Cornell University Library

short review of agriculture and forest

New York

State College of Agriculture

At Gornell University
Dthaca, N. Y.

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A SHORT REVIEW
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
NORWAY

OF OFFICIAL EFFORTS FOR
THEIR ADVANCEMENT

BY

O. T. BFANES —

DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE

(ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.)

PRINTED BY GRONDAHL & SON. KRISTIANIA 1921

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000906457

A SHORT REVIEW
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
NORWAY

AND

OF OFFICIAL EFFORTS FOR
THEIR ADVANCEMENT

BY
O.T. BFANES

DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE

(ISSUED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.)

PRINTED BY GRONDAHL & SON. KRISTIANIA 1921

CONTENTS

General Survey :
Official Efforts for ie Avivaneemienk of eccdhire and Berea.
Agricultural Associations

Officials and Institutions tier the Diretor of Woods and Forests

The civil Veterinary Service

Re-distribution of intermixed Hukinss

Legislation concerning Agriculture . =e
Co-operation, Credit System and Insurance Systeth
Educational System :

New Cultivation and Golonisation

Budget

A well-built farmstead,

GENERAL SURVEY

Agriculture, in the most extensive signification of the word in the
Norwegian language, embraces the utilisation of the surface of the
country, including not only the actual soil but also the forests, mountain
ranges and freshwater lakes and rivers. Thus, agriculture in Norway
comprises the working of the farms together with cattle-raising and
dairying, horticulture, forestry, the hunting of game and fishing, as well
as the breeding and keeping of reindeer. Of these pursuits the utilisation
of the soil itself and of the forests plays an altogether predominating
part from an economic point of view.

In general, however, the term »agriculture« is employed only with
respect to the utilisation of the soil for farming and gardening operations,
while the expression »forestry« is used of everything pertaining to the
conservation and management of woods and forests. To forestry belongs
also the preservation and pursuit of game.

Norway lies very far to the north and extends from south to north
over a great number of degrees of latitude, namely, from 58° to 71 °
north latitude. This situation of the country necessitates a great varia-
tion with respect to the utilisation of the soil. Whereas, south of the
polar circle there can be grown ordinary agricultural products and in the
more southerly parts of the country also the more sensitive plants, such
as wheat and garden produce, the most northerly part of the country is
mostly given over to the cultivation of grass.. It deserves to be mentio-
ned, however, that in spite of the northerly situation barleys ripens (down
by the sea-shore) in favourable years right up to about 70 ° north latitude,

‘ousip Surmaivy uvisaaron peodA 7

Sr

while potatoes may give a fair yield right up to the most northern point
of the country.

Norway has an area of about 320000 sq. km. Of this area about
70 % is unproductive and consists of mountain, water etc. Some por-
tions of this waste land, however, are utilised for pasturing.

The total area of land under cultivation in the country amounts to
699 075 hectares. Of this area 324416 hectares consist of tillage-lands
and 368501 hectares of meadow. To this must be added 283 965 hec-
tares of natural pasture. The area of forestland in the country is esti-
mated at 7 105 468 hectares, of which 1 872 442 hectares consist of forest-
land interspersed with pastures.

The farms in Norway are in general of small extent. The average
area of cultivated ground (tillage-land and artifical meadow) on the se-
parately registered farms is about 3.41 hectares. 92.47 per cent of the
203,440 separately registered farms in the whole country have under Io
hectares of cultivated ground. Of the remaining 7.53 per cent II 112
holdings (5.46%) have between Io and 20 hectares, 2,768 holdings
(1.36 %} have between 20 and 30 hectares, 1176 holdings (0.58%) be-
tween 30 and 50 hectares, 184 holdings (0.09 %) between 50 and 70 hec-
tares, 55 holdings (0.03 %) between 70 and too hectares, and 26 holdings
(0.01 %) have over 100 hectares. To the most of these holdings there
belongs more or less woodland and often comparatively large stretches
of grazing-land.

Of Norway’s about 2600 000 inhabitants nearly one million, or about
40 %, are engaged in agriculture. The amount of cultivated land per
inhabitant of the country is about 0.3 hectares, a very small area in
comparison with most other European countries. Of the countries of
Europe only England, Switzerland, Holland and Belgium have a smaller
area of cultivated land per inhabitant.

By far the greatest number of farmers are self-owners. The renting
of land is, both absolutely and in comparison with other countries, very
little practised in Norway. The principal group of holders on such
tenure is formed by the so-called »husmenn« (cottars), i. e., persons who
hold a small plot of ground and a house from a farmer in return for the
obligation of working a certain number of days in the year on the lat-
ter’s farm. Besides these there is a small number of tenants-for-life, te-
nants by the year and leaseholders. Of the separately registered holdings
in our country about 94% are freehold farms, whereas the correspon-
ding figures in other countries are as a rule much lower.

The owner lives on the farm and works it together with his family.
In the case of the somewhat larger farms there is besides some hired
help. Occasionally, the cultivated land is owned by companies, by the state,
by the local authorities or by individuals who do not live on the spot.

The cultivated land is utilised mainly for the production of corn
(barley, oats, rye and wheat) and of fodder (hay, green crops, turnips),

Farm in a mountain district.

A »Seter«,

The State horse-breeding »seter«.

as well as potatoes. Before the war the production of hay occupied a
very large place — no less than 68 % of the cultivated ground. For corn-
growing there was employed only about 23 % and for potatoes, turnips
etc. about 9 %. During the war this state of affairs was essentially al-
tered. In 1918 the area of meadow on cultivated ground had gone down
to a little over 48%, the area under corn had gone up to about 40%
and the area under potatoes, turnips, green crops etc. to 12%. It may,
however, be presumed that some of this increase in the area of tilled land
will decline according as normal conditions again come into force. The
crops of fodder, as well as much of the corn, are generally used for
feeding the live-stock on the farm (cows, horses, swine), which in many
parts of the country is stallfed from September to June. Throughout
large portions of the country there are to be found extensive ranges of
mountain grazing-lands, often at a considerable distance from the farm,
on which the live-stock is kept during several months in the summer.
Both the milking and the handling of the milk then proceeds as a rule
at the grazing-run (the »seter«).

Large connected areas of which the soil is used for gardening pur-
poses are only exceptionally to be met with, and then usually in the vi-
cinity of the towns. Otherwise, each farm has generally a small garden,
and the cultivation of fruit and berries is very common throughout large
parts of the country.

The yield ‘per unit of area is comparatively large. According to

— 10 —

official statistics the average yield per hectare for the whole country
in the five-year period I911—1915 was as follows:

VAY neesseaeih Nata teeter nla em aha tie arctan d 3650 kg
WWKCRE Scene ocean tiie asia atures 1780 »
Rye acta sees nae cae nee a at en eit 1800 »
Baileys ch eee tng teeaenuahs cae atresia snore 1960 >
Qatsy . ekavecy cess epee tas be men Were ae 1760 »
Mixed corn (oats and barley) .............. 1920 >»
RAS) co a.teeenis usa scanner arnues meno eAee tite 1600 »
POtatGeES::) hassel auton tsi dua ede eae 17510 »
SREEMIDS: eat aee ee Rae us cite eet aie rats 41920 »

Owing to the climatic conditions the tilling of the land, except in
some coastal districts in the south-west, can only be carried on in ‘the
summer — from April or May till October. Sowing and harvesting, as
well as the breaking up of land for cultivation, can thus as a general rule
only proceed during that period.

The climate affords very healthy conditions for working. The sum-
mer temperature seldom exceeds 25 degrees Centigrade, and the tem-
perature in winter is seldom below the same number of degress of frost.

As already mentioned, the crops produced are in general used for
feeding the stock on the farm. Thus, throughout the whole country tillage
and cattle-rearing are carried on side by side on almost every single hol-
ding. But it is also seldom that these operations are carried on alone.
A more or less extensive area of forest belongs as a rule to the holdings
throughout the greater part of the country. These forests supply the
necessary timber for the farm-buildings and for fuel, but in most cases
the area of woodland is so large that there may also be a considerable
quantity of timber for sale. The work in the forests proceeds in the
winter and thus provides occupation at a time when, owing to the cli-
matic conditions, the actual farm-work is greatly restricted. In the west
and north of Norway agriculture is closely connected with the great
fishing industry, which is mostly carried on in the winter season, whereby
both the farmer and his labourers find employment during that part
of the year.

During the last few decades the use of labour-saving machinery and
better methods of cultivation has attained great extension and, regarded
from this point of view, has reduced the need for labourers in agriculture.
This, however, has on the other hand been counteracted by the fact that
farming has constantly become more intensive. The work required to
be performed on each unit of area has thus been steadily and automatically
increased. Which of these factors, the labour-saving or the labour-
demanding, has in he long run gained the upperhand it would perhaps be
difficult to decide. Meanwhile, it is a fact that agriculture has for a
long time been suffering from the constant lack of sufficiently skilled

— TF =>

workers. One of the main causes of this state of affairs is to be found
in the rapid development of our industries. The higher wages which
the industries have been able to offer, the apparently freer conditions of
life for the industrial worker and the psychological attraction exer-
cised by the towns have drawn much of the labour-supply to the cities
and centres of industry. The difficult economic situation of our agri-
culture from the years around 1870 and until the outbreak of the war
has also led to the result that a large part of our best agricultural labour
has emigrated.

Meanwhile, the need for hired labour is comparatively small in
Norwegian agriculture. As already stated, the majority of the farms
are so small that they are worked by the owner and his family without
any considerable amount of hired help. In addition to the before-men-
tioned cottars (husmenn), whose number is about 17,000, there are
about 75,000 farm-servants (male and female) who have board and
lodging on the farms and a smaller number of day-labourers and job-
workers.

The most of the workers live and eat with their employers and go to
work together with the latter.

There thus exists only to a slight degree the difference in social
standing between farmers and farm-workers which we find in countries
where farming is on a larger scale.

It must also be mentioned that the use of electricity has of late
years become widely extended also in the rural districts all over the
country — thanks to Norway’s great wealth in water-power. This ren-
ders possible a considerable extension of home-industry and thereby the
utilisation of unoccupied labour during the quieter periods of the year,
a circumstance which may of the greatest importance in securing for the
farm-workers steady employment during the whole year and thus bin-
ding them more closely to the soil by ensuring them better economic
conditions.

Owing to the great extent of the country and its mountainous con-
formation the means of communication by road or railway are in many
districts far from satisfactory. As a set-off to this, the use of the tele-
phone has developed to an extent that is probably unparalleled in any
other country. In most of the rural districts the great majority of the
farmers and artisans, and in fact, even some of the common labourers,
have a telephone, which contributes considerably to facilitate the means
of communication.

The rearing of live-stock is of great importance and constitutes an
important part of the operations throughout the whole country. In the
mountain districts and in the northern parts of the country cattle-raising
is the main factor in the working of the farms,

12

Eastland stallion,

Eastland stallion,

Westland stallion.

Westland mare,

In the various classes of live-stock there occur several distinct breeds.

Thus there are 2 different breeds of horses, namely: the Eastland-
horse and the Westland-horse.

The first-mentioned is a middle-sized horse, mostly brown in colour,
which is bred chiefly in the eastern part of Norway and in the Trond-
hjem district. The stallion’s height over the withers is about 168 cm. (the
largest stallions up to 175 cm.) and its average weight is 660 kg. It is
cleanlegged, muscular, well-built and of energetic temperament, and is
suitable for various uses, such as farm-work, timer-draving, driving on
the roads and for military purposes.

The West-land horse is smaller (The stallion’s height over the
withers about 152 cm.). The colour is most frequently dun or pale
vellow. It is exceptionally cleanlegged, has much power of endurance
and is in proportion to its size a strong horse with a lively tempera-
ment. It is, so to speak, specially created for the hilly country and
narrow circumstances prevailing in the west of Norway and is excel-
lently suited for small-holding.

The Norwegian horses can be used until an advanced age. Thus
the Eastland-horse is generally worked up to more than 20 years, whilst
the Westland-horse may well be worked up to 25 years old and more.

Among the many breeds of cattle in Norway may be mentioned the
Red-polls, the Telemark-cattle, the gray and black Westland-cattle, the
Gudbrandsdal- and @sterdal-cattle, the Rgros cattle and the red Trond-
hjem-cattle. All these breeds are indigenous to the locality.

All cattle in Norway are milking-breeds and the animals have in
proportion to their size a good milking-capacity.

The better-class herds give an annual yield of about 3000 kg. of
milk per head or about 750 kg. pr. 100 kg. live weight, but it is not unusual
for individual animals to yield up to 5000 kg. or more.

The kinds of sheep most in use are Cheviots and Oxford-downs ori-

Telemark goat (1200 kg. milk per year).

ginating from England, whereas the goats are practically speaking ex-
clusively of Norwegian origin.

The goats are comparatively small, but are as a general rule good
milkers. A he-d of Telemark-goats at the State School for Teachers to
Smallholders has in the year 1920 given an average yield of 970 kg. of
milk. The best animal yielded 1210 kg.

The health-conditions amongst the live-stock in Norway are very
good. Foot-and-mouth disease, for example, does not exist and tuber-
culosis amongst cattle is of rare occurrence. Amongst goats tuberculosis
is altogether unknown. (See hereinafter.)

As already stated, forest-lands constitute a considerable portion of
the area of Norway, »imely over 7 million hectares.

The principal forest trees are: fir (picea excelsa), pine (pinus silve-
stris), together with birch, lowland-birch (betula verrucosa) in the low-
lying districts and mountain-birch (betula odorata) in the highland
districts.

In the high-mountains the dwarf-birch (betula nana) covers exten-
sive tracts of land.

In addition to three sorts of trees above mentioned there occur:
ash (fraxinus excelsior), oak (qercus pedunculata et sessiliflora), beech

Red-poll bullock, Red-poll cow.

Telemark bullock. Telemark cow.

Roros bullock. Roros cow,

Westland bullock, Westland cow.

Tronder bullock. Tronder cow.

@sterdal bullock. @sterdal cow.

wv

— 7S a

(fagus silvatica), lime (tilia parvifolia), alder (alnus glutinosa et in-
cana), asp (populus tremula) and several others.

Considering the northerly situation of the country, the forests extend
to a great height above the sea-level. In the Eastland the conifers
extend up to 900 metres above the sea-level, while foliferous tres (birch)
extend 200 or 300 metres higher.

The conditions of working are to a considerable degree facilitated
by the long winter, with its settled weather and good conditions for
transport, and by the many water-courses suitable for floatage of timber.
The working of the forests must therefore, in spite of the mountainous
nature of the country, be described as being easy. Thanks to the great
extent of the forest area, a comparatively large number of workers
can be kept in employment on the land during the whole year, seeing
that the work in the woods proceeds chiefly in winter, whilst the summer
is the busiest time for agriculture.

The output of the forests far exceeds the country’s own requirements
and there is therefore a large export of timber and other products of
the forests, especially woodpulp and paper.

In the last few years the export of timber has risen to about 1,300,000
cubic metres per year, of woodpulp to about 700,000 tons and of paper
and cardboard to about 200,000 tons. There are in existence 119 wood-
pulp-mills, some of which are very large, and a very large number of
sawmills and planing-mills.

The main part of the forests are in private ownership, namely, about
84%, of which 48% belong to the farmers, while 36 % are worked
without connection with agriculture. About 16% belong to the State
and other official or semi-official institutions.

OFFICIAL EFFORTS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

The work for the advancement of agriculture and forestry comprises:

The ofticial measures which are put into operation by the State
administration for agriculture and forestry.

The work that is carried on by agricultural and forestry associ-
ations.

Educational system.

The State Administration for Agriculture.

The centre of the State administration for agriculture is the Depart-
ment of Agriculture with its separate divisions or offices.

The Departement has two divisions, each of them with its executive
chief: The Agriculture and Concession Division and
The Forestry and Veterinary Division. Under this
latter belong also the freshwater fisheries and matters concerning rein-
deer and redistribution of intermixed holdings.

The Agriculture Division consists of the following of-
fices:

1. The Agriculture Office, to which pertains the admi-
nistration of most of the official measures for the promotion of land-
cultivation and of the breeding of live-stock.

2. The Production Office, which has chiefly to do with
the bringing of new land into cultivation, including the colonisation of
uncultivated waste-lands.

3. The Concession Office, which deals with all matters
concerning the acquirement of land, forest, bog and mountain.

4. The Information Office for Agriculture, which
is quite a new office and of which the object is the collection of all in-
formation that is of interest for agriculture (farming, forestry etc.) and
the publication of everything that may be supposed to be of importance
for practical operations.

The Director of Agriculture acts as chief of the Agri-
culture and Production Offices. He is likewise chief of the agricultural
officials of the State and of the State institutions in the sphere of agri-
culture and, moreover, directly conducts all the official measures for the
promotion of farming and the breeding of live-stock.

— 99 —=

Prior to 1900 the Director of Agriculture had his office apart from
the Department of the Interior, like most of the other State
Directors. When the Department of Agriculture was established
in the said year the Director of Agriculture, as well as the
Forestry and Veterinary Director, became more closely attached to that
department by means of the arrangement mentioned above, whereby the
directors are at the same time chiefs of the services in question and of
the departmental offices.

The Directors’ sphere of authority is defined partly by parliamentary
rules and regulations and partly by the practice that has developed since
1900. They decide independently in most matters concerning the staffs
of officials and the various state institutions and to a great extent cor-
respond direct with them. Only specially important matters — especially
such as involve the disposal of money — are submitted to the Depart-
ment for decision.

This arrangement has the important advantage that it leads to a more
intimate collaboration between the Department and the director and in a
high degree simplifies the manner of dealing with the various matters.
The greatest disadvantage in the arrangement is that there may easily
arise friction and disputes regarding authority between the directors and
the executive chiefs of the divisions.

The Agriculture Office and Production Office are each divided into
two sections, namely: a technical section conducted by a sub-director
with agricultural training, and legal section conducted by a chief clerk
with legal qualifications.

The Concession Office is conducted by a chief clerk with legal train-
ing, and the Information Office by a chief clerk with agricultural
training.

The Forestry and Veterinary Division has the fol-
lowing offices:

1. The Forestry Office, to which pertains all public admi-
nistration concerning forests and forestry. The Director of Forestry
conducts the office and stands in the same position towards the Depart-
ment as the Director of Agriculture. In addition to the administration of
woods and forests in general the Director of Forestry conducts the busi-
ness management of the forests belonging to the State, which comprise a
comparatively large area (See hereinafter). The office is divided into a
technical and a legal section, as in the case of the Agriculture and Pro-
duction Offices.

2. The Office for Reindeer and Freshwater
Fisheries. The office is conducted by a chief clerk with legal quali-
fications. An expert adviser is appointed as consultant in matters con-
cerning reindeer, and measures for the promotion of freshwater fisheries
are under the control of the Fishery Inspector.

3. The Re-distribution Office, which conducts the work
of re-distributing land where the situation of the holdings is disadvanta-

— 28I —

geous. This office is in charge of a technically trained re-distribution
chief.

4. The Veterinary Office, which is the supreme authority
for the civil veterinary system. The office is conducted by the Veterinary
Director, who occupies the same position as the two other directors of
the Department.

Under the Veterinary Director come also, amongst other things,
the Veterinary Institute, matters concerning the inspection and control
of meat, the import and export of domestic animals etc.

To the Department of Agriculture there are attached several Advi-
sers having offices in the Department and whose work consists partly
in being advisers to the Directors and to the Department in various tech-
nical questions, and partly in supervising the institutions under the con-
trol of the Department.

Under the Agriculture Division there are the following advisers of
this kind:

The Inspector of Dairying, the Horticultural Adviser, the Adviser
for Agricultural Schools and the Adviser for Housewifery Schools (this
latter post being held by a lady).

Under the Forestry and Veterinary Division there are 3 Forestry
Inspectors, only two of them having offices in the department), the
above-mentioned consultant on matters concerning reindeer, the Inspec-
tors of Fisheries, and one inspector of Redistribution.

Under the Department of Agriculture come likewise the following
public agricultural officials and institutions for education, research etc.:

Norvay’s agricultural representatives abroad.

With a view to the advancement of the export of Norwegian agri-
cultural products to foreign countries there has been appointed an ad-
viser with residence in Newcastle since 1889. His task is to promote the
reputation and sale of Norwegian agricultural products, especially on the
English market, including also the export of live-stock to England.

After the establishment of The International Institute of Agricul-
ture in Rome Norway has had since 1908 a representative in the Per-
manent Committee of the Institute. This same representative has also
since 1912 been entrusted with the task of supplying reports regarding
agriculture in Europe and its development. Since 1920 the holder of
this post has been designated: Norway’s Agricultural Delegate for
Europe. As the delegate in question is at the same time Norway’s
representative in The Permanent Committee of The International In-
stitute of Agriculture in Rome, the residence of the delegate is in Rome.
In the same year a corresponding post was established with the desig-

— 22 —

nation: Norway’s Agricultural Delegate for America, with residence
in Washington.

The task of the agricultural delegates is to obtain all such information
and experiences from abroad as may be of importance for Norwegian
agriculture and to work for the best possible disposal of Norwegeian
agricultural products in foreign countries.

Public agricultural officials coming under the Director of Agriculture
and whose salary and travelling expenses are paid entirely by the state:

1. 6 Agricultural Engineers with 4 assistants,
whose business is to afford advice and guidance in technical agricultural
questions and to work out plans for same.

2. 8 State Advisers in live-stock rearing,
who direct the official measures for the advancement of live-stock rea-
ring. They are thus in charge of the state exhibitions of live-stock, af-
ford assistance in the selection of animals etc. Each of them has a spe-
cially defined district as his field of activity, except the adviser in the
breeding of sheep and goats and the adviser in heredity-research, who
have the whole of the country as their sphere of action.

3. 5 Advisers in Dairying, 1 Butter-making Ad-
viser, I Cheesemaking Adviser, 1 Adviser in the
keeping of accounts regarding cattle-raising and
in making tests, and 1. adviser in matters concerning small-
holders.

4. 1 Adviser in Seed-culture, who gives guidance espe-
cially in the culture of grass-seeds and root-crop seeds for agricultural
purposes.

5. I State Entomologist and 1 State Mycologist,
having the whole country as their sphere of action, who give advice and
guidance regarding the enemies of cultural plants, insect pests and
fungous diseases respectively, both in farming and in horticulture and
forestry.

There is also an expert in the work of combating weeds: He is at
the same time extraordinary professor at the Norwegian High School
for Agriculture.

Public institutions carried on entirely for the account of the State
and coming under the jurisdiction of the Director of Agriculture.

1. Experimental Stations in Plant-culture. Of
these there are 6 experimental stations for agricultural plants and 2 for
horticultural. The object of the experimental operations is partly
to promote the improvement of plants and partly by means of comparative
experiments to throw light on the questions which are of especial in-
terest for the culture of plants in the various districts.

= 23 -——

The most northerly station is situated at Bodg, somewhat over 67 de-
grees north latitude.

It has been decided to establish a new station in Troms County, which
will probably be the most northerly experimental station for plant cul-
ture in the world, situated between 69 and 70 degrees north latitude.

In one of the existing stations the work is carried on with a view
to the conditions in the mountain districts. It is situated in a mountain
district about 530 metres above the sea-level.

2, Experimental Station in dairying the object of
which is to improve the methods of dairying.

3. Experimental Station in the cultivation of
new ground.

This station, which is quite new, is attached to one of the plant-
culture stations (Forus in Jeren) and its object is to discover service-
able technical methods for new-cultivation.

4. Testing and Analysing Stations.

Of these there are 3 chemical-agricultural testing-stations, 2 seed-
testing stations, 3 milk-testing stations. The first-mentioned make ana-
lyses and chemical investigations of int rest for agriculture and give in-
formation on chemical-agricultural questions. The seed-testing stations
examine corn and seed of all kinds and give information on questions
concerning seeds.

The object of the milk-testing stations is to investigate the amount
of fat contained in the milk. Their principal clients are the creameries.

The services of the above-named officials are given entirely free
of charge. Likewise those of the experimental stations. For the in-
vestigations in the other stations a moderate charge is made.

5. Sheep-breeding and Goat-breeding Stations.

Of these there are 3 large and 3 smaller sheep-breeding stations, as
well as 5 goat-breeding stations.

a

Agricultural Associations.

In addition to the above-mentioned officials and institutions main-
tained entirely by the State there are a number of officials and institu-
tions for which the expenses are met partly by the State and partly by
the respective districts.

1. One of the oldest of these associations is »Det kongelige
Selskap for Norges vel« (The Royal Society for Norway’s
Weal), which was founded in 1809.

Its activities in the beginning embraced a very wide sphere, but it
soon proceeded to become mainly an agricultural society. It has had,

— 24 —

and still has, the agricultural societies (see below) as its sub-sections,
but these societies according as the state grants have been increased,
have by degrees come into more direct connection with the State.

The work of this society has been directed towards the taking up
of new questions for discussion and the starting of new undertakings in
order, when they are well under way, to hand them over to the State.

Of late years, however, the society has also begun to work on tasks
of a more permanent nature — in part scientific investigations.

It carries on a comparatively important activity in lecturing and at
regular intervals holds meetings with lectures followed by discussions on
agricultural questions of present-day interest. It issues a monthly pub-
lication: »Tidskrift for det norske landbruk« (Magazine for Norwegian
Agriculture).

2. The Agricultural County Societies. The origin
of these societies is of old date, but they have lately been re-organized
so as to answer better to the conditions prevailing at the present time.

There exists I agricultural county society in each of the 18 counties
of the Kingdom. The funds for their activities are provided half by the
State and half by the district concerned (mainly a grant from the
county).

The object of these societies is to work for the advancement of
agriculture and its by-industries in their county. This object they seek
to attain by means of officials who, like the state officials, give gratis
instruction to the farmers, by the holding of exhibitions of the various
kinds of live-stock and of farm and garden produce, by local experiments
and by contributions to different useful undertakings.

The societies have sub-sections consisting of local unions of farmers
and smallholders in the separate rural districts. These appoint represen-
tatives to the annual meetings of the societies, at which the executive
committees are elected and especially important matters on which the
societies are working are discussed. The State has made the following
conditions for the granting of its contribution:

»Every agricultural society shall have an executive committee of
5 or 7 members, of whom 1 is to be elected by the County Council and the
remainder by the annual meeting. The committee itself elects a chair-
man and vice-chairman. In so far as is feasible, the annual meeting shall
elect its representatives first.

In the election it is to observed that the committee — leaving out
of account the member elected by the County Council — shall at every
time consist of an equal number of smallholders and larger farmers.

In counties where the smallholders and the larger farmers have each
their local union the election shall, provided at least 5 representatives
for each group are present at the annual meeting, proceed by groups, so
that the smallholder group elects representatives for the smallholders
and the other group representatives for the larger farmers.« (Parlia-
mentary Proceedings 1919.)

= 25

Each society shall have a permanent secretary who can devote all
his time to the service of the society. It shall be a special duty of his to
see that the sub-sections are working well.

The agricultural societies are assembled in an institution which bears
the name »Det norske landbruksraad« (The Norwegian Agricultural
Council). The chairmen of the societies are ex officio members of this
council. Besides these, »Norsk Landmandsforbund« (The Norwegian
Farmers’ League) and »Norsk Bonde- og Smaabrukarlag« (The Nor-
wegian Farmers’ and Smallholders’ Union have each 4 representatives
in the council, »Det kgl. Selskap for Norges Vel« (The Royal Society
for Norway’s Weal) has 2 representatives and »Det norske Skogselskap«
(The Norwegian Forest Society) and »Norsk Skogeierforbund« (The
Norwegian Forest-owners’ League) each 2 representatives.

The statutes of the Agricultural Council (adopted by Parliament on
the institution of the Council on July 4th 1919) are as follows:

Sak.

The Agricultural Council shall be composed of the chairman, or in
his absence the vice-chairman, of each of the agricultural county socie-
ties in the Kingdom, the president and vice-president of »The Royal So-
ciety for Norway’s Weal«, four representatives elected by »The Norwegian
Farmers’ League«, four representatives elected by »The Norwegian Far-
mers’ and Smallholders’ Union«, 2 representatives elected by »The Nor-
wegian Forest Society« and 2 representatives elected by »The Norwe-
gian Forest-owners League<. Furthermore, the Council shall itself supp-
lement its number with special experts or with scientists, up to the num-
ber of 5, these latter having the same rights and duties as the other
members of the Council.

§ 2.

The Council shall itself elect its chairman and vice-shairman, who
are to hold office for 2 years. Moreover, there shall be appointed a wor-
king committee consisting of the chairman, vice-chairman and 3 other
members. The period of office for the last-named 3 members shall also
be 2 years, t and 2 members alternately retiring by rotation every year.
The first time 1 member retires by drawing of lots after I year’s service
in office.

Should any member of the working comittee be obliged to retire be-
cause he has ceased to be a representative in the Council, a new member
is to be elected for the remainder of his period of office.

As deputies for the members of the working committee 3 members
of the Council are to be elected — for 2 years — as Ist, 2nd and ard
deputy respectively.

The supplementary members mentioned in Par. 1 are also elected
for a period of 2 years.

The working committee appoints a secretary to take charge of the
Council’s office.

= 96: <=

§ 3

The Council, which has its seat in Christiania, shall in general as-
semble once a year in connection with the meeting of representatives
for The Royal Society for Norway’s Weal.

But it may also assemble at other times, when the Department of
Agriculture or the working committee find it necessary or when a mee-
ting is demanded by at least one-third of the members of the Council.

§ 4.
The ordinary meeting of the Council shall deal with:
a. The official measures for the advancement of agriculture.
b. Matters which by the Department of Agriculture are submitted to
the Council for discussion,
c. Matters which the Council itself or any of its members propose for
discussion.

§ 5.

The working committee shall assemble as often as the Department
of Agriculture, the chairman or 2 of its other members shall consider
necessary, and shall:

a. prepare all matters which are to be dealt with by the assembled

Council,

b. deal with matters that require to be decided so promptly that they
cannot be submitted to the assembled Council,

c. intervene when it is considered necessary in order to guard the in-
terests of agriculture.

§ 6.
The ordinary members of the Council receive allowance for travel-
ling and maintenance expenses on the Ist class scale.
The members of the working committee receive, in addition to the
same allowance for travelling and maintenance, a fee of Kr. 12 for each
day they meet.

As already stated, this organisation is quite new, but it is mainly
based upon old organisations of a similar nature. The Agricultural Council
is, however, an entirely new institution established in 1919.

The arrangement aims at a decentralisation of the public admini-
stration in agriculture. In a land so extensive and varied as Norway it
would be impossible for the central administration to familiarize itself
with and to keep itself sufficiently well informed of the conditions and
developments throughout the different parts of the country. But at the
same time the arrangement aims at securing a firm connection and an
active collaboration between the central administration and the local in-
stitutions, so that the work for the promotion of agriculture and cattle-

= 27

breeding on the part of the State and of the local authorities can proceed
on exactly the same lines and be conducted on rational and economic
principles.

The arrangement also aims at trying to get all the farmers, both
small and large, to co-operate in the work. Therefore it is seen that
among the conditions for the granting of a state contribution
to the agricultural societies there is a special provision which secures
for the small farmers representation in the direction of the societies.

Under the agricultural societies come also the so-called »Land Com-
mittees« (see hereinafter).

In addition to the above-mentioned agricultural officials in the ser-
vice of the agricultural societies there have of late years been appointed
several agricultural officials in the service of the local authorities: agri-
culturists and gardeners engaged by the Rural District Councils, itinerant
teachers for smalholders etc.

One half of the cost of these officials is covered by the State. The
other half is provided sometimes by a grant made by the County Council
alone but most often one half (that is one fourth of the total cost) is
granted by the County Council and the other half by the District Council
in question. In exceptional cases a more or less large part of the district
contribution is supplied by a Farmers’ Union, a Horticultural Society or
the like.

The following officials are at present employed in the service of
the agricultural societies and of the local authorities: 52 County agri-
culturists, 28 county gardeners, and about 150 district agriculturists, di-
strict gardeners, itinerant teachers etc.

3. The Norwegian Farmers’ League, which has been in
existence for 25 years, is an association of farmers for the protection of
their interests. It is built upon local associations throughout the country.
Until 1920 the League was working on a purely professional basis and
sought to exercise its influence in political matters through the existing
political parties. But in 1920 it was decided that the League should operate
as a separate political party and that the professional and political work
should be carried.on by separate sub-sections. By means of meetings and
lectures around in the rural districts, of great national congresses and of
agitation in the press etc. the League seeks to unite the farmers and
arouse in them a convinced and vigilant interest for the part that is played
by their class in the community.

4. The Norwegian Farmers’ and Smallholders’
Union isa young association, mainly formed as a parallel to the older
non-political Farmers’ League and embracing the small farmers (the in-
terests of the smallholders).

Moreover, of associations embracing the whole country we have: »Det
norske myrselskab« (The Norwegian Peat-bog Society), »Norsk forening
til fjerfeavlens fremme« (Norwegian Society for the Promotion of
Poultry-breeding), »Norsk biavlsforening« (Norwegian Bee-keepers’ So-

‘advospury ysor0) uvlsamsoN, yearda |,

— 29 —

ciety), »Foreningen til kaninavlens fremme« (Society for the Promotion
of Rabbit-breeding), »Nyttevekstforeningen« (Society for the Utilisation
of useful Plants), »Ny Jord« (New Land) (see hereinafter), as well as
»Det norske travselskab« (The Norwegian Trotting Club). All these get
a state grant of varying extent.

In addition to the agricultural societies with their sub-sections and
the above-named national societies there are a number of smaller local
associations, some of which are joined to the above-mentioned national
societies, while some have a more independent activity. Of these may be
mentioned: Various kinds of societies for the breeding of live-stock,
various societies for subsidiary industries, societies for purchase and sale
of articles etc.

Some of them have a state grant, as, for instance, the societies for
the acquirement and maintenance of valuable pedigree live-stock, while
others work without such grant.

Officials and Institutions under the Direktor of Woods
and Forests.

1. Officials.

In addition to the before-mentioned 3 Inspectors of Woods and
Forests there are 40 forest-managers, 20 assistants and about 500 wood-
rangers, all of whom are entirely in the service of the state and who
have to do with the management of the forests belonging to the state,
and of other public forests.

2. Institutions carried on entirely for account
of the state.

The State Valutation Office for Forests,

This office directs the regulation of boundaries, the survey and
valuation etc. of the public forests and of the forests which are offered
for sale to the public authorities. The permanent staff consists of 2
forest-valuators and 4 assistants.

The National Valuation Office for Forests.
The purpose of this office is to furnish by means of direct measure-
ments and investigations statistics regarding the Norwegian forests. Its
task consists first and foremost in answering the following questions:
1. The area of forest and its distribution according to the different
species and qualities of timber.
2. The existing supply of growing timber.

ersponnalettod

TE

an pine forest,

Typical Norwegi

ee

3. The amount of the current yearly increase, as well as a number of
other questions.

The work in the field proceeds by counties in the form of lineal
valuation.

The permanent staff of the National Valuation Office for Forests
consists of 2 forest-valuators together with the office staff. The re-
maining officials for the field-work are engaged for every season.

According to plan the valuation is to be completed in the course of
5 vears for 9 of the largest forest-growing counties in the country.

At the same time there shall be made out a census of the forestry
industry embracing the whole country in order to ascertain the annual
production of all the forests in the country and the consumption for
household purposes. In this connection returns are collected from all
the forest properties in Norway showing the output during 3 conse-
cutive years.

Experimental Stations for Forestry.

For account of the State there was established in 1917 an experi-
mental station for forestry situated at Aas near Christiania. The staff
for the present consists of 2 experimentalists and 2 clerks.

Besides this there is also an experimental station for forestry affi-
liated to Bergens Museum.

The principal contributor to its support is the Norwegian Forestry
Society.

Other official Arrangements for the Advance-
ment of Forestry.

The State supports in various ways the work for the preservation
and renewal of the forests. Thus there have been established in diffe-
rent parts of the country large nurseries of plants for sale. The State
has likewise in many places erected drying-rooms for the obtaining of
seed.

From 1872 the State began to plant the treeless wastes in the West-
land and it has regularly carried on cultivation work in its own forests.

On the moors of the Westland the State has planted altogether 3709
hectares of forest, which has, generally speaking, thriven very well. The
State also makes grants for private plantation and for plantation carried
out by the local authorities. To the local authorities support is also
afforded in the form of loans for the purchase of ground for planting.
These loans are free of interest and of repayment of principal for 30
years.

In regions that are poor in woods and in districts where it may be
feared that the forests, owing to the northerly situation or to the great
height above the sea-level, will die out through mistreatment, the State
preferably seeks to acquire the forests in order to preserve them.

oe
a i a
be i ea
fH ii “4 " : ey 4
¢ Pe |G me
eg od y i
wes i a

ce ——— TO

ro, aan
a 7 " ie fi
+ foe

Properly treated forest,

Semi-official and private Societies and Asso-
ciations concerned with Forestry.

The Norwegian Forestry Society (Det norske Skogselskap), which
was founded in 1898, works partly with private means and partly with
grants from the State. Its objects are to diffuse information regarding
the afforesting of treeless tracts and for the advancement of Norwe-
gian forestry in general.

Under this society stand the local forestry societies (county fore-
stry societies) in all the districts of the country — I in each county.
The county forestry societies have in their service about 50 fully quali-
fied officials, who give free of charge to the owners of forests guidance
in all matters concerning forestry, in the same manner as is done in
the case of agriculture by the agricultural official mentioned on pages
24 and 27.

Through the forestry societies the State gives grants towards the
planting of forests — both to private plantations and to the local autho-
ritites.

The Norwegian Forest-owners’ Union.

This union is an amalgamation of the local associations of forest-
owners, which are to be found in most of the forest districts through-
out the country. The union was founded in 1913 and its object is to pro-
tect the common interests of forest-owners, especially as regards the sale,
transport, measurement and floatage of timber. The union also co-
operates in all more important legal questions and otherwise in all im-
portant matters that are of interest for forestry.

Associations for Joint Floatage.

Pursuant to the law of the 1st of July 1887 concerning the utilisa-
tion of the water-courses, those persons for whose account the floatage
in a river takes place are entitled, when the majority of them are agreed,
to decide that the floatage shall proceed in common and under joint
management, as well as to establish the rules under which the floatage
is to be carried out. In order that the decision regarding the adoption
of joint floatage or alterations in the adopted rules may be valid the
majority must represent at least one-third of the quantity of timber floa-
ted in the water-course in question during the preceding year. The rules
are subject to the approbation of the’ King in council. These combina-
tions are called associations for joint floatage. Such associations have
been established along most of the great water-courses throughout the
country. They have by improving the river channels given a great
impetus to the operation of floatage. The expenses are covered by a
charge tipon the timber that is transported by floating.

Associations for Measuring of Timber.
Until a few years age the purchaser himself prescribed the rules
for the measurement of the timber he bought and himself got the mea-

i
re)

*(joaagf-eas IaAO saajaut COUT jnoqy) (Yyorq uleyUNOUL) ysorOJ YA Wey UTePUNOTAL

suring done. The result of this was that in many cases the seller was
more or less at the mercy of the buyer. In order to secure a more
equitable arrangement in the measuring of timber intended for sale there
have of late years been established along the main water-ways special
institutions with permanent, sometimes sworn, measurers, who receive
the timber on behalf of the buyer. These measurement institutions are
called associations for measuring of timber. Their establishment is
quite voluntary. ‘They have a council of management, to which one half
of the members are elected by the buyers and one half by the sellers and
the buyers and sellers likewise bear half of the expenses each.

The Norwegian Mutual Forest-fire Insurance
Company.

This company was founded in 1912 by the Norwegian forest-owners.
The company undertakes insurance of forests against a premium of
t/t °/oo of the insurance amount in cases where forest-fre regulations
have been introduced. Where such regulations have,.not been estab-
lished, the premium is 1°/1 °/oo.

After an insurance period of 4 years a reduction of 20 °/o is made
in the premium. After a further 4 years a reduction of '/10 °/oo is al-
lowed in the form of a bonus. The most of the insurers have thus an
effective premium of 60 ore per tooo kroner of insurance amount. Only
the forest ground and young wood are included in the insurance, but not
timber trees.

In 1920 there was insured in the company about 65 “/o of the
forest area of coniferous trees and to a total value of 259, 124,000 kroner.

Of other associations concerned with forestry may be mentioned:
The Norwegian Timber Export Association (Norsk Trelasteksportfor-
ening), The Norwegian Pit-props Exporters’ Association (Norsk Props-
eksportorers landsforening), The Norwegian Cellulose Association (Norsk
Celluloseforening), The Norwegian Wood-pulp Association (Den norske
Tremasseforeningy, The Norwegian Papermakers’ Association (De nor-
ske Papirfabrikanters Forening) and Norway’s Timber Union (Norges
Trelastforbund).

The forest-owners have also their own bank: The Forest-owners’
Bank (Skogeierbanken).

0

Legislation concerning Forestry.

Here may in the first place be mentioned the law of August
8th 1908 forthe preservation of protective woods
and against the destruction of forests, with the
supplementary law of June 7th 1916. By virtue of
these laws rules have been established by Royal Order in Council for
the hewing of timber within the different rural districts, which rules
generally contain, amongst other things, a prohibition against the cutting
down of trees under a fixed minimum dimension, except where such

ae

undersized trees are hindered i their growth, stunted, damaged or the
like. ‘The State allows one half of the expenses incurred in seeing that
the law is properly observed. In those districts where the local author-
ities have not of their own initiative passed bye-laws the general regu-
lations fixed by the supplementary law of the 7th June 1916 come into
application,

The Act ot the roth February 1908 regarding
the invalidity of certain contracts for felling of
trees etc. forbids the establishment of such contracts for a longer
period than 3 years from the date of the making of the contract.

The Act of July r4te 1893 regarding restric
tions on the use of fire in woods and fields ete.
with the amending act of 1921, lays down certain prohibitions against
the use of fire in forests and enjoins upon the district authorities the
enactment of so-called »forest-fire regulations«. According to these re-
gulations every able-bodied man in the district may be called upon to
take without remuneration part in the extinguishing of forest fires.

Amongst other laws may be mentioned, the Act of the 20th
May 1899 regarding the hunting and capture of
game, the Act of the 2oth July 1918 regarding hou-
sing of men and horses engaged in forest-work
and floatage of timber. The so-called »Mountain Lawe«
of the z2oth March 1920 gives to the local authorities in the
highlands the right to the regulate the rights of the parishes to fishing,
hunting and pasturing in the common lands belonging to the State, in-
cluding also the common forest-lands, and the Act of the zoth August
1915 forbids the separation from the farm-holdings of the forest and
mountain tracts necessary for the working of the farm.

The civil Veterinary Service.

This service (pag. 21) is well and completely organised with a
staff of welltrained officials. Hitherto most of the veterinary surgeons
have obtained their education is Denmark, but there is now under
construction a Norwegian Veterinary High School in Christiania.

‘The number of veterinary surgeons is 255. Of these 165 are county
veterinary surgeons, whose salaries are paid partly by the State and
partly by the county concerned.

The State Veterinary Institute in Christiania consists

of 3 sections, namely, the bacteriological or serum section, the patholo-
gical section and the veterinarymedical library. ‘The Institute makes
diagnosis of diseases (especially contagious diseases), carries out scienti-
fic experiments, produces veterinary sera, tuberculin and other diagnostic
and therapeutic materials, examines pathological preparations submitted
to it for investigation, carries out chemical investigations, holds courses
of instruction for veterinary surgeons etc. The Institute likewise acts
in an advisory capacity towards the administration.

Many of the malignant contagious diseases of domestic animals,
such as cattle plague, rabies, glanders, foot-and mouth disease, infectious
pleuro pneumonia in cattle, sheep-pox, sheep-scab and foot-rot in sheep
are non-existent in Norway. The introduction from abroad of con-
tagious diseases amongst animals is prevented by means of strict import-
regulations (or import-prohibition) and quarantine regulations. ‘The state
of health amongst the live-stock is especially good (tuberculosis in cattle
is comparatively rare). As regards the export of live-stock from this
country regulations have been made prescribing examination by a vete-
rinary surgeon as to the health of the animals before they are dis-
patched ete.

The combating of contagious diseases amongst animals proceeds
according to a special law on that subject (The Domestic Animals Act).

Official control of meat and official slaughter-houses have been
established according to a special law on that subject. Thus, municipal
control of meat is at present in operation in 35 municipalities and public
slaughter-houses have been established in several towns.

Re-distribution of intermixed Holdings.

In Norway, as in many other lands, the ground was from ancient
times to a great extent held in common and the dwellings and other
buildings grouped together in small villages.

We distinguish between two different kinds of tenure-in-common,
namely :

1) Joint-ownership, that is to say, each individual holding
has not its separate portion marked out with boundaries, but the common
property is used either alternately or simultaneously by the different
holders.

Cluster of houses before re-distribution.

2) Rundale system, that is to say, the various holders have
their separate allotments, but these are so mixed up with each other that
each holder cannot without excessive trouble maintain and preserve his
plot of ground or utilise it in a serviceable manner.

Joint ownership was especially to be found in the case of pasture
and forest and the rundale system in the case of cultivated and culti-
vatable land. Under the primitive conditions existing in former times
the disadvantages connected with these forms of ownership were less
keenly felt. Joint-ownership in forests led, however, — especially after
timber became en article of commerce, — to uncontrolled depletion of
the forests, while the rundale system (under which a single property
might be split up into 100 or more small plots) prevented the separate
owner from working the property in a rational manner and rendered
him in a high degree dependent on his neighbours. According as the ge-
neral development proceeded and the working became more intensive
etc. the demand for rational conditions of ownership made itself more
and more felt and in the beginning of the roth century the first effec-
tive steps were taken by the authorities of the state in order to bring
about a change in the state of affairs. The first law regarding re-distri-
bution of intermixed holdings dates from 1821. The law at present in
force was passed in 1882 with supplementary laws in 1917 and 1921.
According to these laws every self-owning farmer can demand a re-
distribution and, if the demand is acceded to, he can have the common
property re-apportioned. The greater part of the costs of re-distribu-
tion is borne by the state.

The re-distribution is carried out by a Re-distribution Court (a spe-

argo ganas

‘Usp

urejunoul & ut

urayshs apepuny

fo.

cial tribunal) consisting of a professionally qualified chairman and 2
nominated members (men with practical experience). This court de-
cides legal disputes, carries out valutions of the land and decides upon
the scheme of re-distribution, the arrangement of roads etc. As basis for
the valuation and for the drawing up of the re-distribution scheme there
is generally prepared a map of the ground. The technical work is per-
formed by officials appointed to assist the chairman, which assistants, like
the chairman of the courts, are trained in a special section of the High
School of Agriculture.

In connection with the re-distribution of rundale holdings a remo-
val of the houses must frequently be carried out in order that the buil-

Neighbourhood after re-distribution.

dings may be conveniently situated for the working of the property.
The Re-distribution Court can enjoin upon the owners the carrying
out of such removals, and it has likewise to estimate the expenses con-
nected therewith and to apportion same between the interested parties.
The law contains provisions as to the amount of the expenses that can be
charged upon each separate holding in proportion to its registered taxa-
tion value. If the expenses exceed the amount that can according to the
law be imposed upon the parties, they can seek to have the whole or part
of the excess-amount covered by the state. During the past few years
the state treasury has granted about kr. 300,000 annually as a contri-
bution towards the cost of removing buildings.

The maps are, generally speaking, drawn up tachymetrically and they
are to be incorporated in the trigonometrical net-work of maps of the
whole country. The intention is that they shall form part of an econo-
mic map-system for the whole land.

The chairmen of the courts and their assistants are appointed and
paid by the state. Their number is at present 51 and 78 respectively,

— 41 —

distributed over the country with defined working-districts. An inspec-
tor is appointed to control the surveying and cartographical work.

The interested parties provide the remuneration to the 2 laymen who
are members of the court and the costs of the necessary assistance in
the work of surveying.

The total grant from the state towards the work of re-distribution
has of late years amounted to about 1,500,000 kroner.

In addition to the re-distribution of the land actually held in com-
mon ownership the law also gives access, with the aid of the re-distrib-
ution courts and in a similar manner, to the abolishment of certain de-
trimental rights and easements and to the making of provisions for the
well-ordered use of common properties which are not suitable for re-
distribution etc.

Through the system of re-distribution the greater part of the common
holdings which were formerly most complicated have now been replaced
by conveniently rounded-off properties.

Legislation Concerning Agriculture and Forestry.

Amongst the various laws concerning agriculture may specially be
mentioned:

The concession Laws,

By a number of laws enacted from 1906 onwards various restric-
tions have been imposed upon the free right of acquiring waterfalls,
mines, forest, land and mountain properties, lime-
pits, peat-bogs and certain other national assets.

Of these laws the Department of Agriculture has to see to the
observance of the Acts concerning Forest Concessions, Moun-
tainConcessionsand Peat-bog Concessions. According to
these laws foreigners and companies in which foreign capital is inte-
rested must have the permission of the King (Concession) in order to
acquire the right of ownership or user in any of the above-mentioned
kinds of property, irrespective of the extent of the property in question.
Also Norwegian companies and Norwegian subjects and Norwegian
local authorities (but not the local authority in whose district the pro-
perty concerned is situated) require to a large extent a concession for
the acquirement of the kinds of property above-named, especially when
it is a question of properties exceeding a certain size or of persons
who already hold property exceeding a certain size in the district con-
cerned. The areas thus taken into account in granting the concessions
(the concession-limits) vary somewhat for the different kinds of pro-
perty and they likewise vary according as it is a question of persons
resident in the district in which the property is situated or of persons

4

resident outside the district. For the last-named class of persons (that
is: non-residents in the district) the limits are much lower than for per-
sons of the first-named class (residents in the district). The individual
districts are, furthermore, at liberty to get these limits reduced and the
districts have availed themselves of this privilege to a very great extent,
so that the concession-limits are now generally very low throughout the
whole country. Thus it may be mentioned that the limit for forest-
concessions in about one half of the districts in the country has been
reduced to to hectares, as regards companies, non-residents and local
authorities of other districts. Also for residents in the district the limit
for forest-concessions has been reduced to a very small area, in some
districts to 10 hectares. A somewhat similar state of affairs prevails
also as regards land, for which the limits fixed by the law (4 hectares
for non-residents and 15 to 30 hectares for residents) have been further
reduced in a number of districts. The same applies also as regards the
limits for mountain-concessions, which by the law have been fixed at
100 hectares. In the case of all these areas it is to be remarked that it
is not only the extent of the property to be acquired that is taken into
account, but also what the acquirer and his immediate relatives already
possess in the district, so that the property acquired becomes subject to
consession when it, together with what the acquirer and his immediate
relatives already own in the district, exceeds the limit applying to the di-
strict.

Transfers within the circle of immediate relatives are exempt from
the obligation of obtaining concession, irrespective of the extent of the
property.

Applications for concession must first be submitted to the local autho-
rities for their expression of opinion as to wether the application ought
to be granted or not, and as to wether, if granted, there ought to be
attached to the concession special conditions with a view to guarding the
public interests. Thereupon the applicatidn is sent in to the Depart-
ment, which submits it to the King for decision. For the granting of the
concession such conditions may be laid down as may be found requisite
in the public interests. Thus, in the case of concessions for the acquire-
ment of land-property it is usual to lay down the condition that the
acquirer shall take up permanent residence on the property for a period
of at least 5 years and work it in a. proper manner as a farm and
that he shall treat in a rational manner the forest attached to the pro-
perty. Moreover, there are often, according to the nature of the indi-
vidual cases, laid down several other conditions for acquirement of
property.

If, in view of the information supplied and of the opinion expressed
by the local authorities, the King finds that it is contrary to the public
interests to allow the applicant to acquire the property, the latter’s appli-
cation for concession will be rejected. The applicant will then be
allowed a certain time to arrange the matter of acquirement, either by

— 43 —

transferring the property to some person who can obtain the con-
cession or by cancelling the transaction. If the applicant fails to do this
before the lapse of the time allowed, the property will be sold by the
public authorities to some one who can obtain the concession.

As a result of the comparatively low concession-limits, the number
of concession cases that come before the Department for consideration
is very large, on an average between 2500 and 3000 applications per year.

-The above-mentioned Concession Laws contain provisions giving to
the local authorities in whose district the property subject to concession
is situaterd the right of pre-emption of that property, that
is to say, the right to take over the property on the terms of the con-
tract of purchase. The object in giving the local authorities this right
of pre-emption is to enable them in this way to acquire properties which
it may be deemed expedient for them to acquire, either in order to
retain same in their own hands or to transfer them to people in the
district who are in want of land, forest or other possessions. This right
of pre-emption has to a large extent been availed of by the local authori-
ties, especially in case of forest and land-properties. Several of the
local bodies have in this manner acquired large stretches of forest, which
they work for the benefit of the district, and these communal acquisi-
tions, in addition to their great public utility, have almost without ex-
ception proved to be excellent business undertakings from a purely eco-
nomic point of view. The local authorities have likewise to a large
extent exercised the right of pre-emption to large land-properties, which
they have then divided up into small-holdings and allotted same to
people in the districts who were in want of land. In this manner a large
number of self-owned holdings have been created throughout the country.

In the case of large properties the State is entitled to exercise the
right of pre-emption to the property, if the local authority concerned does
not desire to avail of the pre-emption rights.

Amongst other laws concerning agriculture may be mentioned:

The Act of Julizr4th 1894 (cf. the Acts of May 26th 1899 and
May 14th 1918) regarding contagious diseases of live-stock, which gives
authority for taking the necessary measures to prevent the spread of
such diseases. Amongst other things, the slaughtering of the animals
may be prescribed and prohibition issued against the importation of
live-stock, while other prescribtions and regulations may be established in
order to prevent infection.
The Act of July 21st 1916 concerning the combating of noxious
insects and plant-diseases, which authorises the King to prescribe the
measures necessary for combating and preventing the diffusion within
the country of such insects and diseases. Thus, amongst other things,
there can be issued a prohibition against the import of plants, bushes or
trees, or parts thereof, herein also included berries, roats, potatoes, corn
and other seeds.

There is further an act, dated July 4th 1919, imposing restrictions

Sage

on the turning out of stallions, bulls, buck-goats and rams to graze upon
the common pastures, and an act of August 20th 1915 regarding lia-
bility for injury to cattle by dogs.

Finally may be mentioned the Act of May 8th 1913 regarding the
marking and colouring of foreign seeds.

Concerning the special forest laws see page 35.

Co-operation, Credit System and Insurance System.

Co-operation in its various forms has of late years made considerable
progress. A special and comparatively old form of co-operation
for selling purposes we have in the creameries and cheese-
factories, of which there are about 500 in existence. These are formed
by combination of farmers on an entirely co-operative basis, and they
have been of very great importance as an economic factor in agricul-
ture.

Of other co-operative undertakings for selling purposes may be
mentioned the joint slaughterhouses, the co-operative societies for the
sale of eggs and those for the sale of timber.

For joint purchase of artifical manure, concentrated cattle-
food, machines and other articles for use in agriculture there are in
operation throughout the country districts 6 co-operative purchasing
societies with their subordinate branches. There are in existence 2250
of such subordinate purchasing societies with a total membership of
about 75,000. The total turn-over in 1920 was about 65 million kroner.

Credit System.

The arrangements for the granting of loans are, relatively speaking,
well organised. It is comparatively easy for the farmers to raise the
loans necessary for their operations. Mortgage loans are granted hy
»Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank« (The Kingdom of Norway’s Mort-
gage Bank) and by »Den norske Stats smaabruk og boligbank« (The Nor-
wegian State Bank for Smallholders and Dwellings), both of which are
state institutions, as well as by the various public funds. There has,
besides, been lately established a co-operative bank with the same object,
namely: »Norges kreditforening for land og skogbruk« The Norwegian
Credit Association for Land and Forestry).

A large proportion of the credit requirements of agriculture is
satisfied by the savings-banks, which in Norway have a wider sphere of
action than savings-bank and similar institutions abroad. Our = sa-
vings-banks have most resemblance to the Swedish »folkbanker« (People’s
Banks). Like the latter they provide for several kinds of activity. They

grant mortgage loans both against direct mortgage-deeds and against
mortgage-documents deposited as security. The saving-banks are self-
owning institutions, which give no dividend to private persons, but either
add the annual profits to capital or apply a portion of the surplus to
purposes of public utility. The operations of the savings-banks are
hedged around by legislative prescriptions and are subjected to official
control, exercised by a Director of Savings-banks and a number of
inspectors. The number of savings-banks is at present 555, with a total
disposable capital of somehwat over 2 milliard kroner.

Insurance System.

Buildings of value throughout the whole country are, almost without
exception, insured against damage by fire in the great public insurance
companies. The largest of these is »Norges brandkasse« (The Norwegian
Fire Insurance Fund). There are, besides, local co-operative insurance
societies in operation around in the country districts, in addition to a
number of private insurance companies. The buildings in the rural dis-
tricts are insured for a total amount of about 4.5 milliard kroner.

Insurance against forestfires see page 35.

Live-stock insurance has of late years attracted increasing
interest, but owing to the good conditions of health amongst the live-
stock there has not hitherto been any very great demand for a general
system of insurance in this field.

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

In 1921 Norway possessed the following specialised schools for Agri-

culture, Horticulture, Dairying, Forestry and Domestic Science:

A. High Schools, mainly for the training of teachers and officials and
for scientific research:
The High School of Agriculture for Norway. (Norges Landbruks-
hgiskole) State Training School for Teachers and Instructors to Small-
holders. State Training School for Female Teachers in House-
wifery.

B. Schools which are specially intended for training in practical require-
ments:

= 6

Agricultural Schools,

Schools for Smallholders,

Horticultural Schools,

Schools of Dairying,
Schools of Forestry,

68 Schools of Housewifery.

wow
WMO AW

Ox
(o)

Total 131 schools.

All these schools are administered by the Department of Agricul-
ture, whereas the school-system of the country otherwise comes under the
Church and Education Department.

High schools.

The High School of Agriculture for Norway.
This comprises 5 sections:

The Agricultural Section,

The Forestry Section,

The Horticultural Section,

The Dairying Section.

The Section for Re-distribution of intermixed Holdings.

In all these sections the period of study is 3 years. In the first year
the course of instruction is common for all 5 sections and after the expir-
ation of that year the first part of the examination is taken, embracing
chiefly natural science subjects.

In the 2nd and 3rd years the courses of study are separate for each
section, although for some sections there may be common instruction in
some subjects.

The High School has the following staff of teachers and officials:

20 professors, of whom one acts as Principal,
7 permanent lecturers,

3 interchangeable lectureships,

18 assistent teachers,

6 scholarship-holders,

about 20 different other officials.

Furthermore, in connection with the High School’s farm there are
employed several different officials and permanent labourers.

The High School has an estate comprising about 150 hectares of cul-
tivated land and some forest-land, which is a fairly large amount as things
go in Norway.

About 80 students enter the High School every year, so that the total
number of students, when the new arrangement has been completed, will
be from 200 to 250.

In order to be admitted to the High School the applicants must have

oy) aTppru ayy uy

soouaptsar yelsossajoid ay} Jo duo jYSIt oY} 0} Pue sasnoy-jno
‘Surpyinq-[ooyds oy) Yet ay] OF “Mata [er9uaDH “ACMION JOJ oInyNoIsSy Jo JooysS ySsPEZ oyL

ee Ghee

had 2 years’ practical work, have gone through an agricultural school
(see hereinafter 53) and have passed either the University matriculation
examination or else an examination in 2 foreign languages, mathematics,
Norwegian etc. For those who have gone through an agricultural school,
but are deficient in general education, special preparatory courses of I
year have been arranged to prepare them for this examination. Hitherto
only a comparatively small number of the students have had the full ma-
triculation examination.

Generally speaking, the course of education will take the following
time:

Continuation: school: ., nssee.eaeen Pas eet Ye year
Practical wotk: 255 wou tiinceie eda metds 2 years
Acricultural ‘School 2avavesesck owen se seals 1% »
Preparatory COuUrse, alice tiene dob eanaees I year
High School, ss.gatwerdndhnes seem hes 3. ~years
Total 8 years.

For horticulturists 3 years’ practical work are required, so that for
these the period of education will be 9 years in all.

At the High School the following practical and scientific experimen-
tal work is carried out:

1. Experiments in Cultivation of Plants,

Experiments in the Treatment and Investigation of Grain,
Experiments in the Cultivation of the Soil,
Experiments with regard to Weeds,
Experiments with regard to Foods and Feeding,
Experiments in the breeding of Young-stock,
Tests with Machines,
Experiments in Horticulture,
Investigation of the Soil,
Experiments in Forestry.

SO PI AKRAYWDH

H

The State Training School for Teachers to
Smallholders.

This school was established in 1914 and its object is to train teachers
for the schools and instructors in the working of small holdings, as well
as to carry out experiments in that sphere. At first the school had a 1
year’s course of instruction, but this has now been extended to 2 years.

The school has the following staff of teachers and officials:

I principal,

2 head-teachers,

3 teachers,

— 49 —

‘sjuapnys IOJ sasnoy-suipsvoq ay,

Joos

YStH MUL

=) 50°

The State Training School for Teachers to Smallholders.

2 assistent teachers,

2 scholarship-holders,

2 herdsmen or herdswomen.

Under the new plan 20 pupils shall be admitted every year, so that
there will thus be 40 pupils in the school. Moreover, short courses of in-
struction are given in different branches of small-holding operations.

The school has a small estate of about 12 hectares. It has a small stock
of the larger domestic animals. On the other hand, a fairly large number
of the smaller domestic animals is kept.

The instruction consists partly of lectures and partly of practical
work on the farm and with the small and large domestic animals, as well as
training in handicrafts. For this latter purpose the school has a well-
equipped smithy and carpenter’s shop, each with room for 8 to Io pupils
at a time.

In order to be admitted to the school it is required that the applicant
shall have gone through an agricultural school and that he shall have
some general education. A knowledge of foreign languages is not
demanded.

The period of education for this school will be:

Gontinuationm-School: \.. aia scion he etan eases ee % year,
Practical work: sited oti eerccetne ee ati 2. years,
Agticultural, School. sscxc.sas vce aes sien bye 3S
Training school: ascii Cos eeu tea ea 2 >

Total 6 years.

ee Ga

The main reason for its having been found necessary to establish a
separate training school for teachers and instructors in these special bran-
ches of agriculture lies in the fact that the holdings in this country are
for the most part so small that they cannot support a family when worked
in the usual way of farming. On the other hand, by utilising the many
small sources of income that are available on a small farm the yield can
be increased so much that it will be sufficient for a frugal family. Of
the smaller domestic animals the school has paid special attention to swine,
goats, sheep, poultry and bees, but rabbits, geese, ducks and turkeys are
also kept. Moreover, a good deal of gardening is carried on at the school,
side by side with the farming work proper.

On account of the special aims of the school the system of instruction
follows a different plan than in the High School of Agriculture. Whilst
in the latter the instruction is exclusively theoretical, practical training in
farm-work takes up a comparatively extensive place in the curriculum of
this Training School.

The experimental work at this school is still somewhat new and im-
mature, but it is intended to develop this work by degress as circumstances
allow. It is likewise intended gradually to establish a considerable activity
in the holding of short courses of instruction.

The State Training School for Female Teachers
in Domestic Science.

The object of this school is to train teachers for the schools of house-
wifery and for the teaching of cookery in the elementary schools.

The school comprises 3 sections:

A. Training School for teachers of Domestic Science 2 years’ course.
B. Do Do for teachers in elementary
school cookery clases ........ I —»—
C. Housewifery School, the pupils of which shall at
the same time form a practice school for Section A % —»—

In order to be admitted to Section A it is required that the applicant
shall have gone through a lower school of Domestic Science, similar to
Section C, and moreover an examination in general subjects must be

passed.
In Section B the complete examination for teachers is required.
> > C no special previous training is demanded, except that

the applicant must have had at least 1 year’s practice in househald work
and she must have a good general school education.

The period of education for Section A will be:

The State Training School for Female Teachers in Domestic Science.

Continuation School (2 half-years) ........ I year,
Practical workss.c3 ahcaceetek teers I »
School of Domestic Science ................ % »
Training School for teachers in Domestic
SCIENCE snes ute hota ees cena wee aah 2. years
Total 4% years
The period of education for Section B will be:
Continitation, School s.ucceuiwescaensineedined Ye year,
Training School for teachers in elementary
3. +years,

schools
Training School for teachers in Domestic

GION COs ss hecnc cortege tue aneveate ney stiae 9 toe eee eek I year.

Total 4% years.

— 53 ay

The school has the following staff of teachers and officials:
lady-principal,

teachers,

assistant teachers,

scholarship-holders,

well as a number of other officals.

Wn OH

bo

a

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Lower Schools.

Lower Agricultural Schools and Smallholders’
Schools,

The most of these schools are owned and carried on by the County
Councils. A few schools are owned and carried on by the District Councils
or by associations, and a couple of schools are private schools with a public
grant.

The state contributes 3-fourths of the outlay for teachers’ salaries,
scholarchips to pupils, fuel, light and cleaning, as well as for examination
expenses, office expenses, teaching materials, free doctor, excursions etc.

The County Councils must provide the houses and, if required, farm-
land. The latter is worked for the account of the county.

The most of these schools are boarding-schools and the victualling
is at the charge of the counties. For victualling there can at the present
day be allowed up to 60 kroner a month per pupil and for fuel, light and
cleaning up to 75 kroner a month per pupil per winter half-year. This,
howewer, is arranged in such a way that the better-situated pupils pay
almost in full for their food, whilst those who are not so well off can
obtain it altogether free of charge. As the outlay for food at present
comes to about 100 kroner a mounth, the dificiency is supplied by means
of a contribution from the pupils.

The Agricultural Schools.

Of these we have altogether 33. The length of the courses varies
from 1% years down to 5 months.

There are at present in existence:

15 agricultural schools with 18 months course.

1 agricultural school withh 12 months theoretical course combined
with apprentice-service.

4 agricultural schools with 12 months course.

3 agricultural schools with 9 months course.

10 agricultural schools with about 6 months course.

a. Schools with 18 months courses.

The schools which 18 months courses have mainly theoretical instruc-
tion during the 2 winter half-years and mainly practical teaching in
the summer half-year. The courses begin in October and end in April.
The pupil receives the practical instruction partly on the farm attached
to the school and partly on private farms. The average number of hours
employed is about as follows:

a om ae
si
‘all ii

Py. G

One of the newest lower agricultural schools.

Theoretical Instruction.

Main: SUDICCtS: j45-2a 2 nrska ome acumen es 650 hours
Natural science subjects ............ 350»
General “Subjects: he cascione sas cieanuas 200. »
Exercises (drawing etc.) ............ 150»

total 1350 hours
Practieal Instruction,

Work: on thes tar nt, satis staid iar weet 1350 hours
Practice of handicrafts ............ 50 » total 1400 hours
Potal. Asi kaa 2750 hours

To this is to be added the pupils home-work in preparation of
lessons, written exercises etc.

All these 18-monthly schools have their own farms. The size of
these farms is in most cases between 20 and 80 hectares. They have
likewise a, boarding-house for the pupils, the food being supplied at the
school’s expense, schoolrooms and residences for teachers. The total
value of the buildings of such a school lies as a rule between kr. 300,000
and kr. 1,000,000 calculated according to the present-day value.

That part of the yearly budget which is borne by the county and
the state together amounts in the case of the large schools to from
about Kr. 70,000 to Kr, 130,000 for each school. Furthermore, the
county bears the costs of buildings and eventual deficits on victualling etc.

The number of pupils in these large schools varies between 44 and
120. The number of teachers is between 5 and 10. The largest and
best equipped of these schools have a staff of:

I principal,

3 teachers in agriculture,
1 teacher in horticulture,
I teacher in forestry,

1 farm-steward,

1 dairy,foreman,

I teacher of smithing,

1 teacher of carpentry.

b. Winter School of Agriculture in Christiania.

This is the only agricultural school situated in a town. It has
theoretical instruction during 2 winters in combination with an appren-
tice-course with private farm-owners lasting one year and a half. The
school has about 100 pupils in the theoretical course. It is a private
school with a grant from the state.

Schools with I-year courses.

These are all situated in the west or north of Norway, where the
conditions for farming are narrower and the farms smaller. The schools
have farms attached and the pupils take part in the manual labour. The
farm being as a rule small, in proportion to the number of pupils, there
is also some theoretical instruction in summer. The theoretical instruc-
tion therefore covers nearly the same ground as in the schools with
1% year courses, while the practical instruction is considerably less.

Schools with 9 months courses.

These begin in September and end in June. They are all situated in
the mountain districts and the school-time is arranged thus out of re-
_gard to the difficult work of harvesting the hay on the highland mea-
dows in these districts. The farmer likes to have his sons at home at
that time.

The pupils take some little part in the work on the school farm
(which is of small extent) in the autumn and spring. Otherwise the in-
struction is mainly theoretical.

Schools with about 6 months courses.

These are also for the most part to be found in the mountain districts
and sometime in the fishing districts on the coast. They are attended
especially by pupils from the smaller farms, where a longer period of
training is considered too expensive for their narrow circumstances.

The instruction is mainly theoretical and the schools as a rule have
no farm attached. Some of these schools are movable schools. They
remain from I to 5 years in each district, after which they are removed to
another district.

School for Smallholders.

Schools for Smallholders.

Whereas the Agricultural Schools are of old date, seeing that the
first agricultural school in the country was established in 1825, the
schools for smallholders have all been established since 1915.

Their object is to teach the pupils to work a small farm (small-
holding) of from 1 to 5 hectares, so that a family can support itself
thereon. They therefore pay most attention to the smaller domestic
animals: pigs, sheep, goats, poultry, bees etc. in combination with gar-
dening and intensive working of the land otherwise. There are at
present 6 such schools in activity. Two of these schools have small
farms attached and are well equipped with buildings and teaching ma-
terials. 2 are connected with the continuation schools (folkehgiskoler)
and I is a movable school. 2 courses of 3 months are held every winter.

Finally, there has been established 1 year ago a private smallholder
school for women. This school has likewise a public grant. It has a
g-months practical and theoretical course and is conducted by a lady-
principal.

The aim of the agricultural and smallholder schools is first and
foremost to provide the future farmers with theoretical knowledge and
practical ability in farming. Besides this, the agricultural schools with
complete courses serve as preparatory schools for the High School of
Agriculture and for the Training School for Teachers to Smallholders.

House-wifery School.

Housewifery Schools.
Of these we have
38 public housewifery schools in the country districts,
14 —»— —>— in the towns,
16 private —-»— mostly in the towns.
Total 68 housewifery schools.

The public housewifery schools in the country districts are owned
and carried on by the County Councils. Some of them are entirely in-
dependent schools, some are combined with the agricultural schools and
some with the continuation schools. Most of them are full boarding-
schools and the victualling is at the expense of the counties.

The public housewifery schools in the towns are owned by the
town-council. They are as a rule not boarding-schools but the pupils
eat one or two meals in the school and live at home.

All public housewifery schools have a grant of three-fourths from the
state under somewhat the same regulations as the agricultural schools.

The private housewifery schools have a grant from the state under
different regulations from those applying to the public schools, and the
grants do not constitute so large a part of the expenses as in the case
of the public schools.

The most of the housewifery schools have courses of about 5
months, but of late the tendency has been to make the courses longer
(10 months). Some of the schools in the country districts have, how-
ever, longer courses, up to I year, while some have shorter courses,
down to 3 months.

Horticultural School.

The schools in the country districts have as a rule instruction in
cookery and housekeeping, needlework, gardening, work in the cowshed
and dairy, as well as in hygiene and the care of children.

The schools in the towns have as a rule instruction only in cookery
and housekeeping, together with hygiene and the care of children.

Most of the housewifery schools attach most importance to the prac-
tical training, the theoretical instruction as a rule embracing only from
2 to 3 hours daily.

The housewifery schools have from 12 to 4o pupils each. The most
of the combined schools hold only one course in the year, namely, during
the time when there is most room in the buildings.

The lower Horticultural Schools.

Of these schools we have:
1 school in Christiania with a theoretical course extending over 2 winters
and apprentice service in the intervening summer. This school has 3
sections: I for hot-house and green-house gardening, 1 for landscape
gardening and 1 for ordinary outdoor gardening.
4 schools with 1% years practical and theoretical course in all kinds of
horticulture. The instruction in these schools, however, corresponds in
the main to the ordinary outdoor gardening section at the school in
Christiania.
2 schools with I year’s course in general horticulture.
2 schools with 8 months course in general horticulture.

The first 5 of these schools are specially designed for such pupils

as propose to take up horticulture or market-gardening as their chiet
means of livelihood or for such as intend to enter the horticultural
section of The High School of Agriculture.

The last 4 are mainly intended for such as wish to pursue gardening
as a subsidiary occupation side by side with farming.

4 of the schools are state schools,

I is a county school,

4 are private schools.

The lower Schools of Forestry.

These are carried on upon essentially the same system as the agri-
cultural schools.

There are:

5 State schools with I year’s course,

3 county schools with I year’s course.

2 county schools with 1% year’s course.

These last 2 are combined with agricultural schools.

The instruction is practical and theoretical, the winter season being
mainly applied to theoretical instruction and the summer to outdoor
practice. To each school there is assigned I or more of the state
forests, and the principal of the school is then likewise manager of
these forests.

Two of the forestry schools are combined with agricultural schools
and have their budget in common with the latter.
The lower Schools of Dairying.

These are all State schools and have the following courses:

1 school with 1 year’s theoretical course for men and women in combi-
nation with apprentice service in creameries which are approved of as
places for training.

4 schools with from I to 1% year’s practical and theoretical courses
for the training of female dairy-hands.

The first-named of these schools is stationed in a small town. The
other 4 are quartered in creameries, and the manager of the creamery
is then at the same time the principal of the school. For admission it is
required that the applicants shall have at least one year’s practice in a
creamery.

cs

Short Courses.

In addition to the above-mentioned permanent schools there are held
a number of short courses supported by public grants and lasting from
a few days up to 2 or 3 months.

New-cultivation and Colonisation.

The work of new-cultivation, which in the years immediately pre-
ceding the war had already made considerable progress, has aroused

Smallholders’ dwellings.

great interest during the war, partly on account of the difficult situation
as regards food supplies which was created by the war and partly
owing to the social disturbance that occurred during and after the war.
There is a lively interest amongst the leading men of the country for
the question of attaching a larger number of persons than before to the
work of cultivating the land and for the securing of more livable condi-
tions for the cultivator of the soil.

During the war a separate office was established in the Departe-
ment of Agriculture with the object of working for an extraordinary in-
crease in agricultural production, especially of products which could di-
rectly serve as food for the nation, such as corn, potatoes and vege-
tables. In the course of 1917—18 (mainly in the latter year) the
area under corn potatoes etc. (See page 9) was increased by one-
third, chiefly through the ploughing up of artificial meadow.

At the same time an energetic campaign was started on the part
of the authorities of the State for an increase in new-cultivation and for
the colonisation after the war of the comparatively extensive uncultivated
waste-lands in the Kingdom.

By a resolution of Parliament of the 2nd November 1920 new re-
gulations were adopted for the giving of State grants, whereby the
new-cultivators and colonists are ensured considerable support from the
public funds. In this connection there have by the Act of November

Colonist homes,

19th 1920 been established in every district the so-called »Land Com-
mittees«, i.e., locally elected committees of 3 members, which are to have
charge of the work of new-cultivation in the district.

The Land Committee is elected by the District Council after the
farmers’ unions and smallholders’ unions within the district have been
requested to suggest members for election to the committee. The Land
Committee shall employ one or, if necessary, several men to plan and
control the execution of Land-cultivation operations in the district. The
District Council is to decide whether the members of the committee are
to receive remuneration for their work and, if so, the amount of the
remuneration. The expenses of the committee’s work are paid by the
local authority against refundment of one half of the amount by the
State.

The Land Committees deal as the first instance with all applications
for gratuits or loans for land-cultivation and colonisation, but also other
measures for promoting the better utilisation and working of the land
come within the sphere of acitivity of these committees, such as, for
example, arrangements for the better collection and treatment of animal
manure, for the better utilisation of the grazing-runs, for the com-
bating of weeds etc.

From the Land Committee the matters go to the County Agricultural
Societies, which, as already stated, are the immediate superiors of the
committees. The agricultural societies summarily dispose of some of the

eee Ce

applications and send in a quarterly statement hereon to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture (Production Office). Other applications are for-
warded to the Department for decision after the society has expressed
its opinion thereon.

According to the new regulations of the 2oth November 1920 the
State supports land-cultivation in the following ways:

1. By cheap loans from the Land-cultivation Fund (Jorddyrknings-
fondet).

By contributions for the reduction of interest on loans from Savings
Banks and from »Norges Kreditforening for Land- og Skogbruk«
(Norwegian Credit Society for Agriculture and Forestry).

3. By direct grants.

From the Land-cultivation Fund loans are granted for cultivation
operations that have been planned, but not yet carried out. The loans
are not given, as a rule, in larger amounts than Kr. 5000 and are
not granted to persons assessed for taxation on a larger capital than
Kr. 50,000. The loan is exempt from repayment of capital for the first
5 years, and the repayment thereafter takes place during the following
I5 years by means of equal annual instalments. The rate of interest is
2% per cent per annum. Loans can be made up to the amount at which
the cultivation work is estimated, but not exceeding Kr. 5000 per hectare.

For reduction of interest on loans obtained for purposes of land-
cultivation from savings banks or from The Norwegian Credit Society
for Agriculture and Forestry the State makes a contribution correspon-
ding to the difference between the rate of interest prevailing from
time to time for first-mortgage loans from public funds and the rate at
which loans from the Land-cultivation Fund can be obtained. This diffe-
rence in rate of interest at present amounts to about 3 per cent. Otherwise
the same rules apply for these loans as for loans from the Land-culti-
vation Fund, except that the limit for capital possessed by applicants
for loans is in this case raised to Kr. 100,000.

For cultivation work that has been planned but not executed the
State makes a direct contribution of 1-4th of the cost of the work,
but not over Kr. 1250 per hectare. To this may be added a contribution
from the district. The grant is made only to persons who are not asses-
sed for a larger capital than Kr. 25,000 or for a larger income than
Kr. 4,000.

Colonisation (the creation of new holdings) will, according to
the new regulations, be supported by the State by means of grants to colo-
nisation societies, amounting in general to 3 times the sum the societies
have been able to raise by other means, not including any contribution from
the State. In special cases the grant from the State may exceed this
limit.

The local authorities can also act as colonisation societies.

The colonisation generally proceeds in such a manner that the
societies or companies buy up stretches of uncultivated land and con-
struct the roads and main-drainage-trenches that are necessary in

i.)

eh eee

order that the building of houses and the actual work of cultivation may
be commenced.

The ground is divided up into holdings of such size as may be found
suitable for each separate district and is transferred to the settlers
either by sale or on lease. The settler must have-a capital of between
Kr. 1,500 as the minimum and Kr. 15,000 as the maximum. Every hol-
ding ought as a rule to be so large that a horse can be kept.

The settlers themselves as a rule carry out the work of breaking up
the land for cultivation and the erection of buildings on the holdings.

For loans obtained from The Norwegian Smallholders and Dwellings
Bank (Den norske smaabruk og boligbank) or from The Norwegian Credit
Society for Agriculture and Forestry (Norges Kreditforening for Land-
og Skogbruk) for the acquirement of the holding and for the erection
of buildings the State for the present pays the interest for the first
5 years after the taking up of the loan.

For the erection of out-houses the State makes a grant of up to one
third of the cost of the buildings. The State grant cannot, however,
exceed Kr. 1,000 per hectare of land suitable for cultivation, and the
total grant to one holding cannot be more than Kr. 5,000.

The minimum size of the holdings to which a grant is made for the
erection of buildings shall as a rule be 2 hectares.

For the work of bringing the land into cultivation the settler re-
ceives a loan or grant according to the rules applying for the giving
of loans and grants.

As direct State contribution to the work of land-cultivation and to
colonisation for the financial year 1920—21 there has been voted on the
extraordinary budget Kr. 5,000,000, and, in addition, Kr. 1,400,000 on the
ordinary budget.

For the financial year 1921—22 there has been voted Kr. 2,700,000
as direct contribution towards land-cultivation and towards the re-
duction of interest on loans for land-cultivation purposes, as well as
Kr. 1,300,000 for colonisation.

Of the sum voted for colonisation purposes Kr. 1,000,000 is to be
placed at the disposal of the colonisation society «New Land« (Ny Jord).

This latter society was founded in 1908 by various organisations in
connection with agriculture, commerce, handicrafts and industry. It was
originally called »The Society for the Restriction of Emigration«, and
its object was to work against excessive emigration to foreign countries’
as well as to afford guidance to emigrants who might wish to return
home. But in addition to this work the society from the very begin-
ning also devoted itself to practical tasks with the object of securing for
the greatest possible number of our young people room to live and better
working conditions within the limits of their own country. Its activities
have gone more and more in this direction, so that the work of coloni-
sation has now become the chief task of the society.

The society operates partly with its own resources and partly with
the help of grants from the State. The contribution from the State has,

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