dah i letelgtal sielar ome Studies \ \ siaiajeidy ala Heloleteteeate Cornell University Library OF THE Mew Pork State College of Agriculture i IOS Bacau rior 2e| lio... “B06 wn : Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001120009 cm se THE BATH.—[FROM A DRAWING BY FIDELIA BRIDGES. | HOME STUDIES IN- NATURE By MARY TREAT AUTHOR OF “CHAPTERS ON ANTS” ETO SUustrated NEW YORK -:- CINCINNATI -:- CHICAGO: AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. KR Copyright, 1885, by Harper & BRoTHERs. AU rights reserved TREAT HOME STUDIES. E-P3 PREFACE. Many years ago, when I began my studies in Nat- ure’s open book, I had no thought of ever giving them to the public; but I soon became deeply interested, and found so many things new to me, and some new to sci- ence, that my correspondents, especially those engaged in similar pursuits, urged me to publish the result of these observations. Some of them were printed in scientific journals, but as the interest deepened, the wish came to tell a greater number of readers what I saw around me, and I therefore sent notes of my in- vestigations to some of our popular periodicals, mostly to Harper's Magazine, and this volume is mainly com- posed of these papers. “Our Winter Birds” and “ Under the Maples” were published in the Adlantic Monthly; the first chapter on “Utricularia” appeared in the Vew York Tribune, and the chapter on “ Drosera” in the American Naturalist, the remainder in Harper's Magazine. If a perusal of this volume gives my readers a tithe 6 PREFACE, of the pleasure which the observations have given me, I shall be amply rewarded. The keenest, most thrill- ing enjoyment of my life has been found in the prose- cution of these studies. A contemplation of Nature, her ways and works, large or small, far or near, in the heavens or on the earth, becomes a source of perennial pleasure, and a true lover of her gracious and un- ‘bounded revelations need not travel far in search of them. To the lover, especially of birds, insects, and plants, the smallest area around a well-chosen home will furnish sufficient material to satisfy all thirst of knowl- edge through the longest life. Mary Treat. VINELAND, N. J. CONTENTS. PART IL—OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. Cuapter I, OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. The Warbling Vireo and its Nesting Habits——Scarlet Tanager: Male, Female, and Young; Behavior of Male.—Baltimore Oriole——Moss from Florida used as Building Material by Orioles, Robins, Cat- birds, Bluebirds, and Kingbirds—Wood-pewee and Nest.—Hum- ming-bird and Nest; Behavior of Male Humming-bird.—Catbirds and their Ways.—Audubon on the Catbird.—The Robin and Nest- ing Habits.—Taming Robins bane ab aay ihc coer 2s Cuapter II. BIRDS OF FLORIDA. Familiar Birds around the House.—A Mocking-bird King of the Grove.—The Carolina Wren: its Confiding Nature and Fearless- ness; Nest - building. — Cardinal-gvossbeaks: Quarrels and Fierce Battles; Fighting an Imaginary Foe.—The Ground-dove: its Quiet Behavior.—The Long-billed Thrush.—The Florida Jay: Behavior towards the Mocking-bird; the Various Species unite in a Com- mon Interest to Drive the Jay from the Premises.—Killdee Plovers and their Bath—The Kingfisher and its Habits Cuapter III. OUR WINTER BIRDS. Permanent Residents of Southern New Jersey.—Family Relation of Birds.—Bluebirds and their Habits——Winter Sparrows: Amusing Performances.—English Sparrow.—The Summer Yellow-bird trans- formed into a Gray Winter Bird.—The Chickadee and its Fear- lessness.—Lines from Emerson.—The Hawk.—The Owl . PAGE 15 37 56 8 CONTENTS. Cuaprer IV. DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS? The Brown Thrush and Domiciles.—The Robin and Venus’s Fly-trap. —Nest-building and Management of the Young.—Honse Wrens and Barn-swallows.—Kingbirds: their Familiarity . PART II.—HABITS OF INSECTS. CuartTer V. SPIDERS AND WASPS. Burrowing Spidera.—Construction of Tube of Tarantula Tigrina ; Manner of Capturing Insects—Spiders closing the Doors of their Domiciles.—Digger-wasp among the Spiders.—Battle between twe Digger-wasps over their Prey.—Spiders with Cocoons and Young. —Manner of Capturing Burrowing Spiders and Introducing them into Glass-jars.—The Male Tiger-spider.—TZarantula Turricula and its Burrow.— A Contented Spider in Confinement. — Manner of Building in Confinement.—A Neat House-keeper.—Male of T. Turricula.—Female with Cocoon of Eggs.—Superstitious Dread of Spiders.—Intelligence of Social Wasps.—Experiments in Taming Wasps.—Death of a Baby Wasp, and Curious Behavior of the Colony Cuapter VI. GROUND SPIDERS. Brain of Insects.—Escape of Young Spiders from Cocoon.—Mother’s Management of the Young.—Behavior of the Young Spiders.—The Young setting up House-keeping.—Their Manner of Building.—Re- moving the Mother’s Tower.—Capturing Prey.—Lycosa Carolinensis, —Insect Menagerie.—New Hampshire Spiders.—Trap-door Spiders Cuaprer VII. UNDER THE MAPLES. Harvesting Ants of New Jersey.—Pheidole Pennsylvanica, Soldiers and Workers. — Lasius lavus.— Pheidoles’ Mode of Defence.— Care and Sympathy manifested towards one another in an Artificial Formicary.—Crematogasters and Aphides.—A Colony of Cremato- gasters Protecting a Herd of Aphides.—Behavior of the Sentinels. —Formica Gagates: its Stock:raising.—Polyergus Lucidus, wholly Dependent upén its Slaves for its Existence.—Raids of Polyergus. —Polyergus in Confinement sin Sos PAGE 68 79 103 - 120 CONTENTS, 9 PART IIL—PLANTS THAT CONSUME ANIMALS. Cuaprer VIII. UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. PAGE Introductory.—Description of Utricularia Clandestina.—How I be- came Interested in the Study of Utricularia—Manner in which Animals are Entrapped.—Death and Maceration of the Victims . 139 Cuapter IX, IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? Forced to Differ with Mr. Darwin in his Conclusions with Regard to the Sensitiveness of the Valve of Utricularia—Description of U. Inflata,—Condensed Translation from the German of Schacht by Professor Goodale, of Harvard: University.—Description of U. Pur- purea.—Formation of the Valve.—Glands and Quadrifid Proc- esses,—How my Experiments were Conducted.—Eggs of Mosquito. —Eggs of Chironomus-fly.— Extracts from Mr. Darwin’s Book, “Tnsectivorous Plants.”—Manner in which Mosquito and Chirono- mus Larvee are Caught.—Evidence of the Sensitiveness of the Valve.—Extract from a Letter received from Mr. Darwin . . . 147 CuaptTer X. PINGUICULA. Relation of Pinguicula to Utricularia.—Description of the Florida Pinguiculas. — Microscopic Studies of the Plants.— Experiments with P. Pumila.—Experiments with P. Lutea and P. Elatior— Flowers following the Sun.— Prey Caught bd rie — Pin- guicula a Vegetable Barometer . . . : 163 Cuaprer XI. DROSERA. Description of Drosera.— Range and Number of Species in the United States. — Extract from “Insectivorous Plants,” showing that Drosera feeds like an Animal.—Search of D. Filiformis.— Where Found.—Prey captured by D. Filiformis.— Experiments with D. Filiformis, D. ens and D. lesa iakaen peut of Experiments. . . . , . 174 10 CONTENTS. Cuaprrer XII. DIONAHA. PAGE Reception of Dionea Muscipula—Extract from Letter Written by Mr. Darwin.—Experiments with Dionaea.—A Self-made Prisoner . 182 Cnapter XIII. SARRACENIA VARIOLARIS. Description of Sarracenia Variolaris.—Insects attracted by a Sweet Secreting Fluid.—Behavior of Ants while Feeding on the Secre- tion.— Experiments in my Study.—Intoxicating Effects of the Sweet Secretion.—Structure of the Leaf.—Wasps building their Nests in the Young Leaves of Sarracenia.—Professor Riley’s Ac- count of the Nests.—Florida Cockroach Intoxicated by the Bever- age of Sarracenia.—Experiments to Test the Digestive Powers of Sarracenia Se ee Boe we ie a wea 188 PART IV.—FLOWERING PLANTS. CHAPTER XIY. LIFE IN FLORIDA. Nymphea Flava.—Manner of Growth.—Tangled Thicket of Flower- ing Shrubs and Vines.—Amaryllis Atamasco.—Bees visiting Pin- guicula.— Zephyranthes Treatie.— Domestic Animals. —Feeding- grounds in the St. John's.—Valisneria Spiralis. —Larve of Chironomus-fly. . . ns rar een eg BOM Carrer XV. IN THE PINES. The Delicate Pyxie.—Trailing Arbutus. —The Wax Myrtle. —Tho- reau’s Experiment.—Helonias Bullata—The Golden Club.—Dro- sera Filiformis.—Plants near the Border of a Great Cedar Swamp. —Osmunda Regalis.—Kalmia Latifolia, ee Biri stale Setifolium.—Schizcea Pusilla . . . 222 ILLUSTRATIONS. P. Tue Bata.—[From a Drawine sy Fiveria Brinees] " Phondinslecs Tue Virro. . . z 16 Scartet TANAGER. 18 Battimore Oriotes—Tue Mares 19 Hovse-sPaRROW . , oa 20 Woop-PEWEE . . . a8 6 2 22 Tue HumMine-pirp’s Nest . 24 CatBirD . oa aS bs at es 26 Tae Rosin 32 Tue Drarep Nest 35 Tue SPANISH-BAYONET IN Prowse 38 Tue MockING-BIrD 39 Froir or THE SPANISH-BAYONET 41 Tae Great CaroLtina WREN 43 Tue CARDINAL-GROSSBEAK 46 KInipEE PLOVER 52 KINGFISHER 54 Cover To NEST oF. Trane SPIDER REMOVED FROM ITS Bro OF » Moss . 80 Tur Diacer-wasp, Cocoon, anp Larva 83 FounpDation oF TORRET . 88 Burrow or THE TARANTULA Prnsrovta 89 Musnroom GROWING IN THE BuRROW OF THE Tiarns SPIDER, AND ‘House OF THE TaRANTULA TURRICULA 92 FeMALe SPIDER WITH YOUNG . 94 TIGER-SPIDER aND Mora 95 Geometric WeB oF GARDEN-SPIDER PAgsionr 96 Nests or Socta, Wasps 98 Nest or SpipER with Trap-boor 106 Mygate Henrzu - 106 TARANTULA OF TEXAS, . 106 . 112 Tue Insect MENAGERIE . 12 ILLUSTRATIONS. Tue Great Lycosa ar C08) Sek 2 oe eae A Section oF Stem or UtricvLaria Gramerniv ¢ 3 i RO Maeniriep Urricne or Urricutarta CLANDESTINA. . « % 4 THe WaATER-BFAR . a at Ba Bae Sos BAe % Ture Cyrpris . ; é a a ae SS FLOWERING STEM oF enicnn anid Leb ata é se ” Urricte or UrricurarrA InFLatTa . a . ; ae ica CopreD FROM SCHACHT, SHOWING EaRLy Seusne OF THR Cmaere, AND THE GLANDS FOUND ON THE INNER Sorrack or ‘tHE UTRICULARIA WBEGRRIS) o> oe Ge Gap. “8? GE a ae oa ‘ Enp or Growing Branch or THE UtricutariA Purpurra. . . . Secrion or Stem with Curvep Hairs . . Bo eek Maeniriep Urricte or Utricutarra PurpurEsa . 4 Quaprtrip Processes. eo s 38 i Urricie, with Mosquito Larva ENCLOSED A Curronomus Larva . . . . 2... if F Tue Pinevicuta a OR ee Oe Moe ke wR EE OR LeaF or Drosera ROTUNDIFOLIA, WITH THE TENTACLES ON Oni SIDE Inriectep over A Bir or Meat pLacep oN THE Disk. . . . Drosera RorunDIFOLIA ce eee oe eH * — Oren Lear-Trap or Dionma Musciputa . . . . 1. 6 2 ee Oren Lear-rrap or Dion#a Musciruta (Natura Size) . . . . Tae PircHer-PLANT (SARRACENIA VARIOLARIS) . . 2. 2. 2. Hairs on ABSORBING GLANDS FOUND IN THE Lower Hatr or TUBE. Hairs ON THE SPACE ADJOINING THE OPENING IN THE MourTH OF THE OBES. 2. es of ee ee ee ee ee - Hairs on tun Inner Surrace or Hoop. . . r : Hairs on THE Wine AND OuTER SuRFACE OF TUBE . Nympu#a Frava ‘ ‘ oe eee Se ebb Bein d ie Lear or Nympa#a Fuava. : wy Ga: isn 2 S oe GoverNor’s CREEK . . . . “so Sr cae Ge ‘ F Frowrer or Nympnaa Friava . : Sl ee. é AMARYLLIS ATAMASCO . . i a demain ak PyXIDANTHFRA BARBULATA. . oR a ae ee ee ee Hetonras Butbata . . . . . 4 GoLDEN-CLUB (ORONTIUM Aquaricum) . 2 a iS as et oe Drosera Lonervo.ta, D. FiLirorMis, AND nen Pusila . . . Macnoria bchen Selve siclng: Paginas XEROPHYLLUM SETIFOLIUM z Iris... it, eh OrcHip . . : 152 153 154 165 158 159 167 176 180 183 185 189 194 195 196 197 208 211 212 214 216 223 226 229 231 233 235 237 238 PART I. OBSERVATIONS ON BIRDS. HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Cuapter I. OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. Durine the past summer my time and attention have been devoted almost exclusively to the birds which nested around the house, and I have fully verified the fact that in the grove and orchard they can be tamed and made quite docile pets. The house is situated on the main avenue, near the business part of the village, and is surrounded by a thick grove of native oaks and other trees. Back of the grove is a fruit orchard, extending to the next street ; between the grove and orchard is the shrubbery —a dense mass of various flowering shrubs. Climbing plants cling about the piazzas in tangled luxuriance. Surrounded as the place is by the din and hum of business, yet on the grounds it’ is very quiet. No cat is kept on the premises, and a continual warfare was waged against all neighboring cats which ventured within the enclosure. This the birds were quick to learn, and gave cries of alarm whenever this dangerous 16 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. enemy made his appearance, seeming to know that he would be quickly routed, and no place could he hide but the keen eyes of the birds would ferret him. out. Four years ago I commenced this warfare on the cats, when comparatively few birds nested here. This sum- mer twenty-seven birds have built about the grounds, several of them in close proximity to the house. THE VIREO. The lovely warbling vireo (Vireo giluus) fastens its neat pensile nest low down on the ends of the twigs, OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 17 where it sits quietly while I stand immediately beneath it, and it looks down upon me with its large, lustrous eyes in a sweet, confiding way, or warbles its low, ten- der, whispering strain in the branches above my head. In Coues’s “ North American Birds,” where we find only the most rigid and exact scientific descriptions of birds, the author seems, for once, to have forgotten him- self, and allows this charming little songster to betray him into expressing the following beautiful sentiment: “The warbling vireo forsakes the depth of the wood- land for the park and orchard and shady street, where it glides through the foliage of the tallest trees, the unseen messenger of rest and peace to the busy, dusty haunts of men. Its voice is not strong, and many birds excel it in brilliancy and execution; but not one of them all can rival the tenderness and softness of the liquid strain of this modest vocalist.” The elegant scarlet tanager (Pyrangea rubra), with its more soberly attired mate, constructed their frail tenement in the most retired part of the orchard, on the forked branch of a plum-tree. The eggs were four in number, of a dull greenish color, spotted with brown. This graceful and brilliant bird is quiet and unobtru- sive, and more shy than most of the other inhabitants of the grove, yet his. attachment to his mate and young made him at times quite bold and fearless. While the mate was sitting, he seemed to be ever on the alert. However quietly I approached the nest, he was there before me, and for the first few days made frantic 2 18 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. efforts to lure me from the spot; but gradually he be- came reconciled to my presence, and by the time the SCARLET TANAGER. young were hatched he would feed them while I stood beneath the tree. The species is very abundant in some localities, but this is the first pair I have observed here. It is not much larger than the house-sparrow, and the body of the male is a bright scarlet, while its wings and tail are a jetty black. Another brilliant denizen of the grove was the Bal- timore oriole (/eterus baltimore). In the spring I brought from Florida a large amount of the long gray moss, Tillandsia usneoides, and hung it on the lower branches of the trees, where it grew and blossomed finely. Several pairs of orioles soon found this good OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 19 building material, and used it in the construction of their nests. I found one nest several streets away com- posed almost entirely of it. It remains a mystery how so many birds of this species, domiciled in different parts of the village, should have found and appropri- ated this moss. Although but one pair of orioles swung their ham- BALTIMORE ORIOLES—THE MATES. mock-like nest in the grove, yet it was a favorite resort for many others, and after the breeding season was over 20 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. they cheered us with their song long after all the other vocalists were silent. Many other birds used the moss more or less in the construction of their nests. The robin used it largely, one, especially, finding it such excellent material, and so handy too, was not content until she festooned her nest all around. It was built in the forks of an oak, and the long sprays of moss were left swaying in the wind. It was arranged so artistically that I have been asked if I did not drape the nest myself. The catbird, bluebird, HOUSE-SPARROW. and kingbird all used it, and even the little house-spar- row (Spizella socialis) cunningly wove it into the foun- dation of its dwelling. But there were some conservatives among the birds who would not be tempted by this new-fangled stuff to OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 21 deviate from the time-honored custom of their fore- fathers. Our little vireos even hung their nest on the branch of a hickory-tree on which the moss was hang- ing, yet they persistently turned their backs upon this innovation, and seemed to look with distrust and sus- picion upon all the feathered builders who were so quick to take up with anything new. The inner bark of the honeysuckle, and nice long strips of bark from cedar posts or from any good, respectable, woody plant, was what their family had always used in the con- struction of their domiciles, and they were determined to preserve the established customs of their ancestors. And the moss might swing for all the little wood- pewees (Contopus virens) cared; had not their ances- tors always used fibrous roots and strips of inner bark, and should they be tempted ta deviate from their hon- ored customs by this flaunting pendant from a for- eign bough? So they too passed it coldly by, with suspicious looks on other families who were erecting their domiciles so near to theirs with this strange material. . Yet the wood-pewee’s nests are not all of one pattern by any means. There are some fine architects among this species. One nest, located between the forked twigs of an oak, was very symmetrical in outline, and almost covered externally with beautiful lichens. The body of the nest was composed of fine fibrous roots, in- terwoven with a soft, downy substance which looked like the rusty wool of the cotton-grass (Ziophorum 22 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. virginicum), and which they must have gone a long distance to obtain. In a climbing rose-bush trained against the house was another nest so dissimilar in form and structure that I never should have taken it for the nest of the same species if I had not caught the builder at work. It was composed entirely of coarse strips of fibrous bark and roots, no soft material for a lining, WOOD-PEWEE. and the nest was a shallow, unsymmetrical affair. Yet the little architects attempted to embellish this humble abode. Near the top of the nest a bit of colored paper was glued on, and two or three small pieces of blue ege-shell—probably the cast-off shell of a robin’s egg —and some small pieces of white paper. This was the extent of the decoration. No doubt the little ar- tists became discouraged at this point, or were sensible OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 23 enough to see that so rude a home would not be im- proved by ornament. Most writers take the ground that the nest of this species is covered with lichens in order to conceal it, but it certainly cannot be urged in this case that it was an attempt of the kind; and may not these lichens be used more for ornament than for concealment? The bird is far from shy, is one of the most familiar deni- zens of the grove, and seems to have no objection to a spectator while it proceeds with its building and stuc- coing. Until within a few years, according to good observers, this was a shy, retiring bird, nesting only in secluded woods; but here it is, all at once, even more familiar than its cousin, the common pewee, or Pheebe- bird. Like the other fly-catchers, it takes its food on the wing, and has a habit of returning to the same spot. Noticing that it specially liked a clothes-line to light upon, I kept one stretched all summer for its accommo- dation. The line was a little higher than my head, and I often stood quietly beneath it, when the bird would alight very near me, and utter his prolonged, mournful note, until a fly came within his range, when he would dart away in pursuit, the snapping of his bill testifying to his unerring aim. Burroughs, in his charming little book, “Wake Rob- in,” says it is an event in one’s life to find a humming- bird’s nest. The event happened to me without any effort on my part. Looking up from a seat in the 24 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. grove, I saw the ruby-throat drop down on its nest, like a shining emerald from the clouds; it did not pause upon the edge of the nest, but dropped immediately upon it. The nest was situated upon an oak twig, and was about the size of a black-walnut, and from where I sat it looked more like an excrescence than a nest. It THE HUMMING-BIRD'S NEST. was situated in the fork of two twigs, and firmly glued at the base to the lower, but was not fastened to the upper twig. I waited for the tiny occupant to leave the nest, and then with the aid of a step-ladder had no difficulty in looking into it. I found it contained two white eggs, about as large as medium-sized peas. Sometimes the male would drop upon the nest when the female left. I never disturbed them while they were sitting upon OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 25 it, but often before I could get away, when I thought them out of sight, the male would suddenly appear, and greater demonstrations of anger I never saw manifested by any bird. He would ruffle up his tiny feathers, and seem nearly twice as large, and dash almost into my face, making a squeaking noise—scolding and threaten- ing until he had driven me quite a distance. He soon learned that I was very much afraid of him, so he turned tyrant, and often drove me from my seat in the grove when I had not been near his dwelling. I always submitted to the little lord, for what business had I to be prying into his domestic affairs? When the young were hatched they were not larger than humble- bees, but in a week they had flown. I cut the twig off, and found the nest was composed of the same soft, downy substance which I had noticed in the wood- pewee’s nest, but it was matted so closely together that it was almost as firm as the softer kinds of felt; it was a marvel of skill and beauty, and completely covered externally with lichens. But of all the feathered choristers none were so charming, none so confiding and intelligent, as the cat- bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), three pairs of which nested close to the house, each pair rearing two broods of young. One nest was near a second-story window, in a climbing rose-bush; at first the birds slightly re- sented my attempts at familiarity, but I was persever- ing and very quiet, sitting by the open window with only a light wire screen between us; after they had 26 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. become accustomed to seeing me thus, I raised the screen and sat where I could have put my hand upon the occupant of the nest, but I never disturbed the mother bird; so by the time the young were hatched, the parents would feed while I sat by the window. But this pair simply tolerated me; they treated me with a sort of sublime indifference, just as they would CATBIRD. some large animal of which they were not afraid. When the young were fledged, they came upon the back piazza, where the old ones fed them close to my side. Another pair of this species nested in a honeysuckle that climbed over the back piazza; and here was a bird —the male—who was not only not afraid, but he ap- preciated me, and was companionable and intelligent, OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 27 and the best musician of the grove, fully equal to his famed Southern cousin, the mocking-bird (Mimus poly- glottus). I could call this catbird from any part of the grove or orchard, and set him to singing as if in an ecstasy of delight, but in return for this I must be his servant and do his bidding. 3 There is a keen sense of enjoyment—I might say of exalted happiness—in being able to bring free birds of the grove around one, which well repays for the time and patience and hermit-like life necessary to accom- plish it. , If a cat made its appearance on the grounds, and I was not in sight, the bird would come screaming close to the door, when I would accompany him, he pointing out the cat, which I would drive in no gentle way from its lurking-place; other birds clamored about me, chas- ing the intruder, but he was the only one that returned with me to the house, where he expressed the most decided satisfaction. Several times, just as it was grow- ing light, the wily cat: was prowling about, and the bird would call me from my bed with his cries; hastily throwing on a water-proof cloak, I always went to the rescue, and often drove the robber through the wet orchard out across the street, the bird always accom- panying and returning with me. The female was con- fiding and gentle, but not so intelligent as the male. The second nest of this pair was built in a cedar-tree back of the house, within a few feet of the dense shrub- bery before mentioned. The birds were three or four 28 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. days building, and during this time I could not win the male from his work. I tried the softest blandishments —talked, chirruped, and whistled—all in vain; he was intent upon his work, and I was of no consequence whatever. He was a most exemplary mate, doing his share of the work with a will and perseverance even in the face of temptation—an example of allegiance well worthy to be followed. I began to fear that I had lost my power over him; but no: no sooner was he at lib- erty than he returned to his pretty, confiding ways; he would flutter close to me, and chatter and sing and per- form curious evolutions, as if in an ecstasy of happiness. T had a large shallow dish of water set on the ground in the midst of the shrubbery for the accommodation of the birds; but soon so many came to bathe that it was necessary to renew it every morning. My favorite soon learned when I was coming with the water, so he was on hand superintending the work, and waiting for me ‘to rinse out the dish and supply the fresh water, which was no sooner done than he was in it, splashing and enjoying himself. . It was August before the second brood was hatched, and now that he had graver duties to perform, he was much less attentive to me; still he occasionally recog- nized and played around me, but his powers of song were greatly diminishing. On the evening of the 13th-of August three of the young birds left the nest, and the female immediately took them into the orchard, many rods away; but she OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 29 left a younger-looking, helpless bird in the nest, to which, I am quite positive, she never returned. But the male fed and nourished this young one, and seemed wholly devoted to it, and would now pay no attention to me whatever: he was as much preoccupied as when building. This continued for three days. Towards the evening of the 16th this young one left the nest and accompanied the parent to the bushes, where he soon had it perched on the tallest shrub—a Judas-tree (Cercis canadensis); and now he manifested great delight, act- ing quite like his old self. All the next day he fed his charge, pausing now and then to assure me of his con- tinued regard. On the second day the female came to the shrubbery, bringing the three young, reuniting the family; but as far as I observed, the male still persisted in feeding only the smaller bird. I found the birds liked soft, sweet pears, but they would not break into a perfect one; so I cut a slice from each pear and laid them on the grass, when the parents would bring the young to feed. The three old- er ones could now help themselves, but the youngest would only look on and wait to have the pieces put into its mouth. It was now very warm weather, and the family re- mained among the bushes a large part of each day for about three weeks, at night perching on the Judas-tree or in the branches of an adjoining Austrian pine. The cats by this time were quelled. They had either become thoroughly frightened by missiles hurled at 30 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. them or had committed suicide by taking strychnine; at all events, they no longer prowled about the grounds, and the birds enjoyed quiet and peace. My favorite bird was monarch of the shrubbery, ex- cept when the robins came for a bath, when, with a very ill grace, he took the place of a subordinate. Upon one occasion I witnessed a very amusing scene. I had just supplied the fresh water, and the bird was enjoying it, when a robin came flitting in, followed by a young speckle-breast. The catbird, without a single protest, left the water. Of course he was afraid of the robin, or he would not have left so promptly ; but after he had gone, he manifested the greatest anger—he flew to a shrub just above them, and screamed with all his power, dropping his wings and looking very fierce and hostile—to all of which the robins paid no attention. Then he came towards me and back again, evidently asking me to drive them away; but I would not inter- fere. After the robins were satisfied, they left the water and flew into the sunshine, and coolly proceeded to arrange their feathers. Upon another occasion an incident occurred showing the bird’s intelligence. A side gate had been left open, and a neighbor’s hen had wandered in. The bird's cries summoned me, when he pointed out the hen, which was scratching among the shrubbery. All summer the bird had been accustomed to seeing the fowls in the adjoin- ing lot, and was not at all afraid of them; but he knew this hen had no business in his dominions, and he was OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 31 not content until she was driven out, which he assisted in doing, following her up with his mewing ery until she passed through the gate, when he returned to his place with a very complacent air. The catbird has ever been a favorite with all good observers and lovers of birds. Audubon says of this species: “No sooner has the catbird made its appear- ance in the country of its choice than its song is heard from the topmost branches of the trees around in the dawn of the morning. This song is a compound of many of the gentle trills and sweet modulations of our various woodland choristers, delivered with apparent caution, and with all the attention and softness neces- sary to enable the performer to please the ear of his mate. Each cadence passes on without faltering; and if you are acquainted with the songs of the birds he so sweetly imitates, you are sure to recognize the manner of the different species. When the warmth of his lov- ing bosom engages him to make choice of the notes of our best songsters, he brings forth sounds as mellow and as powerful as those of the thrasher and mocking-bird. These medleys, when heard in the calm and balmy hours of retiring day, always seem to possess a double power to delight the listener. “The manners of this species are lively and gro- tesque. It is extremely sensitive, and will follow an intruder to a considerable distance, wailing and mewing as it passes from one tree to another, its tail now jerked and thrown from side to side, its wings droop- 32 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. ing, and its breast deeply inclined. In some instances I have known this bird to recognize at once its friend from its foe, and to suffer the former even to handle the treasure in the nest, with all the marked assurance of the knowledge it possessed of its safety; when, on the contrary, the latter had to bear all its anger.” For three successive years a robin (Turdus migrato- rius) nested on a projecting pillar that supports the THE ROBIN. front piazza. In Harper's Magazine for June, 1875, in an article entitled, “Do Birds Improve as Archi- tects?” this bird and her ungainly mud domicile are mentioned. In the spring of 1874 she built her nest on the top of the pillar—a rude affair; it was prob- ably her first effort. The same season she made her second nest in the forks of an oak, which took her only OUR FAMILIAR BIRDS. 33 a few hours to complete. She reared three broods that season ; for the third family she returned to the piazza and repaired the first nest. The following spring she again came to the piazza, but selected another pillar for the site of her domicile, the construction of which is a decided improvement upon the first; for the next nest she returned to the oak, and raised a second story on the old one of the previous year, but making it much more symmetrical than the one beneath. The present season (1876) her first dwelling was, as before, erected on a pillar of the piazza—as fine a structure as I ever saw this species build. When this brood was fledged she again repaired to the oak, and reared a third story on-the old domicile, using the moss before men- tioned, making a very elaborate affair, and finally finish- ing up by festooning it with long sprays of moss. This bird and her mate were quite tame. I fed them whortleberries, which they seemed to relish highly, and they would come almost to my feet to get them. But I had a great trial to my patience and temper with an- other pair of this species that nested in the orchard. They were new-comers, and this must have been the second family they were rearing, as it was as late as July. If the robin is not disturbed, as far as I have observed, she always builds her second nest near the site of the first. So these strangers had undoubtedly been badly used by some member of the genus homo, who had broken up and destroyed their home, making. them hate and distrust all mankind. I blush for hu- 3 384 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. manity whenever birds treat me in the manner these robins did. There ought to be a rigid law enforced to protect our songsters against such vandals, who have never done as much good in the world as one pair of birds they have destroyed. If birds were to discuss their own zoological position they might show abundant reason why they were at the head of creation, allowing them to use the degree of perfection of special organs or embryonic sequence as tokens of rank. The eminent naturalist Von Baer discusses the rank we hold in the scale of being as fol- lows: . “We are not in all respects the head of the animal creation. In some points other creatures are further developed, more highly organized than ourselves, and we carry about in our bodies, as permanent structures, things which are but temporary and embryonic with them. In birds whose great organic specialty is flight, at a certain stage of the life within the egg the lungs are free in the chest and the bones are full of marrow, as ours are all our lives long. It is not till afterwards that the lungs become tied down back of the chest, that air-sacs communicating with them spread over vari- ous parts of the body, and the bones become hollow and thin. These are features specially adapted for flight, later [higher] developments of which we show no sign. In the same way it cannot be denied that feathers are more complex, and therefore higher developments of the simple structure we call hairs.” OUR FAMILIAR’ BIRDS. 35 After this necessary digression, in order to show man his proper place, I return to the robins. I could not THE DRAPED NEST. make my appearance anywhere in the orchard but the birds would scream and raise such a threatening din 36 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. about me that it was almost deafening. Their cries would call the other feathered tribes to the scene of action, but finding nothing to alarm them, they soon returned to their quarters. Day after day I tried every means in my power to win these birds from their war- like attitude. At last I succeeded in this way: I took a box of whortleberries from which I had been in the habit of feeding the tame robins, and with this in my hand they would follow me to the orchard, where I threw out the berries as near as I could get to these belligerent fellows, when my pet robins would come ciose to me to eat the fruit. I would then walk away, and from a safe distance watch their proceedings. Af- ter several such attempts, I at last had the satisfaction of seeing the hostile male fly down and partake of the berries. He was a fine-looking bird, with a blacker head and redder breast than any of his relatives, all of whom he could master. The female also came and par- took of the fruit, and by the time the young were fledged I could feed them all. They no longer threat- ened me, but were still a little shy. At last they came to the shrubbery to bathe, and were now fully domes- ticated. BIRDS OF FLORIDA. BY Cuaprer II, BIRDS OF FLORIDA. Tue birds of Florida are more numerous and more brilliant in plumage than their Northern relatives, but with all their beautiful dress and coquettish ways, they cannot win me from the earlier, deeper love that draws me to the more soberly attired songsters of the North. My observations are confined to the birds which fre- quent the grounds connected with the cottage where I reside. The cottage is situated on the banks of the St. John River, surrounded with native trees: live and water oaks and the great-flowered magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) form the larger part of the grove. A hedge of Spanish-bayonets (Yucca aloifolia) extends along the front of the cottage; the yellow jasmine and other vines cling about the piazzas or trail over trees. These natural advantages, with a little judicious train- ing, make the place a favorite resort for many birds. During six months of the year they are sole possessors of the premises, and by natural right are more at home than the legal proprietors. It is very amusing to note the curiosity manifested by these feathered denizens upon the arrival of the fam- 38 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. ily. They peer down upon us from their leafy screens, and chatter and warble, or stand out in bold relief, and fairly enchant us with their songs of welcome. THE SPANISH-BAYUONET IN FLOWER. A fine mocking-bird (Zimus polyglottus) is king of the grove, but his more immediate dominion is in close proximity to the house. Near the hedge of Spanish- bayonets is a small cypress completely covered by a native grape-vine, forming a pyramid of living green. BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 39 This is his throne, which he mounts, and where he eclipses all the songsters of the grove with his wonder- ful and varied music, and at the same time can over- look the hedge, which he considers his exclusive prop- erty. The fruit of the Spanish-bayonet is about the size of the banana, and grows in a large cluster at the top of the plant. When fully ripe it is soft and sweet, and highly relished by many birds. The cardinal-grossbeak, long-billed thrush, and the catbird, as well as the mock- ing-bird, are all fond of the fruit, and sometimes attempt to plunder; but while this tyrant mocking king is on guard, no bird except his mate is allowed to touch it. THE MUCKING-BIRD, His throne forms a very pretty arbor, where he re- tires at night and during rainy days. When he is away 40 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. from home I often step in; but he is seldom so far away but that his keen eye sees me, and I hear his scolding note, which I always promptly obey. Noth- ing will so quickly make a bird familiar as to show him that he can drive us; and following this up with pa- tience and care, he will soon confide in us, and learn our voice, and manifest delight on meeting us. This is specially true of the mocking-bird, and his cousin the eatbird. But the mocking-bird of East Florida is less confiding than our Northern catbird, for the very good reason that he looks upon man as an enemy who robs him of his young; and this shyness or distrust on the part of this glorious bird of song is in a large part attributable to the rapacity of Northern visitors, who sometimes pay as high as fifty dollars for a good singer. As long as this continues we cannot expect the birds to confide in us without much care and labor. Nearly two weeks, with the greatest caution upon my part, had passed before I could approach this mock- ing king’s dominion without hearing his threatening cry. He seemed determined to keep at a safe distance until he found he could drive me; then he ventured nearer; and now I have gained his confidence, suffi- ciently so that he listens to my nonsense. He turns his head in a comical manner, first one side and then the other, and looks down upon me patronizingly, as if pity- ing my poor attempts at bird language. Then he raises himself in a dignified manner, and pours forth such a strain of music that I am humbled in his presence. BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 41 This character- istic ruling pow- er of the mock- ing-bird is made available by gdod observers. A FRUIT OF THE SPANISH-BAYONET. Methodist _ cler- gyman residing across the river, in the neighborhood of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, informs me that a mock- ing-bird saved his grapes. One bird will do compara- tively little damage in a vineyard; he is a light eater 42 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. of fruit, and has a habit of returning to the same spot. In the great cluster of fruit of the Spanish-bay- onet he works systematically; he does not peck the whole cluster indiscriminately, but takes one berry at a time, and this one lasts him several days. So among grapes he has a particular spot when he feeds, but he overlooks and takes care of all within his dominion. If these birds are unmolested by man, they will regulate their own affairs so as to assist him. The clergyman before mentioned had a near neighbor, who, finding a mocking-bird eating his grapes, shot him. Lawlessness now reigned among the birds, and the neighbor kept on shooting until a large number were slaughtered. The result was he lost all of his grapes. The most. familiar bird that frequents the grounds is the great Carolina wren (Zhryothorus ludovicianus). This bold and voluble songster is about six inches in length, considerably larger than the house wren (Zrog- ludytes edon), and very inquisitive and egotistie with- al. He comes into my study while I sit quietly at the table, and asserts his importance, while he looks me squarely in the eye, and then coolly proceeds to inspect the various things in the room. THe peers behind the pictures on the wall, and looks into every nook and cor- ner. Evidently he is thinking of taking up permanent quarters in my room, without as much as saying “By your leave.” The mate is more timid; she simply stands in the door-way while her self-complacent lord BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 43 is making his tour of observation. Yet meek and quiet as she seems, she is, in truth, the master-spirit, and has her own way at last. My study is a small, one-roomed cottage, a few rods distant from the main cottage, embowered in trees, and in this quiet retreat I am visited by many birds, who seem curious to learn whether it is safe to tolerate me. THE GREAT CAROLINA WREN. The wrens were a long time in deciding upon an eli- gible spot to erect their domicile. The study was aban- doned because the door was often closed, and screens at the windows prevented an entrance there. Next the stable was thought of, and they commenced building behind a pile of boxes; but a colored man employed on the premises caught one of the builders, and was carrying it away when I rescued it. The stable was then given up for the laundry, where for several days 44 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. they flitted about, looking into every available nook. The laundry was finally abandoned for the front piazza —the most frequented plaee they could possibly have chosen. No room in the house was so much used. Easy-chairs were scattered about for the use of the fam- ily and for visitors; a table also stood here for the daily mail, where we read and discussed the questions of the day. And here this persistent, wide-awake couple chose to make their nest. They commenced building in a corner on the plate just under the roof. Unlike the house wren, they do not use sticks in the construction of their nest, but an abundance of the soft- est material they can get. We had brought from the woods a quantity of a beautiful fern -like moss which we had stripped from decaying logs, and had placed it on the ground beneath one of the trees. This moss, so light and spongy, was just the thing for the little build- ers—ever so much better than the long gray 7illandsia which they had been using. They would alight upon it and chatter over its merits, and both seemed agreed as to its excellent qualities as a building material. They worked harmoniously together for several days, the male stopping every now and then to express his happiness in a loud, prolonged strain of music. But the female proved very fickle-minded. All at once, without any apparent reason, she changed her mind with regard to the location of the domicile, and chose the other. end of the piazza, near where we most frequently sat. Evi- dently the male did not like this. She had already BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 45 changed the location several times, and he had quietly submitted ; but now he seemed to be reasoning with her, and was determined not to yield to this new whim of hers, and she was as fully bent on having her way. He continued work where they had commenced, and she persistently went on in the other corner. Occasion- ally he prevailed upon her to come and inspect his work, and with heads close together they would chatter over it. Then he would drop down upon the railing of the piazza, and throw up his head and express his delight in rapturous song. But it was no use; he could not win her back, neither could she prevail upon him to assist her in the other corner; they would meet upon the ground and chatter over the moss, and then fly with it to their respective corners, looking askance at each ~ other. , The female worked very diligently for more than a week, while the male, with less to do, devoted half his time to song and vain attempts to lure her back. It was May when they finished building, and now the male, fairly beaten, yielded gracefully. He accompa- nied her to her cosy nest, and lovingly chattered over the pearly treasure deposited there; he seemed to for- give her then and there, and no longer visited the oth- er nest, and henceforth was a most devoted partner. While the little proprietors were away I took occasion to examine their work. I found both corners filled in with a large quantity of material, and in one side of this abundant mass was the soft symmetrical nest. The 46 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. eggs were nearly or quite white. The nest that the male completed was more beautiful than the female’s, and how she could have refused such cosy quarters is a mystery. During the winter a number of cardinal-grossheaks (Cardinalis virginianus) were at home about the THE CARDINAL-GROSSBEAK, grounds, living harmoniously together; but towards spring, as early as February, they began to manifest a quarrelsome disposition, which finally ended in fierce battles. Jealousy seemed to be the sole cause of the disturbances, for they never attacked a bird of any oth- er species. At last one stands alone, the proud possess- or of a quiet, soberly attired partner, who looks up to BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 47 him as the hero of many hard-won battles. This daring conqueror is of striking appearance : a conspicuous crest ornaments his head, his plumage is elegant, with a rich vermilion hue, and he is a fine musical performer with- al, his loud rolling notes even drowning those of the mocking-bird. : They select a fine water oak, and on a horizontal branch they have decided to rear their family. Al- though the unobtrusive partner attends strictly to her domestic duties, yet this brilliant hero is excessively jealous; he sees a lurking red-coat in the stable—his “own image reflected in the window- glass— which he fiercely assails but cannot conquer. From morning un- til night, with brief intervals, he fights this imaginary foe. Fearing that he will fall a victim to his ungovy- ernable passion, I try to fix the windows so he can no longer see his image. The windows slide in a groove; I push them back; he comes into the stable and looks around astonished, but only for a few moments, for the glass against the dark background of boards still proves a good reflector, so his antagonist has only gone inside, and here. the battle is renewed. I frighten him away, but he soon returns—the enemy must be conquered at all hazards. At last I place boards over one window and hang a cloth over another. Now the foe is van- quished; so he tries his powers of song, swells his throat, droops his rosy wings, and makes the whole grove resound, as if in defiance of all lurking enemies, or challenging any red-coat to venture within his domain. 48 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. The diminutive ground-dove (Chamapeleia passerina) is also an inhabitant of the grove. This charming spe- cies is about six inches in length. The general color is a lustrous steel-blue, but the sides of the head and neck are purplish-red color, more brilliant in the male; slen- der lines of black ornament the upper surface of the wings, while the under surface is suffused with a bright pink hue. These little doves are fully as tame as most domesticated pigeons. Like the cardinal - grossbeak, during winter they live together harmoniously in communities, but towards spring the monogamie family relation is assumned; and so quietly do they arrange their domestic affairs that we do not know how or when it is accomplished; we only see that the ranks are thinning. A pair select a new home, and no longer return to the old, notwithstanding the bread and cracker crumbs with which they have been regaled. Early in April all are gone but one pair, and these are becoming very tame. By the middle of April they no longer appear together—first one and then the other feeds about the door. In their domestic affairs they seem to maintain the same customs as their larger relatives, the male spending full half the time on the nest. Meek and innocent as they appear, they are altogeth- er too cunning for me. I have spent hours looking for the nest, but they delude and elude me; take me into the most dreadful places, and leave me there—a depth BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 49 of depravity that I should not expect in such innocent- looking creatures. While the doves are feeding, almost invariably a long-billed thrush drops down from a tree, as if curious to know what they are eating; if he comes too close, they raise their wings in such a way that the two upper surfaces meet back to back, thus displaying the beauti- ful rosy tinge beneath. I suppose this is a defensive attitude, but I have never seen them attack anything; and the thrush, which is larger, would scorn to attack any bird smaller than himself. The thrush, satisfied that they are not feeding upon anything which he particularly relishes, takes an acorn and proceeds to pound it on the ground until it is freed from the shell, and then breaks it into dainty bits be- fore swallowing. This thrush is a beautiful bird, with fine manners, and a good singer, yet he seems to be a confirmed bach- elor. All winter he has been the sole representative of his species, and now, in spring, when all the other deni- zens of the grove have taken partners, he still remains in single blessedness. He must be the bird mentioned by Coues, in his “North American Birds,” as the variety of the com- mon brown thrush (Harporhynchus longirostris). The locality of this variety is given as occurring in Mexico to the Rio Grande, but it answers exactly to the de- scription of longirostris. . During the winter the Florida jay (Aphelocoma flor- 4 BO HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. tdana) is a frequenter of the grove; his shrill ery is echoed from tree to tree, and he goes where he will, unmolested. This species is about the size of our well- known blue-jay, twelve inches in length, and its habits are similar. The general color is blue, but the head is not crested, and the wings are not barred with black, as in the other species. Notwithstanding the bad reputation of the jays, I must confess to a strong regard for them. Their plu- mage is beautiful, and their droll, comical ways are enough to bring a smile upon the face of the most sedate observer. In the winter the Florida jay was so well behaved, feeding upon acorns of the live and water oaks, that I began to think that he in a measure redeemed the bad reputation of his family. The other feathered denizens of the grove did not molest him, and he in turn seemed peaceably inclined, except upon one occasion, when the taunting tones of a mocking-bird seemed to irritate him. He was answering the cry of a companion from a neighboring tree, when the mocking-bird, perched on his throne of grape-vine, took up the ery in a derisive tone. The jay turns and looks upon the mocker, who, seeing his movement, for a few moments is quiet. The jay renews the colloquy. The mocking-bird, unable to resist a spirit of mischief, cautiously resumes the jeering ery, at first low, not attracting the attention of the jay, but soon he becomes more bold, and raises the key-note. To be mocked at and insulted in this way is too much BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 51 for the self-conceited jay to pass by without resenting. ‘With a sudden wheel he flies at the derider, who eludes him by slipping beneath his throne; the jay peers be- neath, then follows, but the mocking-bird flits out and alights upon a little cypress bending over the river. The jay, satisfied that he is gone, comes out and takes his position on the throne, and recommences his ery. The mimic, not yet quelled, and now thoroughly in- dignant with the usurper of his throne, mocks him even louder than before. The angry jay again starts after him; he now flies directly out over the river. The river at this point is five miles across. The jay followed only a short distance, then returned, and went out of the neighborhood. The mocking-bird made a curve in his flight, and was soon back, looking cautious- ly around; finally he ventures on the hedge of Spanish- bayonets, and from thence to his throne. In the spring there is a marked change in the be- havior of the jay; he no longer comes openly and bold- ly upon the grounds, but glides in noiselessly, for he knows the birds of other species in a common interest will concentrate their forces, and as soon as he is dis- covered, a note of alarm will be sounded, when in flock the troops to the rescue. They seem to come from all quarters ; even the smaller birds—wrens and sparrows —help to swell the ranks; and the intruder makes an inglorious retreat, followed by the justly indignant guardians of households. Audubon says, “The car- - dinal-grossbeak will challenge him, and beat him off the 52 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. ground. The red thrush, the mocking-bird, and many others, although inferior in strength, never allow him to approach their nests with impunity; and the jay, to be even with them, creeps silently to it in their absence, and devours their eggs and young whenever he finds an opportunity.” But, as far as my observation extends, he seldom finds an opportunity: nests are not often left unguarded. KILLDEL PLOVER. A pair-of killdee plovers (gialites vociferus) are at home on the lower terrace adjoining the river. The plumage of this bird is beautiful: a soft orange-brown color on the rump and upper tail coverts, the head white, with a clearly defined black band across the crown, and two others encircling the white neck and breast. These elegant, graceful creatures are not very trust- BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 53 ful; they will not allow a too close familiarity. I have spent much time in trying to cultivate their acquaint- ance, but they keep a measured distance between us, seeming to say, “So far, and no farther.” If I remain very quiet, they sometimes glide along within a few feet of me, with an air of sublime indifference, as if I were scarcely worth a second look. They take their bath and arrange their toilet each day. Wading out into the river a short distance, they plash a while in the water, and then return to the terrace, and spread themselves in the sun to dry; when nearly dry, they arrange their feathers with their stout beaks. They always announce their arrival and departure from the terrace with the not unmusical ery of killdee, killdee! dee, dee, dee! The belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) is another fa- miliar bird that frequents the grounds. His name indi- cates his occupation, and a very successful fisher he is. His fishing- post is on the railing that runs along the wharf. The wharf extends from the grounds about two hundred and fifty feet into the river. Whether he re- mains at this post the entire year I do not know; we find him here upon our arrival, and leave him here when we depart for the North. I am inclined to think. this his permanent residence; at all events, he objects to being disturbed, as if he had been sole manager too long to yield the ground without a loud protest. If more than one person goes upon the wharf, he leaves with a clang and clatter which sound like a watchman’s 54 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. rattle, and usually flies to the terrace, and alights upon a small tree bending over the water, where he can over- look and watch proceedings. But he does not seem to be afraid of one person alone: if I go upon the wharf unaccompanied, he flits along before me, alighting upon the railing, often not more than fifteen or twenty feet KINGFISHER, distant, and faces about as if to intimidate me. Seeing this I quietly drop upon a seat; for really, with his rumpled crest and fierce -looking black eyes, he looks rather formidable, being a foot or more in length. Seeming to be satisfied that I am under subjection, he goes on with his fishing, in which he is very expert. Motionless he eyes the finny tribes beneath him until one of their number comes within his range to suit his BIRDS OF FLORIDA. 55 taste, when he dives into the water and brings it up; and now beating it upon the railing until it is quite limp, he swallows it. Small fish-scales are scattered along the entire length of the railing, where he has dressed his fish preparatory to taking his meals. Notwithstanding the public wharf is only a few rods distant, with the confusion and noise consequent upon the landing of steamers, and crowds of people so near, yet this intrepid fisher continues his occupation as un- concerned as if alone in the wilderness. This species is the only representative of the family in the United States. Although it is not classed by ornithologists among the Raptores, yet it has character- istics in common with this large order. After a meal it ejects from its mouth a large pellet made up of the indigestible bones and scales of the fish it has swal- lowed. The pellet seems to be so out of proportion to the size of the bird that it is something of a marvel how it manages to eject it; but it does not seem to cost it much of an effort: a little stretching of the neck upward, with the head thrown forward, and the feat is accomplished. 56 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Cuapter III. OUR WINTER BIRDS. AFTER several years’ careful observation in Southern New Jersey, I find that winter gives us a phase in the life and character of birds quite unlike that displayed in summer by the same species, yet none the less inter- esting. The permanent residents of this latitude which come about our house and grounds are the song-sparrow, field- sparrow, English sparrow, yellow-bird, pine-linnet, blue- bird, robin, meadow-lark, quail, blue-jay, crow, and sev- eral species of hawks and owls. The Northern birds which make this section their winter home are the white-throated sparrow, fox-spdrrow, tree-sparrow, chick- adee, and the dark slate-colored sparrow, or snowbird, as it is more usually called. There are also séveral spe- cies restricted to the woods, with which I am unfamiliar. Most of these birds will become quite tame with a little care on our part, and will soon come to look to us for their daily food. Especially if the ground be covered with snow, they will learn to become clamorous for their food, even alighting on the window-sills and striking the glass, apparently to attract attention to OUR WINTER BIRDS. 57 their wants. In summer the same species are much more shy, so winter gives us a better opportunity to study the habits and dispositions of the various birds which remain with us. With most species family ties are not broken in win- ter. Bluebirds, perhaps more so than most of our birds, maintain a strict family relation during the winter, even while assembling in large flocks. Not only do the part- ners remain true to each other during their lives, but they continue their care over the young throughout the first fall and winter. : When a pair of bluebirds succeed in rearing three broods in a season, in the autumn these broods unite and stay with the parents, making a little flock of about fourteen. All the autumn through they keep together, feeding from the same bushes— poke, ampelopsis, and other wild berries—and upon such stray insects as they may find. The first cold days of December send them to the cedar swamps, where great numbers congregate. Here, too, large flocks of robins keep them company. But each mild day brings the bluebirds from their retreat back to their unforgotten home; and there is nothing more fascinating in bird life than to see the frolics of the young birds and the grave demeanor of the parents. The young visit the various houses in which they were reared, sometimes two or three entering at the same time, and all the while keeping up their low, sweet twittering, as if conversing. 58 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. But in the spring all is changed. The parents tell the young in a very peremptory manner that they must now seek new homes. Sometimes the young are quite persistent about remaining, when the parents at last seem to become exasperated, and drive them fiercely from the premises. During the summer of 1880 I was particularly inter- ested in a pair of bluebirds which had the misfortune to rear but one brood of three during the season. The young were hatched in a little house fastened to the railing of an upper piazza. They became quite tame, and remained with us until the first week in December. After this I saw them no more until the first day of January, 1881, when, to my surprise, the entire family came to my study window-—a bay-window fronting south—and perched upon the sill. The mercury stood fifteen degrees below zero on this morning, an unusual temperature for our latitude. I have found that an intensely cold day will drive both robins and bluebirds from their retreat in the ce- dars to our homes, as if they hoped for better protec- tion against the cold. Our little family had accompanied a sorry - looking flock of forty or fifty bluebirds, with ruffled feathers, which had halted in the vineyard near the house on this bitter morning. By ten o’clock the sun shone brightly against the window-glass, and the warm fire within helped to make the window -sill comfortable; and here all five of the OUR WINTER BIRDS. 59 birds perched, thus getting the full force of the sun’s rays. After basking a while in the sun, their feathers smoothed down, and they seemed quite bright and hap- py, and towards noon disappeared with the flock. Sev- eral times, on the coldest days, during. this severe win- ter, this little family came to my window in the same manner. I could mention several other instances which have come under my observation, in proof that the parent bluebirds, with their broods of the previous season, are a united family ; but one more will suffice. The summer of 1881 a pair of bluebirds occupied a box placed on a projecting part of the cornice, in the rear of the house. After the first brood left the box, the parents soon commenced to tear out the old nest, preparatory for a second family in the same box. The second nest is usually built in some other place, in the vicinity of the first, and here was no lack of empty boxes for them to choose from; but for some reason, known only to themselves, they were determined to oceupy the house of their first choice, notwithstanding the bad condition in which it was left. Seeing their determination, we had the box emptied of its contents, and, as might be expected, found it swarming with vermin. We sprinkled it thoroughly with insect-powder, and the birds commenced at once to build. When the second brood was hatched, the English spar- rows annoyed the parent bluebirds exceedingly by go- 60 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. ing to the box and looking in, and one of the sparrows even had the audacity to attempt to adopt and feed the young bluebirds. What could the parents do? They could not stay and watch the sparrows continu- ously, for the lusty young were clamorous for food. So these wise birds called together the elder brood— elder brothers and sisters, whom I had not seen for weeks—who were by this time as large as the parents, but readily distinguished from them by their curiously mottled breasts, which they wear the first summer. The parents instructed these young ones to keep guard over the house while they were away in search of food, which they did for several days. The house was scarce- ly left a moment. One or more of the family were al- most constantly present, and would dart at the sparrows whenever they made an attempt to come near, until the young left the box, when the happy family became re- united, both broods, with the, parents, eating poke-ber- ries from a large bush which I had allowed to remain expressly for them. When the ground is covered with snow, the various species of our native sparrows, so full of life and jollity, will doubly repay any lover of birds for the care be- stowed upon them. Last winter I kept a space of ground beneath my study window free from snow, where I scattered coarse Indian meal and millet-seed, and this ground soon be- came a mimic stage for these bright actors. The names of the most noted were Junco hyemalis, Zonotrichia OUR WINTER BIRDS. 61 albicollis, Spizella monticola, and Melospiza melodia. The names of these actors are known throughout the civilized world. All nations recognize the family name, and often the specific name gives a clew to the charac- ter: as Ayemalis, our winter or snow bird; monticola, a dweller in the mountains, where this species spends its summers and rears its young; melodia, the sweet songster, or song-sparrow. Junco hyemalis is excellent in dramatic performance. Two of these actors meet face to face on the stage, in their dark glossy coats, and each tries to make the oth- er quail before his fixed gaze. Nearer and nearer they come, constantly chattering and bowing, until within a few inches of each other, when they elevate their heads and bodies to a perfectly upright position, and chatter vehemently with wide-open mouths. Sometimes one of the actors leaves the stage at this juncture, and the other remains; but generally they both withdraw and have a trial of strength in the air. And now Zonotrichia albicollis comes forward in an- other act. He is the most gorgeously attired and the largest actor in the drama. The crown of his head is black, bordered with white, and his full muffled throat is pure white, sharply contrasting with the dark ash of his breast. The back of his coat is striped with black, chestnut, and fulvous white. He excels Junco in tragi- comic performance. He opens the act with a prolonged musical note, and flattens himself in front of a brother actor, and spreads-his tail fan-shaped. Faster and faster 62 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. come the notes from the two actors, until they are so blended that we can scarcely distinguish one from the other. The birds approach each other squatted to the ground. Their feet have disappeared. When the cli- max is reached, like Junco they leave the stage in a twinkling. Usually the actors are of the same species, but occa- sionally Junco and Zonotrichia enliven the drama, each acting his part with his own individual characteristics. Junco chatters and bows to Zonotrichia, who cowers ap- parently at his feet, meanwhile entertaining his audi- ence with his long, musical notes. And now, while Junco is straightened to his utmost height, hurling his rapid invectives, Zonotrichia leaps up like a flash and strikes him in the breast, with sufficient force to hurl him across the stage. But Junco is not always taken hy surprise and kicked from the stage in this inglovious fashion. Although the smaller bird, he is occasionally victorious. I would not have it understood that these small act- ors are entirely given to theatricals; there are times when they are quiet and orderly, and seem to be enjoy- ing one another’s society. My favorite among them all is Spizella monticola. He comes to us towards the end of October, and re- mains until April. The crown of his head is a bright chestnut, and upon his shoulders are chestnut epaulets ; his breast is a soft ashy color, with a dark blotch in the centre; the back of his coat is streaked with black, OUR WINTER BIRDS. 63 chestnut, and flaxen, and two conspicuous white cross- bars are on his wings. He is the handsomest member of the genus, and considerably larger than the little chipping sparrow (Spizella socialis) that is always about our doors in summer, but goes South to winter. Although Spizella monticola flock together in consid- erable numbers, yet they keep the family relation as strictly as the bluebirds, generally in groups of four or six, which indicates that the parents rear but one brood | in a season, or, if more, each brood keeps by itself. The birds comprising these groups do not quarrel, but are so closely attached that one cannot fly away without the others following. The actors in the quarrels and trials of strength are made up of birds from different groups—strangers trying for the championship. This species does not go through with many preliminaries before the final act. They commence chattering, and clinch at once. Up, up they go, high in the air, strik- ing, railing at each other as they ascend, until one is victorious. The English sparrow merits notice, although I must confess he is not a favorite with me. He is not so graceful or beautiful as our indigenous species, still I do not wish to be unjust towards him. I have uniform- ly found him to be the least quarrelsome of any bird that comes about the grounds. I have never seen him aggressive towards our own species, even when mixing thickly with them. He usually prefers to remain about the barn and stable, where an abundance of food is 64 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. scattered for the fowls and pigeons, but occasionally quite a flock comes and mingles with our native species beneath my window, and here I can watch them at my leisure. Our indigenous birds know better than to at- tack him, for he is stronger and more heavily built than they are. Only once since my observations commenced have I seen anything like a quarrel between the English spar- row and our native species, and in this instance the ag- gressor was the champion Junco, who was ruler over his own tribe, and had also whipped many white-throats and song-sparrows. A little group of English sparrows was quietly feed- ing beneath the window. Junco struts around them and chatters, but they pay no attention, not even deign- ing to look at him. Failing in his attempts to elicit any notice, he flits to the window-sill and looks down upon them. Finally he seems to single out one which has wandered a little apart from the rest, and in a twin- kling he strikes him broadside, throwing him off his feet, and then flies several yards away. The English spar- row is on his feet in an instant, slowly turning his head all around in evident amazement, but is soon eating again. Junco does not renew the attack, but mingles with his kind, picking up seeds. The English sparrow, however, has his eye upon him, and now Junco has to keep at a safe distance. The summer yellow-bird also mixes freely with the various sparrows. This charming little creature looks OUR WINTER BIRDS. 65 so different in his plain gray winter coat, which he puts on in September and wears until April, that it is with difficulty we recognize him, so complete is the trans- formation. The brilliant yellow and black have disap- peared, and only faint tracings of greenish-yellow about the head and throat remain. But he is apparently as happy in his sombre suit, picking up millet, as when more brilliantly attired and rollicking amid the round- ed globes of the dandelion, scattering the airy seeds, and capturing them as they start on their winged. course. Our little gymnast, the titmouse, or black - capped chickadee, must not be forgotten. He is not regarded as migratory, and yet he comes to us each winter, and seems to go northward in the spring. He is the most fearless bird of my acquaintance, frequently eating from my hand, and is almost omnivorous, taking anything that comes in his way, from a bone that we hang on a tree for his tiny lordship to pick, down to a plate of preserved berries which we have placed on the door- step for the bluebirds. But he is quite exclusive in his society, and does nat mingle freely with the other winter birds. .The cold Northern snow-storms seem only to increase his jollity ; now here, now there, cling- ing to a bough head downward, chanting his chick-a- dee-dee. Emerson pictures him to the life in the fol- ldwing lines : «When piped a tiny voice hard by, Gay and polite, a cheerful cry, 5 66 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Chic-chicadeedee/ saucy note Out of sound heart and merry throat, As if it said, Good-day, good sir! Fine afternoon, old passenger! Happy to meet you in these places, Where January brings few faces. This poet, though he live apart, Moved by his hospitable heart, Sped, when I passed his sylvan fort, To do the honors of his court, As fits a feathered lord of land; Flew near, with soft wing grazed my hand, Hopped on the bough, then, darting low, Prints his small impress in the snow, Shows feats of his gymnastic play, Head downward, clinging to the spray.” When the smaller birds have been driven from the fields and woodlands to our dwellings by the snow, the birds of prey are forced to follow them; so there is scarcely a day but we see various species of hawk or the day owl (Surniu Hudsonica) watching their oppor- tunity for a meal. We vainly try to frighten them away; but hunger knows no law, and they are often successful in snatching a bird within a few feet of us. The ow], S. Hudsonica, is less timid and much more persistent than the hawk in following his prey. Often when I think I have frightened him from the neigh- borhood he will noiselessly slip out of an evergreen, and with the coolest audacity take a sparrow in my near vicinity. Sometimes one drops down from the roof of the OUR WINTER BIRDS. 67 house among the feeding birds beneath my window, and taking one of these beautiful creatures in his claws, proceeds to the nearest post and crushes its life out. It is a merey to my little favorite to let the owl alone after he, has secured his prey, for he kills it much more quickly than when disturbed. At sight of this apparent cruelty in nature comes the impulse to shoot these raptorial birds. But when we think of that other biped whom it is not lawful to shoot, who often hunts and kills the beautiful denizens of our fields and woodlands from mere wantonness and sport of the chase, the hawk or owl, which takes a bird only to appease his hunger, towers above him in moral recti- tude. So our gun leans idly against the wall. 68 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Cuapter IV. DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS ? Ir birds were allowed to discuss their own merits as architects, they might bring forward abundant proof to show that they do improve in building; and they also might lay fair claim to the possession of reason, not only in the management of the young, but in many other things. But as we cannot discuss this matter with them, we must patiently investigate their work, and thrust ourselves upon the privacy of their domestic arrangements, if we care to know intimately the life and habits of our feathered songsters. Birds of the same species vary nearly or quite as much in their way, in the form and material used in building, as savages of the same tribe vary in architecture. The brown thrush (Zarporhynchus rufus, Cob.) is a good case in point. The male is a gay, careless, happy songster, and seems to lure his mate into the same thriftless habits, so that house- building is often post- poned until within a few hours of actual need, when haste and rapid work are very manifest. All through May I noticed a pair of brown thrushes flitting about the grove. The male was a splendid per- DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS ? 69 former, fairly entrancing me with his song. Seated upon the topmost branch of some swaying tree, he seemed to drown all the other choristers near by; in fact, they, too, seemed entranced, and soon were si- lent listeners, All the other feathered inhabitants of the grove had already commenced house - keeping, or were making active preparations, while this lord of song seemed to have no care or thought of the future. June came. The bird ‘was trilling his loudest note, when right in the midst of his song he paused. His mate had stopped the grand performance. He flew with her to the shrubbery, where they flitted about from bush to bush a few moments, finally selecting a place for building in a rose-bush, which was supported by a trellis. The fourtlation of the nest was laid partly upon the trellis. I took a garden-chair, drew my hat pretty well over my face—birds are good observers, and we must man- age with care or we shall alarm them —and watched their proceedings. The female was evidently the mas- ter-workman, and kept a watchful eye upon the mate, who came every few moments with such crooked, branched twigs that she often could do nothing with them but throw them down in a spiteful way; her own selections were much better, and were almost invariably used. If she were away when the mate arrived, he at once proceeded to place his crooked stick—he evidently did not believe in wasting material in such a reckless way; but this hindered the completion of the domicile, 70 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. for when the fair partner arrived she was obliged to lay down her stick and try to arrange his in some sort of shape; failing in this, down it went to the ground, when, turning to her own, she soon arranged it to her satisfaction. Several times the mate attempted to shirk, flew to a tree and commenced his song; but this the energetic housewife would not allow: she always brought him back and set him to work, even if he did hinder more than help. Tis partner was probably an experienced architectress, and he may have been an apprentice, for certainly some of the males of this species seem to be as good architects as the females. The nest was completed during the day, and on the following morning an egg was left in it. The mate, now relieved from work, resumed his joyous song; but he always ceased the moment I entered the shrubbery, and gave a quick note of alarm, when she would fly from the nest. In a few days she became so tame that she would allow me to cut roses from the bush without leaving her place. Of course, great care was necessary ; I always drew my hat down so that she could not catch my eye, and apparently paid no atten- tion to her. A few years ago I was acquainted with a pair of brown thrushes much more thriftless than the pair above mentioned, who did not even attempt to build a domicile in the usual way, but simply scratched up a kind of nest on the ground, in a strawberry bed, much DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS? 71 after the fashion of a domestic hen, where they reared their young without any accident. When nearly full- fledged they sprawled about on the ground, all sem- blance of a nest having disappeared. Only a few rods from this careless, improvident fam- ily resided another family of thrushes, in quite an elab- orately designed structure. A peck measure would hardly have contained the sticks used in the construc- tion of their domicile. It was built upon a rail fence adjoining a gate, through which cows were driven to and from pasture every morning and evening. Horses were also kept in this field, so that the gate was used more or less during every day; yet the family was reared in perfect safety, and became quite tame. Were these poor, hastily constructed tenements the work of inexperienced architects, or the work of thrift- less, improvident individuals? In either case it looks as if birds were capable of improving in architecture, or the nests of the same species would all be of one pattern. With the robin (Zurdus migratorius, Linn.) the curi- ous will find every form of architecture, from the rude mud nest up to quite an elaborately constructed domi- cile. These mud nests compare favorably with the log- cabins of the early settlers. I had a table standing in the grove, on which were a number of pots of the Venus’s fly-trap (Dionwa muscipula). A robin espied them, and made up her mind that the moist, black, mucky earth in which 72 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. the plants were growing was just what she needed —and so handy, too, only a few feet from the tree she had selected in which to build her mud domicile. She had already carried off two of the plants, with a quantity of the earth, before I caught her at the mischief. Being an early riser she had the advantage of me. I had the plants moved to the piazza amid her scolding and protesting. Her mate, too, attracted by her clatter, came and added his protest. I left the two pots of earth from which she had abstracted the plants, and took a seat to watch the dénowement. She eyed me pretty closely. Seeming to satisfy herself that I had no hostile intentions, she returned to the pots I had left, and rapidly proceeded with the building, using her breast and feet for a trowel. She may have worked an hour in this way, and then I saw no more of her until towards evening, when she finished up her work by lining the nest with a few mouthfuls of coarse, dry grass. Only a few rods distant another robin was building with entirely different material. For the main body of the structure she used fine fibrous roots and twine; she then added clean damp moss (sphagnum) instead of mud, which she must have gone at least a mile to ob- tain. She interwove long horse-hair and fine dry grass to hold the inoss in place. It took her four or five days to complete the structure, whereas the mud nest was finished the same day it was commenced. As far as I have been able to ascertain, the male DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS ? 73 robin: never assists in building. This is not because he domineers over the female, refusing to do his share of the work-—for she is evidently the master-spirit and he the poor hen-pecked subordinate; she probably con- siders him incapable of so great an undertaking as to assist in the construction of even a mud cabin. Never- theless, he is very watchful and solicitous while she is at work and during incubation; and when the young are hatched he does as much for their support while in the nest as the female. As soon as they leave the nest she shirks all the responsibility of protecting and providing for them upon him, while she proceeds to build another domicile or to fit up the old one. By this judicious management upon her part she sometimes succeeds in rearing three broods in one season, while most other birds rear but two. The male must find his task rather arduous with this young household thrown upon his care, their gaping, never-satisfied mouths around him. Recently I was the witness of quite an amusing scene. The male robin brought his young family—nearly as large as himself by this time—from the mud cabin to some raspberry bushes. The bushes were supported by narrow strips of board nailed to posts. This gave the birds secure footing while plundering the fruit. Two of the speckled-breasts helped themselves to the fruit, but the third one kept close to the father, with gaping mouth. In vain the parent flew from one sup- port to another; the persistent offspring was close to 74 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. his side, and seemed determined not to help himself. Finally the parent, seeming to lose patience, gave him a tap on the head, and then coolly proceeded to regale himself with the fruit. The young one now shut his mouth for a little time, but soon was gaping again; upon this the irate father was more severe, and gave him quite a drubbing, as much as to say, “ Now help yourself, and stop your gaping!” He continued, how- ever, to provide his young family with insects several days after this incident. Parental chastisement was inflicted in this case evi- dently for the good of the young one, or why would he have continued to supply them with insects, which were more difficult to obtain ? A close observer of birds cannot fail to see that they exercise reason and forethought, not only in the man- agement of the young, but in many other things. Let me ask those who deny to animals any faculty except instinct what it is that induces birds to vary from their usual mode of procedure. They sometimes leave their habitat in the woods for our lawns and gar- dens, and, as opportunity offers, choose new materials and new methods for the construction of their nests. In the spring of 1870 a pair of house wrens (Z7oglo- dytes wdon) selected the oddest place imaginable for the site of their mansion, which looked as if solely prompted by a love of mischief. It was on the top of a barn-swallow’s nest. There were several nests of the swallows attached to the rafters in a low room over a DO BIRDS IMPROVE AS ARCHITECTS ? 5 stable. Some of the nests were completed, nicely lined with soft white feathers, and contained eggs. I had spent many hours with my favorites the swallows, watching their graceful movements and dainty ways, until they came to look upon me as their friend, and would continue their building with me standing so close that many times I could have put my hand upon a workman. For a day or two something had prevented my usual visits to the swallows, when my brother, with mock gravity, informed me that a great calamity had befallen my favorites—that a pair of tiny wrens had made war upon them, and the swalldws (a dozen or more), with everything at stake, had made an inglorious retreat, and had taken up their quarters in a grain barn near at hand. I at once repaired to the scene of disaster, and found the tiny victors the undisputed possessors of the premises. They had already commenced to rear their mansion, having taken a swallow’s nest, eggs and all, for the foundation, of their own structure. The sprightly little housewife darted an angry look out of her bright eyes at me, and no doubt contem- plated driving me as she had the swallows; but I was not to be intimidated: she should either go on with her work, with myself as witness, or give up the site she had surreptitiously taken. The male, less suspicious than the female, continued his work. They came through a knot-hole in the side of the stable with all their building material, and then, empty-mouthed, flew 16 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. out of the open window. They had, no doubt, in the first place, come in at this hole and chased the swallows out of the window, and so they continued to the end as they had commenced. The female at first refused to place the sticks she brought, but dropping them on the hay, would fly close to me in a spiteful way, and then pass out of the win- dow. At last she coneluded to go on with the work, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the nest com- pleted. It was built close up to the roof, only space enough left for them to enter. I have often played with birds, evidently making them think that I was afraitl, and that they were really driving me. One summer a pair of kingbirds (Zyran- nus carolinensis) drove me about for a long time. They had built close to the piazza, and had become quite tame before they found how afraid I was of them. The rose-bugs were very numerous at this time, and I soon found that the kingbirds were helping me exter- minate them: they would alight on a rose-bush and de- vour the bugs greedily. As they came near to me I would cautiously move farther away; this the birds were quick to notice, and soon became so bold that they would drive me from bush to bush. After the bugs had entirely disappeared, when I went to the bushes to cut flowers the birds would often drive me away, and then hunt over the bushes, as if they thought my sole business was bug-hunting. PART II. HABITS OF INSECTS. SPIDERS AND WASPS. 79 Cuaprer V. SPIDERS AND WASPS. I sometimes think the more I limit myself to a small area, the more novelties and discoveries I make in nat- ural history. My observations for the past four sum- mers have been almost wholly confined to an acre of ground in the heart of a noisy town. A bit of natural woodland oceupies about a quarter of the acre, and here I have made several discoveries new to science. The most interesting creatures that have rewarded me in my search are two species of large burrowing spiders that had heretofore escaped the attention of. naturalists. These spiders build beautiful, complicated structures above their burrows, with which they take as much pains as most birds do in building their nests. The Rev. Dr. McCook has named one of these spiders Tarantula tigrina, or tiger-spider, from the fact that the legs have annular stripes of gray and black, like a tiger’s. This species digs.a tube in the earth six or seven inches in depth and uniformly straight. But its skill and wisdom are displayed in erecting the upper part of its domicile, which is evidently for concealment. It 80 ’ HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. first builds, a broad, silk- lined funnel at the-mouth of its burrow; the background is composed of whatever COVER TO NEST OF TIGER-SPIDER REMOVED FROM ITS BED OF MOSS. 1. Upper side of cover.” 2. Under side, showing place of connection with the tube and the room above. 3. Nest of tiger-spider with cover raised. material it can reach with its long hind -legs, while its fore-legs rest Le } in the edge of its tube. This funnel is the foundation of a concealed room, which sometimes takes it several nights to complete. It does not work during the day. I had repeatedly tried to see one go on with its build- ing, but the light of the lamp or my near proximity seemed to disturb it. At last I had the satisfaction SPIDERS AND WASPS. 81 to see a fine large female go on with her work, undis- turbed by the light or my presence. She first spins a canopy of web over the funnel, leaving a place of exit on one side. She next comes ont and steps carefully over the canopy, as if to see whether it is strong and secure. Seemingly satistied that it is all right, she steps down, just letting her fore-feet touch the edge of the web, while with her hind-legs she feels, examines, and handles various things which she rejects. Finally she selects a dry oak-leaf about two inches broad and three in length, and lays it over the canopy, and proceeds to fasten it down all around except at the entrance. After the leaf is made secure she reaches up and pulls down blades of grass, and lays them over the leaf, and fastens them down with web so dexterously that it cannot be seen except with the closest scrutiny. This makes a strong roof over her domicile. Now she goes within, and seems to be putting some finishing touches on the inside. This done, she stands in the door of her neat apartment, waiting for any chance insect that may come within her range. I see a beetle slowly crawling along, evidently in search for its supper. I carefully direct its course towards the spider. Quick as a flash she seizes it, and goes within her home to make her meal. Former experience has taught me that she will be a long time making this meal, so I leave my post of ob- servation for that night. Jn a few days thereafter I firid that she has com- pletely closed the entrance to her domicile, and if I did. 6 82 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. not know the precise spot in which it is located, I should not be able to find it. I have twenty-eight of these spiders under observa- tion. I visit them all, and find that more than half of the number, both males and females, have closed their doors very firmly. Some of these burrows are situated in beds of moss, and the moss is so cunningly arranged over them that the most expert naturalist would find it difficult to tell where they are. I have often tried my friends, to see if they could find one of these concealed burrows, and have limited the space to a few square inches, within which it was located, but they scarcely ever hit upon the right spot. It is August, and a female digger-wasp is making sad havoc among these spiders. She wants them to feed her young, and nothing but this particular species will do; and woe now to all the spiders with unclosed doors, for she is sure to find them. The wasp is large and strong, and has steel-blue wings, and two bright orange spots on either side of the abdomen. She runs over the ground swiftly, peering here and there, until she alights upon an open burrow, down which she speedily goes, and soon comes out dragging her victim, which she has paralyzed with her powerful sting. Sometimes two wasps are hunting in the same vicin- ity, and when one finds a spider, the other tries to wrest it from her. And now a fearful battle ensues. They drop the prey and clinch in deadly conflict, seem- ingly trying to stab each other with their stings. The SPIDERS AND WASPS. 83 victorious party returns to the spider, which is heayier than herself, and proceeds to drag it to her nest. She runs backward for a time, dragging it over the ground; then tries flying a short distance, but the burden is so heavy that she soon comes to the ground again. She is so active and quick in her movements that I am THE DIGGER-WASP, COCOON, AND LARVA. obliged to walk quite fast to keep even with her. She carries the spider several rods from where she obtained it, lays it down on a gravelled walk, and hunts over the ground. She soon finds the burrow which she has pre- viously dug, returns to the spider, seizes it, and disap- pears within. She comes out empty-handed, and pro- ceeds to fill up the hole with the earth which she has thrown out. She works so rapidly that I can scarcely 84 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE, tell which feet she uses the most. She séenis to dig with her fore-feet, and to rake the earth in backward with her hind-feet. Soon the hole is full; and now she makes a battering-ram of herself by repeatedly striking her body on the ground, as if to pound the earth down. This done, she rakes the ground all over and around the place to make it level, and then seizes a small pebble in her mandibles and lays it over the spot, and scatters other pebbles all around it, so that it looks noways different from the surrounding ground. The wasp is gone, and now like a thief I venture to -dig up the treasure. I find the spider about four inches below the surface, with an egg sticking in the body which the wasp has placed there. The egg hatches into a legless white grub, which at once begins to feed upon the spider. Some strange knowledge more than we possess en- ables the mother wasp to so prepare the spider that the meat will keep fresh and sweet from four to six weeks, or until the helpless baby wasp is full-grown and passes into the chrysalis stage. It remains a chrysalis until the following summer, when a full-fledged, bright - col- ored wasp emerges. In this state it does not feed upon spiders, but upon nectar and honey. The wasps continue their raids for two ors three weeks, only the spiders with closed doors escaping. Sometimes one has kept herself shut up for two weeks, and then timidly opens her door and looks out; but SPIDERS AND WASPS. 85 the raid is not yet over, and sooner or later she is sure to become the wasp’s prey. Towards the end of August I see no more of the wasps, but out of twenty-eight spiders only five are left. These now soon open their doors, and oceasion- ally one cuts the threads of web in such a manner as to make a sort’ of trap-door, leaving a hinge on one side; but more usually there is a hole in one end of the oven-shaped cover, which the spider can soon close by drawing the material together and fastening it with web. In November they all hermetically close their doors, and keep them shut until the following April, when the spiders again come forth, the females each with a cocoon of eggs attached to the spinneret. The eggs hatch in May, and the young spiders crawl on to the mother’s back—in fact, literally covering her body. After a few days they leave her, and all at once come rushing out of the burrow. For two or three months these young spiders flit about here and there, over bushes and on the lower branches of trees, seemingly ambitious to get in high places. Towards the end of July their roving life ceases, and they settle down and dig little burrows in the earth, which the first season they do not conceal. The wasps do not molest these young. ones. The following spring—when a year old—they are a little more than half grown, but during the summer they grow rapidly, and moult several times, each time 86 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. changing their appearance. By August they seem to be nearly full grown, when their enemy the wasp makes such havoc among them. By thus tracing the life history of this spider we find it to be two years old before the first brood of young is hatched ; and if no accident befalls it, it prob- ably lives several years. These spiders make very interesting pets. I capture them by cutting out the nests with a sharp trowel or large knife, and have ready some glass candy-jars from twelve to fourteen inches in height, in which I carefully place them. I then fill in with earth all around, mak- ing the jar about half full, and cover the surface with moss, introducing some pretty little growing plants, so that my nervous lady friends may admire the plants without being shocked with the knowledge that each of these jars is the home of a large spider. Some of these spiders take kindly to their new sur- roundings, and at once begin to repair their domiciles ; others utterly refuse to take advantage of my kindness, and try to climb up the side of the jar—which is im- possible for them to accomplish—to make their escape. It is of no use to keep a discontented individual, for it will not build, however tame it becomes. Such a one I always let go to shift for itself, which it very soon does by digging a burrow, sometimes within a few feet from where I sent it adrift. The male tiger-spider is a handsome fellow, and fully as large as the female. In color the body is a light SPIDERS AND WASPS. 87 snuff-brown, with dashes of dark purple, while the legs are striped like a tiger’s. The female is nearly black. The male takes as much pains in building his domicile as the female. In fact, one of the males in a jar en- tirely outdid the female in making a tasteful retreat. He utilized a little twining plant by winding it around and making a living green bower over his burrow. He has a voracious appetite, scarcely refusing any- thing I give him, even taking large hairy caterpillars. He has moulted three times during the summer, and now in September must be full grown. But another species—of which this is the first public mention so far as is known—excels the tiger-spider in its curious architectural attainments. It belongs to the genus Zarantula, and is as large as the tiger but quite different in color. The male is a soft velvety black, while the female is grayish-brown, or like faded velvet. She has a light-gray spot on top of the thorax, and on the abdomen are three dark-brown longitudinal stripes alternating with light gray. In young specimens these markings are quite distinct, but in old ones the colors blend somewhat. The two sexes do not differ in size, the male being fully as large as the female. The body is a little more than an inch in length, and the legs are large and long, which gives it quite a formidable ap- pearance, but it is perfectly harmless. I have provisionally named it Tarantula turricula, reserving a further description. The name was sug- gested from its manner of building. 88 * HOME STUDIES IN NATURE, It digs a burrow in the earth six or seven inches in depth, but the upper part of its domicile is entirely unlike that of the tiger-spider. This species builds a little round tower above its burrow. It procures sticks from one to two inches in length, and arranges them very symmetrically one above the other, laying them so as to make a five-sided wall. It is usually a most contented species in continement. Early in July I took a fine female, surrounded and almost covered with baby spiders about ready to leave the mother —the young can readily run up the side of the jar and escape. As soon as they left her, I re- moved the jar to my study; I did not take the nest with this woUNDAMON or 'eoener: “Spider, as. L wished to see what she would do with entirely new surroundings. The earth in the jar was about six inches in depth and well pressed down. I gave her sticks and moss to put around the top of her tube. : She soon began to dig a burrow, and when it was about two inches in depth she commenced to build a tower above it. She takes a stick from my fingers and places it at the edge of her tube. She works while inside of her burrow, holding the stick with her fore- legs until it is arranged to suit her; she then turns around and fastens it with a strong web. She takes another stick and proceeds in the same way, and con- BURROW OF THE TARANTULA TURRICULA, SPIDERS AND WASPS. 91 tinues this until she has laid the foundation of a five- sided wall, She now goes down to the bottom of her tube and brings up a pellet of earth, which she places on top of the sticks; she goes all around, making a circle of these pellets, which she flattens by pressing her body against them, and arranges them in such a man- ner as to cover the sticks on the inside, making the walls perfectly round and silk-lined. Now she is ready for more sticks, which she continues to alternate with the pellets until the tower has reached the height of two and a half inches above her burrow. I occasionally gave her bits of green moss an inch or two in length, which she would use by fastening them to a stick with web; this makes the wall on the outside fringed with moss. If she is not in a mood for building, and I offer her a stick, she takes it in her mandibles, and with her fore- feet gives it a quick blow, often sending it with force enough to hit the jar; and when she is digging and bringing up pellets of earth which she does not wish to use in her tower, she throws them from the top of the walls with sufficient force to make them land a foot or more from the burrow, if it were not for the intervention of the glass. This accounted for the fact that I could never find any fresh earth near the bur- rows of these spiders. She is also a very neat house-keeper; she leaves no débris in the cellar under her tower; the remains of all insects are thrown from the top in the same manner 92 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. she throws the pel- lets. The tiger-spider al- ways leaves the skeletons of insects in the bottom of its tube, and in- time this makes a rich black mould around the. bot- tom of it, and as a result of this the spider is often driven from its home by a great mush- room starting from the bot- tom of the burrow, which pushes its way upward and completely demolishes it, thus forcing the spider to seek new quarters. Such a catastrophe never hap- MUSHROOM GROWING IN THE BURROW pens to our neater tower: OF THE TIGER-SPIDER, AND HOUSE : OF THE TARANTULA TURRICULA. builder. SPIDERS AND WASPS. 93 In confinement the female tiger-spider will kill and eat the male, but the tower-builder has no such wicked tendency ; the two live in perfect harmony. I soon in- troduced a male into the jar with the female that I capt- ured in July, but he would not build for himself, nor would he assist her. He often seemed to be watching her movements, and would go up on her tower and look down, but I never saw him venture within her burrow. Towards the last of July the female appeared with a cocoon of eggs about as large as a hazel-nut attached to the spinneret. I now set the male free, and he dug a burrow not more than two rods distant from where I liberated him. His tower is not so fine as the fe- male’s, and as yet it is only about an inch above the burrow, and he has been at work on it for two months or more, but meanwhile two disasters have happened to it—probably some bird, catching a glimpse of the builder, demolished the structure in the vain hope of capturing him. The female in the jar exercises the greatest care over her cocoon. On cool days she keeps out of sight down in her tube, which is now about eight inches in depth, including the tower; but when I set the jar in the sun, she soon comes up and puts the cocoon in the sunshine. When cool enough for a fire, if I set the jar near the stove, she- places the eggs on the side next to the stove ; if I turn the jar around, she soon moves the cocoon around to .1e warm side, letting it hang outside the walls of her tower. 94 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. On the 6th of October the young spiders are hatched, and very comical they look perched on the mother’s back, and even on her head and legs. When I captured FEMALE SPIDER WITH YOUNG. her three months ago in this same condition she was wild and frightened ; now she is tame and quiet. She carried the cocoon two months before the eggs hatched. She never leaves her home; her favorite position is sitting on the top of her tower, with her legs folded beneath her. Any unusual noise, like the sudden closing of a door, always alarms her and sends her quickly within; but she has become so accustomed to my presence that she allows me to move the jar with- out leaving her position, and she takes food from my fingers, yet if a stranger comes into the room she always seems to know it. She takes strong insects, like grasshop ers or large moths, into her cellar to kill them; and ;when their struggles have ceased she brings them up and deliber- SPIDERS AND WASPS. 95 ately proceeds to divest them of their wings and legs, which she throws away, and then sucks the juices from the body and throws away the dry carcass. Another individual of this species I kept several weeks in a similar jar; but she refused to build, and would not even repair her old home. However, she became quite tame, and I had the satisfaction to see TIGER-SPIDER AND MOTH. how she killed her prey. The moth was not allowed to flutter its wings; the spider would get astride of it, 96 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. GEOMETRIC WEB OF GARDEN-SPIDER (ARGIOPE). . and hold its wings down with her legs, and pierce it with her sharp mandibles until it was dead. Among country people there is much superstitious dread of spiders; and the more ignorant, the greater the superstition. The colored people in Florida SPIDERS AND WASPS. 97 believe the bite of a spider causes sickness and death. And a Florida “cracker” gravely informed me that the bite of an ant—a species of Camponotus that makes its home in fallen timber—would give them “the fever.” Fallen trees on the barrens that would make several cords of excellent wood would at once be abandoned by the chopper if these ants were found in them. But we need not go to Florida to find the existence of senseless superstition. The handsome large black and yellow spider Argiope is perhaps the most dreaded, on ‘ecount of its large size and bright colors. A fine specimen of this species had hung her pretty geometric web in a blackberry bush in a large field devoted to this fruit. On walking through the field I noticed the pickers had, day after day, left the fruit on this bush, and I supposed they did not wish to disturb the spider. At last she was gone, and upon making inquiries I learned that a woman more courageous than the rest had armed herself with a large stick and killed the monster! This beautiful creature, with her exquisite web, is one of the most charming studies in nature— “The spider’s touch, how exquisitely fine! Feels at each thread, and lives along the line.” She is readily tamed, and her solicitude over her great pear-shaped cocoon of eggs is often quite pathetic. Some species.of wasps are very interesting studies, ied ‘ 98 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. especially the social wasps. A tree was be- ing trimmed “in the grove, when I noticed three or four wasps appar- NESTS OF SOCIAL WASPS. ently much ex- cited, and not willing to leave a particular spot. I soon found the cause of their grievance. A small branch had been cut off and thrown down, upon which was fastened their curious paper nest. I SPIDERS AND WASPS. 99 took the branch and stuck it in the ground under the tree. The wasps at once found it, and manifested so much intelligence that I resolved to watch them and see if they could be tamed. They belonged to the genus Polistes. The nest is firmly fastened to the branch by a slender, strong ped- icel, which is on one side of the mass of cells. The cells are so arranged as to form a concave curve, as may be seen in tle engraving. One side is lower than the other, which makes a slanting roof. To bring these wasps under subjection I supposed would require much and long-continued patience, but, to my surprise, I found them very tractable and easily won. My first experiment was to handle the branch, which they resented by acting quite waspish; but I was very gentle with them, and they, never stinging me, soon allowed me to hold it in such a manner that I could see them feed their young and go on with their work, building their paper cells. They manufactured their paper out of wood. I placed a weather-beaten board . near them. Two of the wasps used it; some of the others tried it, but seemed to conclude that they had a better manufacturing establishment of their own finding. I held a small dish of moistened sugar and fruit sirup in my hand, which they found and relished high- ly. I never left this for them to help themselves, as 1 100 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. wished to teach them that I was their benefactor, and they soon learned this and came to meet me. If I neglected to bring the sirup, they flew all around me, sometimes alighting on my hand, but they no longer made any demonstrations that looked like stinging. I one day witnessed a most singular proceeding among this family. A large fat baby wasp died in its cell. The mother wasp pulled it partly out and stroked it with her antennee, and seemed to be licking it. At this time there were a dozen or more mature wasps— the queen and workers. Nine of these were hanging about the cells, an unusually large number to be at home, all at the same time, during working hours. As soon as the mother stepped aside, another took her place and went through the same motions, stroking and lick- ing it; and this in turn was repeated by all of the sister wasps that were present. Then one of the number pulled the dead baby out of the cell and flew away with it, followed by three or four of the family, and I soon lost sight of them. All of the social wasps, so far as is known, commence the colony with one individual queen. The old queen, workers, and males die in the fall, while the young queens hibernate through the winter, under moss and leaves or beneath the bark of trees, and in the spring they select a spot to build, and lay the foundation for the future colony. As the queen has the entire work to do in building the first cells and feeding the larve, SPIDERS AND WASPS. 101 the work progresses slowly ; only two or three cells are completed when the first worker emerges. And now the work goes on more rapidly. The foundations of other cells are at once made, in each of which the queen places an egg, which develops rapidly, and soon the mature wasps appear, and join their mother and sisters in the work, until the colony—in the genus Polistes —often numbers a hundred or more indi- viduals. A small earthen wren-house had been fastened under the eaves of a building to accommodate the birds. I had often noticed a pair of wrens chattering and scold- ing and peering in at the door, but never venturing within. Wishing to learn the cause of their behavior, I mounted a step-ladder and looked in. I found that the rust-red social wasp (Polistes rub/ginosus) had se- lected this novel place to build in, much to the chagrin of the birds, which were evidently afraid to venture within. In the autumn, after the wasps were gone, I investi- gated their work, and found this had been their home for five years. Four large clusters of cells were sus- pended from above. This species attaches its nest from a central point, unlike the first-mentioned species. These four nests just about filled the space; the one last made was somewhat crowded and irregularly built, no space being left for future progeny. In the spring a queen returned to the ancestral hall, 102 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. took in the situation, and resolved not to forsake the home of her forefathers. She selected a stick about an inch in length, and firmly welded it across near the lower edge of some of the old cells. This made a strong brace, capable of sustaining the future colony. She suspended her nest from the brace, where the brood was successfully reared. GROUND SPIDERS, 103 Cuarrer VI. GROUND SPIDERS. Do insects really possess mind? If not, what is it that often impels them to behave precisely as reasoning beings? Some time since I read in the “Scientific Rec- ord” of Harper's Magazine the following passage : “M. Félix Dujardin, of Rheims, verified in the nerv- ous system of insects a centre of true brain, above the throat, imbedded among air-tubes, salivary glands, and fat. Hardened by alcohol or spirits of turpentine, its form and structure appeared beneath the miernseope in regular convolutions, like those of our own cerebral hemispheres, and the outside pulp removed left nerve tracts winding into a white and firmer substance, like the nucleus of the white invertebrata.” If any one will closely observe the behavior of in- sects—especially ants, wasps, or spiders—he wil} not be at all startled or surprised with the announcement that these humble creatures have brains like our own Many spiders build for themselves homes—not merely nests to rear the young, like birds and some of the higher animals, but homes to which they become strong- ly attached. 104 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. In a former chapter I gave some account of a pet spider which built a tower above her burrow, and there- fore I named her Tarantula turricula. Just as I was closing the sketch she became the mother of a numer- ous family. As far as I have observed, the young of other mem- bers of this family escape from their cocoon through the seam which extends around the central part: it is thinner at this point, and splits nearly around the whole circumference, so that the young come out in a body; but with this species they cut a smooth round hole in the cocoon, just large enough for them to come out one by one. During the past eight weeks I have kept close watch of this curious family, carefully noting the behavior of the mother, who, like “The old woman that lived in a shoe, Had so many children she didn’t know what to do.” The first three weeks the little things are piled all over the head and thorax of the mother, often com- pletely blinding her. They seem ambitious to reach the highest point, and jostle and crowd one another in their efforts to be at the top of the heap. The mother patiently endures it for a time, but when they become too thick over her eyes, she takes her long fore-legs, which she uses as feelers or hands, and reaching up scrapes off an armful, which she holds straight in front of her, as if looking at them, and perhaps giving them GROUND SPIDERS. 105 a homily on manners. Soon she gently releases them, slowly opening her arms, and they quietly take their places around the edge of the tower, where they usually remain until the mother goes below, when they all fol- low. Upon her re-appearance they are again stationed upon her back. When these little creatures were two weeks old they strung innumerable lines of web across the mother’s back ; this I soon found was to enable them to dispose of their baby dresses. Up to this time they had been piled upon her abdomen as well as upon her thorax, but now, as if by common consent, they entirely forsook the abdomen as a resting-place, and devoted it exclu- sively to a dressing-room. Sometimes two or three are divesting themselves at the same time. They fasten themselves by a short line of web to one of the lines which they have strung across the mother, and this holds them firmly while they undress. The skin cracks all around the thorax, and is held only by the front edge; next the abdomen is freed, and now comes the struggle to free the legs. The little one works and kicks vigorously, and seems to have no very easy task ; but earnest perseverance brings it out of the old dress in about fifteen minutes, perfectly exhausted and al- most lifeless. I take one upon my hand, where it lies limp and helpless for several minutes, and then it grad- ually comes back to life, and is soon as bright and as before. Whence came the knowledge that impelled these lit- 106 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. . NEST OF SPIDER WITH TRAP-DOOR. 2. MYGALE HENTZII. 8. TARANTULA OF TEXAS, tle creatures to forsake the abdomen as a resting- place and devote it to this purpose ? In the soft, helpless condition that the removal of the skin causes, it would not do for the stronger ones to be moving about and mixing up with the weaker. It is fully a week be- fore they have all moulted, and Vic odd enough the mother looks with f\ the innumerable little ragged cast- off dresses hanging all over the lines of web. Naturalists tell us that young spiders kill one another; but with this species I could detect no such tendency. I kill one and lay it upon the edge of the tower; many of the little ones crawl over it, but pay no atten. GROUND SPIDERS. 107 tion to it whatever. Finally the mother notices it, feels and examines it with one of her fore-legs, and then takes it in her mandibles and shoots it across the jar, where she is in the habit of throwing refuse material. Neither will the young pay any attention to a fly that. I kill and lay in their path; but if the mother holds it in her mandibles and crushes it, they crowd around it, and seem to be sipping the juices. In the absence of other food the mother crushes some of her own babies, and holds them so that the little cannibals can suck the juices. The young do not leave the mother all at the same time, but go out in detachments. When three weeks old about a dozen manifest a disposition to leave the maternal home. They run up on the highest point of a plant, and remain there until I set the jar where the plants can lean against the trunk of a tree, when they speedily run up to the branches; the rest are quiet, staying with the mother a week longer. But now she manifests a disposition to send them adrift. She is no longer quiet and patient, but frequently picks one up.and throws it across the jar, yet seems to be careful. not to injure it. She behaves much in the same way that the higher animals do in weaning their young. It is now a bright, sunny day in early November, and a large proportion of these little creatures—fully fifty—seem to be in great haste to leave. Like the first, they also run up the body of a tree, and I see no more of them; but in the spring I shall probably find 108 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. many little burrows in the neighborhood of the tree. where they have settled down as staid house-keepers. Some twenty-five or thirty are still with the mother, and the weather being cold and disagreeable, these show no disposition to leave. I remove the plants from the jar that I may be better enabled to watch their pro- ceedings. The mother has cleared the web from her body, and looks plump and bright. She sits on the top of her tower, with the little ones stationed thickly all around the edge—seldom now are they resting upon her; but when she goes within her burrow they all follow. For several days past whenever I have given her food she quickly disappears with it, and this, no doubt, is the reason why they-follow her. On her re-appearance I see that a few have availed themselves of the oppor- tunity of being carried up upon her back, but they do not remain there. One of these little creatures has resolved to set up house- keeping in the jar without taking its allotted period of roving life, and its performances are the most amusing of anything I have ever witnessed in insect life. It is making its tube down the side of the jar, so that the glass forms about a third of the wall, thus enabling me to see the movements of the little builder at all times. The tube is very small, scarcely one-fourth of an inch in diameter. In two days it has excavated an inch be- low the surface, and built up a tiny tower fully half an GROUND SPIDERS. 109 inch high. The tower is made wholly of earth and web. This diminutive architect brings the little pellets in its mandibles, and those it does not wish to use in the tower it lets fall down by the side. Unlike its mother and other elderly relatives, it does not shoot the earth to a distance, but stands on the top of its tower, and opening its mandibles lets it drop; at the same time it throws apart its legs or arms, as if that would help it to dispose of the earth. This movement is very baby-like; but with age will come the wily ‘movements of the mother—shooting the earth away, and using moss and sticks for the better concealment of the home. Yet this small house-keeper has rights, and means to maintain them. Her actions say most emphatically that she has shut herself apart from the rest of the family, and will not be annoyed by them. Frequently one of her brothers or sisters, meandering about, comes to this little tower, and not often will one pass by without go- ing up and looking in. This always seems to exasper- ate the small madam. She drops her work, and springs from the top of her tower, sometimes chasing the run- ning brother half way across the jar; she then turns and goes back to work. This is the more remarkable as no such disposition is ever manifested so long as they remain with the mother. While with her they crowd together, walk over one another, and never have any quarrels. At the end of the sixth week most of the remaining 110 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. young are anxious to go out in the world. It is an- other pleasant day, and I again give them the oppor- tunity ; now only five besides the little house-keeper are left behind, and the next day I release two of these, leaving only four, and one of these has also concluded to settle down and build a cosy home in the jar. It builds precisely like the first, and has the same trouble with its inquisitive little brothers, It has chosen_the site of its domicile not two inches distant from its sis- ter’s, and here they sit contentedly on the top of their towers, often facing each other, and watching the tiny. scavenger beetles that breed in the jar and live on the refuse insects thrown out by the mother. These beetles are food for the young spiders, yet I think they are not to their taste as much as flies; but they dare not yet attack a living house-fly. If one comes near them, they quickly dodge within their burrows. If I kill a fly and lay it on the tower, either will try to take it within, but it is impossible to do this with the wings and legs adhering; yet it is wonderful to see their attempts. They turn it first one way and then another, and get beneath it and pull. I remove the wings and legs, and lay it back, when it is soon carried below. After a few hours the dry carcass is brought up and thrown out. Wishing to photograph the mother’s tower, I found it necessary to remove it from the jar. This seems to nonplus her; she does not know what to make of it. All at once her house is on a level with the ground. GROUND SPIDERS. ; 111 She becomes timid, and runs out of sight at my ap- proach. But after a while she comes up and begins to investigate matters. She examines the various things scattered over the surface. Now she finds the long legs of a grasshopper, and concludes these will do to- wards erecting another tower. I do not offer her any fresh sticks or moss, but let her work with what she can find. She comes across a moth about an inch in length which she has rejected as food, and it is stiff and dry; so she utilizes it by working it in with the other material. She is a persevering builder, and in about two hours has reared her domicile half an inch above the surface. I return the tower, which is so firmly made that it has not been injured by the transportation, and place it in position as nearly as I can. Very soon this wise architect comprehends the situation. She sees where the welding must be made, and holds the tower firm- ly in place, pressing against it with her body, while round and round she goes, securing it with a strong web. Satisfied with its stability, she takes her position on the top, sitting there very complacently, evidently ex- pecting to be furnished with flies, which by this time —the last of November—it is no easy matter to pro- cure. But occasionally there comes a warm, sunny day, when flies are on the wing; and now opening the door, a number are sure to come in and fly to the windows, where I easily capture them. They are much larger 112 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. than house-flies, and two or three will make her a good - meal. I put half a dozen in the jar, and cover it so they cannot escape. And now madam is on the alert ; she watches them as a cat watches a mouse; she crouches and moves cautiously, and when one alights she pounces upon it. Not often does she miss her THE INSECT MENAGEKI, prey, but when she does it is very amusing to see the astonishment she displays. She slowly straightens up and feels beneath her. Satisfied that the game is gone, she now becomes much more wary, and acts as if she did not care for flies at all, allowing one to come so near that it almost touches her before she springs upon it. When there are several flies in the jar she disposes of one much more quickly than she otherwise would. GROUND SPIDERS. 113 Sometimes she manages to hold two in her mandibles at the same time. All the young have left her, and now she sets her house in order. She comes to the top with a bundle of the little ragged dresses bound together with web, and shoots them across the jar. Bundles of little sticks and loose earth follow in rapid succession. She works with energetic perseverance for an hour or more, and then stops and assumes her favorite position—sitting across the top of her tower—and proceeds to make her toilet. First one leg and then another is passed be- tween the palpi several times, and all the while her mandibles are at work as if chewing, and moisture oozes up between them so that it is plainly visible. Many other members of this large family (Lycoside) have very interesting habits, and are well worth observ- ing. One of the largest species found at the North is Lycosa carolinensis (Hentz). According to Dr. McCook this species has a wide range, being found all along the Atlantic seaboard and * west as far as Ohio. Fine specimens of this large spider were expressed to me from New Hampshire, and are now hibernating among a host of their relatives in my arachnidan men- agerie. My menagerie is enclosed with a dense circular hedge of arbor-vitee, fifteen feet in height and a hun- dred and fifty feet in circumference. In the centre is a maple-tree with drooping branches. Ornamental plants are scattered about, and two bird baths are pret- 8 114 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. THE GREAT LYCOSA. tily arranged—large, shallow, earth- colored pans are set into the ground, and graceful twining plants are fes- tooned above them. The birds seem to appreciate these cool, pretty baths, and their splashing keeps the earth so moist that the plants grow Iuxu- poAess!S, viantly all about them. In this retreat Glekek 4 I have brought together a large num- ' <= ber of burrowing spiders, whose habits I wish to investigate, and to do this successfully I must devise some means to keep them intact from their enemies. For this purpose I havea number of oval glasses (such as gardeners use in starting early vegeta- GROUND SPIDERS. 115 bles), with a small opening at the top, which I can close at pleasure. These I set over each burrow to keep my pets from the ravages of their relentless enemy, the digger-wasp. In this way I hope to be able to learn much more of the habits of other members of this curious and interesting family. Most of these spiders readily adapt themselves to their new surroundings. I sometimes transplant the nest entire without disturbing the occupant; but when they are to be transported long distances this is not practicable. I have found the most satisfactory way to send them on a journey is to confine each in a glass bottle. The bottle should be about the diameter of the burrow in which the spider lived. The great Lycosa from New Hampshire was sent in this way, and then packed securely in a wooden box with many other specimens. As soon as they arrived I put the largest female Ly- cosa in a glass candy jar, hoping I could make a house- pet of her. But she had come from a grassy meadow, where her burrow was fourteen inches deep, and around the top of which she had woven grass and weeds to the height of four inches, and could she be content with a little six-by-twelve jar, with only about six inches of earth? She seemed to scorn the arrangement. I kept her confined several days. She was not at all afraid, and would drink and take flies, but she would not build, and even turned from the top of her own domicile, which was sent with her, and made so firmly. that it was not 116 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. injured by the removal. Round and round she went, standing on the tips of her hind-feet, while her fore- feet stretched up fully four inches against the glass, making her look quite formidable; but she is perfectly harmless, never attempting to bite in the handling. Despairing of her ever becoming contented in the jar, I put her in the menagerie with the rest. I first made a hole two or three inches deep, and set the top of her New Hampshire house over it. This was better. She took to it at once, and commenced to fix up. She soon welded New Hampshire—soil and grass—fast to New Jersey, and was now satisfied and happy, and did not shut herself in for the winter until late in Novem- ber. Her burrow is only about eight inches deep, and yet there is a marked increase of temperature init. This was observed by several persons on placing the hand at the mouth of the tube. One cold morning — only twenty degrees above zero—I introduced a thermome- ter into the burrow. It ran up to forty, making a dif- ference of twenty degrees. Soon after this she closed her domicile with a canopy of thick close web; she also drew in a few sticks and straws. There is a great difference in the size of mature in- dividuals of this species. I have never found any spec- imens in New Jersey that would at all compare in size with four that were sent me from New Hampshire. The male, like others of its class, has very long legs, as may be seen from the engraving, and, poor fellow, he may often need them in making long strides to get out GROUND SPIDERS. 117 of the reach of his lady-love, who is not very even tem- pered, sometimes petting him, at others savagely attack- ing him. The best builders in my menagerie are Tarantula tugrina (McCook) and 7. turricula; but there is a marked difference in individuals, even of the same species, and I am inclined to think that parentage tells with spiders as well as with the higher animals. The first brood which left my famous pet tower-builder, early in July, have built their little towers as neatly as the mother, and precisely in the same way; while some others of this species rake together whatever they can procure, without order or method. A fine builder of T. turricula, however, far outstrips 7. tégrina, and the winter covering over the home of a good tower-builder is carefully made. Small sticks are laid side by side, and held together with web, forming a firm roof, which is lined on the inside with a thick silken web. But probably all of the various species dig and dispose of the earth in the same way. Among the New Hampshire spiders sent was a small one—unknown to me—taken from a burrow sixteen inches deep. I put it ina glass jar, with five inches of moist earth well pressed down. It soon commenced to dig a burrow next to the glass, giving me a fine op- portunity to see it work. It dug the earth loose with its mandibles and fore-feet, and then turned, and with its spinneret made the earth into a pellet; it again turned, seized the pellet in its mandibles, necessitating 118 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. a third turn, and now came to the edge of the tube, always with its back to the glass, and adjusted its fore- feet so that the tips touched beneath and partly behind the ball of earth, and with a sudden movement of the feet, like the snapping of a. finger, it sent the earth with sufficient force to make it hit the opposite side of the jar. I took some of the pellets, and found that the earth was held together with a kind of mucilage, and sometimes mixed with web. This little creature—only about half an inch in length —was the fastest worker of any I have on record. In four hours she had dug to the depth of three inches, never stopping for a moment, although the jar sat on the table near the lamp, where I was moving books and papers, and part of the time conversing with a friend, yet nothing diverted her from the main busi- ness of establishing a home. In the morning she had reached the bottom of the jar, and was not satisfied, so I put her with the rest, where her energy and persever- ance might have full scope. The ground was in good condition, and she very soon commenced a second bur- row. She has not covered her retreat, and every pleas- ant day—now December—she comes up and looks around; she is under glass, which makes it quite warm when the sun shines. The greatest perfection of tubular nests, however, culminates with spiders that live in warm countries, and make trap-doors with bevelled edges that fit into the top of the tube perfectly; and the spider, when GROUND SPIDERS. 119 pursued by an enemy, can shut the door tightly, and hold it fast with its two front pairs of legg It inserts its claws into holes made near the edge of the door, and braces itself so tirmly against the walls of its tube, and holds on with such pertinacity, that the cover cannot be raised without tearing it. These curious nests are often brought from Southern California, but the spiders which construct them do not take kindly to confinement, at least in the North. 120 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Cnaprer VIL UNDER THE MAPLES. Tuer: is a lively interest among students of history and society in the uncovering of rubbish heaps and the reconstruction of village communities out of insti- tutional hints. I have found my pleasure in unearthing the villages and farms and pasture-lands and battle-fields which lie under my maple-trees. Every year the busy life goes on there, whether I watch it or not; it is a microcosm of that world which my daily newspaper reports; for here among the ants are the builders of cities, the governors and leaders, the masters of slaves, the harvesters, the herdsmen, and the mechanics. No emancipation proclamation has yet been issued, but there are wars and rumors of wars. Failing to discover the official records of these busy creatures—too busy, may be, to trouble themselves about history —I have kept a journal of my observations. I have had, moreover, the opportunity of comparing the observations which I have made under my North- ern maple-trees with what I have seen at the South, and I record with pleasure the fact that there is more sommon ground of pursuit between the two sections UNDER THE MAPLES. 121 than some would have us believe. Naturalists have given us the impression that no harvesting ants are to be found at the North. They are mistaken. Familiar as I am with those of the South, I have never found a more interesting species than one at the North—Piei- dole pennsylvanica—a large colony whose subterranean city is beneath the spreading branches of a maple in near proximity to my house, affording an excellent op- portunity to observe its habits. The colony is composed of males and females and two sets of neuters, consisting of soldiers and workers, each set widely differing from the other in looks and occupation. The soldiers are at once recognized by their superior size and large heads, and they take no part in the ordinary work of the community. The workers are much smaller than the soldiers, and, as their name indicates, they are the architects, food providers, and nurses of the community. They gather various grains and seeds, which they store in underground rooms, usually below the frost line, which indicates that the grain is housed mostly for winter use; this idea is further confirmed by the fact of the great quantity of shells and chaff of seeds which they bring out when their city is undergoing its first thorough spring clean- ing. In what way the seeds are prepared so that they may be made into available food is something of a mystery, as the ants take all nourishment in a liquid form. I have noticed that they are partial to those which yield 122 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. an abundance of mucilage, such as plantain (Plantago lanceolata); but whether these seeds are gathered for the mucilage which they contain, or fur the albumen, which is also abundant, is a question, for the ants are not confined to mucilaginous seeds by any means, but harvest those of Oxalis stricta, Sperqula arvensis, and grass-seed, which are destitute of mucilage, but abound in albumen. As the embryo swells it acts upon the albumen, dissolving and chemically changing its sub- stance into a large quantity of sugar, which seems to point to the way in which they are used for food. But the ants also gather a great many seeds of a cru- ciferous plant (Lepidiwm virginicwm) which contains no albumen. So instead of devoting my time to find- ing out the properties of the various seeds which they collected, and speculating upon how and in what way they use them, I have closely observed their habits from early spring until late autumn. In the first warm days of April, sometimes in the latter part of March, several gates of the city are open- ed, and the busy inhabitants are engaged in bringing out the refuse of grain and other rubbish which has accumulated during the winter, and which they deposit in a heap outside of the city limits. The laborers work continuously during pleasant weather, and are attended by sentinels, or perhaps street commissioners, who seem to be watching and directing their movements. When the spring cleaning is completed, all the gates are per- manently closed except one, and this is shut and barri- UNDER THE MAPLES. 123 caded at all times save when the ants are actively en- gaged at harvest or other work. Upon excavating a formicary in July, I found several nearly empty chambers, some near the surface of the ground, others scattered irregularly about to the depth of three feet, where 1 came to several small rooms or granaries stored with seed. I noticed one chamber much larger than the rest, which from all appearances was the dining-room, as it contained some partly con- sumed insects. The ants were in great consternation over the loss of their city, running in every direction, and carrying the larvee and pups, while many of them were buried beneath the ruins. It appears heartless and cruel to destroy one of these neatly built cities, doubtless the work of years and representing the labor of many thousand individuals. And, in fact, very little can be learned of the interior of such a formicary, even with the most careful handling, owing to the nature of the soil in which it is built. The most satisfactory way of obtaining knowledge of the interior of a formicary is to cut into one of some species that builds in wood, and take out sections that can be carried home; and at the same time secure a colony of the ants, together with the larvae and pup. This I accomplished with a species of Aphanogaster, nearly related to the har- vesting ants. The blocks were cut through several chambers, but fitted together perfectly. The ants were soon domiciled, and came out and walked timidly about among their new surroundings. I now placed dry 124 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. crumbs of cake and small lumps of dry, hard sugar near the blocks, which they soon found and carried within. Three days afterwards I carefully separated the blocks, and found the dining-room, where the cake and sug- ar had been taken. The blocks were dry, and placed where no moisture could reach them except what the ants might convey, and yet the cake and sugar were dissolved into a pulpy mass. The larvee were in dry chambers not far removed from the food. This indi- cates that the harvesting ants bring their stored seeds from the granaries to another room as needed, and have some process unknown to us whereby they make the seed into available food. When some reconnoitring member of the community has found an abundant harvest, the news is soon im- parted, and the workers form in line and march to the spot. Tere the line is broken, and the numerous indi- viduals scatter about and.collect the seeds, when they again form in line and return over the same road. Day after day this road is traversed, until the grain is ex- hausted, or until some enterprising member has found better harvesting grounds, when the old field is forsaken for the new. I have never seen the soldiers in line with the laborers carrying seeds, but they are always at the front, where strength and courage are required, and they will work in case of an emergency. In common with other ants, the harvesters are very partial to animal food, upon which, no doubt, they greatly subsist during the summer. A dead fly several UNDER THE MAPLES. 125 times larger than one of the ants was placed a short distance from the gate of the city. A wandering indi- vidual from the tribe of Lasius discovered it at the same moment with one of the Pheidoles. (As our lit- tle harvester has-a name and place in the scientific world, I will hereafter call it by its generic name, Phe?- dole.) The two are about equally matched in size and strength, and now a struggle ensues for the coveted prize. First one and then the other seems to have the advantage. Lasius succeeds in getting it a short dis- tance from the place of discovery in the direction of her camp, but is obliged to drop it to make sure of her bearings, when Pheidole hurries with it in the opposite direction, eager to place it within her gate before the other again seizes it. But Lasius is not to be beaten in this manner, and again struggles for the mastery, and it begins to look as if she might be successful. At this point Pheidole seems to be discouraged, gives up the contest and starts for home. She enters the gate for a moment, and hastily returns, closely followed by a sol- dier. During this short interval Lasins has moved well forward in the direction of her camp. Pheidole reach- es the spot where she left the prize only to find it gone, and now she rushes in frantic haste round and round, widening the circle as she advances, until she finds La- sius, and again lays hold of the fly. The soldier, mean- while, moves more slowly, but makes the same circuit, until she reaches the contending parties, and takes hold of the fly by the side of her comrade; and now the 126 HOME. STUDIES IN NATURE. burden is easily carried, with Lasius clinging to the opposite side, and holding on with untiring pertinacity, occasionally preventing the rapid transit by bracing herself against some object in the path. This seems to provoke the soldier, who drops the fly, lays hold of Lasius, and tears her in pieces, while the smaller Phei- dole carries the prize to the city and disappears within the gate. I placed six freshly killed horse-flies near the city, any one of which was many times larger than one of the Pheidoles. Two workers soon made the discovery, and walked over and around this huge pile as if taking its dimensions. Satisfied that it was beyond their pow- er to do anything alone, they simultaneously started for the city, as if each were anxious to be the first to im- part the news. Not a soldier was visible, but several must have been just within the gate, for they immedi- ately came pouring out in large numbers, and at once proceeded to this supply of food. The flies were soon carried to the city, but were too large to drag through the gate (the streets, or galleries, were much broader than the gate from which they diverged); so they were removed a short distance, and a company of laborers was employed in enlarging the gate, while the soldiers were engaged in cutting off the wings and legs from the flies. Soon one was brought back to the gate, two legs and a wing still adhering to the body. They tried to take it in head first, but it would not go; they lifted it out and turned it round, but succeeded no better UNDER THE MAPLES. 127 until the remaining legs and wing were severed. All of the flies were managed in the same way. The legs and wings, as fast as the soldiers severed them, were borne within by the workers. Sometimes the wings were at first rejected and thrown among the débris, but other more provident individuals were sure to find them, and bearing them aloft like banners, carried them into the city. In less than an hour all of the flies were housed, the gate closed, and not an inhabitant was to be seen. : Each tribe has its own peculiarities. Zasius flavus is a thieving, vagabond race, widely differing from the Pheidoles, who have regular settled homes, while the camps of the Lasius are scattered everywhere and often changed. Sometimes several camps are near the city, and prove to be a great annoyance to the citizens; the strolling tribes hinder them in their work, and interfere with their funeral rites. Several workers are employed among the Pheidoles to keep the dining-room in order ; they bring out the chaff of grain, and shells of seeds, and remains of insects after the feast, and deposit them in a heap some distance beyond the gate-way. While they are thus engaged a sentinel is always patrolling around the gate to warn them of approaching danger. The Lasius are the most dreaded enemy. They are sure to be on the alert when the gate of the city is open, ready to snatch prey from the returning hunters; or they rush up to the workers, to see if they are carry- ing out anything desirable. So the sentinel, when she 128 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. meets any of this tribe, hurries to the entrance and sta- tions herself there, and seems to whisper to each advan- cing worker, who hastily retreats with her burden. As long as the sentinel remains at the gate not one of the laborers passes out; but she no sooner returns to her rounds than they begin to emerge, at first slowly and cautiously, deposit their burdens, and return for more. The Lasius are not only cannibals, but they will snatch the dead body of a Pheidole from its relatives when on the way to the place of interment. I was sitting near the closed gate of the city, and observed that the sticks and pebbles with which it was barricaded were being moved to make room for an individual to go through. The ants came out one at a time to the number of sev- en, and removed the stones and sticks to one side, leav- ing a free opening. And now one of their comrades came, bearing the dead body of a young female. She had died while still clothed in the white filmy mate- rial in which the young are swathed—a fitting shroud, through which her plump body was plainly visible. Her limbs were neatly folded across her breast. The bearer started alone to conceal the body in some distant place, while her comrades reclosed the gate and retired within the city. I followed the bearer, and saw, from the direction she was taking, that she would soon be in the midst of several camps of Lasius, of which she seemed to be unaware. No sooner had she reached the border of the camps than her footsteps were dogged by. one of the tribe, who soon overtook her, seized the body UNDER TUE MAPLES. 129 and tried to wrest it from her; but finding that her strength was not sufficient she let go her hold, and has- tened to the nearest camp to tell of this desirable prize. Soon a dozen or more of the Lasius were on the track. She now became thoroughly alarmed, and impetuously rushed forward until she came to a deep pit. She did not drop the body, but clung frantically to the edge of the pit, until the little fragment of earth gave way, and she was precipitated with her burden to the bottom. The Lasius lingered a while, waiting for her re-appear- ance; but she did not come, and they returned to their ennnrters The Pheidoles’ mode of defence when attacked by a large army is unlike that of any other species with which I am acquainted. A great troop of Lasius from surrounding camps came down upon the city, with the determination to take it. They scaled the fortified gate and hastily threw aside the barricade, but were met by a solid phalanx of large-headed soldiers which completely filled the gap. Defeated here, their next move was to mine into a street a short distance from the gate. But their labor was of no avail; here, too, was a phalanx of soldiers, and not a Lasius was allowed to pass within. But they had their revenge in another way. Every little while one of the workers, who had been away from home, returned, and tried to reach the entrance, but was invariably seized by the enemy, when one or two soldiers would come to the rescue, and the little worker would make ‘her escape and promptly pass 9 130 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. into the city, while the soldier was immediately sur- rounded by a horde of the invading foe. She fought valiantly, and killed many, but sometimes succumbed to the overpowering numbers; more frequently she freed herself and escaped, not back to the city, but by climb- ing the nearest object—a stem of clover or grass—where the enemy never followed. Several soldiers escaped in this manner, and remained concealed until the defeated army returned to its quarters. A good illustration of the care and sympathy which the members of a colony of Pheidoles have for each other was manifested in an artificial formicary, arranged by the Rev. Mr. Morris, and placed upon his study table. The formicary was in a glass jar, about two-thirds full of earth. The outside of the jar, as far as the earth extended, was encircled with paper, to exclude the light, in order that the ants might build their galleries and rooms next to the glass. The colony soon became reconciled to their strange home, learning to come out of the jar and pass down the legs of the table to visit any part of the study and return. The workers had no difficulty in ascending the glass, but the large-headed soldiers could not get up without assistance. They would go as far as the paper extended, and fall back with every attempt to scale the smooth glass. Their large heads were a detriment rather than a help in such a novel emergency as this. And now the little workers, who had always looked to the Amazon soldiers for help in all trying circum- UNDER THE MAPLES. 131 stances, came to the rescue, and assisted them over the slippery place. One would come to the edge of the paper and meet a soldier, and gently take hold of her antennes, and walk backward up the glass, steadying and supporting her until they both passed into the formi- cary. This soon became a fixed habit. After a while the soldiers did not try to walk up the glass alone, but would wait at the top of the paper for the workers to conduct them over it. Several other species of ants in the North occasion- ally collect seeds and flowers and foliage. I have ob- served a tiny black ant, a species of Zetvamorium, gath- ering honey from flowers, after the manner of bees. I first observed this species in New IIampshire, in the month of August, 1880, collected in great numbers on the golden-rod (Solidago nemoralis). They ascend the long stalks and enter the flowers, where they are almost entirely concealed, only the tips of their abdomens showing like black specks on the bright yellow florets. When they are satisfied they come slowly down, with their honey-sacks rounded out almost to bursting, and all follow the same path until they reach their subter- ranean formicary. The harvesting ants and their allies have nothing to do with Aphides or other sweet-secreting insects. They seem to have some way of elaborating or obtaining sugar directly from plants. But many other species depend in a great degree upon their flocks and herds for subsistence. Notable among this latter class are the 132 | HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Crematogasters—an interesting race, divided into many clans or tribes. They often keep large herds of Aph- ides—cows, the immortal Linnzeus called them—upon which they are greatly dependent ; so the prosperity of a colony may be known by its herds. The droves are jealously guarded from marauding tribes who are less fortunate in their possessions, and who frequently try to get the control of the cows of their more wealthy neighbors. In the summer of 1881 I witnessed an exciting con- test between two colonies of the same species over a fine herd. The pasture on which the cows were feed- ing consisted of tender green herbage, and they were in good condition and yielded an abundance of the sac- charine fluid. Around this pasture was a space of bare ground, where the troops were marshalled to keep the neighboring colony from trespassing among the drove. Tier upon tier, a solid phalanx extended around the entire pasture, making it impossible for the invaders to break through the ranks. The assaulting army was lean and hungry-looking, but fully as large and strong as the one attacked. There was no general engagement, but every little while two of the opposing forces would clinch and tumble about over the ground like two dogs, but on relaxing their hold neither party seemed to be hurt. ‘The cows were not neglected during this skir- mishing. A host of kind and gentle milkers were con- stantly employed in obtaining the fluid, patting and stroking the cows with their antenne until they gave UNDER THE MAPLES. 133 down the milk. I noticed that the soldiers often changed places, those at the front going to the rear. The cause was soon apparent. All along the rear the milkers were feeding the troops. Other milkers were constantly going to and from the subterranean city, which was situated not far from the pasture-lands. They were, no doubt, supplying the queens and other members of the colony who were unable to be in the ranks. After witnessing this skirmishing for several days, I established a drove of Aphides near the city of the hostile colony. Some of the invaders were always on the road between the two colonies, slowly walking back and forth, like sentinels, to watch over their city, that it might not be taken by surprise while the protectors were absent. And now one of the sentinels came upon the cows, and ran around among them in an evident state of excitement, but did not stop to obtain any milk. Apparently satisfied with the fine condition of the herd, she ran with all haste to impart the good news to the army stationed around the neighboring col- ony. I followed her closely, never losing sight of her amid the throng. On her way she frequently met a returning comrade, whom she stopped for a moment and touched with her antenne. ‘The speed of the com- rade after obtaining the news was greatly accelerated in the direction of home. The sentinel reached the outer ranks of the army, and communicated with every one with whom she came in contact, and somehow imparted 134 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. the same excitement with which her own body was quivering, until the whole army was aroused and on the homeward road. Very soon there was a host of eager milkers among the drove. But a large part of the army retired within the city, where they were fed by the milkers. Now that the invading force was with- drawn, the troops of the threatened colony also disap- peared, only a few sentinels remaining to watch over the milkers and herd. A tribe of Formica (7 gagates) also makes stock- raising its principal means of support, but the herds are entirely different from those of the Crematogasters: they do not graze in open fields, but are stabled, and feed on the roots of various plants. Underground sta- bles are made expressly for them. The earth is re- moved from around the tender roots, and the dun-col- ored cattle are clustered in small groups around the roots upon which they are feeding. The groups are arranged so as to enable the milkers to pass easily and freely among them. I have often carefully opened the stables, but the owners always resented it, and carried the cows away to subterranean galleries beyond my sight. When the stables were reclosed, in due time they were brought back and disposed in the same regular order. There are two distinct races of slave-makers among these humble creatures, who capture and hold slaves to carry on their domestic affairs. Polyergus lucidus is the more remarkable of the two, and it would require UNDER THE MAPLES. 135 many pages to do it justice; but I ‘ean devote only a short space to this singular species, which is wholly dependent upon its slaves for its continued existence. These ants are very powerful warriors, and are furnished with sickle-shaped, pointed mandibles, sharp as spears, with which they can impale an enemy with great facil- ity. Their wonderful prowess and skill in war seems to be recognized by all of the various tribes of the country. They are a ruddy race, about half an inch in length, with bright, shining coats; a nervous haste characterizes their movements. They make slaves of but one tribe of blacks (Hurmica schaufussii), whereas the other slave-makers (7. sanguinea) attack any and all tribes which they can overpower.* From the indolent habits of Polyergus, and from the fact that they are never seen except on the war- path, it has been supposed that they are of rare occurrence. But in New Jersey they are quite as numerous as San- guineas. By carefully observing the movements of the latter, I have been enabled to detect several colonies of the former of whose existence I was before unaware. If the Sanguineas pass a colony of blacks without at- tacking it, it is good evidence that the blacks are the slaves of the Polyergus. This can soon be ascertained by keeping watch over the colony. The raids of Polyergus are made in the months of * A detailed account of this latter species is published by Harper & Brothers in a number of their Half-Hour Series. 136 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. July and August, and always in the afternoon, usually between the hours of two and four. Their march is unlike that of any other tribe in this country. A dozen or more of the advance wheel and fall back in the ranks; those coming after make the same move; and so they continue, constantly changing places, until they reach the black colony, upon which they make war and rob them of their young. When they return with their plunder they march in a direct line—no turning back in the ranks. The slaves always remain at home during these raids; but they receive the young blacks from their masters, feed and nurse them, and rear them as slaves to wait on and serve their owners. As no slaves are born in the homes of Polyergus, it is needful each year to renew the stock from surrounding colonies. In order to study the character of Polyergus more thoroughly, I captured several and made them pris- oners. I gave them every necessary accommodation, and placed an abundance of food before them. But they seemed to scorn the idea of Jabor, and would not even feed themselves. I kept them in this condition three days, until I was satisfied they would all die with- out their slaves, so I put a few in the prison with them. These faithful creatures manifested joy on meeting their half-famished masters. They stroked and licked them, removing all dust from their bodies, and prepared food and fed them; finally they excavated a room for them, and took them from my sight. PART III. PLANTS THAT CONSUME ANIMALS. UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. 188 Crarter VIIL UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. For several years past I have devoted much time to a class of plants that seem to have reversed the regular order of nature, and, like avengers of their kingdom, have turned upon animals, incarcerating and finally kill- ing them. Whether the plants are really hungry and entrap the animals for food, or whether it is only an example of the wanton destructiveness of nature I leave the reader to judge. Some of these curious plants are found in abundance in the Northern States, and others over a wide range in the Southern States. One alone, the Dionzea, has a limited area, being found only near Wilmington, North Carolina. The Utricularias (named from utricle, a little bag or bladder) are, perhaps, some of the most remarkable of the plants which apparently do not conform to the usu- al methods of nature. Dr. Gray, in his “ Manual of Botany of the Northern United States,” describes twelve well-defined species found within this range; and Dr. Chapman, in his “Flora of the Southern States,” de- scribes nine species growing in Florida and the South- 140 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. ern States generally; but this is too low an estimate, as I have found more than nine distinct species in Flor- ida alone. Almost every muddy pond either North or South con- FIG, 1.—A SECTION OF STEM OF UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA (NATURAL SIZE). tains one or more .of these plants. Some grow nearly or wholly out of water; but the species which I am about to describe are immersed, with finely dissected leaves on long stems extended in the water. Scattered among the leaves, or along the stems which are destitute of leaves, are numer- ous little bladders or utricles. It had always been taken for granted that these utricles were made to float the plant, although I had often noticed that the stems most heavily laden with these sank the lowest in the water. The flowering stems of most of the species are smooth, free from leaves or utricles, and shoot straight from the water to a height of from three to twelve inches, bearing at the top from one to ten curiously fashioned flowers of a yellow or pur- ple color. UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. 141 In December, 1873, on placing some of the utricles under the microscope I noticed animalcules within them, dead entomostraca, and the dead larva of some cod aquatic insect ; but as the utricles appeared to be open, the significance of the dead creatures was not very: ap- parent, and I was not aroused to earnest work until I saw the movements of a captured living larva, its strug- gles to escape, and its final death. This was in October, 1874. I now visited the ponds and procured abundant material. The plant that I experimented mostly with was the one known to botanists as Utricularia claundes- tina. I soon became so deeply interested that I scarce- ly took note of time, and the small hours of the morn- ‘ing frequently found me absorbed in the work. My observations were now more specially directed to the structure of the utricle, which is quite complicated and beautiful. It is composed of irregular cells, and evenly distributed over the inner surface are clusters of star-like or stellate points, usually four in number, arranged very regularly: they are probably absorbents. My next work was to see what prevented the creat- ures from escaping after being captured, and to this end I devoted my time for several days. The animal that I found most commonly entrapped was a snake-like larva (Chironomus) about the length of the mosquito larva, but more slender and of lighter color (see Fig. 13, p. 159). Under the microscope it appears quite formidable, with fierce-looking jaws, and a pair of telescopic horns 142 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. which it thrusts in and out at pleasure. Near the head are two brush-like telescopic feet, and at the other ex- tremity are two more feet, which the animal uses as a FIG. 2.—MAGNIFIED UTRICLE OF UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. a, Entrance. 0, Stellate point. sort of propeller while swimming. I worked with this larva for several days, determined, if possible, to see it walk into the trap. I repeatedly took individuals from the water and placed them in the live box under the . microscope, with a spray of plant containing utricles, but it was of no use. The light or unnatural position, or both combined, made them fairly frantic, and they dashed about, paying no attention to the utricles. But I entrapped them another way: I put growing stems of the plant in a small dish of water with several larvee and set it aside. In a few hours thereafter I would find the living larvee imprisoned. This served another UTRICWLARIA CLANDESTINA. 1438 purpose, but not the object I was aiming at. Forced to give up this plan of seeing the larve enter the utri- cle, I now directed my attention to the smaller ones—- animaleules proper. I placed the utrioles in water in- habited by numerous tiny creatures, and soon had the satisfaction of seeing the modus operandi by which the victim was caught. There is a depression at the entrance of the utricle, a pretty vestibule that seems to attract the little animals into the inviting retreat, where just beyond is a fatal trap or valve which if touched springs back and en- gulfs the unwary adventurers, never more to be re- leased. I was very much amused in watching a water-bear (Zurdigrada) entrapped. It slowly walked around the utricle, as if reconnoitring—very much like its larger namesake ; finally it ventured into the vestibule, and FIG. 3.—THE WATER-BEAR, soon heedlessly touched the trap, when it was taken within so quickly that my eyes could not follow the motion. The utricle was transparent and quite empty, so that I could see the behavior of the little animal very distinctly. It seemed to look around as if sur- 144 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. prised to find itself in so elegant a chamber; but it was soon quiet, and on the morning following it was entire- ly motionless, with its little feet and claws standing out stiff and rigid. The wicked plant had killed it very much quicker than it kills the snake-like larva. Entomostraca, too, were often captured —Daphyia, Cyclops, and Cypris. These animalcules are just visi- ble to the naked eye, but under the microscope are beautiful and interesting objects. The lively little Cy- FIG. 4.—THE CYPRIS. pris is encased in a bivalve shell, which it opens at pleasure, and thrusts out its feet and two pairs of an- tenn, with tufts of feathery -like filaments. It was quite wary, but nevertheless was often caught. Com- ing to the entrance, it would sometimes pause a mo- ment and then dash away ; at other times it would vent- ure part way into the vestibule and back out as if afraid. Another, more heedless, would walk in, touch the trap, and find itself a prisoner. And now it mani- fested alarm, drew in its feet and antenne, and closed UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA. 145 its shell; but after its death the shell unclosed, display- ing its feet and antenne. I never saw even the small- est animaleule escape after it was once fairly inside the utricle. So these points were settled to my satisfaction—that the animals were entrapped and killed and slowly mac- erated. But how was I to know that these animals were made subservient to the plant? If I could only prove that the contents of the utricles were carried di- ‘rectly into the circulation my point was gained. This now was my sole work for several days—to investigate this subject closely. I found the fluid contents to vary considerably from a dark muddy to a very light, trans- parent color. Hundreds of these utricles, one after an- other, were put to the test under the microscope, and I found that to a greater or less extent I could trace the same color that I found in them in the stem on which they grew, though the observation was not so clear and satisfactory as I could wish. After more crit- ical examination I arrived at. the conclusion that the cells themselves and not their contents change to a red color; the stems also take on this color, so as to make it appear as if a red fluid were carried from the utricles into the main stem, which is not specifically the fact so far as the observations yet made determine; though the main point, that the contents of the utricles are carried into the circulation, does not seem open to question. The next step was to see how many of them con- tained animals, and I found almost every one that was 10 146 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. well developed contained one or more, or their remains, in various stages of digestion. The larva of Chirono- mus was the largest and most constant animal found. On some of the stems that I examined, fully nine out of every ten of the utricles contained this larva or its remains. When first caught it was fierce, thrust- ing out its horns and feet and drawing them back, but otherwise it seemed partly paralyzed, moving its body but very little; even small larvee of this species that had plenty of room to swim about were soon very quiet, although they showed signs of life from twenty- four to thirty-six hours after they were imprisoned. In about twelve hours, as nearly as I could make out, they lost the power of drawing their feet back, and could only move the brush-like appendages. There was some variation as to the time when maceration or digestion began to take place, but usually, on a growing spray, in less than two days after a large larva was capt- ured the fluid contents of the utricles began to assume a cloudy or muddy appearance, and often became so dense that the outline of the animal was lost to view. IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 147 Cuaptrer IX. IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE ? Arter the observations were made which are record- ed in the last chapter, I continued my studies for several months on different species of Utricularia, and during this time Mr. Darwin’s book on “ Insectivorous Plants” appeared. It is so comprehensive, and the experiments have been so carefully conducted, that it seems pre- sumptuous for any to attempt to differ in the least from his conclusions; and in,the main a careful experi- menter must agree with him. But there are a few of the points which he has treated in his chapter on Utric- ularia in regard to which my observations and experi- ments have led me to conclusions somewhat different . from his. The species that I most closely observed were Utricu- laria inflata, 0. vulgaris, U. clandestina, U. intermedia, U. striata, U. gibla, U. purpurea, U. cornuta, and U. sub- ulata. Most of these species vary slightly, and a few considerably, in the construction of the utricle. I have selected for illustration two of the most widely dissim- ilar species that I have examined, U. inflata and U. pur- purea. Fig. 5 represents a portion of U. inflata, re- 148 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. duced in size. This species, unlike the others, has a whorl of white, spongy, inflated petioles encircling the flowering stem, which are branched at the apex, and bear a few thread-like divisions on which are scattered a few FIG. 5.— FLOWERING STEM OF UTRICULARIA INFLATA (REDUCED IN SIZE) IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 149 utricles ; these light spongy petioles give the plant a very elegant appearance, and their main office seems to be to float it at the time of flowering. The flowers are of a bright yellow color, with from tive to ten on each slender stem. This plant grows in rather deep, still water. I have taken it from ponds of quite pure water with a depth of from eight to ten feet. FIG. 6.—UTRICLE OF UTKICULAKIA INFLATA, Fig. 6 represents a young utricle of U. inflata magni- fied about twenty diameters. The antenne, as Mr. Dar- win calls the long branched prolongations of the utricle, are not fully expanded, and are not as long as in most specimens. The mouth or orifice is just beneath the long antenne, and within this orifice is situated the valve or trap by means of which the plant captures its prey. The manner in which the utricle is developed has been observed by some of the most able naturalists of our time. Through the kindness of Professor Asa 150 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. Gray, Professor Goodale, of Harvard University, has sent me a condensed translation from the German of Schacht, “On the Development of Utricularia Vulgaris,” and as this species grows with us, and does not differ materially from the development of the utricle of U. in- flata, I gladly give it a place here: “ According to Schleiden, in the sinuses of the leaves there appears a minute cornet-shaped body, from which Fig. 7.— COPIED FROM SCHACHT, SHOWING EARLY STAGES OF THE UTRICLE, AND THE GLANDS FOUND ON THE INNER SURFACE OF THE UTRICULARIA VULGARIS. there is developed, little by little, the stalked utridle, whose external opening is closed by a beard at the mouth. According to Benjamin, some segments of the leaf remain backward in developing. They do not elon- gate; on the contrary, they broaden.and extend at their base, forming a relatively narrow neck, on which ap- pears a little sphere, which is fastened by-a short stalk IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 151 to the axis of the leaf. Often one can follow the dif- ferent steps by observing on a single leaf their develop- ment from the base to the tip. The utricle, which at first is filled with cytoblast, becomes by rapid absorp- tion changed to an air-vessel. By its further extension in all directions the utricle approximates more and more to its future form. It becomes flattened, and assumes the form of a stomach, the stalk is at the pylorus, the opening at the cardia. On the greater curvature both walls come together as if at a seam. The opening of the perfect utricle is, according to Benjamin, provided with a little flap turned inward, which he calls the valve. This valve appears in the earliest state of the utricle as merely a cluster of dark cross stripes... . The side walls of the young utricle grow rapidly; the air cavity which they contain becomes thereby greater. The edge of the lateral walls approach each other and bend inward; the original opening becomes closed, and exhibits the dark stripes described by Benjamin. The flap on the valve consists of the wall bent inward on that part of the utricle turned away from the stalk. On the side turned towards the stalk the edge is not so strongly developed. ...The full-grown pouch presents itself as a roundish and somewhat laterally compressed body, which above is continuous by one angle with the stem, while the other exhibits an orifice which forms a little funnel projecting inward. The external orifice of this funnel is closed by a rim of beard growing on the upper border; the lower part of the internal surface 152 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. of the funnel is clothed with elegant hairs of various FIG. &—END OF GROWING BRANCH OF THE UTRICULARIA PURPUREA (NATURAL SIZE). forms, but very regularly arranged, while the internal surface of the pouch exhib- its peculiar hairs consisting of two cells, each running out into a longer or shorter arm.” Fig. 8 represents the end of a growing branch of U. purpurea. Here we have a species that diverges widely from all of the others that I have examined, and as Mr. Darwin gives no account of any similar species, I shall dwell more upon its man- ner of growth and structure. The finest specimens of this plant that I have found were growing in deep, still water. The stems are long, some- times two feet or more in length, and these stems or branches radiate in every direction, so that one plant often covers quite a large surface of water. At the points where the branches radiate, naked flowering stems shoot up, and stand above IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 153 the water, and bear at the top three or four violet-pur- ple flowers. The leaves—if they can be called leaves —are scattered along the submerged stems in whorls of five or six, the branch always maintaining the same number that it starts with. The leaves are decom- pound, and in a healthy plant each division is termi- nated by a utricle. All over the stems and leaves and outer surface of the utricle are thickly scattered curved hairs (Fig. 9), and FIG. 9.—SECTION OF SIEM WITIL CURVED HAIRS. these hairs seem to serve a twofold purpose: they ar- rest or capture both animal and vegetable decaying matter—apparently food for the plant, which they seem to absorb. With all of these mouths so thickly scattered over the outer surface of the plant, we wonder why the utricles are needed as reservoirs of food, but here they are, and in great numbers, and larger than in most other species, and they capture living animals. Fig. 10 rep- resents a much enlarged utricle of this species. Here we find no antenns, nor the least semblance of any ; and the valve, instead of sinking into the orifice or mouth, projects above it. According to naturalists, the valve of all species of utricularia is formed of two layers of small cells, and is simply a continuation of the larger cells which form the wall of the utricle. It 154 '. HOME STUDIESIN NATURE. is fast on all sides except on the margin marked “ En- trance” in the figure; and here the two edges fit close together, and are always closed, except when something touches them in precisely the right way, when they suddenly open, and close again as quickly, and not often does it miss its prey. The valve is so large in this species, and projecting out and above the mouth as it does, it is not a difficult matter to cut it free and spread FIG. 10.—MAGNIFIED UTRICLE OF UTRICULARIA PURPUREA. it out so as to examine its structure. We do not find glands on its surface, as we do in the other species. It seems as if all the energies of the plant had gone to construct the elegant cluster that crowns the summit of the valve, situated on the point where the valve doubles; it consists of a globular body which supports from twelve to fifteen beautiful, transparent, glassy- looking glands, the use of which is not clear to me. IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 155 Over the inner surface of the utricle—like the other species—are scattered numerous glands, which Mr. Dar- win has named quadrifid processes, from the fact that the glands radiate from a central cell in the form of arms, four in number (Fig. 11). In this species the ai FIG. 11.—QUADRIFID PROCESSES, . arms are about of equal length. Near the valve, and close to where the walls of the utricle join together, we find cells with only two arms—bifid processes—and_ intermingled with these we occasionally see a cell with only one arm, no way different from the others except. in the lesser number of arms. Mr. Darwin says these glands are absorbents, but he doubts if they ever se- crete. Around the edge of the valve that extends into the utricle is a thick fringe of hairs or glands, all point- ing inward, and so do not prevent anything from enter- ing through the valve; but we can see that they pre- vent an exit. These are all the glands I find in this species, except a few oblong ones which have no pedi- cels, and are embedded in the smaller cells near where the valve lies. In order to make it clear how my observations were 156 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. condueted, I will state that I had a tub of water in which were growing the various species of utricularia. When I wished to experiment with any particular spe- cies, I took such species from the tub and placed it in a small vessel of clear water. I also had other tubs of water for the purpose of securing the eggs of the mos- quito and chironomns. The eggs of the mosquito are deposited in large clusters, which float on the surface of the water. Those of the chironomus are deposited in a jelly mass of matter, and fastened by a little thread to something to prevent them from sinking too low in the water. These masses of eggs are very conspicuous to the educated eye, one species producing a mass as large as a good-sized pea; the jelly is quite transparent, so the eggs can be distinctly seen with the naked eye. After they are hatched, the young chironomus larve remain in the jelly for a day or two, feeding on it until they are large and strong enough to venture out into the great world of water, where they can secure their own livelihood. It can be seen how quickly and easily I could swarm a small vessel of water with the larvee of the mosquito and chironomus by transferring to the vessel these masses of eggs. After this long but necessary digres- sion I will return to the valve of the utricularia. Mr. Darwin says (‘“Insectivorous Plants,” p. 407): “To ascertain whether the valves were endowed with irritability, the surfaces of several were scratched with a needle or brushed with a fine camel’s-hair brush, so 18 THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 157 as to imitate the crawling movements of small crusta- ceans; but the valve did not open.” And farther on he adds: “On three occasions minute particles of blue glass (so as to be easily distinguished) were placed on valves while under water. On trying gently to move them with a needle they disappeared so suddenly that, not seeing what had happened,-I thought that I had flirted them off; but on examining the bladders they were found safely enclosed. The same thing occurred to my son, who placed little cubes of green boxwood (about one-sixtieth of an inch) on some valves; and thrice in the act of placing them on, or while gently moving them to another spot, the valve suddenly opened and they were engulfed.” The same thing occurred to me several times when I was gently moving minute particles of various substances on the edge of the valve —it suddenly opened and took them in; which helped to confirm me in the belief that the valve was sensitive, and that the sensitiveness was of a special nature. But not upon these experiments did I wholly base my infer- ence; it was based more upon observations made upon the growing plant and the living larve. By putting a spray of the plant and water under a low power of the microscope I could thus bring several utricles into the field, with numerous mosquito larve. If the tail of one of these larvee happened to come in contact with the valve, the valve was almost sure to open and en- gulf the larva, often leaving its head sticking out, as is seen in Fig. 12. I have a large number of these utri- 158 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. cles with mosquito larve caught in this way. When the larva is thus caught it never struggles; the part of the body that is within the utricle seems paralyzed, and FIG. 12.—UTRICLE, WITH MOSQUITO LARVA ENCLOSED. the larva dies much sooner than one that is wholly within the utricle; and this is the more singular from the fact that when the larva is not caught and held in the valve, but has passed through into the utricle, it is quite active for some hours after being caught. If it is caught in the valve, the part that is within the utricle seems perfectly powerless to move, but the part that is outside of the utricle can move and wriggle. And it would seem that when a larva as strong as the mos- quito was caught, with its head and first joint of body sticking out of the utricle, it might escape, but as far as I have observed it never does. The chironomus larva (Fig. 13), with its more slen- der body, was not often caught and held in the valve, but occasionally one was caught so. Usually they were IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 159 carried bodily into the utricle with a sudden, quick movement, and they were as often taken in tail first as head first. I have found as many as thirteen chirono- mus larve in a single utricle, and all caught within forty-eight hours. There could be no mistake here, for the larvee and plant were introduced forty-eight hours before. On two occasions I have found a dead chironomus larva held fast in the valve, and while I was looking ¥1G, 183. —CHIRONOMUS LARVA. a, Dorsal view, with pediform appendages retracted and jaws closed. 6, Lateral view, with same parts extended. ce, Egg mass. d, Maxillary palpus. e, Labial palpus. f, Labium. g, Mandible. 160 HOME STUDIES IN NATURE. the valve suddenly opened and engulfed the larva with sufficient force to send it to the opposite side of the utricle. Mr. Darwin says the valve does not appear. to be in the least irritable, and continues (“ Insectivorous Plants,” p. 408): “We may therefore conclude that the animals enter merely by forcing their way through the slit-like orifice, their heads serving as a wedge.” But we have seen in the instances of the mosquito and chironomns larvee that this is not the case; the head does not serve as a wedge. But what is the force that impels them into the utricle? It seems too bad to try to overthrow a plausible theory and offer nothing better in its stead. But what can I do? The play is enacted before me, and I have tried in vain to get behind the scenes to learn what the power is that impels the larva into the utricle. No doubt if Mr. Darwin had had the excel- lent material that I had to work with, with his keener insight he would have ferreted out the cause. If within the utricle was a partial vacuum, the sud- den opening of the valve would create sufficient force . to carry whatever happened to be in close proximity into the utricle; and this illustrates the movement we see executed. But how could a vacuum be formed 2 We can see, if the valve is sensitive, that a mosquito larva would be much more likely to be caught tail first, for it is not often still—almost always wriggling—and when the forked tail brushes against the valve it causes it to open, and the force above alluded to carries the IS THE VALVE OF UTRICULARIA SENSITIVE? 161 larva into the utricle. And this is the fact with all of the species of utricularia that I have experimented with, except in the case of U. purpurea. In this spe- cies the valve does not seem to be so sensitive as in the others.