LIPPINCOTT Si FARM MANWALS =$) i PRODUCTIVE 8 HUSBANDRY && ml 6BY W.C.COFFEY % CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE 7 Hlower Veterinary Library FOUNDED BY ROSWELL P. FLOWER for the use of the N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 1897 This Volume ts the Gift of Dr. D, La Grange Cornel wmiversity Library Productive sheep husbandry, Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001176159 “The first farmer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land.” —EMERSON. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Px.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE; AUTHOR OF PRODUCTIVE FARMING, ETC. PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY By WALTER C. COFFEY PROFESSOR OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By GEORGE E. DAY, BS.A. | $1.75 net. THIRD EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S. $2.00 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By CARL W. GAY, B.S.A. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. $1.75 net. THIRD EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING By JOHN W. LLOYD, MS.A. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. $1.75 nel. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING By FRANK C. PELLETT $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING By R. M. WASHBURN $1.75 net. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A. 2.00 net. PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY By WALTER C. COFFEY $2.50 net. TOOM CNV NOLLAW SSV1IO HOIH FOnNdoUdd OL Gad ANV dad LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY BY WALTER C. COFFEY PROFESSOR OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS “Tf vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.”’ PorE—Essay on Man PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY J. sb. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY w ¥ Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U.S.A. DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER WHO LOVED SHEEP PREFACE ALL indications at the present time point to the beginning of a new period in the sheep industry of the United States. For the first time in our history we are attempting to give attention to the whole problem of mutton and wool production. We are awakening as never before to the fact that successful flock husbandry is based upon a careful consideration and attention to breeding, feeding, shepherding, and marketing. As a result, farm flocks are emerg- ing from the depraved stage of scavengers, and bands of sheep on western ranges no longer have “to take pot luck” on the natural feed of the range. The sheepman now realizes that “ the march towards the setting sun” in search of new and cheap range is over, and that various phases of agriculture are demanding and receiving recognition in regions which he once regarded as solely his own. He also realizes that land values have advanced and the cost of operation increased to the point where the haphazard and wasteful methods once prac- ticed in handling sheep can no longer be depended upon to yield profits. All of these changes presage a better and more successful sheep husbandry, and this book is offered with the hope that it will be of use both to the student and to the sheep raiser in comprehending the place which sheep justly deserve in our agriculture and the methods of handling which will result in permanent occupancy of this place. The author fully realizes that this volume is not a complete treatise on sheep husbandry. He also realizes how unfortunate it would be for sheepmen generally to attempt to apply without any modification whatever all of the suggestions this book contains; for no absolute rule can be laid down for each and every practice in flock husbandry. To my various friends engaged in sheep raising, most grateful acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and help they have given me in preparing this volume, and especially do I feel indebted to my colleague, Prof. J. A. Detlefsen, for his helpful suggestions on vu viii PREFACE the discussion pertaining to sheep breeding, and to my assistants, Mr. Claude Harper and Mr. E. K. Augustus, who have rendered me most valuable assistance in various ways. I also wish to express my very great appreciation of suggestions given by Miss Anna Cushman Glover, Secretary of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, and by my brother, Professor J. S. Coffey, on the arrangement of the material for this book. WaLtER C. CoFFEY. August, 1918. CONTENTS PART I—HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND OF SHEEP BREEDING CHAPTER PAGE I. Tur DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RaISING IN VARIOUS CoUNTRIES 3 II. Present Types or SHEEP Ratsinc In LeEapinc SHEEP COUNTRIES jahicisi sos 4 Sua 2 wRNN ose a eid adeted wid dtite arden Shine eentaree 20 III. ProBLems In THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP............... 27 IV. METHODS oF IMPROVEMENT.............0.. 0000.0 ceeeeee 37 PART II—STRUCTURE AND JUDGING V. SrrRucTURE OF THE SHEEP.................0..0 0000000: 45 VAL. Tae NATURE (OF SHEEP: «2s: cutie oc ceca ae eed ba oe es 59 Vi Tye rse eck eseres airs Petes hea ya es ae tn See oe 70 VIII. JupGine SHEEP.......... 0.0. cence cee 82 PART ITI—BREEDS IX... THe Mutron BREEDS: «cece s25 een one e del ok dda us os 99 X. THE SOUTHDOWN......... 0... c cee cece e eens 102 XL: GAS SHROPSHIRE: = os <6. desea ie a Gace bs ale ie eevee eta ken 110 XII. THe HaMPSHIRE...........0. 000000 eee een t eee eee eae 122 ITT. THE OXFORD DOWN: . «accion scr n dead vs ian oe ene: 1382 SOLY.. SPA SURPOLK ys y2+ sek cornet ese ta dear nee eee 137 XV. Tue Dorset HORN..........0... 0000 ccc ee 140 OVD TH CHEVIOT 2. esses. 6 ete ann eA pi aioe) hate eee 145 XVII. Toe LBICESTER........0.0.0 000000 cc cece eens 150 AVAIL. as ‘COTSWOLDY : os isons ea an eileen nasa gh ova o Secon el ow aes 156 KEXP INCOUN ce oe eer ek Sas Het oe ee Soe Sai os 161 XX. Tae Romney MARSH.............0 0000 ce eee cee eee ae 164 XXI. Britiso Breeps Not WipELy DistRIBUTED IN THE UNITED PS TATE BOBS shoe splices eee anos at ee cn BSE rea th tee 168 XII: Tap CoRRIBDARB eis gens hye idea Ree che Soke 180 XXIII. Tat AMERICAN TUNIS.........0.. 000000 e eee ence cence 184 XXIV. Breeps or THE WooL TYPE...........-..--0 000000 euee 188 XXV. THe AMERICAN MBRINO...........0.0 00000 cece cece eee 190 XXVI. Tae DevainE MERINO.............00 0000 eect eee 200 XXVII. Toe RAMBOUILLET........0.0.0 0000 eet e eens 203 XXVIII. Toe Karaxut (A Fur-Brearine BREED),....,.,...-.... 212 CONTENTS xX PART IV—THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK XXIX. EsraBLisHinc THE COMMERICAL Farm FLocK............ 219 XXX. Tue BREEDING SEASON........... 0000 cece eee eee ees 230 XXXI. Care or Ewns Durina PREGNANCY..............-.-0005 236 XOXKe “Tum: LAMBING (PERIOD =o scese cgtays Hee a Datta nn eet 246 XXXII. GRowine tHE LAMB. Acces eee e ee bean ee setasede awa 267 XXXIV. SumMMER MANAGEMENT.........00 000 cece cee eee eee eens 291 DOO... (Bee. WOGE: CROP si 2 ccs cuclalncevnieci naaden danpiin wide aided we... B14 PART V—SHEEP FEEDING XXXVI. History or SHEEP FEEDING IN THE UNITED STATES....... 335 XXXVII. Market Cuasses OF SHEEP.............-2 0000s eee eee 340 XXXVIII. GeneraL CoNSIDERATIONS IN SHEEP AND Lams FEEDING.. 355 XXXIX. Some Important Factors AFFECTING THE RaTE AND Economy OF ‘GAIN: 2scu0 ceeerem ceed eeer bakes ead’ 369 XL. Frerepine SHEEP AND LaMBs IN THE FIELD THROUGH A Part or ALL OF THE FEEDING PERIOD.................... 387 PART VI—SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN THE XLI XLII XLII XLIV XLV WESTERN STATES . NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP.............. 393 . MaNnaGEMENT or SHEEP ON RANGES IN THE WEST....... 402 . SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS DURING THE Past TWENTY-FIVE YEARS............0..000-00 cece 426 PART VII—MISCELLANEOUS . Burtpines anp EquIpMENT For FaRM FLOCKS ........... 435 . PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FaRM..................000% 449 EIN DK ks ae satiate ace ad ees d esluehioka choaeenn cangiee Beene 461 PART I HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND SHEEP BREEDING PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES Early Domestication and Importance.—It is thought that sheep were first domesticated in Asia, probably in Turkestan. There is evidence that they may have been under domestication in Europe in prehistoric times, for the bones of sheep have been found in caves and lake dwellings, where the primitive people of that continent lived. We can only surmise that primitive man used the skins for raiment and shelter, and the meat and milk for food. As man advanced in civilization and became more settled in his habits, his principal wealth often consisted of flocks and herds. The Old Testament contains many passages which refer to the pastoral occupation of sheep herding. Rome developed skill in handling her flocks, and sheep abounded in Spain prior to the Christian era. The development of sheep raising as it concerns those now in- terested in the production of mutton and wool centered in England and in Spain. Before the year 1000 both of these countries attached great importance to their flocks, and by the year 1500 they were recognized as the greatest sheep countries of the world. Although their wools were considerably unlike, they were regarded as com- petitors for several hundred years on the great wool markets of Flanders. Sheep Raising in Spain.—Spain, at a very early period, de- veloped the Merino, a type of sheep which produced wool of unusually fine fiber, suitable for making such fine, soft fabrics as broadcloth (Fig. 1). This wool met with so large a demand and was so fertile a source of revenue, that the most powerful classes, the nobility and the clergy, engaged in sheep husbandry. They collected great flocks for which they secured almost un- 3 4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING limited privileges. Carefully tended by shepherds of long exper- ience, these flocks were travelled from the southern to the north- ern part of the kingdom and back again each year in order to secure the best grazing and the most favorable climatic conditions for the sheep (Fig. 2). Certain laws of the kingdom stipulated that the owners of large flocks should be allowed a path 90 paces in width for their sheep through enclosed lands. The use of this privilege often brought hardships upon the peasants, who often com- plained of having their crops and vineyards devastated. se ee ee aS . soit Cen EE RHEE ey es fe ld type of Spanish Merino. These old sheep hac were comparatively free from wrinkles. . The production of sheep and of wool of a type unlike that of any other country became so important in Spain that the owners of flocks, being very few in number, easily established a monopoly which they maintained for many years. To allow a sheep to leave Spain alive was a crime punishable by death. The king was the only one exempted under this law. Sheep owners reinforced statute with argument, contending that in any other country their sheep would deteriorate in quality of fleece because of different soil, climate, and vegetation, and also because of inefficient shepherding. But later events proved them wrong in their contention. CHARACTERISTICS OF MERINOS IN SPAIN 5 Spain’s Monopoly Broken.—There came a time when Spain’s wool monopoly was broken and her sheep industry went into a period of decadence. arly in the nineteenth century Napoleon invaded Spain and overthrew the government. In connection with this conquest he seized large numbers of Merino sheep and shipped them to other countries where they added new chapters to the history of sheep raising. A few years later Spain tried hard to regain her |e ttersireries Bronpe des recier q Nn ches Fier 4 te © A asrite F Aragon. | © Fic, 2.—The heavy dark lines and the lighter double lines indicate the ancient route? over which travelling flocks were driven in Spain. The black areas indicate the pastures on which these sheep were grazed. (From ‘‘Annales de Geographie,”’ 1910.) former place as a great sheep country, but Napoleon’s act really marked the beginning of her steady decline as a producer of Merinos. Characteristics of Merinos in Spain—Mention should be made of three characteristics of Merino sheep in Spain that have had an important influence upon their subsequent history: first, the production of very fine wool ; second, the hardiness of the mature 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING sheep and their ability to travel; third, the disposition to stay close together when feeding, resting, or travelling. Stationary Flocks.—Spain also had stationary flocks, some of which had coarse wool and others wool resembling that of the travelling flocks. These stationary flocks were of importance num- erically in Spain, but they contributed little or nothing to sheep raising in outside countries. Sheep Raising in England.—England, instead of developing one or two general types of sheep, saw fit to encourage several types that were markedly different in the length and fineness of their wool. None of the wools from these breeds was as fine as that of the Merino, but they sold readily in the markets nevertheless, for they were more suitable for a variety of uses than wool from Spain. Aside from the difference in the nature of the wool, the sheep industries of England and Spain were dissimilar in other ways. The flocks of England were not in the hands of a very few powerful owners as they were in Spain. Travelling flocks were not established. The great problem of the English sheep farmer of earlier times was to procure sheep that were adapted to his particular locality. This largely accounts for the fact that there were many types. Another factor may have been the poor conditions for travelling, which kept the English farmer close to his home. With cold winters, scarcity of winter feed, and diseases to contend with, conditions were hard, and the owner was content with a type of sheep that would best withstand these hardships whether or not it would produce the kind of wool he most desired. Events Affecting Sheep Raising.—The ereat plague, or Black Death, of 1348, served as a great impetus to sheep growing in Eng- land. Laborers were so reduced in number by this plague that land owners were obliged to turn their lands into pastures. -As sheep paid better than other classes of livestock, owing to the high price of wool, sheep raising became the “sheet anchor of English farming.” Flock husbandry, however, was still only a partial success because of inability to cope with the severe winters. The fact that it was profitable at all shows what a great demand there was for wool. During the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) a grant of special protection made in favor of all Flemish weavers, dyers, and fullers, who would settle in England for the purpose of following their trade, resulted in securing artisans skilled in the then most improved methods of cloth making. Soon afterwards, English wools came ROBERT BAKEWELL 7 more and more to be made up at home so as to more nearly suit home demands. Later, in the reign of Elizabeth (1557-1603), still more of these artisans, as well as others of their countrymen, came to England as refugees. Thus was laid the foundation of England’s great expansion in manufacturing. Settlers from Flanders also brought the root and clover crops, the cultivation of which soon became of far-reaching benefit to the sheep industry, for they made possible an adequate supply of good winter feed. As a result the death rate of sheep was greatly reduced, and the production of wool per sheep was increased. Robert Bakewell.—Aside from improvement resulting from weuvUu oueew UL Lue UrecscuL-Uay uvue ON @ pasture in Great“Britain. They are ey mature early and fatten easily. xrccct progress until the time of Robert Bakewell, 1725-1794. Wool had declined in price until, with the rapidly advancing values of English lands, it alone would no longer justify the keeping of sheep. With the enormous expansion of manufacturing and of other industries in England, there were developing great urban populations demanding meat. Bakewell was able to see that these changed conditions demanded a new type of sheep, and accordingly he set to work to make of the long, ungainly, coarse-wooled, late-maturing sheep of his community a compact, early-maturing, easily fattened animal. He succeeded so well and his work impressed breeders so profoundly that he is generally acknowledged as the first great improver of livestock. He demon- strated that certain fundamental laws of breeding aided in attain- 8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING ing what he sought. He thus inaugurated a period of improvement in the sheep industry of his country such as the world had never seen. It was essentially an improvement securing better mutton and early maturity, but many other points received careful atten- tion. The work Bakewell started attained such importance that England became the-native home of nearly all of the modern mutton breeds, and sheepmen from all parts of the world still go there for breeding stock (Fig. 3). Importance of Wool in New Countries.—From the foregoing it is seen that sheep first advanced to great importance both in Spain and in England because of their wool rather than because of their flesh, It is not to be supposed that they were of no value as meat-producing animals, but it was the demand for wool that first made sheep raising profitable in these countries. Likewise, it was the demand for wool that first caused sheep to gain prominence in aca Fie. 4.—Wagon train drawing wool from the interior to shipping point. The sheep Peouee of its fleece is suitable for remote regions where there are neither railroads nor ighways. : the newer lands, the lands which now rank with the great sheep growing countries of the world. Why should this be so? Because those who begin the development of a new country are through necessity interested in products which can be marketed at a long distance from the place of production. Usually, too, they want products which can be profitably handled in spite of poor trans- portation facilities. Value considered, wool is light in weight, and it is imperishable with respect to time involved in getting it to market. It was only natural, therefore, that the colonizers of Australia, of New Zealand, and of Argentina should turn to the production of wool. In our own country the significant expansion of sheep growing did not begin until a few years after the republic was established (Fig. 4). WESTWARD MOVEMENT OF SHEEP 9 Sheep Raising in North America.—Colonial Times.— Domestic sheep were brought to North America by early colonists. It is thought that the Spaniards who founded old Santa Fe, New Mexico, brought with them the sheep from which the multi-colored flocks of the Navajo Indians have descended. If, as is generally supposed, sheep of this original stock were taken out of Spain, special permission to do so surely must have been granted by the king. The colonists along the Atlantic seaboard introduced the English, and a few other mutton breeds. As a rule the flocks were not large, the main object in keeping sheep being to supply wool for making homespuns, and only. incidentally to furnish a part of the family meat supply. The Embargo Act.—In the year 1807, the people of the United States were forbidden by the Embargo Act to trade with foreign powers. Although this statute was frequently violated, its effect upon foreign trade in general was keenly felt. Among otlier things it so restricted imports that it caused a shortage of woolens, and American manufacturers found more demand for such goods than their supply of raw wool would satisfy. Moreover, because it turned many people in New England away from commerce into manu- facturing, it still further increased the demand for raw wool. Men active in the affairs of the nation, realizing the need of more wool to supply the woolen mills, devoted both time and means to the task of getting more sheep into the country. Napoleon had ruined Spain’s monopoly on Spanish Merinos. But years before this, Saxony in Germany, through a gift of a number of Merinos to her chief ruler from the king of Spain, had demonstrated that at least one other country besides Spain could grow Merino sheep and that she could even surpass Spain in the quality of wool produced. Saxony’s success gave confidence to Americans who were interested in getting more fine-wooled sheep into their country. Merinos accordingly were imported, and soon they showed that they could thrive and produce wool of good quality in their new environment. There soon arose a craze for these sheep which continued from 1808 until about 1816, during which time quite impossible claims were made for them. Nevertheless they proved to be the type of sheep needed not only then but for many years afterwards, for they were adapted to grazing on undeveloped lands and to the production of that fine wool for which there was so strong a demand. ‘Westward Movement of Sheep.—The westward movement of 10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING sheep began early in the nineteenth century during the period of mania for Merinos. Gradually flocks, mainly of Merino breeding, spread over the fertile, virgin lands of the Ohio Valley and of the Great Lakes region. When these lands became somewhat thickly settled and high in price, many sheepmen, desiring to operate on a large scale, moved farther west where range was cheap and extensive. It was chiefly because of vast stretches of cheap range in the West that certain of our sheepmen almost constantly kept on the march, first over the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, thence west to the Rockies and southwest into Texas, and finally through all the Rocky Mountain Region. Changes in Centers of Sheep Population Shown by Census Reports.—In 1840, as the census reports clearly show, the regions of densest sheep population were Vermont, New Hampshire, and New York. At that time there were no sheep in the far West except those of the Navajo Indians in northern New Mexico. In fact, the only state west of the Mississippi having sheep in considerable numbers was Missouri. Ten years later that part of Ohio lying south of Lake Erie was the region of densest sheep population. There was a noticeable thinning out in New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, and a pronounced increase in southeastern Michigan, and in all of Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illinois. Flocks had also made their way into southern Wisconsin and southeastern Iowa. The census of 1860 shows sheep in eastern Texas and the coast and central parts of California. Although the census report of 1870 does not show much new territory occupied by sheep in the Mississippi Valley and the far West, it does show with a great deal of significance a great increase in numbers in those regions and a great decrease in such eastern states as New York, Vermont, and New Hampshire. In 1880 southeastern Wisconsin, along with southeastern Michigan and much of Ohio, were the regions of densest sheep population. Such states as the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming, which ten years before were almost unoccupied, now showed a liberal sprinkling of flocks. By 1890 all the western states and territories were occupied and by 1900 the Rocky Mountain region had become the most important sheep section of the country. The census of 1910 showed that 58.41 per cent of the sheep of the United States were in the West (Figs. 5 and 6). 11 CENTERS OF SHEEP POPULATION Cie t x MAN, \ SHEEP 1800 t bor 3,500. Fic. 5.—Showing the distribution of sheep in United States in 1860, At that time the sheep industry of the United States was confined chiefly to the region east of the Mississippi River. (From Wisconsin Station Research Bulletin No. 16.) THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 12 WoyBno1y} peynqiiystp auroosaq Mom pey daayg 009'3=1001 0161 ‘91 Thudv ‘SSONVY ONY SWYVS NO USEWNN d33HS ‘Iddississtyy 94} JO YS9M UOTBI oy} re “yrodaxy snsuad $e7v}g peu YET Wody ‘197}e] sivak APY ‘O16 Ul UOIyNqUySIP JuIMOYS—"9 ony SHEEP RAISING IN AUSTRALIA 13 Flocks in Farming Regions.—When sheepmen first skimmed over the country with their extensive flocks their methods were somewhat similar to those of the large owners in the West to-day, who operate under what are called range conditions. That is, range or pasture was plentiful and in such states as Illinois and Iowa sheep were occasionally ranged in the open under the care of herders. But gradually the large flocks disappeared and in their place there arose small flocks which were kept in comparatively small, fenced fields. These became known as farm flocks, and they now typify the sheep industry of the United States in all but the western states. Mutton Blood.—At first the Merino predominated in nearly all farm flocks, but gradually English mutton breeds were intro- duced until now nearly all such flocks are of mutton blood. The change to mutton blood was the result of the decline in the price of wool and the increase in the demand for mutton. The rise of land values also had an influence, for there came a time when the sheep yielding principally a fleece could not return a profit to the owner of high-priced land. For the same reason mutton blood has also been introduced in the far West, where range conditions still exist, but it will probably always be necessary to keep on the range sheep that carry a large proportion of Merino blood in order to preserve the close-flocking instinct and a fleece that will withstand semi-arid conditions. Increase in Value.—The importance of the sheep industry in the United States now as compared with the past cannot be ‘deter- mined by merely comparing numbers. Sheep are considerably more valuable on the head basis than they were years ago, because the revenue from each sheep is much greater than in days of wool grow- ing only. The breeding ewe yields not only wool but also lambs which are sold for mutton, and when she has passed her period of usefulness as a breeder or a wool producer, either on the farm or on the range, she still has a value as a mutton product. Sheep Raising in Australia.—Prior to 1830, sheep growing in Australia had not attained commercial significance. Merino sheep were introduced from the Cape of Good Hope as early as 1788 by Captain Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales. In 1825 a group of English capitalists formed a land company and founded a large pastoral estate in Tasmania, which was then known as Van Diemens Land. Between 1825 and 1830 this company spent more than $145,000 in importing Merinos from Saxony and some of the 14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING mutton breeds of England. The majority of the purchases were of the best Saxony types, descended from Spanish Merinos. A Mr. Warrington of Tasmania, in 1829, formed two separate breeding flocks from two noted families of Spanish Merinos. England had long since ceased exporting wool and it is said that the original aim of the Tasmanian flock owners was to grow wool for England, and, ultimately, to render that country inde- pendent of Spanish, German, and other foreign sources of supply; but for many years their most valuable work was the breeding of Merino sheep for the rapidly multiplying “stations” around the coastal fringe of the Australian mainland. When wool from the Australian Merino flocks came into the hands of English manu- facturers it met with a ready demand, and the growers were told that if they could supply such wool in bulk to the English trade, they would find a large and profitable market for it. From 1830 on, the Australian wool growing industry made great progress. As owners found in the early days of sheep raising in our own country, so too the owners in Australia have found the wool type most profitable; and, largely because their country has been populated at a much slower pace than ours, they have been much slower to change to the mutton type than we. Merino blood still predominates in Australian flocks, although the mutton breeds are gradually gaining ground and the mutton qualities of the Merinos are being improved. As the supply of both mutton and wool in Australia far exceeds the home demand, sheep raisers are obliged to depend largely on foreign markets. Until recent years very little of the wool intended for export was sold before it left Australian ports. It was consigned to commission firms in England, who dis- posed of it by means of auction sales. But the custom of selling wool in Australian seaboard cities is now rapidly growing. Australia disposes of her surplus mutton by shipping frozen car- casses to England. Until refrigeration for ocean liners was per- fected, she had practically no outlet for her surplus supply of meat, and hence there was no great incentive for encouraging the mutton types of sheep. 7 Present Importance.—Australia has no superior as a sheep country. It is a large country where pastorial agriculture has been emphasized for many years and sheep seem to have been the animals best adapted to her grazing lands. There has always been room for expansion; which fact, together with the demand for wool and POLITICAL UNREST IN SHEEP COUNTRIES 15 mutton, has been the main factor in the steady growth of the sheep industry in spite of such difficulties as periodic drouths, ravages by rabbits, and lack of transportation lines extending far into the interior. The government is fostering the industry and those en- gaged in it are investing money to protect themselves against rab- bits and to prevent excessive losses in years of drouth. Sheep Raising in New Zealand.—Sheep were not taken into New Zealand until 1840, which was shortly after the first settle- ment established there by Europeans. Merinos exclusively were im- ported in the beginning, but as the needs of the trade developed, mutton breeds were introduced and it was found that they did unusually well. After 1882, the year in which the first shipment of frozen mutton was made from the country, the mutton breeds gained on the Merinos so rapidly that by 1910 the wool from pure Merinos did not form over three per cent of the total clip. Density of Sheep Population.—New Zealand has less than twice the area of the state of Illinois, and yet in 1910 she reported 23,792,947 sheep. Think what a dense sheep population that is as compared with similar areas anywhere in our own country! Mutton is the staple meat in New Zealand. It is even more common in the private homes of both country and city, and in public eating places than is beef in our own country. Practically all sheep in New Zealand are managed under the “paddock,” or “fencing,” system. This is also true of Australia. Many of the fences are rabbit proof and cost about four hundred dollars per mile. As a general practice, the herding system char- acteristic of our sheep industry in the West ceased in Australia and New Zealand in the latter part of the last century. Sheep Raising in South America.—At the time of the con- quest of Peru there already existed a breed of supposedly indigenous sheep possessing enough good about them to be prized by the Incas Indians and by the conquering Spaniards. Gibson tells us that wool was first exported from the River Plate as early as the year 1600. However, the beginning of an extensive sheep husbandry in South America did not come until a much later time. Political Unrest in Leading Sheep Countries.—The great sheep countries in South America are the Argentine Republic and Uruguay. In 1813 a shipment of pure Spanish Merinos arrived in the province of Buenos Aires. Upon this shipment was founded the first flock of improved Merinos in South America. Although 16 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING the number of sheep in the Argentine Republic greatly increased after the founding of this flock, the progress of the industry was greatly hindered by the numerous political revolutions which were common throughout all of the River Plate region and sheep raising was later in attaining great commercial importance than in the United States and Australia. Importance of Merino Blood.—Like each of the other coun- tries mentioned above, South America found the wool type, or Merino sheep most profitable at first. Southdowns, the premier mutton sheep of England, were introduced as early as 1825, but because of their low yield of wool and predisposition to foot rot, they did not win wide favor. Then, too, the Merino had the gregarious instinct intensely developed, which was valuable to South American owners for the same reason that it is of value to any community where sheep are in the care of herders. Use of Mutton Breeds.—Merino blood is still present in most of the flocks, but in many cases it is mingled with the blood of the English mutton breeds,—chiefly with the Lincoln and Romney Marsh. Both of these are long-wooled breeds which, when crossed with the Merino, produce a beautiful lustrous wool and a lamb that is suitable for the frozen carcass trade with England. Present Status of Sheep Industry.—It has been said that there is probably no region where the shepherd’s life is easier than in Argentina. Predatory animals are few. Except along the base of the Andes, no preparation of feed for winter is necessary, and, except in marshy regions, or in seasons of unusual rainfall, disease is rare. Nevertheless, in many parts the sheep industry has passed its meridian. The beautiful expanses of land, furnishing the plenty which has made life so easy for shepherds, are valuable for agri- cultural purposes, and the coming of cultivated fields is not only desirable but inevitable. But Mr. Joseph Wing, who visited the Argentine and contiguous countries as a special agent for Presi- dent Taft’s Tariff Board, said there was still much land in South America suitable for sheep production which was not fully occupied. Sheep Raising in South Africa.—Although Merino sheep were imported into South Africa one hundred and fifty years before they were introduced into Australia, it is only recently that the wool markets of the world have begun to receive considerable amounts of pure and grade Merino wool from South African flocks. For various reasons the progress of sheep husbandry has been compara- THE IMPORTANT SHEEP COUNTRIES 17 tively slow. Sheep scab has been very hard to contend with, and measures adopted by the Government have not yet proved adequate for keeping it under control. The black natives upon whom many sheepmen have had to depend for labor, have not been very reliable, and, therefore, because of the poor quality of labor, it has not been possible to produce as good mutton and wool as natural conditions would warrant. Further, predatory animals, jackals especially, have hindered the growth of the sheep industry by enforcing expense in erecting fences and by making it hazardous to keep sheep in certain sections. And finally, South Africa, like Australia, is sub- ject to drouths which visit great hardships on sheep owners; in fact, they are the worst drawback to sheep raising. They are most pro- nounced in that part of the interior known as the Karroo, but periodically they also extend over the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and parts of Natal. Their effect is all the more severe because they usually come just after a period of such good feed in the veld districts that sheep owners have been tempted into overstocking. But in spite of the drawbacks, which after all every country pos- sesses to greater or less extent, South Africa is making marked progress in wool production. Sheep owners are very much interested in breeding; they are giving much more attention to classing and grading wool for market than formerly, and in still other ways they are manifesting keen interest in sheep husbandry. The tendency of recent years has been in favor of the big-framed robust-wooled type of Merino,—the ‘Wanganellas and Rambouillet, whilst at the present time, the crossing of strictly mutton breeds, such as the Southdown, Suffolk, and Shropshire, on Merino ewes is attracting attention. It is a significant fact that American breeders, more especially Ohio and Michigan men, annually exported a number of Rambouil- lets and Merinos to South Africa until the outbreak of the war in 1914. The Important Sheep Countries.—In the foregoing brief his- torical review of sheep raising the countries mentioned have each received separate attention, not only because they belong at the top of the list of the great sheep countries of the world, but also because they are the most important of the newer countries. Of course, other countries than these keep large numbers of sheep and the fol- lowing tabulation shows the importance of sheep in various coun- 2 18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING tries and it also gives some notion of where the world’s supply of wool is produced? (Fig. 7, Chapter II). A—World Production of Sheep and Wool: 1916 Sheep—approximate number .........-..-.+eeeees 614,857,418 Wool—approximate number of pounds ............ 2,717,223,100 B—Leading Sheep Countries: ee e a of Australia and Tasmania........ 1915 82,011,606 Argentina ....... sieagasence Sistas 1912 83,545,931 United States ........-.--- ... 1916 48,483,000 Census of 1910 ............ 52,183,423 British South and East Africa.. 1913 43,009,843 United Kingdom of Great BTCA 238 2. cianGeas nae aesens 1915 27,552,136 New Zealand ................. 1915 24,607,868 Russian Empire .............. 1911 80,874,000 Ottoman Empire .............. 1910 and 1912 48,284,678 WPruguay” awlisycelcwnees benedict 1908 26,286,296 C—Wool Produced in Different Countries, According to Latest Estimates Available in 1916: Pounds Australia and Tasmania ..............0 0000s se eeee 463,750,000 Russian Empire .......... 00. e cece eee een eee nee 380,000,000 Pinited States ng vay seve vee ieee ee bese week REE RS 288,490,000 AT PENLING, 52 b6 eek Ahan eae ca eae See a a es 264,500,000 New Zealand sachaiccs dea ksi i oe ei ed oR ES Ds 181,282,880 United Kingdom of Great Britain.................. 121,200,043 Ottoman Empire and Balkan States................. 90,500,000 British Afticary 2. ides ove dere esate as ee 157,761,470 WrGgUay Wala oh a imate eseeea tad Une e eign 143,293,000 ranee® dais Gietee att aenee tae eet eae pee Sel 75,000,000 British India, sess cence ce Pp twaeet ew gh See cea 60,000,000 SPAIN, viderds gas ee Sag ahd WO eae eh Sane ee aa Gs 52,000,000 (6) 56%: eee er ee Satna Se anionilg qapleieta aah Ne Seaton 50,000,000 Austria-Hungary’ is cctiigka tot ce Riera es eee eae = 41,600,000 Algeria: sas ainicnd eases es edt eri ele ess Geek eae’ 33,184,000 GORMAN «o:codandey 2d. cas! Sa 8 Red oiee Sabra erage Sth eke Rat 25,600,000 TG aL yes en Gawain So eta ade awk tad Nees ale cg toaate n Abeta 21,500,000 Chill geass ais een eee gah eae eae noise oe 20,000,000 1Compiled from Annual Wool Review of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers. QUESTIONS 19 Pounds GTO CO ic etece ye soesue seule God al syste hes deat deel wan alae 16,000,000 British Canadian Provinces ..............00c0eeeee 11,210,000 POTtU Call. saa ais sedate ee aie wa aed oer eaoie eenle s eae 10,000,000 POT huh sshd lh ie 2 sia dolla: waders antaasmsieon alacatees mee 9,420,707 MEGS COS > sesh diniues sora sibvacespaelne saad lites eitaiettonnsieneas chdpunen eae tani 7,000,000 QUESTIONS . Where were sheep first domesticated? What uses were probably first made of sheep? . In what condition was sheep husbandry in Spain when Columbus dis- covered America? . How does Spain rank as a sheep country to-day? . How did England and Spain differ in methods of sheep raising? . What was Bakewell’s contribution to the sheep industry of Great Britain? What of the importance of sheep raising in North America at the time Bakewell lived? : What of the importance of wool growing in new countries? . When did significant expansion of sheep raising in North America take place and what were the circumstances that augmented it? Recount the changes in the distribution of sheep in the United States between 1840 and 1910; the changes in the breeding of sheep during that time. . Of what importance was sheep raising in your state at the time it was admitted to the Union? . Compare the sheep industry of Australia with that of New Zealand. . What are the leading sheep countries in South America? . Name the countries which produce the bulk of the world’s supply of wool. . Where do Australia, New Zealand, and South America market the bulk of their mutton and wool? How far are they from these markets? CHAPTER II PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING IN LEADING SHEEP COUNTRIES Range Method, Using Herders.—In the western part of the United States sheep raising is commonly carried on in the large flock or band under the care of a herder who keeps the sheep on a comparatively large area of unenclosed land—plains, foot-hills, and mountains. A band varies in number from 1500 to 3000, and besides the herder, requires the services of a camp tender, whose duties are to get provisions, move camp, select a new site where there is comparatively good feed, assist in cooking, and count the sheep (Fig. 8). Range Supplemented by Cultivated Crops.—At first range sheepmen in the United States depended solely upon the wild growth of the land for their sheep feed. Aside from selecting as good natural range as possible no preparation was made for feeding in the stormy periods of winter when the snow covered the feed too deep for the sheep to get to it. Consequently many starved. But, now very few deaths reat from lack of feed because the winter range is supplemented with such feeds as corn, cottonseed cake, barley, oats and alfalfa hav. The corn and cottonseed cake are shipped in, but the other feeds are raised in the West in dry farm- ing and irrigated regions. Alfalfa ranks first in importance for it is used more extensively than any other feed in supplementing the winter range, and the practice of using it for summer range is increasing (Fig. 9). Ranging on Enclosed Lands.—Many of the large flocks of Australia and New Zealand are kept on large tracts of enclosed land where no herders are required. It is claimed that the sheep can make much better use of the range under this system than they can under the herding system. Under the herding system each sheep regularly maintains a fairly definite position in the band. For example, certain sheep are always at the front while others are always in the rear. Those in the rear do not find as much to eat as those at the front; hence the band as a whole cannot be so uni- 20 RANGING ON ENCLOSED LANDS 21 formly fed as when it is kept within an enclosure because in the enclosure the band breaks up into a number of small flocks that live and feed more or less independently of each other. Then; too, the sheep in a band tended by a herder must be driven a great deal. They must be rounded toward camp and bedded down for the night ; they must be kept from other bands of sheep; and frequently they must be driven to a watering place. All this driving is not so beneficial to the sheep as exercise taken at their own inclination. NUMBER- a EACH DOT REPRESENTS 200,000 ie Leaome counrmes | WNUONS oF aNCEF OMGER POR MW ABITANT Fra. 7.—World distribution of sheep. It will be noted that there are six world centers of sheep raising, of which four, the South American countries, Scuth Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, are new land with sparse population and are all located in the Southern Hem- isphere. The two centersin the Northern Hemisphere are the Balkan States and Great Britain. In Asia Minor andin the Balkan States conditions of topography, climate, and the nomadic habits of the people in the recent past cause sheep to be important farm ‘animals. In Great Britain many factors combine to make sheep raising a prominent indus- try in spite of high land values and extreme industrial concentration of population. The Russian Empire and the United States, although they rank high in total number of sheep, are, owing to large area, far down the list in number per square mile. (From U. 8S. De- partment of Agriculture.) MUMRCA PEA SoUERE MKC Still other advantages of the enclosure system are that the fences are said to cost less than the extra labor required in the herding system and to a large extent they are proof against animals that make sheep their prey. In Australia and New Zealand, where both the herding and the enclosure methods have been tried, sheep owners favor the enclosure system. PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING 22 (Caimmypnousy jo quoujivdag ‘9 ‘gotArag 48010] Woy) ‘sBop fq poystsse oq you AvUI Jo ABUT OY JopioYg @ Aq popuey oe daays oy} asuei uedo 94} UQ—'S ‘Ol . THE HURDLING METHOD 23 The Farm Flock Method.—The flocks kept on the farms of the East, South and Middle West of the United States often contain fewer than 25 sheep and seldom more than 400 or 500. They are not under the care of special herders or shepherds, but of persons en- trusted with other duties connected with the farm. As a rule these flocks are a factor of secondary importance in a scheme of diversified farming. Often they are kept for the purpose of destroying weeds, and they are commonly given the compliment of converting into mutton and wool what otherwise would be waste. But farm flocks Fig. 9.—Supplementing the winter range with hay and other feed reduces the losses of old sheep, increases the vitality of the oncoming crop of lambs, and fills the udders of the ewes with milk for the lambs. that are made to subsist mostly on weeds and waste are neither in- telligently handled nor profitable. Since farm flocks represent the type of sheep raising followed in so many parts of the United States, much of the discussion which follows will be devoted to their selection, care and management (Fig. 10). The Hurdling Method.—The hurdling method of sheep raising may be seen in its perfection in England, where thousands of sheep are kept within hurdles for several months in the year. It is also much in use in Scotland. It is a type of sheep raising extremely different from the range method. It is intensive, supporting several sheep on each acre of land, 24 PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING As an appurtenance of sheep raising, hurdles are light, movable panels of fence which a man can carry with ease. With them the shepherd makes a temporary enclosure for his flock. The lambs are Fic. 10.—The farm flock usually numbers less than one hundred sheep. Fic. 11.—In Great Britain thousands of sheep are kept within hurdles which are moved often to furnish fresh feed. usually permitted to go through creeps ahead of the ewes and in this way they get the best of the forage while their less fastidious mothers, having access to it a day or two later, make the most economical use of it by trimming it down close. As soon as a growth is eaten, the ground is turned and sown to another crop. Of “PURE-BRED FLOCK METHOD 25 course crops, like the grasses and clovers, are not treated in this way, but are left to grow up again. The hurdling method aims not only at securing a maximum growth for sheep from a given area of ground, but also at furnishing almost a constant change of feeding ground. Sheep thoroughly enjoy a new feeding place, a fact which English shepherds have fully recognized as essential to successful flock husbandry. Anyone who has seen the sheep of England within hurdles cannot question 6 CELE EEE LTO Fic. 12.—Meal time for western sheep fattening on a corn-belt farm. the efficiency of the hurdling method for bringing sheep as nearly as possible to their perfection. Any type of movable fencing can he used in the hurdling method (Fig. 11). Pure-Bred Flock Method.—Owners of pure-bred flocks have for their principal object the selling of breeding stock. 'They sell to the owners of commercial flocks who wish to use pure-bred rams but who do not care to keep pure-bred females, and of course, they also sell to each other. Since the object of the man who raises for breed- ing purposes is so different from that of the man who raises for the open market, it is natural to call his method of sheep raising a dis- ' 26 PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING tinct type. He has to take certain things into consideration which do not enter into the operations of the owner of a commercial flock ; for instance, the location of his farm, the study of individual sheep rather than of flocks or bands, the ability to make matings that will produce animals with great inherent possibilities, to feed so that these possibilities will be made apparent, and finally, the finding of a market for this product. In fact, the successful management of the pure-bred flock requires a proprietor of a special type with a special training. Sheep and Lamb Feeding.—A great many western sheep and lambs are fattened for the market in the Middle West and in certain parts of the East. These western sheep and lambs are purchased in the autumn when large numbers are reaching the central markets. In such states as Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri they are usually allowed to run first in the fields, where they feed on pasture stubble, corn stalks, weeds, and in some cases, soybeans and rape. They accom- plish what may be termed a general “cleaning up” of the farm, and many farmers depend on them for this as others depend on the small flock for the same function. Before the fattening process is finished it is almost always necessary to supplement the feed of the fields with grain and hay. Further east, as in Ohio, Michigan, and New York, feeding sheep and lambs are not often given a run in the fields, but are placed in the barns immediately after their arrival at the farm and are fattened on various harvested feeds. In a few sections of the country sheep and lambs are still fed in large plants especially constructed for the purpose. This kind of feeding is very largely a speculative business as both the animals and the feeds used have to be purchased (Fig. 12). QUESTIONS 1. Name the types of sheep raising commonly practiced in the prominent sheep countries. 2. Which type is followed in your community? 3. In your opinion which type requires the most labor per sheep? Which gives the greatest returns per sheep? 4. Which types are most likely to be followed in communities where land is very fertile and costly? 5. Which types are likely to become more general in the United States than at present? CHAPTER III PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP Appearance of Unimproved Sheep.—In countries practicing modern methods of breeding and feeding, the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) is markedly different in appearance from its unimproved kind. Judged according to our conception of right proportions, un- improved sheep are ill-shaped, with long, thin legs, long necks, and narrow bodies. As a rule their wool is coarse, characterless, ad- mixed with hair, variable in color, and does not extend well over the lower parts of the body. It may be of good quality on the shoulders, but coarse and very little different from hair on the thighs, and in color it may be white, brown, gray, or black on different individuals, or sometimes two or more of these colors appear in the same fleece. The sheep belonging to the Navajo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona furnish the most interesting study of unimproved strains to be found in North America (Fig. 13). e : Breeding Problems.—When man first started to domesticate sheep, he probably recognized certain valuable characteristics in them, and he likely bred for these, or it may be that he recognized some of their more valuable characteristics before he began the work of domestication; for Shaler says that man attains some of the mechanic arts before he begins to domesticate animals. Weaving, a very old art, was supplanted by the practice of pressing moist wool into a felt, which itself was an advance over the custom of using skins with hairy or woolly covering for clothing and shelter. Improvement of Wool.—From all we can learn it would appear that the problem of improving wool must have early attracted the attention of sheep owners. Probably the first step consisted in getting a longer, heavier growth of wool more nearly free from an admixture of hair. Very likely such improvement was sought to make the wool easier to handle in the process of weaving, which was a considerable task among the nomads whose raiment, tents, and beds were woven from wool and hair. Fine Wool.—As the art of weaving developed and as the people cultivated a taste for fine raiment and furnishings, wool of fine 27 28 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP quality undoubtedly began to be prized. The Romans went to much trouble to produce this kind of wool. They kept their sheep covered with cloths and confined in barns in order to make the wool fibers fine and soft. At frequent intervals they washed their sheep, combed their fleeces to keep the wool from matting, rubbed fine oil into their skins, and moistened their fleeces with wine. By selecting rams with fine fleeces they succeeded in developing breeding stock which pos- sessed very fine wool. The production of fine wool has been a problem of considerable importance ever since the time of the Romans, if not before. Breeders in Spain, Germany, France, and England have worked at Bt, hs Fic. 13.—Sheep and goats belonging to the Navajo Indians. The sheep are ill-shaped and not uniform in color. ee ae ‘A br oe it and it still receives attention in leading sheep countries such as Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, North Ameri¢a, and South America. Color of Wool.—In improving wool, color has received careful attention. Variety of color was perhaps regarded favorably in early times, but when various dye stuffs came to be used, white wool was preferred, because none but a black dye can be used on wool which is black, brown, or gray. It may be that white sheep were once uncommon, for after Spain attained prominence as a wool-growing country her wool was reported as being black. But in all countries where improved methods of sheep husbandry are practiced, the con- stant elimination of blacks, browns, and grays has been so effective DURING THE PAST 125 YEARS 29 that color scarcely enters into the problem of wool improvement at the present time, although in a few breeds some difficulty is ex- perienced in preventing a light scattering of dark fibers in the fleece (Fig. 14). Combining Various Properties of the Fleece.—The problem of associating length, strength, and weight with quality of fleece has caused improvers of wool a great deal of effort. Length combined with quality and strength became very important within the past century when fine worsteds, fabrics requiring long, fine, strong wool, came into fashion, and it was the desire to make wool growing pay that led to increase in weight of fleece. During the past 125 years Saxony in Germany, Australia, and the United States have contributed most to improvement in wool growing. Experts in Saxony studied the wool of breeding rams in minute detail, and made great improvement in fineness of fiber and in uniformity of the quality of the fleece. Vermont and Ohio 30 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP breeders taught the world a great deal about growing strong, fine fiber and fleeces of exceptional weight. Australian breeders con- tributed much in combining quality, length and weight and by determining the types of wool suited to different environments; in fact they have led the world in the general merit and integrity of their wool product. Although sheep breeders have by no means ceased to pay atten- tion to wool, yet it is perhaps safe to say that the day of improve- ment, as characterized by an attempt to get into the fleece the maximum of fineness, length, and weight, has begun to wane. Great changes have come about in the manufacturing processes of wool. Long, fine wool, although still much sought after, is not so valu- able, relatively, as it once was because combs have been invented which will comb comparatively short wool. Manufacturers have learned to make all sorts of blends in order to meet the demands of fashion and it seems that they are capable of meeting almost any demand likely to be made. The world product is easily brought to their doors and they can combine quality, length, and strength through mechanical devices more cheaply than the grower can through breeding. The rise in the importance of mutton has re- sulted in a large amount of cross-breeding in countries where the bulk of the wool was formerly produced by pure Merinos. Reports of the great wool sales in Bradford, England, show enormous in- creases in amounts of cross-bred wool in recent years. This is a pretty sure indication of either a check to progress in wool im- provement through breeding, or of a readjustment of the notions of wool improvement. In the writer’s opinion it is an indication of the latter (Fig. 15). Improvement of Mutton.—Although the flesh of sheep has always been used for food, it seems that the improvement of the mutton qualities was a much later problem in sheep breeding than was the improvement of wool. Whether the first object in improv- ing mutton was to secure a more palatable product or a cheaper one is not altogether clear, but the weight of evidence is in favor of the latter, for it was said of Bakewell that when he was confronted by a man who told him his sheep were so fat a gentleman could not eat them, he declared that he was not breeding sheep for gentlemen, but for men. More mutton,—on fewer acres, produced in less time, to furnish more to eat with less waste-—was the object, rather than to tickle the palate of the epicure. But before economy of produc- IMPROVEMENT OF MUTTON Fig. 15.—Cross: -bred sheep and lambs. ee The wrinkles and folds on neck and boc and legs and thickness of body indicate mi Merino blood, while the dark hair on face 32 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP tion had gone very far, palatability was joined with this primary object, so that the epicure, too, can now make his selection of a mutton joint from the improved mutton breeds. Changes.—Mutton improvement. has involved changes in form, quality, fattening properties, age at maturity, feeding capacity, milking function, and prolificacy. With the possible exception of the last two, these factors are so interdependent that they all had to be considered at the same time. And it is clear that mutton im- provement could not go very far without considering milking prop- erties because the making of a good mutton lamb depends in large part on its getting plenty of milk. But sheep’s milk was a human food in very early times, hence the milking function may have received considerable attention before the era of mutton improve- ment, still it was woefully neglected in flocks of fine wool sheep in Ttaly and Spain. Prolificacy has to do entirely with the economic phases of pro- duction and whether or not an attempt is made to increase it depends on conditions. Until mutton became important as a commodity for sale, there was certainly no great incentive to try to fix such a thing as the twinning habit because it was possible to keep up the size of flocks for wool production by a rate of increase of one lamb a year from each ewe. Even where mutton is an important consideration, the supply of feed must be liberal before breeders attempt to en- courage great prolificacy, because ewes with twins must not only have the tendency to milk well, but they must have plenty of feed so that they can produce enough milk to grow their lambs well. Partly on account of a lack of a liberal supply of feed, there are places devoted to the production of mutton and wool in which single lambs are much to be preferred to twins, but in places where ewes can easily take good care of two lambs, marked prolificacy is usually desired. England was the center of mutton improvement. Beginning with Bakewell, conditions were favorahle for encouraging English farmers to effect this improvement. They had the climate and crops necessary to grow sheep well; they received a fair remuneration for their efforts, and numerous livestock shows created keen competition in the effort to secure perfection of animal form and finish. A great amount of improvement was effected in a comparatively short period, so much in fact, that many English breeders of the present time doubt whether significant further improvement has been made in the last quarter or half century. ADAPTABILITY 33 Combining Mutton and Wool.—Combining mutton and wool qualities became a problem after mutton attained importance. Obviously this problem did not arise at the same time in all the large sheep-growing countries because mutton did not become im- portant in all of these countries at the same time. For example, Australia and New Zealand had comparatively little demand for mutton until the inception of ship refrigeration in 1882 permitted them to engage in the exportation of frozen carcasses. And in the United States, the West had little use for mutton sheep until transportation facilities were developed so that the live sheep could be sent to the large central markets. Until Bakewell began mutton improvement, he was disposed to give the wool no attention. Perhaps the size of his task in the field of mutton betterment justified him in this attitude, but his suc- cessors saw the folly of it if continued, and hence they did not fail to give wool attention commensurate with its importance. When the production of mutton became profitable in the newer sheep countries such as North America, South America, and Aus- tralia, there was a sheep stock that had been maintained primarily for its wool, and the wool from this stock was still too valuable to be altogether disregarded. Under such conditions the real prob- lem of combining mutton and wool qualities began. Crossing wool breeds with mutton breeds was the first step, and with a few ex- ceptions progress has not gone much further than this. In New Zealand a new type has been fixed from crosses between Merinos and the English long-wool mutton breeds. In the United States progress has been made in improving the mutton qualities of some of the wool breeds. A desirable combination of mutton and wool is still a large breeding problem on the ranges of the United States. As yet a type possessing what is desired in wool and mutton properties, together with certain other characteristics, has not been fixed, but the Federal government is directing work along this line. Adaptability —Adaptability always has been, and without doubt always will be a problem in sheep breeding. When sheep were in a wild state their adaptability was measured by their ability to live and procreate their kind. When they came under domestication they had to be able, with the aid of man’s protection, not only to live and procreate but also to produce something which man de- sired. Moreover, they had to produce the thing he wanted at a 3 34 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP cost he was willing to pay and in such a way that he got it with less trouble than he could have secured it, or an equally desirable substitute, from other known sources. Man may not have demanded much from sheep and he may not have removed them far from their natural habitat in the early stages of domestication. Hence, adaptability may not have been a serious problem at first. But as they were moved out of their natural environment under the guidance of man into lands differ- ent in altitude, soil, climate and vegetation, and as the demands on them for such products as wool, milk, and meat become greater than what they had yielded in the wild, then undoubtedly the serious side of the question of adaptability arose; then attention had to be given to such things as constitution, hardiness, and fecundity. In Italy, fine-wool sheep were developed, but at the sacrifice of a high degree of adaptability, for the ewes were very poor mothers and the lambs were delicate. The ewes often had difficulty in par- turition; they were very deficient in the milking function, and they frequently refused to own their lambs. To a certain extent the Merinos of Spain possessed the same faults, for it was said that frequently a percentage of their lambs were deliberately killed in order to allow each remaining lamb to suckle two ewes. In both Italy and Spain conditions seemingly were such as to permit the sheep industry to prosper with this low degree of adaptability, but the fact that it is recorded in history shows that it received some attention. Spanish owners seemed to think that much travelling added to the hardiness of their sheep, and undoubtedly dropping along the wayside lambs unable to make the marches, helped to keep up a stronger race for the conditions to which their flocks were subjected. At an early time in England severe winters, scarcity of feed in winter, and foot rot weeded out the weak sheep, and frequently conditions were so severe that many of the very strongest animals died. Dealing with adversities, the English sheep farmer thor- oughly learned the importance of constitution and hardiness, and if he has neglected these characteristics at any time he has done so with his eyes open. He has done a great deal, indeed, in finding or evolving breeds adapted to different altitudes. Though England is a small country, the breeds on mountains, hills, and lowlands are markedly different and in such a way as to show that adaptability is the main cause. ADAPTABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES 35 Neglecting Adaptability——In seeking certain desirable char- acteristics in their sheep, breeders have often been guilty of at least temporarily overlooking adaptability and hardiness; or, as may have been the case in Italy and Spain, they have been willing to sacrifice these things to a certain extent in order to gain the characteristics especially desired. Bakewell’s Leicesters lost in fecundity and hardiness ; breeders of Shropshires allowed their sheep to lose in constitution in order to gain extreme covering with wool on head and legs; following the Civil War Merino breeders in America sacrificed stamina in their sheep for the sake of extreme weight of fleece in proportion to body weight. Whether or not adaptability should be sacrificed, to a certain extent depends on the degree to which it is present and on the im- portance of the thing involved in making the sacrifice. Italy and Spain certainly were not in position safely to sacrifice further the mother instinct and milking function of their ewes even though this would have gained for them in a per head return; American Merino breeders in the period mentioned above went too far in reducing the stamina of their sheep, and Shropshire breeders made an economic mistake by permitting a loss in constitution for the sake of extreme covering of head and legs with wool. Importance of Adaptability in the United States—As a problem, adaptability in sheep breeding or finding the right type is important in the United States for the following reasons: First, it has not received sufficient attention generally. With a few ex- ceptions, breeders of pure-bred mutton sheep in this country con- tinue to import breeding rams and ewes from English flocks; this goes to show that little has been done toward developing mutton types suitable to American conditions. Second, consumers are changing and may continue to change with respect to the kind of mutton and wool they want. Third, in many localities agricul- tural practices are changing and probably will continue to change for some time to come and hence the type of sheep suitable in a certain community at the present time may be out of date in a few years. The future will see more attention given to adapt- ability in sheep breeding in this country because, as the land comes to be more and more intensively handled the crops grown on it, both plant and animal, will have to be more and more efficient and any crop that does not fit well will have a hard time to retain a place. 36 ie) PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP QUESTIONS . Enumerate the problems that have been involved in the improvement of sheep and indicate which pertained to the products yielded by sheep; which to the sheep themselves. . What are the important problems in breeding at the present time in the United States? . Show how breeding problems have changed in the United States. . Why would you expect British breeders to excel American breeders in mutton improvement? . Why did breeders in Australia first give attention to the improvement of wool rather than mutton? . When does high degree of prolificacy become a breeding problem? Early maturity? CHAPTER IV METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT Feeding and Shepherding.—Good feeding and shepherding have played an important part in the making of the modern breeds of sheep. The providing of better feed through bringing the root and clover crops to England helped to pave the way for the breed improvement that came later. Evidently Bakewell recognized the value of good feed and care, for he kept about him faithful old herdsmen and grooms who were very painstaking in the feeding of the animals under their care. Doubtless he and other great breeders since his time would say that any method of breeding con- ducted with poorly nourished animals will fall short of marked results, for if the animal is not well fed, it cannot exhibit its maxi- mum possibilities and these must be seen if substantial progress’ is to be made. Methods of Breeding.—Selection has heen the keynote in breed improvement no matter what the method followed may have been, and the success of great breeders has been traceable, in no small degree, to their superior judgment in selecting breeding stock. Mass Breeding.—Selection without special reference to ances- try, or what has been termed mass breeding, was one of the first methods of breeding to be employed in the improvement of sheep. Breeders took the native sheep in their community and began their work by breeding what they considered the best. Perhaps some of the less desirable females were rejected, but mass breeding, as practiced in earlier times, extended little farther than the selection and use of what were judged to be the best rams. The Spaniards must have improved the wool of their sheep by this method. They also kept flocks pure within themselves, but their reason for so doing was that each of the large breeders considered his flock the best in the kingdom and believed that the introduction of blood from other flocks would cause retrogression rather than improve- ment. In England some improvement was made by selecting the best of the native stock for breeding purposes, but before Bakewell’s time, unwarranted emphasis was often placed on very minor points. For example, in a certain community breeders would have nothing 37 38 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT to do with rams whose horns did not curve in front of their ears, while in another community they insisted that if rams did not have horns curving back of the ears they were unfit for breeding. It was Bakewell’s good common sense in singling out points of utility for improvement quite as much or even more than his insight into laws of breeding that made him invaluable to livestock improvement. As a method, mass breeding possesses a great deal of merit and the amount of selection it involves is about all that is practiced at present by those breeders who raise sheep merely for the wool and mutton they produce. A Study of Matings.—When men became thoroughly absorbed in the problem of sheep breeding, they doubtless began to study the animals to be mated, and this naturally led to attaching a history of the parents or an ancestry to an animal, for men soon learned that the physical make-up of the offspring was not dependent solely upon the appearance of the immediate parents. So far as is known, it was Bakewell who first studied matings closely, and unquestion- ably this study contributed, in no small way, to the far-reaching results of his work. At the present time the most skillful sheep breeders are close students of matings. A few years ago, the writer, while visiting a prominent breeder in England, was shown records which contained both pedigrees and carefully worded descriptions of all the rams that had been used in the flock. In each breeding season these records were brought into use as a help in determining matings. Before time for breeding, each ewe was studied critically, then refer- ence was made to the breeding and appearance of the sire, grand- sire, and perhaps great grandsire. The decision as to the ram with which to mate her was not final until all of this study had been made. The flock bore ample evidence of the value of exercising such care in mating. A careful study of mating stimulated the tendency to observe associations which, when correctly noted, became a means of assist- ance in the selection of rams and ewes for breeding purposes. For example, when breeders observed that rams having suitable wool and body conformation, and strong, bold features about the head and neck sired stronger and better offspring than rams having simi- lar wool and body conformation, but lacking in strength and bold- ness of features, an important association in the degree of develop- ment of characters was discovered which has since been a useful guide in breed improvement. It is perhaps erroneous to say that all PEDIGREE OR THE ANCESTRAL HISTORY 39 associations were entirely ignored until matings were studied closely. Boldness of features in males and refinement of them in females undoubtedly attracted the attention of the very earliest breeders, but there were many important associations overlooked until matings became a matter of close study. When they were recognized and seized upon as an agency in selection, there was often a tendency to exaggerate them and to declare that they existed when in reality they did not. Pedigree or the ancestral history of the animal is really an outgrowth of the study of matings. When pedigree is not over- estimated, it serves as a valuable agent in helping to direct con- structive breeding. But often when depended upon at all, too much reliance has been placed on pedigree and not enough on individual excellence. Too often it has been assumed that animals identical in pedigree are alike in breeding powers, but we now know that this is not necessarily true. Although two sheep may be twins, and hence alike in pedigree, it does not necessarily follow that they have in- herited equally from each of their ancestors. One may have the stronger dose of inheritance from the ancestors in the sire’s line and the other a stronger dose from those in the dam’s line; or, one may inherit strongly from the grandsire on the side of the dam and the granddam on the side of the sire, while the other may inherit in converse manner. Many combinations are possible, and hence the possibility of animals as closely related as twins being unlike in the degree of the development of characters is relatively large. And any breeder makes a mistake who practices selling the better of a pair of twins and retaining the poorer for breeding purposes, thinking that the latter will breed just as well as the former. Then, too, pedigree is frequently over-estimated in another way. It is not uncommon for breeders to take a fancy to an animal be- cause a certain great individual of the breed appears in its pedigree. This great animal may be as far removed as great grandparent and the individuals closer up in the pedigree may have been at best only average specimens. If such is the case, the animal in question should be of outstanding merit in order to draw marked attention, and even then he (in case it is a ram) should not be used exten- sively until his capacity as a breeder is determined from an exami- nation of his offspring. But too often faith in a pedigree con- taining a celebrity, even though he be two or three generations removed, goes far toward offsetting the commonness in an animal. 40 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT In-and-in breeding, such as breeding sire to daughter, son to mother, or brother to sister, was another step forward in methods of improving sheep through breeding. Undoubtedly this practice occurred long before Bakewell’s time, but, as far as we know, he was the first to employ it as an agency for improvement. We do not know whether he deliberately resorted to in-breeding or whether he took it up because he did not know where to procure animals that would better serve him in accomplishing his desired ends. As is well known to breeders with experience, in-breeding is a means by which the degree of development of characters is intensi- fied and fixed. Manifestly, then, it cannot be a means for doing good until there has been a careful study of matings, because it intensifies and fixes the bad as well as the good in an animal, and any breeder who does not possess keen judgment had better not try to make use of it. Line Breeding.—Line breeding which involves breeding to- gether animals of the same family or strain, but less closely related than those used in “ in-breeding,” has appealed to sheep breeders as being less erratic in behavior than in-breeding. It has been a great agency for improvement, especially among the English flocks, - and perhaps it has been depended upon more than any other method in developing and fixing the type of the various breeds prominent in that country. Among great Shropshire breeders in England it has been the prevailing practice for a breeder to select a strain from which he draws his rams year after year, and it is only now and then that he uses a ram that could be considered foreign to the strain adopted. Rams belonging outside of the adopted strain are almost invariably used with caution, and if they do not combine and recombine, “ nick ”’ well, as breeders would say, with those characters already prevalent and desirable they and all their offspring are immediately discarded. Cross Breeding.—The first step in the making of many of the most prominent mutton breeds of the present time consisted in crossing one breed upon another. It was the improvement secured by crossing the Southdown upon the old Cannock Chase and Morfe Common sheep around Shrewsbury, England, that gave impetus to the formation of the Shropshire breed. When Southdown rams were bred to the old Wilts and Hants ewes in South England the initial step had been taken in the making of the Hampshire. Bake- well’s Leicesters were used on the old sheep of the Cotswold Hills CROSS BREEDING 41 and the outcome of this crossing was the modern Cotswold. The Hampshire when bred to the modern Cotswold produced the founda- tion from which the Oxford has been developed, and it is possible to continue, if necessary, with the enumeration of still other breeds that have had their beginning from a cross between breeds. Apparently promoters of such breeds were inclined to consider origin through crossing a discredit to the breed, for frequently they attempt to prove that they did not originate in this way. Presum- ably they believe that any breed which traces back to a cross will not breed as true to type as one developed by selecting and breeding together the best of a type or breed long common in a community, as was the case with the Southdown. But this view is not necessarily true. A type which undoubtedly breeds true, as we understand the term, can be developed from animals resulting from crossing distinct breeds. It takes time, however, to do this because the hereditary material handed down by the original parents is capable of coming together in so many different combinations. Characters which seemingly have been eliminated reappear and breeders become dis- couraged over the behavior of the strain they are trying to “ fix” so that it will be worthy of being called a breed. When Shrop- shires were first shown at the annual show of the Royal Agricultural Society of England they were markedly lacking in uniformity. This was in 1857, but 15 years or more before the close of the century they were breeding true to type, and when crossed on other breeds their characteristics were sufficiently impressed on the off- spring. What may be said of the Shropshire may also be said of other breeds that trace to a cross between breeds. One of the latest breeds to be developed from a cross is the Corriedale. In New Zealand three long-wool mutton breeds, Lin- coln, Cotswold, and Leicesters, were crossed on Merino ewes. The cross-bred animals were bred together and by eliminating the unde- sirable types a breed has been evolved in the last 30 or 40 years which is very popular with those New Zealand and Australian breeders who wish to grow sheep for both mutton and wool. In the western part of the United States cross breeding has helped sheepmen to solve the question of adaptability and at the same time to meet the demands of the market. It has been found, however, that mere crossing is a temporary expedient and that when regions as a whole adopt it there is no economical way to breed in order to get desirable breeding ewes. Therefore, western breeders 42 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT are now casting about for a way to get breeds which possess the good points of the cross-bred animals they have been producing. Corriedales are being “tried out,” and there is some tendency to develop a breed or breeds by a method similar to that pursued in evolving the Corriedale. Cross-breeding is still extensively practiced in England by breeders who plan to sell their lambs for mutton. It is likely, too, that it will be resorted to, to greater or less extent, in all countries recognized as being important in the production of mutton, be- cause the cross-bred lamb is, as a rule, unusually vigorous and in many regions breeders find it to their advantage to keep ewes of such breeding that a foreign breed must be crossed on them to get the best possible market lambs from them. QUESTIONS 1. What part has better feeding had in the improvement of sheep? 2, Enumerate the different methods of breeding by which improvement has been effected. . What are the methods followed in mass breeding? What were some of the effects from the early study of matings? What can be said of the importance and limits of pedigrees? . Explain the meaning of in-and-in breeding. . Of line breeding. . What may be some uses of cross breeding? PART II STRUCTURE AND JUDGING CHAPTER V STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP Position in the Zoological Scheme.—The following outline, according to Lydekker,* shows the position of the domesticated sheep in the subkingdom of Vertebrata: Subkingdom Vertebrata—Vertebrates, or Back-boned Animals. Class Mammalia—Mammals. Order Ungulata—Hoofed Mammals, or Ungulates. Suborder Artiodactyla—Even-toed Ungulates. Section Pecora—Typical Ruminants. Family Bovide—Hollow-horned Ruminants. Subfamily Caprine—Sheep and Goats. Genus Ovis—Sheep. a Species Ovis aries—The Domesticated Sheep. The Sheep a Ruminant.—The sheep chews its cud; that is, it brings its food back from the stomach to the mouth for thorough mastication. This characteristic distinguishes it as a true rumi- nant. It belongs to the family of ruminants termed Bovide, of which the ox (Bos) is a typical representative. Besides cattle and sheep the family Bovide includes such classes of animals as goats, muskoxen, chamois and antelopes, but sheep represent a distinct genus for which the name Ovis has been adopted, and as a species the domesticated sheep has been given the name Ovis aries. How the Sheep Differs from Other Animals in Its Family.— Although very much alike in general structure the sheep and ox present some interesting differences, the most marked being in size and nature of hairy covering. The sheep carries its head higher, and its cranium is relatively broader and higher at the center and much narrower toward the extremities. Instead of having a broad, naked, undivided muzzle like the ox, its muzzle is narrow, covered with short hairs, and divided by a vertical cleft. Owing to the fact that its muzzle is so much narrower and its lips more mobile, the sheep can graze much closer than the ox. 1R. Lydekker, “ The Sheep and Its Cousins,” p. 12, Pub. by E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1913. 45 46 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP Sheep are different from any other class of animals belonging to the family Bovide in that they possess suborbital face glands, and glands in the groin and between the two main toes of the feet. All of these secrete sebaceous or fatty substances. The suborbital face gland is situated in a shallow depression called the lachrymal pit in the lachrymal bone of the skull. In the live animal its location is indicated by a furrow in the skin extending downward from the inner corner of the eye (Fig. 16). Fie. 16.—Furrow in skin over lachrymal pit. The secretion from the foot-gland or interdigital pouch is car- ried to the surface of the skin through a small duct called the inter- digital canal, the round opening of which is to be found near the top of the triangular depression on the front of the pastern, a little above the hoof (Fig. 17). This opening is large enough to be seen easily with the naked eye and is often referred to by sheepmen as the hole in the foot. Different functions have been ascribed to the foot glands. It is thought by some that they secrete a substance that scents the ground TH=2 SKELETON 47 over which sheep pass and thus assists members lost from the flock to trace their fellows. It is also thought that the secretions are waste products which if not eliminated will cause inflammation and lameness. The likelihood of plugging the hole in the foot and thus preventing the escape of the secretions is regarded as one important reason why sheep should not be made to walk through mud. In sheep, the foot glands are present in all four feet. They are usually absent in goats, but sometimes small glands appear in the fore feet. ——— = | Fig. 17.—The interdigital pouch. (From ‘Sheep and Its Cousins,’ Lydekker. Courtesy of E. P. Dutton & Co.) The Skeleton.*—The vertebre forming the spinal or vertebral column are grouped as follows: 7 cervical, 13 dorsal or thoracic, 6 to 7 lumbar, 4 to 5 sacral, and 3 to 24 coccygeal. The last are not perfect vertebre, as the spinal canal does not extend through them (Fig. 18). With the exception of the cervical vertebre all of these groups vary in the number of bones they contain. There are usually 13 vertebre in the thoracic group, but occasionally there are 14, and more rarely, only 12. In the lumbar group the occurrence of 7 vertebre is almost as frequent as 6, but the reduction to 5 seldom takes place. Seyffurth indicates that there may be 4 or 5 sacral * See Sisson, “ The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals,” 1914. 48 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP vertebra, but Sisson recognizes only 4. With the exception of the last vertebra, these are fused into one bone in the adult animal. The number of coccygeal vertebre present largely determines the length of the sheep’s tail, and that this number varies is apparent to any one who has handled a large number of lambs before their tails have been cut off. The Ribs.—Ordinarily the sheep has 13 pairs of ribs, 8 pairs being sternal or true ribs, + pairs asternal or false ribs, and one pair floating ribs. True ribs are distinguished from false ribs by the fact that the cartilaginous bars extending from them articulate with the sternum or breast-bone, while those of the false ribs over- lap and are attached to each other, forming what is known as the Fig. 18.—Skeleton of sheep. (Courtesy of Wm. R. Jenkins Co.) costa: arch. The cartilages extending from floating ribs are unat- tached. Sometimes there are’ 14 pairs of ribs, in which case the fourteenth rib is also floating. The sternum, or breast-bone, is composed of 7 segments (some- times only 6) and there are indentures in the sides for the reception of the cartilages extending from the ribs. Effects of Variations in Skeletal Structure.—No attempt will be made to describe the bones of the skull and of the thoracic and pelvic limbs because the chief object of discussing the skeleton in this connection is to show how the external form may be influenced by differences in those regions of the skeleton subject to variation in number of parts. Undoubtedly many sheep which are relatively longer than others have more than the average number of vertebre EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN SKELETAL STRUCTURE 49 forward of the coccygeal group. When a sheep is unusually long in the middle, speculation as to whether it possesses an extra rib is quite justifiable, and if the space between the last rib and the june- tion of the ilium (hip bone) with the spine is abnormally wide there is basis for assuming that there is an extra vertebra in the lumbar group. If, on the other hand, the sheep has a short middle and if the space from the last rib to the hip is also very short, it may be that the lumbar vertebre are reduced to 5 in number (Fig. 19). Fig. 19.—A long and a short sheep, illustrating the probable variation in the number of vertebre in the spinal column. Aside from the variations noted, little is known of how much sheep vary in skeletal arrangement. Judging from exterior form, some individuals seem to carry a wider and higher arch to their ribs than others, but just how much of the difference is due to thickness of flesh and fat, and how much to the actual shape of the ribs has not been definitely determined. The processes extending upward from the vertebre in the region of the shoulders seem longer in some sheep than in others, or else the top of the blade is set lower down, for in certain instances the spinal processes are so prominent that any amount of fattening will not cover the shoulder top. In practically every improved breed there are occasional specimens 4 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP Fig. 21.—Rump drooping. Variation between Figs. 20 and 21 probably due to differe ence in skeletal position of sacral vertebra and pelvic bones, THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES 51 having low-set tails and sharply drooping rumps. Surely the sacral and coccygeal vertebra and probably the pelvic bones are not in the same position in these specimens as in those whose rumps carry out almost level to the dock from the surface between the hips. And there can be no doubt as to the variation in the shape, position, relative length and size of the leg bones (Figs. 20, 21, and 22). Fic. 22.—Showing variation in length of leg bones. The Skin and Its Appendages.—The skin of sheep varies in extent, thickness and color. According to Sisson, the variation in thickness is from one-half to three millimetres. In Merinos there is a great expanse of skin due to numerous wrinkles and folds, and as a rule their skin is thick, thus making a great weight of pelt in proportion to body weight. In the English mutton breeds, be- cause the skin covers the body smoothly, the weight of pelt is rela- tively less. Rams have considerably thicker skins than ewes of the same breed. In all improved breeds producing white wool except those with 52 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP very dark faces and tegs, the skin, if healthy, is bright pink or cherry in color, but in the exceptions noted and in sheep bearing dark wool it is often bluish and in some cases almost black. In nearly all breeds the naked skin around the muzzle is black. The skin ? consists of the cutis or skin proper and its epidermal appendages, the hair, wool, hoofs, and horns. The cutis 1s com- posed of two layers, the epidermis, a superficial epithelial layer, Fic, 23.—Diagrammatic section of skin, showing (a) shaft of hair arising from the follicle, (b) sebaceous glands and (c) sweat glands. (From ‘Structure of the Wool Fi- bre,” Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.) and the derma or corium, a deep, connective-tissue layer, which is supplied with blood vessels and nerves and contains glands and hair-follicles. The hair-follicle is a modification of the skin and, according to Sisson, may be regarded as an invagination or a folding-inward of the epidermis. It seems, however, that the follicles of the larger human hairs contain both epidermal and dermal elements * (Fig. 23). The hair originates at the bottom or base of the hair-follicle from an extension of the corium called a papilla, to which the 8 See Sisson’s “ Veterinary Anatomy,” 1911, * Bailey, “ Text Book of Histology,” 1916. THE HAIR 53 materials necessary for the growth of the hair are supplied. Being a development of the epidermis, the hair is composed of epithelial cells, and these.are arranged in three layers. From within outward these are medulla, cortex and cuticle (Fig. 24). Bailey gives the following description of these layers: (1) “ The medulla occupies the central axis of the hair. It is absent in small hairs, and in large hairs does not extend throughout their entire length. It is from 16 to 20 m.® in diameter, and con- sists of from two to four layers of polygonal or cuboidal cells with Fic. 24.—Longitudinal section of a human hair. (From ‘‘Structure of the Wool Fi- bre,” Bowman. Courtesy of Macmillan Co.) finely granular, usually pigmented protoplasm and rudimentary nuclei. (2) “The cortex makes up the main bulk of the hair and con- sists of several layers of long spindle-shaped cells, the protoplasm of which shows distinct longitudinal striations, while the nuclei appear atrophied. As these striations give the hair the appearance of being composed of fibrillee the term * cortical fibers’ has been applied to them. In colored hair pigment granules and pigment in solution are found in and between the cells of this layer. This pigment determines the color of the hair. (3) “The cuticle has a thickness of about 1 m. and consists of clear, scale-like, non-nucleated epithelial cells. These overlap one another like shingles on a roof, giving to the surface of the hair a serrated appearance.” 5M. refers to a micron which is 1/1000 of a millimeter in length, and the millimeter is 0.03937 part of an inch. 54 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP Structure of Wool.—The structure of wool is similar in many respects to that of hair. Both grow from hair follicles in the skin; both are nourished in the same way; both consist of epithelial cells arranged in three layers, but the medullary layer may be absent in wool. The striking and essential difference between them is in the cells forming the outer layer or cuticle. In hair these cells are rather rounded in form and smooth along the edges, while in wool they tend to be pointed and irregular plone the edges. * In the hair the overlapping cells are attached to the under laye er up to the very Fic. 25.—Coarse hairs, showing regular scales unsuitable for interlocking or felting. Fia. 26. —Typical wool fiber, showing irregular scales. Such fibers felt easily. (From “Structure of the Wool Fibre,”” Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.) margin of the cell, while in wool they are free for about two-thirds of their length and they turn slightly outwards. Because of their shape, position and manner of attachment to the cells beneath, the cuticle cell of wool fibers will interlock, but those of hairs will not to any marked degree. It is this property of interlocking, called felting, that makes wool so much more valuable than hair in the manufacture of fabrics (Figs. 25 and 26). As a rule wool is smaller in diameter than hair, and in white wool, as in white hair, there is little if any pigment or coloring matter in the cortex layer. Wool is also more wavy than hair, the waves in the finer wools being so short and distinct as to be called crimps. Function of Wool.—Wool is a protective covering for the animal. The cuticle cells point outward from the skin and serve to keep out foreign substances such as dirt and chaff. Sheep with fairly dense, oily fleeces are less subject to colds than those having ® Bowman, “Structure of the Wool Fibre,” 1908. GLANDS OF THE SKIN 55 more open fleeces, The reason for this is that the wool is a non- conductor of heat and hence protects against variation in tem- perature, and when it is dense and oily it prevents the rain from penetrating to the skin. Variations in Hairy Covering —With the exception of the Barbadoes breed, all of the domesticated breeds in the United States are covered with wool over all parts save the head, legs, arm- pits and groins. In nearly all of these breeds wool extends partly over the head and legs, and in the Merinos it is not uncommon for it to grow over the surface of the armpit and most of the groin. Breeds exhibit marked variation in length, fineness and density or thickness of wool. Density may vary from 600 to 1500 fibers to each square inch of skin; fineness from one three-hundredth or more to one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter; and length attained in twelve months from less than one inch to fifteen inches or more. As a rule the shortest wool is the finest and densest. White wool prevajls among the domesticated breeds of the United States and of other countries giving special attention to the pro- duction of wool, but the color of the hair on face and legs varies, the most common shades being white, reddish brown, light soft brown, and deep brown or black. In various parts of the world there are domesticated breeds, in most cases not highly improved, however, that grow gray, brown and black wool. Wool is rarely if ever uniform in length, fineness and density over all parts of the sheep. The finest and densest wool is in the regions of the shoulders, about midway between the top and bottom lines of the body; the coarsest wool grows on the outer thighs and at the dock; and the shortest wool is to be found on the belly. The horns and hoofs are modifications of the epidermis. Most of the modern breeds are hornless; in a few breeds only the males have horns, and in a few others they appear in both sexes, but the males always have them much more strongly developed than the females. Males unsexed while young resemble the females of the breed in the degree of development of the horns. Hoof tissue and also horn tissue, if present, are white only in those breeds in which the naked skin at the muzzle is pink. Glands of the Skin.—The sweat glands, secreting water and potassium salts, and the sebaceous glands, secreting a fatty or oily substance, are the most important glands in the skin. Their com- bined product, less most of the water secreted by the sweat gland, is 56 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP the yolk. This functions in various ways as a preservative of the wool. The sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin, but the sebaceous glands are usually connected with the follicles and they pour their secretion around the wool fibers just beneath the surface of the skin. It is said that there is no relation between the Posterior groove of > p rumen Fia. 27.—Stomach of sheep; right view. (‘‘Anatomy of Domestic Animals,” Sisson. Cour- tesy of W. B, Saunders Co.) size of the gland and the fiber connected with it, the smallest fibers often being associated with the largest glands. Also, the thicker the fibers on the surface of the skin, the greater the number of glands. These observations suggest why the wool of Merinos is more oily than that of breeds bearing coarser, less dense wool (Fig. 23). THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 57 The Digestive Tract—Teeth.—Sheep grow two sets of teeth; the first or temporary teeth number 20, and the second or perma- nent teeth number 32; of the permanent teeth, 8 are incisors, 12 Fiq. 28.—Abdominal viscera of sheep; superficial ventral view. (‘‘Anatomy of Domestic Animals,” Sisson, W. B. Saunders Co.) premolars and 12 molars. There are no teeth in the front part of the upper jaw in either lambs or sheep, but instead a cartilaginous pad, on which the incisor teeth of the lower jaw impinge. As a rule, the 58 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP lamb has some of its teeth when it is born, and by the time it is a few weeks old it has all of the temporary set. The permanent teeth begin to replace the temporary teeth when the lamb is about one year old. More will be said about the teeth in the next chapter in connection with the indications of age in sheep. Stomach.—The stomach has four compartments: the rumen, the recticulum, the omasum, and the abomasum. The first three, of which the rumen is by far the largest, serve as places for storing and softening or macerating the food, while the fourth, the aboma- sum, is the compartment in which mcst of the digestive processes characteristic of the stomach occur. According to measurements made by the writer, the capacity of the stomach of a fat sheep weighing from 175 to 180 pounds is about 21 quarts. Sisson, however, gives it as 16 quarts, and Henry and Morrison as 31.3 quarts. Based on Henry and Morrison’s figures, the capacity of each of the various compartments is as follows: Rumen, 24.7 quarts; reticulum, 2.1 quarts; omasum, 1 quart; abomasum, 3.5 quarts; the total being 31.3 quarts (Fig. 27). Intestines.—As given by Henry and Morrison, the small in- testine of the mature sheep is about 85.9 feet long and has a capacity of 9.5 quarts; the large intestine is approximately 21.4 feet long and has a capacity of 5.9 quarts. Digestive processes take place in both the small and large intestines (Fig. 28). QUESTIONS . What distinguishes the sheep as a ruminant? . How does it differ from the ox; from all other classes of animals be- longing to the family Bovide? . Enumerate common variations in the skeletal arrangement of sheep. How may variations in skeletal structure affect the form of the sheep? How are wool and hair different in structure? . To what extent do sheep vary in hairy covering? . How many temporary teeth have sheep? Permanent teeth? . What large glands pour their secretions into the digestive tract of sheep? 9. What is yolk in wool; where does it come from? 10. Of what advantage is the rumen or paunch to wild sheep? To domestic sheep? 11. Gently pressing a wool fiber, draw it back and forth between the thumb and forefinger. Can you distinguish which way the cuticle cells are pointed? Noe CHAPTER VI THE NATURE OF SHEEP The Life of a Sheep.—Most sheep are fully grown at eighteen to twenty-four months of age. The manner in which they are fed has some influence on their rate of development; sheep that are forced by heavy feeding may at one year of age show indications of being two years old. Asa rule, the Merino breeds are later in devel- oping than the mutton breeds, but whether this later development is altogether a breed characteristic is not wholly clear. The method of growing Merinos generally in vogue may be different enough from that employed in growing the mutton breeds to cause some of the difference in rapidity of development. But the early im- provers of the mutton breeds apparently sought early maturity more persistently than the early improvers of the Merinos. It is, therefore, only fair to assume that the mutton breeds are disposed to develop at a more rapid rate. In general, sheep are old at five or six years of age. But there are many exceptions to this rule, so many, in fact, that the flock- master ought to be his own judge as to when his sheep are old. On the ranges in the western part of the United States where the flocks are very large, it is common practice to discard ewes when they become five or six years old solely on account of their age, because they usually begin to decline in yield of wool after their fifth year. But the owners of small flocks can afford to base their discarding on a study of individuals, for not infrequently seven- and ,eight-year- old ewes when members of a small group, produce quite as well or even better, than younger ewes. Unfavorable environment and improper care, exposure, and poor feed often hasten the approach of old age. In dry, sandy countries, sheep may become old at a comparatively early age through the teeth being worn down short by the excessive amounts of sand both in and on the vegetation. Then, too, a scanty supply of feed on the range may require the sheep to do so much travelling when it is not ade- quately fed that physical decline sets in prematurely. It frequently happens that sheep which have become too old for one set of conditions are moved into more favorable surroundings 59 60 THE NATURE OF SHEEP where they prove profitable for two or three more years. In England and Scotland ewes which are too old to be kept in the hills where feed is rather scarce, are often moved into the lowlands where there is an abundance; here they thrive and produce two or three crops of lusty lambs, and are finally fattened for market. Sheep normally inclined to develop slowly do not, as a rule, begin to break down until well along in years. Thus the Merino breeds are perhaps longer lived than the mutton breeds. Un- doubtedly, longevity of life has its advantage, but the usefulness of a breed cannot be determined on this alone. Fie. 29.—Old sheep; prominent Shropshire prize winners when in their prime. They were each eleven years old when photographed. Their lean necks and general lack of flesh were due to advanced age and not to poor care. Indications of Age—(1) Teeth.—One of the best indications of the age’of a sheep is the teeth. The temporary or lam) teeth are small; the permanent teeth are broader and longer. If a lamb develops normally, the two temporary teeth in the middle of the front part of the lower jaw are replaced by permanent teeth at about twelve months of age. Therefore, when a sheep shows two broad teeth with small teeth on either side, it is an indication that the animal is a yearling; if there are four broad teeth, that it is two years old; if there are six, that it is three years old. At four or five years of age all of the eight temporary teeth in the front part of the jaw are likely to be replaced by permanent teeth and it is impossible to determine the age with any degree of accuracy. It should be borne in mind that the teeth indicate the degree of Fic. 30.—Age as indicated by teeth. 1, a lamb—all teeth in front part of jaw are small. center of front part of jaw. 3, a two-year-old—four broad teeth in center of front part of. jaw. front part of jaw. 5, a four-year-old, called a full mouth. All temporary teeth in front part of jaw rep 6 and 7, teeth of old sheep, In 6, teeth very long; in 7,worn down short. (From the Bureau of Animal In 2, a yearling—two broad teeth in 4, a three-year-old—six broad teeth in laced by permanent teeth. dustry, Washington, D. C.) 62 THE NATURE OF SHEEP development rather than the absolute age of the sheep in calendar months; hence, they are not infallible indications of age. If devel- opment is slow, the first permanent teeth may not appear until the sheep is fifteen or sixteen months old; if it is rapid, they may appear at ten months of age. A yearling sheep that has been forced by heavy feeding may have four broad teeth in front instead of two (Fig. 29). The teeth of an old sheep are likely to be spread apart, missing, or worn down short. Other indications of advanced age are a sunken appearance over the eyes, a comparatively short fleece with sunken places on the surface, and a general lack of fullness of body outlines (Fig. 30). (2) The Break Joint.—On our large livestock markets, an index often depended upon for determining whether an ani- mal belongs in the sheep or lamb class is what is known as the “ break joint.” This is the temporary, or epiphyseal cartilage located immedi- ately above the pastern joint. Without it bones could not elongate and hence it is pres- ent until the lamb is pretty well along in body develop- a b Fia. 31.—(a) The break joint; when an imma- eine ture sheep is slaughtered its forelegs are severed ment. It can be distin- at this joint—its presence being a sure indication : . : that the animal was vyoune. (b) The regular articu- guished best on the live ani- lating joint below the break joint; the forelegs of ’ mature sheep are severed at this joint. ee mal by rubbing up and down es Ee on the foreleg just above the pastern joint with the thumb and forefinger. If temporary cartilage has not disappeared, a great deal of prominence will be felt; if it has, the bone will be comparatively round and smooth (Fig. 31). Feeding and Drinking Habits.——Being ruminants, sheep are adapted not only to the consumption of grain, but also of bulky feeds, such as grass and hay. They eat all of the grasses except the very coarsest varieties and are very fond of the cultivated legum- inous plants. They eat most of the weeds common to farms, and in the West, weeds on sheep ranges are considered very valuable feed Sheep feed on young tree growth more than any other of our domestic animals except goats. FEEDING AND DRINKING HABITS 63 Sheep prefer short herbage on an extensive range to a rampant growth on a limited area. When placed on a tall plant growth they nip off the ends of the plants and trim off the leaves, but usually leave the stems standing. They are structurally adapted to feeding on short herbage, because of their very mobile lips and sharp incisor teeth. The upper lip is very mobile, which is in part due to the vertical fissure in the center which permits one-half of the lip to move somewhat independent of the other half. Fig. 32.—The paths or terraces to the left and high up on the hillside were made by sheep while grazing. (From Morris and Kirby, Chinook, Montana.) The inherent love which sheep have for change of feeding ground is well known, and is always plainly indicated in the eager and playful way in which they feed just after they are turned into a fresh pasture. It is thought that the native home of the domesticated sheep was in the high, treeless plateaus and mountains. Most sheep especially enjoy feeding on the high places in their pastures, but some of the modern breeds have been kept on low, level lands so long that it is 64 THE NATURE OF SHEEP doubtful whether they would take to the hills from choice. It is interesting to note how sheep feed on hills. In a hilly country, where sheep are grazed in large numbers, the traveller is sure to see along the hillsides many sheep paths which look like little terraces, indicating that in grazing, the sheep do not pass over the hill, but rather along the side, gradually working to the top (Fig. 32). Sheep are able to exist without water longer than most domes- ticated animals. Craig says that this is probably due to the fact that they have unusually large salivary glands; very likely it is also due in part to still other physiological characteristics. It has. often been thought that sheep do not need to have daily access to water, but such an assumption is erroneous, for even in cold weather they will drink from two to four quarts daily. They pre- fer running to still water. Folding Habits.—S he ep that have been allowed to choose between shelter and the open, prefer to lie out of doors on high places. ‘This may not be true, however, of sheep that have been raised in barns. Their prefer- ence for high, well-drained, and airy resting and sleeping grounds is very marked, for it is only in the severest of winter weather that they abandon such spots for lower, wind-protected places. After the lamb is a few hours old it constantly seeks some eminence, such as its mother’s back, a bale of hay, a log, or a rock. It has been observed that young sheep seek high places more readily than do the older ones; yearlings will feed higher up on a hillside than old ewes (Figs. 33 and 3+). Breeding Habits—Most domesticated breeds of sheep are monoestrous. That is, the ewes come in heat (cestrus) in but one season of the year, which, in the United States, is in the autumn and early winter months; hence, it is not possible to have lambs born at any time in the year. But there are a few breeds, such as the Tunis and Dorset Horned, for which it is claimed that the ewes will breed Fie. 33.—The little Iamb aspires for heights affording wider outlook upon the world. BREEDING HABITS 65 to produce lambs at the time desired by the owner. Such breeds are especially useful to those who desire to grow fancy lambs out of season in order to supply a high-priced commodity to a limited few. If, as it seems, ewes are induced to a certain extent to come in heat by the cool of the autumn nights, it may be that there are localities in which climatic conditions will cause ewes to breed out of their normal season and perhaps twice a year. Summer nights in the hills may correspond to the autumn nights on the plains and by moving ewes from the plains to the hills, one may succeed in breeding them out of normal season. wl Lae Sie Fic. 34.—Sheep enjoy being on high places. A ewe remains in heat for about two days; if she is not bred, or if she fails to get in lamb from the service of the ram, the period of heat, or cestrus, recurs in approximately sixteen days. On this point there is variance of opinion and some writers mention twenty-one days as the length of time between cestrus periods. In the Middle West of the United States, however, the intervening time, although varying all the way from twelve to twenty-eight days, is most often sixteen days. In case the ewe is not bred, she is likely to recur in heat regularly for three or four months, beginning in late summer or early autumn and continuing until late December. About one hundred and forty-six days is the normal gestation period for ewes. At the Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio Stations, it 5 66 THE NATURE OF SHEEP has been observed that the period of gestation for Rambouillet and American Merino ewes is more frequently one hundred and fifty-two than one hundred and forty-six days. And one hundred and forty- four days has been given as the normal period for Southdowns. From this it would seem that breed may be the cause of some varia- tion in the length of the period of pregnancy. It is common for each ewe to give birth to one or two lambs. Occasionally a ewe has three lambs at one parturition period, and there are instances of even more, but since the ewe has but two teats that function (in rare cases there are four), she is not well Tic. 35.—A capacious, matronly type of ewe capable, as the photograph shows, of taking good care of a pair of lambs. prepared to take care of more than two lambs. By carefully select- ing parent stock, promoters of certain breeds have succeeded in developing ewe stock having a marked tendency to produce twins (Fig. 35). Recognition of Young.—A ewe recognizes her new-born lamb wholly through the sense of smell, but in a few days she can dis- tinguish it at sight. In cases of perplexity, however, she always relies on her nose for recognition. Apparently the odor by which a ewe identifies her newly-born offspring is due to something coming from her, for in case she refuses to own her lamb she may be in- duced to receive it (but not always), by placing some of her milk GREGARIOUSNESS 67 on its rump, the point where she usually sniffs at the lamb to recognize it. Gregariousness.—Sheep have the gregarious instinct; that is, they like to keep together. The flocking instinct is not so pro- nounced in some breeds as it is in others, but there is no breed or variety known that does not possess it. Of the well-known breeds, the Merinos have this trait most strongly developed, for, as stated in Chapter I, they stay close together whether grazing or resting. On range where herding is practiced this statement applies to the whole of a large band. On the other hand, nearly or quite all of aD da a Mm Die)Reaisa-s: Fic. 36.—Following the leader. (By courtesy of The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia.) the English mutton breeds are less inclined to stay close together while grazing. Flocks of any of the mutton breeds seem to prefer to spread out over a rather large area while feeding, yet if some- thing frightens them, as the bark of a strange dog, they show their gregarious instinct by bunching up as fast as they can. One of the breeds least inclined to close flocking is the Black-faced Highland, a mountain breed of Scotland. In their native country, one may see the hill or mountain sides dotted with small groups consisting of from three to ten of these sheep picking at the heather, apparently oblivious of their flock-mates more than half a mile away. The flocking instinct is so strongly implanted in sheep that when an individual is separated from the flock, it is an indication that 68 THE NATURE OF SHEEP something unusual has happened. The first thought of the trained shepherd when he sees a sheep alone and some distance from its mates is likely to be that it is ill or has been injured. The instinct to flock in large numbers is of great value where herding is practiced, as in the western part of the United States. In extensive, unfenced, and undeveloped lands any herder would lose large numbers from his band through straying and through the attacks of predatory animals if his sheep were not disposed to con- tinue in a rather compact body. Closely associated with the gregarious instinct of sheep is its instinct to follow a leader. There is an old saying, “ Where one sheep goes, all others will follow,” which really is not an exaggera- tion. If the leader passes on, the others will take a chance on a long leap, a narrow path, or even .a plunge into the water in order to follow (Fig. 36). Timidity and Defenselessness.—In the presence of foes sheep are sadly lacking in ability to defend themselves and they become so frightened that they run wildly hither and thither. Although they fear all animals disposed to prey upon them, their worst enemies are the wolf and kindred animals, such as the coyote, the dog, and the jackal. The jackal furnishes trouble for the sheepmen of South Africa; the dingo, a wild dog, makes depredations on flocks in Australia, and the wolf and particularly the coyote, seriously handicap sheep raising on the western ranges of the United States. In farming communities the dog is the worst hindrance to the keep- ing of flocks. While any of these animals may kill outright, their attacks are almost as deadly if they only chase and bite because the sheep are badly frightened and run so hard that a physical break- down is likely to fo"ow. In case they are bitten, death may result from infection of the wound. Other predatory animals in the western part of the United States are the bob-cat and mountain lion. In New Zealand and Australia the kea (a parrot-like bird) often attacks sheep on the back in the region of the kidneys. Being easily stampeded by fear, sheep really encourage dogs to chase them, for if a dog full of vigor and eager for exercise, but with no intention of mischief, enters a field where sheep are feeding or resting, the entire flock may dash away at top speed at the sight of him. Their action stirs the dog to the depths of his desire for the chase, and he is after them in what he considers a rollicking good game, but it means disaster to the owner of the sheep. QUESTIONS 69 Horned breeds of sheep are said to be less afraid of their enemies than hornless breeds. Strong, masculine rams are also more aggressive and somewhat less afraid than ewes; but spirited ewes with lambs at side will defend their young. Both ewes and rams, in their attempt to scare away the enemy, have a habit of vigorously stamping the forefeet. Non-Resistance to Disease.—Sheep do not show much evidence of illness until they are very sick, and this is perhaps the reason for the oft-repeated statement, “A sick sheep is.as good as dead.” A careful and observant shepherd, however, takes many a sick sheep in hand in time to save it and any sheep raiser to be successful must learn to discover that something is wrong with his sheep before they are “as good as dead.” Certain breeds apparently resist disease better than others; hence it seems probable that general hardiness may have been more or less disregarded in the development of some of our modern breeds. QUESTIONS 1. Can you tell how a healthy sheep acts when it is separated from its fellows? A sick one? 2. Why are the attacks of predatory animals so injurious to sheep? 3. Do you know what parts of the sheep’s body are most frequently bitten by dogs? 4. By what may the age of a sheep be estimated? 5. Compare the period of growth in sheep with that in man. 6. Can you give reasons why sheep select high, well-drained places for sleep and rest? 7. Do sheep prefer extensive or limited range? 8. How do they graze over hills? 9. Do you know how a goat grazes over a hill? 10. In what seasons are lambs born in the United States? 11. How many lambs can a ewe conveniently nurse? 12. What proportion of lambs to ewes have you observed? CHAPTER VII TYPES The term type as applied to sheep is used in various ways. Breeds developed primarily for mutton are grouped under the mutton type, and those developed especially for wool belong under the wool type. As regards development for mutton and wool, a few breeds are dual in type, but the term dual-purpose type has not yet been widely applied to sheep. An acceptable specimen of a breed possesses what are termed breed characteristics. These con- stitute breed type and serve to distinguish the specimen from indi- viduals of other breeds and of no breed. Sexes differ in other char- acters than xex organs, so there is what may be termed sex type. There exists a market type which coincides in most respects with the mutton type, but, because of special emphasis laid on certain points, is somewhat different. The Mutton Type.—The ideal type, which is sought in all of the prominent mutton breeds, consists of a relatively broad and deep body and such a development of head, neck, legs and body parts that the whole conformation suggests symmetry, thickness, compactness, and quality. This is regarded as the most suitable type for producing growth and finish economically and ‘for yielding the kind of carcass the consumer wants (Fig. 37). Head.—As between the different breeds, the head varies more in shape and size than any other part of the animal, but in general it is short and wide, and its various features are developed and pro- portioned so as to suggest hardiness and strength. The mouth is large; the nostrils are well expanded; the eyes are large, round and bright; the nose is short, rather wide, and varying in profile from slightly dished to pronouncedly Roman, and both the eyes and the ears are wide apart. The ears harmonize in size and quality with the other features of the head and are set so as to contribute to the carriage and style characteristic of the breed to which the animal belongs. The neck, though free from coarseness, is strongly muscled and joined neatly to both the head and shoulders. It is comparatively straight underneath from the junction with the jaw to the brisket, 70 THE BODY 71 and there is no depression on the top just in front of the shoulders. Breeds differ with respect to length and set of neck, but in general a short neck is preferred provided it carries the head stylishly. In no case should the neck be placed so that the head is carried lower than the top of, the body. The body, consisting of the fore quarters, hind quarters, and middle or barrel, possesses lines and dimensions which indicate sub- Fic. 37.—The mutton type—wide, deep, compact, evenly developed in form. stance, capacity, and vigor. It is broad, deep, and of medium length and its lines are comparatively straight. Low and full flanks and a short space between the last rib and the hip contribute to the thick, compact appearance of the body. The fore quarters, which include the shoulders and the brisket, fit up smoothly with the neck in front and with the middle behind them. The shoulder blades come snug to the spine and level with it, thus forming a smooth, compact, wide top which is covered with 72 TYPES flesh and fat. The sides of the shoulder also are well covered and free from prominence of bone. The brisket is wide, full, and extends well in front of the legs, and its anterior contour is rounding rather than pointed. In fat sheep there is no depression between the brisket and the lower part of the shoulder. The parts forming the middle or barrel of the body are the ribs, back, loins, and fiance The ribs are long and widely arched, a con- formation that gives pronounced width to the back, which extends from the shoulders to the loins, and also forms a deep, wide, capacious chest indicative of stamina and constitution. The back extends from the shoulders to the last riks and the loins from the last ribs to the hips. Besides being wide and level, both are covered with firm flesh and fat to such an extent that the processes of the spine are scarcely noticeable to the touch. Since the back and loins contain valuable cuts, their extreme development is always sought. The floor of the body is wide and slightly convex. The parts of the hind quarters are hips, rump, thighs, and twist. The hips are level, wide in proportion to the width of the body, and free from prominence at the points. The rump, which extends from the hips backward. is long, level, wide, and thick at the dock. Sheep with this conformation of rump produce more mutton, and the ewes have slightly less trouble in giving birth to their young than those with peaked or drooping rumps and with low-set tails. The thighs, which join the rump a few inches below the top line, are full and wide at the top, while down toward the hocks they stand out boldly, indicating sturdiness and strength. The twist, formed by the meeting of the thighs at the rear of the body, is wide, low, and relatively Pat to fie touch. If the rump, thighs, and twist are not well developed, a leg of mutton from the carcass cannot be first class in form nor up to proportionate weight. The legs, both in front and behind, are straight, strong, free from coarseness at the joints, and placed far apart, with the pasterns strong and the toes neither close nor sprawling. In front the arm is full and heavily muscled. Behind, the hocks are straight and placed so that they neither bow outward nor come in close to each other.- In a ram, particularly, either sickle-shaped or badly placed hocks are serious faults because they are likely to render him in- capable of service. Quality.—Although some of the mutton breeds have large, strong bones and rather large, bold head features, quality receives THE WOOL TYPE 73 important consideration in each and every breed. In all cases coarse- ness, as characterized by rough legs with large joints, fat heads and faces,’ coarse, staring hair on the face and legs, and soft tallowy flesh, is to be avoided. Skin, Wool.—In general, pink skins of fine texture are preferred because they indicate health, quality, and disposition to make good use of food. The wool of the mutton breeds varies greatly in length 4, POR es —wi ink the Fic. 38.—The extremely developed wool type—with large wrinkles on all parts of body. the pelt, (skin and wool) of this sheep constitutes a large per cent of its total weight. and fineness, but in all breeds clean, white wool free from kemp and dark fibers is sought after. The Wool Type.—Fineness, density, and weight of fleece have been the prime objects of those who have developed the wool-type breeds and in these particulars breeds of other types do not equal them. Because of dissimilarity in form, skin, and wool, the extreme wool type is markedly different in appearance from the mutton type of sheep. But increasing consideration is being given to mutton 74 TYPES form and quality in hreeds belonging to the wool type; hence the difference between the two is not quite so pronounced as it once was (Fig. 38). Comparison with Mutton Type.—As compared with the mut- ton type, the wool type lacks in straightness or evenness of lines, fullness of outline, and disposition to lay on a great deal of external fat. It is common for the spine to project considerably above the shoulder blades, for the back to sag slightly, for the ribs to be flat, and for the rump to droop sharply. Often, the body as a whole lacks in width or thickness, the ribs being rather flat, the shoulders thin, and the thighs hollow. Since the floor of the body lacks width, the legs in most cases are close together and frequently very close at the knees and hocks. Asa rule, the face of the wool type is pro- portionately longer than that of the mutton type and the same can be said of the neck. Less stress is laid upon the smooth junction of neck and shoulders and frequently there is a depression in the »neck just in front of the shoulders. Although sheep of the wool type differ so much from the mutton type in form, they are neverthe- less hardy, and quite as carefully bred for what they are intended as any of the breeds belonging to the mutton type. Folds and Wrinkles.—In the wool type. there are usually parts of the body on which the skin forms wrinkles or folds, thus giving proportionately more strface on which to grow wool than in the mutton type. Sometimes the wrinkles extend over nearly all parts of the body, but there is an increasing tendency to eliminate them al- most altogether from the body proper and to permit of only a few large wrinkles or folds on the neck and perhaps one on the body just behind the shoulders and one or two more at such places as the thigh, dock, and rear flank. Although high-class specimens possess- ing very many wrinkles are still rather numerous the owners of commercial flocks are finding less and less use for them, and unless demand changes so as to make the production of wool relative to the production of mutton much more profitable than it has been during the past two decades the preference for smooth bodies will continue and it will sooner or later prevail in determining type. Breed type is determined by considering, in connection with the general type to which the sheep belongs, the standard adopted for the particular breed in such matters as size, style or carriage, general quality, color of skin and hair, size and shape of head, length of legs, and the wool with respect to length, fineness, and extension SEX TYPE OR SEX CHARACTER 05 Over various parts. When a sheep is judged as a representative of a breed it should not be favorably considered if it is very poor in either general type or breed type. In a breed belonging to the mut- ton type, such as the Shropshire, an individual having a bare, nar- row, sagging back should not be rated high no matter how nearly perfect it may be in those features characteristic of the Shropshire breed. On the other hand, should it be perfect in mutton type, but markedly deficient in features pertaining solely to the Shropshire breed, it should not receive favorable consideration as a Shropshire sheep. And a fault in breed type may be such as to disqualify an animal as a breed representative. No enlightened judge would per- mit a sheep with a pure white face to take a place in a ring for Shropshires because the typical face color for this breed is deep, soft brown. The general type and the breed type are inseparable and a problem constantly arising in judging is to know just how far per- fections in the one recompense faults in the other. It is easy for the student fresh in the study of judging sheep to ask such a question as how much should the shape of head be sacrificed for filling at the twist, but only a few, if any, of long experience would attempt to give him a definite answer. Constitution is weighted most when considered in connection with breeds, and is, therefore, closely associated with breed type. To properly estimate constitution the whole make-up of the sheep must be considered. Were a low-headed, wobbly-gaited, flabby sheep perfect in spring of rib and extension of brisket, it would not be rated high by a competent judge because he would know that such a specimen is lacking in stamina. Compactness of build, strong, well-placed legs, large, firm muscles, wide loins, and a properly molded head are quite as important in determining constitution as a deep, wide chest. Objectionable Points.—In considering breed type it is very necessary to know what supporters of the breed are trying to get rid of. Dark skins are discriminated against more in some breeds than in others; kemp (structureless fibers) is very objectionable in the fleeces of the fine wool breeds, and vestiges of horns are not tol- erated in certain breeds. Sex Type or Sex Character.—Whenever a sheep is judged as a breeding animal, the development of certain of its features, aside from sex organs, should clearly indicate the sex to which it belongs. 76 ; TYPES This development is known as sex character or sex type; in rams it is called masculinity and in ewes femininity. Pronounced masculinity is indicated by boldness and ruggedness of head features; strong, thick neck, massive development in the fore quarters; a proud, stylish, active, and bold carriage which suggests domineering disposition. In general, a ram with a truly masculine head has a fairly large mouth; big, round, well-expanded nostrils; a pronounced spread of nose (commonly called the knob) just above the nostrils if the animal is mature; wide-open, bright, prominent eyes; and pronounced width between the eyes and ears. The strongly masculine neck sets to the shoulder so that the head can be carried well up. The neck is very thick at the junction with the shoulders, so thick, in fact, that there is scarcely any depres- sion between it and the shoulders. On the top of the neck just behind the head there is usually a rise or prominence which really appears more like a feature of the head than of the neck. Comment on the massive development in front is hardly necessary, but per- haps it is well to call attention to the full, strong forearm which should accompany the wide, deep chest, and the full, rounding, well- extended brisket (Fig. 39). In order to have an active, bold, or fearless carriage, the ram must have a deeply-muscled body supported by strong, well-placed legs. When one touches a ram possessing outstanding masculinity, there is the sensation of having in hand an individual with the fibers and sinews of a giant. The study of such an animal is never finished, for there is something present which defies accurate meas- urement with the hand, and the whole make-up of the animal sug- gests something which is beyond the estimate of the eye. No ram is really masculine if his sex organs are not well de- veloped. Undersized testicles indicate sex weakness, and when they are less than normal size the animal is usually lacking in strength of features about the head. English shepherds often comment on a ram having a deep bleat as a sheep with a real ram’s voice. In the breeds in which the males have horns, the development of horn should be in harmony with the other features of strength about the head. Importance of Masculinity——Experienced breeders usually select rams showing much masculinity because they believe such in- dividuals will impart more vigor and transmit their characters to their offspring in greater degree than rams that are weak in mas- IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY Fie 39 —Studies showing pronounced masculinity. b a, Dorset Horned ram; b, Shropshire ram; c, Hampshire ram. 78 TYPES culinity. Several years ago, while visiting various pure-bred flocks in Great Britain, the writer was greatly impressed by the unusual masculinity of most of the stud rams he inspected. It seemed to him then, as well as now, that the English sheepbreeder places higher value on masculinity than the American breeder. This is a matter to which American breeders should give careful consideration, with a view to determining whether they or the British breeders are more nearly right. Femininity is manifested by refinement of features, matronly appearance, and relatively great development in the hind quarters. All of the above characteristics combine to produce an effect which is quite the opposite of that produced by masculinity. The truly feminine ewe has proportionately less substance in her neck and front of body than the masculine ram, her features are much less rugged and her body lines are more gracefully turned. But the refinement characteristic of femininity is not over refinement to the point of delicateness. At this point the breeder needs to exercise care. Strong bone, provided it shows quality, size of body, or roominess, with features to match do not necessarily indicate lack in femininity, but rather that very essential development of characters which should be associated with it (Fig. 40). Mild expression has often been spoken of as indicative of femi- ninity in ewes. If this term implies meekness and submissiveness, then it is wrongly applied, because the desirable breeding ewe pos- sesses vigor and snap. She is upheaded, alert and conscious of what is In progress around her almost to the point of appearing to be nervous. She may be of retiring disposition so long as she is not a mother, but with her young at the side she is courageous and stands between her young and what she senses as danger with defiant fearlessness. In parturition such a ewe is very nervous, apparently so anxious to see her lamb that she cannot wait for it to come; but when it does come she usually not only protects it, but also feeds it well. Successful breeders discard masculine or “ staggy ”’ ewes because usually they are not profitable as producers. Often they do not breed at all. When they do, they may have trouble in lambing; and they are usually poor both in maternal instinct and milking properties. Wethers (castrated males) if unsexed when only a few weeks old, tend to resemble ewes in the various characters influenced by IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY Fic. 40 WELBAAAD —Studies in femininity. a, Dofset Horned ewe b , Shropshire ewe 7) Hampshire 80 TYPES Fia. 41.—A wether. Not so strongly developed in the head and neck as a ram, but coarser in these features than a ewe should be. sex. But a wether cannot be said to possess femininity; in fact, it is decidedly uncomplimentary to a ewe to say that she looks like a wether. That is, the wether retains a little of the masculine in his various features (Fig. 41). Market Type.—The mutton type approximates closely the mar- ket type. But in fat sheep the market puts more stress on condi- Fia. 42.—Market sheep carrying the degree of fatness desired by American consumers of mutton, QUESTIONS 81 tion, quality, and weight than on form. Market quality consists in freedom from coarseness and from undue weight of pelt (skin and wool combined), while in the mutton type a heavy fleece is not necessarily a criticism against quality. Ideal market condition requires an even, firm covering with fat, but it does not call for excessive fatness such as is expected of breed specimens and fat wethers in classes for single sheep at large exhibitions. The fact is that show specimens are often made too fat. The weight desired of market sheep is a matter that -varies with the different classes, lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes; it is also a matter that varies somewhat with the different seasons (Fig. 42). In selecting feeder sheep, condition, quality, weight, form, and thrift are the factors to be considered. The ideal feeder should not be fat, neither should it be so thin as to seem lacking in vigor and health. Its quality should correspond with that of the fat sheep and it is best in form when it corresponds to the description of form given under mutton type, but perfection of form cannot be ex- pected in a sheep that is not fat. QUESTIONS 1, Which is easier to determine, general type or breed type? Why? 2. List the large differences between the mutton type and the wool type. 3. Which would grade the higher on the market, the wool type or the mutton type? Why? 4 Compare the head of a ram with that of a ewe of the same breed. 5. How are the differences noted to be accounted for? CHAPTER VIII JUDGING SHEEP Preparation for Judging.—Regardless of whether judges are born or made, skill in judging sheep is attained at the expense of much practice. The men who judge best are nearly always at it, not in the arena, of course, but wherever they see sheep. It is this irresistible tendency constantly to compare and contrast animals that builds up in the mind of the judge a rich store of experiences which serve him well, and in fact come to his rescue when he is making awards where competition is keen and close. These ex- periences mold his standard and set it out in bold relief. Organized class study, although of great help, is after all only one step toward proficiency in judging. It is a step which many of the best judges have never taken, and one which is not used to proper advantage unless it is supplemented by extensive practice in field and fold (Fig. 43). Examining the Sheep.—Capable judges, realizing the impor- tance of careful examination, first look the sheep over from a dis- tance and then go over it with their hands. It does not make any difference which view of the animal is noted first so long as the examination is thorough and systematic. The writer prefers to begin with the front of the sheep, then observe its sides, and lastly its rear, for the reason that in handling he examines the rear first. Looking the Sheep Over.—Following this plan, there are cer- tain points which should be noted from each view. (1) Lhe front view gives the best opportunity to study the make-up of the head, the width and depth of brisket, and the length, shape and placing of the forelegs. Very close attention should be given to the head because its quality is indicative of the quality of the animal and in breed specimens it reveals a great deal of what is known as breed type. The stamina or constitu- tion of the animal is also indicated in the way certain features of the head are developed. (2) Side—In taking a side view, the size, style, and general lines of the sheep attract attention first. Then comes an analysis of the general impression thus gained which takes note of the 82 LOOKING THE SHEEP OVER 83 length and depth of body, the carriage of the head, the length and setting of the neck, the extension of brisket, the evenness or true- ness of top and bottom lines, and length and shape of legs, and Fig. 43.—The external parts of a sheep. 1, muzzle broad, lips thin, nostrils large; 2, face short, features clean-cut; 3, eyes large and clear; 4, forehead broad; 5, ears alert and not coarse; 6, poll wide; 7, top of shoulder compact; 8, neck short, thick, blending smoothly with shoulder; 9, shoulder thickly covered with flesh; 10, back broad, straight, thickly and evenly covered; 11, ribs long, well sprung, and thickly covered; 12, loin broad, thick, and well covered; 13, hips wide and smooth; 14, rump long, level, and wide to dock; 15, dock thick; 16, twist deep and firm; 17, thighs full, deep, and wide; 18, legs straight, short, and bone smooth; 19, cod or purse in wethers, scrotum in rams, udder in ewes; 20, flank full and deep; 21, forelegs straight, short and strong; 22, chest deep, wide, and full; 23, forelegs wide apart and forearm strong; 24, brisket full and rounding in outline; 25, breast well extended. lastly, the relation of neck, shoulder, middle, and rump, in turn, to total length. 84 JUDGING SHEEP Sample Score Card Useful as Beginning Step in Judging MUTTON SHEEP MARKET Student Score | Corrected Score SCALE OF POINTS Fcriegt 1 2 1 2 GENERAL APPEARANCE—37 per cent. Lz, Weighty pound Shcey-sispeaneis walacsedsantie ide ee kos sine ag |e eaeds Shai pil aero ies Wace! pi aaheavertes 2. Form, ‘straight top and underline; dee broad, lowset, compact, symmetrical. . ND) pester av eoepen erae vere all at 3. Quality, hair fine; bone fine but strong; features refined but not delicate; pelt - light. ; lh gE I statin etc cadet ese coat 8 S| tats ated 4. Condition, deep, even, covering of firm’ flesh. Points indicating finished condition are: thick dock, thick covering over loin, back, ribs and shoulders, fullness between shoulder and brisket...........-0-+ 0005 WSS) see. et teal | eerie. ly eee Uae HEAD and NECK—4 per cent. 5. Head, features clean cut; mouth, large; lips, thin; nostrils, large; eyes, large, clear; face, short; forehead, broad; ears, alert, an coarse, considerable width between Se Ra lets a hu 18 ip Ai a even LA BURRS 5 I pasdsuntaee deol bleu gdaalacod haaitvedeued dea 6. Nes short thick, full at junction with SHOUIGERS. ceccnc asus kccas obey Ae cement! A, Getesnatsigen [spin areves| act Stl inecansres sh FORE QUARTERS—10 per cent. 7. Shoulders, covered with flesh; compact on top, smoothly joined with neck and body BE aon erected bee aeaceavi ed [ey rates econ liens 8. Brisket, rounding in outline and well ex- tende 1 9. Legs, straight, ‘short, ‘wide apart, strong, full forearm, bone smooth...... 02.00.05 1 BODY—I1S8 per cent. Te Cet weiner, Fa ai. et: deste de a gees ID alt sadpemsttee le ead [RR ces nce ian 11. Ribs, well sprung, long, close and thickly COMORE Cini oi can sieliae wqsgiial eases ete ea and BB) sess sill ecetvoabdoel lat stabdcndsdallee Pocteang 12. Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly COMEEE Ms crpyss scenery ne geeeanennn! aegis a EIEN SE omemays IG) Peczeeatas Aa fhenoa tasweng lhan canes and | ieaacinens 13. Loin, thick, broad well covered........... G: She cy secis gp ollheemcoserante ion ctetecene n leevezezts te HIND QUARTERS—17 per cent. 14. Hips, far apart, level, smooth............ A ecsnenenen sre cascensacesraret [bow neti aacg | aectaesbn 15. oe long, level, wide to dock thick at : . 1D) ice aentent | noice 16. Thighs, full, ‘deep, wide. . Cai Bi te 2 Bho Pe Ue an DO Tsnwaiee. athe Rhee tera | Ackeieearresl fe saececiy 17. Twist, plump, Geepy. ATMs. cscinc-navseaaewa & awe rs Ma ashes Sic aN crcage Sais eet eta caslns Seca ties 18. Legs, straight, short, strong, bone smocth.. ANE | Pia cal gS Sed eg celts wab call Seadaeasy inci hatte Ie WOOL—9 per cent. 19. Quantity, long dense, even in density and MGA EGE ice Pils sen creutascer aes mvc afore Geen alee ola 3 rgebig’ aware 20. Quality, crimp distinct and even through- | OUT OCCCL 5 auititine ae ae ca dueaEEaS 3 svalll scospisuuntsly expaseee | rates 21. Condition, slight amount of polly, foreign material not excessive. 5 3 we" dianc as: soeie deine mau Sale 90.1 | 30.7 | 22.8 | 14.4 | 85.9 1.8 Beet pulp, dried............. ....] 918 |] 4.6 | 65.2 | 0.8 | 71.6 | 14.6 Roughages for Fattening —Legume Hay.—Roughages made from the legumes are the best for fattening sheep as they are palatable and properly supplement the various grains commonly used. Red clover and alfalfa lead in popularity because they are widely grown and they are not so stemmy and coarse as the hay made from soybeans, cowpeas, etc. Furthermore, there is no grain in the hay to make the adjustment of the ration more or less difficult. Experiments show clover hay to be slightly superior to alfalfa pound for pound, but the difference between them is very slight. Alsike clover compares favorably with red clover, but English or mammoth clover is stemmy. Little is known of the feeding value of sweet clover hay. Trials with soybean and cowpea hay of good quality indicate that they are about equal to alfalfa in feeding value. ROOTS AND SILAGE 383 Field bean straw and bean pods are prized by feeders in Michi- gan as they are valuable substitutes for clover hay. Carbonaceous Roughages.—In making use of carbonaceous roughages, the concentrate part of the ration as stated elsewhere should be comparatively rich in protein. Corn stover is palatable and it is a good roughage if the corn plant is cut fairly early, cured well and kept in good condition. On account of the coarse stalks the percentage of waste is high and the discarded parts do not make very good bedding. Sorghum hay is about like corn stover in feeding value. Oat and wheat straw are unsuited as the sole roughage in the fattening ration. They can perhaps be used to best advantage in combination with corn silage, but good use can be made of them in connection with legume hay. It is best to feed straw in rather small quantities as the animals will eat more of it when fed in that way than when given a supply large enough to last for several days. The value of straw for feed depends in large part on its quality. Short, fine, and bright oat straw, cut before the oat plants are thoroughly ripe, is almost as palatable as legume hay. If straw of good quality is available at one-third of the cost of legume roughage, it will pay to feed some of it if given no oftener than twice or three times a week. It furnishes a harmless change which stimulates the consuming power of the animals. Timothy hay, market value considered, is an exceedingly poor roughage for sheep as it is unpalatable and constipating. A mix- ture of timothy and clover, however, makes a very good roughage provided at least half of the mixture is clover. Marsh hay ranks with timothy hay as a poor roughage. Neither is as good as good oat straw. Prairie hay has been used extensively in fattening sheep where self-feeders are used. It is fairly palatable, but considerably lower in feeding value than the legume hays. A combination of legume hay and good bright straw should give better results than prairie hay. Roots and Silage.—Roots and silage are succulent feeds suit- able for being used as supplements to grain and! dry roughage. On account of the cost of production, very little use is made of roots in fattening sheep and lambs in the United States, but if they 384 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING should be available, three to four pounds per head daily could be used to advantage. It is not safe, however, to feed mangels for a long period as they tend to cause disorders in the urinary tract of males, by producing calculi or stones in the kidneys. Of late years, corn silage has come into pretty general use in many sections of the country as a sheep feed. It is not a con- centrate and it is a mistake to regard it as such. Experiments have also demonstrated that it is not a complete roughage. It has been used as the sole roughage, but the appetite is better, the animals are easier to keep “on feed,” and the gains are larger if some dry roughage is used with it. Roughages of rather low feeding value, such as wheat and oat straw, added to grain and silage, materially increase the effectiveness of the ration. In fact, one of the best ways to make good use of these roughages consists in supplementing them with silage and a concentrate comparatively rich in protein. As a rule silage when added to a well-balanced ration such as corn and legume hay lowers the cost of fattening, but it does not materially increase the gains. Evidently the succulence has a beneficial effect which is offset by the carbonaceous nature of the silage, for when a nitrogenous concentrate is added the rate of gain is increased. But whether it will pay to add the nitrogenous sup- plement will depend upon how nearly its cost corresponds with the cost of grain forming the bulk of the concentrate part of the ration. When fattening lambs are fed grain, legume hay, and silage, their average consumption of silage is about 1.5 pounds per day. It replaces about 0.1 pound of corn and 0.6 pound of hay. If the supply of dry roughage is limited, it is possible to replace still more of it with the silage, but as suggested above, silage should not be the sole roughage in the ration. Sorghum silage has been used to a limited extent in the South- west and very good results have been obtained from it. Pea silage has been successfully used in fattening sheep and lambs in the vicinity of canning factories. This silage is greatly relished and lambs can eat as much as 7 pounds daily at the beginning of the feeding period without scouring or going “ off feed.” Several years ago the writer inspected the feeding opera- tions of the Columbus Canning Company, Columbus, Wisconsin. This company was putting what the market calls fancy-finish on SUCCULENT FEEDS COMPARED 385 lambs by feeding screenings and corn in self-feeders, a little hay and all the pea silage the lambs would take. Roughages Compared.—The following table taken from “Feeds and Feeding,” by Henry and Morrison, gives the digestible nutrients in various roughages for sheep. Composition of Roughages. Feeding stuff Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. Dried Roughage Clover, red, all analyses........... Clover, alsike, all analyses......... Clover, mammoth red............. Alfalfa, all analyses............... Soybean hay ................0... Cowpea, in bloom to early pod..... Cornstover (earsremoved), very dry Corn stover, medium in water..... Corn stover, high in water......... Kafir stover, dry................. Red top, all analyses.............. Tomothy, all analyses............. WMMMDWODMOO DOWOROOM RENN! PHONOOMARE Crude | Car- Nutri- pro- | bohy-! Fat Total | tive tein | drates ratio 1: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 7.6 | 39.3 | 1.8 | 50.9 5.7 7.9 | 36.9 | 1.1 | 47.3 5.0 6.4 | 37.2 | 1.8 | 47.6 6.4 10.6 | 39.0 | 0.9 | 51.6 3.9 11.7 | 39.2 | 1.2 | 53.6 3.6 12.6 | 34.6 | 1.3 | 50.1 3.0 2.2 | 47.8 | 1.0 | 52.2 | 22.7 2.1 | 42.4 | 0.7 | 46.1 | 21.0 1.4 | 31.1 | 0.6 | 33.9 | 23.2 1.7 | 43.1 1.3 | 47.7 | 27.1 4.6 | 45.9 | 1.2 | 53.2 | 10.6 3.0 | 42.8 | 1.2 | 48.5 | 15.2 Succulent Feeds Compared.—The folowing table from “ Feeds and Feeding,” by Henry and Morrison, gives the digestible nutrients in various succulent feeds for sheep. Composition of Succulent Feeds. Digestible nutrients in 100 Ibs. Feeding-stuff Crude| Car- Nutri- pro- | bohy-} Fat | Total | tive tein | drates ratio 1 Fresh Green Roughage lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Beet pulp, wet...............005 0.5 6.5 | 0.2 7.4 | 13.8 Beet, common.............+0--5- 0.9 9.1 | 0.1 | 10.2 | 10.3 Mangel....¢).2...2¢003 sees sae eas 0.8 6.4 | 0.1 7.4 | 8.2 Ruta agai « jsccacnsen cscs oceans ieee 1.0 7.7 | 0.3 9.4 | 84 Corn well matured, recent analyses 1.1 | 15.0 | 0.7 | 17.7 | 15.1 NOPEHUM cnn ish nied pape hes Skee oe 0.6 | 11.6 | 0.5 | 13.3 | 21.2 Pea-cannery refuse............... 1.6 | 11.6] 08 | 15.0) 84 25 386 » 6. 10. 11. FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING QUESTIONS . What effect has age on the rate of growth in sheep? Upon the utiliza- tion of feed? . What factors influence the efficiency of a ration for fattening sheep and lambs? . Would you attempt to fatten sheep solely on silage and dry roughage? . Would you attempt to fatten sheep solely on grain? . Of what advantage are self-feeders in fattening sheep? In what par- ticulars is hand-feeding more advantageous? When would it pay to shear fattening sheep and lambs just before marketing? . How much gain should a fattening lamb make in 90 days? . How much corn and alfalfa hay will it require to feed a fattening lamb for 90 days? . How much corn, corn silage, and clover hay will it require to feed a fattening lamb for 90 days? Construct a fattening ration for sheep from clover hay, oat straw, corn, and linseed oil meal. What is the distinguishing difference between a legume and a carbon- aceous roughage? CHAPTER XL FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN THE FIELD THROUGH A PART OR ALL OF THE FEEDING PERIOD ONLy rugged sheep and lambs should be selected for feeding in fields and they should be purchased before the feeds have deteriorated greatly in feeding value through exposure to winds, rains, and frosts. Hard frosts lessen the value of clover and similar growths and high winds and heavy rains rapidly reduce the value of corn stalks. Usefulness of Various Field Feeds.—Grass.—Grass is a very great help to the man who feeds sheep on his fields. A successful feeder in central Illinois has said: “I have found that I must have an area of good grass in order to fatten sheep or lambs in the fields. I once tried plowing up all of my pastures in order to grow more corn. I thought that sowing rye in the corn stalks would take the place of my fields of grass, but I was mistaken. I was obliged to reéstablish my pastures.” A bluegrass pasture that has been rested through the summer furnishes palatable feed which has a great deal of fattening power. A pasture of this sort is also an excellent place on which to scatter such feeds as ear corn and shock corn, and no better place can be found in the open for the sheep or lambs to rest and sleep. Bluegrass fits in very well with the other feeds available on the farm. Being palatable and succulent, it is a splendid alternate feed with corn or stalks, and if the sheep or lambs are given a chance to run on both corn stalks and bluegrass they will divide the time between these runs each day. Early in the autumn, before it is time to turn in on the corn stalks, bluegrass alternates well with clover. As the sole feed, green clover is too sappy to make a good rate of gain, but sheep and lambs make good use of it if it is fed with blue- grass, field corn or corn stalks. Timothy is also a good grass for fattening purposes and no better pasture can be found than one composed of several grasses and legumes, such as bluegrass, timothy, rye grass, and the clovers. Rape makes a very heavy growth in fertile soil if there is plenty of moisture and light, and when combined with grass it will fatten sheep or lambs without the use of any cther feed. In Missouri a 387 388 FEEDING IN THE FIELD number of feeders have finished lambs at very low cost by running them on bluegrass and in corn fields sown to rape and cowpeas. They purchase the lambs early in the autumn and turn them first on the bluegrass and cowpeas. The cowpeas are fed first because the leaves drop after the first frost. After they are gone, the lambs alternate between the bluegrass and the rape. By the time the greater part of the rape is consumed the lambs are fat enough to send to market. If the corn stands up well, the lambs eat very little of it; hence the bluegrass, cowpeas, and rape produce practically all of the gains. Rape is of most value in September and October, but it can be pastured well up into the winter, provided the sheep and lambs have become accustomed to it before it freezes. At first it should be pastured for only an hour or two in the middle of the day when it is dry, but it does not take more than a week or ten days to get the animals accustomed to it so that they can feed upon it at will. Three generally practiced ways of getting rape for fall fattening are as follows: First, by seeding it in the normal way as the sole crop in the ground; second, by sowing it with oats at the rate of two pounds of seed to the acre; and, third, by seeding it at the rate of about three pounds per acre in corn at the last cultivation. When there is sufficient moisture, rape sown in oats grows rapidly after the oats are cut and furnishes feed that is ready to be pastured by the first of September. A good growth of rape in corn depends on seed- ing early, on the supply of moisture and the density of the corn foliage, but if the corn is to be pastured with sheep it usually pays to sow rape, for around the edges of the field at least there will be a good growth of it which will be large enough for pasturing by the middle of September or the first of October. Corn Fields.—If the corn plants are tall, and if they stand well, Jambs may run in the corn fields before the corn is husked without doing much damage to the corn crop. They feed on the lower blades of corn, weeds, and grass, and frequently make good gains for several weeks. Sheep and lambs are often used to harvest the corn crop. Several years ago Baker Brothers, large sheep feeders in Illinois, made this a regular practice. They sowed rape in their corn, got their lambs in early, and kept them in the fields until practically all of the corn was consumed. When the rape was pretty well eaten out they broke down some of the corn stalks in order to encourage “VE = CORN FIELDS 389 the lambs to eat the corn. Late in the season all stalks with ears beyond the reach of the lambs were broken down. After the lambs were removed from the fields pigs were allowed to gather up what corn had been left. Baker Brothers were fairly successful with this method of feeding, but they made it their chief business and gave close attention to their lambs. They drove them out of the fields each evening and kept them in lots or in pastures at night where they had access to salt and water. As the lambs became fat they were sorted out and shipped. The unfinished ones that were left after all of the corn in the fields was consumed were placed in dry lots and fed until they were fat (Fig. 220). Another Illinois feeder, G. Firoved, has successfully harvested corn with sheep. He begins pasturing the corn fields, which are & e Fig. 220.—All that was left of an ear of corn and a corn stalk after the sheep were through . with them. seeded to rape, about the middle of September, but at first he gives the animals access to approximately half the area that will be required to fatten them. He turns them in on the second half before the supply of feed in the first half becomes so low that the sheep or lambs have to hunt for feed. He keeps close watch over the supply of roughage and endeavors to have pastures that can be used at the time the corn is being consumed. When the supply of roughage seems to be running low, the animals are given all the hay they want. In fact, the successful harvesting of corn depends on having plenty of roughage in the form of grass, forage and hay. The Fauts Brothers, successful feeders in Indiana, follow the practice of seeding soybeans in the corn and harvesting both the corn and the beans with lambs. They have been so successful with 390 FEEDING IN THE FIELD this method of feeding that their operations have received wide notice in the agricultural press. Corn Stalks.—All corn gatherers leave some corn. This, to- gether with the dry blades on the stalks, makes good feed for sheep and lambs for a time. Stalks are of greatest value as sheep feed in comparatively dry autumn and winter seasons. Wet weather de- teriorates their feeding value and the mud in the fields is hard on the feet of the animals. General Suggestions for Feeding in Fields.—Those who feed their sheep in fields should observe the following suggestions: First, inspect the sheep or lambs each day. Watch closely for bloat, scours, and lameness. Second, see that the animals have access to salt and the best of water each day. Third, do not force the sheep or lambs to eat the feed in a certain field too closely. It is better to allow them a new field and to let them pick over the old field at will. They will clean it up in time. Fourth, do not allow them to run at will on corn stalks when there is a deep snow. They will search for corn and neglect to eat roughage. Fifth, avoid a great deal of driv- ing, for it is much more detrimental to gains than allowing the animals to take exercise at will. Gains.—The gains which sheep and lambs make in the fields will vary with the nature of the feed. They sometimes lose ingtead of gaining in weight. One should have feed of such a nature that the gain will be from 6 to 10 pounds per head per month. Shifting to the Dry Lot.—Some feed ought to be given in the dry lot before the feeds in the fields are exhausted. Otherwise, the sheep or lambs may go back in condition before the feed in the fields is gone. Feeding ear corn on bluegrass is a good start toward the transition from fields to dry lot. Ifthe shift is made at the right time one will find that the gains made on very cheap feeds in the fields will materially reduce the cost of gains and hence make the feeding operation more profitable. QUESTIONS 1. Diseuss the usefulness of grass to the feeder. 2. Of what value is rape in the corn belt? 3. Is it advisable to turn sheep and lambs in the corn field before the corn is harvested? When should corn stalks be pastured? . How much gain can be expected from field feeding? . Review treatment for bloat, Chapter XXXIII. . Review the discussion on forage crops, Chapter XX XIII. WAT L PART VI SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN THE WESTERN STATES CHAPTER XLI NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP Nature of the Range.—The sheep ranges of the West. are often arranged’ in three geographical groups as follows: (1) the south- western ranges of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado; (2) the ranges of California; and (3) the northwestern ranges of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Washington, and Oregon. These groups differ most in climate, but they are also somewhat different in the methods employed in raising sheep and in the quality of their mutton and wool products. Types of Land Utilized as Range.—The unenclosed types of lands over which sheep are herded are plains, foothills, and moun- tains. In order to have ideal conditions all three types of range should be available. Plains serve as an excellent winter range, but in summer they are too hot and too dry. Mountains furnish ideal range in summer because they are cool, well supplied with water, and comparatively luxuriant in plant and shrub growths, but with the exception of a few places in the southwest, they cannot be used in winter because of severe snowstorms. Foothills are located between the summer and the winter range and hence furnish feed during spring and fall. On each type of range, three to fifteen acres are required for one sheep. Plains.—In practically every state in the West there are vast stretches of arid and semi-arid plains which present a monotonous picture of sage and sand. To the person accustomed to running sheep on luxuriant pastures, these plains would seem entirely inade- quate, for as a rule, the edible plants and shrubs are small and thinly distributed on the ground. The scanty growth on which the sheep feed, however, has the power to produce growth and fat to a degree which always surprises those who have had no experience with it. The sheep grazing over a large area in the course of a day nip off a grass blade or a weed here and there, or trim an occasional palatable shrub, but they come to the bedding ground at nightfall with a fairly well-satisfied appetite (Fig. 221). Foothills and Mountains.—As a rule the feed in the foothills and mountains is more luxuriant and succulent than that on the 393 NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 4 ‘BUIZBIF 18}UIM IO} suleld eq} UO— [zz “DIA OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE 395 plains because there is more moisture. There is a greater variety of feed; hence, foothill and mountain districts are more suitable for growing and fattening lambs than the plains. In fact, lambs are almost never sold for mutton directly from the plains while those grown on the best mountain ranges frequently attain suitable condition and weight for slaughter when only four and five months of age (Figs. 222 and 223). Cultivated Areas.—In a few regions cultivated areas are utilized as sheep range. In California, alfalfa fields, wheat stubble, and even vineyards, serve for a part of the year as feeding grounds. After the last crop of grapes has been harvested for the year in the great vineyards around Hanford and Fresno, sheep are turned in to feed on the leaves. On the whole this practice is regarded as beneficial to the vines, for the sheep consume the thrips, little insects that would do a great deal of damage later through their attacks on the new foliage (Fig. 224). In many places the winter range is supplemented by harvested crops. There are two reasons for this practice: First, there are storm periods during which the snow is so deep that the sheep can not get to the feed on the range; and second, owners frequently do not have enough winter range to carry their sheep. In recent years, carloads of corn from Kansas and Nebraska have been sold for winter feed to the sheepmen on the eastern slope of the Rockies, and now cottonseed cake is becoming so popular that in various places in the northern part of the Rocky Mountains it has almost entirely replaced corn. Alfalfa hay is used extensively in Washing- ton, Oregon, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado to supplement the winter range (Fig. 225). Ownership of the Range.—The ranges consist of public do- main, National Forest, Indian reservations, reclamation lands, state lands, and lands owned by corporations and by private individuals. The only free land is the public domain. Practically all of this con- sists of plains or winter range, as nearly all of the foothills and mountains not owned by private individuals and by corporations are included in the National Forest. The National Forest is under the control of the Department of Agriculture and is in the direct charge of the Forest Service. In all cases where sheep are allowed to graze on it, a definite allot- ment is made to the owners and a charge per head fixed for a speci- fied period of grazing. For example, an owner with 5000 ewes NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 396 ‘Baro’ M Jo s][tq oy} UO eMZULIdg—z¢zz ‘DI 397 OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE Fic. 223.—In the mountains for the summer, when good feed and temperate weuther make lambs grow rapidly. 398 NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP and their lambs may be charged eight cents per ewe on a definite allotment which he may use from June 15 to November 1. Toa certain extent the rate charged depends on the quality of feed on the allotment and the length of time it may be used. Fig. 224. Fic. 225. Fig. 224.—Lambs in clover in Oregon. Here and there in the West a more intensive method than herding on the open range is being practiced. Fic. 225.—Supplementing the range when snow is on the ground with corn, cottonseed cake and hay. In every state of the range country, all sections of land bearing the survey numbers 16 and 36 are at the disposal of the common- wealth. They are often leased to sheepmen, the price depending on the location and the quality of feed growing on them. As a rule the sheepmen have little to say in adjusting rentals on these lands because they are so distributed among the other lands they propose BREEDING OF THE SHEEP ON THE RANGE 399 to use that they are obliged to pay the price asked, whether or not it is reasonable. . Railway Land Grants.—When the various railways were pro- jected through the West, the companies received encouragement from the Federal Government in the form of great land grants which extended in alternate sections for 20 miles or more on either side of their roads. Although much of the land in these grants has been disposed of, the railway companies still own large areas which are leased for grazing purposes. Should the alternate sec- tions still be public domain the person leasing from the railroad will have twice as much land as he leases, but he can make little use of fences for it is unlawful to fence public domain. In recent years, however, many of the intervening sections have been occupied by homesteaders who, as a rule, do not care to rent their Jand for pasture; this makes the railroad! land inconvenient to use. Other Lands.—In addition to the above there are certain lands in the control of the National Reclamation Service and there are the lands in the various Indian reservations which may be leased for grazing ; and finally, there are lands owned by private citizens. .In the Southwest, and in New Mexico particularly, there are large tracts of land that were granted to private individuals at an early time by the Government of Spain. A number of these tracts are leased for grazing purposes. In many cases the sheepmen own con- giderabla sesh oe these tracts are strategically _atrol extensive lands which he —vuseo. 1 rum tne toregoing it is clear that a sheep- man may be so located that he must have his pockets full of leases and permits before he can operate. The cost of leases on land grants, reclamation lands, reservations, and private lands ranges from two and one-half cents to twenty-five cents per acre per year. This applies to wild range or uncultivated lands. Cultivated lands rent at much higher prices and according somewhat to the urgency of the sheep owner’s need of them. Permits in the National Forest cost from six to fourteen cents per sheep per season. At present the tendency is to increase the rates of rent for sheep on all types of range. Breeding of the Sheep on the Range.—In general, range sheep should be of a type that produce both mutton and wool of good market quality under range conditions; they should be hardy, that 400 NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP is, they should be able to thrive when kept in large flocks or bands, and they should have the habit of staying close together while grazing. Breeds for Range.—Until a few years ago range breeding ewes were largely or altogether of Merino parentage, but at present there is a disposition greatly to reduce the percentage of Merino blood in breeding stock and a belief is growing that it ought to be dispensed with in some regions. The Merino has been popular because it is hardy and better adapted to herding than any other breed. Its wool, being dense and oily, has been better than that of any other breed for withstanding alkali dust and the penetrating dryness of a semi-arid climate. The recent decline in the popular- ity of Merino blood is traceable to a number of factors. Methods of handling sheep in many parts of the West have improved so much that the extreme hardiness, characteristic of the Merino, is no longer indispensable. The high prices paid for lambs during the past five years have stimulated’ the desire to produce as much mutton as possible from a given number of ewes. This has given rise to a demand for rather large, strong, deep milking ewes, capable of raising a large percentage of lambs and growing them rapidly. Trials with lambs carrying a preponderance of mutton blood have shown that they make rapid gains and attain heavy weights on mountain range by the time they are old enough to wean. In addition to all of these influences, the conditions surrounding the sheep business have been such as to thoroughly arouse the interest of sheepmen in such matters as breeding, and this interest of itself has had some bearing on changes in breeding. At this time it is difficult to predict how much change will ultimately be made in the breeding of range sheep. Aside from the herding qualities which all range sheep must have, the kind of sheep wanted is a type that represents the most effective com- bination of mutton and wool. It has been found that an excellent market lamb can be produced hy crossing a pure-bred mutton ram on a grade Merino ewe, but the trouble with this practice is that it makes no provision for the future supply of the ewe stock. It was once possible for the mutton lamb raisers to renew their breed- ing ewes from regions that were not well adapted or located for raising lambs for the market, but very few such regions exist at the present time. So long as sheep are herded on open ranges, it is improbable that Merino blood will he dispensed with. The percentage of it in bands QUESTIONS 401 of breeding ewes may be reduced or the type may be changed so as to suit more nearly the needs of range sheepmen, but the Merino has characteristics which are too valuable to justify anyone in supposing that its blood will be wholly discarded. Mutton Breeds for Range.—O! the various mutton breeds that have been used in the West, the Cotswolds, Lincolns, and Hamp- shires seem to have given best results. The cross between the longwools (Cotswolds and Lincolns) and Merinos makes a very good sheep for both mutton and wool. The fleece is long and heavy and does not pull out badly when the sheep graze on brushy range. At present the Hampshire is very popular because of its ability to produce a big, strong lamb that is ready to market as mutton at weaning time. Shropshires are to be found in large numbers in Colorado, New Mexico, and California. Romney Marsh and Corriedales have been imported from New Zealand and Australia, and are now undergoing trial. The Rambouillet is by far the most popular of the variou: Merino breeds. Sheep of All Classes.—Breeding ewes, yearlings, rams, wethers, and lambs may be found on the ranges, but ewes and lambs lead in numbers and importance. After they are five years old ewes begin to decline in wool production and they are usually drafted at this age and sent to market where they are disposed of as mutton, or for breeding or feeding purposes. In a few regions, however, they are retained until they are seven or eight years old. When from four to six months of age, the lambs are sent to market, where the fat ones are slaughtered for mutton while those in thin condition are sent to farms and feed lots to be fattened. Yearlings that are not intended for breeding on the range are no longer produced in large numbers. They are grown by those who are not in a position to make their lambs fat enough to sell well when four to six months old. In a very few regions wethers are kept for their wool product and for the growth they make, but they should be marketed before they are five years old as they become coarse and decline in condition after that age. QUESTIONS . Classify geographically the three general divisions of the range country. . What are the types of land utilized as range? Discuss each. . Who claims ownership of the range country? How leased? . What distinct characteristics do range sheep possess? . At what age do rangemen usually begin to cull their ewes? 26 2 eo) of CHAPTER XLII MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON RANGES IN THE WEST Basis of Management.—The management of sheep on the ranges of the West is based on the handling of a band which varies in size from 1200 to 3000 animals, depending on the nature of the range and the kind of sheep. For instance, if the grazing has to be conducted over narrow stretches of land part of the time, the band has to be comparatively small, for if it is not, the sheep in the rear will find very little to eat. Ewes and lambs have to be kept in small bands, because the lambs are inclined to stray out where predatory animals may get them, and caring for a very large band of them requires more work than the average herder can do. It is customary to place 1250 ewes and their lambs in one band. In total this amounts to a considerable number, but as a rule sheepmen regard bands of ewes with their lambs as being small. Large bands are composed of dry sheep, that is sheep not suck- ling lambs. After the lambs have been weaned and the sheep placed on the winter range, the bands are usually of good size, provided the range is extensive and narrow stretches of grazing can be avoided. Under such conditions as many as 3500 sheep can be placed in a band. Labor Required to Handle a Band of Sheep.—Aside from the lambing and shearing periods, only two men, a “ herder” and a “camp-tender,” are required to manage a band. The Herder.—It is the duty of the herder to care for the sheep. If he is faithful and efficient, he is up and after them as soon as they begin to move in the morning, which is usually at daybreak. For two or three liours he guards and guides them or until they are ready to lie down and to chew the cud. He takes this oppor- tunity to prepare his breakfast’ unless he arose early enough to eat before his sheep started from their bedding ground. Really the latter is a better procedure, for by carrying his lunch with him, he can be near his sheep throughout the day. The herder plans 402 THE CAMP TENDER 403 to have his sheep back to the camp and bedding ground by night- fall, so when they have gone such a distance out that it will require the remainder of the day to return, he turns them about and allows them to take ‘a leisurely pace characteristic of contented grazing. A good herder never rushes his sheep to camp and beds them down early for he knows that they will do better if given their time to come in, and also that they will not move out so early in the morning. During manorial days in England, it was a common saying that lame men were the best shepherds. So, too, the quict, patient type of herder on the western ranges outclasses the nervous irascible type. Although caring for the sheep is the chief duty of the herder, he also has part responsibility in the preparation of food for him- self and the camp-tender. Many herders are adept in the cooking and baking of the plainer forms of food, such as bread, meat, potatoes, beans, and dried fruit. The camp-tender’s duties consist in keeping the camp provided with food and other necessities for himself and the herder, feed for the horses or burros, and salt for the sheep. He also attends to moving camp, assists in the cooking, and counts the sheep. As camp-mover he assumes considerable responsibility, as he must first select a camp site, which should be located where the feed is good. His count of the sheep is more nearly like an estimate than an actual count. It is made by counting the black or partially black sheep, of which there are a few in every band, and since each sheep maintains about the same position in the band day after day, the camp-tender merely ascertains whether all of the black sheep are present and whether their position in the band seems normal. Of the two, herder and camp-tender, the latter has the more responsibility, and usually he receives more pay. When the sheep go to the mountains for the summer, the camp-tender is often given the privilege of drawing checks on the owner’s account to pay for whatever is needed. Should the owner have several bands of sheep on an extensive, undivided range, one camp-tender may be sufficient for as many as three bands. Under such conditions, a comparatively large store of provisions is kept at ranch headquarters, hence the distance of hauling is not very great. Usually, too, these conditions exist on 404 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST the plains, where hauling is much less difficult than in the foothills and mountains (Fig. 226). Kind of Men Employed as Herders and Camp-Tenders.— On the southwestern ranges nearly all herders and camp-tenders are Mexicans. It takes a larger number of them to handle a given number of sheep than it does of other types of laborers and they do not stick continuously to herding for more than three or four months at a time, but while they are in the employ of the ranch, Fic, 226.—Meal time in summer sheep camp in the mountains. they can, as a rule, be depended upon to stay with the sheep. Numerous cases have been cited of Mexican herders having lost their lives through faithfully caring for their sheep in severe storms. Mexican herders receive lower pay and they do not require so large an expenditure for provisions as do other types of herders. Their demands for provisions, however, depend somewhat on whether they are working for Mexicans, Spaniards, or Anglo- Saxons. Oftentimes the Mexican employer can keep a man on sixty per cent of what the same man would demand of an Anglo- Saxon employer. The following tabulation shows the supplies which the Golden- berg ranch of Corona, New Mexico, furnished to two men every fifteen days in the vear 1911, and the cost of the same. Of course, the cost of these provisions are now much greater, KIND OF MEN EMPLOYED 405 Article Amount Cost Cofles: gs uxsnera mos caoenies 6 lbs. $0.90 BBOCANS: cls cain Gnasicnaciuoeacniiakns 15 Ibs. 1.13 DUB OE osjieo-mecdies sracaree tines 5 |bs. 232 Plow s:. pease alee 57.7 ORSON: pncinwiinn Lavonia ees nane gah 79.6 AGA) cos enters Stay haadecaety ope la eek Mesa 72.5 Washinton: 2qctcsoxate toga tavntwemnun nates 92.5 WON Satie sei tre eR oe ete he Bae 62.4 Dipping.—Before going to the summer range all sheep and lambs should be dipped in order to prevent the scattering of in- fectious skin diseases. Dipping is under the control of the Bureau of Animal Industry in the United States Department of Agricul- ture and is done when the employees of that Bureau consider it necessary. Transfer to Summer Range.—When lambing and shearing are finished it is generally time to move to the summer range. This is more tedious and difficult than the transfer from summer to winter feeding grounds because the ewes must get enough feed to supply the lambs with milk and the lambs are not strong enough to travel fast. Oftentimes the country lying between the winter and summer range is in the hands of private parties to such extent that unusual trouble is experienced in making the transfer. MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 420 “380107 [BUOTEN oq} Ul oduRI JOMUINS pasoous UD—‘zEg “PLT LOSSES FROM SNOW STORMS 421 Management on the summer range consists chiefly in keeping the sheep and lambs on good feed and in protecting them from predatory animals. It requires faithful and skillful herding to keep ewes and their lambs on good feed in the mountains because they are run on definite allotments and it is hard regularly to locate camp so that feed is always easily accessible. Then, too, the fact that the mountains are rough makes it hard to protect sheep, for there are numerous canyons and draws in which they can become lost and exposed to the attacks of their enemies. The outcome of the sheep business as regards profit and loss depends in large measure upon how the lambs develop on the sum- mer range. In certain regions there is no hope of their becoming fat enough or heavy enough to go direct from the range to the markets as mutton. Owners, in such regions, must dispose of their lambs as feeders and manage on a smaller return per head than those who can grow them to marketable condition and weight. _ It is now rather common for lambs to be marketed before the summer season closes. In order to get them to market in good con- dition it is necessary to drive the ewes along with them to the point of shipment and to have a feeding ground nearby so that the lambs will have a supply of feed and milk up to the time they are loaded on cars. While the shipment is a long one, lambs from the National Forests in Washington reach the Chicago market in very good con- dition and sell as choice and prime lambs (Fig. 232). Problems in Both Winter and Summer Management.—The report of the Tariff Board, 1911, has an excellent discussion of losses, which is as follows: “ Losses.—The question of losses is one which haunts the west- ern sheepman day and night. When the sheep are on the winter ranges, he dreads the possibility of a deep snow, which will cover up the feed and make moving the sheep difficult, if not impossible. This is particularly true in the Northwest, where, in the winter of 1910, for example, many sheepmen found their flocks snow-bound miles away from feed of any kind. “ Losses From Snow Storms.—In many cases the owners were forced to buy hay at unusually high prices, have it baled and shipped to the nearest railroad point, then moved out in wagons or packed on horses and mules to where the sheep were, the snow being so deep and the road so difficult that wagons could not always be used. “Others hired teams, and with snowplows a trail was broken 422 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST through the snow for many miles across the range, over which the starving sheep were carefully driven, some of them so weak that it was necessary to pick them up along the trail and haul them on sleds to where the hay was placed. “In the Southwest, during the same winter, the snow would have been more than welcome, for there they faced a drought which caused heavy losses. The sheep had been moved to the desert ranges, as usual, with expectation of lambing there. Neither rain nor snow fell, and at the critical time, just as lambing was at hand, the owners found they must either move the sheep or lose everything. The sheep were worked to the railroad shipping points by means of hay hauled into the desert, and in some cases water was hauled out in tank wagons and given the sheep in troughs from the wagon. In this way the animals were moved to ranges where water and feed were to be had and their owners were saved from a total loss, although the expenses and losses were heavy enough to offset any profit on the year’s business. “During the winter of 1899, owing to deep snows, one New Mexico sheep owner lost, of his entire flock of 40,000 sheep, a total of 18,000 old sheep, while in the spring of 1909 another New Mexico owner lost over 12,000 spring lambs—his entire crop. “Lack of Shelter —A study of the situation and conditions frequently shows losses to be due to a lack of shelter on the range. A ‘norther’ sweeps down across the country, and one flock finds shelter under a low range of hills or a few scattering cedars, while the other, lacking these essentials, drifts into some ravine or dry wash, under the sheltering banks of which they find apparent security from the storm. But the drifting snow falls into the wash, and the sheep are rapidly covered by it, smothering to death before they can be moved. Hundreds of sheep are lost every winter in this manner. “Poisonous Plants.—Losses from poisonous plants are also very frequent. On a good range with plenty of feed few sheep are lost from such causes, but when the range is over-grazed or the sheep have been driven many miles over sheep trails almost as bare of feed as a floor, they will eat greedily plants which they otherwise would not touch. “ Every sheepman in the Rocky Mountain region counts upon a certain percentage of losses each year from poisonous plants which infest the ranges, and against which there seems to be but little protection. THE RANGE PROBLEM 423 “ Predatory Animals.—There are also regular losses from pred- atory animals, which are taken into account by all sheepmen. Thousands of dollars are annually paid out by the State govern- ments as well as the sheepmen in bounties for their destruction. These bounties, often doubled by the sheep owners, are turned over by them to the herders to encourage them in the work of extermina- tion, and they are also freely furnished with ammunition and rifles, as well as traps and poison. “ Strays.—Losses by ‘ cuts’ or small bunches of animals which get cut off from the main band and are not discovered by the herders are quite frequent. Sometimes the ‘ stray gathers’ find and return part or all of these cuts, but more often they are picked off one by one by the coyotes, wild cats, and other predatory animals which continually hang along the flanks of every sheep herd the year round. “ Coyotes.—The coyote is the one great scourge of the western sheepman. Unlike other wild animals, the coyote takes kindly to civilization and rather flourishes under it. Every year thousands upon thousands are killed, and yet there seems to be but little reduction in their numbers. To these predatory animals the western sheepman pays a heavy annual toll and one which cuts deeply into his expected profits. “ Losses of Young Lambs.—In addition to the losses among the old sheep, there is a regular loss among the lambs between the time of ‘marking up,’ which takes place when they are about two or three weeks old, and the time of selling. “This loss is due to a great variety of causes. Two bands are sometimes accidentally mixed on the range. In the worry and ‘milling’ attending the separation many lambs lose their mothers, and if too young soon die, or if they live are stunted. “A good many lambs die from docking operation and many more from castrating. “Taking the various causes into consideration, it is a con- servative estimate to place the loss among the lambs between mark- ing-up time and selling time at 10 per cent. That is, if 1000 lambs are ‘marked up’ in May the owner will do well if, counting every lamb in the bunch, whether a ‘top’ or a ‘ cut-back,’ he has 900 to sell in November.” The Range Problem.—Another problem which confronts the western sheepman is the matter of range. He may have an abund- ance of winter range or vice versa, but comparatively few are com- 424 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST fortably fixed with respect to both. There are so many in control of the range that he has no long time assurance of what wiil be at his disposal. Harvested feeds help a great deal in tiding over a shortage of winter range, but there is no such comforting supple- ment for a short supply of summer feed. Selling Price —Still another problem for the western sheepman lies in the fact that the products he sells are subject to wide fluctua- tion in price. Perhaps no other one thing would more nearly place him at his ease than a fair degree of stability in the wool and mutton markets. A season of soaring prices unbalances his poise and he over-reaches himself by investing deeper than he should while a season of low prices forces him to cash in so that he can not be heavily stocked with wool and mutton when prices are high. QUESTIONS . What is the size of the bands in which sheep are handled on the range? . How much labor is required to handle a band of sheep? What are the duties of the herder? What are the duties of the camp-tender ? . Discuss the equipment required in handling sheep in summer and in winter on the range. 6. When is the surplus stock shipped to market? 7. When are ewes bred and how long is the breeding season? 8. How are the rams handled during the breeding season? 9. Discuss winter management after the breeding season. 10. How are the ewes handled during the lambing period and until the lambs are docked and castrated? 11. How is shearing conducted on the range? 12. How many sheep can a man shear in a day? 13. Describe the methods of getting the wool to market. 14. How is wool sold in the West? 15. What are the problems that confront the sheep owners on the range? Discuss each. oo po CHAPTER XLIII SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS DURING THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS Changes in Range Areas.—When sheepmen first went into the West there was very little land which was permanently occupied. Whenever the obtaining of sufficient range was a problem it con- sisted chiefly in competing with cowmen whose rights could be defined by no other than that shadowy and shaky term “ priority ” or “previous occupation,” yet these rights were defended to the point of open conflict and not infrequently at the expense of human life. But in the end the sheepmen were bound to gain occupation of what was justly their share because it required less capital to get into the sheep business than into the cattle business, and hence more people were attracted to sheep, and they secured their range through the advantage of superior numbers, In time, however, the homesteaders, a more numerous class than the sheepmen, appeared on the scene, too, and they were bound to triumph in occupying land, not only because of superior numbers, but also because they were armed with legal rights. When homesteaders became numerous the range began to change to the disadvantage of sheepmen. The homesteader was a poor man whose “claim” was his all, and he resented trespass to the point of demanding payment for damages. He located on the lands hav- ing water, and either forced sheepmen to find new supplies of water by digging wells and building reservoirs or to hunt new range. Those who thought themselves shrewd enough to hold large sections of free range for all time by gaining ownership of the land on which natural watering holes were located were in the end defeated by homesteaders who settled on all the free lands around the water holes. After the homesteader began to collect rents and damages, or fenced his land entirely away from sheepmen, those in control of state and railroad lands were in position to demand rentals for their holdings. Then immense National Forests were created which resulted in bringing vast areas under the control of the Federal 425 426 . CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS Department of Agriculture. State and railroad lands in National Forest areas were given over to the National Forest in lieu of equal areas of government land located elsewhere. This amounted to a double restriction of free land. Moreover, the National Forest service made definite allotments on which only a stated number of sheep were allowed for a specified time at a consideration of so much per head. Often these allotments were situated so that transfer from them to the plains was difficult. Added Cost of Ranges.—Because of the changes outlined above it is impossible to run as many sheep in many sections as formerly and obviously these changes have added to the cost of running sheep in various ways, as follows: First, charges are made for all lands except public domain, which is becoming more and more restricted. Second, the alternation of tracts of private lands withdrawn from grazing with tracts of public and private lands rented to sheepmen has raised the cost of maintenance by requiring additional labor and has reduced the possible returns through lowering the feed- ing capacity of the range. In eastern Colorado, where homesteaders who have enclosed their lands are numerous, only alternate sec- tions are open for grazing. Under such conditions the bands of sheep have to be about half normal size in order to give the sheep in the rear a chance to find feed. That is, the band does not have the same opportunity to remain spread out while feeding as formerly because of having to pass around the sections in the hands of home- steaders. Thus, one sees that more labor per thousand sheep is required in eastern Colorado now than in the days before the coming of homesteaders. Then, it is impossible for sheepmen in that section to get their sheep in as good condition as formerly, even though the area per head remains the same, because they have to travel so much more than they used to. Since, oftentimes, owners of several bands can not secure all of their summer range in one body in the National Forest more labor is required than when the area of mountain range was not definitely fixed. It used to be common for one tender to look after two or three camps in the mountains, but now he is seldom responsible for more than one. Allotment lines are generally irregular, making many corners and pockets, which prevent radiating out from camp as in the good old free-for-all days. On this account summer bands are not as large as they used to be, CHANGES IN LABOR 497 Third, the ownership and withdrawal of so much land has made trailing from one range to another both difficult and expensive. The trails are narrow and must be travelled over by many bands of sheep. Feed becomes scarce, the sheep go backward in condition, and lambs are often permanently stunted by the hardships of the trail. In many sections the land between summer and winter range has become occupied to such extent that the sheep have to be trans- ferred by rail. Fourth, the changes which have come about in control of lands have forced sheepmen to invest heavily in lands. In recent years homesteaders all over the West have sold lands worth not to exceed $3 per acre at from $5 to $15 per acre. There was a time when it was not necessary for the sheepman to own a foot of land, but that day has passed. He who owns land has advantage in controlling lands for which rentals are paid. Besides, sheepmen should own land on which cultivated crops are grown for the purpose of sup- plementing range and those who bought land a number of years ago are now best prepared to continue in the sheep business. Not only that, but they purchased when prices were extremely low and the advance of land values have been such that their investments were very profitable. Changes in Labor.—During the last fifteen or twenty years there have been significant changes in labor on sheep ranches with respect to the amount required, its efficiency, and its cost in wages and provisions. Throughout the West more labor per thousand sheep is re- quired now than a number of years ago. Statements have already been made which show that this is true. As compared with the past, sheepmen now operate under what may be termed crowded conditions. There are the homesteaders on the plains, allotments in the mountains, ranch headquarters for producing and storing feed, all of which did not exist in the past and which add to the amount of labor needed. It is harder now to keep different bands from mix- ing and to prevent trespassing ; hence, bands have to be either cut down in size or tended by more men. Then, too, lands are now used as range which were once discarded because they were of such nature that too much labor was needed in handling the sheep. Sheepmen emphatically assert that the labor procured now is not as good as that which they used to employ. There are more densely populated communities in the West now which attract many 428 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS of the best laborers, and the wage-seekers who enter sheep camps to-day do not possess the kind of motives that insure efficiency. In the early days the sheep camps were occupied by ambitious young men who needed money to be sure, but who also wanted the ex- perience that would prepare them for engaging in business for them- selves. Therefore, they were up and doing and they were efficient. But now, when it is not easy for the ambitious, poor young man to get into the sheep business for himself and since labor is scarce, prac- tically any one who will go to herd sheep is acceptable. Those who do go are usually wanderers who go from place to place without becoming fixed to any occupation and, although they may work well, they herd sheep poorly because they do not stay with the job long enough to learn how. The cost of labor has increased. In the past twenty years the increase in monthly wages has been very great. The report of the Tariff Board, issued in 1911, states that in 1895, or thereabouts, there was no difficulty in hiring herders at $15 per month in New Mexico and that in California their services could be secured for $25 per month. It would take from three to four times these wages to get herders at the present time. * There is also increased cost incurred in securing labor. In the past a goodly supply of reliable help was easily obtained close to the ranches. That is, it was largely a matter of the laborers seeking the job, but the reverse is the situation now. Owners and superin- tendents have to go to town and spend several days in finding laborers. This may occur several times in the year, and when special labor is needed, such as in the lambing season, the hunt for men is so strenuous that an owner or superintendent spends time in town which would better be spent on the ranch if help were pro- curable in any other manner. Better Provision Required.—It requires a greater expenditure per month to provide for sheep herders than formerly. This has come about mainly through the adoption of a higher standard of living which is traceable in part to the scarcity of labor. When efficient laborers began to be scarce the more aggressive sheep owners improved the quality and increased the variety of provisions in order to attract more men and particularly the best herders to their camps. In a short time all owners were forced to provide well in order to get laborers at all. Then with the inception of more settled conditions there was perhaps a general rise in the standard of living BENEFICIAL CHANGES 429 which was bound to extend to the sheep camps. But in the South- west the assertion is commonly made that special help can be secured because the liberal supply of provisions in camp afford an oppor- tunity for the village loafers to get a good fill. And it is doubtful whether laborers in villages receiving wages comparable with those paid to sheep herders have as much to eat. In fact, it is well known that they do not. Constant reference is made to the relatively simple list of provisions which was furnished to the old-time herders and comparing it with the list of to-day, provisions must cost several times as much as they did in the early days. Greater Investment Required—Still another significant change in range conditions is the much greater investment in im- provements and equipment. The large tracts of land which owners have felt obliged to purchase must be fenced at a cost of about $150 per mile. In many places water has been secured at great expense by digging wells or by building reservoirs. Because of the rise in the cost of operation and in the value per head of the sheep, buildings and corrals have been erected which were not deemed necessary at an earlier time. Horses and machinery for working the cultivated lands are now items of considerable cost which at one time did not appear on the inventory. All of the changes enumerated above have been in the direction of raising the cost of maintaining sheep in the West. But a few changes have been made which either help to reduce the cost of operation or to increase the returns possible from the sheep. Beneficial Changes.—For example, railway facilities have been constantly improving. As railways grew more numerous it was easier to get both wool and sheep to points of shipment, and the ex- pense of getting supplies and equipment to the range was consider- ably lessened. In the earlier days of sheep ranching in the West, mutton could not be of much importance, for facilities for getting it to market were not developed. In very recent years little spurs of railway have penetrated regions here and there which permit of getting fat lambs out of the mountains to the great central markets. As a practice, however, shipping sheep out of the West has been in vogue for thirty years or more. The introduction of cultivated crops has made earlier lambing possible in a number of places. This, together with the better feed and improvement in breeding, has changed the lamb crops into a better and more seasonable product. 430 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS Sheepmen are becoming more and more tolerant in their views concerning the control of the National Forests; this indicates that those in charge are earnestly seeking means of allowing sheep owners to get a maximum amount of good from the Forests. How Changes Affect Cost of Production.—After considering all of the favorable changes on the range the fact remains that most of the changes have tended to raise the cost of production and to render the’ sheep business more complex. He who engages in the business must be equipped with both sheep and capital, whereas in the early days the latter could be very largely ignored. Again, there was a time when anyone who could herd sheep might enjoy a fair degree of success as an owner. That day has passed, for now it requires business instinct and organization to make a sheep outfit pay. He who does not take an inventory and size himself up annually is likely to have to find a new business. Those days when sheep herders rambled around in solitude with their flocks furnished accounts of experiences and adventures which are read with intense interest, but such days could not always exist. The picturesque and romantic period of the sheep business on the western ranges has passed beyond recall. Cold figures, close calculations, and clever organization rule now and business men hold the reins wherever profits are made. Cost Per Head.—A Government report, issued in 1890, esti- Expenses in Maintaining Sheep, per year. Value per Miscel- head of | Labor per laneous see buildings | “head | Mainte- |9M4selling) potal ce and im- (including nance per head expense ee shearing) | per head (including | P&T head provisions) Arizona. Midd amimenavaive| POO $0.79 $0.15 $1.13 $2.07 California............... 79 55 81 .99 2.35 GolOrad wisesic ceca ccna 44 .60 26 90 1.76 WAN: 4 apepbth rh ten caged 1.02 59 -96 1.30 2.95 Montana sve. eons nity 1.42 54 54 .97 2.05 Nevada. sida a wainaasanroniine’ 95 76 36 1.11 2.23 New Mexico............. 59 56 18 91 1.65 ORE ROM ss 2p cauaiat ddach Bee 1.30 56 63 .80 1.99 Utah ayo ied Greased 71 69 38 1.20 2.27 Washington............. 87 74 62 ik 2.13 Wyoming............... 75 M2, 36 1.01 2.09 Average............. 89 .63 46 1.02 2.11 QUESTIONS 431 mated the cost of running sheep in the West at from 25 to 50 cents per head. From figures secured on more than 3,000.000 sheep in the West in 1911, the report of the tariff board estimated that the cost of maintenance had risen to $2.11 per head per year. The table taken from that report shows the distribution of expenses and the total expense in maintaining sheep in the various western states. The cost of maintenance now (1918) is much greater than the figures given for 1911. QUESTIONS 1. What were the conditions under which sheepmen occupied the range? 2. How did the homesteader affect range conditions? 3. What did the state and railroads demand from the sheepmen for the use of their lands? 4. How have the changes affected the cost of growing sheep in the West? 5. How has labor affected the sheep raising? 6. What changes have been made to reduce the cost of operation and to increase returns? 7. How have all these significant changes in range conditions affected the business ? PART VII MISCELLANEOUS Fie. 233. Fia. 233.—Outside lots arranged so that wagons can drive close to barn to clean it. Fic. 234.—Gates in normal position to form outside lots for sheep. Sheep barn, University of Illinois. CHAPTER XLIV BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS THE point which has been emphasized more than any other in connection with the construction of buildings for sheep is that this class of animals does not require an expensive type of shelter. While this is true it does not follow that care in planning a sheep barn or shed is unnecessary. In fact, it pays well to erect a type of building which bears ample evidence of planning for the health of the sheep and for the convenience of those responsible for their care. Essential Features of Buildings for Sheep.—Location.— Sheep buildings should be located on dry, well-drained ground where there are no obstructions to sunlight and good air drainage. A southern slope having the possibilities of a bank barn serves as an excellent building site. The ground to be converted into lots about the building should also be dry and well-drained, for dry footing is one of the essentials to the health of sheep (Fig. 233). If possible, the barn or shed should be located only a short dis- tance from at least a part of the area that is to be used as pasture or forage for the flock. This will permit of the barn being used throughout the year and it is a much more convenient place than the fields for feeding grain to the lambs in late spring and in summer. In order to economize time in caring for the flock the sheep barn should be located near the other farm barns, provided this can be done without sacrificing the other important factors mentioned above. If only a shed is erected it will be necessary for the sake of convenience to locate it near buildings where winter feed is stored. Shape of Barn.—In general the rectangular barn is the most convenient type for housing a breeding flock of sheep. During certain periods it is necessary to divide the main flock into various smaller groups for which it is easier to provide pens in a rectangular barn than in either a square or a round barn. But in case it is unnecessary to arrange for small groups, the square and round types of barns may be quite as desirable as the rectangular type (Fig. 234). Warmth.—Sheep do not require an expensive type of building because they do not need especially warm quarters, which, together 435 436 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS Fic. 235. Fig. 236. Fic. 235.—Sheep barn, University of Illinois. On well-drained ground, no obstruc- tions to sunlight and located close to the pasture and forage areas. Fic. 236.—Sheep barn of B. F. Harris, Banker Parmer, Champaign, Illinois. Capacity 3,000 sheep. Skylights in the roof of the annex to the main barn. with the fact that they are easy to keep under restraint, makes it unnecessary to use heavy building materials. Except in cases where lambing occurs in cold weather, single walls will provide ample pro- FLOORS 437 tection, and, as stated in the discussion of lambing in Chapter XXXII, a warm room can be easily arranged for young lambs in one section or corner of the barn. Dryness.—Any sheep barn which does not keep the feet and the coats dry is practically a failure. In addition to placing the barn on a dry, well-drained site, it is advisable to raise the ground inside the foundation three or four inches by filling in with clay. The lots just outside should be graded so that water will drain rapidly away from the barn and whenever possible they should be coated with gravel (Figs. 235 and 236). Light.—A barn which does not admit an abundance of light invites the collection of dirt and filth, both of which are detrimental to the health and thrift of sheep. Especial attention should be given to arranging the barn so that it will admit a maximum of sunlight in winter and early spring for no other natural agency equals sunlight in destroying germ life and it is of especial benefit to both ewes and lambs in the lambing season. Ventilation.—No other class of animals suffers more from con- finement in close, poorly ventilated quarters than do sheep, and hence it is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of good ventilation. The barn should admit an abundance of fresh air, but strong drafts should be avoided. This is not easily accomplished in cold weather, especially if there are young lambs that must have warm quarters. But it should be possible to admit a sufficient amount of fresh air by opening doors and windows on the side of the barn opposite the direction from which the wind is coming. In order to avoid drafts in large barns where there is a large amount of unbroken space, it is usually necessary to construct one or two partitions extending from the floor to the ceiling. One of the best fresh-air types of shelter for sheep is a shed which is open on one side. Foul air never collects in such a build- ing, and there are seldom any injurious drafts. Systems of ven- tilation having no connection with windows and doors have not been extensively installed in sheep barns, but doubtless they can be used to advantage in cold climates (Figs. 237-239). Floors.—Earth floors are the cheapest and best for sheep. A floor surfaced with clay will soon become so firmly packed by the sheep tramping over it that very little of the liquid manure can escape. The alleys, the foundation, and possibly the feeding floors should be made of concrete, but a wooden floor is quite as satisfactory as concrete for feed rooms. 4388 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS Breeding ewes require from 12 to 16 square feet of floor space, exclusive of space for racks; feeding sheep and young stock being Fia. 237.—Shed, open on one side, University of Illinois; foreground showing fences made of movable panels. Fic. 238.—A closed sheep shed. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) developed for the breeding flock require only from 5 to 8 square feet of floor space. The interior arrangement of a building for sheep should aim at providing for the following: A minimum of waste space; the FEED RACKS 439 comfort of the animals, and convenience in feeding and watering, and in cleaning the pens. Since sheep are easily restrained, the partitions between pens should be movable and made of compara- tively light material and then the penning arrangement of the barn can be changed from time to time to suit the needs of the flock. Often it is of advantage to construct movable racks which may also serve as partitions between pens. Feed Racks.—A feed rack for sheep should hold a sufficient quantity of feed, but it need not be a great, cumbersome thing; it WW oreeo COUOOOOOO OOOO °¢ze“e . Ly BACH EP COMBINATION HAY ANDO GRAIN RACH J OOOO SHEEP PEN 6°80 245Q" IN THE CLLAR Fic. 239.—Floor plan of shed shown in Fig. 238. (From U.S§. D. A. Bulletin 810.) should be planned so that the animals can get to the feed easily without wasting it or getting it in their wool, and there should be no sharp corners or rough surfaces to pull out the wool or to cause injury to the animals. If possible, racks should be built of sur- faced lumber. In nearly all types of racks for hay or similar roughage, the feed is drawn out between slats. These should be either so close to- gether that it will be impossible for a sheep to thrust its head between them or so far apart that the head will pass between them without danger of becoming fast. ‘Three and one-half to four-inch spaces are sufficient for drawing out feed without inserting the 440 . BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS head, while six- to eight-inch spaces will permit of ample freedom for passing the head through (Figs. 240-242). Where large numbers of sheep are fed, as is the case in large plants where western sheep and lambs are fattened, the grain is Fic. 240.—Rack with slats four inches apart and with trough for grain below the slats. Suitable for wall rack or partitions. often fed in troughs separate from the racks in which the hay is placed. In handling a flock of ordinary size, a combination grain and hay rack is usually the most convenient type of receptacle for Fie, 241, Fic, 242. Fic. 241.—Combination grain and hay rack in which slats are i k ins dn upright and four inches apart, suitable for partitions only. This is an uncommon ty vi i f fitti } ‘ pe of rack but very satisfactory Fic, 242.—Rack 24 inches wide with slats 6 to 8 inch i thrust their heads between them. Suitable for partition ae eee encmnnne feed. Combination racks are of two types; in one the hay is placed in a rack above the trough for the grain (Fig. 240) ; in the other, the hay and grain are placed on the same bottom (Fig. 239). In LAMBING PENS 441 using the latter type, the grain is consumed before the hay is fed, and generally the same method is followed with the type in which the rack for the hay is placed above the grain trough. Combination racks are much more suitable than separate racks for preventing waste with hay containing a high percentage of loose leaves. These are very largely lost in racks intended for hay only, but in com- bination racks they fall on the bottoms intended for the grain and are saved (Fig. 243). LL | ke &—.—_-—_7+64%_-—__-—_» QF Fie. 243.—A combination hay and grain rack which may be entered by the attendant when feeding grain or hay—for partitions only. (From U.S. D. A. Farmer's Bulletin 810.) Troughs for grain, silage, and roots should be from 8 to 10 inches wide in combination racks and 12 inches or more in separate pieces of construction. The sides should be about 5 inches high and should slope slightly outward. The bottoms should be flat in order to keep the sheep from eating too rapidly and should stand about one foot from the ground. Separate troughs should be con- structed so that they can not be easily pushed over, and there should. be a railing above them to keep the sheep from standing or lying in them (Figs. 244 and 245). The amount of rack or trough space required depends upon the size of the animals. Feeding lambs should be allowed about 12 inches each and large breeding ewes as much as 18 inches. Lambing pens are almost indispensable to successful lambing and the movable type is the more convenient to use. Since they are 442 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS Fig. 244.—A reversible stationary grain trough which is easy to keep clean because it is reversible. (From U.S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) _ Fie. 245.—A light movable trough for feeding grain, silage and roots. The long dimension pieces resting on the ground make it difficult for the sheep to turn the trough over. (From U.S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) A LAMB CREEP 443 to be moved from place to place, they are best if made of light boards, preferably white pine seven-eighths inch by three inches, planed on both sides. The pens consist of two four-foot panels or hurdles hinged together. By opening these panels at right angles in a corner of the barn where the free ends may be fastened to walls, a pen four feet square is made which provides sufficient space for the average-sized ewe and her lambs (Fig. 246). The panels are sometimes arranged by using but one wall, so as to form a triangular pen for a ewe that refuses to own her lamb. ' ’ — - — 3 — ot. — - —> a ee sae ee x a f e 4 IL i | | LI ¥ Ls! : : a mR % » 2 Pt ¥ | é CI % | | = : Oi. Fic. 246.—Hinged panels for lambing pen. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) If tied up in one corner of the pen she cannot move away from her young far enough to prevent it from nursing. By unfolding the panels so that they stand end to end, they may be made to serve as partitions in the barn. They can also be, constructed so that they can be used as lamb creeps (Fig. 167). A lamb creep is a device that admits the lambs to a feeding place but excludes the older sheep. Its construction should be a very simple matter. Provision should be made for adjusting the size of the openings for the lambs and as a rule there should not be more than two or three places for admitting them, so that in the event some of the older sheep are small enough to gain admittance, 444. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS which is frequently the case after shearing, the creep can be easily closed after the lambs have passed into it. Rather expensive devices, Fic, 247. Fic. 248. Fig, 247.—Small lamb creep made of hinged panels which permit the lambs to eat from same trough as their mother. Useful in teaching lambs to eat. Fic, 248.—Rack for water pail. such as rollers for uprights between which the lambs pass in and out of the creep, have been constructed. While such an arrange- ment is practically above criticism as a “creep ” opening, it is really WATERING TROUGHS 445 Fie. 249.—Farm dipping plant. Tank to the left; dripping pen in center, and chute from dripping pen at the right. 5 ~“ = “I 7 x a aq a 4 AABRA SK KOO ip WAAR A l q 3 y P > 3 Fig, 250.—A dog-proof fence. (From U.S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) unnecessary, as the woolly coat of the lamb gives it sufficient pro- tection in passing between stationary uprights having the sharp corners rounded off (Fig. 247). Watering Troughs.—In many cases it is just as well, or perhaps better, to have the water supplied outside of the barn, for it is 446 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS likely to be somewhat more wholesome, but it should be easily accessible at all times and hence it is often advisable to have it in the barn. The troughs should be located in light, airy places and they should be so constructed that they can be kept clean, which is perhaps easiest done by installing a system of under-drainage, mak- ing it possible to drain the water off frequently. Also provision should be made, if possible, to keep the water from freezing in winter. Fig. 251.—Temporary fence supported by iron posts. In lambing time, it is usually necessary to water some of the sheep from pails. A rack in which to place the pail to keep it from overturning is shown in Fig. 248. Shearing Floor.—The shearing floor, which should be about ten feet square, can be made of hard pine boards twelve inches wide and surfaced on one side. After the shearing is over, these can be taken up and stored where they will keep in good condition. Wool Room.—While a wool room is a good feature in a sheep barn, it is not absolutely necessary to have it. But if the wool is not sold at once after shearing, it should be stored in a clean place. The FENCES AND HURDLES 447 feed room or some of the grain bins in the barn may not be in use after shearing time, in which case it will be easv to find a place for the wool. Should storage for a long period be contemplated, how- ever, a separate room for the wool should be provided. It need not be large, as the fleeces can be packed “=~ i into a comparatively small space. | Nore). 4¢ ACEO Equipment Outside of the Barn. —Silo.—In case a silo is desired, it should be located outside the barn | close to the feeding room; in fact, the chute should be arranged so that the silage will fall from the silo into the feeding room. Dipping Plant.—In connection with every sheep barn there should be an inexpensive dipping plant, located where it will not interfere with every- day handling of the flock. Portable galvanized iron vats can be purchased from supply houses, which are ade- quate for dipping flocks of ordinary size. When set in place, the top of the vat should be about six inches above the ground. At one end of it there should be a small pen to hold sheep awailing dipping, and at the other, a draining platform where the sheep are allowed to stand for a few minutes after they are dipped, in order to let the liquid drain out of fig: 2027 ibe wonpodt. The ther wool and im back inte the vat. bottom wire of the fence is caught in the crotch formed by the junction of A walk-way can be built as an ap- the elbow piece with the long rod pnd the top wire rests in the noteh_ proach to the vat, and there are vari- ous devices for sliding the sheep into it. But, if the sheep are not let down gently into the liquid, a great deal of it is splashed out and lost. In dipping small flocks it pays to lift each sheep and carefully place it in the vat (Fig. 249). Fences and Hurdles.—If possible sheep should be protected by boundary fences that will exclude dogs. (It is doubtful whether 448 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS any fence is absolutely dog-proof.) The fence shown in Fig. 250, having a barbed wire close to the ground and three barbed wires at the top would be found proof against most dogs. Division fences t h due Fig. 253.—A wooden panel, suitable for temporary fencing. (From U. 8. D. A.Bulletin 810.) thirty-six inches high and made of woven wire are adequate for keeping most sheep in place. These fences may be either temporary or permanent in nature, or the temporary fence may be made of wooden panels (Figs. 250-253). The iron post shown in Figs. 251 and 252 was designed by the writer to use with temporary wire fencing. QUESTIONS . Enumerate the essential features of a sheep barn. . Why is it possible to build a good sheep barn at comparatively low cost? . What are the essential features of a good sheep rack? . Why should the bottoms of troughs be flat? - How much floor space do mature ewes require? 1 ee CHAPTER XLV PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM Importance of Mutton and Lamb in the Meat Dietary.— Mutton and lamb form a very small part of the meat diet of farmers in the United States. The chief reason why they eat so little of these meats is that they: believe all mutton and lamb has the so-called disagreeable “ woolly flavor.” In the majority of cases, this belief is based merely on the “say so” of some one else, but it is so firmly fixed that few attempt to prove or disprove it for them- selves. It, no doubt, originated in the early days of sheep hus- bandry when the wool breeds were popular and mature sheep were the chief source of the mutton supply. The introduction of mutton breeds and the increased demand for mutton and lamb in the larger cities has brought about a great improvement in the quality of the mutton produced, and to-day this “ woolly flavor” is almost never noticeable in lambs and yearlings, and seldom in mature sheep (Fig. 254)... Another reason,why the farmers have not utilized this source of meat supply is because they think it difficult to properly slaughter and dress a sheep. This, however, is even more fallacious than the belief regarding flavor, for neither the process of slaughter nor of cutting the carcass is any more difficult than killing a hog and cutting and curing the meat, a task which is ordinarily considered quite simple. Care Before Slaughter.—The animal to be slaughtered should be in healthy and as nearly normal condition as possible at the time of slaughter. It should be handled carefully to prevent bruises on the carcass; all undue excitement should be avoided, and if possible, it should be fasted from eighteen to twenty-four hours, but allowed free access to water. Attention to these details facilitates thorough bleeding, insures more rapid cooling of the carcass, lessens the danger of cutting the internal organs, and tends to prevent the disagreeable flavor of the meat caused by the fermentation of feed material in the stomach. The fleece should be dry and reasonably clean, as it is practically impossible to hang up a clean carcass if the fleece is wet or dirty. Shearing is often advisable, since the pelt 29 449 450 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM is easier handled and removed with the wool out of the way, and the wool alone can usually be sold for as much or more than the un- sheared pelt. Method of Slaughter.—Equipment Required.—A clean, dry place to work is the first essential. A low bench or box upon which to lay the animal, a sticking knife, and some provision for hanging the carcass is all the equipment required for slaughtering a sheep. Method of Sticking.—The sheep is laid on a low box or bench on its left side with the head extending over the edge. It is held in this position by standing behind the sheep and placing the right A B Cc Fria. 254.—A, mutton deficient in quantity of fat; B, properly finished mutton; C, mutton carrying too much fat. knee in the fore flank. The lower jaw is grasped with the left hand and the knife is stuck into the neck just back of the angle of the jaw slightly below and behind the ear. The knife should go through the neck at one thrust, with the edge of the knife toward the head. If desired, the beginner may then turn the knife and cut out through the neck, thus severing all the blood-vessels. To stun the sheep after sticking, the neck is broken by either placing one hand on the fore- head and pulling up on the jaw, or by severing the spinal cord at the atlas joint with the knife (Fig. 255). Removing the Pelt.—The removal of the pelt is begun at the front legs by cutting out a narrow strip down the front of the leg from the neck to the ankle joint, holding the foot, in the meantime, between the knees. The legs, the point of the brisket, and the un- der side of the neck are then skinned. Following this the flesh of REMOVING THE PELT 451 Fig. 255.—Slaughtering. A, sticking; B, breaking the neck. 452 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM the neck is cut through in order to loosen the windpipe and gullet. In lambs and yearlings the feet are removed at the “ break joint ”* by cutting across the raise on the cannon just above the ankle and twisting the foot. In mature sheep, this joint will not break, and the feet are removed at the ankle-joint. The removal of the pelt at the hind legs is begun by cutting out a strip of skin down the back of the leg from the anus to the lowest point where the feet are removed. The feet should never be removed at the ankle-joint, because the tendons will pull out when the carcass is hung. The hind legs should not be skinned out to as great extent as the front legs; the pelt should be merely loosened along the sides and back of the leg. The leg of mutton is a valuable cut, and by leaving the pelt on as long as possible, it is much easier to keep it clean. Beginning at the brisket and cod, or udder, the pelt is loosened over the belly by forcing the fist between the skin and flesh. Like- wise the pelt over the sides is fisted off, care being taken not to tear the thin muscles at the flanks. This is easiest avoided by fisting first down over the center of the side, and then working each way from this point over thé flank muscles. The tendons in the hind leg are loosened between the hock and the ankle by cutting between them and the bone. The legs are then tied with a cord and the carcass hung at a convenient height. The pelt is further removed by splitting it down the center and fisting it off over the sides, flanks, and legs, and working up over the hind flank and leg, and down over the shoulder. Next the hide is loosened around the tail with the knife and the pelt is pulled down the back to the neck, where it is removed with the head at the atlas joint (Fig. 256). Removing the Viscera.—The first step in removing the viscera is to cut around the rectum and pull it out a short distance to loosen it. The carcass is then opened down the middle line from the cod (or udder) to the breast-bone, care being taken to shield the point of the knife between the fingers to avoid cutting the intestines. The large intestine is then pulled downward carefully to avoid loosening the kidney fat. The operator uses the knife to - +The “break joint” or “lamb joint” is a temporary cartilage which forms a dentate suture in the head of the shank immediately above the ankle. It will not break in mature sheep because the cartilage is knit or ossified (Illinois Bulletin 147). CARE OF THE CARCASS 453 detach the paunch and liver from the back, pulls the viscera for- ward and either cuts the gullet or pulls it out with the stomach. The liver upon being removed from the viscera and the gall-bladder cut away from it should be placed in a pail of cold water. By cutting around the diaphragm the heart and lungs are removed. The in- side of the carcass is then carefully wiped out with a damp cloth, » care being taken to see that the chest cavity is thoroughly drained. To facilitate rapid cooling, the breast-bone may be split and a short spread stick used to hold the carcass open (Fig. 259,a). Fie. 256.—Removing the pelt. A, skinning around forelegs and neck; B, skinning around hind legs. When dressing sheep for market, the forelegs are folded back at the knee and fastened to the shank with a skewer. This gives the carcass a thicker and neater appearance. Likewise, lamb carcasses are given a fatter, more finished appearance by spreading the caul fat over the legs and flank (Fig. 259). Care of the Carcass.—The mutton or lamb carcass should, be allowed to hang until it is thoroughly cooled, at approximately 40 degrees F., if possible. After it is cooled throughout it may, in the winter months, be allowed to freeze and can be preserved almost indefinitely if a frozen condition is maintained. Alternate freezing and thawing is detrimental tc the quality and flavor of the-meat. If carefully protected from flies by some such means as wrapping a b54 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM Fic. 257.—Last four stages in removing the pelt. A, ‘‘fisting’’ over belly and sides; ae soe through skin on ventral side; C, ‘‘fisting’’ over shoulder; D, ‘‘fisting’’ over ind legs. PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 455 iy Fic. 259..—The carcass. a, showing spread stick in place; 6, showing how forelegs are folded. 456 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM piece of cheesecloth loosely about it, the carcass may be cooled in the cellar in the spring and summer months. Method of Cutting the Carcass.—The sheep carcass 1s very easily divided into the various cuts for table use, since each main division yields a cut of suitable size for the average family (Fig, 260). Fig. 260.—Mutton and lamb cuts. Each half carcass is divided into: 1, leg; 2, loin; 3, rib; 4, shoulder; 5, breast. The additional equipment required for cutting are a sharp butcher knife, a meat saw, a cleaver, and if possible, a solid bench or block upon which to work. There is a thin, papery membrane covering the entire carcass known as the “ fell,” which should always be removed from every LOIN 457 Fig. 261. Fic. 262. Fic. 261.—Dressed for special market. The pelt is not removed and the caul fat is spread over the opening in the ventral side. Fic. 262.—Wrapped first with muslin and then with burlap in preparation for shipment to special market. 458 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM cut of mutton and lamb before it is cooked. It is very tough and the’woolly flavor is often attributed to its presence. For home use, the carcass should first be divided into halves. With the carcass hanging, the aitch bone is cut through with a knife. The hind legs are spread apart and the carcass sawed down the center of the backbone. Each half of the carcass may then be further divided into the following cuts: Breast.—The breast consists of the flank, plate, and front shank. It is the cheapest cut of the carcass and ts used principally for stews. To remove this cut the operator starts at the cod (or udder) and euts straight forward through a point just above the elbow- joint. The excess fat is then trimmed off and the thin, tough mem- brane on the inside of the flank is removed, after which the ribs are cracked with a cleaver and the fore shank is sawed through in one or two places. Leg.—The leg of mutton is used chiefly as a roast, but may be used for steaks. Because of the thick lean and small amount of bone, it is the most popular roast cut of the carcass. The point at which it is removed varies with the size of roast desired. Ordinarily it is cut off on a line parallel with the ribs at the point where the spinal cord bends upward. ‘The shank may either be removed at the stifle joint and the strip of shank meat skewered over the joint (American or plain trimmed), or it may be sawed off just above the hock and the meat scraped off the bone for a distance of three- fourths to one inch (French trimmed). The most desirable roast for carving is made by removing all bones and tying the meat in a roll, In all cases the thin flank muscles, the tail bones, and excess fat should be trimmed off. Loin.—The most palatable mutton or lamb chops are eut from the loin because it contains the most tender muscles of the carcass. Tt extends from the leg to the twelfth or next to the last rib. In preparing this cut the kidney is removed and the chops are cut across the loin about three-fourths of an inch thick. The loin also makes a good roast, although the lean is not as thick as that of the Jeg or shoulder. To prepare a loin roast, the joints of the backbone are cut through with the cleaver or may be removed and the roast tied in a roll. Boneless rolled chops may be cut from a boned loin, skewers being used to hold them in shape. Rib.—The rib extends from the last to the fourth or fifth rib and is used for chops and roasts. Rib chops are cut one rib wide, and the roasts prepared in the same manner as those of the loin. A SLAUGHTERING LAMBS FOR SPECIAL MARKETS 459 crown roast is also made from the rib cuts. The flesh is rolled back from the lower end of the ribs, the spinal process sawed off, and’the two cuts tied end to end, bending the ribs backward. Shoulder.—The shoulder is used for either roasts, chops, or stews. The large amount of bone it contains makes it undesirable for roasting unless boned and rolled, when it practically equals the leg in quality. If not boned, its preparation consists of trimming off-the neck square, and cutting through the joints of the backbone with the cleaver. Shoulder chops are cut either parallel to the ribs or across the lower part of the shoulder at the point where the shank was removed. Slaughtering Lambs for Special Markets.—Prime young lambs weighing from fifty to sixty pounds that are ready for sale from one to three months before the regular crop of lambs is large enough to market, are often slaughtered on the farm and _ sold direct to clubs and high-class hotels in the larger cities. They are marketed with the pelt on and are ordinarily wrapped in two separate covers for shipment, the inner consisting of tough paper or muslin, and the outer of burlap or sacking. This keeps the carcass clean, prevents excessive drying out, and furnishes’ some protection against bruises. In dressing the carcass, a strip of skin four or five inches wide is loosened along the underline, and the skin from around the rectum and from the inside of the legs is removed. The feet are cut olf at the ankle- and knee-joints, leaving a small flap of skin to fold back over the joint. All the internal organs are removed except the pluck, which consists of the heart, lungs, and liver. In warm weather these, too, should be removed to insure thorough cooling of the car- cass. The breast-bone is then split and the carcass is spread open with backsets.*. The caul fat is placed over the exposed flesh and the carcass allowed to cool thoroughly before shipping (Fig. 261). A square yard of muslin is sufficient for wrapping one lamb, and should be neatly sewed on so as to cover all the exposed parts of the carcass. The burlap wrapping over the muslin is sometimes omitted and two or three lambs placed in a light crate lined with heavy paper (Fig. 262). * Backsets are sharpened sticks 15 to 18 inches long with a shoulder about an inch back from each point. The points are inserted in the loose skin near the breastbone and the turned-back flank on the opposite side of the carcass, crossing them over the back. 460 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM QUESTIONS 1. Is mutton popular with country people? 2. What equipment is necessary to slaughter a sheep? 3. What equipment is necessary to cut up the carcass of a sheep? 4, Which is more palatable mutton, mature sheep, or lamb? 5. How are lambs dressed on the farm prepared for shipment? INDEX Accumulating stations, 357 Afterbirth, 253, 254 Age, effect of, on rate of growth, 369 indications of, 61 the break-joint, 62 teeth, 61 Alfalfa, a cause of bloat, 277 and corn, proportions of for fatten- ing, 374, 377 experiments of Illinois Station, 374, 377 feeding value of, 277 American Merino (see Merino), 191 Tunis (see Tunis) Ancestral history (see Pedigree), 39 Anus, plugged, 263 Argentine Republic, sheep raising in, 16 Arsenical dip, 310 Astrakan fur, 214 Atwood, Stephen, 190 Auction sales of wool at shipping points, 415 Australia, sheep raising in, 13 present importance of, 14 Bacillus necrophorous, 311 Bakewell, Robert, 7 method of, in improving Leicester breed, 150 Barley, feeding value of, 380 Beans, feeding value of, 381 Bedding, for fattening sheep, 360 Beet by-products, feeding value of, 381 Berkshire Knots, 122 Blackface, Highland, 168 description, 168 distribution, 169 history, 168 mutton, 169 properties, 168 “Blackfaces,” 137 Bloat, due to clover and alfalfa, 277 to rape, 280 to soybeans, 281 treatment of, 278 cow’s milk, 278 in cows, formalin solution, 278 Bloat, treatment of keeping mouth open, 278 pressure on animal’s sides, 278 trocar and cannula, 278 Bluegrass, fattening value of, 276, 387 Bot-fly, sheep, 305 Bovide, family, 45 Branding, detrimental to wool, 317 Break-joint, 62, 452 Breed type of sheep, 74 and general type inseparable, 75 constitution of, 75 objectionable points, 75 sex character, 75 femininity, 78 masculinity, 76 Breeding, adaptability of sheep, for, 33 of England, 34” of Italy, 34 importance of, in United States, 35 neglect of, 35 Spanish Merinos, 34 ancestry, value of, in, 38 methods of, 37 cross, 40 in England, 42 in United States, 41 of Cotswold, 41 of Hampshire, 40 of Oxford, 41 of Shropshire, 40 trueness of type after, 41 in-and-in, 40 line, 40 of Shropshires in England, 40 mass, 37 merit of, 38 prolificacy, 32 selection of stock, 37 Breeding habits, 64 climatic influence, 65 gestation period, 65 heat, duration of, 65 period of, 64 recurrence of, 65 lambs, number of, of one birth, 66 461 462 Breeding qualities, of Cheviot, 148 of Dorset Horn, 144 of Oxfords, 135 of Shropshires, 119 of Suffolk, 137 Breeding powers, offspring, 39 unlike in animals of same pedigree, determined from 39 Breeding problems, 27 adaptability, 33 importance of in United States, 35 neglect of, 35 mutton, and wool combined, 33 improvement of, 30 prolificacy, 32 wool, improvement of, 27 fineness, 27 color, 28 qualities combined, 29 Breeding season, 230 ewes, condition of, 230 influence on offspring, 230 how to condition, 230 extra feed, 230 ram, condition of, 232 on western ranges, 410 Breeding stock, raising of, 25 Breeds of sheep, 99 fur-bearing, 212 Karakul, 212 mutton, 99 American Tunis, 184 Berkshire Knots, 122 British, not widely distributed in United States, 168 Corriedale, 163, 180 Devon Long Wool, 175 Dorset Down, 173 Exmoor, 172 Herdwick, 172 ’ Kerry Hill, 175 Lonk, 169 Ryeland, 173 Scotch Blackface Highland, 168 South Devon, 179 Welsh Mountain, 172 Wensleydale, 175 Cheviot, 145 Cotswold, 156 Dorset Horn, 140 Hampshires, 122 Kent, 164 _Leicester, 150 INDEX Breeds of sheep, mutton, Lincoln, 161 Oxford, 182 Romney Marsh, 164 Shropshire, 110 Southdown, 102 Suffolk, 137 on western ranges, 401 wool, 188 Merinos, 188 American, 190 Delaine, 200 Rambouillet, 203 Broadtail fur, 214 Bucks, 341 Buildings for sheep, 435 barn, shape of, 435 dryness, 437 feed racks, 439 combination, 440 for roughage, 439 floors, 437 space required per animal, 438 interior arrangement, 438 lamb creep, 443 lambing pens, 441 light, 4387 location, 435 outside equipment, 447 dipping plant, 447 fences and hurdles, 447 pasture, nearness to, 435 silos, 447 shearing floor, 446 troughs, feeding, 441 watering, 445 ventilation, 437 warmth, 435 wool room, 446 Camp tenders, kind of men employed, 04 4 of California, 405 of northwestern ranges, 405 of western ranges, 403 Canterbury lambs, 182 Castration, 282, 283 Cheviot, 145 breeding qualities of, 148 cross-breeding of, 148 with Border Leicesters, 154 description, 145 distribution, 148 half-breds, 148 hardiness of, 147 INDEX Cheviot, history, 145 markings, 147 mutton or lamb, 148 origin of, 145 properties of, 147 skin, 147 wool, 147 Clover, a cause of bloat, 277 ang gone in fattening process, 376, 379 feeding value of, 277 sweet, feeding value of, 279 Coal tar dip, 310 Commission houses, wool marketing through, 414 Concentrates for fattening, 379 barley, 380 commercial, 381 beet by-products, 381 molasses products, 381 wheat bran, 381 screenings, 381 composition of, 382 emmer, 380 grains, 379 kafir corn, 380 oats, 380 peas and beans, 380 463 Cotswold, mutton, 159 properties of, 159 skin, 158 transition from old to modern type, 156 wool, 158 Cowpeas, feeding value of, 281 Coyotes, depredations of, 424 Creep, 272 construction of, 273 Cross-breeding, 40 for wool and mutton combined, 33 in England, 42 in United States, 41 of Cheviot, 148 of Cotswold, 41 of Hampshires, 40, 130 of Karakul, 213 of Leicesters, 153 Border and Cheviot, 154 of Oxford, 41 rams on Merino ewes, 135 of Shropshire, 40 of Suffolk, 139 trueness of type after, 41 Devon Long Wool breed, 175 Digestible nutrients, in fattening ra- Constipation, in young lambs, 263 tion, 377 Codperative selling of wool, 415 balance in, 379 Corn, and alfalfa, for fattening, 374, protein, 378 in roughages, 385 in succulent feeds, 385 in various concentrates, 382 Digestive tract of sheep, 57 Dip, arsenical, 310 coal-tar, 310 lime-sulfur, 309 manufactured, 310 tobacco, 310 Dipping, for destruction of lice, 306 of maggot fly, 306 377 and clover hay, 376, 379 forms of feeding, 375 Cornfields, value of as feeding fields, 388 Corn harvesting with lambs, 388 Cornstalks, feeding value of, 390 Corriedale, 41, 163, 180 breeding qualities, 182 description, 180 distribution, 183 history, 180 of scab mite, 308 importation into U.8., 182 of ticks, 306 mutton, 182 on western ranges, 419 properties of, 182 plant, 447 Cotswold, 124, 156 Docking, 282 operation for, 283 Dogs, a menace to sheep raising, 312 Dorset Down, 173 Dorset Horn, 140 breeding habits of, 64, 144 Delaine Merino cross, 144 description, 141 breeding qualities, 158 cross-breeding, 159 description, 156 distribution, 160 formation of, 41 history, 156 markings, 158 464 INDEX Dorset Horn, distribution, 144 form, 141 history, 140 markings, 142 modern, development of, 140 old stock, 140 properties, 143 size, 141 skin, 142 standard of excellence for breed, 142 wool, 141 Drenches, 300 coal-tar creosote, 301 copper sulfate, 301 gasoline, 301 how to give, 302 when to give, 303 Dry lot, 355 for nodule disease, 304 for prevention of stomach worms, 303 Ellman, John, 102 Southdowns improved by, 102 Embargo Act of 1807, influence of, 9 Emmer, feeding value of, 380 England, cross-breeding in, 42 the center of mutton improvement, the home of mutton breeds, 8 sheep of, adaptability of, 34 sheep raising in, 6 events affecting, 6 Bakewell’s improvement of breed, 7 grant of protection to weavers, etc., 6 plague of 1348, 6 root and clover crops, in- troduction of, 7 Ewes, as a market class, 341 care of, after difficult lambing, 254 afterbirth, 254 flushing, 254 lacerations, 254 stimulants, 254 womb, eversion of, 254 after parturition, 253 feed, 253 udder troubles (see Udder troubles), 255 water, 253 Ewes, care of before parturition, 250 ration, 250 shearing of udder, 250 during lambing period (see Lamb- ing period), 246 during parturition, 251 delivery, assistance in, 251 birth difficult, 251 birth impossible, dismember- ing foetus, 252 during pregnancy, 236 condition, 236 economy and efficiency in compounding rations, 237 exercise, violent exertion harmful, 240 feeds, harvested, 237 corn, 237 oats, 237 if pasture is limited, 236 in fields, 236 rations of Lllinois Station, 242 of Indiana Station, 244 of Wisconsin Station, 243 roots, 239 caution in feeding, 239 roughages, 238 silage, 238 shelter, 241 draughts and warmth, 241 water, 240 shelter and shade, 293 conditioning of, for mating, 230 avoidance of over-fat, 231 extra feed, 230 feeding of, after lambs are weaned, 293 after mating, 231 salt and water, 293 suckling ewes, 267 we changes inadvisable, concentrates, 267 dry lot rations, 269 from Illinois Station, 269 from Ohio Station, 270 quantity, 268 roughages, 268 variety of feed, 269 water and salt, 269 femininity in, 78 masculine, discarded, 78 INDEX 465 Ewes, preparing for mating, 231 clipping around dock, 231 recording of service, 231 selection of, for farm flock (see Farm flock), 220 for mating, 38 for range flocks, 228 woolly-faced, not heavy milkers, 128 Exmoor breed, 172 Eyes, sore, of young lambs, 265 due to eyelashes, 266 Farm flock, buildings and equipment for, 435 commercial, establishing the, 219 methods of, 219 with full flock, 219 with small flock, 219 ewes, culling out of, 224 replacing of, after. flock is estab- lished, 223 early maturing stock, 224 from heavy milking dams, 224 of uniform age, 224 selecting of, 220 constitution of animal, 221 disposition, 223 feeding conditions and purpose, 223 fleece, 222 growth and thrift, 221 mutton form, 222 physical condition, 223 Bea in breeding and size, 220 sources for securing, 220 ram, selection of, 224 activity and vigor, 227 breed type, 228 fleece, 228 if ewe lambs are saved for breeding purposes, 228 mutton type, 227 pure-bred animal imperative, 225 size, 227 with regard to defects of ewes, 228 Farm flock method of sheep raising, 22 Fattening, 369 age, effect of, on growth, 369 on as and economy of gain, 371 30 Fattening, concentrates, value of, commercial, 381 beet by-products, 381 molasses products, 381 wheat bran, 381 screenings, 381 comparison of, 382 corn harvesting with lambs, 388 digestible nutrients, 377 feeder lambs, 369 grain, feeding value of, 379 barley, 380 emmer, 380 - kafir corn, 380 oats, 380 protein requirement, 378 age influence on, 379 roots, 383 roughages, 382 carbonaceous, 383 comparison of, 385 legume hay, 382 prairie hay, 383 sorghum hay, 383 straw, 383 timothy hay, 383 silage, 383 corn, 384 pea, 384 sorghum, 384 field feeding, 387 cornfields, 388 cornstalks, 390 gain in weight from, 390 general suggestions, 390 grass, 387 bluegrass, 387 timothy, 387 rape, 387 feeds, concentrates, 379 commercial, 381 condition of, 377 corn, 375 corn and clover hay, 376, 379 form to be given, 374 ae and roughage, proportion of, ground, 375 protein, 378 roots, 377 roughages, 376 silage, 376 466 Fattening, succulent feeds, 376 comparison of, 385 old ewes, 370 rate and economy of gain, factors affecting, 369 self-feeders, 372 sex influence, 371 wethers and ewe lambs, com- parison of, 372 shearing, influence of, 372 shifting from fields to dry lot, 390 yearlings and wethers, 370 scarcity of, 370 Feed, amount consumed by lambs until ready for market, 285 rations, experimental, 285 Illinois Station, 286 Ohio Station, 289 condition of, for fattening sheep, 377 field, 387 bluegrass, 387 corn, 388 rape, 387 timothy, 387 for ewes, after mating, 231 after parturition, 253 for conditioning, 230 cowpeas, 281 in breeding season, 230 in pregnancy, 236 corn, 23 economy and efficiency in compounding rations, 237 experimental rations, _ of Illinois Station, 242 of Indiana Station, 244 of Wisconsin Station, 243 oats, 237 roots, 239 caution in teeding, 239 roughages, 238 silage, 238 for lambs, 271 for rams in breeding season, 232 grinding of, 375 corn, 375 succulent, comparison of, 385 racks, 439 combination, 440 for roughage, 439 Feeder sheep, 349 common grades, 354 condition, 353 constitution of, 352 INDEX Feeder sheep, form in, 352, 354 grades of, 351 choice, 351 quality of, 352 selection of, 81 weight, 353 of fancy selected lambs, 354 Feeding, 26. accustoming animals to feeds, 365 and drinking habits, 62 change of feeding ground, 63 short herbage preferred, 63 water requirement, 64 and shepherding, 37 business of, a fattening process, 3€0 bedding, 360 equipment for, 360 influenced by market indications, 358 by general level of meat prices, 359 by general prosperity of people, 359 by price of wool, 359 by supply of feed, 359 of feeder sheep, 358 of other meat animals, 359 nature of, 358 success of feeding operation, 358 sheds and lots, 362 degy petions of Llinois Station, even conditions, importance of, 367 feed supply, 360 feeding period, length of, 364 field, 387 cornstalks, 390 general suggestions for, 390 first steps in, 365 dry roughage, 365 full feed, 366 free choice system, 272 general considerations, 355 hand-feeding, 367 in autumn and winter, 355 increasing feed, 366 of late-borm lambs, 275 “off feed,” 368 quiet surroundings, 367 ration, manner of giving, 367 regularity, 367 salt, 361 INDEX Feeding, self-feeder method, 367 sorting out marketable animals, 365 troughs and racks, 364 types of, 355 dry lot, 355 feeds, concentrates, 355 harvested or stored, 355 over fields, altogether, 357 feeding period, 357 first, then under shelter, 356 pea hull silage, 358 specialized plants, 357 under shelter, 356 advantages of, 356 water, 361 Feeding plants, specialized, 358 Feeding stations, 357 Feeding value of alfalfa, 277 barley, 380 beans, 381 beet by-products, 381 bluegrass, 276, 387 clover, 277 sweet, 279 concentrates (see Concentrates), 379 corn, 237, 374, 377 kafir, 380 cornstalks, 375, 390 cowpeas, 281 emmer, 380 field feeds, 387 grain (see Grain), 379 hay, legume, 382 prairie, 383 sorghum, 383 timothy, 383 molasses products, 381 oats, 380 rape, 387 roots, 239, 377, 383 roughages (see Roughages), 238, 268, 376, 382 rye, 279 silage, 383 corn, 384 pea, 384 sorghum, 384 soybeans, 280 straw, 383 succulent feeds, 376 timothy, 387 wheat bran, 381 screenings, 381 467 Femininity of ewes, 78 mild expression indicative of, 78 Fences and hurdles, 447 Fleece (see Wool), Flocking instinct, 67 value of, 68 Flushing, 230, 254 feeds for, 230 Folding habits, 64 Foot gland, 46 Foothills and mountains for range feeding, 393 Foot-rot, 311 contagious, 311 non-contagious, 311 Free-choice system of feeding, 272 Fur-bearing sheep, 212 Garget, 255 contagiousness of, 255 effect of, on lamb, 256 treatment of, 255 Gestation period for ewes, 65 Glands, foot, of goats, 47 of sheep, 46 functions of, 46 skin, of sheep, 55 suborbital face, 46 Glossary of terms used in wool trade, 327 Goats, foot glands in, 47 Goitre, sheep, 311 Grain and roughage, proportion of, in fattening process, 373 feeding value of, 379 barley, 380 corn, 237, 374, 377 emmer, 380 kafir corn, 380 oats, 380 Grass, fattening value of, 387 bluegrass, 387 timothy, 387 Gregariousness, 67 Grub in the head, 305 Habits of sheep, 62 _ breeding (see Breeding habits), 64 change of feeding ground, 63 feeding and drinking, 62 flocking instinct, 67 value of, 68 folding, 64 following the leader, 68 468 Habits of sheep, non-resistance to disease, 69 recognition of young, 66 short herbage preferred, 63 timidity and defencelessness, 68 water requirement, 64 Hair of sheep, 52 cortex, 53 cuticle, 53 follicle, 52 medulla, 53 Hammond, Edwin, 191 American Merino of, 191 Hampshire breed, 122 breeding qualities, 129 ewes, 129 description, 127 distribution, 131 early maturity, cause of, 126 for cross-breeding, 130 form, 127 history, 122 old stock, 122 work of Humphrey, 124 lambs, 129 making of, 40 markings, 128 mutton, 129 properties of, 129 rate of growth, 129 skin, 129 weight, 127 wool, 127 Hay, feeding value of, legume, 382 prairie, 383 sorghum, 383 timothy, 383 Heat of ewes, duration of, 65 period of, 64 recurrence of, 65 Herders, of California, 405 kind of men employed, 40+ Mexican, 404 on northwestern ranges, 405 on western ranges, 402 Herding, on western ranges, 411 Herdwick sheep, 172 Highland sheep, black-faced, flocking habit of, 67 Horns and hoofs, 55 Hurdling method of sheep raising, 23 objects of, 24 Humphrey, work of, 124 INDEX Improvement of sheep, methods of, 37 In-and-in breeding, 40, 50 Indigestion, in young lambs, 264 Inheritance, differences in, with same pedigree, 39 Interdigital pouch, 46 Intestines of sheep, 58 Instruments for dismembering foetus when delivery is impossible, 252 Italy, sheep of, adaptability of, 34 Judging sheep, 82 faults of beginners, 96 fleece and skin, 93 mutton breeds, 93 wool breeds, 93 density of, 93 handling, 85 correct touch, 85 fat estimation, 96 the back, 88 the front, 89 the head, 91 the middle, 87 the neck, 91 the rear, 85 the ribs, 89 the rump, 87 looking animal over, 82 front view, 82 rear view, 85 side view, 82 noting defects, 93 preparation for,’ 82 student’s score card No. 9, 84 teeth, 93 Kafir corn, feeding value of, 380 Ixarakul, 212 cross-breeding, 213 description, 212 distribution, 213 history, 212 lamb fur, 214 types of, 214 value of, 214 properties, 212 wool, 212 Kemps, 314 Kent breed (see Romney Marsh), 164 Kerry Hill breed, 175 Krimmer fur, 214 INDEX Lamb creep, 272, 275, 443 construction of, 273 feeding, amount of feed consumed, 274 methods of, 267 creep, 272, 275 direct, 271 grain, 271 grain mixture, 271 free choice system, 272 indirectly, through ewe (see Ewes, suckling, feeding of), 267 grass, 275 green feed before grass season, 274 learning to eat, 27 salt and water, 293 fur, 214 Astrakan, 214 Broadtail, 214 Krimmer, 214 Persian, 214 value of, 214 in meat dietary, importance of, 449 joint, 452 troubles, 259 disowned lamb, 259 arousing mother instinct, 259 one of twins, 261 milk supply of ewe insufficient for twins, 263 orphan lamb, 262 feeding with cow’s milk, 262 foster mother, 262 Lambing, difficulty in, 251 care of ewe after, 254 afterbirth, 254 flushing, 254 lacerations, 254 stimulants, 254 womb, eversion of, 254 dismembering foetus by instru- ments, 252 preparation for, 246 appliances, 248 drugs, 247 ewe, care of, before, 250 quarters, 246 warmth necessary, 246 the shepherd, 250 supplies, 247 on western ranges, 416 docking and castrating, 418 equipment required, 409 469 Lambing, on western ranges, extra helpers during, 417 handling, method of, 417 labor required during, 406 last task of, 418 location for, 416 percentage of lambs, 419 protection from predatory ani- mals, 416 rate of births, 417 shelter, 416 pens, 246, 441 period, 246 on western ranges, 416 Lambs, as a market class, 340 care of, 267 docking and castrating, 282 how to feed, 273 quarters, 270 shelter and shade (see Shelter and shade), 293 summer management, 291 feeder, 369 growth, importance of, 267 late-born, feeding of, 275 losses of, on western ranges, 424 marketable at weaning time, 284 feed consumed until, 285 ~ rations, experimental, 286 Illinois Station, 286 Ohio Station, 289 number of, at one birth, 66 slaughtering of, for special markets, 458 dressing the carcass, 458 weaning of, 291 age proper for, 291 early, advantages of, 291 feeding after, 292 procedure in, 291 separation, of ewes for breeding, from mothers, 292 of rams from ewes, 293 young, ailments and diseases of, 263 constipation, 263 indigestion, 264 navel ill, 266 pinning, 263 ‘“plugged”’ anus, 263 sore eyes, 265 due to eyelashes, 266 sore mouth, 266 white scours, 264 470 Lambs, young, caring for, 256 assistance to nurse, 257 at birth, 256 disowned lamb, 259 orphan lamb, 262 weaklings, 258 feeding enforced, 258 first feeding, 258 respiration, 258 when chilled, 259 with thickened tongue, 259 Leicester sheep, 150 comparison of, with Lincoln, 161 cross-breeding with Merinos, 153 distribution of, 154 mutton, 153 properties of, 153 pure-bred flocks, 154 types of, 150 Border, 150 Cheviot cross, 154 description, 153 history, 153 English, 150 Bakewell’s improvement of, 150 description, 152 history, 150 markings, 152 skin, 152 wool of, 152 Lice, sheep, 306 Lime-sulfur dip, 309 Lincoln sheep, 161 comparison of, with Leicester, 161 cross-breeding with Merinos, 163 description, 161 distribution, 163 history, 161 markings, 162 Merino cross of Argentine, 163 properties, 163 skin, 162 wool, 161 Line breeding, 40 Shropshires of England, 40 Lonk sheep, 169 Maggot fly, 305 Market, for wool, 327 Market classes of sheep, 340 breeding sheep, 340 bucks and stags, 341 INDEX Market classes of sheep, ewes, 341 feeder sheep, 340, 349 condition of, 353 constitution of, 352 form in, 352, 354 grades, 351 choice, 351 common, 354 weight, of fancy selected lambs, 354 to be considered, 353 lambs, 340 main classes, 340 mutton grades, 340, 342 common, 347 condition, 344, 346 dressing percentage, 349 fancy selected, 342 form, 342 handling necessary to grade, 345 intermediate, 347 lamb, prime, 341 fat indications on, 345 Mexican, 344 pelt, 343 prime, 342 form, 342 quality, general, 343 pelt, weight of, 343 of flesh and condition, 344, 346 weight, 345, 347 sub-classes, 340 wethers, 341 yearlings, 341 Market lambs at weaning time, 284 Market type of sheep, 80 Masculinity of rams, 76 importance of, 76 pronounced indications of, 76 Mass breeding, 37 merit of, 38 Mating, study of, 38 Merino, American, 190 Atwood’s development of, 190 breeding qualities, 198 description, 192 distribution, 198 gestation period for, 66 gregariousness of, 67 hardiness, 198 history, 190 importations of, 190 INDEX Merino, American, ‘Old Black,” 191 pioneer breeders, 192 properties, 198 “Sweepstakes,” 191 types of, 192 A-type, 193 wool of, 193 B-type, 196 wool of, 196 C-type (see Merino, Delaine), 196 Hammond’s, 191 Black Top, Improved, 201 Spanish, 201 California French, stock of, 205 cross-breeding with Leicesters, 153 Delaine, 200 description, 201 distribution, 201 history, 200 origin in Ohio, 201 properties, 201 types of, 200 Black Top Improved, 201 Spanish, 201 Dickinson, 200 for western ranges, 200 importation to North America, 9 introduction of, in Australia, 13 in South Africa, 17 types, 17 in South America, 16 importance of, 16 life of, 61 of New Zealand, 14 of Saxony, 9 of Spain, 3, 188 adaptability poor, 34 characteristics of, 5 Estantes, 188 Transhumantes, 188 origin of, 188 skin of, 51 time of development, 59 wool of, 56 surface of growth, 55 Mexican herders, 404 Milk, ewe’s and cow’s, analysis of, 263 Molasses products, feeding value of, 381 Mouths, sore, in young lambs, 266 Mutton, demand for, beginning of, 33 importance of, in meat dietary, 449 foundation 471 Mutton, improvement of, 30 changes involved in, 32 combined with wool, 33 England the center of, 32 preparation of, on farm, 449 careass, cutting of, 455 breast, 455 leg, 455 loin, 455 rib, 458 shoulder, 458 slaughter, care before, 449 method of (see Slaughter), 450 of lambs for special markets, 458 dressing the carcass, 458 Mutton breeds, 99 characteristics of, 70 body, 71, 72 fore quarters, 71 head, 70 hind quarters, 72 legs, 72 neck, 70 skin and wool, 73 comparison with wool type, 74 England the home of, 7 English, skin of, 51 environment in relation to type, 99 form of prime animal, 342 gregariousness of, 67 handling necessary to grade, 345 life of, 61 market grades of, 342 common, 347 prime, desirable weights for, of Australia, 14 of New Zealand, 14 of North America, introduction of, 10 of South America, 16 origin of, 99 quality of, 72 flesh and condition, 344, 346 general, 343 pelt, weight of, 343 Southdown, 102 Navel ill, 266 New Zealand, sheep population in density of, 14 sheep raising in, 14 ? 472 Nodule disease, 303 effects of, 304 parasite of, 303 life history of, 303 North America, sheep raising in (see Sheep raising in North America), 9 Oats, feeding value of, 380 and Canadian peas, 280 winter, 279 Over-heating, 311 symptoms of, 311 treatment for, 311 Ovis aries, species, 45 Oxford or Oxford Down, 132 breeding qualities, 135 ewes, 135 rams, 135 description, 132 distribution, 135 form, 132 history, 132 markings, 134 properties of, 134 size, 132 skin, 134 wool, 134 Parasites, sheep, 296 bot-fly, 305 Estrus ovis, 305 Heemonchus contortus, 296 lice, 306 maggot fly, 305 Melophagus ovinus, 306 Musca vomitorium, 305 Csophagostomum columbianum, 303 of nodule disease, 303 Psoraptes communis ovis, 307 scab mite, 307 stomach worm, 296 tape-worm, 304 Tenia expahsa, 304 ticks, 306 Trichocephalus sperocephalus, 306 Parturition, 253 care of ewe after (sce also Ewe, care of), 253 feed, 253 water, 253 care of ewe before, 250 INDEX Parturition, care of ewe during, 251 birth, difficult, due to abnormal development, 251 impossible, dismembering foetus, 252 delivery, assistance in, 251 skill in, 253 indications of, 251 Pastures and forage crops, 276 alfalfa, 277 bluegrass, 276 clover, 277 sweet, 279 comparison of, 281 cowpeas, 281 mixed grasses, 276 oats and Canadian peas, 280 parasites, infestation by, 282 rape, 279 caution in feeding of, 280 fattening power of, 280 sown in corn, 280 rye, 279 sheep husbandry not dependent on permanent grass, 282 soybeans, 280 timothy, 276 winter oats, 279 Peas, feeding value of, 381 Pedigree, 38, 39 in relation to breeding qualities, 39 overestimation of, 39 Pelts, 343 value of, 343 weight of, 343 Pens, lambing, 246, 441 Persian lamb fur, 214 Pinning, in young lambs, 263 Placenta, 253, 254 Plains for range feeding, 393 Poisonous plants, 423 Political unrest in leading sheep countries of South America, 15 Predatory animals, 312, 424 coyotes, 313 dogs, 312 Pregnancy, care of ewes during (sce Ewes during pregnancy), 236 Prolificacy in breeding, 32 Protein requirement for fattening, 378 Pure-bred flock method of sheep raising, 25 Racks, for sheep feeding, 364 INDEX Rambouillet sheep, 203 breeding qualities, 209 description, 206 distribution, 210 early records preserved, 203 export of, to South Africa, 17 French flocks, 203, 204 gestation period for, 66 importation to United States, 204 markings, 206 mutton, 209 Ohio State Fair classification, 209 origin of, 203 popularity of, 210 properties, 209 purpose in breeding, 203 type, 206 folded or wrinkled, 208 smooth or plain, 208 wool, 206 Ram, care of, after breeding season, 42 on western ranges, 410 condition of, for service, 232 exercise, 232 feed for, 233 masculinity in, 75 number of ewes served by, 234 influenced by method of hand- ling, 235 preparation of, for mating, 234 clipping, 234 painting between fore-legs to mark ewes, 234 teaser, use of, 234 running with flock, 232 selection of, for farm flock (see Farm flock), 224 for mating, 38 for range flocks, 229 Range flocks, ewes, selection of, 228 rams, selection of, 229 Range method of sheep raising, on enclosed lands, 20 advantages of, 22 supplemented by cultivated crops, 20 using herders, 20 Ranges, western, breeding of sheep on, 399 breeding season on, 410 rams, care of during, 410 473 Ranges, western, breeds for, 400 herding qualities, 400 Merino, 400 mutton breeds, 401 changes in past twenty-five years, 426 added cost, 427 charges for lands, 427 for maintenance, 427 investment in land, 428 of trailing from one range to another, 428 affect, on cost of production, 431 on cost per head, 431 allotments by National Forest service, 427 beneficial, 480 cultivated crops, 430 railway facilities, 430 greater investment required, 430 in range areas, 426 labor, better provision re- quired, 429 cost of, 429 inefficiency of, 428 occupancy by homesteaders, 426 classes of sheep on, 401 cultivated areas, 395 dipping, 419 equipment required, for lamb- ing, 409 for handling a band, 407 summer, 407 winter, 407 harvested crops supplementing winter range, 395 herding, 411 lambing, docking and castrating, 418 hurdling, method of, 417 last task of, 418 location for, 416 percentage of lambs, 419 period of, 416 extra helpers during, 417 shelter during, 416 rate of births, 417 leasing of, cost of, 399 from U. 8. Government, 395 474 Ranges, western, management of, 402 basis of, 402 fall and winter, 410, 411 herders and camp _ tenders, duties of, 402, 403 kind of men employed, 404 Mexican, 404 of California, 405 of Northwest, 405 provisions for, 405 labor required to handle a band, 402 in shearing season, 406 in lambing season, 406 losses, by ‘‘strays,” 423 from coyotes, 424 from lack of shelter, 422 from poisonous plants, 423 from predatory animals, 424 from snowstorms, 421 of young lambs, 424 problems in, 421 losses, 421 selling price, 425 shortage of feed, 424 ranch headquarters, 406 size of band, 402 spring and summer, 416 summer range, 421 transfer to, 419 wages per month in various states, 406 nature of range, 393 ownership of, 395 private, 399 railway land grants, 399 U. S. Government, 395 predatory animals, protection from, 416 profit and loss on, 421 shearers, 413 carelessness of, 413 hand, 412 nomadic life of, 413 shearing, 411 camps, 411 hand and machine, 412 number of fleeces removed per day, 412 types of land utilized, 393 foothills and mountains, 393 plains, 393 INDEX Ranges, western, wool, marketing of, 414 by auction sales, 415 by commission houses, 414 by contracting, 414 by coéperative selling, 415 expense of, 416 Rape, a cause of bloat, 280 caution in use of, 280 fattening power of, 280, 387 feeding value of, 279 growing of, 388 sown in corn, 280 Rations, dry lot, for suckling ewes, of Illinois Station, 269 of Ohio Station, 270 Record of service, keeping of, 231 Roots, a sheep feed, 239 feeding value of, 383 in fattening process, 377 Romney Marsh sheep, 164 description, 164 distribution, 166 history, 164 native home of, 164 old type, 164 properties of, 165 breeding qualities, 166 hardiness, 165 inutton quality, 166 resistance to disease, 165 aca as a grazing sheep, 6 wool, 165 Roughage and grain, proportion of in fattening process, 373 Roughages, comparison of, 385 feeding value of, carbonaceous, 383 for fattening, 382 legume hay, 382 Rye, feeding value of, 279 Ryeland breed, 173 Salt, feeding of, 361 Scab, eradication of from U. S., 309 symptoms, 308 treatment, 308 Scab mite, 307 dips for destruction of, 309 Scotch Blackface Highland sheep (see Blackface), 168 Self-feeders, 367, 372 Sex influence in fattening sheep, 371 INDEX Sex type or character, 75 Sex weakness in rams, 76 Seymour, Richard, 140 Shearers, carelessness of, 413 hand, 412 on western ranges, 413 Shearing, 322 early, objections to, 323 good, requirements for, 321 hand shears, 321 power machines preferable, 321 influence of, on fattening sheep, 372 of breeding ewes, 322 on western ranges, 412 places for, 323 time for, 322 farm flocks, 322 range sheep, 322 Shearing camps, 411 Shearing floor, 446 Shearing machines, power, 321 Shearing season, on western ranges, labor required during, 406 Sheep, & ruminant, 45 and lamb feeding (see Feeding), 26, 355 breeding of, on western ranges, 399 breeds of for range, 400 buildings for (see Buildings), 435 class of, on western ranges, 401 difference of, from other Bovide, 45 enemies of, 68 fattening of (see Feeding), 355 feeder (see Marlet classes), 349 fine-wool of Italy, 34 adaptability poor, 34 habits of, breeding (see Breeding habits), 64 feeding and drinking, 62 water requirement, 64 feeding ground, change of, 63 flocking instinct, 67 value of, 68 folding, 64 following the leader, 68 non-resistance to disease, 69 recognition of young, 66 short herbage preferred, 63 increase in value of, 13 judging of (see Judging sheep), 82 life of a, 59 age, indications of, 61 break-joint, the, 62 475 Sheep, teeth, 61 old age, 59 change of surroundings bene- ficial, 59 of slow development, 61 time of full growth, 59 management of, on western ranges (see Ranges, western), 402 market classes of (see Market classes), 340 mutton, grades of (see Market grades), 342 native home of, 63 nature of, 59 of England, adaptability of, 34 position in zoological scheme, 45 problems in improvement of, 27 structure of, 45 digestive tract, 57 intestines, 58 stomach, 58 teeth, 57, 61, 62 glands, foot, 46 functions of, 46 suborbital face, 46 hair, 52 cortex of, 53 cuticle, 53 follicle, 52 medulla, 53 hairy covering, variations in, 55 horns and hoofs, 55 interdigital pouch, 46 skeleton, 47 ribs, 48 sternum or breast-bone, 48 variations in effects of, 48 vertebre, 47 skin, and appendages, 51 color of, 51 glands of, 55 upper lip, 63 wool, 54 function of, 54 irregularity of growth, 55 variations in, 55 summer enemies of, 296 teeth of, at advanced age, 62 at various ages, 61 timidity and defencelessness of, 68 types of, 70 breed, 74 ang general type inseparable, 5 476 Sheep, types of, breed, constitution, 75 objectionable points, 75 sex character, 75 femininity, 78 masculinity, 76 importance of, 76 feeder, 81 general type, 75 market, 80 mutton breeds, 70 body, 71, 72 head, 70 hind quarters, 72 wethers, 81 wool breeds, 73 compared with mutton type, 7 4 folds and wrinkles of, 74 unimproved, appearance of, 27 westward movement of, 9 wounded by dogs, 312 treatment of, 312 Sheep breeding, adaptability of im- portance in U. 8., 35 Sheep countries, important, 17 : statistics tabulated, 18 Sheep feeding in U.S., history of, 335 origin of, 335 day of the large operators, 336 farmer feeders, 338 advantages of, over large operator, 338 feeding yards, 335 screenings-fed animals, 335 Sheep industry (see Sheep raising) Sheep population, changes in centers of, 10 in New Zealand, density of, 15 Sheep raising, adaptability a problem in, 33 _ neglected, 35 changes in centers of, 10 combining mutton and wool, 33 development of, in various conu- tries, 3 early domestication and impor- tance, 3 for breeding purposes, 25 in Argentine Republic, 15 in Australia, 13 INDEX Sheepraising, mutton breeds increas- ing, 14 ; in Australia, present importance, 14 progress of, 13 in England, 6 oe iat ts and Spain, dissimilarities of, 5 events affecting, 6 Bakewell’s improvement of breed, 7 grant of protection to weavers, etc., 6 plague of 1348, 6 root and clover crops, introduction of, 7 in farming regions, 13 in New Zealand, 14 density of sheep population, 15 paddock or fencing system, 15 in North America, 9 colonial times, 9 the Embargo Act, 8 Merinos, importation of, 10 mutton breeds, introduction of, 13 in South Africa, 16 conditions unfavorable, 17 in South America, 15 mutton breeds, 16 present status, 16 political revolutions a hin- drance to, 16 Southdowns, 16 in Spain, 3 Merino, 3 monopoly of, 4 broken, 5 stationary flocks, 6 increase in value, 13 present types of, in leading sheep countries, 20 farm flock method, 22 hurdling method, 23 objects of, 24 pure-bred flock method, 25 range method, on enclosed lands, 20 advantages of, 22 supplemented by culti- vated crops, 20 ; using herders, 20 prolificacy in, 32 Sheep wagon, 407 Shelter and shade, 293 INDEX Bhelienend shade, for fattening sheep, type of, 363 for lambing, 246 for pregnant ewes, 241 in pasture, 275 losses due to lack of, 423 movable, 294 protection from summer rains, 295 trees, 293 parasites, danger of, under, 294 Shepherd, the, 250 Shepherding and feeding, 37 Shropshires, 110 breeding qualities, 119 ewes, 119 rams, 120 description, 114 development, method of, 110 coéperation of breeders, 112 eross-breeding, 111 distribution, 121 form and weight, 115 formation of breed, 40 history, 110 horns, 118 line breeding in England, 40 markings, 118 of present day, 115 old types, 110 prolificacy of, 119. properties of, hardiness and feed- ing, 118 mutton, 118 -recognition as a breed, 114 skin, 118 style, 116 uniformity of type, 41 wool, 116 color of, 117 Silage, feeding value of, 383 corn, 384 pea, 384 pea hull; 358 sorghum, 384 for pregnant ewes, 238 in fattening process, 376 Silo, location of, 447 Skeleton of sheep, 47 ribs, 48 sternum or breast-bone, 48 variations in effects of, 48 vertebre, 47 477 Skin of sheep, 51 Skin and appendages, 52 color of, 51 Slaughter, care of animal before, 449 equipment required for, 450 method of, 450 carcass, care of, 453 cutting of, 455 breast, 458 leg, 458 loin, 458 ribs, 458 shoulder, 459 removal of pelt, 450 of viscera, 452 sticking, 450 of lambs, for special markets, 458 South Devon breed, 179 Southdown, 102 a preéminent mutton breed, 107 breeding qualities, 108 i cross-breeding, 108 description, 105 disqualifications, 107 distribution, regional, 109 features, 106 form and weight, 105 gestation period for, 66 hardiness and feeding qualities, 107 history of, 102 improvement by Ellman, 102 by Webb, 105 in South America, introduction of, 15 markings and skin, 106 old type, 102 properties of, 107 societies for promotion of breed, 109 South Africa, sheep raising in, 16 South America, sheep raising in, 15 Soybeans, a cause of bloat, 281 feeding value of, 280 Spain, sheep raising in, 3 the Merino, 3 monopoly of, 4 broken, 5 stationary flocks, 5 Spanish Merinos, adaptability of, 34 Stags, 341 Stomach of sheep, 58 Stomach worm, 296 eradication of, 299 changing pasture, 299 478 Stomach worm, eradication of. drenches, 300 coal-tar creosote, 301 copper sulfate, 301 gasoline, 301 : how to give, 302 when to give, 303 keeping host animals off pas- tures, 300 plowing the land, 300 examination for, 298 harm done by, 299 life history of, 296 eggs, 296 larve, ensheathed, 297 temperature, effect of, on, 297 young, 297 mature worm, 298 prevention of, by use of dry lot, 303 symptoms of, 299 Straw, feeding value of, 383 Strays, losses by, 424 Student’s score card No. 9, 84 Suborbital face glands, 46 Suffolk breed, 137 breeding qualities, 137 description, 137 distribution, 139 for cross-breeding, 139 hardiness, 139 history, 137 mutton quality, 137 properties, 137 Summer enemies of the flock, 296 Supplies for lambing; 247 Tape-worm, 304 symptoms, 304 Teaser, 234 Teeth of sheep, 57 indicators of age, 61 of advanced age, 62 Territory wools, 320 Ticks, 306 Timothy, fattening value of, 387 feeding value of, 276 Tobacco dip, 310 Troughs, feeding, 364, 441 watering, 445 Tunis, American, 184 breeding habits of, 64 description, 186 INDEX Tunis, history, 184 properties, 187 wool, 187 Twine tying,, 325 Types of sheep (see Sheep, types of), 325 Udder troubles, 255 garget, 255 inflammation, 255 teats, hard core in, 256 sore, 256 United States, cross-breeding in, 41 sheep raising in, adaptability important, 35 Water, for fattening sheep, 361 Weaning, 291 feeding lambs after, 292 procedure in, 291 proper age for, 291 separation of lambs from ewes, 292 treatment of ewes after, 293 Webb, Jonas, 102 Southdowns improved by, 105 Welsh Mountain sheep, 172 Wensleydale sheep, 175 Wethers, 78, 341 fattening of, 370 feeder, scarcity of, 370 Wheat bran, feeding value of, 381 screenings, feeding value of, 381 White scours, 264 Wiltshires, 122 Womb, eversion of, after lambing, 254 treatment of, 254 Wool, best types of, 223 branding with paint detrimental to, 317 classifications and grades of, 318 classes of, age influence on, 318 carpet, 318 clothing, 318 combing, 318 comparative value of, 318 noils, 318 cleanliness, 317 color, 28 condition, 316 counts to which it will spin, 320 cross-bred, 30 fibers, off-colored, 314 strength of, 315 tests for, 315 INDEX Wool, fine, 27 production of, by Romans, 28 importance of, 28 foreign, classes and corresponding counts for American grade, 320 counts or number of hanks to pound, 320 function of, 54 grades of, 318 importance of, 314 in new countries, 8 improvement of, 27 combined with mutton, 33 effect of newer manufacturing processes on, 30 irregularity of growth, 55 kemps in, 314 marketing of, 327 expense of, 416 from western ranges, 414 auction sales, 415 commission houses, 415 contracting, 414 codperative selling, 415 of American Merino, A-type, 193 B-type, 196 C-type, 196 of American Tunis, 187 of Australian Merino, 13 of Cheviot, 147 of Corriedale, 180 of Cotswold, 158 of Delaine Merino, 196 of Dorset Horn, 141 of Hampshires, 127 of Karakul, 212 of Leicester, 152 of Lincoln, 161 of Oxfords, 134 of Rambouillet, 206 of Romney Marsh, 165 of Shropshires, 116 479 Wool, packing, 326 separation of grades and color, 327 requisites of, 314 shearing (see Shearing), 322 storing of, 327 structure of, 54 trueness of, 314 tabulation of grades produced from different breeds of sheep, 321 territory, 320 texture, variations in, 55 trade names, 327 tying, 321 twine, 325 uniformity, 314 various properties of, combined, 29 Wool breeds, 73, 188 comparison with mutton type, 74 Merino, American, 190 A-type, 193 B-type, 196 C-type, 196 Black Top, Spanish, 201 Improved, 201 Delaine, 200 Rambouillet, 203 skin folds and wrinkles of, 74 Wool crop, 314 Wool growing, Australian, 13 improvement in, 27 in various countries, 29 Wool room, 446 Wool trade, glossary of terms used in, 327 Wounds, caused by dogs, treatment of, 312 Yearlings, 341 fattening of, 370 feeder, scarcity of, 370 Young, recognition of, by ewes, 66