LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS CORNELL UNIVERSITY ITH;ACA NEW YORK “tana Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000870968 COFFEE BRANCH AND BERRIES, A. Blossom. C. Fully developed berry. E. Bean in its two inner coverings. B. Embryo seed vessel. D. Beans in berry. F. Bean ready for market. COFFE, FROM ae PLANTATION TO CUP. A BRIEF HISTORY OF COFFEE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. WITH AN APPENDIX. CONTAINING LETTERS WRITTEN DURING A TRIP TO THE COFFEE PLANTATIONS OF THE EAST, AND THROUGH THE COFFEE CONSUMING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. BY FRANCIS B. THURBER. AMERICAN GROCER PUBLISHING ASSOCIATION, 28 AND 30 WEsT BroaDway, NEw YORE. 1881. CoPpyRIGHT BY FRANCIS B. THURBER, 1881. Trow’s PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, 201-213 East 12th Street, NEW YORK. TO THE MAN AT POUGHKEEPSIE, WHO KEEPS THE RAILROAD REFRESHMENT ROOMS, THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY Medicated. I DO NOT KNOW HIS NAME, BUT YEAR IN AND YEAR OUT HE GIVES THE PUBLIC AN IDEAL CUP OF COFFEE, AND, ON THE PRINCIPLE OF “ACT WELL YOUR PART, THERE ALL THE HONOR LIES,” HE IS ENTITLED TO THE PUBLIC’S BEST THANKS. PERHAPS IN THE FAR DISTANT FUTURE SOME OTHER RAILROAD BUFFET PROPRIETOR MAY FIND THAT A GOOD CUP OF COFFEE ADDS TO, RATHER THAN DIMINISHES, THE CHANCES FOR GATHERING IN A GOODLY NUMBER OF SHEKELS, AND BE PROMPTED TO GO AND DO LIKEWISE. THERE IS EVEN A POSSIBILITY THAT THE ENGLISH STEAMSHIP LINES, WHICH NOW ENJOY A PRE-EMINENCE FOR BaD COFFEE, MAY LEARN THAT SOMETHING BESIDES GOOD SEAMANSHIP WILL ATTRACT BUSINESS, AND WHEN ‘“‘THAT NEW ZEALANDER” APPEARS UPON THE SCENE THERE MAY NO LONGER BE EXTANT ANY SUCH REPROACH AS ‘‘SON OF A SEA COOK.’? I KNOW OF NO PERSON 80 WELL ENTITLED TO THE HONOR OF THIS DEDICATION, AND sO THIS WORK IS ADMIRINGLY AND RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED TO THE MAN AT POUGHKEEPSIE, ONE OF THE CHOSEN FEW WHO KNOW HOW TO MAKE A Goop Cup or CoFrFEE. PREFACH., I nave endeavored to tell the story of coffee in a practical way, so as to make the information valuable alike to consumers and dealers. I have been induced to add to the innumerable com- pany of books from the fact that there seemed to be a want for a work which, besides furnishing statistical and historical matter relative to the coffee-plant, should give the reader a thorough knowledge of the characteristics of the world’s coffee supply, and the mode of preserving and preparing the coffee-bean so as to best secure all those qualities which make coffee the favorite beverage with most of the civilized nations of the earth. My reliance has been chiefly upon twenty years’ experience as a dealer, and such in- formation as was to be gathered from a trip around the world. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to many books for facts re- garding coffee culture, and historical matter relating thereto, and also to a large circle of business acquaintances for valuable statis- tical information. To mention them specifically is hardly pos- sible, and would be of little interest to the general reader. It is, however, but just that I should here recognize the many courtesies and favors rendered me by General Joseph Nimmo, Jr., Chief of PREFACE, vii is more than likely that some defects will be noticed, and many infelicities of style or expression; and were it not for my confi- dence in the good nature and generosity of those who are likely to read the following pages, I scarcely could have summoned courage to send them forth. At least I have the satisfaction of having made an honest effort in the direction of making the breakfast tables of the land the source of greater enjoyment, not- withstanding that I may have brushed aside some fond fancies or revealed trade secrets that others would have jealously guarded. CONTENTS. CHAPTER L INTRODUCTORY, CHAPTER IL. THE PLANT AND ITS CULTURE, . CHAPTER II. PREPARATION OF COFFEE FOR MARKET, CHAPTER IV. THE SELECTION OF THE BEAN, . Sd CHAPTER V. RoasTINe THE BEAN, CHAPTER VI. GRINDING, BLENDING, AND MIXING COFFEE, CHAPTER VIL MAKING THE COFFEE, The Thurber Recipe, Turkish Coffee, French Recipes, M. Soyer’s Method, A New Orleans Recipe, . Vienna Coffee, The Beverage in Brazil, Coffee in Java, Baron Von Liebig’s “Method, PAGE 18 ch) wo 30 x CONTENTS. . CHAPTER VII. PAGE EarLy HIStory OF COFFER, . . . - é . 7 . - 58 CHAPTER IX. THE Moca BERRY, . . - + «© » se « «» « 60 CHAPTER X. Toe JAVA BERRY, + 2 ° . - ¢ . . 8 . 64 CHAPTER XL SUMATRA, AND OTHER JAva SoRTs, . . > és é . . . 27 Celebes, . f . - ‘ : 7 . : - 81 Singapore Java, . F 2 : - . ij 3 ‘ . . 86 CHAPTER XII. CULTIVATION IN CEYLON, . - Gin oR Gen ce 1 « « 90 CHAPTER XII. CULTIVATION IN INDIA, . ‘ Ce oe a en - 105 CHAPTER XIV. LIBERIAN AND OTHER AFRICAN GROWTHS OF Saale . - 107 Liberian Coffee Berries and poets . 109 Propagation by Seeds, 7 . s é 111 General Remarks, . is ‘ is : : ° é = . 113 CHAPTER XV. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL, . . . . . A . . . . . 117 CHAPTER XVI. THE BRAZILIAN PRODUCT, . : . . ye a F - . 124 How Coffee is Imported, : : i ‘ 6 é 3 . . 130 CHAPTER XVIL CoFFEE CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES, . : : ‘ . 187 Hayti and San Domingo, - : : . 3 : - 142 Porto Rico, . . . . e . . . 3 r . . 144 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER XVII. PAGE MARACAIBO AND LAGUAYRA COFFEE, F 146 CHAPTER XIX. CoFFEE PRODUCT OF CENTRAL AMERICA, . . ; a : . 150 CHAPTER XX. Ture Correr INDUSTRY IN MEXICO AND ‘OTHER ea : . 154 Production at other Points, . . : : F F ‘ . 156 CHAPTER XXI. ADULTERATION OF COFFEE, : - . ‘ ‘ . 162 How M. Grévy obtained a Cup of Coffee, F 3 i é A . 169 CHAPTER XXII. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CorrEE—ITs MEDICINAL AND OTHER PROPER- TIES, ° . F : é : : : : 3 F ; 171 CHAPTER XXII. THE CoFFEE TRADE, . ‘ a : é F 3 5 F . 183 CHAPTER XXIV. CoFFEE CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD, . : ‘ ‘ . : . 204 CHAPTER XXyV. Tue KING OF THE COFFEE TRADES, . : ‘j 7 : > . . 218 CHAPTER XXVI. Tue TRoPIcs’ Best GIFT, . : 0 : - : ‘ ‘ ‘ . 221 STATISTICAL TABLES. TaB.LE I.—Imports, Exports, Consumption, and Stock of Coffee in the United States, Atlantic Coast, from 1854 to 1880, inclusive, . A . 227 TABLE II.—Receipts and ae of Coffee in the United pil 1851 to 1880, inclusive, . 2 ‘ - 228 xii CONTENTS. PAGE TABLE III.—Comparative Prices, New York Market, 1858 to 1880, inclusive, 228 TABLE IV.—Cargo Prices of Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in New York, Duty Paid, Monthly, from 1825 to 1880, inclusive, 229 Cargo Prices of Rio Coffee in New York at the Beginning of each Month, 1825 to 1845, inclusive, é 230 Cargo Prices in Gold, “*In Bond,” for Fair to Prime Rio Cof- fee in New York, from 1846 to 1880, inclusive, F . 231 TABLE V.—Price of Java Coffee in New York, 1858 to 1880, inclusive, + 233 TABLE VI.—Comparative Monthly and Yearly Prices for Three Years, . 237 TaBLE VII.—Receipts of Sundry Kinds of Coffee, not enumerated specific- ally, into the United States (Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1880, inclusive, . 237 TaBLE VIII.—Circular Estimating and Proclaiming, in United States Money of Account, the Values of the Standard Coins in Circulation of the Various Nations of the World, 3 ‘ . F 5 d - 238 TABLE 1X.—Premium on Gold at New York, 1862 to 1878, inclusive, . 239 TaBLE X.—Cost of Exchange in Rio de Janeiro, showing Lowest and High- est Rates of Exchange from 1850 to 1879, inclusive—in Rio de Janeiro —from Official Quotations, . «oak xe Ms one Le . 240 TABLE XI,—The World’s Production of Coffee,. - . . . . 240 TABLE XII.—The World’s Consumption of Coffee, . ‘ 2 . . 241 TABLE XIII.—The Coffee Production of the Whole World, eine to Prof. Van Den Berg and other Authorities, . . . 241 TABLE XIV.—Consumption of Coffee in Non-coffee Producing Countries, . 243 -TABLE XV.—Stock of Coffee in the ai es es i ee cena 1, 1842, to 1881, : - 244 TABLE XVI. —Comparative Statement of Imports of Coffee, 1850 to 1880, . 244 TABLE XVII. —Consumption i in the las marcia: 1836 to 1880, inclu- sive, TABLE XVIII.—Consumption of Coffee in France, 1832 to 1880, ae 245 TABLE XIX. —Quantities and Values of Tea and Coffee Imported into and Exported from the United States, from 1858 to 1881, inclusive, . - 246 TABLE XX.—Quantities and Values of Imported Tea and Coffee Retained in the United States for Consumption, and the Estimated Consumption per Capita of ee iain: the Years 1830, 184U, and from 1850 to 1881, inclusive, ‘ . 247 TaBLE XXI.—Weights in Use in Coffee-producing Counts, with their Equivalents in United States Currency, : - 248 TABLE XXII.—Prices of Good Caney al dee 4 in Holland, 1871 to anes inclusive, . . 249 TABLE XXIII.—Exports of Coffee from Rio de Janeiro for each Calendar Year, 1817 to 1880, inclusive, . j ‘ . . , CONTENTS. xili APPENDIX. PAGE PATENTS GN RoasTED CoFFEE, . ‘ ge ap. Get. . 253 “NOTES BY THE WAY.” ACROSS THE PACIFIC, . ‘ f P : : ‘ ; : . 257 JAPANESE NOTES, . 5 . 2 : : S r 2 F » 261 Tea Culture in Japan, . r ‘ . : 7 ‘ F ‘ - 261 Impressions of Japan, . 3 é * . ; : . . . 265 Japanese English, . P - 270 A Japanese Dinner—Japanese Products, Progress, ete., ; . , + 275 CHINESE NOTES, . . . 5 : . : : é ‘ « 279 Tea Culture i in China, i . 2 ‘ . 283 Chinese Manners, Customs, and Peculiarities, . é . 288 Canton Manufactures—Sweetmeats, Preserved Ginger, Soy, ete, a 292 A Visit to Canton—A Floating City—Female Hotel-Runners—A Chinese Dinner—Dog- and Cat-Meat eae crea aan Currency, and other Peculiarities, . ‘ 5 » 295 SINGAPORE, . - 303 Tropical Life ‘and Seenery—A Visit to Pepper ‘and Tapioca Planta- tions, etc., . . 803 TEA-GROWING IN JAVA, - . F Fi : ‘ ‘ 7 . 808 HaLr-way RounD, . 310 Tropical Scenery—The “Most Beautiful View in the World—British Colonization Policy, etc., r . 810 CEYLON, . 814 Canoes at Point de Galle—Cocoa-nut Trees—Female Polygamists, . 814 Coffee Culture—Coffee in the Hast asa in Aa ea ial ete., . 317° «Sundry Spices—Their Growth and ese ee: : s . 819 Nutmegs, . e ‘ A . : . 7 . . . 820 Cloves, . - : 3 . . é : : : mo oe . 821 INDIA, . 322 A Bird’s- -eye View—Its Extent, Population, Productions, Government, 3 etc. , ~ z . - 3 Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies in India, . ‘ ‘ 5 ‘ . 327 Our Tiger Hunt, : a 7 & 4 a : 3 . 341 From Bompay TO EeyrtT, . ‘ 5 s 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ c . 847 EeyrtT AND TURKEY, . , 2 ‘ - é : ‘ 5 . . 854 GREECE AND HER CURRANT Crop, . ‘ ‘ 2 ‘i . ri . 860 Tray, . : : ; . 366 Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies i in Italy, « ‘ . ‘ ; . 366 Citron and Macaroni, . F i. ‘ ‘ . 872 A Guimpse at SPAIN IN 1877, . j j e : ‘ . 377 Raisin Culture and Preparation for Market, 3 : 9 ‘ ; . 882 Olives and Olive Oil, . ‘ A . 386 Sherry—lIts Manufacture, Treatment, and Characteristics, . . . 390 xiv CONTENTS. PAGE FRANCE, F F , ‘ ss . . B95 Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies, ‘ ‘ 395 Parisian Peculiarities—Horse-meat as ‘ood—Visit to a ee Boucherie de Cheval,” . 399 Bordeaux Wines—A Description of the Médoe District—Official Classifi- cation of Celebrated ee Visit to Chateau aii: etc,, . 402 Red Wines, . ‘ 7 : - 403 White Wines, ‘ 5 ‘ . ‘ . . . . 405 A MoprEL ENGLIsH GROCERY-STORE, ‘ s Z . 407 Arrangement of Stock, Dressing of Windows, ete., a ‘ 3 . 407 Tur Sait DistRIcT oF CHESHIRE, . 412 English Salt, How it is Made—Down in a Salt ‘Mine—The Different Strata and Qualities of Rock-Salt in the Cheshire District, . 412 ILLUSTRATIONS. CoFFEE BRANCH AND BERRIES, . = PickiIne CorFEE, . PULPING COFFEE IN BRAZIL, . Drying CorrgE BY STEAM IN BRAZIL, CoFFEE-CLEANING MACHINE, . PICKING OVER COFFEE, CoFFEE-ROASTING, . . ARABIAN COFFEE PLANT, CoFFEE-HULLING MAcHINE, LIBERIAN COFFEE PLANT, . . SacKING AND WEIGHING, . a ste CoFFEE WAREHOUSES, z , DRYING COFFEE ON THE TERRACE, . PuatEe I.—Fig. 1. Fragment of Roasted Coffee, . Fig. 2. Roasted Chicory Root, PLATE II,—Fig. 1. Fragment Genuine Ground Coffee, & Frontispiece. . Facing page oc Fig. 2. Fragment Ground Coffee Adulterated with Chicory, . “ 7 9 13 14 15 26 60 99 107 129 133 148 168 168 169 169 COFFEE: FROM PLANTATION TO CUP. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. ga Corrrz, a most important item in our domestic economy, is entitled to more attention than it generally receives. At a ma- jority of breakfast tables, “if the coffee is good everything is good,” a fact so significant in itself that no other argument is needed to prove the all-importance of uniform success in the preparation of this one article. Books innumerable have been written about this famous berry. It has been made the subject of investigation by savants; govern- ment commissions have made voluminous -reports upon the soil, climate, and varieties of the plant desirable for production ; yet little attention seems to have been given to what ‘is really the most important branch of the subject, viz., the selection and treat- ment of the bean subsequent to prednotiott so as to ensure with a proper degree of certainty, the devélopment of its admirable qualities in that much-to-be-desired article, a good. cup of coffee. In issuing this work, therefore, while including some facts of gen- eral interest relative to production, I have given greater promi- nence to those which relate to consumption, and are likely to 2 COFFEE. prove of immediate interest and benefit to dealers in coffee as well as coffee-drinkers. ’ The present undertaking originated in my love for a good cup of coffee, and a curiosity to know why there existed such a wide range in the quality of the article at my own table, as well as at others. I began by investigating the mysteries of the kitchen; and this led to an examination into the different ways of making the beverage, including the use of many patent coffee-pots; the degree of fineness to which the coffee should be ground; the method and extent of roasting; the deterioration in quality after roasting; the best receptacle for the preservation of the aroma; and finally, in connection with my own business, a study of the varieties and qualities producing the best results. This, as may be inferred, extended over a period of several years, and through many hundreds of experiments, and since then I have had an op- portunity to verify impressions then formed by observations made in some of the principal coffee producing and consuming countries. Grown in different and widely separated parts of the world, it is natural that there should be a considerable difference in the appearance, quality, and flavor of coffee. It is not, therefore, strange that individual tastes, accustomed to the use of a particu- lar variety, should prefer it to other kinds which possess, possibly, even greater intrinsic value. It is this difference in tastes and opinions which renders it a difficult task for even an expert to point out an infallible way of suiting every consumer. There are, however, conditions both in the selection and preparation of the bean which apply equally to all varieties, and which, if observed, will add greatly to the satisfaction of lovers of coffee. It is not within the scope of this little volume to treat of matters that chiefly concern the producer, except to take a cursory glance at such items as may have a direct bearing upon supply; such, for instance, as the ravages of leaf-disease in Ceylon, or the labor problem in the empire of Brazil. In the start I recognize that prejudice, the result of habit, is met with at every turn. There are honest differences of opinion as to what constitutes a good cup of coffee, and therefore it is not my design to attempt to convince the lover of black coffee that a weaker beverage is the more palatable, or to argue with those who INTRODUCTORY. 3 are best pleased with an infusion made by grinding the fragrant bean with some foreign substance. Experience has demonstrated that the beverage is one that speedily wins friends. I incline to the belief, as often expressed, that coffee was designed for man’s sustenance and happiness as much as the golden grain, or the delicious fruits of mother earth. Somewhere I have read of the great surprise and delight manifested by the Indians on the Western plains when first made acquainted with the beverage. Usually indifferent to new objects, they fail to restrain their de- light over the comforting draught. It is a matter of record that they have travelled several hundred miles in order to gratify their taste for coffee. The story has been told of an Indian chief who, dressed in a robe of great beauty, came in contact with a trader, who tried every means to secure the coveted garment. At last the meeting terminated with the accustomed treat of coffee. The chief was one of the first to gratify his palate with the beverage. It seemed as if his spirits had been roused by some unseen power. He pressed eagerly for more, and, delighted at receiving a second supply, he threw upon the trader, as an expression of his joy, the magnificent robe that money could not purchase. Similar ex- periences attended the introduction of coffee into all the countries where it is consumed, and if to-day thousands fail to find pleasure in lingering over a cup of delicious coffee, it is due, probably, to a lack of knowledge how to select and prepare the bean. My expe- rience at home and abroad leads me to the belief that two-thirds of the lovers of coffee are, from lack of knowledge, daily cheated out of the solid enjoyment of an ideal cup of coffee. Especially is this true on lines of travel and at places of refreshment. The sort of coffee served in the average American restaurant or hotel is not calculated to command the homage of either savage or civ- ilized creatures. It is, then, my design to try and point out how dealers may select and furnish, and how consumers may prepare coffee which will satisfy the critical palate. CHAPTER II. THE PLANT AND ITS CULTURE. Tue range of coffee-culture extends over almost the whole of the tropical belt of the globe, the isothermal lines between the twenty-fifth degree north and the thirtieth degree south of the equator comprising the principal regions adapted to the growth of the plant. The plant seems to bear greater climatic extremes than most members of the vegetable kingdom, and thrives in lo- calities differing as much as twenty to thirty degrees in average temperature. It is a fact well worthy of notice that in many of the countries where the Coffcea Arabica—the coffee of commerce—has been in- troduced, indigenous varieties of the coffee-plant have been dis- covered, as in Mauritius, Southern India, Liberia, Costa Rica and Mexico, Peru, Guiana and Brazil. In the last-named country no fewer ‘than sixteen species are distinguished, growing in a wild state. The coffee-plant, although of hardy growth, is not without enemies, among which the principal are the borer, the bug, and the leaf fungus. Drought, damp, and rot also ‘affect and injure the plant. In some countries shade-trees are necessary in order to protect it from excessive heat. In Ceylon coffee-trees under shade do not produce as liberally as trees planted in open ground, and, except in very low districts, shade is rarely provided. In Venezuela the long dry season makes it necessary to give the plants the shelter of large overhanging trees. In Brazil coffee is grown in the open. Monkeys, squirrels, and jackals are fond of the ripe berries, and make no scruple to plunder the plantations. A species of rat is also addicted to making inroads upon the coffee- fields and biting off the leaves and tender shoots. THE PLANT AND ITS CULTURE. 5 The limit of average productiveness is about thirty years. After that time the trees may continue to live and grow, but they yield little or no fruit. In Java, coffee-trees planted nearly a hundred years ago are said to be yet in existence, being now some forty feet high, with trunks of the thickness of a man’s thigh ; but they grow entirely wild and produce no berries. On an average, the trees are replaced on the plantations every twenty years. This process of replanting goes on constantly. On the whole, the cultivation requires great care and unceasing attention, together with considerable capital to await the coming into bear- ing of the trees and to meet the heavy current expenses. Coffee grows best on the uplands—usually on mountain sides at an elevation of from 1,500 to 4,500 feet above the level of the sea. In dry districts it is grown at an elevation of 5,500 and even 6,000 feet. The following directions are given by an ex- perienced planter in the East: “ As a general rule, the best zone of latitude for coffee is 150° on each side of the equator ; of alti- tude from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. The deeper, freer, and richer the soil is the better. It should be specially tested for phosphoric acid and potash. The latter will be in abundance if a large forest is felled, and burned grass-land must be very good to grow coffee. An eastern or southeastern exposure is good, but not always essential. Shelter from tearing wind, however, is of the utmost importance, and in windy situations should be secured by leaving belts of timber, or planting fast-growing Australian trees. A mean temperature between 65° and 70° or 73° is desirable, and a rainfall of from 70 to 150 inches of rain, well distributed, about 100 inches being the best.” The trees are raised from the seeds in nurseries, and transferred to their final positions when about a year or eighteen months old. Plants raised from seeds are much better than those obtained from cuttings. A costly system of raising plants in pots has been commenced in Brazil, the planter claiming a gain of one year for those thus raised over such as are obtained by the ordinary method, as there is no set back to the plant in the process of transplanting, the roots remaining undis- turbed. The plants are usually set at intervals of eight or ten feet, although in some plantations they are placed a little closer, the 6 COFFEE. rows, however, being about this distance apart. They begin bearing at the age of three to four years, their product annually increasing, and at six years they may be said to be in full bearing. The yield varies greatly, however, in different countries, being in- fluenced by modes of culture and changes in the character of the seasons; taking one year with another a tree in full bearing pro- duces from two to three pounds per annum. Oareful pruning is required to develop and maintain the productive capacity of the trees. Left to themselves they would grow to a considerable height ; but when about eight fect high the tops are cut off, which causes them to spread instead of growing taller, and afterward they are kept pruned down to about eight feet, and in some coun- tries, notably Ceylon, even lower. Within recent years pruning in Ceylon has been lighter than was formerly the custom. of inspecting the Java coffee-fields and the methods of cul- ture. One of the finest estates visited was that owned by Mr. J. W. E. de Sturler, situated in the Preanger district. It com- prises upwards of 20,000 acres, upon which, at various elevations, are grown rice, coffee, tea, cloves, and nutmegs. The coffee-plan- tation covers over 800 acres, upon which I found more than half a million trees in all the various stages of growth and bearing, producing in average years 3,000 piculs (408,000 lbs.), which would be equivalent to 3,000 government bags, or 6,000 half-picul mats. The trees are here raised from the seed, which is the regular coffee-bean of commerce, and begin bearing at the age of two years, their product annually increasing thereafter for many years. The yield varies greatly, however, with different trees and different years, a tree in full bearing producing from one to two pounds of beans per year. ‘The trees are set at regular inter- vals of about ten feet, although in some plantations they are set in rows somewhat closer than this, the rows, however, being about that distance apart. The trees are kept pruned down toa height of about ten feet, the top being cut off, thus causing the tree to spread. The diameter of the trunk, of course, varies with age, but the average size of trees in full bearing may be said to be about that of a man’s wrist. In Java the picking begins in January, and lasts for three or four months. In this work men, women, and children are employed, and as the fruit is brought in from the field in baskets it is thrown into large heaps, where it is allowed to ferment for about three days. It is then spread out in the sun to dry, which usually takes two weeks or more, according to the weather, and when dry it is put into a hulling-machine as described in a previous chapter. After the beans are carefully 4 66 COFFEE. pickéd over and assorted they are packed for transportation to the shipping ports. There the coffee is “dumped,” and the planter’s bags returned to him, and when sold it is understood to be “in bulk,” the purchaser having to provide his own bags for shipment. The coffee is also prepared by the other and newer method, com- monly designated the “washed” or “ West India preparation.” The advocates of the old method claim, however, that it retains the caffeone, in which is embodied the flavor of the coffee, in a much greater degree, and that it is therefore superior to the washed coffee. In this, after repeated trials, I am inclined to con- cur, although many professionals claim that the “dried hulled” coffee is inferior to the washed. Mr. de Sturler sells his coffee by sending a circular-note to the principal firms in Batavia, inform- ing them that he has so many thousands of piculs for sale and inviting proposals. These proposals are opened on a certain day, and the entire lot is disposed of to the highest bidder. While this is not exactly the same as the government method of market- ing the crops, it is the same in principle and accomplishes the same object—that of obtaining a free competition. The scenery upon the islands of Java and Sumatra is of the most diversified and beautiful character. Lofty mountains, rang- ing in height from four thousand to ten thousand feet and covered with luxuriant foliage, abound in both islands. Deep gorges, rushing streams, fertile valleys, fine plateaus, jungles and forests, lowlands and highlands, hills and volcanoes, lakes and rivers, all contribute to make these islands the most attractive spots in the world. Certainly one of the most delightful pictures lingering in my memory is that of the hill slopes of Preanger, near Buiten- zorg, with their thousands of shapely and luxuriant coffee trees in all stages of bearing, and in the background the high volcanic cone of Salac, towering far above the entire range. Another pleasant picture which lingers in memory is that of a Javan tea plantation in the Buitenzorg district. The residence is situated nearly in the centre of the large estate, upon high ground, surrounded with amass of tropical foliage. In front is a grove of banyan and other magnificent shade trees; in the rear, a grove of handsome cocoanut palms, while the garden, both in front and rear, is filled with an endless variety of gaudy flowers, and with nutmeg, clove, THE JAVA BERRY. 67 coffee, cocoa, plantain (banana), and many other fruit-bearing trees and shrubs. The house is built in the “bungalow” or one- storied style, common in tropical countries, the centre of it being occupied by a large square room or hall, which constitutes the chief sitting-room. While sitting there, enjoying a cup of tea, a peculiar cry uttered by the planter brought down a parrot of gorgeous hue from the top of one of the tall trees near the house, which perched upon his shoulder and proceeded to share his tea with him. The tinkling upon a teacup with a spoon was the signal for a flock of beautiful tame pigeons to come; these were rewarded with a little rice and sent away. Another signal filled the room with dogs of many sizes and kinds. In a short time we were again surprised at seeing a number of beautiful horses brought around to eat their rice from off the stone veranda. Upon enquiring the reason for this we found that it was because the attendants were in the habit of appropriating a part of the quantity allotted to the horses, and could not be trusted to give them the requisite supply of this article unless under the imme- diate eye of the owner. Here were the choicest breeds of English and Arab racing stocks, and upon expressing admiration for them I was shown the stables, where there were about thirty horses of all sorts and sizes, which are used only for racing and saddle purposes. Hunting is one of the amusements of a planter’s life—the tigers, leopard, rhinoceros, and wild boar being the principal kinds of game pursued in Java, deer also abounding. In a small en- closure in the rear of the house were various specimens of the last named beautiful animals, including one species, which, when full grown, was not over eight inches high, looking more like a deli- cate rabbit. with pipe-stem legs than like a deer. At a little dis- tance from the house was a small park, within which there was a herd of still another variety, larger in size than those in the small enclosure at the house, being fully as large as our American deer, but destitute of as fine horns, nor are they so pretty. One feature of plantation life in Java would jar upon the sensi- bilities of most persons educated in American ideas and in the prin- ciples which lie at the foundation of government in the United States, viz., the contempt and want of consideration with which the natives are treated. As the natives approach the planter, 68 COFFEE. bearing some written message or report from the superintendents, they uncover their heads, and, bowing to the ground, they creep upon their hands and knees in order to hand the message to their “master.” While the movement added wonderfully to the oriental aspect of the scene, it did not dispel the thought that “oriental” has come to be entirely associated with the idea of despotism and cruelty, the day for which has gone by. The natives, however, are better than slaves in the following respects: they cannot be punished by whipping, and are free to come and go when they please. They are, however, miserably poor, ignorant, and degraded, and whether this is the effect of the climate, or not, is hard to determine. The old residents of the island represent that they do not seem to display much energy or to make much effort to elevate themselves. This is, doubtless, owing in a great measure to the fact that the Dutch government has adopted the plan of maintaining the authority of the native chiefs over them, the Dutch, in turn, subsidizing and controlling the chiefs, who, for hundreds of years, have maintained a most grinding despotism over their miserable subjects, levying forced loans and otherwise despoiling those who, by exceptional industry and pru- dence, have accumulated anything beyond their daily subsistence. The Dutch first conquered the island by force of arms, thereby establishing a claim to ownership of all the land, and then kept the native chiefs friendly by giving them a larger income than they formerly enjoyed, but requiring the chiefs in turn to make their people work systematically in cultivating the soil, and to sell their entire product to the Dutch government at a price so low that it barely gave them a subsistence. By this system the Dutch have derived an enormous revenue from their East India posses- sions, and in turn have given the natives greater security for life than they before enjoyed; but this has been the only improve- ment, the despotism of the native chiefs being perpetuated indef- initely, and most of the people kept so poor that there is but little chance for them to better their condition. As the population increased, a greater supply of labor became available than could be profitably employed under government supervision ; and as there was an abundance of land, portions of it were from time to time leased to individuals with the privilege of planting, until THE JAVA BERRY. 69 now there are a considerable number of private planters in Java, from whose enterprise the government derives a large revenue, not only in the sums received for leases but also for export and import duties on the articles produced and consumed by them. Dutch rule in the East has not been very beneficent to the gov- erned, but, on the other hand, it may probably be said with truth that the people of these countries are no worse off now than they were before, while Holland has been greatly benefited. The soil in the island of Java is rich, never seems to be ex- hausted, and when apparently used up on the surface, the planter has only to go deeper and secure a richer soil at once. For coffee- growing, plantations formed on forest clearings, one thousand five hundred to four thousand feet above sea-level, are the best; al- though the lowlands are also used for coffee culture, but the tree in that case is not as productive or as long-lived. Under the system of government monopoly, each family of natives is required to raise and take care of about six hundred and fifty trees, and to pick, dry, and deliver at the government stores the product thereof. The price received by the natives from the government is placed at a figure low enough to leave an enormous margin of profit to the government, which deducts from the gross price paid to the growers a duty of ten florins ($4) per picul. It may well be doubted, however, whether the plan of compulsory culture by natives, whose eagerness to be rid of the task induces them to hastily perform it, with great waste of pro- duct, and the exclusion of foreign capital and enterprise from the vast stretches of unimproved lands are calculated to develop the full resources of the country, and to compete successfully with the unfettered and scientific industry of the wealthy and ener- getic Anglo-Saxon cultivators. The first of the Java crop, as previously stated, was sold in Amsterdam, in 1712, by the Dutch East India Company, which monopoly, or its successors, has controlled the sale of the coffee- product of Java ever since. It exists to-day under the name of the Netherland Handel Maatschappy, with headquarters in Am- sterdam, and branches in all parts of the world, including New York, at which point an agency was established in January, 1879. In the fifteenth century the nations of Europe contended for 70 COFFEE. the trade of the East Indies. Prince John of Portugal led the way, and securing a foothold in India, monopolized the trade for nearly a century. Toward the close of the sixteenth century a war between Spain, which had annexed Portugal, and England forced the latter country to draw its Indian produce from the Dutch. Lisbon, at that time, was the chief port of entry for the rich merchandise of the Indies, but the revolt of the Netherlands closed Lisbon to the Dutch, and forced them to find a direct pas- sage to India. Between 1590 and 1600, as the result of that move, those twin monopolies known as the East India Companies of England and Holland were formed. On April 2, 1595, an Amsterdam corporation, known as a “Company for Remote Parts,” despatched four small vessels, via the Cape of Good Hope, to the East Indies. Other companies started at the same time, and finally, in 1602, the interests of the different organizations were merged into one association, char- tered by the States General, with the privilege granted of exclu- sive control of trade to the East Indies for twenty-one years, with the addition of all necessary civil and military power. Within twenty years the enormous amount of 30,000,000 guilders ($12,- 000,000) was divided among the stockholders, who originally paid in 6,500,000 guilders ($2,600,000) as capital. The company also had great possessions in land, vessels, and war material. In 1623 the charter was renewed for a second term of twenty-one years, and again in 1644, after which the company colonized the Cape of Good Hope, and gained control of Ceylon and Formosa, and other settlements of the Portuguese. In 1665 the payment of a heavy sum secured a new lease of power until 1700. From that date the monopoly occupied the chief centres of trade, and virtu- ally controlled the wealth of the Indies. A renewal of the char- ter was secured in 1735, 1741, and in 1776 for a period of thirty years. In 1781 pecuniary aid was required, as the resources of the company had been depleted by wars and expenses incident to maintaining its vast extent of territory and extended commerce. Upon the formation of the republic of Batavia, on September 15, 1795, the existence of the company ceased, and its affairs passed under government control. In 1824 King William I. established a new trading company, with a capital of over £3,000,000, the king THE JAVA BERRY. 71 guaranteeing an interest of four per cent. on the paid-up capital. In its early history the king was compelled to make good his guaran- tee, but after 1830 the affairs of the company prospered. Large quantities of merchandise, suited for the different markets of the world, are purchased at the various branches of the trading com- pany. The East Indian products are generally sold at the peri- odical sales held in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, ete. Some idea of the extent of these sales may be formed, when it is stated that the business of one year (1872) reached nearly $28,000,000, repre- senting the sum obtained for the coffee, sugar, tin, dyes, rattans, tobacco, cotton, nutmegs, cassia, camphor, fine woods, etc., sent from the East by the company’s agents. The present capital of the company is $14,400,000, with its affairs in a flourishing condi- tion, the American branch contributing largely to swell its income. The following record gives the quantity of Java coffee sold in the Netherlands by the East India Company from 1751 to 1794: Year, U. S. Ibs. bly ats eee Bee idieleye Saighacewpewrerchece es Vo icanciee saw ease eewek tees 974 WAS... cccseexe acne ceeewenies 2,933 TAA. 2i2 ccctinnseetateecnees «oe. 2,782 VTLS eee erorseassilgesi pe opeioiesaserevsie .. 1,784 WIG a srememinesiangutt sens dieeieies 4,464 VL. ceeeseviwx aed awe aia eeaiies 10,066 VIS 5 eiccticees oe he SESSA 14,464 WDD ccsicae saeerassnsartvera aleanetersis tines 30,818 LI Q0 icitstelesere essrasevcistsrs aero levee cid .. 42,661 PTATH“1%20 es osaieceve Sraisiatesiovacemarere 110,895 Piculs (136 Ibs.)...... Swiis 815 Year. U. 8. Ibs, WS lossiene witness tee awe 3,220,909 1182 sxcie siicladet siaveralin cass Gaieba ose 4,669,546 1783) cewewsawewneee esi 1,779,644 1784, jncteveves asa ewes wees 8,758,319 D735 pciniedene ateeeEwess 4,374,210 VIBG sa ester eseiieya aysnsiasantieie eis 4,466,197 VIBT x sicinewiemecasivicicawiouensis 4,949,091 TIE ameter ewoueeet ... 4,558,842 17389... 2000 wiser a temtotee’s'a 8,998,422 1740. ......66 Re re or 1,051,528 1731-1740. 2... 2. ee ee eens 36,821,708 Piculs (136 lbs.).... wees 270,747 Year. U. 8. lbs 721 waldacpauseve acide 127,212 D720 coosatiacsa ethene tonscrs 13,208 WT RS sc wisxciers anatase inrewerersisleia ts 79,808 Lise ew ies naiwawesawaeiess 1,462,685 LIPO ices aeeetaweern anes s 2,786,930 TOG ss eadseuaate beeen 4,729,912 1727.... wasescee 4,578,464 DT 2B ss aaia iersielore erga sersiogexreiere 4,456,632 A720 nln nidccdduish tated ce 8,649,485 PLEO uinptenalbisd cistine we... 8,148,349 1721-1780. .......-65 eee. 25,082,635 Piculs (136-lbs.)....... 184,063 Year, U. 8, Ibs. CC eee eee een 1,554,567 1742, oe .. 1,470,827 LTAB sc wcwsasewers siaetaraisietce 4,739,173 1744,.... Peete nett .. 4,779,089 1745....... Sain roiarncStereaasere 3,266,358 TAG ivan cia.a's wrereainveinorncaes 3,310,766 IAT cesses a glepateieveratsersiers 4,413,980 VAS cs. 3 ieiernecdosineitsors!atsiaia gsi 2,434,288 LIAO i redanrerenia nme ae . 1,982,940 1750... ..0. 0005 st talsishli tiga 1,999,907 L741-1750 2. cee eee eee 29,951,845 Piculs (186 Ibs.).....-. 220,284 72 COFFEE. Year, U. S. Ibs. | Year, U. 8. Ibs, 1751....... did eteectns veeees 4,395,098 |1761........ eeeccceccccers 4,840,588 Vis eer eee wis wacwind AAO POOLING anonaescceensaes vee 4,598,083 1768.66 66600 $c 4s owen « 8,082,883 |1763,...cccce cee sscee sees 3,208,368 W154 ss sce's diese ae tars are .. 8,430,505 | 1764......... ie bein a:4's Seinnadsce 2,848,520 ) DID soc sies.a: wa dio-a'a da aceioieiniecs 8,881,885 | PTB iiss scciesreisaisiae s 6 ae oe 80 4,163,849 WDC ivi a6 5 vives oa Solas veneers 8,259,731 |1766..........0 ee eens ei eee 4,220,492 WOT ecccns oases echo eoaeires 8,093,340 | 1767... cc cece eee seen eee 3,087,621 1758 i, sise8 vecea ase s S63 eee ate 4,155,952 | 1768.0... cece eee een ee - 1,947,124 1709) a ceaew.ss vee 83:8 wera, “BOCGCIE | A 76O se ciaciciseatuace's s cireige 5,089,919 1760.0... ..0cee ee cesarean £7G6056 [L770 sesasienceveey sciences 4,786,384 1751-1760........... pees 35,502,216 | 1761-1770 12... eee ee eee 38,285,898 Piculs (136 Ibs.)....... 246,339 Piculs (136 Ibs.). ...... 281,514 Year. U. 8. Ibs. | Year. U. 8. Ibs, 1771..... Sscisscne’s eiiieieaieceiae 6,045,615) 1781..... ai raters ei ews ee 3 — PED disnks Songanehe oe aass Geir « 5,418,821)1782....... cece eee eee eee — VOT sesssisinccce si diarareve: b:0i0%s «ee. 789,743)1783........ cetera ieharaciecsie aero 2,891,680 VTA sicosieretenin ai See eae oeee. 6,236,243 |1784......... dddaiatenle bw Sih 8,271,120 VOD caiamorrewcciiw sone S580 6 6,726,428 | 1785.1... cece eee eco eee 9,486,921 Si eee eee eee 6,015,932 /1786.....ccceece sec ceecees 8,577,440 Ud aysiaceaceieitesedath 563 76,568 924 125,664 1839.2... 2200. 721 98,056 1,040 141,440 1840..... a's steko 1,085 147,560 793 107,848 VBA Lica oie oe tts 924 125,664 991 134,776 1842. aves saws 973 132,328 1,124 152,864 1843..... akistnes 929 126,344 834 118 424 1844........-.- 1,158 157,488 855 116,280 1845. .....00005 949 129,064 1,176 159,936 1846 occcecee ss 867 117,912 880 119,680 TORY con en ees 993 | 185,048 980 | 133,280 1848. .......04 758 103,088 1,075 146,200 1849..... ud vrgia 857 116,552 74 COFFEE. A change in the manner of keeping trade statistics since 1873 renders it impossible to present the production by years after that date, as the quantity imported into Java cannot be ascertained. A glance over the preceding table shows that from 1833 there was a very rapid increase in production, due to measures, calculated to push the industry, that were carried out under the able administration of Governor General Van Den Bosch. The largest crop on record is that of 1855, which reached nearly 168,000,000 pounds. Twelve times within a period of forty years the crop has exceeded one million piculs, dropping as low as 758,000 piculs in 1848; averaging 1,002,600 piculs in 1840-50; 1,057,900 piculs in 1850-60, and 1,081,700 piculs in 1860-70. The quantity delivered to the government, added to the private pro- duction of Java made available an average supply of 1,500,000 piculs annually from 1870 to 1880. The following detailed state- ment of the quantity delivered to the government from 1833 to 1880 is taken from the official returns, giving the amount in thousands of piculs: Government ac- {Private account. 4.1 in thousands|Total, in thousands . unt, In thou- | In thousands of Paath ¥ a Spauids ‘ Piculs. |Piculs (136 lbs.). of Piculs, of U. 8. Iba. 1833, ......0066 ‘ 336 _ — 45,696 TSBs svcelyiaithaseisretere 432 _ — 58,752 DOS iid c cacectixiiereig 358 — — 48,688 1886 visa sesieires esis 576 _ — 78,336 ABST i scesnan ay : 589 = —_/ 80,104 1888... .... 0.00, 539 = a= 73/304 1889 -0scvcawsens 905 _ — 123,080 1840 isisies: cs.ax aia 706 _— — 96,016 LSA. eisiegcieisiersiens 877 _— — 119,272 VBA i asase scsteisoe soso 975 _ — 132,600 TBAB accanauindanes 1,048 = —_ 142/528 TSA oe ais i5s0)eiere 956 _ — 180,016 1846s, icscciasereteteieta 637 _ — 86,632 1846 ensiy tars Sa terore 880 _ — 119,680 NSA seisrsinsann apres 172 _ — 104,992 1848 wcscc neers 860 _ — 116,960 1849. ccccaaewaee 461 67 528 71,808 1850). os sacs . 977 125 1,102 149,872 DBO Ls clesstesaeeginiaxe 1,069 82 1,151 156,536 DBO 2! cicssinieriecse acre 880 112 992 134,912 TBO Did wi nicisietecaieiere 686 98 784 106,624 TBO A ies cies esis ies 1,084 119 1,203 163,608 HSS caccaaes 1,165 108 1,278 173,128 1856..... Sieveterscore 747 61 808 109,888 THE JAVA BERRY. 95 Government ac- | Private account. ‘ i Year, count. In i | Total, in thousands Total, in thousands sands of ee Pieule (ae tah of Piculs. of U. 8. Iba. 901 185 1,036 140,896 908 95 1,003 136,408 735 83 818 111,248 928 120 1,048 142,528 896 110 1,006 136,816 659 89 748 101,728 1,113 138 1,251 170,136 434 101 585 72,760 941 123 1,064 144,704 1,087 93 1,180 160,480 920 139 1,059 144,024 558 131 689 93,704 962 144 1,106 150,416 986 153 1,139 154,904 446 121 567 77,112 984 185 1,169 158,984 TVT4 152 926 125,936 1,03 180 1,212 164,832 494 122 616 83,776 1,266 203 1,469 199,784 875 185 1,060 144,160 857 116 973 132,328 1,250 394 1,644 203,584 Total yield, 1833 to 1880........... oes eeereeee eerere 5,774,280 The estimate of the government crop of 1880 is 618,055 piculs. That of private coffee cannot be given in figures, but it is thought that it will equal or possibly exceed that of 1879. The amount of private coffee given for 1879 includes Palembang and Bali coffee exported from Java, but to what extent cannot be shown. From the above statement, it appears that from 1833 to 1880 inelu- sive, not far from six thousand million pounds, or 2,678,571 tons of government and private coffee were furnished to the world by the island of Java, the bulk of which passed through the hands of the Maatschappy and was consumed in Western Europe. Thus far the story of Java coffee has been partially told, and therefore we will pass in the next chapter to an account of the rise and progress of the industry upon the island of Sumatra and other portions of the Dutch East Indies, first stopping to consider the imports of Java coffee into the United States. 76 COFFEE. Importation of Jawa and Singapore Coffee into the United States (Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. JavA FROM HOLLAND. YER Pockets, Tons. Baga, Tons, 121,669 2,262 21,727 1,306 140,277 3,821 1,291 78 237,617 5,375 17,549 1,141 230,726 6,066 4,123 236 266,510 7,846 1,306 78 441,452 11,330 16,538 960 410,158 10,069 8,066 486 167,906 5,084 1,456 91 277,920 8.210 7,078 310 355,952 10,783 _ 1,927 112 289,103 8,502 — — 297,732 8,639 797 48 251,243 7,291 4,066 236 302,586 8,781 22,311 1,295 559,992 16,251 6,714 195 Average for 15 years, 1866-1881 ......... 290,056 8,021 7,663 438 Average for 10 years, 1871-1880 ......... 335,404 9,494 6,895 373 The Java crop of 1880 fell largely short of that of previous years, but the enormous Brazil crop and the large crops in Cen- tral America will tend to prevent a return to what must be con- sidered the artificially high prices of 1875 to 1880, CHAPTER XI. SUMATRA, AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. Tux island of Sumatra lies directly under the equator, stretch- ing from northeast to ro1thwest, with an area of 168,000 square miles. It is 1,040 miles in length, and measures from 60 to 266 miles in breadth, being the second largest of the Malayan group. A chain of mountains runs from one extremity of the island to the other, reaching an altitude of from 1,550 feet to 6,000 feet, often dividing into double and treble ranges. A score of lofty volcanic cones rear their heads 6,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level. Between the ranges are vast plateaux which are thickly populated, owing to the fine climate. Between the sea-shore and the moun- tains on the west coast there are narrow stretches of low land in- terspersed with spurs, which reach the shore in the form of bold, overhanging cliffs. Slow-running rivers wind their way through broad alluvial plains, which are covered with jungle and forest. Lakes of great beauty lie hid away amidst the mountains. In 1666 Padang came under the rule of the Netherlands, and so con- tinued until 1795, when the British gained control, holding it until 1819, when it again passed under Dutch rule. A small quantity of coffee was produced on the west coast of Sumatra in the eighteenth century, but owing to careless cultiva- tion the product was of poor quality. From the only available authorities, which are not over re- liable, we learn that, in the year 1800, there were exported 2,000 piculs (272,000 pounds), but from that date until 1820 the exports were of small account. From 1820 to 1830 an average of about 4,000,000 pounds were exported annually, rising to between 11,- 000,000 and 12,000,000 pounds annually from 1836 to 1845. In 1847 the Dutch government decreed that all coffee grown 78 COFFEE. in Sumatra should be delivered to the government at a fixed price, and further, “that all coffee delivered to government shall be sold at Padang, by public auction, to the highest bidder.” Within the last thirty-five years the cultivation of coffee has been fos- tered by the government, which leased land to private planters. Prior to 1878 the quantity of free coffee exported was compara- tively small, while since that time it has rapidly increased, as new ' plantations came into bearing. The colonial report of 1878 placed the crop raised on private plantations in Sumatra, in 1877, at 1,091 piculs (151,376 pounds). For the last three years the quan- tity raised on private account in Java and Sumatra is about one- fifth to one-sixth the government crop, the average for the past three years being in Java 168,000 piculs (22,848,000 pounds), free, against 999,000 piculs (135,864,000 pounds), government ; and in Sumatra 20,000 piculs (2,720,000 pounds), free, against 127,000 piculs (17,272,000 pounds), government coffee. These figures indicate a rapid growth in the development of private plantations. The Sumatra crop, like that of all coffee-producing countries, shows a great variation, ranging, within the past eight years, from 12,500,000 pounds to 24,000,000 pounds. The Java crop also varies greatly; that of 1880 is estimated to fall 500,000 piculs below that of the previous year. The leaf disease which has largely reduced the Ceylon crop, made its appearance in Sumatra in the summer of 1876. Its progress has been described as follows by M. Scheffer : “Ordinarily it is not noticed except when the parasitic plant is in fructification. The lower surface of the leaves is then cov- ered with a yellow-orange dust, which can be easily removed with the hand. This dust is formed by the spores, which afterward germinate and produce a large quantity of filaments (mycelium), which penetrate the stomata, and which develop and ramify speedily in the intercellular ducts. Some of these filaments again leave the interior of the leaf and produce new fruit. The myce- lium soon extends not only over the entire surface of the leaf, but over the stem. In the latter case it is very difficult to identify the disease, but it appears that a plant once infected can never be cured. Mr. Thwaites, when in 1874 the planters of Ceylon be- lieved they had got rid of the evil, could not find a single tree un- SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS, "9 infected. During a certain period, however, the mycelium ap- pears not to do much injury to the trees, until periodically, at different places and different seasons, under the influences of cir- cumstances entirely unknown, it begins to fructify abundantly. The spores produce innumerable new filaments, which, by their rapid growth, require abundant nourishment, which they draw from the shrub. The consequence is that the leaves, the young berries, and the extremities of the stems wither and finally die. The tree usually produces fresh shoots, but the disease immedi- ately renews its attacks; the young leaves again die. The second attack is very dangerous, and few plants, without a long enough respite, survive the third. The general public do not believe in the attack except wlien the spores are visible, but the presence of the fungus can be recognized at other times also, and with the naked eye. It may then be noticed on the leaves in almost trans- parent spots, which are caused by the destruction of the cellular tissues of the leaves, on which the filaments of the mycelium feed. Naturally, the tree then feels the influence of the parasite, but not to such an extent as to reduce perceptibly the yield. The case is very different when the spores appear. “One consolatory fact, which has been more and more con- firmed, is that by high cultivation the trees can offer more resist- ance to the disease. At first it was asserted that manuring favored the progress of the disease, but this has not been proved, and @ priori it would be difficult to admit it. There is no remedy known for this discase, and one cannot be discovered. The pre- servatives will be to uproot and burn the infected trees, and to prohibit the introduction of coffee from places where, the disease exists. But after all, high cultivation is the best preservative. In what manner and at what period the disease appeared in Sumatra, or indeed whether it was introduced, it is impossible to say, and probably sooner or later it will make its appearance in Java also. Some of the natives asserted that long ago they noticed it in Su- matra, but very rarely, and especially when a very long drought succeeded to constant and superabundant rains. Hitherto it seems to have restricted itself to the Pandangsche Bovenlanden resi- dency, and the Ayer Bangies district. In that residency it has now been recognized in the districts of the Limapoeloe Kotas, Pang- 80 COFFEE. kalan, Agam, 2 and 13 Kotas (sub-district Soepajang), Tanah Datar, Batipoe, and X Kotas. In some localities the young leaves, which came out after the first attack, were again affected. In other places, however, they remained healthy. There has been no case known of a third attack in Sumatra. It seems that the dis- ease has not as yet done much damage to the crop. This is prob- ably because the berries were scarcely ripe when the disease ap- peared for the first time. In Sumatra also it has been proved that high cultivation, manure, etc., have a salutary influence on the course of the disease. The news which is now received from all parts is very reassuring. However, it is possible that the fun- gus still exists in the coffee-trees, and that at some future time it may develop again from some causes as yet unknown to us.” Mr. Scheffer also calls attention to another disease, called the coffee-root disease, which appears on the roots, and is apparently the work of an insect. Its work has assumed a serious character in the Mandheling and Ankola districts, and also in central Java. It is fatal to the trees. In the year 1852 the government inaugurated quarterly auc- tions, which have been regularly held since that date. The fol- lowing is the government statement of the Sumatra crop from 1852 to 1879. Year, Piculs, U. S. pounds, © Year. Piculs, U.S. pounds, 122,900 16,714,400 1866...... 134,000 18,224,000 119,400 16,238,400 1867...... 158,400 21,542,400 131,500 17,884,000 1868...... 142,800 . 19,420,800 127,500 17,340,000 1869...... 141,900 19,298,400 “128,300 17,448,800 1870...... 163,800 22,276,800 190,900 25,962, 400 1871... os 156,500 21,284,000 129,100 17,557,600 1872...... 90,800 12,348,800 1859...... 140,600 19,121,600 1878...... 108,500 14,756,000 1860...... 157,600 21,433,600 1874. .... .| 131,500 17,884,000 1861...... 123,800 16,836,800 1875...... 145,000 19,720,000 1862...... 159,100 21,637,600 1876...... 102,900 13,994,400 1863...... 125,600 17,081,600 UST cscs ws 175,000 23,800,000 1864...... 187,500 25,500,000 1878...... 104,000 14,144,000 1865...... 123,700 16,813,200 1879...... 121,860 16,572,960 The exports of Padang coffee from 1858 to 1880, as reported by Messrs. Dummler & Co., were as follows: SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 81 Year. Piculs, Pounds, Year. Piculs, Pounds, 192,347 | 26,159,192 110,888 | 15,073,968 119,777 16,289,672 97,805 | 13,301,480 124,199 16,891,064 128,557 17,488,752 169,928 23,110,208 160,844 | 21,874,'784 149,634 | 20,350,224 141,780 19,282,080 129,357 17,592,552 141,854 | 19,292,144 161,058 | 21,903,888 124,175 | 16,887,800 154,170 | 20,967,120 104,504 | 14,212,544 146,574 | 19,934,064 134,633.| 18,310,088 112,609 | 15,314,824 . 189,891 25,825,176 168,320 | 22,891,520 Total...| 8,286,931 | 447,022,616 121,099 16,469,464 Average, 202,978 | 27,605,008 || Peryear. | 142,910 | 19,435,766 The average export per annum for the five years, 1876 to 1880, was 129,389 piculs, equivalent to 17,596,904 pounds, or 7,856 tons. The distribution of this quantity was as follows: 1880. 1879. 1878, 180%. 1876, Piculs Piculs, Piculs. Piculs, Piculs. America (Atlantic Coast)....| 126,279 | 99,385 | 94,964 | 106,205 | 98,823 California... ... ereleeibseiers ote -|) 2,916. 2,164 8,775 — — Holland... 3,971 2,244 | 20,418 | 24,876 | 33,593 France......... — — 1,000 — — DAVY erie cies ae ewanea seen sss 1,464 T11 4,018 | 10,773 9,364 Coromandel Coast. 3 _— — —_ Total ........... eee. | 134,633 104,504 | 124,175 141,854 | 141,780 CELEBES. In. 1822, according to a book of travel published in 1856 by P. Bleeker, the Island of Celebes delivered to the government 80 piculs (10,880 pounds) of coffee. From 1826 to 1833, inclu- sive, the crop averaged 3,860 piculs (524,960 pounds). In 1833 it. had reached 6,000 piculs (816,000 pounds); in 1834, 10,000 piculs (1,360,000 pounds), dropping to 4,000 piculs (544,000 pounds) in 1835. From that date until 1852 the crop varied from 2,500 piculs (340,000 pounds) to 13,000 piculs (1,768,000 pounds), The colonial. reports state that. the deliveries to the government from.1852 were as follows: 6 82 COFFEE, Year. Piculs, Pounds, U. 8. Year. Piculs, Pounds, U. 8. 7,700 1,047,200 16,000 2,176,000 16,000 2,176,000 18,000 1,768,000 23,000 3,128,000 7,000 952,000 25,000 8,400,000 38,000 5,088,000 27,000 8,672,000 13,000 1,768,000 15,000 2,040,000 8,000 1,088,000 23,000 3,128,000 6,500 884,000 1859...... 22,000 2,992,000 11,000 1,496,000 1860. . 15,000 2,040,000 16,000 2,176,000 1861...... 15,000 2,040,000 10,600 1,441,600 1862...... 7,600 1,033,600 8,000 1,088,000 1863...... 14,000 1,904,000 14,000 1,904,000 1864...... 13,000 1,768,000 36,000 4,896,000 1865...... 37,000 5,032,000 13,100 1,781,600 The product of the province of Menado, in the northern part of Celebes, is in high favor in the Holland market, where it com- mands a high price, selling for more money than any other kind of Java coffee. Macassar is the shipping port for the southern part of the island, and may be called the main point of shipment for the products of the small adjacent islands. The export from this port has increased rapidly, as will be seen by the following figures, which will be used in obtaining a statement of the average amount of coffee available as Java coffee. hi In thousands |In th ce Ge eral cee oa oe ieee hy ae 27 3,672 |l1769......... 53 7,208 1858......... 21 2,856 = |/1870......... 67 9,112 1859.0 5 5 56a es 43 5,848 |11871......... 50 6,800 1860......... 24 3,264 |/1872.......... 62 8,432 tl) 21 2,856 |/1873......... 84 11,424 1862554600005 38 5,168 |)1874......... 61 8,296 1868.3 ss002%. 23 8,128 ||1875......... 110 14,960 1864......... 24 8,264 ||1876......... 112 15,232 1865......... 29 8,944 |/1877......... 115 15,640 1866......... 50 6,800 ||1878......... 124 16,864 BSCE os sssciccwie o's 47 6,392 ||1879......... 125 17,000 1868,.\...... 45 6,120 Dr. Van Den Berg, President of the Java Bank, Batavia, estimates the entire production in the Dutch East Indies, on an average of the three years, 1876-1878, as follows: SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 88 a Berner Java, for government.... ...s-eeeeeecece os 999,000 135,864 Java, for private account.... 168,000 22,848 Sumatra, for government.... 127,000 17,272 Sumatra, for private account. . 20,000 2,720 Celebes, for government..... 20,000 2,720 Celebes, for private account................. 95,000 12,920 Bali, and other small islands,............ are 50,000 6,800 Average total. ....... ccc ce cee eee neces 1,479,000 201,144 From the above it will be seen that there were placed at the disposal of the government in each of the three years an average of 1,146,000 piculs (155,856,000 pounds), of which 333,000 piculs (45,288,000 pounds) were produced on private plantations. The average in 1866-68, ten years previous, was 1,012,000 piculs (137,632,000 pounds) government; 201,000 piculs (27,336,000 pounds) private account, or a total of 1,213,000 piculs (164,968,000 pounds), showing an increase in the crop, during the ten years, of 266,000 piculs (86,176,000 pounds), or 214 per cent. The term “ Old Government Java” arises from the fact that the Dutch government formerly held considerable quantities for a long time before selling it, and as this was usually of very good quality, “Old Government Java ” soon became a trade term denot- ing the highest quality. Of late years, however, this term has been used somewhat indiscriminately to designate all brown Java, whether packed in the old style of government bag containing about one hundred and thirty-six pounds, or in the smaller grass mat holding one-half picul (65 to 68 pounds), the latter style being preferred in the American market. No other coffee ac- quires, except by artificial means, the dark yellowish brown shade that marks the Java and Sumatra bean, which color governs, in a great measure, its commercial value. Another very good indication of genuineness is the size of the bean, which is con- siderably larger than that of other kinds of coffee, excepting Liberian. There is, however, some coffee produced in the other islands of the Malay Archipelago which does not differ materially in size of bean or general appearance, but which, as a rule, is in- ferior in flavor; this is packed in grass mats of the same 84 COFFEE, -- weight and style as the genuine Java and Sumatra coffee. Im- porters generally -sell these various kinds, and also the inferior kinds grown on the islands of Java and Sumatra, for wnat they really are and at prices considerably below those obtained for the finest kinds. The wholesale and retail dealers, however, through whose hands such kinds afterwards pass may not care to remember the place of production, or the fact that the price which they paid was below the market price for fine goods; so, under the pressure of excessive competition, and the necessity of in some way carving and the consumer is swindled. In the producing islands the coffee is transported by contract to the warehouses, where, at stated periods, it is sold at auction by the Maatschappy, generally in lots of two hundred piculs. The two islands are divided into districts, Java having twenty-three, with Batavia as the principal shipping port; Sumatra is divided into “residences,” which are subdivided into districts. Padang is the chief port from which the United States receives its sup- plies; Benkoelen is the principal shipping port for Holland. The coffee takes its name from the district in which it is grown, and varies greatly in quality. Upon the mats there is branded the initial letter of the importing house, and also a letter or letters designating the district where grown, as 4B for Ayer Bangies. The peculiar, slightly musty smell that marks Padang Java is acquired on the voyage. The passage through the tropics and the sweating the coffee undergoes is believed to improve the quality. The true Java bean is not, on an average, quite as large and in color not as brown as the Sumatra, although both become darker and more mellow with age. At the time of shipment all Java coffee is of a light green shade, but during the long voyage through the tropics this gradually changes to a yellowish brown, and the deeper this color the higher the price it commands. For most consumers age improves the drinking qualities, and as color is popularly regarded as an indication of age, that coffee which is the brownest in color is generally regarded as the best. Some of the best judges, however, regard the drinking qualities of the light Javas as fully equal to those of the very dark brown. As the Java crop varies in quality from year to year, it is im- SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 85 possible to ascribe to any one sort the virtue of being preémi- nently the best. Two years ago Preanger was regarded as the best of the Java crop that comes into the port of New York, but this year it ranks below several others in point of.merit. The follow- ing list, with an estimate of the quantity of coffee raised in each district on the Island of Java, gives some of the names of the different varieties that are from time to time sold on the New York market, together with the estimated crop of each district for 1879: Nome, ON Nome Oe of 1. Bantam......... 10,0001. Bekoeki ....... 36,000 2. [Kya wang oo. ce 1,430 | 13. Banjoewangie .. 4,400 3. Preanger Rogent- 14. Banjoemas..... 19,650 schappen....... 320,000 | 15. Bageten ....... 36,000 4, Cheribon........ 37,240 116. Kadoe......... 80,210 By Aga! pee arah wae 83,000 |17. Sarakarta...... 50,000 6. Pekalongan...... 28,500 | 18. Djokdjakarta ... 4,000 7. Samarang ....... 60,000 | 19. Madioen....... 72,200 S, Japan. ccsaw see. 2,610 | 20. Kediri ......... 19,400 9. Soerbaya ........ 7,500 ———— 10. Passoeroean...... 300,000 Total piculs.. 1,207,140 11. Probolingo ...... 35,000 In Holland, to which country the bulk of the Java crop is ex- ported, the grades are recognized as follows: West India preparation : Java coffee : Extra green. Light yellowish. Fine green. Fine blue. Good green. Blue. Green. Bluish. Java coffee: Passoeroean : Brown. Green. Light brown. Good greenish. High yellow. Greenish. Yellow. Pale greenish. Yellowish. Triage: Ordinary broken with much black. Ordinary broken with little black. _ 86 COFFEE. Menado is considered to be one of the finest, if not the finest coffee, but the quality varies more or less every year. The crop * of 1880-81 was 12,500 piculs, against 25,000 piculs in 1879-80. The product of the Island of Sumatra runs more uniform as to quality, and the following list gives the product of the dif- ferent districts in the order in which it has ranked in quality in the New York market for many years: 1. Mandheling. 4, Painan. 2. Ayer Bangies. 5. Interior. 3. Ankola. 6. Triage. The triage or trash rarely comes to the United States, being sent generally to the China market. SINGAPORE JAVA is coffee shipped from the English free port of that name. ‘Singa- pore is situated on a small island, eight or ten miles square, and not of itself particularly fertile ; yet this place is the great empo- rium for the productions of the whole Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago, comprising hundreds of islands, many of them of large size, and upon which many valuable and important articles are produced. The coffee exported from Singapore is raised in the small islands of Netherlands India, and the Philippine Islands. It does not possess the fine flavor and intrinsic value of Padang and Batavia Java, and some years it is of decidedly inferior quality. All Java coffee received here, and which was produced free from the restrictions imposed by the government, is known as “free coffee.” The exports from Singapore were, according to the Singapore market report as follows: To Great BRITAIN. To UNITED STATES. Year. Piculs. Pounds. Year, Piculs, Pounds, 1875,..... 16,827 2,288,472 1875...... 16,588 2,255,968 B76: ciecnes 20,292 2,759,712 1876...... 18,947 1,896,792 1877s sess 16.115 2,191,640 VOUT cacscaaes 5,452 741,472 IST8 ns veers 8,379 1,139,544 1878...... 9,248 1,257,728 1879...... 16.462 2,238,832: 1879...... 22,324 8,036,064 1880...... 19,948 2,712,928 1880...... 6,277 853,672 PHILIPPINES. 87 There were exported from Penang to the Continent of Eu- rope the following quantities : Year. Piculs, Pounds, | Year, | Piculs. Pounds. TST Biscesac 18,134 1,786,224 || 1878...... 11,958 | 1,626,288 1876...... 9,448 1,284,928 || 1879...... 22,795 3,100,120 1877...... 31,691 4,309,976 1880...... 15,583 2,119,288 As before stated, the coffee exported from Singapore is grown on the neighboring islands, and the deficiency of statistics makes any estimate of the production in the Philippine islands more or less liable to question. Dr. Van Den Berg makes the average pro- duction of the Philippines as follows, in piculs of 125 Amsterdam pounds (U. 8. pounds. 136). PHILIPPINES. 1856 to 1858. 1866 to 1868. 1876 to 1878. Piculs. Pounds. Piculs. aie Piculs. Pounds. 22,000.....2,992,000 | 85,000...... 4,760,000 | 55,000...... 7,480,000 The Philippine Islands are said to be peculiarly adapted to. the raising of coffee, producing, with proper cultivation and prepa- ration, a berry which is equal, if not superior, in flavor and aroma, to the Java berry. Public attention was for a time turned with great earnestness to the development of this industry, and rewards were offered by the Economical Society of the Island of Luzon for the best and largest plantations. But, after a prize of $10,000 had been awarded, the plantations were suffered to run to waste, and their aggregate yield does not now exceed 3,300 tons per annum. From various sources we gather the following figures, showing the exports from Manila, 1870-1880 inclusive, omitting 1872, the figures for which year are not obtainable: Year. Pounds. Tons. Year, Pounds. Tons, 1870 cece 4,786,600 | 2,137 1876........ 8,024,380 8,582 187] weceie es 7,471,800 3,336 ISTT. ssasicue | 8,558,580 | 3,819 1873 ........ 7,868,700 3,513 1878........ 5,359,480 2,393 1874 ........ 6,428,800 2,870 1879: ssrcsises 9,014,740 4,025 1875 ........ 9,326,800 4,164 1880........ 11,759,860 5,250 88 COFFEE. The exports from Manila, Cebu, and Doilo in 1879 were 64,391 piculs, and in 1880, 83,999 piculs (140 Ibs.) distributed as follows: to the United States, 645 piculs; to Great Britain, 7,747 piculs; to the Continent of Europe, 68,942 piculs; to Singapore, 3,639 piculs; to China, 3,026 piculs, Coffee pays an export duiy of 28% eents per picul. Importation of Manila Coffee into the United States (Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. Year, Packages. Tons. Year, Packages. | Tons, 7,084 220 Seth: hackeweusal 1.336 . 84 354 14 1878: ciswsaws cen vese 8,609 172 5,054 240 || 1876 .............. —_— 2, 267 128 || 1877... ala 1, 010 82 || 1878 .. 7m | 4 8 1,605 | 87 || 1879.. 813 48 || 1880... 299 62 4 Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881..........1,571 packages, 69 tons. ch Average for ten years, 1871-1880............06 779 ‘t 41 The direct receipts of Java and Sumatra coffee in New York have been as follows: Pockets, Year, Bags, mata, ete, Pounds. Year. | Bags. Pockets, Taats, etc, Pounds, 1857| — | 88,261] 1,965,518 || 1871 | 1,239 | 319,507 | 18,445,036 1858 | 2,159 70,342 | 8,483,152 || 1872 629 | 324,025 | 17,923,979 1859 39 71,715 | 4,140,468 || 1873 1,000 | 145,238 | 9,933,833 1860 166 27,512 | 1,538,942 || 1874 780 | 250,812 | 16.951,347 1861; —— 40,472 | 2,013,024 || 1875*| 12,079 | 290,665 | 20,924,071 - 1862 3 44,201 | 2,303,920 || 1876 | 551 | 276,811 | 18,232,393. 1863 — 10,150 839,405 || 1877 — 224,379 | 15,161,930 1864} — [| 104,075) 6,884,908 Macasear, | 32,514| 2,283,610 1865 875 689 178,000 |) 1878 —_— 247,665 | 16,829,740 1866 — 70,754 | 2,665,837 Macasasar. 341 | 50, 012 1867 3802 75,816 | 5,102,660 || 1879 — 220,286 | 13, 098, 086 1868 185 | 185,881 | 6,854,475 Macassar. | 44,070 2, 709, 077 1869 — 189,357 | 8,118,808 || 1880 — 468,836 28, 757, 882 1870 53 108, 085 | 6,952,443 Macassar. | 51,736 3,207,632 # Including Macassar. PHILIPPINES. 89 The receipts of Java at New York from Rotterdam and Amsterdam have been as follows: Year. Bags. Pounds. Year. Bags. Pounds, VSB bisa ceisie cee aie 3,183 451,599 || 1869............ 805 108,742 1858. sscsaaeecies 51.211 | 7,144,590 |) 187021202 220001 600 80,670 T8595 sie sree aes 2. | 2,933 408,755 |! 1871 ..........8. 1,415 190,754 1860. cenwe es ace 4,401 594,580 || 1872 ............ 8,066 | 1,089,306 1861..... dienes «| 9,215 | 1,244,550 || 1873 ............ 1,456 208,226 1862 oo eiek ose .| 5,508 | 746,046 |) 1874, 3,485 mats..) 3,643 696,505 LS6S iricoscecescare's | 3,210 435,291 896 sccrseewiae ns 1,927 259,162 1864 voc aiiwiee ci «2 | 2,845 383,220 || 1876......6+..5.| 3,447 452,862 1865 ss case ce cies 5,708 | 770,580 || 1877..........- | 797 | 106,212 1866..........5 20,351 | 2,745,840 || 1878 ...se.06.-2.| 4,418 594,606 1867, 3 casks. . 1,288 175,680 || 1879 ......... .. 28,494 | 3,987,214 1868.......... .. | 6,843 | 711,644 || 1880............ 8,381 | 1,162,607 In this connection, it will be of interest to note what propor- tion the importations of all kinds of Java coffee bear to the total imports of coffee into the United States. According to Moring’s tables, such receipts constituted, in 1876, 7.13 per cent. of the total ; 1877, 5.75; 1878, 5.16; 1879, 5.10; 1880, 9.31—the average for five years ene 6.48 per cent. ; and yet the fragrant Java is the favorite berry throughout a large part of the United States, and every storekeeper in sections where it is in favor believes he has the genuine article. If we deduct the low grades of Java imported, we discover that a very small quantity of fine brown old Govern- ment Java is consumed in the United States. CHAPTER XII. CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. Tue great rival of Java in the East is Ceylon. The Dutch appear to have introduced the plant into the island, then one of their colonies, late in the seventeenth century. In the year 1721 about sixteen pounds of the Ceylon product were sold in the Amsterdam market, commanding a higher price than either Mocha or Java. The quantity exported was small until 1741, when 370,192 (U. 8.) pounds were sold in Holland. The low prices ruling at this period, taken in connection with full supplies from Java, discouraged planting in Ceylon. Between 1751 and 1794 there were 1,600,806 (U. 8.) pounds disposed of in Amsterdam. In 1795 the island passed under British control, but the culture did not make any notable progress until 1824, when coffee-planting on a large scale was commenced by Sir Edward Barnes and Sir George Bird. The great development of the industry dates from 1832 to 1836. Coffee estates sprung up on all sides, and, with the exception of a short pause from 1849 to 1850, owing to com- mercial depression, they have continued to increase ever since. There were, in 1877, in Ceylon, 1,357 coffee plantations owned by Europeans, and the area of coffee lands actually under cultivation is stated to have been 272,243 acres, to which must be added an estimated area of 50,000 to 70,000 acres worked by the natives. As far back as 1806 we find the record of the export of 846 ewts. (94,752 lbs.). The author of a work published in 1817, en- titled, “A View of the Agricultural, Commercial, and Financial Interests of Ceylon,” reported the export in 1810 to be 217,500 Ibs.; 1813, 216,500 Ibs. According to Martin’s “ History of the Colonies of the British Empire,” the yield from 1830 to 1836 inclusive was as follows: CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 91 Year. Bushels. | (69 ier aL || Year, | Bushels. — [gy Ibe SHBAL 1880..... 28,938 1,536,280 1834....} 188,800 8,328,000 1831..... 32,756 1 1965,360 1835.... 161,975 9, 736, 500 1882..... 61,110 8,666,600 1836....} 190,161 11, ,409, 660 1833..... 88,318 5 249) 080 ‘ The exports from 1840 to 1857, according to “ M‘Culloch’s Commercial Dictionary,” were as given below: Year. Cwis, U.S. Ibs. * Year. Cwts, U.S, Ibs. 1840..... 41,863 4,688,656 1849.. 280,010 31,361,120 1841..... 68,206 7,639,072 1850. 373,593 1,842,416 1842..... 80,584 9,025,408 1851... 278,473 31,188,976 1843..... 119,805 13,418,160 1852... 349,957 39,195,184 1844..... 94,847 10,622,864 1853. 372,379 41,706,448 1845..... 133,957 15,003,184 1854. 328, 971 36,844,752 1846..... 178,603 20,003,536 1855.... 506, 540 56,732,480 1847..... 178,892 19,475,904 1856. 440, 819 49,371,728 1848..... 293,221 32,840,752 The further progress of coffee raising is shown by the follow- ing table, taken from the “Ceylon Directory and Almanac” for 1878, showing the development of the industry: o be he de |22 | B2eg | ‘Total acres 34 23 Base ra] AY Sosad Year, planted or Plantation coffee exported for} 9 “3 9 3 = Re) 8 opened for season ending 10th October. 2A nos ass 3 qa coffee. Ea ged Bee Et $e [e233] Fbbaa =| bs a Acres, Cwts. Lbs, Acres, | Cwts. 8 a. 6. a. 1856..... 80,950 | 325,488 | 86,449,056 | 64,000] 5.08 | 60 Oto 800 1862..... g 150,000 | 476,824 | 53,404,288 |130,000| 3.66 | 75 6 to 93 0 1863..... 152,000 | 649,194 | 72,709,728 |136,000| 4.77.) 75 0 to 117 0. 1864,.... E 155,500 | 574,476 | 64,341,312 |140,000| 4.10 | 76 0 to 114 0 1865.... | 8 4 160,000] 714,259 | 79,997,008 |146,000| 4.89 | 80 Oto 880 1866.... g 160,000 | 676,448 | 75,762,176 | 150,000) 4.50 | 71 Oto 890 1867..... 2 | 168,000 | 720,174 | 80,659,498 | 152,000) 4.73 | 72 Oto 860 1868.....| 3 (176,000 | 788,737 | 88,388,544 |155,500| 5.07 | 66 Oto 820 1869..... 176,467 | 835,686 | 93,596,832 |160,000| 5.22 | 68 Oto 840 1870.....| Hs. 185,000 | 885,728 | 99,201,536 | 160,000} 5.53 | 60 Oto 820 1871.... 195,627 | 814,710 | 91,247,520 | 168,000| 4.84 | 60 Oto 840 1872.... 206,000 | 576,878 | 64,610,336 |176,000| 3.27 | 74 Oto 870 1873.. 219,974 860, 360 | 96,360,320 |177,000| 4.85 | 86 0 to 119 0 1874.... 237,345 509, 329 | 57,044,848 | 185,000] 2.75 |100 0 to 135 0 1875..... 249,604 | 873, 654 97,849,248 | 195,000} 4.48 | 90 0 to 115 6 1876.... 260,000 603,929 67,642,048 | 203,000) 2.97 | 99 0 to 118 0 1877..... 272,243 | 850,911 | 95,302,032 | 212,000| 4.01 | 99 0 to 121 0 92 . COFFEE. The largest export of plantation coffee and the maximum average rate of production, 54 cwts. (616 Ibs.) per acre for the country, were obtained in 1870. The effects of leaf disease, which had that season made its appearance all over the coffee districts, were at once manifested in the falling off in the succeeding year, and the alternate bad and average crops since realized, notwith- standing the greatly increased area in cultivation. In the year 1878 the crop fell behind that of the previous year nearly thirty-four per cent.; in 1879 it rose above the average for eight years, but again fell 125,313 cwts. behind in 1880. The exports from Ceylon for the past eight years have been as follows: CoFFEE,—Cwrs, Year, ‘Tons, Pounds, Plantation, Native. Total. ASSO ccocczeeaes 622,306 | 47,808 669,614 33,481 74,996,768 1c 7 {sree eeeenreiet 167,293 57,216 824,509 41,225 | 92,345,008 IBIS. cccssorw sen 551,046 69,246 620,292 31,015 69,472.704 VST 7s eiseduaseen vince 851,201 91,846 943,047 47,152 | 105,621,264 VS TG occcececd concedes 626,636 93,791 720,427 36,021 | 80,687,824. TB TG sss caisretois.cis ase ‘855,661 | 118,033 | 968,694 48,435 | 108,493,728 TSE sigsice Sete 521,193 96,149 617,342 30,867 69,142,304 WBivscssseen ee 861,575 133,918 995,493 49,775 | 111,495,216 Total. ......- 5,656,911 702,507 | 6,859,418 | 317,971 | 712,254,816 Average....... 707,118 87,813 | 794,927] 39,746 | 89,031,824 It will be observed that while the out-turn of plantation coffee varies greatly, one season falling and another rising, and the past season giving a return considerably below the average, in native kinds, on the other hand, the export has gone steadily down almost year by year, until now Ceylon does not ship much more than one-third the quantity of native coffee despatched eight years ago. There can be no doubt that the native gardens have suffered greatly from leaf disease, more in proportion than well- cultivated plantations. The value and magnitude of the coffee enterprise in and to Ceylon is shown by the following extract from the “Ceylon Directory and Almanac:” “From the year which is usually taken to represent the com- mencement of the coffee enterprise in Ceylon, namely 1837, to CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 93 the end of 1877, we calculate that more than thirty million pounds sterling ($150,000,000) have been paid in wages to immi- grant coolies from Southern India, apart from the very consider- able amount given to Kandyan woodcutters, Sinhalese laborers in certain districts, carpenters, artisans, cartmen, etc., and indi- — rectly to the coffee-store employés in Colombo, the women and children who pick, and the men who prepare and pack, as well as those who transport and ship our staple. We are probably on the safe side in saying that from fifty to sixty million pounds sterling ($250,000,000 to $300,000,000) may be taken as an approximation to the total amount of British capital introduced into Ceylon in connection with coffee, while our returns show an export of ‘ Plantation coffee’ in the same period of about seven- teen million hundredweights, valued by the Customs at forty- eight million pounds sterling ($240,000,000), but really worth a good deal more. “Our calculation is that from each acre of coffee land opened here, five native men, women, and children (of Ceylon or South- ern India) directly or indirectly derive their means of subsist- ence.” According to the same authority, the total valuation of invest- ment in the coffee industry of the island (including factories, stores, and offices in town) approached, in 1877, the sum of four- teen millions of pounds sterling ($70,000,000). “In the young districts, between Great Western and Adam’s Peak, over 7,000 acres have been added to the cultivated area since last year, averaging sixty new coffee plantations annually since 1869, equalling 114 square miles, and costing in the conver- sion at least one and a-half million pounds sterling. There is a large extent of young coffee not yet yielding a first good crop, estimated at 54,000 acres under four years of age, or very nearly equal to the total in bearing in 1856.” Between June, 1875, and November, 1877, there was an addi- tion of 22,639 acres to the extent of land opened and cultivated in coffee. The large and improved estates are almost all situated in the hill region of the island, coffee prospering best in Ceylon, as well as in other countries, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. 94 COFFEE. The cultivation may be carried on, however, at much lower levels, and, with a proper system of irrigation and shade, successful plantations are worked as low as 1,500 feet. The small gardens of the natives are found everywhere, almost to the water’s edge. The coffee trees are raised from the seed in nurseries, as in Java, and transplanted when about a year old; the distances usually observed in the rows being six feet by six, or six feet by five. It is claimed that close planting is serviceable in hindering the growth of weeds and in enabling the plants to shelter each other from the effects of high winds. They are kept pruned much lower than in the Dutch island, the average height they are allowed to attain being only four — and where the soil is poor, or the situation not well sheltered, iis cutting of the trees to a still lower point is advocated. Weeding, manuring, and all the details of scientific cultivation are carefully observed. The value of the manures imported in 1876, almost entirely for coffee plan- tations, amounted to £140,809, or about $704,045. There is, however, a dark spot on the coffee industry in Cey- lon. In the year 1869 the Ceylon planters were disturbed by the appearance of a fungus, which two or three years later had be- come and has ever since remained a source of serious injury to the crops. It is known as the Hemileia vastatria, or leaf disease, and is the same pest that annoys the planters in Java and other producing points. How to stamp out this coffee-leaf fungus has been a leading question in Ceylon for the past ten or twelve years. Jtecently several reports have been made by Government and other authorities, but as yet no positive remedy has been found that will cause it to disappear. The deficiencies in the crop are attributed to this evil, as the disease destroys the leaves, and their continued renewal so draws upon the vitality of the tree that its power to mature a crop is largely reduced. Last year a number of experiments were made by Mr. Schrotty, a chemist, who publishes the result in the following opinion: “T have all along been of opinion that the relative intensity with which coffee-leaf disease develops and spreads on certain trees, while on others in close proximity the attack is confined to a few of the oldest leaves only, and is easily shaken off, can only be due to the sap of one tree being in a certain condition CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 95 more favorable to the germination and development of the fun- gus, while this same condition of the sap in another tree is almost or entirely absent. Neither chemical nor microscopical analysis of the sap of the coffee-tree can, I am of opinion, reveal this dif- ference of condition, no more than a chemical or microscopical analysis could find any difference between the blood of a healthy man and of one who suffers from malarious fever, due also, as you will remember, to the action of a minute fungus, according to recent discoveries. But I hold that differences of condition of the sap could be artificially created by the diffusion through the sys- tem of the trees of different chemicals suited for the purpose. Repeated trials had conclusively proved that this could not be done through the medium of the rootlets, the peculiar food-selec- tive properties of which completely defeated the attempt to physic the trees through the soil, and I adopted, therefore, a novel plan of inducing absorption of different substances into the sap of the plant through the cambium of the stem, and, being satisfied that a certain absorption did take place in all but very thickly barked trees, I have adopted this method in my experiments on coffee- trees.” Mr. Schrotty’s investigations did not result in finding a rem- edy, but it was found that some of the materials injected by him into the plant checked the progress of the fungus, and thus en- couraged further experiments. Opinions vary, as evidenced by the following extract from a letter which appeared in the Ceylon Observer, of December 15, 1880: “‘ Depend upon it the leaf disease is not the ‘disease,’ but an effect arising upon and from a deseased condition already con- tracted by the coffee trees. Fungus, blight, mouldiness, appear only upon already diseased subjects! Wherefore surely we are less concerned as to inquiring into how the evil operates in its development, propagation, and continuity, than in ascertaining the cause of it. There exists a cause, producing an enfeebled constitu- tion of the coffee tree, upon which the Hemileca fixes with avidity. See how invigorating manures and treatment sets up the tree, and enables it to cast off the disease (as we say, but not ‘the disease’ —that we have not yet discovered—but cast off the attack) and hold on the better under it.” 96 COFFEE. Mr. Schrotty, in a later communication, says: “JT think it would be utterly futile to hope that any endeavors to eradicate leaf disease’ could succeed so far as to enable Ceylon coffee-planters to sweep the fungus out of the island, to be seen no more. We have evidence to show that the fungus was in ex- istence and feeding on coffee-leaves long before it was first brought to prominent public notice in 1869, and probably this same fun- gus, though perhaps not quite in the same form, could have been found in the island centuries before the first coffee-plant was in- troduced. But what reasonably can be expected is, that the rav- ages of this pest can be reduced by man to such an extent. as to enable him to cultivate coffee with profit. “A careful investigation of the subject, taking into considera- tion what has been done in the case of other blights, has led me, and can, in my opinion, only lead to one conclusion, and that is: that, though an attack of coffee-leaf disease leaves behind its mark upon the tree, increasing in effect with every successive attack, and though a peculiar condition of the sap seems to be necessary to its establishing a firm hold over the tree, it is essentially an external and easily accessible enemy, and can be successfully bat- tled with. And to the question, why it has not been successfully battled with as yet, there can only be one answer, and that is’: We have not tried enough.” In June, 1880, a report was made to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, by Mr. H. Marshal Ward, the government cryptogamist, from which we ex- tract the conclusions which were the result of this gentleman’s investigations: “In conclusion, I feel justified in drawing these inferences from what has been seen so far. Derived from some source purely external, a fungoid organism finds its way into the pas- sages between the cells of the leaf; here it has a term of exist- ence shown to the observer by the origin and spread of the yel- low ‘disease spots,’ caused: by the changes in consistence and color of the leaf contents at those places. “The outbreak of the yellow ‘rust’ from the leaf-passages, through the stomata, takes place when the leaf begins to fail in supplying sap. Such an explanation is in accordance with all the CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 97 facts yet known to me, and also with the present state of physi- ology. In seedlings, the cotyledons especially become yellow, and in older plants the lower leaves usually suffer first; on wind- blown ridges, quartz patches, and dry soil generally, bad attacks of rust are conspicuous when more sheltered and moist portions of the estate do not appear to be suffering ; in sudden dry weather ‘an attack’ commonly comes over an estate, while during the last stages of crop ‘leaf disease’ is often very bad. “Now, if the mycelium, ramifying among the loose cells of the leaf, is absorbing its food from those cells, as is well known to be the habit of such parasites, we can see how so much more work is thrown upon the plant. Whereas, a leaf normally sup- plies a certain quantity of elaborated food for the tree in a given time, we have here the same leaf compelled to provide food for tree and fungus—its cells must work the harder and its life be the shorter. “Until we fail to account for the ravages of leaf disease ac- cording to known principles we have no right to seek an explana- tion elsewhere. Many, and in some cases elaborate, experiments are being planned to establish the important point as to what actually occurs between the fall of the leaf, with its ‘rust’ and mycelium, and the reappearance of the yellow ‘ pin-spots’; I have already indicated the direction in which these are leading, and it only remains to patiently carry on research. When it is remem- bered that these germinating spores have to be kept under ob- servation during the night as well as day, that all kinds of minute organisms have to be guarded against, and hence that out of many attempts few succeed, I hope that the importance of this plan will be admitted.” While the Ceylon planter is fighting his enemy with sulphur and lime, or trying other remedies, the Ceylon Observer takes rather a hopeful view of the coffee industry, as the following, from its columns, will show: “Tf we refer to the past history of the staple exports of the colony, we shall find much reason to congratulate ourselves on a record of steady progress. Even in the case of coffee, although there has been a check, there is no reason to anticipate more than temporary depression. Our largest shipment of plantation coffee 98 COFFEE. appears to have been in the year 1869-70—the date of the ap- pearance of coffee-leaf disease—but this export, 886,000 cwts., was nearly equalled in 1874-75 with 874,000 ewts. In 1878~79 it was 775,000 ewts. The falling off in quantity has, however, been more than made up in value, the customs return show- ing 41,060,000 rupees worth exported last year against only 23,910,000 rupees in 1870, though perhaps the valuation in the latter year was too low. The great decline has been in native coffee, from 218,000 ewts., valued at 4,371,000 rupees, in 1868, to 49,284 ewts., worth 1,675,565 rupees, in 1879. If value as well as quantity is taken into account, there can be no doubt that 1877 was the culminating year so far in the coffee trade of Ceylon, for the 974,330 cwts. (we now speak of the calendar year) shipped then was valued at close on fifty millions of rupees. If any one wishes to understand the cause of present depression in business throughout the island, they have only to remember that the defi- ciency in hard cash to coffee planters as indicated by the ship- ments of 1878 and 1879 cannot be less than twenty-six millions of rupees, which would make an average of ten thousand rupees per annum loss for every plantation in the country. No wonder that new products are required to turn the scale. Neverthe- less the progress of the coffee-planting industry in Ceylon in forty-three years is little less than marvellous: the export in 1837 being valued at a million of rupees; that of 1879 at over forty millions. The quinquennial record is as follows, showing a pro- gressive increase up to 1871 when the Hemileca vastatrix began to tell; after which year the average fell twenty per cent. to 1876, and it has continued to fall at this rate for the last three years : For five years ending 1841 the average annual export was 54,872 cwts. ae 6“ 1846 “ “ “ 140,220 “6 “ 1851 ‘“ ‘“ 6 315,049 «§ “ ‘es 1856 “ 6“ ts 411,264. « Ae ee 1861 ee ‘ et 600,942 * os AS 1866 a8 He ts 785,998 < ig ce 1871 ne ¥ “s 973,975 %* “ “ 1876 “ 6&6 “ 799,115 For four years ending 1880 “ ‘s ne 761,365 ‘¢ COFFEE-HULLING MACHINE. CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 99 “Unless 1881 gives a really good coffee crop all over the coun- try, the average for the next quinquennial period ending with that year must show a further marked decrease.” In Ceylon the principal crop is picked from April to July; but there is also a small crop, chiefly from the young plants, gathered from September to December. The yield varies from 2 ewts. to 12 cwts. per acre. Some estates show an average yield of from 94 cwts. to 114 cwts. per acre for a term of years. It requires fully 3 cwts. of coffee per acre annually to cover the cost of cultivation. Of the different processes necessary to prepare the bean for market, that of removing the outer rind, or of “pulping,” as it is called, is the only one performed on the plantation. The “ West- India process” is the method employed in Ceylon. lése'GLT'es \ens'TaP's [aor'erT'9 |Thx's8e'2 [LcL's90'6s CLI mod | “sa | *stetiod ‘sqq | ‘sq | ‘szeod | ‘sat | “xeod | “saT | “SzeLod | “SaT y gs we Eg saaad | £9 a ‘SV1OdW] YNT “sqaodxg *pqaoduy ES “sylodw] JON “sylodxg *sqaoduy gs gs ; “a10g ene Py Boo pepue 1vax “AgGaAION ‘VaL “anisnjour “TRgt 02 BGgT Ulouf ‘uoynndog fo ondng wed sjsoduy we ; PemUrgsy 9Y2 PU “SeRDIG PHU) ay? ‘opur squodwy yaar puv ‘wor pawduy puv opn popwoduy saflog pun vay, fo sonjog pup sayyuon?y COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 207 As far back as 1856-57 the consumption per capita was larger than the average for the past five years, which, according to Mor- ing’s tables, was 7.09 pounds per head. The last-named authority places the consumption at the figures given below: Year. Population. Tons. Per Capita, ISTE! oi, sissiensces cera giatonctsh tists ; 46,000,000 134,109 6.53 TBUE so sienis aynogare 9 reste dl 47,000,000 135,238 6.45 1878 ..... ay Hees ete Bag a Oaverar 48,000,000 141,949 6.62 1899s cesacaiev acca < as are 49,000,000 179,525 8.21 1880... 0... se eee Ac acsieeeets 50,000,000 168,678 7.56 Average 5 years...... : 48,000,000 151,900 7.09 The quantities of tea and coffee taken for consumption prior to 1859 were as follows : TEA CorFFrEE. as gs. Year ended— 3 sg § 3 ss Retained for Home Con- a 'g || Retained for Home Con- ef a8 sumption, 63 sumption, aS 28S a5 8 8 PM & Ae September 30— Pounds, Dollars. | Pounds. Pounds. Dollars. | Pounds, 6,873,091 | 1,532,211 | 0.53 88,363,687 | 3,180,479] 3.0 -| 16,883,099 | 4,067,144 | 0.99 86,297,761 | 7,615,824 | 5.05 28,199,591 | 3,982,054 | 1.22 || 129,791,466 | 9,918,472] 5.55 +++) 13,504,774 | 3,452.496 | 0.57 || 148,992,505 | 12,489,671 | 6.2 -| 25,587,668 | 5,927,143 | 1.03 || 180,712,687 | 13,372,124) 7.8 --| 19,291,884 | 7,024,526 | 0.75 || 185,999,248 | 14,380,383 | 7.3 --| 19,236,113 | 4,933.553 | 0.73 || 150,246,408 | 13,377,972 | 5.7 -| 19,763,593 | 4,937,610 | 0.72 || 175,150,440 | 15,486,423] 6.4 -+| 18,181,470 | 5,250,603 | 0.64 || 223,638,479 | 20,321,142] 7.9 -| 16,500,285 | 4.844.963 | 0.57 || 216,655,977 | 19,809,854 | 7.5 28,766,577 | 5,877,387 | 0.97 || 174,497,161 | 16,779,870] 5.9 The Annual Reports of the New York Chamber of Commerce make the consumption of the Atlantic coast, and ports on the Gulf of Mexico, for the five years 1876 to 1880, inclusive, as fol- lows: 208 COFFEE. Consumption of the Ports. 1880. 1879. 1878. 1877, 1876, Tons, Tons. Tons, Tons. Tons, Taken from New York........... 122,698 | 127,386 | 94,695) 86,455] 83,953 #8 New Orleans ........ 15,291} 12,996} 11,014) 12,3826] 10,750 : Baltimore.........4 26,287 | 30,681! 28,899} 28,099! 31,105 a Philadelphia......... 176 704; 1,172) 1,965 798 ee Boston, . sswuds sic os < 429 478 345 279 244 “ Other ports.......... 4,535] 7,046] 6,247] 6,782} 8,208 Total. 5:02.40 saeneaeeens os 169,416 | 179,241 | 142,372 | 135,906 | 135,058 The above statement shows an average annual consumption for the past five years of 151,808 tons on the Atlantic coast, which, added to the figures for the Pacific coast, makes a total consump- tion in the United States of 156,888 tons, as against 156,980 tons, as given in H. E. Moring & Co.’s tables, and 156,482 tons, accord- ing to the Government returns. The same authority reports the deliveries at New York (in- cluding coastwise receipts), from 1851 to 1880, inclusive, as follows: Deliveries at New York (including Coastwise [receipts) for the past Thirty Years. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1851. acces 80,276 ||1861........ 46,389 ASTH cess sa aes 70,532 1852........ 32,833 1862........ 80,073 //1872........ 69,713 1853 ........ 25,804 |11868........ 28,842 111878....,... 68,863 1854........ 29,842 |/1864........ 88,346 1874........ 82,801 1855........] 88,446 /1865........ 48,754 |/1875........ 77,185 1856........ 36,903 ||1866........ 51,122 1876........ 84,087 1857........ 27,184 |/1867........ 69,078 |/1877........ 86,621 1858........ 43,819 1868........ 67,105 1878........ 94,741 1859..... «.-| 87,866 |/1869........ 67,289 ISTO secu ss 127,677 1860........ 29,859 =|/1870........ 68,735 1880........ 122,995 Average per year, 1851-1860................0. 32,683 tons. Average per year, 1861-1870. ...........c.0 cee 50,568 °° Average per year, 1871-1880...............00 88,5164 “ Average per year, 1876-1880..............00.. 103,224 ** A study of the preceding tables, especially in reference to the COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 209 per capita consumption, bears out the rule that the extent to which an article of diet, like coffee, is used depends largely upon its cheapness. It may also be safe to assume that the shrinking and retrenchment process that occurred in our community between the years 1873 and 1879 tended to diminish consumption. Our laboring population was forced to economize and renounce some of its comforts, and, had it not been for the long period of depres- sion that made itself felt with severity from 1876 to 1879, the growth in consumption would probably have been very much larger than is shown by the record. During the first four months of 1881, coffee declined two to six cents per pound, and the consumption for that period shows a gain over the same time in 1880 of 11,284 tons, this fact bearing out the above statement. A period of high prices, it is evident, carries within itself a double influence (increased production and decreased consump- tion) which must limit its extent; and this must hold, true so long as the productive capacity of the globe, with regard to coffee, is not reached. On the whole, to one glancing collectively over the compli- cated pros and cons of the question, the outlook (whatever may have been the statistical position in the recent past) seems to point to no inadequacy of the general production, while, at the same time, altered circumstances may prevent in our main country of supply a return to rates existing under a different system of labor and a different distribution of wealth. It will be interesting to follow, in the next few years, the phases of a problem which affects almost every breakfast-table in the Jand.. A glance at the consuming power of Europe will en- able us to better understand the relation of the world’s supply of coffee to its demand. The total distribution of coffee in Europe, taking the figures for the past three years, will average 383,521 tons annually. In detail the position of coffee in the leading depots of Europe on December 31st, for the last three years, was reported by Messrs James Cook & Co., of London, as follows : 14 210 COFFEE. Imports, Stocks, December 31st. 1880. 1879. 1878, 1880. 1879. 1878. Tons, Tons, Tons, Tons, Tons. Tons, Holland ..........06- 81,210 | 67,790] 67,630 || 29,340] 22,620; 24,160 ANtWEIP ...ceceeees "| 45,500| 44,740) 36,070|} 8,700] 3,300] 4,200 Hamburg........05+ 87,750 | 84,100] 79,750 || 13,000| 7,500] 11,000 France .....+. e200 86,000 | 100,287} 87,416 || 42,000] 37,420| 34,321 Bremen ......0.-ee08 6,100 7,340 7,500 470 70 150 Trieste. .........005 .| 11,200} 12,810; 13,260 3,550 4,300 1,840 Genoa..... iieerels ofetny a 7,040 8,490 6,630 1,520 1,730} 1,420 On Continent ....... . | 824,800 | 825,557 | 298,256 || 98,580 | 76,940| 77,091 Great Britain ........ 77,797 | 80,870 | 68,670 || 19,497) 15,285] 15,405 Total .........6. 402,597 | 406,427 | 361,926 | 118,077 | 92,225) 92,496 The supply and distribution of three years was as follows : 1880. 1879, te, (ae Tons, Tons, Tons, Tons. Total stock January 1st ...... 93,131 86,960 102,321 94,187 a“ imports to Dec. 3ist....| 402,597 406,427 861,926 390,317 ‘« supply for 12 months...| 495,728 493,387 464,247 484,454 Deduct stock, Dec. 31st ...... 118,077 92,225 92,496 100,933 Distribution in 12 months.....| 877,651 401,162 871,751 383,521 The distribution in 1877 amounted to 340,053 tons; in 1876, to 378,958 tons, the average per year, for the five years 1876 to 1880, being 373,915 tons. The kinds of coffee most in favor for consumption in England are East India, Plantation Ceylon, and Jamaica. Of Brazil, the consumption is small. In Great Britain there is a duty of 14d. per pound on raw, and 2d. per pound on roasted coffee. A brief mention of trade customs in England will be of in- terest in view of the intimate business relations between the United States and the United Kingdom. The terms of public sale (for in Great Britain coffee is sold almost entirely at auction) are one month’s credit, with discount at the rate of five per cent. per annum allowed to the buyer if settlement is made before the month expires. A discount of one per cent. is allowed on all coffee, except Brazil, Guatemala, New Grenada, Laguayra, and COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 211 Honduras, which carry two and a half per cent. All sorts of coffee are sold in the London market, except French West India and Celebes. Hayti and Padang Java are seldom offered. The bulk of the supply offered at the public sale comes from the East and West Indies, Ceylon, and Central America. Car- goes are purchased for any continental port, generally Hamburg, Antwerp, Havre, Trieste, or Marseilles, and occasionally for Bre- men, Copenhagen, or Stockholm. The cargoes thus sold are nearly all Brazil coffee, though in some few instances they in- clude shipments from Porto Rico, and still more rarely from Manila. The following market report illustrates the manner of doing business in the London market, and illustrates the relative prices, per ewt., of the various kinds: . Auction—April, 1881. Devlon ot 460 casks, 940 barrels and bags: . | Mocha—270 packages—part sold : IML: sevdaseversy satis nolan rece 63s 0d 708 0d short berry (mixed)........ 98s 0d — low middling to middling... 81s 0d 8ts 0d | Jamaica—1,(90 packages—smail part sold : good middling to good bold 88s 0d 98s Ud old palish (mixed)......... 463 0d 47s Od good to fine bold........... 101s 0d 1103 0d | Santos—1,586 bage—part sold: peaberry ... 02... .s.eceee 100s 0d 10%s bid fair to good greenish....... Bis Od 63s 0d East India—5,680 cases and bags: washed mottled pale..... . 623 0 — Hysore, medium to bold..... mae Od 125s 6d | African—80 bags: emall.........- 3 0 95s 6d fair reddish..............-+ 473 0d —— Coorg, ete., gray. Rio—340 bage—withdrawn, medium ...... oe Washed Rio—690 bags— good to bold............00e without reserve........-.++ 5% 0d = «68s Od Peaberry ........00.. cee eee d Central American... 850 bags. Old Crop, any. to bold...... : 63s 0d 893 0d sia act Guatemala—5,295 bags—part sold ; New Granada : : good to fine ordinary foxy.. 58s 0d 60s 6d | Porto Rico.. js chiefly bought in. grayish to fine ord. greenish, 63s 0d 66s Ud | Manila............ bold to good greenish....... %2s Od Ws Od | Java.........0 eee good to fine colory ......... ‘853 Od = =92s 0d The following table shows the imports, consumption, and stocks of coffee in England on December 31st of each year from 1869 to 1880: Stocks: Year, | importa, Conga’ | Stork |] ear. | Imports, | Oonsom?" 0 Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons, Tons, Tons. 1869 ..... .o| 77,416 | 12,994 | 29,468 |) 1875......| 79,487 | 14,307 | 17,696 1870..,..;.| 80,286 | 13,674 | 30,762 || 1876......| 68,082 | 14,685 | 9.058 1871...... . 85,711 13. 664 | 24,757 || 1877...... 80,414 | 14,413 | 18,596 1872 ...... .| 74.227 | 18,917 | 14,765 || 1878. 7 63) 484 | 14,656 | 15,395" 1873 .,,...+| 81,876 | 14,192 | 12,516 || 1879...... 80, 469 | 15,233 | 15,285 1874...... < 70,246 18,952 | 18,750 |} 1880...... 77, 797 | 14,540 | 19,497 212 COFFEE. The per capita consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom is very small, tea being the favorite beverage, the consumption of which in 1879 was 160,652,187 pounds, or 4.80 pounds per head ; and in 1880, 158,576,334 pounds, or 4.66 pounds per head. The consumption of coffee between the years 1843 and 1880, inclusive, is given in the following table: Consumption in United Kingdom, 1843-80, inclusive. Year. Pounds, ‘Per Head. Year. Pounds. Per Head. 1843 ......... 29,979,404 1.10 1862 .. 34,664,155 1,18 1844 ......... 31,352,382 1.14 1863 .. 32,986,116 1.11 1845 icssi00i00% 34,298,190 1.23 1864... 31,591,122 1.06 1846 ......... 36,754,554 | 1.30 || 1865 30,748,849 | 1.02 TSA sreserswiaeiers 37,441,373 1.33 1866 30,944,363 1.03 1848 ......... 87,077,546 1.37 1867 31,567,760 1.05 1849 ie ccnisnives 84,399,374 1.24 1868 30,608,464 1.01 1850 .cvieacs ee $1,166,358 | 1.14 || 1869 29,109,113 | 0.94 TEDL cs asdess 82,504,545 1.18 1870 30,629,710 0.99 1852 ......06. 34,978,432 1,27 1871 31,010,645 0.98 * 1853 ......... 86,983,122 1,34 1872 31,661,311 1.60 1854 ......... 37,850,994 | 1.84 || 1873..... ...| 82,830,928 | 1.01 1855 ......... 35,764,564 1.28 1874: 5.2606 31,860,080 0.99 1856 .........] 34,995,944 1.24 1875 .....6.. 82,526,256 1.01 1857 onesies 34,367,484 1.21 1876 ........ 38,342,288 1.02 1858 )i50eieisarexs 35,338,111 1 24 AST ose s'scsts 32,830,224 0.99 DSOD o:5 cis ease » 34,492,947 1.20 1878). oie s-ais 33,393,248 1.00 1860 ......... 35,674,381 1.28 1879 ........ 84,696,256 1.04 1861 ......... 85,875,675 | 1.21 || 1880........ $2,569,824 | 0.96 “Tf we examine closely the statistics of coffee-consumption in England,” remarks Mr. Simmonds, “ we find that in the first four years of the century it was only an ounce per head; in the .five years ending 1809 it averaged three ounces. It then increased in the next quinquennial period to six ounces, at which proportion it remained steady till 1825-29, when it advanced to eleven ounces, increased in the next five years to fifteen ounces, averaged about a pound per head for the following ten years, and then kept steady at about a pound and a quarter till 1861, since which period it has been gradually declining contemporaneously with the increased consumption of tea, and notwithstanding a re- duction of duty.” In 1880 we find that the people of England were using nearly five pounds of tea to each pound of coffee con- sumed. COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 213 The causes of this movement of the two staples in opposite di- rections would certainly form an interesting subject of inquiry. Are we to see here the operation of that “British pride,” which, in a French opinion already quoted, had so much to do with the first adoption of coffee in England, or that general Jaw which prompts the metropolis to become a consumer of the products of its dependencies—a law exemplified in the case of Spain and Por- tugal, which to this day continue to use chocolate long after the colonies from which they drew the article have become indepen- dent states. But, if the trade of China is to all intents and pur- poses British trade, and the East generally is next to British, do not the British colonies of Ceylon and India produce coffee in in- creased quantities? If the higher price of coffee has not pre- vented the spread of its popularity on the continent—in France, for instance—can we look to that cause with regard to wealthy England, where habits of economy among the people prevail to a much more limited extent? Or, is it entirely a preference of taste, a special congeniality of tea to the British temperament—a peculiar adaptability to British diet—as some will have it ? Professor Lehman considered that the preference of the Eng- lish for tea was due to the larger supply of plastic material afforded by their diet—a fact which rendered desirable the pro- portionately greater nervous stimulus which is caused by tea, while the populations of France and of Germany, being much lighter “feeders,” found an important element in the retardation of the assimilative process by the influence of coffee. The table below exhibits the imports, consumption, and stocks of coffee in France on December 31st, from 1869 to 1880: Year, | Tmporta. | Copsnm? san “Year, | Imports. /°°Kn"? | Deo, Set Tons. Tons, Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons, 1869...... 84,568 | 50,327 | 31,382 || 1875..... 91,209 | 48,013 | 25,068 1870..... «| 67,378 | 72,665 | 2.935 || 1876..... 86,597 | 53,487 | 30,189 1871 ois 00% 59,407 | 40,155 | 2,262 || 1877..... 74,178 | 47,810 | 29,735 1872..... .| 41,464 | 16,708 | 10,682 |' 1878..... 87,416 | 54,105 | 34,321 1873...... 73,895 | 44,834 | 19,852 |! 1879.....] 100,327 | 56,825 | 38,924 1874...... 64,888 | 38,706 | 15,311 | 1880..... 88,040 | 57,722 | 40,904 214 COFFEE. The new French tariff imposes the following rates of duty upon coffee, given in francs and centimes per 100 kilos: New tariff. Old tariff. Coffee berries and nibs. ........0..eceerccceecers 156.00 ; 150 Gohcocousied andl qilled.) ca ccwansnseocrevenaats 208,00 .00 to 170.00 The average consumption from 1876 to 1880 was 53,990 tons (120,937,600 pounds), which, divided among a population of 37,405,000 persons, shows a use of 3.23 pounds per capita. ‘In Germany the use of coffee is very general. For the last five years the consumption averaged 101,655 tons per annum, which, with a population of 43,000,000, makes it 5.3 pounds per capita. The consumption from 1869 to 1880, inclusive, was as follows: Tons. Tons. Tons. 1869........ 81,368 1873........ 97,775 1877... iesecs 95,779 1870, side ccce 98,350 1874........ 90,033 1878. ..0.00% 99,284 ASTL. cession 86,400 1875. ....... 100,612 1879: . ssceste's 112,594 1872... 0008 92,585 1876........ 106,398 1880,....... 94,222 Coffee in Holland is entered free of duty, and the consump- tion is very large; it is difficult to obtain an accurate statement of the quantity used. The imports for the last five years aver- aged 5.3 pounds per capita. The following table gives the amount for each year, from 1869 to 1880, inclusive: Tons. Tons, Tons. 1869........ 59,160 TST sc ccacies 70,490 1877 cecicews 84,240 1870........ 69,040 1874 vccneses 63,900 TSTS ss eseisce's 67,639 AST: sce scsiane 80,630 TST esis aise 81,620 ASTD cccigisies 67,790 VOIR scdiwisvatece 45,360 1876........ 55,950 1880......... 82,620 The people of Belgium, being fond of coffee, used from 1872- 77 an average of 21,718 tons (48,649,000 pounds) per annum, which is equivalent to nine pounds per capita. The enormous consumption in Holland is accounted for by the climate, by the want of good drinking-water, but, principally, by the great cheapness of coffee in that country. “At the pres- COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 215 ent prices,” said a Dutch writer in 1868, “coffee is in Holland the cheapest of all articles of food.” The nations of Northern Europe, it will be noticed, are heavy coffee-drinkers, with the exception of Russia, which is essentially a tea and spirit drinking nation. The average annual import into the Netherlands from 1873 to 1877 was 101,567 tons; the export for the same period averaged 70,839 tons per annum, thus making the consumption 30,728 tons per annum, or 68,830,720 pounds, which, on a basis of population of 4,000,000, is equal to seventeen pounds per capita. Dr. Van Den Berg furnishes the following statement: 1863—1867. Kilos, Tons. General import............-sscceeeeeee 81,494,000 80,038 SE) OEPOLG soe Sse cenwacpdieae vec 67,534,000 66,328 Probable consumption,............se008 13,960,000 18,710 1868—1872. General import.........- cee cece oe eeees 92,916,000 91,257 SE CORPO cic.cd. doc esteem eee es 74,689,000 73,3855 Probable consumption. .... lee alate ever ayauaiate 18,227,000 17,902 1873—1877. General import... ......ecee cece ec eeces 103,416,000 101,569 ‘6 export........ salahcisiwiae Sa wines 72,127,000 70,839 Probable consumption. ...........-+0006 31,289,000 80,730 The above statement shows a remarkable increase, the present consumption amounting to about eighteen pounds annually per capita, based on a population, from 1873 to 1877, of 3,850,000 per- sons. In Austria the consumption, according to the returns from 1874 to 1878, was 36,587 tons (81,953,960 pounds) per annum, which, with a population of 37,000,000, gives a per capita use of 2.21 pounds. Switzerland uses 8,200 tons per annum, which, divided among 2,750,000 inhabitants, gives to each 6.68 pounds. Italy, from 1873 to 1877, consumed 12,635 tons (28,303,000 pounds), or equal to 1.05 pounds per capita, placing the popula- tion at 27,000,000. In Spain, cocoa or chocolate is used in preference to coffee, of 216 COFFEE. which a small quantity is imported, the amount varying from 2,250 to 8,150 tons per annum. Coffee pays customs duty, per kilogram, 2 reals vellon ; municipal duty, per kilogram, 1.08 reals vellon; transitory duty, per kilogram, 1.08 reals vellon; total customs duty, per kilogram, 4.16 reals vellon. The duties on coffee amount to about 39 per cent. on cost. Portugal is a very small consumer, also Greece, the two countries not taking, as an extreme figure, over 2,500 tons per annum. The statistics relative to the other parts of Europe show that in Russia, Sweden, Norway, Asiatic and European Turkey, and Denmark, about 50,000 tons of coffee are used annually. Bringing together the figures showing the consumption in the different parts of Europe and the United States, we have the ex- tent of the present demand made by coffee-consuming countries upon the coffee-plantations of the world: Tons. Average yearly consumption in the United States, 1876—1880........ . 156,482 om a ‘6 United Kingdom, 1876—1880...... 14,898 af eS in France, 1876—1880............0.eeeee 53,990 s& #6 in Zollverein (Germany), 1876—1880..... 101,655 « “ in Belgium, 1872—1877....... Mar ernceus 21,718 se 66 in Netherlands, 1873—1877.............. 30,730 " a in Austria, 1873—1878......... meng 36,587 - “ in Italy, 1872—1877........... cece ceeee 12,635 ee * in Switzerland, 1873—1878.............. 8,150 “« oy in Spain and Portugal, estimated ........ 3,000 “in other countries in Europe, partly estimated... 52,5C0 Average annual consumption, Europe and North America..... 492,343 The quantity of coffee consumed per annum in Europe, ac- cording to the above table, is 335,861 tons, or 38,054 tons less than the distribution as given in the trade circular of Messrs. James Cook & Co., of London. An accurate estimate of the quantity consumed in Europe and North America cannot be made, owing to the lack of official statistics in some countries, to the unknown quantity held as stock beyond first hands, to the want of reliable figures showing re-exports from importing countries, and to the imperfection of existing data; yet it can be closely ap- proximated, and we feel safe in making the statement that 500,000 COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 217 to 510,000 tons is a full estimate for present requirements in this country and in Europe. The compilation of Dr. Van Den Berg makes the total con- sumption of Europe and the United States 479,000,000 kilos, or 493,482, tons. The rest of the world dependent upon the coffee- exporting countries for a supply does not require annually more than 12,000 tons, so that we can safely say that a supply of 510,000 tons will be ample to meet the wants of the coffee-consuming countries of the world. Brazil has furnished for the past three years an average of 241,765 tons; Java, 89,797 tons; Ceylon, 43,022 tons; India, 16,077 tons; the West Indies, 40,000 tons; Central America, 50,000 tons; Venezuela and New Grenada, 35,000 tons; Mexico, 5,000 tons; Arabia, 4,000 tons. Thus, leaving all other minor producing points out of our calculation— which will balance any over-estimate for Central America—we have from the countries named above a supply of 524,661 tons. From this showing it appears that supply is fully abreast of de- mand, despite leaf-disease in Ceylon, while the excess of stocks held at the beginning of 1881 will quite balance the short Java crop of 1880-81. To what extent new plantations that are to come into bearing in South America, Mexico, and Central America, will add to the supply, is a problem that only time can enable us to solve. There is everything in the situation to warrant a range of prices much lower than those ruling from 1862 to 1879, the more so as there is little chance of speculative rings being formed, for Europe is not given to such operations, and American coffee-merchants have during the past year been taught a lesson that will not soon be forgotten. CHAPTER XXV. THE KING OF THE COFFEE TRADE. Five-anp-Forty years ago, or thereabouts, a bright, ambitious youth left his home in Rhode Island and came to New York, bringing with him a first-class reputation as an accountant. In fact, his business tact and ability were of so high an order that they soon commanded attention. He made a connection, in 1836, with one of the largest and most respectable firms on the east side of the city, engaged in the grocery business. This young man possessed in an eminent degree the faculty which marks most men of note—that of keeping his own counsels. Although possessing great confidence in his own abilities, he was modest and unobtrusive in manner, and pursued his ambitions in a resolute but quiet way, which, for the time being, attracted but little attention. There is nothing special to record regarding the next fifteen years of his life, other than to say that his social position was all that could be desired, and his progress and reputation as a mer- chant rapid for those days. In 1851 he was admitted a junior partner in the proud firm he had so long and faithfully served— a firm standing at the very head of the coffee trade. The senior member of the firm was one of those merchant-princes of whom New York was, and is still, justly proud. In financial as well as trade circles the name of this man was a tower of strength, while socially he occupied a first place. To be associated with such a man as a partner was no small honor, and our Rhode Island youth estimated the privilege for all that it was worth, and undoubtedly looked forward to the day when the senior should retire and the junior succeed to his place. That day came after various changes, THE KING OF THE COFFEE TRADE. 219 in 1868, and the book-keeper of 1836 became the head of a large firm, with a clear half-million to his credit. Ambitious to make his mark in the business world, and to become the peer of his illustrious predecessor, he launched out ‘boldly, and in 1869 we find him engineering a great speculation in coffee. Old bankers shook their heads ominously, and doubted his ability to wear the laurels won by the merchant-prince who formerly directed the firm’s affairs. The bankers felt that pru- dence dictated a conference with the new man at the helm, espe- cially as he was inclined to enter upon bold speculative operations. To them, in substance, the merchant said: “Whatever else I know, I think I know the coffee trade thoroughly. I shall act upon my own judgment, and by it ‘sink or swim.’” Those who are familiar with the coffee trade will by this time have recognized the pen-picture we have drawn as that of B. G. Arnold, the well-known “ King of the Coffee Trade.” For more than ten years he ruled the coffee market of this country as abso- lutely as any hereditary monarch controls his kingdom, and his influence was felt throughout the commercial world. Our tables of prices bear eloquent testimony of his power, and it is known that the operations of a single year succeeding the interview with the bankers above noted yielded his firm a profit of one million two hundred thousand dollars. In the social world he filled a large place. At his palatial residence the President of the United States was a guest, and the periodical receptions were social events. But all things come to an end, and in accordance with this immutable law, the control which Mr. Arnold and his associates exercised over the coffee market finally ceased. For the first five years of the de- cade 1870-1880, the coffee market had been steadily forced up until abnormally high prices were reached ; these stimulated pro- duction, and in 1876, while in Java, the writer, in a letter to the American Grocer, used the following words: “ As a conse- quence of these high prices many new coffee-gardens have been planted, and these are just beginning to bear and must inevitably have an effect upon the future market. The quantity of govern- ment coffee raised in Java last year, which was rather a poor year, was 494,000 piculs, while the crop of 1876, which is a good year, is 1,266,000 piculs. It is also said that the production has pro- 220 COFFEE. portionately increased in Sumatra and other coffee-bearing islands of the Malay Archipelago, and that the average yield during the next few years must be very large. If the same causes produce like effects in other coffee-producing sections of the globe, we may reasonably look forward to moderate prices for this staple in the future.” The sequel is known to all: production outran consumption, prices went down, down, down, despite the desperate and more or less successful efforts made at times to rally the market, until the final result came in the disastrous failures in 1880, which swept away the leading houses of the coffee trade in the United States. The chief cause of this disaster seems to have been an inability on the part of the leading spirits in the coffee trade to look on both sides of the question, a result which inevitably comes sooner or later in all speculative transactions. As usual, since the great failures in the coffee trade, there have been plenty of persons ready to say unkind things of the chief actors in the drama; but, while there can be but one opinion as to the welfare of the public being subserved by the failure of specu- lative combinations, all who know Mr. B. G. Arnold are ready to concede that the failure of such a man is, in one sense, a public misfortune. As an industrious, energetic, and upright merchant, faithfully fulfilling every engagement; as a charitable and public- spirited citizen, fully performing his duty to society, the character of Mr. Arnold stands out in bold relief and is worthy of all com- mendation. He still continues in business with his son, Mr. F. B. Arnold, and, with his intimate knowledge of the staple and his long business experience, it is not improbable that there may come another phase to this romance of trade, and “the king will have ‘his own again.” CHAPTER XXVI. THE TROPICS’ BEST GIFT. How little do the millions throughout the civilized world, who sit at their breakfast-tables, realize the labor and pains which have been taken to place before them the fragrant cup which, if good, makes everything good ! From the time when the little seedling first shoots above the ground in the tropics, it is watched and shaded, pruned and cul- tured by the dusky sons of toil; nor is the task near ended when the planter sees his hopes realized in the red, ripe berry. Let us trace it from hand to hand until it reaches the table of the consumer. In its gathering and preparation a vast amount of labor is required; then comes its transportation to the sea- board, where it is weighed, stored, sampled, assorted, and sold, oftentimes passing through the hands of several owners before shipment to the country where it is destined to be consumed. Here it is placed in great warehouses and the same formalities are again observed. After leaving the plantation and before reaching the consumer, it has paid tribute to the transporter to the shipping port, to the laborers, warehousemen, brokers, merchants, and bankers of that country; to the ships which carry it abroad; to the custom-houses of importing countries, to their stevedores, storage warehouses, insurance companies, and bankers; to the brokers who sample and sell it, the weighers who weigh it, and the wholesale merchants who buy it. Then comes its cartage or lighterage, its roasting and sale to retail merchants, and its trans- portation to the point where it is finally distributed and consumed. Twelve hundred millions of pounds of coffee annually pass through this routine, and probably a hundred millions of people, besides the consumers, are directly or indirectly benefited. Factories 222 COFFEE. have been brought into existence to manufacture the machinery required in the cultivation and preparation of this staple; great mills work throughout the whole year on the bagging required for the packages; warehouses worth millions have been provided for its storage; mighty fleets of vessels are created and maintained for its carriage on the sea, and railroads for its transportation on land. Governments find it a chief source of customs revenue. In the eleven years, 1861 to 1872, the import duty on coffee yielded nearly one hundred millions of dollars to the United States Gov- ernment. In England, France, Germany, and other countries, it contributes largely to the national treasuries, while in Brazil the export duty on coffee is the chief source of revenue. All this from a little berry which hardly more than two centuries since was scarcely known in commerce, and whose chief development has been within the last century. Surely, it must have some precious properties to thus command the homage of the civilized world! It has been said of wine that ‘Tt warms the heart and stirs the blood Till it leaps in the veins like a bounding flood.” It has also been said that “wine is a turncoat: first a friend, and then an enemy.” But coffee is an ever-faithful, steadfast friend, and whether in torrid, or temperate, or frigid climes, everywhere throughout the civilized world, in the king’s palace or the laborer’s hut, it is eagerly prized, for it cheers and comforts, brightens and blesses, as doth no other substance under the sun. Brillat Savarin said, “A last course at dinner wanting cheese is like a pretty woman with only one eye ;” and if this be true of cheese, is it not doubly so of coffee, and without coffee and cheese would not a dinner be like a beautiful woman with both “ win- dows of the soul” lacking? Certain it is that since Savarin’s time all gourmets have concurred in adding coffee as the ap- propriate and crowning luxury of a perfect dinner; when coffee is served, then “the feast of reason and flow of soul” begins, and without the fragrant cup dulness prevails. It is a striking fact that coffee is pre-eminently a promoter of the social element; from its earliest use this has been a notable THE TROPICS’ BEST GIFT. 223 feature. It has also indirectly been an aid to liberty and freedom of speech, for when it attracted men together they naturally dis- cussed events, and free discussion is the parent of liberty. As stated elsewhere, its use in Moslem countries met with strong op- position from both the civil and religious authorities; and in Eng- lish history we find that, in 1675, Charles II. attempted to suppress the then new institution of coffee-houses by a royal proclamation in which it was stated that they were the resort of disaffected per- sons, “who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious, and. scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty’s government and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the nation.” On the opinion of legal persons being taken as to the legality of this step, an oracular deliverance was given to the effect that “the re- tailing of coffee might be an innocent trade, but, as it was used to nourish sedition, spread lies, and scandalize great men, it might also be a common nuisance.” That coffee promotes sociability among men cannot be doubted any more than that its twin sister, the fragrant leaf of China and Japan, promotes sociability among women, and in the above official announcement of the advisers of Charles II. the ladies have an argument which they can throw in the teeth of the sterner sex, if any be so unkind as to intimate that tea-parties are the source of much scandal and gossip. The active stimulating element is the same in both coffee and tea; in the former it is known as caffeine, while in the latter it has been designated theine. As explained elsewhere, they are chemi- cally identical, and their effect upon the nervous system, when taken in equal quantities, is precisely similar. Considering its importance from an economic and therapeutic standpoint, this substance does not seem to have received from scientific men the attention which it deserves. This subtle principle embodied in Arabia’s fragrant berry has outlived prejudice, has triumphed over opposition ; religious and political bigotry, aided by military force, has failed to suppress it; and may we not claim that it has fairly won the first place in the world’s social and domestic economy, and that it is truly the tropics’ best gift ? STATISTICAL TABLES SHOWING THE IMPORTS, EXPORTS, CONSUMPTION, RECEIPTS, AND PRICES OF COFFEE IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN MARKETS. STATISTICAL TABLES. 227 ® STATISTICAL TABLES SHOWING THE IMPORTS, EXPORTS, CONSUMPTION, RECEIPTS, AND PRICES OF COFFEE IN TIE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN MARKETS. TABLE I. Imports, Exports, Consumption, and Stock of Coffee in the United States, Atlantic Ooast, from 1854 to 1880, inclusive. Od Imports. Exports. Consumption. Stock, Dec. 31st, ear, Total tons, Total tons, Total tons, Total tons. 5,641 80,125 8,700 6,958 93,919 14,168 3,945 97,423 15,900 13,097 77,038 23,030 3,800 112,167 8,700 8.593 99,380 11,677 3,760 79,068 11,786 3,587 83,502 6,107 4,613 39,728 : 5,766 1,445 35,589 « 2.834 ° 9,484 48,700 9,018 2,413 57,191 9,046 2,237 71,891 9,252 2,897 90,807 16,585 5,065 99,642 18,088 7,092 108,479 10,625 2,542 125,407 8,811 2,575 141,344 8,954 2,588 121,303 9,169 3,066 120,303 5,951 1,931 123,913 2,281 3,496 136,649 20,529 3,855 134,109 1,850 4,141 135,238 18,594 6,302 141,949 11,250 7,495 179,525 22,040 L880 nas esyeesans 176,694 10,777 168,678 12,279 228 COFFEE. e TABLE IL. Receipts and Consumption of Coffee in the United States, 1851 to 1880, inclusive. Year. Recetule aac tea Year. eh ia a ora 1851 ........- 96,448 82,243 1866........ 73,836 71,392 1852 ..... eee 91,760 91,514 1867:. siarsieruiinis 101,038 90,851 1853 .....666- 86,210 78,432 1868........ 106,255 99,643 1854 ......... 81,461 80,125 1869. sence 108,307 108,679 1855 .....-... 106,345 97,490 1870........ 126,134 125,407 103,086 97,422 ABT sx-ccaiess 144,062 141,348 97,264 77,038 1872. cesses 123,944 121,303 101,632 112,167 OTB ec ctcectnacs 120,146 120,150 110,949 99,379 NBT ec srerstarais 124,960 126,200 82,937 79,067 157,862 137,321 81,359 83,502 119,550 135,058 43,999 39,727 152,327 135,906 33,598 35,589 147,080 142,372 64,868 48,699 198,010 179,241 59,631 57,208 1880........ 176,581 166,463 In the above statement of consumption we have included only the direct receipts at the ports, the couwstwise receipts being embraced in the calculation at the port of original entry. TABLE III. Comparative Prices, New York Market, 1858 to 1880, inclusive. Year. \ Brazil. Java. |Maracaibo Year. Brazil. Java. {Maracaibo 16.18 12.04 |} 1870...... 16.33 21.19 17.47 14.79 11.89 1871...... 15.91 21.29 16.22 16,15 138.83 1872 ....... 18.42 | 21.30 18.18 18.38 15.88 || 1878...... 19.99 23.63 20.51 27.50 | 24.31 1874...... 21.08 26.68 | 20.87 87.04 | 81.93 1875...... 19.01 26.71 20.54 49.10 | 41.59 1876 ...... 17.97 21.57 | 17.02 25.82 | 21.30 VST% oceans 19.72 23.82 18.92 26.08 | 19.45 1878 ...... 16.51 22.48 15.52 24.75 17.69 1879 ...... 14.85 24.14 | 14.70 23.41 16,38 1880...... 15.12 22.(2 15.52 23.02 17.54 The highest price of Rio in 1864 was 531¢ cents, in July ; lowest, 3314 cents, in January. Java sold in August of that year at 60 cents, and in January at 40 cents, currency. From 1861 to 1865 quotations in currency, after that date in gold. STATISTICAL TABLES. 229 TABLE IV. Cargo Prices of Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in New York, Duty Paid, Monthly, from 1825 to 1880, inclusive. Year, Lowest. Highest. Average prices. Duties, —March ..../19 —May......] 1637 @ 5 cents per pound. —September | 17 ie se 1412 @ @ ke ea —September|15 —February .| 14 @ 14% te —September | 15 —January ../ 128f @ 13% " —June —January ..| 12 @ 123% . —September —January ..| 11 @ 114% ey —January .. —November.| 11 @ 114% | 2 ee —May —November.| 12144 @ 12% |1 ss —May —March .... @ 1284 | Free. -— — — ....| 1 @12 " —Jnnuary ..|138 —January ..| 114% @ 12 ss —January ..|13 —March....; 11 @ in —July'... .. 12 —February .| 98 @ 1114 fe —March ....|12 —December.| 91g @ 1144 es —December.| 12 —Aprl.....) 10 @ 113¢ ee —July ...... 12 —October... 9g @ 108% ee —June...... 11 —February .| 9144 @ 101g ee —December .|10 —January..| 714 @ 944 ie —September. Ga —May emeets 6s @ 8 = — — {| —— 2... @ 7% —July ...... 8 —October --| 6 @ %g | Free in Am. ships. —October...) 8 —January..| 64 @ 7% “ a —June...... 8 —January..| 634 @ 7 | Free. —August...| 8 —Januar 54g @ 6% i —January ..| 10 eabeoelee. 64% @ ee —May...... 14 —February.| 10 @1iX ee —November.} 11 —February .| 84 @ 91g ae —fFebruary .|10 —May...... 8 @ 9 “s —January ..|12 —December.| 814 @ 10 ee —December.}12 —January..| 9 @11Y¥ ay —January ..|/12 —September) 93¢ @ 108Z i —July ...... 12 —January..| 10 @ 114% se —January ../12 —July...... 1014 @ 11K he —February .|12 —November.| 937 @ 11 oo —January ..|13 —December.} 10/4 @ 12 ss —February .|15 —August...| 13 @14 Meg —January ..|17 —December.| 1214 @ 15 —February .| 33 —December.! 21 @ 23 5 cents per pound. —September.| 33 —December.| 29% @ 31 a 1864". ..... it 3—July ...... 22%—April..... at 1865....... 14 —December .| 181g—June...... 15 @17 i 1866. . seca 10x—Suly Ssisiaiete 1¢1g—March .... ‘ fe 1867....... 9 “—December .| 1414—April..... é ‘ 1868....... 81¢—January ..| 121¢—March .. 9 118 a 1860, svaus 83{—January ..|12 —April..... 1 @ 1154 i 1870, ...... | 9lg—January .. ge Saye ehs 3 ef 1871... 2s 1014g—January .. —December.} 12 @14 #8 1872. 6656 1414g—April ..... 19 —June...... 1544 @ 18 From July 1, free. 1878. ...... 1734—March ....| 27 —December.} 19'4 @ 21 Free, 1874....... 1684—September.| 28 —January ..| 198¢ @ 22 et 1875; 22s: 1534—March .... 2114—September 184, @ 193% $8 1816 «sais cee 164g—August ...| 191g—January ..| 1744 @ 1884 * WSC Cesasesacstss 15 —November.| 2114—January ..| 18 @ 19 oe 1878. csv « 14 —December .} 188{—January ..| 155¢ @ 1714 tt 1809. escicsie< 13. —May...... 18 —November.| 14 @ 15% * 1880....... 11 iy Deswabae .| 1% —January ..| 1414 @ 16 be * Gold prices, COFFEE, 230 “SORT ‘BequIg peyTaN, ‘yrodey eouwnyT » TH OPM ng KOLA) BI g@"Y/59 Ke OX), XorOsXo6 TT 01D""/o6 tt OF'/01 XILO Ke XILO% eID erreerri errr eres aduraay 8 ©9 2 @9 1 @9 6 ©9 01@6 I1@or TL@6 sI@or TL@01 (5) 4 a v7" " requie.eqt 8 wy 4 @9 4 @9 6 OL T1@6 WIL e@or = |- st@or IL@0r —O1L * aaquraaony § D9 4 @9 8 QO. 6 WL 11@6 sI@or BI @t £1 @0L TI@6 er@lL *** Jaqo700 8 9 4 @9 8 OL LDL II@0r IL@0r sI@or SI@Or 11@6 —Oll uieqdag 4 @9 4 @9 8 @L 6 @L T@or 01r@6 BIWOL I1@6 16 SI@IL qsusny L@G 19 8 OL O1@z 0Or@6 016 BI@vr IL@6 T1@6 eI@IL “Aue 4 @9 4 @9 8 9 Ores 0r@e 0r@g BIOL 0T@6 ELWOL sI@Ir | * eunr 8 4 @9 6 9 01r@g 016 016 BLOT 016 BLWor —el “hey 8 w9 2 W9 8 @y 6 WL 0r@6 TLW6 SLOOL 116 BIOL SI@IL ‘THdy 2 @9 4 9 8 oy 6 Os TLWOL 11@6 sI@1L TL@6 eLWIL Sl @el “*YoIeyL —@9 —09 6 WL OT@x —Ol TLW6 SIVIL BI@OL *eI@OL aWir =| Arenigag 4 @9 4 ©9 6 @9 or@s Tr@or IL@b Tr@o0r 1L®ot eI WOr BEOTE: [ss siriiesteecnie ss Arenuve Stst ¥tst Stst SPSL TesE OFSI Gest sest LE8E oest “qyUOPL * | POKU| BOM |WeOMNer NerOwer YesrDrro1l MIO "1| erOsr | KerOxer| srO™er | werO%r| zrOre or |----- oser0ay e1I@I1 sr@IL eT DEI —@el SI Osi eI@IL &1Os el @eL SI@Pr SI @Pr —O1r [ot qequieoaqL sIOIL SIWIL &L@at PL ELE SOLE £1 @El £1 @@r GLWPT SL@PL st@L1 qoQuasoN sr@IL sIOIL &T Os PLOEr sLWTE OIL EL Ws S1@Vl — FI SL@FE S=OAL; [FP seee 4aq0190 SIOIL SIWIT SL WSL —@El BOIL ITO SLWZorl agOras —Orr ST@FT —@OL qaquiaydeg eIOUL —Ol —@e@ —Osl aIOIL IL@o1 —@el —UEsL —OFT CI@PL —O!1 za e1@ser SIOIL —Wer —EI sI@IL —OIL —OZ —OEl —OFT STOPL —OM e1@eL SIOIL SI@IL el Oar sI@IL —@lL —Er —OEI —OFrT SIMPL ST@LI gL @et eL@IL sLOIL —WEer —Ol SI@IL SI@sl ETO STOPL Or —O6I —8I SLOIL EL O@L s1@— OIL SLOT TOL —@EL OLY FL —O9L LI@9T —WEl sI@IL PI@eL s1O-- —@O01 —@zl ST@sr PIOEL QLD LE —O9L LI@OL os sIOIL SLOT — WEL £L@— —W0L —OE@l TQS FL@Er SL Ort —O9I LI@9T Azenigag sIOlL sI@1l —@EL g1@— —@o0L —er ET OST SL@PL SI OPT LI@gL AI@9E foe Arenuyp sest Est est SEST Test oest 6281 82sr Lest 9st cesr “gquORL ¥ 201SNIUL “CHET 02 GeST ‘yruonr yous fo burumbag ay, wo ysoX mayy un saffog ory fo sa0reT 0b.ivg9 STATISTICAL TABLES. ® 231 Cargo Prices in Gold, “in Bond,” for Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in New York, from 1846 to 1880 inclusive. Month, 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 January ........... 14@ 8 TH@ 1% | 640 Us| 64@ 64/11 @12 | 10 @11% February .. T%@ 8 % @%| 64{@7™%! 5“@7 | 14 @144] 11 @11 March .. 1%@ 8%| TK@ 8 64@ %%| 64@7 | 18 @13¥% | 1Ww@11% April . 7 @8 W%@ 8 64% US| 64@T | 12 @12] 10 @10% May.. 7 @8 7%4@ 1% | 6{@ Us| 6 @tK| 9 @ IW! 9%@10 June TAH@ 8 63@ 7% | 64@ 14] 6 @i4| %@ @ 9% July.. 74@ 8 7 @™%!| 64%@ 6%| 6 @ tw] Y @10W| Swan 936 August 6%@ 8 6%@ 7% 1 5YZ@ 6% | 6K@ ™%%| 9 @10%] 8 @I September . 64Y@ 7K 1 7 @%| 5%Q 6%] 64@ 8 9 @l1 8 @9 October ... 64@ TH | 6K@ U6 | 5S@ 6% | %%@10 9%@124| 8 @9 November. , .-..| 6%@ 76] 7 @7%| 54@ 6%} 94@104 | WU4@11Lw | IWw@ 9K December.......... 74@ 8 64K@ 7% | 546@ 6%] 9w@l1lw~| 10 @11K| T46@ 9K Average ....... 6.99@7.90 | 6.94@7.75 | 6.19@7.08 | 6.68@8.07 |10.28@11.54] $.90@9.98 Month. 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 January 8 @ 8%] 84@ 9% | 11Y@124 | 9 @104 | 10 @12%) 10 @11% February T4@ 936 | 8%@ 9% | 94@11% | 9 @10%| 10 @i2¢ | 10 @i11 March . 84@ 9 | 83% @10 9 @123¢ | 9 @11% | 104%@124¢ | 103¢@11% April 84 @10 8%@10 | 10 @113s | 10 @11% | 1034@12 | 10%@12 May..... 83,@10% | 9 @ 9%| 94@11w | 10 @11_ | 10%@12 | 10%@12 June. 84@ 9% | 8 @9%| 94@11% | 8%@10% | 9@11% aa July... 84@ 9% | 8 @10 84@11 y4@l11 95@ @12 August .. 84@ 936 | 836@10 9 @11_ | 10 @11% | 10%@11% Lisiaeg September @ 9% | 9 @12 9 @11%}10 @12 | 10%@11% | 11 @12K% October. 8 @ 9%] 9%@11%] 10 @12 | 10 @11% | 10K%@1 11 @12 Novembe 8 @ 94110 @11%| 9%@11%] 10 @11% | 10%@11¥% | 10K~@11 Decembe 84@ 9% | 10%@12 9 @10, 9 @1246 | 10 @11%| 9%@10 Average ....... 8,19@9.52 | 8.98@ 10.54 | 9.40@11.57 | 9.58@11.37 tacdeiac i casei Month, 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 January .....200085 94 @10% | 10%@12 | 114% @12% | 11W@13_ [12.96 @14.90/14.65@16.71 February . “ 1] 10% @1136 | 108%@12__ | 1136 @12% | 1146 @18 |13.35 @15.33/13.82@15 49- March..... 10% @113g | 10%/@12% | 124% @14% | 113(@13¥% |14.6117.06115.97@ 17.58 ‘April 10%@1136 | 11 @12h | 183¢@idw | 12/@14__ |13.72@17.16]15.39@16.71 May . 10% @1136 | 11 @12% | 184 G14 | 124@13H% |13.39@16.29]15.81 @17.15 June 114%@1136 | 11 @12 | 13 @14%] 11%@14__ |13.87@15.76]15.41 @17.14 July. 1035@10% | 10%@12_—| 1846 @14¥6 | 12 @14¥ |13.18@14.48/16.57@17.91 August 1036 @113g | 10% @11% | 15 @15% | 8%@11_ 14.21 @15.09]15.63@17.62 Septemb: 106 @12 | 12 @12% | 184%@15% | 9%@11% |13.14@14.41114.77@18.13 October 12 @12% | 11% @12% @15% | 1146@13- /12.51 @16.01]15.61 @17.64 Novembel 03%@12 | 114%@18_ | 14 @15 | 11346@13_—15.98@20.17]15.94@ 17.97 December.......... 10%@12 | 11@12% | 13 @138% | 124@144 27-51 @2U. 1716.19 @18.18 Average ....... 15.44@17.35 10.60 BIL het sauce aki @14.27 11,87 il ie @16.40 232 , Cargo Prices in Gold, “in Bond,” for Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in COFFEE. New York, from 1846 to 1880 inclusive—(Continued). Month. 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 January ......... .. [17.03 @17.85 14.91 @16.53/ 18%7@15% | 11 @13 84@11K 1 8%@11 a 16.86 @17.01;15.63@17.33| 18%4@16 | 1134@14 84@11 ene 17.99@18.16; 15 @163g | 1334@16% | 12 @14 | 104@124 | 94@11% 18.16@21.64| 14 @16W @16 | 12 @14% | 104@12%! 9%@12 19.93 @21.33| 144@18 | 18 @15¥|12 @14 9%@11K4 | 9% @12 14.91 @15.85| 1636 @1834 | 114%@15. | 11%@14 9%@114 | 9 @11K 11.66 @15.73] 1536@17 | 1036@14 | 10%@14 @12 9% @12 ./18.89@ 15.67) 1444@16 | 124%@15_ | 10K~@18% | 9XK@11w~] 94@11% 15.67@17.47| 15 @17 | 124 @14¥ | 10%@14 9 @11%| 9 @11% October.. 12.86@13.58} 15 @17 | 13 @15 9¥@138% | 83@11% @12 November . 12.99@14.27| 144@17% | 12 @14 9% @13 8y~@114| 9 @12 December . . 18.68 @16.09] 14° @15%K | 114%.@14 9 @12% | 8w@11l4| 9 @11% Average ....... 15.44 @17.01/14.92 @16.98/12. 60 @15.12/10,73 @13.73] 9.27@11.73] 9.21 @11.81 Month. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 January ...........| 94@12_ | 106@13% | 16%@18% | 18 @19% | 26 @28 | 18%@19: a we 104% @18% | 163%, @18% | 184%@19% | 23 @25 tei" 10%@18% | 15@17_ | 174 @18¢ | 22%4.@24% | 15% @17% 10% @12% | 144 @16 | 174 @18% | 19%@22% | 174@19 1034 @123¢ | 164 @18¥% | 184 @19¥ | 176G@20 | 1% @18% 10% @12- | 176@19 | 184%@19¥ | 194 @21% | 17 @18% 11° @12 | 164@18 | 184% @19% | 193,@21% | 1835 @19% 114 @13%|16 @18 | 21 @22% | 173%x%@20 | 19%@20% 124% @14_ | 154 @17T | 2 @2W% | 16%@20_ | Wu @21 15%@17% | 15@18 | 20 @22% 118 @20% | 20 @21K% November 2% 1 14 @15% | 153;,@18% | 20 @22%| 18 @2W | 18%@20 December ‘i 104¢@12%¢ 164%@18 | 163/183 | 2446@27_ | 173,@19¥% | 184 @19¥ Average ....... Van gc acl id cach wai aa ee ele Month, 1876 1877 1878 1879, 1880 January.........5 -| 18 @191¢ | 20 @21%) 17 @18% | 1446 @16¥% | 1534@17 February. 16y@18% | 19¢a21 | 164@18 | 14 Gis 143, @16% March.......... 174 @18% | 1934@20% | 15%@17 | 18%@14% | 14%@10K April........... 1V4Z@19_ | 184@20 | 15%@17_ | 184% @15 @16 May se seviccvacns 1T4¥@184 | 19 @2036| 16 @17% 1 18 @14y | 144K O15% TUNE. sevcdcneai 16%@18 | 1932034 | 154% @17% | 184% @14% | 144 @15% July.......... 1% @18% | 1934 @20% | 154@17_ | 184%@14% | 14%@16 Angust....... 1646@17% | 19 @20%| 16 @1tw | 18%@14% | 15 @16% September 17}4@18% | 16 @16%| 16418 | 184%@16 | 15 @17 October ........ 17%@19 | 16 @16%| 1654%@18S__| 154 @17% | 134@16 November 18%@1934 | 15 @15% | 144%@16% | 16 @18 | 18%@15 December 17%@19 | 154% @153¢ @16 | 154 @17x% | 11% @14 Average wesiniscey se vaees vais 17.25@18.71] 18.04@19 |15.61@17.42 EDIE ORGIES é 233 STATISTICAL TABLES. LUFS LS AVG 8g°ee Thre &6°6h %6°98 1198 889 YQ SEPT YEQL |" *WWoUr 04 Aoy eSeIOAY Hbe- Mes | Fe-Kes| Mpe- Fe | Mew-S¢bs| _pS- gz) os oF] 2e- —| Hee oe| Kat- yt| or-ser!| gt- Fr| gt-3er SB-Hee| | F-HCS | He FS) 9B-_ 9B] Hpe-_ee| _os- or] Le _ —| Mes-Hpa| 2T-_ ot] gr-Ser] gi- P| st-%er|: SB-HES | Hge- Hes | Hehs- FS] 9V-HSs | Hye-Hae| Hrg- og] rege] ge-3po| Lr-Hor| gr-Sar| si- Pr| SLI-HKer iid 58 HVE 19°SS sos es'Tg Tee AD] MOT. OL'aT. EFT. SB- | Fe GB] Ge- Fe] 9e-Hee| Mee-HMre| to- 09] WKue-Hoe| Meshes) x1-Hot|_ gt-3gt|} gt-¥pr GB- &] FE- LS] Gs Fe) 9e-Has| Ge sel Hee-_ og] Hze- rel ee-Hpe| wI-Hor| Kor-Her| st-¥FT S@- 8B] Fe GB) Ss Fe) 9G Ge] gE-Hes| ge-Hea] gs uel] ge- se] wr-39r| gI-XeL} ot-HPT 9% 4 80°S6 96°98 Tree S8°OP %ELE MGS 80°21 FST 8S°FT S- Ie | Hre-Hes| se-Mere] 28-3498 | e-Hee] sq-Hea| ge- zg] ge-Hee| XxI-or!| gt-Ket| i-¥pr HEC Te | Hbe-Feew | HGe- 9s | Mye-H9s] FE sel OS-Mup| ge- rel ge- Sel HzT-%or| gt-Her| st- FT SSe- 18 | HbS-MES | AGe- 93 | F1V-7%98| E- BE] OF- Sh| HSE Se] 92 SUI-HO | HOI-HAGL| SI- FT batad 4 FEES ried 99°'%b &8°tF Yee %9V'98 &6°9T %GL &8'FT Mee- 18) Ge-Hps| «6 ge-H S| ge-F2w| ue- 98] pe eF| os- ge 9% | FELI-H9OT | HOI-MST | SI-_ FT KEG 1B) Kee-Hps| e~FebS | HSS-H1w| 9P- Gh} FR gh] HE ge] Soe- 98| RxI-Hor| gI-Wer | ¢eI- MEL HEC 1S| MGe-HbS | Ge-MS | Sese-HL]V] — 9b] Vb- Th] oF Ge] H¥e- 9%) HLI-3HOL| 91-291 | SeI-Her Ks 19'FS sd BOL &8°LP LTP ees ata F0°9T AS as SO'9E ° "UZWOUT eNg JO; aSBIEAY See- 1B | HMV-AbS | Heoe-Pere | Hee-Hi1s | Br Uh | Bb- h| Le _ 93] be 98 | SOT- ST] ot _ at | HeI-HET| HOI-_ OT 0% Avenxqeg SEGV- 13) VW- FB) Ga HFS | SEe-H1e | Hep-Mup| se TF] oe as 5 98 | SOI-MeGT | %SI-MeL| i-HEL | HOT-Her |" OF Arenaga,t HEV- TB) GW- -FS| HGV- SS] Hee- kw] GOL) OT «OOP| «9S Se] Sus- 9%] OL-Mar| Har- gt] at- pr | H9I-Har T Areniqag Hee 19°Ss &8 3 BOL] 9T'09 SOP goes 98 96°91 ST 68'FT 9T ***qquOUT 04] 20} oBe10Ay Fe- 1B] _— GV HES! «Ge Fps | H9e-H1]| Is- 09] r- oF| Fe-Mee| re- 9% | Hor-Kar| ¢ar-Ker| et- Fr| HoI-3er 0¢ Arenuer Fo- 1S | HSe- Gs] | Se- HPS | He-HLS| OS- —|] Th- OF] Fe-Hee| ge-_ gz] Hor-Her| Hat-_ ar] SPI-_ Fr | H9OT-Her|- OT Avenue Fo- TS) —- 28) Hae-Mere| Hse- 2s) Os- —| Te op| Mee ES} $¢9e-3Ge | HoI-Har| gt-KPL| MpT-Mer| KOT-HGr JT Axcnuee 6981 89st 298T 9981 9st $98T e9ost S98T T98sI o9st 6o8T 8est “oe “aQusngownr ‘OS8T OL gegt ‘xx0X MAN NI GHATOD VAVE £0 HOMG—A WITVL “plod ut o10M storyejonb ey} 718 ‘eget ‘Tt Ane MorAg—aLON GOES TP'es JES 80°98 camer Ot'6P POLE FW 8e°ST YQL'9t 6L'°FT i o') a oe teak oy} Joy edeIOAy Tres PISS 9% 68°S3 E3°2S 100g 9T'oF Sé1e FS Hes SPOT IL PT LEPL |*" 'uguour ey} 20} odus00V MOC-KG | HEC _ NG) be- 9B Hae GB] Se 1B] OM GF] Th OF) HPe- FE] Ge- Fel SOT- ot] sI-HET| HPI-Met | * 0 Jequisooqy fB- GB] PO HIG) Aw we | HG" GB} -BB-AB)-BI- 09] TH OP] GE pel per es] Mol- or} at-Hpr| pI-Mer tT OL Jaquisooq HEC- GB] MEC-HTS | HQV-HFS} -9V- 93) 6s 8s] Os —| oF os] Ge- Fel Ve-His| Hur-wor| si-Mpt| gt pric JF woquieoa, MBB 898s YEbG 6B'Ss 99°68 Yer ee'6e pg'ee ATS 31691 AL AV'bT |" Wyuour oy soy oSvI0Ay / SEEB- BB) FS-_ 1B) ge-Heps| HGe- Ge! |s- gs] _os- sh] OF Gel Se HE! SIs Ie] MaI-KoL| Ket-%pr °**9% TequIeAon HER BB] PE-HIS| © W-Hts| HGo- Gs} SE- Gv] Hes- 0G) OF Ge|_ se FE] es- 12! HuI-HOT| HaI-%PT Titi rt terres gp saquyasony AGE BB) HEC-HIS| Go-HeP| | AGV- Gs) ve- 68] OS 8h) OF gE] Hee- re] Te- —| Hur-kor| Mai-%pr| FI-Ket| co J FequissoN 8 e6'TS FOS 89'S ee &6'bP LT'88 Hse S08 ALT TPS ST ** "Yquour oy} Joy esBIeAy Fe- B) e- Ie] Ge-HPe| _9e- 93] FE- ze} gF-_ ar] os ge] Or —| tTe-Her| Kx1-Kor| Mar-Mt| ot-_ pL **0% 18q0900 : FOr | BTS) Ge Fe) New| HE- BB] GE-Heb| oP ge] Hee-Hew! Te- 0%) St-MOL| 9T-_ ST] SOT-HPT [11771717717 7271 TOL t2q0wO A FE BB) HVV- S| Mps- FB] 9B- GS) OF —| OF QP] Mus-39e| Le-39G) te- 0¢| gi-HOT| gt-Mer| HOI-MEL\ J} 4090290 . LUE 68-83 8E°FS Sg'as 99°98 ong %Q8 EOS Kor ¢6°9T bS'OL I6'PE «| * -Guour ey Joy aBes0AY ° be- 1B) Se-HIG | HS- FB] 9e-H9B| HexzV-- sw] gG- ag! He-Hoe| re-39%| oz-_ er! st-Hor| gt- gt| XoI-3¢PT jrirrritrr ss 9g sequieydeg oO GB- GB | HEC HIG | HPS FG] 9B- GB) 1e- 981 %eG- gg) gs _ Se] Le-Hos] _ os-Hor| SzI-HOT] I-_ or] Ha1-H PT | TTT TTT Tp tequieydeg MB- | ABE-H1S| -QW- -FV| Ge- 9B] H9e- 98) os ga] seMpe) 2ze-39s| Het- |r| HzI- 9L} gt-Har! Her-wer| T Jaquieydeg 6L'SS 89° POPS SS ts HG FELG ae A8I'9G KL OAT ET B{QT |" yquour oy} Joy oser9IAy So-S¢E8 | Hee-H 1s e- FB) Q- GB} 9B- GB] 09 Bd} gE- Ge} rw-F9e] O8- GT 3éLT-HOr QI-ZerL AVG & | Mee“ H1G| Se-_ FB] Ge- «Fe «Ge- GS] «BG As] g9e3ae] Le 93] OB-_ BI | HeI-HOr i AvC- HOB | HES- 6B) GE-HPS| GB- FG] 9s- Gs] Us- 99| Ge PE] Le 98] Mor-Ker| gr-Sor &8°8s BGS ard 89'S IP'bS es"eg %98 EBS FLT HLS GO-FUV | HEO-_ BB e- FG) Ge- FB e- P| LG- agl ge ge m-_ 9% | F€SI-39T | MOT-YGt S6- 8) Mee-Hee| ge- Fe] _ Ge- FE) Ge FE) Ls 9S] _ 9e-Hee| 92-Hez| sI- zt] 9I-3cr HVE 8B | HGS HW | Sebo- HB | Hs- FB) MPS- Fal OG- GF | Hye-3rae| Xae- Ge] MAI Or! 91-34 69st 898T 2981 998T 9st POST e98st 29st T98T 09st 6g8L seer “8a PN 9 ¢ al PENUUID —OMSNJIUL “OS8T OL SGgT “HXOX MAN NI HaasoH VAVE fo HOItG—' A WIAVL 235 STATISTICAL TABLES. 80°08 $€99°06 GBPS HB 4 9% BPS HB 3408 08 woos fe YIWOUL ey Joy eFvieay @B-_ 1B | HMbs- FS) GV- Wa] Hee-HES| _Te-HKST| wwe ge] se-See| Hee-HMIS] ~Te-_ GT] se- ST Te-HOL | Mbs- FB] «—-GV- «BB | HeGe-HeS | Kie- GL) ws- Gs] sa-Hes| See-His| es-HET| Ve- ST Be-Kol | HbS- FS) SO- BB) Mae-Hps| HIS- EL} Lw- 9) AMOS} es- 13) Ve-HEL| es st GL'08 BFS 99°T% 09°F 0°08 % 99°@ bated Kee 08 Te-HGL | 3¢ba- FS] SC-_ Bs] GS- FE] TS-HST] 9e- Fe] 9e- Vs] Meo-HIs| Kee- Vs] Bs- ST B-_0G | HPS- FS) BB-70T| Ge «FE! BU- HOT a «PBL Ge «e| «Ge HIS| MeV- Bs] -B-ORT. 7 oT ounce Bs- 0G | KFS- Fo] —BE-FH0B| © GV-—sHV| HEVV-FHET | = 9V- HU} VV-— BB] GU-—SCdT | HKGV-—-_-eB] BV sBL| HUS-HMTS qT oune 5699°T8 CBP HAS SEES 99°T% 99°G@ MS 88'TS 88° 0 STG ere ere YqUOUL oy} Joy eSB10Ay S- 08 | HS- Fa) Bs-3408| Hee-Hes] e-_ GT] 9- Fo] Hrw- | Ke-_ 1s] Hew-_ ew BZ- «S| SMHS-— FS! «-BV-3€0w| Hee-Hea | Mee-MIS| «Lw- GB | HGs-_ Ss) Ve-3L0s | Hee-HIe Bs-_ «GB | MPS FR! «—BV-HLOT]-- GU-—s BB GV-SBB|] AWS |-—- 9e-HGB| MIV- 08 | Hss-H08 098s QPS id Uisiterd Kes HW 9% %6°08 80°86 8@- 2%) Mbs-_ bs | MIe-HOT} «Fe- «G] «GV- «-BB) —-GB- GS] W-sSCoB| HTS-_OV]_—_ BB--—sCdTTW’ ee- 3%| Fe-34ee | HIs-S10G| = Fe- «GS] «GB- «-GB) «9S- FB] 2s Gel] V- 0%] Kee- Te @s- «3 | «~be-HEs| HTS-HOT| «Fe- «GS GB SCBB|--LS-—sGW|]—- BU--« GB | VV--—sd0B | GB-—sdTB 09°es S168 | QT (ister 88°83 OTLB £8°8s OrTs 888 Fe- 88) Fe-Hes | HKIS-HOT| Fe- S| LS _ el Be- 9s] Ge- 9B] e- 0B) Hee Fo- Ge) _ PUES | HMIV-H0G| «= Fe- «GT | HKEe-HeS| Be- 9%) IS- 8s] _ se-_ 08| Ses- Bs-_—sCiS KFS S| BV SCV | CHV-SCGB| SeGS-Ftew| —Ge- 9S) «TS 8B] Kee-H08| e- GU'es GBF 09'T% 99°es 99° 8@ 1s ak GT Fe-_ 8S | KFS- FT| BV- 1B] Pe- SB| Hee-Seee e- 98} B8- 8e| Hee-H0e| Mbe- Peas | Mbs- «FT| Bs «Ts _Fe-_ GB] Pe- «US| «GB-OS! EE GB] RB-__ 0S | HFS Be-KbS | HES FB) VS- 1S) Hhs-Hes) Gs- Fe; «OF 8S) FE 08; ee-H0s| Kbe- FLS'Ss 88S 918 £8°SS id 99°28 ga'ee 96°0% 16'S% 99°6T 8 FO-%es| Hee- es] «se- «Ie | Mps-Hes| Moe-HS| «Gs- 9%) Kbe- 0G) Se-_ 1s] Se-_ ss] IW _ Sr} Kee-HKISI"* ** og Arenure PU-NeeS | HSS- GS] EA «BB GB-SCGB | HEGS-HLFS] © GB---9V)«-GE--_—sOOE | WA-PMKEGT| © V3] _ 0 SLT | MeS-HTS |” ** of Aaunuee Be-2ebs | HES- S| GB- Bl GV- &] Be Gs] OF 9B) GB Te] Te GI] Se- gs] MIS GL) Hee-HIs|"~ “) [ Arenuee osst 6281 8Z2sl L481 9287 G2st ELST e28t SL81 TAST Oz8T “oye COFFEE. 236 8.2988 | PIES SF's 28"8s 1g'TS TL'98 99°98 £9°S3 0g°Is 66'T@ ig net ae ea Avok yy Joy odei0Ay FECL | SLE ES 8B'Ss 8 at 88°98 9% 8°08 18°61 id SOL Per an er YWUOUL oY} Joy eSuI0AY 8I- OL] | Pe-Fees | Hew- es] Fe-_ es] Es- 08] 98- Ge| se- Fe] FE Oe] Ie-_ 6T| Xoe- es] sVe- 08 “710% JequisoaqL O8- SE] Mbe-Hys | Hees- GB) Mes-Hes | Ge- 0s] 2s 9] Ss FB] BE 08| MEI-%SI| ge- Ee] e-_08 “170 tequiasoq B- ST] MW-Hbs| SGe- gs] GS- VS] MBV- ET] 8B- 93} Be- Fe] Te- 8s] HaI-HNsL| oe-Kee| se-H08 J Jequieoaq P8808 6LFS 18'S 99°%s GL'08 Ed 9% LLB 6r GLP or aa Yquoul eq] Joy asvIsAY O@- SI} Me-Yébs| Hes- —| ee-_ Bs} Hes- or] se- 93] se- Fe] Hee-3Hae| He1-Ket 08 TqQuIBAON Be 0B] GS- HPS | HES-_ —| se-Hes| Mee- GL} se- 93! ge- Fe! Hee- 9%! H6I-H8T OF JaquIsAON Be 0B| «—- AU-H S| HEC-Hes| ee-HVs | Mes- GT] Ge 18| se- bs] MSe- 92 | HeI-H81 J tequiaaon HITS 09°FS 89°8s 16'8 itd 88°8S id 80°93 Teor ere | SEIS Pot IMO oY} Aoy aHeIOAY &B- 6T| _ Se-FHs| + be-Hew| Hee-_ es] se- GL] 08 28) se-_ se] Hoa-Mes| Mer-Mer| Koe- Fe SB- TS] HPS Fe- GB} —Ge-34ES] «-SS- «CGE| «(OS «LB ] Le AB | Moe- FS) MEI-MSL| 9e- Fs Be “S| HPS HB] HS- GV] Ga- HGS] «SB- «CGE| «(OE «98| «Le-HVS] Le- Ge] OS-MSL| Fe- k & 89'8s LE'FS QB'FS 08 w ore 88'S 6L6L 89'Te svoe jo * WqUOUL ey} Joy osUIBAY §6- Ie | Hes-_ se] ge-%es| ge-Fes| ee- or! se- 98] we-Kee! g9e-3pe| ower! ge- wl] ee- ert TITTITITT 03 tequtaydag G6" IS) Pees! se-eew| e-HES| HIS GL) Be- 98} Be-Hes| we-Hos]| Te |t| es Te] ws-_ EL] tT Tt7 TIITITT! OF aaquieydeg Be TS] PE-HES] «—GU-Hess | «GS- Hes | H0’- BT] Be- 9B) Se- eB] AS GB] Ie GE] Mes- GL] Be-Mer| cc T daquieydag PAEB TS xd id 89°FS 89°6T KI HG 88'S 0% LTS YyUoU ay} Joy aseIEAy S@- TS] be-MES| 9e-%es| ge-Hes| H0s-_ St} se- 9%} se-Mee| 9e-3pz| te- orl Xee- 08 Se- TS] be-%ee| Ge-%Es| _9s-_ Fs] Te-KEL| M~w- Ge] se-dea| Hoe-Hee! 1e- GL] Mee- 08 Bee | Hps- bs] Hes- Gu] Mas-Hps| © e-HSt| Kww- Go| se-Hee| pe-Hes| Te- 61) se- st osst 648E 8£L8T 2LSE 9281 GA8t FL81 S2st S28E TAST O28t ‘aye, “panurquog —awmsnyour “OS8T. OL 8GgT ‘x40 X MAN NI SaadoM VAVE JO HOIIG—A WIAVL STATISTICAL TABLES. TABLE VI. Comparative Monthly and Yearly Prices for Three Years. 237 Braziu—Fair to Prime Cargoes, Average for the Month. MARACAIBO AND LAGUAYRA. Average for the Month. Month. 1880 1879 1878 1880 1879 1878 January ........5 ~..| $16 169g | $15 42 $17 87 | $15 3314 | $15 17 $17 25 February . -| 15 50 14 791/ 17 08 16 04 15 581¢ | 16 33 March.. 15 621g 14 16 16 54 16 62 14 66% | 15 7% April 15 00 14 20° | 16 37 16 621g 14 00 15 50 May........ 15 081g 13 58. 17 00 15 00 14 00 15 33 June’......... 15 04 18 75 16 26 14 75 18 91 15 50: el WL Yin siareis sive 'a'eses o's 15 50 14 00 16 12 14 955/, 13 %5 15 33 AUgUSb.... cc ee conan 15 83 14 04 16 70 15 621, 13 %5 14 91 Soptember.......... 16 163 14 70 17 16 15 871g 13 75 15 25 October .........658 14 46 16 33 16 50 15 04 15 08 15 50 November ..... a-eee) 183 96 16 91 15 54 14 00 16 58 14 75 December ..........| 13 12 16 3714 | 15 04 12 455, 16 xe 14 83 Average for year..| $15 12 $14 851g | $16 51 | $15 52%/,./ $14 70 $15 52 cd St. DomrnGo. JAVA. Month. Average for the month, Average for the Month, 1880 1879 1878 1880 1879 1878 J ADWELY a acre ne toe $18 371¢ | $11 00 $15 83 | $23 871g | $23 25 $22 16 February ....... 12 83 10 %5 14 37 23°75 24 25 21 50 March........ 13 60 10 75 18 91 23 50 23 919g | 21 16 April. ocicese sisi 13 00 10 %5 18 50 22 50 24 25 21 00 eer 13 00 11 25 13 20 21 663g 24 25 21 25 JUNC sei esaaeees 12 419 11 2 13 62 20 75 24 25 21 66 DULY. cise asinine 12 25 11 25 13 33 20 66 24 25 22 50 August...........6.| 12 25 IL 25 12 75 21 834¢ 24 00 24 September.......... 12 25 11 25 12 83 22 00 23 58 24 387 October ...........- 12 00 11 91 12 50 21 6636 24 50 23 58 November ...... .-| 11 50 14 50 12 50 20 338 24 79 23 27 December. .........- 11 16% 14 41 11% 18 331g 24 871g | 23 25 Average for year..| $12 633¢ | $11 69 | $13 84 | $22 627/12) $2414 | $22 48 TABLE VII. Receipts of Sundry Kinds of Coffee, not enumerated specifically, into the United States (Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1880, inclusive. Year. Bags. Tong. Year. Bags. Tons. 8,401 633 121,479 | 6,869 16,859 | 1,052 40,977 | 2,567 16,666 | 1,024 47,707 | 3,221 22,423 | 1,178 71,567 | 4,87 16,569 791 64,884 | 4,246 37,675 | 2,337 98,669 | 7,239 78,852 | 4,702 109,172 | 6,967 70,605 | 4,489 Average, 15 years (1866 to 1880)......... cscs eeee 54,500 bags, 3,486 tons. Average, 10 years (1871 to 1880)..........eeeeeeeee 73,659 “ 4,751 “ 238 1881. COFFEE. TABLE VIII Circular Estimating and Proclaiming, in United States Money of Account, the Values of the Standard Coins in Circulation of the Various Nations of the World. DEPARTMENT No. 1. Secretary's Office. e Hon. Joun SHERMAN, Secretary of the Treasury : S1r—In pursuance of the provisions of Section 8,564 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have estim world, and submit the same in the accompanying table. Horatio C, BurcHaxDd, Director of the Mint. BUREAU OF THE MINT, TREASURY DEPARTMENT, t WasHIneTon, D. C., January 1, 1881. ated the values of the standard coins in circulation of the various nations of the Very respectfully, a Value in Country. Monetary Unit, Standard. ae Standard Coin. Money. Austria........06- Florin 40.7 Belgium .. Franc 19.3 | 5, 10, and 20 francs, Bolivia ... Boliviano... §2.3 | Boliviano, .| Milreis of 100! 64.6 Dollar Gold........... $1 00 Peso Gold and silver, 91.2 | Condor, doubloon, and escudo. Peso .| Gold and silver, 93.2 | "19, 4, 24, 8, and 1 doubloon, Denmark. Crown Gold. os accnaess 26.8 | 10 and 20 crowns, Ecuador.. Peso. Silver, &2.3. | Peso. Tgypt .. Piaster .| Gold 04.9 | 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 piasters. France . .| Franc Gold and silver, 19.8 | 5, 10, and 20 francs. Great Britain Pound sterling,...| Gold........... 4 £6.64 | 34 sovereign and sovereign. Greece .| Drachma ......... Gold and silver 19,3 | 5,10, 20, 50, and 100 drachmas. German Empire ..| Mark............. Gold 23.8 | 5, 10, and 20 marks. India Rupee of 16 annas.| Silver.......... Liberia. Mexico. Netherlands .| Sol . | Milreis of 1000 reis, 1 Rouble of 100 co- 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire. 1, 2,5, 10, and 20 yen, gold, and silver yen. Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25, and 50 centavos, 10 and 20 crowns. Sol. 2, 5, and 10 milreis, pecks..........5 Silver.......... 65.8 | #4, 3g, and 1 rouble. Dollar ............ 00 Spain ........ .--.| Peseta of 100 cen- times........... Gold and silver. 19.3 | 5, 10, 20, 59, and 100 pesetas. Sweden .......... Crown,..........- Gold 555 -scicscavnsss 26.8 | 10 and 20 crowns. : Switzerland ...... TANG: ives eves sa Gold and silver. 19.3 | 5, 10, and 20 francs. Tripoli ......... ..| Mahbub of 20 pias- A sl cisigeweniee sinsie rg Sieasicrele sie a 0.400 a8 EY cin wie menses faster ....... wee| Gold...... aden . 5, 2 n i . elec oe arr gee 04 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. Colombia....... Peso,...... adie ae] Bi VeP i ena siene 82.3 | Peso, Venezuela........| Bolivar........... Gold and silver. 19.3 | 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 Bolivar. TREASURY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. C., January 1, 1881. The foregoing estimation, made by the Director of the Mint, of the value of the foreign coins above mentioned, I hereby proclaim to be the values of such coins expressed in the money of account of the United States, and to be taken in estimating the valnes of all foreign merchandise, made out in any of said currencies, imported on or after January 1, 1881. JOHN SHERMAN, Secretary of the Treasury. 239 STATISTICAL TABLES. “POST ‘TE Ame ‘ogg ‘“sousty f exeT ‘LT Iequreoay ‘007 ‘seaioy : dns Jo steak Ads OY} SULINP ysoySIY PUL yseA\O'T—"aLON S801 4 00T| F400L-* OOT| SONT-* OOT| 74 LOL- HOOT | 5001-74 OOT| 26001-S¥00T| <00T-2€001| ToT-% 00] TOT-Hool|*tor-X oot! eor-2oo1\*eo1-% ror 4801-101!“ Sust MLOI-HVOT|%SOL-H4VOT|F6SOT-HVOL| eGOI-HVOL| FOT-24801| 5¢904-22e01| 4901-24 SOL | %<9OT- MOL] %¢L0T- 2 90T| ZL01-MPOL| Sa0t-F POL] XO0T-%< POT *LOT-HSOT| "LAST. GII- LOT] GOT- LOT|*OTT-*s0T ett-2901 MOLI-AGOL) MVIL-M6GO1| KOLI-FETLL] STT-2ITT| Wett-HOrt| Mert-Hett| sir-%ert| XPri—-%et1 ASUI-KEIT| *OLST. M6 LTT-PETLT| QUT GUT 2EOTE-APLL 6 LTT FEPLT | PEATE EGU T MEP IL-MEOTT| MATT STT|FCAEI- OTT|%9T- QEt|%ort- pat] 2tI-%ptrtlXerr- ert YESTI-FETIL] * "QUST STE GOT|MUIT-HMOTT|eII- OTT) POTT-Pe01| %ort-Peor| ¥or1-*eor| Sore eor|Fert-Hort| ers-P 111 %pr1-Nret | err KU SLI-AIIT| UTI 0TE| * “PLSE PEGLI-P4901| 4 OTL-7€80T | SLOLT- “4901 | ELI-4 LOT HOTT 22OTL EOTI-REPTE| SOTI- SITIWSTI- STI] %ST1-% OTT OTT-%OTL| HSTI-MPIT| qouaie: atacele'a wcouih, aovioerete-eiare 1,402 3028)) seslssnuae | siaeseeers 110 BG)| a seceamene | cess sieaaais Willamette, Oreg..... Sid ohamide Sirs ataies 1,246 202 |) a cerstewaticte | eawdeaiele Il - geccweretecaaid || Wraerearieies 6,008 1,847 29,356 5,899 43,678 8,565 600 123 2,010 372 17,641 2,970!) asesacaaae ||: acesaneen Wilmington, N.Cscs ising. erases] steade wes ol etteeie || setieanee eel | Agateciiesten |! co etlown ecaceres' |) acces aieides Sos Pe dasen'f edemns sey ly teedioea ceil) dseas Sell) Aabaseieretace ‘ ebetetae 7,157 E216) cas dnweose ows sieawn| Cavsesc mene) asatancee 11,011 1,906 Total. si.ceecceceseenge decades 317,992,048 | 30,992,869 | 298,805,946 | 37,942,225 | 293,297,271 | 44,109,671 | 285,171,512 | 55,048,967 | 317,970,665 | 50,591,488 | 839,789,246 | 56,788,997 331,639,723 | 58,634,991 | 309,882,540 | 51,914,605 | 377,848,473 | 47,356,819 | 446,850,727 60,360,769 TREASURY DEPARTMENT, BUREAU OF STATISTICS, March 10, 1881. JOSEPH NIMMO, Jr., Chief of Bureau. APPENDIX. APPENDIX. PATENTS ON ROASTED COFFEE, ; New Yorx, January 12, 1878. Editor American Grocer : We are paying a royalty on roasted and glazed coffee. Some parties claim to hold a patent for the use of starch, gelatinous, and saccharine substances for the purpose, as well as the method of application to roasted coffee. We are in- formed that roasters in Chicago and in some other parts of the country decline to pay them royalty, and if you can inform us on what grounds they decline, and whethér there are other patents, and, if possible, whether their patents will stand the test of law, you will much oblige, yours truly, Brarps & CoTTREL. Perhaps some of the roasters declining will inform yon, through us, of their reasons for declining to pay a royalty, and we can give no opinion as to the value of an untested patent. We ascertain that the American Glazed Coffee Association own three patents: No. 63,987, issued to Thomas N. Berry, Lynn, Mass., April 23, 1867, for preparing coffee for transportation, claims 1 ounce French isinglass and 4 ounces water, the mass mixed and moulded to form; No. 73,486, issued to John Ar- buckle, Jr., Alleghany City, Pa., January 21, 1868; the roasted coffee is coated with a preparation composed of Irish moss, $ ounce ; gelatine, 4 ounce; isinglass, $ ounce; white sugar, 1 ounce ; eggs, 24 —the first three are boiled in water and the moss strained clear ; claim the coating of roasted coffee with any gelatinous or gluten- ous matter for the purpose of retaining the aroma of the coffee, and also to act as a clarifying agent; also patent No. 91,870, 254 COFFEE. issned to E. E. Rhinehart, Pittsburg, Pa., June 29, 1869, claims the mode of cooling or glazing roasted coffee by mixing there- with, before cooling, a mucilaginous or other suitable substance. The obtaining of these three patents for substantially the same articles and purpose shows the facility with which patents are obtained, and that in many cases their real value is questionable until tested in higher courts. We find, also, an English patent, No 3,131, issued to William Pidding, November 28, 1866, which antedates and originates the ideas set forth in the patents owned by the association : “English patent, No. 8,131, William Pidding, November 28, 1866 (not sealed), subjects the green coffee to cutting up into par- ticles and grains, then to desiccation and roasting. In some cases prefers to swell the berry by subjecting to steam at low tempera- ture, in closed vessels. The granulated and roasted coffee is sub- jected to pressure, with or without humid heat, between cellular plates or indented rollers, producing cakes or balls of different shapes; then subjects them to a coating of gelatinous matter, whether composed of pure gelatine, gum, starch, or starch gum, used either separately or in combination. This coating is used as a preservative of aroma and purity, the coffee being made air- tight. In some cases intends to use the various gelatinous matters in a dry state or powder (or solution), mixing the same with the granulated coffee, and subjecting the same to a humid heat and pressure, to produce cakes or balls. The cakes, ete., by either process are subjected to heat of a temperature sufficient to harden them and render them portable.” As this patent is not sealed, it is incomplete, but, under a decision of Judge Strong, in the October Term of 1876, it may be of some value. The following is the decision: SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. ‘ Corset Patent.—Morite Cohn, appellant, vs. The United States Corset Company, John H. Lane and William Lyall. [Appeal from the Circuit Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.—Decided October Term, 1876.] A patent is invalid if the invention claimed is found to be patented or de- scribed in a printed publication prior to the patentee’s invention or discovery APPENDIX. 255 thereof, and it is enough if the thing patented is described, and not the steps necessarily antecedent to its production. Thus, when the invention claimed is an article, it is not necessary, in order to render the patent void, that the prior publication should also contain a de- scription of the process by which such article was made. Unless the earlier printed and published description does exhibit the later patented invention in such a full and intelligible manner as to enable persons skilled in the art to which the invention is related to comprehend it without assistance from the patent, or to make it or repeat the process claimed, it is in- sufficient to invalidate the patent. Mr. Justice Strong delivered the opinion of the court. A careful examination of the evidence in this case has convinced us that the invention claimed and patented to the plaintiff was anticipated and described in the English provisional specification of John Henry Johnson, left in the office of the Commissioner of Patents on the 20:h of January, a.D. 1854. That specifi- cation was printed and published in England officially in 1854, and is contained in volume second of a printed publication circulated in this country as early as the year 1856. It is therefore fatal to the validity of the plaintiff's patent if, in fact, it does describe sufficiently the manufacture described and claimed in his specification, The plaintiff's application at the Patent Office was made on the 3cth of January, 1873. In it he claimed to have invented ‘‘a new and useful improvement in corsets.” After reciting that previous to his invention it had been customary, in the manufacture of corsets, to weave the material with pocket-like openings or passages running from edge to edge, and adapted to re- ceive the bones, which are inserted to stay the woven fabric, and which serve as braces to give shape to and support the figure of the wearer, but that it had been necessary, after the insertion of the bones into said pocket-like passages, to secure each one endwise by sewing, he proceeded to mention objections to that mode of making a corset. He specified twoonly. The first was that it involved much hand labor, and consequent expense, in sewing in the bones, or securing them endwise in the woven passages; and the second was that the ar- rangement or placement of the bones in the passages had to be determined by hand manipulation, and that it was therefore variable and irregular, such as fre- quently to give to the corset an undesirable shape or appearance near its upper edge. These, objections he proposed to remove, and to produce a corset in which the location or position endwise of the bones shall be predetermined with the accuracy of the jacquard in the process of weaving the corset stuffs or ma- terials, thereby effecting the saving of labor and expense in the manufacture, He therefore declared his invention to consist in having the pocket-like openings or passages into which the bones are put closed up near one end, and at that point at which it is designed to have the end of each bone located. . . . . Amendments were then made until his present patent was at last granted, dated April 15, 1873. In the specification which accompanies it, the patentee omits what he admitted at first—that prior to his invention it had been customary, in the manufacture of corsets, to weave the material with pocket-like openings or passages running through from edge to edge, and he makes the further admis- sion that it had been customary to weave the material with such passages all 256 COFFEE. stopped and finished off at uniform distances from the edge. He therefore dis- claims ‘‘a woven corset with the pockets stopped and finished off at a uniform distance from the edges,” and he disclaims also ‘‘a hand-made corset with pockets of varying lengths stitched on,” and his claim is, ‘‘a corset having the pockets for the reception of the bones formed in the weaving, and varying in length relatively to each other, as desired, substantially in the manner and for the purposes set forth.”’ “NOTES BY THE WAY.” Havine been often asked why I did not collect and publish a series of letters written while on a trip around the world in 1876, most of which appeared in the American Grocer under the above title, or that of ‘‘ Wayside Scenes, Thoughts and Fancies,” I have embraced the present opportunity to do so, not because I think these letters of much general interest, but being written from a grocer’s point of view, and touching somewhat often upon the food products of the Orient, they have been received with much favor by dealers in such articles, and they doubtless find an appro- priate place in a work devoted to good things for the inner man. I therefore begin with ACROSS THE PACIFIC. , STEAMER ALASKA, Paciric OcEAN, August 26, 1876, A long sea voyage is always somewhat monotonous, but a per- son disposed to look at the bright side of life can generally pick out some items of enjoyment to compensate for the general lack of that commodity. ‘“‘ Life-on-the-ocean-wave” people will please take note of this observation and the opinion of your correspond- ent. Somebody has said that “ Doubtless God might have made a better berry than the strawberry, but doubtless God never did;” and it is possible that infinite power might create a more unnatural element for the human race to exist upon than the sea, but in my humble opinion infinite power never did. Tues- day, August 1st, at noon, found me on board of the steamship Alaska, at San Francisco, bound for Yokohama, and as the lines were cast off and the huge bulk of the steamer moved slowly out into the bay, the wsual greetings were exchanged 17 258 COFFEE between friends on ship and friends on shore. Moving rapidly down the beautiful bay of San Francisco and out through the Golden Gate, the shores of America rapidly receded and were soon an indistinct line in the distance. One of the first things that strike a passenger on the ships of the Pacific Mail Steam- ship Company is the omnipresent Chinaman—Chinese waiters, Chinese cooks, Chinese firemen, Chinese sailors, and Chinese steerage passengers are everywhere to be seen. Indeed, the only white men on board the ship are the officers and cabin fpas- sengers. I asked our captain if there were no white sailors on board, and was surprised to receive the answer, “No, nothing below a boatswain, and one of those is a Chinaman.” We have only about twenty-five cabin passengers, among whom are three missionaries, three young Japanese returning home after finish- ing their education in the United States, two officers of Ameri- can men-of-war going out to join their ships, and the balance is made up of tourists and commercial men bound for different parts of the world. In the steerage are one hundred and sixty Chinese, mostly men, but also including a few women and children, returning to their homes in China. Some of these speak English quite well. Said one of them to me, in answer to an inquiry as to why he was going back to China: ‘“ Go China to gettee wifee, then go back Californee.” I asked him if he had one picked out, and he said, “ No, I buy one.” I asked him how much she would cost, and ‘he said: “ Ninety dollar buy nice one with small footee.” I asked him why he preferred those with small feet, and he answered: “ Chinawoman big footee may be run around after other Chinaman, but Chinawoman small footee you leave her home, you find her there when you come back.” By subsequent inquiry I found that the money paid to the bride’s parents is considered a sort of dowry, but there is so little senti- ment indulged in, and the bride has so little to say about her likes and dislikes, that it is very natural to esteem it a sort of a bargain and sale. Indeed in Japan, China, India, and all Eastern coun- tries, the females have little scope for the exercise of their pref- erences as to whom they will marry. For several days we have been making an average of two hun- dred miles per day, which is not very fast, but we are heavily la- APPENDIX. 259 den, and on a long voyage like this, the company—principally for the consideration of economy in coal—do not drive their ‘ships as is done on the Atlantic. Besides, the Alaska is one of the old side-wheel pattern of ships, and not very fast, although quite steady and comfortable. Twice the monotony of our voyage has been broken by an alarm of fire, which, however, turned out to be only a false alarm for the purpose of exercising the officers and crew in the fire-drill, which appears to be very perfect and efficient. Yesterday, in four minutes from the giving of the alarm, the hose was uncoiled, run aft, and six streams from the steam-pumps were pouring over the side in a way so vigorous that it must. have proved very effective in case they were directed on a fire. The crew are also occasionally exercised at boat-drill, so as to per- fect them in getting out and lowering the boats in case of need. A few evenings ago, just before retiring for the night, we had a beautiful view of a lunar-bow or “moon-rainbow,” the largest and most distinct that I ever saw. On Sundays, regular service is held night and morning, usually celebrated in the morning by one of our American missionaries, and in the evening by two English missionaries who are destined for Japan. The chief amusements for week-days are sea-quoits, otherwise known as “bull,” and reading and music. Altogether we manage to wear away the time as pleasantly as could be expected. Thus far we have had the usual variety of weather, clear or cloudy, dry or wet, smooth or rough, but old voyagers on the Pacific say that, taken al- together, the weather has been very good. On the 16th we reached the 180th meridian of longitude, and “the event of the voyage” took place, namely, losing aday. I had often heard of this, but never fully realized it until I had passed through the operation my- self. It is briefly this—that in going round the world westward you constantly gain in time four minutes to the degree or parallel of longitude; consequently, when you arrive at the 180th parallel and are half-way round, from Greenwich, you have gained twelve hours, and, for the sake of convenience in navigation, this is called a day, in order to prevent twelve o’clock at night from being twelve o’clock in the daytime. The occasion of crossing the line is generally signalized by some kind of ceremonies, and in our case an oil-barrel painted to 260 COFFEE. resemble a buoy was dropped overboard, a gun fired, and the pas- sengers of course all rushed on deck to find out what the firing meant. They were referred to the buoy, which was now plainly visible astern, as being the buoy which marked the 180th parallel of longitude. Of course they accepted this statement as “ gos- pel truth,” and due note was made of it in diaries, but after the joke had been carried sufficiently far it was duly explained by the captain, much to the enjoyment of the few who were in the secret, and the chagrin of those who had been taken in. We have now been out twenty-three days, and have made 4,577 miles. If nothing happens, twelve hours more will bring us to the end of our voyage—a voyage which, although we consider it long, is less than half the time formerly occupied by our clippers in cross- ing the same space. Nine years ago the first steamer of this line crossed the Pacific Ocean, and for all the purposes for which oceans are valuable, for the use of commerce, reduced the distance between Asia and America one-half. Many may not appreciate the significance of this, but it means that the commerce of the In- dies—the prize for which all the great nations of the earth have contended during the last two thousand years—has been brought within the grasp of the youngest nation. All that it needs is a wise and liberal policy on the part of our statesmen. Natives of China and other countries whose shores are washed by the Pacific Ocean must be guaranteed, when they come to this country, the same right that our Constitution has given the citizens of every country who have come to us since we have been a nation. The only important line of American steamships now afloat should be kept going by the same means that have fostered all British lines until they were strong enough to make their way unassisted— liberal subsidies for frequent mail service. Frequent communication with, and simple justice in the treat- ment of the natives of the Indies will give us their trade. They will send us their tea, silk, coffee, and spices, and take our flour, petroleum, machinery, and other manufactured goods in vast quan- tities. Already entire cargoes of flour are shipped to China from our Pacific Coast, and the steamer upon which I am writing has more than a thousand tons of flour, dried fish, machinery, and other American products on board, destined for China and Japan. APPENDIX. 261 JAPANESE NOTES. TEA CULTURE IN JAPAN. Kose, Japan, September 15, 1876. Ir is always hard for travellers and correspondents to ascertain bottom facts, and when successful they do not always possess the technical knowledge which enables them to present under- standingly the facts which they have gathered. In all my expe- | rience in the tea trade in the United States, and from the various descriptive articles which I have read, I never obtained a clear idea of the processes by which this important staple was pro- duced. During my visit in Japan I was therefore anxious to obtain all possible information upon this subject. At the shipping ports even I found a considerable conflict of opinion between tea mer- chants upon various important points, and I therefore determined to visit one of the principal tea-producing districts in the interior, and, if possible, see for myself just how things were done. Armed with letters from the American Consul at Hiogo, Mr. Neuwitter, to the Governor of Kioto Fu, in which is situated the celebrated Yamashiro tea district, I proceeded to Kioto, which is some fifty miles in the interior. I was courteously received, pro- vided with an interpreter from the Government School of Agri- culture, and advised to visit the town or village of Uji, in the Yamashiro district, of which an ancient translation of an old Japanese book says: “The village Uji, which lies in the east of Yodo, is very famous for tea in this country. There are very old tea trees, at least two or three hundred years old. “The ground in this village is so fit for tea-trees that no other place can be equal in Japan. Almost all people of this village live in planting the tea-trees, and taking care of the plants. “A great many quantities of tea are sent out all over this country, and even foreign countries. That is most principale pro- duction in this country. In the spring, women and girls pick the leaves of the plants, and that is very beautiful sight. 262 COFFEE. “Tt is in the direction of the southwest from this city, and the distance to the village from Sanjio is 3 Ris.” Taking jinrikishas, each drawn by two strong and active coolies, we passed through the outskirts of Kioto and over a beau- tiful rolling country, for some six or seven miles, to the locality above mentioned. The lowlands along this section are occupied by rice-fields, while the uplands are cultivated principally for tea. There is considerable variety in the mode of cultivation, but the prevailing system seems to be to plant in rows, about six feet apart. Three or four plants are usually planted together in hills, which are about three feet apart, and these, as they grow larger, fill nearly the whole space which is originally left between the hills, thus making an almost continuous row. The plants are raised from the seed, and take from three to four years to mature sufficiently to yield the first crop. After that they are picked continuously for many years. During the winter and early spring, in the districts yielding the best varieties of tea, the plants are covered with mats, which serve the double purpose of protecting them first from the cold, which might injure the plants, and later, from the sun, which tends to make the leaves tough, and injures the delicacy of the flavor. The first picking, which is considered the best, takes place the last of April, or the beginning of May; the second, about a month later; while the third, which is often omitted, particularly when prices are low, takes place usually during the month of July. The tea-plant is a species of camellia, bearing a thick and glossy leaf, which, when green, has no tea flavor, or rather, has a flavor very unlike the cured leaf known to us as tea. Left to them- selves, the plants would probably grow to a considerable height, but they are pruned and trimmed down, so that they are seldom more than three or four feet high. This results in a large num- ber of small branches, producing small and tender leaves, which are the only ones sought for, although in rapid picking different sized leaves will naturally be taken, together with a considerable quantity of stems and other trash. Immediately upon being picked they are taken to the buildings, where they are cured. A considerable number of the flat baskets, in which the tea is APPENDIX. 263 brought from the field, are placed over a steaming apparatus for a few seconds, the steam permeating the mass and wilting the leaves; this gives them a dark green color, and enables the leaf to be rolled or doubled up, so that there is less liability to crumble when fired. They are then thrown upon large paper pans, be- neath which a gentle charcoal fire is maintained. They are here toasted or fired for several hours, varying somewhat with the de- gree of heat maintained, during which they are constantly rolled and stirred with the hands, so as to make the leaf as compact as ’ possible. This completes the curing process, so far as the natives are concerned. The tea is then placed in large baskets, to await the sorting process. This is more or less carefully done according to the market for which the tea is destined and the number of grades which are desired. This process, as well as much other work connected with tea culture, is principally done by women and chil- dren. A small quantity of dried leaf is placed on a smooth tray or table before the sorters, who with a pair of chopsticks dex- terously pick out the stems and coarse leaves, which are thrown aside as refuse. In the finer qualities they also separate the large from the small leaves, the latter being the most highly esteemed, and bringing much the highest price. After the tea is thus as- sorted it is sifted, to extract the dust and broken leaves, and packed to be sent to market. The finer qualities are generally placed in large earthenware jars, such as we sometimes see in the American market, but by far the larger portion is placed in chests holding from seventy-five to one hundred pounds. Some of the smaller tea farms often sell their product to the larger farmers or small country merchants, who pack it as above and send it to mar- ket. In passing along the narrow roads I occasionally saw quan- tities of tea packed in paper bales, being thus taken to neighbor- ing merchants, who make a business of purchasing for shipment to the larger markets at the seaports and elsewhere. We now come to the important part of the preparation of tea for the foreign market. At the principal shipping ports are estab- lished numbers of foreign houses, which make a business of buying the tea as it comes from the natives, and preparing it for export. These firms possess large warehouses, called “ go-downs,” which are provided with numbers of stone or mason-work furnaces, in 264 COFFEE. each of which is placed an iron kettle, in which the tea is refired, to expel the surplus moisture, and to give it the rich “toasty ” flavor which is desired by American consumers. During this process it loses from five to ten per cent. in weight from the mois- ture and dust which are taken out. The tea is taken as it comes from the country in boxes and jars, weighed, and dumped into a large pile, and thoroughly mixed to insure uniformity in the quality of each lot. Sometimes, when a particular grade or style is desired, different lots will be mixed together to produce the quality and style required. Each of the kettles is in charge of a - Japanese workman, or workwoman, and these come along in reg- ular file with their little baskets, and receive a quantity of tea sufficient for one charge. This they take back and place in their kettle, and keep constantly stirring it with their hands until it is sufficiently dried or toasted. They then take it out of the kettle, carry it back to where they received it, get a fresh charge, and keep repeating this operation. After it is fired, it is sifted to remove the surplus dust, re-packed into new half-chests, many of which are made from the old chests which come down from the country. Inside of each of these half-chests is placed a lining of lead, weighing, upon an average, about three and one-half pounds. This is soldered up air-tight, and the lid of the package nailed on. It is then matted, faced, ratanned, and is ready. for shipment. A tea “go-down,” when firing, presents a very animated and inter- esting spectacle. Different establishments vary in size, but soine of them have as many as two hundred to three hundred furnaces, and, with all the other help required in carrying on the various parts of the process, such as receiving, packing, delivering, etc., in the busy season, employ five or six hundred hands, and turn out as many packages of tea per day. Men, women, and children are all employed in the different parts of this work, and the average wages paid are about twenty cents per day. For this sum a Japanese will work ten or eleven hours over a “ go-down furnace,” in a temperature which I can only compare to that of the stoke- hole of an ocean steamer, which, measured by the thermometer, ranges anywhere from 100 to 180 degrees. - APPENDIX. 265 IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN. NaaGasak1, September 18, 1876. Coming here from our Pacific Coast during the month of August, when everything there, owing to the long absence of rain, is dry and brown, one is agreeably impressed with the con- trast which the green hill-sides and valleys of Japan present, and this contrast between the verdure and foliage of the two countries is no greater than that between the respective people, their manners and customs. As we sailed through the entrance to the Bay of Yokohama, our attention was first attracted to the fleets of quaint fishing-boats, manned by nearly naked copper-colored crews, and, as soon as our steamer cast anchor in the harbor, it was surrounded by a throng of queer-looking boats called “‘sampans.” In appear- ance they are a little like a Venetian gondola, but are unpainted, and, instead of being rowed, are sculled with a long double-jointed oar, which, although it looks clumsy, is very effective in native hands. I shall never forget my first trip to the shore in a “ sam- pan,” propelled by three or four of these half-naked boatmen, their lithe bodies bending in time with a weird chant, with which they accompanied their efforts. On landing, another surprise presented itself in the shape of a “jinriksha,” which is the ordi- nary mode of conveyance on land here. The “jinriksha” is a sort of exaggerated baby-carriage on two wheels, and is drawn by either one or two men, usually by one, at a rate of speed which, perhaps, is not as fast as a London cab, but is certainly faster than the average rate of our hacks and omnibuses in America. At first they were only used in the smooth streets.of the cities, which are here macadamized and usually very level, but they proved so effective and popular, that they are now used in all the principal towns and cities of the empire, and long trips through the country are made with them. It is no uncommon thing for a “ qinriksha” drawn by two men, to accomplish forty or even fifty miles per day, across the country, where the roads are by no means perfect or level. The first one was invented by a Japanese about nine years ago, and it is estimated now that there are up- ward of a hundred thousand in the country, and the number is increasing very rapidly. Some four or five thousand have recently 266 COFFEE. - been put in operation in China, where they bid fair to be as suc- cessful as here. Japanese houses are generally mere skeletons constructed of wood, in the country roofed with straw, in the cities with tiles somewhat similar to the old Dutch pattern ; they are arranged with screens which slide in grooves, and which, in warm weather, can, if desired, be taken out on all four sides; the rooms are also simply separated with screens or sliding paper par- titions about six feet high. They have no chairs or bedsteads, everybody sitting cross-legged on the floor, which is composed of thick, heavy grass mats, which also serve the purpose of a bed at night. Shoes, which consist either of wooden clogs or straw san- dals, are invariably removed before entering the house, which is thus always kept neat and clean. Rice and fish are the principal articles of diet, and chopsticks, as in China, are used to convey the food to the mouth, no knife or fork being used. Tea is the universal drink, although sakz, a malt liquor brewed from rice and barley, is used to a considerable extent. It is not strong and fiery like distilled liquor, but will intoxicate if taken in sufficient quantities. Costumes are scanty, especially in summer time, and in the country many of the males go naked with the exception of a scanty cloth around the loins. This is also true of the boatmen at the seaports, but in the cities all classes are obliged by law to wear a sort of wrapper called kémona. Women are, as a rule, more fully dressed, but they, as well as the men, usually go bareheaded. In the higher classes some affect the European costume, and all are more completely clad than the lower classes. Infants are never carried in the arms, but on the back, supported by a shawl or scarf, and clinging tightly, even when quite small, to the neck and shoulders of the person carrying them. They are generally con- fided to the care of the other children who are too young to work, or of very old and superannuated persons. It is no uncommon thing to see a little girl of five or six years, with an infant fastened . upon her back, entering into sports with children of her own age, without seeming to heed, in the slightest degree, the burden she is carrying. While the language of adult Japanese is as different as can well be imagined from that of Europeans, I have noted that babies’ cries sound quite natural. Indeed, I believe that the language of babies is the same all the world over. Perhaps when APPENDIX. 267 the tongues were confounded at the building of the Tower of Babel, babies were not included, as they could hardly assist in the building of the tower. In color the Japanese are principally of a light copper-color, the better classes being somewhat lighter than the peasantry, and the women of all classes lighter than the men. Their hair is, almost without, exception, of a glossy black, and is usually coarse and strong. The women dress it most elaborately, and much time is given to its care. With the men, the higher classes usually wear it as Americans do, but others shave a space about four inches wide, extending from the forehead back to the crown, and wearing the rest of it long, it is gathered up in a sort of queue, and, being carefully tied, projects from the back of the head forward over the top. This style, however, savors some- what of barbarism, and is discouraged by the government, which has also prohibited the tattooing of men’s bodies, which practice was formerly quite prevalent, and was most elaborately done. For beasts of burden they have oxen and horses, but these are used as pack animals, there being no wheel vehicles used to any extent among the Japanese ; indeed, nearly everything is carried on the shoulders of men. Previous to the introduction of “sin- rikshas,” people were carried in “ agos,” a sort of chair, slung on long poles ; and now nearly everything, from vegetables and mar- ket produce to earth and fertilizing material, is carried in baskets or buckets slung on poles something like the neck-yokes used in maple-sugar camps in the United States to carry the sap from the trees to the boilers. In Yokohama I saw a piece of low ground, which was.to be used for a building site, being filled in with earth thus carried in baskets on men’s shoulders a distance of several squares; and here in Nagasaki our steamer was coaled by a double line of coolies (as the working class here is somewhat erroneously called), composed of about an equal number of men and women, ex- tending from the coal-junk to the deck of the steamer, who quickly passed small grass baskets filled with coal from hand to hand, and thus kept up an almost continuous stream of coal, somewhat as buckets of water are sometimes passed at a fire where there are no engines. Everything is done in a small and ineffective way. Lawns. are clipped with large shears; the earth is cultivated in miniature patches with great thoroughness and minuteness of de- 268 COFFEE. tail, but with equal slowness and tediousness. Of course such things can only be in a country where labor is very cheap. The average wages of a laborer here is only about twenty cents per day; skilled artisans can be obtained for from twenty-five to thirty cents, and in some places even less than these figures rule. Policemen get from five to seven dollars per month. I expressed my surprise to the Japanese gentleman from whom I received this information, and asked him how much a policeman could get board for per month, and was told that for two dollars and a half per month a single man could get good ordinary board, the fare consisting principally of rice and fish. Rice is worth here from $1.50 to $1.75 per picul of one hundred and thirty-three pounds, or about 1gc. to 1c. per pound. At first thought it seems as if there might be a profit to import it into the United States, but our duty of 24c. per pound, together with freight, insurance, and premium on gold, bring it up to a figure where there is no mar- gin. They do know how to cook rice here, though, and for the benefit of grocers and consumers in the United States I investi- gated the matter: Only just enough cold water is poured on to prevent the rice from burning at the bottom of the pot, which has a close-fitting cover, and with a moderate fire the rice is steamed rather than boiled until it is nearly done; then the cover is taken off, the surplus steam and moisture allowed to escape, and the rice turns out a mass of snow-white kernels, each separate from the other, and as much superior to the usual soggy mass we usually get in the United States as a fine mealy potato is superior to the water-soaked article. I have seen something ap- proaching this in our Southern States, but I do not think even there that they do it as skilfully as it is done here, and in the Northern States but very few persons understand how to cook rice properly. I am sure that if cooked as it is here, the con- sumption of this wholesome and delicious cereal would largely increase in America. But to resume my remarks about the rates of labor, old residents say that the above-named prices are much higher than they used to be, and complain bitterly of the high cost of labor. This is doubtless the result of the progressive policy which has ruled in Japan during the last twelve years—a policy which was APPENDIX. 269 begun by the Tycoons, and which was taken up and improved by the present government, of which the Mikado is the head, and in which he takes an active part. Wonderful progress has been made in developing the material resources of the country, and the present government deserve great credit for the progressive policy which they have so vigorously pursued. The Japanese are natu- rally bright and intelligent, and while they have never, until lately, had an adequate educational system, yet the majority can read and write, and books are plenty and cheap. During the past few years foreign languages have been taught in their principal schools, and a few of them now speak English quite well. Some of their attempts, however, are quite amusing, although probably not more so to us than our efforts to speak their language are to them. I append a circular of a hotel-keeper at Kioto, which is rather quaint and amusing. Just as I was departing he handed me a number of them, and desired me to place them in the hands of my friends. (Picture of Kioto Maruyama.) ENTREATY. The undersigned respectfully informs visitors to Kioto ond Biwa, that he will conduct (under his personal supervision) a first class hotel situate at Maruyama Kioto Japan. The buildings are so situated that the whole city of Kioto can be clearly seen there, being on one side surrounded by hills covered with beautiful flowers, and presenting the finest scenery in the country. No inconvenience about meal and sleepiny. &c. Various Kinds of wines. Beer, and other European liquors, sold at possibly fairest price The proprietor wishes the visitors to come without changing their part—prejudice. charge for meal and stoppage per day 2 yen and 50 sen (2 dollars and 50 cents). But every one may desire his own agreeable charge. ya-ami’s Hotel, (old jeutei,s) At maruyama, Kioto, Japan. Altogether my impressions of Japan are most pleasant, The scenery, in many of its features, is beautiful and unique; the 270 COFFEE. people possess a much higher order of intelligence and ability than I had expected, and I have everywhere met with so much kindness and hospitality that I can hardly realize that up to within a very few years the country was closed to foreigners, and they were looked upon as national enemies by the great mass of the people. JAPANESE ENGLISH. To the American reader the following “Extracts from the Diary of a Member of the Japanese Embassy to Europe in 1862-63” will be likely to prove interesting. In commenting upon the difficulty of intelligibly describing all that he saw, this gentleman gays: “More than this, I did not learn the crab-movement method of writing (meaning the Western system of writing across the page, in contradistinction to the Japanese method, which is per- pendicular), nor did I become practised in the shrike-tongued lJan- guages, by which means I could make inquiries and form opin- ions, or obtain a knowledge of these people, their customs, manners, and dispositions. I am now writing merely what I heard and saw. It is to be feared that there will be very little of fact and a great deal of conjecture. A judgment concerning the whole must not be formed from a partial description.” He describes the British man-of-war, in which they embarked, and her crew, as follows: “Name of ship Odin (the meaning of which is not under- stood); length, 191 feet; breadth, 42 feet; capacity, 2,000 tons; steam, 560 horse-power; masts, 38; paddle-wheels, 2; big guns, 8; middle-sized guns, 24; captain, lord—official title; Hay, name; officer of first rank, lieutenant—official title; Briggs, name; small lieutenants, 3; compass-considerers (quartermasters), 7; officers of steam department, 7; officers (gun-room officers 2), 12; total number on board, 810 men.” In describing some of the institutions at long Kong, he says: ““We went into a government building two stories high, by 68 yards long, by 24 yards broad. We asked in writing what house it was; a man answered in the same way, ‘ No. 99, Soldiers’ House’ (99th regiment), whereon I think, although I do not know clearly. APPENDIX. 271 the entire number of houses, it cannot be less than ninety-nine, which is of itself plain. May we not say that they are very nu- merous? In the afternoon I returned to the hotel, and in the evening went in suite to the Governor’s house, where I saw bar- barous dancing. For music they had flutes, fiddles, and drums. In dancing, each man takes a woman by the hand and all the couples come forward. They spread and met, assembled and dis- persed, advanced and retired, then suddenly went swiftly round and round. While doing this they did not sing. I retired early, as I did not care to listen to the music, for all the sounds seemed alike and very die-away. All Western countries have this, and they call it ‘tansu’ (dance). “First month, tenth day.—Soon after ten o’clock went out to walk in the broad place outside the town to see the soldiery. There were together five hundred men with muskets. They ad- vanced and retired quickly, then spread out and closed up again, loaded and fired all very exactly by companies and sections, so that their movements seemed as if made by one hand and one foot.” ; His first experience on a railroad is thus described: “The baggage had already been landed from the ship and put into the steam-carriage. So, at two o’clock, we mounted the car- riage and set off westward by the power of steam as quick as lightning. The inside of it is divided into three parts, in each of which eight people sit face to face. Just behind, six steam-car- riages were connected with us, all filled with people. These car- riages can be increased or decreased in number, according to the number of travellers and the quantity of their baggage. The steam power of the carriage at the head of it can run like light- ning one thousand or ten thousand miles, with a train of carriages three hundred yards long behind it. Tow wonderful and sur- prising this is! The carriage-way is made of iron thresholds, a little less than two inches broad, six inches high, and more than six or eight yards long, connected together. The two thresholds are about ten feet apart, and these lines, stretching along for many thousand miles, form the road of the steam-carriage. At every twenty yards are planted posts about eighteen feet high, on which are hung, in small or great numbers, all the lightning-news 272 COFFEE. long wires. If there be a river in the road an iron or stone bridge is thrown across; if they meet with a hill, they pierce its belly and make a tube-like opening through it. As it is dark in these openings, in every division of the carriage there is a glass lamp overhead in the centre, which is put in and lighted from the roof ; but the ground in Western countries is generally flat and level, with hardly any mountains rising up at all.” After describing the beauties of the Viceroy’s palace in Cairo, he adds: : “‘ But the Viceroy lives at Alexandria during the winter and spring, and only resides in this castle in the summer time. Hence it follows that, while the castle and the Buddahall are so beautiful, the houses of the people fall to ruins. Princes who neglect their people may find a mirror here.” Alluding to the Pyramids, he says : “ South of the city, about a mile distant, are three great stone towers of wonderful shape. ach is about six hundred feet square and of the same height. They were built more than three thou- sand years ago, and are the most wonderful sight in the world. They are full of confused and unreadable characters, written on stone, and there is no one to make the meaning clear; but lately some Westerns, who are fond of this thing, have considered them minutely and have discovered the meaning for the first time, as it may be seen in their books.” In describing the streets of Malta, he mentions that at every twenty-four yards is an iron lamp-post, in which “ gassu ” is lighted after dark for the convenience of the passers-by. Alluding to manning the yards and saluting the Japanese flag by the English frigate Marlborough, he says: “ Just as we were going out of the harbor’s mouth we met an Englishman about two hundred and seventy feet long called Marlborough. She hoisted the morning-sun flag (Japanese) and fired a salute of fifteen guns, in consequence of which the chief Imperial Envoy went on board of this ship and returned again after a short time. The morning-sun flag was then flown again and fifteen guns fired. The sailors stood in line upon the wood of the sails (yards), so as to complete the ceremonies with which illustrious guests are sent on their boat. In my opinion this is APPENDIX. 273 not an unimportant matter, since it depends upon the dignity or meanness of the country. This, therefore, was to call the atten- tion and command the respect of every ship in the harbor. If the morning-sun flag goes to any part of the five continents the same is done. How gratifying and pleasant is this. When our ship left Malta, several of the soldiers sent from England to gar- rison that island, their time being up, were relieved from their duties and took passage on the ship to return to their country, bringing with them their families, including their wives and male and female children. Last night a little girl of the age of two years died, and this morning at ten o’clock the body was wrapped in cloth and brought to the stairs of the ship, where preparations were made to bury it in the water. The captain performed the duties of priest, put on his complimentary clothes and sword, and taking off his hat uncovered his head while he read the prayers. The officers, about fifteen in number, took off their hats also and prayed. A cannon-shot was fastened to the corpse and it was then buried in the sea, while all the spectators made sour noses.” In mentioning the bill of fare, he alludes to ham as “hotui,” literally, “ fire thigh.” On arriving at Ceylon notice of the arrival was published in the newspapers there, and is alluded to by him as follows: “This morning the master of the hotel sent us the newspaper which was published the day before. In it our countrymen’s journeys to the Western countries, our entrance into port the day before, and arrival on shore the day before was written. This is entirely done to make money by, and for no other purpose, and as by chronicles of the talk of the town it is only light and flimsy and not to be relied npon, but the quickness of its appearance was astonishing.” While in Paris there is an entry as follows: “To-day met the physician to the King of Holland at the hotel. He is rather more than fifty years old; he has read Chi-. nese books, and also understands some Japanese; so we commu- nicated with him by writing and also conversed a little, and, al- though it was like scratching an itching place through one’s shoe; yet it afforded some little pleasure to the heart of the trav- eller.” 18 Q74 COFFEE. | In describing the audience with the Emperor and Empress, he ‘Bays: “After passing through about three rooms we came to the audience-hall, where the Emperor, Empress, and Imperial Prince were seated. Outside of the throne were a number of female officials arranged in line ; some among them had theatre-glasses, with which they used to look at our countrymen, who felt conse- quently much confused.” In describing the theatre in the palace at Versailles, he says: “At the rear of the building was a room like our dancing- pleasure place, where Japanese nobles amuse themselves with dance-girls, which is used for acting plays before the Emperor.” In alluding to their reception at Dover, in England, he says: “Then there came forth from the crowd a man about fifty years of age, who walked and hopped about like a sparrow, and sending forth a loud voice, cried: ‘Yapanishee;’ this person came formerly to Hakodate and dwelt there. He is an English- man, and now stepping from the crowd to congratulate our coun- trymen on their safe arrival, took off his hat, and holding it in his hand, shouted in a high voice: ‘ Peyapeppe hore’ (hip, hip, hurrah); the meaning of which is not clear, but it appears to be a congratulatory expression. Upon this all united in the same sound with one voice. Thus they welcomed us without cease by shouting in a loud voice in a most unpleasant manner.” In speaking of the furnishing of the hotel in London, he says: “Tn every room, on the round table, was placed one copy of the whole book of the New Covenants translated into Chinese. [had heard of this before, which is, in fact, the book of the reli- gion of the Western foreigners; a knowledge of it ought to be hated and disliked very much.” In speaking of London, he says: “Of soldiers who go around at night there are twelve thou- sand (policemen), who do this to prevent robberies and fires and spies from hostile countries.” In speaking of the paintings and decorations at Windsor Cas- tle, he says: “‘ Here on the walls were hung several thousand framed pic- tures of landscapes, angels, men, birds, beasts, flowers, trees, APPENDIX. 275 fruits, and vegetables. They were all accurately done, and cer- tainly very admirable; in fact, all might be called wonderful, but foreigners only honor those who represent things as they really are, and respect what is like something with material form; they do not understand anything of the voices of spirits and the mani- festations of the gods. Well, well, it is a great pity!” While in London, he says: “T went this afternoon to Regent’s Park, name of a place. This is the garden which I spoke of before, where numerous fam- ilies of large and small birds, beasts, fishes, and reptiles are col- lected. The extent of it is about six hundred yards square. In all the Western countries these birds and beast gardens, plant and- tree gardens, universal-things-halls (museums), etc., are main- tained by the government, and the lower classes are permitted to go in and look; wherefore, I think that these places are made in order to please the common people, and at the same time to profit them by increasing their knowledge of universal things. But from every spectator they take a little sight-money, accord- ing to the barbarous custom of always trying to make a profit, which we should think very mean. Ah! ah! If they gain by it, they also lose. To adopt what is proper and to reject that which is bad, how fine a thing this is.” The diary is continued at great length, but the above will enable us to “ see ourselves as others see us”—not a bad thing to do occasionally. Although expressed in quaint and unfamiliar Janguage, coupled with occasional errors, yet underlying the whole of it there is a basis of good sense, coupled with an eminent spirit of fairness which I believe to be representative of Japanese character. A JAPANESE DINNER—JAPANESE PRODUCTS, PROGRESS, ETC. Accepting the invitation of a Japanese friend who had resided some years in America, we were conducted to a hotel, or restau- rant, pleasantly situated upon the banks of the river Sumida, which flows through the eastern portion of Tokio (Yedo). Re- moving our shoes, according to the invariable custom of the Japa- nese, we were shown into a clean, airy, upper room, looking out 276 COFFEE. upon the river. We were asked if we would take a bath, which we declined, and our friend then explained to us that the Japa- nese, in hot weather, usually take a bath before dining, and after- ward don a loose robe of thin, gauzy material, which is furnished by the proprietor of the hotel, and which they wear during the meal. We seated ourselves cross-legged upon the floor, which was covered with matting, the only furniture in the room. While waiting for the meal to be prepared, a small bronze brazier, or vessel, containing burning charcoal, was brought in, together with tiny Japanese pipes and mild Japanese tobacco, with which we were expected to amuse ourselves until the arrival of the first course, which consisted of sweetmeats called guashi, and was served upon small lacquered plates, placed upon trays, or tables, about three inches high, composed of the same material. It is hard to describe the character of these sweetmeats, but one of them was a small square or brick of a kind of jelly, of a golden color; another was a small scarlet ball, of a substance that tasted not unlike our marsh-mallow confections, and the third was of greenish color, and somewhat similar in taste. We understood that the ingredients of which these were composed were princi- pally rice-flour and sugar. With this course tea was served in delicate porcelain cups, upon each of which was a fragment of a Japanese poem, or legend, of which the following is a specimen: “‘ How many times, my host, do you laugh in the month ? “Whenever we meet, we ought to have a pleasant time. “You see that the beauties of spring vanish as running water ; “And the flower that scatters to the wind to-day opened. but yesterday.” The second course was “chawan-mori,” a sort of soup with eggs, somewhat similar to soup “a la Colbert.” It was served in a bowl, but no spoons were provided, it being expected that the guests would use chop-sticks for the eggs and drink from the bowl the liquid portion. This soup was by no means unpalatable, and with a spoon would have been considered quite tolerable anywhere. The third course was composed of a variety of fish with the collective name of “kuchi-tori sakana;” the first was a kind of shell-fish (awabi); the second the meat of the lobster (ebi) ; and APPENDIX. 277 with these, served as a relish, was a small fruit called “ youzo,” a species of citron The fourth course consisted of a sweetened preparation of boiled beans, served with green ginger-root. and another variety of fish called “ tai,” fried. The fifth course, called “sachi-mi,” consisted of raw fish, served upon a delicate lattice-work of glass, and accompanied with two kinds of sauce, one dark in color, salt in flavor, and tasting as if composed of soy and anchovies, the other a preparation of horse-radish. The sixth course was called “miza-gai,” and consisted of “koi,” a variety of boiled fish, served with pears and a kind of raw shell-fish, very much resembling our American scallops, cut in small squares. The seventh course was composed of rice served perfectly plain, in small porcelain cups; this is called “ meshi.” The eighth and last course, called “skemono,” was a sort of salad, composed of egg-plants and small cucumbers With each course, after the first, was served “saki,” a fer- mented liquor manufactured from rice, and, in character, some- thing between ale and wine. Some writers have fallen into the error of describing “saki” as a distilled liquor, but we were assured that this is not correct, and it is made by a process some- what similar to brewing. It is not disagreeable in flavor, but has a larger percentage of alcohol than our malt liquors, and exhilarates more quickly. In- deed, in this respect, it is somewhat similar to champagne. It is served hot from small porcelain vases, and it may be said to be the national drink of the Japanese. When near the end of the dinner we were surprised by the appearance of some singing-girls, who proceeded to favor us with some music. They sang in the nasal falsetto tone common in the East, and accompanied themselves upon an instrument resembling a guitar, called Chami-Sen (or Shamisen). It has three strings, which are struck or thumbed with a piece of ivory somewhat re- sembling a paper-cutter. One of these girls also accompanied the music with a sort of dance, consisting of a series of graceful mo- tions that were half pantomime and half posturing. 278 COFFEE. It may be summed up that, as an entertainment, it was pleas- ing from its novelty, but the menw would hardly be called satis- factory to a European palate. Fish and rice are the staple articles of Japanese diet, and . without either of these the nation would find it hard to exist. The soil is fertile, and apparently vegetables grow well here. Sweet potatoes, ordinary potatoes, turnips, carrots, squashes or pumpkins, egg-plants, and pears are grown, but do not enter largely into the people’s diet. Beans are an important article, and from these is manufactured tofu or tofe, literally bean cheese, an article which is largely used by the poorer classes, and which is peddled from door to door as berries and vegetables are in America. Radishes are also grown to some extent, and some varieties of them are very large and not unlike beets. They are rather coarse in grain and texture, but not so much so as their size might indicate. The young bamboo is also eaten to some extent, and a variety of mushrooms are used in making sauces and relishes. A species of maize is raised, but it is very inferior to the American Indian corn, and is not used to any great extent. Tomatoes have been introduced from the United States within the last few years, and are received with considerable favor. Cakes and unleavened bread of various kinds are made from rice flour, and at the seaports bread made from flour imported from California is beginning to be used by the natives. Of fruits, oranges, peaches, pears, apricots, plums, persimmons, raspberries, mulberries, and currants are indigenous here, but none of them grow in great perfection, and most of them are quite inferior in quality. Apples and strawberries have been in- troduced to some extent from other countries, but, although they can be grown here, do not seem to take kindly to the soil. The pears are round, mostly of a russet color, coarse in grain, not sweet, and seem to be a sort of cross between the apple and the pear. Water and musk melons are largely grown, but these are also inferior to the American productions of the same kind. The climate is not unlike that of our middle States, but there is more moisture, which keeps the vegetation constantly green. The eneral impression which one gets on coming here is that Japan is a beautiful country, and that her inhabitants are making APPENDIX. 279 great efforts to adopt what is best and most progressive among other nations. IRailroads and telegraphs have been constructed between principal cities in the interior, steamship lines estab- lished along the coast and to China, lighthouses erected and connected by telegraph with the principal ports of entry, har- bors improved, breakwaters constructed, mines opened, and a mint established, besides which the entire administration of government has been changed ; a judicial and police system based upon the French, an educational and postal system like that of America has been adopted, while the army has adopted the Prus- sian and the navy the English system of organization and tactics. In short, they have taken the best from the organizations of the principal nations of the earth, and utilized it for the benefit of the Japanese people, and the wonderful part is that all this has been done within ten years. It is said that the Mikado also contem- plated the adoption of a state religion, and with this view sent for leading missionaries of the different Christian sects resident in Japan to confer with them, but they differed so widely in their views, each claiming that they were right while all the others were wrong, that: the Mikado concluded that there was more of the spirit of peace and goodwill in the Buddhist and Shintu beliefs than in the religion of “the Westerns.” CHINESE NOTES. STEAMER Nacoya Marv, Orr Coast or CuIna, September 21, 1876. I was awakened this morning by our stopping to take on board the pilot. Looking from the window of my state-room, I saw that the water was yellow with mud, and I knew that we must be in the “ Yellow Sea of China” and nearing shore—the shores of a country that have been a romantic mystery to me all the days of my life. The “Celestial Empire” and “flowery land” of my boyhood’s dreams, whence came our tea and silk! The land of great walls and porcelain pagodas, of Shanghai roost- 280 COFFEE. ers and fire-crackers! How I used to dream of the time when I would “grow big” and enjoy an eternal elysium of the latter— “have just as many as I wanted;” and how well I remember when a short, stumpy boy at school, who was my particular an- tipathy, described the difference in our build by maliciously call- ing me “Shanghai!” and how I tried to get even with him by retorting “Shorty!” How, as I grew older, the romance sur- rounding this country was heightened by my becoming familiar with the saying, “When our ship comes home from China,” and learned that with the occurrence of that auspicious event every wish, no matter how extravagant, could be gratified. Later, when I came to New York, a green country boy, the illusion was kept up by finding that the richest and most noted merchants were in the “ China trade;” the Careys, the Lows, the Olyphants, the Cryders, and a host of others, were living illustrations and confirmations of all I had heard and read—veritable “ China As- tors.” And so I am prepared to appreciate and enjoy the magnifi- cent, the wonderful, the Celestial Empire which I am so rapidly approaching. I remember now something about my geography saying that Shanghai is situated near the mouth of the “ Yang- tse-kiang” River; how hard it used to be for me to pronounce that jaw-breaker! Indeed I never could do it except in connection with the “ Hoang-ho,” the other great river of China, and I used to sit for hours ringing the changes upon these two names. But we have passed the lightship, crossed the bar, and are entering the mouth of the river—the Yang-tse, from which we pass into the Woosung, a branch of the Yang-tse, upon which Shang- hai is built, some fourteen miles up from the sea. The shores are low, densely populated, and carefully cultivated on each side. As we passalong, the Chinese fishermen are letting curious nets down into the water from off bamboo stagings, each of which has a funny little crow’s nest of a booth to shelter the fishermen. Chinese cattle, with curious horns projecting straight back from the head, and birds, which are unfamiliar to us, are seen at intervals as we sail along. Presently the masts of large class shipping become visible over a low neck of land, rounding which we enter the harbor of Shanghai. APPENDIX. 281 SHANGHAI, September 24, 1876. Steamers and sailing vessels are lying at the wharves, and farther down are anchored in the stream opposite the “ Bund” (the street lying along the river). This is lined with substantial buildings, some of them magnificent in their size and solidity, and presenting, as far as the eye can reach, a handsome and impos- ing appearance. Other streets running back from the water are built up closely with heavy, solid stone buildings for a distance of several squares. This is the foreign settlement or “concession,” as it is called. Back of this lies the native city, containing about % quarter of a million inhabitants. Below the foreign shipping in the stream is a forest of masts belonging to the native junks, of which, seemingly, there are thousands. These penetrate to every part of the empire through the great system of canals (of which China has more miles than any other country on the globe), and have much to do with making Shanghai the great commer- cial entrepot that she is. Some of the sailing vessels at anchor in the stream are of the veritable old clipper-ship type, which, be- fore the days of screw steamers, monopolized the carrying trade of the East. It does one good to look at them, even now, with their beautiful models and tall, gracefully tapered spars—“sky- scrapers” we used to call them; but they have had their day, and all-conquering steam now rules even the furthermost parts of the globe. Just before us lie the handsome steamers of the “ Penin- sula and Oriental” and the “ Messageries Maritimes” lines, which furnish direct through steam communication with Liverpool and Marseilles weekly. Along the “French Bund,” as it is called, for nominally the Bund is divided into the French, American, and English concessions, lie the steamboats of the “Shanghai Steam Navigation Company,” which ply upon the “ Yang-tse,” and once controlled the entire trade of that great river. They are of American build, on the familiar model of our river and sound steamboats, and are largely owned by American capital. They still do a large and remunerative trade, but have to sustain a vigorous opposition from an English company which was organ- ized some few years since, and it is understood that the invest- ment does not now pay nearly so well as it once did. Indeed, all commerce here appears to be in a very depressed state, and the 289 ’ COFFEE. great merchants who formerly controlled this trade so absolutely that it was almost a monopoly, have been steadily losing money for a term of years, and speak anything but encouragingly of the future. Some of the great buildings along the Bund are unten- anted, and many of them are for sale. Itis claimed by some that ocean cables and steam communication have ruined the China trade. Doubtless it has spoiled the monopoly which the few once enjoyed, but at the same time it has opened the trade to many who do not despise the closer margins that now prevail every- where in the commercial world. It is an easy life that residents here have been living, and it is possible that in the future a closer competition for trade may make greater exertions necessary. To one who has been used to the bustling, business life of New York, it seems as if there were several men here employed to do one man’s work. Every clerk has his assistant in the shape of a Chi- naman, or “boy,” as he is called here, to run at his beck and call, to pull a punkah (a large fan) over him to create a breeze when it is warm, and even to perform the personal services of a valet. The Anglo-Saxon race loves to take its ease, and it soon becomes a sort of second nature to accept and even demand these little “conveniences.” Chinese barbers come to your room to shave you, and a resident here informed me that his “boy” al- ways shaved him before he got up in the morning, and that, if he did it so unskilfully as to wake him up, he used to kick him. All the waiters and coolies here are called “boys,” no matter how old they may be. It sounds strangely to American ears to hear this, but at our hotel the other day, I heard a little toddler of not more than four or five years shouting “boy ” quite lustily, to attract the attention of a hotel waiter old enough to be his grandfather, and he afterward ordered him about as peremptorily as he would a pet dog or kitten. To-day we visited the native city. It is simply a conglomera- tion of little wooden structures, huddled together, apparently without plan or design. The streets are simply narrow lanes, not wide enough for any wheeled vehicles, and reeking with dirt and smells in every direction. It is surrounded by a high brick wall, and intersected here and there with small canals, which, ap- parently, are the only means of carrying off the refuse of the city. t APPENDIX. 283 On each side of these narrow lanes are situated the native shops, which are also manufactories and the dwellings of the people. Shops for the sale of curious ivory carvings, medicine, coffins, dry-goods, groceries, and every conceivable thing which these people use, were crowded together in every direction, as far as we went. Restaurants aud tea-houses are frequent, and occasionally one comes to a temple or joss-house. In every corner is placed a little booth for the sale of something or other. One of these we noticed had a large stock of crickets or singing grasshoppers, each one enclosed in a little bamboo-basket, and all were singing in a shrill, piercing note, like that of the locusts and ‘“katydids” at home. We were told that they were great favorites with chil- dren here, and it is said that the women also keep them as pets, and amuse themselves occasionally by making one cricket fight another, waging considerable sums upon the result. Upon the whole, my first impressions of China are not very favorable; no fault of China, perhaps, but of my imagination. Another illus- tration of the truth there is in the saying that there is more en- joyment in anticipation than in realization. However, I may, before leaving this country, have reason to change my present imoressions. TEA CULTURE IN CHINA. The methods followed in cultivating tea in China are almost precisely similar to those pursued in Japan, a detailed account of which was given in a previous letter. There is some differ- ence, however, in the mode of preparation, and, indeed, this varies considerably in China in different districts, which produce different kinds of tea. The leaf, however, is essentially the same all over China, and all the different varieties of black and green are pro- duced by a difference in the curing and manipulation. In certain districts, however, they are more in the habit of producing special kinds, unless the market should so shape that some other va- riety commands a better price; when it does, the production changes at will from green to black or black to green. The great tea-producing sections are in the interior of China, and more 984 COFFEE. largely in the sections tributary to the Yang-tse-kiang River than any other. The tea is mostly grown by small proprietors or far- mers, who cure it sufficiently to transport it to the native dealers, who collect and ship it to the treaty ports, where it is again sold to the large dealers, who refire it, assort it into grades, and, in turn, sell it to the foreign merchants, who export it to the different parts of the world. When it is first picked, if destined for green teas, it is thinly spread upon bamboo trays and exposed to the sun for an hour or two, then thrown into firing-pans and rapidly moved about for, perhaps, five minutes. The heat develops the moisture and thoroughly wilts the leaves, which are then drawn quickly out and placed upon the rolling-tables. They are then rolled with the hands (and sometimes with the feet) in such a way as to pro- duce the style of tea most desired—a more circular motion being necessary for “Gunpowders” and “ Imperials” than for “ Young Hysons” and “ Hysons.” They are then replaced in the firing-pans and kept moving by the rapid motion of the hands of the work- men. for a length of time, varying somewhat with the degree of heat, but usually for an hour and a half or two hours. The leaves are then quite well dried and their color fixed, and it may now be said to be a natural-colored green tea. After it gets into the hands of the large native merchants at the shipping ports, how- ever, it is refired, and during this process a little coloring matter is added—principally gypsum and indigo—in order to give it the handsome, glossy “face,” such as is popular in the American market. With black teas the treatment is entirely different, the leaves being simply dried by the producer, during which process the tea is slightly rolled; and it remains in this condition until it reaches the hands of the wholesale merchant, who refires it and manipulates it in such a way as to materially change the flavor. Indeed, it may be said that this manipulation at the tea-firing “‘go-downs” is the most important part of the process, as different flavors can be produced at will, and upon the assorting and sifting depends the fineness of each grade. In some sections, during this manipulation by the large dealers, artificially flavored teas are produced. In Canton we saw large quantities of tea of ordinary quality being scented by flowers gathered from a variety of jas- APPENDIX. 285 mine, which produces a white, deliciously fragrant blossom. A layer of tea is placed in the bottom of a large basket and a few flowers scattered upon it, then another layer of tea and another layer of flowers, and so on, until the basket is full. The flowers are generally placed in the tea in the afternoon, and allowed to remain there over night, when it is found that the tea has ab- sorbed most of their fragrance, and is certainly very much im- proved. The flowers are then removed by sifting, and the tea refired to drive off the moisture that it may have gathered from the blossoms; it is then ready for packing. This scenting is done with both black and green teas, but probably to a greater extent with the varieties known as “ Scented Caper” and “ Flowery Pekoe,” which go mostly to England, where they are used for mixing purposes. During my stay here I have been favored with an inspection of the Chinese customs statistics for the past ten years, and have collected some interesting facts. Although tea has been a principal item in the business of my firm, and I have kept a general run of the quantities exported each year to the United States, I never had seen an analysis of the total exports, and it therefore proved a most interesting study. I found that of the 1,818,000 piculs (a picul is 183$ pounds) exported in 1875, 1,438,000 piculs were black, 210,000 piculs green, 167,000 piculs “brick,” and about 3,000 piculs “dust.” Brick tea goes entirely to Russia, overland, by camel-trains, and instead of being, as I had always supposed, a very superior article, it is very inferior in quality, being com- posed largely of the dust and siftings from all sorts, kinds, and qualities of tea, together with more or less tea of ordinary quality, which is also ground up into dust, moistened and compressed into shapes somewhat larger than our ordinary building brick. In ad- dition to this, Russia takes about 90,000 piculs of black tea, consist- ing almost entirely of Congous, of which about 88,000 piculs go overland and 52,000 by sea, principally to Odessa. There are also considerable quantities of both leaf and brick taken overland to Siberia and Mongolia, the quantity of this exported being esti- mated for the year 1875 at 22,000 piculs of leaf tea, and 125,000 of brick tea. I had always supposed that Russia took considerable quantities of green tea, but I find that all of the leaf teas imported 286 COFFEE. by her are Congous. America is the largest consumer of green tea, she having taken, in 1875, 130,000 piculs, against 70,000 piculs for England and 77,000 for India, no other country taking any green tea to any considerable amount. In blacks, however, America‘ makes but a poor showing—namely, 92,000 piculs in 1875, against 1,100,000 for Great Britain, 106,000 for Australia, 88,000 for Russia, 12,000 for the Continent of Europe, 10,000 for New Zealand, 10,000 for Java, 3,800 for South Africa, 3,400 for British America, 2,200 for Cochin-China, 2,000 for Singapore and the Straits, 1,000 for Siam, 900 for Japan, 200 for India, and a few scatterings. Of all this immense quantity of black tea, only 117,000 piculs are Oolong, 1,189,000 are Congou, 41,000 Souchong, 35,000 Pouchong, 1,900 Flowery Pekoe, 87 Orange Pekoe, 46,000 Scented Caper, and 1,100 mixed. Of the 91,903 piculs taken by America, 16,778 are Congou, 69,586 Oolong, 3,647 Souchong, 1,812 Pouchong, 24 of Orange Pekoe, and 56 of mixed. I could go on making a further analysis and comparison of figures, which might be of interest to the trade, but it is said that “figures are dry ” and “comparisons are odious,” and I am fearful of tiring the reader with too many of them. By the foregoing, however, it will be seen that Great Britain is the great consumer of tea; that the United States comes next, and Russia third, while the whole Continent of Europe, aside from Russia, takes but 12,360 piculs—less than one-eighth of the quantity taken by Australia. London being the great tea mart of the world, it is probable that some portion of the immense quantities sent to that port are re-exported, but it must be remembered that, in addition to all the tea which England imports from China, she receives about 81,000,000 pounds, or 233,000 piculs, grown in her own possessions (India). This also was mostly Congou or Souchong. The United States also imported about 25,000,000 pounds, or 188,000 piculs, from Japan; and, in looking over these figures, it becomes ap- parent that about ninety per cent. of all the tea exported from China, Japan, and India is consumed by people speaking the English language, and of this over seventy-five per cent. is taken by Great Britain and her colonies. The production of tea has very largely increased during the past ten years, probably in a greater ratio than that of any other of APPENDIX. 987 the great staples of commerce. At the risk of tiring the reader, I append the figures showing the export of tea from China to for- eign countries for the past ten years: Piculs—in 1866, 1,192,138 ; 1867, 1,330,974; 1868, 1,475,210; 1869, 1,528,149; 1870, 1,380,998 ; 1871, 1,679,643; 1872, 1,774,663; 1873, 1,617,763 ; 1874, 1,735,379 ; 1875, 1,818,387. By this it will be seen that the quantity exported from China ‘has increased in ten years about fifty per cent., and to this great increase must be added the tea exported from India and Japan, amounting last year to about 120,000 piculs, where ten years ago little or none was exported. Putting these figures together, we find that the available supply has increased in ten years nearly one hundred per cent. It can- not be said that the consumption has increased in anything like the same ratio. Have we not, therefore, in these figures a satis- factory reason for the great decline in the prices of tea during this period —a decline which many of the old merchants in the tea trade have claimed to be excessive, and for which they pro- fess they can see no good reason? It is probable, also, that this material reduction in the cost of tea has had more or less to do with influencing the coffee market. Three or four years ago a short crop in some of the principal coffee-producing countries was made the pretext, both in Europe and America, for largely advancing the price. Gravely written articles appeared in the most influential commercial journals in Europe and America, claiming that the consumption of coffee was increasing much faster than the production, and that this range of prices was not only legitimate, but that prices would probably attain a still higher range. Experience, however, has shown that the high prices stimulated production in all coffee-producing countries; the avail- able supply everywhere increased, and the tremendous decline in the price of tea, making that by far the cheaper beverage, was “the last straw that broke the camel’s back,” and prices tumbled. Whether they will soon rise again or not depends, of course, somewhat upon circumstances ; but all the indications at present point to in- creased production and a low range of prices in these two arti- cles, which constitute so large an item in the domestic economy of the world. 288 COFFEE. CHINESE MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND PECULIARITIES. From Shanghai to Hong-Kong is 819 miles, but the fine steamer Ava, of the “ Messageriesy Maritimes” line, upon which we took passage, made this distance in sixty-three hours—not a bad run for a heavily laden screw steamer. The cargo of this ship, by the way, is itself worthy of mention, being composed al- most entirely of raw silk, which China merchants were hurrying forward to the French market, in order to avail themselves of the very high prices now ruling. The cargo of the Ava con- sisted of about ten thousand bales, worth, upon an average, over five hundred dollars a bale, or, in round numbers, jive millions for the cargo. It is said to be the most valuable cargo ever car- ried by any ship. At any rate, $5,000,000 represents a goodly number of eggs to be carried in one basket. Soon after leaving Shanghai, the coast, which, at the mouth of the “ Yang-tse” is low and flat, rises into a rugged range of mountains, which con- tinues, with now and then a break, all the way to Hong-Kong. For the greater distance we passed quite close to the coast, which was fairly lined with a continuous fleet of quaint Chinese fishing- junks, which, when occasion offers, take a hand in piracy as well. At first I was inclined to doubt the stories which I heard of their enterprises in this line, but the records at Hong-Kong show that it is only about six years since they captured a sailing-vessel at the very entrance of the harbor of Hong-Kong, and now, not- withstanding the coast is closely patrolled by gunboats of both the Chinese and foreign governments, any vessel that goes ashore, or becomes disabled along the Chinese coast, is in great danger of being captured. It is not often that these rascals are taken, as, with their knowledge of every bay and inlet on the coast, and the light draught of water of their junks, it is quite difficult to fol- low them successfully ; but occasionally a junk is caught outside that cannot give account of itself, and it is taken to Hong-Kong and dealt with according to law. The following advertisement, which I clipped from the Hong-Kong Press of September 26th, illustrates an occasion of this kind: APPENDIX. 289 PUBLIC AUCTION. IN THE Vicz-ADMIRALTY CouRT of Hone-Kone, IN RE SUNDRY PIRATI- CAL GOODS anp THE JuNK “ SING WOH LOONG.” The Undersigned has received instructions from Matcotm Strvuan Ton- Nocuy, Esq., Marshal of the above Court, to Sell under a Decree of Appraise- ment and Sale, at 3 o’clock P.M., THIS DAY, the 26th September, 1876, at Yow-ma-tee,— ONE JUNK, SUNDRY CLOTHING, MUSKETS, SWORDS, &c., &e., TERMS OF SALE.—Cash before delivery in Mexican Dollars, weighed at 7.1.7. All Lots, with all faults and errors of description, at purchaser’s risk on the fall of the hammer. J. M. ARMSTRONG, Government Auctioneer. Hong-Kong, 25th September, 1876. . Hong-Kong is a pretty little city, nestled close down upon.the shores of one of the most beautiful bays in the world, and under - the shadow of steep hills, whose peaks seem almost to overhang the city. It is an English colony, but included in the two or three thousands of foreign population is a sprinkling of almost every nation under the sun; France, Spain, Russia, and Germany all contribute their quota, and the variety is made up with Parsee merchants from India, Portuguese from Macao, Malays from the Peninsula and Straits, and the ever-present Chinese, who have gathered upon this little island, and clustered around the outskirts of.the foreign settlement, until they now number upward of two hundred thousand. Among them are some of the shrewdest and wealthiest merchants in China. One man was pointed out to me who began his business life as a “ comprador,” and by his shrewd- ness and application has acquired a large fortune, owning quite a fleet of steamers, which ply, not only between Chinese ports, but the principal cities of the East. The “comprador,” by the way, is an institution in Chinese commercial matters. ‘ Comprador” is a Spanish word, signifying buyer, and in Chinese commercial life the “comprador” is not only a buyer but also a seller and general business manager; and while nominally occupying a subordinate capacity in the great houses of the East, he is the active business man through whose hands most of the business of the house 19 290 COFFEE. passes. It is said that he has a keen eye for commissions or bro- kerages, and in addition to his salary, takes them from both buyer and seller. Certain it is that some of the “ compradors ” here are reputed to wield a larger capital than the houses whom they nomi- nally serve. The necessity for the “comprador” originally grew out of the inability of foreign merchants to speak Chinese sufficiently well to conduct their business with the native merchants. It was, therefore, found necessary to employ a capable Chinaman, who could speak English, to facilitate these negotiations, and the “com- prador” gradually became an institution. A few years ago an effort was made by the leading foreign houses to do without them and educate their clerks, so that they would be able to perform the “ comprador’s” functions; but it failed, and the “ comprador’s” in- fluence is now again supreme. There are many peculiarities in life here in the East which impress a visitor as being novel and curious. Sedan chairs, sus- pended on two long poles, the ends of which are placed on the shoulders of two coolies, are the means generally employed for getting about—no wheeled vehicles, not even jinrikshas, having yet been employed to any extent for this purpose. On the water, “ sampans,” a species of boat, are used, and in their way they are quite as much of a curiosity as the chairs. In China they are somewhat different from the Japanese sampan, and those in Hong-Kong are modelled more after the fashion of an ordinary boat. In the centre of them, however, most of them have an awning or canopy, to shield passengers from the sun and rain, while the ends are occupied by those who propel the boat. These are largely women and children. Indeed, whole families make these sampans their home, both by day and night. In a little locker, in one end, they keep a small brazier for cooking their -meals, and they eat, sleep, and raise families within this narrow compass. It is no uncommon thing to see a woman sculling a boat with a young infant strapped upon her back, and children which an American mother would feel sure were in imminent danger of falling overboard, take a hand in propelling or steering the boat. Children, from one to three years of age, may be seen toddling about with a small buoy or life-preserver, composed of cork or other light material, strapped upon their breasts, so APPENDIX. 291 that in the event of their tumbling overboard they will not sink; and occasionally an unruly youngster of this age is seen with a string, one end of which is tied around his body and the other fastened to a ring-bolt, or other fixture of the boat, by which he can be hauled in, in case of falling into the water. Thousands of people thus live, and apparently thrive, in a way which to a European is incomprehensible. All these boats have eyes painted upon them near the bow, and further north this custom prevails universally.. It is, doubtless, connected with some Chinese super- stition, although I have not been able to ascertain precisely what it is. The story is current of a Chinaman who, being asked the reason for the custom, replied: “Junk no have eye, how can see? ‘No can see, how can sabe?” (Understand, or know.) The langnage known as “pigeon English,” is also a queer in- stitution. Originally growing out of the attempts of the Chinese to speak English, many imperfect and senseless expressions came to have a given significance and meaning, and to these, additions have gradually been made until now a recognized dialect has been formed, which is composed of all sorts of words, from all sorts of languages, but which is sufficiently perfect for ordinary communication be- tween the natives and foreigners. Two prominent words in the vocabulary are “pigeon” and “catchee.” With a Chinaman all business is “ pigeon,” and “ catchee” signifies get. A Chinaman, desiring to ask you what business you are doing here, . says, “What pigeon catchee you?” If you wish to tell a Chinese waiter to get two bananas and leave them up stairs in your room, you say, “‘Go catchee banana two piecee and leave my room top side.” Tf he cannot get any, he comes back and reports, “ No can catchee.” Or “Bring me a glass of water” may be translated, “Go catchee one glass water, come bring this side.” The life of Europeans here is very different from that at home. A cup of coffee, with perhaps a little toast and eggs, is served in the morning at seven or eight o’clock, and between twelve and one o’clock the regular breakfast: takes place, some- times called “tiffin” or lunch, but which is really a substantial dinner. At 7.30 p.m., dinner is served, which is a heavy meal, not materially differing from tiffin. Ihave not yet gotten used to the heavy meals so late at night, but it seems to agree with 292 COFFEE. those who live here, and probably has some good reason for having become a custom, although as yet I have heard none. As a rule, foreigners here take life easily, and I think enjoy more real comfort than in any place I have ever seen. Every dining- table has a “ punkah ” hung over it, which, during meal time, is pulled backward and forward by a boy, and a comfortable breeze thus constantly maintained. The “ pyjama” is also an institution not known in America. It consists of a loose garment, made of silk or other very light material, made up in two pieces, one being a pair of wide, loose drawers, and the other a sort of a jacket or shirt. They are very neatly made, and make quite a respectable suit; they are worn in place of night-gowns at night and in the privacy of one’s own house, and on shipboard they are used to some extent as a morning and evening dress. I speak from personal experience when I state that no one knows what the perfection of comfort is until they have thrown off their clothes which they have worn during the sweltering heat of a tropical day, taken acool and refreshing bath, put on their “pyjama” and sat down to dinner with a good appetite. Another feature which attracts the attention of Americans is the carrying of everything on poles, instead of upon wheeled vehicles, as we do in America. As soon as your trunks are land- ed, a rope is passed around them and they are whisked up on a pole, and carried on the shoulders of two laborers or coolies, as they are called here, who trot off with them quickly and noiselessly. All merchandise is handled in the same way, and one often sees a heavy package of merchandise suspended on two poles, and car- ried by four or more coolies, instead of two, as in the case of the smaller and lighter pieces. It is said that much of the tea in the back country is thus carried long distances, sometimes hundreds of miles to the rivers, where it is placed upon boats and floated down to the seaports. CANTON MANUFACTURES—SWEETMEATS, PRESERVED GINGER, SOY, ETC. Many people are familiar with the appearance and taste of these articles, and I, in common with many others, have eaten them for years, but I had little idea just how they were prepared, APPENDIX. 293 and of what they consisted. So, when in Canton, I made it a part of my business to investigate these items. The process of making preserved ginger is as follows: The ginger root, a large white variety, is first dug and the outer skin scraped off. This is chiefly done in the country surrounding Can- ton, where it is raised. It is then shipped down to the city in boats, carefully washed, and thrown into large kettles, where it is boiled for about twenty-four hours. It is then taken out and thrown into salt water, and allowed to remain there about twenty- four hours more. After this it is taken out, the rough edges trimmed off with a knife, and thrown upon tables, which are surrounded with operators, holding in each hand a kind of three- pronged fork, with which they prick the root until it is thoroughly punctured through and through. It is then washed in fresh water and dried in the sun for a time, after which it is again placed in large kettles, containing about an equal weight of sugar, and boiled for about twelve hours; it is then taken from the kettles and put into large earthen jars. The syrup is poured over it, and it is allowed to remain therein for several days—sometimes weeks— when it is boiled up again for a short time, and is then ready for packing. It is put up in jars and half-jars, such as all dealers are familiar with, and packed in cases containing six jars or twelve half-jars. In all the various manipulations the Chinese are particularly dexterous. I was much interested in watching the process of put- ting the network of rattan over the jars, by which they are carried and handled. A workman would seize a piece of rattan, twist it into two rings just big enough to go over the top and bottom, and with another slender strip would weave a network between these two rings so quickly that I could hardly believe that it had been accomplished by an individual, and not by some marvellous machine. The pasting of the papers over the tops of the jars is also a curious piece of work. One end of a long strip of paper is first stuck to the edge of the jar, and the strip is then twisted over and over, each time receiving a little dab of paste, until the jar is hermetically sealed, and all this is done with such exceeding quickness and dexterity that you can hardly follow the motions of the operator’s hands. 294 COFFEE. “ Soy” has always been a mystery to me, as I fancy it has been to most other people who have dealt in or used it. I was there- fore anxious to see a soy factory, and, taking a boat one day, we proceeded two or three miles up the river to where one was in operation. I found that the principal ingredient, or base, is a white bean known as “ pak-toh,” which, so far as I could judge, is very like any other small white bean. These are boiled, heavily salted, and put into big earthen jars, holding, perhaps, half a bar- rel each, where they are allowed to remain for about ten days, dur- ing which period fermentation takes place. They are then mashed up with a species of olive, which is picked and boiled, and this mixture is placed in neat cloth bags, into which water is poured and allowed to filter through. The liquid is then taken out, and placed in clean jars, and thickened with a heavy-bodied Chinese molasses; and this is soy. Thinned down with water, the Chinese use it as a sauce, and although when thick it is rather disagreeable than otherwise, when thin it has certainly a toothsome flavor and gives a zest and relish to meats, fish, etc. Most of the soy manu- factured here is shipped to England, where it is used in large quantities as a base for the manufacture of sauces. Tea, silk, and matting are the largest items of manufacture in Canton, and of these by far the largest proportion goes to Eng- land and the Continent. America, however, takes large quan- tities of matting and considerable silk, but the teas which we im- port from China are principally from Shanghai, Foochow, and Amoy. Canton is also celebrated for her silk embroideries and ivory carvings, and in both of these her workmen are particularly skilful. Embroidered crape and silk shawls, which the ladies would pronounce “ just lovely,” and which even the unappreciative men admit to be handsome, can be had here at prices which cer- tainly show that there is a large profit absorbed somewhere be- tween the purchaser in Canton and the fashionable shops on Broadway. Ask an American shopkeeper how it is, and he will tell you that it is owing to “high duties and the freight, insur- ance, and other charges” to which they are subject; but the duty is only sixty per cent., and freight, insurance, and other charges will all be, covered by ten per cent. more, and there is still a very large margin to be accounted for, which can only be done upon APPENDIX. 295 the hypothesis of large profits to the dealer. However, these ar- ticles are hardly as staple as groceries, and perhaps it is wrong to eye the margin of profit through grocers’ spectacles. A VISIT TO CANTON—A FLOATING CITY—-FEMALE HOTEL-RUNNERS— A CHINESE DINNER— DOG, AND CAT-MEAT RESTAURANTS—CHI- NESE TAILORS—KITES, CURRENCY AND OTHER PECULIARITIES, Canton is situated on the Chan-Kiang, or Canton River, eighty-four miles up from the sea. The river is navigable for large vessels to this point, but, as there is but little room for merchant shipping, the greater part of the important productions of Canton are lightered down the river to Whampoa, some four- teen miles, where usually a considerable number of vessels are waiting for cargoes. For the first. forty-five miles the river is lined on each side by hills or bluffs of considerable height, but higher up the land gradually becomes more level, and. expands into a wide valley, in which Canton is situated. As we approach the city, the first objects seen are the pagodas with their many stories towering one above the other, and a number of tall, square buildings, several stories higher than those by which they are surrounded. These latter we afterward learned were pawn-shops, and are substantially built of fire-proof material to afford security against fire and thieves. As we proceed up the river, the junks and smaller floating craft become more plenty, and for a mile or more below the landing-place of the steamers the river banks on both sides are lined with a dense mass of these craft of all sorts and sizes. As soon as the steamer touched the wharf, we were favored with our first experience of a female hotel-runner. I saw two young women making for me in a precipitate manner, and “wondered what was up,” until they each exhibited an ivory card, upon one of which was inscribed the name of the “ Canton Hotel,” and on the other that of the “ Inter- national Hotel.” Having decided to go to the latter, a signal from our young woman brought a number of assistants, also females, to her aid, who seized our trunks and boxes in a jiffy, whisked them through the mass of half-naked, struggling and noisy Chinamen who were blocking the gangway, pulled the Inggage and ourselves 296 - COFFEE. both into the neat hotel boat or “sampan,” and vigorously sculled us across the river to the hotel, which is situated immediately upon the river-bank, and from the windows of which we could look upon the animated and novel scene. The smaller sampans or passenger-boats were very generally sculled by women, while the larger ones, which carry merchandise, seemed to be propelled by men. There are thousands and tens of thousands of women employed in conveying passengers from one part of the city to another, and having no other home at night than the boat they propel during the day. The floating population of Canton is certainly a most novel and interesting feature, and it is said that there is nothing like it in any part of the world. There are passenger-sampans and freight-sampans, war-junks and merchant-junks, country boats and city boats, and even stationary boats, which are perma- nently anchored and used for music-halls, lodging-houses, etc. ; but by far the greater part of this immense floating city is, during daylight, constantly in motion, plying hither and thither in every direction, and presenting a kaleidoscope of form and color long to be remembered. Sitting in the reading-room of our hotel at almost any time of the day, the sound comes up from this floating population “as the noise of a multitude.” Whether you take a boat upon the river or a walk upon land, however, one is con- stantly impressed with the wonderful industry and activity of this people. Everybody seems to be working for a living. The streets are very narrow, seldom more than ten, and often not more than six feet wide ; on either side, in the better portions of the city, there is a succession of brilliant shops, with gorgeous signs painted upon boards, which are hung perpendicularly instead of be- ing placed laterally as in other parts of the world. The attendants are civil and diligent in the exhibition of their wares, but never importunate. In very many of these shops is a niche for a “Joss” or household god, to which offerings are made at intervals; and at the door of nearly every one of them is a little stone grotto or niche, in which at evening a light is placed, together with “ Joss- sticks,” which slowly burn and moulder away until they are consumed. The observance of their religious customs seems to be a prominent feature in the life of the Chinese, and, while there ~ APPENDIX. 297 is evidently much superstition which to a European is absurd, it is also evident that the regard for his religion must be very strong in the average Chinaman to make him so faithfully observe all its forms. I had heard so much of the peculiarities of Chinese diet that I was anxious to try a genuine Chinese dinner, and we therefore had our interpreter take us to a celebrated Chinese restaurant, kept by one “ Chi-Hung,” where we ordered a first-class native dinner. First, tea was served with dried melon-seeds, which our interpreter explained were to keep us busy until they could bring the other things. The first regular course consisted of shrimp- salad served with “soda eggs” (eggs boiled in a strong solution of soda-water and having an alkaline taste), together with a sauce made from soy and English malt vinegar; there was also an assortment of fruit sonsisting of sliced pears; “ Yung-toh ” (a star-shaped fruit tasting somewhat like gooseberries) ; ‘“‘ Pumlo ” (a large, bitter orange); shelled almonds and pear-wine. The next course was the celebrated “ bird’s-nest soup,” which was thickened with shreds of boiled chicken and hard-boiled eggs cut very fine; a little dried ham was also grated upon the top of the dish. These birds’ nests, which are considered the greatest delicacy by the Chinese, are simply a sort of gelatinous substance which is gathered from the sea by a species of swallow in Java and Sumatra, and built up into nests. These nests are gathered by the natives, usually just as they are being finished, and before they have been soiled by the birds, and are shipped to Canton. As they are received here, they look more like a piece of crude, rather dingy glue bent up in the shape of a swallow’s nest, such as we have at home, but much smaller. They are prepared by being soaked in water, thoroughly scoured to remove the dirt, cut up into thin strips, and it is then in substance, appearance, and taste nearer like Cooper’s gelatine than any other substance with which I can compare it. To my taste it cannot be considered a delicacy, but as served to us it was certainly a very palatable dish. Course No. 3 consisted of pigeon’s eggs served with chicken and ham, in a sort of stew; this was also a very good dish. Course No. 4 was composed of dried oysters stewed with mushrooms, young bamboo-shoots and cucumber, with a very little mixture of salt 298 COFFEE. pork, for the purpose of giving it richness and flavor. Course No. 5 was composed of sharks’ fins cut into thin strips and stewed with eggs; these fins also tasted much like gelatine. No. 6 con- sisted of boned-duck, boiled; it was stuffed with mushrooms, bamboo-shoots, dates, and various aromatic herbs—a very good dish. Course No. 7 consisted of boiled snails with salad; the orthodox way of eating these is to break off the small point of the shell, which destroys the vacuum, and then a gentle suck at the larger end places the toothsome morsel at your disposal. I tried one and it was very good, but I had hardly become accustomed to the idea of eating snails, and did not feel hungry eneug’ to eat more. Course No. 8 consisted of boiled rice with “cone ” water, which, as near as we could understand, was simply rice-water, with a few grains of rice left in it. Tea was served, and this ended the dinner. Large basins of hot water were then brought to wash our hands in, and small towels or napkins to dry them with. I also forgot to mention that there were small pieces of Chinese paper brought with the first course, which were in- tended to be used as napkins. Altogether, the viands may be said to be fairly palatable, and we could have made a good meal had we not already eaten a moderate dinner at the hotel just before starting, as we were fearful that we would not be able to appreciate Chinese cookery sufficiently well to satisfy our appetites. I then told our interpreter that I was very much dissatisfied at not having a regular Chinese dinner; that I wanted some cats and dogs, or rats and mice, such as Chinese eat; that, if we could not get it there, we must go to some place where we could get it. He assured me, in the gravest manner, that such things were not eaten by the Chinese, except occasionally by the poorer classes, when they could get nothing better. He volunteered, however, to go with us and try and find a place where we could procure “such tings.” After paying our bill we started out in search of a dog-and-cat-meat restaurant. After a long walk through the narrow streets, and making various inquiries, our interpreter turned into an alley-way, and stopping in front of a dark, dingy little eating-house, pointed tri- umphantly to the claws that were still attached to a hind-quarter. of what might be mistaken for the fat hind-quarter of a young APPENDIX. 299 pig, and ejaculated “Dog!” After satisfying ourselves that this was the veritable article, he also showed us a kettle in front of which was an inscription in Chinese, which, he said, translated into English, read: “Black cat, served hot.” I told him I wanted to try some, which fact he communicated to the proprietor, who escorted us up a pair of rickety bamboo stairs into a dirty little room on the second floor, in which there were four small tables with benches at their sides. Sitting down at these, we soon had the satisfaction of seeing two liberal-sized plates of stewed cat and dog before us. The cat was cut into much finer pieces than the dog, but both dishes looked and tasted, for all the world, like stewed rabbit. Owing to the two previous meals which I had discussed, my appetite was not very good, and I could hardly do more than taste of these two dishes. Proceeding down-stairs, I asked to be shown any live dogs and cats that might be on hand awaiting their fate, but, with the exception of one small, half- starved cat, there was nothing of the kind to be seen. I am sure that the dog was genuine, because I saw the feet attached to the hind-quarter, but I could not vouch for the other dish being gen- uine cat, because there were no identifying marks to be seen. This ended our experience with Chinese viands, and from what I have seen, and the inquiries which I have made in China, I am satisfied that the stories which have been current all over the world in relation to the Chinese habitually eating cats and dogs, or rats and mice, have been greatly exaggerated. Indeed, it may be said to be the romance of travellers rather than a statement of things as they actually exist. The principal article of flesh diet among the Chinese is pork; of this they use immense quantities, mostly, so far as I can judge, in a fresh state. Poultry, especially ducks, are also a very large item, and from these they very skil- fully take out the bones, press them flat, salt and dry them and use them as preserved provision. So great a demand is there for these, and ducks not making very good mothers, the Chinese have invented hatching establishments, where immense numbers of ducks’ eggs are accumulated, and, by keeping up a uniform degree of artificial heat, they are successful in hatching out nearly the whole of them. Wee visited one of these establishments near Canton, and found it very interesting. As soon as the ducks are 300 COFFEE. hatched, they are sold to.parties all over the country, who make a business of rearing them for market; they pay about two cents each for them when just out of the shell, and when reared obtain from twenty-five to fifty cents for them, according to size and condition. Rice, however, is the article of largest consumption among the Chinese, and probably fish comes next. Eggs are also largely used, and almost everywhere i in Chinese native towns one can get fish, rice, and eggs in perfection, and, of course, with these there is no need of going hungry. Storks are also eaten in China, and in passing along the streets of Canton it was no uncommon thing to see large numbers of white storks exposed for sale. At first we wondered why they did not fly away, as they apparently were not fastened; but on investigating this matter we found that their eyes were sewed up, so as to make them entirely blind, in which state they never fly—certainly an original Chinese way of accomplishing the same object that we in America do by clipping the wings. of birds that we do not wish to have “make themselves wings.” The Chinese also have a way of surmounting the tradi- tional obstinacy of the pig, which is rather original and amusing. Every pig is put into a bag-shaped bamboo basket; these bas- kets are just large enough to receive him, and frequently we saw coolies trotting along the streets of Canton with a pig ina basket slung on a bamboo pole which rested on their shoulders. Pigs are also brought in from the country in boats, sometimes a distance of many miles, the baskets being piled one on top of the other in a way which cannot be very comfortable for the un- dermost pigs. It has been a mystery to me, ever since I saw the first pair of chopsticks, how they could be made effective in conveying food to the mouth; but the mystery is solved here, for I find that almost every variety of food is served in bowls, and these bowls are held close to the mouth, and the sticks are used more for poking the food into the mouth than they are for lifting, as we do with the fork. Rough rice is cleaned throughout the length and breadth of China, and indeed, I may say in Japan and the other great islands of the Pacific, by pounding it in a large wooden mortar with a APPENDIX. 301 pestle, which is operated by a lever worked with the feet. It is a slow and laborious process, not nearly so perfect in its results as the work of our rice-mills, yet immense quantities of rice are cleaned in this way. Clothes are washed by dipping them into the water and then slapping them over rocks and stones. At first this seemed to me as if it must be bad for the clothes, but as yet I have detected no evidence of undue wear and tear in my own, and certainly both Chinese and Japanese Jaundrymen do their work well and cheaply —two cents per piece being the customary price in Japan, and three cents in China, this including large as well as small pieces. Chinese kites are an institution; we happened to be in Canton just in the season when the greatest numbers of them are being flown. They are made in all sorts of fantastic shapes, figures of birds, insects, and men being represented, together with many fanciful designs which only a Chinaman could invent. During favorable weather one can see scores of these flying in every direction, some of them attaining (what seemed to me) a greater height than any I had ever before noticed. The principal currency here, and indeed throughout China, are Mexican dollars; and a heavy, clumsy, inconvenient currency they are. If you wish to make any considerable purchase, you have to carry about with you a weight of money which is exceedingly in- convenient, and which makes one long for an equivalent in green- backs. There are occasionally counterfeits among them, and to insure their genuineness and enable them to be traced from hand tohand, the Chinese have a way of stamping with a little steel punch or die the private mark of the person paying them out. By this practice the dollars gradually become so defaced that it is impossible to identify them, and so abraded that they are finally broken up into fragments, which serve as small change by weigh- ing them, every Chinese dealer having a pair. of tiny scales for this purpose. The Chinese have also an original way of taking your meas- ure for a suit of clothes. The measurer, who is usually the cutter, takes a long, thin tape of tough paper, goes through the usual motions, but instead of calling out the numbers and hav- ing them put down in a book, he simply nips off a small piece 302 COFFEE. of the tape at each length, and these indications are to him as plain as figures would be to a European cutter. They are expert tailors, and work very cheaply. I had made to order in Hong- Kong, by a native tailor, a blue flannel suit for $9 that would have cost me from $35 to $40 in New York, and a white duck suit for $5.50 that would have cost me $20 to $25 in New York. I am convinced that this difference is not all in cheap materials and cheap labor, but that New York tailors must charge exorbi- tant profits. The fact is, Chinamen are very expert and skilful . at anything. They can imitate anything for which you will give them a pattern, and indeed this imitative faculty is quite remark- able. They always follow the exact pattern ; they are “realistic” . in every sense of the word. It is an old story which many readers may have heard, but perhaps it may be new to some, that a gentleman wishing a dozen pairs of “nankeen ” trowsers made, left a pair of old ones with a Chinese tailor as a pattern. This pair happened to have a patch on the place that usually gets the most wear. The goods were delivered to the gentleman punctually, according to agreement, but what was his dismay on examining them to find that every pair had a patch upon them in the same identical place as the pair which had been left as a pattern. In California I heard the story of a Chinese cook, whom the lady of the house desired to teach how to make an omelet. ‘Breaking the eggs as usual, the third one which came to hand was not fresh, and consequently she threw it away. The China- man never required showing again; the omelets were always perfect, and were consequently frequently ordered. Happening into the kitchen one day, however, at the time the cook was pre- paring an omelet, she, to her surprise, observed him throw away an egg which was perfectly fresh. Investigating the matter, as a frugal housewife ought, she found that John Chinaman had been literally carrying out her example ever since the first showing, by throwing away every third egg that he broke, without any. refer- ence whatever to its quality. There are many other features in Chinese life which are novel and interesting, but in the limited space of this letter I am obliged to omit them. Suffice it to say that Americans in America see only the worst side of the Chinese, for those who emigrate, as is usual with all nations, are APPENDIX. 303 those of the poorer classes, who seek to better their condition. Perhaps after a time we may learn to treat the Chinese who come to America in a way that will make it an inducement for a better class to come—a class that in personal cleanliness, intelligence, ability, and enterprise, are not inferior to the average population in any part of the world. SINGAPORE. TROPICAL LIFE AND SCENERY-—-A VISIT TO PEPPER AND TAPIOCA PLANTATIONS, ETC., ETC. From Hong-Kong to Singapore is a distance of nearly fifteen hundred miles, the course being nearly due south and covering something over twenty degrees of latitude. Arriving at Singa- pore, a glance at the foliage of the shrubs and trees shows that we are in a more tropical country than any we have yet visited. Cocoa-nut, betel-nut, and traveller’s palm-trees are everywhere to be seen; bananas (or plantains, as they are called here), together with pineapples, grow by the way-side, and every wall and hedge is covered with a luxuriant growth of flowering vines, such as are seen nowhere except in the tropics. The palm-trees are’ exceedingly graceful, and, to a stranger, are quite the feature of the landscape ; the “ betel-nut palm” is very slender, and rises tall and straight seventy-five or one hundred feet, terminating with the usual tuft of long, graceful, fern-like leaves, and the bunch of nuts clustered among them. The natives, and also many Chinese, are continually chewing this nut, which stains their lips and gums of a reddish hue, and also colors their teeth very black, giving them anything but a prepossessing appearance. The “cocoa-nut palm” is very abundant and grows stronger than any other variety, although more crooked, and usually not so tall as the betel-palm ; the leaves, which also grow only from the top, are long and graceful, and the fruit clusters in great’ abundance just at the base of the leaves. The “traveller’s palin,” however, is more picturesque than either of the two former varieties; the 304 COFFEE. trunk is shorter, but from the top of the trunk its tall, graceful leaves shoot out in the shape of a “ palm-leaf fan,” or, as some persons have described it, like the rising sun. These leaves are deeply grooved, and at their base form quite a reservoir, where, when it rains, a supply of water is collected and retained for many days. In regions where water is scarce, travellers obtain a supply by puncturing these reservoirs ; hence the name of “ tray- eller’s palm.” A stranger is somewhat surprised to see the water follow the knife, pouring out of the puncture in a slender stream, quite reminding one of the “rock of Horeb.” Everything here constantly reminds me that I am in the tropics; but few of the houses have any glass in their windows, blinds answering the purpose of keeping out the sun and rain, and yet admitting as much as possible of the always-to-be-desired breeze. The hotels furnish no upper sheet or other covering for the bed, unless requested to do so, and, indeed, this is unnecessary where the thermometer ranges between eighty and ninety degrees throughout the year. Dusky bird-venders, with a long stick perched full of parrots of every hue, and stick peddlers, with their bundle of real malacca canes, everywhere greet ‘you with “Buy a bird?” or “Buy a stick, master?” and in the shops, tigers’ claws and bird-of-paradise skins are staple curiosities, of which nearly every traveller buys more or less. Here also we met a new type of features, in the Malay race, and a stranger blending of nationalities even than at Hong-Kong. Malay boatmen and fishermen, Hindoo money-changers and shop- keepers, Bengalese washermen and hack-drivers, Parsee merchants, Portuguese clerks from Malacca, Chinese merchants, planters, and coolies, besides a representation of all the nations of Europe, make up a conglomerate population such as probably can be found in no other part of the world. Of these the Chinese are by far the most numerous, and their patient industry has made them a most important part of the population here. Indeed, it has passed into a proverb that “the Chinese are the backbone of the island.” They own and cultivate more land than any other class, and pay more taxes; are quiet, orderly, industrious, and en- terprising, and instead of carrying their bones back to China, as they do from California, they marry, raise families, and most of APPENDIX. 305 them are buried here the same as other people. Some of them have become naturalized British subjects, and one Chinese mer- chant, Mr. Whampoa, has been so benevolent and useful a citizen that the British Government has conferred upon him the Colo- nial Order of Knighthood. There is probably a larger percen- tage of the merchant and trading class here than in California, but this is due to the fact that the Chinese are so treated on the Pacific coast that there is no inducement for a well-to-do China- man to emigrate there, while here all are protected in their rights, both of person and property; and hence the result in their being permanent, useful, and respected citizens. Pepper is one of the principal exports from Singapore, and the variety of this article produced in this section has always been more highly esteemed than that produced in Sumatra and other of the great Spice Islands. Desiring to learn as much as possible about the peculiarities of production of this, as well as other articles which enter into the trade with which I am con-. nected, I arranged for a visit to a pepper-plantation. There are not. many upon Singapore Island itself, the soil not being considered as rich and productive as that of the Malayan Peninsula, immedi- ately opposite; but a number of Chinese planters have grown it successfully, and it was one of their plantations, owned by a Chi- nese planter named Tan-Oh-Hoon, at Sarengong, some nine miles from Singapore, that I visited. At a distance, a pepper-planta- tion somewhat resembles a hop-farm, the pepper-plant being a vine trained upon poles, much the same as hop-farmers train their vines in the United States. Unlike the hop-vine, however, the pepper-vine or plant has a strong, woody growth, and does not throw out long, slender tendrils, as does the hop-vine. In- deed, unless carefully tied and trained around supporting poles, it would, probably, in many instances, spread over the ground in- stead of climbing. It is propagated from cuttings, has a smooth, glossy leaf, and begins to bear when from two to three years old, after which, with proper cultivation, it lasts many years. The grains of pepper form on stems, much the same as currants, and are picked twice a year, for in this tropical latitude nearly all plants remain green the year round, and yield two or more crops. The first picking usually extends through November, December, 20 306 COFFEE. and January. Then an interval of several months is allowed to elapse before the next picking takes place. That which. is de- signed for black pepper is picked after. the berries have attained a good size, but while they are yet green. They are usually picked in the cool of the evening, thrown upon a lattice-work of bamboo, which is placed over a furnace, the heat and smoke from which pass through ‘the pepper and both dry and color it. (Both the leaf and fruit of the pepper plant also naturally turn black, if dried in the sun, when picked green.) This process is usually accomplished in one night, and the next day the stems are taken off the lattice-work, placed upon mats, and the berries detached from the stem by rubbing with the hands or treading with the feet. They are then sifted, to remove ‘the dust and stems, and the dried berries or kernels are packed in bags to await shipment. To make “white pepper” the stems are allowed to remain upon the vines until the berries are ripe, when they are of a red color and have considerable pulp around the inner kernel or seed. Immediately after picking they are thrown into shallow trenches or ditches, containing water, where they are allowed to soak ten or twelve days. Ly this time the pulp is much decayed, and the berries are then taken out and put into a strong bag, into which a coolie gets and treads vigorously with his feet to loosen the skin and pulp. This mass is then turned out upon sieves, and the seeds or kernels separated and put in the sun to dry. When dried the berries are of a grayish white color, but after being sold they not unfrequently undergo another bleaching by “chlorine,” which improves their appearance at the expense of quality. The process by which white pepper is produced is much more tedious and expensive than in making black pepper, and the product is really not so good, the essential constituents of the spice being more abundant in the outer parts of the fruit than in the seed. Let any person take a sample of ground black pepper and ground white pepper, and use the two in the same manner; he will per- ceive that the latter has a bitterish taste and lacks the rich and spicy flavor of the former, and yet the demand for white pepper has largely increased during the last quarter of a century, not- withstanding the fact that the price has ranged from fifty to one hundred per cent. higher than for the black. APPENDIX. 307 On my return from the pepper-plantation, I stopped at a large “pearl tapioca” manufactory. Here were some 2,000 acres in a plantation, owned by a Chinese planter named Tan-A -Seng. Tapioca itself.is a tuber or bulb, from which springs a tender, woody shoot, attaining, at the age of sixteen months, when it is ready for harvest, a height of five or six feet, the only leaves being three or four at the top. The tubers or roots, from which the tapioca is made, are dug very much as potatoes are, and some of them very much resemble in appearance our American sweet potatoes; but the meat is whiter and contains large quantities of a starchy flour, which separates from the fibrous matter when ground, and it is this flour from which tapioca is made. The roots are first washed, and after having the outer skin removed, are ground up in amachine. A stream of water is turned upon the pulp, which carries the flour off into vats, where it settles. It re- mains in these vats twenty-four hours, and is then run off into large tubs, where it remains for about eight days, the water being changed each day, and thoroughly agitated, so as to mix with the flour. After the last water is drawn off it leaves a deposit of beautifully white flour, which is taken out in cakes and conveyed to the drying-house. Here it is broken up into small particles; indeed, I may say pulverized. A portion of it is then placed in a machine called a “yulong,” which looks more like a small, canvas boat, suspended by strings from the ceiling at each end, than any-' thing else, and by giving this a peculiar motion, which is half backward and forward and half rotary, the floury particles adhere to each other and are shaped into small, round balls, about the size of a No. 4 shot. The tapioca is then placed upon drying-’ pans, under which a steady and gentle heat is maintained for about half an hour, when it is sufficiently dry for packing and transportation. In fine weather it is sometimes dried in the sun,’ a process which usually occupies about a day to accomplish the result attained with the furnace in a half-hour. The tapioca flour can be made at will, either into small or large-sized “ pearl ” tapioca, or into “flake ;” but the flake tapioca from this part of the globe does not possess as much gluten as that produced in Brazil, and, although beautifully white, is not as free from dust as the Brazilian tapioca. 808: COFFEE. TEA-GROWING IN JAVA. T had occasionally heard of Java tea, but had no idea to what extent tea was cultivated in Java. I found on my arrival here, however, that there were annually produced from eight to ten million pounds, and I immediately became curious to see the method of culture and the quality and varieties produced. Through friends in Batavia I was kindly furnished with letters of introduction to Mr. E. J. Kirkhoven, who, in connection with his partner, Mr. Hohler, was represented to be an extensive tea-planter in Sinagar, a small place some sixty or seventy miles in the in- terior. We proceeded by rail from Batavia to Buitenzorg, some forty miles, and thence by two-wheeled spring-carts, each drawn by three tiny ponies, about the size of two months old colts, to Sinagar. Arriving there, we were most hospitably received by Mr. Kirkhoven, and not only had an excellent opportunity of see- ing the process of tea-cultivation and manufacture, but also some- thing of what a planter’s life is like in the interior of Java. The estate extends over several square miles, and the area under tea- cultivation alone is upwards of 1,100 acres. There are, upon an average, about 6,000 plants to the acre, which, upon this area, would give between 600,000 and 700,000 plants. Some of these, however, are not in full bearing, owing to a severe blight which has affected the plants during the last year or two, making it necessary to prune them close to the ground, in order that they may produce fresh shoots; yet, even with this drawback, this grand estate will produce this year about 800,000 pounds, or 10,000 chests of 80 pounds, net, each. One great advantage of tea-culture in Java is that the picking and manufacture may be continued nearly the whole year through, while in Japan and China the severity of the climate limits the picking to three or four months. Labor is also much cheaper here than in China, although it is said that one Chinaman will do as much work as two Java- nese. The average wages of adults in Japan and China is about 18 or 20 cents per day; here it is not more than half that sum, while that of women and children—by whom a large portion of the work is done—is paid for “by the piece” at even a less rate than this. APPENDIX. 809 All the tea made here is black (Congou, Souchong, and a little Pekoe), and the culture and preparation are essentially the same asin China. The plants are grown at intervals of two feet, in rows, which are four feet apart; the spaces between are carefully kept free from weeds, and the earth loose and moist. There is also one feature which I did not see either in Japan or China, viz.: the digging of holes at short intervals between the rows, for the purpose of allowing the air to reach the subsoil, and to catch and hold the rain, so that it may gradually percolate through the soil, affording at all times sufficient moisture to the roots of the plants. The leaves, when picked, are first spread out on large, circular, shallow baskets, and exposed to the sun until wilted. They are then, for a few minutes, placed in firing-pans and stirred until thoroughly heated. They are next thrown on tables surrounded by operators, each of whom grasps a mass of the tea as large as he can hold in his hands and rolls it over and over, in order to curl the leaves and make them compact. They are then shaken out and again placed on the baskets in the sun for the balance of the day. When the sun goes down, the baskets, together with the tea which they hold, are placed in a drying-room, through which the heated air from a furnace is driven by a blower, which in ten hours completes the drying process, leaving the leaf much shrunken in size, and close, wiry, and black. It is a curious fact that at this time the leaf has scarcely any odor, and does not appear to have nearly as much taste as it has after it has lain a few days in bulk, when it acquires a marked fragrant odor, somewhat the same as new-mown hay, although nothing is used to scent it or otherwise add to its flavor. To some extent this is the case also in China and Japan, although the tea which I saw in those coun- tries seemed to possess much more flavor immediately after firing than the Java leaf. In China it is also sometimes scented, in the manner previously described. At the time of picking, the differ- ent sizes of leaf are kept separate, and from these are made dif- ferent kinds of tea, the smallest and tenderest leaf being made into Pekoe, the next size into Souchong, and the larger leaves into Congou. These teas, however, seemed to me to have a strong, peculiar flavor, much like the Assam teas, of which we occasion- ally get a shipment in America. After the completion of the 310 COFFEE. curing process, the tea is packed in chests holding from 80 to 90 pounds net, and transported to Batavia, whence it is ‘shipped to Holland ; but some of it also goes to England, and, I believe, pecastenally a small lot to the United States. Java tea has a handsome style of leaf, possesses good body, and is said to be an excellent tea for making the mixtures which are commonly sold in Holland and in England. The residence, together with all the accessories of the life led by Mr. Kirkhoven, were to me very interesting, and I presume, constitute a fair specimen of the life led by a majority of the large planters in the interior of Java. These estates are generally very extensive, usually comprising many thousands of acres, the most eligible of which only are cultivated. The plantations of Messrs, Kirkhoven and Hohler cover about three square miles of ground, necessitating two establishments in different parts of this immense territory, with all the requisites for cultivating and curing the tea. HALF WAY ROUND. TROPICAL SCENERY—THE MOST BEAUTIFUL VIEW IN THE WORLD— BRITISH COLONIZATION POLICY, ETC. I sexteve that all “ globe trotters” give their friends at home a dose of lessons in geography and reflections at this period of their journey about their said friends being eight thousand miles beneath their feet, that noonday with them is midnight with the friends, ete.; but it was never clear to my mind whether the friends were on top or whether‘the travellers were; so I have concluded to spare the reader that part of my sineratires and merely state that I am on my way from Singapore to Ceylon; that we have just passed the port of Penang, on the Malayan Peninsula; are, therefore, a little more than half way round, and that we are now ploughing through the Indian Ocean, off the northerly end of Sumatra, as fast as steam and sails on the good steamer Tigre, of the French “ Messageries,” can carry us. APPENDIX. 311 Penang, to most minds, is suggestive of nutmegs and other ‘Spices, but it also carries me back in memory to my school-boy days and the story of the youngster, who, on examination day, before the grave and spectacled trustees of a district school, spelled and defined the word rattan as follows: “ R-a-t-t-a-n, rattan; a slender, fibrous wood which comes from Penang, Samarang, and Padang, and—is used by the:school-master in this school too-dang often.” I have always had a fellow-feeling for that boy, and re- spect him even now; besides, it taught me a lesson in geography, for, forget as I would the names of other places, Penang, Sama- rang, and Padang were always firmly fixed in my memory. A sea-voyage is not considered the pleasantest and most enter- taining thing in the world, especially if one is subject to sea-sick- ness; but I enjoy voyaging in these tropical seas, where all is so new and interesting to me. This morning I have been watching the shoals of tiny flying-fish as they rise from the water to escape the dolphins and other voracious monsters, and go skipping from wave to wave, sometimes for quite long distances; and last night we had a beautiful exhibition of phosphorescent light in the water, as it glided along the ship’s side or curled upward from the screw astern. Nature is always providing beauties for those who have eyes to see and hearts to appreciate, and I feel myself fortunate in being able to find pleasure in her charms whether on land or sea. I have enjoyed some most charming bits of tropical scenery, among them Buitenzorg, Java, which, as an entirety, is a most beautiful place; but the prospect from the Hotel Belle-vue is fairly entitled, I think, to the name of “ The most beautiful view in the world.” The pretty river Tjedani runs just at the foot of the bluff upon which the hotel is built, and, with an abrupt turn, loses itself amid a mass of tropical foliage. ‘¢ Breadths of tropic shade and palms in cluster, knots of paradise.” The plain below is also covered with graceful cocoa-nut palms, and other tropical trees, and reaches away for several miles, gradu- ally sloping upward until a belt of coffee and spice plantations is reached, and from these, for a background, there suddenly rises the grand volcanic peak of Mount Salak. 812 COFFEE. I shall never forget my last day at Buitenzorg: sitting upon the balcony during the closing hours of a tropical November after- noon, all nature seemed to be at rest; the slender palms, which are ever waving their restless leaves, were as still as silence itself, and the dragon-flies floated so lazily in the rays of the setting sun that I threw down my fan, so out of harmony was its motion with the spirit of the scene. Only the river, the ever running river, moved, and that seemed to have lost its ripples and glided where before it ran murmuring past. It seemed as if I could never tire of this scene; I sat and gazed at the shadows creeping slowly up the mountain-side until they reached the ragged crater at the top, and the halo of light suddenly faded. Then a purple mist envel- oped the mountain ; the deep ravines and fissures in its side, which before had been visible, faded away, and soon nothing was visible but the dim blue outline which long held its place amid the dark- ening shadows. I have enjoyed and left other places with regret, but I could not put aside the positive sorrow I felt at leaving Buitenzorg. The short stay in Java was so enjoyable that I much wish that my arrangements had been such that I might have de- voted sufficient time to visit other parts of the island, which are said to be equal or superior in attractions to those which I visited. Indeed, explorers tell us of a wealth of tropical scenery in all the great islands of the Malayan Archipelago, which is equalled nowhere upon the globe. Here are islands with an extent of ter- ritory which entitles them almost to the name of continent: Sumatra, more than 1,000 miles long; Java, 600; Borneo, 900, with a breadth almost as great; while Celebes and others of the Moluccas and Spice Islands are of a size and possess a soil and climate which would make them of great importance if situated anywhere else than in this vast and far distant Indian Ocean. Much of this great territory has not, as yet, even been visited by the explorer; not a ten-thousandth part has yet been cleared of jungle, and this small portion hardly scratched by the plough- share. Yet its productions fill the ships and warehouses of all nations with the richest and most valuable products known in commerce. All this great region is nominally in the possession of the Dutch ; I say nominally, for it is only here and there that their APPENDIX. 313 authority is supreme and undisturbed, and the 25,000,000 of natives are controlled by probably less than the same number of thousands of white residents. Holland has a much more feeble hold upon her colonies than England has upon hers, and sup-. presses disturbances with so feeble and faltering a hand as to— promise anything but permanency for her possessions in the East. The present war in Acheen, Sumatra, is a striking example of this. Here, a handful of natives, with no discipline or resources, have suc- cessfully defied the power of Holland for several years, and it pre- sents a striking contrast with the manner in which England chas- tised the Abyssinians and suppressed the great rebellion in India. Whatever may be said of Englishmen, it cannot be said that they are not good colonizers. In every English colony one finds good roads and good judicial and police regulations, insuring the safety of life and property, and descending into the minutest de- tails of regulation upon which depend the comfort and conveni- ence of Europeans. I could not but notice this in Hong-Kong, which was the first English colony I visited. Here was a large and sufficient force of native police; every chair or other public conveyance had its number, and the maximum scale of charges was prominently posted so that travellers need not be imposed upon. Each one of the vast number of boats in the harbor was also registered, licensed and numbered, and at night there stood at every landing-place an official who made a note of the number of every boat leaving the shore, together with the number of passengers carried and their destination, for it is said in by-gone times passengers would sometimes take a boat for a ship in the harbor, and never reach their destination. I also found the same regulations current at Singapore, where there are miles of macadamized roads so smooth that the small mountain ponies, which are chiefly used there, can easily draw a good-sized carriage, containing four persons, at a good rate of speed. English policy in the East has been both aggressive and tena- cious: first obtaining a hold, no matter how slender, and then hold- ing on to it with a death-like grip. British dominion in the East has been greatly extended by enterprising Englishmen striking out for and exploring unknown regions, settling and perhaps planting there, and then claiming the protection of the British 314 COFFEE. flag. In very many cases adventurous spirits have gone where they had no business to go, and assumed authority which they had no business to assume; yet if the natives resented this and these men suffered in life or property, a British gunboat was promptly upon the spot, and, if necessary, the whole power of this great nation was at hand to resent the “outrage upon the British flag;” generally the affair resulted in a British occupation, and new ter- ritory was added to the already immense possessions of the British in the East. However, perhaps Englishmen can retort by saying, with some truth, that our Indian policy has been a duplicate of that of Great Britain, and it may be that “Through the ages one increasing purpose runs,” 4 ' and that the destiny of the aboriginal races, both in India and America, is to disappear before the onward march of European “ civilization.” CEYLON. CANOES AT POINT DE GALLE—COCOA-NUT TREES—-FEMALE POLYGA- MISTS. . The island of Ceylon, lying off the southern coast of India, is’ about two hundred miles long by one hundred broad. The first impressions that travellers usually get of this great island are de- rived from the little port of Point de Galle at its extreme south- ern end, which is the great port of call for all the steam lines to the east; and.as you approach the island the thing that most at- tracts the traveller’s attention is the surf, which breaks with great violence all along the coast. Galle Harbor itself is a little band- box of a haven, rocky and somewhat dangerous of access, and not very secure after it has been reached. Immediately our steamer dropped anchor she was surrounded by a fleet of the queerest- shaped canoes I have ever seen. Imagine a log, eighteen inches to two feet in diameter, twenty-five or thirty feet long, tapered up to a point at the ends, and with a narrow slit, about eighteen inches wide, cut in it throughout nearly its whole length ; through this slit the entire inside of the log is scooped out, leaving only APPENDIX. 815 a thin shell.. Having no keel, this kind of a craft would, of course, very easily upset, were it not that this is provided against by having what is called an “outrigger,” consisting of another’ smaller, solid log placed parallel with it and about ten feet off, connected with the canoe by two strong arms of wood, slightly curved above the water, and which are fastened so as to give them great rigidity—in effect, all the staunchness of a raft, but with clipper-ship sailing qualities. Above the slit in the canoe is built up a light weather-board, or rather water-board, to prevent the water dashing in during rough weather; and these crafts, carrying a large sail and manned by four or more natives, go through the water at a rate which, it is said, is equalled by no other class of sailing craft afloat. When there is a stiff breeze, in order. to ballast them, they put a man out upon the outrigger, and when it blows heavily they put two men out, this living bal- last clinging fast to lashings, and in their parlance it is called a ‘one-man ” or “two-man” breeze. Toa European, seeing them for the first time, they look precisely like a large and a small cigar, made with both ends tapered, placed parallel with each other in the water, connected by a couple of straws, and he will hardly believe that they are safe craft for him to venture in; but they are largely used as ferry-boats between the shipping and the shore, carrying trunks even, as well as passengers, and are said to be the best boats that can possibly be made for going through a heavy surf. Point de Galle itself is.a quaint old town, originally fortified by the Portuguese, from whom it was taken by the Dutch, and they, in, turn, were dispossessed by the English about the begin- ning of the present century. It has but little commerce, the great bulk of the exports and imports of the island being made at the port of Colombo, which is about eighty miles along the coast to the northward. Between these two places communication is regularly. maintained by steamers, and there is also a very excel- lent road along,the coast, by which the distance between the two places is made by post-coach in nine or ten hours. This stage- coach ride proved one of the most enjoyable parts of my whole journey.. The road, like most English roads, is smooth and level as a floor, and throughout nearly the whole distance is densely shaded by graceful cocoa-nut palms, which here grow in great 316 COFFEE, abundance. In places the young trees are planted at regular _ intervals, and their leaves, arching upward in regular Gothic style, meet at the top in curved geometrical lines, and look exactly like the groined arches of a cathedral crypt. Throughout the whole distance the roar of the sea sounded in our ears, and occa- sional openings in the trees gave us glimpses of it, curling over in solid, green masses, and dashing its foam in concentric, circular rings, far up on the broad, sandy beach. The cocoa-nut tree is the chief source of revenue and profit to the natives here, and, indeed, is a wonderful tree. From the nut large quantities of oil are made, and the milk contained in it is given to cattle. rom the fibre of the thick outer husk, cordage is made, and also from it are manufactured vast quantities of “coir” yarn, from which is fabricated the cocoa-nut matting that is used extensively in America, and, indeed, all over the world. The outer shells of the nut and the wood itself are used for fuel, while the leaves furnish a thatch for the native dwellings. Thus every part of this wonderful tree is utilized. The process of oil-making is quite simple. The nuts are cut open, and the meat extracted and placed in the sun for a time until it shrinks and the oil begins to exude; it is then placed in a rude stone-mill, which is at the same time asort of press. This is turned by bullock-power, and the oil is half-ground, half-pressed, and runs out through an aperture at the bottom into receptacles provided to receive it. This pro- cess is quite rude and primitive, and does not extract so large a per- centage of the oil as the more perfect machinery does which has been established by Europeans in Colombo for the same purpose. I could hardly believe that by this improved process a quantity of oil equivalent to sixty-three per cent. of the entire weight of the nut is extracted. The oil is used here for burning in lamps and other purposes, but is principally sent to Europe, where it is utilized in the manufacture of soap, candles, etc., and portions of it are also refined and used in the manufacture of hair-oil and various toilet preparations. The natives of Ceylon are a bright, intelligent-looking race, with an erect, manly carriage; are of a lighter color than most of the inhabitants of the Malayan Archipelago; and some of the women are positively beautiful. Zn passant, there is here a APPENDIX. 817 feature in polygamy different from any I have ever heard of— instead of a man having several wives, a woman here has several husbands. We heard of one case where one woman had married a family of six brothers, and it is avery common thing for a woman to have two or more husbands. So it seems that there is one part of the world, at least, where the female sex retaliates upon the doctrine and the disciples of Brigham Young. Colombo is a city of considerable size, but it is the slowest and most deliberate place which it has been my fortune to visit. The cab-drivers are asleep two-thirds of the time, and, to match them, their horses seem to be all cripples. Still, there is a great deal of business done in Colombo, it being the shipping port for all the great coffee-plantations of the interior, the cinnamon-groves, and most of the cocoa-nut oil and coir-yarn manufactories of the island. Asa merchant here said, “Our exports may be all enumerated under the head of C’s—coffee, cinnamon, cocoa-nut, and coir,” and when we reflect that they all come from Colombo, Ceylon, is it not a remarkable conjunction of C’s? COFFEE CULTURE—COFFEE IN THE EAST AS A BEVERAGE—LONG NAMES, ETC., ETO. Ceylon coffee has always ranked high as regards quality, pos- sessing a mild flavor somewhat similar to Java. Yet, strange to say, I did not have a good cup of coffee while in Ceylon, nor did the coffee I tasted in Java at all compare with that which we make in the United States. We frequently hear the quality of the coffee obtained at the railway eating-houses in the United States reviled by Americans; but at any of the stations along the lines of the New York Central, or the New York and New Haven roads, you can get a cup of coffee which is perfection itself com- pared with that which I found in Java or Ceylon, while the coffee which I have in my own house, when at home, is a nectar, the mere recollection of which in this far-distant country titillates my palate when I think of it. They may talk about the crudeness of American civilization in a gastronomic point of view, but in all my travels, I have never yet found a city, unless it be Vienna, where the quality of this universal beverage at all compares with 318 COFFEE, that to be found in New York. I speak advisedly in this respect, although it may be egotistically ; but on the principle that - ‘¢ Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat,” I believe that he who caters for others should be a judge of qual- ity, and I have studied the conditions necessary for the produc- tion of good coffee as carefully as the true artist studies the effects necessary for the production of a perfect picture. This is a great country for long names. I thought, when I arrived in Hong-Kong and read some of the names on the signs of the Parsee merchants there, that I had reached the limit in this respect; but I am now convinced that Ceylon can take the palm. If I should spell out and send you, detached from other matter, some of the names which I see here, you would certainly think that I was exaggerating ; so I have cut from to-day’s Ceylon Times an advertisement of an official sale. FISCAL’S SALE. No. 69,393. IN THE DISTRICT COURT OF KANDY. Kana Rana Chana Shoona Palaniappa Chetti.............ccccecece - Plaintiff, vs. Periyakarpen Seruwokaran’s Son Kali Muttu Kankani............ Defendant. Notice is hereby given, that on SATURDAY, the 9th December, 1876, at one (1) o'clock P.m., will be SOLD BY PUBLIC AUCTION at the premises, the following property belonging to the Defendant in the above case : All the Right Title and interest of the Defendant to and in the following Lands (subject, however, to the terms and conditions of the Planting Voucher No. 869, dated 9th June, 1871) to wit :— ° 1.—The Garden called Hapugahamulagawa Watta, about 12 acres in extent, 2.—The Garden called Elagaswatta alias Nawagahamulawatta, about one acre in extent, both situated at Dorakumbura in the Gampahasiyapattuwa of Matale South. D. A. D’ALWIS, For Deputy Fiscal. Deputy Fiscal’s Office, il Matale, 13th November, 1876, This speaks for itself, and I think, as a phonetic curiosity, is worthy of publication. APPENDIX. 319 SUNDRY SPICES.—THEIR GROWTH AND PREPARATION. I have been much interested in observing thé growth and manner of preparation of various kinds of spices, not separately affording sufficient material for an article, but which, grouped to- gether, will furnish matter enough for oneletter. Of these I will first mention cinnamon, which, in the shape in which it appears in commerce, is, of course, familiar to every grocer, but would hardly be distinguished from any other bush when seen growing in the field. Ceylon is the greatest centre of production for true cinnamon, but more of wild cinnamon, or cassia, is obtained from Malacca and along the coasts of Siam and Cochin-China. The cinnamon tree, if left to itself, sometimes attains the height of thirty to forty feet, and from twelve to eighteen inches in diame- ter; but, when cultivated, it is kept cut down close to the ground, and the fresh, new shoots only are allowed to grow, until they attain a height of from five to six feet, and are about half an inch in diameter. Some of the cinnamon-groves of Ceylon are very extensive, covering many hundred acres. They are originally planted in rows about six feet apart, and the plants are, perhaps, four feet distant from each other in the rows. The ground is usually well cultivated, being kept free from weeds and affording a chance for the plants to make a vigorous growth. When the shoots are three or four years old, they attain the size above- mentioned, and are usually free from branches until near the top. They are then cut close to the ground and the grayish, outside bark carefully scraped off. The inner bark, which is of a yellow- ish red color, is then ripped up longitudinally with a knife, and gradually loosened until it can be taken off. It is then spread in the sun to dry, when it curls up into the quill-like form in which it is known as the cinnamon of commerce. Some of the quills are smaller than others, and these are inserted within the larger ones, so as to make them as compact as possible. There are usu- ally two crops gathered in Ceylon—one in April, the other in November, the first being much the larger of the two, and more easily gathered, owing to the sap being more abundant at that time, which allows the bark to be taken off with greater facility and despatch. The smell of the green cinnamon-bark is delight- 320 COFFEE. fully fragrant, but it varies greatly in quality, the younger and thinner pieces usually being much the best. The root of the cin- namon tree contains camphor, and the fruit, which is a sort of a nut, somewhat resembling an acorn, yields an acrid kind of oil called “innamon suet,” which is also quite fragrant, and in Ceylon was formerly made into candles for the exclusive use of the nobility. Cassia is prepared in the same manner as cinnamon, and is really a variety of that tree. There is much wild cassia gathered, however, and there is consequently a lack of the uniformity in thickness of bark and in perfection of preparation which we find in the Ceylon cinnamon, which brings a much higher price than cassia and, almost without exception, is sent to Europe. We occasionally get small parcels in America, but by far the larger portion of what is consumed in America under the name of cinnamon is really cassia. NUTMEGS. Nutmegs are grown more or less in all of the great Spice Islands of the Malayan Archipelago, and also on the Peninsula, Penang being one of the principal ports from which they are ex- ported. The nutmeg-tree is a very beautiful one, growing in a compact conical shape to the height of thirty or forty feet. It. has a dark, glossy leaf, and bears a profusion of fruit, which, however, on the tree, does not much resemble the nutmeg of commerce. In fact, when growing, it looks precisely like a black walnut, and the outer husk is of about the same thickness and consistency as that of the walnut. When the nut is ripe it cracks open and exposes the nut, growing closely around which is the fibrous mace. I had always supposed that the mace formed immediately next the kernel, which is the nutmeg of commerce, but on examining it closely, I found that the kernel was contained within a thin, hard shell, and it is around this shell that the mace forms. When the nuts are ripe they drop or are taken off the tree, and the mace at that time being of a bright scarlet color looks very beautiful; when it is separated and dried in the sun, however, it gradually assumes the brownish red or orange color which is familiar to all grocers. The nuts are also dried in the APPENDIX. 821 sun, and when this process is completed they are usually shipped to the place of export, where the outer shell is cracked, and the nuts taken out, and packed in casks or cases for shipment. CLOVES. Cloves grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high, hav- ing a handsome pyramidal shape, with leaves that are large, glossy, and ever-green. It is a native of Malacca, but is now grown in nearly all of the Spice Islands of the Indian Ocean, the larger part of the crop coming from Amboyna, in the island of Ternate. Many years ago the Dutch undertook to control the production of this spice and to confine ifs growth to this island ; they, therefore, destroyed the clove trees in the other Spice Islands, but the high prices which they demanded gradually led to its cul- tivation in territory outside of their jurisdiction, and they after- ward abandoned that policy. Still most of the cloves now pro- duced are grown in Dutch territory, and the high prices which have prevailed during the last year or two have been attributed partly to a failure in the crop in Ternate and partly to the Acheen war, which has considerably interfered with the supply usually derived from Sumatra. The cloves of commerce are not, as many | suppose, the fruit of the clove tree, but are the flower buds. The ripe fruit in shape resembles a small olive; it is of a dark red color, with one or two cells containing as many seeds, and it is also aromatic to a certain extent, and sometimes appears in com- merce in @ dried state under the curious name of “ mother of cloves.” It is not nearly so pungent, however, as the flower stems. Indeed, the whole tree—leaves, bark, and wood—seems to be impregnated in some degree with the strong, distinctive clove flavor ; but the flower buds are the principal commercial product of the tree. When first gathered, they are of reddish color, but in the drying process, which is generally partly done by wood fires and partly in the sun, they turn a deep brown color, as they are when they reach us in America. Although the tree grows wild to some extent, it is regularly cultivated in plantations, the plants being set some ten or fifteen feet apart and carefully pruned: and cared for. ; 21 322 COFFEE. INDIA. A BIRD’S-EYE VIEW—ITS EXTENT, POPULATION, PRODUCTIONS, GOV- ERNMENT, ETC. One cannot see a great deal of India in three weeks, nor within the narrow limits of a letter can he describe all that he sees; but time is precious now-a-days, general ideas have some- times to answer where a more thorough investigation of a subject would be desirable, and happy is he who can take the cream, and, discarding the water—“ boil down,” as it were, his ideas into the smallest possible compass. “ British India” extends from Cape Comorin, on the south, to the Himalayas, on the north, a distance of about eighteen hun- dred miles, and from the river Indus, on the west, to the Ganges, on the east, more than twelve hundred. In addition to this, it- includes a considerable portion of Burmah and Siam (mentioned on the map under the head of “ British Burmah”) lying on the opposite side of the Bay of Bengal, and within this territory is situ- ated the “ Rangoon district,” from which comes all our Rangoon rice. Within this total area are crowded over two hundred mil- lions of people, and it is the production and consumption of this immense number of human beings that has constituted the largest _ and most remunerative item in the commerce of Great Britain for many years. Until we pause to think, it is hard to realize what “two hundred millions” means when applied to human beings— what their production and consumption may amount to. A few figures in regard to rice culture, which I found among Government papers at Calcutta, served to widen my ideas in this respect. Speaking of but three districts, containing about sixty- five millions of inhabitants, the report stated that the annual consumption, exclusive of reserve stores, exports and quantities required for seed, was twelve and a quarter million tons, or twenty- seven billion four hundred and forty million pounds, a quantity equivalent to nearly one hundred and twenty-five million bags, or forty-five million tierces. I do not now remember the size of our Carolina rice crop, but I believe it was last year under eighty thousand tierces, or say about twenty thousand tons, against, APPENDIX. 828 twelve and a quarter millions, and this, be it remembered, was only the consumption of less than one-third of the native popula- tion of India. It is astonishing, however, how soon one becomes accustomed to figures, which, at first, perplex the understanding. When I first landed in India I could hardly believe the reports, which were then fast coming in, of the drowning of ten thousand natives by a tidal wave, which was raised in the Bay of Bengal and had swept over some of the coast islands. Later, however, after I had crossed India and seen the dense mass of population, I had no difficulty in comprehending and believing the official report of the loss of life, which had then reached the enormous number of two hundred and fifteen thousand. And yet this catastrophe, appall- ing as it was’ in magnitude, seemed to be quite overshadowed in the public mind by the famine which was at the time prevailing over a large portion of Southern India. Everywhere the railways were choked with rice and grain trains bound for that part of the country, and hundreds of vessels were employed in transporting rice from every point of supply in the East. About two centuries ago, enterprising British merchants laid the foundations of British power in India, and shrewd old England, ever taking advantage of circumstances, has steadily pushed for- ward her boundaries, until now her possessions in the East have become, as they were recently termed by an English statesman, the “ Greater Britain.” Had she been as wise in the treatment of her American colonies, it is probable that they would not now have been an independent nation, but the injustice of George the Third lost her the choicest gem in her coronet. Perhaps, how- ever, this circumstance had something to do with changing her colonial policy and strengthening her hold on her other posses- sions. It is a noteworthy fact, that while England was losing America she was gaining India, and the period immediately suc- ceeding our war of the Revolution was the one in which she made the greatest progress there. Up to the mutiny in 1857 English interests in India were represented by the celebrated “ East India Company,” which, in a century and a half, had grown up from a comparatively small commercial enterprise to be a great govern- ment, maintaining an army of many thousand men, making laws, 324 COFFEE. coining money, and exercising all the other principal attributes of sovereignty—a government which, in its relations to the Eng- lish nation, was a sort of government within a government—an imperium in imperio. The controlling power was vested in a court, or board of directors, elected by the stockholders, and for a long time its affairs were ably and honestly managed, but after a time it became unwieldy, abuses set in, and after the mutiny it was thought that the interest of the entire nation in India had be- come so great, that it was better the country should come under the direct management of the Crown. This was done, and thus ended the greatest commercial venture the world has ever known. The impression that a traveller gets of India in December is that by far the greater area is a dusty, arid, sterile waste; but this apparently unproductive soil is really very rich, and, when irrigated, produces, under even the careless cultivation of the natives, enormous crops of rice and various other grains ; rape, lin, and other seeds; hemp, cotton, coffee, pepper, indigo, opium, sugar, tea, and many other products. The Hindoo race or races are among the oldest of which we have any historical record, and the wealth and culture of ancient India was long the wonder of the Eastern world. It was not, however, until the invasion of Northern India by the Mahome- dans and the establishment of the “ Great Mogul” dynasty, that the attention of western nations was so strongly drawn to it; but the semi-barbarous magnificence of these remarkable rulers soon became proverbial throughout the civilized world. This was dur- ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, after which their star gradually declined, and their power was finally broken by the war- like tribes of the Northwest. After that came a period of anar- chy, the inhabitants of the different provinces constantly fighting among themselves for spoils and power, until finally, in the eighteenth century, British power began to make itself felt, and by dint of hard fighting and wise diplomacy it was steadily advanced, until it reached its present magnificent proportions. I say steadily advanced, for the mutiny in 1857 can hardly be called a serious check to the advancement of British power. It was promptly. quelled, and the difficulty of communication during that episode has led to the construction of an extensive system of railways and APPENDIX. 825 telegraphs connecting all the principal parts of the empire, which have contributed, in a remarkable degree, to the subsequent pros- perity of India, and renders any further opposition to British rule entirely hopeless. At present, the two hundred millions of natives are as completely under the control of the two hundred and fifty thousand British residents as Poland is under the power of Russia. Not that I would compare the English government of India with that of the Russian in Poland, for, in my opinion, it is far more mild, just, and equitable. Indeed, the strongest item in England’s hold upon India is that she governs wisely and liberally, and the mass of the people know that they are much surer of peace and justice under the government of the English, than they would be under the despotic rule of their myriad of native chiefs. Of these there are nearly five hundred (whose jurisdiction is outside of the large district absolutely under British rule, and which may be esteemed British territory), of whose domain a recent report to Parliament speaks as follows: “The native states of India form one of the most important and difficult sections of administration. Every state—and the num- ber, including the smaller feudatories, exceeds four hundred and sixty—acknowledges the supremacy of the British Government ; but, in other respects, their rights and obligations differ from each other. Some merely acknowledge our supremacy, like Nepaul ; others also undertake to follow our advice and to govern their subjects with justice; others again pay tribute or provide for the maintenance of a contingent ; some have power of life and death ; others must refer all grave cases to English judges. Nearly all have, since the mutiny, received guarantees that their chiefs will be allowed to adopt successors on failure of heirs, and their con- tinued existence has been thus secured. This measure represents a great change of policy, and is a return to that advocated by Lord Metcalf in 1837. The policy is now unalterably fixed by which existing native States will continue through the admitted, right of adoption to maintain their positions as now admitted by treaty or agreement.” From: this it will be seen that the present system of Indian government is quite complex, and requires a vast deal of atten- tion to satisfactorily -administer its affairs. Upward of forty 326 COFFEE. thousand persons, many of them natives, are employed in the civil service, which is based upon that of England, the principal features of which are: 1st, competitive examinations in order to secure properly qualified persons; 2d, permanence in office, with a regular system of promotion for faithful service; 3d, a pen- sion on retirement, in proportion to length of service. When we in America embody these features in our civil service, we will have honest and efficient management in our public service and tranquillity and prosperity in business affairs ; but when men are turned out of office, no matter how faithfully they have served the country, to make room for the political henchmen of members of Congress, and an opportunity is afforded every four years for eighty thousand “outs” to try and oust eighty thousand “ ins,” we cannot expect either a satisfactory public service or a prosper- ous state of business. In 1876 England maintained in India an army of about sixty thousand Europeans, and one hundred and thirty thousand native or Sepoy troops, while the military force or retainers of the native chiefs numbered, all told, about three hun- dred and eighteen thousand. If these were a unit against British rule, England might have hard work to maintain her position— a fact that she well understands, and, therefore, carefully fosters the rivalries and jealousies of the rival chiefs, for which they are noted. These, in connection with the improved means of com- inunication and the occupation of strategic points with white troops, makes her position, as before stated, almost impregnable. In religious matters she does not interfere, and in this respect everybody is free to follow his own preferences. It is estimated that of the two hundred millions of population, about one hundred and sixty millions are Hindoos, forty millions Mahomedans, and about eight hundred and fifty thousand are Christians, of whom more than six hundred thousand are Catholics, resident principally in the south of India. “ Caste” is one of the prominent features in Hindoo life, and furnishes a most interesting study in itself. It is really a division of the population into several ranks, each of which is profaned by coming into contact with the others, or with Europeans; formerly infractions of many of the rules of caste were punished by death, but now, under English government, this practice has been abol- APPENDIX. 327 ished, and some of the rules have sunk into disuse. Still most of them are in force, with a power far greater than any rules of etiquette among Western nations, and violations are subject to an ostracism which is often fatal to business or social comfort and prosperity. The effect is to destroy enterprise and retard the progress of the whole country, for the great mass of the people feel that, no matter how hard they may try, they can never rise above the level in which they were born. WAYSIDE SCENES, THOUGHTS AND FANCIES, IN INDIA. From Colombo, Ceylon, across to Tuticorin, in Southern India, is only about one hundred and thirty miles, and landing here I received my first impressions of India. Southern India is quite unlike the Northern part, both in soil and productions, appear- ance and population ; and although it is somewhat out of the beaten route of travel, my few days’ stay there were most interest- ing and instructive. Here we find the population free from the character which has been impressed upon the population of North- ern India by their Mahomedan conquerors of the Mogul era, and there are few or none professing the Mahomedan religion. Here, also, we find the old style of half-pyramidal, half-pagoda shaped Hindoo temples in their perfection, with their cars of Juggernaut and other paraphernalia, the former of which, however, under English rule, are rapidly falling into disuse. The natives are no longer permitted to sacrifice themselves under its wheels, which, in former times, was its most impressive feature. I travelled from Tuticorin to Madura and from Madura to Trichinopoly, a distance of over two hundred miles, by a narrow-gauge railroad (three feet three and one-third inches), very comfortably but very slowly. The road had just been opened, and things, as yet, were not working smoothly. At one water station the tank had proved leaky and was being repaired. In default of the usual facilities a hundred or more natives with earthen water-jars were set at work carrying water from a capacious well, or hole about twenty feet square and as many deep, from which the supply of water, when the tank was in order, was usually pumped. After waiting an hour or more in the cars, I became impatient at the delay, and 328 . COFFEE. taking my sun-hat and an umbrella, I went out in the broiling sun (19th of November), to prospect. I found the long train occupied, with the exception of our car, entirely by natives in third-class carriages, myself and two friends, with the engineer, being the only Europeans on the train. The native conductor was in vain trying to induce the lazy blacks to expedite their work, but without effect. I never saw such deliberate mortals in my life, although I could hardly blame them, for the temperature was over 100°, and much exertion, for a European at least, was neither comfortable nor safe. On consulting with the engineer, however, I found that the engine was steaming out the water faster than it was being put into the tender, and that something would have to be done or we would never get to Madura. There were plenty of men, but they were dawdling up and down the steps leading to the well, each one filling his own jar and occupying about half an hour in carrying it from the well to the engine. My first step was to promise them, through the conductor, three rupees, “ back- sheesh” (gift money), if they would submit to my orders; and then ranging them in line, I soon had a continuous stream of jars passing rapidly from hand to hand between the well and the engine. As soon as they caught the idea they entered into it with a will. Raising a strange, weird song or chorus, they gradually accelerated their motion until it grew into a positive enthusiasm, and no line of buckets at an American fire ever circulated faster than did those earthen water-jars at that station in Southern India. In ten minutes the reservoir of the tender was filled, and we were again en route for Madura, where we arrived at 9.30 p.m., hot, tired, and dusty. At this place, as at many others in India, the only hotel is a “travellers? bungalow,” which is a small, one-story house built by the English Government and placed in charge of a native, who is obliged to provide meals and other conveniences at a fixed tariff. The only furniture is a bedstead or two, with mattrasses, and generally two or three chairs, together with a table. Every trav- eller is supposed to provide his own bedding, soap, and towels. The same system is in vogue in Ceylon, and, as a curiosity, I ap- pend a scale of charges, which I copied from the tariff, which is posted up in every bungalow: APPENDIX. 829 SCALE OF REST-HOUSE CHARGES. Breakfast, with eggs, fowls, curry and rice, or equivalent............. D 150 Dinner—Soup, ham, eggs, potatoes, fowl, curry and rice .........-.+- 1 50 Supper—Ham, eggs, potatoes, curry and rice ..... Paceencawes sea ede 1 50 Room, exceeding two hours, not exceeding twenty-four hours ....... is 874 Bedroom, with one bed, not exceeding twenty-four hours ...........6 50 Bedroom, with two beds or one double bed, not exceeding twenty-four TVOUANG 5. cierdivcd ds dha. oactie Was rold « Miiadas sod dine ororave lars ed ditoureeeiaf nara TRIER %5 Bedroom, with three beds, not exceeding twenty-four hours.......... 1 00 Onersofa, without: linens. ess ce! ocssiesoparereieiorde eiators sever ectorrasieaasenre v 3874 One sofa, with linen ..... ee eC rr eee ‘ 50 Stable Low One: NOMS} seein scdasesdeis docarereqad Shido OS Ses ae SEATING e 50 Straw for one horse ..... cee eee eee ec eee eee e eee ec et eeeteeeees 25 Grass for one Horse... ccc e cece cect ene even escenercseses h Detyhvensneree 124 CALTIN SOB so.o io 5-5 aie: gin aint si loseia sais Siete Geisieaid parsing 2.9 Rigl, winlnyetersiaieisio we vie Sehate 124 Oil for bedroom, per night... 2... ..0 eee eee eee e eee e eect eeeee . 25 Cup of tea, with milk and sugar.......... 0. cece eee ee erence neces achidsse 25 Cup of coffee, with milk and sugar ......... cece eee e eee ete e eee eeeee 25 Bottle of beer or porter, Bass or Allsopp, English bottled............4 75 Bottl esol wane iis or. aisecinie acne eas etsitnenartna wna eo Sip cca tareresones a vsielspione vesee 200 Bottlecof brand yess sacnes o wise siniwiniew siete eois-ewis sires ser ewe inmacna wien 2 7 Bottle of soda-water .2.....ccecceceenseetee cece cee teseeeeee Sacstee dus 17 Bottleiof lemonade... 5.0 ¢2 4 scedwdaswas soiacgs oven tiwerivecerGaeas 25 Pint bottle of beer or porter, Bass or Allsopp ........... sec ee cceceee 50 Pint bottle of wine. ........-e ccc ce ee eeeens see eee dicts tad a8 1 25 Pint bottle of brandy...........0.eeeeenee iz ch acniayinncyactsaersiaoe tduaste meets 1 50 Brandy, per glass ....-....ecce cree cere tes een eneesecesece siviaid\ cane . 25 Clean sheets and pillow-slipS.........0-cceseeeee eee tetecet ee eeeeens 874 Cold bath, salt water or fresh ............+4. alu Miavathivoie ate sta elasenre eaters 25 Hot Vathicce nn Songanrcieseeay shen atetateteer ee Seactnineneabeuk eas 3874 For use of the rest-house utensils, per diem, irrespective of the number of individuals .........0.6+-5 REC rnrE ae eret ee c ees 50 Signed, JOHN Mason, For Chairman P. R. C. 16th of October, 1875. [Norz.—A Ceylon dollar is only equivalent to fifty cents of our currency, so the above figures must be divided by two to obtain a correct idea of amounts, ] At the larger places, where there is a European population of any magnitude, hotels are being established and are gradually su- perseding “ bungalows,” but in the early days of India, when the white population was very sparse, and yet it was necessary to keep up certain lines of communication, with shelter and refresh- ment houses at regular distances, the bungalow was a necessity, and indeed the Government had to provide means of transporta- 330 COFFEE. tion, as well as entertainment, and the “dak,” or post carriage, is still maintained in many parts of India, while these refreshment or post stations are commonly known as “dak bungalows.” The word bungalow is a very common one, not only in India, but throughout the tropical countries of the East ; where it originated I do not know, but, in India, it means a one-story house, generally constructed with very thick walls of masonry, and the roof thickly thatched with straw, projecting several feet on every side, form- ing a sort of porch or veranda to shade the entrances. The natives of Southern India are tall in stature, of erect and graceful carriage, and, although quite black, having a European type of feature. Dressed in their flowing white robe and turban they present quite a picturesque appearance, and, as they stood gazing at our train as it went whirling by in the dusk of the even- ing, many of them were positively statuesque. The women are not in general as fine-looking as the men, and render themselves hideous by wearing immense rings in their noses, on these rings stringing all their available wealth in the shape of jewels and precious stones. In some instances I saw women who, in all other respects, bore every sign of poverty, thus wearing pearls which were worth many hundreds of dollars. To some extent also this practice of carrying their wealth about them in the shape of jewels prevails with the men; at Trichinopoly the station-master wore, as earrings, two solitaire diamonds which could not have been worth less than one thousand dollars each. This custom cannot be attributed entirely to personal vanity, but is largely due to the uncertainty of ownership which formerly at- tached to all forms of property which were not portable and which could not be concealed at a moment’s notice. I proceeded from Trichinopoly to Madras, between three and four hundred miles, through a rather unprepossessing coun- try, and taking steamer from that port proceeded direct to Cal- cutta. Madras, formerly the most important European city in India, has made comparatively little progress during the past half century, and is now quite overshadowed in importance by both Calcutta and Bombay. Calcutta is situated on the River Hooghly —one of the mouths of the Ganges—a hundred or more miles from its outlet. At the entrance of the river the coast is flat APPENDIX. : 331 and barren; but, further up, the banks are covered with cocoa-nut, palmyra, and other palms, from under which native mud-huts are everywhere peeping out. Boats loaded down by the head in a curious manner were crossing and passing up and down, and as we approached the city the most prominent feature for several miles were brick-kilns, impressing the beholder with the idea that very extensive building operations must be going on. I found, however, that they not only used brick for the purposes that we do, but that the bricks are again pulverized after burning and used for making mortar, there being no good natural sand for that purpose. There is also a large quantity of brick used for paving sidewalks, courts, etc. The population of Calcutta, including both native and foreign, is estimated at about five hundred thousand. The European part of the city has wide, spacious streets and squares, orna- mented by many statues and monuments, and, being the seat of the Anglo-Indian government, many fine public buildings are located here. Along the water-front are fine accommodations for shippers, and here one sees moored at all times a large fleet of steamers, besides numbers of the finest and largest class of clipper sailing vessels. Formerly the accommodations for shipping were quite insufficient and insecure; but some years ago, after great loss had been incurred from the visitation of a typhoon, the con- trol of the harbor and other matters pertaining to shipping were transferred from the municipal authorities to a “ Port and Harbor Commission,” consisting of eminent merchants who were chiefly interested in having adequate facilities provided. Upon this commission was conferred the right to issue bonds for the con- struction of new accommodations, to collect all port and wharf- age dues, and under its direction the present fine facilities were soon provided. Probably no port in the world now possesses more convenient and economical accommodations for shipping than does Calcutta, and this under great natural disadvantages. Across the river is the suburb of Howrah, which is the terminus of the East Indian Railway, which furnishes accommodation with Central, Northern, and Western India. The native part of Calcutta has wide streets, but they are lined with a dirty, tumbledown class of dwellings, not much better than the mud huts of the native villages. 332 COFFEE. Here, for the first time during my trip, the Oriental custom of the seclusion of women becomes prominent—women, excepting those of the lower classes, rarely being seen in the streets, and, when they venture from their houses being conveyed in carriages with closed blinds or in closed “ palkahs.” (The “ palkah ” is a sort of sedan-chair or box, resting upon poles, which is carried about on men’s shoulders.) Polygamy is practised here by the natives to a greater or less extent, and the women’s apartments, which in Turkey are known as the seraglio or harem, are here known as the “ zenara,” and the same term also is in some instances applied to the occupants. A curious illustration of the extent to which this seclusion of women is carried is the advertisement of a lady photographer in Calcutta who announces herself as a “zenara photographer.” Another curious feature in Indian life with which we first came promi- nently in contact at Calcutta is that of caste. One servant brings you food, but his hands would be utterly profaned if he were to take away the empty plate. One furnishes your room with water and towels, but another one has to be provided to carry away the slops. A Brahmin, eating at the same table with a European; or leaving his own country and crossing the sea, breaks his caste, and is ever after utterly ostracised for so doing. In Northern India we hired a carriage, and were surprised to see, besides the driver, an additional man accompanying us. We protested that we did not want more than one man, but the second fellow persisted in accompanying us, perching up behind and shouting at all who got in our way. When we alighted, he performed the services of a footman in opening the door, and, when we stopped to feed the horses, this man unharnessed and cared for them. On inquiry, we found that it would be beneath the caste of our driver to per- form these services, and thus, two stalwart men had to be provided to perform the work of one. In many other ways these absurd customs of caste have the same effect; and, as before indicated, : they serve to destroy all enterprise, for a person born in one caste can never rise to another. The population is so dense, however, that labor is exceedingly plenty and cheap, and it has been surmised that many of the absurd rules of caste were designed and prescribed by the ancient APPENDIX. 333 Brahmins to divide labor into many departments, thus furnishing employment for many hands. Labor is so cheap here that every family can, if they wish, have a dozen servants for a less sum than two cost in America. At the hotels in Calcutta each guest is pro- vided with a servant as soon as he arrives, and we had hard work to explain to ours that we did not want them to accompany us up country. This class of servants are generally called “ kitmaghars.” Many of them are Mahomedans, and being exempt from the rules of caste, which so rigidly govern the Hindoos, they are the best servants in the world. They black your boots, brush your. clothes, dust your room, arrange the mosquito netting, turn down the sheets ready for you to get into bed, and almost assist you to close your eyes. After you have retired, they spread their blan- ket on the floor in front of your door, and no one can cross the threshold without stepping over their body. This, at first, seems strange to an American, who is in the habit of doing everything for himself, but I soon became accustomed to it, and when I left India missed these little attentions almost as much, I fancy, as would one long resident there. People all take their servants with them when they travel, and a very low rate is provided for their transportation by the railroad companies, and for their board by the hotels. One of the queer institutions of Calcutta is the “ Great East- ern Hotel and Merchandise Company, Limited.” As indicated by the name, the company carries on both a hotel and a merchandise business. The structure covers a large area, the first floor being occupied as a sort of general store or bazaar, in which one can find almost everything, either for the inner or outer man—or woman. I thought that I had seen a large variety in some of our American stores, but I certainly never saw such a jumble of dry-goods, both for male and female wear, millinery, carpets, boots and shoes, hats and caps, toys and notions, jewelry, groceries, provisions, and confectionery, as is collected in the warerooms of the “Great Eastern Hotel and Merchandise Company, Limited.” The upper stories of this immense building are occupied as a hotel, and, as usual, when avocations of such a totally different character are mixed up with each other, it is not very well-managed. Indeed, I have not seen a good hotel in India. Englishmen are not cele- 334 COFFEE. brated for keeping good hotels anywhere. The best English hotels are clean, and English servants, on an average, much better than those we have in America, but the table does not compare favorably with that of other countries. Speaking of service, it is probable that the good servants which are found in India are largely made so by the thorough drilling they receive at the hands of the English residents. An Englishman likes, and will have, good personal service if it can be obtained, and the Indian ser- vants, in most cases, are carefully drilled, and are used to exacting masters. Indeed, in some cases they are treated in a very over- bearing manner, a curious evidence of which is a notice that was posted up in the “Lord Lytton” hotel at Delhi, as follows: “Visitors will be good enough not to strike the hotel servants; any complaints made against them will be attended to.” At Caleutta I first saw the skins of animals used for holding water—the old water-skins of Scripture. Goat-skins are principally used for this purpose, the skin being stripped from the animal as far as the neck, where it is tied, as are also the legs. It is then sewed up tightly, and holds water without leaking. The streets are all watered here by men who carry the water in these skins slung over their shoulders, and spurt the water from a nozzle at the neck. In other parts of India they use the skins of young bullocks for the same purpose, but these being large, and contain- ing a considerable quantity of water, are slung over the backs of other bullocks, like pack-saddles, one on each side, and in this way, in districts where water is scarce, it is sometimes conveyed long distances. A feature of Calcutta, also, are the kites and crows; the latter are somewhat smaller than the American crow, and instead of being jet-black, the breast and back are of a greenish blue. They fairly swarm throughout the city, are apparently never molested - by the inhabitants, and are the sauciest creatures imaginable, fre- quently flying in at windows and carrying off not only food, but other small articles which attract their attention. The kites, a species of hawk, a little larger than our American crow, are also very plentiful, and, together with the crows, act the part of scavengers; at times the whole firmament seems dotted with these birds flying overhead. Here and there also we see an enormous APPENDIX. 835 stork, known as the “adjutant bird,” sitting or standing upon the roofs of the houses, and gazing with the utmost dignity at the scene below. From Calcutta I crossed India by rail. The terminus of the East Indian Railway on the Howrah side of the Hooghly, with its many tracks, reminds one of the Pennsylvania road at Phila- delphia. The ascent from the coast is very gradual, and there is much sameness in the landscape for several hundred miles. A novel feature, that I note as we fly along, is the telegraph poles, which are mostly made of iron, although here and there is a shaft of granite, which serves as an intermediate stretcher for the wires. The stations, many of them, are covered with the beautiful morn- ing-glory creeper, which grows here in great luxuriance over trel- lised-walls and buildings, presenting a very beautiful appearance, and furnishing a grateful shade. Here and there I saw threshing- floors, a hard, smooth, circular piece of ground, upon which sheaves of unthreshed grain are thrown and cattle driven round and round upon it—the veritable old threshing-floors of Scripture—and I noticed that none of the cattle were muzzled, although it is not probable that the scriptural law, “Thou shalt not muzzle the ox,” ete., is known and obeyed here. Everywhere also I saw irrigation- wells, from which oxen were raising, by means of a pulley and huge leathern bucket, water for irrigating the surrounding plain. In the south also I saw this being done by men, sometimes half a dozen at once being perched high in the air upon enormous well-sweeps, upon which they scrambled backward and forward, alternately raising and depressing the long end of the sweep, and raising the water by means of their weight acting on the sweep asalever. It seems strange that they should not have utilized wind-power for this purpose, when windmills are so successfully used elsewhere. I made my first stop at Benares, the holy city of the Hin- doos. This is perhaps one of the most interesting points in India —a great city, situated on the banks of the Ganges, containing a large population, a majority of which, it is estimated, are pilgrims who are constantly coming from all parts of India to confess their sins before the celebrated gods, and to wash them away in the waters of the river, which are also esteemed sacred. Almost 3836: COFFEE. everything is worshipped here: idols, cattle, pigeons, monkeys, and the river itself. It is said that there are upward of two thousand five hundred temples in the city, including those of the Buddhists, Mahomedans, and the various sects of the Hindoos, the latter of which are completely filled with idols of all sorts and sizes, mostly springing, however, from the parent gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. One temple is devoted entirely to monkeys, of which we saw a hundred or more chasing each other over the walls and cutting up a variety of “monkey shines.” In other temples and on the streets and “ ghats ” (steps leading down to the river) are quantities of cattle, which roam hither and thither at their own free will, feeding on the offerings of the pilgrims— which evidently keep them in the best possible condition—and leading what must be an ideal animal life; for, instead of bear- ing the burdens of the human race, and often coming to an untimely end to serve as food for them, they here lead a lazy, well-fed existence to the end of their days. Pigeons also, are esteemed sacred, and are provided for in the same way. Indeed, I believe, according to the Hindoo religion, all animal life is sacred, and certain it is that orthodox Hindoos subsist entirely upon a vegetable diet. There can hardly be a more picturesque scene than to take a boat and float down the Ganges, its upper banks lined with temples and the residences of the wealthier classes, and lower down with “ ghats,” or steps, where the people come down to bathe and drink. According to the Hindoo belief, the waters of the Ganges wash away all sins, and the banks of the river are constantly lined with people bathing and praying. In the early morning the women come, almost before it is light, timidly veiling their faces from the gaze of the passers-by, and after performing their ablutions retire to make room for others. In the winter-time it is not by any means comfortable, for in this latitude in India the climate is quite cold, and the morning we floated down the river it was freezing. Yet I saw crowds of, men and women dipping themselves in the water, saying their prayers with chattering teeth, and carrying away their small brass vessels filled with the sacred water, which the pilgrims carry with them to their homes,even to the farthermost parts of India. One of the ghats is set apart for the burning of dead bodies, which is APPENDIX. 337 the disposition that the Hindoos make of their dead all over India, and here, after they are consumed, their ashes, or a portion of them, are thrown upon the bosom of the sacred river to float away to the Hindoo paradise, whither they believe its waters proceed ; and ever after, at stated periods, wreaths of flowers are thrown into the river as offerings to the spirits of the departed dead. Here was an opportunity to see cremation practically illus- trated, and, landing from the boat, I stood by while the cere- mony proceeded. Some of the funeral pyres were just dying out, others were in full blaze, others were just being formed, the method of which is to first place several layers of dry wood in such a way that it will burn freely and at the same time afford a resting-place for the body, which is wrapped in several folds of cotton-cloth, and carefully laid upon its wooden bed; over it are again placed several layers of wood, and the torch is applied by the oldest surviving male of the family, the members of which stand by and watch the flames curling up through the pile. There does not seem to be much sentiment involved in this cere- mony, and we saw no manifestation of emotion. Indeed, the hired attendants seemed to look at it in much the same business light that our sextons do, for, as the piles burned down and the bodies were partially consumed, they pounded them into the embers with long sticks in the most unfeeling way. I never realized the force of “Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return” so forcibly as when I saw one of these calcined skulls crumble into ashes. But, after all, my impression was that this is a very sensible way to dispose of the dead, and my opinion of cremation is decidedly better than it was potaee: From Benares I proceeded to Agra, one of the capitals of the Mogul emperors, and which, three hundred years ago, was said to be a beautiful city. Now the native city is composed of a “collection of squalid, dirty mud-huts, while the European portion contains a considerable number of substantial private bungalows, together with a few tolerably good public buildings. In the suburbs, however, within a circle of five miles or more, are the structures which have made Agra, as well as the reign of the Mogul emperors, famous. Of these the “Taj Mahal,” or Tomb of Banoo Begum, Sultana of the Emperor Shah Jehan, is the 22 338 COFFEE, . most celebrated. It is a beautiful structure of white marble, constructed in an octagonal form, and occupying a square of one hundred and eighty feet upon a raised platform, also of white marble, four hundred feet square. At each corner of this plat- form is a graceful minaret, said to be two hundred feet high, while on the right and left of the platform, at a distance of per- haps three hundred feet, is constructed a mosque, apparently as outworks for the Taj, and constituting, in an architectural sense, a sort of frame for the central structure. This is certainly very beautiful, although it hardly justifies the enraptured descriptions which many travellers have written. The Italian workers in marble of the same era have produced work as fine, and the inlaid work is evidently after the Florentine school, probably executed under the tuition of Florentine masters. The central dome rises two hundred and sixty feet, and directly beneath this are situated the sarcophagi of Banoo Begum and her husband, Shah Jehan. These are also white marble, and upon them are most elaborately carved texts from the Koran. They are also inlaid with malachite, topaz, jasper, garnet, cornelian, and other precious stones, in the Florentine style. The chamber directly below these contains the real sarcophagi, which hold the remains, and which are much plainer in execution than those above. The whole structure is more or less inlaid with colored marbles, and on the main floor there are a number of beautifully carved white-marble screens. It is said that the building of the entire structure oceupied twenty thousand men for eighteen years. More extensive in its plan, and more massive than this, but not so beautiful, is the tomb of the Emperor Akbar, or Ukbur, the greatest of the Mogul dynasty. ‘The enclosure in which it is built at Sikundra, several miles from ‘the Taj, is surrounded with enormous walls four miles in extent, enclosing a perfect square, in the centre of which is constructed what is called a tomb. It is composed of four stories, or plat- forms, of ‘red sandstone, supported by pillars of the same mate: rial, and-on the top of these is built a fifth of white marble, which was originally covered by a dome, but is now open to the air. In the centre of this space is a marble sarcophagus contain- ing the ashes of Akbar. The walls surrounding this story are filled with elaborately carved: marble screens,. but none of this APPENDIX. 339 work compares in fineness with that of the Taj. Within the walls of the fort, nearer the present city, are what remains of the palace, interesting as illustrating the life of Mogul royalty in those days, but containing little fine workmanship compared with the Taj. “ Fuhttepore Sikra,” twenty-two miles west of Agra, also con- tains some fine illustrations of the architecture of the period. It was built by the Emperor Akbar as a sort of imperial suburb, was six miles in circumference, and enclosed by a high embrasured wall of red sandstone. This fortification, with its lofty Saracenic gate, still remains in a tolerable state of repair, but the elegant structures enclosed within this space are now in ruins. A little more than one hundred miles to the northwest from ‘Agra is Delhi, another capital of the Mogul empire, with a fort, palace, and other structures remaining, which give one a fuller idea of the magnificence of the Mogul dynasty than do those at Agra. It was here that the famous “Peacock Throne” was erected, in the construction of which Shah Jehan is said to have expended six millions of pounds sterling, or thirty millions of dol- lars. The audience-chamber in which this was placed is a mag- nificent room, and bears the architect’s inscription, which Moore has made familiar to all the world in “ Lalla Rookh:” “If there ‘be an elysium on earth, it is this.” While one cannot but be im- pressed with the magnificence of the works of the Mogul em- perors, yet it is probable that their wealth and power have been vastly over-estimated, and that the resources of their empire were ‘largely expended in building magnificent tombs and ‘palaces, while the material interests of the country were left to languish. The wealth that in most of the countries of the earth is now dif- ‘fused among the people, was then concentrated in the hands of royalty and its favorites, while the people were miserably poor. Some chroniclers have stated that the Taj was built by forced labor, and that the laborers and artisans received only a scanty allowance of food in lieu of wages; that the mortality among them was very great, and a satirical couplet was composed at the time, to the effect that the memory of Banoo Begum ought to be green, for it was watered by the tears of thousands. Travellers in ‘all ages have been apt to accept a single work or class of works as 340 COFFEE. evidence of the civilization and progress of theage in which they were constructed, and then build up a framework of theory, which, although plausible, is often not well founded. Much “history” has been written in this way, and books of travel are full of high- flown’ writing and descriptions that will not bear analysis by dis- passionate and impartial critics. It is so much easier to “soar” in describing an admirable work, than it is to quietly appreciate it and describe it in plain language. This is especially true of pro- fessional writers, who feel bound, perhaps, to make or keep a repu- tation for “fine writing,” as well as to give an equivalent for the sums received for their articles. A magnificent glamour of ro- mance has thus been thrown around oriental life which is as false as possible. Oriental life, as it has appeared to me, is founded upon ignorance, cruelty, and license. Luxury it may have for a few, but poverty, dirt, and misery are certainly the patrimony of the many. . Modern Delhi is the chief city of Northern India, possesses considerable commerce, and is a sort of entrepot between the northern and central provinces of India. At the time we were there it was just beginning to fill up with the visitors to the grand assemblage at which Queen Victoria was to be proclaimed Em- press of India. Its streets exhibited a queer medley, locomotion _ being provided for with elephants, camels, horses, buffaloes, bul- locks, and donkeys. Its bazaars were filled with the gorgeous shawls of Cashmere and the embroideries and jewelry for the manufacture of which Delhi is famous. Native artists, who copy photographs exquisitely upon ivory, abound, and jugglers, who perform marvellous tricks of conjuring, importune you to witness their exhibitions. The guide, or “valet de place,” is also an in- stitution that flourishes marvellously well in Delhi, and one who attached himself to our fortunes, was worthy of description. A sleek, oily little man, who glided rather than walked, and who exhibited marvellous testimonials as to the value of his services from former patrons. I have seen thrifty commissionaires both before and since, but I never saw one with such a talent for turn- ing “an honest penny” as this fellow. Bishesh Arnath stands at the head of his profession in this respect. Of course we knew he was making his commission on every carriage we hired and on APPENDIX. 341 every purchase that we made, but it was not until we took an elephant ride, that we found out the full depth and breadth of Bishesh Arnath’s capacity in this respect. Here we detected him actually stealing half the money which we gave him to purchase food for our elephants, leaving the poor brutes half starved and us wondering at their unamiability of temper. At first I was eager for his arrest and strongly resolved to make an example of him, but friends from Delhi, who had accompanied us on the excursion, took it quite as a matter of course, and advised us to pass it quietly by as a native characteristic. This we did, but when, at our departure, he came cringing for a certificate or re- commendation, we in a manner “got square” with him by writing the following in his book, with which he was delighted, and left us, promising to show it to every American traveller with whom he came in contact: ‘ Bishesh Arnath has acted as guide for us in Delhi and vicinity for several days. He is a man after our own heart, and has acted with us on the principles which have guided us through life. He knows all the best shops, and under- stands ‘ addition, division, and silence.’ In short, he belongs to our school of humanity, and we heartily recommend him to all who wish to deal with men of like progressive stamp. : (Signed) Here we filled in the names of two most notorious public char- acters of America, one of whom is now in prison, it is to be hoped permanently, and the other, in the opinion of many people, deserves to be. In connection with the names, all Americans will quickly understand the character of Bishesh Arnath, and I hope that it may protect other travellers from his little schemes. OUR TIGER HUNT. Onur tiger hunt, by the way, was not a success. Of course a visit to India without a tiger hunt would be Hamlet with the chief part left out, and when I arrived in India the most prominent feature of my slumbers were dreams of killing “man-eating” tigers by the score, and chief among my avocations during the 342 COFFEE. day was the making of inquiries as to where this sport could be had in perfection. Through friends in Delhi I finally secured the necessary presentation to the Maharajah, or native ruler, of a neighboring province, to whom I am indebted for this experi- ence. In order to make it intelligible to your readers, I shall have to preface it with a little account of the habits of tigers and the differ- ent ways of hunting them. Native hunters, or “Shikaras,” recog- nize, more or less, three kinds of tigers. One, the regular game- killing tiger, “ Zodhia bagh,” as he is called, is retired in his habits, living chiefly among the hills, retreating readily from man, and altogether a very harmless animal. He is a light-made beast, very active and enduring, and from this, as well as his shy- ness, difficult to bring to bay. The “cattle-lifter ” is usually an older and heavier animal, called “ Oontia bagh,” from his faintly striped coat resembling the color of a camel, quite fleshy, and in- disposed to severe exertion. In the cool season he follows the herds of cattle wherever they go to graze, or locates himself in some strong cover close to the water in the neighborhood, where the cattle are taken to drink and to graze on the greener herbage found by the side of streams. The third is the regular “man- eater,” who, it appears, does not take naturally to this diet, but is usually driven to make a beginning by stress of circumstances, such as being an old tiger with worn-down teeth that require ten- derer morsels than bullocks, or a tigress with cubs, that cannot conveniently carry a bullock long distances to-her lair. Both of these causes frequently produce man-eaters, and once they have acquired a taste for human flesh nothing else satisfies them. There are also three ways of hunting them. One is to watch in a tree near a dead carcass which has been killed during the day, and to which the tiger usually returns after sundown to feed upon. An- other way is to hunt them in their covers on a single elephant trained for this purpose, and this, with experienced hunters, is usually the most successful, but it is only undertaken during the hot weather. A third way is to beat them out of their midday retreat with a strong gang of natives, known as “beaters,” sup- plied with drums, fireworks, etc., the sportsmen themselves being posted on elephants or other points of vantage at the likeliest APPENDIX. 343 spots ahead. The latter was the kind of an entertainment which was reserved for us. Our party was most hospitably received by the Maharajah, who upon being informed that two of us were American gentlemen, who had come fifteen thousand miles to enjoy a tiger hunt, made immense preparations for a battue. The “Shikari,” or professional hunter, of some of the villages in the neighborhood was sum- moned ; his services, together with those of several hundred natives, commanded, and all the necessary preparations made. After a sumptuous repast we retired to our beds for the night, with visions of driving whole herds of tigers before us, and slaughtering them as we would rabbits at home. My hopes were so high and my imagination so excited by the novel situation that I must confess I was rather restless that night; but finally morning came, and with it the inspection of the preparations. Three elephants stood caparisoned with rude “howdahs,” while a fourth bore the impos- ing trappings of the Maharajah; this was “for the two American gentlemen,” upon whom the Maharajah was evidently determined. to make an impression, while the others were occupied by the rest of the party, and, as we afterward discovered, were considered more secure and better adapted for the sport. We learned that a “ shoul- der-of-mutton” shaped piece of jungle, or bottom land, had been selected for the beat, and had already been surrounded by the na- tives who were to drive it, and after hastily partaking of a break- fast we mounted our elephants and set off for the neck, or locality where the river on one side and the high bluff on the other brought the jungle to a narrow point. Here we arrived at about ten o’clock, and the elephants were ranged in a V-shape, at dis- tances of perhaps one hundred yards, extending completely across the neck. Here we waited for a long time without hearing any noise or manifestation of the beat, and we began to think that there had been some misunderstanding, and that, after all, we were to have no sport. Messengers were despatched to see what was: the cause of the delay, and to try and expedite matters. Finally . we began to hear a distant sound of “tom-toms,” or native drums, together with an occasional shot. Then the “mahouts” (drivers) of our elephants drew more carefully into line, and all of us grew very attentive to the possibility of soon seeing a tiger. Nearer 344 COFFEE. and nearer came the noise, until we could hear the shouts of the beaters and realize the fact that, whatever else they were doing, they were kicking up a most unearthly rumpus. The first live thing we saw was a pair of peafowl that came running by, but, of course, we disdained this game when larger sport was in prospect. Then came half a dozen “ Sambars,” or spotted deer, out, of range for us, but quite near the elephant of one of our Delhi friends, who could not resist so fair a shot, and fired, knocking over one of them handsomely, and wounding another with a second shot from his breechloader before getting out of range. Whether or not this had anything to do with preventing our seeing any tigers I cannot say, but certain it is that these were all we saw in the way of game, and we were soon surrounded with the army of half- naked beaters upon whom had devolved the chief labor of the hunt. No other promising territory, the Shikari declared, was available, and therefore nothing remained but for us to make a present to the beaters and return to the Maharajah’s palace, ana- thematizing the Shikari for not having found us a tiger, and in- dulging in some sceptical observations as to the existence of tigers in India anyway. The only satisfaction that we derived from the trip was a photograph of ourselves as we appeared on our ele- phant, when we returned, with our bloodthirsty firearms, which consisted of a double rifle and a cavalry carbine, displayed in full view. This was “a present” to us from the Maharajah’s photo- grapher as a souvenir of our trip, but we found that presents in this country were given with an expectation of more valuable ones in return, and our photographs, after all, proved rather costly. However, our welcome was cordial, our entertainment quite princely, and the trouble taken on our behalf by our Delhi friends something extraordinary ; so we perhaps ought not to grumble, but we did come away somewhat under the impression that tiger hunting in India was a delusion, if not a snare, and that the number of the royal beasts in India had been grossly ex- aggerated. Still, that they exist in considerable numbers is proved by a copy of the Government Blue Book, which I came across in Bom- bay, in which appears the following passage : “One extraordinary feature of Indian life is the number of - APPENDIX. 345 human beings destroyed by wild beasts. Rewards are offered by the Government for the killing of these animals, but in some dis- tricts the loss of life is very great, and in others, where it is less excessive, the reason is given that cattle are very abundant, and afford more accessible food for carnivorous animals. In 1872-73 there were 2,334 deaths from snake-bites and wild beasts in the Bombay Presidency. The inhabitants of the border between jun- gle and cultivation are killed and eaten by tigers in such numbers as to require the immediate and serious attention of Government, both in India and in England. The following are a few out of many instances: A single tigress caused the destruction of 18 villages, and 250 square miles of country were thrown out of cul- tivation. Wild beasts frequently obstruct Government survey parties. In 1869 one tigress killed 127 persons and stopped a public road for many weeks. ' Man-eating tigers are causing a great loss of life along the whole range of the Nali-Mali forest. One is said to have destroyed more than 100 people. In Lower Bengal alone, in a period of six years, 13,401 people were killed by wild beasts. The Chief Commissioner of the Central Prov- inces, in his report, shows the following return of human beings killed by tigers: Tr ASCO OG ss ctss as ssca's Sysccens ae: y dcaceioreiaen eh PorsmenstAae e-em aca Roa iat 372 Titi BBG 72GB oa 5 as zie bcs esky eal OS. dads ares ww ahiesa hace ods oleae Glas Shake 289 Tir 186869 viv civiciaraiesoieieteceteteie ote erersiord apa enazerdeararalegretalerdieiate' es mrniere 285 Total in three VeaTSsis vses cscs deveveaseiacesceecsaneses 946 It appears that there are difficulties in the way of killing down these tigers; first, the superstition of the natives, who regard the man-eating tiger as a kind of incarnate and spiteful divinity, whom it is dangerous to offend ; secondly, the failures of the Government rewards ; thirdly, the desire of a few in India actually to preserve tigers as game, to be shot with the rifle as a matter of sport. Mr. Frank Buckland suggests an organized destruction of the tiger cubs in the breeding season, and the attraction of full-grown tigers to traps, pitfalls, and other. devices, by means of a drug of vale- rian, of which tigers, which are only gigantic cats, are exceedingly fond.” 346 COFFEE. So, after reading this report, I could not but again believe in the existence of tigers in India. I had thought to remain in Delhi during the Imperial as- semblage, but found that this would make too great an inroad upon my time, and I therefore was obliged to forego this spec- tacle—another disappointment. Proceeding to Bombay by rail, I found it a bustling, business- like city, with even more imposing public buildings than those of Calcutta. From the Biculla side of the harbor it looks like a veritable city of palaces. Bombay is the home of vast numbers of the Parsee merchants, whose shrewdness and enterprise have made their name known throughout the commercial world. Speak- ing of names, they can “lay over” anything that I have seen or heard elsewhere, except, perhaps, Ceylon, a specimen of whose names I gave in a former letter. But I am not certain that Bombay, for irregular, right-angled jaw-breakers, does not even take the palm from Ceylon. I append herewith a couple of brief slips which I cut from one of the Bombay papers while there, and _I can assure you that these are not exceptional, either in length or sonorousness : “H. H. Tukhtsingjee, the young Thakore of Bhownuggur;. Rawal Shri Hurrisingjee, a Chief of Sehore, and Mr. Gowreeshun- ker Oodeyshunker, one of the Joint Administrators of the State, leave Bhownuggur for Bombay, en route to Delhi, on the 5th inst.” “Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, Bart., O.S.L., with his three sons, will leave for Delhi on Thursday next.” Comment is unnecessary. I mentioned that Bombay was a bustling, busy city. It has been made so by the railway system of India and the Suez Canal. Twenty years ago Bombay was only a port of opium export and a way station on the overland route to India. After the mutiny. the Government system of railroads was undertaken, and during our American war Bombay became the entrepot for the cotton trade of India, which has grown to be very large. On the com- pletion of the Suez Canal many lines of steamers were established. between Bombay and England, and within the last ten years the city has quite outrun Calcutta in the importance of its trade. The. manufacturing of cotton goods for Indian consumption has been APPENDIX. 347 begun on a large scale, twenty or more factories of large capacity being now in full operation and strongly competing with Man- chester, not only forthe trade of Hindostan, but also for that of British Burmah, the Straits Settlements, and China.’ Indian cot- ton manufacturers say that there is a bright future before them, and, if this be true, taken in connection with the increased ability of American cotton manufacturers to compete with English cotton spinners for the rest of the markets of the world, I do not see what the latter are going to do. They certainly will have to open. up Central Africa, and educate the negroes up to the necessity of wearing cotton breech-cloths, or the manufacturers of Manchester will have to go to the wall. FROM BOMBAY TO EGYPT. This part of my trip, for heat and discomfort, had the worst reputation of any. In China it was hot, but I was told: “Wait till you get to the Red Sea before you begin to com- plain.” At Singapore and in Java I was told the same thing, and, while sweltering in Southern India, with the thermometer at upwards of 100° in the shade, I was consoled with the informa- tion that I “would find it much hotter on the Red Sea.” So, when we sailed from Bombay, I got out my thinnest clothing, and prepared for a scorcher. From Bombay to Aden, the port of call and coaling station for most of the steamers plying between India and Europe, it is 1,664 miles, and from Aden to Suez, through the Red Sea, 1,308 miles; making a total of 2,972 miles. Seven days on the steamer Trinacria, of the Anchor Line, with delight- ful weather, and scarcely an incident except the occasional passing of ships and flights of flying-fish, brought us to Aden. The coast, as we approached this place, is the most sterile and forbidding that can be imagined ; of volcanic origin, with scarcely a drop of rain falling throughout the whole year, not a blade of verdure is to be seen, and its successive mountains resemble more than any- thing else a series of gigantic ash-heaps. Aden itself has a pretty 348 COFFEE. little harbor, but it is the dreariest place imaginable. Not a tree or a shrub is to be seen excepting a few little dwarfs in the yards of the Europeans who are compelled to reside here, and these have a stunted, sickly look, which tells plainly that their existence is not a natural one. The water for the use of the inhabitants of the place, and calling ships, is distilled from sea water, and sold at the rate of about two cents per gallon. There are traditions that rain formerly fell here in sufficient quantities, and ancient reservoirs still exist which were constructed for the purpose of holding the sup- ply of water through the dry season. Now, however, it does not rain once in six months, and then only a few drops at a time; and yet, with all these drawbacks, the place has some commerce. Considerable quantities of Arabian coffee find their way from Mocha and other places along the Arabian and Berberian coasts to this point, and minor items, such as dates, figs, ostrich feathers and eges, leopard skins, etc., are also dealt in here in a small way. As soon as a steamer casts anchor she is boarded by half a dozen or more Arab ostrich feather venders, who, in their demands, are as much worse than Chatham Street Jews as the latter are worse than respectable dealers. Twenty, thirty, fifty rupees are de- manded for a bunch of feathers, which they will sell at eight or ten if they cannot get more. It cannot be said that they are smart in this, for the asking of absurd prices at once places even the most verdant purchaser upon his guard, and leads to offers that are as much to the other extreme. Little Berber boys come off to the ship in the tiniest and lightest of wooden dug-out canoes, and dive for pennies which the passengers throw into the water for them, catching them ere they have a chance to sink to the bottom ; for five or ten cents in silver they dive clean under the ship, coming up on the other side. It is an amusing thing to see three or four of these little chaps plunge from their canoes at the same instant after a coin, the nearest of them going down almost perpendicularly, with the white soles of their feet—the only spots of light color about them—moving like fishes’ fins, and alone being visible. Those that area little farther off go down like an arrow at an angle of perhaps forty-five degrees, meeting with the others at the bottom, and the strongest of them generally coming up with the coin. The reluctance with which the smaller ones APPENDIX. 349 competed when the larger ones were around led us to think that they did not always receive fair play, or, as a youngster on board of our ship remarked to his father: “I believe that big fellow hammers the little chaps under the water ”—another illustration of the proverb that “might makes right,” and that “ Providence is on the side which has the heaviest artillery.” Down, or rather up the Red Sea, about one hundred and twenty miles from Aden, in the direction of Suez, is the little port of Mocha, which furnishes the trade name for most of the Arabian coffee, which is held in such high estimation in the mar- kets of the world. As before noted, this coffee is now mostly sent coastwise to Aden, and reshipped from there upon passing steam- ers. Another example of fashion in trade is found here in the fact that Europe takes the larger beans, while the American demand is wholly for the smaller ones. So the coffee is carefully picked over, and only the small, uniform-sized beans, put up in a peculiar style, known to the trade. as one-eighth, one-fourth, and one-half bales, are sent to the United States. This coffee by itself has a pe- culiarly sharp, almost acrid flavor, and when drunk alone will suit very few palates, it being much better when mixed with three parts of Java, or other mild coffee, to one of Mocha. I had always thought that the far-famed Turkish coffee was made exclu- sively from the Arabian berry ; but, to my surprise, I found, when in Constantinople, this to be quite the reverse of true, most of the coffee used there coming from India and Ceylon. But I am getting ahead of my story. Six days up the Red Sea brought us to Suez and the eastern entrance of the great canal of that name—the greatest commercial, if not the greatest engi- neering undertaking of modern times—an undertaking which has shortened the distance to India and points in the East from four to five thousand miles, and in six years has more than doubled the commercial steam fleet to Europe. I had no idea whatever of the magnitude of this trade until, in passing through the Red Sea, we met steamers almost hourly, sometimes three or four being in sight at the same time, and in looking over acopy of the London Times I found announcements of seventeen different lines of steamers passing through the Suez Canal to India and the East, some of these lines having weekly departures, and representing 350 COFFEE, many millions of dollars capital. While most persons are, doubtless, familiar with the main facts in connection with this great work, a review of history is sometimes interesting, and I will give a few facts and figures in relation to it. To Monsieur de Lesseps, the world is indebted both for the con- ception and execution of this work. Appointed French Consul in Egypt in 1831, after some years’ residence in that country, M. de Lesseps became possessed with the idea of cutting a canal from the Mediterranean across the desert to the Red Sea, a distance of some eighty nautical, or about one hundred English miles. It was not till 1854, however, that the co-operation of the Egyptian Government was secured, and in November of that year the final concession was granted to M. de Lesseps. A company was formed, and a subscription to the stock opened in November, 1858. A large share of the subscriptions was reserved for English capital- ists, but England stood aloof, and took no interest in the enter- prise, although, if a success, the greatest benefit must inure to her. Twenty-five thousand French subscribers at once came forward, -and these, with the aid of the Egyptian Government, insured the construction of the canal. The estimated cost of construction was atfirst twenty millions of dollars. The difficulties in the way gradu- ally increased, until the estimated cost became forty millions of dollars, and, before the opening, the expenditure was seventy-five millions, and at this date has exceeded eighty millions, or about four times the original estimate, notwithstanding that the country through which the canal is constructed is peculiarly favor- able for such a work, there being little or no rock-cutting, and the sand-hills in no place being more than forty feet high ; while for about half the distance shallow lakes or lagoons could be utilized by merely dredging. An idea of the magnitude of the work, however, can be formed from the fact that, although prosecuted with the greatest energy, it took ten years to accomplish it. Besides the actual. work on the canal, there was the commence- ‘ment indispensable for the workmen; sheds and buildings for an army of men were necessary, and a supply of fresh water in the desert. To insure the latter, water was first carried from Zagazig through fifty miles of wilderness in skins on the backs of three thousand camels and donkeys, while two years later APPENDIX. 351 one thousand two hundred Egyptians opened a canal from Lake Maxima, which brought the waters of the Nile to Ismailia. During low water, however, in this river the supply failed, and finally, in 1864, the Viceroy of Egypt threw no fewer than eighty thousand men into the deepening and extension of the fresh water canal, so as to secure a supply at all stages of the Nile. At the cutting of the canal at El Guisar in 1862 and 1863, there were eighteen thousand laborers employed. For these tene- ments had to be erected, and a saw-mill was kept in constant operation. At one time there were thirteen thousand eight hun- dred barrows on the ground. At lake Timsah, one of the shallow bodies of water which were utilized in the construction of the canal, and on the banks of which the company’s capital (Ismailia) now stands, there were two hundred and eighty-five dredging machines at work with a force equal to eighteen thousand horses, and consuming twelve thousand tons of coal per month. Port Said, the Mediterranean entrance to the canal is a creation of this work. In 1859, when the first spadeful of sand was turned for the canal, it did not exist; in 1861 it had two thousand in- habitants ; in 1872, eight thousand six hundred, of whom four thousand two hundred were foreigners. A commodious harbor and basin for the accommodation of shipping has been created. Thirty-five miles of the canal are subject to sand-drifting, and sand barriers are erected somewhat similar to the snow fences along the line of our Pacifi¢ Railroad. The town of Suez, the Red Sea terminus of the canal, contains about thirteen thousand in- habitants, ten thousand of whom are Egyptians, Turks, and Arabs, and the balance principally Europeans. Extensive accommoda- tion has also been here provided for shipping, and Suez is almost as much a creation of the canal as Port Said. The cost of the con- struction and maintenance of the canal has been so great that as yet it has not paid interest upon its cost; but the traffic through it is increasing so rapidly, that hopes are entertained of its soon doing so. Its importance to the world, however, is so great that no fears need ever be entertained that it will not be maintained in an efficient condition. As an evidence of the great increase in its use, the following tables, showing the number of vessels and tonnage passing 352 COFFEE. through the canal during the years from 1870 to and including 1879, will prove interesting : ‘ YEAR, aomibes oe Tons YzEAR. Rien se Tons. 486 435,911 || 1875......... 1,494 2,940,708 765 761,467 || 1876..... eee} 1,457 3,072,107 1,082 1,489,169 || 1877 * ....... 1,663 8,418,949 ~ 1,173 2,085,072 || 1878,........ 1,593 3,291,535 1,264 2,423,672 || 1879..... gennel ATT 3,236,942 Navigation, by flags, through the Suez Canal for the year ending 3 ee December 31, 1877. Flag. sali Tons, Flag. solnin Na Tons, British........ 1,291 1,760,785 || Egyptian... .. v4 4,934 French ...... c 85 152,793 || American .... 3 2,152 Dutch........ 63 88,198 || Portuguese... 2 1.908 Austrian...... 46 71,102 |! Belgian...... 2 1,762 Italian ....... 58 60,661 || Swedish ..... 3 1,696 German....... 41 40,501 || Brazilian... .. 1 555 Spanish....... 21 34,131 || Turkish...... 1 val Danish...... it 5 15,728 Norwegian.... 12 18,577 Total..... 1,641 2,250,554 By this it will be seen that about 78 per cent., both in the num- ber of ships and tonnage, are English, while the United States come in with a beggarly 3, against a total number of 1,641 vessels, and a tonnage of 2,152, against 2,250,554. The canal has become a ne- cessity to great Britain, and a convenience to the whole world. That the English Government appreciates this is evident from the fact that during 1875 it purchased from the Khedive of Egypt 176,602 of his shares for $20,000,000. It is supposed that this was done in order that in any future opening up of the Eastern question, England might have a commercial claim to the great highway to India. M. de Lesseps, in a circular issued by him to the company after the purchase, while commenting somewhat bit- terly on the opposition offered by Great Britain, as a nation, to * The figures for the last three years have been supplied to bring the state- ment up to recent date. APPENDIX. 353 the project at its commencement, says: “I therefore regard as a fortunate occurrence this powerful union which is about to be established between French and English capital for the purely in- dustrial and necessarily pacific working of the great maritime canal.” ___ As an indication of the importance of the canal to the tea trade, I may state that, in 1870, 711,000 pounds of tea passed through it for England ; in 1871, 4,010,000 pounds; in 1872, 22,912,000 pounds ; and now nearly the whole crop of both China and India tea destined for consumption in Europe, and a considerable por- tion of that used in the United States, passes through the canal. If these statistics prove anything, they prove that an interna- tional ship canal through the Isthmus of Darien, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, must prove to be of the greatest pos- sible benefit to the whole world, and also that the principal mari- time nations of the earth would find it most profitable to their commercial interests to co-operate in the construction of such a work. Such a work would be too magnificent in its proportions to be undertaken by private enterprise, and it is doubtful if suffi- cient private capital could be mobilized to accomplish it; but by a co-operation of nations it would become a question of a few years, and, under a joint national ownership, it would be an important step in the march of progress, which will, in the near future, give usa universal system of weights and measures, and ultimately a uni- versal language. These anticipations may be looked upon by some as the visions of an enthusiast, but the statesmen of the world are already looking forward to some of them as likely to be accom- plished in the near future, and the construction of the Darien ship canal would be as important a step toward this commercial millennium as the arbitration between England and the United States for the settlement of the Alabama claims was toward the millennium outlined by Tennyson— ‘Till the war-drum throbb’d no longer And the battle-flags were furl’d In the Parliament of man, The Federation of the world.” 23 354 COFFEE, EGYPT AND TURKEY. Many travellers from India to Europe stop at Suez and make ashort tour in Egypt for the purpose of seeing the Pyramids and other interesting antiquities of that wonderful country. This also our party did, and we were well repaid for our trouble. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is situated about midway between Suez on the Red Sea and Alexandria on the Mediterranean; with both of which places there is rail communication. To reach Cairo from Suez, we pass through some fifty miles of sandy des- ert to Zagazig, which is situated on one of the branches of the Nile, which form the delta of that wonderful river; and from this place to Cairo it was one continuous garden, with a succession of rice, cotton, and sugar-cane fields, together with a variety of grains, and dotted here and there with beautiful orange groves. Just below Cairo the Nile spreads out like a fan, distributing its waters through numerous mouths into the Mediterranean at dis- tances the extremes of which are one hundred and fifty miles apart. The whole space between these channels is annually over- flowed, receiving a thin but fertile deposit of soil, which is brought down from the mountains of Africa by the overflowing waters ; and immediately upon their subsiding there springs up a luxuriance of verdure which is probably equalled in no other country on the face of the globe. Cairo is not only the seat of government, but also the empo- rium for the entire trade of the Upper Nile, which is of no mean dimensions. In her bazaars, are found the ivory, and ostrich plumes and eggs of Africa, the tapestries, carpets, and gems of Per- sia, quaint and curious antique arms and armors from Arabia, and a full assortment of European fabrics of every nature. A de- pendency of Turkey and under Turkish rule, it is Oriental in its prominent features, but there is also a blending of the ancient Egyptian and modern European which makes a rare and indeed unique type of civilization. One of the features which strike a stranger forcibly upon arriving here is that locomotion is largely performed upon donkeys. Diminutive creatures that a person would hardly think could carry the weight of a child may be seen APPENDIX. 355 trotting through the streets bearing a six-foot specimen of hu- manity, who to alight has only to put his legs down their full length and the donkey trots out from under him. Their braying resounds through the city at all hours of the day and night, and is about as musical as the filing of a saw-mill saw, and not very unlike it, although a friend of mine remarked when I made the comparison, that he thought it was an insult to the saw. I had serious misgivings about bestriding one of these diminu- tive specimens of the animal kingdom, but in justice to the don- key species I must say that I never travelled more expeditiously and comfortably for the money. You extend your right foot over the little beast and draw up your legs, putting your feet into a pair of miniature stirrups; a driver (each donkey has its driver) trots after him on foot, and by dint of switching and punching keeps him up to the requisite degree of speed. One of these little animals will get over an astonishing amount of _ ground in a day, and, barring an occasional tendency to rub your legs against a wall or a passing camel, or to stumble and pitch you into a mud-puddle, this is by no means a bad method of locomotion. Indeed, it is far better and easier than riding upon either camels or elephants, which are much more pretentious members of the animal kingdom, and whose performances in this line have occasionally been greatly lauded. In Cairo, a common name for donkeys is “ Bismarck,” and upon inquiring the origin of this singular name, I found that during the Franco-Prussian war the many French residents of Cairo revenged themselves upon the German statesman by ordering a “ Bismarck” whenever a donkey was required, and the Arab drivers, believing that this was a French name for the animal, finally came to adopt it as a common name. Whenever they saw a foreigner wanting a don- key they would greet him with the inquiry, “Want a Bismarck, master ? Bismarck?” Some German officers, however, who were on a visit to the Pyramids about a year ago, thrashed some of the drivers, and since that time it is said that many of them have studied the law of nations, and now have an idea of the meaning of the word, and are cautious how they use it—particularly with persons having a German type of countenance. Of course we went to see the Pyramids, for every one who B56: COFFEE. » + visits Egypt does that. ‘Before I came here I never knew that’ there were more than three, but standing on the summit of the Pyramid of Cheops one can count a dozen or more, many of them of large size. Indeed, according to the best authorities, most of the principal rulers of ancient Egypt built a Pyramid to com- memorate his reign, and receive his remains. The three Pyra- mids of Ghizeh, however, are the largest and most celebrated. They are situated in the desert, just on the border of the fertile lowlands of the Nile, some eight or ten miles from Cairo; the Pyramid of Cheops is the largest of the three ; it is 445 feet high (formerly 479), and 767 feet square at the base, each of the four angles corresponding to the four points of the compass. They are composed of blocks of rather soft, somewhat chalky limestone, upon an average, perhaps, five or six feet long and three to four feet square; these are arranged in layers, each layer set back from the face of the one below it some three feet, and thus re- treating, if I may use the phrase, in regular progression until they finally reach a point’ at the top—a solid, pyramidal mass of stone, containing so many tons that it almost defies arithmetical calculation to compute them; a mass so durable that they have stood here, according to the best authorities, some four thousand years, looking down upon the rise and fall of dynasties and em- pires, and indeed, witnessing the total wiping out of one of the greatest nations that ever existed, so thoroughly that its civiliza- tion and characteristics are still shrouded in mystery, and in many cases exist only in the conjectures of the learned men of the pres- ent day. The point or apex is some twenty-five feet square, although the magnitude of the structure is such that, looking at it from the bottom, it appears to run up to a point, which chroniclers say it formerly did. Standing upon the summit, one gazes off upon the sand-hills of the desert on the one side, and the fertile valley of the Nile on the other, covered in January with a beautiful velvety green sward, across which, at a distance of ten miles, gleam the white walls of the mosques and minarets of Cairo. Here Napo- leon Bonaparte addressed his troops on the eve of the battle of the Pyramids, telling them that forty centuries looked down upon their deeds that day, and from the summit he watched the tide APPENDIX. B57 of battle ebb and flow, which resulted in the defeat of the hith- erto invincible Mamelukes. This little spot upon the summit of the Pyramid of Cheops has been trodden for centuries by the stu- dents and scientists of all nations. Every stone upon it is carved with the names of persons more or less known to the world, and probably no single spot on the face of the globe—not even the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem—has been visited, viewed, and studied with greater interest. Near the Pyramids of Ghizeh stands the Sphynx, one of the nine wonders of the world, and in Cairo the Government museum of sculptures, mummies, and other remains from the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, furnishes ma- terial for a most interesting study. The ruins of the Upper Nile, for which Cairo is the starting-point, are also most interest- ing, but I was obliged to content myself with a study of these. from a distance. From Cairo we proceeded to Alexandria, the chief seaport of Egypt, over a railroad built by George Stephenson, the rails of which are laid on iron sleepers, and which is said to be the smooth- est running road in the world. The historical associations of Alexandria are most interesting to the tourist, but he looks in vain for the evidences of antiquity with which its history has filled his memory. Here the first light-house was constructed to guide mariners to a safe harbor—the “ Pharos,” and the fame of “Pharos light” has been handed down to all succeeding ages. The Alexandria of to-day is a bustling, modern city, with scarcely anything, excepting Pompey’s Pillar and an Egyptian obelisk known as “ Cleopatra’s Needle,” to testify to its greatness in by- gone ages. As an evidence of an extensive business, however, I may mention that I counted twenty-six steamers lying at its wharves, most of which were busily engaged in taking in or dis- charging cargo, and there was besides to be seen a not insignifi- cant fleet of sailing vessels. From Alexandria we sailed for Constantinople by the way of Smyrna. The latter is the chief commercial city of Turkey in Asia, a curious old town with narrow, dirty streets, teeming with the smells that seem inseparable from Turkish cities. The streets are very narrow and are paved with large stone blocks which are terribly uneven, and make them almost impassable for carriages. 358 COFFEE. Almost everything is transported on the backs of donkeys and camels, which may be seen lumbering through the streets with huge panniers or pack-saddles swung on each side of them and filled with almost every conceivable kind of merchandise. It is a curious and not uninteresting sight for a stranger to see a long train of camels joined together with a rope leading from the nose of one to the saddle of the other, marching in single file through the narrow streets of Smyrna to the wharves, where one by one they are forced to kneel down and receive their burdens, with which they again start off under way to the desert. It is, indeed, a veritable meeting of the “ships of the desert,” with the “ white- winged birds of commerce.” The chief exports of Smyrna are figs, cotton, and carpets, it being the place of manufacture for the celebrated Turkish carpets, which are, indeed, most beautiful and luxurious, and the carpet bazaars of Smyrna are a most seductive place to visit. In Smyrna the Turkish coffee-houses, which are so prominent a feature in Constantinople, are also largely patron- ized. All along the water front they are as thick as are drinking- saloons in West street, New York, and they seem to be filled at all hours with a motley crowd composed chiefly of Turks and Greeks, who are busily engaged in sipping their coffee and taking whiffs from the long, flexible stem of the narghileh, or Turkish pipe. Here our steamer took on board a thousand recruits for the Turkish army, Bashi-Bazouks, or irregular troops bound for Constantinople. They were mostly between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age; stout, athletic fellows, and generally quiet and good-natured; very different in appearance from what one might imagine the demons in human form who perpe- trated the massacres in Bulgaria. Still it is difficult to say what these fellows might do when their blood was up, fighting under the inspiration of a religion which teaches that the most meri- torious act a son of the Prophet can do is to kill “a dog of a Christian.” Most of them were very devout in the observance of their religion; they were “told off” in squads to go forward and pray, and the forecastle deck, the only clear space on board was constantly occupied by half a dozen at a time, kneeling and mumbling their prayers, and making their genuflections or sa- laams toward Mecca. I fancied that in this devotion to their APPENDIX, 359 religion I found the reason for the acknowledged bravery of the Turks in connection with the Koran teaching that every one of the faithful who falls in battle is translated at once to Paradise, where he has any number of beautiful “houris” at disposal to wait upon him and gratify every passion. Is it any wonder that these men fight like demons for the defence or spread of their re- ligion? In my opiniog, it is by no means certain that Russia. would get the best of a contest with Turkey at this time, at least until Turkey’s resources had become exhausted, and hunger and disease had become Russian allies. It is said, however, that the Turks have never expected to permanently remain in Europe, that they have always believed they would sooner or later be expelled, and for many years the Turks of Constantinople have buried most of their dead on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus on that account. Constantinople itself has the most beautiful situation that can be imagined either for commerce or residence, occupying the sloping sides of the Bosphorus—a salt water river, so to speak, connecting the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora; it is fairly divided into two parts by the “ Golden Horn,” an inlet or bay which sweeps up between. Pera and Constantinople proper, Pera being the residence of most of the foreign population and occu- pying about the same relation to Constantinople that Brooklyn does to New York. Approaching the city from the Sea of Marmora, it presents a most beautiful appearance, its great mosques occupying the prin- cipal points of vantage, with their graceful minarets towering high in the air. Little steamers are darting here and there on their way to Scutari (the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus), or the various little villages along its shores; the light and graceful “ ca- iques ” (a species of row-boat) are plying hither and thither, and altogether, the scene is one long to be remembered. A walk through the city, however, dispels the illusion. The streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty, in many places fairly paved with mongrel dogs, which belong to nobody, and lie around under the feet of passers-by with the utmost unconcern, while in almost every uarter one is greeted with odors which are anything but pleas-. ant. The Turkish and Circassian women that one sees, as a rule, 360 COFFEE. are not pretty, and their costumes are ungraceful and enhance their natural ugliness. One looks in vain for the famed Circas- sian beauties, and Turkish society, so far as it is visible to the casual visitor to Constantinople, leaves anything but a favorable impres- : sion. The Turks, as a nation, are licentious, fanatical, cruel, and ignorant, and in my estimation, compare very unfavorably with any other nation pretending to civilization. How ignorant they are, may be inferred from an article in their new Constitution, recently promulgated, which, in providing for a legislative body, or House of Congress, specifies that in order to be eligible to membership, a Turk “ must be able to read, and for a re-election must be able to read, and so far as possible, to write.” GREECE AND HER CURRANT CROP. From Constantinople I went to Greece, with the double pur- pose of seeing the interesting antiquities of that country and in- vestigating some matters connected with the trade in currants. I cannot say that the Isles of Greece, as they appear to the modern eye, fulfil the high expectations which one is apt to form from all that has been written about them in song and story; nor do the modern Greeks look very much as if they had descended from the heroes of Thermopylee or those who fought with Marco Bozzaris. It is said, however, that the depressed condition of Greece to-day is due largely to the misrule of Turkey and the terrible struggles which the Greeks have had with that cruel and barbarous nation in the effort to obtain their independence. I was informed by an intelligent Greek gentleman that since the beginning of this cen- tury more than half a million of Greeks, the flower of Grecian manhood, had fallen in these struggles, besides large numbers of non-combatants who had been put to the sword by their cruel and barbarous opponents, who for many years crushed the Greeks by mere force of numbers, and perpetrated, when victorious, barbari- ties similar to those which have been recently enacted in Bulgaria, which have excited the indignation of the civilized world. More APPENDIX. 361 than half of Greek territory proper is still under Turkish rule, and its inhabitants, in common with the other Christians who constitute a majority of all the inhabitants of Turkey in Europe, barely succeed in existing under a government which, for oppres- sion in taxation, and general tyranny, is not equalled elsewhere on the face of the globe. Whatever the Greek islands may be in summer time, in win- ter they present a rocky, barren, unproductive appearance that is anything but pleasing. I looked in vain for the “eternal sum- mer” which, according to Byron, “gilds them yet,” and longed for access to a good-sized wood-pile or a well-filled coal-box to keep the temperature of my room up to a point where it would be comfortable. It seems, however, that these things are almost un- known in this country, and the people shiver through the cold weather, devoutly praying for the early return of that which is warm enough to make them comfortable. The only tree which grows in Greece to any considerable extent is the olive-tree, and the commercial product of this is too valuable to admit of its being freely used for firewood, while there is no native coal, and the people have very little money to buy that which is imported from other countries. Athens is, of course, the most interesting place to visit, owing to its associations with the past. Indeed, it subsists principally upon these, for the surrounding country produces little that is ex- portable, and it has little or no commerce. It is said, however, to be gradually gaining in population ; the modern part of the city is certainly well built and cleaner than any Eastern city I have visited. The great interest of the place centres in the Acropolis, with its noble old ruins, the sight of which must inevitably stimu- late the appetite of the tourist for ancient history. Here one obtains a glimpse of the art which later, under the Romans, made Italy famous, and which makes her the most attractive field for the tourist, to this day. The currant crop of Greece, the chief item of export, is raised in its westernmost islands and along the shores of the Gulf of Lepanto. Zante was formerly the most important depot for the export of this fruit, but of late years Patras has gradually been gaining in its exports, and is now the centre of this trade, 862 COFFEE. without which Greece would scarcely have any commerce worth mentioning. England is the great market for currants, and Eng- lish plum-puddings are the ultimate destination of by far the greater quantity. The story is told of a-Greek lady who, in con- versation with Sir Charles Napier, spoke of the English appetite for plum-pudding, and remarked: “ We pray heaven your coun- trymen may never lose this taste, ‘for in that event we should all starve.” It is curious that the prosperity of any country should depend upon the production of such an unimportant item in the world’s economy. The Greek currant is really a species of grape, and a currant vineyard looks like any other vineyard, except that the vines are, perhaps, not quite so large, and are set and trimmed a little closer than in an ordinary vineyard. They are propagated from cuttings, which take from two to three years before beginning to bear, and it is five or six years from the time of planting before a vineyard arrives at full bearing, after which it lasts many years. The vines are set in rows four or five feet apart, and about the same distance from each other in the rows; while young they are supported by sticks driven into the proand, and are trimmed and trained on trellises, so as not to grow much above an even height. A curious feature of currant culture is that the vines are girdled each year, being cut entirely around and completely through the bark, at a distance of perhaps one foot from the ground. Such treatment would kill an ordinary plant, and, when this practice was begun, it was prophesied that it would have that effect in course of time; a result that, however, has not been ex- perienced in practice. The object to be attained is to increase the size and quality of the fruit, which is undoubtedly accomplished. The theory, as explained to me, is that the sap rises through the centre of the woody stalk until it reaches the branches, leaves, and fruit, when it returns by the bark or the woody fibre nearest the bark. In its descending course, upon reaching the spot where the plant is girdled, its progress is stopped, and it is obliged to reascend and exhaust itself in the fruit. It is said that not only is the size of the fruit improved by this practice, but the amount of saccharine matter is also largely increased, which is considered a desidera- tum. The quality of the soil, however, has much to do with this, APPENDIX. 363 and different districts vary considerably in this respect. August and September are the months for gathering and curing. The bunches are picked and spread out to dry on little terraces of smoothly compacted earth, sloping toward the west, so as to get the full effect of the afternoon sun. They remain here six or eight days, according to the weather, when they become much dried and shrivelled ; they are then stripped from the stems, and after a further exposure of two or three days, are sufficiently dried to be packed. They are then put into bags and transported to the nearest shipping point, where they are generally sold to the ex- port merchants, and thrown into large piles in their warehouses, from which they are from time to time packed in barrels and shipped as required. Grocers who have seen how closely currants are packed in the barrel might think that it had been done by hydraulic pressure. In point of fact, however, it is done by men’s feet. A man gets into an empty barrel, while another shovels in the currants, the first distributing them and treading them with his bare feet, pressing them and working them in very compactly, and gradually rising until the barrel is full. This cer- tainly does not seem the cleanliest method in the world, but during my travels I have seen dirty operatives wading in the syrup from which the sugar is made, Chinamen treading tea into the chests with their feet, currants packed into barrels by the feet, and. macaroni-dough kneaded with the feet; and I have finally been forced to accept the idea that the man who said “ we were bound to eat our peck of dirt anyway” had a deep insight not only into human nature, but also into the various processes by which the food is prepared with which the human body is sustained and nour- ished. For myself, I prefer processes of manufacture which are less suggestive than those which I have mentioned, and so far as my influence in the trade extends, it will always be thrown in favor of cleanliness in the preparation of food products. Of course the above-described methods of curing and pre- paring currants also leave a wide scope for care and cleanliness. Being dried on the ground, more or less stone and gritty matter is apt to become incorporated with the currants, varying, of course, with the nature of the drying-ground and the care exer- cised in their manipulation. This has a considerable influence 364 COFFEE. upon the price, especially in the English market, where these matters are understood and appreciated better than in America. Indeed, until within the last two or three years, anything has been considered good enough to ship to America, and the orders which came from the United States for currants always contained limits as to price, but none whatever as to quality; of course, this re- sulted in all the poor goods going to the American market. Of late, however, the trade in the United States has been getting into other hands, wholesale grocers and distributing fruit merchants importing direct, where before a few spequlative importing houses, which knew or cared little about the wants of the retail trade, con- trolled the entire business, and a much better and cleaner quality is now required for the American market than heretofore. We have yet, however, something to learn in regard to the flavor of the fruit. Some districts are greatly to be preferred in this re- spect. Their product contains a much larger percentage of sac- charine matter, and the London houses, which have a first-class trade, will sometimes pay nearly double the price for favorite brands that they will for the ordinary run of goods. The following statistics of the production of currants, together with the ruling prices, are interesting, as showing the course of trade : In 1851 and previous years the production was large, and the average first-cost price about $25 per 1,000 pounds. In 1852 a severe blight suddenly affected a portion of the cur- rant district, the production fell to 13,584 tons, and the price rose to $62 per 1,000 pounds. In 1853 the blight extended still further, affecting nearly the whole currant-producing territory ; but 4,998 tons were produced, and prices ranged between $57 and $93 per 1,000 pounds, the lowest price being for the poorest quality. In 1854 the production was 6,121 tons, and the range of prices $45 to $65. In 1855 the production was 7,128 tons, and the range of prices $110 to $120, a great speculation having been inaugur- ated that year, which continued through the two subsequent years. In 1856, having to a certain extent recovered from the blight, APPENDIX. 365 the production increased to 26,906 tons, but prices still kept up to from $70 to $85. In 1857 the production was 23,327 tons, and the range of prices $70 to $100. In 1858 the production had increased to 34,035 tons, which proved too heavy a load for the speculators to carry, and prices suddenly broke down to a range of $22 to $38 per 1,000 pounds. Production. Tons, Prices. L859). s ssrewistvs ss viersee ale ca'ece neisieinnea bic ouice £7,535 $27 00 to $55 00 DSO0 so cceb cisteisia days centy sail tistecae sraceteucereneba cos o 51,498 22 00 ** 85 00 NSO Niwas tiecanrt: OnertaeSeadet Wert del ndterere week ea 43,365 20 00 ** 50 00 TOG 2 GusearennentAagabet ine aes ee See ees 49,337 20 00 ‘* 82 00 TBO3 cs ctcis ise wee ge qaweinee ein chee eeee 57,830 21 00 ** 88 00 1864 os sistant 53.0 sie Maleiwe o.scedinaiiuunnwewed 51,505 20 00 * 80 00 UB GO sci carautearec :<0) Bommes ...-...++ .- Ribe iit Spin be! laud HREM TS Sauternes .......+6 .Lafaurie, Jr., & Co. Filhot .....0..ssseeeeeee Sauternes. ......-+. de Lur Saluces (Bertrand). Broustet, Nérac........- «Barsac ........06- .. Capdeville. Caillon........- er oe Barsac ... 0. cece eens Saraute. : Sua... ce eee eee oes BAYBAC wee cee eceeneee Mme. Vve. Paris. ; Malle .....-.cccers weovee -Preignac ....+- ....de Lur Saluces (Henri). Romer .......- aoreseevsle « -PLEIGNac ...eeseeeeee de la Myre Mory. Vte, 406 COFFEE. By this it will be seen that of red wines there are only four vineyards, viz., Chateau Lafite, Chateau Margaux, Chateau Latour, and Chateau Haut Brion, in the first class, eleven in the second class, fourteen in the third class, eleven in the fourth class, and seventeen in the fifth class. Of the white wines, which are mostly grown a few miles above Bordeaux, on the river Garonne, there are only two divisions made in this classification, namely, premier and deuxiéme (first and second), but the celebrated Chateau Yquem is given a special class by itself, “ Premier Cri Superiéur,” that is, of the first class, superior quality. The principal townships, or “communes,” producing white wines are Barsac, Preignac, Bommes and Sauternes, in the latter of which is situated Chateau Yquem, and the name of this township (Sauternes) has become so well known in connection with the production of white wines that in some markets it is quite indiscriminately applied to all white wines of French growth. When in Bordeaux I made an excursion to the Médoc district, and being furnished with letters to the custodian of Chateau Lafite, which now belongs to the Rothschild family, I had the pleasure of inspecting the vineyards and cellars of this renowned chateau. Leaving Bordeaux by the “ Chemin-de-fer du Médoc,” we stopped at Blanquefort, Margaux, Saint-Julien, and finally arrived at Pauil- lac, a distance of thirty miles. Most of the country through which we passed was of a rolling character and covered with vines as far as the eye could reach. Taking a carriage at the station, a drive of a mile or more bronght us to the chateau, a picturesque old structure, situated on a slight eminence, and commanding a fine view of the surrounding country. It not being the season of the vintage, we of course could not see the actual process of crush- ing and pressing the grape, but all the paraphernalia for this work were inspected, and we then proceeded to look at the vari- ous vintages which were stored in the cellars of the chateau. Perhaps I should here state that the quality of the wine produced by this celebrated vineyard is so well known that it is sold in ad- vance, excepting the portion which is reserved by the proprietors for the cellars of the chateau. The bulk of the crop is seldom kept on the premises more than two seasons, by which time the fermentation is completed, and the wines are in a condition to be APPENDIX. 407 sent to the cellars of the purchasers in Bordeaux.’ The last two vintages, those of 1875 and 1876, were still on the premises, and, as a matter of curiosity, I tasted them. They were simply curi- ous as showing what a very fine wine is in its earlier stages, as of course, they were as yet not fit for drinking. The private cellars of the chateau, however, contained a col- lection of vintages, enough to throw a lover of Bordeaux wines into raptures. Here were collected vintages of every year from 1810 to the present time, nearly all of which were in bottle. Here one could walk for a mile or more, up one aisle and down another, flanked on either side with regular tiers of bottles con- taining wine, some of which was simply priceless, and of a char- acter unique in its way. Not only are specimens of the products of the Lafite vineyard preserved here, but also those of other well known vineyards for comparison, all of which are systematically arranged, according to the various dates of production. After educating our palates we left the cellars, took a hasty glance at the soil immediately surrounding the chateau, picked up some of the white, flinty pebbles as souvenirs of our visit, and then, jump- ing into a carriage, were fortunate enough, by quick driving, to be just in time for the return train for Bordeaux, reaching the hotel in time for dinner, and delighted at being able to make the trip within the short time at command, é A MODEL ENGLISH GROCERY-STORE. ARRANGEMENT OF STOCK, DRESSING OF WINDOWS, ETC. In whatever line of business a man may be engaged, the shops in that line are always of interest to him: the publisher can al- ways see a book-store quicker than anyother; a manufacturer of furniture finds something to interest him in the show-windows of dealers in that branch, and I can vouch for the fact that, however carelessly I may pass by other shops, the well-dressed windows of a grocery-store always detain me long enough to take a critical glance at the arrangement and the prices which may be ticketed. 408 . COFFEE. The French are eminently tasty in the arrangement of their modistes} show-rooms and windows, and dealers in fancy goods, jewelry, éte., also excel in their display and decorations; all sorts of small packages are put up in the neatest manner, but I do not think the French grocers keep up to the standard established by their brethren in other lines. While there are some handsome grocery-stores, the majority of them are small, and there is a dingy look and an air of confusion about them which does not speak well for their arrangement. The English grocery-stores, or “shops,” as they are called, are larger and better arranged ; show- windows are utilized to the fullest extent for display; coarse and uncleanly goods are kept out of sight, while shelf and all small package goods which have attractive labels, are arranged with a neatness and a precision which gives a cheerful look to the whole store. Taken altogether, I believe that English retail grocers are more thoroughly educated and drilled, and know their business better than those of any other country. When in London I had an opportunity to inspect the arrange- ment and business system of Messrs. Leverett & Frye, leading retail grocers in London. Beginning with one store at Greenwich, in the suburbs of London, they have steadily increased their business until now they have thirteen, and every new one that is added contains in its arrangement some improvements which experience has suggested. Of those I visited, the most perfectly arranged was No. 119 Gloucester road, Regent’s Park, a small corner store, but with every inch of space so well utilized that as full an assortment was kept here as in any of the larger stores. Two large show-windows were most tastefully dressed, one with canned goods and other neatly labelled packages, the other with the bottled wines of Messrs. W. & A. Gilbey, the great wine im- porters of London, for whom Messrs. Leverett & Frye are local agents. Only bottled wines and liquors are kept, thus avoiding the trouble, waste, and expense of breaking packages. A feature of the window-dressing was different-colored tissue-paper, cut into thin, grassy strips, and these crumpled up and laid as a garnishment between each layer of cans or bottles, gave a very pretty effect of color, and made as much of an improvement in the looks of the windows as afew green sprigs of parsley make in the looks of dishes APPENDIX. 409 of fish and meat when brought upon the table. This is a little thing, costs but a trifle, and if the grocer will try the experiment he will be surprised at the improved effect. In this store, also, the show-windows were shut off from the rest of the store inside by glass-doors, so that the goods placed in the windows might be protected from the dust and dirt. Along one side and at the rear of the store extend the counters, which are of mahogany, and the shelves are faced with a narrow strip of the same wood, highly polished, making them look as if they were all mahogany also. The most prominent thing behind the main counter, against the wall, are the tea-boxes, which outside are of wood, handsomely decorated and labelled, but lifting the half lid reveals a tin box the size of a chest of tea; this is to retain the flavor of the tea and prevent it absorbing that of the wood, and as the wooden fronts of the boxes are arranged to slide out, the tin box can be taken to another part of the store to be filled and then replaced in position. I forgot to state that the tea-boxes are twenty-four inches square and raised about eight inches from the floor, this space being occupied. by a row of drawers, which are used for various articles. Above the tea boxes begin a row of shelves eleven inches deep; the first is also eleven inches high, and occu- pied with small shelf goods; then one nine inches high, where various colored papers, cut to convenient sizes and printed with the firm’s name and address, are ready for use. Above this is a space of twenty-four inches, which is utilized for cans of green tea, cocoa, etc., and above this is a twenty-one inch space, which is filled with canned and other small shelf goods in great variety. Above these is the cornice, which projects over the shelves six inches, being about eighteen inches wide, and on the top of the cornice are placed cans of biscuits, and other light goods. The above describes the arrangement behind the main counter, which extends, perhaps, two-thirds the length of the store; then comes a break for a passage-way, and beyond extends a similar counter, behind which, instead of shelves, are arranged a “chest of draw- ers,” if this expression may be allowed to describe a series of drawers, rising one above the other, something like the arrange- ment I have seen in many country drug-stores in the United States. In these are kept the various articles which are sold in 410 COFFEE. bulk in small quantities. Under the counters are arranged, also, a series of large drawers, in which are kept sugar, roasted coffee, currants, raisins, and various farinaceous goods, the coffee-drawers being tin-lined for the purpose of preserving the flavor, and only a week’s supply is furnished at a time. Every morning enough coffee of the different grades is ground for the day’s supply, and kept in closed tin-canisters. A day’s supply of sugar is also kept, put up in convenient-sized packages, ready for immediate delivery. Before the fruit is put into the drawers, the currants, prunes, and Valencia raisins are cleaned or “dressed;” this is done, with currants, by breaking them up, sifting them in a sieve with a square mesh about five to the inch, which lets the dirt and pieces of stems go through, and then they are sprinkled with a dressing composed of one part of molasses or syrup to say two parts of water, and shaken and rubbed about until they look clean and bright. With raisins (except bunch fruit for dessert) the same process is used, except that the meshes of the sieve are an inch long and a quarter of an inch apart—a screen rather than asieve. Old fruit will sometimes be candied and wormy, but this process removes the worms, renovates it, and renders it fit for use. The rear of the store is occupied by hams and the coarser kinds of goods. No butter and cheese is handled by grocers here, the sale of those articles being a distinct business, and transacted exclusively by the “cheesemongers,” who are quite an important class, much more so than in the United States. The English are very large consumers of cheese, no meal being considered com- plete without cheese with bread and butter being served as a closing course; and while they fondly cherish the illusion that England produces the best cheese in the world, by far the larger portion of their best “Cheshire” comes from the United States. But to resume my description of the arrangement of the store. A liberal floor space is kept clear for the use of customers, but along the wall opposite the counter are arranged various goods, which show well, including a few lemons, oranges, nuts, and other des- sert articles. Along a portion of the front of the counter also is suspended a shallow glass-covered rack, in which is a small assort- ment of “fruits glacés” and choice confectionery, which is kept fresh by frequent renewals, and by the door is a “ biscuit rack,” APPENDIX. 411 in which cans of choice dessert crackers, covered with glass, are shown to the best advantage by tipping them forward, so that a person entering the store can hardly fail to see them, and, at the same time they are accessible for weighing out as wanted. Every inch of the room “ down-stairs” is utilized for storage of surplus stock, empty packages, etc., including the sugar-cutting machine, the only thing about the place which I thought inferior to our American way of doing things. The hard sugar is bought in the usual concave loaves, and cut up by hand into square lumps for the table; but our American “cut loaf,” which is now being exported in liberal quantities to the English market, will soon cure them of doing business in that way. Messrs. Leverett & Frye do business for cash over the counter or one week’s credit, credit customers being furnished with a book for convenience sake, and called upon each day at their resi- dences by a clerk, who takes and delivers their orders. Every Monday he brings back with him the amount of the previous week’s account, or no more orders are filled. Deliveries are made mostly with small hand-carts, although horses and wagons are used to some extent. Mr. Leverett attends principally to the buying, and Mr. Frye to the selling and executive part of the business, visiting all the different stores daily and taking a weekly statement of business done from each ona Stock is taken every six months, and a thorough system of book-keeping shows the result of the business of each store, and also the aggregate busi- ness of the firm. It is difficult to find efficient superintendents, but they are paid by an interest in the profits, and where results are not satisfactory a change is made. A catalogue and price list is issued uniform at all their different stores, and based upon the same scale of prices as charged at the civil service co-operative stores. Messrs. Leverett & Frye have no difficulty in competing with these societies, although many small grocers who do not apply the same principles feel the competition seriously. These principles are: Buying and selling for ready money, or very close to it, local convenience of stores, free collection of orders, and de- livery of goods. They estimate their gross profit at 14 to 15 per cent. 412 COFFEE. THE SALT DISTRICT OF CHESHIRE. ENGLISH SALT, HOW IT IS MADE—DOWN IN A SALT MINE—THE DIF- FERENT STRATA AND QUALITIES OF ROCK SALT IN THE CHESHIRE DISTRICT. Leaving Liverpool by the London and North Western Railway, aride of twenty miles brought me to the little station of Hartford, where I left the train and took a carriage for a drive through the salt district. Before reaching Hartford, however, we passed sev- eral pretty rural villages, and also the great chemical manufac- turing town of Widnes. Here are situated the great works of Muspratt & Co., Golding, Davis & Co., Gossage & Co., and many others whose brands are familiar to American manufacturers and dealers, all for the manufacture of soda ash, carbonate and caustic soda, etc., and the town of Widnes, now containing several thousand inhabitants, has been created solely by this industry. Here also is situated the great bridge of the London and North Western Railway over the river Mersey, one of the engineering wonders of theage. But to return to the subject of salt. I entered a carriage at Hartford, and proceeding by an old road, dating back to the Roman period (in fact part of the old Roman highway from Ches- ter to York), I soon reached Delamere Park, a portion of the landed estate of Lord Delamere. Here, turning off from the main road, I passed through the park, and on by a charming English back country road, skirted by picturesque straw-thatched vine-clad cottages, to the little village of Over. Here I began to see the tall brick chimneys of the salt works, and, driving down to Winsford Bridge, perhaps half a mile further, I was in close proximity to a perfect forest of these, all belching forth clouds of heavy black smoke, which fairly obscures the sun, and at all times fills the air with the black floating particles thrown off by the bituminous coal—imagine a black snow-storm on a gentle and light scale, and you have an idea of the atmosphere. This smoke is so dense and constant that it almost ruins vegetation, even the foli- age of large trees being affected, so that it looks as if a blight had passed over them, withering the leaves and blackening the APPENDIX. 413 branches. A salt district is perhaps the most uninviting of local- ities, for, in addition to the blighting effect which the smoke has upon the verdure, all the houses have a dilapidated, tumble-down appearance, caused by the sinking of the earth where the salt beneath has dissolved, and has been pumped up in the shape of brine. Quite a number of ponds and small lakes have been formed in Cheshire from the earth sinking, and the depression thus formed gradually filling up with surface-drainage. These ponds and lakes are here known as “ flashes.” I was now in the Winsford upper section of the Cheshire Salt district, covering an extent of perhaps two and one-half square miles, and near me were the works of Verdins, Deakin, Falk, Evans, the Amalgamated Company, and a host of others. From here to the lower end of the salt district, known as Northwich, it is four or five miles, and the Northwich district comprises an area of perhaps two square miles. Between these two sub-districts are several little villages or hamlets. In the Northwich district there are situated a large number of works, among which are those of the British Company, Worth- ington, Ashton, and Higgin, besides a number of salt mines. Be- fore proceeding to describe the usual process of salt-making, per- haps I ought to state what a salt mine is. In both Winsford and Northwich there are found two layers or strata of solid salt-rock, and it is supposed that these extend under a great part of the county of Cheshire. The first, or upper stratum, is found at a depth of one hundred and eighty to two hundred feet below the surface, and is about ninety feet thick. Then comes a layer of rock, three hundred and fifty to four hundred feet, when the second, or lower stratum of salt-rock is reached ; this is about twice the thickness of the upper stratum, and of better quality, being cleaner and freer from impurities. The quality of the salt-rock in the same stratum also varies much, and, as a rule, the best is found at the bottom of the stratum. In opening a salt mine, a shaft is sunk until rock-salt of a satisfactory quality is reached, and then it is worked the same as a coal mine. But to give an idea of what “down in asalt mine” is, I must describe my experience. Stepping into a bucket speci- ally prepared for visitors, the signal was given, the engine reversed, and we were lowered, or rather dropped, at a rate which gave me a rather uncomfortable, “all-gone” feeling in the region of my 414 COFFEE. stomach, but in a few seconds the speed slackened, and our guide pointed out the location of the first stratum, as we slowly passed it. The speed again increased, and in a few more seconds we were at the lower stratum ; but, to my surprise, instead of finding lofty chambers the entire thickness of the stratum, as I had imagined, I found only a thickness of from twelve to fifteen feet, taken out from the very bottom. From the shaft, tramways led off in every direction, and little platform cars, on which were hoisting buckets ready filled with large lumps of salt, were being drawn by horses to the shaft. Following one of these galleries, I soon found myself where the miners were at work. The salt-rock is about as hard as anthracite coal, and is worked by being blasted in the same way. Regular pillars of salt (considerably larger than Lot’s wife, I fancy) are left as supports for the roof, but the salt is so solid and homogeneous that there is less danger than with coal, and these pillars are less frequent than in any coal mine I have ever visited. The air in this salt mine was also much better, being pure, dry, and cool. Here were acres and acres of cool, pure- aired galleries, which, if they could be utilized for storage by the brewers of Germany and America, or the champagne manufac- turers of France, would be worth fortunes. : Ascending again to the surface, I witnessed the treatment of the salt-rock. Much of this is shipped as it is when raised from the mine, direct to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (whose cus- toms tariffs discriminate against refined salt), where it is refined for use. Some is crushed as soon as raised from the mine, and used in its natural state for agricultural and manufacturing purposes, and more is refined and used in various ways. The best, and by far the greater quantity of salt manufactured in the Cheshire salt districts, however, is made by pumping up the water which has come in contact with the salt strata, in many places dissolving the rock and becoming strongly impregnated with saline matter. In this way most of the earthy and insoluble matter re- mains below ground, and the salt manufactured turns out pure and white. As may be inferred from the above description of differ- ences in the quality of the rock-salt, the quality of the brine also differs, that from the lower stratum being generally the best. It is pumped by steam-power into reservoirs, for the double purpose of APPENDIX. 415 allowing it to settle, and to have a supply in case of the pump breaking down. From thence it is run into iron evaporating pans, perhaps twenty by twenty-five feet and eighteen inches high ; under these runs a furnace flue, and in about three hours the brine begins to boil; in twelve hours much salt has precipitated, and about five tons is usually taken out of each pan. This is done with a “sieve spade ” (a shovel with a perforated bottom). The wet salt is thrown into conical moulds, left to drain one hour, and then taken to the drying room, where it remains five or six days in a temperature of 180° to 190°; thence to the breaking room, where it is broken up fine, and packed for shipment. In witnessing this apparently simple process, I was tempted to say, “ Well, anybody can do that,” but on closer examination I found that some of the processes required as much care, skill, and experience as almost any other branch of business, and that quality of production depended, first, on the quality of the brine ; second, on improved appliances and utensils; and, third, on the experience, skill, and care devoted to the business. For instance, the Ashton and Higgin Works are the only ones using iron floors for drying rooms, which, although more expensive than brick, dry more quickly, uniformly, and cleanly. They also usea different form of mould from the others, and Higgin’s Works stand pre-eminent in one important feature, namely, having a set of pans for giving the brine a preliminary heating and treatment which precipitates all sediment and impurities before running it into the evaporating pans. Indeed, every part of the Higgin Works bears evidence of the care and cleanliness bestowed upon their product; every mould of salt is carefully scraped before breaking, to remove any soot or dirt which may have settled upon it; the sacks are the best that can be procured, and many similar items, small and unimportant in themselves, are carefully looked after, and doubtless in the aggregate have something to do with the popularity of this brand. The Higgin Works are owned by Thomas Higgin & Co., and the Ashton by a Mr. McDowell. The largest manufacturers in the Cheshire salt districts are the Messrs. Verdin, and, probably, Deakins’ Works come next. The district has cheap transportation to Liverpool by canal and river (the Mersey), and without this the salt deposits of Cheshire 416 COFFEE. would be of little value, for salt, being a heavy article of low value, will not bear high rates of transportation. Cheap coal and labor are also necessary to make salt cheaply, and in this, as well as in the quality of the brine, the Cheshire salt district is specially favored. Liverpool, doubtless, owes much of its pros- perity to the salt of Cheshire, which furnishes return cargoes to a large portion of the ships bringing cargoes to Liverpool ; indeed, I am told that salt is sometimes taken as ballast for nothing. The principal markets for English salt are the United States and India, but it goes, in greater or less quantities, all over the world. THE END. SS AU WAS \\