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AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY o PUBLICATIONS
NUMBER 7

Genesis and Development
of Sand Formations on
Marine Coasts

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

The Sand Strand Flora
of Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

PUBLISHED
BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF
AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL.
AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS
1910

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001776685

AUGUSTANA o LIBRARY o PUBLICATIONS
. NUMBER 7

Genesis and Development
of Sand Formations on
Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

The Sand Strand Flora
of Marine Coasts

BY

PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER, Pu. D.

PUBLISHED
BY THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF
AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
ROCK ISLAND; ILLINOIS

ROCK ISLAND, ILL.
AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS
1910

The Denkmann Memorial Library is a gift to the Augustana College and
Theological Seminary from the heirs of the late Mr. and Mrs. Frederick C. A.
Denkmann of Rock Island: Mrs. Thomas B. Davis, Mr. Frederick C. Denk-
mann, Mrs. William H. Marshall, Mrs. Edward S. Wentworth, Mr. Edward
P. Denkmann, and Miss Susanne C. Denkmann.

The gift was announced January 28, 1908. Work on the building was
begun in 1909, the corner stone was laid January 21, 1910, and the structure
is expected to be completed in 1911.

The building is a modernized version of the Italian renaissance, built
most substantially of Missouri limestone of a beautiful texture and extremely
hard quality. The foundation is of concrete. The roof is tile. The first story
is treated as a base to the upper story, which contains the large reading
room extending across the front. In this reading room are five windows on
the front, which is 120 teet, giving the structure a massive appearance. In
the first story are located the administrative offices, a memorial hall, and
a lecture room. The building is ninety-six feet deep through the middle part,
the rear being an addition containing the book stack which will hold 120,000
volumes, the librarians’s room, and several seminar rooms. In the basement
are strove rooms and a rest room for girls. In the attic is a museum room.

@. 33007

“III ‘GNWISI MOOU ‘ADATION VNVISIONV ‘AUVUAI'I IVINONGN NNVIVINGG

Genesis and Development of Sand Forma-
tions on Marine Coasts
by
Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

CONTENTS

Their sculptural forms...........0cceceseeeee
Polygenetic origin of a dune-complex
Sand fields near the coasts
Conditions for plant life
Bibliography

Genesis and Development of Sand Forma-
tions on Marine Coasts.

By Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

Since the year 1891 I have been studying the sand formations on
marine coasts and their flora and vegetation. During the years 1891
to 1899 my investigations were confined to the coasts of the Baltic.
The last mentioned year I also investigated the dunes on the Danish
North Sea Coast, in Holland, and in certain parts of Scotland and
France. In 1900—1901 observations were made in Southern Sweden,
in various places in Denmark, on the South Coast of England, in
Southern Italy, at Port Said, in Egypt, in Western Australia, and in
Queensland.

Various coasts in Australia, from Central Queensland to Western
Australia, through New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia,
were visited and re-visited during 1902. In New Zealand only part
of the North Cape was made subject to a brief and hurried visit and
notes of the strand vegetation were taken during stays in various
islands of the Pacific, such as the New Hebrides, Solomon Islands,
Samoa and Hawaii.

On the Pacific coast of North America the dunes at San Francisco
and Monterey Bay were studied in 1903—05. During 1905, I also
visited the coastal sands at Santa Barbara and Santa Monica, in
Southern California, as well as several sand dune districts on the Pacific
coast of Mexico, such as Salina Cruz, in the innermost part of the
Gulf of Tehuantepec, and San Benito, near the Guatemalan border.
The extensive sand dunes near Vera Cruz, in Mexico, on the Gulf side,
were investigated in August of the same year. In December, sand
strands were studied at Mazatlan, a Mexican port on the eastern shore
of the Gulf of California, as well as at San Blas in Mexico and
Champerico in Guatemala.

The large field these observations cover have given me ample oppor-

tunity to make comparisons of the coastal sands in various climates
Library Publications. 1

10 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

and under the most different natural conditions. In the present pape?
I propose to deal briefly with some of the marine sand formations, their
origin, development, and classification, so far as it is necessary to
demonstrate the most fundamental facts of this subject and the principles
on which they are based. I also give short comments upon the principal
dune districts visited in the course of my studies.

To Prorsssor Wm. R. Duptey of Leland Stanford Junior University
I am greatly indebted for many favors in connection with my work,
and I have also to express my acknowledgments to Dr. JoHan ERIKSON,
Karlskrona, Sweden, Dr. K. R. Kupprer, Riga, Russia, Dr. W. J.
Smiru, Leeds, England, B. H. Woopwarp, Esq., F. R. G. &., Perth,
Western Australia, C. E. Bensow, Esq., C. E., Sidney, New South
Wales, Dr. L. Cockayne, Christchurch, New Zealand, and various other
persons, who have assisted me with information and photographs.

SAND FORMATIONS IN GENERAL.

When we consider the factors which have given rise to the formation
of sand, the principal ones are the atmospheric and the aqueous agen-
cies, which also are the most important in transportation and distribu-
tion of the material. It will therefore be convenient to distinguish
between the following general classes of sand deposits:

1. Eolian sand formations.

2. Neptunian sand formations.

The term eolian in this connection was to my knowledge first used in
1835 by R. J. Nelson1) and it signifies the agency of wind. Kolian
deposits exhibit a different composition and structure from the nep-
tunian, those sediments which have been built up by the water. The
transporting power of water being considerably greater than that of
wind, it necessarily follows that the material moved by aqueous agencies
varies more in size than that which is carried by the wind. We will
have ample opportunity to note this difference as we proceed in our
inquiry.

No rational nomenclature for the different kinds of soil constituents,
neither of inorganic nor of organogenetic origin, has yet been agreed
upon, and it will thus be necessary to give here the designations which
have been used during my observations in the field.

1) Proceedings of Geological Society of London, Vol. II., p. 160.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 11

Diameter of grains in millimeters.

Fine dust or silt.............. 0.02— 0.03
Medium dust or silt........... 0.083— 0.05
Coarse dust or silt............ 0.05— 0.1
Finest sand ................. 0.1 — 0.2
ne Band 2 conesrepuaenmermaan 0.2 — 0.3°
Medium sand ................ 0.8 — 0.5
Coarse sand ..............04. 0.5— 1
GIGS sept ccaiaecssnistaycost-Gugcane Garaealav 1 — 2
GAVEL aisipscsiacc ue eww eed See anaes 2 — 4
Coarse gravel ................ 4 — 6

PP ODDIGS sore hin eeuemraramancea wea 6 — 10
Coarse pebbles ............... 10 — 20
Shingle s.csmeweuesvermemen se 20 — 50
SLONES) ewicne nae oh aneeiiecens 50 —250
Boulders ...............-0... 250 —Upwards

The limit of the coarseness of sand grains is here considered as
0.2—0.1 mm. When the grains are finer than 0.05 mm., the soil 1)
has lost the physical properties of sand. It does not feel gritty to the
fingers, and if it is dropped on a level and hard surface the grains
will not separate but congregate in small heaps. It needs several minutes
to sink in water to the bottom of a test tube. When over 0.05 mm.
the soil has, however, more of the characteristics of real sand. It is
then gritty, when pulverized between the fingers. If scattered dry, it
will separate into grains conspicuous to the naked eye. When mixed
with water in the test tube, it sinks rapidly, usually in less than one
minute, and it is to a noticeable degree conductive of water. It is
difficult in practice to draw the lower limit for sand of a certain coarse-
ness, because the soil is more or less mixed. On account of the difference
in specific gravity of the grains many samples contain grains of different
grades.

In the above table the measurements of diameter refer to the average
sized grains in each class. The term sand has here been applied to soil,
the grains of which are under 1 mm., while a coarseness of 1—2 mm.
has entitled the soil to the name of grits. When the chief ingredient
is particles larger than 2 mm. and below 6 mm. the soil has been
designated as gravel.

Common sand is 2,100 times heavier than dry air, while only 2.5 to

1) The term soil is in this paper used in itS broadest technical sense to
designate the loose material constituting the disintegfated superficial layers
of the earth’s surface.

12 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

2.7 times heavier than water. A strong breeze is therefore required
to raise the dust of a road for transportation by the wind, and a still
stronger breeze to raise quartz sand; while large pebbles are seldom
lifted from the ground. The winds are also extremely irregular in their
movements and action. The trades over the ocean have a higher degree
of uniformity than other winds, but the velocity is generally only 10 to
20 km. an hour. The winds that do the chief part of eolian geological
work are those of storms, whose velocity per hour is from 50 to more
than 100 km. Such winds are very unsteady in their action, blowing
in gusts, in which there is a sudden increase to a maximum and a slower
decline to a minimum. There is no constancy in force even for an
hour, and no uniformity over large areas.

The transporting power of water, on the contrary, is very great;
strong waves or torrents being able to move rocks weighing hundreds
of tons. By experiments it has been found that a current moving at
the rate of 25 cm. per second is able to carry fine sand, while a velocity
of 50 cm. is sufficient to transport coarse gravel. The action of water
is, moreover, very constant as a rule, and the waves on a long coast,
for instance, exert their uniform influence over a considerable area.

We must not, however, confound the transporting power of these
agencies, wind and water, with their erosive power. In one case it is
the weight, in the other the cohesion, that offers the resistance. Neither
wind nor water has any greater erosive power by itself. It is where
mud or sand is carried by the wind or water, that a friction arises which
removes the particles, loosened by decaying and other processes, from
their original place.

Water is efficient in denudation by 1) dissolving of rocks, 2) trans-
portation of the material which assists in the eroding work, and 3) car-
rying away the debris. The analogous functions of wind are: 1) trans-
portation of the material which triturates and erodes all substances in
its way, and 2) distribution.

A water current when overloaded with solids will deposit; when under-
loaded it will erode. A sandladen wind always both cuts and deposits.
Dry sand, wind borne, is an unobtrusive agent, working silently but
diligently on the task of paring away the surface. It leaves no monu-
ments to show the magnitude of its results, as does denudation by
water. River beds and sandbanks are examples of the excavating and
building up through sedimentation by the water.

_Water is a base teveler in the sense that it transfers material from
higher places to lower; but where it erodes, it always works more rapidly

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 13

along the lowest lines and leaves ridges and islands, by which its results
can be measured. The water currents have, at any one spot, but a
single direction, and the furrows and mouldings of the curved surface
are grouped in a single system; but the wind may blow in many direc-
tions, and produces series of corresponding complexity.

It is a well known law in dynamical geology that all sedimentary
deposits are stratified. This lamination is somewhat different when
caused by eolian influence than when resulting from the action of water.
The sorting power of water is more distinct than that of wind, because
of the greater regularity of water currents.

As a consequence of the rapid variations to which the transporting
power of the wind is subjected, eolian deposits are generally straticulate,
finer and coarser laminae succeeding each other in indefinite alterations.
But there is not the evenness of layer characterizing aqueous deposits,
even when made over level surfaces. To make beds without straticula-
tion would require winds without these irregularities—little varying
and long continuing,—such as few regions have, except those that have
winds of too moderate velocity to carry any but the finest particles.
The gusty winds also tend, by their denuding as well as transporting
work, to make wavy rather than plane upper surfaces. Moreover, any
barrier, as a projecting rock or a stump, or a tuft of grasses, causes
a heaping of the sands around the obstacle, and makes curving surfaces
in the heaps, owing to the eddies in the air.

We must here consider the following kinds of lamination:

1) horizontal

2) oblique

3) flow- and plunge
4) irregular.

Horizontal strata are developed in water only, especially in non-
running water. Each lamination here represents different conditions
of the water in which the sediment is deposited, and oblique lamination
or cross-bed structure is a result of deposition by rapid shifting currents,
carrying material of varying coarseness. While strictly horizontal lami-
nation cannot be formed by winds, obliquely laminated layers occur in
eolian deposits, indicating that somewhat regular winds have blown
for some time.

This cross-bed structure of the sediments is characterized by a lami-
nation in a plane, oblique to the horizon. It results from the pushing
along of the sand by currents, causing at first a little elevation, and

14 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

then the deposition of successive layers over the front slope of the
elevation. If the currents are transient, alternating with conditions of
still water, the obliquely laminated beds will alternate with others
horizontally laminated. Such laminations may be due to changes of
wind or tide, or to the periodical or occasional fluctuations in the
volume of rivers.

The flow- and plunge structure has been caused by plunging waves
accompanying the rapid flow of a current, through which action the
oblique laminae have been broken up into short, wavelike parts. This
lamination bears evidence of being the result of an agent less variable,
and moving slower than that which has formed the irregular structure —
so characteristic of most eolian deposits.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COASTAL SAND FORMA-
TIONS.

The sand formations, which will come under discussion in connection
with our present subject, all have their origin ultimately due to the
action of the sea. We can conveniently divide these marine formations
into following groups:

1. Submarine sand banks.
2. Sandy islands.

3. Sandy spits.

4. Sandy beaches.

1. The first class of formations or submarine sand banks are formed
by the combined action of streams and the waves of the sea, or by the
latter alone. Most of these accumulations contain more or less of river
detritus, which is brought down to the sea during floods. The ocean’s
waves and currents meet it as the tide sets in, with a counter action,
or one from the sea landward; between the two the waters, as they
lose their velocity, drop the detritus over the bottom. Where the river
is very large and the tides feeble, the banks and reefs extend far out
to sea. Where the tide is strong, sand bars are formed, and the stronger
the tide, the closer are the sand bars to the coast. Where the stream
is small, the ocean may throw a sand bank quite across its mouth, so
that there may be no egress to the river waters except by percolation
through the sand; or, if a channel is left open, it may be only a
shallow one.

In other cases the material constituting the sand banks is derived

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 15

from the land through the erosion and transportation of waves and cur-
rents. This material consists usually of coarse or fine sand, but may
include some beds of pebbles or stones when the currents are strong.
The stratification is comparatively regular and nearly horizontal.

2. When the accumulations just spoken of increase under wave-
action in shallow water, until they rise above low tide level, they form
sandy islands.

3. Sandy spits are the lengthwise extensions of beaches formed
through the waves throwing material on shoals at the turn of the shore.
Their composition is.similar to that of the above formations.

4. Sandy beaches are made by material thrown up on the shore by
waves. This material is coarse where the waves break heavily, because,
although trituration is going on at all times, the powerful wave action
and the undertow carry off the finer material seaward into the offshore
shallow waters, where it settles over the bottom or is distributed by
currents. It is fine where the waves are gentle in movement, as in
sheltered bays, or estuaries, the triturated material accumulating in
such places near where it is made.

As soon as the accumulations of eroded material have increased so
far as to rise above the surface of the water, the further growth is
similar to that of the beaches, and from these latter other coastal sand
formations such as dunes and sand fields are developed by the influence
of wind. The development of these two kinds of eolian sand formations
will be discussed in detail under separate headings.

It is a well known fact that the salts of seawater hasten the deposi-
tion of sediments, and consequently the shape and formation of sand
banks and beaches on marine coasts is somewhat different from those
of corresponding freshwater deposits. I have not been able to ascertain
whether the seawater acts differently on siliceous material than on clay
sediments. We usually find that deposits nearer the shore or the source
of the material contain more silica than further out in the deep water,
but this may depend on the usually large size and the greater weight
of the siliceous fragments, which causes them to sink sooner.

In order to determine this, experiments were conducted in the labora-
tory. I tried ordinary seawater from the Baltic, of a salinity of 0.6%
measured with areometer, and artificially prepared solutions of resp.
2.7% and 3% corresponding to the salt content of ocean water. Finely
ground clay and beach sand were stirred in the water samples, and
allowed to settle in vessels 25 cm., 50 cm., and 100 cm. deep, all being
42 cm. in diameter. The following results were obtained:

16 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

Depth of vessel. No. of vessel. pane acc iadidaciniees
| cent. Silica, Clay,
[ 1 fresh 29 38
25 em. 42 0.6 10 12
3 2.7 2 2.5
[4 3.0 1.75 2.25
| fs fresh 42 50
50 cm. 46 0.6 14 16
7 2.7 3 3.7
8 3.0 2.50 3.25
9 fresh 68 84
100 cm. 10 0.6 24 30
11 2.7 5 6.25
12 3.0 4.25 5.25

As will be seen from this table, silica in all cases both in salt and
fresh water settled faster than clay. Whether this fact was merely a
result of a greater weight of the siliceous particles, or whether other
factors influenced the sedimentation, I was unable to decide. At all
events it was evident that the salt produces a considerable flocculation
in the water. The primary cause of the growth of the deposit in water
is sedimentation, but in many cases the rising of the level of the coast-
line has to be taken into consideration as a secondary factor. It is
often difficult to determine to what extent the rate of growth of a
deposit is due to one of these factors-or the other. Especially is this
the case on a low coast, where the growth always takes place more rap-
idly than on a steeper shore. The horizontal growth of the deposit is
also much greater on coasts protected by islands than on open coasts
with deep water, where the material is more easily carried away.

With regard to the position of the marine sediments it will be
noticed that they are apparently horizontal, and the tendency is to level
the beds through filling all depressions. The coarser sediments are
always nearer the shore in comparatively narrow lines, parallel to the
coast, whereas the finer sediments are spread over a larger area further
off the shore. Banks and beaches are always sloping gently seawards,
and they are, perhaps, somewhat steeper on marine coasts than on fresh
water shores, general conditions being equal.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 17

We have here also to consider the peculiar results of the wave-action
of both water and wind, which are generally known by the name of
tipple marks, a term introduced by Lyell.

The phenomena of rippling have in recent times had a careful ob-
server in Cornish, and the following statements are principally based
ou his studies of this problem, although the laws and facts presented by
him have-been subjected to a detailed investigation in the field by the
present writer, and J am able in a few instances to bring forward some
evidence in support of Cornish’s theories.

The same factor which causes the wave formation of water has a
similar influence on the sand. The resulting wave-forms or ripples
consist of alternate ridges and furrows made by the wash of the waters
over a sand flat or beach, or over the bottom within soundings. They
may also be made by the action of wind on a surface of sand. When
the ripples are formed through the action of water we can distinguish
between

1. wave formed ripples,
2. current made ripple marks, and
3. tidal sand ripples. ;

The parallel formations of wind made sand waves are
4. eolian sand ripples, and
5. dunes.

Comparing waves of water with those of a more solid medium, such
as sand, we find that, while in the case of water two kinds of waves,
oscillatory and wind driven, can be recognized, wave formation in sand
is always connected with onward movement of the particles. In oscil-
latory waves the water particles on the crest are moving forward, but
those in the trough backward with the same velocity and consequently
the water body as such does not move in either direction. It is cus-
tomary to express this motion by saying that the particles move in a
circular orbit. When the waves are wind driven the forward velocity
is greater than the backward, and a bodily movement of the water in
the direction of the acting force is the result. The curve described by
the water particles is still closed, having a trochoidal form. In the case
of drifting sand the particles from the crest of the wave move in curves,
which are open.

Wave-formed sand ripples have an unsymmetrical form, always facing
with the waves. Current made ripple marks are similarly unsymmetrical
in form, the sheltered side being steeper, and the front facing the cur-

18 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

rent. Tidal sand ripples, first described by Reynolds!) and later by
Cornish2) occur in estuaries and also on some shores where the sand
is exposed to waves as well as currents. Cornish is of the opinion that
they do not require for their formation any cooperation between flood
and ebb currents. The size and form of these ripples is constantly
changing with the variations in the tide. Cornish describes this in the
following words:

“At neap tides the sands were nearly smooth, and as the tides in-
creased the tidal sand ripples appeared, short and relatively steep. The
amplitude increased steadily, the average wave-length also increased,
apparently by elimination of some of the ridges. When the highest
spring tide was passed the amplitude rapidly diminished, the wave-
length remaining nearly, but not quite constant, and the mean sand
level remaining practically unchanged.”

Tidal sand ripples sometimes attain a considerable size, Cornish
giving the wave length of from 1 to 6.7m. I have often noticed a finer
rippling of the proper tidal ripples, and in two instances, on the east-
ern coast of Australia, I observed the tidal sand ripples crossed by
another set of large ripples. These were formed by a sudden change of
the direction of the tide current through the overflow of a neighboring
stream. Both these sets of wave formations were then beautifully
rippled in the usual way by little current marks, facing almost trans-
versely the second set of larger ripples. Cornish attributes the forma-
tion of current marks to the pulsation of the fluid rather than to the
current itself.

In the formation of eolian sand ripples it is the heterogeneity of the
material which is of the greatest importance. The sorting action of
wind is remarkable, and it is evident at the first glance on a group of
ripples that the heavier grains always constitute the crest, the lighter
the trough. A moderate range of sizes of grains seems therefore most
favorable to the formation of ripples.

Darwin?) remarked the uniformity of pattern in the ripples formed
by wind, which uniformity, as a rule, is absent from ripples made in

1) Reports of committee appointed to investigate the action of waves
and currents on the beds and foreshores of estuaries by means of working
models. — British Association for Advancement of Science, Reports ’89,
90, °91.

2) The formation of wave surfaces in sand.— Scot. Geogr. Mag. 17:
1—11. 1901.

3) G. H. Darwin: On ripple mark. — Proceedings of Royal Society,
London, vol. 36. 1883.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 19

water, When the wind blows upon the sand, a winnowing process takes
place, the finer particles being carried farther away than the coarser
material, which then produces the ridges of heavier grains mentioned
above. This uniformity of pattern connected with the fact that the
wave length increases with the time during which the force of the
wind is acting upon the sand led Cornish1) to advance the following
law for rippling by wind: The rippling takes place when the eddy
in the lee of the larger grains is of sufficient strength to lift the smaller.

The systematically corrugated surface of loose sand can only be
produced by a wind that is not too strong for the larger grains to remain
on the ground. If the breeze is too strong no rippling whatever takes
place as all the particles of sand then will be transported. If on the
other hand the wind is too weak to make an eddy, the sand moves slowly,
but does not form ripples.

The height of the waves and their distances from each other is larger
the larger the grains are. The movement of the waves is of different
rapidity and depends on the force of wind and the size of the grains.
It is naturally more rapid when the wind is stronger and the sand fine.
Following results were obtained by the author from a number of meas-
urements of amplitude or height of ridge and wave-length of sand
ripples made by wind on the coast of West Australia. All measurements
are given in millimeters,

Coarseness Wave Number of measure
No. of Amplitude. ments of which

grains. length sample is average.
1. 0.7 8.6 36 34
2. 0.6 3.1 : 29° 6
3. 0.4 3.7 34 3
4, 0.3 2.5 AY 14
5. 0.8 6.2 40 8
6. 0.6 4.4 39 6
se 0.7 8.7 51 25
8. 0.8 8.3 68 ral
9. 0.6 14.6 82 19

These measurements serve to,support the results obtained by Cornish
and the law advanced by him, that amplitude and wave-length increase

1) On the formation of sand dunes.— Geographical Journal, vol. IX:
280.

20 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

in same proportion, THis other conclusion that regular rippling has
an amplitude of three grains from trough to crest, seems to me rather
hasty. I have, however, not made any regular observations to test this
statement, it being of minor importance in connection with my present
inquiry.

For the study of wave forms, which as a legitimate.subject for in-
vestigation has attracted the attention of several scientists since the
time of Newton, Cornish has proposed!) the term Kumatology
(kiya -wave).

Accepting this name for the sake of convenience, the writer has to
point out that the digressions here made into the domain of Kumatology
have been necessary in order to arrive at a better understanding of the
factors which control the movements of sand, the interpretation of
which is in many respects still contradictory. ,

SANDY BEACHES.

The beach may be defined as that strip of the shore which is formed
by the agency of waves. As a rule, it is situated between the lowest
level of the water and the formations produced by other geological
agents.

The method of beach formation has already been indicated. It was
mentioned that the mechanical action of the sea is evidenced in the
phenomena of erosion, transportation and sedimentation. The eroding
action of the sea is especially prominent on steep rocky shores, and on
places where the difference between low and high tide is great.

The material from the rocks eroded by the waves as well as the sand
and silt carried down to the rivers, sinks to the bottom of the sea and
is again transported by the waves and currents to the coast, there to
be accumulated. Although the transporting power of the waves 1s im-
mensely great, the distances to which rocks or even sand can be carried.
is limited. In sediments of a clastic nature a sifting takes place through
the action of the waves against the shore, the finer material being carried
farther away, while the coarser is left on the shore. On very steep
shores, only larger pebbles and gravel are found, on lower fine sand, and
on very low coasts, silt.

If we consider the movements of the sand on a low shore, we will

1) Geographical Journal, March 1897 and June 1898.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 21

notice that the sand grains follow the movement of the waves, that
is roll up and down. The deposit of sand takes place only when the
returning current does not carry back all material brought forward by
the wave. It follows that the velocity of the forward movement must
be greater than that of the returning current which is possible only on
very low strands, the sloping angle of which is not greater than five
degrees. If the size of the grains is large, the angle naturally also
changes. At the limit to which the wave reaches, an instantaneous ab-
sorption.of the very thin strata of water takes place in the sand, so
that the returning current does not begin at this limit, but at a place
lower down. It is easy to determine the width of this belt in which the
absorption takes place, as the sand surface first is shining by the water
and then quickly turns dull. The width is always varying, and is in
direct relation to the strength of the waves, and also to the sloping
angle of the beach. During a strong gale and on a very low strand,
this belt is from 2m. upwards on the Baltic coast, and on the western
coasts of Australia and the Pacific coast of America, where the mighty
waves of the ocean strike the shore with all their force, this belt is still
much broader. Secondly, deposits take place only on coasts, the sloping
angle of which is not more than 5 to 10 degrees. This angle is about 5
degrees with a grain size of 0.5 to 1 mm. in diameter. With finer sand,
under 0.5 mm., as is the case on many places on sheltered shores on
the Baltic coasts, it sinks to between 1 and 2 degrees, while with larger
grains, from 1 to 3 mm., an angle of 7 or even 8.5 degrees is formed.
With a steeper slope, deposition does not take place, but a denudation
is commenced.

Sandy beaches afford a certain protection of the coast line against -
the erosive action of waves and surf. During the constant landward
urging of the sediments the coarser ingredients of the arenaceous
material soon cease to roll, and come to rest, and as the deposits are
augmented they will offer sufficient resistance to reduce the energy
of the wave, and consequently the erosion is diminished.

That beach sands remain unworn depends to a great extent on the
fact that the particles do not touch each other, as each one is surrounded
by a film of water. The beating of the waves also compresses the inter-
stitial water, and the solitary grains are thus not tossed about and
therefore do not grind and wear.

The presence of a considerable amount of interstitial water in the
beach sand washed by the waves is demonstrated when through the
pressure of the foot on the sand this whitens because of the expulsion

22 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

of water, while as soon as the foot is lifted the original dull color is
quickly resumed.

Very fine sand is angular, and the rounding by water is produced
only when the strength of the current is not sufficient to keep the grains
suspended, but yet capable of moving them. The specific gravity of the
volume of sand is always smaller than that of the solitary grains. The
latter leave between each other spaces which are filled with air and
water; if all the grains were of the same size and exactly spherical,
the specific gravity of the volume of sand would be independent of the
absolute size of the grains, but as soon as grains of different sizes are
mixed, the small grains fill the spaces between the larger and hence
increase the specific gravity. This latter is also, the mineral character
of the grains being equal, higher the more dissimilar the grains are.

The texture of the sand in each locality depends entirely upon the
nature of the rocks from which it was originally derived. Through
having a comparatively large mixture of different sizes, and consisting
of the most different minerals of different specific gravity, beach sands
exhibit considerable differences in texture. On almost every non-rocky
coast, however, some kind of accumulation of fine grained quartz sand
can be noticed.

By quartz sand we understand a soil consisting mainly of white or
yellowish quartz grains, among which only very seldom any organic mat-
ter is distributed. Being conspicuously free from foreign constituents,
quartz sand is very uniform. It is generally believed that the pure
quartz sand on marine shore is a special result of the action of the sea.
This is, however, not the case. I have examined many samples of the
littoral sediments on different coasts, but never found the clean white
quartz sand of the beach occuring on the bottom of the sea. On the
contrary, the sandy sediment under water is-impure, mixed with organic
matter, and highly colored. As soon as the sand is thrown ashore by
the wave and current action, and left at the water level, it is picked
up by the wind and carried inland. And if we observe the sand of the
beach from the edge of the water landward, we will find that it becomes
cleaner the further it is from the sea. This fact is mentioned by several
authors; for instance, Serres,1) who speaks of it in discussing the
French Mediterranean coast. Beach formations are very irregular in
stratification in their upper portions, where they are made by the toss

1) Marcel de Serres: Der Treib- und Flugsand des Mittelliindischen Meeres.
—Peterm. Mitth. V: 197—198. 1859.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 23

of the waves combined with the drifting of the winds. But the sloping
part swept by the waves below high-tide level is very evenly stratified
parallel to the surface: This surface dips usually at an angle of 5° to
15°. Generally speaking the coarsest beaches have the steepest slopes.
The sand of the beach is increased or decreased according to the weather—
and the seasons, it being thickest in summer and thinnest in winter, and
sometimes the beach is almost stripped of sand after a series of gales.
On the beach, there is formed a ridge of sand during offshore winds.
The sand is readily raised by the breakers and usually an excavation
or trough is found at the back of the ridge. This is similar to the
excavation and elevation produced in ripples. When the wind goes
down, a succession of low ridges are formed concave on the side toward
the sea, but as soon as a wave reaches over the top of the ridge, the
concavity is filled and an edge with uniformly sloping sides is formed.
The height of this beach ridge is usually not very considerable on the
Baltic coasts; seldom more than 1.5 m. over the general level of the
beach, or 2.25 over the sea. On the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the
height is not much greater, although the ridge is formed by breakers
of considerable strength.

When the breaker line has been stationary for some time, for
instance during a high tide, an excavation is dredged out, and at ebb a
lagoon is often left here. For our purposes the beach may be divided
into the following belts: 1. The submerged beach; 2. The front beach;
3. The middle beach; and 4. The upper beach. The first belt includes
that portion of the beach that lies below mean low tide, but which may
be exposed by neap tides. It is normally covered with water, and is
subjected to the constant beating of the waves, which carry the material
ashore in their landward advance. Some of the detritus is deposited,
while another part is returned seawards with the undertow. Where the
carrying power of the surf is great, the beach is often built up by
material containing a considerable amount of coarse gravel and pebbles.
On such beaches there is always a residue of mud after a storm or an
exceptionally high tide, while no such deposits occur on sand alone.
The front beach is the belt between mean low tide and mean high tide,
being alternately each day exposed to the air and submerged. It mostly
passes without any marked break into the submerged belt. Situated on
the border between the land and water the front beach offers very
unfavorable conditions, not allowing the deposits to remain stable or
resting, on account of the repeated washing of the waves and currents.

With the term middle beach we would designate that portion of the

24 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

shore which is continuously moistened by the spray from the sea, and
it may even occasionally become inundated. The sand of this formation
which has been piled up by the waves, is picked up by the wind and
carried inland. It is usually of a light color. The upper layers are
rapidly drying up, but the ground water keeps at a high level, and
moisture is usually found at a very slight depth.

The upper beach is limited on one side by the line of debris that
marks the highest water. This debris, cast up by the sea, consists of
Tumber and other wooden articles, fruits and seeds, fragments of marine
plants, and a quantity of animal remains, rapidly decaying. The upper
beach is also characterized by a greater rise in elevation and contains
more organic matter than any other part of the beach. The development
of this formation is modified to a greater extent by the wind than by
water, and it is especially on this strip of the shore, where the sands
commence to drift, and where they usually form the first ridges of sand
parallel to the coast, which we know as dunes.

The windmade embankments on the beach have a remarkable con-
struction, somewhat different from the usual. When the shifting of the .
sand is very rapid, the littoral dunes do not reach any remarkable height,
and their existence is then very precarious.

DUNES.

The etymology of the word dune is somewhat obscure. Generally
it is presumed that it is derived from the Celtic word dun, hill. In
Latin it is called dunwm, in Greek dévvov, and hence the modern lan-
guages have acquired the use of the same term in more or less changed
dress. According to Grewingk, not every ridge of sand parallel to the
coast is a dune, as they can in some cases originally be sand-banks formed
under water, which later have been lifted above the surface of the water
through the elevation of the shore. Dunes are formed especially where
the sands are almost purely siliceous, and hence incoherent, and little
fit for any kind of vegetation. They reach their greatest height on
projecting coasts that receive the winds from different directions.

The source of the dune sand is usually either diluvial sand, which
has been laid bare, or sand which has been brought ashore by the sea.

On the Dutch and Danish west coasts almost all the sand which
forms the dunes traces its origin from the sea. It is here thrown up
on the beach by the waves, and as soon as it has been dried by the sun,

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 25

the wind carries it further inland. On the coasts in question, the
westerly winds are the prevailing, and therefore the sand wanders in
an easterly direction.

Because of their extreme shiftiness of soil, the dunes do not attain
any considerable elevation. The sand deposited by the wind on the
summit of the hill is always in a state of unstable equilibrium. It has
a constant tendency to be precipitated down the other side, and the
higher the summit, the greater is this tendency, so that the dune arrives
at last to a point when no further accumulation is possible. The dune,
however, still continues to grow, extending its base and generally
increasing in dimensions, but does not increase in elevation:

The size and the height of the dune depends on the distance from the
sea and on the strength of the wind. In some cases it has been observed
that during a strong wind a dune has decreased in height 5 cm., while
other dunes have increased 25 cm. Hvery dune has one side placed
against the prevailing wind. This front side has a lower grade than
that on the lee side, which is always more abrupt. As long as the same
wind prevails, and as long as the wind carries only so much sand as
it is able to take away from the top of the dune, so long will the dune
retain its position and form, just as a whirlpool in a river is constant,
so long as the river maintains the same velocity and volume. Because
the sand grains cannot be lifted to any greater height in the air, the
dunes, when they have reached a certain elevation, would present to the
sand grains an almost insurmountable obstacle, but they have very seldom
time to cohere. The wind modifies its work incessantly and the height
of the dune is very soon reduced by stronger winds.

The transporting power of the air is, as already mentioned, small
compared with that of water, because of its lightness and want of
cohesion. The size of the particles has, therefore, a great influence
not only on the degree to which the sand is liable to drift, but also
on the extent in which it may manifest properties relative to the
texture of the soil, among others that of retaining moisture, which is
so important to vegetation.

The amount of sand transportation is greatest, other things being
equal, where there is no cover of vegetation to keep down the sands,
and the deposits made are most extensive in the direction of the pre-
vailing currents. The coarser dune sand particles are pushed along the
ground, while the finer form clouds of dust in the air, and settle rapidly ——
or slowly near to or remote from the source of supply according to the

force of the wind and the size of the particles suspended.
Library Publications. 2

26 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

The drifting of sand by wind takes place according to following
principles: If the force of the wind is great, the grains do not move
on the surface but are lifted by the wind to a certain height. The larger
grains make jumps, and touch the ground from time to time, while the
smaller grains often are carried forward in form of clouds at a con-
siderable height from the ground. At a velocity of 4.5 m. in the second,
grains of 0.25 mm. diameter slide on the ground, but at a velocity of
15 m., grains of 1 mm. diameter are lifted high in the air. As a
corollary of this fact it follows that the movement of the grains depends
on their volume. The greater part of the sand grains have an irregular
flat form, and hence their movement is not rolling but sliding. That
of the largest take place spasmodically and only during stronger gusts.
According to Sokoloff, a wind of a velocity of 10—12 m. in a second
cannot carry grains of 100—150 cubic mm. When the wind is not too
strong, the grains slide along the surface, but when they are lifted up
during the strong gusts, and fall down at a certain angle, they again
rebound at the same angle. Hagen has proved that coarser sand grains
are sometimes lifted up to 2 m. height, and in such a case they are
carried up to 12 m. from their original place.

Ridges or rim formed ripples advance almost entirely by the sliding
of the larger grains of the top layer of the crest, and Cornish estimates
the progress of the ridges at one foot per hour. Helmann found in
Chiwa that the ripples on the lee-side of the dunes move almost with
the same rapidity as on the windward side, and he was not able to
interpret this phenomenon. It has been ascertained that the movement
of the dunes landward goes on at the average rate of 4.30 m. a year,
and that the quantity of sand thus transported is about 75 cubic m. to
the running m. of the length of the dune.

The winds have a greater power at a higher elevation than near the
surface, and consequently more sand is removed from the summit than
the wind is able to lift from the ground. This difference in the strength
of wind exercises a modifying influence on the development of the
dunes. The effect of the wind is to diminish the maximum slope, but as
the formation of dunes is mainly regulated by the supply of sand, the
varying angle of the windward slope depends upon the varying density
of the sand shower pushed forth toward, the summit. In cases where
the supply of sand has become scarce or exhausted, the front slope
of the dune soon will be almost as steep as the lee side, that is, approach
the natural limit of the angle of rest.

The leeward slope of the dune varies but slightly, provided a reverse

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 27

of the dominant wind does not take place. It is the gravity which here
exercises its force and reduces to the angle of rest any steeper slope
caused by the air currents or other factors. The development of a dune
is similar to that of a ripple, although it takes place on a larger scale.
In lee of the dune crest there is an eddy, the-upward motion of which
lifts the fine sand particles, and in cooperation with the wind sends
them flying from the summit. Gravity acts upon these particles,
causing the fall across the stream lines of the air. The coarser sand falls
more steeply, and this pitch is further increased by the backward
motion of the eddy.

There are thus several factors which influence the formation of
dunes. Of these operating factors the force and direction of the wind,
the sand shower, the eddy in the lee of any obstacle, the gravity, the
configuration of the surface, and the moisture are the principal ones.
If the dune is formed at a certain constant sum-total of these factors,
it retains its form as long as these factors are constant.

THE SCULPTURAL FORM OF DUNES.

The forms of dunes have a greater variety than those of ripples,
because a dune is the result of many changing winds. While the dunes
do not owe their origin to the action of the sand grains, like the ripples,
still rippling plays a part in the shaping of every dune. Reversible
winds produce dunes having both front and back slope very steep. The
first effect of reverse of winds is to turn the top of the dune.1) During
strong winds the troughs are always deeper.2) On a hard ground, the
windward slope can be as steep as the angle of rest, in case the sand
supply fails and the wind is strong. If such is the case the dunes are
widely separated.?) This form differs from that of dunes produced
in deep sand by dominant wind. The angle of the windward slope in
this case decreases with the density of the sand shower, and increases
with the power of the wind.

The amplitude of the dune does not exceed one third of the wave-
length, and this limit is most nearly approached when the wind blows

1) Sven Hedin: A journey through the Takla-Makan Desert, Chinese
Turkestan.—Geogr. Journ., VIII: 264—278, 356—372. 1896.

2) G. Grandjean: Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne.—Bull. Soc. Géogr.
Coml. de Bordeaux, March 1896.
- 3) V. Cornish: On the formation of sand dunes.—Geogr. Journ. IX., p.

6. 1897.

28 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

alternately from opposite quarters, but does not hold in one quarter
sufficiently long to reverse the work of preceding winds. Cornish)
remarks that in speaking of amplitude instead of height of dunes,
one avoids the common confusion which results from the fact that the
vertical distance from the bottom of the trough to the summit may
increase even by raising of the crest or by deepening of the trough.

A dune sufficiently large is stationary, and it is an established law
that as the amplitude increases, the velocity of the dune wave decreases.
The velocity of the dune is the rate of advance of the crest which takes
place by accumulation of sand upon the lee slope. There is also a group
velocity of dunes to be recognized, that is, the rate of travel of the sand.
Increase of wind will increase formation of new dunes to leeward’
rather than the rate of travel of the individual dune, and is usually
accompanied by a considerable lowering of the general level, especially
in the case of simultaneous diminution in the supply of sand.

The sorting action of wind already mentioned is supported by rain-
water which washes the finer particles down into the trough, and con-
sequently we find the summit of dunes to consist of coarser material.
But on the other hand the lower part of the eddy is gouging out the
trough and the finer material is carried away through the combined
action of the eddy and the wind. The sand is therefore finer in the
dunes generally than in the hollows between them. On a large sandy
surface the particles are finer at the extremity towards which the wind
blows.

Through this winnowing process the dust which consists of friable
matter, having been reduced to the size of powder by grinding between
the sands is carried away from the dune district and deposited beyond
its limit. It is especially in desert regions, where aridity excludes
vegetation and allows the wind to play with full force upon the finer
particles of the soil, that we notice the development of sandy deserts
covered with quartz sand, yet surrounded by grassy steppes consisting
of clay dust. This remarkable distribution of the products of rock
disintregration by wind and its effect on the physiography of Northern
Africa has been eminently shown by Walther.2) Already Buvay 3)
described the transition between the cultivated coast lands and the desert
of Africa, which must be called a steppe, and the genetical relation of
these formations is now a generally admitted fact.

1) le p. 287.
2) Die Denudation in der Wiiste.
3) Zeitschr. fiir Allgemeine Erkunde, Berlin, 1857, p. 290.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 29

If we consider the general appearance and composition of the drift
sands we find that they consist in a preponderating degree of somewhat
rounded grains of quartz sand with only a very small percentage of
other materials. The admixture consists primarily of felspar, of mica,
and of various other minerals, such as hornblende, augite and granite,
and to some extent of lime, mostly in form of fragments of shells.

In a crystallinic rock, such as granite, we find that the different con-
stituents, felspar, quartz and mica, are present in isolated crystals.
As soon as these elements are separated from each other, they acquire
a granulated form and constitute what we call quartz sand. The grains
of felspar and mica act, however, in a different way than those of quartz,
the latter representing crystallographically only one or a few individuals,
while felspar and mica consist of many thin lamellae. Hence, when
exposed to the decomposing agencies, disintegration of felspar and mica
is much more intensive than that of quartz. The different particles of
sand are moved more rapidly by the wind the lesser their gravity in
proportion to their surface. Mica is so light that the least gust of
wind carries its thin lamellae away, and it is further so brittle that
it is easily broken into small fragments against other sand particles.
The same can be said of felspar, although, perhaps, in a less degree.
Here we also have to consider the chemical facility for decomposition.
During the night and in the dewy mornings, the felspar which has been
opened through the many capillary spaces is chemically decomposed by
the moisture, while the quartz has a greater resistance against this
agency. Consequently the older the dune sand is and the longer time
and water have exerted their influence, the less felspar will be found
in it-and the more dominant is the quartz over the other minerals.
As a rule, all the sand grains, however, exhibit more or less the rounded
appearance due to attrition and weathering.

Besides the sand, the wind carries all kinds of light plant remains,
thin shells, dry crabs, dead and living insects, and similar particles.
All these temporary constituents of the dune are, however, insignificant
in comparison with the sand, and are usually so rapidly decayed that
they are seldom found in the deeper parts of the dune. The separate
grains are mostly covered with a fine mold, in part due to the decomposi-
tion of the above organic remains, on which depends the fertility of
the sand. The drift sand, though varied with a sprinkling of somewhat
rare grains of darker colored substances, is generally a mass of a light
color.

The stratification of dunes is usually very mixed, and in the same

30 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

dune strata, cut in all the four directions of the compass, can be seen.
Successive layers dip in various directions, and are abruptly cut short,
showing that the growing dune hill was partly cut down by storms and
was again and again built up by such disasters. The consolidation
of sand is best observed in ripples and rarely well shown in dunes,
because the latter are the result of changing winds, and the time
involved in their formation is too great for observation.

The fundamental forms of sand dunes include the transverse and the
longitudinal, The former, which is the most common on sea coasts,
especially where the wind 1s of moderate strength or the sand strip
comparatively narrow, is that placed at right angles to the prevailing
wind; the latter, formed where the wind is so strong as to prevent free
lateral growth, is that following the direction of the wind; between
these two there is an intermediate form; when varying winds act upon
this latter form, conical dunes are produced. They are, as a rule,
stationary, while the longitudinal form represents the most rapidly
traveling dune.

The dunes which are placed parallel to the direction of the prevailing
winds have originated quite differently from those which are placed at
tight angles to the wind. As we have seen, the usual mode of develop-
ment of a dune is that the sand forms a ridge transverse to the direction
of the wind. The sand is blown up on the lower slope on the front, and
when it reaches the top it falls down along the lee slope; the ridge
growing until it has reached considerable height. The parallel longi-
tudinal dunes are, however, formed through the central part of the dune,
being blown further and further forward, while the ends are kept back
by various forces. The rule is that such a horseshoe-shaped or parabolic
dune on the seashore moves with the convex side in the direction of the
prevailing wind.

Apparently diverse, even opposing effect is produced in sandy deserts,
if the observations of Rolland and many other travellers regarding the
dunes called Barchanes are correct. In Traité de Géologie of Lapparent,
3 Ed., 1893, p. 140, we find the following opinion expressed about these
wandering dunes: “Hnfin la forme de dunes en marche doit étre
généralement celle d’un croissant tournant sa convexité vers le vent;
par les particules sableuses, ayant moins de hauteur 4 franchir sur les
bords de la dune qu’en son centre, cheminent plus vite 4 droite et a
gauche. La créte doit done se courber en projectant deux pointes vers
Vintérieur. Cette forme en croissant a été bien constatée par tous les
voyageurs qui ont parcouru le Sahara et les déserts americains.”

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 31

Now the question arises: How is this phenomenon to be explained?
Cornish1) refers to the development of barchanes in the following
words: “They form here and there upon the desert floor where the
wind will let them. It appears that they neither occur in localities
where the sheet of wind has everywhere a complete mastery over the
sand, nor where the burden of all the flying sand is everywhere too great
for the carrying power of the wind; they dot the desert plain in localities
where the sheet of wind has, for the most part, the mastery of the sand,
but drops its burden here and there at certain points or more probably
along certain strips.”

“The horns or cusps of the barchanes, pointing to leeward, are readily
explained, for the lowest parts of the dune travel quickest. A form as of
the moon in her first quarter (i. e. that is to say with the cusps pointing
in the direction of motion) is the form of front proper to a traveling
sand-wave as viewed in plan. In this case gravity does not operate, so
that the incoherence of sand does not hinder the formation of the cusp
as it does in the profile of dunes.”

This explanation seems negatived by the fact that the cusps generally
are very insignificant as compared with the body of the dune, and in
most cases a difference in size of the cusps can be recognized. Thus
Lessar2) observed in the Kara-Kum desert in Central Asia that the
southwesterly cusp always was longer. This seems to indicate that the
cusps are formed in a way similar to that of the low ridges which have
often been noticed on the lee side of both stationary and wandering
dunes on sea coasts. These lee ridges are usually placed at right angles.
to the length of the dune and are formed by the combined action of the
eddy in the lee and the current sweeping around the side of the dune.
If we accept this explanation for the formation of cusps in lee of the
barchanes, the original form of which tends to the oval, according to
Sokoloff 3), we will find a satisfactory solution of the action of wind in
the development of the barchane without having to theorize about the
lower cusps of the dune moving more rapidly than the higher, which
cannot be correct, as we know that the force of the wind is considerably
greater on the higher parts of the dune hill than on the lower, and
that consequently the central and highest part travels quicker. Steen-
strup *) has also shown that a parabolic dune never can move with the

1) On the formation of sand dunes, p. 290.

2) P. M. Lessér: Die Wiiste Kara-Kum. “Izwestija” Russ. Geogr. Soc.
20: p. 115. 1884.

3) Die Diinen. 189%. p. 164.

4) Om Klitternes vandring. 1894. p. 14.

32 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

closed side toward the wind, and I must subscribe to his opinion, as |
have not, on any of the dunes visited my me, been able to observe a
phenomenon of that kind.

Summing up the foregoing discussion on dune forms, we would say
that:

1. Dunes are formed in lines transverse to wind in unobstructed
places.

2. Dunes are formed in lines parallel with wind in places where
some kind of obstruction is in the path of the wind.

3. Wandering dunes have their convexity in the direction of the
prevailing wind. G

POLYGENETIC ORIGIN OF A DUNE COMPLEX.

The fundamental principles of dune formation established in the
previous section must be recognized at thé outset of this discussion in
order to facilitate an understanding of the conditions which cause the
origin and development of a dune complex. With this term, dune
complex or dune tract, as distinguished from a solitary dune or a dune
massiv, we signify a collection of secondary dune hills interspersed with
deep gullies.

The dune complex is formed behind the chain of primary dunes,
-when the rate of travel of the sand is locally diminished without a
corresponding decrease in the supply of sand. The formation takes
place either through older dunes having been broken up into rough
hummocks by the wind, or through secondary embryonic dunes being
started by the piling up of drifting sand around some obstacle, in most
cases a congregation of plants.

One of the most important factors determining the development of
a dune complex is the presence of ground moisture. Without this factor
we would not be able to explain the apparent irregularity of formation
of a group of small dunes, where the quality of sand ought to have called
for a regular dune massiv. The action of wind alone is insufficient for
this modelling of the surface, but in connection with the greater co-
herence of the sand particles caused by the ground moisture the
phenomenon is easily explicable.

It is the irregularity in action of wind, caused by the breaking up
of the regular even surface of a dune or a sand field into small elevations

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 33

and depressions, that governs the development of such embryonic sand
hills into a dune complex. In almost every case the latter formation
has had such origin from a number of nuclei, while a dune massiv is
formed from a single embryonic dune.

If the plants should not influence the development of dunes the
ridges would, like large waves, roll over the land until they were
stopped either by water or by high mountains. In most cases it is the
plants which have caused the broken forms of the sea coast dunes.
Inland dunes have, as a rule, a more regular shape.

There is no other geological formation of the present time which
is the result of such a combination of factors from the organic and
inorganic nature. Dunes are developed wherever the winds can play
‘over the loose sands, and as soon as the sand begins to drift, the
ordinary vegetation is destroyed and plants which thrive in drifting
sand immigrate, and thus begins the co-operation between the drift
sand and the dune plants, the result of which is the dune. Although
there is a struggle for power between the moving sand and the plants,
it is remarkable with this strife that they both thrive best where they
are almost of equal strength. If the plants have gained a victory they
will soon be replaced by other plants, and then it can happen that the
wind again breaks open the soil and the sand starts to drift afresh.

SAND FIELDS NEAR THE COAST.

As long as an obstruction has caused the formation of a dune, one
of these will act as a recipient for the sand, and in this way dunes after
dunes are formed until finally a whole sea of sand covered with dunes
is formed.

The encroachment of dunes is due not only to the travel of the dunes
themselves, but also to the formation of new dunes to the leeward from
material supplied by the sand shower.

In some cases, however, when the dunes have not been fixed by a
vegetation, the sand skims along the surface like snow drifting before a
stiff breeze and accumulates rapidly, covering the plains without forming
any hills. Further, the fine material which has been lifted to a certain
height in the air, is deposited behind the dune region, and is quickly
covered with vegetation, as it offers better condition for plant life int
account of its greater coherence and capacity of retaining moisture
than the coarser dune sand. These sand fields sometimes cover con-

34 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

siderable areas, and it seems often almost inexplicable that no rippling
or dune formation takes place. The explanation of their non-formation
is to be sought in the fact that the sand-sized particles are too small
in proportion to the mass of material, and further, the deposition of
dust takes place so rapidly that the wind is not able to carry it away,
leaving the coarser particles to accumulate.

CONDITIONS FOR PLANT LIFE.

There is a great variation in the conditions for plant life on different”
sand formations. The climate has something to do with this result as
well as the quality of the soil. Sea air and saline constituents of the
soil destructive to some plants may be beneficial to others. The mobility
of a drifting sand dune on the coast may be a condition of life to one
plant, while dry atmosphere and the stability of an inland sand field may
be essential to the growth of another. Even Pinus maritima, which has
produced such wonderful results on the.Landes of Gascony, does not
grow everywhere even on sand formations in France. It is therefore
necessary to study in every case the natural conditions of the locality be-
fore the problems of ecological relationship can be solved.

Some of the conditions of sand formations are, however, everywhere
the same and these will here be briefly considered. One of the most
important points in this connection is the relation to moisture. The
rain-water sinks easily into the sand, the better the coarser the grains are.
Generally speaking, the power of retention of water is very small and of
all soils sand ranges lowest in this respect. The sandy soil has also a
very low power of absorption, and is able to condense only a small por-
tion of the atmospheric moisture. This is especially the case with quartz
sand.

Further, sandy soil dries easily, and it is therefore heated quickly by
the sun; but it also cools very soon at night. The difference between day
and night temperature can be as high as 40-50° C. In consequence of
this, sand is subjected to a considerable bedewing at night, a factor which
is important for its capability of carrying a vegetation cover. The great
variation of temperatures of the soil is disadvantageous to the plants in
one respect, they being more liable to injury by frost, than if growing on
any other soil. Sand floras, on the other hand, are always developed
earlier, because of the greater heat capacity of the soil.

OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 35

The nutritive value of the sand is very different according to the
chemical character of the grains. The commonest form, or quartz sand,
is the most barren on account of the insolubility of the quartz grains, and
also because of their resistance to decomposing agencies, as already men-
tioned, Sand consisting of mica, felspar, limestone, and other minerals,
disintegrate, however, and have by reason of this a higher nutritive
value.

Formation of mould takes place only to a small degree in dry sandy
soil, because the organic constituents are so easily decomposed through
the admittance of air, and the particles are further quickly distributed
and carried out of reach of the plants by sinking with the water through
the loose soil. The proportion between organic and inorganic constitu-
ents in this soil is too great, the quantity of the former being too small
to establish a sufficient supply for the demand of a more luxuriant growth
of plants.

This scarcity of plant food results in a more or less open vegetation
consisting of low growing plants, which do not give each other the mut-
ual assistance against mechanical influence of wind and other factors,
that is evident in the arrangement of plants on most other soils. The
injurious effect of the intense light, both direct and reflected from the
surface of the sand, has to be guarded against. The transpiration of
open sand vegetation, especially on the seacoasts, is always considerable
because of the constantly changing atmosphere, resulting from the almost
continuous winds. The plants have to develop some means of reducing
this excessive transpiration.

_ Summing up, we may say that the competition for food is more in-
tense, the water supply less, the light stronger, the temperature higher,
the transpiration greater, the foothold more uncertain and difficult, the
conditions for plant life generally more adverse, than on any other soil.

36 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

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OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 37

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38 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

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OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 39

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40 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

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OF SAND FORMATIONS ON MARINE COASTS. 41

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Library Publications. 8

The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

by
Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

CONTENTS

I. Review of the literature on sandfloras
II. Observations on certain sand formations ...
Ba ltie: COAStS sincse cs ceesesuaaais ivssscecsmsvasecvaviresnexsacecaccssapesnieussavveunesaseesenetevessnts

The east coast of Sweden...
Shores of Gulf of Finland ... wis
Islands ‘in the Baltic: sccsssiceciewviweocweccevesssissiin ates tesenereewndenceeseeeeis

West coast: Of RusSiavcctecevasssivveszsvetessecsaweadectss dedexcosetatsedadeseeesbeadeveces
German north coast a
Swedish: SOUtH COaStic..c..cisscsvessesvensccesseaseienscccssseesetecaicacdessuesednenelenseane’ss

DG NOT Gls SS Cassa aeccanie de dsecdnes svaend o242 Soca jee ayaa os ae tadlea an ae vee baedananeNestyeavend
The west coast of Denmark ...

Sand dunes in Holland ...........
Scotland sas ccscco ieeeevasevies, descren cares setordss

Near Plymouth in England ....

On the west coast of France.
Australia, jesssne-d ysseetetesed avenecctecaveecsoues
Sand formations on the west coast ... oy
Dunes .in South Australia. ssssccasocsseccovasveveteaacesncerneves saceasets getetee teen ded 66
Sandy beaches near Sydney ........ccccccccescsssseseseesenssscesssssesseessoeeserees 66
Drift sands in Queensland a
NeW AiG a land) erscser Sulvexvassssbexsgsde lela casiteadestahs censcdetececdcddeid ean beds ida seaes aot dada ee
DL Wi m5 Socisscaseusicatedsavsnsesteicsvad siaucedavaaskicecedevecssuedsnchesabiaseastdesaimesaseeantecvarens
Pacific Coast of North America...
South of Golden Gate ............cccsssssssssessssssseseeeees
Monterey Bay .....
Southern California...........
Mexico and Central America..
Mexican Pacific Coast......
West Coast of Chiapas ...........000
Pacific Coast of Central America ... ea
Dunes near Vera CruzZ.......ccccccscccccessssssseeee sssssssecususeeceeseeees ore 3)
III. Principal Components of the Sand Strand Flora.............006 a 15
Taxonomic account........cscccccccecesseecccesecssssnssanes oss

UV. | Bibliography sisescccciceecscesesosvendsnnssicessosadssadsonstancnd csvuvesd 142

The Sand Strand Flora of Marine Coasts

By Pehr Olsson-Seffer, Ph. D.

1. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON SAND
FLORAS.

The earliest data about plants confined to sand formations, particu-
larly coastal dunes, we find in Smallegange’s Chronijk van Zeeland,
1696, where it is mentioned (p. 313) that some dunes on the North Sea
coast had been planted with. Marram-grass or Helm (Ammophila
arenaria) already in 1307. Maximilian of Austria issued in 1510 a
proclamation upon planting the Helm, and in 1567 the government of
Holland also prescribed, in an official edict, the planting of this species
on the coastal dunes.

The problem of arresting the drifting of sand and of utilizing the
dunes has since that time been considered to be of primary importance
for Holland, and we find that the Dutch had made great progress by
the middle of 1700, when the question was brought into prominence in
Denmark and on the coast of Northern Germany.

At Tidsvilde in Sjaelland in Denmark there is still an old monument
bearing an inscription in Latin to the effect that the drifting sand at
that place had been fixed in 1738 by Roehl, a German by birth, who
planted the dunes with Marram-grass. The Danish king resolved in
1779 that every citizen should plant a certain area with this grass, and
the document, which is still preserved in the public archives in Copen-
hagen, gave detailed instructions regarding the mode of planting.

On Wangeroog, one of the North Friesian islands, similar planta-
tions were made at least as early as 1754, from which year there is on
record a map by J. D. Tanner.

In 1768 Professor J. D. Titius of Wittenberg wrote a prize essay on
fixation of drifting sand on the Baltic coast (Gerhard, p. 286), and
his proposals were put into practical tests at Danzig under the direction
of a Swede, Abraham Lindstrém, during 1771. The experiment proved,

48 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

however, a failure, and it was not until several years later that Soren
Bidrn, a Dane, succeeded in establishing a plantation on the dunes.

At the same time Baron de Charlevoix-Villers wrote several treatises
on the subject of fixing the dunes of Gascony (Grandjean p. 53), and
his views were utilized by N. T. T. Bremontier, who in 1788 started
the reclamation of the Landes of France, which has changed certain
parts of this inhospitable region into fertile fields.

On the coasts of Holland, Germany, Denmark, and France the fixa-
tion of dunes, started by these pioneers, has ever since been continued,
and similar work was later taken up in various other countries. It lies
not within the scope of this review to describe the different phases of
this reclamation work as it came to be more and more a practical appli-
cation of experience gathered by previous cultivators and by scientific
investigations.

One of the first studies of the strand flora from a phytogeographical
point of view was that of Boll on the beach flora of the German shores
of the Baltic, published in 1848.

The coastal sand flora of Eastern Germany has since been studied
by Kalmuss, von Klinggraeff, Klinsmann, Krause, Marsson, Ratzeburg,
and Schafer.

Brick gives in his work on the ecology of strand plants of the Baltic
a number of valuable suggestions, and in Ackermann’s Physical geog-
raphy of the Baltic there is a number of pages devoted to the coast flora.

The most comprehensive work of recent date on coastal sands is
Gerhard’s “Handbuch des deutschen Diinenbaues,” in which the dunes
of the German sea coasts are treated. The flora has been described in
this work by Abromeit.

The continuation of the sand region of Eastern Germany along the
Baltic shore of Curland has been carefully studied by Klinge, while the
sands of the Gulf of Riga are to some extent described by Doss and
Robert. We may have to expect in the future a treatise on the dune
flora of that region by Dr. Kupffer.

Studies of the dune sands on the shores of Gulf of Finland have
been made by Sokoloff and Thesleff. Other dunes of Russia are described
by Rauner, and minor inland dunes in Finland by Granit and Hult.
Some dunes of the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Bothnia have been
worked over by Rosberg. Professor Vilhelm Ramsay recently studied
the sand formations on the coast of the White Sea, but his observations
are not published.

* The small island Gotska Sandén situated in the Baltic, 40 km. N.

OF MARINE COASTS. 48

of Gotland, and consisting exclusively of sand, has been visited and
studied by Sernander, Andersson, Hisen and Stuxberg, Holtz and
Johansson.

The only publications, in which the sand flora of the Baltic coast
of Sweden is treated, are by Erikson. In an excellent paper he describes
in detail the topographical features of the vegetation and also the struc-
tural adaptations of the sand strand plants of Eastern Scania, the
southernmost province of Sweden. Schultz has recently studied the geo-
graphical distribution of the strand plants of the Baltic countries.

Warming’s different papers on the sand flora of the Danish North
Sea coast are of the greatest importance, giving a good description of
this extensive sand district with its typical formations. The observa-
tions are made with the critical acumen so characteristic of this author.
The review of sand vegetation generally, which Warming gives in his
ecological plant geography, is a most comprehensive one.

Feilberg has written on grass cultivation on Skagen, the sandy
Northernmost point of Denmark, and Raunkiaer published in 1889 a
good paper on the east and south shore of the adjoining part of the
North Sea. Of other authors who have written on the flora and ecology
of the Danish dunes, we may mention Andersen, Bang, Bérgesen &
Jensen, Mentz, Paulsen, and Schmidt. .

Buchenau has written considerably on the sand flora of the German
North Sea coast, and his studies are characterized by acute observa-
tions, and suggestive details.

Fischer-Benzon, Focke, Graebner, Hansen, Hock, Hubbe, Knuth,
Lemmermann, Meyer, Noldeke, Reinke, Sandstéde, and von Seeman
have all written more or less about the flora and vegetation of the same
coast, and especially on that of the outlying islands.

Among more recent writers on the dune sand of Holland, and its
flora, we may mention Dozy, van Hall, Holkema, Lorié, Retgers, Schol-
tens, Vuyck, Winkler, and de Witt Hamer. Blijdenstein and Brants
have briefly referred to the flora of the dunes of this country and Eeden
has especially studied the distribution of dune plants, while Giltay paid
attention to some of the ecological adaptations.

The vegetation of the sandy coast of Belgium has been investigated
by Massart and van der Swaelmen.

Lesage has written on modifications of the leaf of maritime plants
when subjected to different environmental conditions.

Various other writers, such as Baraban, Van den Bosch, Chodat,
Costantin, Delfortrie, Girardin, Gosselet, Gras, Labats, Masclef, Partiot,

50 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Poisson, Sauvage, de Vasselot, and de Vicq have studied the conditions
of the dunes on the northern coast of France.

Among authors on the Landes of Gascony may be mentioned Brown,
Chambrelent, Dulignon-Desgranges, Durégne, Engler, Fabre, Géneau-
Lamarliére, Goursand, Grandjean, Houtreaux, Laval, and McNaughton.

Flahault and Combres have made valuable observations on the dunes
of Southern France. Daveau, and especially Willkomm, have written
upon the subject as regards the Iberian peninsula. Borgesen in a brief
article discussed the sand strand vegetation in Southern Spain.

The sandy beaches on the coast of Norway are touched upon in the
works of Blytt, Holmboe, Norman, and Wille. The coastal sands of the
British Isles have been to some extent studied by Bailey, Dowker, Rob.
Smith, Thompson, and Whilden as regards the flora, while Cornish has
carefully investigated their origin and development.

The sand floras of the interior of the European continent we find
referred to in the extensive literature on the steppe formation. Borbas
described the sand vegetation of the plains of Hungary, and Adamovic
the sand steppes of Servia.

From the Mediterranean shores of Africa there are studies by Parrau
and Serres, and from the dunes of Italy by Sprenger and Tommasini.

Volkens’ important work on the flora of the Arabian desert, although
treating of island sands, contains a rich supply of suggestions on the
adaptation of psammophile plants.

Other writers on the sand deserts of Northern Africa are Jordan,
Kotschy, Riston, Rolland, Schirmer and Walther, the latter having made
‘an especially careful study of the formation of dunes.

During Nordenskiéld’s Vega-expedition Kjellman studied the coast
flora of Siberia.

In the works of Hedin on his explorations in Central Asia we find
much valuable information on the sand desert of Gobi and the dune
vegetation of that region, and other travelers have described continental
dunes from various other parts of Asia. Helman wrote about the dunes
in Chiwa, Nalivkin on those of Ferganah, Radde on the dune vegetation
of certain parts of Caucasus.

The extensive sand dunes of India have caused considerable trouble
to cultivation, and the sand binding plants of that country have been
referred to by Clark, Duthie, and Cleghorn.

Schimper gives in his “Indomalayische Strandflora” a valuable
treatise on the vegetation and flora of the coastal sand, and in his

OF MARINE COASTS. 51

“Pflanzengeographie” the subject is extensively treated with reference
to different regions.

Karsten wrote (1891) more especially about the mangrove-vegetation
of the Indo-malayan achipelago, and Goebel treated the strand flora of
tropical Asia.

In South Africa Thode made a good study of the coast flora, and
Werth has described the sand strand vegetation of the Zanzibar Island.

The extensive coastal and interior sand formations of the Austra-
lian continent have attracted only little attention by scientific writers
so far. We have to note briefer articles by Benbow, Boyd, Maiden, and
Walter Smith. .

The New Zealand dunes have been studied by Cheeseman, Cockayne,
and Kirk. Diels also wrote on certain ecological features of the flora.
He had not, however, himself visited these islands, but based his study
on collections, and on information by Dr. Cockayne. The latter made
valuable observations on the sand flora also on Enderby, and Chatham
islands, and he recently published an excellent paper on the dune flora
of the eastern coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand.

Kurtz and Reiche have briefly treated the sand flora of Chili. On
the sand dunes of the Pacific coast of North America nothing is written
except some brief notes by Davy, Lamb, and McKenney.

The extensive dune formations on the Atlantic coast of the United
States, and their flora, have been the subject of study of several writers,
as Britton, Gifford, Harshberger, Jelliffe, Mohr, Ross, Rothrock, West-
gate, and Webber. The ecological study of the strand vegetation of
North Carolina by Kearny is an excellent piece of work. Lloyd and
Tracy have treated the insular flora of Mississippi and Louisiana.

The flora of the interior sand hills of North America has been
worked over especially by Hitchcock, Rydberg, Smith, Pound, and
Clements. Lamson-Scribner has treated the value of grasses as sand
stays. Cowles made a study of-the vegetation on the sand dunes of
Lake Michigan, and Hill has written on the sand dunes of northern
Indiana and their flora.

MacMillan’s admirable study of the strand flora of the Lake of the
Woods is without any equal in the phytogeographical literature of the
United States.

Bérgesen has carefully studied the strand flora of the Danish West
Indies.

From the dunes of Southern Brazil we have an excellent description
by Lindman, and Schenck also recently wrote of the strand vegetation

52 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

of Brazil. Brackebusch has contributed to the knowledge of the sand
flora of Argentine. The coast plants of Japan have been treated by
Imamura.

Mention may also be made of the general description of dunes which
is contained in Richthofen’s “Fiihrer der Forschungsreisende,” as being
a valuable and suggestive treatise.

The present writer has published several papers on sand formations
in connection with the inquiry referred to in the following pages.

II. OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN SAND FORMA-
TIONS.

BALTIC COASTS.

It has been claimed by certain authors, as: Vogt, for instance, that
maritime dunes are formed only on coasts with tide phenomena. Accord-
ing to him sand particles are thrown up on the shore at high tide, and
having been dried during low tide, they are subsequently carried inland
by wind. The dunes on the northern coasts of the Baltic where there is
no visible tide, as well as the extensive dune formations near many inland
seas in America, for instance, show, however, that tides are not necessary
for the formation of dunes,

A remarkable coincidence exists between the topographical form of
the coast, and the development of dunes. This is nowhere more evident
than on the Baltic coasts.

The east coast of Sweden washed by the Gulf of Bothnia, the Aland
Sea, and the Baltic, is almost everywhere rocky, and extensive sand for-
mations occur only at a few places. The northernmost location where
observations have been made by the writer, was at the mouth of the Dal
river, where a visit was made in October 1897. On a very limited area
there are sandy beaches, and in one place a few embryonic dunes have
been formed on the upper beach. The sand was of a yellowish color, and
consisted of medium sized quartz grains, with some admixture of felspar.
On the middle beach there were some light accumulations of mould. The
sand was slowly drifting back and forth along the beach forming beauti-
ful ripples. The salinity of the sea water was low.

At Saltsjébaden near Stockholm, at Ostanié, and Sandhamn, minor
sand formations were visited in 1896, ’97 and ’99. Only beach forma-

OF MARINE COASTS. 53

tions occurred on the former places and the dunes in the latter locality
are not very extensive. The beaches consist generally of very narrow
strips of loose material; the gradient of the shore being comparatively
steep, the area of influence of the sea is consequently limited, especially
as the force of the waves is never very great within this archipelago.

In the neighborhood of the city of Norrképing there is quite an ex-
tensive archipelago, consisting of a few larger and many small islands.
In June, 1899, I visited a number of these islands, near Arkésund. Of
the great number of beach formations investigated only a few were sandy,

Fig. 1. Beach with Halianthus community. Swedish East Coast

shingle beaches being far more common. Where sand occurred it was
very coarse, except in some sheltered places. All these islands are ex-
posed to the strong winds of the Baltic, and those being only a couple of
kilometers distant from the mainland, had no tree vegetation. The
salinity of the seawater was here varying from 0.49-0.66%. 1)

On the open coast, facing Kalmar strait, some observations were
made in June, 1899, The shores south of the town of Kalmar are very
low, more or less muddy. In some places shingle beaches were formed,
and these were sometimes covered with fine sand, mixed with clay par-

1) All my measurements of salinity of seawater in the Baltic were made
with an areometer (Aderman type) purchased in Stockholm.

Fig. 2. Sand field with Armeria community, Swedish South Coast.
PHOTOGRAPH BY ERIKSON.

.Fic. 3. Gray dune with pines on Swedish Southeast Coast.
PHOTOGRAPH BY ERIKSON.

OF MARINE COASTS. 55

ticles. This shore is sheltered by the island Oland from the direct
force of easterly winds and waves of the Baltic. The salinity of the sea-
water was 0.66%.

In the Blekinge archipelago Torhamn and several islands as well as
the shores near Karlskrona were visited June 18th, 1899. The few
sandy beaches observed were not extensive, and were formed of a rather
fine sand, quite often mixed with clayey residue. On June 19th, 1899,
some shores near Karlshamn, especially at Helenebirg and on Bod were
investigated. The sandy beaches were formed of coarse material mixed
with pebbles. Large boulders were strewn on the narrow beaches. The
shores in this neighborhood are usually steep and rocky.

A number of sandy formations were studied at Sdlvesborg, June 20,
1899. The shore sloped generally at an angle of 30 degrees. The ma-
terial was pure yellow quartz sand. The coast is open to the Baltic.

At Ahus there are extensive sand strands, with long stretches of
beach formed of pure sand. (See Fig. 1.) Inland there are minor
dunes and large sand fields. My observations here were made June
21—22, 1899. The vegetation on these sand formations has previously
been studied by Dr. Hrikson.1) (Fig. 2.)

The coast near Simrishamn is low and open to the Baltic. Sandy
beaches at Horshall and Brantevik and also north of the town were stud-
ied, June 23—24, 1899. The sand is of coarse consistency, and the slope
is here generally about 45 degrees.

The whole eastern coast of Sweden is rocky and steep, the hard
cliffs are disintegrated only very slowly, and the material is usually
washed out to sea except where inlets give a resting place. The only
more extensive sand formations on the coast are in the south at the
places just mentioned. (See Fig. 3.)

SHORES OF GULF OF FINLAND.

On the steep rocky coasts of Esthonia, on the southern shore of the
Gulf, dunes are very rare, and occur only where the calcareous bluff
retreats landward, and leaves a narrow sandy strip along the shore. In
the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, from the mouth of Narwa river,
the coasts are sandy, and dunes are common. The largest dune dis-
trict is that between Systerback and Bjorko, in the innermost part of

1) J. Erikson: Studier dfver sandfloran i dstra Skine——Bih. K. Sv. Vet.
Ak. Handl. 22, 3—81. 1896. :

56 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

the Gulf. The coast is here unsheltered by any islands; and the shore
is exposed to the full force of the open sea. The prevailing winds are
westerly and southwesterly, that is, those which have a free passage
along the whole stretch of the Gulf from the Baltic. They meet no
obstacles in their way, and they strike the land with their full intensity.
On this coast a series of dunes have been formed following the coast
continuously for about 80 km. Although every sign of tides is absent,
the sea is very seldom or never quite calm. The constant breakers and
the great difference between the high and low water caused by winds
have developed the sand formations of this district. Some of the dunes
are smaller and some larger; some of them are still drifting before the
high winds, constantly changing their form and their position, en-
croaching more and more on the land. Others again are in ridge form,
covered with vegetation, and are stable.

This sand consists of quartz of a yellow-white color, mixed with
felspar and mica. The size of the grains is 0.3-1mm., and they are
sometimes larger, up to 3 mm. On this coast, the development of the
dunes is promoted by human agency, the natural forests being destroyed
and the larger pebbles, which have been left by the wind on the shore,
and which retard the advancing sand thrown up by the waves, are col-
lected and transported to St. Petersburg for road-making purposes and
thus the sand is given a full opportunity to spread. The form of these
dunes is varying. They consist mostly of long hills of very different
dimensions, some almost round, others nearing but never completely
assuming the horse-shoe form.

These dunes have been studied by Sokoloffi) and Thesleff2), and
my own observations were made during several visits in May, August
and October, 1898.

On the Finnish south coast, which is rocky, there are only a few
sand formations. Sandy beaches of the same character as those of the
Swedish east coast near Stockholm were studied, near the city of
Helsingfors, during 1893—’99 and on the coast of the province of
Nyland, 1891—’92, and 1898—99. On the Hangé peninsula there
is a smaller dune district which was made the subject of detailed inves-
tigations in June 1895, in July 1896, in August and September 1897,
in April, August and September, 1898, and in August, 1899. The sand
is here of glacial origin, having been redeposited by waves and wind.
The salinity of the sea water was 0.6% at a temperature of +14.0°C.

1) Die Diinen. Berlin, 1894.
2) Dynbildningar i 6stra Finland.—Med. Geogr. Fir. Finl. p. 36—77. 1895.

OF MARINE COASTS. 57

ISLANDS IN THE BALTIC.

The great island archipelago along the southwestern coast of the
Finnish mainland, and thence stretching in a westerly direction towards
Sweden, consists of small islands with rocky shores. This is especially
the case in the outer part of the archipelago, where the influence of the
sea is more conspicuous, and the finer material is very seldom able to
find rest on account of the steepness of the shore. In the inner archi-
pelago the beach is covered with boulders ranging from 4 dm. to 1 m.
in diameter. Between these boulders the soil consists of sand and grav-
el, more or less mixed with clay. In Aland pure sand beaches are very
seldom of common occurrence. This is especially the case in the Kékar
and southern part of the Sottunga archipelagoes. In the Korpo and
Nagu archipelagoes sandy beaches are quite common, but sand dunes
do not occur. On the shores of the Kimito Island, the flora of which
was studied by the writer in 1893,1) quite a number of sandy beaches
are found. Usually it is the innermost part of an inlet, which consists
of sand.

The island Runé on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland is low,
and sandy beaches are frequent. A number of observations were made
in June and July, 1896.

On the island Osel, visited in 1896 and 1898, sand formations were
investigated on the southern coast, facing the Gulf of Riga, and at
Rootsikiill, on the western coast. The sandy shore west of the town
Arensburg is at Jerwe formed by a very narrow strip of beach, and then
rises to a steep sand bank, 12-15 m. high, on which a number of low,
circular dunes occur.

The material, of which these are composed, is a comparatively fine
sand, the average size of the grains from 16 samples being 0.8 mm. The
salinity of the sea water at this place was found to be 0.82 per cent.
with a surface temperature at noon of +16.6° C0. The shore is open to
the waves from south.

On the Swedish side of the Baltic the large island Gotland has
sandy shores, especially at its northern end. Their vegetation has been
studied especially by Johansson.2) The present writer only visited
the coast near Visby on the western, and at Ronehamn on the eastern

1) Bidrag till kinnedomen om floran i Kimito skirgard.—Acta Soc. F.
Fl. F. XI. No. 11. 1895.

2) Hufvuddragen af Gotlands vaixttopografi och viixtgeografi—K. Sv.
Vet. Ak. Handl. 29: No. 1. 1897.

Library Publications. 4

58 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

side, in June, 1899. At the former place the shore was steeper and
only small accumulations of sand were formed. The sand was here
rather coarse, almost gravelly, and contained much lime. At Ronehamn
the coast is low, open to the sea, and exposed to winds. The sand was
mixed with large quantities of silt and pebbles.

North of this island there is a small island, Gotska Sandén, com-
posed entirely of sand. It has been visited by several botanists and
geologists, and occasional observations of the dunes and their vegeta-
tion are found in various works.

Oland, the other large island on the Swedish east coast, was visited
in June, 1899. Both the eastern and the western shores are low, and
where sand formations occur, they are formed of coarse gravel, and
cover only very limited areas.

The island Bornholm, in the southern part of the Baltic, was visited
in June, 1899. On the western coast, south of Rénne, there are quite
extensive sand formations. At Svaneke, on the eastern side, the coast
is rocky, but between the cliffs small deposits of coarse sand were ac-
cumulated. The coast is everywhere unprotected and exposed to waves
and winds,

WEST COAST OF RUSSIA.

The shores of the Riga gulf are low and sandy, especially in the
southern part, and they are also rich in dunes, which in some places
reach a considerable height.

Between the Diina river and the watering place Catharinenbad, the
belt of dunes varies in width from 0.5 to 2 km. (Fig. 4) and west of
the river, especially near the mouth of the Bolderaa river, the sand
covers a large area. In many places the sand is drifting. It consists
primarily of quartz, but is mixed with felspar and hornblende, and even
granates. The average size of the grains is 0.25-0.35 mm. The sand is
brought down to the sea in quantities by the rivers and is again thrown
up on the shore by wave action. This district was visited in 1898.

The west coast of Curland is bordered by a broad belt of diluvial
sand, and it is therefore for its whole length covered with a continuous
chain of dunes. At some distance south of Libau the dunes are very
high, up to 35 m. The highest dune on this coast, Koope-Kaln, rises
70 m. above the sea. The sand rests in many places, especially near
Libau, on a compact stratum of peat, in which trunks of trees often are

Fia. 4. Temporarily stable dune near Bullenhof, Riga, Russia. The moving sand of the lee-

slope is in progress of being naturally arrested by grasses, (Koeleria glauca and Festuca

ovina), herbs, (Artemisia campestris, Hieractum umbellatum, Pulsattlia pratensis and others),
and by pines (Pinus sylvestris.)

PHOTOGRAPH BY KUPFFER.

60 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

found. The landward side of the dune belt is bordered by extensive
swamps.

The dunes near Libau are formed by a somewhat fine sand aver-
aging 0.15 mm. It is a pure white quartz sand, the admixture of other
minerals or other colors being inconspicuous. The salinity of the sea
water is about 0.8 per cent.

GERMAN NORTH COAST.

In direct continuation of the last mentioned dunes follow those. on
the German north coast which is sandy along its whole stretch to Swine-
miinde. On the long narrow spits, known as Kurische and Frische
Nehrung, the dunes have reached a remarkable development and the
dune district is second in size to none in Europe except that of Gas-
cogny.

The detailed description we have of these dunes in the comprehen-
sive work of Gerhard 1) makes it unnecessary here to discuss their gen-
eral appearance. In connection with our treatment of the sand vegeta-
tion some comparisons will be made.

SWEDISH SOUTH COAST.

We have yet to mention some minor sand formations on the Baltic
coasts visited by the author. At Ystad, in southern Sweden, there is a
long sandy beach, which was made subject to study in June and July,
1899. The sand is fine quartz, almost pure, yellowish in color. The
sloping angle of the beach is about 35 degrees. The coast is here un-
protected, as is also the case at Dybeck and Trelleborg, where sandy and
gravelly shores occur. The dune district at Falsterbo was not visited.
Along the Swedish coast of Gresund there are sandy shores in numerous
places, both in the neighborhood of Malmé and Helsingborg. At Engel-
holms hamn a series of small dunes occur near the mouth of the river.
These were studied in 1900.

1) Handbuch des deutschen Diinenbaues.—Berlin, 1900.

OF MARINE COASTS. 61

THE NORTH SEA.
The West Coast of Denmark,

from Cap Skagen, the northernmost point of Jutland, is sandy along
its whole length, and the sandy shore continues through Schleswig-
Holstein to the mouth of Elbe river. (See Fig. 5.) This dune district
comprises an area of some 70,000 hectares. The dunes do not run to
any considerable height, 32 m. being given as the greatest. A chain of
islands follows the southern part of this coast and they are all sandy.
On the island of Sylt, the height of the steep coast is 34 m., and on this
dunes up to 28 m. in height are developed.

The size of the grains on these. dunes along the North Sea coast
decreases southwards from Skagen. On Anholt, Jessen still found,
however, a dune sand in which 91% of the grains had a diameter of
over 2 mm. Jentzsch, in Gerhard’s handbook, mentions that samples
of dune sand from Sylt contained grains of the largest size; while the
finest sand came from Borkum. On the small island Norderney, out-
side the German North Sea coast, the sand grains are of very small size,
0.11 mm. in diameter according to Wessely.

The Danish and German North Sea dune flora is the best known,
many investigators having worked here, principally Warming and
Reinke. The writer’s personal knowledge of the dunes on Jutland is
confined to a few points, visited in 1900.

SAND DUNES IN HOLLAND.

The belt of sand dunes which, as already mentioned, marks the
coast from north of Jutland to Elbe, continues from that river almost
without any break along the southern shore of the North Sea to the
Straits of Calais, for a distance of about 500 km. In most other coun-
tries the dunes are a source of trouble through injury to forests and
cultivated fields, but in Friesland, Holland, and Belgium, they are a
protection against the invasion of the sea, being natural dykes. Their
height is not very remarkable and they very seldom reach over 20 m.

The dunes are especially well developed on the West-Friesian islands
and on the mainland between Heider and Hoek van Holland. This
dune belt is mostly of a comparatively narrow width, but in some places
as in the neighborhood of Haag it covers several kilometers inland from
the sea.

‘DNV Ad HdVUIOLOHd

“yeuIUag—y}eay JO JBAOD © YIM PUBS YP SuysalIy “g ‘OI

OF MARINE COASTS. 63

At the last mentioned place the dunes do not show any regular ar-
rangement as is usually the case, but they constitute a large dune-
complex in which no order can be recognized. The dunes on this coast
are, as a rule, low, but reach sometimes an elevation of 60 m. Westerly
winds prevail on all these coasts.

SCOTLAND.

In October, 1899, a passing visit was paid to the dunes at Gullane
Point, south of Firth of Forth, not very far from Edinburgh. For a
distance of about 10 km. the coast is here sandy, and by far the most
extensive dunes of this place are on the eastern shore of Aberlady Bay,
where the sandy belt is about 2 km. wide. All stages of development
are met with. Sandy shore, embryonic dunes, dune-complexes, and
sandy fields. A greater part of these sand formations was fixed by
vegetation. ;

The general conditions did not materially differ from those on other
coasts of the North Sea. I have not been able to get reliable information
as to the salinity of sea water in the Firth of Forth, but so far out the
influence of the river is doubtless comparatively insignificant. The
prevailing winds are those from N. N. E.

ATLANTIC COAST OF EUROPE.

Near Plymouth in England

the writer made some observations in October, 1900. Only sandy
beaches of small extent were visited. The sand was coarse, mixed with
humus, the remains of decomposed seaweeds and marine animals thrown
ashore by waves. The beach was exposed to southerly winds, but being
in the interior of the harbor it was protected against the currents, and
consequently the amount of kelp accumulated was considerable.

On the west coast of France,

from Graves at the mouth of the river Gironde to the bank of l’Adour
and even further to the cliffs of Bearn, a series of dunes follow the
coast for more than 200 km. , This belt having an average width of four
to five and in some cases seven to eight km., is in many ways remarkable.

G4 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

It is the natural border between the Bay of Biscay and the territory
known as the “Landes.” The sand had for centuries been constantly
shifting, making great devastations, until its progress was arrested by
plantations. Engineering skill and judicious planting of sandstays and
trees has changed this district from desolate, unhealthy marshy moor-
lands and unproductive sandy tracts to a habitable, and in some places,
fertile country.

According to early writers, the dunes advanced in former times con-
stantly inland covering houses, filling the outlets of rivers, making great
damages to cultivations and increasing the unhealthiness of the Landes.
The advance of the sand was especially rapid in the neighborhood of
Saint Pol-de-Léon; there existed before the year 1666 several villages
which had to be abandoned, and which were buried under 6 and 7 m.
of sand. In 1722, this dune had progressed more than 24 km., which
would indicate a yearly advance of more than 500 m. According to
Brémontier, the dunes advanced at his time, or about 1790, from 20 to
25 m. a year, and they did great damage to the fields in the neighborhood
of Bordeaux. :

The whole coast from Gironde to the foot of the Pyrenees presents
an aspect in regard to its geological constitution, quite uniform with
the sandy coast in the north. Capbreton, situated at the ancient estuary
at Adour, at the present day covered with dunes, was formerly a
flourishing harbor, which has since been replaced by Bayonne. The
dunes on this coast are often high, in some places averaging 70 m.

The sand is composed of pure quartz, reduced to minute grains,
generally rounded by trituration, and moving easily. The width of the
upper beach is about 200 m. from highwater mark to the foot of the
littoral dune.

The dunes form a series of parallel ridges, the valleys being of vary-
ing width. Whenever the dune valleys, locally called “Lettes”, reach a
width of 1 km. they are covered with a luxuriant vegetation.

The most frequent winds, and the most violent ones on this coast,
are those from the west and south west.

AUSTRALIA.
Sand formations on the west coast

are very common on this island-continent. At Geraldton they are quite
high and are constantly shifting. North and South of Fremantle there
is a dune district of considerable extent, and this was studied in the

OF MARINE COASTS. 65

fall of 1900 and in September and October, 1902. The coast is open
to the Indian ocean and the waves strike the beach with full force. The
beach is usually narrow and sloping in an angle of about 30°. (See
Fig. 6.) Landwards it is bordered by a series of dunes, often of con-
siderable height. I have measured dunes being 32, 37, 44 m. over the
surface of the sea.

Fie. 6. Shrub vegetation on stationary dunes North of Fremantle, Western
Australia.

PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

South of Fremantle the beach is wider and then gradually merges
into dunes by the way of low mounds. Here the sand is still drifting
rapidly and many of the streets of the outskirts of the town are con-
stantly being filled with sand.

The texture of the sand is coarse. The grains are angular, of a white
or in some places reddish color.

66 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

On the southern coast of Western Australia there are quite extensive
sand formations, but they were not visited by the writer.

Dunes in South Australia.

The greater part of the coast of this state is more or less sandy. At
Vincent’s Gulf the dunes are especially well developed. The sand grains
are of medium size, yellowish in color, and rounded through constant
trituration. Sandy beaches and dunes are common also on the Victorian
coast. At Port Phillips Head there are some formations which were
visited.

Sandy beaches near Sydney.

At. Botany Bay, near Kensington, on Cronulla and Bondi Beach
sand formations occur. Those at the last mentioned place are the most
extensive and have caused some trouble through drifting. The quartz
sand is very pure, and of a light color, where dust from the surrounding
country has not been blown over the sand. The reclamation which was
commenced several years ago, has now considerably changed the original
topography of the sand, and in many places the loose material has com-
pletely blown away, while in others it is fixed by vegetation.

The drifting at Botany Bay was caused by the rejuvenation of a
sand dune, which previously had been covered with vegetation. The
sand advanced inland and destroyed a part of the park at this place.

The salinity of the sea water outside this coast was found to be
2.9 per cent. Several visits on various occasions during 1901—02 were
made to these sandy beaches.

Drift sands in Queensland.

The beach from Tweed River northwards to Southport consists en-
tirely of sand. The sand forms an elevated bank or floor, on top of
which regular dunes are formed. (See Fig. 6.) They advance steadily
inland, covering everything and have already done considerable damage
to property in the town of Southport.

Further north at Cleveland and Manly there is a long stretch of
sandy shore with a few dunes, but there is almost no vegetation on
the ground, because everything is destroyed by the thousands of holiday
excursionists from Brisbane. Stradbroke Island in Moreton Bay is
entirely built up of sand, and is considered by some writers as a single

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OS THE SAND STRAND FLORA

dune!) about 60 km. long and 5 km. wide. Its maximum height is
270 m. At Sandgate, north of Brisbane, there is a narrow sand beach,
and still farther north, at Coloundra, dunes are found. Fraser’s Island
in Wide Bay has some very interesting sand formations, and on the
opposite mainland, at Pialba, there is a narrow beach between the high,
steep bank and the high tide mark. On all these places, visited by the
writer at intervals in 1900—1902, the sand is coarse, sometimes even
gravelly.

Southeasterly winds are the most effective on this coast. The salinity
of the surface water in the ocean is 2.7 per cent. .

Along the northern coast of Queensland, at Mackay, and north of
Townsville, extensive dunes were observed, but the writer had not the
opportunity of examining these.

NEW ZELAND.

Beaches on the North Island at Doubtless Bay were visited in the
late fall, 1902. The dune flora of the district is described by Cheese-
man2) and I am not able to add materially to his observations. The
sandy beach merges gradually into low sand hills, and behind these there
are extensive swamp lands. (Fig. 7.)

HAWAII.

Various sand dunes on the islands of Oahu and Hawaii were visited
and studied in detail in 1903, in December, and again in 1906, during the
months of August and September.

PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA
South of Golden Gate

in California there is a district of sand formations covering an area of
about 72 sq. km. From the ocean the sand stretches eastward to near
San Francisco Bay, embracing almost the whole end of the peninsula.
The greater part of these sand formations is now reclaimed and used
for cultivation or as building lots in the city. On the Pueblo lands of

1) Boyd: Forestry in connection with the sand dunes of Queensland.—
Queensl. Agr. Jour. 1902: 123.

2) On the Flora of the North Cape District——Trans. N. Z. Inst. XX1X:
333—385. 1897.

OF MARINE COASTS. 69

San Francisco is situated the beautiful Golden Gate Park, a result of
successful reclamation operations, but south of the park there is still an
extensive area, where the drift sand is blown about by the winds.

The shore is open to the Pacific and the waves break furiously on
the sand. After a strip of gently sloping beach, about 25 m. wide,
follows a well developed littoral dune, and inside of this there is a de-
pression, the bottom of which is sometimes level and dry, in other
places occupied by small pools.of stagnant water. Further inland,
small mounds of sand, kept together. by vegetation, still persist: A

Fic. 8. Established dune at San Francisco.

FHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

series of small dunes follow and then we find the dunes assuming
greater and greater proportions. (Fig. 8.) The vegetation is scanty
and the sand drifts in all directions. The main advance goes, however,
eastward. Underlying these extensive sand deposits, is a kind of ar-
gillaceous sandstone, considered to be of Cretaceous age.

All stages can here be observed, and the even sand surfaces on the
slopes of the great dunes offer good opportunities for observations of
the ripple phenomenon.

The sand is coarse, mainly consisting of quartz, but is of a dark
color, and contains in some places an abundant admixture of organic
matter. After rain the surface is often almost gray. I found the

70 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

cause of this to be minute coal particles, brought down from the at-
mosphere by the rain. The origin of this coal dust is, no doubt, the
smoke from the factories of the city, which settles all over the neigh-
borhood, but is nowhere so easily perceptible to the eye as on the white
sand surface. .

The salinity of the sea water is according to chemical analysis!) of
sample secured in the spring of 1904, 1.649 per cent. The surface
temperature of the water at noon was +12°C. with an atmospheric
temperature of +16°C. (III, 10, 04.)

Fic. 9. Pine forest on sand field in lee of the dune chain at Point Pinos, Pacific Grove,
Cal. The advancing dune can be seen in background.

PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

Between Pescadero and Santa Cruz on the San Francisco Peninsula
sandy shores and small dune accumulations occur in various places.
During the summer 1904 a visit was made to this district. The char-
acter of the dune sand corresponds to that of the San Francisco
district.

1) Made by Mr. R. W. Dodd in the chemical laboratory of Stanford Uni-
versity through courtesy of Dr. J. M. Stillman.

OF MARINE COASTS. ral

MONTEREY BAY.

in its inner part, is lined with a chain of high dunes, which sometimes
extend for 1 km. or more. The beach is similar to that south of
Golden Gate, but no distinct littoral dune is formed, the dune-complex
commencing immediately after the upper beach. Inside of the dune
belt usually follow sand fields.

The Hopkins Laboratory is situated on a rocky point at Pacific
Grove, and only small patches of narrow sand beach occur between the

Fig. 10. Dunes covered with a Lupinus community, at Seventeen Mile Drive, Pacific
Grove, Cal.

PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

bluffs and the ocean in the immediate neighborhood. One kilometer
south of the laboratory, at Point Pinos (Fig. 9), sand formations of
greater extent again commence. The beach is gravelly or even consist-
ing of shingle for a distance until Moss Beach, where it is sandy.

The recent drift sand has accumulated into small dunes some dis-
tance from the shore (Fig. 10), leaving a belt of older consolidated sand
bare or covered with a dense carpet of various plants. Further inland
the dunes grow in size and finally, about 0.5 km. from the ocean, they
reach quite a considerable height. One of these dunes is about 90 m.
in height, sloping abruptly on its leeward side to the plain behind.

THE SAND STRAND FLORA

=~!
le

With a few interruptions by rocky points the sand dune belt con-
tinues to Carmel Bay. Here it is, however, quite narrow.
An analysis of the sand at Point Pinos gave the following result:

Qualt? jes nceen bes ees Be wew ees 61.2%

Relspar vo icicasie cana asd neha ue eee 37.6%

Hornblende ..........----.0eeeeeeee 1.2%
100%

This constitutes a fair sample of the sand in the district. The
average size of the grains of 16 samples was 0.35 mm., half of the sam-
ples having been secured from the middle of the windward and the other
half from the leeward side of dunes.

The prevailing winds at Point Pinos are those from W. and con-
sequently the dunes wander in an easterly direction. It holds true that
wherever winds blow in many different directions, as is the case at this
place, the arrangement of the dunes is very irregular. Near the light-
house, situated at the point, the dunes do not have any regular position,
but turn in all directions. Only one kilometer further south, where the
coast line is straight, the sand ridges are almost parallel to the shore.
In cases where the wind has been able to break through these ridges,
the central part of the dune has traveled forward more rapidly than
the sides, thus leaving ridges transverse to the dunes parallel to the
coast. I was here able to observe that similar results to these mentioned
were obtained by the wind working through an opening between two
advancing dunes, thus pushing the sand forward in the depression, and
forming low ridges or cusps to leeward of the dunes. When this work
has gone on for some time, the result will be exactly the same as when
the wind is cutting through the central part of the dune by pushing the
concavity forward until an opening is effected, that is, longitudinal
ridges are formed. Fig. 11 illustrates both these modes of work of the
wind. We thus find that in some cases the dune apparently travels
with its convex side turned towards the wind, and I am inclined to the
opinion that the formation of “barkhanes” in Sahara and other deserts,
as described by several authors, takes place in this way rather than in
that suggested by Cornish.

SOUTHFRN CALIFORNIA.

At Santa Barbara in Southern California sandy beaches are common,
They are, however, rather narrow, and have a steep slope. The sand is
coarse, of a light yellow color. Quite extensive sand deposits are found

73

OF MARINE COASTS.

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74 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

at Santa Monica. Sand dunes and sandy fields stretch inland from the
beach. The sand is fine and is easily carried by the wind.

The dunes at Surf, San Diego and some other places in Southern
California, as well as those at Point Reyes and Humboldt Bay, Northern
California, and the extensive sand formations in Oregon and Washing-
ton are as yet unfamiliar to the writer.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

Mexican Pacific Coast.

At Mazatlan the sandy beaches occurring near the town were studied.
They are very small in extension, but interesting on account of the
peculiar red color of the sand. Through erosion from some red cliffs
extending into. the ocean a sand was formed which was then thrown
ashore in quantities. It was very coarse, and was not carried by the
wind.

The sand at San Blas was also very coarse and of a dark hue, caused
by a quantity of organic matter being constantly brought down with
the river and deposited at the mouth, whence waves and wind carried
it up on the beach and over the sands.

West Coast of Chiapas.

From Salina Cruz southward there is a long sand bank extending
as far as the border of Guatemala, at a distance of a few hundred
meters to three or four thousand from ,the coast. This sandbank is in
places quite broad,:and high dunes‘are formed. Inside of the bank
a long lagoon is formed called the “Estero.” Its shores are fringed
with mangrove forests. The outer side of the bank is a continuous
sandy beach, with a slope of about 35°. The sand is always tossed
about by the mighty breakers of the Pacific, and the hot tropical sun
assisted by...the..strong winds causes a rapid disintegration of the sand
grains, which ate carried over the bank and deposited on the estero
side, gradually filling the lagoon. The sands of this bank are of a fluvio-
marine origin. It. is carried down by the numerous rivers that inter-
sect the lowlands on the southern slope of Sierra Madre, then taken in
hand by the waves and currents of the ocean which distribute the
material evenly along the coast.

OF MARINE COASTS. v6)

Pacific Coast of Central America,

The writer’s experience of this coast is limited to the sandy beaches
at Champerico in Guatemala. The slope of the beach is nearly 50°.
This unusual steepness is accounted for by the heavy breakers which
here strike the coast with full force, and the strong undertow which
erodes the submerged beach. The sand was coarse and very little drift-
ing occurred.

Sand Formations at Vera Oruz, Mexico.

These are very extensive and all phases of development can be ob-
served. Sand was drifting at the time of my visit and the formation
of ripples was perhaps more clear in all its details than at any other
place I have seen. The dunes moved rapidly, unchecked by any vege-
tation. The sand contained a considerable amount of lime which added
to the light color.

III. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF THE SAND
STRAND FLORA.

In presenting a list of the principal representatives of the flora on
sandy sea shores, I do not intend to discuss the systematic relation or
the specific characters of these plants. For ecological purposes this is
of minor importance, at least in the present state of ecological knowl-
edge, and in the study of this flora I have often found it to be of greater
significance to consider many of the collective species, which have been
divided by recent systematists, as “geographical species,” whose distribu-
tion represents a distinct whole, rather than as systematic units.

As a taxonomic account I give a list of the principal plants occurring
on coastal sand formations, with a short description of the vegetative
parts of these “species,” showing adaptations to the physical conditions
of environment. This list does not pretend to be exhaustive, and con-
tains principally those plants only which have come under the writer’s
personal observation.

16 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT.

LIST OF SAND STRAND PLANTS.
RANUNCULACEAE.

Ranunculus acaulis Banks et Solander.

Perennial, glabrous herb, with creeping stolons; leaves slightly
fleshy, 3-foliate, with sheathing petioles; creeping scions almost filiform
and often subterranean.

Confined to sandy beaches of New Zealand and Chili.

A submersed plant, R. marinus L., occurs on the submerged beaches
of the Baltic, and on the dunes of California R. californicus Benth. is
found, but this species is not confined to the coastal sands.

Thalictrum minus Dum. var. dunense Buchenau.
Annual herb, with creeping rootstock; stem erect, much branched ;
leaves tomentose below.
On dunes of East- and West-Friesian islands, North Sea.

DILLENIACEAE.

Candollea glaberrima Steud.

Procumbent shrub, much branched, glaucous; glabrous; leaves flat,
linear, obtuse, 1—5 cm. long, sheathing at base, leaving a ring round
stem when falling off.

Sand formations near Perth, West Australia.

C. Huegelu Endl.

Shrub with stiff, glabrous, shining branches; leaves rigid, narrow-
finear margins revolute, appearing almost terete, acute, often broken
at ends, thus appearing truncate, 2—? cm. long.

Sand formations near Fremantle, West Australia.

C. pedunculata R. Br.
Branching shrub, erect from a thick rhizome, 30—40 cm. high,
glabrous; leaves linear, truncate, 1—3 cm. long, margins recurved;

narrowed below, with a stemsheathing base, leaving a ring round the
stem in falling off.

With preceding species.

OF MARINE COASTS. 7

Hibbertia grossulariaefolia Salish.

Shrub, with weak, prostrate stem; leaves small, alternate, with a
prominent midrib underneath, flat, petiolate, ovate, mostly coarsely
toothed, 2—4 cm. long, glabrous above, pubescent underneath; flowers
pale yellow.

Occurs together with several other species of the same genus on
sands near the mouth of Swan River, West Australia.

CRUCIFERAKR.

Cakile americana Nutt.

Annual herb, with deep root, decumbent stems up to 1 m. long, fleshy
leaves, obovate, obtuse, crenate or sinuate toothed; flowers small, purp-
lish. Pod fleshy, dry and corky when ripe.

Sandy shores of east and west coast of North America. Also along
the Great Lakes. :

C. maritima Scop.

Annual herb, with often meter deep root; stem much-branching,
hard at base, erect-decumbent; leaves few, fleshy, with oblong lobes;
flowers purplish or white.

On all seacoasts of Europe and Western Asia, North Africa, North
and South America, extratropical Australia.

Crambe maritima L.

Perennial herb, glabrous, glaucous, with branched stems, O, 5 m.
high; leaves petiolate, large, thick, oblong, undulate, and coarsely
toothed, upper leaves small; flowers white; pod globular, indehiscent,
with one seed.

Sandy and gravelly seashores of Baltic, Western Europe, and Black
Sea.

Erysimum capitatum (Dougl.) Greene.

Perennial herb, stout, erect, 15—45 cm. high, leafy, finely pubescent ;
leaves narrow, entire; flowers cream-colored.

Seashores of California.

Malcolmia litorea R. Br.

Suffrutescent; leaves obovate-oblong, obtuse, coarsely toothed, cov-
ered with a dense grayish tomentum.

On maritime sand dunes of Western Mediterranean. Several other
species of the same genus occur on the dunes of that region.

78 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

VIOLACEAE.

Viola arenaria DC.
Perennial rootstock; stems tufted, spreading, 5—15 cm. long, finely
puberulent; leaves ovate, crenulate, obtuse, somewhat thick; petioles

long; stipules incised; flowers violet.
Sandy shores of Europe and Eastern America, but goes also inland.

V. tricolor L.
Annual herb, distributed over Europe and Northern Asia, and is
introduced to America. Often found on coastal sand formations, al-
though an inland plant.

PITTOSPORBAE.

Bursaria spinosa Cav.

Shrub, very bushy, somewhat thorny, glabrous; leaves clustered,
obovate, obtuse, 1—3 cm. long, narrowed at base, petiolate, green on
both sides.

On the coasts of Tasmania and Australia, from Queensland to South
Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf), but also found in the interior. A
variety incana Lindl. is hoary in its young stages, and the under side
of leaves are always tomentose. This form is found in West Australia
and in the tropical parts of that continent.

Pittosporum crassifolium A. Cunn. and P. umbellatum Banks et Sol.
are two littoral shrubs occurring on North Island of New Zealand, but
are not confined to sand formations.

FRANKENIACEABE.

Frankenia grandiflora C. et §.

Perennial herb, erect or diffuse, slightly suffrutescent, 20—35 cm.
high, smooth or somewhat pubescent; leaves entire, obovate, 1—2 cm.
long, with revolute margins, sessile or short-petiolate, fascicled in the
axils, the opposite pair mostly united by a somewhat membranaceous
sheathing base.

Common especially on the marshes of the California sea shore, but
spreads into Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico, preferring saline soil.

A shrubby F. pauciflora DC. is common on the sandy shores of
Tasmania, West Australia, South Australia, and Victoria, but occurs
also in the interior deserts.

OF MARINE COASTS. 79

F. hirsuta L.

Perennial herb, prostrate, seldom erect; leaves linear or oblong-
linear, margins revolute.

A true halophyte, occurring in Southern Europe, North Africa, and
Siberia.

F. pulverulenta L.

Annual herb, prostrate; leaves obovate, thickly pulverulent on lower
side.

On seashores of the whole Mediterranean, but not confined to sand
formations.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE.
Ammodenia peploides (L.) Rupr.

Perennial herb, with long, brown rootstocks, fleshy, glabrous; stems
tufted, stout, simple or branched, erect or diffuse, 7—25 cm. high;
leaves sessile, clasping, ovate, acute; flowers small.

On sandy beaches and littoral dunes in Northern Europe and Asia,
and on the Atlantic coast of North America from New Jersey to the
Arctic.

Arenaria serpyllifolia L.

Annual tufted herb, slender, slightly pubescent, much-branched,
diffuse, 5—20 cm. high; leaves ovate; flowers white.

Occurs often on dunes of Europe, Northern Asia and is introduced
into North America. Not confined to coast.

Cerastium semidecandrum IL.

also not unfrequently occurs on dunes of Europe, but is not a sea coast
plant. It often varies when growing near the sea.

Sagina crassicualis Wats.

Perennial herb, smooth, stem stoutish and succulent, branching,
3—12 cm. long, decumbent; leaves linear, thickish, 4—10 mm. long, the
basal forming a rosette, the cauline connate by broad scarious mem-
branes.

Beaches of California from Monterey to Tomales Bay.

S. procumbens L.
Annual, 3—5 cm. high, branching and decumbent at base, forming
tufts, glabrous; leaves subulate, forming at base a short sheath; flowers
small.

80 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

It is especially a maritime form, 8. maritima Don., with thicker
leaves, which occurs on the coast. Europe, Central Asia, North America,
Australia.

Silene gallica L.

Annual herb, hairy, viscid, 15—35 cm. high, erect; lower leaves
small, obovate, the upper ones narrow and pointed, flowers small, white.

Common on sand, gravel and waste places in almost every part of
the world, and seems to prefer the coast. Abundant on dunes at Fre-
mantle, West Australia, and in Central California.

S. nicaeensis All.
Perennial herb, covered with long viscid hairs; leaves green, linear-
oblong, obtuse, acute.
Coastal sands of Mediterranean countries.
Of this genus several species as S. viscosa Pers., 8. maritima With.,
and S. inflata Sm. var. litoralis are distinctly maritime near the Baltic,
but usually do not occur on sand.

Tissa Clevelandi Greene.

Perennial, viscid, glandular; stems prostrate, forming deep-green
mats, 10—30 cm. broad; leaves filiform, conspicuously fascicled in the
axils, all longer than the internodes.

On the dunes near San Francisco, Presidio near that city being the
type locality.

T. macrotheca (Hornem.) Britt.

Perennial herb, succulent with fusiform fleshy roots, stout stems,
18—30 cm. high, erect or ascending from the short, often branched,
woody crown of the thick taproot; herbage deep green, viscid-pubescent
above, glabrous below; leaves narrow-linear, 2—4 cm. long; stipules
large, ovate.

Common on sands near San Francisco and Pacific Grove, California.

Var. scariosa Britton, with paler herbage, glandular-pubescent, or
almost glabrous, and short internodes, is frequently met with on dunes
at San Francisco and Monterey, although it prefers the bluffs near sea.

T. marina (L.) Britton.

Annual, biennial, or mostly perennial herb, glabrous or with short
viscid pubescence; numerous stems branching from base, forming pros-
trate tufts, 6—12 cm. long; leaves fleshy, on coast, linear, with small,
scarious stipules at base; flowers pink or white.

OF MARINE COASTS. 81

Common on sea shores in many temperate and subtropical countries.
Europe, temperate Asia, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and
some parts of South America.

PORTULACACEAE,

Portulaca oleracea L.

Fleshy, prostrate annual, seldom exceeding 15 cm., with succulent,
alternate leaves, glabrous, cuneate or obovate, obtuse; flowers sessile,
yellow, open only in sunshine; seeds many, capsule.

One of the most common sandy sea shore plants in the tropics and
in most subtropical countries. Does not occur on California dunes.

Claytonia
is often represented on coastal sands by different species, C. (or Montia)
perfoliata Donn., for instance, at San Francisco, and C. australasica
Hook. f. on sandhills near Dunedin, New Zealand (Kirk.).

TILIACEAE.

Triumfetta procumbens Forst.

Prostrate perennial; stems 6—12 dm. long, rooting at joints;.
branches ascending, tomentose; leaves petiolate, ovate, obtuse, 2—5 cm.
long, entire, or divided into 3 or 5 lobes, glabrous above, tomentose
underneath; flowers yellow; fruit globular, 15 mm. in diameter, cov-
ered with prickles.

Occurs on sandy sea shores of Queensland, most of the Pacific
islands, and in the Malayan Archipelago.

LINACEAR.

Linum monogynum Forst.

Perennial, glabrous herb, woody at the base, branched or simple,
erect, 15—50 cm. high; leaves numerous, narrow, lanceolate, 1—3 cm.
long; flowers large, white.

Restricted to New Zealand, where chiefly littoral.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.

Zygophyllum Billardiert DC.

Prostrate herb, much-branched; leaves fleshy, opposite, with two
distinct leaflets; these oblong or linear, 1—3 cm. long; stipules small;
flowers white.

82 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Endemic in Australia, where it occurs on drifting sands in Victoria,
South Australia, and West Australia.

RUTACHAE.

Correa alba Andr.

Much-branched compact shrub, 3—12 cm. high, branches covered
with a hoary, brown-reddish tomentum; leaves ovate-obovate, obtuse,
1—3 cm. long, coriaceous, somewhat tomentose above, in age glabrous,

densely tomentose beneath; flowers pink.
Common on sandy shores of Victoria and South Australia.

RHAMNACEAE.

Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Eson.
Shrub, 1—2 m. high, much-branched ; leaves green, oblong-obovate,
serrate, 2—6 cm. long; flowers blue.
Coastal sands of California, but not confined to these situations.

Discaria Toumatouw Raoul.
Varying from a small thorny shrub to a 6 m. high tree; leaves small,
usually glabrous, absent in old plants; branchlets reduced to opposite

woody spines, nearly 5 cm. long.
Restricted to New Zealand.

ANACARDIACEAE.

Corynocarpus laevigatus Forst.
Evergreen, glabrous tree, with alternate, oblong leaves narrowed

into short, stout petioles.
Very abundant on the coasts of New Zealand, but also found inland.

LEGUMINOSAE.

Acacia retinoides Schlecht, and A. salicina Lindl.

are often among the species of this large genus, which occur on the
coastal sand formations of Australia, the former being common on dunes
in Victoria, the latter the most abundant form on the sandhills round
St. Vincent’s Gulf in South Australia. A. pycnantha Benth. is recom-
mended as suitable for planting on drift sands.

OF MARINE COASTS. 83

Astragalus arenarius L. Pall.

Low perennial with creeping rootstock, prostrate stems, branching
at base, 5—15 cm. long, hairy; leaves pinnate; leaflets linear-lanceolate,
flowers bluish-purple.

Has a wide range on coastal sands of Europe, Asia, and North
America, but does not extend to the Arctic or to the tropics. Some-
times also on inland sand formations in Europe.

A. Menziesti Gray.

Perennial, stout,, erect, 6—12 dm. high; young herbage whitish
pubescent, soon green, but hirsute-pubescent; leaflets many, commonly
crowded on the rachis, broadly oblong, usually retuse at apex, 10—15
mm. long, stipules broad, not pointed; corolla yellowish-white, with
purple-tipped keel; pod 2—4 cm. long, thin-walled, much inflated, ovoid.
Coastal sands of California.

Canavalia obtusifolia DC.
Perennial herb, with trailing stems, glabrous; leaflets broadly obo-
vate, obtuse, 5—?7 cm. long, thick; flowers pink.
Common on coastal sands in the tropics of South America, Africa,
Asia, and Australia. At Moreton Bay in Queensland. |

Crotalaria Cunninghamii R. Br.

Shrub, 6—10 dm. high, terete, tomentose branches; leaves ovate,
broad, obtuse, 3—18 cm. long, densely tomentose on both sides, petiole
1—2 em. long, geniculate above middle; stipules and bracts subulate;
flowers large, yellow-green, streaked with dark lines.

Sandy shores of North, South, and West Australia.

Gastrolobium spinosum Benth.

Shrub, 6—8 dm. high, mostly glabrous, but sometimes the young
shoots are clothed with evanescent wool; leaves opposite, ovate-cordate,
ending in a pungent point, and bordered with prickly teeth, 2—4 cm.
long and just as broad, rigidly coriaceous, usually glaucous.

Together with several other species of the same genus common on
dunes near Fremantle, West Australia.

‘Genista monosperma Lam.

Common shrub in the Mediterranean countries on sand, but is not
confined to sea coasts. Is often planted on dunes as an effective sand
stay.

“GNAVHOOO AM HdVUNOLOHA

‘epH Gsty Alreuory “id
-daoxa wioly WNP JOM ul ‘puepeaz MeN ‘AinquaquLO ‘UOWYSUG MAN ye ‘sauUNpP UO AzUNUWOD susopuoUf snd.nog “ZI “OLA

OF MARINE COASTS. 85

Lathyrus litoralis (Nutt.) Endl.

A maritime species occuring on sea shore of Marin Co. and north-
ward in California (Jepson: Flora of Western Middle California, 1901,
p. 298).

L. maritimus Bigelow.

Perennial herb, with creeping rootstock, stout, 30 cm. high or more,
glabrous, stems sharply angular, spreading; leaves with many pairs of
leaflets, these ovate or elliptical; leafstalk ending in a long tendril;
flowers large, purple; pod hairy when young, 3—5 cm. long.

Sandy and gravelly coasts of Northern Europe, not going further
south than Picardy; Arctic Europe, Asia, and America, where it ex-
tends down the eastern coast. A form called L. californicus Dougl. is
found on sea shores of Washington, and a variety aleuticus White, is
found in the arctic parts of America.

Lotus corniculatus L. var. crassifolius Pers.

Perennial stock, with a long taproot; stems decumbent or prostrate,
1—5 dm. long; leaves pinnate, somewhat fleshy; leaflets ovate, pointed,
flowers yellow.

This variety represents a race characteristic to the sea shores of
Europe, but is not related to L. crassifolius Greene, which is a different
plant of Western America, where it does not follow the coast.

Distributed over Europe, Northern and Central Asia, the mountain-
ous districts of East Indian Peninsula, and Australia.

Lupinus arboreus Sims.

Arborescent or suffrutescent, silky pubescent on young stems and
lower surface of leaves; petioles short; leaflets narrowly lanceolate,
38—6 em. long, 9—11 on first leaves, 6—8 on later leaves from the
axils, these smaller; corolla sulphur-yellow, keel purple tipped; cotyledon
of the seedling petioled.

Sand strands and in the neighborhood of coasts, California.

L. Chamissonis Esch.

Perennial, stems woody below, 3—12 dm. high, densely tomentose;
leaflets 7—9, silky-pubescent, oblong-oblanceolate, 1—3 cm. long, peti-
oles short; flowers blue, the banner with a yellow spot.

Sandy soil along the whole Californian coast and Oregon coast.

86 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

L. litoralis Dougl.
is a sea shore plant of California, from Point Reyes northward to
Vancouver Island. (Jepson 1. c.)

L. trifidus Torr.

Annual herb, branched from base, 15—30 cm. high, densely pilose
pubescent, the younger parts canescent; leaflets 6—8, linear; corolla
blue, with a white spot on the banner.

Coastal sands at San Francisco and Pacific Grove.

Medicago litoralis Rohde.

Annual herb, with obcordate leaflets, toothed at apex, hairy.
On sandy sea shores of the Mediterranean.

M. marina L.

Perennial herb, with obovate leaflets, toothed at apex, tomentose;
flowers yellow, large.
Sandy shores of the Mediterranean region.

Oxylobium callistachys Benth.

Tall shrub, young branches angular, clothed with appressed silky
hairs; leaves lanceolate, 5—10 cm. long, obtuse, coriaceous, glabrous
and reticulate above, silky-pubescent beneath, especially when young;
flowers yellow.

Restricted to Western Australia.

O. reticulatum Meissn.

Shrub, 6—10 dm. high, rigid branches, silky-pubescent; leaves op-
posite, obovate, obtuse, 2 cm. long, coriaceous, reticulate and glabrous
in age.

Sea shore sands of West Australia. Occurs also on inland sand
formations of that country. With several other species of Ozylobium
common in the neighborhood of Perth.

Swainsonia

is a genus represented by several species on the sand formations of
Australia, especially Victoria, but these plants are not restricted to
the coast.

Trifolium fragiferum L.
Perennial stock, creeping stems, rooting at the nodes; leaflets

OF MARINE COASTS. 87

obovate, toothed; leafstalks long, slightly hairy; flowers sessile, white,

the head very compact.
Europe, Central Asia, preferring the coast, especially on the Baltic.

T. repens. Li.

Perennial plant, glabrous or sometimes slightly hairy; stems creep-
ing, rooting at the nodes; leafstalks long, flowers white, sometimes
pinkish.

Europe and Northern Asia, whence spread to many countries. Not
confined to coasts or sandy soil, but often occuring on such localities.

Vicia cracca L.
Perennial rootstock; the annual stems climbing, with branched tend-
rils, 6—12 dm. long, hairy; leaflets numerous, oblong, 20—25 mm. long.
Common in Europe and Northern Asia, whence introduced to North
America. Not confined to coast.

Ulex europaeus L.
Shrub, 6—20 dm. high, much branched, hairy; the small branches
all end in a thorn; lower leaves lanceolate, upper ones reduced to thorns.
Sandy, dry soil in Western and Southern Europe, but not confined
to maritime situations.

Vigna lutea A. Gray.

Prostrate or trailing herb, almost glabrous; leaves pinnately tri-
foliate, stipulate ; leaflets entire, obovate, obtuse, 3—8 cm. long; stipules
short and broad; flowers yellow.

Common on sandy shores in tropical Asia, South Africa, Australia,
and Pacific Islands, rare in West Indies. On several islands along the
Queensland coast, on shores of Moreton Bay and in New South Wales
at Newcastle and Botany Bay on coastal sands.

A nearly related form V. luteola Benth. occurs on sandy sea shores
in different countries, but has not been observed by the writer.

ROSACEAE.

Adenostoma fasciculatum H. et A.

Evergreen shrub, 6—25 dm. high, with virgate branches clothed with
leaf-fascicles ; leaves linear, rigid, entire, numerous, and mostly fascicled,
8—12 mm. long; flowers small, white.

Although not a sea coast plant, this species is included here, because

88s THE SAND STRAND FLORA

it is a conspicuous feature of the older dunes of the Californian coast,
especially at Monterey Bay. It is one of the characteristic plants of the
chaparral formation in certain parts of California.

Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb.

Perennial, stemless herb, silvery with white tomentum especially be-
neath, rootstock sending out numerous, long, slender, jointed runners
from the nodes; leaves 8—15 cm. long, in tufts, unequally pinnate;
leaflets in 5—20 pairs, oblong or rounded, with very small ones inter-
mixed, deeply toothed, white-silky, tomentose beneath or on both sides;
flower large, yellow.

In temperate countries in both hemispheres, extending to the Arctic.
Seems to follow the coast in California, and is never absent from suit-
able localities on the sea shores of the Baltic.

Fragaria chilensis Duchesne.

Perennial acaulescent herb, with stout runners; upper surface of
leaves glabrous; rest of herbage densely pubescent with long weak hairs,
especially beneath; leaves of firm texture, dark green, leaflets 1—3 cm.
long; flowers 2 cm. in diameter, white.

Coastal sands from San Francisco northward to Alaska. Also in
Chili.

Potentilla reptans L.

Perennial herb, with slender, prostrate stems, rooting at the nodes;
leaves petiolate; leaflets 5, obovate, coarsely toothed; flowers large,
yellow.

Dispersed over Europe, Northern and Western Asia. Also natural-
ized in New Zealand.

Rosa pimpinellifolia L,
Erect shrub, with widely creeping subterranean stem, much-branched,
2—4 dm. high; leaflets small, glabrous; flowers pinkish.
Europe and temperate Asia, but not in Arctic. Occurs generally
not far from the sea, and is a characteristic plant on the dunes of the
Friesian Islands (Buchenau).

CRASSULACEAE.

Sedum acre L.
Perennial tufts, procumbent, consisting of numerous short, barren

OF MARINE COASTS. 89

stems, and erect flowering branches, 3—7 cm. high, glabrous, somewhat
yellowish; leaves small, thick, ovoid; flowers yellow.

Common in Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to coastal
sands, but frequently occurring there.

Tillaea minima Miers

Low succulent annual, simple or with many ascending branches,
2—7 cm. high; herbage of adult plant reddish; leaves ovate or oblong,
obtuse, 2 mm. long.

There is a Tillaea common on sandy shores in Australia, f, i. at
Moreton Bay, Sydney, Port Phillip, Vincent’s Gulf and Perth, and the
same form is said to occur in New Zealand and extratropical South
America. It is recognized as 7. verticillata DC. by Bentham, but the
difference, if any at all, is inconpicuous between this form and 7.
minima Miers., which is widely distributed in temperate South America
and California. When occurring on the coast this species is always
more succulent than in inland situations.

T. moschata DC.

Annual herb, with red creeping stems, 8—20 cm. long, succulent,
rooting from the axils; leaves 1 cm. long, entire, obovate, obtuse;
flowers comparatively large.

Occurs in New Zealand and on adjoining islands, in Southern Chili
and Fuegia, as well as on several oceanic islands, as Falkland’s and
Kerguelen’s Land.

T. muscosa L.
Annual herb, 2—4 cm. high, much-branched, reddish, succulent;
leaves linear.
In Western and Southern Europe from Mediterranean northwards
to Holland.

HALORAGEAE.

Gunnera arenaria Cheeseman.

Fleshy glabrous herb, with slender rhizomes, tufted; leaves 3—5
em. long, ovate, petioles sheathing at base, with short flattened hairs on
upper part. This species shows a remarkable dimorphism in the form
of flowers, drupes and even nuts.

Coastal sands of New Zealand.
Library Publications. 6

ty in which Gunnera arenaria Cheesm.

Upper surface of most Gunnera leaves is covered with sand.

Moist hollow between fairly stable dunes occupied by «a Soldanella communi

Fiq. 18.

is dominating.

PHOTOGRAPH BY COCKAYNE.

OF MARINE COASTS. 91

Hippuris vulgaris L. f. maritima.
Perennial rootstock, with annual stems, 3—-6 dm. high, stout; leaves
entire, linear, acute, 10—15 mm. long; flowers inconspicuous.
Occurs on coasts of Baltic. The typical form is dispersed over
Europe and northern North America, and is not a coast plant.

RHIZOPHOREAE.

Rhizophora mangle L.
The common mangrove. of all tropical coasts does not, as a rule,
occur on sandy shores, but occasional specimens can be found on sandy
beaches or fringing sandy islands.

MYRTACEAE,

Calythriz aurea Lindl.

Erect shrub, rigid, not much branched, minutely pubescent; leaves
erect, ovate, thick, concave, obtuse, ciliate on margins and midrib;
flowers yellow in leafy heads.

Together with other species of the same genus on sands at Swan
River, West Australia.

Kunzea pomifera F. Muell.
Rigid, prostrate shrub, glabrous, or young shoots somewhat pubescent ;
leaves ovate, narrow at base, rigid, spreading, obtuse, 6—12 mm. long;

flowers white.
Sandy shores of Victoria and South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf).

Also in interior deserts of Australia.

Leptospermum laevigatum F. Muell.

Tall shrub, glabrous, somewhat glaucous, young shoots often silky;
leaves oblong, 1—4 cm. long, 3-nerved, alternate, rigid, entire; flowers
white.

Coastal sand formations in Australia (Sydney, Port Phillip, South |
Australia, and Tasmania). Does not extend to West Australia.

LL, scoparium Forst.

Rigid shrub to 7 m. high tree, much-branched; leaves small, ovate,
alternate, erect, concave; young shoots covered with silky hairs, adult
foliage mostly glabrous.

Australia and New Zealand on the beach. In the latter country it
extends to an altitude of 1000 m.

92 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

On sand at Moreton Bay and Port Jacksor L. myrtifolium Sieb.
is quite common. ,

Melaleuca.

Several species of this typical Australian genus occur on coastal
sands, f. i. M. parviflora Reich. on sand dunes of Victoria. Not re-
stricted to the coast, however. M. ericifolia Smith thrives in very
salty situations, growing almost like a mangrove on muddy ocean shores.
It is especially well adapted for fixing sand along salt lagoons and in
wet places between dunes.

Metrosideros tomentosa A. Rich.

Large shrub or tree with massive spreading arms and stout, tomentose
branchlets; leaves 3—10 cm. long, with short petioles, oblong, usually
narrowed towards apex, rounded at base, margins flat or recurved,
clothed with white tomentum beneath.

New Zealand (North Island only) coasts. Abundant on North
Cape.

ONAGRACEAE.

Fuchsia procumbens R. Cunn.

Much-branched; stems prostrate, slender, 15—45 cm. long; leaves
alternate, ovate, 1—2 cm. long, shorter than: petioles; berry large,
glaucous.

_ Sandy places near highwater mark on Northern coast of North
Island, New Zealand.

Oenothera cheiranthifolia Hornem.

Annual caulescent herb, prostrate and radiating from a central
radical rosette, crowning the taproot, 45—75 cm. long, rigid and tough;
leaves thick, canescently pubescent, obovate-oblong, obtuse, shortly peti-
olate, 1—8 em. long; flowers yellow; seeds many.

Coastal sand dunes, California.

O. micrantha Hornem.

Annual; branches procumbent from a short primary axis, not rigid
or tough, pubescence hirsutulous; leaves radical, in rosette, oblong-
lanceolate, 4 cm. long, slightly undulate, denticulate.

Does not differ materially from foregoing species.

Californian coast from San Francisco southward. According to

OF MARINE COASTS. 93

Abrams 1) not confined to coast, but also found on sand in the interior
valleys of California.

Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale Haworth.

Perennial plant often forming extensive mats; robust, prostrate
stems, woody at base, with short ascending flowering branches; leaves
opposite, stem-clasping, 4—8 cm. long, glabrous, succulent, linear, tri-
angular, sometimes compressed laterally, acute; flowers rose-colored;
seeds minute, numerous.

This species scarcely differs from the South African M. acinaciforme
L. except in smaller flowers and less succulent leaves.

Follows the coast in California, Chili, and Australia. In the latter
country it sometimes ascends the rivers as far as the water is brackish,
and it occurs on the salt plains of the interior in a few places. Grows
generally on the littoral dune, where that formation is developed.

M. australe Sol.

Perennial; stems prostrate, rooting at base, 3—15 dm. long; leaves
opposite; connate at base, triangular, flat above, keeled or convex
beneath, acute, fleshy, 2—4 cm. long, often crowded in short auxiliary
shoots; some plants have red, others green leaves; flowers rose-colored.

Appears not to be very distinct from M. crassifolium L. of South
Africa.

Coasts of Australia, New Zealand, South Pacific Islands and Cal-
ifornia, at San Francisco, where most likely introduced.

_M. capitatum Haw.
Perennial, often suffruticose caudex, simple or branched; leaves
crowded, very long, triquetrous, glaucescent.
A South African species sometimes cultivated on sand dunes in
Australia. The nearly related M. pugioniforme L. from South Africa
is also a good sand stay.

M. crystallinum L.

Prostrate annual or biennial, much-branched, stems thick, about 3
dm. long, covered with transparent vesicles; leaves undulate, succulent,
obovate, obtuse, narrowed into a stemclasping petiole; flowers white
or pink.

1) L. R. Abrams: Flora of Los Angeles and vicinity, p. 271, 1904.

94 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Common on sea coasts of South Africa. Also on the coasts of
Southern Europe, Canary Islands, California and Australia (South and
West Australia).

M. edule L.

Stems stout, spreading, prostrate, angular. Leaves opposite, fleshy,

7 cm. long, shortly connate at base, linear, triquetrous, concave above ;

keel serrulate.
Coast of South Africa, whence introduced into many countries as a

sandstay and then naturalized, f. i. on North Island of New Zealand.

Tetragonia expansa Murray
Succulent perennial, branched, erect or prostrate, 3—6 dm. high,
glabrous, papillose; leaves alternate, plane, rhomboid-ovate, 4—5 nerved
beneath, 2—8 cm. long, abruptly narrowed into a broad petiole, entire,
acute or obtuse; flowers small, yellow; fruit angular with 2—4 spines.
On coast of Australia, New Zealand, and adjoining islands, Japan,
Polynesia, temperate South America and California (Pacific Grove and

shores of San Francisco Bay).

T. trigyna Banks & Sol.
Stems suffruticose, 2—15 dm. long, almost trailing and climbing;
leaves alternate, broadly ovate, abruptly narrowed into the petiole,

papillose.
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and adjoining islands.
A number of species of this genus occur on the sandy sea shores of

South Africa.
UMBELLIFERAE.

Angelica litoralis Fries.
Perennial, 1—2 m. high, 2—3 ternately divided; leaflets ovate,
acute, serrate; petioles thick, the upper ones much inflated; flowers

greenish-yellow.
Occurs on gravelly and stony shores of the Baltic.

A. rosaefolia Hook.
Suffruticose plant, chiefly littoral in New Zealand (Kirk: Student’s
Flora of New Zealand).

Apiuwm prostratum Labill.

Root stout; stems prostrate, 15—60 cm. long, stout, grooved; leaves
2—8 pinnate; leaflets sessile; obovate, narrow-linear, membraneous.

OF MARINE COASTS. 95

Sea shores of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Pacific
Island, South America, South Africa, and several oceanic islands.

Crantzia lineata Nutt.

Small, creeping, glabrous perennial, with solitary or tufted, erect,
cylindrical leaves, springing from the nodes; rhizomes slender, rooting
at the nodes; leaves 1—12 cm. long, linear-fistular, obtuse, sometimes
compressed, especially when growing in elevated situations.

North America on the Atlantic and certain parts of the Pacific
Coast; New Zealand and Chatham Island. Is a saltmarsh plant, but
occurs often in moist hollows between dunes.

Daucus maritimus Lam.
Biennial, with leaves in rosette, densely covered with a short tom-
entum.
Mediterranean countries, where often found on sand dunes.

Eryngium maritimum L.

Perennial root herb with deep root; about 8 dm. high, stiff, erect,
much-branched, glabrous, glaucous; leaves stiff, broad, sinuate, divided
into 3 broad, short lobes, veined, bordered by coarse teeth, radical leaves
petiolate, others clasping.

Common on maritime sands of Europe, North Africa and Western
Asia, mostly growing on the upper beach or the littoral dune.

E. vesiculosum Labill.

Perennial, with stout root; stems 5—15 cm. long, prostrate, but
never rooting at the nodes; radical leaves rosulate, lanceolate-oblong,
narrowed into a flat petiole, 3—9 cm. long, deeply toothed; teeth
spinescent.

Sandy beaches of New Zealand and Australia.

Hydrocotyle Novae Zealandiae DC.

occurs sometimes on sandy beaches of North Island, New Zealand, in a
form, described by Kirk (in his Student’s Flora, p. 189) as H. robusta.

ARALIACEAE.

Pseudopanax Lessonii C. Koch.

Much branched shrub or small tree; branches stout; leaves 2—5
foliate; leaflets sessile, 2—10 cm. long, obovate, obtuse, thick and

96 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

coriaceous, glossy, entire or sinuate-serrate; veins indistinct; petioles

5—15 cm. long.
Sea coast of North Island, New Zealand.

RUBIACEAE.

Coprosma acerosa A. Cunn. f. arenaria Kirk.
Low shrub, seldom more than 1.5 m. high; branches often interlaced ;

leaves narrow, close-set; bark yellowish-brown.
On drifting sands of New Zealand, rarely inland.

C. Baueri Endl.

Shrub or small tree, glabrous except the young shoots, which are
sometimes minutely pubescent; branchlets stout, terete; leaves somewhat
fleshy, broadly ovate, narrowed into a short slender petiole, rounded at
the tip; margins often recurved, glossy; stipules broad, acute, minutely
toothed; peduncles axillary.

Coast of New Zealand.

Galium verum L.
Perennial from woody rootstock, glabrous; stems much-branched at
base, decumbent, 15—30 cm. long; flowers yellow.
Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to the coast, but occurs
often on upper beach and littoral dune, not infrequently together with
G. mollugo.

VALERIANACEAE.

Valeriana officinalis L.

Perennial stock; creeping runners; erect flowering stems, 15—20
em. high; leaves pinnate with many lanceolate segments, 2—6 cm. long,
coarsely toothed, somewhat hairy underneath; flowers white or pinkish.

Common in Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to coast, but
frequently occurring on upper beach near brackish water.

Valerianella olitoria Poll.
Annual herb, glabrous, 6—15 cm. high, erect or ascending, branching
from base, radical leaves caespitose, oblong, 3—5 cm. long, rounded at
top, entire, narrowing at base; stemleaves narrower, clasping, coarsely

toothed.
Common in Europe, especially in the south.

OF MARINE COASTS. oT

CAMPANULACEAE.
Campanula rotundifolia L.
Perennial, with slender, creeping rootstock; radical leaves ovate,
others narrow-lanceolate, entire; flowers blue.
Common on dry places throughout Europe, but not confined to coast,
although it frequently occurs on established dunes.

Jasione montana L.
Biennial, with tufted leaves, linear or lanceolate, somewhat hairy;
flowers blue.
Widely spread in Europe.
It is especially the form litoralis Fries, prostrate and tufty, which
occurs on the dunes of the Baltic.

COMPOSITAE.

Achillea millefolium L.

Perennial herb, common in Europe and North America, but not
confined to the coast, although it frequently occurs on dunes.

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H.

Is abundant on dunes at San Francisco:and Pacific Grove, but is
not restricted to coastal sands,

Angianthus eriocephalus Benth.
Low, slender annual, 2—5 cm. high, leaves narrow-linear, opposite,
entire, woolly-white.

On coast sand formations in Victoria and Western Australia.
Occurs also in Tasmania.

Artemisia absinthium IL. .

Shrubby, with short stem, much-branched and leafy, annual flower-
ing stems hard, 3—6 dm. high, white-gray tomentose; leaves small,
divided into oblong, linear, obtuse lobes.

Near the sea in Europe and temperate Asia, whence introduced to
North America and New Zealand.

A. campestris L.

Perennial stock, sometimes shrubby, low, branched; annual branches
spreading, 83—4 dm. long, glabrous, somewhat reddish; leaves small,

once or twice pinnate, with few narrow-linear segments, green on upper
surface.

98 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Frequently on shores, although not restricted to coast. Europe and
temperate Asia. Several forms of this plant occur on the coastal dunes
of Germany, as sericea Fr. and stramentisia G. Beck.

A. maritima L.

Suffrutescent, much-branched, decumbent, covered with white tom-
entum; leaves twice pinnate, with narrow-linear segments.
Maritime sands of Western Europe, Mediterranean, Black Sea, and

Caspian Sea.

A. pycnocephala DC.

Perennial herb, with stout stem, 4—8 dm. high, somewhat woody at
base, crowded with leaves, once or twice pinnately divided into. linear
entire segments; herbage densely silky-villous; flowers yellow.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from Monterey northwards.

A. Stelleriana Bess.

Perennial, densely white-tomentose; stem-branched, 83—7 dm. high,
bushy; branches ascending; leaves obovate, 2—8 cm. long, pinnatifid
into oblong, obtuse, usually entire lobes; densely tomentose beneath,
but green and glabrous above in age.

Sandy sea beaches, Kamtschatka, Southern Sweden, Denmark,
England, Ireland, Atlantic coast of North America.

A. vulgaris L.

Perennial, thick and woody stock, erect flowering stems, 5—10 dm.
high, glabrous; leaves pinnatifid, with lanceolate, pointed lobes, coarsely
toothed, dark green and glabrous above, white tomentose underneath.

Common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Not confined to coast.

Aster (Olearia) avillaris F. Muell.

Erect shrub, much-branched, 1—3 m. high, white-tomentose 3 leaves
obovate, or linear, 1—2 cm. long, obtuse, entire, with revolute margins,
glabrous and shining above, white-woolly beneath.

On coastal sand dunes in Victoria, South Australia (St. Vincent’s
Gulf), and Western Australia (Perth). Also in Tasmania.

A. (Olearia) glutinosus Benth.

Much-branched shrub, 1—1.6 m. high, glabrous, glutinous; leaves
narrow-linear, acute, 1—4 cm. long, flat, margins somewhat recurved.
Sandy coasts of Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.

OF MARINE COASTS. 99

A. (Olearia) ramulosus Benth.

Shrub, 1—2 m. high, much-branched, pubescent, sometimes glutin-
ous; leaves small, spreading, obovate, petiolate, obtuse, with revolute
margins, glabrous above, woolly beneath.

Together with other species of this genus on dunes in Victoria, but
not confined to coast. In Tasmania, New South Wales, and South
Australia.

A. (Olearia) Solandri Hook. f.
Much-branched shrub, 1—4 m. high, branchlets stout, puberulous;
white-yellowish tomentose beneath; margins recurved.
Usually on coast; New Zealand, especially on North Island.

A. Tripolium L.

Perennial herb, glabrous, 2—3 dm. high, erect or decumbent; leaves
linear, entire, somewhat succulent; rayflowers purplish.
Maritime coasts of Europe, and temperate Asia.

Baccharis pilularis DC.

Hvergreen shrub, prostrate on sand, 2—15 dm. high; branchlets
angular; leaves sessile, obovate, 1—3 cm. long, sinuately toothed.

The more erect form is widely spread inland in California, while
the prostrate form is confined to the coast. Rare south of Point Con-
ception according to Abrams,

Bidens bipinnata L.

Glabrous annual, 0.5—1 m. high; branches angular; leaves thin,
.pinnately divided; leafsegments again divided into small, deeply toothed
lobes; flowers yellow.

On sandy shores of Queesnland, as Moreton Bay. Is common in
various situations in the eastern part of North America and in the
tropics of that continent.

Calocephalus Brownii F. Muell.

Low, rigid, much-branched shrub, 3 dm. high, covered with a white,
woolly tomentum; leaves alternate, linear, obtuse, 2 mm. long.

On sea coasts of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western
Australia.

100 THE SAND STRAND FLOBA

Cassinia fulvida Hook. f.

Erect shrub, about 1 m. high, much-branched; branches covered
with a yellowish, subviscid tomentum; leaves narrow, linear, spreading,
margins slightly curved, clothed with fulvous tomentum; glutinous
above. Midrib obvious below.

Restricted to New Zealand, where it goes up to 1200 m. from sea
level.

C. retorta A. Cunn.

Shrub, 1—3 m. high, with slender branches, covered with gray
tomentum; small, erect, narrow-linear leaves, with recurved margins,
underneath covered with whitish appressed tomentum.

On North Cape, New Zealand.

Cirsium occidentale Nutt.

Biennial herb, stout, 4—10 dm. high, white with thick coating of
cottony wool; leaves pinnatifid, not very prickly, glabrate above, canes-
cent beneath; flowers purple.

Common on established dunes near San Francisco, and follows the
coast southward in California, extending inland among hills of coast
ranges.

Corethrogyne obovata Benth.

Perennial with decumbent stems, 3—6 dm. long; leaves 2—3 cm.
long, obovate, obtuse, toothed above middle, densely white-woolly; disk
flowers yellow, ray flowers violet blue.

On sand dunes of California, from Pacific Grove northward.

C. virgata Gray.
Suffrutescent, erect, 2—10 dm. high, branched; herbage woolly;
leaves oblanceolate, serrate; disk flowers yellow, ray flowers violet blue.
Coast of California.

C. viscidula Greene.

Perennial, tall, slender; stem and flowers at flowering time purplish,
glandular-scabrous; leaves narrowly-oblanceolate, acute, serrate, viscid-
glandular; disk flowers yellowish-brown; ray flowers violet blue.

On sand dunes at Monterey Bay, Galzomi,

Cotula coronopifolia L.

Small perennial glabrous herb, with succulent, clustered, creeping
stems, rooting at the nodes; branches ascending, 10—20 em. high ;

OF MARINE COASTS. 101

leaves alternate, often distant, sheathing at the base, lanceolate, nearly
linear, entire or pinnatifid, 25 cm. long; flowers yellow.

Widely dispersed. West coast of Europe, from Spain (Cadiz) to
Denmark, and Norway (Sognefjord), South Africa, Australia (New
South Wales to Western Australia), Tasmania, New Zealand, Chatham
Islands, California (supposed by Behr to be introduced), Chili and
Brazil. Occurs in wet places among the dunes.

C. perpusilla Hook. f. and C. Traillit Kirk
are two other species occurring occasionally on blown sand in New
Zealand (Kirk).
Diotis maritima Cass.

Perennial rootstock, creeping; stems branching at base, hard, 20—30
em. high, covered with a dense, white tomentum ; leaves alternate, oblong,
entire, 1 cm. long; flowers yellow.

A plant nearly related to Achillea. Occurs on maritime sands of
Europe, from the Mediterranean to the British Islands.

Ericameria ericoides (Less.) Nutt.

Low evergreen shrub, with decumbent or ascending main stems and
numerous erect branchlets; foliage punctate, resinous; leaves linear-
terete, 2—5 mm. long, fascicled; flowers yellow.

Common on sand dunes of California.

Erigeron acris L.
Common on established dunes in Europe, but not confined to coast.

E. glaucus Ker.

Perennial herb, with mostly entire leaves, stem very leafy at base,
the cauline leaves much reduced, flowering stems erect, 10—25 cm.
high, commonly one-headed, arising from a radical tuft of leaves
crowning the fleshy caudex and often from rosulate offsets terminating
prostrate woody branches; stems pilose pubescent; leaves finely pubes-
cent, spatulate, obovate, entire, rarely with a small tooth on either side
below the apex, 2—8 cm. long, upper cauline small and scattered.

Coast of California. Abundant on dunes at San Francisco.

Eriophyllum staechadifolium Lag.

Suffruticose plant, 6-—10 dm. high; leaves alternate, pinnately parted
into 5—7 lobes, the margins revolute, and the under surface white with

102 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

a dense feltlike tomentum ; upper surface green, and tomentum of stems
deciduous; flowers yellow. es
Coastal sands and sea cliffs in California.
Franseria bipinnatifida Nutt.

Perennial branching herb, with procumbent stems, 6—10 dm. long,
somewhat hirsute; leaves twice or thrice pinnately parted into oblong

lobes, canescent.
Common on sandy shores in California.

Fic. 14. Dune covered with Franseria community, at San Francisco.
PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR.

F. Chamissonis Less.

Perennial branching herb, woody at base, stems procumbent, 6—10
dm. long, hirsute; leaves narrow-ovate, with cuneate base, serrate or
the lower laciniate.

Coastal sands of California; not so common as foregoing species.

Gnaphalium chilense Spreng.
Annual or biennial, with several stems, erect from a decumbent
base, stout, 15—75 cm. high, densely clothed with leaves, narrowly
spatulate, the short decurrent bases broad; herbage woolly.

OF MARINE COASTS. 103

On dunes at San Francisco and Pacific Grove, but not confined to
the coast.

Grindelia robusta Nutt. var. maritima.

Perennial herb, with ascending or erect stems, 3—4 dm. high,
herbage ligthly pubescent; leaves oblong, obtuse, serrulate; heads filled
with white gummy exudation; rays yellow.

Sometimes on drift sand, but prefers hard ground near coast,
California.

Helichrysum arenarium (L.) DC.

Perennial herb with single stems, densely white-tomentose; leaves

sessile, obtuse, the lower oblong-obovate, the upper linear-lanceolate ;

flowers yellow.
On dunes of Northern Germany, but also inland in certain parts of

Europe.

H. cinereum F. Muell.

Erect, much-branched shrub, 1—1.5 m. high; branchlets tomentose ;
leaves linear, obtuse, 1—2 cm. long, with revolute margins, glabrous
above, tomentose beneath, sometimes succulent.

Common on sand dunes in Victoria. Also said to occur in New
South Wales and Tasmania.

Hieracium pilosella L. and H. umbellatum L.
are commonly found on established dunes along the Baltic, but are
adventive from inland.

Jaumea carnosa (Less.) Gray.

Perennial glabrous herb, with many slender stems, from the fleshy
crown of the taproot, mostly simple, 10—15 cm. long, decumbent at
base and rooting at the nodes; leaves linear, entire, fleshy, opposite,
20—25 mm. long; flowers yellow.

Sandy beaches, California.

Lessingia Germanorum Cham.

Annual herb, low, diffusely branched, 10—20 cm- high; herbage with
appressed white tomentum, wholly glabrate in age, at least on branches;
lowest leaves pinnatifid, those of the branchlets scattered, linear and
usually entire, not gland-bearing; flowers yellow.

Common on sand dunes of California from San Francisco south-
wards, but not confined to the coast.

104 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Matricaria inodora L. var. maritima L.
Perennial herb, erect or spreading, much-branched, 3—5 dm. high,
leaves succulent; disk flowers yellow, ray flowers white.
Common on the Baltic shores.

Senecio Colensot Hook. f.

Stem erect, simple or much-branched, woody at the base, flexuose,
grooved, the whole plant covered with white tomentum. Some are white
on both surfaces, others only beneath. On the shore they are fleshy
and glabrous. Leaves polymorphic, entire, obovate to lanceolate, nar-
rowed into short petioles with broad wings. The leaves vary, however,

greatly in form.
North Island, New Zealand.

S. lautus Sol.

Prostrate, decumbent or erect, glabrous or pubescent, annual or bien-
nial, 8—60 cm. high; stem and branches stout or slender, grooved ; leaves
succulent, 2—5 cm. long, lanceolate, narrowed into a petiole, pinnatifid.

A very variable species occurring on coasts of New Zealand, compar-
atively seldom inland.

S. spathulatus A. Rich.
Much-branched perennial; leaves obovate, toothed irregularly, the
lower petiolate, the upper stemclasping, all fleshy; 2—4 cm. long.
Sandy shores in New South Wales (Bondi), Victoria and Tasmania.

S. silvaticus L. and 8. viscosus L.

are not uncommon on sand formations of the Baltic coasts, but are not
confined to such situations,

Solidago spathulata DC.

Perennial herb, with glabrous, slightly glutinous herbage; stems
35—45 cm. high, branched at base, decumbent, thickly clothed with
broad leaf bases; leaves basal, spatulate, rounded at apex, narrowed to
a long marginal petiole, serrate above the middle; flowers yellow.

On sand dunes ‘at San Francisco and Monterey, California.

Sonchus arvensis L. maritimus G. F. Meyer.
Perennial ; creeping rootstock; stems 6—10 dm. high; leaves long,
pinnatifid, lobes lanceolate, curved downwards, bordered by large prickly
teeth ; the lower petiolate, the upper stem-clasping; flowers yellow.

OF MARINE COASTS. 105

S. asper Hill. var. litoralis Kirk.
Perennial herb, with stout roots; stems 30—45 cm. high, robust;
radical leaves rosulate, closely appressed'to the ground, somewhat fleshy,
ovateoblong, obtuse, often waved, toothed, cauline leaves few, acute, am-

plexicaule.
Coast of New Zealand.

Tanacetum cam phoratum Less.

Perennial herb, strong scented, villous-tomentose when young, the
wool more or less deciduous in age; stems robust, decumbent or ascend-
ing, 3—10 dm. long; primary and secondary divisions of the leaves much
crowded, the latter oblong, the margin more or less revolute; flowers
yellow.

On sand dunes of California from San Francisco to Puget Sound,
along Upper Great Lakes and from Hudson Bay to Maine on the At-
lantic coast of North America.

T. vulgare L.

Occurs usually on the coast near the Baltic, but in New Zealand,
where it also is found, it is not observed to favor maritime situations.

Taraxacum officinale Web.

is often found on seashores of the Baltic, especially in a prostrate,
glaucous form corniculatum Kit.

Troximon apargioides Less.

Perennial herb, with deep taproot, low and tufted, stem erect or
ascending from a woody caudex, 18—40 cm. high; leaves narrow, pinnat-
ifid.

On sand dunes at San Francisco.

GOODENOVIEAE.

Scaevola suaveolens R. Br.

Prostrate perennial, covered with appressed silky hairs; leaves alter-
nate, obovate, petiolate, thick, entire; flowers blue.

Common on coasts of Australia. In Queensland at Wide Bay and
Moreton Bay, in New South Wales (Manly Beach, Botany Bay), Vic-
toria (Porth Phillip) and South Australia.

Library Publications. 17

106 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

EPACRIDEAE.
Cyathodes acerosa R. Br.

Tall shrub with spreading branches; leaves scattered, spreading,
linear, rigid, with a pungent point, recurved margins, about 1 cm. long;
flowers white ; large pulpy drupe.

Sand dunes of Victoria. Also in Tasmania and New Zealand.

Leucopogon margarodes R. Br.
Low shrub, branches pubescent; leaves oblong-lanceolate, obtuse,

margins recurved, 5—15 mm. long.
Coastal sands in Queensland (Moreton Bay) and New South Wales

(Newcastle).
L. Richei R. Br.

Tall shrub, glabrous; leaves oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, recurved mar-

gins 1—3 cm. long.

Common on sea shores of Australia. Queensland (Moreton Bay),
New South Wales (Porth Jackson), Victoria (Porth Phillip), Western
Australia (Perth). Also on Chatham Islands.

PLUMBAGINACEAB.
Armeria vulgaris Willd.
Acaulescent perennial, with a close tuft of linear, flat or revolute-

channeled leaves; flowers rose color.
On coasts in temperate countries in Northern and Southern Hemi-

sphere, but not in the tropics.
Statice auriculifolia Vahl.

Perennial, tufted, branched, leaves 2—3 cm. high; resembles 8.
limonium L.

Coasts of Western Europe and the Mediterranean, usually on rocks,
rarely on sand.

S. limonium L. .

Stemless perennial, with tufts of radical leaves 5—15 cm. long, ob-
ovate, glabrous, fleshy, petiolate, flowers rose colored.

On coastal sands and salt marshes in Western Europe, Mediterranean,
Western Asia, California, South America.

S. reticulata L.
is a form still smaller than 8. auriculifolia, and occurs on coastal sands

of Mediterranean and Western Asia, and is said to go on the west coast
of France.

OF MARINE COASTS. 107

PRIMULACEABR.

Anagallis arvensis L.

Annual, glabrous herb, with 15—30 cm. long, procumbent or as-
cending stem ; leaves opposite, entire, broadly ovate, acute, sessile, 12 mm.
long ; flowers bright red.

Usually near the coast, but also inland on cultivated soil. Europe,
temperate Asia, Africa, and on Atlantic and Pacific coast of North
America, where introduced, as in Australia. ,

Glaua maritima L.

Succulent perennial, with creeping rootstock; stem glabrous, branch-
ing, 8—15 cm. high; leaves small, opposite, sessile, ovate or almost
linear, entire; flowers purplish or white.

Widely dispersed in Europe, temperate Asia, and North America.
On the eastern coast it ranges from New England north, while on the
Pacific it occurs from San Francisco to Alaska. Also in the interior in
limited areas on subsaline soil.

Primula sibirica Jacq.

Perennial herb, with fibrous roots; glabrous, green; leaves ovate or
obovate, entire, petiolate; flowers lilac.
In arctic America, Greenland, Northern Europe, and Asia to Kamt-

schatka.

Samolus repens Pers.
is a saline marshplant, sometimes found on moist sand in Australia,
New Zealand, and New Caledonia.

S. Valerandt L..

occurs on similar localities as the former species, being dispersed in some
form over almost all temperate and warmer regions of the globe.

MYRSINEAE.
Aegiceras majus Gaertn.

One of the commonest mangroves, ranging from Ceylon and the
Indian Peninsula to the Eastern Archipelago and the South Pacific
Islands. Also in Australia on the Queensland coast and at a few places
in New South Wales.

108 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

APOCYNEAE.
Alyzia buaifolia R. Br.
Low shrub, spreading, glabrous; leaves opposite, shortly petiolate,

obovate, obtuse, thick, margins recurved.
Abundant on coastal sand dunes in Victoria and South Australia.

Also in Western Australia (Perth) and Tasmania.

LOGANIACEAE.

Mitreola paradoxa R. Br.

Erect, branching annual, slender, Y—12 em. high, glabrous; leaves
linear-lanceolate, connate, sheathing at the base, 6—10 mm. long; flow-
ers small, white.

On coastal sand in Tasmania and Australia. Victoria (Port Phillip),
South Australia, Western Australia (Fremantle).

GENTIANACBAE.

Erythraea australis R. Br.

Erect glabrous annual, 15—45 cm. high, with few branches; leaves
sessile, lanceolate, obtuse, the lower stem-clasping, 1—3 cm. long; flow-
ers pink.

Common on all Australian coasts, and also in a few inland places.
New Caledonia.

Differs very little from ZH. spicata Pers., the common form in the
Mediterranean countries.

. litoralis Bab.
Annual, much branched, 5—25 cm high, leaves narrow, forming a
spreading radical tuft, the upper in pairs, narrow-linear ; flowers red.
Common in Europe and Central Asia.

E. Muehlenbergii Gris.
Annual, simple, or branched from base; 5—15 cm. high; leaves ob-
long, obtuse, 1—2 cm. long; flowers rose colored.
Coast of California from Monterey to San Francisco.

E. pulchella Sw.
Low annual, with single much-branched stem; leaves thin, ovate, the
radical opposite; flowers small, red.
Coasts of Baltic.

OF MARINE COASTS. 109

HYDROPHYLLACEAE.
Phacelia Douglasti (Benth.) Torr.

Annual herb, branched from the base, with ascending or decumbent
stems, 10—20 cm. long, herbage puberulent and hirsute with spreading
hairs; leaves linear, pinnatifid; corolla light blue.

Coastal sands of California from San Francisco southward.

BORRAGINACEAE.
Amsinckia lycopsoides Lehm.

Annual, with erect stems, branching; the branches sometimes decum-
bent, 3—6 dm. long, herbage light yellowish-green, hairy, the hairs often
‘conspicuously hardened; leaves ovate-lanceolate, usually with entire
margins.

Coastal sands near San Francisco.

Cryptanthe leiocarpa (F. & M.) Greene.

Annual, with strong taproot, branched from base with many erect
or ascending branches, 12—30 cm. long; stems in sand short, sometimes
caespitose.

Coastal sands of California.

Heliotropium curassavicum L.

Prostrate, much-branched perennial, fleshy, glabrous, glaucous; stems
15—90 cm long, spreading; leaves oblong, obtuse, narrowed into a short
petiole, 1—3 cm. long; flowers sessile, small, white with a yellow eye.

Widely spread on sandy sea coasts of North and South America,
West Indies, South Africa, Australia (Western Australia to New South
Wales), Pacific Islands. Sometimes on alkaline lands in the interior
(Australia, California).

CONVOLVULACEAE.
Convolvulus Soldanella L.

Prostrate, trailing perennial, up to 5 dm. long, with creeping root-
stock; stem succulent, glabrous; leaves deep green, thick, 3—5 cm. in
diameter, reniform, entire, on long stout petioles; corolla funnelform,
up to 5 em. broad, pink or purplish and white.

Common on sandy sea shores in extratropical countries. Extends in
Europe from Mediterranean as far as the East-Friesian Islands
(Buchenau).

Seems not to vary much in appearance on the coasts of California,

110 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Europe, and Australia, as far as the writer has seen, but Cockayne!)
remarks a considerable variation in forms from New Zealand and
Chatham Island: “The trailing stems of C. Soldanella, furnished with
a few fleshy leaves, are very short, being rarely more than 4 cm. in
length; the rest of the plant is subterranean, with the exception of the
flowers. These latter are large, lilac and white in color, semiprostrate,
with their peduncles buried beneath the sand right to the base of the
calyx. This small development of C. contrasts greatly with the same
species, when growing on the sand dunes at some distance from the sea
in many parts of New Zealand. There it forms great masses trailing
over the sand, or, when growing in sheltered positions amongst other
plants, it actually assumes a climbing habit of growth.”

This species does not differ much in habit from the sea coast form
of C. sepium L. and it has also been reduced to this by F. v. Mueller 2)
although it exhibits characters, which certainly justify its being con-
sidered a different species.

Cressa cretica L.

Small, erect, much-branched perennial, Y—15 cm. high, silky-pubes-
cent; leaves sessile, linear or ovate-lanceolate, entire, 5 mm. long.

On sandy coasts of the warmer parts of Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, and America. In California and Australia it also occurs in
the interior on saline soil. —

Evolvulus alsinoides L.

Perennial, much-branched, prostrate; 15—30 cm. long stems, silky-
hairy; leaves lanceolate, entire, sessile, 1—2 cm. long, obtuse or acute;
flowers small, white or bluish.

Abundant on Queensland coast, and also found in New South Wales
(Clarence River), South and West Australia. Reported from many
places of the interior. :

Ipomaea carnosa R. Br.

Prostrate or creeping glabrous perennial; leaves petiolate, ovate, ob-
tuse, cordate at base, succulent, 1—3 cm. long; flowers large, white;
seeds woolly and hairy.

On sea coasts of warm countries in America, Africa, and Asia. Also
occurs on the Mediterranean coasts, and on the shores of Gulf of Car-
pentaria in Australia.

1) A short account of the plant covering of Chatham Island.—Trans. N. Z.

Inst. XXXIV. p. 257.
2) Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, VI, p. 100.

OF MARINE COASTS. 111

Is nearly related to I. pes caprae Roth, and differs mainly by having
a more succulent, narrower leaf, less prominently veined.

I. palmata Forst.

Glabrous, twining; leaves digitately divided into 5—7 ovate-lanceo-
late, obtuse, 3—5 cm. long lobes; corolla purple or white; seeds pubes-
cent, with long silky hairs. .

On tropical coasts in Asia, Africa, and America. In Australia quite
abundant at Moreton Bay, and near Tweed River and Port J ackson in
New South Wales. Also on North coast of North Island, New Zealand.

I. paniculata R. Br.

Perennial; stems trailing, glabrous, leaves palmately divided to below
middle into 5—7 ovate-lanceolate, obtuse lobes; the whole leaf 12—20
cm. long and broad; flowers large.

Tropical coasts of Asia, Africa, Australia, and America. Also in
West Indies.

I. pes caprae Roth.

Glabrous perennial, with up.to 40 m. long, prostrate, trailing stems;
leaves orbicular, obtusely 2-lobed, somewhat fleshy, 5—8 cm. long, on
long petioles; flowers large, pink; seeds hairy.

On sandy shores of the tropics. Abundant on East Australian coast
southward to Richmond River. Used in India (Madras) as a sand stay.

SOLANACBARE.
Nicotiana glauca Grahan.

from Argentine and Uruguay is grown in a few places on coastal sands
of Australia, and is considered by some authors as a very good sand stay.

Solanum mgrum L.
in various forms is often found on dunes in Northern Europe and Cali-
fornia, and S. sodomaeum L. on those of Australia, New Zealand, and
‘the Iberian Peninsula, but both species are inland plants.

SCROPHULARIACEAR.
Castilleja latifolia H. & A.

Root-parasitic perennial herb, (sometimes suffrutescent), 15—45 cm.
high; herbage viscid-pubescent, leaves thick, alternate, ovate or obovate,
mostly less than 3 cm. long, sessile; flowers dull-yellowish, the bracts
and calyx lobes more showy than corolla.

Coastal cliffs and sands of California.

112 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Collinsia bartsiaefolia Benth.
Annual herb, finely puberulent; leaves somewhat fleshy, ovate, 3 cm.

long.
On sand formations from San Francisco southward along Califor-

nian coast.
Linaria supina Desf.
Perennial; stem short, much-branched, 10—15 cm. long, high, de-

cumbent, glabrous; leaves linear; flowers yellow.
On sandy soil especially near the sea in Western Europe; very com-

mon in Spain and Southern France.

L. vulgaris Moench.

Perennial ; rootstock creeping ; stems erect, 3—10 dm. high, glaucous,
green, glabrous; leaves linear or narrow-lanceolate; flowers yellow.
Common in Europe and temperate Asia. Often on dunes, but not

confined to coast.
Mimulus Langsdorffii Donn. var. grandis Greene.

Perennial, with stolons at base, stems simple or branching, 6—10
dm. high; leaves elliptical, serrate, lower petiolate, upper sessile; flowers

large, yellow.
Moist sand on California coast.

M. repens R. Br.

Perennial, prostrate, glabrous, rooting at nodes; leaves sessile, some-
times stem-clasping, oblong, obtuse, fleshy, 5—10 mm. long; flowers

blue, with yellow center.
Marine coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Collected

by the author near Sydney and Melbourne. Occurs also in the interior
on saline soil. ,

Odontites simplex Hrtm.
Annual, with few branches; leaves fleshy, ovate-lanceolate, serrate;

flowers purple.
Coasts of Baltic, mostly on gravelly soil.

Scrophularia californica Cham.

Perennial, very like 8. nodosa L.
Common in California and Nevada, but not confined to coastal sands,

although often found there.

“2681 ‘AON ‘NUSdOUOT AM HAVUDOLONA
‘DUSS owns DwWOINYdoLIg PUB DIDUaID DLYdowwmp Jo Bulystsuod ‘vaisiog uo oloovfy ivou SouNpP puvs UO UOTIEIAAA “GT “OLA

114 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

S. nodosa L.
Coarse, erect perennial found on moist places in Europe, temperate
Asia, and parts of North America, often on the coast.

Veronica macroura Hook, f.
On coast of New Zealand, but not confined to sand formations.

V. longifolia L. var. maritima L.
is a perennial common on coasts of the Baltic, but occurs rarely on sand.

VERBENACEAE.
Avicennia officinalis L.

Erect shrub of considerable height; branches, lower side of leaf and
inflorescence white with a close tomentum; upper surface of leaves
usually glabrous in age, black and shining when dry; leaves opposite,
coriaceous, entire, ovate-lanceolate, 5—7 cm. long, acute, petiolate.

Common in tropical Asia, Africa, Australia, and America, growing
in marshes and inundated sandy places..

Vitex trifolia L.

Low shrub, the branches, lower surface of leaves and inflorescence
white, undivided or of 3—5 leaflets, often white on both surfaces, usually
glabrous on upper side in age; flowers bluish.

Common on tropical coasts of Asia, and Australia southward to
Moreton Bay.

The variety obovata has a peculiar habit of growth on the beaches
along Gulf of Carpentaria. The black rope-like stems run over the
surface of the sands to a length of 10 m. or more, sending up shoots 3
dm. high at short intervals. (J. F. Bailey in letter.)

MYOPORINEAD.

Myoporum viscosum R. Br.

Shrub, erect, 1—2 m. high, glabrous; leaves alternate, lanceolate or
ovate, tuberculate-glandular, obtuse, entire; flowers white.

On coastal dunes of South Australia (St. Vincent’s Gulf) together
with M. serratum R. Br. from which it does not differ much. The latter
is found in Tasmania, Victoria, South and West Australia. M. laetum
Forst. is common on some New Zealand coasts, and can easily be grown
on the middle beach.

OF MARINE COASTS. 115

LABIATAR.
Galiopsis tetrahit L.

Annual, 15—30 cm. high, with stiff hairs, stems swollen under the
nodes; leaves petiolate, ovate, pointed, coarsely toothed; flowers small,
purplish white.

Common through Europe and temperate Asia. Not confined to
coast, but often occurring on marine beaches and dunes.

Prunella vulgaris L.
In damp places in Europe, Northern Asia, Northern America, and
Australia (except Western Australia). In tropical Asia and South
America it is found in the high mountains.

Scutellaria hastaefolia L.
Perennial herb, with erect stems, simple or little branched; leaves
petiolate, truncate at base, ovate or ovate-lanceolate; flowers bluish.
On the coasts of the Baltic, but also found in-Central France and in
Northern Italy.

Stachys ajugoides Benth.

Annual, stems creeping in sand, simple, 2—5 dm. long; herbage
densely villous or silky pubescent; leaves oblong, 2—6 cm. long, acute
or obtuse, petiolate, upper sessile; flowers whitish.

On sand dunes of California, but not confined to coast.

Westringia rosmariniformis Sm.

Tall, bushy shrub, branches, underside of leaves and inflorescence
silvery white with densely appressed hairs; leaves in fours, linear or
lanceolate, obtuse or acute, 1—3 cm. long, coriaceous, glabrous and
shining on upper surface, margins revolute.

On sand dunes in New South Wales (Port Jackson).

PLANTAGINACEAR.

Plantago arenaria W. K. ver. divaricata.

Annual herb, with erect sometimes branched stem; leaves narrow
linear or filiform, margins revolute, pubescent.
On sandy sea shores of the Mediterranean countries.

P. coronopus lL.

Perennial, hirsute; leaves radical, in a dense tuft, linear, acute,
entire or sometimes pinnately divided into linear lobes, hairy.

116 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Marine sands of temperate Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.
Introduced to Australia, where also found on roadsides in Victoria,

South Australia, and Tasmania.

P. hirtella H. B. K.
Acaulescent perennial, with thick root, pubescent herbage; leaves
oblong-lanceolate, 7—30 cm. long, 2—3 cm. wide.
Coast of California, mostly on clay-bluffs, or in moist alkaline soil

away from coast.
P. lanceolata L.

Perennial; rootstock short, woody; leaves erect, spreading, lanceolate,
5—10 cm. long, somewhat hairy, tapering into a petiole at base.
Common in Europe and temperate Asia, whence introduced to many
parts of the globe. Not confined to sea coasts, but occurs frequently
on marine sands.
P. maritima L.
Low perennial herb, with fleshy linear leaves, pointed, entire or

slightly toothed.
Marine coasts of Europe, Asia, South Africa, Patagonia, North

America (along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans). Occasionally inland
in Europe in high mountains.
P. psyllium L.
Annual herb, with erect branched stem; leaves narrow linear-lanceo-

late, pubescent.
Common in the Mediterranean countries. Occurs often on the sea

shore sands, but is not confined to these.
NYCTAGINACEAE.
Abronia latifolia Esch.
Perennial, succulent herb with stout stems, 3—6 dm. long, prostrate,
_ only leaves and flowering peduncles ascending and erect; leaves broadly
ovate to suborbicular, broader than long, truncate at base, 1—4 cm. long;

petioles longer than leaves; calyx yellow.
Sand dunes on coast of California from Monterey northward.

A. maritima Nutt.
Stout, prostrate, pubescent, viscid; leaves thick, broadly ovate,
rounded at base, 3 cm. long, petioles short, flowers red.
Coast of California from Santa Barbara to San Diego,
Greatly resembles previous form in habit.

OF MARINE COASTS. 117

A. umbellata Lam.

Perennial, with slender, prostrate stems, 2—10 dm. long, viscid;
leaves almost glabrous, roundish ovate, the margin often sinuate, 2—4
cm. long, narrowed at base to a slender petiole; calyx rose-purple.

Sand dunes along coast of California from Columbia River to Lower
California. :

PROTEACEHAHE.
Banksia marginata Cav.

Common on coastal sand dunes at St. Vincent’s Gulf in South
Australia (Tepper), but not confined to coast.

Several other species of this genus occur on the dunes of Victoria ana
Western Australia, as well as on those on the Queensland coast.

ILLICHBRACEAE.
Corrigiola litoralis L.
Annual, with numerous stems, procumbent or ascending, slender,
glabrous; leaves linear, obtuse, tapering at base.
On sandy sea shores of western and southern Europe, and on the
Mediterranean coasts. Sometimes in the interior of Europe.

Pentacaena ramosissima H. & A.

Perennial herb, tufted; prostrate stems forming dense mats, 12—45
em. broad, pubescent; subulate pungent leaves crowded on the stems,
1 cm. long; silvery-hyaline stipules, 4% or nearly as long.

Coast of California. Abundant on dunes at San Francisco and
Pacific Grove.

CHENOPODIACEAE.
Atriplex Billardieri Hook. f.

Much-branched herb, prostrate, succulent, spreading, covered with
papillas like Mesembryanthemum; leaves shortly petiolate, ovate, obtuse,
entire, 5—15 mm. long.

Sandy beaches near highwatermark. Coasts of Victoria, Tasmania,
and New Zealand.

A. californica Moquin.

Perennial herb; prostrate stems, wiry, slender, mostly herbaceous,
often much branched and forming a thick mat; root cylindrical, large,
1—3 cm. thick, fleshy ; herbage greenish, finely white-mealy or somewhat
glabrate in age; leaves thinnish, ovate-lanceolate, 5—17 mm. long, sessile
or narrowed at base into a short petiole.

Sandy beaches of California, from San Francisco to San Diego.

118 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

A. cinerea Poir.
Branching shrub, whitish with a scaly tomentum ; leaves lanceolate
or oblong, obtuse, entire, petiolate, 1—5 cm. long.
Coast of Tasmania and Australia. Observed by the writer at
Moreton Bay, Queensland; Botany Bay, New South Wales; Port Phillip,
Victoria; Port Adelaide, South Australia; Fremantle, West Australia.

A. hastata L.
Annual, slender, with 3—7 dm. long, ascending branches; herbage
mealy, scarcely succulent; leaves triangular-hastate, entire or sinuate-
dentate, 2—5 cm. long, often as broad or broader, petioles 8—12 mm.

long.
Coasts of Europe and Northern Asia.

A. leucophylla Dietr.

Perennial herb, with prostrate stems, densely light brown-scurfy,
3—12 dm. long, somewhat woody at base, many short ascending
branches; leaves thick, orbicular to elliptic, 10—25 mm. long, sessile,
3-nerved.

Sand formations on the coast of California, from San Francisco
southward to San Diego.

A. patula L.

Annual, stout, succulent, erect or prostrate, 25—50 cm. high, with
few ascending branches; herbage green, only the growing parts some-
what mealy; leaves petiolate, the lowest often opposite, lanceolate-
hastate, coarsely toothed, 4 cm. long, the upper lanceolate, entire.

Widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, and Africa northward to the
Arctic. Introduced to Tasmania and Australia, where found in neigh-
borhood of cities. Also near San Francisco.

Several other species and forms of Chenopodiwm occur on various
coasts, but the author has not studied this genus sufficiently to be able
to discuss the geographical distribution of these greatly varying forms.

Beta maritima L.

Perennial, with erect or spreading branched stems, 3—6 dm. high;
leaves large, broad, fleshy, green, the upper small, narrow; flowers green.
Coastal sands of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, especially
in localities where the sand is mixed with silt.

OF MARINE COASTS. 119

Chenopodium californicum Wats.
Perennial, stout, erect or decumbent at base, 4—? dm. high from
a large simple or branched root; herbage green, very little mealy; leaves
broadly triangular, truncate or cordate at base, unequally sinuate-dentate,
3—i cm. long, petioles 2—10 em. long.
Sand dunes of California from Pacific Grove southwards, but is not
confined to the coast.

Ch. glaucum L.

Much-branched, diffuse annual, prostrate at base, stems ascending
3—6 dm., glabrous, striate, furrowed; leaves petiolate, the lower lance-
olate, coarsely sinuate-toothed, 1—4 cm. long, the upper gradually
smaller, narrower, almost entire, all green above and whitish underneath.

On middle beach of sea coasts in Europe, temperate Asia, Australia,
Tasmania, New Zealand.

Other species of this genus are often found on coastal sands, but
are not confined to these locations.

Kochia hirsuta Nolte.

Annual, with erect, ascendent or procumbent stems; leaves terete,
filiform.

Sea shores and saline places in France, Belgium, Denmark, Northern
Italy, and some places along the Baltic. Also in Western Asia.

Several related species are found in Australia, both on coastal and
inland saline sands. At Port Adelaide, South Australia, Fremantle and
Albany, West Australia, the author found specimens belonging to this
genus, but was not able to identify them.

Rhagodia Billardiert R. Br.

Diffuse shrub, foliage fleshy, covered with mealy tomentum; leaves
alternate, linear or lanceolate, obtuse, petiolate, 1—3 cm. long, green
above and white underneath, margins recurved.

Abundant on many places of the American coast, as in West
Australia, at St. Vincent’s Gulf, 8S. A., in Victoria (Port Phillip).
Also found in New South Wales and Tasmania.

Salicorma ambigua Michx.

Perennial succulent herb, with leafless, 12—30 cm. long jointed
stems, from woody rootstocks, erect or decumbent and rooting at the
joints; herbage greenish; branches opposite; spikes slender, terminal,
not thicker than the sterile portions of the stem.

‘

120 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Coasts of North America, from New England to Florida, and from
Oregon to San Francisco. Like all other species of this genus it usually
grows in salt marshes, but is also found in lagoons and moist places
between the dunes.

S. arbuscula R. Br.

Erect, bushy shrub, 15—90 cm. high, with numerous short and
slender branches, internodes dilated at top.

Sea coast of Australia and Tasmania, but also in some places in the
interior in saline soil.

S. australis Sol.

Procumbent stems, woody at base, with erect branches, 5—12 cm.
high, internodes not dilated at end, usually terete or sometimes 2-lobed.

On sea coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, avoiding
dry sandy places. Collected by the writer in Victoria and Western
Australia.

S. herbacea L.

Annual, glabrous, bright green or reddish, succulent, erect, 10—15
cm. high, with a few erect branches, shooting from nodes.

Coasts of Europe, temperate Asia (also in the interior), and Eastern
North America.

Salsola kali L.

Annual, procumbent, glabrous or seldom somewhat pubescent, 15—45
cm. high; leaves alternate, sessile, hard and rigid, the lower terete or
dilate at base, 2—6 cm. long, the upper shorter, thicker, flattened above.

Sea coasts of temperate and sometimes tropical countries. In
Australia also in the interior.

Suaeda maritima Dumortier.

Much-branched annual or biennial, erect, 15—45 cm. high or spread-
ing, glabrous, succulent, with a hard and sometimes woody base; leaves
alternate, sessile, linear, of green reddish color.

Sea coasts of Europe, temperate Asia, and America. Also in New
Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, where the plant is more suffrutescent.

BATIDAER.
Batis maritima L.

Low shrub, approaching Chenopodium in general appearance, oc-
curring on the sea ocasts in West Indies, Florida, and Hawaiian Is-
lands, principally on muddy shores, but also at times on sand.

OF MARINE COASTS. 121

POLYGONACEAE.
Chorizanthe pungens Benth.
Annual, with prostrate branches, 5—30 cm. long; leaves spatulate,
1—3 cm. long, opposite, petioles of cauline leaves 10 mm. long, those

of the radical 25 mm.
Sand hills on Californian coast, from San Francisco to Monterey Bay.

Eriogonum latifolium Smith.

Perennial herb, stout, tomentose, the indurated caudex with short
leafy branches; leaves 2—5 cm. long, oblong to ovate, obtuse or acute
at apex, rounded or cordate at base, margin often undulate, upper
surface glabrate, densely woolly beneath; petioles often margined.

Sand formations along California coast, occasionally together with
other species of the genus.

Muehlenbeckia adpressa Meissn.
Stem woody at base, prostrate or climbing; leaves petiolate, lance-
olate or hastate, obtuse, 2—7 cm. long, margins crisped, glabrous;

flowers small, green.

On the sea coast of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, and West
Australia (Fremantle).

lf. complexa Meissn. is a species occasionally occurring on sea beach-
es of North Cape, New Zealand.

Polygonum aviculare L.

Annual herb, prostrate, with branches leafy to the end, glabrous
and green, stems wiry, minutely striate, sometimes meterlong; leaves
oblong, acute, 1—2 cm. long, shortly petiolate.

Almost everywhere on the globe, especially in temperate climates.

Very variable, especially on sea shores, where a number of forms
occur, as yet insufficiently known.

P. maritimum L.

Perennial, somewhat woody; branches short, thick; leaves glaucous,
thick, larger than in P. aviculare, which it resembles, especially when
young.

P. Rayi Bab.
is a nearly related form, differing only in the fruits.

The distribution of these forms’is not well known, but they are

found in a number of widely separated localities.
Library Publications. 8

122 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

P. paronychia Cham. & Schlecht.

Suffrutescent perennial, with prostrate or ascending stems, 3—10
dm. long, branches leafy above, clothed below with old sheaths; these
large, 1—2 cm. long, brown and 5-nerved, margin lacerate above, per-
sistent, the segments becoming hairlike in age; leaves linear-lanceolate,
15—30 mm. long, acute, the margin revolute.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from Pacific Grove to Puget Sound.

Rumex acetosella L.

Perennial herb, with tufted stems, often running red, about 25 cm.
high, creeping rhizome; radical and lower leaves hastate or sagittate,
the upper reduced or branches leafless, and ending in the reddish
(pistillate) or yellowish (staminate) panicle.

Common in most temperate and subtropical countries, often oc-
curring on coastal sands, but not confined to these.

R. conglomeratus Murr.

Perennial herb, with slender, mostly clustered stems, 10-12 dm.
high; leaves oblong or ovate, slightly undulate, 10 cm. long, reduced
above, petiolate, rounded at base.

Dispersed in Europe, temperate Asia, Australia, and California, ap-
parently introduced into the two last mentioned countries. Sometimes
on coastal sands, f. i. at Pacific Grove, California, where it has a char-
acteristic prostrate form.

BR. crispus L.

Perennial, with thick rhizome, stems furrowed, stoutish, 6—10 dm.
high; leaves bluish green, the radical narrow-elliptical to oblong-lanceo-
late, strongly undulated with crisp margins, the base often decurrent
upon the petiole, up to 20 cm. long, the upper smaller, passing gradually
into bracts.

Common in Europe and temperate Asia, especially on roadsides and
waste places, but also on sea shores. Also in North America and Austra-
lia, where supposed to be introduced.

R. maritimus L.

Annual or sometimes biennial, with stem 3—4 dm. high, much
branched, minutely pubescent, erect or procumbent; leaves linear-
lanceolate.

Beaches and marshes, especially near the.sea, but also inland. Europe,
temperate Asia, Atlantic coast, and interior valleys of North America.

OF MARINE COASTS. 123

THYMELAEACEAE.
Pimelea arenaria A. Cunn.

This plant, characteristic for the driftsands of New Zealand and
Chatham Island, is described by Cockayne!) in the following words:

“ The long cord-like underground stems put forth adventitious roots
near their extremities, which latter, bending upwards, raise themselves
above the encroaching sand. The leaves are all most densely silky on
the under surface, a most efficient protection against excessive transpira-
tion. Owing to the leafy extremities of the stems being erect, the semi-
rosettes of leaves can receive the incident light to the best advantage.

“It is probable that the oldest portions of the plant—i. e., the most
deeply buried portions—die, while the plant continues to increase by
the rooting of its terminal shoots.”

P. prostrata Willd. is another species also found on North Cape
of New Zealand.

P. serpyllifolia R. Br.

Low shrub, rigid, densely branched, glabrous; leaves opposite, ovate
or oblong, coriaceous, somewhat concave; flowers small, yellow.

Common on coastal sands of Victoria, South and West Australia,
but mostly in the interior. Also in Tasmania.

ELABAGNACEAE.
Hippophaé rhamnoides L.

Shrub, 83—12 dm. high, with a scaly scurf, silvery on under surface
of the leaves, thin on upper side—rusty on young shoots; axillary shoots
ending in a prickle; leaves alternate, linear, entire.

Common in Europe, Central and North Asia.

EUPHORBIACHAE.
Adriana tomentosa Gaudich.

Shrub, 6—12 dm. high, covered with a stellate tomentum; leaves

alternate, usually glabrous on upper side, petiolate, deeply 3-lobed, with

narrow, obtuse lobes.
Sand dunes of South Australia (according to Tepper), coast of

North and Northwest Australia.
Beyeria opaca F. Muell.

Erect shrub, 3—6 dm. high; leaves oblong or linear, obtuse, with
revolute margins, white underneath.

1) A short account of the plant covering of Chatham Island, p. 260.

124 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Sea coasts of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.
Closely related to following species.

B. viscosa Miq.

Tall shrub, flowering branches viscid; leaves oblong-lanceolate, ob-
tuse, petiolate, margins recurved, glabrous above, white-tomentose under-
neath, 2—5 em. long.

Coastal sands of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Victoria, and Western
Australia (Perth). Also in Tasmania and the interior of New South

Wales.

Croton californicus Muell.

Perennial herb, suffrutescent at base, with branching stem, erect
or diffuse; 4—12 dm. high; herbage hoary, upper side of leaves green,
finely stellate-pubescent ; leaves oblong, 2—4 cm. long; petioles 1—3 cm.
long, staminate plant more slender and shorter branched.

Coastal sand dunes of California, from San Francisco to Los Angeles.

Euphorbia afoto Forst.

Diffuse, glabrous perennial, 3045 cm. high, branches slender;
leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, oblong, obtuse, more or less cordate,
thick, 2—3 cm. long.

Sea coasts of East India, Malayan Archipelago, Islands of Pacific,
North Australia, and Queensland southward to Moreton Bay.

E. glauca Forst.
is a specimen common on dunes in New Zealand.

FE. Paralias L.
Perennial, with short, hard, almost woody stock and erect stems,
15—25 em. high; leaves short, concave, leathery, pale green.
On coastal sands from Belgium southward in Europe, and extending
into Mediterranean. Also on the southern coasts of British Islands.

EB. terracina Ju. var. retusa.

Perennial, with long stolons; leaves linear-lanceolate to oblong-
linear; very glaucous.

Coastal sands of the Mediterranean countries, Canary Islands,
Azores, and Medeira. Very common on the dunes of Spain.

Ricinocarpus cyanescens Muell.
occurs on coastal sands in Western Australia together with several other

OF MARINE COASTS. 125

species, not sufficiently studied by the author. At Moreton Bay R.
pinifolius Desf. was found, and near Port Fairy, Victoria, a plant,
probably the same species. This genus is not confined to the coast.

URTICACEAE.
Urtica dioica L. and U. urens L.

are not infrequently found on coast formations of the Baltic, but are
immigrants from inland.

MYRICACEAE.
Myrica californica Cham.

Densely branched evergreen shrub, with fragrant alternate, simple,
almost entire or serrate leaves, thick, glabrous, oblong, tapering above
to an acute apex, narrowing below to a petiole, 7—12 cm. long; fruit
globose, purplish-brown, covered with a coat of whitish wax, 6 mm. in
diameter.

Sand dunes on coast of California, and ravines of outer coast ranges.

CASUARINEAE.
Casuarina quadrivalvis Labill.

and several other species occur on the dunes of Australia, especially in
Victoria, South and West Australia, but their range is principally
inland.

CUPULIFERAE.

Quercus agrifolia Née

in a low, prostrate form is found on coastal dunes of California, f. i.
at Seaside, Monterey.

SALICACHAE.

Salix caprea L.

Tall shrub, with large, ovate leaves, grayish green, tomentose undcer-

neath, entire.
European and North Asian species, often planted on dunes of

Germany.

8. daphnoides Vill.
Low tree or tall shrub, with oblong-lanceolate leaves, serrate,
glabrous above, glaucous underneath.
Often on dunes along the Baltic coasts. Extends also in to Central
Russia and Siberia.

126 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

S. lasiolepis Benth.
Tree or large shrub, with oblong leaves, somewhat serrulate, dull
green above, gray-pubescent beneath.
On dunes of California, especially near San Francisco. Extend:
also inland.

Salix repens L.

Low, straggling shrub, with stems creeping underground, rooting
at base, ascending to 3—6 dm.; foliage silky-white; leaves oblong-
lanceolate, 2 cm. long, entire, silky on both sides.

On sand formations of Europe and Northern Asia.

Several varieties, especially argentea Sm., are met with on dunes
of Northern Europe.

8. viminalis L.

Shrub, with long branches, 7—15 cm. long leaves, silvery white
underneath.

In wet places in Europe and Northern Asia.

Several other species, such as S. nigricans Sm., 8. cinerea L., 8.
aurita L., S. purpurea L., S. pentandra L., 8. dasyclados Wimm., S.
fragilis L., 8. alba L., and 8. amygdalina L., are found occasionally on
the dunes of the Baltic.

CONIFERAE.
Callitris robusta R. Br.
often occurs on the dunes of Australia, but is not confined to the coast.

Juniperus communis L.

is common on the sand formations of the Northern Baltic, and sometimes
occurs in a low prostrate form, similar in habit to the variety nana,
which does not, however, grow on sand in the Finnish Archipelago,
where it occurs.

Pinus maritima Lam.

Large tree, with branches in whorls; leaves in twos, dark green,
15—20 cm. long, rigid, stout; cones from 10—15 cm. long, about 6
em. broad, growing in clusters of from 4—8 or more.

Common on sand dunes of the Mediterranean countries, and is ex-
tensively planted on the dunes of Western France; its occurrence in
India, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and China is usually attributed
to artificial planting.

OF MARINE COASTS. 127

P. radiata Don.

is found only on the established dunes and immediately inland from
these at Pacific Grove, and within a limited area in two other similar
localities, one in San Luis Obispo county, one in Santa Cruz county,
California.

HYDROCHARIDACEABE.
Halophila ovalis Hook. f:

Submerged marine plant, common on the shores of Moreton Bay,
Queensland, and Port Phillip, Victoria. Also in Tasmania, New South
Wales, and South Australia, preferring muddy shores, but also on sand.

IRIDACEAE.
Sisyrrhinchium bellum Wats.

A somewhat prostrate, low form is found on the dunes at Point
Pinos, Monterey, California, but it is not a different species, as it will
under cultivation in moist, rich soil exhibit exactly the same characters
as the inland form. This was tested by the author at Stanford University
in the summer of 1904.

AMARYLLIDEAE.
Pancratium maritimum B.
Perennial herb, with large bulb; leaves erect, long, broadly linear,
glaucous.
Sandy sea shores of Western France, Iberian Peninsula, and Mediter-
ranean countries.

LILIACEAE.
Allium arenarium L.
Stem 25—35 cm. high, single; leaves cylindrical, hollow, furrowed
above, with long sheaths; flowers red.
Sand in a few places on the Baltic coasts.

A. schoenoprasum lL.

Stems 2—3 dm. high, usually many together; leaves narrow, cylin-
drical, hollow, one sheathing the stem at base.

In Northern Europe and Asia, and in mountains in Southern
Europe. Britton & Brown (Flora of Northern United States and
Canada) say regarding its distribution in America:

“In moist or wet soil, New Brunswick to Alaska, south to Maine,
northern New York, Michigan, Wyoming, and Washington.”

128 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Asparagus officinalis L.
Perennial, with creeping rootstock, and annual branching stems,
erect, 3—6 dm. high; leaves short, subulate; flowers small, greenish

white.
On marine sands of Western Asia, Mediterranean, and Western

Europe northward to English Channel; escapes to similar localities in
E. America, according to Professor Dudley.

JUNCACEAE.
Juncus acutus L.

A form closely approaching J. maritimus Lam. and found on marine
sands on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe, and on the
Caspian Sea, but not on the Baltic or North Sea, nor in the Southern
hemisphere.

J. anceps Laharpe var. atricapillus Buch.

Rootstock creeping; stems erect, compressed, leafy.

Observed only between the dunes on the E. Friesian Islands off the
German shore of the North Sea.

J. balticus Willd.

Rootstock creeping; stems hard, 3—6 dm. high, cylindrical, leafless,
sheathed at base by brown scales.

In high northern latitudes in Europe, Asia, and America, found. as
far south in the United States as California. Not confined to coastal
sands.

J. bufonius L.

Small annual, pale-colored; stems numerous, tufted, 3—20 cm. high,
branching; leaves short, slender.

Occurs almost everywhere, and is common in moist places between
the dunes.

J. capitatus Weig.

Annual, slender, tufted, 5—8 cm. high; stems numerous; leaves
short, slender.

Marine sands of Southern Sweden, Northern Germany, Holland,
Western and Southern Europe.

J. compressus Jacq. var. Gerardi Bab.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems 30—45 cm. high, erect,
slender, compressed at base, with a few radical leaves, narrow, grooved.

OF MARINE COASTS. 129

Common in Europe, from Mediterranean to the Arctic, and in
Northern Asia.

J. falcatus Mey.

Perennial, with slender, creeping rootstock; stems 15—25 cm. high,
leafy, terete, in compressed tufts.

Driftsand at Pacific Grove, San Francisco and ae places on
Californian coast.

J. maritimus Lam.

Perennial, with densely tufted stems, horizontal rhizome, rigid, 6—10
dm. high, with sheathing scales at base, of which one or two inner ones
terminate in a rigid, terete, pungent stem-like leaf, shorter than the
real stems; flowers in little clusters.

In maritime marshes and moist sands on shores of Atlantic North
America, Europe from Mediterranean to the Baltic, where rare, Caspian
Sea, and in New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia from Queensland
to Western Australia. Also in the interior of Australia.

NAJADACEAE.
Najas marina L.

Slender, branching, submerged plant, with stout stems, often armed
with prickles twice as long as their breadth; leaves linear, with 6—10
spine-pointed teeth on each margin; the broad sheathing base entire or
with few teeth on each side.

Widely distributed in Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, Algeria.
North America, West Indies, Brazil, Australia, and Hawaiian Islands.

Phyllospadizx Scouleri Hook.

Submerged maritime herb, with elongated, narrow-linear, radical
leaves, 1.5—5 mm. wide, from much-branched, creeping, brittle root-
stock.

Together with another species, R. Torreyi Wats., from which it does
not differ essentially in habit, growing on sand covered stones and rocks
on the submerged beach of the Pacific coast of North America.

Potamogeton marinus L.
Perennial marine plant, with filiform, branched stem; very leafy:
leaves narrow-linear, 5—15 cm. long, 1 mm. broad.
In salt water in Europe and North America. Often confused with
the following species.

130 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

P. pectinatus L.
Perennial marine plant, with threadlike stem, very narrow leaves,
5—8 cm. long, sheathing at base.
On submerged beaches of Europe and North America. In some
cases in inland waters of the latter continent.

Ruppia maritima L.
Submerged aquatic herb, with 6—10 dm. long, filiform forking stems;
leaves 5—8 cm. long, almost capillary, with a broad sheathing base.
In salt and brackish water over nearly the whole globe, excepting
South America. Also in the interior of North America.
Very variable and divided into several species.

Triglochin maritimum L.

Perennial, with short rootstock, the terminal portion of which is
covered with the sheaths of old leaves; stem 15—45 cm. high; leaves
about 5 mm. wide, fleshy with membranous sheaths.

Coasts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Also in interior of
latter continent in saline situations. On Pacific coast from San Fran-
cisco northward to Arctic Ocean.

T. striatum Ruiz. & Pavon.
Rootstock small, stoloniferous; leaves narrow-linear, shorter than the
scape; fruits nearly orbicular.
Brackish water in North America, extratropical South America, New
Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia from Moreton Bay along south coast
to Fremantle.

Zanichellia palustris L.
Inconspicuous submerged aquatic, with capillary stems and leaves;
these alternate or mostly opposite, 1—3 cm. long.
Widely spread over the whole globe. Often in ponds between dunes.

Zostera marina L.

Submerged maritime perennial, with elongated and very narrow
grass-like leaves, with sheathing bases, 3—7-nerved, 3—10 dm. long,
5—12 mm. broad, obtuse.

In shallow water on submerged beach, especially on mud, on coasts
of Europe, North Eastern Asia, Arctic and North Atlantic coast of
North America, and on the Pacific coast at least as far south as San
Pedro, California (Dudley).

OF MARINE COASTS. 131

Z. nana Roth.

Submerged marine plant, with creeping rhizome, emitting short
stems; leaves narrow-linear, grass-like, 3—6 dm. long, notched at the
end, base narrow and sheathing.

Coasts of Europe, South Africa, Japan, New Zealand, Tasmania, and
on the southern coasts of Australia.

RESTIACEAE.
Leptocarpus simplea A. Rich.
In swamps and swampy saline stations, and also frequently on dunes,
in New Zealand.
CYPERACEAE.

Carex arenaria L.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, emitting small tufts, 7—40 cm.
high, leafy at base; culms erect, slender, slightly scabrous above; leaves
very long, pointed.

Marine sands of Europe, Western Asia, and Virginia, where ad-
ventive from Europe (Britton & Brown).

C. distans L.
Stems 25—40 cm. high, tufted, obtusely angled, smooth ; leaves short,
narrow, rigid; margins scabrous.
Common on sea coasts of Europe and Western Asia, occurring from
Mediterranean to Scandinavia.

C. extensa Gooden.
Perennial, tufted, slender, 3—6 dm. high; leaves narrow, stiff, erect,
often convolute.
On marine coasts of Europe from Mediterranean to the Baltic.

C. halophila F. Nyl.
Stems obtusely angled, slender, 3—5 dm. high; leaves broad, of
yellowish-green color.
Sea shores of northern part of Gulf of Bothnia.

C. Hookeriana Dewey.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, clothed with imbricated, nerved,
purplish scales; stems 10—30 cm. high, sharply angled, scabrous; leaves
shorter than stem.

Sand dunes on coast of California. Also in interior of North
America and Europe.

182 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

C. maritima Muell.
Stems obtusely angled, smooth, clothed at base with sheaths break-
ing up into threadlike fibers; leaves broad, pale.
Sea shores of the Baltic.

C. pumila Thunberg.

Rhizomes treeping, stems 10—20 cm. high; leaves longer, rigid

with subulate points.
On sandy shores of extratropical South America, New Zealand,

Chatham Island, Tasmania, and Australia, from Moreton Bay to South
Australia.

C. salina Wahl.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, stem 6—12 cm. high, obtusely
angled, smooth; leaves pale, 2—3 mm. broad.

Sea shores of Northern Europe and America, from the Arctic to
New England on the east coast, and to Northern California on the

Pacific coast.

Eleocharis uniglumis Link.

Perennial by horizontal creeping rootstocks; culms stout, terete or
somewhat compressed, caespitose, striate, 15—30 cm. high, higher when
in water; leafless, with one or two sheaths at the base.

Widely distributed in Europe, Asia, North America, from Canada
to California.

Lepidosperma gladiata Labill.

Perennial rhizome; rigid stems, 1—12 dm. high, flattened, but convex
on both sides about center, with acute smooth margins; leaves equitant,
usually about 1 cm. broad, length of stem.

Common on coastal sand dunes in Tasmania and Australia, especially
in Victoria, South and West Australia. On the western coast of Austra-
lia also other species of this genus are met with.

Remirea maritima Aubl.

Low, branching perennial; stems from creeping and rooting base,
ascending, 7—10 cm. high; leaves rigid, 2—7 cm. long, linear, with.
short, imbricate sheathing bases, pungent point.

Sandy sea coasts of most tropical countries. Africa, East India,
Malayan Archipelago, Queensland, tropical America.

Uy

OF MARINE COASTS. Le

Scirpus americanus Pers.
Perennial; stem 3—6 dm. high, slender, triangular, continued as
an entire pungent involucre 4—10 em. beyond the inflorescence.
In moist places and brackish lagoons between dunes on Californian
coast. Also in interior of North America.

S. frondosus Banks & Sol.

Cockayne says1) of this species: “The most characteristic plant of
the whole New Zealand area. It can form settlements and hold its own
positions where no other New Zealand flowering-plant can exist, and
only the most constant and furious winds can destroy a dune where it
is properly established. Indeed, for sandbinding power it is probably
not equalled either by Ammophila arenaria or by Elymus arenarius.”

S. maritimus L.
Perennial, with creeping rhizome, often thickened into hard tubers;
stem 3—10 dm. high, triangular, smooth; leaves often longer than stems.
Common in tropical and temperate countries. In Australia from
Queensland to Western Australia, especially frequent on coastal sands.

S. nodosus Rottb.
Creeping rhizome; stems rigid, rush-like, terete or slightly flattened,
3—10 dm. high, leafless, except the sheathing scales at the base.
In South Africa, extratropical South America, several Oceanic Is-
lands, New Zealand, and Australia, from east to west along the coast.

S. rufus (Huds.) Schrad.

Perennial, with slender rootstock; culms tufted, smooth, slender,
erect, compressed, ’—30 cm. high; leaves terete, smooth, channeled, the
lowest sheathing.

In Northern Europe and Canada,.seldom, however, on sand.

S. pungens Vahl.

Perennial, with creeping rhizome; stem slender, 3—9 dm. high,
acutely triangular; leaves few, 1 or 2 sheathing.

Western part of Mediterranean, extratropical North and South
America, New Zealand, and Australia.

GRAMINEAE.
Agropyron arenicolum Davy

is a maritime dune grass found at Point Reyes in California.

1) l.@ p. 261.

134 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

A. junceum Beauv.

Perennial grass, with pungent leaves, rigid ; roots extensively creeping.
Sea coasts of Europe and Northern Africa on drifting sands.

A. repens L. var. litoreum Schum.
Perennial, with creeping jointed rootstock; stiff, ascending stems;
sheaths shorter than internodes.
Common on coastal sands of Europe, Asia, and North America; also
in the interior of the latter continent.

A. scabrum Beauv.
Common on dunes in New Zealand and Australia, but also inland.

Agrostis alba L. var. maritima G. Meyer.

Perennial, stoloniferous; stems decumbent at base, 3—9 dm. high;
leaves rigid, glaucous, scabrous, 7—15 cm. long.

Grows especially in moist places between the dunes. Baltic south
coast.

Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link.

Tall perennial grass, with long rigid leaves; creeping rootstock;
stems 6—12 dm. high, sheaths long; blades convolute and polished
without, scabrous and glaucous within.

Coastal sands of Europe, North Africa, and North America. Intro-
duced to many other countries as an effective sandstay.

A. baltica Link.

Is by most authors considered to be a hybrid of the former species,
which it resembles in habit, and Calamagrostis epigea. This is, how-
ever, not yet proved by experiments. Occurs on coastal sand dunes of
Northern Germany and Southern Sweden.

Andropogon provincialis Lam.

Perennial grass, with erect culms, smooth and glabrous, 10—15 dm.
high; leaves smooth, acuminate.
Southern Europe, where often planted on dunes. A. furcatus Muhl.
is a North American form with a wide range along the eastern sea
board. By some authors, as Hackel, it is considered to be identical with
A. provincialis.

Aristida plumosa L.

Perennial caespitose grass, with ascendent culms; leaves acute fili-
form.

OF MARINE COASTS. 135

Northern Africa, both on the coast and inland. A. pungens Desf.
is another grass from Northern Africa, which not infrequently is planted
on sand dunes on the coasts of Mediterranean.

Arundo conspicua Forst.
Abundant on sand dunes of New Zealand, but also distributed inland.

Avena praecox P. B.

Slender annual, densely tufted, ’—15 cm. high; leaves short. .
Coastal and inland sands, Central and Southern Europe.

Calamagrostis epigea Roth.
Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems 10—13 dm. high, erect,
firm; leaves long, narrow, somewhat glaucous.

Widely dispersed over Europe and Western Asia. Not confined to
coastal sands.

Corynephorus canescens Bernh.

Small tufted perennial, 10—15 cm high; leaves fine, convolute.

Sand formations of Southern and Central Europe, eastward to Cau-
casus and northward to Southern Sweden. In Norfolk and Suffolk,
England, on sea shores.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Perennial grass, with prostrate, creeping and rooting stems, some-
times very long, covered with undeveloped, striate sheaths; roots and
tufts of leaves produced at the nodes; blades 2—5 cm. long, stiff, glau-
cous green.

In all hot,and some temperate countries, such as Southern Europe,
whence it ranges to Northern France, and Australia. Not confined to
coastal sands, but often a roadside weed, as in California, where it is
introduced.

Dactylis lVitoralis Willd.

Perennial grass, with long creeping stolons; leaves rigid, glaucous.

Coasts of Mediterranean, but also on the salt steppes of Hastern
Europe and Western Asia.

Distichlis maritima Raf.

Perennial grass, with stout, creeping, scaly rootstock; stems stout,
rigid, erect, 10—45 cm. high, often branched below, leafy; leaves pale
green, narrow, rigid, very acute, strictly 2-ranked; sheaths glabrous,
slightly bearded at the base; ligule reduced to a mere ring, blade 5—15
cm. long, spreading, rigid; margins minutely ciliate.

136 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Varies somewhat, being shorter and more rigid in some places with
shorter, stiffer, and more distinctly distichous leaves.

Common near salt and brackish water in America, Tasmania, and
Australia. Characteristic on coastal dunes of Victoria and South
Australia.

Elymus arenarius L.

Glaucus perennial grass, with stout, widely creeping stoloniferous
rootstock ; stems tall, rigid, stout, erect, 1—2 m. high; sheaths smooth,
channeled; ligule a narrow truncate ring; blades 30—45 cm. long,
10—15 mm. wide, flat or with more or less convolute margins below. —

Coastal sands of northern hemisphere. In North America from
Greenland and Labrador to Alaska, southward to Maine, Lake Superior
and California (San Francisco). Occasionally inland also in Europe.

Festuca litoralis Lab.

Stems 3—10 dm. high, forming dense tufts of pale yellow color;
leaves almost cylindrical, erect, rigid, pungent-pointed, glabrous, length
of the stem.

Common on coastal sand dunes of New Zealand and adjacent. islands,
Tasmania and Australia, from Wide Bay, Queensland, to Western
Australia.

fF. ovina L.

Perennial, densely tufted, 15—50 cm. high; leaves radical, narrow,
almost cylindrical.

Common on established dunes, but not confined to coast.

F. rubra L. var. arenaria Osbeck. 3

Perennial, with creeping rootstock, shooting stout, reddish stolons;
stems ascending, rigid, hairy; leaves stiff, on upper side grayish green,
darker beneath. Resembles much Agropyrum junceum.

Common on the coasts of Baltic.

F. uniglumis Sol.
Annual, tufted, 10—15 cm. high; leaves narrow, convolute.
On sandy shores of Mediterranean and on coast of Western Europe
northward to England.
Glyceria maritima Reich.

Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems decumbent or erect, 2—6
dm. high; leaves smooth, glabrous, short, narrow, convolute; sheaths
exceeding internodes.

OF MARINE COASTS. 1387

Coastal sands of Europe, Western Asia, Mediterranean, and North
America, from Nova Scotia to Rhode Island on the Eastern coast, and
on the Pacific to San Francisco.

G. stricta Hook. f.
Tufted, glabrous, erect annual, 3—5 dm. high; leaves narrow, erect,
with broad sheaths.
On sea shores of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, from Vic-
toria to Western Australia.

Hordeum maritimum With.

Annual, coarse, tufted, stems decumbent at base, 3—6 dm long;
glaucous.
Marine coasts of Western Europe, and of the Mediterranean.

Imperata arundinacea Cyrillo.

Perennial grass, with long roots and 3—10 dm. high erect culms,
leaves erect, narrow, often longer than the stem.

Widely distributed in the Mediterranean countries, Southern and
Western Asia, Cape Colony, Australia, and Polynesia. Often planted
as a sandstay especially in wet localities.

Ischaemum muticum L.
On tropical coasts of Asia, Polynesia, and Queensland, southward to
Rockingham Bay.

Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers.

Tutted, pale green, pubescent or silky perennial; stoloniferous root-
stock; stem 3—9 dm. high, slender; sheaths striate, ligule very short;
blades narrow, obliquely auriculate at the base.

A very variable plant, common on coastal sand dunes, but not con
fined to these, in Europe, Central Asia, America, New Zealand, and in
a few places in Australia (probably introduced).

Lagurus ovatus L.
Annual, erect, 10—30 cm. high, leaves hoary, sheaths swollen.
Common on coastal sands of Western Europe, from Mediterranean
to the English Channel.

Lepturus incurvatus Trin.
Annual, decumbent, much branched at base; 10—30 cm. high, with

short, fine leaves.
Library Publications. 9

ee

th Coccoloba communit

ies, wi

Sandy shore on St. Croix, Danish West Indi

Fie. 16.

BORGESEN.

PHOTOGRAPH BY

OF MARINE COASTS. 139

On marine coasts of Europe, from English Channel along west coasv
to Mediterranean and Caspian Sea.

LL. repens R. Br.
Perennial, creeping grass, with branching stems; leaves spreading,
glaucous, glabrous.
Drifting sand on some islands of the tropical coast of Queensland
and in Southern Pacific.

Paspalum distichum 1.

Stems creeping and rooting, ascending to 4 dm., covered with leat-
sheaths ; leaves linear-lanceolate, flat, glabrous.

Widely dispersed in tropical countries, usually on heavy soil, but oc-
casionally on coastal sands. Also in Australia, from Queensland along
the southern coast to West Australia, in New Zealand, and in North
America from Southern California to Florida.

Phieum arenarium L.

Annual, erect, 5—20 cm. high; leaves short.
Coastal sands of Europe, from Mediterranean to the Baltic.

Poa compressa L.
Perennial, with creeping rootstock; stems erect, 10—30 cm. high,
flattened at base; leaves short, with flattened sheaths.
Widely dispersed in Europe, Northern Asia, and North America ex-
cept the arctic region. Frequently on coastal sands, but not confined
to these.

P. Douglasit Nees.
Perennial grass, with slender, widely creeping rootstock; stems

tufted, 20 cm. high.
Peculiar to the coastal driftsands of California.

Polypogon litoralis Smith.
Perennial, procumbent, tufted, 3—6 dm. high, leaves short, narrow,

scabrous on both sides.
Salt marshes and dune lagoons on sea coasts of Western Europe,

Mediterranean, North and South America.

P. monspeliensis Desf.
Annual, procumbent and geniculate at base, 3—5 dm. high; leaves
flat, broad, somewhat scabrous; sheaths smooth.

140 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Often on coastal sands, but not confined to these. Widely dispersed
in Central Europe, from Holland and France to far into Central Asia,
and in North America, from Atlantic coast to California, where it is
chiefly found in the mountains. Also in Africa.

Schoenus nitens Hook. f.

Perennial, slender stem from creeping rhizome, 15—30 cm. high;
leaves few at base, short, terete, but furrowed along inner side, sheaths
not bearded.

Marine coasts of Australia, from Moreton Bay to Western Australia,
usually in clayey soil, but also frequently in sand. Also in Tasmania,
New Zealand, and extratropical South America.

Spartina stricta Sm. var. glabra Muhl.

Perennial grass, with creeping, scaly rootstock, stems erect, stout,
4—12 dm. high, leaf-blades long, flat, smooth, tapering from about
1 cm. wide near the middle to long, slender points; edges rolled inward
when dry.

Sea coasts of Europe, from North Sea to Mediterranean, North
America, along the Atlantic coast and in a few places on the Pacific.

Spinifex hirsutus Lab.

Stout stems; creeping, forming large tufts; leaves often over 3 dm.
long, margins involute, woolly; the male plant has sessile spikes in a
terminal head, each spike about 5 cm.long,spikelets sessile in the spike,
15—20 mm. long; the female plant has numerous spikelets in large
globular head, the spikelet 20—25 mm. long, acute.

On sandy shores of New Zealand, New Caledonia, Tasmania, and
Australia, from Queensland to West Australia.

A slightly differing form, occurring near Fremantle in Western
Australia, has been referred to as S. longifolius R. Br., but its right as
a distinct species is doubtful.

S. squarrosus L.

Resembles foregoing species in habit. The heads are large, radiating,
and when the seeds are matured, the heads become detached, and are
easily carried by the wind along the sand, thus dispersing their seeds.

On sandy shores of India.

Stipa tenacissima L.
Perennial grass, with long, slender leaves. Resembles in habit

OF MARINE COASTS. 141

Ammophila arenaria, for which it is a substitute on the dunes of the
Iberian Peninsula.

It occurs on sandy tracts everywhere in the western parts of the
Mediterranean. A closely allied species, 8. arenaria Brot., is found on
similar localities in Spain and Portugal.

S. teretifolia Steud.

Perennial; stems in dense tufts, 45—75 cm. high; leaves long,
slender, terete.

On middle beach and in salt marshes on coasts of Australia (Western
Australia to Victoria), Tasmania, and New Zealand.

Thuarea sarmentosa Pers.
Creeping and rooting perennial, forming short tufts; leaves flat,
lanceolate, 3—5 cm. long, densely silky-pubescent on both sides.
On sandy beaches in the tropics from Madagascar to Samoa.

Zoysia pungens Willd.
Rhizome creeping; stems erect, 5—15 cm. high; leaves flat or con-
volute, with rigid, pungent points, glabrous; spike terminal.
Coastal sands of tropical and Eastern Asia, New Zealand, Tasmania,
and Australia, from Moreton Bay to Victoria.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.
Ophioglossum arenarium E. G. Britton.
Rootstock slightly thickened, with 1 or 2 stalks, stem rigid, erect,
5—17 cm. high, bearing the sessile lanceolate fleshy leaf below the
middle; blade 2—5 cm. long, acute or apiculate.

Gregarious in a colony of many plants in sandy ground under trees
at Holly Beach, New Jersey. (Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 24: 555. 1897.)

O. vulgatum L.
Perennial rootstock; stem single, 8—15 cm. high, with one oblong,
entire leaf, 5—8 cm. long, narrowed into a sheathing footstalk.
Although not confined to the coast this plant is often found on in-
undated sands in the Finnish Archipelago, and on the Swedish east
coast.

142 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Bibliography.

The following list contains the principal works on the subject, but does
not pretend to be exhaustive. Several other references will be found in the
text, not having been included in the bibliography because of their not being
so intimately related to the general subject as to be of interest except in
special cases.

Abromeit, Johannes.
Diinenflora (in Gerhard: Handbuch des Deutschen Diinenbaues.)—Ber-
lin, 1900.
—tUeber Veriinderungen in der preussischen Flora.—Schr. phys. oek. Ges.
Konigsberg, 34: 4—15, 1893.
Ackermann, Carl.
Beitriige zur physischen Geographie der Ostsee. pp. IX+399.—Hamburg,
1883.
Agardh, J. G.
Om den Spetsbergska drifvedens ursprung.—Stockholm, 1869.
Albert, F.
Las dunes del centro de Chile.
Almquist, Sigfrid.
Om Hippophaé rhamnoides férekomst i Bohuslén.—Bot. Not. 1891: 1380.
Altenkirch, Gustav.
Studien iiber die Verdunstungs-schutzeinrichtungen in der trockenen
Geréllflora Sachsens.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. xviii: 354—393. 1894.
Andersson, Gunnar.
Om Najas marinas tidigare utbredning under kvartirtiden.—Bot. Not.
1891: 249—257.
—Om de yixtgeografiska och vixtpaleontologiska stéden for antagandet
af klimatvixlingar under kvartirtiden.Stockholm, Geol. For. Férh. Bd.
14. H. 6: 509—538, 1892.
—Studier 6fver svenska vaxtarters utbredning och invandringsvadgar. I.
—Bot. Not. Lund. 1893: 217—239.
——Svenska vixtvirldens historia. 106 p.—Stockholm, 1896.
2d ed. 136 p. 8°.—Stockholm, 1896.
German translation (not very correct) in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 22: 483—550.
Andersson, Joh. Gunnar.
Mellan haf och dyner. (Gotska Sand6én.) —Sirtryck ur Sv. Turistf.
arsskr., 1895, 16 p.
Andouard, A.
Les sables du désert de la Basse-Egypte.—Compt. Rend. Ac. Sci. 117:
258—. 1893.

OF MARINE COASTS. 143

Andresen, C. C.
Om Klitformationen og Klittens Behandling.og Bestyrelse.—Kjébenhavn,

1861.
Andrews, E. W.
Pebbles and Drifting Sand.—Trans. N. Z. Inst. 26: 397.
Arcangeli, Giovanni.
Sulla struttura delle foglie del A. (—triplex) nummularia Lindl. in
relazione alla assimilazione——Nuovo Giorn. bot. ital. xxii: 426—430.

Areschoug, F. W. C.
Der Hinfluss des Klimas auf die Organisation der Pflanzen, insbesondere
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Ascherson, Paul Friedrich August.
Die Salzstellen der Mark Brandenburg.—Zs. D. geol. Ges. xi. 1859.

——Geographische Verbreitung der Seegriiser—Pet. geogr. Mitt. 1871. 4°
map. Also in Neumayer: Anleitung zur wissenschaftlichen Beobach-
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——Zur Flora der adriatischen Kiistenlinder.—Oesterr. bot. Zs. 1885: 3538—.

Auerbach, Felix.
Die Gleichgewichtsfiguren pulverférmiger Massen.—Ann. Physik. Leipzig.
(4 Folge), 5: 170—219, 1901.

Auerbach, B.
Les dunes d’Allemagne.—Ann. géogr. Paris. 10: 272—274, 1901.

Bailey, Ch.
On the adventitious vegetation of the Sandhills of St. Anne’s on the Sea,
North Lancashire.—Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, 47. 1. No. 2. 1—8.
1903.

Bailey, F.
Forest Tour among the Dunes of Gascony.—Trans. Scott. Arboric. Soc.,
XI, pt. 3, 1887.

Bailey, Frederick Manson.
On the Flora of Stradbroke Island, with a description of new species.—
Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. 6: 1389—146. 1882.

——The Queensland Flora. 6 vols.—Brisbane, 1900—1903.

Bang, J. P. F.
Om de nord- og vestjydske Klitters Beplantning.—Tidsskrift for Skov-
brug, Kjébenhavn. XII. 1889.

—Noget om Klitvaesenets Virksomhed paa Jyllands Vestkyst, saerlig i
Ribe Amt.—TIorst-tidende, XII: 49—61. 1899.

Baraban.
Fixation et reboisement des dunes du littoral maritime de la Vendée et
de la Charente-Inférieure. 17 p. 1882.

Batalin, A.
Wirkung des Chlornatriums auf die Entwicklung von Salicornia her-
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St. Petersbourg, 1886: p. 219—232. Rev. Bot. Cent. 27: 92—94,

144 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Baudissin, Adelbert.
Blicke in die Zukunft der nordfriesischen Inseln und der Schleswigschen
Festlandskiiste—Schleswig, 1867.

Beal, William James.
Seed dispersal. 87 pp. ill—Boston, 1898.

Beck, G. vou.
Die Vegetationsverhaltnisse der Illyrischen Lander. 1901.

Beckmann, Nik.
Bericht iiber die Mittel welche in Flandern und Holland angewandet
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Beecher, C. E.
Origin of spines—Am. J. Sci. VI: 1—20, 125—136, 249—268, 329—359.
1898.

Bell, C. N.
Drift-material of New Zealand Beaches.—Rep. Austr. Ass. Adv. Sci.
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Benbow, C. A.
Interior Land Changes. 6 p.—Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. XII, 1901.

Benecke, Wilhelm.
Die Nebenzellen der Spaltdffnungen. Hin Beitrag zur Kentniss ihres
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——Ueber die Diels’sche Lehre von der Entchlorung der Halophyten.—Jahrb.
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Berendt, G.
Geologie des Kurischen Haffes und seiner Umgebung.—Ko6nigsberg, 1869.

Berghaus, A.
Das Diinengebiet langs der Ostsee im Stettiner Regierungsbezirk. Das
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Bergroth, Ossian.
Anteckningar om vegetationen i grinstrakterna mellan Aland och Abo-
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Bernatsky, Jendé.
A futdhomok névényzete a Keleti Tengerpartvidéken. (The drift sand
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Bertoloni, J.
Vegetazioni del primotratto meridionali di lido marittimo Italiano.—
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Bessey, Charles Edwin.
Ruppia maritima L. in Nebraska.—Amer. Nat. 20: 1052. 1886.

—Two Big-rooted Plants of the Plains.—Amer. Nat. 23: 174—176. 1889.

‘Were the Sand-hills of Nebraska formerly covered with forests?—Pub.
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Bezzenberger, Adalbert.
Die Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner.—Forsch. D. Landesk. III,
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OF MARINE COASTS. 145

Bielefeld, R.

Flora der Ostfriesischen Halbinsel und ihrer Gestade-Inseln.—Norden,
1900.

Bibrn, Sdren.

Uebersicht der vortheilhaftesten Behandlung und Benutzung der preus
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—tUeber die vortheilhafteste Behandlungs-Methode bei Besamung und
Repflanzung der Kiefern auf mageren, vorztiglich auf ganz sandigen
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——Bemerkungen iiber die vormihlige und gegenwirtige Lage und Beschaf-
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Blanford, W. T.

On the Physical Geography of the great Indian Desert, with special
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Blankinship, J. W.

The plant-formations of Eastern Massachusetts.—Rhodora, V: 124—137.
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Blenk, P.

Ueber die durchsichtigen Punkte in den Blittern.—Flora, Marburg, 67:
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Blesson.

Bemerkungen tiber Sand und Diinen.—Hertha, Zeitschrift fiir Erd-, Vol-
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Blijdenstein, A. J. & Brants, L. R.

Onderzoek naar de duinbeplantingen in Jutland en langs de Oostzee.—
Nederlandsche Heide-Maatschappij Tijdschrift. ii: 103—155, 1890.
—Rapport van het Bestuur der Nederlansche Heidemaatschappij aan de
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Blytt, Axel Guldbrand.

Christiania Omegns Fanerogamer og Bregner samt en Inledning om
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—Forsig til en Theori om Invandringen af Norges Flora under vekslende
regnfulde og térre Tider.—Nyt. Mag. Naturv. 21: 279—3862, 1876. Rev.
Bot. Not. Lund. 187. p. 6.

Engl.: Essay on the Immigration of the Norwegian Flora during alter-
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—Om Karplanternes Udbredelse i Norge.—Christiania, 1882.

— Om veksellagring og dens mulige betydning for tidsregningen i geologien
og laeren om arternes forandringer.—Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1883. No. 9.
31 p.

Germ. trans.: Ueber Wechsellagerung und deren mutmassliche Bede-

146 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

utung fiir die Zeitrechnung der Geologie und fiir die Lehre von der
Verinderung der Arten.—Biol. Cent. iii. No. 14—15: 418—434, 449—461,
1883.

—tUeber die wahrscheinliche Ursache der periodischen Verinderungen in
der Starke der Meeresstrémungen.—Biol. Cent. IV, No. 2: 33—48, 1884.

—Nye Bidrag til Kundskaben om Karplanternes Udbredelse i Norge.—
Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1886, No. 7, 33 p.

—On variations of climate in the course of time——Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh.
1886, No. 8, 24 p.

—Om den sandsynlige frsag til strandliniernes forskyvning, et forség paa
en geologisk tidsregning.——Nyt. Mag. Naturv. 31: 240—297, 324—2339.
1889. E :

Engl. trans.: The probable Cause of the Displacement of Beach-lines.
An attempt to compute geological epochs.—Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1889,
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——Om de fytogeografiske og fytopalaeontologiske grunde forat antage kli-
matvexlinger under kvartaertiden.—Chria. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1893, No. 5.

———Kurze Uebersicht meiner Hypothese von der geologischen Zeitrechung.
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Boll, E.

Die Seestrands- und Salinenflora der deutschen Ostseelinder.—Arch.
Ver. Freunde Nat.-gesch. Mecklenburg, II, 1848.

Bolton, X. C.

Denundation.—Trans. New York Ac. Sci. IX: 110—126, 1889—90.

Bomansson, J. Oskar.

Alands mossor.—Acta Soc. F. Fl. F. XVIII: 4, 181 pp. 1900.

Bonnier, Gaston.

Quelques observations sur les relations entre Ja distribution des Phané-
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Bonnier, G. & Flahault, Ch.

Observations sur les modifications des végétaux sous l’influence des con-
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1878.

Borbas, V. von.

A Magyar Homokpusztak etc. (Die Vegetation der ungarischen Sand-
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Borgesen, F.

Beretning om et Par Exkursioner i Sydspanien.—Bot. Tids. 21: 139—150.
1897.

Borgesen, F. & Jensen, C.

Utoft Hedeplantage. En floristisk Underségelse af et Stykke Hede i
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Borgesen, F. & Paulson, Ove.

es Vegetationen paa de dansk-vestindiske Oer.—Bot. Tids. 22: 1—114,
98.

OF MARINE COASTS. 147

Borggreve, B.
Ueber die Hinwirkung des Sturms auf die Baumvegetation.—Abh. Natw.
Ver. Bremen, 3: 251—256, 1872.

Bosch, R. B. van den.
Vergelijking van de vegetatie der duinstrecken om Calais met die van
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Bosscha, J.
Beschouwingen over het zanddiluvium in Nederland. 80.—Leiden, 1879.

Bourguignon-Duperre, le.
Mémoire sur les ensablements du port de Cette—Annales maritimes,
1839, T. I.

Boyd), A. J.
Forestry in connection with the sanddunes of Queensland.—Queensland
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Boye, P.
Bidrag til kunskaben om Algevegetationen ved Norges vestkyst.—Berg.
Mus. Aarb. 1894—1895. No. 16. 46 p. 1896.

Brackebusch, L.
Ueber die Bodenverhiltnisse des nordwestlichen Theiles der Argentin-
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1893.

Branner, J. C.
The aeolian sandstones of Fernando de Noronha.—Amer. J. Sci. 39:
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——The origin of Beach-cusps.—Journ. Geol. viii. No. 6: 481—484, 1900.

Brémontier, Nicol Thomas Theodore.
Mémoire sur les dunes et particuliérement sur celles qui se trouvent
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—Recherches sur le mouvement des ondes.—Paris, 1809.

Brenner, Wilhelm.
Untersuchungen an einigen Fett-pflanzen—Flora, Marburg. Bd. 87, H.
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Briart, A.
Sur la stratification entrecroisée.—Bull. Soc. geol. France, vol. 3: 587—.
1880.

Brick, Carl.
Beitrige zur Biologie und vergleichenden Anatomie der Baltischen
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Briggs, Lyman J.
The Mechanics of Soil moisture—Bull. iv. Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. 24 p.
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—Salts as influencing the rate of evaporation of water from soils.—U. S.
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Brighenti, M.
Sulla corrente littorale dell’ Adriatico. Memoria. 4°.—Bologna, 1859.

148 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Britton, Wilton Everett.

Vegetation of the North Haven Sand Plains.—Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 30:
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Brown, J. Croumbie.

Pine plantations on the sand-wastes of France. 172 p.—Edinburgh, 1878.

Buchenau, Franz.

Ueber die Sprossverhiltnisse von Glauz maritima—vVerhandl. Bot. Ver.
Brand. VI, 1864.

—Bemerkungen iiber die Flora der Ostfriesischen Inseln, namentlich der
Insel Borkum.—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen, II: 201—216, 1870.

— Weitere Beitriige sur Flora der Ostfriesischen Inseln.—Abh. Natw. Ver.
Bremen, IV: 217—275, VII: —

—vVergleichung der Nordfriesischen Inseln mit den Ostfriesischen in
floristicher Beziehung.—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen, IX: 361—384, 1887.

—Ueber die Vegetations-verhiltnisse des “Helms” (Psamma arenaria Rom.
& Schultes) und der verwandten Diinengriiser—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen,
X: 897—412, 1889.

—Die pflanzenwelt der Ostfriesischen Inseln.—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen,
XI: 245-—264, 1890. &
—Die Flora der Ostfriesischen Inseln. Norden und Norderney.—Abh.

Natw. Ver. Bremen, II: 201—478, 1881—1891.

—eber die Ostfriesischen Inseln und ihre Flora.—Verhandlungen des XI
deutschen Geographentages in Bremen. 1895—96: 129—141. Review in
Bot. Cent. 66: 318.

-——Kritische Studien zur Flora von Ostfriesland.—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen,
XV: 81—112, 1897.

Buchenau, Franz & Focke, W. O.

Die Salicornien der deutschen Nordseekiiste—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen,
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Buffault, Pierre.

Etude sur la céte et les dunes du Médoc. Littoral ancien, littoral actuel.
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Biibrer.

Untersuchung tiber die schaidliche Einwirkung von Kochsalzlésungen
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Bunge, Alexander von.

Pflanzengeographische Betrachtungen tiber die Familie der Chenopo-
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Caland.

Etude sur les effets des marées dans la partie maritime des fleuves. 8°.
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Campbell, W. D.

On Beach Protection.—Trans. N. Z. Inst. Vol. XI: 147—. 1879.

Carruthers, J.

On the Formation of Detached Shingle Beaches.—Trans. N. Z. Inst.
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OF MARINE COASTS. 149

Chambrelent.
Mémoire sur l’assainissement et la mise en valeur des Landes de Gas-
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——La stabilité des dunes du golfe de Gascogne et les dangers dont elles
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Cheeseman, Thomas F.
On the Flora of the North Cape District.—Trans. N. Z. Inst. XXIX:
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Chelius, C.
Flugsand auf Rheinalluvium und zur Jetztzeit—N. Jahrbuch f. Miner-
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Chodat, Robert.
Les dunes lacustres de Solez et les Garides. Etude géobotanique.—
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Cholnoky, I.
Die Bewegungsgesetze des Flugsandes (in Hungarian and German).—
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Christ, Hermann.
Vegetation und Flora der Canarischen Inseln.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. VI:
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Chrysler, M. A.
Anatomical notes on certain strand plants.—Bot. Gaz. 37: 461—. 1904.

Citters, W. van.
Opmerkingen over hetgeen er in Frankrijk is tot stand gebragt en wat
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Clark, W. R.
Sand-binding Plants——Watt’s Dictionary Econ. Plants of India, VI. pt. 2.
455.

Clavaud, Armand.
Sur le véritable mode de la fécondation du Zostera marina.—Actes soc.
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Cleghorn, H.
On the sand-binding plants of the Madras beach.—Journ. Bot. London,
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Clements, Frederic E.
A System of Nomenclature for Phytogeography.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. XXXI.
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Clos. D.
Le nanisme dans le régne végétal—-Mém. Ac. Sci. Toulouse. 1889.

Cockayne, L.
A Short Account of the Plant-covering of Chatham Island—Trans. N. Z.
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—A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter to the Southern Islands of
New Zealand.—tTrans. N. Z. Inst. 36: 225—333. 1904.

— Report on the Sand Dunes of New Zealand. 1909.

150 “ THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Conrad, F. W.
Over duinen en stranden. Jn Verspreide bijdragen, Amsterdam, 1849,
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Constantin, J.
Observations sur la Flore du Littoral.—Journ. bot. 1: No. 3: 45—. 1887.
— Influence du milieu aquatique sur les stomates.—Bull. Soc. bot. France,
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Contejean, Ch.
Géographie Botanique. Influence du terrain sur la végétation.—Paris,
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Copeland, Edwin Bingham.
The Mechanism of Stomata.—Ann. Bot. XVI: 327—364. 1902.
Cornish, Vaughan.
Ripple Mark.—Rep. Br. A. A. S. 1896: 794—795.
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—On Sea Beaches and Sand-banks.—Geogr. Journ. XI: 628—647. 1898.
—On Photographs of Wave Phenomena.—Rep. Br. A. A. S. 1899: 748—749.
—On Sand-dunes bordering the Delta of the Nile—Rep. Br. A. A. S.
1899: 812—813.
—On desert sand-dunes bordering the Nile delta.—Geogr. Journ. XV: 1—30.
1900. Abridged in Nature, 61: 403—404. 1900.
—On Tidal Sand Ripples above Low-water Mark.—Rep. Br. A. A. S.
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—On the formation of wave surfaces in sand.—Scot. Geogr. Mag. 17:
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——On sand waves in tidal currents.—Geogr. Journ. XVIII: 170—202. 1901.
Courbis, E.
Les dunes et les eaux souterraines du Sahara.—Compt. Rend. Soc.
Géogr., Paris. 1890: 114—119, 259—.
Coupin, H.
Sur la toxicité des composés du sodium, du potassium et de l’ammonium
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—Sur la sensibilité des végétaux superieurs 4 l’action utile des sels de
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Coville, Frederick Vernon and Macdougal, Daniel Trembly.
Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, 58 p.—Wash-
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Cowles, Henry C.
The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand-dunes of Lake
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——The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity; a study of the origin,
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Crawford, J. C.
Directions for Raising and Spreading Ammophila arundinacea and
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OF MARINE COASTS. 151

—On Fixing Blowing Sands by means of Planted Grasses.—Trans. and
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Credner, Rudolf.

Die Deltas, ihre Morphologie, geographische Verbreitung und Entste-
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—Riigen, Hine Inselstudie.—Stuttgart, 1893.

Croll, J.

Climate and time in their geological relations, a theory of the secular
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Cummings, Emma G.

Characteristics of some Southern trees.—Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. I:
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Cunningham, Alida M.

A revision of the species of the genus Plantago, occurring within the
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Czerny, Franz.

Die Wirkung der Winde auf die Gestaltung der Erde—Pet. geogr. Mitt.
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Dahl, Ove.

Plantegeografiske underségelser i ydre Sdéndmdre, 1894.—Chria. Vid.
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——Kystvegetationen i Romsdal, Nord- og Séndfjord.—Christiania, 1896.

—Botanisk underségning i Séndfjord og Nordfjord i 1896—97.—Christiania,
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Dahner, Moritz.

Beitrige zur Morphologie und Biologie von Ilex aquifolium und Cakile
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Dammer, Udo. _

Polygonaceenstudien. 1. Verbreitungsausriistungen der Polygonaceen.—
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Dangeard, P. A.

Recherches sur la structure des feuilles de Salicornia et de Salsola.—
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Darwin, Charles.

On the action of seawater on the germination of seeds.—Journ. Linn.
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——On the origin of species by means of natural selection or the preserva-
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Darwin, Francis.

Observations on Stomata.—Proc. R. 8. L. 190: 531—621. 1898.

Darwin, G. H.

On ripple mark.—Proc. R. S. L. vol. 36, 1883.

—On the Horizontal Thrust of a Mass of Sand.—Min. Proc. Inst. C. E.
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Daveau, J.

La flore littorale du Portugal—Bull. herb. Boiss. vol. IV. No. 4:
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152 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Davy, J. B.
Natural vegetation of alkali land.—Calif. Ag. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1895—96:
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—The native vegetation and crops of the Colorado delta in the Salton
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Davy, Joseph Burtt & Longbridge, Robert Hills.
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Comparative anatomy of the vegetative organs of the phanerogams and
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De Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus.
Géographie botanique raisonée; ou, Exposition des faits principaux et
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Rides formées 4 la surface du sable déposé au fond de Yeau et autres
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Om vindnétta stenar.—Geol, fr. forh. Bd. VIII, H. 7. No. 105. 15 p.
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Les dunes littorales du golfe de Gascogne. 1879.
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Ueber die Bedeutung der dtherischen Oele bei Xerophyten.—Flora, 92:
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De Vasselot de Régné.
Les dunes de la Coubre. 1878. ;
De Vries, G.
De Rijndijk in de duinen to Petten.—Versl. K. Ak. Wet. 3 sér. pt. 3.
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Vegetations-Biologie von Neu-Seeland 1.—Engl. Bot. Jahr. 22: 202—257.
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Dorner, Herman B.
Effect on the composition of the soil upon the minute structure of
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OF MARINE COASTS. 153

Doss, Bruno.

Ueber Diinen der Umgegend von Riga.—Korr-bl. Natf. Ver. Riga., 39:

31—40. 1896.

——Die postglaciale Hebung des Rigaer Strandes.—Korr. bl. Nat. Ver. Riga.

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Dowker, G.
The Sand-dunes between Deal and Sandwich with Remarks on the Flora
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Dozy, F.
Mededeeling over de vegetatie der duinen.—Ned. Kruidk. Arch. (1) iii:
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Dronkers, D.
De duinen van Walcheren, eene goudmijn voor de inwoners van Middel-
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Dudley, William Russell.

The genus Phyllospadix.—Wilder Quarter-Century Book, p. 403—420,

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Dulignon—Desgranges.
Les dunes de Gascogne. le Bassin d’Arcachon et le baron de Villers.
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Durégne, FE.

Sur Ja distinction de deux Ages dans la formation de dunes de Gascogne.

—Compt. Rend. Ac. Sci. cxi: 1006—1008. 1890. ;
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d. 1. Soc. Linn. de Bordeaux. 57: 1—16. 1902.

Duthie, J. E.

Report on Mr. C. HB. Gladstone’s planting and grass-sowing operations

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Duval—Jouve, J.

Des Salicornia de l’Herault.—Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XV. 1868.
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Histotaxie des Feuilles des Graminées.—Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., sér. 6. I:
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Eeden, F. William Van.
De flora der Hollandsche duinen.—Album der Natuur, 1866: 33—58.

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——Proeve van een kort vergelijking overzigt van de Flora der verschillende
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Lijst der planten die in de Nederlandsche duinstreken gevonden zijn.—
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Library Publications. 10

154 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

——Duinen en duinbeplanting.—Nut. vt. Alg. Alm. 1875: 101—110.

——Op de binnenduinen.—Nut. vt. Alg. Alm. 1881: 85—97.

—terschelling——Album der Natuur, 22 p. 1885.

—Onkruid.—Botanische Wandelingen I. II. 214+240 p. Haarlem, 1886.

In ‘t Hart van Kennemerland.—Album der Natuur, 26 p. 1890.

Eiben, C. E.
Verzeichniss der auf der ostfriesischen Insel Norderney wachsenden Laub-
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Hilker, G.
Die Sturmfluthen in der Ostzee——Emden, 1877.

Hisen, Gustav, & Stuxberg, Anton.

Bidrag till kinnedomen om Gotska Sandén.—6fv. K. Sv. Vet. Ak. férh.
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Emy, A, R.
Du mouvement des ondes et des travaux hydrauliques maritimes.—
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Engler, A., and Prantl, K.
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Engler, Arnold.

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Erikson, Johan.

Nagra’ ord om utvecklingen hos Halianthus peploides.—Bot. Not. Lund.
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——Studier 6fver sandfloran i éstra Skane. 78 p. 2 pl.—Bih. k. Sv. Vet.
Ak. Handl. 22: 3—. 1896. Rev. Bot. Cent. 6: 512—515.

Evans, W.

Zostera nana Roth. in Firth of Forth.—Trans. Bot. Soc.. Edinb. XVII:
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Fabre, L. A.

Les plateaux des Hautes-Pyrénées et les dunes de Gascogne. 8°.—
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Feldt,

Beschreibung der Bodenbeschaffenheit der frischen Nehrung bei Danzig.
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Feret, A.

Les plantes des terrains salés.—Le Monde des Plantes, 7: 182—. 193—.
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Fijnje, J. G. W. :
Nota over de Boschbeplantingen op de duinen langs de Golf van Gas-
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Fischer, Theobald.

Kiistenstudien aus Nordafrika—Pet. geogr. Mitt. 33: 1—. 1887.

OF MARINE COASTS. 155

Fischer—Benzon, R. von.
Ueber die Flora des stidwestlichen Schleswigs und der Inseln Fohr,
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Flahault, Charles.
Projet de nomenclature phytogéographique. Paper read at International
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——La distribution géographique des végétaux dans un coin du Languedoc.
pp. 176.—Montpellier, 1893.
Flahault, Charles & Combres, P.
Sur la flore de la Camargue et des alluvions du Rhone.—Bull. Soc. Bot.
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Fleischer,
Die Schutzeinrichtungen der Pflanzenblitter gegen Vertrocknung. 1885.
Fliche, Paul.
Un reboisement.—Ann, sci. agron. I. 1888.
Fliche, P., et Grandeau, L.
De V’influence de la composition chimique du sol sur la végétation du
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Focke, W. O.
Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Flora der ostfriesischen Inseln.—Abh. Natw.
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Hin Friihlingsbesuch auf Norderney.—Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen. xiv:
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Forchhammer, G.
Geognostiche Studien am Meeresufer.—Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie und
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——Klitterne paa Vestsiden af den jydske Halvé.—Almenfattelige Afhand-
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Forsyth, T. D.
On the buried cities in the shifting sand of the Great Desert of Gobi.—
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Ueber die Einwirkung concentrirter Kochsalzlésungen auf das Leben
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Fuon, G.
Recherches anatomiques sur la racine et la tige des Chenapodiacees.—
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Ganong, William Francis.
The vegetation of the Bay of Fundy salt and diked marshes: an
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1906.

156 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Gauchery, Paul.

Recherches sur le nanisme vegetal.—Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Sér. 8, 9: 61—
156. 1899.

Gevers, D. T.

Verhandeling over het toegangbaar maken van de Duinvalleijen langs de
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Gibbs, Ralph Erwin.

Phyllospadix as a beach-builder—Am. Nat. 36: 101—109. 1902.

Gifford, John. |
Distribution of the White Cedar in New Jersey.—Garden and Forest,
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——Notes collected during a visit to the Forests of Holland, Germany,
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—Reforesting waste lands in Holland.—Garden and Forest, 9: 423.

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Giltay, E.
Anatomische EHigenthiimlichkeiten in Beziehung auf klimatische Um-
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Girardin, Paul.
Les dunes de France.—Ann. Géogr. Paris. 10: 267—272. 1901.

Giraud, Jules.

Sur la formation des surfaces ondulées dans le sable, d’apres Mr.
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Goebel, Karl.

Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen. I. p. IV-+239. Marburg, 1889. II.
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Gosselet,

Quelques remarques sur la flore des sables d’Ostricourt—Ann. Soc. géol.
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Gottfriedt,

Beitrige zur Kenntnis des Miindungsgebietes der Diina.—Korr. Bl. Nat.
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Goursand,

Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne.—Revue des Eaux et Foréts.
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Graebner, P.

Studien iiber die Norddeutsche Heide.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 20: 500—.
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——Die Heide Norddeutschlands.—Engler & Drude, Vegetation der Erde.
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Grandjean, C.

La dune littorale—Revue des Eaux et Foréts, 1886.

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Granit, A. W.
En mindre flygsandsbildning i Enare—Medd. Fin. Forstfir. XVII: 203
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Gras, Scipion.
Formation des dunes, ensablement et envasement du cété de la France.
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Greene, Edward Lee.
Flora Franciscana: an attempt to classify and describe the vascular
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Grevillius, Anders Yngve.
Ueber den Bau des Stammes bei einigen lokalen Formen yon Polygonum
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~——Morphologisch-anatomische Studien iiber die xerophile Phanerogam
Vegetation der Insel Gland. Hin Beitrag zur Kenntniss der oberirdischen
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Gubler,
Observations sur quelques plantes naines, suivies de remarques générales
sur le nanisme dans Je régne végétal_Soc. Biol. III: 237—248. 1848.

Gulliver, F. P:
Cuspate forelands.—Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 7: 399—422. 1896.

Gtinther, Siegmund.
Akustich-geographische Probleme.—Gaea, Leipzig, 37: 394—406. 1901.—
Sitz. ber. Ak. Wiss. Miinchen, 1901: 15—33, 211—363.

Giintz,
Untersuchungen tiber die anatomische Structur der Gramineenblitter.—
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Guppy, H. B.
The dispersal of plants as illustrated by the flora of the Reeling or
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—The River Thames as an agent in plant dispersal—Journ. Linn. Soc.
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Guthrie, F. B.
Sea-weed as a manure.—Agr. Gaz. N. S. W. V: 724—735. 1895.

Haberlandt, G.
Zur Kenntniss des Spaltéffnungsapparates.—Flora, Marburg. 70: 97—
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——tiber die Ernihrung der Keimlinge....bei viviparen Mangrovenpflanzen.
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Hackel, E.
Uber einige Higentiimlichkeiten der Griser trockner Klimate.—Verh.
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Habn, F. H. :
Untersuchungen tiber das Aufsteigen und Sinken der Ktisten.—Leipzig,
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158 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Hall, C. W., and Sardeson, F. W.
Eolian deposits of eastern Minnesota.—Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. x: 349—

360. 1899.

Hall, H. C. van.
Zandgronden en zandstuivingen in Nederland.—Album der Natuur, 18638:
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Hall, T. §S.
Incrustations on wood in dune sand.—Vict. Nat. Melbourne, 18: 47—
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Hallier, Hans.
Beitriige zur Anatomie der Convolyulaceen.—Diss. 45 p. Leipzig, 1893.

Hansen, Adolf.
Die Vegetation der ostfriesischen Inseln. Ein Beitrag zur Pflanzen-
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Hansgirg, Antonin.
Phyllobiologie nebst tbersicht der biologischen Blatt-Typen. pp. 486.—
Leipzig, 1903. Rev. Bot. Cent. 78: 72—78.

Hansteen, B.
Algeregioner og Algeformationer.—Nyt. Mag. Naturv. xxxii. 1892.

Harper, Roland M.
Botanical exploration in Georgia during the summer of 1901.—Bull.
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Harshberger, John William.
Plants for the seashore—Garden and Forest, v. 45: 1892.

——An Ecological study of the New Jersey Strand Flora.—Proc. Phila. Ac.
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——Additional observations on the Strand Flora of New Jersey.—Proc.
Phila. Ac. Sci. 1902: 642—669.

——The Comparative Leaf-Structure of the Sand-dune Plants of Bermuda.—
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 47: 97—. 1908.

—The Reclamation and Cultivation of Salt Marshes and Deserts.—Bull.
Geol. Soc. Phila. July, 1907.

Hartig, Theodor.
Ueber Bildung und Befestigung der Diinen lings den Meereskusten und
tiber den Anbau der Sandschollen mit Holz.—Berlin, 1830.

Harrott,
Velocity and Sediment.—Science, V: 478. 1885.

Hayrén, Ernst.
Lings-zonerna i Hkenis skirgird.—Geogr. Fér. Tidsskr. 1900: 222—234.

——Studier 6fver vegetationen pA tillandsningsomradena i Ekenis skirgird.
—Acta Soc. F. Fl. F. v. 23. 1902.

Hedin, Sven.
A journey through the Takla-Makan desert, Chinese Turkestan.—Geogr.
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Heering, W.
Uber die Assimilationsorgane der Gattung Baccharis.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb.
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Hellborn, Per Johan.

Lafvegetationen pi darna vid Sveriges vestkust.—Bih. K. Sv. Vet. Ak.
Handl. xii. 3.

Hellstrém, Paul.

Nagra iakttagelser angiende anatomien hos griisens underjordiska ut-
lépare.—Bih. K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl. Bd. 16. 1891.

Helmann, Ch.

Beobachtungen tiber die Beweglichkeit der Kontinentaldtinen in Chiwa.—
Isw. K. russ. geogr. Ges. Phurg. 27: 384—.

Helmholz, H. v.
Die Energie der Wogen und des Windes.—Sitzber. Ak. Wiss. Berlin,
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Hemmendorff, Ernst.
Om Glands vegetation. Diss.——Uppsala, 1897.

Hemsley, William Botting.

On the dispersal of plants by oceanic currents and birds.—Rep. of the
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——Report of the present state of knowledge of various Insular Floras. 4°
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Henslow, George.

The origin of floral structure through insect and other agencies.—Intern.
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——The origin of plant structures by self-adaptation to the environment,
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218—. 1894.

—The origin of plant structures by self-adaptation to the environment.—
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——On mimetic resemblances.—Nat. Sci. xiv: 121—127. 1899.

Hesselman, Henrik.

Nagra iakttagelser 6fver vixternas spridning.——Bot. Not. Lund. 1897:
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Hildebrand, F.

Uber die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen. 162 p. 8°.—Leipzig, 1873.

Hilgard, BE. W.

The Loess of the Mississippi Valley and the aeolian hypothesis.—Am.
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Hill, E. J.

The sand-dunes of Northern Indiana and their flora——Garden and Forest,
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Hire, Drag.

Aus dem kroatischen Littorale—Osterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 1883: 321—.

Hitchcock, Albert Spear.

Ecological Plantgeography of Kansas.—Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 8:
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160 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Hochreutiner, B. P. G.
Sur une type special des dunes de la bordure Saharienne.—Compt. Rend.

Ac. Sci. Paris, 1903: 403—406—

Hock, F.
Die Verbreitung der Meerstrandflanzen Norddeutschlands und ihre
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Hoffmann, H.
Ueber Kalk—und Salzpflanzen._Landw. Versuchsstat. Bd. XIII. 1870.

Holkema, F.
De plantengroei der Nederlandsche Nordsee-Hilanden.—Amsterdam, 1870.

Holmboe, Jens.
Nogle iakttagelser over fréspredning paa ferskvandsis.—Bot. Not. Lund.
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—Strandplanter i det indre af Norge.—Naturen iii. 1899.

——Notizen uber die endozoische Samenverbreitung der Vogel.—Nyt. Mag.
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Holtz. r
Die Flora der Insel Gotska Sand6é.—Verh. Bot. Ver. Brand. 13: 1871.

Hooker, H. H.
The suspension of solids in flowing water.—Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng.
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Uber die Einwirkung des Kochsalzes auf die Vegetation von Wiesen-
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Etude sur les sables et vases de la Girondie. 8°.—Bordeaux, 1887.

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Der Diinenbau der Koéniglichen Preussischen Regierung auf den Schles-
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Huitfelt-Kaas, H.

Hull, E.
The survey of the Western Palestine.—London, 1886.

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Hult, Ragnar.
Forsék till en analytisk behandling af vixtformationerna.—Medd. Soc.
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Hultberg, August.
Anatomiska uudersékningar 6fver Salicornia herbacea L.—Lunds Univ.
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Hunt, Arthur R.
On the formation of Ripplemark.—Proc. R. 8. L. 34: 1—18. 1883.

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Imamura, K.

On the coast plants of Japan. (In Japanese).—Bot. Mag. 17: 183—195,
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Ingvarson, Fredrik.

Om drifveden i Norra Ishafvet.—K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl. 37, No. 1: 1—84.
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Jainnike, Wilhelm.

Die Sandflora von Mainz; eine pflanzengeographische Studie——TFlora,
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Jarius, M.

Ueber die Einwirkung von Salzlésungen auf den Keimungsprocess der
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Jetter, C.

Ein Frtihlingsausflug an die dalmatinische Kiiste—Oesterr. bot. Zs.
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Jensen, C.

Beretning om en Rejse til FaerGerne i 1896.—Bot. Tidskr. xxi: 157—219.

Johansson, K. ,

Hufvuddragen af Gotlands vixttopografi och vixtgeografi grundade pa
en kritisk behandling af dess kirlvaixtflora—kK. Sv. Vet. Ak. Hand.
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—Studier d6fver Gotlands hapaxantiska vixter med hiinsyn till deras gro-
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Johow, Fr.

Die Mangrovensumpfe.—Kosmos, 1884. .

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Om befruktningen hos sligtet Najas samt hos Callitriche autumnalis.—
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Physische Geographie und Meteorologie der libyschen Witiste.—Kassel,
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Kalmuss, F.

Botanische Streifziige auf der frischen Nehrung von Neukrug bis Préb-
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Geschichte der auf den Diinen zu Warnemiinde vorgenommenen Anpflan-

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Ueber die Warnemiinder Diinenpflanzung.—Neuen Annalen der Mecklen-

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Karsten, Gustav.

Ueber die Mangrovevegetation im Malayischen Archipel; eine Morpho-
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162 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

——Vegetationsbilder aus dem Malayischen Archipel.—In Karsten & Schenck ;
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Kauffmann, H.
Ueber die Natur der Stacheln.—Bull. Soc. Nat. Moskva. 1859. 32: pt. 2:
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Kearney, jun., Thomas Henry.
The plantcovering of Ocracoke Island: a study in the ecology of the
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—Report on a botanical survey of the Dismal Swamp region.—Cont. Nat.
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Kearney, T. H. & Cameron, F. K.
Some mutual relations between alkali soils and vegetation.—U. S. Dept.
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Kearney, T. H., and Harter, L. L.
The Comparative Tolerance of Various Plants for the Salts Common in
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Keckman, Charles Emil.
Anteckningar om floran i Simo och Kemi socknar af Norra Osterbotten.
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Keegan, P. Quin.
The Red and Blue Colouring Matters of Flowers.—Nat. Sci. xiv: 143—
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Keilhack, K.
Die Wanderdiinen Hinterpommerns. — Prometheus, Illustrierte Wochen-
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Studien tiber die Gestaltung der Sandkiisten—Zs. Bauwesen, xxxi:
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Kirk, T.
On the occurrence of Littoral plants in the Waikato District.—Trans.
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OF MARINE COASTS. 163

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Kirk, Thomas W.

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Flora von Hst-, Liv- und Kurland. 1. xvi+214 p. ii. 664 p.—Reval,
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Klinggraeff, H. von.

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164 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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Der Diinenbau auf den Ostseekiisten West-Preussens. Hin praktisches
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Studien iiber die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen 1. Windfriichtler. 42
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Der erste Anfang einer regelrechten Diinenbefestigung an der preus-
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Lalesque, A.

Nicolas Bremontier et Pierre Peijichon Jeune ou les sables du golfe de
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Etude sur la flore maritime du Golfe’de Gascogne.—Rev. gen. Bot. VII.
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The internal work of the wind—Am. Journ. Sci. 3 ser. 47: 41—63.
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Le niveau des mers et ses variations.—Paris, 1886.

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Travaux maritimes, Phénoménes marins accés des ports. pp. 10+478.
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Vaxtfdrhallandena i griinstrakterna mellan mellersta och sédra Oster-
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Lemmermann, E.
Zweiter Beitrag zur Pilzflora der Ostfriesischen Inselu.—Abh. Naturw.
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Lesage, Pierre. :
Influence de la salure sur la quantité de l’amidon contenu dans les
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——Influence du bord de la mer sur la structure des feuilles—Compt. Rend.
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166 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Levander, Karlo Mainio.
Zur Kentniss des Lebens in den stehenden Kleingewissern auf den
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Sur la culture des dunes en Andalusie.—Compt. Rend. ass. franc. avanc.
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Lorié, J.
Binnenduinen en bodenbewegingen.—Tijdschr. aardr. genootsch. 1893:
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McClatchie, Alfred James.
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MacMillan, Conway.
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Maiden, J. H.
Spiny rolling grass: a sand stay (Spinifex hirsutus Labill).—Agr. Gaz.
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——Some remarks on the Sand-drift Problem—N. S. W. Dept. of Agr. Misc.
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McNaughton, C. B.
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Manby, Charles, and Forrest, James.
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Martins, Carl Friedrich Philipp von.
Expériences sur la persistance de la vitalité des graines flottant a la
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Mascleff, A.
Etudes sur la géographie botanique du Nord de la France.—Journ. bot.
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Massart, Jean.
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Matthiassen, Mathias Jens.
Om Beta maritimas Udbredelse ved Store Belt.—Bot. Tids. vol. 21. 1897.

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Meigen, Fr. .
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Melander, C.
Anteckningar till Vesterbottens flora—Bot. Not. 1890: 236—239.

Mentz, A.
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168 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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172 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Diinen an der Westktiste von Schles-
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Ridley, H. N.

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Robertson, A. J.

On the theory of waves.—London, 1854.

Rolland, G.

Sur les grandes dunes de sable du Sahara.—Bull. Soc. géol. France. (8)
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OF MARINE COASTS. 1738

Rosa, Daniele.
La riduzione progressiva della variabilita, e i suoi rapporti coll’estinzione
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Nagot om Karlé.—Geogr. Fir. Tidsskr. 1893: 201—211.
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Contribuzione alla conoscenza del tessuto assimilatore e dello sviluppo

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Ross, Leonard, W.
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Cotula coronopifolia L.—Engl. Bot. Jahrb. V: 337—340.

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Mimicry among plants.—Proc. Phila. Ac. Sci. 1888: 12.

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Sur la structure du tissu assimilateur des tiges chez les plantes mediter-

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Flora of the Sand-hills of Nebraska.—Cont. Nat. Herb. vol. 3. No. 3. 1895.
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Note sur les oscillations du littoral Belge—Mém. Ac. Roy. Belg. vol. 29.

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174 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Sabban, Paul.
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Sandstede, Heinrich.
Beitriige zu einer Lichenenflora der nordwestdeutschen Tieflandes.—Abh.
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OF MARINE COASTS. 175

Schmidt, Job.
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Floating sand; an unusual mode of river transportation.—Amer. geol.

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7

176 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

Skottsberg, Carl, und Vestergren, Tycho.
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OF MARINE COASTS. 17

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178 ; THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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180 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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182 THE SAND STRAND FLORA

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Forage plants of the salt marshes of Connecticut.—Conn. Agr. Exp. St.
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Witt-Hamer, H. M. de.
Supplement op de lijst der planten die in de Nederlandsche duinstreken
gevonden zijn.—Ned. Kruidk. Arch. (2) ii: 118—125, 1876.

Wolf, W.
Die Saussure’schen Gesetze der Aufsaugung von einfachen Salzlésungen
durch die Wurzein der Pflanzen.—Landw. Versuchsst. 6: 203—. 1864.

———Chemische Untersuchungen tiber das Verhilten von Pflanzen in der Auf-
nahme von Salzen aus Salzlésungen, welche zwei Salze gelést enthaten.
Landw. Versucbsst. 7: 198—. 1865.

Woodworth, J. B.
Post-Glacial Action in Southern New England.—Am. Journ. Sci. ser. 3.
47: 68—71. 1894. :

Zernecke, W. F.
Der Ditinendurchbruch bei Neufahr in der frischen Nehrung am 1.
Februar 1840.—Preuss. Provinzialblitter xxiii: 359—363. KGnigsberg,
1840.

Zimmermann, A.
Ueber mechanische Hinrichtungen zur Verbreitung der Samen und Friichte
mit besonderer Berticksichtigung den Torsionenerscheinungen.—Jahrb.
wiss. Bot. xii: 542-577, pl. xxxiv. 1881.

Zobrist.
Les dunes. Réfutation des théories de M. Bouthillier de Beaumont.—
Bull. Soc. neuchat. géogr. IV: 1—17. 1888.

“gs

pote

rT OT

Oo 7

ee eee
Qo pe why h &

OF MARINE COASTS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

“Beach on the Swedish Hast Coast......... 0... cece eee eee ae

Sand field on the Swedish South Coast.............-.........
Gray dune on the Swedish Southeast Coast...................
Dune near Bullenhof, Riga, RusSldsscascscecueivesceerearaaves
Dune on the Danish North Sea Coast................... 0000s
Stationary dune North of Fremantle, Western Australia.......
Dune on the New Zealand Coast ......... 0.0: eee cece eee :
Dune at San Francisco, California.....................0.000.
Sand field at Point Pinos, Pacific Grove, California...........
Dunes near Pacific Grove, California..............-....0000-
Dunes: on West Coast of Jutland, Denmark...................
Dunes near New Brighton, New Zealand..............-...+..
Hollow between dunes, New Zealand Coast...............005.
Dune near San Francisco, California....................0005
Sand field near Ajaccio, Corsica... ....... cee eee eee eee
Sandy shore on St. Croix, Danish West Indies...............

Previous numbers of the Augustana Library Publications have
been issued as below, Augustana Book Concern,
Printers, Rock Island, Il.

The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits, by Jonan Aucust UDDEN;
pp. 69; 1898. (Out of print).

An Old Indian Village, by Jonan Auaust UpDDEN; pp. 80; 32 figs., 1 plate;
1900.

Studies in the Idyl in German Literature, by Gustav ALBERT ANDREEN ;
pp. 96; 1902.

On the Cyclonic Distribution of Rainfall, by Jonan AvuGustT UDDEN; pp.
21; 10 figs.; 1905.

A Preliminary List of Fossil] Mastodon and Mammoth Remains in Illinois
and Iowa, by Netta C. ANDERSON; pp. 40; 2 maps; 1905.

On the Proboscidean Fossils of Pleistocene Deposits in Illinois and Iowa,
by JoHan Avueust UbpDEN; pp. 13; 1905.

Scandinavians who have Contributed to the Knowledge of the Flora of
North America, by PER AXEL RypBERG, PH. D.; pp. 49; 1907.

Report on a Geological Survey of the Lands belonging to the New
York and Texas Land Company, Ltd., in the Upper Rio Grande Embay-
ment in Texas, by Johan Aucust UDDEN; pp. 57; 7 plates, 1 col. map.
32x21 in.; 1907.