LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ITHACA, NEW YORK THIS BOOK IS THE GIFT OF ee nn FARLEY ofthe... Fotalty, | "SF 65.D56 minh Cornell University Library Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001168917 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM BY WILLIAM DIETRICH, B.S. A., M.S. HEAD OF THE DBPARTMENT OF ANIMAL AND “DAIRY HUSBANDKY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, CROOKSTON BRANCH ILLUSTRATED PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 1917 K RK cf 7 Copyright, 1917, by W. B. Saunders Company PRINTED IN AMERICA PRESS OF We B. SAUNDERS COMPANY PHILADELPHIA PREFACE Tur purpose of this volume is to give information to those who wish to improve their condition by means of livestock, to farmers generally, and especially to those interested in live- stock farming and in breeding. It is intended also to serve as a text-book in Animal Husbandry in agricultural schools, in high schools and in elementary courses in colleges of agriculture. The book is not a treatise on nutrition, nor is it primarily a treatise on swine husbandry. The latter subject is covered by the author’s ‘‘Swine,” published by the Breeders’ Gazette, of Chicago. It is not, again, a book of formule. On the con- trary, its prime object is a discussion of the care, feeding and management of farm animals. In short, it deals in a simple and practical way with the problems which must be met and handled properly every day in order to make live-stock farm- ing successful. It also touches upon the various breeds of farm animals as well as the subject of poultry. The care and feeding of animals is not merely a mechanical or mathematical problem in which two plus two always equals four. It has to do with life, not merely with the physical mechanism. While many of the factors may be determined mathematically, such as the amounts of the different nutrients —-protein, carbohydrates, fat, mineral matter, and water, for example—there are other factors of equal importance to be considered and it is these that will be emphasized in the follow- ing pages. They are fundamental to the successful handling of all farm animals. Acknowledgment is made to W. P. Kirkwood, editor of the Department of Agriculture, of the University of Minnesota, for assistance in editing the manuscript of this book. The chapter on poultry was written by C. E. Brown, for 11 12 PREFACE many years head of the poultry department, Northwest School of Agriculture and Experiment Station at Crookston, one of the schools of the Department of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota. Wo. Dierricu. Crookston, MINNESOTA, September, 1917. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 GRAIN FARMING. Soil, 17; The Business of Grain Farming, -2-4. CHAPTER II Livestock FarMING. Farm Advantages of Livestock Farming, 28; Fences, 31; The Econ- omy of Livestock, 36; Livestock Necessitates Growing Forage Crops, 37; Returns More Certain, 40; Nature of Farm Problem, 41. CHAPTER III ANIMALS . ; : . Feeding, 53; Quality, 55; Wealth of Flesh, 56; Constitution, 57; Length of Body, 58; Form, 63; Condition, 64; Tempera- ment, 65. CHAPTER IV Terps ror ANIMALS. Protein, 67; Carbohydrates, 70; Fat in a Ration, 73; Mineral Matter, 76; Water, 77; Air or Oxygen, 80; Classification of Feeds, 82; Other Factors in Ieeding, S4. CHAPTER V ANIMAL BREEDING. The Man, 91; Reproduction, 93; Heredity, 94; Variation, 95; Selection, 96; Environment, 98; Breeding Practice, 100; Gestation, 102; Breeding for sex, 103; Starting a Livestock Farm, 104. 13 PAQK 17 51 66 OL 14 CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE Horssgs. j : ra . 107 Horse Environment, 107; Horse Feeding, 109; Care of Horses, 112; Types of Horses, 113; Draft Horse Conformation, 114; The Roadster Type, 120; Ponies, 123; Coach and Other Horses, 124; Mules, 124; Breeds of Heavy Horses, 125; Breeds of Light Horses, 129; Horse Breeding, 131. CHAPTER VII CaTTLE ‘ j , 134 CHAPTER VIII Tue Darry Cow 136 Feeding Cows, 137; The Cow in Outline, 140; Shelter for Cows, 145; Milking, 146; How to Get a Good Cow, 149; Breeds of Dairy Cattle, 153; The Silo, 158; Manure, 161; Tuberculosis, 161; Abortion, 164; Should Cows Freshen in Spring or Fall?, 165; Building up a Herd, 166; Dual-purpose Cattle, 167; Bloat, 169. CHAPTER IX Breer Catte. : , ie $A) Zhe ie Bs 170 Breeds of Beef Cattle, 174. CHAPTER X SHBEP....... . od 178 Wool, 178; Other Characteristics, 180; Sheep Feeding, 182; Types and Breeds of Sheep, 185; Fine Wool Sheep, 185; Mutton Sheep, 188. CHAPTER XI SWINE... ee fof aD . 193 The Herd Boar, 194; How to Get a Good Sow, 195; Herd Management, 196; Type in Swine, 203; Breeds of Swine, 206; Swine Feeding, 211. CONTENTS 15 CHAPTER XII PAGh PouLttry. 3 F . 213 The Importance of Exercise for Fowls, 214; Feeds and Feeding, 214; Fattening Poultry, 216; The Incubator, 217; The Sitting Hen, 217; Care of Eggs for Hatching, 218; Preserving Eggs, 218; Poultry Houses, 218; Mites and Lice, 224; Types and Breeds of Poultry, 224; Turkeys, 226; Ducks, 227; Geese, 229; Guineas, 230; Peafow], 230; Pigeons, 231. CHAPTER NII SctentTiric SWInb FeEpine . : : Explanation of Terms, 232; Nature of Swine-feeding Prob- lem, 233; Mineral Matter, 235; Protein, 236; Carbohydrate, 244; Ether Extract or Fat, 246; Water, 246; Exercise, 248; Bulk in Ration, 248; Classification of Feeds, 249; Selection of Feeds, 253; Method of Calculating a Ration, 254; Suggested Approximate Ration, 259; Off-hand Feeding, 260; Method of Feeding, 261. Ww a w INDEX ‘ ‘ eS. tie Sh die hep See tay tata ae a Gd ea a OS LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM CHAPTER I GRAIN FARMING A grain farmer is one whose interest centers in the produc- tion and marketing of some kind, or kinds, of grain. He converts the plant food of the soil into corn, wheat, oats, bar- ley, flax, or some other grain and removes it from the farm. His soil each year is made poorer by the amount of plant food he sells, SOIL Soil originated from the breaking down of the various kinds of rock on the surface of the earth. The rocks were produced at the time the earth was formed. The agencies or forces by which rocks are reduced or ground up to make soil are water, air, wind, freezing, thawing, etc. Action of Water on Soil Making.—Water reduces rock to soil particles by friction and by its power as a solvent. When water runs over a rock surface it wears the rock down either by the friction of the water itself or by the friction of different pieces of rock. As a solvent water acts just as it does on sugar or salt. This action is, however, quite slow. But when water is charged with acid or alkali, as it sometimes is, the process of dissolution is materially hastened. Air in Soil Formation.—Air contains carbonic acid and this has a solvent action on the rock particles with which it comes into contact. When the air is in motion in the form of wind it also causes friction upon the rock and soil particles just as water does. Thus, water and wind work in much the same way in reducing rock to soil particles and in reducing coarser particles to finer ones. 17 2 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM 18 Codes) Uys AIDS ONVIS0VHS ‘puesrqoplt 1S: “TU wrory yduasoyoyd) surrey Yoosoavy WT “9M GRAIN FARMING 19 Temperature in Soil Formation.—I'reezing and thawing produce slight motion among different particles of rock and soil. This results in friction similar to that produced by water and wind. But water in freezing expands. Therefore, when water settles in a crevice and freezes, it splits the pieces apart. When a concrete sidewalk, in a climate where the tem- perature goes below freezing in winter, becomes cracked, the crack constantly becomes wider. Thus, when freezing and thawing occur at short intervals, they are forces of consider- able importance in the making of soil. If a hollow iron ball be filled with water and allowed to freeze it will break. This will occur although the ball is of such strength that it is prac- tically impossible to break it with a sledge hammer. A sandy soil is composed of comparatively large particles, coming from rock of one kind; while clay 1s made up of very fine particles coming from another kind of rock. Humus in Soil. Humus mixed with the soil contributes to fertility. Humus is decayed and decaying vegetable matter. In nature considerable humus lies on the surface of the soil in the form of grass, leaves, and weeds. Where there is vege- tation the roots of plants die and decay and add to the supply of humus. Certain plants grow on soils which contain no humus. Such plants supply humus in the earlier processes of soil formation. Their roots, and acid and alkali by-products which they give off, help, also, to reduce the rock and soil particles to fine grains. Moreover, the parts of soil that are put into solution act directly as plant food. As the soil becomes adapted to vegetation of a different kind, nature seems to provide the seed for such growth. Humus also loosens the soil, or holds the particles apart, so that the air can get in. Air is needed to furnish oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. These elements are usually held in solution by the water. This is taken up by the roots and forced into the plant, taking along the food materials. A heavy clay soil is often materially benefited by plowing under coarse rye straw. This puts a lot of tubes into the soil making passages for the air to circulate. When the roots of deep-rooting plants decay they leave openings or pores which LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM “DULULIV YVO}PSOAT] Cuuiyy ‘Woysyood, ) UBUOySso, ) “HH Aq YdRasopoyud) Jo} Arvssooou ‘SHUIp[INg puUB saedUo} JO dose ayy oJON—SUIWILY GRAIN FARMING 21 also make air passages. Such openings also help to drain the soil, permitting the water to run down through to the sub-soil. Humus, again, acts like a sponge, absorbing and holding the water so that the plants can get it. Water.—There is no more important element in a fertile or productive soil than water. Water is necessary for plant growth. Any soil without water is worthless. Water, so necessary for plant growth, is in part held in solution by the humus in the soil. In the main, however, it is held in the soil in the form of a thin layer of water around each soil particle. The finer the particles, therefore, the more water the soil will hold. Water is also held between soil particles by what is known as capillary attraction. By capillary attraction, also, the water from beneath is brought to the surface to maintain the supply as the plants draw it from the soil on the surface. Capillary attraction is well illustrated in the lamp wick which draws oil from the bowl of a lamp to the burner. Anchorage.—The soil also serves as an anchorage for plants. The roots of plants, trees included, descend into the soil be- tween and below the heavy soil particles, and those hold the plants upright. Sometimes, however, when the wind is high, and the soil is loose, trees or other tall and heavy plants are blown over. Good Soil and Poor Soil.—The value of the soil depends entirely upon the amount of plant food it contains. A good soil contains much and a poor soil little. Plants need as food, not only the elements brought into the soil by water and air, but the elements composing the rock or soil particles them- selves. Different soils are made up of different elements and, therefore, are adapted to different kinds of crops. Different crops need different foods just as do different animals. A good soil, also, is one that is made up of fine particles. The finer the particles of soil, the more will the surface be exposed to the solvent action of water, acids, and alkalies, and the more easily will food in the soil particles be set free. A soil made up of particles that are easily decomposed, there- fore, is better than one whose particles are difficult of decompo- sition. Some poor soils will grow profitable crops for one, 22 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM two or three years. Then the available plant food is reduced to such a degree that not enough can be grown upon the soil to pay for the work involved. Such soils must thereafter be fertilized or fed. This simply means putting on something that the plants need for food. Many good soils, on the other hand, have been known to grow crops abundantly for from twenty to forty years. But even the best of soils will in time become so reduced in plant food that they must be fertilized. Or, if farming is to be continued indefinitely on the same soil, a system of farming must be adopted that will put back into the soil as much as the plants take out. In a great number of cases people have taken plant food out of the soil and sold it in the form of grain and hay until their farms became unprofitable and then have’ moved else- where. But that can no longer be done because the farming lands of the country are now practically all occupied. Grain farming of the kind mentioned, which has been called soil robbing, must cease. It is not real farming. Limiting Element.—Some soils have all that is needed for profitable crop production with the exception of one ingredient. This missing ingredient is called the limiting element. Plants cannot grow because they do not have it. The plant is like the animal in this respect. Both grow with a definite com- position or will not grow at all. The way to make such soils productive is to supply the lacking material. Soil Washing or Erosion.—Soils that are not level will wash. Washing, or Erosion, takes away the finer and best particles. The delta at the mouth of the Mississippi river is, in fact, made up of some of the best soil of the whole Mississ- ippi Valley. Grain farming destroys the sod and uses up the humus which helps to hold the soil particles together. It, therefore, puts the soil into condition to wash badly. When a worn-out soil is washed away leaving the good sub- soil exposed for crop production work, erosion is a good thing. But this holds true only where there is a good sub-soil. In general, soil washing should be prevented if possible. Soil washing can sometimes be prevented by deep plowing. This loosens the soil to such a depth that rain, unless it is exceptionally heavy, is absorbed and not allowed to run off on GRAIN FARMING 23 the surface. Soil washing may also be prevented to some extent by applying straw either on the surface or in the texture of the soil by plowing it under. Soil Bacteria——A most important element of soil fertility is its bacterial life. Bacteria in general are small living organisms made up of only a single cell. They are so small ordinarily that they cannot be seen. In order to be able to see them one must have a very strong microscope which makes them appear hundreds and even thousands of times as large as they really are. They live, grow, increase in numbers, and also die. When-they die they leave a carcass or dead body in the soil which is very rich in the things needed for plant growth. They also eat or dissolve the dead roots, manure, grass, weeds, etc., and thus put them into forms fit for use as foods by growing plants. The bacteria, by their mode of living and by means of the waste products they give off, also, actually help to dissolve soil particles and make available other substances which plants need as food. A soil that is well supplied with these bacteria, therefore, is a better soil than one that is poorly supplied. Most productive soils in their natural state are covered with leaves, grass, weeds, etc. This material furnishes the bacteria with food and at the same time protects them from the sun. Sunlight will kill most bacteria, not by its heat but because of other qualities. This is one reason why new soil when it is first broken or plowed up is so rich and will produce such good crops. In grain farming, the crop is cut in the middle of the sum- mer and the soil is exposed to direct sunlight during a large part of the season when the light is the most intense. This has a very damaging effect on the soil. Then when the land grows poorer and will not grow crops continually, it is summer fallowed. This again exposes the soil to the direct rays of the sun for a long period, killing all the bacteria on the surface. Land so treated is benefited in some ways but it is materially damaged by the loss of its bacterial life. It has been found in -fact, that by growing a cultivated crop, such as corn or po- tatoes, the soil receives the same benefit as by summer fallow- ing and the succeeding crop is just as good. The reason is 24 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM that this method saves bacteria, and the crop of corn or potatoes is clear gain. THE BUSINESS OF GRAIN FARMING The farmer often looks upon his work as of inferior rank. He is “only a farmer,’ he says, but the modern successful farmer is a business man, and one must not only till the soil and grow crops, but must come into contact with practically all of the other kinds of business men and know something about their business. Revenues from Grain Farming.—Since grain farming, as such, is soil robbing, it must necessarily appear very profitable, so long as the store of fertility holds out in sufficient quantity to produce abundant crops. It yields ‘‘easy money” which helps in establishing a new farm or a new farming community. When a man settles in a new country he has need of all the cash that is available to establish his home and his enterprise. If, then, he takes some of the capital stored in his soil and invests it in improvements on the farm so that he can make better use of the rest of the fertility in the soil, he is entirely justified. If he goes farther, however, he soon overdraws his account. The man, however, who lives in the city, buys a piece of land, robs it of its soil fertility, does not put the money back into the farm, and then sells the land to some ignorant outsider who wants to be a real farmer, charging a price in accordance with what the land has produced, ought to be considered guilty of a criminal offense. The Labor Problem.—The grain farm employs very little labor during the winter and a very great deal during the summer. The amount employed in the summer is not uni- form. Much more is needed at harvesting and threshing times than at other times. Labor on the grain farm, therefore, is very expensive for the time it is employed, for it demands a wage based upon the need of support through months when no such employment can be had. Possibly grain farming is in part responsible for the tramp evil in the United States. Looking at the labor problem from another standpoint, the grain farmer, if he is farming properly, must necessarily plow, dise, harrow, seed and harvest all of the land upon all of his GRAIN FARMING 25 farm every year. Yet all of the work must be done in practi- cally half the year. Considering this fact, with high cost of labor and the added cost of seed, it can readily be seen that _ grain farming is an expensive method. Farm Equipment.—The equipment of machinery and horses on a grain farm, moreover, is necessarily large and expensive. There must be sufficient horse or traction power to work all the land every year. And there must be plows, discs, harrows, drills or seeders, harvesters, threshers, wagons, etc. The taxes, interest, depreciation in value, repairs, room for stor- age, etc., on all of those items is a matter of considerable importance. Social Aspect of Grain Farming.—The grain farmer, who is idle a large part of the year, develops the habit of idleness, and idleness leads to shiftlessness and laxness. When these characteristics once become firmly established they lead rapidly to social decline. CHAPTER II LIVESTOCK FARMING The statement that ‘‘man shall not live by bread alone”’ is familiar to all. The purpose of livestock on the farm is several-fold: (1) to furnish power—hence the horse; (2) to provide protein foods for man—meat, milk and eggs; (8) to supply fatty foods—butter, lard and tallow; (4) to yield material for clothing—wool; and (5) to conserve soil fertility. Let it be understood at the start, that livestock farming is not, and cannot be, advocated as the only form of agricul- tural endeavor. Man needs bread with his butter, potatoes and other vegetables with his meat, fruit with his fatty foods, and cotton with his wool fiber for clothing. Yet in livestock the farmer has an avenue of escape from that poverty which surely follows excessive grain farming without a proper return of soil fertility. Moreover, the raising of livestock promises increasingly rich returns. B. F. Harris, banker-farmer of Champaign, IIl., says: “In 1890 the average net consumption of meat per capita in the United States was 450 pounds, which in 1912 had fallen to 180 pounds. Meat consumption cannot be reduced much lower, nor will the prices be less for population is fast increasing on production.” The Place of Live Stock.—What is the place of livestock in the economy of the world? If it takes from 5 to 10 pounds of feed to make a pound of gain in live weight on a meat-pro- ducing animal, and less than half of this gain is edible, is not the animal on the farm a cause of a great waste and of possible world-wide bankruptcy? Such questions are fre- quently asked. But which is preferable: to support a large world population by means of grain farming directly for a period of from three to fifty years, or to support a smaller population of higher-class individuals indefinitely for all ages? 26 LIVESTOCK FARMING (ueurto}soq.) “HH Aq ydeis0}0yg) “uLIey FPOISoATT B UO UOLEpUNo; poos v !1aAoypo par domm0j)—¢ ‘oy 28 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM The latter is the possibility in livestock farming and the limits in number and quality of population in the world have not yet been reached under livestock farming. ADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK FARMING The principal livestock product—meat—as an article of human food, contains certain invigorating or stimulating principles not found in the vegetable kingdom. Thus meat- consuming nations, provided they do not consume an excess, are in advance of those living upon a vegetable diet, and aside from the indirect advantages of livestock farming men- tioned in the foregoing and to be discussed more fully later, there are certain other important and immediately direct advantages. Coarse Feeds.—If man were able to produce non-animal feeds that would satisfy his needs, if he could eat the kinds of feeds that livestock eats, and if all the land were avail- able for cropping, there would be no need of the meat-making animals on the farm. But such are not the facts. Most of the farm animals use a large proportion of coarse feeds or roughages in their ration, like grass, hay, corn fodder and straw. These are converted into body tissues in the animal and a large part of this becomes food for man. Waste Lands.—In many parts of the country there is a great deal of rough, hilly and mountainous land. This land pro- duces forage crops, but frequently cannot at all, or cannot con- veniently be farmed by the cropping system. Furnishing grazing for livestock, however, it yields food for man. On most farms, also, there are fence rows and fence corners, and frequently wild land and timber lots, all of which grow more or less grass. This is frequently wasted under the cropping system. With livestock, however, all such land can be grazed, increasing the area upon which human food is pro- duced. On the average farm, too, there is usually a good deal of aftermath which can be used as feed for stock and which would be lost by the other method. Weeds.—By most classes of stock, and by sheep especially, a great many weeds growing on farms can be converted into human food products. ot Curuneysey,) “HW Aq yduasoyoyg) ‘UoTjoNpoId Yooysaaty OF optstnboroid Aressov0u B SIOAOT) oPISTR pue BILEJ[E JO ploy W—'F ‘OI ARMING y om LIVESTOCK LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM 30 = Cpuviqop[iy, Wor Yduasoyoyd) “ULLG J YVIOPSIAL] C JO puso JO MIU et i “OLA } pre LIVESTOCK FARMING 31 Waste Feeds.—Ksitchen slops, damaged and scattered grain, and similar things would often be wasted were it not for meat- producing animals. Slops from the kitchen, when used fresh and not loaded with broken glass, soap and washing powders, make the best kind of hog feed. They are usually rich in all the substances that are necessary to make hogs grow and fatten. Many times, again, a farmer has soft corn, caused by an early frost which is practically worthless on the grain market, but which makes good hog feed. Sometimes grain spoils in the bin by dampness or by heating or sometimes great quantities of grain become damaged by elevator fires. All such grains make good hog feed, and, indirectly therefore, human food. On most farms also by shattering, lodging, hailstorms, ete., a good deal of grain is left in fields after harvest. Without stock this would be wasted while with livestock it becomes a source of profit and adds to the suste- nance and comfort of the human race. The Labor Problem.—On the livestock farm there is rela- tively more work in winter and less in summer than on the grain farm. This makes a much more equal distribution of labor during the year and enables the livestock farmer to employ a higher class of help at a lower wage than the grain farmer. This gives economy of production also, and con- sequently more profit. Expense of Harvesting.—The expense of harvesting machin- ery for the grain farm, already menticned, consists of the origi- nal investment, repairs, depreciation, interest, taxes, storage room, etc. There is also the work of harvesting, caring for, gathering in, threshing, and marketing grain to be counted. With the grazing of livestock most of this work and expense is eliminated though the construction and maintenance of fences must be considered (and will be later). Stock or feeder cattle and sheep obtain the greater part of their sus- tenance by grazing. The grain they are fed and the shelter necessary for winter are very small items when compared with the expenses of grain farming. FENCES The cost of fencing is considered by many a serious handi- cap in establishing a livestock farm. Many, therefore, fence 32 LIVESTOCK ON THI FARM in small areas in which they confine their stock. This, how- ever, is a mistake and defeats the farmers’ purpose. The stock does not have sufficient exercise, or the necessary variety or abundance of feeds. The result is the animals cannot do well and may become a source of loss. Manner of Fencing.—Farm fences should be built to pro- mote the entire business of the farm—pastures, crop rotation, economy in doing the farm work, etc. The fence rows should be laid out where the fences are intended to remain for all time. Then these should be well constructed and be made as nearly permanent as economy of construction will permit. A poor fence should not be tolerated because when least expected and when the possibility of producing damage is the greatest the stock may break out and spoil a year’s profit in one night. The loss may be in damage to the crops or in damage to the stock itself. Overeating may kill the animals, and, it may be, the best ones will die first. It is not only the immediate damage to the crops and to the stock that should be considered. If animals get out a few times they get the habit of going through fences and then it is practically impossible to keep them back with any kind of a fence. Thus the habit of fence creeping or fence jumping and the habit of remaining in the pasture may be largely developed and one is as bad as the other is good. Animals’ Fence Habits.—An 8-acre area of timber with fields on two sides was fenced by the author with two strands of ordinary barbed wire. At the time the acorns began to fall, a bunch of shotes that had been fed and grazed in an arable pasture were put into this woods pasture. They re- mained there till snow fell in the late fall when they were ready for market. Never did any of the hogs ever get out of the pasture. It was difficult to drive them out finally with both wires laid down on the ground. The pigs had been trained to remain within their enclosure and they had enough to eat where they were expected to stay. Kind of Fence.—Fences may be built for different kinds of stock, but a fence that is built to turn all kinds of stock is the most satisfactory. Such a fence can be constructed with a strand of woven wire about 30 inches wide at the bottom LIVESTOCK FARMING Bo and with three strands of barbed wire above this. The top wires may be spaced 6, 8 and 10 inches respectively, working from the woven wire upward. A fence of this kind is 414 feet high. The barbed wires may be spaced a little wider to make the fence higher. Two barbed wires above such a strand of woven wire will turn cattle, hogs and sheep. It is estimated that such a fence can be built at a cost of about 60 cents per rod as follows: Woven wire—30 inches... .....0...0...00 0.00000. $0.30 POSttceit oan senate ae noe ee S hehe deny tenet Aad 0.10 Three barbed wires... .....0..00.000 000 ccc ee eee 0.10 Ase C2 so picb eh ewcrsinn, Sothiecieg Hiatt tal ate Baek See 0.10 Ota Wace: eoscrae eo ees SY ice Basch nea aes 80. 60 In some sections and at certain times it might cost a little more than this to build such a fence but if one has the post timber on his own farm it might be built for less. In building a fence it is well to set the posts 161 feet or 1 rod apart. It is then an easy matter to calculate the area within the enclosure or in any part of it. The post timber should be well seasoned. How to Build a Fence.—The posts should be cut and sharpened during the winter while labor is cheap and plenti- ful. They should then be well piled and allowed to dry thoroughly through the following summer. The next spring when the frost is out of the ground and the fence row has been staked out, one man goes ahead with a crowbar and punches a hole in the ground where each post is to stand. Following this man, come two other men on a wagon with a flat-bottomed rack. The sharpened posts are carried on the wagon and each man has a post maul. The wagon is stopped by the side of a hole made by the man with the crow- bar. The post is set and driven down to the desired depth by the men standing on the wagon. Posts should be set from 2 to 3 feet deep with the larger or sounder end down. The corner posts should be larger than the others and should be set in concrete. This same method of fence construction can also be used 3 34 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM during the summer after a heavy rain when the ground is thoroughly wet. The wire may be nailed on at any time. Many times the foregoing method of fence construction cannot be used. It is then necessary to dig holes. Many kinds of post-hole diggers are available. A post sharp at the bottom will not heave out as readily by winter freezes, and can be pounded back more easily than one that is sawed square. Post Timber.—In The Country Gentleman of March 6, 1915, Edmund Secrest says: “Almost every property owner, whether in the city or in the country, uses at some time a certain quantity of post material... . Few of our native timber trees make durable posts and it is a waste of time and material to use white elm, maple, beech, ash, pine, spruce and the red and black oaks for this purpose, unless the wood is treated with preserva- tives; and this is impracticable unless a considerable quantity is used. Untreated the wood of these trees lasts only a few years in the ground. ‘Examination of some 30,000 fence posts by an institution with which the writer is connected has disclosed some interesting facts in connection with the problems... . . . The osage orange or common hedge was shown to possess more durability than any other timber examined. Posts that had been planted for thirty or forty years showed only a small percentage slightly decayed. The osage post is without a peer for dura- bility and strength. Small poles no larger than 2 inches in diameter will last for years in the ground and no better vine or garden stakes can be found. “The black or yellow locust ranks second to the osage as a post timber. This tree grows much faster than the osage and it is the most practicable fence post because it is more easily obtained in larger sizes. The black locust grows quite commonly throughout the Eastern and Central States. “The red cedar—third in point of durability—is quite limited in some sections of the country and is not commonly on the market. The wood is light and strong, but expensive. It makes good arbor poles, because the trees are usually straight and the posts in consequence are of a quality to be preferred for this use. “The mulberry ranks almost with the red cedar in durability but the trees are inclined to grow crooked and scraggly, frequently giving the posts poor form. Moreover, mulberry is not plentiful and the posts are rarely on the market. The wood, however, is recommended for its durable qualities. ‘White cedar or arbor-vite posts are much used and are fairly durable. They are supplied from the swamps of the Lake States and are shipped to many parts of the country. Like the red cedar they are well adapted for arbor purposes, but they decay sooner than the red cedar. White cedar posts have a common defect—heart rot. This rot does not mate- LIVESTOCK FARMING 35 rially affect the lasting qualities of the posts, however, since the most durable portion is the sap wood, which must be depended upon to per- form the service. ‘‘The catalpa has been much planted in recent years, but the durability of its wood in contact with the ground has been overestimated. Some of the earlier plantations are now producing posts but they are rarely on the market, except in certain sections. “The chestnut is much used throughout the regions where it grows and posts are easily obtained, but it ranks seventh in point of durability. “White, chinquapin, chestnut and bur oaks—in fact, any of the white oak group—produce fairly durable posts, but they rank below those already named. Black ash and honey locust are not recommended except for temporary fencing. The wood is not long-lived. These species, however, are quite commonly used in some sections of the United States. “It is well to remember that the condition of the wood has much to do with its lasting qualities. Trees that grow rapidly in the open do not make as durable posts as those grown more slowly in the woods. Open- grained posts of red cedar from fast-growing trees in the open, for in- stance, would give perhaps not more than a half or one-third the service of those taken from slow-growing forest trees. The same may be said of any of the other timbers that have been described. “Posts taken from old trees on the decline do not possess the lasting qualitites of those taken from young and thrifty trees. This accounts for the saying so often heard that white-oak posts no longer possess the last- ing qualitites they had years ago. Many of the large white oaks in farm woodlots are on the decline owing to constant abuse and old age. “Particularly is this true where woodlands are heavily grazed by live- stock. The wood of trees that show evidences of decline has already begun to decay, especially in the heartwood, even though such action is not apparent, and the natural result is that the life of the post is reduced.” Cost of Fencing a Farm.—Suppose a quarter section of land is to be fenced on four sides with two fences crosswise through the middle, making four 40-acre fields. One side of the quar- ter adjoins a public highway. The owner will have to fence the entire side of the road—160 rods. One the other three sides the expense will be shared equally with the neighbors. This will mean 240 rods more. The two cross fences of 160 rods each will bring the total up to 720 rods. At 60 cents a rod, the cost of a first-class, all-purpose fence will be $482 or $2.70 per acre. Granting that the fence will last 27 years which is possible even with good, well-seasoned white-oak posts, where there is not too much humidity and the climate is not too hot, the fence will cost only 10 cents an acre per 36 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM year. This cost is very small indeed compared with the annual cost of plowing, pulverizing, seed, seeding, harvesting, threshing, etc., which are necessary in grain farming. THE ECONOMY OF LIVESTOCK In the first part of this chapter it was mentioned incident- ally that it takes 5 pounds or more of feed to obtain 1 pound of gain in the live weight of afarm animal. Sometimes, however, gains may be made on less. But from a financial standpoint, is a gain of 1 pound at a cost of 5 pounds of feed a loss or a gain? How much do the farm animals pay for the feed that is fed them under proper conditions? People who have made a business of feeding animals say that livestock pays from $1 to $1.50 for every bushel of corn fed and for other feeds in proportion (not war prices). From another standpoint, the market price of feeds obtained by the farmer, such as hay, oats, corn, barley, etc., ranges from 14 to 114 cents a pound. How much does the farmer get for his farm animals when he sells them? Hogs, cattle and sheep sold for slaughter bring from 5 to 10 cents a pound live weight. Horses bring from 10 to 80 cents a pound when sold for work purposes. When any of these animals sell as pure-bred animals for breed- ing purposes they may bring very much higher prices than these. It is clear, then, that livestock offers the farmer a better market for his feeds than do the feed markets. But why should the animal require 5 or more pounds of feed to make 1 pound of gain in live weight? Why ask this question? Is it not enough if the animal pays a good price for all it eats? No! The important thing is not how much one can get out of his business but what he can do to surpass his neighbor, the grain farmer, and at the same time to better the world, leaving his farm to his successor in a better state of fertility than when he obtained it. The interesting part of all this, however, is that these animals on the farm pay a good price for all they eat and then turn right around and give a large part of it back in the form of manure. This enables one to grow more grain and hay, to feed more livestock, to buy more land, to grow more feed, to feed more livestock, ete. LIVESTOCK FARMING 37 The business transaction of these farm animals might be compared to that of an elevator manager, who, having bought of a farmer a load of wheat, paying for it in cash, at once ordered the farmer to reload a large part of his wheat to take home with him. It might be added that a farmer so treated, who would haul his restored grain into his yard and leave it there, would not differ much from the man who leaves his manure pile lie in the yard from year to year. An elevator man who would do the thing outlined above would be considered a pretty good fellow. Nevertheless, farm animals are doing just the kind of thing described right along. They not only return much of what they eat but the part they return is greatly improved. What would one think if he sold 100 bushels of oats and after getting the money for it, would get 40 bushels of wheat in addition? Livestock not only gives back four-fifths of what it eats, excepting energy, but it makes more useful the part it gives back, by the introduction of bacteria. The value of these germs to soil. fertility has already been mentioned. The alimentary track of the farm animal is a bacteria factory. Germs develop here by the hundreds of millions and when they get into the soil along with the manure, which furnishes mineral plant food direct, they work night and day liberating and gathering plant food so that plants grow much better and sell for more money. Thus it is that the livestock farmer grows richer and the grain farmer after the first few vears grows poorer. LIVESTOCK NECESSITATES THE GROWING OF FORAGE CROPS Livestock on the farm necessitates the growing of forage crops. These are the cheapest feeds and most farm animals, to do well, must have them. Such feeds also become cover crops for the soil. They protect the soil bacteria from the heat and light of the sun during the hottest part of the day as well as during the hottest part of the season, thus enabling the bacteria to live and multiply. Grain farming or summer fallowing does not provide such protection. Crop Rotation.—Livestock farming also necessitates crop rotation. In order to produce livestock successfully one 388 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM should have corn fodder and several kinds of hay, as well as a variety of grains. This calls for the sowing or planting of different crops on a given piece of land every year for a period of years. Different plants are made up of different combinations of chemical elements. A crop will take out of the soil so much of a certain substance in a season that the same crop ordinarily will not do so well the following year. The partially exhausted substance thus becomes the limiting element, and if the same crop is continued the yield grows smaller from year to year. Under a good system of rotation, however, the crops of one season draw more heavily upon substances that the previous crop has used the least of. One crop, also, may leave a waste product in the soil which acts as a poison to a like crop but not to a different kind of crop. Moreover, by a wise ¢ oice of crops for a rotation, some of the elements taken out of the soil by one crop may be in part restored by another. This supplemented by manure keeps the soil fertile. Cultivation.—One of the principal operations in agriculture is the cultivation of the soil. As mentioned in Chapter I, soil is improved by the movement of soil particles. This refines the soil and liberates more of the material out of which the particles are made for plant food. By keeping the surface loose, cultivation also checks the evaporation of water. Of course, the surface soil becomes very dry, but the loose portion which extends below the extremely dry part does not allow the water to rise from be- neath and escape into the air by evaporation. ~The capillary action is broken. This simply means that the soil particles are so far apart that the water cannot rise between them as it rises in the fibers of a lamp wick. In order that plants may grow upon any soil there must be present a considerable amount of water. When a soil is loose it will hold more water than when it is hard. A loose soil also allows water which falls on the surface to soak in. This pre- vents the washing away of the best particles of the soil. Though a loose soil breaks capillary action, rain on a loose soil packs it enough to restore capillarity. Of course, a very coarse, sandy soil does not possess much capillarity, neither LIVESTOCK FARMING 39 does it hold much water. Water runs through it as through a willow basket. Aeration is another important advantage in cultivation. The air fills the spaces between the loosened soil particles and this brings oxygen to the roots of the plants. Oxygen is an important plant food just as it is important to animal life. Cultivation also kills weeds. The importance of this is well recognized. In almost any system of livestock farming in nearly every part of the world where livestock is grown, corn is used as one of the principal feeds. If corn is to be grown successfully it must be cultivated. It must also be cultivated during the summer, This is beneficial to the soil in all the ways men- tioned, and especially in the killing of weeds and in the preservation of bacteria. Summer fallowing is beneficial because the soil is culti- vated, but when the soil is cultivated in the corn field it is doubly beneficial because the shade from the corn plant. pro- tects the bacteria in the soil. Therefore, a crop of wheat may yield as much after a corn corp as after summer fallowing. The corn crop is thus clear profit. Humus.—The value of humus in the soil was discussed in Chapter I and need not be repeated here. It furnishes plant food, produces a sponge for holding water and allows more bacteria to develop. Livestock farming puts more humus into the soil than does grain farming. The grass and legume crops leave more roots in the soil than most grain crops and these as well as corn shade the soil dur- ing the summer to prevent the burning out of the humus in the soil by the sun. Leguminous Plants.—With a system of livestock farming, also, it is possible to introduce more leguminous plants, such as clover, alfalfa, soy beans, and peas. These, to put it popularly, take nitrogen, one of the principal plant foods, from the air and leave some of it in the soil for the next gen- eration of plants. The nitrifying bacteria, as they are called, live upon the roots of the leguminous plants and for their own life take nitrogen from the air. Then when they die, the nitrogen is available for other plants. These bacteria 40 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM keep growing and dying all the time. And when the legumi- nous plant dies or is plowed under so as to kill the roots, all this nitrogen becomes available for succeeding plants. Thus, as already intimated, the livestock farmer has a way of making his soil richer. Sometimes it is argued that the grain farmer can do the same kind of thing by sowing clover in his rotation and cutting it for seed. This is all right, if he will put back the clover straw. But if he had some livestock to which to feed this straw he would get good pay for it and still have most of it left to put back upon the soil. Erosion or Soil Washing.—In many sections of any agri- cultural country the land is so hilly that with grain farming a good deal of the surface soil washes away. Gullies and ditches are formed materially injuring a field for agricultural purposes. In livestock farming a considerable portion of the farm must be kept in pasture and hay meadows. In these there is enough sod produced in a large measure to prevent such soil washing. RETURNS MORE CERTAIN Weather conditions are a more important factor in grain farming than in livestock farming. The crop is never sure until it is harvested and threshed. With a variety of crops, danger to one does not mean danger to all. With livestock farming there is also considerable risk. The lives of the animals may be threatened, but with proper care the danger is slight. Wind.—Windstorms are very often a serious menace to grain farmers. When grain is approaching maturity and a windstorm comes up, especially if it is accompanied by a rain, the grain may be lodged badly. This happens more often with good grain on account of its rank growth. When grain is thus lodged, much is lost because it cannot be harvested by machinery. If storms come early in the growth of a crop, its development is seriously checked. Storms will also lodge the livestock farmer’s grain, but that which the harvesters fail to get the stock can readily gather up. ig moMmoMOMOI 3 HAD INADRONM < ae CMAOABNHAYG ‘S Om A HOA SG a ass OA AN MM HID ID = S HHA NAN al Os 4 g MOHNOMOHN Bb 3 CANN THOON SARaSASBS ° ec00ccCOSS SsoocosccoS a be ANMH MONDE HROwHwaown = cooooocos eozooocosco os Res 5 As nes So ONMHMOR DD . a ee ss | Sececesssd RY ot db te tee: a Seootpoos eo : toe ee) . a ee +o or ~woMoMoOM OW . Sate AR SM eos “4 as CAA ANHDM HH : BI BGO Hae 2 > cae 8 ay eoocoocooo : sore O> : ae ae ae g = —-- ae & OORNMDNHAHN SF eha te hae hls i wn oO SCO On KR RNANN eget ah ° oooocoooc09d : ede a 4 HAMH MONDE tone : 8 2DOnNOIN RMA Se ‘ = SCHAMTNOND oo to eo mNOHTNH OPN 9 OMS IDO O10 Be | Seooosccs CAA ANR OTM a ecoooocoooceo Soeooocoeo SE nS ADANMHAIHN HDNDOHONSO af SOOT TAAANN AN HOR DAAN ae ocoooooce coooooonsa oO o 42 ONDHOONHDY NHOWDONHOD og OMAOMAON GD NHODAMINMm™ e ay CH ANMHM HTH 2 ecoonaenan Beet g o q RHHDOADON io esooooogco ea CANANMHHOS > NMOANNHAKR ° eeoosceocoos pA SCOonaAHAAN ay be MOANMHItN ANAM HNMON DD 3 ANMDDORAOH ANAM HHSONHS 5 eoooocoonn eooocoocooco HNMHTHMNONDD ANAM HMOnNDO Pound 256 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM the carbohydrates when added will be nearly equal to the required quantity. Next list the nitrogenous concentrate, soy beans, in sufficient quantity to bring the protein as well as the carbohydrate up to the required amount. If the result does not come out right the first time, it can easily be adjusted by the use of the table. When this is done add sufficient water to make the required amount. Pounds | Water Protein Carbohydrate Alfalfa............ 0.9 | 0.072 | 0.063 0.333 COM. iii den ens 10.0 ! 1.300 | 0.700 6.600 Corns 295e5.4 gees 3.0 ' 0.3890 0.210 — 1.980 Corn.............. 0.3 0.039 | 0.021 0.198 Barleyiecsy swakeens 6.0 0.660 0.480 3.900 Barley............ 0.7 0.077 0.056 0.455 Skim milk......... 40.0 36.400 | 1.200 2.000 38.938 | 2.730 | 15.466 Soy beans......... 4.0 0.440 . 1.200 0.880 Soy beans......... 0.6 0.066 0.180. 0.132 , 389.444 4.110 16.478 Water............. 49.6 ; 49.600 | 89.044 4.110 | 16.478 The above-mentioned quantities of feed, then—namely; alfalfa, 0.9 pound; corn, 13.3 pounds; barley, 6.7 pounds: skim milk, 40.0 pounds; soy beans, 4.6 pounds; water, 49.6 pounds—should be fed to these pigs for one day when they are two months old. In order to get the increase specified by the charts an esti- mate must be made as to what the pigs will weigh at the close of the week. Suppose that it is estimated that the lot will gain 65 pounds during the week, making its total weight at the close of the week 750 pounds. This estimated live weight should then be multiplied by the quantities given by the charts for the age attained. The results will be as follows: Water Protein Carbohydrate 12.8 0.615 2.42 SCIENTIFIC SWINK FEKDING 257 Multiplying these by the estimated live weight the following is obtained as the requirement of nutrients at (he close of this and the beginning of the following week: Water Protein Carbohydrate 96.0 5.2275 18.15 To get these quantities take the total amount. of nutrients fed at the beginning of the week and add enough feeds to make the nutrients amount to the quantity stated. Proceed as above, namely, add the roughage first, the carbohydrate concentrates next, then the nitrogenous concentrates and lastly the water. By so doing the following will be obtained: | Pounds | Water Protein Carbohydrate | | — -| z Brought forward... | $9,044 4.110 16.478 Alfalfa............ 0.7 0.056 | 0.049 0.259 Cotten ci ke canice oa 0.8 0.104 | 0.056 0.528 Barley............ 0.3 | 0.033 0.024 0.195 Soy beans......... 3.0 ' 0.330 0.900 0.660 Soy beans......... 0.2 | 0.022 0.060 0.044 | | 89.589 5.199 18.164 Water............. 6.4 6.400 | 95.989 5.199 18.164 These quantities of nutrients correspond very closely to those calculated as the requirement of nutrients at the time. The quantities of feeds used to get the additional nutrients should be added to those fed at the beginning of the week and the totals will be the quantities to be fed at the close of the week. By adding these the following are obtained: Alfalfa 1.6; Corn 14.1; Barley 7.0; Skim milk 40.0; Soy beans 7.8; Water 56.0. This is the total quantity to be fed for each day at the close of the week. The quantity of feed on the first day of the week 17 258 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM then may gradually be varied to that fed on the last day. Thus there will be a gradual increase fed from day to day. The average weight for the week may also be taken to calculate the ration and then this uniform quantity may be fed during the week. This simplifies matters considerably and in practice proves entirely successful. To determine the quantity of feed necessary for a bunch of pigs at any time between the ages of two months and eight months the same method is followed. The vertical lines in the figures indicate the age of the pigs and stage of the period of feeding. The point at which these intersect with the line for the various nutrients indicates the amounts of the nutrients in pounds as specified by the horizontal lines. Multiply these quantities by the total live weight and proceed as before. As is clearly evident this method of feeding is intended for pigs that have been well fed from the time they learned to eat. Ifa feeder has a bunch of pigs that have not been fed well it may be necessary, in order to get the best results, to start back a little farther than at the point in the chart indicated by the age of the pigs in question. Thrifty lean pigs need to be fed a little more. This is accomplished by adding a little to the weight used in calculating the ration. In order to furnish variety in the above-calculated ration, corn and barley are used, both being carbohydrate con- centrates. The proportion of these two feeds may be governed to some extent by the amounts available. Skim milk is a feed of the same class as soy beans. The alfalfa is used primarily for furnishing bulk, and also protein. At the beginning of the period, the pigs, two months of age, will not be able to use a very large quantity of this. As they grow, however, during the next two or three months they will be able to take more and the quantity in the ration should be increased so that the appetite of the pigs is nearly satisfied. After the pigs are four or five months of age, it will be necessary gradually to decrease the alfalfa or other rough- age in order to make room for the gradually increasing quan- tity of the protein and carbohydrate nutrients. The reduction in the amount of water will also help to make possible the in- crease in protein and carbohydrates. SCIENTIFIC SWINE FEEDING 259 SUGGESTED APPROXIMATE RATION If a swine feeder does not have the inclination to follow the method of feeding outlined above and will be satisfied with results according to his practice, the following suggested approximate ration may be used: Pounvs oF FEED PER 100 Pounps Live WeicutT per Day Age of Pigs in Months a | 8) aol eo fee [oe Ground corn (fine)......... 2.6 | 2.8 | 3.0} 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.0] 2.6 Soy beans (ground fine). . 0.8;0.9/ 1.0} 0.6/0.8 | 0.4] 0.4 Skim milk... 2... ...0.0.0... 6.0 | 6.0 |} 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 WieCeRe Ginn cistern eek atildee. sistas 6.6 | 5.1 | 3.8) 2.6] 1.4 |] 5.5] 4.0 This kind of ration necessarily does not carry with it so much meaning as does one specially calculated because there prob- ably are no two farms where the same feeds are available in the same proportion. By using different feeds and different quantities of the same feeds, however, an infinite number of combinations may be made, all of which may be good. In the ration suggested, if the feeds mentioned are not available substitutions may be made. _ If corn is not available, rye, barley, wheat, rice, etc., may be used. If soy beans are not at hand peas may be used but the quantity must be in- creased as peas do not contain as much protein. Peas would also increase the carbohydrates, hence the corn would have to be correspondingly decreased, or these may be left out and more skim milk added. Some of the protein may also be supplied in the form of clover and alfalfa. If skim milk is not available more of some other nitrogenous feed may be supplied and also more water as milk is 85 to 90 per cent. water. In mentioning feeds the writer has had in mind suggesting those which may be produced on the farm. If nitrogenous feeds are to be purchased, tankage, oil meal, blood meal, etc., may be used, but it is well to remember that, in general, feeds can be produced morc economically on the farm. 260 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM OFFHAND FEEDING Many people are too indifferent in regard to this whole matter even to attempt to feed hogs according to the method outlined. For the benefit of such the following offhand rule is here presented. If milk is available it should be diluted, using one-half milk and one-half water. If then all the corn is ground into a fine meal and put into this milk and water together with all the other feeds used, a very thin slop can be made for pigs about two months old. This slop should have about the consistency of thick buttermilk. If these pigs are to be finished for market at eight months of age the amount of liquid used should be gradually reduced so that the slop has the consistency of a thick mush at the finishing period. If part of the corn is to be fed unground, the slop must be made correspondingly thinner. If pigs are to be developed for breeding purposes the slop should never be made thick. The breeding herd also should have a thin slop. The quantity of milk mentioned will furnish about the right quantity of protein during the first part of the period for pigs that are to be developed for breeding purposes. During the latter part of this period the amount of milk should be reduced. If milk is not available other nitrogenous concentrates should be used, such as peas, soy beans, oil meal and tankage. If the ration contains the proper amount of bulk and water, and the pig be fed what it will clean up readily, the ration might contain three parts of corn to one of peas, six parts of corn to one of soy beans or oil meal and eight parts of corn to one of tankage during the early part of the feeding period. As the pigs grow older they should have less of the nitrogenous con- centrates. Other carbohydrate concentrates should also be used in addition to corn as a part of the ration. If clover or alfalfa are available either in the form of pasture or as hay less of the nitrogenous concentrates need be used. For market pigs a little more of the nitrogenous concen- trates should be used during the growing period than is specified for breeding pigs and less during the fattening stage. SCIENTIFIC SWINE FEEDING 261 METHOD OF FEEDING It is of primary significance that each pig in the lot should get its proportionate amount of the various feed nutrients, and very great harm results if the nutrients, and especially the crude protein, are unequally distributed among the in- dividuals of a lot. For the sake of equal distribution of this ingredient especially, it is suggested that the grains used be ground and mixed with the milk and water, thus making a slop of all the ingredients except the mineral matter. A little of the corn, however, may be fed whole in order to develop the teeth and to accustom the pigs to feed in this form for purposes later in life when it may be advantageous to use feeds in this form. The feeding trough should have a swinging panel over it or else be in a separate feeding pen so that the slop can be poured into it without being disturbed by the pigs. When the slop is in the trough and the pigs are all present the panel over the trough may be swung back, or the gate to the extra feeding pen may be opened wide letting all the pigs come to the trough at the same time. Then, if the pigs are of equal size and are not too numerous, a good distribution of the nutrients to the different individuals of the lot will result. If it is impossible to have the feeds ground it is still possible to distribute the various nutrients fairly well. If the protein is to be fed in the form of soy beans or peas, these may be harvested and stored away together with the vine. At feeding time enough may be weighed or measured out to fur- nish the proper amount of protein and this distributed over a large feeding floor or on pasture where the pigs can have free access to it. While the pigs are doing the hulling and grinding, each will have an opportunity to gct its share. This also presupposes that pigs of equal size and age are being fed together and that they will eat with approximately the same rapidity. If the protein is thus distributed, the corn may be fed in the form of ear corn or shelled corn. If then the right quantity of water is fed fairly good results will be possible. During the winter season, however, when pigs will not drink enough by such practice it is necessary to mix at least a small 262 LIVESTOCK ON THE FARM quantity of meal with the proper quantity of water to make it palatable. This should then be fed to them in the trough. Better results are possible when pigs are fed three times a day than when they are fed only twice. When pigs get to the age at which they are called shotes, and get considerable of their feed in the form of green feeds from pasture, the green feeds may serve in place of the noon feed. From the data at hand and from a general knowledge of the subject, it appears that better results may be obtained by feeding on pasture than by feeding in the dry lot. The amounts of nutrients mentioned in the foregoing are intended for dry-lot feeding and it is thought that if pigs are fed on good pasture that these quantities of nutrients may be somewhat reduced. Nevertheless, one of the most important features of feeding on pasture, and it seems as if it might be the most important, is the exercise obtained by this method. Further- more, under such conditions pigs are able to utilize more than under dry-lot conditions, and the author has had good success in feeding according to the foregoing formulas on pasture. INDEX ABERDEEN Angus cattle, 174 Abortion, in cows, 164 in swine, 202 Acquired characteristics, 99 Action of roadster type horse, 122 Aération of soil, 39 Air, action of, in soil formation, 17 or oxygen, 80 Alleyways for poultry houses, 222 American trotter, 130 Ancestry, 95 Animal body, nature of, 51 functional parts of, 51 breeding, 91 Appetite, 86 Basy beef, 171 Bacteria, in milk, 147 in soil fertility, 37 source of, 37 Balanced ration, 70 Beef cattle, 170 breeds of, 174 bull, use of, in dairy herd, 160 Belgian horse, 128 Berkshire swine, 208 Black teeth, in pigs, 200 Blemishes, in horses, 133 Bloat in cattle, 169 Boar, 194 Body, length of, 58 affect on constitution, 59 on prolificacy, 59 in cattle, 134 in cows, 140 of horses, 63 length and depth of, 117 temperature, 80 263 Breeding, 91 cattle, 135 horses, 131 in nature, 97 practice, 100 resemblance and difference, 96 selection in, 96 variation in, 95 Breeds, becf cattle, 174 dairy cattle, 153 heavy horses, 125 light horses, 129 poultry, 224 sheep, 185 swine, 206 Brood mare, care of, 132 colt of, 132 sire of colt, 133 Brooders, 217 Bulk in ration, 248 Butter, 136 Car, care of, 150 feeding, 74 weaning of, 152 Capacity in cows, 140 Carbohydrates, 70, 244 feeds, 72 for breeding pigs, 245 requirement of, for market pigs, 244 Carbon, 67 Castration of pigs, 200 Cattle, 134 breeding, 135 feeding, 135, 173 length of body, 134 Changes in ration, 86 264 Cheese, 137 Chester White swine, 209 Cheviot sheep, 191 Chickens, classification of, 225 Chicks, feeding of, 216 Clay soil, origin of, 19 Clydesdale horse, 127 Coach horses, 124 Coarse feeds, use of, for livestock, 28 Colts, care of, 133 exercise for, 107 Concentrates, 82 for horses, 109 Condition, in animals, 64 Constitution, 57 how determined, 57 how obtained, 58 in cows, 141 Cooking feeds, 89 Corn, as feed, 69 for horses, 110 time to cut for silo, 159 Cotswold sheep, 192 Cows freshening, spring or fall, 165 shelter for, 145 Crop rotation, 37 Cultivation of soil, 38 as affecting water supply, 38 Dairy barn, 145 cattle, breeds of, 153 cow, 136 feeding of, 137 judging of, 140 Delicacy, as related to quality, 56 Digestibility, coefficients of, 232 Digestion, 66 Draft horse conformation, 114 Drinking vessels for poultry, 223 Dry feeds, 84 Dual-purpose cattle, 167 Ducklings, feeding of, 228 INDEX Ducks, 227 feeding, of for breeding, 228 Duroc-Jersey swine, 210 Dusting box for poultry, 222 Ear marks for pigs, 200 Egg breeds of chickens, 225 Eggs for hatching, care of, 218 preserving of, 218 Energy, storage of, 71 Environment, 98, 105 for horses, 107 Ether extract or fat feeding, 246 Exercise as affecting respiration, 81 for chicks, 248 in swine Factors in feeding cows, 139 of waste, 233 illustrated, 237 Farm animals, 51 classes of, 51 life, interest in, 45 Fat, as a laxative, 73 concentration of, 75 feeds, 75 in a ration, 73 use of, 74 Fattening poultry, 216 Feed, concentrated, 232 Feeder-cattle, 173 Feeding cattle, 135 cows, 137 individuality, 139° ducks, 228 geese, 229 general principles of, 53 horses, 109 in winter, 85 method of, for swine, 261 offhand, for swine, 260 pigs, 211 regularly, 55 IN DEX Feeding, standard, 233 times per day, 88 turkeys, 227 Feeds, carbohydrate, 72 classification of, 82 for swine, 249 cooking of, 89 dry, 84 for animals, 66 green, 83 grinding of, 88 liquid, 84 protein, 70 selection of, for swine, 253 soaking of, 90 Feet of horses, 119 care of, 112 Fence habits of animals, 32 Fences, 31 for horses, 108 how built, 33 kinds of, 32 Fencing, cost of, 35 manner of, 32 Fine wool sheep, 185 Fire in relation to oxygen supply, 81 Food hopper for poultry, 223 Forage crops, necessity of, for livestock, 37 Form of animal body, 63 Fowls, exercise for, 214 GaALLoway cattle, 177 Geese, 229 feeding of, for breeding, 229 General-purpose breeds of chickens, 224 Gestation, 102 Goats, 184 Good cow, how obtained, 149 Goslings, feeding of, 230 Grade horses, 125 265 Grain farmer, 17 farming, 17 business of, 24 equipment for, 25 labor problem for, 24 revenues of, 24 social aspect of, 25 for poultry, 214 Green feeds, 83 for poultry, 215 Grinding feeds, 88 for swine, 283 Grit and oyster shell for poultry, 215 Growth, 67 Guernsey cattle, 156 Guineas, 230 Hackney horse, 130 Hail, 41 Hampshire Down sheep, 191 swine, 209 Harness fitting, for horses, 112 Harvesting, as affecting a live- stock farm, 31 Head, of horse, 119 Heat, in crop production, 41 Heavy horses, breeds of, 125 Hen, the sitting, 217 Herd boar, 194 building up of, 166 management, in swine, 196 sire, 104 testing, 166 Heredity, 94 Hereford cattle, 176 Hog cholera, 197 Holstein Friesian cattle, 154 Horses, 107 barns for, 108 breeding of, 131 breeds of, heavy, 125 light, 129 266 Horses, care of, 112, 113 conformation of, for draft, 114 feeding of, 109 manner of, 111 feet of, 112 fitting harness for, 112 grades, 125 selection of, 114 types of, 113 Hothouse lambs, 180 Housing for horses, 108 Humus, 39 action of, in soil fertility, 19 in soil formation, 19 nature of, 19 Hydrogen, 67 Incusarors 217 Inheritance as a factor in feeding, 54 Insects, 41 Jersuy cattle, 154 Judging cows (the cow in outline), 140 Lasor on livestock farm, 31 Lambing time, 181 Lambs, weaning of, 181 Large Yorkshire swine, 207 Laying hens, feeding of, 216 Lean meat or muscle, breeding for, 57 Leguminous plants, 40 Leicester sheep, 192 Lice on pigs, 202 on poultry, 224 Light horses, breeds of, 129 Limbs, cleanness of in horses, 117 Limiting element, in soil fertility, 22 Lincoln sheep, 192 Liquid feeds, 84 purpose of, 84 INDEX Livestock, economy of, 36 farm, starting of, 104 herd sire, value of, 104 location of, 106 farmer, nature of problem of, 41 farming, 26 advantages of, 28 purpose of, 26 place of, 26 MAINTENANCE, as a factor in feed- ing, 53 cows, 140 Man, in animal breeding, 91 type of, for livestock farm, 46 Manure, 161 Marino sheep, 188 Marketing hogs, 202 Meat breeds of chickens, 225 food for poultry, 215 Mental connection in milking, 14& Metabolism, 81, 232 Milk, 136 constancy of, 137 veins, 142 wells, 142 Milking, 146 machine, 149 manner of, 149 Mineral matter, 76, 235 for cows, 139 for horses, 110 importance of, 236 sources of, 235 Mites on poultry, 224 Moisture, 41 Mules, 124 Mutton sheep, 188 Neck of horse, 119 Nerve force, 144 Nests for poultry houses, 221 INDEX Nitrogen, 67 Nutrients, 67, 232 Oats, as a feed for horses, 109 Overfeeding, 68 how avoided, 69 Oxford Down sheep, 190 Oxygen, 67 Oyster shell for poultry, 215 PALATABILITY, 86 Parasites of sheep, 181 Pastern of horse, 118 Pasture, 87 for cows, 140 Peafowl, 230 Pedigree, 95 Percheron horse, 125 Pigeons, 231 Pigs, 193 Poland China swine, 209 Polled Durham cattle, 174 Ponies, 123 Post timber, 34 Poultry, 213 fattening of, 216 feeding of, 214 houses, 218 size of, 223 types and breeds of, 224 Protein, 67, 233, 236 distribution of, 243 feeds, 70 for cows, 137 illustrated, 241 in overfeeding, 68 requirement of, for pigs, 240 for breeding herd, 244 for market pigs, 239 sources of, 242‘ use of in growth, 67 Pure bred animal, 101 breeding 207 QUALITY in animals, 55 in cows, 144 Ration, changes in, 86 method of calculating, for swine feeding, 254 palatability of, 86 suggested approximate, for swine feeding, 259 variety in, 87 Reproduction, 93 Resemblance and difference, 96 Returns from livestock, 40 Ribs, lack of, in good cow, 148 Roadster horse, type of, 120 weight of, 120 Rocks in soil formation, 17 Roosts for poultry, 220 Rooting by pigs, 202 Roughages, 82, 232 for horses, 110 SapbDLE horse, 130 Salt, 77 Sandy soil, origin of, 19 Scours in pigs, 201 Selection, 96 Sex, breeding for, 103 Sheep, 178 as weed eradicators, 181 breeds of, 185 care of, 180 dual-purpose, nature of, 180 feeding of, 182 fleece as shelter, 179 parasites of, 181 shearing of, 181 trimming feet, 181 Shelter, 85 for cows, 145 Shetland pony, origin of, 123 advantages of, 124 Shire horse, 127 268 INDEX Shorthorn cattle, 174 Shoulders of horse, 116 Shropshire sheep, 189 Silo, 158 advantages of, 158 disadvantages of, 158 feeds for, 158 filling of, 160 kinds of, 160 Sire, in horse breeding, 133 selection of, 98 value of, 97 Size, as a factor in feeding, 54 in cows, 145 of roadster horses, 120 Soaking feeds, 90 Soil as anchorage, 21 bacteria, 23 protection of, 23 good, 21 origin of, 17 poor, 21 washing, 22, 40 Souring of milk, 147 Southdown sheep, 190 Sow, how obtained, 195 young or old, 196 Stallion, 133 Swine, 193 breeds of, 206 shelter for, 199 time to breed, 200 types of, 203 Swine-feeding, 211 problem, nature of, 233 scientific, 232 TAMWORTH swine, 207 Temperament, 65 Temperature in soil formation, 19 Testing milk, 166 Thirst, 86 Thoroughbred, 129 Thumps in pigs, 201 Tuberculosis, 161 in swine, 202 symptoms of, 164 test for, 162 Turkeys, 226 feeding of, 227 housing of, 227 Types of horses, 113 Upper, 141 Unsoundness in horses, 133 Urine, dripping of, 80 VARIATION, 95 Variety in ration, 84 Veal calf, 153 Ventilation for poultry house, 220 Vigor and breeding in swine, 204 Waste feeds, used by farm animals, 31 lands, in food production, 28 Water, 77 action of, in soil formation, 17 as factor in soil fertilitv, 19 as drink, 78 as solvent, 77 in cow feeding, 138 in horse feeding, 111 in regulating temperature, 80 in swine feeding, 246 in transportation, 79 requirement of, for market pigs, 247 for breeding pigs, 247 Wealth of flesh, 56 Weaning pigs, 201 Weeds, used by livestock, 28 Wind, as affecting different kind of farmers, 40 Windows, for poultry house, 220 Winter feeding, 85 INDEX 269 Withers, 143 Work horses, 107 Wool, 178 , Worms, in pigs, 202 shrinking of, in garments, 179 warmth of, 178 YOLK in wool, 179 yolk in, 179 COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS PUBLISHED BY W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY West Washington Square Philadelphia London: 9, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden Prentiss’ Embryology Laboratory Manual and Text-Book of Embryology. By CHARLES W. Prentiss, A. M., Ph. D., formerly Professor of Microscopic Anatomy in the Northwestern University Medical School, Chi- cago. Large octavo of 400 pages, with 368 illustrations, many in colors. Cloth, $3.75 net. This aew work on Embryology is both laboratory manual and descrip- tive text-book. It is the only recent single volume describing the chick and pig embryos usually studied in the laboratory, giving you as well a concise, systematic account of human embryology. The descrip- tions of the chick and pig embryos to be studied in the laboratory cover over 100 pages and are illustrated with 132 instructive illustrations, most of them original. Dr. J. W. Papez, Atlanta Medical College: ‘It is the only book that has fulfilled my needs exactly. I am using the book this session and will continue to use it in the future.” ldlerrick’s Neurology Introduction to Neurology. By C. Jupson Herrick, Ph. D., Pro- fessor of Neurology in the University of Chicago. 12mo of 360 pages, with 137 illustrations. Cloth, $1.75 net. This work will help the student to organize his knowledge and to appreciate the significance of the nervous system as a working mechan- ism. It presents the actual inner workings of the nervous mechanisms in terms that he can understand at the very beginning of his course in psychology, general zodlogy, comparative anatomy, and general medicine. 2 Saunders’ College Text-Books McFarland’s Biology Biology: General and Medical. By JosePpH McFartanp, M. D., Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, University of Pennsyl- vania. 12mo of 457 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.75 net. Just Issued. New (3d) Edition. This work is particularly adaptable to the requirements of scientific courses. There are chapters on the origin of life and its manifesta- tions, the cell and cell division, reproduction, ontogenesis, conformity to type, divergence, structural and blood relationship, parasitism, mu- tilation and regeneration, grafting, senescence, etc. Prof. W. R. McConnell, Pennsylvania State College: ‘It has some admirable features, the most valuable of which is the careful résumé of the subjects of heredity and evolution.” Drew’s Imvertebrate Zodlogy Invertebrate Zoology. By Grrman A. Drew, Ph. D., Assistant Di- rector of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass. 12mo of 213 pages. Cloth, $1.25 net. New (2d) Edition. Professor Drew’s work gives the student a working knowledge of com- parative anatomy and leads him to an appreciation of the adaptation of the animals to their environments. It is a practical work, express- ing the practical knowledge gained through experience. The type method of study has been followed. Prof. John M. Tyler, Amherst College: ‘It covers the ground well, is clear and very compact. The table of definitions is excellent.” Daugherty’s Economic Zoology Economic Zoélogy. By L. S. DAucHERtY, M.S., Ph. D., Professor of Science, Missouri Wesleyan College; and M. C. DauGHERTY. Part I—Field and Laboratory Guide: 12mo of 276 pages, inter- leaved. Cloth, $1.25 net. Part IIl—Principles: 12mo of 406 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net. Not only does this work give the salient facts of structural zodlogy and - the development of the various branches, but also the natural history —the life and habits. It emphasizes the economic phase throughout. Prof. V. E. Shelford, University of Chicago: “It has many merits and is the best book of the kind on the market.” » Saunders’ College Text-Books 3 Stiles’ Nutritional Physiology Nutritional Physiology. By Percy G. Stites, Assistant Professor of Physiology at Harvard University. 12mo of 288 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net. New (2d) Edition. Dr. Stiles’ new work takes up each organ, each secretion concerned in the process of digestion, discussing the part each plays in the physiol- ogy of nutrition—in the transformation of energy. In fact, the key- note of the book throughout is “‘ energy’’—its source and its conserva- tion. The illustrations and homely similes are noteworthy. Prof. M. E. Jaffa, University of California: “The presentation of the matter is excellent and can be understood by all.”’ Sules’ Nervous System ~ The Nervous System and Its Conservation. By Percy GoLDTHWAIT Stites, Assistant Professor of Physiology at Harvard University. 12mo of 230 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net. Prof. Stiles’ wonderful faculty of putting scientific things in language within the grasp of the non-medical reader is nowhere better illustrated than in this book. He has a way of conveying facts accurately with rifle-ball precision. This new book is really a physiology and anatomy of the nervous system, emphasizing the means of conserving nervous energy. Stiles’ Human Physiology Hyman Physiology. By Percy GotptHwait STILEs, Assistant Professor of Physiology at Harvard University. 12mo of 400 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net. This new physiology is particularly adapted for high and normal schools and general colleges. It presents the accepted facts concisely with only a limited description of the experiments by which these facts have been established. It is written by a teacher who has not lost the point of view of elementary students. Professor Stiles has a unique and forceful way of writing. He has the faculty of making clear, even to the unscientific reader, physiologic processes more or less difficult of comprehension. This he does by the use of happy teaching devices. The illustrations are as simple as the text. 4 Saunders’ College Text-Books Jordan’s General Bacteriology General Bacteriology. By Epwtn O. Jorpan, Ph. D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of Chicago. Octavo of 669 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $3.25 net. Just Out—New (5th) Editions This work treats fully of the bacteriology of plants, milk and milk products, dairying, agriculture, water, food preservation; of leather tanning, vinegar making, tobacco curing; of household administration and sanitary engineering. A chapter of prime importance to all stu- dents of botany, horticulture, and agriculture is that on the bacterial diseases of plants. Prof. T. J. Burrill, University of Hlinois: “I am using Jordan’s Bac- teriology for class work and am convinced that it is the best text in existence.” Eyre’s Bacteriologic Technic Bacteriologic Technic. By J. W. H. Eyre, M. D., Bacteriologist to Guy’s Hospital, London. Octavo of 525 pages, illustrated, Cloth, $3.00 net. Second Edition. Dr. Eyre gives clearly the technic for the bacteriologic examination of water, sewage, air, soil, milk and its products, meats, etc. It is a work of much value in the laboratory. The illustrations are practical and serve well to clarify the text. The book has been greatly enlarged. The London Lancet: ‘It is a work for all technical students, whether of brewing, dairying, or agriculture.” Fred’s Soil Bacteriology Soil Bacteriology. By E. B. Frep, Pu. G., Associate Professor of Agricultural Bacteriology, College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin. 12mo of 170 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net. Dr. Fred has very carefully prepared a laboratory manual arranged primarily for students of soil bacteriology, soil chemistry, physics, and plant pathology. It is the outgrowth of many years’ experience. The instructions he gives are unusually clear and definite, being based on quantitative results. He sets down a series of practical exercises on soil micro-organisms, on the nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, iron cycles, etc. Saunders’ College Text-Books 5 ldill’s Normal Mdlistology Normal Histology and Organography. By Cuartes Hit, M. D., r1zmo of 483 pages, 337 illustrations. Flexible leather, $2.25 net. New (3d) Edition. Dr. Hill’s work is characterized bya brevity of style, yet a complete- ness of discussion, rarely met in a book of this size. The entire field is covered, beginning with the preparation of material, the cell, the various tissues, on through the different organs and regions, and end- ing with fixing and staining solutions. Dr. E. P. Porterfield, St. Louis University: ‘I am very much gratified to find so handy a work. It is so full and complete that it meets all requirements.” Bohm, Davidoff, Hluber’s Histology ffistology. By A. A. Béum, M.D., and M. von Daviporr, M. D., of Munich, Edited by G. Cart Huser, M. D., Professor of Embryology at the Wistar Institute, University of Pennsyl- vania. Octavo of 528 pages, 377 illustrations. Flexible cloth, $3.50 net. Second Edition. This work is conceded to be the most complete text-book on human histology published. Particularly full on microscopic technic and staining, it is especially serviceable in the laboratory. Every step in technic is clearly and precisely detailed. It is a work you can depend upon always. New York Medical Journal: ‘There can be nothing but praise for this model text-book and laboratory guide.” os Keefer’s Military Inlygiene Military Hygiene and Sanitation. By Lrevt.-Cot. Frank R. Keerer, Professor of Military Hygiene, United States Military Academy, West Point. 12mo of 305 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net. You get here chapters on the care of troops, recruits and recruiting, per- sonal hygiene, physical training, preventable diseases, clothing, equip- ment, water-supply, foods and their preparation, hygiene and sanitation of posts, barracks, the troopship, marches, camps, and battlefields; dis- posal of wastes, tropic and arctic service, venereal diseases, alcohol, etc. 6 Saunders’ College Text-Books Owen’s Treatment of Emergencies The Treatment of Emergencies. By HusBiEy R. Owen, M. D., Sur- geon to the Philadelphia General Hospital. 12mo of 500 pages, with 2409 illustrations. Dr. Owen’s book gives you not only the actual technic of the procedures, but also the reason why a particular method is advised. This makes for correctness. You get chapters on fractures of all kinds, on contu- sions and wounds, going fully into symptoms, treatments, and complica- tions. Particularly strong is the chapter on gunshot wounds, which gives the new treatments that the great European War has developed. You get the principles of hemorrhage, together with its constitutional and local treatments. You get chapters on sprains, strains, disloca- tions, burns and scalds, etc. The book is complete; it is thorough; it is practical. Brady’s Personal Health Personal Health. By Wiu1am Brapy, M. D., Elmira, New York. r2mo of 407 pages. Cloth, $1.50 net. Just Issued. Dr. Brady teaches you how to take care of yourself, how to forestall ill- ness, how to apply sound, practical judgment to the routine of your daily life. He gives you a clear idea of the causes of ill-health of any kind. He prescribes simple treatments when these are sufficient. He carefully indicates the stage at which professional advice should be sought. He knows what you want, for fifteen years’ experience has taught him. Winslow’s Prevention of Disease The Prevention of Disease. By Kinetm Winstow, M. D., formerly Assistant Professor of Comparative Therapeutics, Harvard Uni- versity. r12mo of 348 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.75 net. This book is a practical guide for the layman, giving him briefly the means to avoid the various diseases described. The chapters on diet, exercise, tea, coffee, and alcohol are of special interest, as are those on the prevention of cancer, colds, constipation, obesity, nervous disorders, tuberculosis, infantile paralysis, sex hygiene, decayed teeth, colds, enlarged tonsils and adenoids, and the diseases of middle age. The work is a record of twenty-five years’ active practice. Saunders’ College Text-Books 7 Buchanan & Murray’s Bacteriology Veterinary Bacteriology. By Rosert E. Bucwanan, Pu. D., Pro- fessor of Bacteriology, and CuarLes Murray, B. Sc., D. V. M., Associate Professor of Veterinary Bacteriology, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Octavo of 590 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $3.50 net. New (2d) Edition. Professor Buchanan’s new work goes minutely into the consideration of immunity, opsonic index, reproduction, sterilization, antiseptics, biochemic tests, culture media, isolation of cultures, the manufacture of the various toxins, antitoxins, tuberculins, and vaccines. B. F. Kaupp, D. V.S., State Agricultural College, Fort Collins: “It is the best in print on the subject. What pleases me most is that it con- tains all the late results of research.” Sisson’s Anatomy of Domestic Animals Anatomy of Domestic Animals. By SEptIMus Sisson, S. B., V. S., Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Ohio State University. Octavo of 930 pages, 725 illustrations. Cloth, $7.50 net. New (2d) Edition. Here is a work of the greatest usefulness in the study and pursuit of the veterinary sciences. This is a clear and concise statement of the structure of the principal domesticated animals—an exhaustive gross anatomy of the horse, ox, pig, and dog, including the splanchnology of the sheep, presented in a form never before approached for practical usefulness. Prof. E. D. Harris, North Dakota Agricultural College: “‘ It is the best of its kind in the English language. It is quite free from errors.” Sharp’s Veterinary Ophthalmology Ophthalmology for Veterinarians. By Watrer N. Suarp, M. D., Professor of Ophthalmology, Indiana Veterinary College. 12mo of 210 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net. This new work covers a much neglected but important field of veter- inary practice. Dr. Sharp has presented his subject in a concise, crisp way, so that you can pick up his book and get to “ the point ” quickly. He first gives you the anatomy of the eye, then examination, the various diseases, including injuries, parasites, errors of refraction. Dr. George H. Glover, Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins: “Tt is the best book on the subject on the market.” 8. Saunders’ College Text-Books ldadley om the Horse The Horse in Health and Disease. By FREDERICK B. HapLey, D. V. M., Associate Professor of Veterinary Science, University of Wisconsin. 12mo of 260 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net. This new work correlates the structure and function of each organ of the body, and shows how the hidden parts are related to the form, movements, and utility of the animal. Then, in another part, you get a concise discussion of the causes, methods of prevention, and effects of disease. The book is designed especially as an introductory text to the study of veterinary science in agricultural schools and colleges. KKaupp’s Poultry Culture Poultry Culture, Sanitation, and Hygiene. By B.F. Kaupp, M.S., D. V. M., Poultry Investigator and Pathologist, North Carolina Experiment Station. 12mo of 417 pages, with 197 illustrations. Cloth, $2.00 net. This work gives you the breeds and varieties of poultry, hygiene and sanitation, ventilation, poultry-house construction, equipment, ridding stock of vermin, internal parasites, and other diseases. You get the gross anatomy and functions of the digestive organs, food-stuffs, com- pounding rations, fattening, dressing, packing, selling, care of eggs, handling feathers, value of droppings as fertilizer, caponizing, etc., etc. Lynch’s Diseases of Swine Diseases of Swine. With Particular Reference to Hog-Cholera. By Cuartes F, Lyncu, M. D., D. V. S., Terre Haute Veterinary College. Withachapter on Castration and Spaying, by GEORGE R. Ware, M.D., D. V.S., Tennessee. Octavo of 741 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $5.00 net. You get first some 80 pages on the various breeds of hogs, with valu- able points in judging swine. Then comes an extremely important monograph of over 4oo pages on hog-cholera, giving the history, causes, pathology, types, and treatment. Then, in addition, you get complete chapters on all other diseases of swine. Saunders’ College Text-Books 9 Lusk’s Elements of Nutrition Elements of Nutrition, By Grauam Lusk, Ph. D., Professor of Physiology, Cornell Medical School. Octavo of 4o2 pages, illus trated. Cloth, $3.00 net. Second Edition, The clear and practical presentation of starvation, regulation of tem- perature, the influence of protein food, the specific dynamic action of food-stuffs, the influence of fat and carbohydrate ingestion and of mechanical work render the work unusually valuable. It will prove extremely helpful to students of animal dietetics and of metabolism generally. Dr. A. P. Brubaker, Jefferson Medical College: “It is undoubtedly the best presentation of the subject in English. The work is indispensable.” Howell’s Physiology Physiology, By Witt1am H. Howe t, M.D., Ph. D., Professor of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University. Octavo of 1020 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 net. New (6th) Edition. Dr. Howell’s work on human physiology has been aptly termed a “storehouse of physiologic fact and scientific theory.” You will at once be impressed with the fact that you are in touch with an expe- rienced teacher and investigator. Prof. G. H. Caldwell, University of North Dakota: “Of all the text- books on physiology which I have examined, Howell’s is the best.” Bergey’s Hygiene Hygiene. By D.H. Bercy, M. D., Assistant Professor of Bac- teriology, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo of 529 pages, illus- trated. Cloth, $3.00 net. New (5th) Edition. Dr. Bergey gives first place to ventilation, water-supply, sewage, indus- trial and school hygiene, etc. His long experience in teaching this sub- ject has made him familiar with teaching needs. J. N. Hurty, M. D., Indiana University: “Tt is one of the best books with which I am acquainted.” IO Saunders’ College Text-Books Pyle’s Personal Inygiene Personal Hygiene. Edited by Watrsr L. Pyre, M. D., Fellow of the American Academy of Medicine. 12mo of 543 pages, illus- trated. Cloth, $1.50 net. New (6th) Edition. Dr. Pyle’s work sets forth the best means of preventing disease—the best means to perfect health. It tells you how to care for the teeth, skin, complexion, and hair. It takes up mouth breathing, catching cold, care of the vocal cords, care of the eyes, school hygiene, body posture, ventilation, house-cleaning, etc. There are chapters on food adulter- ation (by Dr. Harvey W. Wiley), domestic hygiene, and home gymnastics. Canadian Teacher: “Such a complete and authoritative treatise should he in the hands of every teacher.” Galbraith’s Exercise for Women Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women By Anna M. GarpraitH, M.D. 12mo of 393 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $2.25 net. New (2d) Edition. Dr. Galbraith’s book meets a need long existing—a need for a simple manual of personal hygiene and physical training for women along sci- entific lines. There are chapters on hair, hands and feet, dress, devel- opment of the form, and the attainment of good carriage by dancing, walking, running, swimming, rowing, etc. Dr. Harry B. Boice, Trenton State Normal School: “It is intensely interesting and is the finest work of the kind of which I know.” Mickkenzie on [Exercise Exercise in Education and Medicine. By R. Tart McKenzie, M.D., Professor of Physical Education, University of Pennsyl- vania. Octavo of 585 pages, with 478 illustrations. Cloth, $4.00 net. New (2d) Edition. Chapters of special value in college work are those on exercise by the different systems: play-grounds, physical education in school, college, and university. D. A. Sargent, M.D., Hemenway Gymnasium: “It should be in the hands of every physical educator.” Saunders’ College Text-Books II Morrow’s Care of Injured Immediate Care of the Injured, By Atserr S. Morrow, M.D., Adjunct Professor of Surgery, New York Polyclinic. Octavo of 360 pages, 242 illustrations. Cloth, $2.50 net. Second Edition. Dr. Morrow’s book tells you just what to do in any emergency, and it is illustrated in such a practical way taat the idea is caught at once. There is no book better adapted to first-aid class work. Health: ‘Here is a book that should find a place in every workshop and factory and should be made a text-book in our schools.” American Illustrated Dictionary American Itlustrated Medical Dictionary. By W. A,NEwMAN Dorranp, M. D., Member of Committee on Nomenclature and Classification of Diseases, American Medical Association. Octavo of 1137 pages, with 323 illustrations, rr9 in colors. Flexible leather, $4.50 net; thumb indexed, $5.00 net. New (8th) Edition. If you want an unabridged medical dictionary, this is the one you want. It is down to the minute; its definitions are concise, yet accu- rate and clear; it is extremely easy to consult; it defines all the newest terms in medicine and the allied subjects; it is profusely illustrated. John B. Murphy, M. D., Northwestern University: “It is unquestion- ably the best lexicon on medical topics in the English language, and with all that, it is so compact for ready reference.” American Pocket Dictionary American Pocket Medical Dictionary. Edited by W. A. NEw- MAN Dortanp, M.D. 693 pages. Flexible leather, $1.25 net; thumb index, $1.50 net. New (oth) Edition. A dictionary must be full enough to give the student the information he seeks, clearly and simply, yet it must not confuse him with detail. The editor has kept this in mind in compiling this Pocket Dictionary. I. V. S. Stanislaus, M. D., Medico-Chirurgical College: ‘We have been strongly recommending this little book as being the very best.’’ DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULARS OF ALL BOOKS SENT FREE ARAL = 2 _. > Tacapeeeeeeeee ee ee eee a ee ee Se ee ee gee a