bracts are entirely absent the receptacle is said to be
naked. The leaves of the involucre are called its secles.
Artificial Synopsis of the Genera.
Susorper I. TUBULIFLO/RA.
Heads either altogether without strap-shaped corollas, or
the latter, if present, forming only the outer circle (the ray).
Ray-flowers, when present, always without stamens, and
often without a pistil also.
COMPOSIT#. 103
A. Ray-flowers entirely absent.
* Scales of the involucre in many rows, bristly-pointed, or fringed.
+ Florets all perfect.
1. Cni'cus. Leaves and scales of the involucre prickly. Pappus of
long plumose bristles. Receptacle with long soft bristles among
the florets. Flowers reddish-purple.
2. Car’duus. Resembling Cnicus, but the bristles of the pappus
are not plumose. Atl. Prov.
3. Onopor'don. Leaves and scales of the involucre prickly.
Heads much asin Cnicus, but the receptacle naked, and deeply
honeycombed. Pappus of long bristles, not plumose. “Stem
winged by the decurrent bases of the leaves. Flowers purple.
4. Are'tium,. Leaves not prickly, but the scales of the globular in-
volucre tipped with hooked bristles. Pappus of many short
rough bristles. Receptacle bristly. Flowers purple.
Verno’nia. One species has scales of the involucre somewhat
bristly. See No. 15.
orming a kind of false ray.
5. Centaure’a. Leaves not prickly. Scales of the involucre
Fringed. Pappus double and bristly, or very short or none.
Receptacle bristly.
+++ Sterile and fertile florets in separate heads, i.e., monecious.
Fruit a completely closed involucre (usually bristly) containing only
one or two florets, these heads sessile in the axils of the bracts or
upper leaves. Sterile heads with more numerous florets in flattish
involucres, and forming racemes or spikes. Pappus none.
6. Xan'thium. Fertile florets only 2 together in burs with hooked
prickles, clustered in the axils. Sterile heads in short spikes
_ above them, the scales of their involucres in one row only, but
not united together.
7. Ambro'sia. Fertile florets single, in a closed involucre armed
with afew spinesatthetop. Sterile headsin racemes or spikes
above, the scales of their involucres in a single row and united
intoa cup. —
8. Franse’ria. Inflorescence much like that of Ambrosia, but the
fruiting involucre is armed with a number of long flat and thin
spines.—N.W. i
++Marginal auld often sterile, and much larger than the others,
* * Seales of the involucre without bristles of any kind.
+ Marginal florets without stamens.
++Pappus none or minute. Receptaclenaked. Very strong-scented
herbs,
104 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS. .
9. Tanace'tum. Flowers yellow, in numerous corymbed heads,
Scales of the involacre dry, imbricated. Pappus 5-lobed.
Leaves dissected.
10. Artemis’ia. Flowers yellowish or dull purplish, in numerous
small heads which are panicled or racemed. Scales of the
‘involuere with dry and scarious margins, imbricated. Achenes
with narrow top.
+++Pappus of all the florets bristly. Receptacle naked.
11. Erechti'tes. Flowers whitish. Scales of the involucre in a
singlerow, linear, with afew bractlets at the base, Corolla of the
marginal florets very slender. Pappus copious, of fine soft
white hairs. Heads corymbed. Erect and coarse herbs.
12, Gnapha’'lium. lFlowers whitish or yellowish. Scales of the
- involucre yellowish-white, in many rows, dry and scarious,
woolly at the base. Outer corollas slender. Pappus a single
row of rough bristles. Flocculent-woolly herbs.
13. Antenna'ria. Very much like Gnaphalium in appearance, being
white-woolly, but the heads are usually diecious, and the
bristles of the pappus thicker in the sterile florets.
+ +All the florets in the head perfect.
13, Amtenna’ria, with dicecious heads, may be looked for here.. See
previous paragraph. :
Bidens. One or two species have norays. See No. 41.
Sene'cio. One species is without rays, See No. 19.
14, Lia’tris. Flowers handsome, rose-purple. Receptacle naked.
Pappus of long and slender bristles, plumose or rough. Achenes
slepder, 10-ribbed. Lobes of the corolla slender, Stem wand-
like, leafy, froma corm or tuber. Leaves narrow or grass-like,
15, Werno’nia. Flowers purple. Scales of the involucre (with us)
.with slender bristly tips. Reccptacle naked. Pappus double,
dhe outer minute, the inner capillary, Branches of the style
long and slender, minutely bristly.
16. Eupato/‘rium. Flowers white or purple. Receptacle naked.
Pappus of slender hair-like bristles, smooth or nearly so.
Achenes 5-angled. Heads in corymbs. Leaves whorled, or
connate, or opposite.
+++ Marginal florets pistillate and fertile, those in the centre of-
the head staminate and sterile. Rzceptacle chaffy. Pappus
wanting, :
a
13.
kK.
19.
2):
21,
, 28.
23.
25.
_COMPOSITA, 105
Caewlia. Flowers white or whitish. Heads 5-flowered, rather
large, in flat corymbs. Jnvolucre 5-leaved. Receptacle naked,
bearing a scale-like pointed appendage in the centre. Corolla
deeply 5-cleft. Pappus of numerous capillary bristles,
Iva. Marginal pistillate florets 1-5, with very small tubular
corolla or none. Staminate florets with funnel-form 5-toothed
corolla, Anthers neariy separate. Achenes very short.
Coarse plants with small greenish-white nodding heads. N.W.
Rays or strap-shaped corollas round the margin of the head.
* Pappus of hair-like bristles. Receptacle naked.
Sene’cio. Rays yellow, or in one species none. Scales of the
involucre in a single row, or with afew bractlets at the base.
-Pappus very fine and soft. Heads corymbose. Leaves alter-
nate. =
In’ula, Rays yellow, numerous, very narrow, in a single row,
Outer scales of the involucre leaf-like. Anthers with two tails
at the base. Stout plarts, with large alternate leaves which
are woolly beneath. ‘
Chrysop’sis. Rays yellow, many. Disk yellow. Pappus double,
the outer of very small chaffy bristles, the inner capillary.
Low hairy herbs.—N. W. only.
Aplopap’pus. Rays yellow, many. Disk yellow. Pappus sim-
ple, of unequal bristles._N.W. only.
Solida’go. Rays yellow, few, as are also the disk-florets. Invol-
ucre oblong, scales of unequal lengths, appressed. Achenes
many-ribbed. Heads small in compound racemes, or corymbs.
Stems usually wand-like. Leaves alternate.
1. Ar‘niea. Raysyellow. Disk yellow. Scales of the bell-shaped
involucre in two rows, lanceolate, erect. Receptacle flat, min-
utely fringed. -Achenes slender. Leaves opposite. Heads
showy, with long peduncles. Stem simple.
Tussila’go. Rays yellowish, in several rows, very narrow.
‘Involucre nearly simple. Pappus copious, soft. A low peren-
nial, with creeping rootstocks, sending up ascaly scape in early
spring bearing one head, and producing later heart-shaped
angled or toothed leaves, woolly when young.
. Petasi‘tes. Rays whitish or purplish. Heads ina corymb, fra-
grant. Scales of the involucre in asingle row. Heads some-
what dicecious, the staminate with one row of pistillate ray-
flowers, the pistillate with ray-flowers in many rows. Woolly
herbs, with large leaves, cll radical, and sheathing Healy bracts
on the scape.
L
106 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
27. Aster. Rays white, purple, or blue, never yellow, but the disk
generally yellow. Pappus of numerous fine roughish bristles,
(in one species double}, Acheénes flattish. Heads corymbed or
racemose. Flowering in late summer.
28. Evig’eron. Rays and disk asin Aster, but the rays very narrow,
and usually in more than one row. Scales of the involucre in
one or two rows, nearly of equal length. Pappus of long
bristles with shorter ones intermixed. Heads corymbed or
solitary. Leaves generally sessile.
**Pappus not of hair-like bristles, but either altogether wanting or
consisting of afew chaffy scales or tecth, or only a minute crown,
+ Receptacle naked.
29. Grinde'lia. Rays yellow, many. Disk yellow. Heads large,
Pappus of 2 or 8 rigid awns, falling off early. Scales of the
involucre with spreading tips. Coarse herbs with sessile ser-
rate leaves.—N.W. chiefly.
30, Gutierre’zia. Rays yellow, few. Disk-florets 3 or 4. Heads
numerous, small, crowded. Pappus of a few short chaffy
scales.
41. Bidens. Rays yellow, few; but 2 speciesare without rays. Scales
of the involucre in 2 rows, the outer large and leaf-like. Ray-
florets neutral. Aohenes crowned with 2 or more stiff awns
which are barbed backward.
42, Heliop’sis. Rays yellow, 10 or more, pistillate. Scales of the
involucre in 2 or 3 rows, the outer leaf-like. Receptacle coni-
cal; chafflinear, Achenes smooth, 4-angled. Pappus none,
43, Achille’a. Rays white (occasionally pinkish), few. Receptacle
flattish, Pappus none. Achenes margined, Heads-small, in
flat corymbs. Leaves very finely dissected.
44, Pelym/‘nia. Rays whitish-yellow, wedge-form, shorter than the
involucre, few in number. Scales of the involucre in 2 rows,
the outer leaf-like, the inner small, and partly clasping the
achenes. Pappus none. Coarse clammy herbs with an un-
pleasant odour.
45, Sil’‘phium. Easily known by its stout square stem, and the
upper connate leaves forming a sort of cup. Flowers yellow.
+ Achenes broad and flat,
"
108 COMMON CANADIAN WILD PLANTS.
Sunorper Il. LIGULIFLO'RE.
Corolla straprshaped in all the florets of the head. ~All
the florets perfect. Herbs with milky juice, and alternate
leaves.
46. lirig’ia. Flowers yellow. Pappus double, the outer short, cf
many minute chaffy scales, the inner of many long capillary
bristles. Low perennials branching from the base, with single
small heads on scapes.
47. Lamp’sana. Flowers yellow, 8-12in ahead. Scales of the invol-
ucre 8,in a single row. Pappus none. Stem slender. Heads
small, in loose panicles.
48, Cicho'rium. Flowers bright blue, showy. Scales of the invol-
ucre in 2 rows, the outer of 5 short scales, the inner of 8-10
scales. Pappus chaffy. Heads sessile, 2 or 3 together.
49, Leon‘todon. Flowers yellow. Involucre with bractlets at the
base. Pappus of plumose bristles, these broader at the base.
Heads borne on branching scapes. Leaves radical.
50.. Miera’cium. Flowers ycllow. Scales of the involucre more or
Iess imbricated. Pappus a single row of tawny hair-like rough
bristles. Heads corymbose.
51. Crepis. Like Hieracium, but the pappus is of copious white
and soft capillary bristles.
. Prenan’‘thes. Stems leafy. Flowers yellowish or grecnish-white
often tinged with purple; heads nodding. Involucre of 5-14
scalesin a single row, with a few bractlets below. Pappus
copious, of brownish or yellowish rough bristles, Achenes
shorly blunt.
or
bo
- §3. Lygodes'mia. Stems nearly leafless. Flowers white or cream-
coluur or ‘pinkish. Involucre with bractlets below. Pappus
white. Heads erect. Achenes long, tapering.—N.W. only.
54. Trox’imon. Flowers yellow. Head large, solitary, borne on a
scape. Leaves radical, elongated, linear, tufted. Achenes 10-
ribbed. Involucre loosely imbricated inf 2 or 3 rows.—N.W.
only.
55. Tarax’acum. Flowers yellow, on slender naked hollow scapes.
Achencs prolonged into a slender thread-like beak. Leaves all
radical. (See Part I., Chapter viii.)
56. Lactu’ca. Flowers pale yellow or purplish. Florets few (about
20) in the head. Scales of the involucre in 2 or more rows of
COMPOSITAL. 109
unequallength. .........00004 207
Bidens ...... Mi recess 130
Bindweed sccsessevevassavcese 114
Birch oasis siersieigsanierarntemnsasier
BirchFamily.........
Birthwort Family .
Bishop’s Cap ..
Bitter-Cress....
Bitter-Nut ...
Bittersweet ..... eduiceememanm es LID
Black Alder.. .. 145
Blackberry....... «070, TL
Black Bindweed sia seeiee, 19D.
Blaek Graae, ow osinsessavevecan ~ 245
Black Horehound............... 167
Black Mustard....... a oes 22
Black Snake-root...... savaoysehe + 9, 89
Bladder Campion ............... 383
Bladder Fern ................... 264
Bladder-Katmia.. 389
Bladder-Nut ........... . 47
Bladder-pod .....cseusserseeeevee 19
INDEX. 903 .
Pace. Par.
Bladderwort..............ce0ee08 149 Bugloss ..... 0... .0cececeeeeaneee 169
Bladderwort Family....... -++». 149| Bunch-berry... - 93
Blazing-Star..... tha oecheate aroate 114 | Bupleurum..... 91
Blit@visiades asada curwincievcslncegs 185 | Burdock........... 110
Blitom ..............0..., sence 185 | Bur-Marigold .... 130
Blood-root.........0.000000- vie. 14] Burnet ........ » 65
Blue ASh.. 20.0... . ce. cece eee 182 acer Daan i + 46
Blue Beech...................... 207 | Bur-reed .. 220
Blueberry ........c.ececceceee eee 139 Bush-Clover..... $1
Bluebottie......0000cccscs0cse 110 Bush-Honeysuckle . 2
Blue Cohosh .......esscscsee 1, (AMR Besaititartnnesis BE
Blue: Bla gs caciass swoon: 235 Battercup.........
EUG e cig senieree ede cacct! 101 | Butterfly-weed.
Blue-eyed Grass ................ 236 aa ina od CA aa 3 202
Blue Lettuce.......... ...... eee 134 ciphaaaiiies a
Blue-weed........... scgivigne nares 168 eae
eee a Button-bush .
Boehmeria .............. oe essiatenais 201 Buttonwood 201
Boneset ........cceeececeesee eens 115 POE hg oe] Sa aaa
Borage Family....... ¢ 160) CREAR. osstnancesiaecvond ee 115
BORRAGINACEZ. - 167} CACTACEZ. 86
Botrychium......... . 266| Cactus Family.. 86
Bouncing Bet ,. 82 | Cakile. 25
Bowman’s Root 65 | Calamintha..... 165
Box Elder......... 48 | Calaminth .. 165
Bracted- Bindweed . 178 | Calamus... 218
Bracken ........ 260 | Calla.... 218
Brake .... 260 | Callitriche . 80
_Bramble 70 | Calluna ... 142
Brasenia . 12 | Calopogon . 233
Brasssica........... . 22) Caltha.. 8
Bristly Sarsaparilla é . 92) Calypso. » 238
Brooklime......-. a 153 | Calystegia 173
Brook-weed......... 148 } Camelina ... . 24
Broom Crowberry.... - 218 | Campanula ......... is Satay Sacha .- 136
Broom-rape Family CAMPANULACE. ........... 136
Brunella ....... Campanula Family ............ 136
Buckbean... Campion........... 33
Buckthorn ........ Camptosorus. . 261
Buckthorn Family... Cancer-root ... ciara -. 150
Buckwheat ...... Asis aidieevta cio 193 | CANNABINE .........0.600seeeee “199
Buckwheat Family. ............ Cannabis..... Wiis cipisibaciecee sieeve UL
Buda Caper Family ....... AeeneRn eee » 25
Bugbane......... aamsaarn casi sae CAPPARIDACE.......... an. BE
Bugseed......... eeesccecsecssess 186 | CAPRIFOLIACEZE’...,....... 95
Bugle-weed ......ssecsesercuesee 162 | Capsella.........005 wineaniaviests 24s
294 INDEX.
PaGE. PaGeE.
Caraway sscceci di sedewertecnneet 91 | Chickweed-Winterberry........ 146
Carduus.........+5 bcs Chimaphila .............00. eee 144
CATER: cc.tanzeis oe Chiogenes.......... ieirelefeinin ts ve. 141
Cardamine.... Choke-berry ..........0ceeceeeee 3
Cardinal Flower............... - 185 | Choke-Cherry...... aupiagattaisiora elated 64
Carpet-weed .........cc0ee ee eee - 86) Chrysanthemum....>........... 126
Carpinus Chr ysopsis-evcscesscaasacncenmaes 116
Carrion Flower.............+06+ 237 | Chrysosplenium..............++ »
Carrot... SSG LeMesieniane eae . 89] Cichorium... 3
Carum +» 91] Cichory.....
CALYD a vaciiscccenssninasacnacmsd 202 | Cicuta.......
CARYOPHYLLACEA...... «» 32] Cimicifuga.......... ccc eens 8
Cashew Family.............-.66 43 | Cinnamon Fern..............+.- 266
CASINO asi jracenqussewrass rene 142 | Cinque-foil ..............2.ee eee . GT
Castanea .........e cece eee eee 206 | Circe ....ccceeee ee eee eee ene
Castilleia........... ces eee eeeaee - 157| Cirsium.......
Catbrier........ cc gceeece eee ee ee . 237) CISTACEZ ..
Catchy... ....csceceereeeeer eee + 83) Claytomia....cecccecceeee eee eee 37
Catmint........ececeeeee seen ee ee 165 | Clearweed...........cee ee eeee ees 201
Catnip... ccc ccceeeee eee eee ee 165 | Cleavers...... setielereretenientston tee 99
Cat-tail Family..............4- + 219 | Clematis ...........ccseeeee eee 3
Cat-tail Flag sc ceicsiewcescemesens 220 | Cleome....... s, 25
Caulophyllum................65 Cliff-brake........ 260
Ceanothus.... Climbing-Bittersweet. 46
Cedar ....... Clintoniticcecscsce 240
Celandine ............ cee eee ees Clotbur........ .1u
CELASTRACEA Cloud-berry ..... 70
Celastrus iysisiiiciocesareye caceisin sieve Cloverasscssee aie ape +. 52
Celtis ..... Club-Moss......... 269, 270
Centaurea....... Club-Moss Family .. .» 269
Cephalanthug,..............-+. Cnicus ........ eee 109
Cerastium.......seeeeeeeeeeee ee « 85) Cockle........065 -. 38
CERATOPHYLLACE ...... 218 | Cocklebur.........cescceeceeeeee 111
Ceratophyllum.................. 213 | Cockspur Thorn ............... a aS
Chain-Fern ... COmOSH 2... .cccccscreeseseeencees 11 «
Chamezrhodos . COMiNnsta 06 wscdsiandoostomnase nas 155
Chamomile... Collingonia.........0.. 02 ccc eee 164
Charlock ... Collomia ....
Chelidonium . Coltsfoot ....
Ghelone............. Columbine .........0.e. ee ce cee 8
CHENOPODIACEX. 184] Comandra...........
Chenopodium ....... + 185 | Comfrey........scccee cece cece ee
Cherry ........ = 64] COMPOSIT ZB .... woe eee eee 102
Chestnut ......... 206 | Composite Family.............. 102
Chickwecd ............005 tieanesvarni 34 | Comptonia .....cccseceeesseesees 204
PaGE.
Cone-Flower ..........seeeee cece 127
CONTIFERAL. ...........c0cce ee 214
Conioselinum .................04 90
GOMIMIN sisi ascasaevyedins severe 92
CONOPRGNG:. a vcscstannancca sania 150
CONVOLVULACES .......... 173
Convolvulus ..... pila ae lanvesenoveas
Convolvulus Family
COPS sass cunsavy iatewy xe oa Bees
Corallorhiza
Coral-root ..... 2. cence eee
OOQOMG i vac sesiurvsewmiie cary oxi g
Coreopsis..............2.04.
Corispermum
CORNACE.Z a
Corn-Cockle................ tues
OPTS be Sesh cake disteauyh on ae ee
Corn-Spurrey ............-..004. a7
COPNTS 6% csafaraiecaidtpirerl ae Moreen viieiee 93
Corpse-Plant.................004 144
GCorydaliss:..ia6¢:ss:00 ss coccunduhs 16
CORPUS 2 yiscgisicstcdcinuelsa de Glue 207
Cost APY sivcsrs senicecaiy ok satan 127
Cotton w00d csies ca sesidw ts eaawewey 22
COWDANG sess wiccutns ws teats axe Saar 89
Cow-herb... 2 cs0ccc csi ca ceees 32
Cow-Parsnip...........-...-0005 89
Cowslip ...:.......5 :
Cow-Wheat
(Crab-Apple........5--...... eee 8
Cranberry.....c. ee cece eee cee ene 139
Cranberry-tree.............02.46 98
Cranesbill..............0--ecceae 41
CRASSULACEZ . 78
Crategus............5.. 72
Creeping-Snowberry 141
OFapis. coum scesnce sss 133
Cress Family...
Crowberry Family..
_Crowberry ..... 218
Crowfoot ...... . 6
Crowfoot Family , » 2
CRUCIFERZ.... 16
CRYPTOGAMS 252
Cryptotenia.....
295
PAGE.
Cuckoo-flower........seeesseeeee 19
CUCURBITACE............. 85
Cudweed ......scenceseccseseeees 113
Cup=plant eee is sccaseacewer caine 131
CUPRESSINEE ....... aisintes edrete anal 215
CUPULIFERZ ........0...005 204
Currant ..........4 eaenisie ¥e gee 15
COseutsncicsrcevnn bislie scoters dates 174
Custard-Apple Family.......... 10
Cycloloma ...... iiuhes babe uss .. 186
Cynoglossum ..........2..0e eee . 169
CYNCHA sans secneaacnn save se Saye
CYPERACEAL.............0005
Cy persis ics ssiscesitinasare oa eicinerdes
Cypripedium. . ....c0.. 25 ces seee
Cystopteris...............000+ ay 264
Daisy sisicases 2 cs cignger ex eatess . 127
Daisy Fleabane ++» 126
Dalibarda .. ~10
Dandelion. . 184
Daphne....
Datura...
Daucus....
Day Lily...
Dead-Nettle:. 167
Deer-berry ... 141
‘Deer-Grass. 84
Delphinium. 9
Dentaria... 19
Desmodium 59
Dewberry .. val
Dianthera 159
Dicentra . 15
Dicksonia..........+4+ 265
| DICOTYLEDONS .. 1
Diervilla......... 97
Dioscorea ........ 236
DIOSCOREACEZ. 236
Diplopappus...... 124
Diplotaxis. .. 23
DIPSACEZ. 101.
Dipsacus.. . 102
Direa....+. - 194
Disporum ,...,......055- veveeeee 241
296
Ditch-stone Crop........
DOCK oie:sseaivienaawise's be
Dockmackie ....
Dodder ....
Dodecatheon ..............000. 008 146
Dogbane ....../.... 179
Dogbane Family................. 179
Dog’s-tooth Violet.............. 242
Dogwood .......... 93
Dogwood Family... 93
Downy Arrow-wood . 97
Draba..sceeesecees 23
Dracccephalum . 165
Dragon-head .. 165
Drosera ........ 30
DROSERACE 42 380
Duckweed..... 219
Duckweed Family... 218
Dutchman’s Breeches .......... 15
Dwarf Dandelion ....
Echinocystis.........-00-.0...005
Echinospermum .
Behn sonsaseuss
Eel-Grags......... Q
ELAAGNACES ...
Elecampane............:....ce0s 116
Bleoch aris win sienccacorrnineeeaiiess 250
Mb igtays: sciciscuracsassitowrnrnendee neta 2
Elm........ BD gcescniasnnumiis
Elm Family................00006
EHlodea ............6556 asin
BOGS wisisstesesiseoaisiesecinareae oeeee 31
EMPETRACES............... 213
Bm PetPim «0... seneesen 213
ENDOGENS............... 217
Enchanter’s Nightshade. 81
Bleed sisiarsisiaisarsscidisiss visas 141
Epilobium............ 81
Epipactus.............. 232
Epiphegus............. 150
EQUISETACE A . 267
Equisetum,,............. . 267
Erechtites .............065
ERICACE Ai
ERICINEE ..
Erigenia
Eig CT OD iors aisisiciseversinss. daierenatiogias
Eriogonum.
Eriocaulon ....
ERIOCAULONACE .
Eriophorum.................0005 250
POPOL OND isseseia) oc aisse/Sescitieiaiaseoynieie oo 42
Erythronium.................066 242
HEVSUNAW ic ccniinracamenar seta 21
EVORYMUS pyjcvcverssansencves saw 46
Eupatorium ............. 60. .ceee 115
Buphor dla wviceeesccaaieiesiee scans 196
EUPHORBIACEZ............ 195
HOODY AS is ii cewiwnses teGmnenon 157
Evening Primrose.............. 83
Evening Primrose Family ..... 81
Everlasting..................
Everlasting Pea.
Fagus oie cvieseaseaenaansiie.
Fall Dandelion.
False Asphodel
False Dragon-head.............. 166
False Flax .......
False Gromwell
False Hellébore
False Indigo....
False Lettuce
False Loosestrife ............... 83
False Mallow... 39
False Mermaid.. 42
False Mitre-Wort a7
False Nettle..............0....., 201
False Pennyroyal .. « 168
False Pimpernel..............., 156
False Solomon’s Seal 241
False Spikenard..... Peancavankoion 241
Fern Family..................., 257
‘| FERNS .............. Ade preneage 252
Fetid Horehound..
Fever-bush .......
Feverfew ........... cence eeeeeee
Fever-wort...........-6..0008 ie. OF
FICOIDEZA............c cee ee 86
Figwort ,......:0ccccee cece ee eeee 155
Figwort Family................. 151
Filbertias cawisens sewers of tortor 207
WILIGES 5 ee ssascaisseiniee. cx veces 257
Ri oesditesaig acess oo eale Meraean se AMS 216
Fire- PUNT NE av isdinedioeosarcseeie pia saceets 33
Flax Dodder ..
Flax Family ...........0..:.ee0e
Fleabane ...........0:seee eee eee
Floating-Heart .
Floorkea......cccce ccc ce eee r en eee
Flower-de-Luce ........ 6025005 235
Flowering Fern......... vee 265
FLOWERING PLANTS spa aaa 1
FLOWERLESS PLANTS .... 252
Foal’s Parsley . «+2 s000++ i tanies 90
Forget-me-not ........6+---.0005 171
Fragaria ......ce cece cece eee ee 69
Framseria ....... sc cece ee cece eee Ti
Frasera oc ce cee ese eee cen ee eee 177
“ WraxinuS.....cseceeeee eee eee eens 181
French Weed ......06..sesereeee “94
Frog’s-bit Family ...........+++ 226
Frostweed.........sceere seen eee 29
Pumaria <.......0.-0e eee cess
FUMARIACEZ
Fumitory.......-..++-
Fumitory Family
Gaillardia
Galeopsis.
Gallium .......00e cece eee eee
GAMOPETALOUS EXOGENS 05
GBT C a cinas vx towed ioe Se +s ads GREE 243
Gaylussacia Haevawern +9 aeaen nee aia ‘139
Gentian ............0.
Gentiana
GENTIANACE.. . 116
Gentian Family ............... 2176
GERIANACE Bh... oc .ccrevss ess » Al
Geranium «: «2 cecees cee os oe 41,
Geranium Family............... 4
Gerardia oo... cee eee eee iceaee 156
Germander........... sc cee eee 162
GOUMs eters wees ae emeataen aencias 66
Giant-Hyssop ............00 scene “165
Gillenid:siccacvanwi ie wsnwawien tee 65
RA ganar is eaaien ein xo amma 173
GINSENG asievinies ce sacemargeeesss 92
Ginseng Family ...........-..65 92
GIAO: sons ecsa tine onsets
Gleditschia
Glycyrrhiza...
Gnaphalium
Goat’s Beard
Golden Aster....
Golden Ragwort ........--.6.5+ 115
Golden-Rod ....... 0.00: eee ce eens 117
Golden Saxifrage
Gold-Thread .......
Goodyera.........0ceeee
Gooseberry.......
Goosefoot .........6-5
Goosefoot Family
Goose-Grass......c.eee cece eens
Gourd Family...........+ adidas 85
GRAMINE Bo ssscccees canncnacasa 251
GYADE 5 ss encsosoveaiemasiees ees 45
Grass Family .............0. see 251
Grass of Parnassus ...........-+ 1%
Grass-wrack ........00eeeeee eee 224
Gr atiOla . ccsiceiccsceacaicie rs conene 156
Great Angelica ...........--..-+ 90
Green Ash
Green-brier
Green Dragon
Green Milkweed .
Green Violet
298 INDEX.
PAGE. PAGE.
Ground Cherry..........0....0005 175 | Heracleum ...........5:e seen eee 89
Ground Hemlock................ 216 | Herb-Robert ..... 41
Ground Ivy ..............2...008 165 | Hesperis ......... 22
Ground Laurel.................. 141 | Heteranthera 247
Ground-nut.............5.....008 59 | Heuchera .. 78
Ground-Pine..................-. 270 | Hibiscus . 39
Groundsel ..................00008 115 | Hickory ... 202
“Gutierrezia.......... eee 126 | Hieracium ... 132
Gymnocladus ................... G2 Hippuris ..... 80
GYMNOSPERMG.............. 214 | Hoary Pea....... 57
Hoary Puccoon...
HMabenariaaiciccisie cs on ss yecesscees 229 aaa
Hackberry .....06. cscs esse eeesee 200 Hopweed
Hen sissies cons pete vs oo awake ii Holly a
HALORAGEAL..............0.. TO ae 7 Saati oboe aiis
HAMAMELACES............. 79 cua tinea | i
Hamamelis....... seduced ovo da oh = Honeysuckle ... 96
Harbinger-of-spring....... 92 Honeysuckle Family . 98
Harebell voshesciics veronica 186 Honewoxt Be
Hart’s-Tongue............. 261 ALG ote ates ot
TEE Dire een epeete 2 Hop-Hornbeam................4. 207
Hawthorn.............- 72 Hop-tree 8
Hazel-nut .............. 207 Horehound . ” 466
Heal-all...........00... 166 Hovnbeain 207
Heather... Bist Viste cuba 142 Horned Pondweed i
Heath Family.......... 137 Howiwout 218
Hedéarhe oe a6e Hornwort Family. s 213
Hedge Bindweed... 173
u ., | Horse-Balm ..... «. 164
Hedge-Hyssop........0......-005 156 Horse-Mint.. ae
Hedge-Mustard ................. 22 Hovaeradlsht seins as
EL tetas Horsetail ....00...00000ccceeeeee 267
fina og | Horsetail Family... 0... 267
a ee ee nad alk HOESG-WOGd. cncaces iavssunccncns se
HOSA CA esccie seisiszis v4 a sianerscngsesives
Sassi We Hound’s Tongue
Helioneis * Houstonia ee ee
ee | Huckleberry ...........0...0...4 139
Hemlock-Parsley ............... “90 oe ‘nes ee po
ie ape Huntsman’s Cup.......seeeeeeee 13
Hemp Family ...... : an Hy dr astis s ccisiesscieiiaiss vseasies . 9
Hemp-Nettle........... HYDROCHARIDACEZ ...... 226
Henbane............... Hydrocotyle..............600.. 08 89
Hepatica .............45 HYDROPHYLLACEZ..,...... 171
”
PAGE. PAGE
Hydrophyllum ........ rea 172 | Kalmia............... racbetteteingrs tools 12
; FVOSC YANG
~ POLYPETALOUS EXOGENS. 1| Quercitron ..........5...ccee eee 205
POLYPODIACEH.. 1... cece eee 257 | Quercus .
Polypodium ....-.....:e eee eee 459'| Quill Wort je souoss coomasuniee nes 271
Oly DOGY ss 5 sisieisiern’siccsions Ws iors sre 3
PoME..... Radish ....... 25
~. Pondweed...- Ragweed 1
_Pondweed Famil G Seiad nSss lines Ragwort ......... 116
RANUNCULACEAS. 2
Ranunculus........ . 6
-Raphanus.. 25
Raspberry....... 70
Rattlesnake-Plantain . 232
Rattlesnake-root.. . 133
Rattlesnake-weed....... 132
304 INDEX.
PAGE
Rein-Orchis..... aioyieiatdioiereictoaiuene 229
RHAMNACEAD ....... ccs eee 45
FRAAMNUS, sic ces eiediewes Saew riers 45
ROR os soiicesnvwiscawraainnesses 84
Rhinanthus .......0.-.ce ee eee eee 158
Rhododendron areas sie aya sararilce 142
RUS) sesisesvaies ax caeaeesveneeas 44
Ribes.......... act stoic evceactecan eld tig 75
RID-STASS se:caeeesereees se avers 148
Rich-weed .......000.:sseeeeeees 201
Robinia 2... cece eee eee cece ee eens 54
Robin’s-Plaintain .............. 125
Rock-Cress.... ce cee cee esee eee eee 20
Rocket ............. iss inve senatasraees 22
Rock-Rose ........0 cee ce wee eee 29
Rock-Rose Family...... seaneiinategiea 29
SROSA te sraouieaina tacemomaeuranert 7
RROSC is asians saseitiaie tpranee weteei vegans 7
ROSACEAS wesiewiae aniesremeusiarears s 62
Rose Family.............0.00005 62
Rose Bay....leeccceecee scene eens 142
Rose Mallow...........:000ee0es 39
RoSO-1O0b scene ccevece renner 79
Rosin-Plant..........csseeeeeeee 181
RUBIACEZ%
RODS s gene ceciarscecieongye :
Rudbeckia 00... .cccse cere e een ees
Rue Family
RUMECX ancsusasasa seg enreeees
RUShssies ceommasaaacwenewsd
Rush Family
RUTACEA.
Secchi
“Sagina..... sjatein SeaheRN URE ia dies
SRSA LIN i icceis seve eieitea ths Snide wishes
St. John’s-wort ..........c eres
St. John’s-wort Family......... 30
SALICACEAE ............. . 209
Salicornia.............05. 186
Sali Xs. casi canccaiscnaawas 209
SAlSilY wisaiedsaieuccwsinasione
Salsola
SALVINIACA.
Sambucus ........ ccc eee een eee 97
Samolus.....cecces esse cece een eee 148
PAGE.
Samphire .........-008+ Aauetnien 186
Sandalwood Family ........+-.- 195
Sand-Spurrey .....-....-eeee eee 36
Sand wort....0. cc. steceen seen cere 34
Sanguinaria ...........6-.. eee ee 14
Sanicle...... raiasivaraievararive Bakeuavigieaate 89 ©
Sanicula.......... saa sade ugd ittcsatssee 89
SANTALACEA........ novacuineas 195
Sea Blite... vee 187
SAPINDACEZE sassscirisnves 47
Saponaria.........0-eceseeee eens 32,
Sarracenia ......rcccseeecceceeas 13
SARRACENIACE........... 18
Saskatoon-berry .......+. . 4
Sassafras ...........+ 193
Satureia............ 164
Saururus .......... ‘ 183
SAV OTS sisi ersicisicaaiecee 164 -
Saxifraga ...... See T7
SAXIFRAGACEA.,. 15
Saxifrage .......... 17
Saxifrage Family. . vb)
Scheuchzeria...... 225
Schollera 247
Scirpus..... 250.
Scolopendrium....... 261°
Scotch Thistle -». 110
Scouring Rush.............. 267, 269
Scrophularia............+ ae. 155
SCROPHULARIACEZ » Lal
Scutellaria.. 166
Sea Milkwort, 147
Sea Rocket... 2A
i 248
. 3
Selaginella. aie
SELAGINELLACE.
Self-Heal .....
Seneca Snaker
Senecio .......
Sensitive Fern .
Service-berry.
Shad-bush ...
Sheep-berry..
Sheep-Laurel ..
‘oot
, Pacr
Shepherdia ..... Bich atetares ane waists 195
Shepherd’s Purse
Sherardia ............
Shield’s Fern...........
Shin-leaf..... ay avand ideancetvaine wa ceeeras 143
Shrubby Trefoil................ 43
Bieklepod) ccc: ceouye ce seen aoe
BICVOS cx ceieeey evan cee ;
Side-saddle Flower
SHON Gi aces. Aanedaeae Sy aianiien
Silphium.....
Silver-weed ...........0..00c000s
Sisymbrium..................-08
Sisyrinchium a
SIU wiacwewwa ss, cvmats by Sauter s
SEMIN G8D siisigssie tens ers vaca
Skunk Cabbage................ 218
Smart-weed ................ 190, 191
SMILACEA ..............00005 237
Smilacina.................. cee ee 241
SMAAK: ic eeu laisarernisvaisis ecco te wee 237
Smilax Family................. 237
Sneeze-weed ...............0-00 126
Sneeze-wort.......... ccs eens eee 18L
Snow berry isscswws os cao cir os vas 96
Soapberry Family............. - 4
Soapwort........0+..cceeeeeeeeee 32
SOLANACEAE ............. ye 14
Solanam, sass ssc on apenas eee 175
SOG i eisise sieisrsnsicin et veseuhe A wsactatsiee 28
SOQ 20. osc ccies anger eg speeeneees LIT
Solomon’s Seal ..............565 242
SOnGHGS: 6208000 -c0:. cid eeuebes 134
SOrrel is sshcnioy te raterus viewers 192
Sour-gum Tree ............6-60+ ‘94
Sow Thistle...............-0.00+ 134
Sparen ceppesecns gs vans vn 220
Spearmint vec cececew ca cewre ses 163
Spearwort .........---se scene eee 6
- Specularia ........ 6. cece eee e eee 137,
Bpeedwellorcncsecessmereresened 153
« Spergula....csscccess Aieaii tied pat 37
“ Spergularia ....0.... cece eee e eee 36
Spice-bush ...........5.ceeeeeees 193
INDEX. < 305
Spikenard .....-.:...eeeceeeeeee 92
PAGE.
Spindle-tree .....,..ccccceeeeees 46
Spiny Clotbur ....... sieaieeien vane DAT
Spireea .........065 cagnaniee es ate
Spiranthes..
Spleenwort................
Spotted Cowbane
Spring-Beauty
Spring Cress...
Spruce ..
Spurge .......
Spurge Family
Spurred Gentian..
Spurrey ..........
Squaw-Huckleberry .
Squaw-root...
Squaw-weed ..
Squirrel-Corn
Stachys....
Staff-tree.....
Staff-tree Family.
Staphylea......
Star-Cucumber. .
Star-Flower.... 4
Star-Grags.........-.ce eee e ee ears
Star-Thistle............ semaertes ©
Starwort Bice ay
Statice .
Steironema .......
Stellaria ............. ia
Stickseed oiiec soc cides os oe veqeees
Stitchwort
Stone-crop &%
Stone-root........ 60sec eee eee
Stramonium .
Strawberry ..........000+
Strawberry Blite
Streptopus ...........
Strophostyles ............5.
Struthiopteris ...........
SOBda. caecceede seceean
Succory......- rash slauaenes
Sugar-berry ..........066
Sumach ..........+-+
. 176
306
SUNGOW? sas sxcssommecncwiaaerwear
Sundew Family ..
Sunflower .......... eign tatond
Swamp Dock................0065 192°
Swamp Loosestrife ............. 85
Sweet Brier ............00.00006 72
Sweet Cicely ..........0.0cseeeee 91
Sweet Clover ....:.cseccseseeens 53
Sweet Coltsfoot ............0..0. 121
Sweet PGi iss ssemscamasscns 204
Sweet Flags .isccisie cin ces aces 218
Sweet-Gale....ccccseeeeseee eens 203
Sweet-Gale Family. .
Sycamore ........c cece cece eee
Symphoricarpus................ 96
‘Symphytum ................00 ee 169
Symplocarpus ..........-...505- 218
PRT AT NG: iss citinjaiesesinsstnoeaeretenapcspass
Tanacetum
Tansy ....- + sana Sennen aaa: 11
Tansy Mustard
Tape-Grass.o..........02.008
Taraxacum.
Tare
Tear- thumb .
Teasel
Teasel Family
Tephrosi@@.........0..0..0000058
Teucrium
Thalictrum
Thaspium .
Thermopsis .
Thistle ...
Thorn ...
Thorn-Apple..
Thoroughwax ............. aad
perce ail bidy 7
INDEX,
Tick-Trefoil ...
Toad-Flax |
Tobacco
Tofieldia
Toothache-tree ..
TOOthwork pcossswmevaer aes 19
Touch-me-not .......6.0.008 43
Tower Muster, «ss newen esse 20
Trailing Arbutus ............2. 141
Tragopogon
TVOGCLE-MUBUAT seiccnseeseseves 21
ADVE LOU Sie: cibsasasaaseaiaimiace wsettvoney anise 52
MP TAN COTS sion scuncnasumamenainaeaicy 146
PY TCO MUM iis ave siaiscaceiaid Sesser vicina a ioare 52
Priglochin v2s casisiciesaecivsa seen 225
TrilinMescsos: sessaueacaraccte 240
Triosteum: sescissscanineos snares 97
THOXINION suoseuawesnewn sceninenem 133
Trumpet-weed ...........--.-005 115
DSU als Pervernsaiisiecidscusen.e eabaeca
TUBULIFLOREZ
Tulip-tree .....
Turtle-head .
DSA 0 ss cxwswn yes netrnmaereiy
Twablade: ciycssenowarreensaaes
Twin-flower
Twin-leaf ..0........ cee eee e ee
Twisted Stalk ........-......008 241
DY DNA’ sets scicssrcsornosarsiea aww
TYPHACEZ .
INDEX. 307
PAGE. PaGE.
Valeriana......cceceeeseceree ees 101 | Water-Milfoil Family.......... 19 -
VALERIANACESE 0... 101 | Water-Parsnip.............0.005 91
Valerian Family........-.00.055 101 | Water-Pennywort ........ er:
Vallistherlacsiiseacerveceawesses 226 | Water-Pepper .....0........005- ..191
WEL CG1OOE ig i 06 bein Dawes aopnce 89 | Water-Pimpernel...... iach ead . 148
Venus’s Looking-glass ......... 187 | Water Plantain...............05 225
Veratrum ......... 6 reece eee 241 | Water-Plantain Family. Reina - 224
Verbaseum..............e eee e ee 153 | Water-Purslane..........6.0005 83
VOL Bde sieaeenvewrnne wars amma - 159] Water-Shield .........cceeecee03
VERBENACEM.......... eee 158 | Water Star-Grass. .............. 247
Vernonia... xxcr.cneesees soos 114| Water-Starwort .............006 80
Veronica BPs isinvascichsrtscuaradecscaryciOnciegs 153 | Water-weed...........0ccceceeus 296
VeOrvain ... ccc cee ee ce cece ee eas 159 Water-Willow ...
Wax-Myrtle......... “Reale paraetere
WAX WOrl’ cnsiessccciwemwngevenis
White Lettuce...... Foueswieee aries 133
White Snakeroot............... 115
WCW eine inseam cern sine n noni 126
Whitewood.......0.0c.cccecseeee 39
Whitlow Grass..............0065 28
Whitlow-wort............. cree 183
: Wild Albepleeies iiss cowseene rain 193
Violet Family.... Wild Balsam-Apple ..... een 85
Viper’s Bugloss.. - 168) Wild Bean........0.00.c0c cece
Virginia Creeper 45| wild Bergamot .............0065
Virgin’s Bower .. 3 Wild Chamomile
VITACE Zs .... 44) Wild Comfrey ..........00..0005
VUtIS ooo e ee reece eee treet 45 | Wild Elder...........00..000000s
5 Wild Ginger ...............2.005
Wake-Robin'.........:.0ece eee 240 | Wild Indigo .....
Waldsteinia.. 66 | Wild Liquorice...
Walking-leaf .. . 261 | Wild Radishyeic: Goce aunts
Walnut ........ . 262 | Wild Sarsaparilla
Walnut Paani, evervarwine WilloWsecsicessesaesve sci ee
Water-Arum. Willow Family Saiddidinw oAS Neier
Water-Beech Willow-herb
Water-Cress ....... Wind Flower ..
Water-Hemlcck ..............46 Winterberry
Water-Horehound .............. 163 | Winter Cress
Waterleaf.......... 172 | Wintergreen...............- 141, 143
Waterleaf Family.............. 171 | Witch-Hazel......... sa EEelens . 9
Water-Lily 2.0.0.0... .0cece eens 13 | Witch-Hazel Family ........... 79
“Water-Lily Family .. . Withe-rod... cae csccsceccecseces 97
Water-Marigold ...............+ Wolf-bDerry..cccssecscces sees vee 98
Woater-Milfoil............0.000ee 80
Wolds cscsscsyrcescanesreecesen 21D
1 i)
308 INDEX.
PAGE. Paar.
Wood-Betony ....ccccccesereeces VSS] VAM .ccececscccenvcuucssecceeans 236
Woodbine........++
Wood-Fern ....
Wood-Nettle...
Wood-Rush ..... » 244
Wood-Sage .. 162
Woodsia ..... 235
Wood-Sorrel .......00eeeeee eens 42
Wood-Sorrel Family, siitdetseleSebninn 42
Woodwardia . » 261
Worm-seed Mustard....... Seagge 18
Wormwood . cecsererccrrere seme LT2
Xanthium........ 111
Xanthoxylum..... 43
XYRIDACE A& 247
9.64 a Cement ior cortorerin ees 2
Yellow ‘Adder’ ‘s- Zoneue.
Yellow-ey ed Grass...... aateg BAL
Yellow-eyed Grass Family..... 247
Yellow Pond-Lily ........ iets 13
Yellow Puccoon........... aise 39)
Yellow-Rattle.....
Yellow Rocket..
Mew scissieis