S \ WY ~ A \ WS SS \\ Library OF THE Mew Work State Veterinary College AT Cornell University ‘im, Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000930366 VETERINARY MEDICINE SERIES Edited by ‘D. M. CAMPBELL, D.V.S. Editor American Journal of Veterinary Medicine POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT By B. F. KAUPP, M. Se., D. V. 8. Commissioner of Health, Spartanburg, S. C. a cot ahoarn ods, BY D. M. CAMPBELL new YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE LIBRARY VETERINARY MEDICINE SERIES No. 2 Edited by D. M. CAMPBELL, D. V. S. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT BY B. F. KAUPP, M.Sc., D.V.S. CoMMISSIONER OF HEALTH, SPARTANBURG, SOUTH CAROLINA; AUTHOR oF “ANIMAL PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES”; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF PaTHOLOGY, DIVISION OF VETER- INARY MEDICINE, CoLoRADO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AND PATHOLOGIST TO THE COLORADO AGRICULTURAL STATION; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF PARASITOLOGY, KANSAS CITY VETERINARY COLLEGE, AND DIRECTOR OF THE ANAT- OMY LABORATORY; FORMERLY VETERINARY INSPEC- Tor, BurEAU oF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE; CHAIRMAN or COMMITTEE ON DISEASES OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIA- '- won, 1911, ETc., ETC. Chicago ALEX. EGER 1914 Success is not luck, nor pull, nor a soft snap, but the longest, steadiest, hardest task one ever undertook. PREFACE This book is written to fill a demand from Veterinary students, students in Poultry Hus- bandry courses at our Agricultural Colleges, for Veterinary practitioners and for others interested in the scientific treatment of poultry diseases. An effort has been made to make the language so plain that all can comprehend the subject- matter, which is a summary of thoughts from experimental research in the Laboratory of Pathology of the author and of many other in- vestigators. For the -purpose of simplification, the synonyms are given for the various names of diseases. Then follow, in order, the cause, or causes, the symp- toms, the conditions found upon postmortem ex- amination, and lastly the treatment for each disease. The author is under very great obligations to Dr. D. M. Campbell, Editor of the American JOURNAL oF VETERINARY Mepicinz, for editing and arranging his laboratory notes on this subject into a related whole, as here presented, and for the section on Sanitation and some other portions. B. FL. Spartanburg, S. C., February, 1914. CONTENTS SECTION I. a ANATOMY asecg seit edie aes Maes gene Mas eas fa sete Nata tagy Se Review of the Anatomy of the Hen. SECTION II. SANITATION - i5keidit ooeolens Sea eteabae ede boew oe e EXTERNAL. PARASITES: ci sciiiicca shew dsasreaegae aed Os vale Lice of Birds—Lice of Chickens—Lice of Turkeys— - Lice of Ducks—Lice of Geese—Lice of Pigeons—Life History of Lice—Effects of Louse Infestation—Dealing With Louse Infestation—Scabies in Birds—Scaly Legs —Sarcoptes Mutans—Air Sac Disease—Cytodites Nudus—Chigger Infestation—Trombidium Holoseri— ceum—Dermanyssus Galline—Fleas Affecting Birds— Pulex Avium—Tick Infestation—Argus Miniatus— The Bedbug of Poultry—Acanthia Inodora—Fungi Af- fecting Birds—Thrush—Tinea Favosa—Pneumomyco- sis. SECTION Iv. ENTERNAL (PARASITES i014 6:3 jscencd-a.e.6:e0ae. eco acede'e G8 eae anes Ow 08 _ Important Round Worms—Ascaris Inflexa—Heter- akis Papillosa—Spiroptera Hamulosa — Syngamus Trachealis—Unimportant Round Worms—Heterakis Differens—Heterakis Compressa—Trichosomum—Het- erakis Maculosa—Tape Worms—Tenia Infundibuli- formis—Davainea Tetragona—Thorn-Headed Worms— Other Tenia—Echinorynchus Polymorphus—Flukes. SECTION V. DISEASE OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT........0. ce cecer ee eceeee Obstruction of the Beak—Stomatitis—Crop Bound— Tympany of the Crop—Gangrene of the Crop—Catarrh of the Crop—Depraved Appetite—Fowl Cholera— Blackhead—Diarrhea—White Diarrhea—Blastomyco- sis of the Pigeon—Coccidiosis of Wild Ducks—Arseni- cal Poisoning—Ptomain Poisoning—Corn Cockle Poi- soning—Salt Poisoning—Cloacitis. Z 59 73 8 POULTRY DISEASES SECTION VI. PAGE DISEASES OF THE BLOOD.........ccsececs cence eect rnerees Apoplectiform Septicemia of Chickens and Pigeons —Septicemia of Geese—Fowl Typhoid—Thrombosis— Spirochetosis—Pericarditis — Endocarditis — Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels. SECTION VII. CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES ...... 0. cece ccs ee cece eee e nace 115 Going Light—Tuberculosis. SECTION VIII. DISEASES OF THE LIVER....... cece ec eee eee e ee eee ne eeee 123 Fatty Degeneration—Fatty Infiltration—Rupture of the Liver—Congestion of the Liver—Inflammation of the Liver. SECTION IX. DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT...........c0 ec eecuee 129 Prolapse or Eversion of the Oviduct—Obstruction of the Oviduct—Eggs Broken in Oviduct—Prolapse of the Cloaca—Rupture of the Oviduct—Abnormal Eggs. SECTION X. HDG MORS: osha cag eid, Sage aa dw Pe N HEALERS bes oe Se ea ue oe 135 Hematoma—Multiple Tumors of the Ovary—Cystic Ovary —Sarcoma —Adenoma —Lymphosarcoma—Epi- thelioma. SECTION XI. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES........-0.0ecc0c 139 Obstruction of the Trachea—Colds—Bronchitis— Congestion of the Lungs—Pneumonia—Pneumomy- cosis—Aspergillosis—Swell Head in Young Turkeys— Chicken Pox—Roup—Conjunctivitis. SECTION XII. DISEASES OF THE LEGS AND FREET..........ccccccceeccccece 157 Leg Weakness—Abscess of the Feet—Bumble Foot. SECTION XIII. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN.........ccceccccccccccccuccccce 161 Vertigo—Hemorrhage of the Brain. CONTENTS 9 SECTION XIV.: PAGE BACTERIA OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT OF CHICKENS........ 163 SECTION XV. MT: SG: pease Seiaruny ee erase Viae tae BARONE WEL Aa onslieldadis 165 Animal Parasites—Bacteria of Eggs. “ SECTION XVI. ISOLATION OF NONLAYERS...... 0. ccc e cece cee e eee tee eee eces 171 The X-Ray—The Pubic Bone Examination—The Trap Nest. SECTION XVII. MALFORMATIONS .......e cece sete ee eee ick ahaa auc nat wns dais 175 SECTION XVIII. FRACTURES— W OUNDS— ANESTHESIA FIGURE PAGE 1, Visceral Anatomy of the Hen..................000. 14 2. Menopon Biseriatum (large hen louse)............ 36 3. Menopon Pallidum (small hen louse)..............+ 36 4. Goniocotes Hologaster (chicken louse)............. 37 5. Lipeurus Infuscatus (chicken louse)............... 37 6. Goniodes Stylifer (turkey louse).................-. 37 7. WLipeurus Baculus (pigeon louse)................-.. 38 8. Ova of the Goniodes Stylifer (louse egg).......... 38 9. A Convenient and Inexpensive Spray Pump........ 42 10. Sarcoptes Mutans Variety Gallinze (scaly leg mite). 44 11, Sealy Legs: (ScabieS) os ssiesededees ovis wars ou Sanden w seek 45 12. Cytodites Nudus (air sac mite).................64. 49 13. Trombidium Holosericeum (chicken chigger)....... 49 14. Dermanyssus Galline (chicken mite).............. 51 15. Pulex Avium (chicken flea).................0. 200s 51 16. Argas Miniatus (the chicken tick)................. 54- 17. Acanthia Inodora (chicken bug)..................-. 54 18. Ascaris Inflexa (large round worm)................ 61 19. Heterakis Papillosa, malé and female.............. 61 20. Heterakis Papillosa, head magnified................ 61 21. Heterakis Papillosa, caudal extremity of male...... 63 22. Spiroptera Hamulosa (gizzard worm).............. 63 23. Syngamus Trachealis (gapeworms)................. 64 24. Tenia Infundibuliformis (a tapeworm of chickens). 69 25. Nodular Teniasis (tapeworm disease).............. 70 26. Blood Smear Showing B. Avisepticus............... 80 21., Enterohepatitis 4 cies es owas a segine ceases e0sNe beans 86 28. Cloudy Swelling Due to Enterohepatitis............ 87 29. Section Showing Enterohepatitis................... 88 30. Blood Smear from Case of Enterohepatitis of a turkey cvswse cis eeeiis cus ceeeeessseew scams e466 . 89 31. Section of Kidney from a Turkey Dead of Entero- hepatitis «cases: wacneaonnles gaves ston Sedo eee 89 32. Cecum (blind gut) Enterohepatitis Showing Ulcer.. 90 33. Hemorrhagic Enteritis; Intestines of a Hen........ 93 34. Section through Cecum of a Case of Coccidian White Diatrhea® iiiccaee ase Saag saa tenes Geena sme en 97 35. Higher Magnification of Above..................00: 97 36. Blastomycosis in a PigeON.............eceeeenenees 99 ILLUSTRATIONS 11 12 POULTRY DISEASES FIGURE PAGE 37. Pulmonary Coccidiosis.............ceceeseceereeece 100 38. Intestinal Coccidiosis.............c cece ee eee eee eee 100 89. Thrombosis in a Hen.......... ee ee cece eee enees 110 40. Spirocheta Gallinarum............. cece cece eee eens 111 41. Spirochetosis in a Hen........... cece eee ee ee eens 111 42. Tuberculosis of the Liver and Spleen.............. 119 48; Hematoma of OVaTY si. cic ccves cedeststinceewevavees 185 44. Multiple Tumors of the Ovary............-...eeeee 137 45. Obstruction of the Trachea..............eeeeeeeaee 140 46. Chicken POX. si 4s ade os stot oh Heke Hee ETRE sede sa aol 148 47. Roup, Showing Bulging Below the Hye............. 151 ~ AS. “Diphtheric: TROUP ios sess y-n's: steal gegtaeg wie Seateriete Meee e woteeg nies 152 49. Skiagraph of the Head and Neck........ Cerne ene 155 BO. “LRG: “ADSCOSS civs cigciiisise-susta tay Svererera, tuaee eonmede wi akan eaebes 158 51. Skiagraph of a Laying Hen...............0.cceeee 170 52. Skiagraph of a Normal Hen................0eee008 171 Bos, TErap': INOStiie waciesce sane ev aden acs die das. aedaal Ss Guava Sesse BOS 172 D4: SPraps IN@Stiso.< snake owas ase gant eed eevee dash Ow cease 173 BD: Monster Chicks ices iiicine sno suas s donee s oY k Rees Hes Seis 176 HO: Polymelus) acca s-cis vig swage sabes: Sosiarecics a lacead a4 ue soe Ee 177 Pirate I, SECTION I Visceral Anatomy of the Hen Digestive and Genito-Urinary Tracts . PLATE I. 1. Beek. 2. Tongue. 3. Pharynx (throat) through which the food passes to the esophagus (gullett) 4. 5. The crop, a storehouse or granary where the food accumulates during feeding. 6. Second portion of the esophagus, through which ‘the food passes from the crop into 7, the proven- triculus. A part of the abdominal organs are laid over to the left, so that the proventriculus or true stom- ach, lies over the liver. The second portion of the esophagus empties into the proventriculus, or true stomach, in whose walls are found secreting glands similar to those of the stomach of higher animals. The food, after being soaked in this secretion, passes into the gizzard, 8, a muscular organ, where the grain and other coarse particles are ground by the contractions of its muscular walls and the grit which it contains. From the gizzard, the food passes into the duodenum, 9. 10 represents the deep (duodenal) or the first portion of the small intestines, between the folds of which is located the pancreas, 25, which pours its digestive secre- tion into the small intestines. 11 represents the floating portion of the small intestines supported by the mesentery (web-like membrane) 19, which 15 16 POULTRY DISEASES also shows the distribution of the blood vessels in their-course to that part. 12 represents the ceca, or two blind guts, the blind extremities indicated at 13. These empty into the remainder of the in- testine at 14. 15 represents the rectum, or straight gut, which is joined by the egg sac, 23, at 17, forming the cloaca or common pouch, 16. At 20, the ureter from the kidney, 21, empties the secretion from that gland into the rectum. The cloaca discharges its contents, feces, urine, and eggs, through the anus, 18, into the external world. The right ovary perishes as the hen de- velops, so that only one ovary, the left, 22, re- mains. The egg canal, 23, has a muscular wall for the purpose of forcing the egg along as it develops; it is also provided with glands which aid in the formation of the albumin, egg shell, ’ ete. This sac, at its anterior end, receives the ovum (yolk) from the ovary as soon as it is mature. The liver, 26, which has been turned back, is crossed by the proventriculus, 7. The gall-bladder is shown at 27, where the bile (liver secretion) is stored up till active digestion begins in the small intestine, into which it is then discharged. The spleen, a blood-forming organ, is indicated at 28. Organs of Respiration The nostrils are shown at 29; air passes from this point through the nasal passage, indicated by the dotted line, and enters the pharynx through the opening (posterior nares) at 33. 32. Turbinated bone of the right nasal chamber. 30. Frontal sinus. 31. Maxillary (infraorbital) sinus, analogous to the same in the higher animals. The air passes through the pharynx, 3, into the VISCERAL ANATOMY OF THE HEN 17 larynx, 35, through the opening (glottis) 34. From the larynx the air passes through the trachea (windpipe) 36. At 37 there is a flattened portion, the false larynx, provided with vocal cord-like structures—the organ of sound. Just below this point is the bifurcation (branching) of the trachea, one branch going to each lung. 38. Left lung. Organs of Circulation The heart, 39, is illustrated pulled down, to bring it into view. 40. Main artery (aorta) leading from the heart. 42. Carotid artery, a branch of the aorta, supplying the neck and head. 41. Left brachial artery, a branch of the aorta, supplying blood to the left wing. SECTION II Sanitation Where any considerable number of birds are brought together on limited grounds, disease is certain to appear among them sooner or later. The greater the number of birds kept on any given area, other things being equal, the sooner disease will. appear, the more rapidly will it spread, and the greater will be the loss from it. All intelligently directed measures to prevent or delay the appearance of disease in a flock, all sane measures to limit its spread and encompass its eradication, constitute sanitation. Measures, the purpose of which are to cure the sick birds or re- lieve their suffering, come under the head of therapeutics or therapy. On farms of considerable size, where attention is given chiefly to general crops, and but few fowls are kept on a practically unlimited range, the loss from disease may be small, where indifferent or _ even bad sanitation prevails; but in intensive poultry plants, where the number of birds is large for the size of the range, there can be no continued exemption from devastating epiorni- thies, if reasonable sanitation is not enforced. Any attempt to operate such a plant in insanitary buildings and yards, or under conditions that do not permit of sanitation, while it may succeed for a time, will result in loss oftener than otherwise and, in the end, must inevitably fail. 19 ‘ 20 POULTRY DISEASES Site for Poultry Plant © A rolling, or even steep, plot of ground is de- sirable for the location of the poultry houses and the runs for the fowls. Good drainage is a neves- sary requirement, and must be provided for artt- ficially if the location is such that natural drain- age is not perfect. The surface of the poultry yard must he free from uneveness so that water will not collect in little pools. ; The poultry runs and buildings should have a free exposure to sunlight, though some shade must be provided for protection during excessively hot summer days. The soil should contain a goodly proportion of sand. It is very desirable that it be of such a nature that the runs will not readily become muddy during wet weather, and such that they will dry very quickly after rains. Buildings and Runs It is not within the province of this work to dis- cuss plans for the construction of poultry houses and poultry yards. Those desiring information on this subject may secure detailed directions from several agricultural experiment station bulletins (Bulletin No. 215, Wisconsin Agricultural Station, Madison; Bulletin No. 266, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Lansing; Bulletin No. 107, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Colum. bia; Bulletin No. 244, New Jersey Agricultural Station, New Brunswick, etc.). The arrangement of the poultry house should admit the sunlight freely to all parts of the build- ing, provide plentiful ventilation without per- mitting a draught to blow directly upon the roosts, SANITATION 21 and enable the building to be easily and thoroughly cleaned. Sunlight is one of the most powerful of disin- fectants, even a parasiticide for certain young par- asites, and is necessary to the health and con- tentment of the fowls. It has the advantage also of revealing filth in the building which might otherwise escape the eye of the attendant, and re- main to breed disease in the flock. Ventilation should be definitely provided for in the construction by ventilators and the proper arrangement of doors, windows and other open- _ ings and not left to cracks in the walls and to chance openings. Cracks in the walls are an abom- ination and ever present protection to, and nursery for external parasites, and a harbor in which disease germs may weather the application of dis- infectants. The interior of the poultry house should be whitewashed after a thorough cleaning and disin- fecting, twice, or better, four times a year. White- wash is desirable because of its clean appearance, its cheapness, and the ease of its application (use a spray pump), because of the antiseptic value of the lime, and because of its high reflection of light. The roosts should, of course, be removable to permit of cleaning, and should come near to the floor so that heavy birds may not be injured in jumping off of them. Like the walls, they should be free from cracks and whitewashed two to four times yearly. During the hot season, the roosts should be wet with kerosene once a week. This will aid very materially in keeping mites and lice from the fowls. Dropping pans placed under the roosts are a convenience worth while, for sanitary reasons. 22 POULTRY DISEASES The floor of poultry houses should be of con- crete; it should be filled in until it is several inches to a foot higher than the surface of the ground surrounding the building; immediately beneath the concrete there should be a layer of cinders or very coarse gravel, six or eight inches thick. A floor so constructed will not absorb dampness from below. It is lasting, and is easily cleaned and disinfected. An open shed facing the south, where the birds ean enjoy scratching and dust throughout the year, is a great aid in maintaing the health and productiveness of the flock. Portable houses and runs, that can be moved from place to place, furnish fresh soil, a change of food, abundant insects, etc., and possess many advantages of sanitation. The poultry yards or runs should furnish, at least, 100 square feet or better, 150 square feet of space for each bird; as stated previously, the runs should be well drained and free from puddles of mud and water. Water; Supply Fowls require water in abundance at all times for the best production of eggs (which are sixty per cent water) and flesh (which is sixty. to eighty per cent water) and to avoid great suffer- ing during hot weather. The water should be clean, supplied fresh every day, and in vessels so arranged that the birds cannot get into them and thus contaminate it with the filth from the yards which adheres to their feet. As is shown under the discussions of the various infectious diseases and parasitisms, these are spread in most cases, not by direct contagion SANITATION 23 between the sick and the well birds, but, indirectty, through the medium of the soil and roosts on which the birds live, the food that they eat, and the water that they drink. The vessels containing the drinking water should, under normal conditions, be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected daily in hot weather, and once a week the remainder of the year. When disease is present in the flock, the vessels for drinking water should be cleaned daily, regard- less of the season, and this practice should be con- tinued for several days after all symptoms of the disease have ceased to appear in the flock. Vessels containing water for small chicks should be cleaned daily. The cleaning is mainly a matter of thorough washing; the disinfection of drinking vessels can best be accomplished with a five per cent solution (in water) of carbolic acid. Chickens tolerate certain antiseptics internally very well and do not resent the taste of them in drinking water to the extent that other animals do, and it is a wise policy to use antiseptics in the drinking water whenever an infectious disease is present on the premises or when the purity of the water is under suspicion. The most desirable antiseptic to use in the drink- ing water is potassium permanganate. Place a quantity of the crystals in a large bottle or jar and fill with water; of this solution use sufficient in the drinking water to give it a slight color which will remain for some hours. More water can be added to the stock solution from time to time, as needed, care being taken to keep an ex- cess of the permanganate crystals always in the bottom of the jar. ae % ood ’ 24 POULTRY DISEASES Pure carbolic acid may be used in the drinking water with good effect during the presence of contagion, or to insure the purity of the water. Add a sufficient quantity to make a one-half of one per cent solution (five teaspoonfuls to the gal- lon). Do not use the permanganate and the car- bolic acid at the same time. Under many conditions, particularly when en- teric diseases are present in the flock, mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate, bichloride of mer- eury, perchloride of mercury) is a valuable anti- septic for the drinking water. Employ it in solutions of 1 to 5,000 to 1 to 10,000 (from three- fourths to one and one-half grains to the gallon). Both mercuric chloride and carbolic acid are very poisonous and must be handled with great eare. On this account, the comparatively harm- less potassium permanganate should be used, or chinosol, which is equally harmless, may be used in a solution of 1 to 2,000 (two tablets to the gallon of drinking water). Disinfection The removal of parasites and disease germs or their destruction is termed disinfection. Because of the ability of these organisms to multiply, from a single individual or a single pair, at an astonish- ing rate and speedily reinfect the premises, it is obvious that to be of any value the disinfecting must be thoroughly done. The first step in any disinfection is the re- moval of all visible filth. A small lump of manure behind a nest box or a single grain of dirt in a crack in the floor or on the roosts may furnish the hiding place from which will emerge the par- asites or germs to reinfest the whole building, and SANITATION 25 spread disease anew among the flock, thus undoing the whole of the disinfection. Disinfection of Buildings—The first operation in disinfecting a poultry house, therefore, is the thorough removal of all manure, trash and litter. ‘If the roosts and nests are removed from the building, they must be cleaned and disinfected be- fore they are returned; if left in the building dur- ing the disinfection, they must be as thoroughly cleaned as the remainder of the building, and the disinfectant used must be applied to them as care- fully as to other parts of the building. The floor and roosts should next be scraped, and they and the walls and ceiling carefully and vigor- ously swept. All parts of the interior of the build- ing must then be thoroughly scrubbed with water, to which lye has been added, and a broom or stiff brush and then flushed out, using plenty of water. The building is then ready for the use of the dis- infectant. There are three different classes of agents that may be successfully used in disinfection. The dis- infectant may be applied in gaseous form, as a liquid, or heat may be utilized. A gas may be used in disinfecting only when the building can be closed tightly enough to pre- vent its ready escape. This excludes the great majority of poultry houses; but in such as it can be employed, all doors, windows and other open- » ings must be tightly closed and kept closed for several hours. After disinfecting a building with gas the interior should be whitewashed, as directed under the use of liquid disinfectants. Of the gases that may be used, only three need to be considered here—hydrocyanic acid, formal- dehyde and sulphur dioxide. 26 POULTRY DISEASES Hydrocyanic acid gas is extremely poisonous, a single breath of it sometimes sufficing to kill a man. It possesses the advantage of requiring but a few minutes to effectively disinfect a building and of killing all living organisms in it, bacteria, molds, parasites and even roaches and other ver- min, and rodents. It will also destroy the eggs of parasites. It is extremely dangerous, however, except in professional hands, and its use must not be attempted by the poultryman. Excluding hydrocyanic acid on account of the hazard attending its use, formaldehyde is the gaseous disinfectant of choice. It may be secured in a forty per cent watery solution known as for- malin, from which the gas may be readily gen- erated. After hermetically sealing all openings into the building except one door, place in an earthen or metal vessel two quarts of formalin for each 1,000 cubic feet of space in the building, place this vessel in a much larger one and set on the floor, then empty into the formalin one-half pound of potassium permanganate for each quart of forma- lin and retreat from the building at once and close the door. The temperature of the room, during the dis- infection, should be above 50 deg. F., and the more it is above this temperature, the better. Moisture in the air is an aid in this sort of disinfection; it may be secured by sprinkling the floor just be- fore starting the generation of the gas. The build- ing should be kept closed six to twenty-four hours. It must be thoroughly aired before the fowls are permitted to reenter it. Such disinfection may not destroy rats and mice, or the larger parasites and their eggs. SANITATION 27 For disinfecting with sulphur fumes, the ordi- nary commercial flowers of sulphur should be used. It must be burned in the building to generate sul- phur dioxide, which is effective in disinfection only in the presence of water vapor; therefore some means for providing the necessary moisture in the building must be provided. This may be ac- complished by spraying the walls and ceiling until they are dripping, just before beginning the disin- fecting, or by boiling a large vessel of -water in the building during the generation of the sulphur fumes. | Fire is required to generate the sulphur fumes and care must be taken not to endanger the build- ing with it. A large iron vessel partly filled with live coals may be used; set it on the floor, or if the floor be of combustible material, on several bricks laid on the floor, and-pour onto the live coals two pounds of sulphur for each 1,000 cubic feet of space in-the building. Care should be taken to as- certain that the sulphur actually begins to burn. The building should remain hermetically sealed for from twelve to twenty-four hours and then be thoroughly aired before the fowls are admitted. Compared with hydrocyanic acid and formalde- hyde, sulphur dioxide is a feeble disinfectant, but effective work may be done with it by a thorough, careful application, and attention to all details. The disinfection of the drinking water and drinking fountains is discussed fully under ‘‘Water Supply.’’ (See page 22.) Disinfectants that can be applied in liquid form are best suited for disinfecting the ordinary poultry house. It requires longer to apply them than it does to prepare for disinfection by gas, and germs and parasites protected in crevices and 28 POULTRY DISEASES in decayed surfaces of wooden walls cannot be reached, as by the gaseous disinfectants. Fowls need not be shut out of the building for several hours, as is the case when the gas is used. This is often a considerable advantage. Furthermore, the germs and parasites hidden in the walls and roosts and buried in the decayed surface of wooden buildings can in a great measure be covered up and rendered harmless by the use of whitewash, which should always be a part of the cleaning-up and disinfecting of a poultry house. Liquid disinfectants are best applied with the spray pump, and all the force possible should be used in throwing the spray on the walls. In this way it will reach all parts of an uneven surface better than when applied with a brush, and much time will also be saved in its application. Disinfectants will act more vigorously when ap- plied hot, and solutions should always be at least warm when they reach the surfaces to be disin- fected. A copious quantity should be used. The solution may cost but a fraction of a cent, or at most a few cents a gallon, and it is a poor policy to economize by using an insufficient amount. Every part of the surface of the interior of the building should be thoroughly wet and completely covered with solution when disinfection is com- pleted; great care must be observed that no part is skipped. Mercurie chloride is one of the most powerful disinfectants, but it is intensely poisonous and must be used with caution. No puddles of the solution should be left from which the birds may drink when they come into the building, and tab- lets of this disinfectant must on no account be left where children can get them or where their SANITATION 29 elders may mistake them for something else, e. g., a headache remedy. For disinfecting buildings the mercuric chloride should be applied in a solution of one to five hun- dred (one ounce to four gallons of water) and four times as much common salt (one ounce to the gallon) should be used with it. The solution should be applied as hot as can be handled with a spray pump. After the surface is dry it is a good precautionary measure to apply the disinfectant a second time and to follow as directed hereto- fore with the spray of whitewash, covering the in- terior, walls, ceilings, roosts, nests and floors. The ordinary whitewash is very satisfactory for this purpose; ‘‘government’’ whitewash may be preferable, but as the interior should be white- washed at frequent intervals, there is no particu- lar advantage in having a whitewash of great lasting qualities. There are a great number of disinfectants that may be used in solution for disinfecting poultry houses, but certainly none are superior to the coal tar disinfectants. Formalin, for example, is exceedingly irritating to the eyes and respiratory passages of the one doing the spraying. Potassium permanganate needs to be applied in almost sat- urated solution to be effective, and thus becomes expensive. A solution of copper sulphate is not: fatal to all parasites. Crude petroleum leaves the building unsightly and the odor persists unduly long, and so it is with many others. Of the coal tar disinfectants, crude carbolic acid perhaps stands at the head on account of its low cost, however, it is quite variable in composition. It should be used in five per cent solution, and 30 POULTRY ‘DISEASES may be mixed with the whitewash and applied at the same time; thus saving one operation. Use two pounds of the crude carbolic acid to each five gallons of the whitewash: Oresol, another of the coal tar products, gives satisfactory results in | two per cent solution (one pint to six gallons of water). Pure carbolic acid is rather too ex- pensive for this sort of disinfection; if used, a five per cent solution (one pint to two and one-half gallons of water) should be employed. Kreso and Kreso dip (Parke, Davis & Co., Detroit) ; Zenoleum (Zenner Disinfectant Co., Detroit) ; Liquor Cresolus Compositus (U. 8. P.); Creolin (Pearson); and many other disinfectants may be substituted for the crude carbolic acid. Heat is one of the most reliable of disinfectants. It may be utilized in poultry house disinfection in the form of a flame from a gasoline blow torch. Every portion of the walls, ceiling, floor, roosts, nests, boxes, etc., must be carefully flamed. ; This method, although tedious, is effective. Used with ordinary care, it is devoid of danger to the operator or building. Disinfection of Yards.——A complete disinfection of poultry yards and runs, that is, a destruction of all the disease germs and parasites with which it may be contaminated by an infected flock, is searcely possible by the ordinary means employed in poultry house disinfection. Fortunately it is seldom necessary. When it is remembered that the germs of nearly all diseases, and the eggs of nearly all internal parasites of poultry, are eliminated in the dejecta (feces) of affected birds, the danger from con- taminated runs will be better appreciated, and with the realization that each mature hen pro- SANITATION 31 duces nearly one hundred pounds of manure per year, the importance of the yards as a factor in the spread of disease is seen to be very great. The problem of having clean (non-infected) -yards for poultry can be solved only by a change of grounds from time to time. As mentioned here- tofore, the movable poultry house offers many sanitary advantages. Plowing or spading a yard, thus exposing surface layers of the soil to the dis- infecting action of the sunshine, and keeping the birds off it for a season, offers the most practical means of disinfecting it. Where the construction of the poultry buildings are such as preclude a change of location, the two- yard system can in most cases be installed. It offers many advantages: while one yard is being used, the other may be plowed and a crop grown. This may be a crop upon which the birds may be turned for half an hour each evening to allow them a feed of green forage. In any system of yards where the area of the grounds is small for the number of birds, the yard should receive frequent attention at the hands of the cleaner. If the yard is grassed, and the grass is short, it should be swept weekly, gathering the manure in piles and carting it away, as street cleaners do. A yard that is bare of vegetation can be cleaned in the same way, even more easily and effectually. This will lengthen the ‘‘sanitary life’’ of a yard to many times its duration without such cleaning. Immediately surrounding the poultry house there should be a strip of gravel on which the birds may be fed, and on which they will spend much of their time, to the very great saving in contamination of the yard. The feeding ground, 32 POULTRY DISEASES of course, should be cleaned (usually by sweeping) frequently, and it may be thoroughly wet down with a disinfectant in case of a serious outbreak of infectious disease. Disposal of Sick and Dead Birds A strict adherence to the rules of sanitation would require that the well birds be removed from the buildings and enclosures in which sick birds are found, or in which birds have died of disease, and that they be not returned until after thorough disinfection of the building and grounds. Such a procedure is not often practicable and the poultryman is left the alternative of removing the sick or dead birds from the flock to prevent as far as possible an extension of the infection. Whenever an ailing bird is discovered in any flock it should be isolated immediately. Do not wait to discover what is the matter with it,. whether it is an infectious disease or a disease at ‘all, or to decide as to it’s treatment. Remove it from the well birds first and decide upon further measures afterward. The same directions apply with equal force to the finding of dead birds among the well ones. Remove the carcass imme- diately and unless there is conclusive evidence that death was not due to disease, disinfect the place where it has lain. Sick birds should be placed by themselves, where they will not be molested by other birds or animals. They should be given as comfortable quarters as possible and be disturbed only for treatment. Unless the poultryman is very posi- tive that he knows what ails the sick bird, and what means should be taken to prevent others in SANITATION 33 the flock from acquiring the same disease, he will usually find it best to call a veterinarian and leave the matter with him, particularly is this true if there are a large number of birds on the premises or if the flock be one of high value, be- cause of pure breeding. Immediately after the removal of a dead bird from the flock the poultryman should satisfy him- self as to the cause of its death. If it is obviously due to accident or if it is due to some disease already recognized as present in the flock such action should be taken as the conditions seem to warrant, but if there is.any doubt as to what has occasioned the death a careful autopsy should be held. Since a postmortem examination ordi- narily means very little to one without at least some fundamental training in pathology, the poultryman will ordinarily find it advantageous to take the dead bird to his veterinarian for ex- amination. This should be done immediately, be- fore the changes incident to decomposition have masked the lesions which disease may have produced, or before parasites that may have caused death have changed their location or es- caped from the body. Mode of Performing Autopsy.—Lay the bird on its back. With a sharp knife open the abdominal wall, commencing close to the anus, passing the knife forward between the ribs and breastbone to a point just back of the ‘‘wishbone’’ (clavicle). In like manner open the left side, being careful not. to injure any of the organs in the cavities. Now grasp the sternum or breastbone, forcing it forward, and it will break so that it will be easy to remove it. This will lay the cavities open so that all organs can be observed, as illustrated and 34 POULTRY DISEASES named in Plate I, to which refer for further de- scription. The final disposal of carcasses of birds, whether dying from known or unknown causes should be carefully attended to. The habit of throwing dead birds onto the nearest manure pile or into an unoccupied field cannot be too severely condemned. Among many people there is a belief that if the body of a person that has died is not properly buried, the spirit of the departed will haunt its living relatives and if they do not heed its warn- ings, bring great disaster to them. If poultry- men entertained a similar belief regarding the disposal of dead birds it would save them much loss from disease and parasites among their flocks. The carcass of a bird that has died of an infectious disease or of a parasitism may be the means of infecting grounds and spreading dis- ease among the flock many months later, or por- tions of it may be carried to neighboring farms with disastrous results to neighboring flocks. The dead birds found in a flock should be burned whether or not they have died of conta- gious disease, for even if they have died of some cause other than disease the chances are that they harbor intestinal parasites which are capa- ble of being spread from the carcass to live birds. Where time cannot be taken to properly burn the dead birds they should be buried and buried deeply, so that they cannot be dug up by dogs, skunks or foxes, and so that worms may not carry infection from the carcass to the surface of the ground. SECTION III External Parasites More than thirty species of external parasites infest birds; their economic importance is very great; fowls heavily infested with any of them are unprofitable and many of the kinds of ex- ternal parasites are so injurious as to kill the infested birds. It is necessary to know something of the life history of these parasites and their habits to in- telligently treat their parasitisms. This in- formation is given as briefly as possible in the following pages: The external parasites affecting birds consist of lice, which infest all ages and breeds; scab parasites, producing scaly legs; the air sac mite, which is a modified scab parasite and infests the air sacs; the chigger (chigoe or jigger) or red mite, a great pest in the hot summer months; a distinct bird flea; the chicken bug, which in many respects resembles the common bedbug, and the ring worm. In all, seven different classes. LICE OF BIRDS This embraces a group of biting lice, their bodies are flat and their mouth parts are ar- ranged for biting and cutting. They live upon feathers, epidermis and secretions of the body of their host. As may be noted in Fig. 2, the mouth parts are located just back of the antenne and are not always visible. The antenne or feelers consist of five articles or joints each. The thorax in some species is long and narrow, in others 35 36 POULTRY DISEASES short and globular. They are provided with three pair of legs which are attached to the thorax. The free extremity of the legs is pro- vided with two hooklets or claws which enable them to hold on to their host. The body and legs may be covered with a greater or less quantity of hair or bristles. The lice of birds are placed under the follow- ing genera: Menopon, Goniodes, Coniocotes, Lipeurus, Docophorus and Nirmus. Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fic. 2. Menoron BiserratTum A, Head provided with mouth parts for biting, feelers (antenne) and eyes. —B, legs attached to the thorax. C, abdomen. Fic. 3. Menorpon PALtipum : A, Head. B, thorax provided with three pairs of legs. C, abdomen with hairs. Lice of Chickens Menopon biseriatum (the large chicken louse).—This is the largest louse found upon chickens. It is about one-twelfth of an inch in length. It is light in color. Fig. 2 illustrates this louse much enlarged; the short mark at the right shows the actual length of this louse. This parasite is common on the heads of young chickens. ° Menopon pallidum (the small chicken louse).—This louse is illustrated in Fig. 3 and, as may be seen, is smaller than the M. biseriatum. In some parts of the country this louse is the more common of the two and is a source of considerable vee It may spread from chickens to other animals and irds, EXTERNAL PARASITES 37 Goniodes dissimillia—This is a rather large louse and is apparently rare. The head is subquadrate, the thorax short and narrow and the abdomen large and globular. Goniocotes hologaster.—The head is nearly quadrate, the thorax narrow and the abdomen short and globular. Fig. 4 illustrates this species. Lipeurus infuscatus.—This is another louse that may infest chickens. It has been studied in the author’s laboratory and has also been reported by Osborn as occurring in Iowa. How- ever, it is not very common. Fig. 5 illustrates this louse. Lipeurus infuscatus.—This louse is long and slender, The front part of the head is rounded, the thorax a trifle narrower than the head and the abdomen is long and thin. ps wan tu whl - tal I oe m ah Rave, Fig. 4 Fig. 5. Fig. 6 Fic. 4. Goniocotes Ho LocastEer f A, Mouth parts. B, antenne. C, hooklets on free extremity of leg. ' Fie. 5. Lipeurus InFuscatus ee A, Mouth parts. B, abdomen. Drawing to right of head indicates actual size. : Fic. 6. Goniopes STYLIFER . . A, Mouth parts. 3B, antenne (feelers). C, legs. Drawing to right of head indicates actual size. Lice of Turkeys Goniodes stylifer.— This is the common turkey louse. Its head is well rounded in front, rather square cut, with scallops behind; the thorax is narrow and the abdomen large and globular. Fig. 6 illustrates this louse. Lipeurus polytrapezius.— This is a long, slender louse, with two or three bristles extending from each segment of the abdomen. Its head is well rounded in front and the thorax is rather broad and long. Lice of Ducks Menopon obscurum.—The head is crescent-shaped in front and the abdomen has dark, lateral bands. It is dark fawn colored. 38 POULTRY DISEASES Lipeurus squalidus.—The head is narrow and somewhat elongated in front. There are six hairs on the front part of the head. This louse is common in some localities. Lice of Geese Lipeurus jejunus—A slender, pale, yellowish-white louse. It is probably universally distributed. Trinoton continuum.—This is a fairly large louse, covered with few hairs. It is common on geese. Fig. 7 Fig. § Fic. 7. Lipevrus Bacurus . A, Mouth parts. B, antenne. C, 19s. Drawing to right of head indicates actual size. Fic, 8. Eccs or Nit or tue Goniopes Styiirer (Greatly Magnified) A, Egg cemented to the barbs of the feather. Lice of Pigeons Lipeurus baculus.—This is the common louse of the pigeon. It is long, slender, light-colored and the abdominal segments are provided with two or three hairs on each side. Fig. 7 illustrates this parasite. Life History of Lice The females of lice are slightly larger than the males. They lay oval, white or whitish-yellow eggs (nits), and securely cement them to the barbs of the feathers. This is illustrated in Fig. 8. When the eggs hatch they break open at the end or a small cap is lifted from the end, in much the manner that a chick escapes from the egg. The young have much the same shape as the adults and are ordinarily considerably lighter in color. The males are usually less numerous than the females. If conditions are favorable the eggs hatch in from ten days to three weeks, and the lice live for a considerable time, several months under favorable con- EXTERNAL PARASITES se) ditions. During their development they moult frequently, sometimes as often as ten times, becoming slightly darker with each molt. Lice breed with great rapidity; it has been com- puted that the offspring of a single pair would reach the enormous total of 125,000 individuals in the third generation, which may mature in eight weeks! Effects of Louse Infestation Chicks hatched in the incubator are free from lice and stay so until placed with lousy hens or chicks, or in quarters infested by lice. Lice pro- duce much irritation. The effect of large num- bers upon birds is quite marked. The lousy birds scratch, pick at the feathers, show signs of being drowsy, may refuse to eat, and, in growing birds, the body development or growth is interfered with. Young chicks infested with lice often sit around, moping, with wings hanging down, and in a week or two may die. For this reason brooder chicks should thrive better, grow faster, and are freer from many ailments than chicks hatched by the hen. It has been said that a lousy bird will have more of a tendency to wallow in the dust than one not so infested. The effect upon older birds is not so severe as upon younger ones, but is noted in conditions of flesh and in the production of eggs. The irri- tation is sometimes so severe that hens desert their nests. Their combs may become dark or black. Birds unable to rest day or night, become emaciated and die. To find the lice, part the feathers and the lice will be found running over the skin or base of the feathers. A favorite location for lice is under 40, POULTRY DISEASES the wings where the temperature is warm; but they may be found on any part of the body and at all seasons of thé year, but are most common in the hottest months of the year, July and Au- gust. During these months conditions are more favorable for their propagation. Dealing with Louse Infestation A time-honored and very effective method of treating young chicks for lice is to grease the head and neck, under the wings and around vent. Blue ointment, lard and sulphur, salt and butter, and various other greases are used, but none is more effective than lard alone, which, although tedious to apply, is justified by the excellence of the re- sults obtained from its application. Older chickens may be either dusted with insect powder or dipped in a preparation for destroying the parasites as we dip larger animals. A dust- ing powder composed of equal parts of pyreth- rum and sulphur is an excellent one for ridding birds of lice; tobacco dust, which may usually be secured at any tobacco factory, may be added to the combination and perhaps will increase its efficiency. This powder should also be sprinkled in the dusting places of the infested chickens. Dusting places should always be provided. An insect powder gun is needed for dusting the birds. This may be secured at almost any drug store. Tf it is the wish to dip the birds, prepare a five- per cent solution of creolin, or the same strength of either zenoleum or kreso dip. The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station gives the following directions for freeing birds from lice: EXTERNAL PARASITES 41 When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes necessary some kind of powder dusted into the feathers thoroughly, seems to be, on the whole, the most effective and advisable remedy. The powder used must be of such a nature, how- ever, that it will be effective. There are-so-called ‘‘lice powders’’ on the market which are no more effective than an equal quantity of any inert pow- dered substance would be. It is not only a waste of money but of time as well to use such pow- ders. At the Maine Station no lice powder has been found that is so satisfactory as that origi- nally invented by Mr. R. C. Lawry, formerly of the poultry department of Cornell University. This powder (which can be made at a cost of five cents per pound) is described as follows by the Maine Station: In using any kind of lice powder on poultry, it should al- ways be remembered that a single application of it is not sufficient. When there are lice present on a bird there are always unhatched eggs of lice (nits) present, too. The proper procedure is to follow up a first application of powder with a second at an interval of four days to a week. If the birds are badly infested at the beginning, it may be necessary to make still a third application. The lice powder which the Station uses is made at a cost of only a few cents a pound, in the following way: Three parts of gasoline and one part of crude carbolic acid, 90-95 per cent strength, or, if the 90-95 per cent strength crude carbolic acid cannot be obtained, take three parts of gasoline and one part of cresol. Mix these together and add gradually, with stirring, enough plaster of paris to take up all the moisture. As a general rule it will take about four quarts of plaster of paris to one quart of the liquid. The exact amount, however, must be deter- mined by the condition of the powder in each case. The liquid and dry plaster should be thoroughly mixed and stirred so that the liquid will be uniformly distributed through the mass of plaster. When enough plaster has been added the resulting mixture should be a dry, pinkish-brown powder having a fairly strong carbolic odor and a rather less pro- nounced gasoline odor. Do not use more plaster in mixing than is necessary to blot up the liquid. This powder is to be worked into the feathers of the birds 42 POULTRY DISEASES affected with vermin. The bulk of the application should be in the fluff around the vent and on the lower side of the body and in the fluff under the wings. Its efficiency, which is greater than that of any other lice powder known to the writer, can be very easily demonstrated by anyone to his own satisfaction. Take a bird that is covered with lice and apply the powder in the manner just described. After a lapse of about a minute, shake the bird, loosening its feathers with the fingers at the same time, over a clean CJ nay Ty | ya 1 oneern Fic. 9. Inexpensive, DurasLteE Spray Pump piece of paper. Dead and dying lice will drop on the paper in great numbers. Anyone who will try this experiment will have no further doubt of the wonderful efficiency and value of this powder. After freeing the flock from lice care should be exercised that a reinfestation is not brought about by the introduction of lousy birds. The lousy henhouse should be thoroughly and frequently cleansed and the walls whitewashed. EXTERNAL PARASITES 43 The whitewash should contain in it, some para- siticide as carbolic acid five per cent, creolin five per cent or corrosive sublimate one part in one thousand. The roosts should be scrubbed with boiling water and after drying in the sun should be saturated with kerosene. The litter and straw should be removed from the nests and burned and one inch of air-slacked lime placed in the bottom of the nests before refilling them with straw. If the henhouse be tightly closed, doors, windows, cracks and all openings, and thoroughly fumi- gated with sulphur fumes and water vapor it will aid in destroying lice or other parasites that may be in the cracks and crevices, and difficult to reach with whitewash. Fig. 9 illustrates a cheap and convenient spray pump for applying the whitewash. With this some force is used which drives the parasite-destroying fluid into the cracks and crevices not possible to reach where it is applied with a brush. Scabies The acarids, or mites, as they are commonly called, are exceedingly common, widely dis- tributed and of great economic importance. They are eight-legged parasites, belong to the spider family and are so small as to be nearly or quite invisible to the unaided eye, though readily discernible with the aid of a hand lens of low magnifying power. -There are numerous species of mites that in- fest birds. Some live on the feathers and scales of the skin, others bore into the skin and still others inhabit deeper portions of the body. There is one form of scabies called depluming scabies that is very rare, and so far as the author 44 POULTRY DISEASES knows has not been reported in this country. It affects the body of both chickens and pigeons. The one on chickens is the Sarcoptes laevet va- riety galline and the one on pigeons is the Sar- coptes laevei variety columbe. The ascarids parasitic for birds are placed un- der the following genera: sarcoptes, cytodites, trombidium and dermanyssus. Unlike the various genera of lice the scab parasites differ greatly in the effects which they produce and therefore a separate discussion of each one will be given. Scaly Legs—Scabies of the Legs This condition is very common; it constitutes leg scabies, and is caused by a parasite called the Sarcoptes mutans variety galline. Sarcoptes Mutans Description—This parasite is one of the same family of scab parasites that infest horses, cattle, hogs, sheep and cats. That particular branch of the family af- Cc fecting chickens is distinguished by call- | ing it “variety galline’; galline being a Latin word meaning “of the chicken.” Owing to the small size of the parasite, it is often called a mite. Fig. 10 illustrates the parasite magnified 100 times; the actual size of the parasite is shown by the small dot in the square at the right side of the drawing. In the drawing it will be noted that the legs are short and strong and that its mouth parts are arranged for biting the skin. They sub- sist upon serum that exudes at the point of attack and forms scales or scabs (see Fic. 10. Sarcorres Fig. 11). MS Life History—The female lays her A, Mouth parts, B, 888 under the scabs, where in about ten sorts stubby legs. days they hatch, if conditions are favor- », got, indicating able. The larve or young mites are oe tak provided with only three pairs of legs and are not provided with sexual organs. They pass through several molts and are finally developed into the adult stage, and at that time are provided with four pairs of legs, with genital organs and are sexually mature. Aledo G Hi ‘y 2 EXTERNAL PARASITES 45 The tearing off of the scabs favors the escape of the para- sites, which in warm weather may live in the filth, roosts, nests or other parts of the building for at least thirty days, and may in that time find their way upon other birds and infest them, causing in turn scaly legs on the new host. Thus birds become affected by being placed in infested quarters, or by having an infested bird placed in the same lot or enclosure as at poultry shows, should any of the birds there be infested. Symptoms.— This parasite attacks chickens, tur- keys and cage birds, but the writer has not ob- served it infesting ducks or geese. It al- ways attacks the un- feathered portion of the legs above the foot, and often the upper portion of the toes. The minute parasite crawls under the scales of the legs and there irritates the tissue by attack- ing it with its strong mouth parts. As a result of this irrita- tion a vesicle or small blister appears. The blister is practically Fic. 11. Scary Lecs (Scabies) microscopic. in, size Ayes of sabe Sue te died mony aid later saptures,. acs ef lee iat se aed a et This small quantity of serum dries and forms a minute scale. These scales accumulate until later large scaly masses appear. Fig. 11 is a good illustration of this condition. The parasites can be found as minute white specks in the serum between the scab and leg. Both legs are usually affected at the same time. 46 POULTRY DISEASES Itching is present and the birds may pick at the affected parts. Itching is more intense at night, The birds may become weak, stop laying and even die from the effects of the irritation and loss of rest. Treatment: Eradication— The scabby patches should be soaked with soapy water till the scabs can be easily removed (this will take time, but in valuable birds it will pay; if insufficient value to justify this expenditure of time and labor, kill the bird and burn the affected parts, the legs and feet). After removal of all scabs possible, scrub thoroughly with kerosene or kerosene emulsion, using a nail brush and taking pains to make cer- tain that the liquid reaches the deepest parts. Kerosene emulsion is made as follows: Kero- sene (coal-oil) one-half gallon, common soap, two ounces, water, one quart. Dissolve the soap by boiling in the water, add this solution, boiling hot, to the kerosene and stir with an egg-beater, or otherwise violently agitate. When ready for use take one part of the emulsion and add to this nine parts of water. Lime-and-sulphur dip.—This well-known para- siticide used warm and scrubbed thoroughly under the scales is very effective. The lime and sulphur dip is made as follows: Unslacked lime, one-third of a pound, sulphur, one pound, water, four gal- lons. This mixture should be boiled for two hours and the amount lost by evaporation made up by adding water. The lime acts as a solvent for the sulphur; the dissolved sulphur is a valuable para- siticide. Commercial Disinfectants.—Five per cent solu- tion (in water) of creolin, zenoleum, or kreso dip EXTERNAL PARASITES 47 is also effective. These solutions should be used warm. Premises.—For the eradication of scab para- sites from infested premises, follow the directions given for ridding premises of lice. (See page 40.) Air Sac Disease This is a very serious malady of birds that is fortunately rather rare in this country; it is ex- ceedingly difficult to eradicate once it has become established in a flock. It is due to a scab parasite called Cytodites nudus, synonyms for which are: cytoleichus sarcoptides, Cnemidocoptes mutans, and air-sac mite. Cytodites Nudus Description.— The body of this parasite is ovoid in shape, as illustrated in Fig. 12. It is whitish in color and is pro- vided with conical-shaped mouth parts, through which it sucks fluids from the parts infested. The legs are rather short, conical, and in both male and female all are provided with suckers, which aid in moving about and in holding on. The legs are composed of five articles (segments or joints) each. The larva has three pairs of legs and the adult four pairs. Life History.—The ovigerous female lays eggs, as a rule, but at times has been observed to deposit eggs ready to hatch and even young larve. The larve pass through changes similar to those of the scaly-leg mite by moulting several times, and finally reaching the adult or sexually developed stage. Symptoms.—The air sac mite inhabits the ab- dominal air sacs, the air spaces of bones, andthe air cells (alveoli) of the lungs of chickens and pigeons. If only a few parasites are present no symptoms may be noticeable, but if they exist in large numbers their effects may be serious. The bird will become thin in flesh and even emaciated, will appear dull, stay apart from the others of the flock, and the comb will usually be pale in color. The wings will droop and there will be labored 48 POULTRY DISEASES (heavy, difficult) breathing. Coughing may oc- cur and a rattling of mucus (rales) in the trachea or bronchi may often be heard. Postmortem Appearances.—By a careful examina- tion of the infested air sacs or the bronchi and sacules of the lungs, the mites may be found ap- pearing as minute white specks, about the size of the sealy leg parasites. For the specimen from which the accompanying drawing (Fig. 12) was made, the author is in- debted to Dr. W. B. Mack, Reno, Nevada, who ob- tained it from a flock of birds examined in New York. Besides the white specks moving on the surfaces of the air sacs, whitish-yellow points, due to the irritation caused by the parasite, may be found. The bronchi may be congested. In severe cases inflammation or bronchitis, and even pneu- monia, may exist. The air-sac mite has also been reported as in- festing the liver, kidneys and other abdominal organs, in which cases they produce yellowish, pearl-like nodules or tubercles. An outbreak of this disease in Colorado was studied by the author during the spring of 1912, in which several birds in a flock of sixty became ill. They were dull and weak, with a partial loss of appetite and a tendency to crane their necks when they tried to swallow, became poor in flesh and after one to two or three weeks died. The comb, in most instances, turned black shortly before death. On autopsy there were found myriads of small, yellowish- white specks over the abdominal air sacs, lungs and trachea. These specks, when examined under the microscope, proved to be the airsac mite (Cytodites nudus) as illustrated in Fig. 12. Treatment—It is said that sulphur given with the feed will be absorbed and eliminated by the lungs in sufficient quantities to kill the parasites that infest them, but this is doubtful. @ 4%. carried by the wind as @ CRE , -dust, or carried by wild fe & birds, may be the means ‘Qe '@: of introducing this dis- ease among healthy birds. Even insects Fic. 26. Broop Smear rrom CasE ave been known to OF CHOLERA Showing red blood cells, throm- Carry the contagion. bocytes, mononuclear leucocytes, polymorphonuclear neutrophiles Buzzards are common and many of the polar staining . . . germs: (Bacillus avisepticus) of Carriers of this disease. the disease. The germ of fowl cholera retains its power to produce disease for weeks, and even months, about premises where it has occurred, unless they be thoroughly disin- fected. The germs have been kept in test tubes, experimentally, for two years and still proved to be virulent, that is, still capable of producing dis- ease. It resists, for a long time, both drying and zero weather. Cholera may affect chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons and many wild birds. The period of incubation (the time elapsing from the entrance of the germs into the body of the bird until the DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 81 appearance of the first symptoms of the disease) is given as from twelve to forty-eight hours. In our experimental work, in which the virus (germ) was introduced into the peritoneal cavity this period was six to twelve hours; when the virus was given by the mouth it required twenty- four to thirty-six hours to produce the disease. The birds died twelve to seventy-two hours later. Symptoms.—The onset of this disease may be so sudden that its signs pass unobserved, and finding the dead birds in the nests or under the roosts may be the first notice that the owner has of the existence of disease in his flock; or the birds may have fowl cholera in a more chronic form and live for six to seven days. In the protracted cases there is noted loss of appetite, great prostration, staring feathers; the bird mopes or sits around with tail and head down, giving so-called ‘‘ball’’ appearance, the comb is dark, the gait swaying, and there is trembling, convulsions, thirst, and severe diarrhea, with pas- sages of a greenish-yellow color. There is high fever and the bird rapidly becomes emaciated. The percentage of loss in the flock, if mot treated, is very great. The disease spreads rap- idly through a flock. Pure-bred birds are more susceptible than scrubs. In an outbreak of cholera among ducks, studied in the author’s laboratory, the disease progressed very slowly. Only one to five or six ducks died in the course of a week in the flock of 500. Postmortem Findings.—Upon opening the abdom- inal cavity one will first note that the liver is greatly enlarged, very dark in color and tears easily (inflammation, congestion and cloudy swell- ing); we have found livers that weighed as much 82 POULTRY DISEASES as 120 grams, or three times the normal weight. The intestines are congested and contain a frothy material, dark in color. There is an occasional hemorrhage in the lining (mucosa) of the in- testines. The spleen may be enlarged and its contents soft. Small hemorrhages (petechia) may be found in the heart, its coverings and other parts. The kidneys are dark, enlarged and soft (active and passive congestion and cloudy swell- ing). The blood does not. coagulate readily and is found, upon microscopic examination, to be teeming with the germs causing the disease (Bacil- lus avisepticus). Case Report on Fowl Cholera A dead duck was sent to the laboratory from the outbreak referred to above. The anatomical lesions found in the carcass were as follows: Hemorrhagic areas in heart and epicardium; inflammation and congestion of the ceca, and congestion of the other portions of the intestines; the liver enlarged, weighing eighty grams, and very dark in color. Two glycerin agar slants were inoculated from the heart blood and from the liver. Stained smears from the heart blood showed the typical polar-staining Bacillus avisepticus. Pure cultures were obtained from the inoculated tubes. A pullet weighing two pounds was given an intraperitoneal in- jection of the twenty-four-hour agar-slant growth. Twenty- four hours later she appeared sick, showing ruffled feathers, loss of appetite, dullness, head and tail down and temperature 108.2 degrees F. An examination of the blood revealed the following: Hema- globin, 90 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,520,000; leucocytes, 6,000 (hypoleukocytosis), thrombocytes, 184,000. The differential count showed: eosinophiles, 37 per cent; neutrophiles, 2 per cent; lymphocytes, small, 52 per cent, large, 5 per cent; mononuclear lymphocytes, 4 per cent; mast cells, none. . This bird died at the end of sixty hours. At the autopsy there was noted a fibrinous peritonitis; some petechia on mucous membranes; the liver enlarged, dark and weighing seventy-two grams (thirty-five grams is the normal weight for a bird of the size of this one). From the blood the germ was isolated in pure culture as before. [Ward found in experimental cases of fowl cholera there was a destruction of red blood cells and in some an increase of white blood cells (leukocytes) .] DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 83 In describing this outbreak among ducks the owner wrote in part, as follows: “Regarding the success I have had in the treatment of cholera among the ducks with the sulpho-carbolates of sodium, calcium, zinc and copper, I will, as best I can, give you an idea as to how the results and the conditions under which we had to work.” , “To begin with we had a large number (about 500) to handle and had to send away for the tablets, which delayed us in beginning the treatment of the disease, and of course, conditions were pretty bad when we did get started. “Next we ran into a long stretch of cold weather, the feed froze up nearly as soon as we put it out in the troughs if it was moistened and the drug mixed with it, same thing happened with the water, so we were sure that the ducks were not getting enough of the sulphocarbolates. However, the death rate dropped down about one-fourth in two weeks. As soon as the weather warmed up several snows fell at intervals of about a week, so that the pens were wet and it was hard to disinfect them and difficult to keep the ducks from drinking the water that stood about in the-pens. In this way they avoided getting the drug that was dissolved in the water in their drinking fountains. We finally got around that by sprinkling the yards heavily with some coal-tar dip, so that the ducks would not drink this water, but would go to the fountains. This was made rather expensive for the water from the outside would run into the pens and soon dilute the dip already out so that the ducks would soon be drinking this water again. This meant more dip, and the cost of the dip was soon an important item. A considerable quantity of the sulphocarbolates used under these conditions was wasted, for when the feed or water would freeze we had to chop it out of the troughs and thus lose some. The cost of what we used amounted to seven cents per duck. “If we let up using the drug the ducks would begin dying again, but I do not think it had a fair trial during the first part of the treatment. As soon as the weather got better the death-rate was lowered, and now I believe we have the disease under control. Under favorable conditions I believe this means of controlling cholera would work very nicely. That it will render a flock immune for any length of time I rather doubt. I gave my chickens a three weeks’ round of the treatment and for a month now they have been all right, but this morning I noticed a few of them acting as if they were in the cholera business again. I fed a few of them some ‘medicated charcoal’ that a poultry-food firm puts out and this seemed to check the disease and put them back in good condition. This checks the diarrhea they have within a day or so and they soon get well.” Treatment: Eradication—The germs are found in the discharge from the bowel and are caried on 84 POULTRY DISEASES the feet into feed and water troughs, or are picked up from the ground with the feedstuff. Birds should be fed out of troughs frequently disinfected with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid, and the water they drink should be similarly guarded. Sick birds should be immediately removed from the flock and the dead ones cremated. The hen- house and nests should be cleaned thoroughly each day and sprayed with whitewash to which sufficient crude carbolic acid has been added to make it five per cent of the whole, or creso, zeno- leum or creolin should be used, of the same strength. A type of spray pump convenient for applying this whitewash is shown in Fig. 9. The hen- house may also be disinfected with formaldehyde, as follows: Close tightly all doors, windows, cracks and other openings, and for each 1,000 square feet of space in the building, use twenty ounces formalin (forty per cent formaldehyde) and sixteen ounces permanganate of potash. Place ‘these two materials in a vessel and place in the middle of the room and leave for several hours. The yard should be cleaned every day. If the yard be small it may be disinfected by covering it with straw and burning the straw. For the birds intestinal -antiseptics are indi- cated; the sulphocarbolates compound* has given us by far the best results. Other intestinal anti- septics are hydrochloric acid, one teaspoonful to each quart of water, one per cent of copperas and potassium permanganate. The following is an account of three of the tests which the author made of the 30-grain sulphocarbolates compound tab- lets. . “One flock consisted of sixty+ birds. Several were sick at *Manufactured by the Abbott. Alkaloidal Co., Chicago. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 85 the time treatment was commenced, and four had died. The discharge from the bowels was of a greenish-yellow color, somewhat simulating fowl cholera. One tablet was dissolved in a pint of water, and this fluid mixed with bran and corn chop. The mixture was then fed in clean troughs. In this way each bird got approximately one-half grain. This was repeated night and morning. No additional birds became sick; only two of the sick died; and the rest recovered. “Another flock consisted of 175 baby chicks. As soon as these birds were taken from the incubator they were fed the unhatched eggs that had been cooked and chopped. This mixture was reported to possess an offensive odor. The birds began dying, with symptoms of diarrhea, white, pasty vent; weakness, dullness, droopy wings, etc.; one-half the flock died before treatment was commenced. One-half tablet was dissolved in warm water and the bread saturated with it. The birds immediately quit dying. “Still another flock consisted of 200 birds, including a few turkeys. Cholera had appeared on the premises the fall be- fore. The outbreak was studied in the field and in the labora- tory. The cholera germ (Bacillus avisepticus) was isolated. In the last outbreak, fourteen birds had died and several were sick. Treatment similar to that described above was used. Water, containing the sulphocarbolates was kept con- stantly before them. No more birds were taken sick and no more died after the sixth day.” Vaccination with a vaccine made from the germs producing the disease, has given excellent results. Scholbe states a serum has been prepared, but that it renders immunity only for about two weeks. Entero-Hepatitis (Blackhead) This is essentially a disease of turkeys, among the young of which it is quickly fatal. It has practically annihilated the turkey-raising industry in sections where it was formerly profitable and carried on extensively. Although the turkey is more susceptible to blackhead than any other bird, serious losses among chickens sometimes occur.. Cause.—This disease is claimed by Dr. Theo. Smith, formerly of the Bureau of Animal Indus, try, to be due to a protozoon (Ameba meleagridis ) 86 POULTRY DISEASES f microscopic in size, which is found in the diseased areas in the ceca (blind pouches) and liver of af- fected birds, which are chiefly turkeys and rarely chickens. Others attribute the disease to a coc- cidium. ; : Mode of Spread.— As will be seen later, the pro- tozoon escapes from ulcers in the ceca and passes out with the fees. -Food or water con- taminated with the excrements carry the disease germ to other birds. Chronic cases (car- riers) in older turkeys or chick- ens may keep the premises infected for a long time. These germs en- tering the liver and the mucous membrane lining the ceca, cause in- flammation and de- oe Sere es ee penpration, Wee. liver weighed 452 grams, nearly ally the ceca be- one pound, : come infected first and later the liver is invaded and inflammation of its structure ensues. : Postmortem Findings.—Upon first opening the abdominal cavity one’s attention is attracted by the enlarged liver with areas of dead tissue (caseation necrosis). Fig. 27 shows a liver about three-fourths natural size, weighing nearly one pound. The ceca (blind pouches; see Plate I, No. 12), one or both, are noted to be enlarged, the enlargement is usually a short distance from the point. Upon opening the ceca, ulcers and areas of dead tissue (caseation necrosis) are observed in’ DISEASES OF THE: DIGESTIVE TRACT 87 the mucous lining. There will also be noted a straw-colored fluid~(edema, dropsy) in the loose tissue about the heart. Fig. 28, taken from an area in the edge of the necrotic portion marked B, in Fig. 27, illustrates the condition. A illustrates the liver cells as they are first affected (cloudy swelling); B, the cells farther along in the disease process in which it may be noted that the nucleus has disappeared and the cell is disintegrating (necrosis); C, the congested vessels (passive congestion); D, white blood cells (eosino- philes) referred to above. There may also be noted in these areas giant cells. Fie. 28. Croupy Swetimnc Due to ENTERoHEPATITIS This is a Section from “B” in Fig. 27 (magnified 900 times). A, Liver cells (cloudy swelling). B, liver cells under-- going disintegration, necrosis. C, congested blood vessel. D, white blood cells, eosinophiles abundant in this disease. E, protozoa causing the disease. Fig. 29 illustrates a giant cell. E, protozoa causing the disease. A like microscopic examination of sections from the kidneys indicates that poisonous products have been taken up by the blood, for in these sections we find degenerative changes (congestion, cloudy swelling and focal necrosis). Fig. 30 shows a microscopic field from a blood smear from a turkey affected by entero-hepatitis with the disease. It will be noted that there is an intense eosinophilia. Fig. 31 shows a field from a portion of the kidney, in a state of cloudy swelling and focal necrosis—evidence of absorbed poi- sonous substance. Fig. 32 shows one of the ceca with a small ulceration caused by the protozoa. Symptoms.—Entero-hepatitis is most common in turkeys between the ages of one month and one 88 POULTRY DISEASES year, although I have seen the disease in birds that were much older. Several outbreaks have been studied in this laboratory. Only one case was found in the hen. It has been reported in the pea- cock. Fig. 29. Section or THE Liver (from a Case of Blackhead) a, Protozoa causing the disease. b, a giant cell. The symptoms are not manifest till the disease has progressed to a considerable extent. The bird is first noticed to be dull, later the wings and tail may droop; the feathers become ruffled and the bird sits around much of the time; diarrhea super- venes, the discharge being of a greenish-yellow DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 89 Fic. 30. of Blackhead) Showing intense eosinophilia. a, blood cells. b, eosinophiles. thrombocytes. d, lymphocytes. mononuclear leucocytes. not turn purple. Broop Smear (from a Case Red ¢, e, color; there is a loss of appetite; the bird grows — gradually weaker and usually dies in from three to ten days after the first symptoms of the disease become no- ticeable. In the cases that run longer the bird becomes emaci- ated. A blood exami- nation shows eosino- philia to be present. he head may or may From the cases in which the head turns purple the disease gets its name— blackhead. Report of a Case of Blackhead Of eleven turkeys of the flock, six had died. One of the Fic. 31. swelling. Section or A KipNEY From a turkey that had died of blackhead. a, Cloudy b, area of focal necrosis. turkeys was brought to the laboratory for further study. The turkey’s head was purple; there was a loss of appetite; 90 POULTRY DISEASES a diarrhea was present and the discharge was yellowish-green in color. A blood study showed the following: Hemoglobin, 73 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,000,000; leukocytes, 73,000. Dif- ferential count: cosinophiles, 86 per cent; neutrophiles, 1 : per cent; lymphocytes, 11 per cent; mononu- lears, 1 per cent; mast cells, 1 per cent. The bird died and an autopsy was held.” The following is a summary of the findings: Necrotic areas in the liver measuring up to. four centimeters (abort one and one-half inches) in diameter and of a yellowish-green color. Weight of the liver, 452 Fic, 32. Cecum Suow1nGa ULCERATION grams. From a case of entero-hepatitis (blackhead) Ulceration of one ce- : in a turkey. cum, four cm. (about a, Ulceration. c, blind end of cecum. one and three-fourths inches) from the cecal end and extending three cm. in length. The outer surfaces of the ceca showed yellowish-green coloration. There was - edema in the pericardial region. Treatment.— Thorough cleaning of henhouse and yard, followed by careful disinfection; care as to feeding and watering, and. intestinal antiseptics are indicated as recommended for fowl -cholera. The following tablets gave the best results in our experiments: Sodium sulphocarbolate ........ 1 part Calcium sulphocarbolate ...... 1 part Zine sulphocarbolate ........... 2 parts Dissolve one tablet in each quart of water. This solution can he given as drink or used to mix soft feed. . Report of an Outbreak of Entero-Hepatatis Treated With Sulphocarbolates Compound The owner of a flock of turkeys in which a number were affected with blackhead reported to the author on the use of the sulphocarbolates compound, as follows: DISEASES OF ‘THE DIGESTIVE. TRACT ol “Some of these turkeys were too sick to eat. In these cases a small piece of the tablet, one-half the size of a sweet pea, was dissolved and given twice a day. Nearly all of the birds so treated recovered.” From work done in this laboratory and from the foregoing report and similar reports from other sources, the author is led to believe that a bird may recover if properly medi- cated, even after some degree of damage is done to the liver by the disease. Diarrhea—Enteritis—Dysentery The most devastating form of diarrhea in poultry is an infectious disease due to a bacterium and to a protozoon, and commonly called ‘‘white diarrhea.’’ It affects chiefly chicks less than three weeks old and will be discussed under a special head. Under this head I shall discuss those bowel ailments not due to any one specific germ. A condition of mild diarrhea is chronic in many fowls throughout life. In these cases there are no symptoms of the disease other than the softness or fluid condition of the feces. Though this con- dition is probably due to a mild form of indi- gestion and the birds may not thrive or fatten or lay as well as those not so affected, the condition is not serious and ordinarily the poultryman pays no attention to it. It is when the soft, pasty or liquid excrement has an offensive odor, and adheres to the feathers about the vent, staining them yellowish, greenish or brownish, that the matter becomes serious and interferes with the health of the bird. Young stock are much more susceptible to diarrhea from unfavorable conditions, of which the commonest are improper food and exposure to cold, than are adult birds. When this reaction to external influences (cold) or when the irritation from indigestible matter within the intestine becomes sever enough to set 92 POULTRY DISEASES up an inflammation of the mucous lining of the small intestines, it is termed enteritis, and when it extends to the large intestines it is called dysen- tery. In both conditions there is an increased thirst, loss of appetite, high fever and fluid dis- charge, and in the latter the discharges are streaked with blood. Cause.—Mouldy, putrid, or too stimulating food, drinking water which contains much organic mat- ter, and hence is filthy and putrid, and exposure to certain unfavorable atmospheric conditions are contributing factors, as is also the injection of irritant substances, such as lye, paint, spray-mix- tures, unslaked lime, etc. Along with diarrhea due to these causes may be mentioned a like condition sometimes caused by the presence in the intestinal tract of certain spe- cies of worms and of irritating foods. Exposure in damp coops, cold rains, or draughts often result in digestive derangements of this nature. A bird, during moulting, has poor protection against in- clement weather, from lack of feathers, and re- quires more care than at other times. Symptoms.—The plumage loses its smooth, well- kept appearance; the bird is depressed and not inclined to move about as much as usual; there may be loss of appetite; the crop is full; digestion is slow; the cloaca is inflamed (red) and sensitive (irritated) ; the evacuations from the bowels are frequent, the discharges being fluid, offensive and varying in color from whitish-yellow to greenish. In later stages the evacuations are quite spas- modic and forcefully ejected (squirting) and the fluff and feathers near the vent are soiled with feces. The affected bird gradually becomes weaker and there is a rise in temperature. It may DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 93 eat little or nothing; thirst is extreme in some cases. The bird may die in two or three days or it may live for two or three weeks. Postmortem Findings.—In fatal cases the most noticeable alterations are in the intestinal tract and the liver. Upon = opening the small intestines, areas of inflammation are noted, and occa- sionally a small hemorrhageis found. Microscopic examination of stained sections from the vital or- gans (liver, kid- ney, etc.) reveals retrogressive changes; cloudy swelling being most marked, Fig. 33 illustrates one of these cases. Treatment — Give the same treatment as that given for blackhead in turkeys and for fowl cholera. (See pages 90 and 83.) Fic. 33. Hemorruacic ENTERITIS IN A EN A, Small hemorrhages (natural size). White Diarrhea The loss to American poultry raisers from white diarrhea is greater than from anything else, per- haps greater than from all other infectious dis- eases combined. It strikes at the root of the poultry industry; no one can successfully conduct the business if he is unable to rear a reasonable number of chicks annually. . O4 POULTRY DISEASES Without treatment the resulting mortality, when white diarrhea has secured a foothold in a poultry plant, is extremely high, often reaching ninety per cent of the season’s hatch.* The loss from white diarrhea in dollars and cents is enormous, almost beyond calculation. It is widespread throughout the United States and causes the loss of perhaps ten per cent of all the chicks hatched in this country. By proper measures the disease is fairly easily preventable and a large number of the affected chicks will recover under proper treatment. Causes—— There are two forms of white diar- rhea, due to two distinct causes. A bacillary form due to the Bacterium pullorum, a rather short, plump, rodshaped germ with rounded ends; and a protozoal form due to the Coccidium tenellum. I have isolated the germ causing the disease from the liver, spleen, kidneys and other organs of chicks dead of the bacillary form of the disease. and in the coccidian form from the ulcers of the cecum and the intestines. Symptoms: Bacillary Form—In young chicks there is drooping wings, ruffled feathers, sleepy appearance, huddled together, little or no appetite, abdominal yolk not properly absorbing; whitish or whitish-brown frothy discharge from bowel which adheres more or less to the vent fluff; eyes closed part of the time and apparently no interest in life. ‘‘Peeping’’ much of the time, the ap- pearance in many ig stilty, abdomen prominent be- hind. In these cases after death one finds the yolk unabsorbed or only partially so. The intestines are more or less full. Late fall, winter or early *A diet of sour milk is said to reduce the loss from white diar- rhea fifty per cent, but as the treatment here outlined will reduce it ninety per cent, the sour milk treatment is not worth considering. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 95 spring hatched chicks are freer from the disease than summer hatched. This may be explained by the fact that hens with diseased ovaries grad- ually become poorer layers as the disease pro- cesses advance, and hence, only lay in late spring or early summer, when nature intends repro- duction of birds. Finally the hen may cease laying. Symptoms: Coccidian Form.—The symptoms, as I have seen them, are similar to those of the bacillary form, excepting, as a rule, the heavy death rate takes place later. Mode of Spread: Bacillary Form.—Ovaries of lay- ing hens, diseased, but still functionating, may be infected by the germ. The germ can be isolated, particularly from the yolk, of at least some of the eggs formed in such an ovary. The chicks from infected eggs, as a result, have the disease more or less developed when they are hatched, as con- ditions which favor hatching also favor the multi- plication of the germs to an extent that toxins (poisons) have already been produced in the young in sufficient quantity for the disease to at least manifest itself in a few hours after hatch- ing, although ordinarily they do not begin to die until they are about a week old. The whitish, frothy, pasty bowel discharge, more or less sticky and having a tendency to “‘naste up the vent,’’ from these chicks is laden with the germs, and others of the flock soon be- come infected from contaminated food picked up from the ground. In the former case, chicks may begin to die soon after hatching, in the latter, in from three to four days, a few dying each day. The death rate is high, reaching in many cases as much as seventy-five per cent or more. Those 96 POULTRY DISEASES that recover are stunted and do not make satis- factory growth. The greatest loss is from the first few days to, in some cases, two or three weeks. It is probable that the carriers are chicks that have recovered, but which still carry the organism (es- pecially in the ovary) as the human typhoid car- riers carry the germs of typhoid fever, in the in- fected kidneys and in bowel ulcers. These ‘‘car riers,’’ having established an immunity, do not themselves succumb to the disease, and they rarely show any outward symptoms of it. Insanitary conditions, spoiled feed, dirty, stag- nant water, improperly ventilated incubators, brooders and building, or badly regulated heat, are factors in weakening the physical condition of chicks and favor ravages of diseases. Coccidian Form.— The mode of spread of this form is at present problematical. It is possible that a chronic type of coccidiosis occurs in some birds and thus perpetuates and diseminates the protozoa. Postmortem Findings: Bacillary Form.—The liver in gen- eral is usually pale, showing areas of congestion (active and passive congestion and cloudy swelling). The yolk only par- tially absorbed, congestion of the intestines may or may not be present. Kidneys normal in size, but show congestion and cloudy swelling. Carcass more or less pale and emaciated and anemic. Coccidian Form.—Upon postmortem examination the con- ditions are found to be similar to those in the bacillary form, except there will be noted more or less congestion of the in- testinal mucosa (lining), and ulcers in the intestines, prin- cipally the ceca. The ceca appear to contain considerable ingesta, and to be interfered with functionally. Fig. 34 shows a transverse section through an ulcerated area. In these areas we find cloudy swelling, followed by necrosis (retrogressive changes and death of the cells).. The remains of the dead cells forms a cheesy mass (caseation necrosis). It will be noted in this drawing that only rem- nants of a few of the glands normally present are yet intact, the remainder of the mucous ‘membrane and in places the DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 97 submucous layers are invaded by the germ (protozoon). In Fig. 35 the section B has been magnified 900 times. As explained under the cut, all stages of the coccidium tenellum are observed in a mass of dying and disintegrating cells—the remains of the diseased mucous lining of the bowel. Repeated examinations have been made of healthy chicks killed for the purpose, and chicks dying from other causes, and thus far no case has shown these conditions. Treatment.—The most of our experimental work with various remedies has been with the coccidian —— Ss 3 Fig. 34 Fig. 35 Fic. 34. Section TurovcH Cecum (Magnified 100 times) From a chick that had died of coccidian white diarrhea. A, Muscular layer. B, remnant of gland. C, degenerated disintegrating mass. There is complete destruction of the mucous membrane. Fic. 35. Section “B” in Fic. 34 (magnified 900 times) Shows various stages of the coccidium tenellum. A, Oocyst. B, Sporo- blast, first stage. C, sporozoit, first stage. D, schizont, merozoites within, surrounded by a disintegrating cell mass. E, polymorphonu- clear leukocyte. form. In one outbreak, referred to above, 80 per cent of the first hatch of 2,000 chicks had died. We began trying to improve sanitary conditions, and administered various dilutions of permangan- ate of potash, copperas and carbolic acid. The loss was unaffected. By this time the writer had examined many dozen birds in his laboratory, and in about fifty per cent of the cases, the Bacterium 98 POULTRY DISEASES pullorum was isolated from the heart, blood, liver, spleen and kidneys, and in every case the coc- cidian ulcers, described above, were observed. These chicks began dying in numbers at about ten days of age, very few had died before that time, and from this period to the end of the third week the great loss occurred. After this time but few died, but those having the disease in light form were stunted and did not make satisfactory growth. With this data now before me, I now began on another line of treatment. During the past ten years I have used, to a greater or less extent, dilutions of mercuric chlor- ide (corrosive sublimate) as an intestinal anti. septic in chickens. This was used, in this outbreak, in a solution of 1 : 10,000, with sulphocarbolates of zinc, sodium and calcium. The latter had not given the satisfactory results when used alone that it had in treatment of diarrhea in colts and calves. Jones (Cornell) has shown that a solution of 1 : 1,000 (one-tenth of one per cent) bichloride of mercury, will kill the B. pullorum in thirty sec- onds; a one per cent carbolic acid solution re- quires five minutes in which to kill this germ; one per cent creolin requires five minutes; three and one-third per cent lactic acid kills it in five min- utes, and five per cent carbolic acid kills it in thirty seconds. Mercuric chloride is therefore fifty times as effective against this germ as. is carbolic acid. Instructions were given for the incubators (con- taining also the nursery trays) to be tightly closed and fumigated with formaldehyde gas, as recom- mended under chicken cholera, béfore filling with eggs. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 99 After the chicks were hatched they were not to receive any feed for forty-eight to seventy-two hours, as the yolk contained in their abdominal cavity will furnish food for that length of time, and an engorgement of the intestines might im- pinge on this part and interfere with its absorp- tion by pressing on the absorbing vessels. The following solution was to be kept before them from the time of hatching to four weeks of age, and then given twice a week for the next few weeks: Zine sulphocarbolate, fifteen grains, sod- ium and calcium sulphocarbolate, of each seven and one-half grains, bichloride of mercury, six grains, and citric acid, three grains. This quan- tity was dissolved in a gallon of water. The re- sult was that eighty per cent of the next hatch was saved. Blastomycosis of the Pigeon There is a condition in pigeons in which there is a nodular mass in the upper portion of the esophagus, due to a kind of yeast-like germ. It is termed > blastomycosis, and is well illustrated in Fig. 37. The squabs become af- fected early, and as the diseased or tu- mor-like area be- . comes larger, the bird is unable to eat or swallow. The : loss in some breed- Fie. 36, ‘Husbeauvedaie ee PicEon ing establishments A, Necrosing mae Corina yeast-like 100 - POULTRY DISEASES is considerable. The disease area manifests itself as a lump in the throat or neck, which is easily felt. Treatment.—It will be necessary to keep fie premises thoroughly clean, constantly disinfected, washed with an antiseptic. The trays after each batch of squabs need. to be cleaned and disinfected, as, in fact, does the entire building. Some good re- sults have been ob- tained by treating these squabs early with a solution of Fig. 37. Fig. 38. s ulp hocarbolates Fic. 37. Seu ores IN A compound. A ] 80 A, el a eee ek the coc- 0 t h er antiseptics Fic. 38. Da eecmeas IN A recommended for B, Ulcers caused by the coccidium chicken cholera. In (natural ove squabs it will be necessary to use a medicine dropper and in- ject the solution into the mouth several times-a day. If the disease has progressed very far. it is best to kill the squab and cremate it. Coccidiosis in Wild Ducks Two wild ducks (mallards) were sent to the laboratory by the game warden of Colorado dur- ing the fall of 1910, with the history that they had been found dead on a reservoir, and that the wild ducks were dying in large numbers. of thigh. C, blood. vessel containing Africa. a white thrombus. ‘ ‘ a : This disease was first recognized in Brazil; it is found in- Africa and Europe. A disease occurs in the-southern part of the United States, where the chicken tick is abundant, that presents symptoms similar to those of spirochetosis; so far as the author knows, no definite work has been done to deter- mine the true cause of it. Spirochetosis is most common among chickens, but also infects geese, ducks, pigeons and spar- rows. BLOOD DISEASES 11 Symptoms.—There is noted a dullness, loss of appetite, rapid emaciation; the head and tail are down, and the bird stands around in cor- ners or on the roost, with its eyes closed. Fig. 41 shows a photo- graph of a typical case. Note the attitude of head, tail and body. Another form of sep- ticemia in chickens is caused by a comma- shaped germ, the iS aa ee eg) pos & Dyk See Fic. 40. SprrocHeTA GALLINARUM This drawing, made-from a blood smear, shows red blood cells (oval), ‘thrombocytes and _leu- kocytes (round) and spirochetes (corkscrew-like), - » » Spirillum Metchinikovi or Vibrio Metchinikovi. The symptoms are similar to those of fowl chol- era, except that there is no, or at most but slight, Tie. 4t. Acute Srirocnetosis: (after Balfour) elevation of the temperature. Diarrhea is con- stantly present. Inflammation of the bowel and enlarged liver (hepatitis) is noted, The disease 112 POULTRY DISEASES has not been reported in this country. It may exist unrecognized. Pericarditis This is an inflammation of the pericardium or heart sac; there is usually an effusion about the heart, and it is often spoken of as dropsy of the heart sac or dropsy of the heart. It is, of course, not strictly a blood disease, but it is often asso- ciated with diseases of the blood and of the lungs, as a complication; further than this its cause is not known, but may result from exposure to cold and dampness. Symptoms.—A diagnosis of pericarditis cannot ordinarily be made during the life of the bird, but is easily demonstrated on autopsy. Tumultous heart action, extreme exhaustion on exercise, and difficulty of breathing are symptoms observable during life. Treatment—Treatment is unsatisfactory; nu- merous cases occurring in the same flock should lead to the enforcement of better hygienic condi- tions, especially to better protection from cold and dampness. Endocarditis This is an infammation of the lining membrane of the heart, usually affecting the valves also. Nothing is known of its cause, but it is of not in- frequent occurrence during the course of certain diseases of the blood. It cannot be diagnosed dur- ing life, and therefore cannot be treated. From what we know of the cause of endocarditis in man and animals, we should expect exposure to cold and dampness to be a factor in the cause of this disease, and as such to be avoided, BLOOD DISEASES 113 Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood _ Vessels Internal hemorrhage (bleeding) due to rupture of the heart or large blood vessels is common in overfed fowls. It may be caused by any excite- ment or overexertion in such birds. It is described in this section because affecting organs of circu- lation. Symptoms.—There is a sudden blanching of the comb and mucous membranes followed by great weakness, coma and death. No treatment is prac- ticable. SECTION VII Constitutional Diseases Under this head we class ‘‘going light’’ and tuberculosis. Both cause considerable loss to the poultry- man. There is much doubt as to whether the for- mer should be classed as a disease; certainly this term as usually applied refers merely to a symp- tom of a disease (often tuberculosis or enteritis) or condition in which there is a progressive loss in the weight of the bird. Going Light (Asthen) Those who look upon going light as a specific disease consider it as one that affects chickens and pigeons. It may affect old or young birds. It is called going light because the bird becomes grad- ually lighter until emaciated. It is a disease that is found in all parts of the United States. A germ called the Bacterium asthene has been isolated by one investigator from the intestines of sick birds. It corresponds with the Bacillus coli com- munis always present in the intestinal tract of _ chickens. The affected birds have a good appetite; in fact, at times a ravenous one. The loss of flesh is con- tinuous for a few weeks, when the bird dies. In eleven cases of going light examined by the pathological laboratory of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry three were found to be infected by the Bacillus enteritiditis. This germ is dangerous to man. It affects cattle and has re- 115 4 116 POULTRY DISEASES sulted fatally to those persons eating infected meat. Postmortem Findings—Usually on autopsy all organs appear normal so far as gross appearance goes, but extreme emaciation as described above is noted. The following is the result of a blood study in these cases: Report of Asthen Cases Two outbreaks have been investigated by the author. One in a flock of Rhode Island Reds, in which flock there were about two hundred birds which should have weighed about two pounds each. The disease affected a gradually increasing number. The feed consisted of grain, insects picked up from the fields, and plenty of green grass. As it was irrigation time, the birds had access to the irrigating ditches. The henhouse and yard were kept-clean. It was advised to change the run and continue giving a variety. of good green feed and grain with a good supply of water. The disease finally disappeared from the flock. All efforts at the laboratory to isolate any germ which might have been the cause of the disease were unsuccessful. : The second flock was from eggs that had been produced by birds in which roup had appeared the preceding winter. Five birds about four months old were sent to the laboratory -for study with the following history: The birds had good hygienic surroundings, were moved from place to place, given fresh water and good quality of feed, with plenty of green stuff, but without success; the birds not only did not thrive, but continued to lose flesh and finally died, notwithstanding that most of them had a ravenous appetite. Chick No. 3.—Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,920,- 000. Leukocytes, 28,000. Differential-count: Polymorphonu- clear neutrophiles, 39 per cent; eosinophiles, 30 per cent; lymphocytes, 29 per cent; mast cells, 2 per cent. Chick No. 4.—Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,600,- 000; leukocytes, 14,000. Differential count: Eosinophiles, 31 per cent; mononuclears, 8 per cent; lymphocytes, 60 per cent; basophiles, 1 per cent. Chick No. 5.—Hemoglobin, 75 per cent; leukocytes, 34,000; erythrocytes, 3,000,000. Differential count: Polymorphonu- clears neutrophiles, 4 per cent; eosinophiles, 50 per cent; baso- philes, 3 per cent; mononuclears, 4 per cent; lymphocytes, 39 per cent. Chick No. 6.—This bird was about four months old, stunted in growth, “going light,” and had contracted roup from an- other bird. The blood study shows the following: Hemo- CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 117 globin, 60 per cent; leukocytes, 16,000; erythrocytes, 3,600,- 000; thrombocytes, 436,006. Differential count: EHosinophiles, 3 per cent; mononuclears, 4 per cent; lymphtocytes, 89 per cent; mast cells, 4 per cen¢. All efforts to isolate germs from the liver, spleen, kidneys and heart-blood were unsuccessful. More study must be done on this disease to determine the true cause, before rational treatment can be outlined. Treatment.—The birds should receive one-fourth to one grain ferrous sulphate once a day in soft feed. The prognosis is not hopeful. With our present knowledge we will look to sanitary surroundings for the control of this con- dition—clean coops and yards,: good feed and water. A tablespoonful of powdered ginger to each dozen hens may be given once or twice a day - in soft feed. Tuberculosis This is a disease of great importance to the poultryman, not only on account of its destructive- ness to his flock, but also on account of its relation to the health of himself and family; for while fowls are not very likely to contract tuberculosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that have the disease are a serious menace to the other animals on the farm as well as to the poul- tryman and his family. Cause—The Bacillus tuberculosis, which was discovered by Koch in 1882, is the cause of this disease. There are four principal types of this organism. The one most commonly infecting man is designated as the human type. The one pecu- liar to cattle is designated as the bovine type, and the one peculiar to fowls the avian type; and there is still another type of the tubercle bacillus which affects fish and other cold-blooded animals. While there are some differences in the shape 118 POULTRY DISEASES of the organisms grown for considerable time in the various animals and some differences (bio- chemically) when grown in artificial media after isolation, yet the type peculiar to any of the warm- blooded animals will grow in any of the other warm-blooded animals, that is, the types are in- terchangeable, which means that the bovine type may cause tuberculosis in man and the human type may cause tuberculosis in birds, ete. Most auth- ors consider that while the chicken has consider- able resistance to the human type, it will and does become infected with this type. It has been found that a large percentage of hogs fed swill from houses where tuberculous per: sons have expectorated into it, become tubercul- ous, and when slaughtered, there is a considerable loss from condemnation of those badly affected. (Busman. ) Tuberculosis among chickens is rare in some portions, and is very common in other localities in the United States. Although it is widespread throughout the United States and Canada, it was first reported in this country in 1900 and received but slight attention until 1903. It also occurs in turkeys, pigeons and pheasants, and two cases in wild geese were reported at the Ontario Agri- cultural College. The loss from this disease seems to be increasing. Mode of Spread.—In the progress of tuberculo- sis of chickens at times there is noted a diarrhea. In these cases there are found tubercular ulcers of the mucous lining of the intestinal tract. In these cases the spread is very rapid through the flock, as birds are continually picking feed from the ground and floors where contamination is sure to have taken place. CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 119 If scraps be fed to which tuberculous sputum has found its way or if the birds are allowed to devour parts of an animal dead of the disease, there is a liability of their contracting tubercu- losis. There is also a possibility that birds, by fol- lowing tuberculous cattle, may become infected, as do hogs. It has been argued that the temper- ature of the bird is so high (105° F. to 107° F.) A B Fic. 42. TusBERCULOosIS IN A HEN A, Spleen showing miliary tubercules. B, liver showing miliary tubercules. that it furnishes an unfavorable field for the hu- man and bovine types of germs, which thrive at temperatures close to 98° and 101° F., respective- ly. It has, however, been found that these germs soon adjust themselves to such changes in tem- perature and to a certain degree to differences in food. One case, a hen, was sent to the laboratory with the history of having had access to the sputum of a person afflicted with tuberculosis. Upon autopsy small pearl-like nodules were found throughout the liver (See Fig. 42), in the lung sub- stance and over the serous lining covering the intestines and 120 POULTRY DISEASES abdominal cavity. A microscopic examination of the lesions revealed the bacillus of tuberculosis. It more closely re- sembled the human than the avain type. Symptoms.—An absolute diagnosis cannot be made during life, as the symptoms observed are common to many conditions, especially in the early stages when there are no positive external symp- toms by which it can be recognized. The bird be- comes emaciated. The rapidity of emaciation, like in other animals, depends on the progress of the disease; that is, the susceptibility of the bird, as well as the degree of infection. The comb appears pale, the bird becomes dull and sleepy, has ‘‘no life.’’ If the joints become affected there will be lameness in case the affec- tion is in-the legs and swollen joints, and often in affection of the skin and visible mucous mem- branes is noted there is ulceration (sores). This latter condition has been noted especially in par- rots. These skin areas are made up of a cheesy material (caseation necrosis), which is covered by a thick, rather hard, crust, whitish in color. At times it is noted that these crusts become rather horny in nature. The red blood cells in a tuberculous fowl may be greatly reduced (as low as 1,000,000), and the hemoglobin as low as thirty-five per cent. White blood cells are slightly increased. Postmortem Findings—QOwing to the fact that most birds are infected with tuberculosis through contaminated food, we find most of the lesions in the abdominal organs. Of these the liver is most often diseased. Next in frequency comes the spleen and the serous lining of the cavity, as stat- ed in report above. As indicated above, the areas may appear as CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 121 pearly, grayish-white nodules varying in size from a pin-head to a pea, or even larger. In these larger nodules there will be noted a cheesy mass which, as the lesions become older, they become impregnated with calcium (lime) and then cut like gritty material. In healed tubercles there may be a solid calcareous (stony) mass. Usually the diseased organs are enlarged. Fig. 42 illus- trates a liver and spleen studded with pearly tubercles of pin-head size. This liver was from a hen afflicted with tuberculosis. Upon opening the intestine of a tuberculous bird there may be noted ulcers, usually small in size, and a thickening of the wall. The abdom- inal lymph glands (kernels) are tuberculous. At times these show small tubercles from the size of a pin-head to larger, at other times a cheesy mass (caseation necrosis), and in still older areas an infiltration with lime salts. Small tubercles may also be found in the lungs and other adja- cent tissue. Like in the higher animals, the bones become tuberculous, there is noted swelling tubercles and caseation; later calcification. Treatment— Treatment of the affected bird is not to be thought of. As shown above, the germs of the disease are so often spread through the droppings that the only sure means of eradicat- ing the disease from a flock is to kill all the birds in the flock and if possible move the henhouse to a new location and have new runs. If this is not practicable, thoroughly disinfect with five per cent earbolic acid or five per cent creolin, all fences, feed troughs, watering tanks and buildings, as indicated under cholera. Birds from an infected flock should not be sold 122 POULTRY DISEASES for breeding purposes, and the birds from such a flock that are killed for food should be inspected by a competent veterinarian, so that none may be used for food purposes that are diseased to such an extent as to render the food unfit for human consumption. All birds in a flock infected with tuberculosis that die should be cremated to prevent further spread of the disease from that source. All drop- pings and cleanings from the henhouse and runs should be disinfected with calcium chloride, a five per cent solution of carbolic acid or other reliable disinfectant before spreading on the fields. SECTION VIII Diseases of the Liver Inflammation and necrosis of the liver as seen in many of the infectious diseases have already been referred to under the discussions of these different diseases, as chicken cholera, blackhead, tuberculosis, ete. Aside from diseases of the liver due to infection, the commonest cause of ailments of this organ is improper feeding. It is with great difficulty that diseases of the liver can be recog- nized except upon postmortem examination. Treatment, as a rule, is useless. Fatty Degeneration This is a condition in which there is a disease process in the protoplasm of the liver cells, by which the normal secreting cells of the liver are to a greater or less extent replaced by fat cells. The liver is smaller than normal, unless fatty infiltration is also present; it appears slightly yel- lowish, and when cut through the blade of the knife will have a greasy appearance, due to the fat that adhers to it. Symptoms.—Birds affected with fatty degenera. tion of the liver show varied symptoms, but usu- ally they are dull, eat little and the comb turns dark to black. They gradually become thin in flesh and finally die. Usually the bird will live from two or three weeks to three months after the symptoms first appear. On autopsy all or- gans usually appear normal except the liver. Treatment.— There is very little that can be done 123 124 POULTRY DISEASES for this condition. Podophyllin in one-grain doses every three days may be given with some hope of relief. Fatty Infiltration This condition may be a physiological or nor- mal process until the accumulation of fat occurs in such quantities as to interfere with the func- tion of the liver cells. The liver is one of the so-called storehouses of the body for fat. In it is stored a surplus until needed by the body for use (for combustion for the production of heat and energy). Overfed hens, or those closely housed and not forced to work, or fed too heavily on carbohy- drates (starchy feeds) store up much of the sur- plus nutrition in the liver as well as in other por- tions of the abdomen, especially in the mesentery and in the abdominal walls. In these cases, on autopsy, the liver will be found to be enlarged, brownish or grayish-brown in color (mottled), friable (tears easily), and when cut through appears ‘‘greasy,’’ much fat adhering to the knife blade. In these cases rupture of the liver often occurs when the hen is stepped upon by a large animal, is thrown or jumps a long dis- tance on hard ground or a concrete floor. Heavy hens with clipped wings are prone to this injury. In the liver, in which excessive fat is stored up, there is, after a while, an encroachment upon the protoplasm to such an extent that the cells can- not properly functionate and then death of the bird may occur. In these cases a microscopic ex- amination shows the nuclei of the cells to be pushed to one side, and the protoplasm atrophied DISEASES OF THE LIVER 125 and disappearing. This is a pathological con- dition. Rupture of the Liver In cases where the liver is excessively congested with blood or is overly filled with fat, as men- tioned above, violence may result in rupture. One case that may be of interest came to the laboratory, and at autopsy was found to be ruptured, with considerable blood (hemorrhage) in the abdominal cavity (among the intestines). The rupture or tear was about three-quarters of an inch long and on the left lobe. The organ was double its normal size. Upon microscopic examination it was found to be congested and occasional small ruptures (hemorrhages) were found throughout. the liver substance. : This bird was in a yard with a horse and it is supposed to have been kicked or stepped upon, as the left side was bruised. Congestion of the Liver There are two kinds of congestion of the liver, active and passive. Active congestion precedes inflammation and is a state in which the capillar- ies, arterioles and arteries are engorged with blood. It is caused by local irritation. Passive congestion of the liver is usually due to a weak heart or a leaky valve between the two cav- ities of the right side. The blood backs up into the liver, and the central veins of the lobules and capillaries, between the columns of liver cells, be- come engorged. It gives the cut surface a pecu- liar yellowish mottled appearance called ‘‘nut- meg liver,’’ from a fancied resemblance that it bears to the sectional surface of a nutmeg. Inflammation of the Liver Inflammation of the liver may be the result of absorption of poisonous products from the in- testines. These products (toxins) lodge in the liver, or the inflammation may be due to infection 126 POULTRY DISEASES (germs) as in chicken cholera. The irritation causes active congestion followed by a migration of great numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes, constituting inflammation. The liver is enlarged, dark, and easily torn; it appears very full of blood. In many, and in fact most, of the contagious diseases fnflammation of the liver (hepatitis) occurs. The following case report will serve to illustrate these cases: A valuable rooster was sent to the small animal ward of the Division of Veterinary Medicine of the Colorado Agri- cultural College for treatment. The bird had been sprinkled with some proprietary lice killer and had immediately taken ill. There was a loss of appetite and it had become weak in the legs and remained so till its death. Late in the course of the trouble the bird was not able to stand at all, but lay on its side. It became emaciated and lived only about three weeks after it was taken sick. On autopsy the liver was found to be enormously enlarged, weighing 176 grams (normal weight would have been about forty grams for a bird of that size). The surface had a grayish mottled appearance. Upon microscopic examination these pale gray, irregular areas proved to be liver areas packed with leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes —an aggravated case of hepatitis (inflammation). Another similar case was brought to the laboratory, except that it did not have the history of having been sprinkled with an insect powder. Enterohepatitis This is a disease of turkeys and to a less ex- tent of other birds, which extends from the in- testine to and involves the liver. It is discussed under diseases of the liver. (See page 85.) Unimportant Diseases Abscesses and tumors of the liver appear to be very rare in chickens and other fowl. Sarcomas and carcinomas (cancers) of this organ are usu- ally associated with similar tumors of the ovary. DISEASES OF THE LIVER 127 Jaundice is very rare, and appears to result from a long-continued mild congestion of the liver. Cercomoniasis (spotted liver) is a type of dis- ease of the liver due to infection (Monocercomo- nas gallinarwn) that may be associated with severe diarrheas. Aspergillosis is a disease due to a fungus (Asper- gillus fumigatus, and sometimes other species). It commonly affects the lungs (Pneumomycosis, which see), but may, and occasionally does, affect the liver. SECTION IX Disease of the Ovary and Oviduct Prolapse or Eversion of the Oviduct This is a common ailment of laying hens. Over- feeding and aggravated constipation have been found associated with this condition. When the eggs are large and considerable straining takes place during their passage, and in inflammation of the mucous lining of the oviduct or egg canal prolapse or a protruding of the mucous membrane through the cloaca may be observed. In consti- pation, the bowels becoming gorged, and this in addition to the obstruction when the egg canal contains one or more developing eggs, and the ovary, being active, is larger and adds to the bulk, predisposes to prolapse. This condition is most often seen in hens that are heavy layers. It perhaps occurs most often in old hens. If the prolapsed or protrduing mucous membrane is allowed to extend through the anus, it soon becomes inflammed from exposure to the air and infection (germs). Later the parts may become ulcerated as a result of mechanical injur- ies or the attack of germs. Treatment— Wash off the accumulated material on the vent feathers with clean, soapy, warm water. After cleansing the hands, replace the protruding mass, using on the fingers carbolized vaseline, three to five per cent strength. Keep the hens on a light diet for several days so that 129 130 POULTRY DISEASES the parts may have a rest and the irritation caus- ing the trouble subside. It is best to give only soft feed and liquids. Give the hen a tablespoonful of olive oil and plenty of clean water. Obstruction of the Oviduct (Egg Bound) This is a common ailment of laying hens, per- haps the commonest of all discussed conditions of the oviduct. The poultry raiser calls it ‘‘egg bound,’’ by which he means there is something in the oviduct which the bird cannot force out. The upper portion of the oviduct, or that part which receives the ovum (yolk) as soon as it is fully formed in the ovary and delivered, is lined with secreting cells. In this part the albumin which surrounds the yolk is formed. Further along the glands secrete the shell or calcium layer after forming around the mass a fibrous mem- brane or sac. It can be readily seen, for all this to be brought about, means an abundant blood sup- ply. An inflammation of the egg duct (usually the result of infection from the digestive tract by way of the cloaca) means an arrest of function of these glands. There are other cells that secrete mucous which lubricates the passage way, and these, too, are arrested in their function. The result is a stoppage of the egg. Other causes are: Eggs of too large size, ex- haustion of the bird and atony and. paralysis of muscular walls of the oviduct and vagina, volvulus or twisting of the oviduct and stricture of the ovi- duct.. Weakened muscles, the result of disease, im- proper nourishment and overwork are contribut- ing factors. Symptoms.— The hen goes frequently to the nest and repeatedly makes expulsive efforts but can- DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 131 not lay. If the obstruction is well along in the egg canal the egg may be felt as a hard object in the posterior part of the abdomen. In many cases the obstruction is so far up the oviduct it cannot be felt or seen and we must depend for diagnosis upon the action of the bird, which suffers acutely under these conditions. Treatment—First be sure that the bird will not lay the egg unaided. Allow her to remain quiet and alone for a couple of hours; she will often relieve herself unaided. If it is evident that the bird must be given help, wash the hand carefully with soap and water and lubricate the fingers with three to five per cent carbolized vase- line, which can be secured at any drug store, pass the fingers through the anus and cloaca into the egg canal and remove the egg. At times the egg is large and it may be necessary to break the shell in order to remove it. If the egg is broken, make sure that all parts of the shell are removed. By . referring to Plate I the relations of these organs _ may be seen. After the removal of the egg give the hen a tablespoonful of olive or castor oil and place on a light feed for a few days. Recovery usually occurs in the simple uncomplicated cases which form the majority; in complicated cases death is often the result. Rupture of the Oviduct This is usually a complication of obstruction of the oviduct. It is frequently fatal in a very short time and in such cases can be diagnosed only upon postmortem examination. Cause.—Vigorous contraction of the muscular walls of the egg canal in expulsion efforts some- 132 POULTRY DISEASES times results in a rupture of the wall. When this occurs the usual sequel is peritonitis (inflamma- tion of the serous lining of the abdominal cavity) and the death of the bird. Disease processes sometimes so weaken the wall that it gives way under the stress of natural contraction. Symptoms.—The hen ceases to lay, the abdomen becomes larger and often one or more eggs can be felt by palpating the lower portion of the ab- domen. Often the hen is noted to sit up penguin- like-fashion, walking with tail and posterior por- tion of the abdomen dragging the ground. There is nothing to do except to kill the bird. At au- topsy there will be found many yolks in the abdo- minal cavity, possibly one or more with shells and possibly an inflammation of the lining of the cavity (peritoneum). Broken Eggs in Oviduct eggs in the oviduct, as well as ova still unde- livered, are often found broken as a result of a kick of a large animal or of the hen being stepped upon. Death usually follows, if not immediately from the injury, which breaks the egg, after sev- eral days as a result of complicated obstruction of the oviduct resulting from the fibrous exudate thrown out about the broken yolk. We have also studied cases of ruptured ova due to heavy hens roosting on high roosts and by jumping upon the hard floor, causing rupture of the larger forming yolks or ova or of eggs in the ege canal. Prolapse of the Cloaca This may occur in heavy laying hens that. roost on high perches and fly a long distance to the DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 133 ground, and especially when the wings are clipped. If these birds are allowed low roosts and put on a- light diet they recover. Some of these conditions have been studied in the author’s laboratory and the trouble overcome by observing this rule. Abnormal Eggs Many different kinds of abnormal eggs are pro- duced by fowls owing to various diseased or other abnormal conditions of the generative apparatus. Because of the rarity of their occurrence such eggs are of little importance to the practical poul- try raiser, but they possess much interest for the scientific investigator. Soft-shell Eggs.— This is a condition where eggs are laid without a sufficient amount of shell sub- stance covering the shell membrane. The com- monest cause is overfeeding, another cause is the lack of sufficient shell-making material in the feed ; still another cause is fright, which may cause a premature detachment of the yolk. The cause should be remedied and the condition will disappear without further treatment. Yolkless Eggs.—These are small eggs, in which the albumen and shell is formed about a small por- tion of detached yolk, a minute piece of hardened albumen or a bit of coagulated blood instead of the normal yolk. Double and Triple Yolk Eggs.— These eggs with two yolks are common. They are caused by two yolks getting into the oviduct and being enclosed together in the albumen and shell. Three-yolked eggs, which are rare, have a similar origin. Bloodspecks, Blood Rings, Egg Inclusions — These have little significance; particles of coagulated blood, due to hemorrhage when the ovum (yolk) 134 POULTRY DISEASES is discharged from the ovary, are most common, but lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., have been found. Blood clots may be found in either the yolk or white (albumen). If hemorrhage occurs in the yolk, the clot has formed in the ovary before it was delivered into the oviduct. If the clot is in the white it has oc- eurred in the upper portion of the oviduct. SECTIONEX Tumors Tumors of various kinds affect birds, but are less common than in higher animal life. There is = Fic. 43. HEMaAToMA oF Ovary 1n A Hen (natural size) A, Diseased ova. B, sectioned surface of two of the blood tumors. almost no literature on the subject. The following reports from the author’s laboratory are given 135 136 POULTRY DISEASES for their interest, rather than their utilitarian value. Hematoma, Blood Tumors Occassionally considerable hemorrhage takes place in the ova as they are in process of forma- tion. These fail to find their way into the oviduct and become hematoma, or blood tumors. Fig. 43 illustrates one of these cases, natural size. The sectioned surfaces of two of the tumors is shown. Iixciting causes, like those that cause inflamma- tion and congestion, are present. A rupture of a small, congested vessel causes the clot. Ergot in small quantities should be given to combat the con- dition. Multiple Tumors of the Ovary One of the commonest of tumors consists of yolks, or ova, which have formed, but failed to enter the oviduct. Later these masses become hard and irregular in shape, yellowish in color, and consisting of dried (inspissated) yolks form- ing concentric layers. Fig. 44 illustrates one of these cases, natural size. Cystic Ovary Cystomas, or cysts, are found at times in the ovaries. These cysts are apparently imperfectly developed ova varying in size, and contain a color- less liquid. They are attached to the ovarian mass by pedicles. Sarcoma Sarcomas are a type of malignant tumors; that is, they spread much in the manner as cancers (carcinoma). They are fatal in time. The flesh of birds affected with sarcoma should not be eaten. A case of sarcoma was studied by the writer, in TUMORS 137 Fic, 44. Muzripte TuMors or Ovary 1n A Hen (natural size) A, Ova that have undergone degeneration. Note the pedicle-like structure joining to the cvarian mass. 138 POULTRY DISEASES which the tumors involved the ovary, intestines, peritoneum (lining of the abdominal cavity) and the liver. These tumors vary in size, are whitish- yellow, and soft when sectioned. Adenoma An adenoma is a tumor that has some resem- blance to a normal gland. It is made up of con- nective tissue and asini, or cavities, lined by col- umnar or cuboidal cells. One tumor of this type affecting the spleen of a hen was sent to the labora- tory. The spleen was about twice normal size. Lymphosarcoma This is a malignant type of tumor. One case, affecting the heart of a chicken was sent to the laboratory. The heart was about normal size, and when cut showed small, roundish, clear areas. These proved to be small tumors that come un- der this heading. Epithelioma This is a type of cancer. One hen was brought to the laboratory with the history that she had a ‘‘erowth’’ on the side of the head for several months. The tumor was flat and about one inch in diameter. A microscopic examination revealed it to be an epithelioma. SECTION XI Diseases of the Respiratory Passages In the fall, winter and spring, these diseases are a scourge to the poultry raiser, unless strict san- itation is observed. Obstruction of the Trachea This is uncommon, except as a result of gape- worm infestation. Fig. 45 illustrates a case that was sent to the laboratory with the statement that it had ‘‘gapes.’? This bird would extend its head high into the air, gasping for breath as one whose trachea is obstructed by gapeworms; it was weak and unable to stand squarely upon its feet. It was destroyed for examination. A piece of a grain of corn was found in the trachea, surrounded by an accumulation of mucus caused by the irrita- tion its presence in the trachea caused. The for- eign body and the accumulated mucus were ob- structing the passage of air to the lungs; hence, the asphyxiation. Catarrh, Colds Cause.— Sudden changes in the weather, cold, damp weather, roosting in draughts, and chilling by getting wet in cold rains is often a factor in the production of catarrh among birds. Such af- fections are more or less contagious, but bad san- itation plays an important part in their spread. Weak stock and poorly nourished birds are pre- disposed to this contagion. 139 140 POULTRY DISEASES Symptoms.—The appetite may be somewhat dim- inished. The bird sneezes, throws its head and may expel some mucus. The discharge at first is watery and later becomes more or less thick (muco-purulent). The eyes may show more or less inflammation (conjunctivitis) and the eyelids Fic. 45. OsstrucTion or THE TRACHEA A, Showing depression (drooping wings, inability to stand, etc.) from partial asphyxiation. B, same chicken shown in “A,” just before death. may become adherent. The characteristic offens- ive order of roup is absent. Treatment—The same treatment as outlined un- der roup (see page 153) has given us uniformly good results. The following report of one of the experiments by Mr. Coulton, under the direction of the author, RESPIRATORY DISEASES 141 illustrates the course and treatment of colds in birds: With the advent of cold weather, early last fall, a large number of our chickens contracted colds, which was ex- tremely discouraging, to say the least. We had over one hundred chickens, besides turkeys, and fully twenty-five per cent were affected at one time. In addition to the colds which affected the throat, nostrils and eyes, many were affected with canker in the mouth. The ordinary remedies, kerosene, roup cures, etc., were all used, with little effect. We finally secured from the drug store (at the suggestion of Doctor Kaupp) some sulphocarbolates compound tablets and used them, but the improvement was not very marked. Later tablets furnished by the Pathological Laboratory of the Colo- rado Agricultural College (sulphocarbolates compound, thirty grains, with six grains bichloride of mercury to the tablet) were tried. This was not only placed in the drinking water, but a solution was used in a syringe to wash out the nos- trils and mouth. This treatment was marvelously effective. It acted like a charm. The catarrhal condition continued, however, until the following treatment was used (also at -the suggestion of Doctor Kaupp): The nostrils were washed out with a twenty per cent solu- tion of common baking soda; then with peroxide of hydrogen, and finally with the following preparation: Oil of eucalyp- tus, twenty drops; oil of thyme, one dram, and petrol oil, two ounces. A warm solution of the soda was always used and the other materials were warmed by setting the bottles in hot water. This treatment was also applied to the eyes, and the ulcers in the mouth were swabbed with it. The re- sults were remarkable. It was almost impossible to make a record of these cases, as a large portion of the flock were affected. Furthermore, it was impossible to give them all the daily treatment prescribed. Sometimes they would go several days without treatment. In mild cases, however, from two to three applications affected a cure. March 17th we found a young cockerel in a very roupy condition. He had been hatched late in the fall and had never been very vigorous. His eyes were swollen shut, nostrils discharging badly, and, with all, his was not a prom- ising case. We isolated him and gave him the regulation treatment, as described above. Notwithstanding that it stormed severely and he was not well feathered, the next day he was showing a decided improvement, and after three treat- ments, covering about five days, all evidence of the trouble had disappeared and to-day he is apparently in better con- dition than at any time during the winter. A day or two later we found two others belonging to the same brood in about the same condition and after one treat- ment there was evidence of improvement, but after a few days, not having been able to give them careful attention 142 POULTRY DISEASES or regular treatment, they seemed to be worse, and we used the hatchet treatment. I am satisfied, however, from our experience; both with chickens and the turkeys, when taken in time and treated regularly, it is seldom necessary to lose one. We estimated that we saved ninety-five per cent of those affected, by this treatment. Bronchitis In some cases we have noted catarrh com- mencing in the head, principally the nasal cham- bers, extend down and involve the trachea (wind- pipe), and even to the bronchi (branches of the trachea leading to the lung tissue). Sudden changes in the weather, dampness and roosting near a crack in the henhouse so that a cold wind blows upon them, or, in fact, in any draught, are the principal causes of bronchitis. Symptoms.—A_ rattling sound may be heard in the region of the trachea and bronchi (neck and anterior part of the thorax). The bird may be seen to gasp for air by extending the head up- ward. This is due to an accumulation of mucus in the air passages which partially closes them, thus preventing the bird from getting enough oxy- gen into its lungs. The affected bird coughs, and there may be dullness and partial loss of appetite. The condition may pass off in a few days, may respond to treatment, or may last for several weeks and end in recoverv or in death. In the latter case there is marked emaciation; in the former the bird coughs up mucus for a long time, but otherwise appears well. Treatment—A tablespoonful of castor oil, to which 5 to 10 drops of turpentine have been added, and if catarrh be present, treatment as outlined under roup. Give one-grain doses quinine sul- phate three times a day. Place the bird in warm, clean, comfortable quarters, free from draughts. RESPIRATORY DISEASES _ 143 Give plenty of clean water and soft feed (bread or middlings moistened with milk), to which has been added 2 grains of black antimony for each bird. Feed twice daily. Congestion of the Lungs This is an engorgement of the blood vessels of the lungs. Congestion of the lungs is quite apt to develop into pneumonia, of which it may be said to be the first stage. It has been observed in young birds and in birds during their moulting season, when they are poorly clad with feathers and exposed to inclement weather. _ Young chicks that are allowed to run out in the early morning and become wet with cold dew, and chicks allowed to become wet with the cold spring rains and become chilled, are likely to suffer from congestion of the lungs and pneumonia. A contraction of the blood vessels of the skin and periphera forces an abnormal amount of blood to the internal organs, and congestion is the re- sult. Improper feeding and lack of exercise are also contributing factors. Birds having this ail- ment will be noted to be sleepy and stupid, and to breathe rapidly. In some cases the breathing is difficult. The comb becomes bluish and the bird may die because it cannot get enough air into the lungs (asphyxiation). Upon postmortem exami- nation the lungs will be found engorged with blood. The pressure of the blood in the engorged blood vessels of the lungs may close the smaller air passages which they surround, or may burst their thin walls and fill the bronchi with blood. In either case rapid asphyxiation occurs. Treatment.—Congestion of the lungs runs an ex- ceedingly rapid course, terminating in recovery, 144 _ POULTRY DISEASES pneumonia, or death. Treatment is impractical. The ailment should be prevented by good feeding and adequate protection from cold or wet weather. Pneumonia—Inflammation of the Lungs Bronchitis, described in the foregoing, often terminates in pneumonia (broncho-pneumonia). It has been the experience of the writer that broncho- pneumonia, following an attack of bronchitis, is the commonest form of the disease. The causes of pneumonia are the same as the causes of colds and bronchitis, except that the ex- posure is often more severe. There is also a type of pneumonia mentioned under the discussion of internal parasites that is due to a mold—usually the Aspergillus fumigatus; the condition it pro- duces is technically known as aspergillosis. Symptoms.—There is an entire loss of appetite, with thirst and constipation. The bird stands with the head drawn in, drooping wings and ruf- fled feathers; breathing is rapid and painful, and there may or may not be coughing. There is usu- ally a discharge of thick, adhesive mucus from the nostrils; the eyes may be inflamed and water freely. The bird has every appearance of severe illness. Treatment.—Hixcept in the case of birds of un- usual value, treatment is wholly impractical, owing to the amount of care and nursing necessary and because of the doubtful outcome. If treatment is undertaken, the birds should be warmly housed and the best of ventilation main- tained. Spirits of camphor, 2 drops, and brandy, 10 drops, should be given hourly in a teaspoonful of warm milk; if the comb becomes dark, add digi- RESPIRATORY DISEASES 145 talis, one drop of the fluid extract to the medi- cation. Autopsy.——Upon opening the bird that has died from penumonia, the affected part of the lung will be found to be dark red, and when cut through it is liver-like in appearance and texture. Serum (yellowish fluid) and blood may exude from the surface. Pneumomycosis —Aspergillosis This disease is due to a fungus belonging to the genus aspergillus, an organism similar to the common green molds. The species that usually affects the lungs of birds is the Aspergillus fumigatus. Symptoms.— The affected birds are sluggish and stay apart from the remainder of the flock; they ‘sit about on the roosts, or in some corner; are very weak, and later become unable to stand. There is a loss of appetite; the feathers have an unkempt appearance; the wings are drooping and the eyes partially closed. The respiration is accelerated and there is a rattling of mucus in the trachea and bronchi. Fever is present, and there is ordinarily considerable thirst. The af- fected bird usually dies after a prolonged illness. Postmortem Appearance.— Whitish or yellowish nodules, varying in size up to a pea, will be noted in the affected parts; which may be the trachea, bronchi, lungs and the various air sacs. The fungus may grow upon the surface of the mucous membranes forming, at first, a feltlike whitish mass which takes on color according to the spe- cies of the fungus as it fruits (forms spores). This membranous material, to the naked eye, re- sembles a fibropurulent exudate. The obstruc- 146 POULTRY DISEASES tion of the.air sacs causes the difficult breathing and asphyxiation. Inflammation is evident in the diseased areas. Sections through these areas of disease show the mycelia (thread-like branches of the mold) and the characteristic fruit (spores). Focal necrosis, preceded by cloudy swelling, is noted in the kid- neys and other vital organs. A secondary in- vasion of pus-producing organisms may take place and on autopsy abscesses may. be found in the liver, kidneys, spleen and other organs. Treatment.—This is a difficult problem. Placing the affected birds in a close box and smoking them with tar has been advocated. Efforts should be made to eradicate the disease from the premises by cleaning and disinfecting them as for roup and other infectious diseases. (See pages 24 and 153.) Swell-Head in Young Turkeys The most characteristic symptoms of this ail- ment is swelling of certain parts of the head, especially in the region of the maxillary or in- fraorbital sinus, which becomes filled with a gela- tinous, colorless substance. (For location of this sinus see Plate I, No. 21.) These swellings may disappear in a few days or weeks or may remain for several months. In the latter instance the swelling may contain a cheesy material of foul odor, and in some cases cause death. Treatment.—Open the swollen part and allow the morbid collection to drain out. In addition, use the same treatment as outlined under roup. (See page 153.) RESPIRATORY DISEASES 147 Chickenpox—Contagious Epithelioma This disease affects chickens, turkeys, pigeons and geese. Cause.—Some investigators claim that it is due to an ultra-microscopic virus (germ) and that the same germ is also the cause of avian diphtheria, or roup. (An ultra-microscopic germ is one that will pass through the pores of porcelain filters and can- not be seen with the microscope or grown in visi- ble quantities upon culture media.) There are just as many investigators who are certain that their results show that the germ causing these (pox and roup) are not the same, and that the infection one time will not produce roup and at another chickenpox (contagious epithelioma). Our experiments do not lead us to the conclusion that they are the same disease; that is, caused by the same germ. In structure the nodules resemble an epithe- lioma, described under that heading in the section on tumors, and in that contagious chickenpox can be transmitted from an emulsion of the material of a pox nodule, by inoculating the face and comb of a healthy bird. It has been proven that a maceration of the scrapings from the pox in physiological salt solu- tion and injected subcutaneously, will render im- munity against further inoculation of the disease by sacrification and introduction of the virus in the face and comb. One investigator has claimed that chickenpox is due to a protozoon (an animal parasite micro- scopic in size), but other investigators have failed to find this organism. Symptoms.—The disease appears as small nod- ules, varying pin-point size up to the size of a pea, 148 POULTRY DISEASES or even much larger. It may be accompanied by roup; in fact, we have studied both diseases in the same flock, an occurrence which is not uncommon. The question naturally arises, are both due to fil- terable viruses (germs so small that they pass through porcelain filters, and too small to be seen through a microscope), and are both present in Fic. 46. Cuicken Pox A, Epithelial, tumor-like nodules. 2B, an ulcer. the same outbreak, or are both due to the same cause? At the present time there are conflicting reports by scientific men. Fig. 46 illustrates a case of this disease. One investigator has reported that immunity against chickenpox does not confer immunity to roup. Haring and Kofoid have shown that there is a specific antibody developed in birds affected with chickenpox. By RESPIRATORY DISEASES 149 the use of the complementfixation method (a test similar to one used in the diagnosis of glanders) the blood from the diseased fowl exhibited fixation of the complement not shown by normal fowl blood. Thus showing that it is a specific germ disease. The antigen was prepared both from the tumors on the head and from the liver of birds sick of the disease. Treatment—The same sanitary regulations should be put into force as under fowl cholera. No birds should be sold from the flock while the dis- case exists among them. Cleaning of yards and houses and keeping them clean, as well as frequent disinfection, is essential. Antiseptics, as recom- mended under cholera, may be given in the feed and water. The head of the affected bird should be bathed in an antiseptic solution. Roup—Diphtheric Roup—Swelled Head The cause of this disease seems to be far from settled. European investigators have claimed it due to an ultra-microscopic germ (one so small it cannot be seen under the microscope). With a view of determining whether or not the type exist- ing in Colorado is due to an ultra-microscopic or- ganism, two sick hens were secured for experi: ment. Report of Outbreak of Diphtheric Roup These birds had swollen eyes with an accumulation of catarrhal or inflammatory product in the maxillary sinus (cavity below and in front of the eye) and a discharge from the nostrils of an offensive odor characteristic of roup. There were also the characteristic yellowish-white diphtheric mem- branes in the mouth. Material from all the lesions of both birds was made into a suspension with physiological salt solution and filtered through a Pasteur filter calculated to take out all germs that can be seen by aid of the microscope or grown on artificial media. The fluid that passed through this filter was used in in- oculating experimental birds. These birds were from flocks in which no roup had appeared. In all fifteen inoculations were made. Tubes of culture media were inoculated with the 150 POULTRY DISEASES filtrate and incubated seventy-two hours and no growth of germs occurred on any of the tubes; this shows that all visible germs were taken out. Smears of the filtrate were made and stained and an examination of these likewise gave nega- tive results. In none of these inoculations did roup appear. So far as this one experiment goes, it appears that our type of roup is not due to an ultramicroscopic germ. This type of roup is quite contagious. Marx produced a yellowish-diptheritic membrane by inject- ing pox emulsion into the mucous membrane of the mouth and eye of a bird. The report of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry for 1910 an account of the isolation of the Bacillus necro- phorus from the ulcers in one outbreak (this is the germ that causes necrotic stomatitis in hogs and sheep, gangerous dermatitis in horses, diphtheria in calves, and many other pathologic conditions in other animals), in another outbreak the Bacillus avisepticus (the germ of fowl cholera) was found, and in still another outbreak a coccidium appeared to be the cause. The Bacillus pyocyaneus has also been isolated by another investigator as has also a short, rod-shaped germ with rounded ends called the Bacillus cacosmus. It would thus appear that several germs play a more or less im- portant part in the causation of roup. Other germs have been reported from time to time as having been associated with this disease, so that with the reports before us from scientific laboratories we cannot point, as yet, to any certain germ as the cause. Mode of Spread.—'This disease is spread by birds introduced into a flock from infected premsies, and by exposure, as at poultry shows. A chronic type of the disease in one or more birds (carriers) in a flock may serve to infect others when they are weakened by predisposing causes, as by exposure to cold or dampness, or by roosting in a draught, or in badly ventilated buildings. Symptoms.—There are three forms of the dis- ease, that is, three forms of lesions. Any or all may be present in the same bird. 1. The nasal type.—This type is characterized at first by a thin, watery discharge with an offens- ive odor characteristic of roup. Later the ca- tarrhal product becomes somewhat thicker (muco- purulent) and the nostrils become occluded (glued RESPIRATORY DISEASES 151 shut), and quite frequently there is a bulging of the sinus (cavity) in front and below the eye. This is due to an accumulation of the inflammatory pro- ducts in this sinus. Fig. 47 illustrates this com- mon swelling. 2. The diphtheric type—This type affects the mouth. This often accompanies the nasal form. Fig. 48 illustrates these diphtheric ulcerations, which are yellowish or yellowish-white in color. Fic. 47. Roup 1n A CHICKEN A, Bulging of infraorbital or maxillary sinus. From these necrosing patches the disease receives its name, avian diphtheria. 3. The ocular type.—In this form there is first noted an inflammation of the mucous membrane covering the anterior portion of the eyeball (con- junctivitis). As the disease progresses, the ca- tarrhal product accumulates as a watery, clot-like mass, whitish in color. The eyelids stick together and hold the material as it accumulates, till the part bulges outward. There is noted sneezing, shaking the head, and 152 POULTRY DISEASES expulsion of mucus. There is a loss of appetite,. the hird appears weak, walks unsteadily, and be- comes emaciated rapidly. At times breathing 1s difficult, and there is often a diarrhea. Three stages then follow: catarrhal, character ized by a mucus, or muco-purulent, discharge; the diphtheric, affecting the mouth and throat and Tire. 48. Dipurueric Rourp 1n A CHICKEN A, The yellowish-white diphtheric patches on upper surface of tongue and lower jaw (natural size). B, diphtheric patches on hard palate and upper jaw. characterized by the formation of a membrane on the surface which may be followed later by slough- ing (formation of a mass of dead tissue) ; and the conjunctival, affecting the eyes, and often causing a destruction of the eyeball. Postmortem Appearance— The toxin (poison) from the areas of disease is very destructive, as RESPIRATORY DISEASES 153 the rapid emaciation of the bird following a se- vere attack, shows. Upon examination of the membranes that have formed in the mouth, it will be found that when they are removed there is left a raw, granular appearing surface. Upon microscopic examination, cellular infiltration is seen, with a destruction of cells of the mucous ' membrane underlying the diptheric patch. -An ex- amination of the maxillary (suborbital) sinus (see Plate I, No. 31) will reveal it to be filled with a purulent material, which is often cheesv-like in consistency. The wall over this part is very thin and can be easily opened with a knife. A microscopic study of sections of the head, through the inflamed area (the mucous lining of the nasal passage) shows considerable thickening and an acute inflammation (invasion of polymor- phonuclear leukocytes); at times the entire pas- sage is ‘‘plugged’’ with the mucus. On examination of the eye and mucous mem- brane surrounding the anterior portion of the eye- ball, there may be seen a cloudy condition of the cornea, the anterior portion of the ball (keratitis). There is also an acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye (acute conjunctivitis). In cases studied in this laboratory it has been found that the acute inflammation extends to the iris and ciliary muscles and their surrounding structures. Treatment.—Correct any bad sanitation or hy- giene, which may be a predisposing cause. The henhouse should be well ventilated, but should al- low no draughts on the birds, and should be kept clean and free from dampness. It should be cleaned and disinfected daily with some of the mixtures heretofore described and recommended 154 POULTRY DISEASES — for this purpose. If the bird is not a valuable one, kill and cremate it, the head as well as the body. Medicinal treatment differs, with the location of the lesion. For the ulcers, or diptheric patches, in the mouth, nothing is better than burning with stick silver nitrate (lunar caustic). A solution cannot be used, as the fluid will run down and burn other parts of the mouth and throat. With the thumb and finger press open the eyelids and with clean absorbent cotton remove the white catarrhal material, then apply the same remedy as for injection into the nostrils. The following has given good results in our experi- mental work and with those to whom we have rec- ommended it: Wash out the nasal passage with a twenty per cent solution of sodium bicarbonate (common baking soda), using a medicine dropper or, better, a small syringe, as the material must be forced so as to pass through the nasal passage into the mouth (refer to Plate I, Nos. 29 to 33, and to Fig. 50): Then inject, in like manner, peroxide of hydrogen. The soda dissolves and removes the mucus, and the peroxide of hydrogen cleans out the cavity. The parts should then be cleansed with essential oils, which may be applied directly to the inflamed mucous membranes. Inject a quantity of the following: § Oil of thyme................ 1 dram Oil of eucalyptus........... 20 drops Oil of petrol............... 2 ounces In aggravated cases, repeat this treatment three times a day. Give an abundance of clean water and soft, easily digested feed. RESPIRATORY DISEASES 155 Fic. 49. SkracrapH or Heap ann NEck oF CHICKEN A, Trachea. B, esophagus. C, vertebra. D, crop, filled with grains of wheat.” E, infraorbital or maxillary sinus. G, feathers. HH, nostrils. I, eyes. , J, musculature. F, frontal sinus. 156 POULTRY DISEASES Conjunctivitis: Inflammation of the Eye Most inflammations of the respiratory passages extend to and involve the eye structures also. These affections of the eye have been described under catarrh, roup, ete. There are many causes of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye aside from the speci- fic germs heretofore mentioned. ney 1 PES A SHS NSE Sy ee eee ey Fic. 53. Trap Nest The hens are confined in one pen and the cockerel in another, sep- arated from the first by a small building, in which the nests are placed. When a hen gets on the nest her weight causes the weight shown to rise and close the entrance. When she leaves the nest she goes through the exit, which is open while the nest is lowered, into the pen with the cockerel. Relieved of the weight of the hen, the nest rises, closing the exit and again opening the entrance to the building. : weight on the trap again opens the nest to the first yard. A criticism has been raised that a hen goes on a nest often times when she does not want to lay and is a non-layer. Perhaps she does, but, notwithstanding, I have seen excellent results ob- tained by this method. Non-laying may be due to old age or disease of the ovary or other of the egg-developing or- gans, but is much oftener due to improper feeding ISOLATION OF NON-LAYERS 173 or lack of exercise. Of course it is understood that hens normally have a longer or shorter pe- riod of rest between egg-laying seasons. Trap Nest That Stays in Order The Storrs Station (Connecticut) describes the trap nest, illustrated by the accompanying draw- ing, as ‘‘one that stays in order.’’ The upper figure in perspective shows five nests arranged side by side. By making the nests in a series considerable lumber is saved. Swinging doors (D) are fastened to a rod running the en- tire length of the box. Stops (F) prevent the doors from swinging outward. L is a lever pivoted to the partition (P) so that one arm is about five times as long as the other. The lower cross-section sketches show how the lever and door are arranged. To enter the nest the hen flies onto the walk (W) and crowds under the door (D) which is partly open. In so doing, she lifts the door slightly, and the long end of the lever (L) falls, being heavier than the short end. The door 174 POULTRY DISEASES swings shut passing over the pivot and the shorter end of the lever. When the door is shut the lower end of the lever rests on the floor of the nest, and the short end acts as a stop on the in- side, preventing another hen from crowding into the nest. When the egg is gathered the trap nest is set again by raising the long end of the lever and propping back the door. The two right-hand nests in the upper sketch show the position of the doors and levers before the hen enters. The other nests show the traps closed. SECTION XVII Malformations Malformations among birds are occasionally observed. A complete discussion of the dozens of various forms of malformations that may be found cannot be given here for lack of space, but a few facts will_be given. In higher animal life, including man, malforma- tions have been attributed to the following causes: External mechanical influences, such as falls, blows, or severe shock of any kind, by affecting the general health of the pregnant female, may have power to arrest, retard, or otherwise dis- turb the normal development of the embryo or fetus. If the above should hold true in the human or even animals, obviously it cannot do so for birds. The so-called spontaneous amputation, in utero, by a coil of the umbilical cord finding its way around a part of the fetus and causing pressure and amputation, cannot hold with chickens nor will acute and chronic placentitis, causing adhe- sions, hardly hold for birds. The percentage of malformations in the human family is one to three or four thousand births; in the lower animals and birds the percentage is much smaller. During the formation of the fetus an arrest of development of the bud which forms the wing may result in a malformed wing; the same can be said of any other part, as the leg, beak, etc. If the arrangement of the groups of cells 175 176 POULTRY DISEASES during development does not follow the normal type, then malformations, as atresia, imper- forate anus, or other natural openings may re- sult; abnormal position of viscera, a failure of the closure of the abdominal or thoracic plates may take place. The germ or embyro is first developed as a manifold membraneous expansion, the free mar- Fic. 55. Monster Cuicx (dipygus tetrabrachiun) Showing two bodies, four legs, four wings and one head. ! gins of which incline towards each other, and eventually meet to form two cavities. A fastlure to meet results in malformation. Fusion of parts may also take place. Those malformations in which there are super- numerary parts or duplications of almost an en- tire body are sometimes called composite or com- pound malformations and monsters. Hermaphroditism is a complete duplication of both male and female genital organs; i. e., a single individual possessing MALFORMATIONS 177 both male and female genital organs. Pseudo-herma- phroditism isa condition in which the duplication is only partial. It is desirable that more scientific observations be made along these lines, in birds, and recorded. The double-yolked eggs, in cases where two ova have been delivered into the oviduct at the same time, and both being surrounded by albumen and finally one shell, have been sup- posed to produce double monsters, but there is a scientific record in which eighty such eggs were incubated (all from the domestic fowl) and in each separate twins were pro- duced, in some both males, in others females, and in others one of each sex. In one case out of the eighty one yolk developed a single chick and the other a double monster. Thompson made a study of a double em- pryo in the egg of a goose, which had been incubated five days. This study- showed a double primitive trace is actually formed on a single bl astodermic membrane proceeding a single vitellus and vitel- line membrane. This same work has been corroborated by others so fortunate as to find these monstrosities in early stages of develop- ment. : Compound monsters proceed from single germs which have sub- sequently undergone Fre. 56. Potymerus (natural size) different degrees of A, The two supernumerary legs. dichrotomy. They are governed in their development by certain fixed and invariable laws among which are unity of sex, homologous fusion and bilateral symmetry. In each case there is single sexuality. The various forms of duplex development are determined by the extent to which the primitive trace is cleft, and also by the limitations of the dichotomy to the cephalic or caudal extremity of the neural axis. Hither or both extremities may become bifid. The cephalic or head extremity may become bifid alone and a double head, or still further bifid and the posterior extremities single or the posterior extremity be- come bifid and the anterior single. Figs. 55 and 56 illustrates a duplication of the legs. The rudimentary legs are perfect, but not so well developed as the other two. This is polymelus, SECTION XVIII Fractures—Wounds—Anes- thesia Fractures Fractures or broken bones among birds in the poultry yards are of rather common occurrence, especially where birds are allowed the run of the farm or ranch, as is the usual custom. - Fractures of the legs below the thigh are easily set and with good results. The materials needed for this procedure are glue, a strip of muslin from one-fourth to one-half inch wide and from one to two feet in length, and in case of large birds, narrow strips of stiff pasteboard or small pieces of wood, as tooth picks or matches... Warm the glue and smear a light coat of glue over the leg for some distance above and below the fracture (break in the bone), adjust the broken bone and apply one layer of tape, then a thin layer of glue, then tape and so on until sufficient has been applied to hold the broken parts firmly. In the case of large bones, as in adult birds, the splints should be placed in the glue between the layers of tape. Too much glue between the layers should be avoided, as it does not dry readily. Adhesive tape cut in narrow strips has given good results also. The repair of broken bones in birds takes place rapidly. In the course of two to three weeks, de- pending on the age of the bird and size of the bone, the cast may be removed. To do this, where 179 180 POULTRY DISEASES glue has been used, wet until the cast has become thoroughly soaked with warm water and remove. The adhesive tape can be easily removed from the leg. Wounds Birds possess a high immunity to pyogenic in- fection (the germs that ordinarily infect the wounds of animals); and wounds, whether acci- dental or surgical, unless very serious, heal with great rapidity. The degree of tolerance of in- fection that the peritoneum (lining of the ab- dominal cavity and covering of the abdominal organs) of birds possesses is probably not equalled by the peritoneum of any domestic ani- mal or of man. For example, birds rarely die from infection after caponizing. Death when it occurs as a result of this operation is ordinarily due to hemorrhage. Man and animals (except the dog) survive abominal operations only when made under aseptic precautions. Anesthesia Unlike their reaction to infection, birds are far more liable to die from the effects of anesthetics than animals or man. The relatively large surface of the air cells of the lungs and of the air sacs, and the high temperature and active metabolism render them peculiarly susceptible to anesthetics and very liable to die from their use. R. Pearl and Frank M. Surface in an article in the Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion, volume 52, pp. 382 and 383, report satisfac- tory results in anesthetizing birds by the follow- ing method: Immediately before beginnning the administra- tion of the anesthetic a 1-200 grain atropine sul- FRACTURES—SURGERY ANESTHESIA 181 phate tablet is dissolved in 1 cc. of warm normal saline solution. The salt solution with the dis- solved atropine is then injected subcutaneously in the axilla. Ether is used as the anesthetic. It is administered from a small improvised mask which admits of the condition of the comb being seen during the operation. Depending on how hard the ether is pushed, the bird is ready for operation in from fifteen to twenty minutes after the anesthesia is begun. INDEX ABNORMAL eggs, 133 Acanthia Inodora, 54, 55 Acanthocephala, 71 Adenoma, 138 Air sac disease, 47 Ameba melegridis, 85 Anatomy, digestive tract, 15 genito-urinary, 15. organs of circulation, 17 organs of respiration, 16 Anesthesia, 180 Aphtha, 56 Apoplectiform septicemia, 107 Appetite, depraved, 79 Argas miniatus, 53 Ascaris inflexa, 60 Aspergillosis, 145 Aspergillus fumigatus, 145 Asthen, 113. Autopsy, mode of perform- ing, 33 BacTERIuM asthene, 113 Bacillus avisepticus, 79 Bacillus enteriditis, 113 Bacteria of the intestinal tract of chickens, 163 Bedbug of poultry, 54 Blackhead, 85 Blastomycosis, of pigeon, 99 Blood diseases, 107 Broken eggs in the oviduct, 132 Bronchitis, 142 Bumble foot, 158 Cancer, 138 Catarrh, 139 Chickenpox, 147 Chicken cholera, 79 Chicken flea infestation, 52 Chigger infestation, 49 Choantenia infundibuli- formis, 69 | Drepanidotenia Cholera, chicken—fowl, 79 Cloaca, prolapse of, 132 Cloacitis, 104 Coccidiosis in wild aie 100 Conjunctivitis, 156 Colds, 1389 Congestion of the lungs, 143 Constitutional diseases, 113 Contagious epithelioma, 147 Crop bound, 76 Crop enlarged, 77 Crop, gangrene of, 78 Cystic ovary, 136 Cytodites nudus, 47 DavaineEa tetragona, 70 Dead birds, disposal of, 32 Depraved appetite, 79 Dermanyssus gallinae, 50 Diarrhea, 91 white, 93 Digestive tract, anatomy of, 15 diseases of, 73 Dipygus tetrabrachium, 176 Diseases of the brain, 161 Diseases of the legs and feet, 157 Diseases of the liver, 123 Diseases of the ovary and oviduct, 129 Diseases of the respiratory passages, 139 Disinfection, 24 of buildings, 25 infundibuli- formis, 69 Dizziness, 161 Dysentery, 91 ECHINORYNCHUS polymorphus, Eggs, abnormal, 133 Egg, animal parasites of, 165 Egg, bacteria of, 165 184 Egg bound, 130 Egg, composition of, 165 Endocarditis, 112 Enlarged crop, 77 Enteritis, 91 Entero-hepatitis, 85 Epithelioma, 138 contagious, 147 External parasites, 36 Eye, inflammation of, 156 Frieas, 62 Flukes, 72 Foot abscess, 158 Fowl cholera, 79 Fowl typhoid, 108 Fractures, 179 Fungi affecting birds, 55 GANGRENE of the crop, 78 Gaseous crop, 77 Going light, 113 Gonioctes hologaster, 37 eggs of, 38 stylifer, 37 Gout, 159 Heakrt disease, 112 Heart, rupture of, 113 Hematoma, 136 Hemorrhage, Internal, 113 Hemorrhage of the brain, 161 Heterakis Compressa, 66 differens, 66 maculosa, 66 Ppapillosa, 61-62 tail extremity, 63 Heterakis perspicillum, 60 Impaction of the crop, 76 Infectious leukemia, 108 Inflammation of the eye, 156 Inflammation of the lungs, 144 Internal hemorrhage, 113 Internal’ parasites, 59 Isolation of non-layers, 169 Lice of birds, 35 of chickens, 36 of ducks, 37 of geese, 38 of pigeons, 38 of turkeys, 37 INDEX Limberneck, 102 Liver, congestion of, 125 fatty degeneration of, 123 fatty infiltration of, 124 inflammation of, 125 rupture of, 125 unimportant diseases of, 126 Lipeurus baculus, 38 Lipeurus infuscatus, 37 Louse infestation, effects of, 39 treatment of, 40 Lungs, congestion of, 143 inflammation of, 144 Lymphosarcoma, 138 MALForMATIONS, 175 Menopon biseriatum, 36 pallidum, 36 NopvuLar tapeworm disease, 70 Notocotyle verrucosum, 72 Oxpstruction of the beak, 74 of the oviduct, 130 Ovary, cystic, 136 diseases of, 129 Oviduct, diseases of, 129 rupture of, 131 PERICARDITIS, 112 Pip, 74 Pneumonia, 144 Pneumomycosis, 145 Poisoning, arsenical, 101 copper, 102 lead, 102 phosphorus, 102 ptomain, 102 salt, 102 saltpeter, 102 zinc, 102 Polymelus, 177 Prolapse of the cloaca, 132 Ptomain poisoning, 102 Public bone examination, 169 Pulex avium, 61, 52 Rep mite infestation, 49 Ringworm, honey-comb, 56 Round worms, important, 59 unimportant, 66 INDEX Roup, 149 diphtheric, 149 Rupture of the heart, 113 of the oivduct, 131 SANITATION, 19 ee buildings and runs, site, 20 water supply, 22 Sarcoma, 136 Sarcoptes mutans, 44 Scabies, 43 of the legs, 44 Septicemia, apoplectiform, 107 Septicemia of geese, 108 Sick birds, disposal of, 32 Sore mouth, 56, 75 Spirocheta gallinarum, 110 Spirochetosis, 110 Spiroptera hamulosa, 63 Spray pump, 42 Stomatitis, 75 Swelled head, 149 Swell-head in young turkeys, 146 Syngamus bronchialis, 64 trachealis, 64 185 TaEntA Infundibuliformis, 69 Tapeworms, 67 Thorn-headed worms, 71 Thrombosis, 109 Thrush, 56 Tick infestation, 53 Tinea favosa, 56 Trap nest, 172 that stays in order, 173 Trematodes, 72 Trichasomum, 66 Trombidium holosericeum, 49 Tuberculosis, 117 Tumors, 135 blood, 136 malignant, 136 of the ovary, 136 Tympany of the crop, 77 Vertiao, 161 Wuite diarrhea, 93 Wounds, 180 X-Ray, 169 Veterinary Medicine Series Edited by D. M. Campbell, D. V.S. SPRINGTIME SURGERY D. M. Campbell, D.V.S. $1.00 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT B. F. Kaupp, M.Sc., D.V.S. $1.50 COLICS AND THEIR TREATMENT D. M. Campbell, D. V.S. $1.25 BIOLOGIC DIAGNOSTIC METHODS AND BIOTHERAPY Dr. L. W. Fetzer In Preparation DISEASES OF THE DOG C. G: Saunders, V5, Bi V. Se. In Preparation 187 ‘ auyual I6LT 0 Ay ~ 3027) WYYNIBALGA ae Nos, Jivgs We MIN