Theiate e: Ge Cornell Mniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Sage 1891 A MLE EOD nsivisiinniripnesinros AYE MA... oo University Library SB 45.W aT mann Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924000686406 GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE HARDIEST AND MOST BEAUTIFUL ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS HARDY HERBACEOUS AND BULBOUS PERENNIALS HARDY WATER AND BOG PLANTS FLOWERING AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS -CONIFERS ;s HARDY FERNS; HARDY BAMBOOS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL GRASSES ALSO THE BEST KINDS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES THAT MAY BE GROWN IN THE OPEN AIR IN THE BRITISH ISLANDS WITH FULL AND PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS AS TO CULTURE AND PROPAGATION By JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.HLS. LATE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, HORTICULTURAL LECTURER TO THE MIDDLESEX COUNTY COUNCIL, FORMERLY OF THE ROYAL GARDENS, KEW, ETC. ‘Then let the learned gardener mark with care The kinds of stocks, and what those kinds will bear; Explore the nature of each several tree, And, known, improve with artful industry. And let no spot of idle earth be found, But cultivate the genius of the ground’—ViRGIL (Dryden's translation) WILTED 163 TLLUSTRATIONS LONGMANS, GREEN, AND GO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1901 All rights reserved PREFACE In adding a ‘ PRAcTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN Puants’ to the literature of Gardening my chief aim has been to produce a book that will be unique and of real use not only to Amateur Gardeners, for whom it is particularly intended, but also to those engaged professionally in Horticulture. The work is the result of many years’ experience among all kinds of Plants, gained in various nurseries and gardens in this country and on the Continent under many different conditions. It deals thoroughly with the description, cultivation, and propagation of all plants—F lowers, Fruits, and Vegetables—that may be grown more or less successfully in the open air in the British Islands, and it cannot be regarded in any sense as a botanical treatise or text-book. Tender plants which require the protection and artificial warmth of green- houses have been excluded, with the exception of a few that may be grown in the open air during the summer months. Due regard has been given to the different climatic conditions prevailing throughout the British Islands, and the reader is advised as to whether any par- ticular plant will flourish out of doors in all parts of the Kingdom, or only in a few favoured spots like Devonshire, Cornwall, and the South of Ireland, ARRANGEMENT The work has been divided into Four Parts for the sake of con- venience. In Part I. the Life History of Plants from start to finish is dealt with in such a way, and without the use of technical expressions, so as to give the reader a good idea of the work carried on by the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits &c. of plants in general. The Propagation of Plants by means of Seeds, Cuttings, Budding, Grafting, Layering &c. is also discussed from a general point of view, so that the reader may be better able to grasp the details given later vi PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS on under each particular genus and species. The various kinds of Soils, Manures, and Plant-foods have also regeived a good deal of notice, chiefly because the importance of such subjects is as a rule not fully grasped by amateurs. Intimately connected with Soils and Manures are the various operations for the improvement of the soil, such as Digging, Trenching, Hoeing, Raking, Mulching, Drainage &c., all of which are explained to the reader. The management of Lawns and Pathways is also dealt with in this portion of the work. Part II. is devoted entirely to the Flower Garden, that is to say, to the Description, Culture, and Propagation of all the most beautiful Harpy ANNUALS and BIenNIALS ; Harpy HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS; Buxtsous Puants; Rock GARDEN Pants; Harpy WATER and BoG PuLants ; ORNAMENTAL and FLOWERING TREES and SHRUBS, including ConIFERS ; Harpy Bamsoos, and other ornamental GrasszEs ; besides Harpy Frerns, Horsetarins, CLUBMOSSES &c. This important part of the work includes almost everything worthy of a place in the garden. As many as 133 Natural Orders, containing over 1000 Genera and several thousand Species, have been described and fully dealt with in regard to Culture and Propagation in every case. The plants have been arranged on a systematic basis, and that laid down by Bentham and Hooker in their standard work, the ‘Genera Plantarum,’ has been followed in the main. The natural orders, beginning with the Crowfoot Order (Ranunculace@), and ending with the Clubmosses (Lycopodiacee), follow each other according to their natural relationship, and the genera in each order are arranged in the same way. The species belonging to each genus, however, follow each other in alphabetical order for the sake of convenient reference. The value of arranging all the flowering plants thus in their natural groups is fully discussed at p. 120 under the article on the ‘ Classifica- tion of Plants,’ and need not be further referred to in this place, except to say that it is hoped the arrangement on such a basis will at once commend itself to every reader interested not only in growing plants, but also in studying them, and comparing their characteristics one with another. So that the reader may be able to see at a glance some of the choicest plants belonging to the various groups referred to above, a careful selection has been made from each of them. Thus there will be no difficulty in choosing any Annuals or Biennials, Hardy Herba- ceous Perennials, Flowering Trees and Shrubs &c. one may wish to cultivate in his or her garden. As colour plays a very important part in artistic gardening nowa- days, lists are also given of Hardy Plants, having flowers of white, red, blue, yellow, purple, and other shades. These lists will be valuable for PREFACE vii the purposes of massing in herbaceous borders to produce effect by means of contrast in floral colouring. As the height is given to almost every plant described it is scarcely necessary to make out a list of plants with various heights. Under the ‘Trees and Shrubs’ at p. 107 the list has been so arranged as to enable the reader to see immediately which kinds are in blossom at any particular month of the year, from January to December. Part III. is devoted to the Description, Culture, and Propagation of the best Hardy Fruits for our climate, and Part IV. is in the same way devoted to Vegetables. The Culture plays an important part in these two groups, and is fully described in simple language. The methods recommended are not those of any particular gardener, but such as are generally practised in the best gardens in the kingdom. Sometimes more than one way of growing a plant is mentioned, but the reader should always remember that while the principles of cultiva- tion are usually the same, there may be many differences in detail. He should, therefore, use a wise discretion, by taking into consideration the nature of the soil, situation, aspect, altitude &c. of his own particular garden, and then by means of the information given, mixed with a little common sense (one of the best plant foods known), there will be little difficulty as a rule in growing his plants, flowers, fruits, or vegetables. As a reminder of the various operations to be performed during the year, a short calendar of work has been added to the Flower, Fruit, and Vegetable sections of the book. THE GLOSSARY Although it is always a difficult task for a technical writer to de- scribe the objects and operations connected with his own profession in ordinary language, I have endeavoured to avoid as far as possible the use of all technical gardening and botanical expressions throughout the work, except where such were inevitable. Simple language has been used throughout, but technical words are to be found here and there in the descriptions of the various natural orders and genera. These terms, however, are comparatively few, and occur many times over under similar circumstances, so that the reader will soon regard them as ordinary language. With a view, however, of making their meanings quite clear, all technical expressions have been grouped to- gether in a ‘Glossary,’ and numerous thumbnail sketches have also been given to further elucidate the meanings of many. Vili PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS PLANT NAMES One of the greatest complaints amateurs have against gardeners and botanists is that they will use ‘ such long Latin names ’ for their plants. And there are some even—very few it is to be hoped—who use this as an argument, not only against the study, but also the cultivation of beautiful plants. ‘If you would only give your plants English names,’ they say, ‘we could understand them better and take more interest in them.’ This may be very true, but such people seldom find difficulty with names like Begonia, Gloxinia, Campanula, Passiflora, Colchicum, Crocus, Primula, Geranium, Pelargonium, Zinnia, Phlox, Coreopsis, Nemophila, and many other botanical names which practice has rendered familiar. As a matter of fact it is simply impossible to give every plant an English name, and efforts to do so have resulted in some very peculiar if not really awkward and inappropriate appella- tions, which are often worse than the proper botanical name. There is no need to say anything against the use of proper English names for plants in all cases where they can be appropriately used and are gene- rally accepted. Such English names are a help to the amateur, and throughout this work they have been used on every possible occasion, even to the extent of adopting popular names such as Buttercup, Poppy, Daisy &c. to represent the various natural orders to which ‘they belong. No attempt, however, has been made to coin new or awkward popular names ; and it must be pointed out that one and the same English name is often applied to two or more plants belonging to totally different families, as may be seen by reference to the copious InDEX at the end. The scientific names adopted throughout the work are those generally accepted by botanists throughout the world. ILLUSTRATIONS The illustration of species has not been attempted, as a satisfactory representation of each one would have necessarily increased the bulk of the book and its cost to the purchaser beyond what is thought desirable, and anything short of this would be of little practical value. As faithful a word-picture of a plant as possible has been given in the descriptions, and it is hoped that this will be of real practical value to the reader, and enable him to recognise any particular plant. Illustrations, however, have not been altogether abandoned. The ‘Glossary of Technical Terms’ at the beginning of the book has PREFACE ix been freely illustrated, as have also such operations as Budding (p. 58), Grafting (p. 52), Layering (p. 59), Pruning (p. 1033), Tree-planting (p. 1032) &c. The differences between the branches bearing flower- buds and leaf-buds in most of the fruit trees have also been illustrated for the benefit of those amateurs who like to do their own pruning but are often not quite sure as to whether they are cutting away fruit-bear- ing branches or not. Such, in brief, is an outline of the work ; and I may add in conclu- sion that I am indebted for many hints and suggestions to numerous friends, among whom special mention may be made of Mr. Jamus’' Britten, F.L.8., of the Botanical Department, British Museum ; Mr. Guo. NicHotson, F.L.8.; Mr. W. Watson, and Mr. W. J. Bzan, of the Royal Gardens, Kew; Mr. Gxo. Tespurt, of Mogden Gardens, Isleworth ; and Mr. W. H. Divers, Head Gardener to the Duke of Rutland, Belvoir Castle, who has kindly read the proofs of the Fruit and Vegetable portions of the work, and whose assistance may be regarded as an extra guarantee of accuracy and sound practical advice. JOHN WEATHERS. IsLEWORTH-ON-THAMEs : September 1900. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE . 5 y ‘ é t v GLOSSARY OF TERMS i Fi ‘ ‘ ae 1 INTRODUCTION F . 19 PART I LIFE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: GROWTH . ‘i ‘ : x 3 « & 21 THe SEED . é A A . 24 Tue Root ‘J ‘ ‘ . : opt 8. Tue Stem . z . : ‘ ‘ ‘ s . 99 Tue Leaves . ‘i % ‘é Pi . ‘ & ‘se | BB THE FLOWER : ‘ ‘ e : 4 a : . 86 FERTILISATION AND HYBRIDISATION : ‘ ‘ “ x fone OOF THE FRUIT é ‘ ‘ i : . : . ; Z . 88 INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON VEGETATION . ‘ ‘ 3 » . 40 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS: ‘ : ‘ é ‘ ¥ ¥ » 41 By SEEDS 5 i ‘ ‘ ‘i é ‘ ‘ ‘ » » 42 By Curtines 2 A . é 4 : , : ‘ 48 By GRaFTING . : 5 : a a ‘ ss 52 By Buppine é é F ‘ ‘| . ‘ F . 58 By Layprine . 2 ‘4 A F 59 By Divipine tHe Rootsrock . ; “ ‘ : . 60 By Suckers . 3 f ‘ 2 : ‘ » . 60 THE SOIL, ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION. x >» OL IMPROVING THE SOIL . = ‘ i 3 » « 68 PLANT FOODS AND MANURES . ; é ‘ ‘ . 69 PART II THE HARDY FLOWER GARDEN . ‘ ‘ 77 ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS .. - 7 THE HARDY HERBACEOUS BORDER. } : : i . 80 xii PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS PAGE LIST OF CHOICE HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS 86 PLANTS FOR SHADY PLACES i ‘ ‘ 88 TRAILING AND CLIMBING PLANTS 89 HARDY PLANTS WITH WHITE FLOWERS 90 ta 3 5 RED FLOWERS 91 5 3 » BLUE: OR: BRURPLE FLOWERS 92 i 3 5 YELLOW FLOWERS 93 PLANTS IN FLOWER FROM SEPTEMBER TO MAY 94 BULBOUS AND RHIZOMATOUS PLANTS 5 . 95 THE ROCK GARDEN . é . 96 ALPINE AND ROCK GARDEN PLANTS 102 ORNAMENTAL AND FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS 104 AUTUMN TINTS . ‘ ‘ " - 110 EVERGREEN TREES AND SHRUBS 111 HARDY WATER AND BOG PLANTS. _ “112 LAWNS ‘ ‘ ‘ i ‘ sq« 118 GARDEN WALKS AND PATHWAYS . 4 117 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS é ", 120 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS OF PLANTS _ 121 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, PERENNIALS, ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS &c. A ‘il 181-956 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF GRASSES, HARDY BAMBOOS AND SEDGES ‘ ‘ 4 . 956-972 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF CONIFERS . 972-1008 DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, AND PROPAGATION OF HARDY FERNS, HORSE- TAILS, CLUBMOSSES . be Bea F i 1008-1024 CALENDAR OF WORK FOR THE FLOWER GARDEN s 1025-1027 PART III THE HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. é , : . 1038-1102 PART IV THE VEGETABLE GARDEN ‘ i i 3 1108-1169 INDEX ‘ : : ; » 1171 GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TECHNICAL TERMS USED SPARINGLY IN THIS WORK Lixz every other profession, Gardening has its own peculiar terms and expressions, which are readily understood by the skilled practitioner. To the amateur, however, such technical terms and expressions are often bewildering when not explained in simple language or with- out illustration. To meet this difficulty, and to encourage the amateur to take a keener interest in the plants he may have in his garden, the technical terms used in this work are explained in the following glossary. In all cases where there is likely to be some doubt as to the meaning, an illustration has been given. It must, however, be understood that as regards form, it may often be necessary to use two or more terms to convey an accurate idea. Thus a leaf may be called ‘ ovate-lance-shaped’ which means that its shape is somewhat between ovate and lance-shaped—it is broader than lanceolate (fig. 68) and narrower than ovate (fig. 75). And so on with other expressions. As arule the mere botanical expressions have been avoided as far as possible in the body of the work, wherever a suitable English one could be substituted without inaccuracy. ’ the seed s appears. The stigma is shown at st. The right-hand drawing shows a feathery achene of Clematis. The fruit is at f, and the awn ata. 7 Achlamydeous, flowers without sepals or petals, as with most of the plants de- scribed from p. 759 to p. 805. Acicular, needle-shaped, as in the case of Pine leaves (fig. 2). FIG. 2,—ACICULAR. Acinaciform, — scimitar- Abortive, Abortion, imperfectly formed or rudimentary, as is often the case of stamens and petals. Acanthus, spiny. Acaulescent, Acaulis, apparently stemless, as in Primroses and other plants where the spaces between the joints are very short. Accrescent, growing after flowering is over, as with the calyx of Physalis Francheti (p. 691). Accumbent, lying against a thing, applied to the seed leaves or cotyledons in the seed. Acerosus, needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines, &e. (see Acicular). Achene, Achenium, a hard dry one-seeded superior fruit, as in Buttercup, Clematis, Strawberry. In fig. 1 the left-hand drawing shows a magnified achene of a Buttercup with a section of the ovary, within which FIG, 1.—ACHENE. shaped, like leaves of some Mesembryan- themums. Acrogenous, growing from the apex, as in the case of Ferns. Aculeate, armed with prickles, as the stems of Roses, Brambles &c. (fig. 3). Acuminate, drawn out into a long point; taper-pointed (fig. 4). Acute, sharp ; forming an angle less than a right angle at the tip. Adelphia, a brotherhood. Stamens are B dy 2 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS monadelphous,’ as in the Mallows (p. 270), diadelphous,’ as in the Labiate family vIG. 3.—ACULEATUS, FIG, 4.—ACUMINATE. (p. 742), or ‘polyadelphous,’ as in the Hypericums (p. 265); according as they are arranged in one, two, or more fas- cicles or bundles. Adnate, one organ united to another, as an ovary to the calyx-tube, or stamens to petals. Adpressed, pressed close to anything, but not united with it, like the hairs on stems and leaves. Adventitious, accidental, out of the usual place. Roots are said to be ‘ adventitious’ when developed from any part of a plant except the ‘radicle’ or first downward growth from the seed. Eruginous, verdigris coloured. €stivalis, produced in summer. stivation, the arrangement of the parts of a flower (i.e. sepals, petals, stamens, pistils &c.) when in bud. The term ‘ pre- floration ’ is used in America. Agrestis, growing in fields. Alabastrum, a flower-bud. Ale, the wings or side petals of a papiliona- ceous flower, represented in fig. 5 at w. Alate, alatus, winged, as the stems of Thistles- and various seeds—e.g. that of the Elm. Albescens, albescent, turning white, or whit- ish. Albumen, nutritious mat- ter contained in the seed to feed the young plant until it has de- veloped roots and leaves (see p. 25). Alburnum, the sap-wood, or outer rings of wood in dicotyledonous trees. Albus, white. es Alliaceous, with a Garlic or Onion-like odour. Alpestris, sub-alpine. } Alpine, a term applied to plants native of high mountains, beyond the forest range. Alternate, leaves arranged on the stem one after another (fig. 6). Petals are alternate with the sepals, or the stamens with the petals, when they stand over the spaces between them. FIG, 5.—ALE, Alveolate, honey-combed like; with hollows or depressions in regular order, as on the bare fiower heads or receptacles of many of the Composite (p. 492). FIG, 6.—ALTERNATE. FIG. 7.—AMENTUM. Amentaceous, a term applied to plants having the flowers in catkins, like the Willow and Hazel (fig.7). A female flower is shown at f, and the male ones at m. Amplexicaul, said of leaves when clasping the stem with the base (fig. 8). Ampullaceous, swelling out like a bottle or bladder. Anastomosing, forming a network, as the veins of leaves and fronds. Ancipital, two-edged, as in the flower-stems of many Iridaceous plants. Andreecium, the male organs or stamens of a flower collectively (figs.9, 55, 56, and 109). Anemophilous, wind-loving—said of wind- fertilised flowers, like Willows, Conifers &c., the pollen of which is blown about by the wind and is thus carried to the stig- matic surface of the carpels in the female flowers. Anfractuose, bent hither and thither. Angios, covered, hidden. Angiospermous, having the seed enclosed in an ovary (p. 121). Anisos, unequal. Anisomerous, parts un- equal in number in the same flower. Annual, flowering and fruiting the first sea- son of being raised from seed, and of one year or season’s duration only (p. 78). Annulus, the name given to the ring of tissue around the upper portion of the stalk in Mushrooms and other Fungi. Also applied to the row of strong cells in spore cases of Ferns. Anther, the essential part of the stamen which contains the pollen. In fig. 9 the anther is shown by the letter a. FIG, 8.— AMPLEXICAUL FIG, 9.—ANTHERS, GLOSSARY 3 Antheridium, the organ in Ferns correspond- ing to the stamens in flowers (p. 1009). Apetalous, without petals, as with Ane- mones, Clematis &c. Apex, the end furthest from the point of attachment, as in the case of leaves. Aphyllous, leafless, like the stems of many exotic Huphorbias and Cacta- ceous plants. Apiculate, having a very small hard point at the end or apex of a leaf, as in fig. 10. Apocarpous, when _ several pistils or carpels in the same flower are separate, as in the Strawberry and many Ranun- culacex. Apterous, without wings. Aquatic, aquatilis, living or growing in water. Arachnoid, cobwebby, like some of the Houseleeks (p. 44). Arboreus, arborescent, growing into a tree. Archegonium,: the organ in Ferns corre- sponding to the carpels or pistils in flowers (p. 1009). Arcuate, curved like a bow. Arenarius, arenose, growing in sandy soil. Argenteus, silvery. Araillose, argillaceous, growing in clayey soil. Argos, Greek for silvery white—as in argo- phyllus, white-leaved. Argutus, very sharply toothed. Arillate, seeds furnished with an aril or fleshy growth from the base, asin the Yew, Euonymus &c. (fig. 11). At a@ is repre- — the fleshy aril, and at f the fruit or seed. Fig. 10.— APICULATE, ric. 11.—ARIL. FIG. 12.—ARISTATE. Aristate, awned or bearded, like Barley (fig. 12). Articulatus, jointed. Arvensis, growing in cultivated grounds. Ascending, curving upwards into a vertical, from a more or less horizontal or prostrate position. Asper, asperous, rough; furnished with harsh hairs. Assimilation, the process of manufacturing food by the leaves (see p. 34). Ater, deep black ; used in combinations such as _atropurpureus, atrococcineus, atrosan- guineus éc. Atratus, becoming black. Attenuate, narrowing gradually to a point. Aurantiacus, orange-coloured. Auratus, golden-yellow. Aureus, golden. Auriculate, Auricled, having auricles, or ear- like appendages at the base of the leaves (fig. 13). Awn, a long-pointed bristle- like appendage, as the beard of many kinds of grasses, like Barley, Oats &c. Axil, the upper angle formed by the union of the stem and leaf. Axile, proceeding from the j i Fig. 13,— centre or axis. This term is ,yricutars. used in connection with the way seeds are arranged on the placentas in the ovary shown at a in fig. 86. Axillary, produced in the axils of the leaves or other organs. Axis, the main ascending stem and descend- ing root of a plant. Azureus, sky-blue. Baccate, having a more or less succulent or pulpy seed-vessel or berry as in the Fuchsia, Aucuba, &c. Barbatus, bearded, having tufts of soft hair. Bearded, having long bair like a beard, as the ‘ crests’ of many Irises (p.y17 ). Berry, a pulpy fruit containing several seeds imbedded in the juice, as the Currant, Gooseberry, Orange &c. (fig. 14). Ea: FIG. 14.—BERRY. FIG. 15.—BIFID. Bifid, divided half-way down into two parts (fig. 15). Bijugate, having only two pairs of leaflets, as shown in fig. 16. Fic. 16.—BIJUGATE, FIG. 17,—BIPIXNATE. Bipartite, divided nearly to its base into two parts ; nearly the same as Bifid, B2 4 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Bipinnate, when the pinne or divisions of a pinnate leaf are themselves again pinnate, as shown in jig. 17. Bipinnatifid, when the divisions of a pinnati- fid leaf are themselves pinnatifid (fig. 18). FIG. 19.—BITERNATE. FIG. 18.—BIPINNATIFID. Biternate, when the divisions of a ternate leaf are themselves ternate (fig. 19). Blade, the lamina or flat part of a leaf (fig. 98, 6). Bracteatus, furnished with bracts. Bracteoles, minute bracts attached to the base of the pedicels. Bracts, small leaves somewhat different from the others, seated on the flower stalks (peduncles) (fig. 89, 6). Bulb, a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually placed underground. In fig. 20 a repre- sents the scaly bulb of a Lily, and 6 the tunicated bulb of a Tulip. Bulbiferous, bearing bulbs. FIG, 21.—BULBILS. Bulbiis, small bulbs, produced in the axils of the leaves of many Lilies (fig. 21, 6). Bulbous, having bulb-like stems or roots. Bullate, blistered or puffed up, like the leaves of Savoys. Caducous, dropping off, as the petals of Poppies. Czruleus, pale blue. Cesius, ash-grey. Cespitose, in close dwarf tufts, like many Dianthus (p. 238). Calcarate, furnished with a spur, like the flowers of Larkspurs, Columbines, Tropr- olums é&e. (fig. 22). Calceolate or Calciform, having a pouch or slipper, as in Calceolaria and the Lady’s Slipper Orchid (fig. 23). Calyx (Sepals), the outer and usually greenish whorl of leaf-like organs of the flower below FIG, 22—CALCARATR. FIG. 23,—CALCEOLATE. the corolla (petals). The calyx is shown atc, and the petals at p, in fig. 22. Cambium-layer, see p. 30. Campanulate, bell-shaped, as in the Campanulas, p. 562 (fig. 24). Campestris, fields. Candidus, pure white. Canescens, greyish-white. Capillary, like very slender threads. Capitate, Capitular, Capi- tulum, growing in heads or close clusters, as with most flowers of the Composite order (fig. 25). AM, growing in FIG, 24.— CAMPANULATE. Os FIG. 25,—CAPITULUM. FIG. 26.—CAPSULE, Capsule, a dry usually many-seeded seed- vessel, as in Poppy (fig. 26). Carcerule, the name applied to the fruits of many of the Mallow and Hollyhock tribe (fig. 27). Carneus, flesh-colour, Carpel, the free or united divisions of the ovary or capsule. Cartilaginous, tough and hard, often applied to the margins of leaves. Caruncle, an outgrowth or excrescence at the scar (hilum) of some seeds, such as the Castor Oil plant (Ricinus) and the Viola (fig. 28). Catkin, a spike of closely crowded flowers of one sex, in which the perianths are replaced FIG. 27.,—CARCERULF. FIG, 28.—C ARUNCLE, GLOSSARY 5 by bracts, as in Alders, Birches, Hazels, Willows (fig. 7). Caulicle, a little stem ; the name sometimes given to the rudimentary stem in dicotyle- donous seedlings. Cauline, belonging to or produced from the stem. Cell, see p. 22. Centrifugal, applied to those forms of in- florescence whose terminal or central flowers open first. Centripetal, flowering from the base or circumference towards the centre or tip, as in Wallflowers. Cernuus, drooping, pendant. Chaffy, covered with minute membranous scales. Channelled, hollowed somewhat like a gutter on the upper surface of leaves or down the stem. Chlorophyll, see p. 33. Chryso, in compounds, signifies golden- yellow, as Chrysanthus. Cilia, Ciliate, hairs placed like eyelashes on the edge of leaves, petals &c. (fig. 111). Circinate, rolled up from the top towards the base like a cro- sier, as with the unfolding fronds of Ferns (fig. 29). Circumscissile, divided by a circular slit or opening round the sides, as shown in fig. 90. Cladodes, leaf-like branches, as in Butcher’s Broom, p. 810. Clavate, club-shaped, a body which is slender at the base and gradually thickening upwards. Claw, the narrow and suddenly contracted base of a petal (fig. 30). ¢ represents the claw proper, b the blade, and s the scales often seen in many flowers of the Pink order (p. 238). Cleft, deeply cut, but not to the midrib. Coccineus, scarlet or carmine tinged with yellow. FIG. 29.— CIRCINATE, “Ss FIG, 30.—CLAW. FIG. 31.—coccl. Coccus, Cocci, the separable carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit, as in Pelargoniums and Ge- raniums (fig. 31, shown at s). Cohering, the attachment of similar parts, as the petals forming a gamo- or mono- petalous corolla ; and when the filaments of stamens are united. Column, a term more particularly used to denote the united sta- mens and pistils in the Orchid family (p. 890). In fig, 82 st represents the stig- matic surface in a hollow on to which the pollinia (one of which is shown at ») must be placed to produce seeds. Ata is shown the covering or lid over the pollinia. Comose, furnished with hairs at the end, as some seeds like those of the Composite order. Compound, formed of many similar parts, as the leaves of Thalictrums, Aquilegias, Horse Chestnut, Acacia &c. Compressed, flattened laterally. Conical, narrowing to a point from a broad circular base. FIG. 32,—COLUMN, Connate, when two similar parts are slightly connected round the stem, as the leaves of some Loni- ceras (fig. 33). Connective, the rib or part of the filament between the anther- cells, often produced, asin Paris quadrifolia (fig. 9, ¢). Contorted, in estivation, when one edge of a petal or sepal is covered and the other free or exposed ; twisted. Convolute, in zestivation or vernation, when one part is rolled up within another lengthwise. Cordate, with two rounded lobes at the base, heart-shaped (fig. 34). Coriaceous, leathery, tough. FIG. 33,—CONNATE. FIG. 35,—CORM. FIG, 34,—CORDATE. Corm, # fleshy bulb-like, solid, not scaly, underground stem, as in Crocus, Gladiolus, Cyclamen. See fig. 35, which represents the corm of a Crocus, the young one (yc) being above the old one (oc). Corolla, the whorl of floral leaves, called 6 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS petals, between the calyx and stamens, usually coloured. Figs. 5, 22, 28, 36, 40, 49, 58 &c. show many kinds of corollas. Corona, a term applied to the crown or trumpet in the centre of most Narcissus and Daffodil flowers (fig. 36, c). FIG. 36.—CORONA, FIG. 37.—CORYMB. Corymb, a raceme with the pedicels becom- ing gradually shorter as they approach the top of the flower stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly on a level (fig. 37). Corymbose, in the form of a corymb. Costate, ribbed. Cotyledons, the seed lobes, often forming the first leaves of the plant (fig. 48, c). Crassus, thick and fleshy. Cremocarp, the name given to the half-fruits or carpels of the Umbellifer family, which split apart when ripe (fig. 38). FIG. 38.—CREMOCARP, FIG, 39,—CRENATE, Crenate, with rounded teeth on the margins of leaves. See fig. 39, which represents a heart-shaped (cordate) reniform (kidney- shaped) leaf with a crenate margin. Crenulate, minutely crenate. Crested, having an appendage like a crest, as in the cultivated forms of many Ferns and in Cockscombs (p. 762). Crinitus, furnished with tufts of shaggy hair. Cruciform, four parts, as petals, arranged so as to form across, as in Arabis, Wallflower, and most of the Crucifer order (fig. 40). Ap q ria, 41,—CUCULLATE. Fd. 40,—CRUCIFORM. Cryptogamous, see p. 121. Cucullate, hooded, as the spathe of Arwm italicum (fig. 41), See Spathe. : Cuneate, like a wedge, but attached by its point, usually applied to the shape of leaves or petals. , Cuspidate, abrupt, but with a little point at the end; something like apiculate but larger (fig. 42). FIG, 42,—CUSPIDATE. FIG. 43.—CYME. Cyme, inflorescence formed of a terminal flower, beneath which are side branches each having a terminal flower and branches again similarly dividing, and so on, as in many plants of the Pink Order (fig. 43). Cymose, arranged in a cyme. Dealbatus, covered with a greyish-white powder. Deca, in compounds signifies ten—as deca- petalus, ten-petalled. Deciduous, falling off, said of the leaves of large numbers of trees and shrubs in autumn ; Caducous has the same meaning but is applied to the sepals and petals of most flowers after expansion. Declinate, bent downwards, like the stamens in many flowers. Declining, straight, but pointed downwards. Decompound, subdivided more than three times, as the leaves of many Umbelliferous plants, Thalictrums &c. Decumbent, said of stems lying on the ground, but tending to rise at the tips. Decurrent, when the limb of a leaf is pro- longed down the stem, below the point of attachment of the midrib, as in the case of the common Comfrey, many Thistles &e. (fig. 44). FIG. 44,—DECURRENT, FIG, 45.—DECUSSATE, Decussate, opposite leaves in four equal rows, as in many Veronicas (fig. 45). GLOSSARY 7 Defiexed, curved downwards or towards the back. Dehiscence, the mode in which an ovary or fruit opens to shed its seeds. Fig. 46 shows & > SO 28 ” a 6 ae ee various ways in which the pods open; a is called loculicidal, and b septifragal dehi- scence. Deltoid, fleshy with a triangular transverse section. Dentate, @withi. shett FIG. 46.—DEHISCENCE. triangular teeth, as on the margins of many leaves. Denticulate, finely toothed, like the Camellia leaf. Depressed, when flattened at the top, like many Apples, Onions. Di, in compounds, signifies two, as diandrous, 2 stamens. Diadelphous, stamens in two bundles or fascicles, as in some Legu- minous flowers (fig. 47). Dichlamydeous, having both calyx and corolla, as in most of the flowers described between p. 131 and p. 759. Dichotomous, when a branch, stem, or flower- stalk is much forked in pairs. Diclinous, the same as Unisexuai, when stamens and. pistils are in different flowers. Dicotyledonous, said of plants having two seed-leaves, and afterwards net-veined leaves &c., as explained at p. 122. Fig. 48 shows a seedling dicotyledon: 7 shows the true roots; h the hypocotyl or part between the true root and true stem; c the cotyledons or seed-leaves; a, the first pair of true net-veined leaves, and p the first true bud after the original one called a plumule. FIG. 47,— DIADELPHOUS. FIG. 48,—DICOTYLEDON. FIG, 49. —DIDYNAMOUS., Didynamous, having four stamens, two shorter than the others, as in many plants of the Labiate order (fig. 49). Digitate, fingered leaves or lobes all start- ing from the top of the petiole, as the leaves of the Lupin, Horse Chestnut &e. (fig. 50). Dimidiate, the two halves of an organ very PIG, 61.—DIMIDIATE, Fig. 50.—DIGITATE. unequal in size, like the leaves of Begonias, Lime trees &c. (fig. 51). Dicecious, with the different sexes on different plants: stamens on one plant, pistils on another, as in Willows, Aucubas, Hippophaé &e. Disc, a fleshy surface from which the stamensand pistils spring. The term ‘disci- florw’ has been applied to a large class of plants having these characters (p. 123). Dise florets are the central flowers in Com- posite plants like Daisy, Marguerite &c. Dissected, deeply divided into many narrow lobes, like the leaves of Umbelliferous plants, Thalictrums &c. Dissepiments, the partitions of an ovary or fruit, as shown in fig. 46. Distichous, arranged in two opposite rows, as the leaves of Taxodium distichum (p. 988). Divaricate, spreading at an obtuse angle. Drupe, a fleshy fruit having a hard stone (putamen or endocarp, shown at s), as the Cherry, Plum, Peach &e. (fig. 52). m repre- sents the fleshy edible portion called meso- carp, and e the skin or epicarp. See Pome, fig. 88. FIG. 52,—DRUPE. Duramen, the heartwood or centre of Dicotyledonous trees, and the outer part of the stem of Monocotyledo- nous. Echinate, clothed with spines or prickles, like the fruit of the Sweet Chestnut. Elliptic, oval, but pointed at each end. Elongate, much lengthened. Emarginate, slightly notched at the end, as in the case of many leaves (fig. 53). Embryo, the germ of a plant in the seed (see p. 24). 8 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Ensiform, sword-shaped, as the leaves of Tris, Gladiolus &c. Entire, said of leaves, petals, sepals not toothed nor lobed, nor divided at the edge. FIG, 53.—EMARGINATE. FIG. 64,—EPICALYX. Epicalyx, the term applied to the secondary calyx or sepals, as seen in Strawberries and Mallows. In fig. 54, e shows the epicalyx ; c, the calyx (or sepals) proper; and p the petals. Epidermis, the skin of a leaf or stem im- mediately underlying the cuticle. Epigynous, when the parts of a flower are apparently seated on the ovary (fig. 55). FIG, 55,—EPIGYNOUS, BIG. 56,—EPIPETALOUS, Epipetalous,when the stamens are seated on the petals or corolla, as in Primroses &c. (fig. 56). Equitant, overlapping each other, as the leaves of the Iris. Erose, irregularly cut, as if gnawed, some- what as represented in fig. 95. Eterio, a fruit composed of several drupels, as in the Blackberry. Exogenous, growing by additions to the circumference. This term was formerly used instead of Dicotyledonous. Exserted, projecting beyond, as stamens protruding beyond the corolla or petals, as in figs. 55 and 56. Exstipulate, without stipules. Extrorse, applied to anthers which shed the pollen outwards, or away from the pistil. Falcate, sickle-shaped, applied to leaves like some of the Eucalyptuses. Fasciated, a term applied to stems which become abnormally flattened, and bear an extraordinary number of flowers or leaves, as is often seen in Asparagus and in Lilium auratum. Fascicle, a cyme or crowded cluster of flowers placed on short pedicels of nearly equal length, as in Sweet William and other Pinks. Fasciculate, when several similar parts are collected into a bundle and spring from the same spot. Fastigiate, applied to the branches of a tree when they are erect and close, like a tapering birch broom, as in the upright Cypress and Lombardy Poplar. Fimbriate, fringed at the margin, like the petals of Carnations, Sweet Williams, and other Pinks, as shown in fig. 30. Fistular, applied to the hollow stems and leaves of plants, as in many of the Umbelli- fer. Flaccid, weak, flabby, as when leaves droop for want of water. Flavus, flavidus, pale yellow. Flexuose, zigzag, usually changing its direc- tion at each joint, like the branches of many trees, the Beech &c. Floccose, with little tufts like wool. Florets, the small flowers of Composite plants (fig. 25, f). Fluitans, floating. Fluviatilis, aquatic. Follicle, an inflated 1-celled carpel, opening by a suture to which several seeds are attached, as in Trollius, Delphinium, Pe- onia (fig. 57). Free, separate, not joined together or with any other organ. Frond, the leaf-like part of Ferns, whether simple or divided. Fruit, the seed-vessel or ovary with its ripe contents (seeds) and any external appendages. Frutex, Frutescent, Fruticose, a shrub, shrubby; a woody plant destitute of a trunk, and branching from the base, or nearly so. Fugacious, soon falling off, like the cap on the flower-bud of Eschscholtzia, the sepals and petals of Poppies &c. Fulvus, dull yellow, buff. Funnel-shaped, tubular below, but gradually enlarging upwards, like the flowers of some Convolvuluses (fig. 66). Furcate, forked. Fuscus, brownish. Fusiform, spindle-shaped, thick tapering to each end, like the root of a long Radish. FIG. 57.— FOLLICLE. Galbalus, the fleshy and ultimately woody cone of Junipers and Cypresses. Galeate, shaped like a helmet, as the upper a of the flower of Monkshood (fig. 58). GLOSSARY 9 Gamopetalous, when the petals are united together, as in Canterbury Bells, Laures- vig, 58,—GALEATE, vid, 59.—GAMOPETALOUS, tinus, Forsythias, and most of the plants described under Gamopetale in this work, p. 477, see figs. 59, 60, 63, 66, 67. Gibbous, swollen on one side, like the flower of Valerian (fig. 60). Glabrous, without hairs or down on the surface, as the leaves of Camellias, Aucubas, Cherry Laurels &e. Gland, Glandular, a wart- like cellular secreting me. 60.—c1sB008. organ usually raised above the surface, as on the leaves of many Peaches. Glandular-hairy, having hairs tipped with glands. Glans, a name applied to the fruit of the Oak. In fig. 61,c represents the cupule, without the seed, and g the entire fruit. Glaucous, sea-green with a whitish-blue lustre, like the thick fleshy leaves of Echeveria secunda, and many Aquilegias &c. Globose, round like a globe, used in connection with in- florescences, like the heads of flowers of Hchinops Ritro, as well as of single bodies like fruits, capsules &e. Glumes, the scales enclosing the spikelet of flowers in Grasses. Graveolens, possessing an intense odour, as in Ruta graveolens, the Rue. Gymnos, in compounds signifies naked, as ‘Gymnospermous,’ naked-seeded, applied to the Conifere (p. 972). Gynandrous, stamens and styles consoli- dated, as in the case of the Orchid family (p. 890), shown under Column (fig. 32). Gyncecium, the female organs, that is, car- pels or pistils collectively. FIG. 61.—GLANS, Habit, the port or aspect of a plant. Hastate, a leaf enlarged at the base into two lobes pointing outwards nearly hoyri- zontally (fig. 62 Head, a close terminal collection of flowers surrounded by an invo- lucre, as in composite flowers; the same as a capitulum. Herbaceous, the parts of | plants which are not woody; also organs, or parts of them, of a green colour. LL) Hermaphrodite, _ flowers having both stamens and pistil, as in figs. 49, 55, 60 &e. Hesperidium, a hard-rinded berry, like the Orange and Lemon. Hirsute, with long soft hairs. Hispid, covered with stiff hairs. Hoary, with greyish-white down. Hooded, flowers formed into a hood at the end, like the Aconites. See Galeate (fig. 58). Humilis, dwarf, low. Hybrid, see p. 37. Hypo, in compounds, signifies under, as hypo- gynous stamens, below the pistil, as shown in fig. 109. Hypocotyl, the part of the young stem below the seed leaves, as shown at h, fig. 48. Hypocrateriform, salver-shaped, said of flat corollas (fig. 63). At ¢ is shown the ‘ tube’ of such flowers. FIG, 62,—HASTATE, FIG, 63.—HYPO- CRATERIFORM. Igneus, bright scarlet. Imberbis, destitute of hairs. Imbricate, arranged over each other like the scales of flower and leaf buds. Impari-pinnate, pinnate, with an odd terminal leaflet, as shown in fig. 63, in which | indicates one of the 5 leaflets com- posing the whole leaf, p the stalk or petiole, and st the stipules. This is the same as oddly- pinnate. Incised, deeply cut, as the leaves of the Haw- thorns. Included, not extending beyond the organs surrounding it; said of stamens which do not project beyond the mouth of the corolla. Incomplete, some part wanting, as calyx, corolla &c. Plants belonging to the In- complet section are described from p. 759 to p. 805. Incurved, curved inwards. Indefinite, many, but uncertain in number, FIG. 64.—IMPARI- PINNATE, 10 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS said of stamens when more than 20 in number, as in Buttercups, Wild Roses &c. Indehiscent, not bursting, said of fruits which do not open spontaneously when fully ripe. Induplicate, when the edges of organs arranged in a valvate manner are folded inwards. Indusium, the membranous covering of the spores-cases of many Ferns, as shown in fig. 65; im _ repre- sents the indusium, and sp the spore- cases. A solitary spore-case burst and scattering spores is shown in fig. 105. Inferior, applied to an ovary when the calyx tube is adnate to it; and to the calyx when it is quite free from the ovary and below it, in which latter case the ovary is superior. Inflexed, curved inwards. Inflorescence, the arrangement of the flowers upon the stalk or peduncle. Inflorescences are spoken of as racemose, cymose, spicate, capitate, corymbose, paniculate &c.,accord- ing as to whether they are borne in the manner described by those terms. Infundibuliform, funnel- shaped (fig. 66). Internode, the space between two nodes or joints of a stem. Interruptedly pinnate, when pairs of small pinne alternate with large ones. Introrse, said of anthers which open inwards towards the pistil or carpels. Involucels, the involucres of secondary umbels. Involucre, the whorled bracts at the base of an umbel, head, or single flower, as in figs. 25, and 113, in. Involute, rolled from the back of anything, as towards the upper side of a leaf. Irregular, petals or sepals unequal in size, or different in form in the same flower, as shown in figs. 5, 22, 23, 49. FIG. 65.—INDUSIUM. FIG. 66.—INFUNDI- BULIFORM. Jugum, applied to a pair of leaflets; thus a leaf may be unijugate, bijugate, or multi- jugate according as there are one, two, or many pairs of leaflets (figs. 16, 17). Keel, the name given to the lower pair of petals of Papilionaceous or Pea.-like flowers. In fig. 5 the keel is shown at k. Labellum, the same as ‘lip,’ q.v. Labiate, lipped, as the flowers of many plants of the Labiate family; a corolla or calyx divided into 2 unequal por- tions (fig. 67). Laciniate, divided into nar- row irregular lobes. Lacteus, white, with a faint tinge of blue. Lacustris, growing in lakes. Lamina, the blade of a leaf, as shown at 6 in fig. 98. Lanceolate or lance-shaped, natrowly elliptic, and tapering to each end, as shown in fig. 68, in which @ represents a lance- shaped leaf proper, and b an oblanceolate leaf, or a lance-shaped leaf re- versed. Lancet-shaped, shortly and @ é bluntly lanceolate. FIG. 68.— Lax, loosely arranged, LancEoLaTE. often used in connection with the arrangement of flowers on the stems. Leaflets, the subdivisions of compound leaves, as shown in figs. 16, 17, 50, 64. Legume, a 1-celled and 2- valved seed vessel with the seeds arranged along the inner angle, as in the Pea, Bean &c. (fig. 69). Ligulate, strap - shaped, used in connection with the shape of leaves, and also of the ‘ray’ or outer spreading florets in plants of the Composite order Fic. 69.—LEGUME. (p. 492). Ligule, a membrane at the base of the blade of the leaf of Grasses. Limb, the flattened expanded part of a leaf or petal, as shown at figs. 70, 72, 73 &. Linear, very narrow and long. Lingulate, tongue-shaped, long, fleshy, con- vex, blunt. Lip, this term (and also the Latin equivalent labellum) is used particu- larly to designate the largest and most conspic- uous segment of an Orchid flower, as shown in fig. 70. Here 2 is the lip, col the column, more highly shown at fig. 32, p the petals, s the sepals, and us the upper sepal. Littoralis, growing on the sea-shore. Lobate, cut into rather large divisions, as with many leaves. F1G. 70,—LIP. GLOSSARY 11 Lobule, a small lobe. Loculicidal (dehiscence), splitting down the back between the divisions, as shown in fig. 46, a. Lucidus, shining. Lunate, shaped somewhat like the new moon, but not so regular in outline. Luteftss, yellow. Lyrate, a pinnatifid leaf with the lobes successively and gradually enlarging upwards from the petiole, and ending in one larger than the others (fig. 71). Fig. 71.— LYRATE, Macros, in composition, long, large, as macrophylla, large-leaved. Marcescent, withering, but remaining in its place, like the calyx and corolla of many flowers. Medulla, botanical name for pith. The medullary rays (see p. 30) are the ‘silver grain ’ of the wood of Dicotyledons. Membranous, of the texture of membrane ; thin and flexible ; more or less papery. Micropyle, the orifice in the ovule (see . 24 Midrib, ‘the large vein extending along the middle of a leaf from its petiole nearly or quite to the other end, as shown in the leaves in figs. 4, 34, 72 &c. Mono, in compounds signifies one, as mono- cotyledon, one seed-leaf. Monocarpic, flowering and fruiting only once, like some of the American Aloes (Agave) (see p. 21). Monochlamydeous, the term given to flowers which have only one set of floral envelopes—either petals or sepals (see p. 126). Monocotyledonous, having one sheathing cotyledon or seed-leaf, as in the Oat, Wheat, Barley, Onion, Lily, and most of the plants belonging to the Monocotyledo- nous group, described between p. 805 and p. 972. Moneecious, with the stamens and pistils in separate flowers but on the same plant, as in Cucumbers, Marrows, Begonias, and Filberts. At fig. 7, f represents the female flowers, and m the male flowers of the Filbert on the same branch. Monosepalous, monopetalous, when the sepals or petals are joined by their edges so as apparently to form one, the same as gamosepalous and gamopetalous (fig. 59). Mucronate, abruptly tipped with a short point of the same texture. Multi, in compounds signifies many, as multifiorus many - flowered, multicolor, many-coloured. Multifid, divided into many parts. Muricate, covered with sharp short points. Mutabilis, changeable. Mycelium, the ‘spawn’ of Fungi (see ‘ Mush- rooms,’ p. 1167). Nectary, an organ which secretes honey. Nectaries are found at the base of the petals in Buttercups; in the Hellebores (p. 152) &e. the petals are reduced to nectaries, and in the Parnassia (p. 428) there is a radiating fringe of nectaries at the base of each petal. Netted, covered with veins or nerves con- nected together like network, as shown in figs. 34, 39, 98, 101 &c. Niger, black. Nitidus, smooth and shining. Nivalis, from snowy regions. Niveus, snowy-white. Node, a point in a stem where a leaf is pro- duced. Nucleus, the name given to the central and denser mass in the protoplasm (see p. 22). Nudus, naked. Nut, a hard dry 1-seeded seed-vessel. Nutans, drooping, nodding. Ob, in conjunction with terms means in- verted; thus obcordate (fig. 72) means a heart-shaped leaf attached to the stalk by BIG, 72.—OBCORDATE. FIG. 73.—OBOVATE. the narrow end; obovate (fig. 73) means ovate with the attachment at the narrow end, and the same with ob- lanceolate (fig. 68, b). Oblong, long oval, equally broad at each end. Obtuse, rounded or blunt. Ocrea, a tubular mem- branous stipule surround- ing the stem, as in many of the Polygonums (fig. 74). Odes, Oides, a termination denoting similarity, resemblance. Opposite, when two similar organs, as leaves, for example, grow one on each side of some body; or different organs are opposed to each other with a stem between them. FIG. 74.—OCREA. 12 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Orbicular, nearly round and flat, as in fig. 79, which shows an orbicular and peltate leat of Tropeolum majus. Oval, an ellipse; not broader at one end than at the other, and about twice as long as broad. Ovary, the immature seed- vessel. Ovate, egg-shaped ; a short flat figure rather broader below the middle of its length (fig. 75). Ovoid, the same as ovate, but applied usually to solid, and not flat, bodies, e.g. Apples, Pears, Plums. Ovule, the name applied to the young seed before it has been fertilised by the contents of the pollen-tube. FIG, 75,— OVATE, Palate, the prominent part of the base of the lower lip which closes the mouth of a personate corolla, as shown in the flower of Snapdragon at fig. 84, p. Palea, the leaf-like parts of the flower of Grasses, inclosing the stamens, pistils, and hypogynous scales. Paleaceous, furnished with chaffy scales, as the receptacle of some Composites. Palmate, spreading like the fingers of a hand from the same point. Palmate-lobed, palmate with lobes, asin the leaves of the Maple. Palmatifid, palmate, with the lobes extend- ing to the middle of the leaf, as in the Castor Oil plant (fig. 76). Palmatisect, palmate, with the divisions ex- tending to the bottom of the leaf. Paludosus, Palustris, growing in marshy places. Panicle, a raceme with branching pedicels (fig. 77). FIG, 76.—PALMATIFID, FIG, 78,—PraPPus. FIG. 77,—PANICLE, Papilionaceous, like the flower of a Pea (fig. 5). Pappus, the crest of the fruit in Composites, formed of the altered limb of the calyx. In fig. 78,a shows a sessile or stalkless pappus, and bastalked or stipitate pappus ; f is the fruit. Parasitic, living on another plant, like the Mistletoe (p. 781). Parenchyma, the soft cellular tissue of plants, the green pulpy material between the ribs and veins of leaves. Parietal (placentation), on the sides or walls of the carpels, as shown in fig. 86, p. Paripinnate, pinnate with an equal number of leaflets, as shown in fig. 85. Patent, spreading widely, a term often used by botanists in connection with the petals of a corolla. Pectinate, scalloped, crenately incised, like the teeth of a comb. Pedate, palmate with three lobes and the lateral lobes having similar large lobes on their outer edge, as the leaves of Helle- borus. Pedate-lobed, pedate, with rounded divisions or lobes. Pedatifid, pedate, with the divisions reach- ing to the middle of the leaf. Pedatipartite, pedate, with the divisions nearly reaching to the bottom of the leaf. Pedatisect, pedate, with the divisions ex- tending nearly to the midrib. Pedicel, the branch of a peduncle, otherwise the stalklet of an individual blossom, as shown in fig. 91, ped; here the peduncle or main flower stalk is shown at p, and the bracts are shown at b. Peduncle, flower stalk. fi \\ FIG, 80.—PELORIA, FIG. 79.—PELTATE. Peloria, the term applied to the regular form of a usually irregular flower like the Common Toad- flax (fig. 80). Peltate, when the point of attachment is on the face, not at the edge, of a leaf or other organ (fig. 79). Penninerved, Penniveined, when the veins of a leaf radiate obliquely and re- gularly from the midrib (fig. 81). Pentagonal, with five angles having convex spaces between them. FIG. 81,—PENNI- VEINED, GLOSSARY 13 Pentangular, with five angles and five flat or concave faces. Perennial, of three or more years’ duration, and flowering and fruiting each year. Perfoliate, when the leaf completely sur- rounds the stem so that the latter seems to pass through it, as shown in fig. 82. Perianth, the floral whorls when the calyx and corolla are not distinguishable, as in Tulips, Lilies, Or- chids, Irises, Snow- drops &c., and many plants belonging to the Monocotyledons (p. 127). Pericarp, seed-vessel, including adhering calyx if present. Perigynous, growing upon the throat of the calyx around or above the ovary, as shown in fig. 83. Perisperm, another name for the albumen of the seed (see p. 25). FIG. 82.—PERFOLIATR. FIG, 84,—PERSONATE. FIG, 83.—PERIGYNOUS. Persistent, not soon falling off, as the leaves of evergreens. ; Personate, a gamopetalous two-lipped corolla of which the lower lip is pressed upwards so as to close the opening, as in the Snapdragon (fig. 84). At the ‘palate’ is represented. ; Petals, the divisions of the corolla. Petal-like, resembling petals in texture and colour as in Clematis, Hellebores, Marsh Marigold &c., in which the sepals have assumed the functions and appearance of petals. Petiolate, having a petiole or leafstalk. Petiole, the stalk of a leaf as shown at p in figs. 64 and 98; Petiolule, the stalk of a leaflet. Phenogamous, Phanerogamous, having manifest flowers (p. 121). Phylloclades, branches assuming the form and functions of leaves (see Cladodes). Phyllum, in composition, a leaf. Pileus, the ‘cap’ of a Mushroom and other Fungi. Pilose, with scattered rather stiff hairs. Pinnz, the segments of a pinnate leaf (fig. 85). Pinnate, when leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of a common stalk (fig. 83). Pinnatifid, a leaf deeply cut into segments nearly to the midrib (fig. 18). Pinnatipartite, pin- nate,with the divisions acute, andalmost free, as in the leaves of the Corn Poppy. Pinnatisect, pinnate, with the divisions reaching nearly to the midrib, as in the leaves of Water Cress. Pinnules, the segments of pinnate leaves and fronds. Pistil, the ovary, style, and stigma taken to- gether. In fig. 55 ov represents the ovary, st the style, and stig the stigma. In fig. 109 the style—or portion between the ovary and stigma—is absent or very short. Pith, the cellular tissue in the centre of Dicotyledonous stems. Pitted, covered with small depressed spots. Placenta, the process or body which bears the ovules in the ovary (fig. 86). FIG. 85.—PINNATE. FIG. 86.—PLACENTAS. FIG. 87.—PLAITED. Plaited, Plicate, folded in the manner of a closed fan, like many leaves before they are unfolded (fig. 87). Plumose, feathery. Plumule, the first or embryonic bud repre- sented in fig. 48 at p. Pod, a 1-celled and 2-valved seed-vessel with the seeds arranged along the inner angle. See Legume (fig. 69). Pollen, the dust in the anther which serves to fertilise the ovules (fig. 9, p). Pollination, the application of the pollen to the stigma, as described at p. 24. Pollinium, the waxy pollen mass in Orchids (see fig. 32, p). Polycarpic, fruiting more than once, several times (see p. 22), Polygamous, a term applied to those plants having male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers intermixed on the same individual. Polygonal, with many angles. Polypetalous, with free, distinct, and separate petals, as in Buttercups, Roses, and most of the plants described from p. 131 to p. 477. 14 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Polysepalous, with separate sepals. Pome, the name given to such fruits as the Apple and Pear. In fig. 88 st represents the remains of the stamens in the ‘eye’ (e) of the fruit; ct shows the calyx tube ; en the endocarp (core) within which are the seeds s; the fleshy edible part is repre- sented at m (meso- carp), and ep the epi- FIG. 88.—POME, carp. Pores, small, often roundish, holes. Przecox, flowering early. Pratensis, growing in meadows. Prickles, hardened epidermal appendages resembling thorns, but not woody (see aculeate, fig. 3). Procumbent, Prostrate, lying on the ground. Prothallium or Prothallus, the flat deep green body resulting , from the germination of a fern spore, and bearing male and female organs as ex- plained at p. 1009. In fig. 89 the prothallium is shown at p, from the under surface of which are given off the rhizoids or root- like hairs, 72; and the first fern frond f, after fertilisation has taken place. Protoplasm, the living jelly-like contents of plant cells (see p. 22). Pubescence, Pubescent, with closely ad- pressed down. Pulverulent, covered with fine powdery matter. Pumilus, short and dense in habit. Punctate, having minute spots on the sur- face. Putamen, the hard part or shell of stone fruit, like the Almond, Peach, Cherry, Plum (fig. 52, s). Pyramidal, nearly in the shape of a pyramid, as shown at p. 1035. Pyriform, Pear-shaped. Pyxidium, a seed-pod or capsule opening hori- zontally by means of a lid, as in many plants of the Primula and Sola- num orders. In fig. 90, o represents the oper- culum or lid; s the . weeds; and c the calyx supporting the capsule. FIG, 89.— PROTHALLIUM, FIG. 90.— PYXIDIUN. Quadrifoliate, with four leaflets diverging from the same point, as in Paris quadri- folia (p. 880). Quinate, arranged in fives, as the leaflets of Akebia quinata (p. 179). Raceme, a spike with stalked flowers, as that of the Laburnum, Currant, Wallflower &e. (fig. 91); 6 repre- sents a bract; ped the stalklet or pedicel of the individual flower; and p the peduncle or main stalk of all the flowers in the raceme. Racemose, flowering in a raceme. Rachis, the central stem of some kinds of inflo- rescence. The stalk of the frond of Ferns above the lowest pinne. Radical, springing from just above the root, said of the leaves of many low-grow- ing tufted plants. Radicle, the first root of a young plant emerging from the seed (fig. 48, 7 ). Ramosus, much branched. Ray, parts diverging in a circle from a cen- tral point. Ray-florets are the outer strap- shaped ones, as in the Daisy and many other Composite plants. Receptacle, the dilated top of the stalk bearing the flowers in Composites (see Torus). Recurved, bent moderately backwards. Reflexed, bent considerably backwards. Regular, all the parts of each series of a flower alike, as in figs. 40, 59, 63, &c. Reniform, transversely oval, but broadly cordate at the base; kidney-shaped (fig. 92). Repens, creeping. Reticulate, forming a network. FIG. 91.—RACEME, FIG, 92,—RENIFORM. FIG. 93.—RETUSE. Retuse, abruptly blunt with a notch in the middle (fig. 93). Revolute, rolled back, as towards the under side of a leaf. Rhizome, a thickish prostrate more or less subterranean stem producing roots and leafy shoots, as in Irises, Solomon’s Seal &e. GLOSSARY 15 Ringent, a 2-lipped widely open or gaping corolla, like that of the Dead Nettle (fig. 65). Riparius, growing on the banks of streams or lakes. Rootstock, a thick short rhizome or tuber. The term is loosely applied by gardeners to mean the clump, set, or mass of roots of an herbaceous perennial plant. Rosette, a collection of leaves growing close together, and radiating from the main stem. Rosulate, disposed in the form of a rosette. Rotate, a monopetalous corolla with a short tube and very spreading limb (fig. 94), asin Potato and other flowers of the Solanum order. Ruber, red of any tint. Ruderalis, growing amongst rubbish. ‘ FIG. 94.—ROTATE. FIG, 95.—RUNCINATE, Rugose, covered with a net of lines enclos- ing convex spaces, like the leaves of Rosa rugosa. Rugulose, finely rugose. Runcinate, where the lobes of leaves are directed towards the base (fig. 95). Runner, a prostrate shoot rooting at its end, as in the Strawberry. Rupestris, growing on rocks, Sabulosus, growing in sandy places. Sagittate, like the barbed head of an arrow, the auricles or lobes pointing backwards (fig. 96) not outwards as in Hastate (fig. 62). Salver-shaped, a corolla with a long slender tube and flat limb, the same as hypocra- teriform (fig. 63). FIG. 96.—SAGITTATE, FIG. 97,—SAMARAS. Samara, applied to such winged indehiscent fruits as the Ash, Elm dc. (fig. 97). Saxatilis, growing on rocks or stones. Scaber, scabrid, scabrous, rough to the touch. Scales, minute rudimentary leaves or appen- dages to petals, as in many Pinks &c. Scandens, climbing. Scape, a leafless flower stem springing from the root, like that of Tulips, Hyacinths, Daffodils. Scarious, with a thin, dry, shrivelled appear- ance. Scorpioid, rolled up in a somewhat crosier- like fashion. See Circinate. Secund, all turned towards one gide. Sempervirens, evergreen. Sepals, the division of the calyx. Septicidal (dehiscence), separating through the dissepiments (fig. 46, 6). Septum, the partition of an ovary or fruit. Sericeus, silky. Serotinus, late. Serrate, toothed like a saw, like the margins of many leaves (fig. 98). Serratures, teeth like those of a saw. Serrulate, with very small saw-like teeth. Sessile, without a stalk, like many leaves. Seta, a bristle; a bristle tipped with a gland; a slender straight prickle. Setaceous, like a bristle. Setose, bearing bristles or sete usually ending in glands. Sheath, the lower part of a leaf or its petiole, which forms a vertical sheath surrounding the stem. Silicle, a silique about as long as it is broad (fig. 99). ) FIG. 99,—SILICLES. “et. FIG. 98.—SERRATH. FIG. 100.—SILIQUEs. Silique, a long pod-like fruit of Crucifers having its edges connected by an internal membrane (fig. 100). Simple, not compound; not branched, lobed, or divided. Sinuate, having many large blunt lobes, as in Oak leaves (fig. 101). Sinus, the recesses of a lobed organ, as shown in the leaf at fig. 101. Fic. 101.—sinUATE. 16 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Smooth, free from all kinds of roughness. Solitary, growing singly, said of flowers when only one is borne on the stalk. Spadix, a succulent spike bearing many sessile closely placed flowers, as in fig. 99, where b.s¢ represents the barren stamens ; f.st the fertile stamens; bp the barren pistils ; and fp the fertile ones capable of producing seeds. Spathe, alarge bract often inclosing a spadix, as shown in fig. 41; s is the spathe and sp the spadix. FIG. 104,—SPIKE. FI@. 103.— SPATHULATE, FIG. 102.—SPADIX, Spathulate or Spatulate, oblong, with a long and narrow base; spoon-shaped (fig. 103). Spike, a long simple axis with many sessile flowers like a raceme except that the individual flowers have no stalks; see fig. 104, representing the flower spike of Plantain. is Spikelet, the small group of flowers in Grasses enclosed within one or more glumes. Spine, a stiff, sharp, woody, persistent thorn, as seen in Gooseberries, Barberries, Black- thorns &c. Spinose, furnished with spines. Spinulose, with small, often very minute spines or prickles. Sporangium, a _ single spore case which con- tains the spores or seeds of Ferns. In fig. 105 sp represents the dust-like spores falling from the ruptured case; and w represents the stiffer ringed midrib or annu- lus (see Indusium). Spur, a tubular exten- sion of the lower part of a petal or monopetalous corolla, as seen in Columbines and Tropmolum (fig. 22). Squamatus, clothed with scales. Squarrose, rough with projecting or deflexed scales. Stamen, the male organ of a flower, usually formed of a filament and anther. In fig. 9, f represents the filament; a the anther shedding the pollen »; and c the con- nective or midrib between the 2 anther FI@. 105,— SPORANGIUM, lobes. The connective is produced in one case, as in the stamens of Paris quadrifolia. Staminode, rudimentary organs next to the stamens; usually barren or antherless stamens. Standard, the upper or posterior petal of a Pea-flower which is outside the others in the bud, shown at st in fig. 5. Stellate, radiating from a centre like a star; applied to flowers of which the petals are narrow and distant and radiate like the rays of a star. Stellulate, like minute stars. Stigma, the cellular part at the top of a carpel or style to which the pollen adheres, shown at st in fig. 1, and s¢ig in figs. 56, 109. Stipe, the stalk of Fern fronds up to the lowest pinne. Stipitate, stalked; applied to carpels which are more or less slightly elevated on a stalk. A stipitate pappus is shown in fig. 78, b. Stipules, leaf-like appendages at the base of the petiole, shown at s¢ in figs. 64, 98, 111 (s). Stolon, an offset or runner producing roots at intervals, as in Strawberry. Strap-shaped, not very narrow nor long, and with nearly parallel sides; the same as ligulate. Striate, with slender streaks or furrows. Strobilus, a flower-head or cone consisting of several overlapping scales, as seen in many members of the Conifer order (p. 972). Style, the slender termina- tion of a carpel bearing the stigma, shown in fig. 83. Sub, in composition means almost or nearly, some- what; thus sub-rotund means nearly round; swb-shrubby, some- what shrubby; swb-orbicular, roundish & c. Subulate, awl-shaped, tapering from the base to a fine point, a long narrow triangle. Sucker, a leafy stem produced at the end of an underground shoot, as with Plum trees, Lilacs &c. Suffruticose, rather shrubby. Sulcate, furrowed, like the stems of many Umbelliferous plants. Superior, above anything ; a calyx is superior when its tube is wholly attached to the ovary; half superior when attached only to the lower half of it; an ovary is superior when wholly free from and above the calyx. Ln GLOSSARY 17 Supra-decompound, subdivided many times. Sylvaticus, Sylvestris, inhabiting woods. Syn, signifies union or growing together, as syncarpous, when the carpels are consoli- dated, as shown in fig. 27, or syngenesious, when the anthers are united, as in most flowers of the Composite order. Tap roots, roots with stout tapering bodies developed direct from the seed, like Carrots and Turnips (fig. 107). Tendril, a twisting slender organ for laying hold of objects. Tenuis, slender, thin. Terete, applied to round or nearly round stems, like an ordinary lead pencil sig, 107—rar-roots. or goose quill. : Ternate, growing in threes, as shown in the portions of fig. 19, and in fig. 108, like the leaves of Choisya ternata (p. 296). Testa, the outer skin of a seed. ¥IG. 109.—TETRA- DYNAMOUS. FIG. 108.—TERNATE, Tetradynamous, having six stamens, of which two are shorter than the other four, as in the Wallflower (fig. 109) and most plants of the Crucifer order. Tetragonous, with four angles and four convex faces, like the stems of Dead Nettles and many other plants of the Labiate order. Thalamus, the receptacle or torus of a flower. Thorn, an abortive branch with a sharp point; distinguished from a Prickle by being woody. Throat, the orifice of the tube of a gamo- petalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx. Thyrsoid, having a close-branched raceme of which the middle is broader than the ends. Tomentose, covered with cottony entangled hairs, forming a matted shagginess called tomentum ; felted. Toothed, having small tooth-like divisions on the margin. Torus, the part on which the divisions of a flower or fruit are seated; the same as receptacle. Tri, in compounds, signifies three. Triangular, with three angles and three flat faces. Trichotomous, in forks of three prongs successively repeated. Trifid, when leaves are divided about half way down into three parts, as shown in fig. 110. Fic. 110.—TRIFID. ric. 111.—TRIFOLIATE. Trifoliate, composed of three leaflets, as the leaves of Clover shown in fig. 111, where the leaflets are ciliated on the margins; the stipules at the base are shown at s. Trifoliolate, having three leaflets proceeding from the same point, as in fig. 19. Trigonous, with three angles and three convex faces. is Tripartite, divided into three parts nearly to its base; more than trifid. Tripinnate, three times pinnately sub- divided, as if the leaflets in fig. 17 were again divided. Triquetrous, having three angles and three concave faces. Tristis, dull-coloured. Truncate, blunt as if cut off at the end, like the leaf of the Tulip tree (fig. 112). Tube, the pipe formed by the cohesion of the petals in a gamopeta- lous corolla, as shown in fig. 63, ¢. Tuber, a thickened and underground _ fleshy part of the stem, as the Potato and Jeru- Wc. 112.—rruncats, salem Artichoke. Tubercles, little round knobs. Tubercular, tubercled, tuberculate, covered with little knobs. Tuberous, like a tuber, but not part of the stem. Tubular, hollow and nearly cylindrical, something like fistwlar. Turbinate, top-shaped, conical and attached by its long point, like many Pears. Uliginosus, inhabiting swampy places. Umbel, when many stalked flowers spring from one point and reach about the c 18 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS same level, as in fig. 113. Partial umbels are umbels seated upon the branches of an umbel, the whole forming a compound umbel. Umbrosus, growing in shady places. Unarmed, where stems and leaves are destitute of spines or prickles. Undulate, having a wavy margin. Hu. 113.—UMBEL. Fig. 114.—URCEOLATE. Unilateral, turned to one side. Urceolate, like a pitcher contracted at the mouth, like the flowers of many Heaths, as shown in fig. 114. Urens, stinging, as the hairs of the common Stinging Nettle. Veins, the nervesin leaves and their ramifications, Valvate (zstivation), sepals or petals meet- ing at the margins, but not overlapping each other, as shown in fig. as shown in figs. 34 &e. J Velutinous, velvety, as the surface of leaves. SS Ventral, the anterior part wie. 115,—vatvarr. of an organ. 115. Ventricose, swelling unequally on one side, somewhat like the corolla of Valerian shown in fig. 60. Vernalis, produced in spring. Vernation, the arrangement of the leaves when in bud. Verrucose, warty. Versatile, affixed in the middle, applied to anthers like those of Lilies which swing backwards and forwards with the move- ment of the air. In fig. 9 a versatile anther is shown in the middle. Verticillate, arranged in whorls. Villous, shaggy with loose long soft hair. Virens, green. Virgatus, twiggy. Viridis, clear full green. Viscous, clammy. Volubilis, twisting. Wedge-shaped, like a wedge, but attached by its point. Whorl, whorled, similar organs arranged in a circle round an axis, as the leaves of Galium, Asperula (fig. 116), and of some Lilies. Winged, having leaf-like or membranous expansions, like the stems of many Thistles. Wings, the lateral petals of a Pea-flower,as shown at w in fig. 5; the flat mem- branous appendages of some FIG. 116.— seeds. WHORL, Zygomorphic, said of a flower which can only be bisected in one plane so as to show two similar halves. Most Orchid flowers bisected vertically are zygomorphic, as are also many flowers of the Labiate family (p. 742), the Aconite (p. 162) &c. INTRODUCTION THE cultivation of plants at the present day has been brought almost to the highest point of perfection. Far greater attention is now given to the problem as to how the finest Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables can be produced in the best way at the least cost than at any previous period in our history. The whole country is alive to the importance and necessity of making the land produce as much as possible in the best possible way. County Councils are lavishing money to have gardening taught either in schoolrooms or in gardens, but as yet have not decided upon any definite plan whereby those taught are likely to obtain any or much benefit from -what they learn. And yet, it is a curious fact that, although we know a good deal more about plants now than our ancestors did, and though thousands of plants, natives of all parts of the world, are grown in our gardens that were quite unknown to them, still there has been practically but little change in the principal methods of cultivation. The importance of tilling and manuring the soil and bringing it into a state of fertility has been recognised from the earliest ages, while little or nothing was known of its nature and composition, or the chemical changes that take place in it, or that are produced by rain, heat and cold, &c. The proper times for Digging, Planting, Sowing seeds, and various other operations were also well known, and modern gardeners still continue to work on the same old lines. The ancients were also acquainted with the arts of Budding, Grafting, Layering, Pruning, Thinning Out, Transplanting &c., and all these operations were alluded to as commonplaces by the poet Virgil before the Christian Era in his well-known Bucolics. It thus appears that, notwithstanding the march of time, the principles of cultivation remain the same in all ages, and gardeners have only to c2 20 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS apply them with a fair amount of common sense, and attention to details necessitated by the nature of any particular plant. Although, unhappily, a good knowledge of plants, their structure and requirements, does not necessarily mean that a person with this knowledge is also a good cultivator, it is nevertheless true that a gardener who turns such knowledge to practical use has a much better chance of producing fine flowers, fruits, and vegetables than he who is not so well equipped in this respect. Many gardeners—amateur and professional—are like poets: they are born and not made; they seem to know instinctively and exactly how to cultivate any particular plant; or if they do not, it is not very long before they find out. Without knowing it, such gardeners carry out the true principles of cultivation, which after all are in strict accordance with natural laws, and therefore the more one studies the nature of a plant and its requirements the sooner will he be able to grow it to perfection in his garden. Before one can hope to grow a plant of any kind satisfactorily it is obvious that at least some knowledge is required in regard to the functions of the various parts of plants, the soil and its composition, and treatment, and many other details. An attempt has been made in this direction with a view to giving the reader information that may be of use to him in the garden. It is most important to have a clear idea as to the functions of the Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds, as this will prevent many mistakes in cultural treatment. A doctor who did not understand the anatomy of his patient, and what he required to keep him in good health, would be asorry practitioner. So with the person who would grow plants successfully. He must under- stand them, he must know something about their relationship to each other, the countries in which they grow wild, the kind of soil that suits them best, whether they prefer sunshine or shadow, moist or dry situations, and how best they may be increased so that they shall not die out of cultivation altogether, either through old age, ill-treatment, or other causes. GROWTH 21 PART I THE LIFE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS From a gardening point of view cultivated plants may be said to be constructed on a common plan, although there is a vast variation in details. Speaking generally, most plants are characterised by having Seeds, Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit, and may be annual or biennial herbs, or herbaceous or woody perennial plants. Whatever group they belong to, their corresponding parts are constructed on the same principle and perform the same functions. As the good cultivation of plants depends to a very large extent upon a more or less intimate knowledge of their nature, it may be useful if a brief account is given of the various organs mentioned above. GROWTH OF PLANTS Perhaps one of the first things people notice about plants is that they grow. Plants, somewhat like human beings and animals, are living objects, and are affected in much the same way by heat, cold, moisture &c. They also are to be found in all parts of the world, and according to the climate in which they grow are looked upon as being more or less hardy or tender. They pass from what may be called the infant or seedling stage to maturity, and then more or less slowly or quickly begin to decay and ultimately die. They have a complete cycle of existence, and this cycle is completed by some in a much shorter time than others. Annuals and biennials for example complete their cycle of existence in one or two years, but others like herbaceous perennials, trees and shrubs &c., exist for several years before the individual becomes exhausted. And yet while an individual plant may pass from the seedling stage to death in one or more years, according to its nature, as a rule it makes provision for reproducing itself again before actually dying. This process of reproduction is naturally carried on by means of seeds. Some plants like annuals and biennials bear only one crop of seeds and then die. Plants with these characteristics—that fruit only once—are said to be monocarpic. 22 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Other plants, however, which may live for very many years, like some of the American Aloes, also fruit or produce seeds only once in a life- time and then die. These are also said to be monocarpic. Nearly all our hardy herbaceous perennials, and woody perennials like trees and shrubs—Apples, Pears, Plums, Oaks, Ashes, Beeches &c.—fruit or produce seeds year after year for several generations, and are therefore said to be polycarpic. It little matters, however, whether plants be annuals, biennials, or perennials, whether they produce only one crop of seed or many, they are all governed by the same laws of Growth. Plant-cells.—To give the reader a better idea of how this process called growth takes place, it is necessary to point out that plants are inade up of cells and tissues. Some plants, indeed, like the green Protococcus seen on damp walls, the mould on old leather &c., are very simple in their structure and often consist of one cell only. Andit is in the contents of the individual cells, the presence of which was discovered in 1667 by Robert Hooke, that we must look for the origin of growth. Protoplasm.—Every plant cell in a young stage is filled with a slimy jelly-like substance to which the name of Protoplasm was given in 1846 by a German botanist, Hugo von Mohl. This protoplasm is practically the seat of life. It is constantly undergoing more or less rapid changes in composition, absorbing new food, digesting it, and expelling all waste or worn-out materials. When the cells are young they are completely filled with it, but as they grow old the protoplasm begins to break up into strands, leaving spaces in between which become filled with watery sap absorbed and drafted up by the roots. By-and-bye the protoplasm recedes from the centre of the cell to line the cell walls, and ultimately vanishes altogether with age, the refuse from it going to make the cell walls thicker and harder, and producing what we know as wood or fibre. Before this stage is reached, however, the protoplasm, or rather the central portion of it called the nuclews, divides and forms a new cell. This, like its parent, becomes surrounded with a cell wall, and then becomes practically an independent individual working out its own life history in the same way. When it is remembered that plants are made up of millions of these cells containing protoplasm, and that with the advance of age each mass of protoplasm is capable of pro- pagating itself by division, it is not so very difficult to account for what we understand as growth—how plants often attain enormous heights, and the trunks of trees great diameters—according to their nature. Although each mass of protoplasm is as it were completely enclosed within its own cell walls, it is not, however, cut off from all communi- PROTOPLASM 23 cation with the protoplasm in the neighbouring cells. It is supposed that thin microscopic strands of protoplasm pass through the cell walls from one protoplasmic mass to another, and also that the fluid from a well-filled or turgid cell is diffused through the cell walls into a comparatively empty one by a process which has been termed osmosis or endosmosis, and that in this way the cell-sap is drafted to the outer- most points of the shoots of plants no matter how tall. As the proto- plasm in each cell is therefore dependent for its support on the food dissolved in the cell-sap it naturally follows that no solid substance can possibly enter as such into the system of a plant. The protoplasm is formed, or forms itself, out of the food which has been absorbed in a liquid state, and it then proceeds to build up the various tissues of the plant which we know as shoots, stems, leaves, flowers &c. When the liquid or watery sap in the cells becomes excessive it is exhaled or breathed out into the atmosphere in the form of vapour by means of the pores of the leaves referred to below under ‘Transpiration’ at p. 34, and fresh supplies as wanted are absorbed by the roots, but only under favourable climatic conditions. To sum up, the whole plant is dependent on the work of the protoplasm, and so long as this continues to perform its functions, so long will the plant live and produce in due course its flowers and fruits. Anything therefore that tends to interfere with the work of the protoplasm, such as too much heat or cold, too much drought or moisture, too much light or shade, also stops the growth of the plant, and until proper conditions are restored the plant is likely to die because the protoplasm cannot perform its work in a satisfactory manner. The great aim of the gardener, therefore, is to choose the most favourable conditions for his plants so that there will be no interference or check to the mysterious work carried on within the cell walls by the protoplasm. Ifa plant comes from a tropical climate, he endeavours to imitate the natural warmth by growing it in a hothouse, as he very soon discovers by the drooping and withering leaves and stems that a cool temperature will be injurious. In the same way plants from cold regions will be injured by excessive heat. As this work, however, only deals with plants which will grow in the open air in our own climate, the reader need not concern himself much about artificial heat, although he will find many cases in which he is advised to use hotbeds for raising seeds &c., and to place his plants in the warmest and sunniest, in the coolest and shadiest, in the driest or dampest positions in his garden; but these instructions are all based upon this one principle of placing a plant under the circumstances most favourable to the work to be performed by the protoplasm in the cells. 24 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS THE SEED It has been stated above that the growth of a plant takes the form of a cycle, and it is therefore difficult to take any one organ and say ‘ growth begins here.’ This cannot be said of the root, as it is the out- come of the seed; it cannot be said of the leaves, as they are outgrowths of the stem; and it cannot even be said of the seed, which is produced by the ripened fruit. As, however, for practical purposes it is necessary to start somewhere, the most logical beginning from a gardening point of view seems to be the Seed, which we will therefore consider. Many years ago, the late Dr. Lindley described a seed as being ‘a living body, separating from its parent and capable of growing into a new individual of the same species. It is a reproductive fragment, or vital point, containing within itself all the elements of life, which, how- ever, can only be called into action by special circumstances.’ As popularly understood, seeds are only produced by Flowering Plants or ‘Phanerogams’ (p. 121). They are the result of the ovules (either naked, as in the Pine order ; or enclosed in carpels, as in most other Flowering Plants) being fertilised by the pollen tube. ach fer- tilised seed contains an embryo, or the rudiments of a young plant. When placed ina suitable temperature, with moisture, they are capable of reproducing all the characters of their parents. The so-called ‘seeds’ or spores of Ferns differ very much from those of Flowering Plants, and the way in which they are reproduced is explained at p. 1009. The process of forming seeds takes place somewhat in this way. When the grain of dust or pollen from an anther in the flower falls on to the stigmatic surface of the carpel, the grain of pollen begins to grow much in the same way as a seed in the soil, with the exception that all the growth is downwards. A microscopic thread called the pollen tube makes its way from the pollen grain downwards through the tissue of the carpel, and eventually reaches the ovule contained within the walls of the ovary. At one end of the ovule there is a small hole called the micropyle. The pollen tube enters this and comes in contact with a cell much larger than the others called the embryo-sac. Within the embryo-sac and close to the micropyle are three other cells, one of which called the egg-cell or embryonic vesicle receives the contents of the pollen tube and is thus fertilised. This operation, sooner or later, results in the production of what is commonly known as a seed. After fertilisation, the nuclei in the masses of protoplasm in the cells divide as explained above and form new masses, and thus fill up the interior of the embryo-sac. Eventually the embryo, or young plant, THE SHED: GHRMINATION 25 fills up the entire space within the seed coats as in the case of the Pea, Bean, Horse-Chestnut, Oak &c.; or it may occupy only a very small space as in Wheat, Onion &c., and remain imbedded in a substance at one time called albwmen, but now more generally called perisperm. When the embryo occupies the whole seed, as in the case of the Bean &c., all the reserve material for the purpose of nourishing the young plant is stored up in the fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, and it is from these that food supplies are drawn until the young root has developed sufficiently to absorb food from the soil, after germination has taken place. In the case of other seeds, however, like those of the Wheat and Onion, the young plant is fed upon the albumen or peri- sperm, and not on the seed leaves, until roots are formed. Germination.—Seeds germinate as the result of a certain amount of heat, moisture, and air. The seeds of some plants germinate in a much lower temperature than others, but there is a certain point called the ‘ optimum’ at which seeds of any given plant will sprout more readily than at a point below or above it. The best or ‘optimum’ tempera- ture for germination varies according to the nature of the plant or species, and the gardener learns by experience which temperature is most suitable for raising the seeds of any particular plant. He knows for instance that the seeds of many plants will sprout sooner if they are sown upon a hotbed than if they are sown in the open ground where the temperature may be 10° or 20° lower. He also knows that a certain amount of moisture is absolutely necessary, and that the free circulation of air between the particles of soil shall not be impeded, as he usually takes particular care to have the soil well drained, so that the water and consequently the air shall pass through it freely. Speaking generally, the seeds of most of the plants described in —— work germinate readily either out of doors in autumn or spring ; cold frames without artificial heat ; or in the gentle heat of a faite d os or greenhouse, say 60° to 70° F. or even less. Heat and Cold.— When a seed ‘ sprouts’ or germinates as a result of the suitable conditions referred to above it is obvious that growth is taking place. It undergoes a change from the apparently dried condition in which it was before its contact with moisture or suitable heat. In fact, heat is the prime mover of life in the seed; hence by the use of hotbeds or frames or greenhouses several degrees more heat are obtained than out of doors. Chemical changes take place in the seed; water is absorbed from the soil through the seed coats ; the latter are soon unable to contain their swollen contents and consequently burst. The first seed- leaves are pushed upwards through the soil, and the tiny rootlet down- wards into it. These signs are simply an indication of the work that is 26 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS being done by the protoplasm in the cells as already explained. From the water absorbed through the seed-coats, the protoplasm receives a supply of food and proceeds to manufacture it, with the result that the nuclei in the masses of protoplasm divide and produce other nuclei, and these again in due course carry out the same process, not only until a plant is fully developed but until it dies. Vitality of Seeds.—Some seeds retain their vitality for several years—that is, their power of germinating does not appear to be much injured by being kept a long time—while others very soon lose it. For practical purposes it is preferable to obtain fresh and thoroughly ripened seed to secure the best results. The stories as to the germi- nating power of mummy-wheat 2,000 years old are fables, but many seeds will retain their vitality and produce good plants after careful storing for 5 to 10 years. THE ROOT To the ordinary observer every part of a plant which happens to grow naturally underground is regarded as a ‘root.’ This looseness of expression is not altogether confined to the uninitiated, as the term ‘roots’ is also applied by florists and nurserymen to entire plants, such as Pansies, Violas, Sweet Williams, Foxgloves, Double Daisies, and many other plants in which a large trade is done during the spring months. At present, however, we are chiefly concerned with real roots, and it is necessary that the gardener should have a clear idea as to their origin and function. The first Root is the downward growth from the lower end of the ‘caulicle’ or basal portion of the embryo. It usually breaks through the seed coat at germinating time, before the cotyledons emerge to the light, the object in view by nature evidently being that the young plant should be provided with roots as early as possible after growth has commenced in the seed. When the first root persists and continues to grow it becomes what is known as a tap-root, and is present in all Dicotyledonous plants (p. 131 to p. 805) raised from seed. Good examples are seen in the Carrot, Parsnip, and Beetroot as represented at fig. 107 in the Glossary. As the tap-root in many plants has a tendency to grow down into uncongenial and sterile parts of the soil, it may be prevented from developing in a downward direction by more or less frequent transplanting; this injures the tip, stops its growth, and causes the more desirable fibrous roots to develop from the sides. Roots branch in all directions and apparently without system, and become finer and more threadlike towards the tips. They usually ROOTS 27 avoid the light, bear no leaves or buds, and are generally of a pale or whitish colour although sometimes with coloured juice. Functions.—The main function of the root is to obtain liquid food from the soil. The tips of the root are chiefly concerned in this work, the older portions merely serving as holdfasts for the plant, and as channels for conveying the food to the stems and leaves. The extremity of each root-fibre is covered with a cap, formerly called a ‘spongiole,’ which protects a mass of young and active cells forming the ‘growing point.’ As the roots push their way in a somewhat corkscrew-like fashion through the soil, the outer layers of the root- cap wear out and are replaced from within by the discarded layers of the growing point. The contents of the cells of the growing point are very sensitive to heat, cold, and moisture, and under favourable conditions absorb water and whatever plant food is dissolved in it in large quantities. During the spring and summer they are most active, gradually subsiding towards autumn and becoming almost inactive in winter. When plants are moved during the active state of growth most of the root-tips are injured or broken, and the supply of food and water is cut off from the plant until new roots are formed. Sometimes plants moved at this period never recover from the shock to the roots and, being unable to produce new ones quickly enough, die, practically of starvation and drought. Many roots have root-hairs. These are developed chiefly on land plants to assist in obtaining water more quickly from the soil. In water-plants root-hairs are usually absent. But the roots of such plants (¢.g. the Watercress) grown on land soon develop root-hairs. From the above remarks it is obvious that one of the chief things necessary to enable roots to perform their work properly is water. Without moisture in the soil the roots are useless, and the entire plant collapses in consequence. From a gardening point of view, therefore, the greatest attention should be paid to the watering of plants, some requiring more and some less, according to their nature. Whether the water which is absorbed contains plant food or not depends a good deal upon the operations of the gardener. It is possible that many of the foods referred to at p. 70 are in the soil, but they must be readily soluble in water, and also be in a fit state to benefit the plant. Besides the substances absorbed in the water, root-tips and hairs absorb substances otherwise insoluble in water, and cling tenaciously to particles of minerals. They exude an acid secretion which dissolves the mineral matters, and these are thus modified so as to become digestible, and readily pass through the cell-walls into the protoplasm referred to above. 28 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Root-pressure.—It is well known—indeed obvious—that the tallest tree in the world has water drafted to its highest point. This is an extraordinary fact when it is remembered that the Giant Sequoia of California and the Gum Trees of Australia often reach the great height of 400 to 500 ft. The tips of branches being naturally the youngest and tenderest parts of a plant are always well supplied with water. How the water gets to the outermost tips is a debatable matter and many theories have been suggested; but the fact remains that it gets there, and the propelling force has been termed ‘root-pressure.’ It is sup- posed that the water from the fully charged lower cells diffuses or filters through the partitions or walls into the upper cells by a process called ‘osmosis,’ referred to above under the chapter on ‘Growth.’ It can hardly, however, be a mere physical process, as each living cell in a plant contains the living substance called protoplasm already referred to. As each cell containing protoplasm is more or less supplied with watery juice from the roots, it is evident that a vast quantity of moisture is thereby taken from the soil, and passes from cell to cell by root- pressure. When trees and shrubs are cut in spring during the period of great absorption, large quantities of water are sometimes forced from | the cut surfaces, and constitute what gardeners call ‘bleeding.’ This, if carried to excess, would be injurious, if not fatal, to the plant ; but the surplus overflow as a rule soon becomes checked by the development of fresh leaves, the cells of which must be supplied with sap, and serve to stop the overflow from any wounds. Kinds of Roots.— Roots, while all performing the same functions, differ a good deal in appearance. Broadly speaking they may be classified as fibrous, fleshy, and tuberous. All grasses and many annuals, biennials, and herbaceous plants have fibrous roots, while the Dahlia may be taken as an example of a plant with fleshy roots. What are termed ‘ adventitious’ or accidental roots are those developed from any part of the plant except the seed. The roots of cuttings, layers, stems, &c. are therefore all adventitious. In the case of Monocotyledonous plants (see p. 127) the primary root from the seed soon ceases to grow, and all the roots afterwards developed are from the stem, and are hence mostly adventitious. Their functions, however, are precisely the same as those of the true roots developed directly from the seedling. The tubers of Potatoes and Jerusalem Artichokes, the rhizomes or rootstocks of Irises, the corms of Crocuses and Gladioli, and the bulbs of Onions and Lilies, although all naturally growing in the soil are not really roots at all but modified stems, and are referred to below. THE STEM 29 THE STEM The stem is the axis of the plant which bears leaves, flowers, and fruit so that each shall be in the most favourable position for performing its functions. The leaves are separated from each other by greater or less distances called internodes. Sometimes these inter- nodes are so short that the plant appears to be stemless or almost so, as in the Primrose and Houseleek. Stems always originate in a bud, the first one arising between the seed-leaves from the small bud known as the plumule. Branches arise also from buds in the axils of leaves, and this gives the spreading habit so characteristic of trees and shrubs, all belonging to the Dicotyledonous and Gymnospermous groups of plants (see p. 122). Among the Monocotyledons (p. 127) and Ferns (p. 1008) buds at the end of the stem only are developed, hence the usually unbranched character of their stems. In the lower orders of plants, such as Seaweeds, Liverworts, Mushrooms &c., stems are unknown. The first trace of a stem appears in the Mosses, and becomes more marked in the Clubmosses (p. 1024), Horsetails (p. 1023), and Ferns (p. 1008); but the stem as generally understood attains its greatest development in the plants belonging to the flowering groups, as seen in the Oak, Apple, Beech, Elm, Pine &c. Whether they are herbaceous, that is, soft, tender, and deciduous as in annuals and biennials (p. 78), and herbaceous perennials (p. 86), or woody as in trees and shrubs (p. 107), the stems of all flowering plants have their origin in the ‘plumule’ or first bud of the embryo plant. STRUCTURE OF STEMS Besides the differences in stems referred to below, it may be mentioned here that there is a very marked difference in the structure of the stems of Dicotyledonous plants (p. 122) and those of Monoco- tyledons (p. 127). An examination of the stem of a Willow, Apple, Fuchsia, Wallflower, or any other plant belonging to the Dicotyledonous group will show in transverse section that it consists of three distinct parts, viz. (.) the pith in the centre; (ii.) then the wood; and (iii.) the bark or rind outside. The bark is readily peeled off, especially when the sap is flowing upwards in spring, and it leaves the white wood exposed to view. On the outside of the wood and next the bark is a very important layer of quick-growing and actively dividing cells 30 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS called the ‘cambium layer.’ As long as ever a Dicotyledonous plant lives, this cambium layer has the power of doing two wonderful things: it adds by division of the cells a layer of wood on the inside every year, and a layer of bark on the outside, and it is by this process, which goes on year after year in woody stems, that the latter increase in bulk. It thus happens that the youngest part of the wood of a tree trunk is on the outside beneath the bark, and not in the centre near the pith ; while the youngest bark is next to it and not on the extreme outer surface. Itis the addition of a layer of wood each year to that already existing that gives the ringed appearance to tree trunks, each ring representing one year’s growth. If a strip of bark be taken off all round the trunk or branch of a tree without injuring the wood, it will be found that the leaves do not shrivel up or wither, as one might expect, as a result of the operation. - It is evident, therefore, that the sap from the roots ascends by the vessels in the cambium and young wood, and not by means of the bark, nor yet by means of the pith or the old inner wood, as is indeed obvious when one sees a huge Elm, Willow, or Oak with all the interior scooped out of the trunk. It will also be noticed that, if a branch has a string tied round it firmly, the portion above the string will become swollen. This shows that the elaborated or assimi- lated food made by the leaves returns down the stem by the outer cells, and as these are compressed at the tie the descent of the nutritive material is checked at that point and the cells above become gorged. There are many other kinds of cells and vessels in the stems of Dicotyledonous plants, some being spiral, like compressed watch-springs, some cylindrical with slits or holes in the sides, or only at the base where they join another vessel, and so on ; and running through them all from the central pith or ‘ medulla’ to the circumference are rays known as ‘medullary’ rays, popularly known as the ‘ silver grain’ in wood. All the cells and vessels in a stem are not of the same nature : some are very tender like those of the cambium, some tough like those of the bast cells, and others fibrous or woody. The latter are seen in the principal nerves or veins of leaves, and are gathered together into bundles. Each leaf is connected with the stem by means of these fibrous bundles, and as the leaves are arranged all round the stem it is obvious that the fibre-bundles from them collect and form a circle round the stem. The traces of these fibre-bundles from the leaf into the stem are well seen in the scars left by the fallen leaves in autumn, as in the Horse-Chestnut and other trees. Such are briefly the main points in the structure of the stems of _ Dicotyledonous plants, and they are referred to here chiefly because a STEMS 31 knowledge of them is necessary for the operations of Budding and Grafting described further on. In the stems of Monocotyledons we find a different structure, the most striking feature being the absence of real pith, wood, and bark. There is no cambium layer, and consequently no concentric rings of wood and bark as in Dicotyledons, and the fibrous bundles are chiefly collected on the outer portions of them, and give them the hard texture so well known in the stems of Bamboos and Canes. As it is the presence of the cambium layer which enables grafting or budding to be done at all, it therefore follows that these operations cannot be performed satisfactorily on Monocotyledons which have no cambium layer in their stems. KINDS OF STEMS Stems are usually regarded as being above the soil, but there are certain modified kinds which perform their work beneath the surface, and are popularly looked upon as roots. Those above the surface are classified as follows :— 1. Herbaceous. These are stems which die down to the ground every year after blooming, as in the case of most hardy herbaceous perennials (see list, p. 86). 2. Sub-shrubby, more or less woody below but herbaceous above. 3. Shrubby, arborescent, or arboreous, woody, and living from year to year, and attaining considerable size as in the case of trees and shrubs, a list of which is given at p. 107. Stems assume various directions in growth, some being erect and ascending, others more or less trailing or prostrate on the ground, others creeping and developing roots at the joints, where they touch the soil; and others climbing or twining by tendrils, as in the Passion Flower and Virginian Creeper ; by twisted leaf-stalks, as in the Clematis, or by aerial rootlets, as in the Ivy. Stolons are stems or branches which recline on the earth and take root. Many plants are naturally increased in this way and the process of layering was no doubt suggested by seeing stems throw out roots when in contact with the soil. , An Offset is a short stolon with a tuft of leaves at the end, from which roots also develop, as seen in the common Houseleek. Runners, as in the Strawberry, are similar in their nature, being long slender stolons which when fully grown develop roots at the tip, and afterwards buds and leaves to form a new plant. Tendrils are branches modified for climbing purposes, and are either simple or branched, but are useless for propagating purposes. 32 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Spines or Thorns are also modified branches or leaves; but the prickles of the Rose and Blackberry are merely excrescences or cellular outgrowths of the stem. Underground Stems.—Perhaps the best known form of an under- ground stem is that of the Flag Iris (p. 917) and Solomon’s Seal (p. 811). They look like real roots but the leaf-like scales and buds show them to be stems by nature. Many plants have underground and more or less creeping stems, as in Lily of the Valley (p. 813), Mint (p. 744), and Couch- grass, the latter on this account spreading rapidly and becoming a nuisance, especially when chopped by hoeing &c. Underground stems are often thickened and serve as storehouses for food during the winter in many plants with herbaceous stems. They take many shapes, among which may be mentioned: The Tuber, as in the Potato (p. 1133), the Jerusalem Artichoke, the ‘eyes ’ of which are leaf-buds from which stems arise (p. 1140); the Corm or Solid Bulb, as in the Cyclamen (p. 626), Crocus (p. 936), and Gladio- lus (p. 947); the Bulb, as in the Madonna Lily (p. 846), the Tulip (p. 860), Hyacinth (p. 833), Onion (p. 1148) &c. In some plants the stems are so modified in form and structure that they perform the functions of the foliage. The stems of many cacta- ceous plants are of this nature, and also the branches of the Common Butcher’s Broom (see p. 810) which resemble leaves in appearance. THE LEAVES From definite points (called nodes or joints) of the stem and branches leaves are developed and arranged more or less horizontally, vertically, or drooping so as to obtain a greater or less amount of sunshine, and to throw water towards or away from the main axis of the plant, accord- ing to the nature of the species. Tt will be noticed for example that the leaves of Rhubarb (p. 770), Arum Lily (p. 955) and other plants have the tips of the leaves uppermost. They are more or less channelled down the centre, and water is by this means transferred towards the centre of the plant, and down the stem to the roots. In such plants it will generally be found that the roots do not spread over large areas but are confined in a small space beneath the centre of the plant. Many other plants on the contrary, like most of our trees and shrubs and flowering plants, have the leaf- tips pointed outwards and downwards so as to throw the water chiefly around the circumference of the plant and away from the centre. In plants with these peculiarities the roots spread out and away from the STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 33 centre in all directions, and usually go beyond the circumference of the foliage. In this way the active fibrous roots secure the full benefit of the rain which is thrown off the leaves. A complete leaf consists of a flattened portion, called the blade; a stalk or petiole, and a pair of more or less scaly or leafy appendages called stipules, all of which characters are illustrated in the Glossary at fig. 98. The stalk and stipules are frequently absent, leaving the blade attached to the stem by the base, when it is said to be sessile. As a rule, when fully developed, leaves cease to increase in length or breadth, and remain unchanged in form until death, when they are removed by natural decay, as in most Monocotyledonous plants (p. 127), or by breaking off at a joint, as in most Dicotyledons (p. 122). Some leaves develop and die in one season, and are called deciduous ; others persist for two or more seasons before falling off, new ones in the meantime being formed, thus giving the plant an evergreen appear- ance. The tissue of the blade is traversed by a framework of stronger ribs or veins more or less netted in Dicotyledons, as shown at fig. 48 in the Glossary, p. 7, and parallel or curved in Monocotyledons, as shown at fig. 96 in the Glossary. The beautiful arrangement of the veins is well seen in leaves which have been skeletonised—that is, when the more perishable tissue (called parenchyma) between the veins has decayed through artificial or natural agencies. These veins serve not only to strengthen the leaf-blade, but also as channels through which the sap from the root is distributed to the cells composing the blade. Structure of Leaves.—Ordinary leaves consist of an upper and under surface between which are layers of cells more or less irregular in shape and filled with grains of green colouring matter known as chlorophyll floating about in the protoplasm (see p. 22). The cells near the upper surface are much more compactly arranged than those beneath, hence the more intense green of leaves above. "Where leaves receive an equal amount of light, as in Irises, Gladiolus, and many other Monocotyledons, there is not a great difference in colour between the two sides. The skin, cuticle, or epidermis of the leaf is studded with small openings or breathing pores, known as stomata. These are more numerous on the under.surface, and it has been computed that there are as many as 60,000 of them to the square inch in a Lily leaf, and about 100,000 to the square inch on that of an Apple leaf. The leaves of water plants present a striking difference from those of land plants. Those under water are more or less divided and are so thin in texture that they D 34 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS can absorb the necessary food or throw off surplus gases through the walls of the cells instead of through stomata. Those floating on the surface have stomata above, but none or very few beneath. Functions of the Leaf.—The most important work of the leaf is to construct, manufacture, ‘elaborate’ or make digestible food for the plant out of the raw materials in the sap, and to give off through its pores surplus gases and watery vapour. It is only under the light of the sun that the living protoplasm in the cells of leaves is capable of changing mineral matters and gases into plant food. From the air carbonic acid gas is taken in through the pores in the leaf and is absorbed through the cell walls by the proto- plasm in the cells. The carbon is retained and the oxygen is given off. This process of manufacturing food is called assimilation, and may be likened to what is known as digestion with human beings and animals. By its means starch, sugar, oils and various other substances found in plants are obtained, and constitute the food of man and animals. The absorption and liberation of gases by means of the pores is known as respiration, owing to its being somewhat akin to the breathing of animals, the great difference, however, being that plants breathe out oxygen during the day instead of carbonic acid gas, and thus keep the air in a purified state. Transpiration.—Almost every part of a living plant is continually giving off vapour from its tissues, although the quantity varies with atmospheric conditions. When in active growth the roots often absorb more water from the soil than is actually needed, and the surplus is given off into the air by means of the stomata in the leaves and minute pores in the stems. This continual discharge of watery vapour is known as transpiration, and according as the cells become emptied by evaporation they absorb fresh supplies from contiguous cells by means of the process already referred to as Osmosis, see p. 23. Whether large or small quantities are given off depends a good deal upon the wetness or dryness of the atmosphere, and upon heat and cold —that is, practically on the state of the weather. It is not merely a mechanical process of evaporation, as the amount given off is regulated by the plant itself. When too much vapour is being given off, the stomata begin to close, as if realising that the loss of great quantities of water means injury to the plant asa whole. So long as the supply of water from the roots exceeds that given off by the leaves, the latter remain plump and fresh, as the cells composing them are turgid or full of watery sap. But as soon as the leaves throw off more water than is supplied by the roots, the cells of the leaves gradually become emptied ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES 36 and collapse. As a consequence the entire leaf droops or, as gardeners say, it ‘ flags.’ In hot dry summers many thin-leaved plants may be seen to ‘ flag ’ during the day, although the roots may be well supplied with water, and only recover their freshness in the cool of the evening, when the transpiration current is not so great. This current of water from root to leaves continues as long as ever a particle of moisture remains near the roots. And it even continues for some time after plants and flowers have been severed from the roots and placed in water. This explains why in a cut state stems and flowers often last a long time fresh in water. If the base of the stems is cut from time to time, and under water if possible, the freshness may be extended for several days. ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES Leaves are arranged upon the stem in definite order and may be _alternate—that is, one after the other with only one leaf to each joint as shown in the Glossary, fig. 6; opposite, when there are two leaves to each joint, one on each side and opposite each other (Glossary, fig. 45); whoried or verticillate, when more than two leaves spring from a joint and form a circle (Glossary, fig. 116). In the case of Pine-trees it looks as if several leaves sprang from one joint, but such is really not the case: they are single leaves on a branch the joints of which are very close together. The blade of a leaf may be in one piece, when it is called simple, as shown in the Glossary, figs. 4, 8, 10 &c.; or cut up into separate leaflets, when it is compound, as in figs. 17, 19, and 50 in the Glossary. Simple leaves assume roundish, elliptic, oval, or linear shapes with intermediate variations, and may be either sharp or blunt or slightly notched or pointed at the apex. The margins may be entire, wavy, serrate, toothed, lobed, or variously cut, and the base may-be prolonged below the insertion of leaf-stalk, the lobes uniting and producing a peltate or shield-like form, as in the Indian Cress (Tropeolum) shown at fig. 79 in the Glossary. When the leaf-stalk (petiole) is absent the leaf is sessile, and when stipules are absent a leaf is said to be exstipu- late. When the lobes of a sessile leaf are produced downwards to clasp the stem, leaves are said to be amplexicaul, as in fig. 8 of the Glossary ; and if the lobes of opposite sessile leaves unite, they become connate as in fig. 33; or if single and surrounding the stem perfoliate, as In fig. 82. Compound leaves may have the component parts called ‘leaflets ’ radiating from the end of the stalk, as in the Horse Chestnut, when they D2 36 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS are termed palmate or digitate (Glossary, fig. 50); or from opposite sides of the midrib like a feather, when they are pinnate (fig. 85). ‘The leaflets of pinnate ieaves may be divided once, twice, or more times. When the leaflets arise from one another on each side of the middle lobe, they are called pedate, as in the Christmas Rose (Helleborus). There is great variation, and as a rule two or more terms are employed to describe the shape of a leaf, but the main forms will be found illus- trated in the Glossary, pp. 1-18. THE FLOWER The botanist regards the parts of a flower as so many leaves specially modified for certain purposes. An ordinary flower is composed of (i.) sepals (the calyx) ; (ii.) petals (the corolla) ; (iii.) stamens (androe- cium) ; (iv.) carpels or pistil (gynoecium). The sepals and petals are often absent altogether: sometimes one, sometimes another. Asarule they form the most conspicuous and showy part of the flower, and their natural duty is supposed to be to attract insects to search for honey and thus disturb the pollen and fertilise the pistils or carpels. Thestamens and carpels are the essential parts of the flower, without which it is impossible to obtain seed. The stamens contain pollen in the little sacs or bags at the apex called anthers shown at fig. 9 in the Glossary. Insects are useful in brushing this pollen against the sticky top (the stigma) of the pistil. The pollen is sometimes ripe before the stigma, and vice versa, and it thus happens that flowers are not often fertilised with their own pollen. In this way the pistils m one flower may be fertilised with pollen from another, and if the species are different a ‘hybrid’ has been effected, or a ‘cross’ if the plants are of the same species. Seeds obtained from a plant thus crossed do not exactly reproduce the characters of the parents, although the differences may be very slight. Sometimes the same flower contains both stamens and pistil, when it is said to be hermaphrodite. When a flower contains stamens only or pistils only on the same plant, it is said to be monecious, as in the Cucumber (p. 1156), Marrow (p. 1155), Begonia (p. 462). But when male and female (or staminate and pistillate) flowers are borne on dif- ferent plants, they are said to be diwcious, as in the Aucuba (p. 475) and Willow (p. 802). Very often flowers are without stamens and pistils, and are termed neuter or sterile, as in the cultivated forms of the Guelder Rose (p. 480) and the Hydrangea (p. 429). Double Flowers.—Cultivation often plays havoc with the stamens and pistils. These become more or less suppressed, and (as showing garden Rose (p. 382), Carnation (p. 240), Hollyhock (p. 272), Double Begonia (p. 462) and Chrysanthemum (p. 531). The more the stamens and pistils become suppressed or modified by cultivation, the less chance is there of obtaining seeds from such flowers, and plants bearing them are with difficulty increased by seeds. Hence the adoption of other methods of propagation in such cases. FERTILISATION AND HYBRIDISATION Since the functions of the stamens and pistils have been better understood, gardeners have taken full advantage of them by transferring the pollen from the stamens of one flower to the pistils of another with a view to raising new races or ‘strains’ as they are called. When ina reciprocal state, fertilisation is usually effected, the pollen grows on the sticky surface of the pistil (called the stigma) and seeds are ultimately borne in the way described at p. 24. The plants raised from such seeds may combine the characters of both parents in a more or less even degree. When two species of the same genus are thus fertilised a ‘hybrid’ is the result. When two species belonging to different genera are fertilised, the product is called a ‘bigeneric’ hybrid. But when forms of the same species are fertilised with each other, they are simply called ‘ crosses,’ and chiefly differ in the colour and size of the flower. Of late years hybridisation has been carried on to an enormous extent among all classes of plants, and some very fine garden flowers have been thus obtained. It must be remembered, however, that only plants having a natural relationship to each other are likely to produce hybrids. The more distantly related they are, the less likely are they to be fertilised or produce seeds. As most of the plants described in this work are arranged according to their natural relationships to each other, it will be easy to see which are the most likely ones to use for hybridising purposes. Unlike animals, it is a remarkable fact that most plant hybrids are capable of producing fertile seeds, and are as perfect in every detail as the species from which they were originally derived. Occasionally a hybrid is met with, which only with difficulty can be fertilised and made to produce seed. In such a case as with ‘double ’-flowered plants it must be increased by other means than seeds. It may be appropriate to mention here that certain flowers, like Prim- roses (p. 617), Auriculas (p. 618), Oxalis (p. 292), Loosestrife (p. 451) &c. have the stamens and pistils alternately long in some flowers and short 38 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS in others, and Darwin has pointed out that pollen from long stamens in one flower is naturally adapted for fertilising the long pistils in another; and the same with the short forms. Many flowers are fertilised by bees and various insects, but many others, like the Pine trees (p. 972), Willows (p. 802), Alders (p. 796), Poplars (p. 803), Birches (p. 793) &c., depend upon the wind to have their pollen blown about and transferred to the ovules (as in the Pines) or pistils (as in the others). FORMS OF FLOWERS Flowers are usually said to be ‘regular’ when their sepals and petals are similar as shown in figs. 24, 40, 54, 59, 63, and 66 in the Glossary ; or ‘irregular,’ when one or more sepal or petal differs in size or shape from the others as shown in figs. 5, 22, 23, 58, 60, and 67. The petals may be quite free from each other, when they are called polypetalous (see p. 122), or may be united, when they are said to be gamopetalous (see p. 125). In the Glossary figs. 23, 24, 59, 68, 65, and 67 are examples of Gamopetalous flowers, while figs. 5, 40, 54, and 58 are examples of Polypetalous flowers. The stamens and pistils may also be either free or united. These characters are of great use for the purposes of classification, and are more systematically detailed at p. 120. THE INFLORESCENCE The way in which flowers are borne is termed the inflorescence. Flowers may be at the ends of the branches or in the axils of the leaves, and may have stalks (peduncles) branched or unbranched forming racemes, panicles, corymbs, umbels, or cymes &c.; all of which terms are explained and illustrated in the Glossary (p. 1). When without stalks they may form spikes, as in the Plantain, or heads, as in Clover, or catkins, as inthe Birch. There are various modifications of these, as in the Arum Lily, where the flowers are in a fleshy spike (spadiz) enveloped in a large and showy leaf called a spathe. THE FRUIT In popular language the term ‘Fruit’ is very vaguely used. Strictly speaking, the ripened carpels, whether hard or soft, constitute the fruit, or, in other words, the seed vessel or ovary. All flowering plants which produce seeds enclosed in an ovary are termed Angio- sperms (see p. 121) and include both Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. THE FRUIT 39 The Pine trees and Cycads have their seeds quite naked on scales, and are termed Gymnosperms (p. 122). Development of the Fruit.—Soon after the stigma of a carpel has been fertilised it withers, and the ovary begins to enlarge, the ovules which it contained now developing into seeds as the result of fertilisation. Sometimes an ovary (or fruit) contains only one seed, sometimes many, and there may be many ovaries in one flower, as in the Strawberry (p. 1089), Raspberry (p. 1085) &c., each containing only one seed; or there may be few ovaries or only one, each containing several seeds. In any case the ovary consists of one or more carpels either separate and distinct, or united. When ripe, some fruits open naturally and shed their seeds, and are said to be dehiscent; others never open, and the seeds are only liberated by the rotting of the ovary walls. Such fruits are called indehiscent. As many kinds of fruits are mentioned in the pages of this work it may be as well to briefly define those best known. SOFT OR FLESHY FRUITS The Berry is a fruit which is soft throughout, the seeds being imbedded in a pulp, as in the Gooseberry (see Glossary, fig. 14), Currant, Grape, Tomato, and Orange (the latter having a leathery rind). The Pepo or Gourd is a hard-skinned berry, such as the Cucumber, Marrow, Melon. The Pome is a fleshy fruit like the berry, but the calyx is the thickened edible portion in which is imbedded the cartilaginous ovary known as the ‘core’ in Apples, Pears, and Quinces (see Glossary, fig. 88). The Drupe is the name of the fruit of Cherries, Peaches, Plums, Almonds and Nectarines. The outer layer, often merely the skin, is called the epicarp ; the middle layer or flesh the mesocarp; the inner layer or ‘stone’ the endocarp (see Glossary, fig. 52) In the Blackberry and Raspberry the fruit consists of a collection of small drupes and is called an eterio. The fruit of the Mulberry, like that of the Blackberry in appearance, is the product not of one flower but of several crowded on a short stalk. HARD OR DRY FRUITS The Achene is a small dry indehiscent one-seeded fruit, well seen in Buttercups and Strawberries. In the latter they are popularly regarded as ‘seeds.’ The juicy edible pulp is in reality the swollen top or receptacle of the flower stalk (see Glossary, fig. 1). 40 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS The Pod or Legume, familiar in the Pea, Bean, Scarlet Runner &c., is a fruit splitting into two valves, bearing the seeds on the edges (see Glossary, fig. 69). A Lomentum is a pod constricted between the seed breaking transversely into distinct joints. A Samara or Key Fruit, like that of the Elm, Ash, or Maple, is an indehiscent fruit furnished with wings (Glossary, fig. 97). A Follicle, as seen in the Peony, Larkspur &c., is a simple carpel opening on one side only (Glossary, fig. 57). The Capsule is a dehiscent fruit composed of more than one carpel usually with many seeds (Glossary, figs. 26, 27). The Stlique and Stlicle are the long and short pods respectively of the Crucifer order (p. 201) (Glossary, figs. 99, 100). The Cone is the peculiar multiple fruit of the Pine-tree family (p. 972). The cones consist of flat scales overlapping each other, and bearing the seeds at the base (Glossary, fig. 106). The Cremocarp is the name of the fruit of the Umbellifer family (p. 464). It consists of two achenes which split apart when ripe (Glossary, fig. 38). A Nut is a dry indehiscent fruit usually with one seed surrounded by a bony wall, as the Hazel or Cobnut (p. 797). Inthe Oak, the nut or acorn is fixed in a cup called the cupule, the whole fruit being called a Glans (Glossary, fig. 61). INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON VEGETATION All plants having green leaves or stems can only properly develop and perform the function of assimilation or digestion by the aid of sunlight. Mushrooms (see p. 1166) and other Fungi carry out their functions with and without the aid of light. Some plants like as much sunlight as possible ; others only a little, preferring a diffused light or deep shade ; and others again seem to thrive better under intermediate conditions, some leaning towards light rather than shade. Light is essential in any case to secure the formation of chlorophyll, the name given to the green pigment found in the cells of leaves. But this substance also requires a suitable temperature, and will not develop in very cold weather. The absence of chlorophyll is noticeable by the pale or yellowish appearance of the plants. Sometimes gardeners are not anxious that it should develop at all; hence the reason of blanching Celery (see p. 1180), Seakale (p. 1121) &c. by covering the leaf-stalks over with soil, pots, boxes &c. The exclu- sion of light prevents the formation of the green colouring matter, and the stems are in consequence more palatable when eaten. PROPAGATION 41 In the absence of light the leaves will not absorb carbonic acid gas, which is essential to the welfare of the plant. The latter must there- fore live on whatever reserve material it has stored away in the stems or roots. All observant gardeners know the difference between plants grown in light and plants grown in darkness or deep shade. Those under the latter conditions grow rapidly, and plants that are naturally sturdy will assume a weakly, more or less climbing habit, being anxious to reach the sunlight. And every cottager knows that the leaves and shoots of the ‘Geranium’ in his window always turn towards the glass and not towards the centre of the room. On the other hand plants grown in plenty of light do not develop so rapidly, but each part performs its own function properly and steadily, with the result that the plants are more sturdy, and the stems and shoots become better matured and produce better flowers and fruits. Light may therefore be said to have a dwarfing and ripening effect upon plants, while darkness has an elongating and weakening effect. Apart from this may be mentioned the fact that the leaves of many plants of the Leguminous order (p. 322), such as the well-known Sen- sitive Plant, go to ‘sleep ’—that is, droop—during the night time, and only regain their spreading position in daylight. From a cultural point of view, therefore, it is important to notice the effect of light, shade and darkness in plants. Very often a plant which has been grown in strong sunlight will not thrive under the best of treatment ; but when it is shaded or partially shaded, it soon begins to show that it appreciates the altered conditions by the way in which it puts forth new growths. At p. 88 a selection of plants is given which will flourish in shaded or partially shaded situations, while many others are mentioned in various parts of the work. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS PROPAGATION is the term applied to any method by means of which plants are increased or multiplied in number. Some plants can only be increased in one way, others in several; but as a rule the gardener usually and not unnaturally selects the method which gives him the quickest and what he considers also to be the best results. In the case of annuals and most biennials (see p. 78) he has no other choice as a rule but to raise them from seeds. This is also Nature’s method of 42 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS increasing most plants, but the process is often too slow to be regarded with satisfaction by the gardener. He therefore also has recourse to the other methods of propagation described below. I. Propagation by Seeds As just stated above, most plants growing in a natural state are increased by seeds. From a garden point of view, however, it is not always advisable to adopt this means, although many hundreds of plants may be very easily raised thereby. "When it is desired to keep any particular plant true to its variety—that is, so that the progeny may faithfully reproduce all the features of the parent, in regard to habit, foliage, flowers, colour, fruit, flavour &c.—it is not wise to increase or propagate such a plant by means of seeds. For this reason : that pollen from the flowers of an inferior, or at least undesirable, variety may have fertilised the pistils in the flowers of the plant which it is desired to propagate. Thecharacters of the original variety would in this way be tampered with, and the seedlings, although very similar to it, may have inherited some of the undesirable qualities of the strange parent, and lost the most desirable ones of the other. It is therefore almost impossible for any seed to reproduce all the characters and qualities of its mother parent with absolute fidelity. Where little or no importance is attached to this fact, seeds will be found one of the readiest methods by which large numbers of plants may be produced. Plants raised from seed offer immense variety, and where novelties are required either as hybrids or crosses (see p. 37) it is a most interesting occupation raising them from seeds. SEED SOWING The best time for sowing seed is either in the autumn when thoroughly ripe, or in spring, when the earth’s natural heat is favour- able to germination. Ina state of nature, as soon as seeds are ripe they fall to the ground and perhaps remain dormant during the winter, or else germinate sufficiently early to be strong enough to withstand the rigours of winter. All our annual weeds and a good many of our choice hardiest annuals if left alone would reproduce themselves in this way. And so would the hardy biennials and perennials, as witness the Evening Primrose, Horse Chestnut, Ash, Oak, &. From a gardening point of view, however, it is found convenient to make spring the chief seed-sowing season, as there are so many other matters to attend to in the autumn. Other periods, when preferable for any particular plant, will be found noted in the following pages. SHED SOWING ¢ée. 43 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR SOWING SEEDS Seeds are sown out of doors, either in beds, or in rows or ‘ drills’ as they are often called. In whatever way they are sown the ground must first of all be specially prepared for their reception. It should as a rule be well dug or trenched some time previously, so that it will have had sufficient time to settle down afterwards. The surface must be made fine, and should be quite free from clods or lumps. As a rule seed beds are level, but they may under certain circumstances, where the soil, for instance, is naturally heavy and wet, be raised, with alleys about a foot wide between them, the better for thinning out, weeding &c. afterwards. Under south walls, the beds may be slightly inclined so as to catch more benefit from the sun’s rays in early spring. The soil being thus warmed naturally excites growth, and the seedlings appear rather earlier than if sown under other conditions. The necessity for a fine surface is obvious when it is remembered that the seeds of a vast number of plants are very small. If the soil were in a rough state and somewhat lumpy, the small seeds would sink down much too deep, and the young plants would probably never see the light of day; or if they did it would be in such a weak and exhausted state that they would recover only with very great difficulty. The upper surface of the soil may be made fine in various ways. It may be sifted and afterwards levelled with a rake; or, if it isina good friable condition, any lumps in it may be readily crushed with the spade or fork, before levelling properly with the rake. The soil also may be trodden down well with the feet or a very light roller. This will secure evenness and consistency throughout, and will afford a much better run for the roots than if it is left very loose and powdery. COVERING SEEDS There is a vast range of variation in the size of seeds—some being like dust and scarcely discernible, while others, like the Pea, Bean, Horse Chestnut &c. are large enough to be handled quite easily. The well-known seed of the Coco-nut Palm is one of the largest seeds known, while those of our British and exotic Orchids are among the very smallest. Similar to these latter are the spores or ‘seeds’ of Ferns, while those of Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and many other plants of the Heath order (p. 574) are very little larger. Such a difference in size naturally suggests a difference in treatment in regard to covering seeds. The rough and ready principle usually adopted is to cover seeds with soil equalling their own depth or diameter, and for all practical purposes this is found to work very well. Minute seeds, 44 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS like those of Rhododendron, therefore, are simply sown on the surface of the prepared soil, the fineness of which should as a rule correspond to the fineness of the seeds sown. Larger seeds may be covered with soil to a depth varying according to their size. WATERING SEED-BEDS Water is just as essential to growth as heat. Hence the soil in which seeds are sown must be in a more or less moist condition according to the nature of the plant. Some seeds require to be moderately moist, while others—such as those of marsh plants, a list of which is given at pp. 112, 1183—require to be sown almost or quite in a wet muddy soil. In the case of the fine seeds already alluded to, where there is no covering of soil, great attention to watering is necessary for some time. Being not only minute, but also tender and likely to be shrivelled up by drought, the soil on which these tiny seeds rest should before sowing be thoroughly soaked with water. Afterwards they may be kept moist with a sprinkling from a very fine-rosed watering-pot, or the pots or pans in which they are sown may be stood half their depth in water. In this way the soil will absorb moisture upwards from the bottom, and thus avoid the necessity of watering with a can. Very often, when the latter is used carelessly or thoughtlessly for fine seeds, these are washed into a heap at one side, and thus are too dense to permit any good growth in the seedlings. RECEPTACLES FOR SOWING SEEDS It is often more convenient to sow seeds in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; or the quantity to be sown may be so small that it is not worth while sowing it in the open border. Under such circumstances flowerpots, pans, or shallow wooden boxes are generally used. Whatever receptacle is used it is first of all necessary to see that it is well drained before filling it up with soil. “CROCKING’ OR DRAINING POTS In the case of flowerpots, these must be * crocked,’ as gardeners say. A flattish piece of broken pot, having about the same diameter as the bottom of the pot, is placed over the hole in the centre. Over this large ‘crock’ smaller ones are placed, sometimes as much as half way up or more, when particularly good drainage is required. Where large quan- tities of crocks are used, they should become gradually smaller towards the top. Over them all is placed a layer of moss, or fibre of some sort, DRAINAGE 45 such as that shaken out of peat, or turfy loam. This prevents the soil from being washed down among the crocks, and thus choking up the spaces between them required for the free passage of water and air. NECESSITY OF DRAINAGE Too much importance cannot be attached to the proper drainage of soil, whether it is held in a pot or box, or whether it is in the open garden. Unless the water can pass away from the soil readily, it becomes more or less stagnant in it, causes sourness, prevents the circulation of air, lowers the temperature round the roots, and generally interferes with the health of the plant. Under the chapter on soils the question of drainage is more fully treated (see p. 66). Whether boxes, pans, or other receptacles are used, the question of drainage must be first attended to as with flowerpots. Having attended to the drainage, the soil, which must be of a nature suitable to the plants to be grown, may be placed over the moss and crocks, and pressed down more or less firmly with the fingers or a small piece of flat board, and brought to within half an inch of the top of the rim asa rule. Where very fine seeds, like those of Begonia, are to be sown the soil may be raised in the centre, forming a shallow dome, but in such cases the soil must be light and easily permeable by water. HOW TO SOW SEED As a general rule, it may be said that seeds of all kinds of plants are sown too thickly, with the natural consequence that the seedlings spring up very close to each other, and if they are not ‘ pricked out’ or ‘thinned out,’ as described below, they soon stifle each other, and very few, if any, good plants are obtained. Where the seeds are fairly large and easily handled there is no excuse for sowing them thickly. It may take a little longer time to sow them at more or less regular intervals, but the time spent then will be saved, and more than saved, later on when they have germinated. In the event of other work requiring attention, thinly sown seedlings may be allowed to stand longer in the seed-pots without injury than those which have come up too close to each other. With tiny seeds it is very difficult to avoid sowing them thickly, and great care must be exercised in handling them. Some of them are so small and so light, that hundreds of them may be blown away and lost for ever by a slight puff of wind, or evenacough. Such seeds therefore should not be sown in a draughty place for this reason. 46 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS To avoid sowing them too thickly, it is a good plan to sift some dry sand through fine muslin or a hair sieve, and mix the seeds thoroughly with it. The sand and seeds may then be sown as thinly as possible over the surface, treating the grains of sand as if they were seeds—and the seedlings will as a rule not be so close together as if sown without this artificial aid. The sowing of Fern spores has been dealt with separately at p. 1008. THINNING OUT SEEDLINGS This will be necessary when the seedlings are large enough to handle, so that those intended for bloom will have ample space to fully develop without having had their roots disturbed. Thinning out is best done in dull showery weather when the seeds have been sown in the open air. Failing this, the seed bed should be watered before or after the work. PRICKING CUT SEEDLINGS This operation is almost equivalent to thinning the seedlings and to transplantation. It consists in transferring the seedlings from pots, pans, or places in which they developed from the seed, to similar receptacles or places, only much further apart according to kind. The plants have thus more room and air and become sturdy. They also produce more fibrous roots, as the removal usually injures the first central main or tap root, and its place must be taken by new fibrous ones developed from the sides. Many plants are improved in growth by pricking out or transplanting, but a few are injured by the process, and these are mentioned in their proper places. As a rule it is safer not to transplant or prick out any plants which are grown chiefly for the sake of their tap-roots, such as the Carrot (p. 1128), Parsnip (p. 1129), Turnip (p. 1119), Radish (p. 1120), Beet &c. (p. 1151). If transplanted very young they may develop fairly regular-shaped roots, but as a rule they do not, hence are usually thinned out in the seed beds instead of being transplanted. Hotbeds As hotbeds and cold frames are most useful for raising seeds and for many other purposes in the garden, they may be referred to here. A hotbed when well made is an extremely useful adjunct to a gar- den, and especially a garden without greenhouses. It may be erected in some out of the way part where its presence is not too noticeable. By its aid all kinds of tender plants may be raised in early spring or COLD FRAMES 47 protected in winter ; cuttings of bedding and other plants will quickly root on it, and many other uses may be found for it. For making hotbeds the best stable manure should be used, to- gether with plenty of leaves, those of the Oak or Chestnut for choice. Stable manure by itself heats too quickly and dies out too rapidly. By adding leaves, heat is not generated so quickly but is more lasting and suitable for plants. The whole should be well mixed and turned over (any dry portions being thoroughly wetted) every other day for about a week or so, to allow the rank steam to escape. In making the hotbed, the litter and leaves should be placed evenly layer after layer, and in such a way as to be 6 to 12 inches longer and wider than the frame intended for it. Asthe bed proceeds it should be evenly and firmly trodden down, the better to secure a uniform heat. When finished and settled down the hotbed should be 3 to 4 feet high, sloping from the back to the front, and facing south. The surface may be covered with a layer of well-rotted manure, and upon this may be a covering of prepared soil or coco-nut fibre, varying in thickness according to particular requirements. It is advisable to tilt the ends of the lights at first to allow the escape of rank steam. Shading may be done, if necessary, by mats, canvas, or whitening the glass. When any plants described in this work require the assistance of a hotbed, the fact will be found mentioned. Cold Frames Besides hotbeds, cold frames are very convenient, more particularly for raising seeds of rather tender hardy plants, or for protecting peren- nial plants in winter that have been grown in the open air during the summer and autumn months. In very severe winters the frames may be banked round with litter, and covered with one or more layers of Russian mats if needed. In fine mild wintry weather the lights should be taken off or well propped up during the warmest portion of the day, when not frosty, and should be closed early enough to retain a fair proportion of sun heat for the night. Cold frames are of various sizes and makes to suit different kinds of plants ; but they are rather expen- sive. The amateur, however, can easily improvise a frame good enough for practical purposes. See page 100. Labelling After seeds of annuals, biennials, or indeed any plant, have been properly sown, it is important that each kind should be distinctly labelled. Wooden labels varying from 3 to 12 inches long may be 48 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS used. The surface should be slightly and evenly covered with white paint (Continental growers like yellow) and written upon while still damp. With the sharpened end of the label pointing to the left, the generic name should be written above the specific. The date of sowing should also be recorded, and to prevent it becoming obliterated by being pushed too far into the soil, this is best done on a space ruled off by a line at the top of the label. Several labels may be ruled at once, and there is nothing lost by a little neatness and clearness in writing. When special seeds are sown, the name of the sender, country &c. are worth while recording. Where many kinds of seeds are sown, it will be interesting to note how much longer it takes some seeds to germinate than others under equal conditions. In the Flower Border and Rock Garden it must be admitted that labels often look far from picturesque, especially when the plants they represent have disappeared perhaps for ever. In such cases they have not inaptly been termed tombstones, and should be removed when all hope of the plant beneath the surface is abandoned. On the whole, however, a good case can be made out for labels in the flower garden, whether of wood or zinc, especially when many species are grown, unless one has an extraordinary memory. In the case of deciduous herbaceous plants labels mark the spot in winter and prevent the plant being accidentally uprooted and thrown away. The size of the label, however, should always be more or less in proportion to the size of the plant, as nothing looks more ridiculous than to see a tiny plant an inch or two high hidden behind a label a foot long and 9-3 in. broad. ; 2. Propagation by Cuttings Perhaps there is no operation in which the amateur gardener takes so keen a delight as in increasing any choice plant in his stock by the readiest means, and sometimes by unusual means, for the sake of ex- periment. Apart from increasing plants by the natural method of sowing seed, that of making cuttings is most popular, and many amateurs whose enthusiasm knows no bounds endeavour to make a new plant out of every part of an old one, whether suitable or not. As a rule, these enthusiasts make the best gardeners, as every failure is a lesson, and the more failures they can reckon the greater the extent of their knowledge. Cuttings consist of detached portions of a plant—either root, stem, or leaves—from which separate and distinct plants with roots of their own are obtained, and lead an independent existence. Although some plants are more difficult than others to raise from cuttings, it may be CUTTINGS 49 taken as a general principle that plants having buds, bark, and more or less pithy stems are capable of being increased by this means. This practically includes all the Dicotyledons except annuals (see p. 78) and excludes many Monocotyledons (p. 127) and Ferns (p. 1008). Plants are often increased by cuttings simply because there is no other way—but chiefly because seeds will not ripen or cannot be procured. Special varieties are also increased by cuttings, as, if raised from seeds, the distinguishing characters may be lost or blended with those of another variety, as already explained at p. 42. Selecting Cuttings.—Cuttings should always be selected from healthy plants and the best varieties. When herbaceous, they are taken from the young plump shoots. A few of the lower leaves are stripped off, and the stem is cut away to a joint. Herbaceous cuttings may be put in whenever they can be obtained, but spring and autumn are perhaps the best seasons. If cuttings of choice plants are placed in a little heat, as on a hotbed (p. 46), and kept shaded for a few days, they root or ‘strike’ much more quickly than if left unprotected in the open air. But cuttings of a vast number of herbaceous plants and of trees and shrubs root easily in a shady border or in a cold frame. Until a cutting makes roots of its own, it must continue to live somehow. It is well known that plants with roots will suffer from want of water, and that very hot sunshine will often cause the leaves to wither even when the roots are well supplied with water. How, therefore, is a piece of a plant which cannot absorb water, as it has no roots, and cannot prevent the evaporation of the moisture already in it, going to exist for any length of time, and not only exist, but produce roots and eventually develop into a large plant from which several other cuttings may be taken? Itis well known that portions of plants placed in water often keep fresh and healthy for a long time, especially if kept shaded from bright sun. This fact is taken advantage of in regard to cuttings. They are usually placed in damp, sandy soil, and are kept shaded from the sun. Air is also excluded for a time. In this way evaporation is checked, the cuttings retain a good deal of their plump- ness, and the cells of the cut surface when cleanly cut with a sharp knife have the power of taking up and transmitting from one to another a certain quantity of water. The roots have still to be formed, otherwise the cuttings die, as they cannot live indefinitely in a rootless condition. In making cuttings they are usually cut clean across just beneath a joint with a sharp knife. The reason for this is that at every joint is one bud or more, usually in a dormant condition. These buds become plumper and plumper on the plant until they burst into leaf or flower. They evidently have the E 50 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS power of attracting or drawing to themselves, therefore, a greater amount of nourishment than the part of the stem between the joints. When a cutting is severed just beneath this seat or storehouse of nourish- ment, the injured cells of the cut surface endeavour to heal their wounds and keep alive by drawing away some of this nourishment. When this takes place a cushion or ring is formed round the cut sur- face, and protects the inner cells from further injury. From this ring or cushion, which gardeners call the ‘ callus,’ roots are soon developed— they are drawn out as it were by the moisture of the soil, and at once begin to absorb food in a soluble state at their tender tips. Once this stage has been reached a change is seen above the soil in the cutting. The young bud at the tip is no longer inactive, but begins to grow and put forth leaves, and these also begin to work in conjunction with the roots, and thus add to the size and weight of what is now an indepen- dent plant. Henceforth it must be treated like its parent and get the benefit of light, air, moisture and heat in the same way, according to its requirements. A large number of plants may be obtained from cuttings, but there are also a vast number which cannot be increased in this way, such as ‘annuals’ for example. The same may be said of most biennials, that is, plants which take two years to fully mature before dying down. To these may be added such plants as Grasses, Bamboos, Palms, and many other plants like them having leaves with parallel or curved veins, and no rind or bark, as in the Willow, Apple, Pear, Plum &c. Cuttings may be divided into two main groups—soft-wooded or herbaceous, and woody. In the Zonal Pelargonium, for instance, not only will the ends of the branches ‘ strike’ or produce roots but almost every joint, always provided the stems are not too sappy. And here it may be as well to mention as a general rule that all cuttings should be taken from fairly well-ripened and firm parts of the plants. Cuttings of stems too young and watery are apt to rot very soon, and those from very old and dried wood do not root, chiefly because there are no young cells full of life left. Cuttings of most herbaceous plants and of many trees and shrubs all require pretty much the same treatment. They should be inserted in sandy soil, a hole having first been made with a blunt-pointed dibber about twice as thick as an ordinary lead-pencil. The soil should be pressed firmly but gently round the base so as not to crush the tissues, but at the same time firmly enough to prevent the cuttings coming out readily when gently pulled with the finger and thumb. Pots, pans, shallow boxes, or any other receptacle may be used for putting the cuttings in, but whatever receptacle is used it should CUTTINGS 61 always be well drained as explained under ‘Seed Sowing,’ p. 43. No particular heat is required for the plants mentioned, but in others which do not come within the scope of this work a very high temperature is necessary both above and below to make them throw out roots. Cuttings of woody plants differ a good deal from those of soft- wooded or herbaceous plants. In them we have a quite different kind of cutting. The most notable thing is the absence of leaves, but dor- mant buds are shown at the joints where the leaves have fallen away. There are a large number of plants which are easily increased by cuttings of thiskind. ‘When the leaves have fallen off naturally in the autumn, the thoroughly ripened stems may be cut into various lengths and put into the soil, allowing them to remain during the winter. In spring the dormant buds will burst into leaf, and in the course of the summer new branches will be developed. All this is a sign that work is being done under the surface of the soil. Beneath the hard woody bark is a layer of green tissue, with a mass of green young cells full of the active growing material called protoplasm. During the winter the temperature has been too low to start the living matter in the cells into growth, and so they remain idle or dormant. But when the tempera- ture reaches a certain point in the spring it happens to be just suitable for the protoplasm, and the contents of every cell in consequence become active. A ‘callus’ is formed at the cut end of the stem in the soil, and by-and-by young roots are developed exactly as in the soft-wooded cuttings, and the process of taking up nourishment from the soil begins in earnest. A large number of trees and shrubs, with net-veined leaves, can be increased in this way, among them being the Virginian Creeper, and its relation, the Ampelopsis Veitchi, which clings to walls, the Willow, Gooseberry, Currant, Mock Orange, Rose, Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry &c. Of all these it is better to have a shoot about eight or nine inches long, so that about half of it may be inserted in the soil, although cuttings of many others need be only 2-3 in. long. Root Cuttings.—Tops of branches and portions of the stems are the usual parts of a plant used for making cuttings. But there are other parts which are equally useful for the same purpose. The root, for instance, of some plants like the Japanese Windflower (Anemone japonica) and the Japanese Quince (Cydonia japonica), Sea Kale, the Rose, and many others, if cut into pieces a couple of inches long, and ‘sown’ in the soil as if they were seeds, will produce young plants. As a rule root cuttings are usually best put in a little heat. Only those plants the roots of which have a tendency to develop buds are increased in this way. A distinction must be made between these roots and underground stems. E2 52 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS Leaf Cuttings are employed in the case of plants in the Crassula order, and tender plants like Begonias and Gloxinias. The leaves are placed on fine sandy soil or coco-nut fibre, and the main nerves are cut through with a sharp knife. The sap from the cut surface forms a callus, and from this comes a little bud above and roots below. After a time the body of the leaves decays, leaving the plantlets, which are potted up singly into small pots, in fine rich sandy soil. Preparing Soil for Cuttings.—The soil for cuttings should always bespecially prepared, particularly for those of flowering plants. What- ever soil the plant grows in best should be used, with more than the usual mixture of sand; and it should always be well drained, as stag- nant moisture would very soon rot the rootless stem. The more tender or difficult the plant, the more care should be taken in watering, shading, and airing the cuttings. 3. Propagation by Grafting ‘ A graft is somewhat like a cutting, but instead of its being placed to root in the soil it is inserted in the stem of another living plant which is already provided with roots. Only trees and shrubs and sometimes herbaceous plants of the Dicotyledonous group can be grafted. The cut surface of the graft or ‘scion’ and the stock should fit neatly together, in such a way that the layer of the inner bark in each should be in contact. This layer is called the ‘cambium,’ and consists of thin-walled cells, which are always at work adding a layer of wood on the inside and a layer of bark on the outside, thus adding to the diameter of the plant stem, as already explained at p. 30. t TS a w Fig. 117.—wuie ria. 118.— ware ¥I@. 119.—wuir Fic. 120.—wuip GRAFTING. GRAFTING. GRAFTING. GRAFTING. Varieties of Grafting.—There are various ways in which a graft is attached to the stock, the chief being :— GRAFTING 58 (a) Whip Grafting —This is most generally practised. It consists in making an oblique cut in both stock and scion in such a way that they will fit exactly as shown in figs. 117 and 118. A tongue (t) is also cut in each so as to fit one into the other. Where there is a difference in size the scion must be inserted nearer one edge to secure the meeting of the inner bark. When neatly fitted, as in fig. 119, the whole should be bound with woollen thread or raffia so as to keep the scion from moving about, and clay or grafting wax should be at once plastered all round to exclude the air and prevent drying. Fig. 120 shows a completed graft tied up, the dotted lines representing the clay or grafting wax around the joined portions. (b) Cleft Grafting.—This method consists in splitting or cleaving the head of the stock open by a chisel or small chopper. The end of the scion is cut wedge-shaped and inserted in the cleft so as to make the inner edges of the bark meet. This may also be called Market- garden Grafting, as it is usually employed in furnishing the tops of old, worn-out fruit trees. The objection to it is that in splitting the stock, perhaps in three or four places, a much larger space than is required for the scion is made, and may take a long time to heal, if it ever does. There are variations of this method. (c) Saddle Grafting.—In this method the stock and scion must be of equal thickness. The stock, as shown in fig. 121 a, is cut upwards on two opposite sides to make a wedge. The scion, as shown in fig. 121 8, is split up the centre and , hollowed so as to fit on top of the } stock. The reverse method, of in- serting a wedge-ended scion into the stock, is called Wedge Grafting. (d) Crown or Rind» Grafting. — This system is generally practised in spring, when the bark easily separates from the wood. The scion is cut A obliquely, but a square shoulder is made at the base by a transverse cnt. It is pushed in between the bark and wood of the stock until the shoulder sig caters ae sag Ee _ rests on the top of the stock. Several slender grafts may be inserted by this means round the edge of a large trunk, as shown in fig. 122. An improved method of Grafting is shown in figs. 123, 124, and 125. It is not exactly new, as something similar was practised about 54 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS ninety years ago; but specimens from which the drawings were made were exhibited a few years ago in London to show the difference between the ordinary system of grafting and the improved one. Fig. 123 shows a graft inserted in a much thicker stock. The rind or bark, however, is not cut away from the graft, but is carried over the head of the stock, and is inserted under the bark on the opposite side. This is the only difference in the two operations, the tying up and waxing or claying being done as usual. The result of the union is shown, how- ever, in fig. 124. This shows that a cushion of tissue and bark has formed over the head of the stock, and has thus protected it from decay owing to possible moisture, fungoid diseases &c. In fig. 125 oe Fic. 123. Fic. 124, Fig. 125. the result of inserting a graft in the ordinary way is shown. The union is perfect enough, but the central cylinder of wood in the stock has not been covered over by the bark, and is thus left exposed to the weather, and may sooner or later decay. This, of course, means danger to the graft, although it may not take place for several years. (e) Side Grafting consists in inserting a graft sideways into the branch or trunk of a tree chiefly to fill up a vacant space. The scion may have either shooting buds on last year’s growth and be inserted in April, or may have dormant buds on the current year’s wood and be inserted about August or September, to develop the following year. The practise of inserting dormant fruit-buds has been tried in France and England, and the advocates of it claim that magnificent fruit has been obtained thereby. (See figs. 180, 131, p. 59.) (f) Veneer Grafting is practised in spring or autumn, preferably the , former, chiefly with evergreen trees and shrubs. The corresponding sides of the stock and graft are cut obliquely about 1 in. long, fitted together, tied, and placed in a closeframe. The leaves of the scion are GRAFTING 55 not stripped off at the top, and the top of the stock need not be cut off till after the union has taken place. (9) Grafting by Approach or Inarching.—This is rarely practised except on Vines. It consists in bringing the stems of two plants together, cutting away a portion of the bark of each, fitting the cut surfaces together and tying. Here both stock and scion have roots, but the scion is not severed from its parent until it has been completely united to the foreign stock. (h) Root Grafting.—Many plants are grafted on roots of their own or an allied species, chiefly when the sap begins to flow in spring. Unless carefully performed the union will be imperfect and the plants useless after a time. Clematises were and still are grafted in this way, but sooner or later they nearly all die unless the operation is neatly per- formed, and it is therefore better to obtain plants from cuttings or seeds. Whichever kind of Grafting is practised, the main point to remember is that the cambium-layers—seated just between the inner bark and the young wood—of both the stock and scion must come in contact with each other. Itis useless placing the hard wood of the one against that of the other, as the cells in that portion have long ceased to be in a living state. The cells of the cambium-layer in the stock unite with those in the cambium-layer of the scion, the contents as it were intermix or fuse together by the reciprocal action of the protoplasm (see p. 22), and a union between the two is effected. As plants of the Monoco- tyledonous group have no cambium-layer it naturally follows that they cannot be grafted; but nothwithstanding this, numerous attempts have been made, and all have failed. Selecting the Grafts or Scions.—In selecting a branch for graft- ing due consideration must be given not only to the relationship exist- ing between stock and scion referred to in the preceding paragraph, but care should be taken to select well-ripened shoots of the previous year containing several buds. Attention should also be given to the buds to see that they are leaf-buds and not flower-buds. The main object in grafting being first of all to produce branches, it is obvious that this may be effected more readily by means of shoots having leaf-buds instead of flower-buds. In the various fruit trees described in this work the difference between the wood or leaf-buds and the flower-buds is shown in the illustrations, so that readers may not mistake one for the other. When grafting is practised only scions of really choice and fruitful varieties should be selected. The scions should be 6-8 in. long, and are best taken from the side shoots rather than those of the uppermost and strongest growing branches. It is not essential to unite a scion 56 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS to the stock immediately it is detached from the tree. Indeed, a few days are allowed to elapse so that movement of the sap shall become slower in the scion than the stock. The shoots, however, must not be allowed to dry or shrivel up, but may be placed in the soil in a shady place. If they are to be sent away any distance it is a good plan to stick the ends into a Potato tuber or moist clay, or to pack them in damp moss. When, however, the scion is about to be inserted in the stock the end should always be cut so as to have a fresh surface. Time to graft.—Except where. otherwise mentioned grafting is usually performed about March. About this time the sap is beginning to rise from the action of the roots, and the bark is more readily opened. The process of uniting also goes on slowly at first and becomes more rapid with the flow of the sap. The shooting of the buds on the scion usually indicates that union has taken place, and the ties should be looked at frequently afterwards, and loosened later on if necessary. Relationship of Stock and Graft.—It is important to remember that plants cannot be promiscuously grafted one on another. They must at least belong to the same Natural Order, and should as a rule be closely related. As all the plants described in this work are arranged according to their close relationship with one another it will be easy to avoid making mistakes in grafting one species on to another with which it has no near affinity. It is improbable, for example, that a Barberry (p. 178) could be successfully grafted on an Apple tree (p. 1042), and vice versd. At the same time such practices cannot be prevented, and if they showld succeed it would indeed be a wonderful thing. Exclusion of Air.—This is another essential point to remember when grafting. If the air is allowed to circulate around the cut surfaces the latter are soon dried up, a film is formed over them, and an effective barrier is thus placed between the cells of the two cambium-layers. Various composts are used to exclude the air, but those referred to below are perhaps the best and most generally useful. Grafting Clay and Wax.—This is made of clay well worked up with a little chopped hay and horse or cow manure. If a hole is made in the centre of the heap, water poured in will keep it moist for a long time. It is an easy way of obtaining a good material for placing round grafts. In France a mixture of 28 parts black pitch, 28 Burgundy pitch, 16 yellow wax, 14 tallow, and 14 sifted ashes, is generally used instead of clay. Three parts each of resin and bees-wax and two parts of tallow also make a good wax, which can be used lukewarm for grafts of small or delicate plants. The wax known as ‘ Mastic homme Lefort’ is a clean preparation sold in tin boxes. It may be applied cold and is GRAFTING . 57 called ‘French Cold Grafting Wax.’ Although soft, it hardens with exposure to the air. ADVANTAGES OF GRAFTING Some authorities condemn grafting altogether on the ground that the plants sooner or later lose their vitality and become little better than scarecrows. Where the operation has been unskilfully performed this is undoubtedly the case, but there are hundreds, if not thousands, of examples of grafted trees in the rudest vigour throughout the country. It seems as if the constitution of a plant goes a long way towards proving whether grafting is a success or a failure, and it is scarcely advisable to argue general principles from isolated examples on one side or the other. It is claimed for grafting (i.) That it increases and accelerates the fruitfulness in fruit trees owing to the check of the elaborated sap at the junction of the stock and scion in its downward course. (ii.)} That old and unfruitful trees with strong and healthy stems and roots may be rendered fruitful in two or three years by having scions of fruitful and healthy trees grafted on their tops. (u1.) That naturally tall-growing varieties may be dwarfed by grafting on a less vigorous stock, and the reverse may also be attained. When there is too great a disparity between the stock and scion, the device of double or treble grafting is often adopted, so as to equalise matters as much as possible. That is, one or two kinds intermediate in vigour may be grafted on the stock before the required scion is ulti- mately grafted on to one of them. (iv.) That a naturally deep-rooting tree, like the Pear, may be prevented from sending its roots down into cold and uncongenial soil by grafting it on a naturally shallow-rooting stock, like the Quince ; and (v.) That by means of grafting, choice varieties of fruit, the innate qualities of which cannot with any certainty be transmitted to their progeny by seeds, are preserved and multiplied with greater certainty and quickness, ‘ And in short space the laden boughs arise, With happy fruit advancing to the skies. The mother plant admires the leaves unknown Of alien trees, and apples not her own.’ Influence of Stock on Scion.—It is curious that notwithstanding the growth of one species on another, and the influence exerted in regard to fertility &c., yet each kind undergoes no change in its 58 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS botanical structure. A Quince stock will produce Quince suckers, and the Pear grafted on it will produce only the leaves, flowers, and fruits of the Pear. In the same way, a Peach grafted on an Almond or a Plum will remain a Peach. While it is true generally that neither stock nor scion is affected by the other structurally, there is one remarkable exception afforded by Laburnwm Adami, known as a graft- hybrid, and described at p. 327. 4. Propagation by Budding The process of propagation by budding consists in detaching a ripened bud from one plant and inserting it beneath the bark in the stem of another closely related. It is confined almost entirely to woody Dicotyledons, for the same reasons as Grafting, viz. because they have a cambium-layer (see p. 30), and is usually performed about the end of May or June to the end of July, when the sap is in rapid circulation, and the bark readily separates from the wood. Almost all Roses, Stone-fruit Trees, as well as many ornamental trees, like Maples &c., are budded, and the practice is now being extended to many other trees and shrubs. Budding may be done in various ways, but the method usually practised is known as shield or T-budding. The bark of the stock should havea cut made lengthways and cross- ways like the letter T as shown in the sketch fig. 126. A bud is then carefully selected (in most cases care should be taken to select a leat- } Mr SADULNAY NNSA HN A cos