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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002809501
BARNES &
FOURTEEN WEEKS
IN
ZOOLOGY.
BY
J. DORMAN STEELE, Pu. D., F.G.S.,
AUTHOR OF THE FOURTEEN-WEEKS SERIES IN NATURAL SCIENCR
“And Nature, the old nurse, took The child upon her knee, Saying, 'Here is a story-book Thy Father hath written for thee.’"’ Longfellow's '‘ Tribute to Agassiz.
A. 8S. BARNES & COMPANY, NEW YORK, CHICAGO, AND NEW ORLEANS.
ev
THE FOURTEEN WEEKS’ COURSES
NATURAL SCIENCE,
BY
J. DORMAN STEELE, A.M., Pu.D.
Fourteen Weeks in Natural Philosophy, Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry,
Fourteen Weeks in Descriptive Astronomy, Fourteen Weeks in Popular Geology, Fourteen Weeks in Human Physiology, Fourteen Weeks in Zoology,
Fourteen Weeks in Botany,
A Key, containing Answers to the Questions and Problems in Steele’s 14 Weeks’ Courses,
A HISTORICAL SERIES,
ON THE PLAN OF STEELE’S 14 WEEKS IN THE SCIENCES.
A Brief History of the United States, A Brief History of France,
The same publishers also offer the following standard scientific works, being more extended or difficult treatises than those of Prof. Steele, though still of Academic grade.
Peck’s Ganct’s Natural Philosophy, Porter's Principles of Chemistry, Jarvis’ Physiology and Laws of Health, Wood's Botanist and Florist, Chambers’ Elements of Zoology, Mclntyre’s Astronomy and the Globes, Page's Elements of Geology,
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by A. S. BARNES & CO.,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.
&STEELE'S ZOOL.
PREFACE.
19% —___.
di eee work is prepared upon the same general plan as the preceding books of the Series. Among the principal features are: Brevity; directness of statement; such a presentation of the subject as will lead the pupil to love the study; frequent foot-notes, containing anecdotes, curious facts, explanations, etc.; a uniform system of analysis in bold paragraph titles; and a gradual introduction of scientific terms and language, so as to fit the scholar to read zoological literature.
Believing that a description of a new animal without a cut is useless, the author has aimed to give a figure of each one mentioned; accompanying it, where necessary, with minor illustrations of functional peculiarities. In order not to dis- courage the beginner with dry and dull anatomical details, the text is largely occupied with biography, telling “how animals act, think, and are mutually related ;” for a fact con- cerning the adaptation, habits, etc. is as valuable and far - more interesting to the young, than one about some unpro- nounceable bone or muscle.
To lead, however, to closer observation, physiological dis- tinctions are grouped ‘in frequent paragraphs under the head of General Characteristics, a section is given on Comparative Anatomy, and numerous cuts of skeletons will enable any teacher familiar with the subject to continue it as desired.
The limits of the book compelled a selection to be made from the numberless animal forms. Every order, however, is named, with most of its families and many of the princi- pal genera, each one illustrated by a cut and description of a
6 PREFACE,
typical species. Tables for classification precede, in general, every division. These will enable the pupil to refer any animal to its order, and, in many instances, to its family and genus; though it should be borne in mind that the charac- teristics given are applicable to the genera and species described in the text, and not necessarily to all belonging to the family. In addition to these analyses, a tabular view of all the animals treated is inserted in the Appendix.
It has not seemed best to define each term in the text, but the Index is very full, and contains the explanation, defini- tion, and reference of every ordinary zoological word. As far as possible, each scientific name is followed, in parenthesis, by its translation. To guide in pronouncing the titles of the cut, the quantity of the penult is carefully given.
Ample directions to the beginner for collecting and pre- serving specimens are given at the close of each division. These, with the hints in the foot-notes, will enable the pupil to undertake the study of Nature understandingly.
The author would hereby acknowledge the vital assistance rendered in the preparation of this work by J. W. P. Jenks, A.M., Professor of Agricultural Zoology and Curator of the Museum, Brown University. His life-long experience and remarkable success in teaching Zoology, together with the wide range of his observations, have alone rendered this book possible. Thanks are returned to J. W. Armstrong, D. D., President Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y.; F. C. Clark, M. D., Providence, R. I.; Charles W. Greene, A. M.; Prof. D.S. Kellicott, Ph. M., Buffalo State Normal School; and 8. G. Love, A. M., Supt. Schools, Jamestown, N. Y., who have read the proofs, and furnished many excellent suggestions.
Many of the cuts were taken from nature ; the others were selected from the works of Owen, Carpenter, Wood, Milne- Edwards, Jones, Woodward, the Pictorial Museum, ete. A number of our wood-cut illustrations are from Prof. Sanborn Tenney’s Natural History Series.
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
——aoacte—_—_—__
HE Tables are not, at first, to be committed to memory, but. only read to give a general view of the subject, and afterward learned by a constant reference to them as each class, family, etc., is taken up in order. Thus, the large table on page 13 should be in constant use during the term, and the last part would not be fully understood until the book is finished. The text contains nothing which the cut can better exhibit ; hence the figure should be studied care- fully. The teacher is advised to require his pupils to draw on the board an outline of each animal, showing its size as obtained from the scale under the cut, and every peculiarity in the structure of its teeth, claws, hoofs, bill, etc. This should be followed by a familiar description, drawn from the cut, the text, the teacher’s instructions, and every other source of information—above all, the creature itself, where it can be secured. (See note, p. 114.)
Pupils should be encouraged to make original researches. They can prepare (see page 14) the skeleton of a cat, dog, or other small animal. They can secure common birds, squir- rels, frogs, snakes, and insects; and a little practice will often develop a taste for curing and mounting which will be as instructive as delightful. They can make collections of birds’ eggs and nests. Even the careful study of a common fowl or an oyster, a bird building its nest, an ox chewing its
8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
cud, a spider spinning its web, a cat catching a mouse, the varied paces of a horse, or the metamorphosis of a caterpillar, will give a fresh zest to the work. If any opportunity offers, the class should visit a menagerie, book in hand, name the animals, and verify the statements of the text.
The knowledge of the teacher should be sufficient to fill out and supplement the brief descriptions of a text-book. The following works will furnish additional facts, and aid in further investigations. Pupils may often be persuaded to procure copies as a foundation for their library: Packard’s “Guide to the Study of the Insects;” Dana’s “Corals and Coral Islands ;” Wood’s “Natural History,” and “Homes without Hands ;” Coues’s “Key to North American Birds ;” Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway’s “North American Birds ;” Agassiz’ “ Sea-side Studies;” St. George Mivart’s “The Com- mon Frog ;” Allen’s “ Mammalia of Massachusetts ;” Samuels’ “ Birds of New England ;” Carpenter’s “ Comparative Physiol- ogy ;” Figuier’s popular works on Natural History; Jordan’s “Vertebrates of North America;” Orton’s “Comparative Zoology,” etc. The back volumes of the “American Nat- uralist,” “Popular Science Monthly,” and “ Harper’s Maga- zine” (see Natural History in the Index volume), contain numerous excellent articles, many of them finely illustrated. The above-named books, as well as a microscope, so essential to efficient instruction, can be obtained of the publishers of this work, Messrs. A. 8. Barnes & Co., 111 and 113 William St., New York. Specimens of all the typical species of ani- mals, as well as many beautiful casts, are constantly kept for sale by Prof. Henry A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
T-cENTRODUCBION accruals data nve niece eee een ne towts “ti HINTS FOR PREPARING SKELETONS..........cceeceeeeees 14 Il. THE VERTEBRATES. 1. SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATES...............0cc.eeeeuee 15 THe MAMMATS! oy care sess we cg ota waiasedeeueen ane Sere 16 IEG BER DS iu5 Assis d.2stccrag.t:< ussit, 5 ddan trina Gis abalestan acta eeds wk gh 110 MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS..........0.0 - 2 cee eee e eee eens 162 HInTs FOR PRESERVING SKINS OF MAMMALS AND Birps. 163 THE REPTIGES, <4 sesonene dees eeyeye eee Gandece sas 165 TR) AMPHIBIANS + wis secspeietiausa canna sine bce ee oes 179 NITED HES EVES 6550562 tesa 'tcys esa eden at ns WE eae herb obese ead es 184 HOMOLOGIES AND ANALOGIES OF THE VERTEBRATES..... 199
HINTS FOR STUDYING REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES. 202
Ill. THE INVERTEBRATES.
2. SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATES .. ........... 0. eee ee eee 208 ELVA EN SECT Sino sueguengiine 2. dieecsac uate areie ts Miauhslade teacocncaivavacsunsbuetosceuaie 204 HINTS FOR COLLECTING INSECTS. .......... cece ee cece eee 224 PD: MY RIA PO DB cee e's Bae ekg is aie aro Ba atake denied ia an eameretelerel’e 225 SPVEEES SPED BURG Siro s- ay3 shag ive, atins cote sige Wilsob Ss a's Gants ao nanos eatarecen nee 226 Tr CRUSTACEANS ......2.-- 0s seeeeeeee chat aechidl ahaa abit 229
IPERS WORMS: ys cccsarins susie ara verarticis Al erie wari va.ave.biiatos 8 ovations fom ween elane
10 CONTENTS.
1 . PAGE 3. SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCANS.........cccce eer eee eee eees 241 THE CRPHATOPODS':. cscs severevars gis Grcetuertetelaielciaiislel araijereierabcvevea tte 242 THE GASTRROPODS 5 4 5c:s:ceieecew eased Seas VE EEE Cpe BERS 244 THE LAMELLIBRANCHIATES ..0.. ccc eee cece ene ceweeee 250 THE: BRACHIOPODS iis: «ais siareeussntnsteteagerapedaased ony eee cee 255 Tere: PUNIGA TES is. a orca ierety hansastoner aneurin eb ene ea eee 255 EPH: (POG YZOANB i i.4.5:, eo leys nan taascsnena weaned hole hie aug aeaee 257 4. SUBKINGDOM ECHINODERMS.............. 00... .0e eee 259 THE: HOLOTHUROIDS gs... s:csiewe tea toctmiin eal ameeed ierecee ea yeu 259 Tie! WCHINOIDG : 44s: a eines ek ON ee ee ease Sd ee ee 260 RETR) ASTER ODDS susiaiaie siaceowtogyecuesreiten Died ealg awe arena seas haere 261 METAS OREN OLDS 2 coarvsccauatyioauessueadoaisaeeuen aavee G88 be aved ah Syece saleteseustacs 263 5. SUBKINGDOM CCELENTERATES ............ 0.0 e cence 265 THE CTENOPHORANS,.......00ccce erence ce ceeetsevevenes 265 "EAB ANTHOZOANS be cilsacie sicncaunass 208 whee CAG Aa hea Ree aieete aie 265 THE: HYDROZOANS «is eawiaavsass: Hae 26s ancree we se dslaeeeraye 269 UPSET: ISON GB dees ciee cissindraenebcusancodee dgaud ty, Sit, dee Se nob ao. cand isvenmnelace 273 6. SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOANS..............ccececseceees 274 Tie SINFUBORTANS: ules) casiaaeiwe Sek Suita csc unio Baloo 274 "THE RAIZOPODS: 4.04 aps acters HOR 2 eG Shee aoa NS 275 THE GREGARINIDANS. ........ eee e cece ee cece eee ee eee 277 IV. APPENDIX. TABLE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.......-.:000- ceeeeeevees oes 278
INDEX AND GLOSSARY.....0 0 ccc c cece eee e reece ee tenecrens cence 298
INTRODUCTION.
OOLOGY (zoon, animal; logos, a discourse) treats of animals, It includes every variety, from man to the tiniest micro- scopic creature. Recent investigations in Comparative Anatomy seem to indicate that all the varied forms of life so shade into one another as to furnish no sharply-marked dividing lines: and that could the animals which have become extinct be grouped with those now living, the entire series from man to the animal- cule would present an unbroken succession, This panoramic view would give an idea of unity in the same sense as when we speak of a herd of cattle, though the individuals differ in size, color, and form; or of a landscape, in which there is no break in the undu- lating outline: of the far-off horizon, though it include river, mountain, and valley.
Classification.—In order to understand Zoology clearly, it is necessary to separate this vat ANIMAL KINGDOM, as it is called, into different groups. If we examine the general structure of the various animals, and bring together those which have similar peculiarities—as, for instance, a back-bone—we shall form the first grand divisions, which are styled SUBKING- DOMS. There are only six of these typical ideas; each, however, developed by the all-wise Creator in wonderful diversity.
Observing the characteristics of the animals composing a sub- kingdom, particularly with regard to their physiological distinc- tions—as, for instance, whether they are covered with hair or feathers—we reach the divisions of each subkingdom, which we designate as CLASSES.
Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Class with regard to their adaptation to their mode of life—as, for
12 ZOOLOGY.
instance, their manner of procuring their food—we reach the divisions of each class, which we designate as ORDERS.
Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Order with regard to their general form—as, for instance, the shape of the bill or structure of the tongue—we reach the divisions of each order, which we designate as Famitigs,
Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Family with regard to details of execution in special parts—as, for instance, the number and shape of the teeth—we reach the divisions of each family, which we designate as Gznera (sing., Genus).
Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Genus with regard to identity in every cssential particular—as, for instance, color, size, corresponding measurements, etc.—we reach the divisions of each genus, which we designate as Species,
The following table exhibits the general plan of classifying the Animal Kingdom:
Famity 1. conan | Be
( ORDER 1. Species 1, 2 Genus 1, “3. “4 Paminy 2, ete,
Species 1, Genus 2. Se Se
ete,
(CLASS 1. 4
ORDER 2. FAMity 2, into genera, which etc. abe. are subdivided in- to species. CLASS 2, Divided into Orders, Families, Genera and Species, ete.
SUBKINGDOM 1. 4 [Fat [ee as above
) SUBKINGDOM 2. SUBKINGDOM 3. SUBKINGDOM 4. +} Divided into Classes, Orders, Families, &0. SUBKINGDOM 5. | SUBKINGDOM 6. J
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
. INTRODUCTION. 13
Particular names, which are, usually, descriptive of some pecu- liarity on which the classification is based, have been given to each of the divisions and subdivisions of the Animal Kingdom. Thus, the first subkingdom is called the Vertebrate, as it com- prises all animals which have a vertebral column or backbone; the second subkingdom is termed the Articulate, since it con- tains those having a jointed body and limbs. The names and a general description of the six subkingdoms are given in the following table:
7 e : é ‘ 1st Sub- - Examples: A brain, @ spinal marrow, ganglions, ete. ; an inter- kingdom, { Mammals,
nal jointed skeleton; red blood; heart; five + Verte- Birds,
brate Reptiles, senses, Animals. Fishes.
f Animals | Sanglions and (
NERVOUS GANGLIONS UNITED ON with a nerves only ; A MIDDLE LINE IN A SORT OF | 2dSub- - Examples: ervous no internal LONGITUDINAL CHAIN, BODY kingdom, Insects, nee ; DIVIDED INTO RINGS WITH AN Articu- Lobsters, system skeleton ; EXTERNAL SKELETON FORMED late Worms, 5 blood usually BY THE SKIN, MORE OR LESS | Animals. etc. composed J => bas HARDENED. white ; S of a heart : NERVOUS GANGLIONS PLACED IN ] 3dSub- ( Examples: a i DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY, | kingdom, Cuttle- S Senses More or AND BODY SOFT WiTHoUT EX- 4 Mollus- fishes, = i - TERNAL SKELETON, BUT USUAL- can Clams, = less incom: 0 << plete LY PROTECTED BY A SHELL. Animals, ‘ Snails, ete. 4th Sub- > Examples = 4 kingdom, See Echino- UTCRINS, = DISTINCT FROM BODY-CAVITY. dermas Star- => | Animals of a radiated tous Jishes, < * Ali Animals. ete. structure. imen- th Suv. B2amles uu tary Canal earn Telly- x= kingdom, fishes, | Nor DISTINCT FROM BODY-CAVITY. Celen- Polyps, terous Hydras Animals. Ss a ges ’ ete. 6th Sub- ‘ ‘ . kingdom, | 2xamples: Animals very minute, of simple structure. Proto. | ( Zufusoria, zoans. Rhiz- " pods, etc.
* The Echinoderms and the Celenterates were formerly assigned to a single Subkingdom—Raprarus—and are often called by that name,
HINTS FOR PREPARING
LIGAMENTAL SKELETONS OF THE VERTEBRATES,
First remove all the muscle that can be conveniently taken oft with knife and scissors, but leave the ligaments around the joints. The specimen should next be macerated (soaked) in soft water, with the addition of a little soda or potash, changing the water daily for a week, and- then leaving it till the remaining muscle can be scraped off with the finger-nail or a tooth-brush, and the rotted brain be rinsed out with water. At this stage, while the skeleton is held beneath the surface of clean water, all fibres may be snipped off with scissors without injuring the ligaments, and the bones thoroughly cleaned without scraping them with any hard instrument. Next run a wire down the spinal cavity and bend tbe backbone into any desired posi- tion. Finally, hang up the skeleton by threads till dry.
Any animal larger than a fox should be cleaned, in the manner already described, of everything, even to the ligaments, and the bones wired together. Small skeletons of the size of u rat can be made ready for maceration and then put into a perforated box and placed in an ant-hill. These insects will quickly remove all the flesh, and the skeleton should be taken away as soon as they begin to attack the ligaments. Following these general directions, a little experience and a great deal of patience and perseverance will ensure success.
The y tiebrates,
SRI
MAN—the lord of the Animal Kingdom—is constructed after the same type as the cat which purrs at his feet, the ox which he eats, the horse which bears his burden, the bird which sings in his gilded cage, the snake which crawls hissing across his pathway, the toad which hides in his garden, and the fish which swims in his aquarium. All are modifications of one creative thought, showing how the Almighty Worker delights in repeating the same chord, with infinite variations.
( 1. Mammals. 2. Birds. VERTEBRATES. ; 3. Reptiles. 4, Amphibians.
5, Fishes.
I. SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 2.
tached. *
General Characteristics.—The Ver- tebrates are usually distinguished by a chain of small bones (vertebra) to which the other parts of the skeleton are at- Certain modifications in the structure of these animals separate them into Classes, according to the following
table: SUBEINGDOM. CLASSHS. me SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG ; LUNGS ; ( Viviparous RESPIRATION SIMPLE; BLOOD (producing WARM ; CIRCULATION DOUBLE + Mammalia, Ec [ AND COMPLETE; HEART FOUR- OHAMBERED. Respiration double ; [ blood warm ; circulation double Aves al and complete ; Qirds). <= heart e four-chambered. <= RESPIRATION ‘s ac f AERIAL ; J Respiration simple ; [an WITH LUNGS. blood cold ; circulation * tu incomplete ; ms a heart mostly three- $ Reptilia, clég chambered ; lu & skull one occipital i) condyle = 2 \ (see Glossary). 3 gs RESPIRATION ( Respiration simple , 0 AQUATIO WHEN when mature ; 3 blood cold ; 2 taped circulation incom- Ss WHEN MATURE, plete ; | Amphibia. = ee heart three- ( (e) LUNGS AND GILLS chambered ; BQUATG AND. skull two occipital ABRIALS L condyles, RESPIRATION Blood cold ; . AQUATIC, WITH heart mostly Pel Vertebral Column. L GILLS. two-chambered.
* For a description of the vertebral column, and the advantages of its peculiar form, see ‘Fourteen Weeks in Physiology,” page 27, et seg.
16 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
CLASS I. MAMMALIA.
General Characteristics.—To the class of Mammals belong man and those animals which resemble him in the most important parts of their organization. The distinguish- ing features are that they suckle their young, and that their bodies have, in general, a full or partial covering of hair. Some being designed for a life purely terrestrial, others mainly aérial or aquatic, they exhibit great variety of struc- ture, as will appear in the following tabulation for Orders:
O1 ASS. ORDERS EXAMPLES. ¢ WITH ¢ ERECT, TWO-HANDED.......... Bimana............. Man, HANDS. § NON-ERECT, FOUR-HANDED....Quadrumana.. . Monkey. TEETH COMPLETE...................- Carnivora...... «+. Cat, etc. FOUR FEET HOOFED.... ...Ungulata...... ... Horse, ete.
FEET PARTLY HOOFED. .. Hyracoidea......... Daman. PROBOSOIS.........-:.. ccc ceee eens .-Proboscid 7 WHALE-LIKE, HERBIVOROUS....... MAMMALIA. : FISH-LIKE, CARNIVOROUS ........ a HAND-WINGED ........... 0.020 eeeeees Cheiroptera......... Bat. CONICAL TEETH.... ...Insectivora . GNAWING TEETH... -. Rodentia. .
TOOTHLESS.. Edentata. . Sloth, ete. POUCHED. Marsupialia. Opossum, ete. \ BIRD-LIKE... Monotremata Duckbill.
ORDER BIMANA.,
This order comprises only one family, and embraces a single genus and species; thus,
ORDER. FAMILY. GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLE,
BIMANA. HOMINID As.* Homo sapiens, Man.
General Characteristics.—Marked physical peculiar- ities distinguish man from the other mammals. Thus, the position of the spinal opening in the middle third of the base of the skull, thereby balancing the head and admitting an upright posture ; the double curve of the vertebral column ; the length of the thumb, extending to the middle of the index finger, and the ability of opposing the thumb to the
* By general consent of zoologists, the names of all Families terminate in ide.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER BIMANA., 1?
fingers ; the power of placing the foot at right angles with the leg, the sole resting flat on the ground; the size and position of the great toe; the length of the arms, reaching half-way from the hip to the knees; the relatively great development of brain; the freedom of the anterior extremities from use in locomotion, and the consequent erect and biped position. In addition, man is the only mammal that truly walks; that is endowed with the power of speech; and that is cosmopolitan, © readily adapting himseif to extremes of heat and cold, and making his home in all parts of the globe. (See Fig. 5.) There are intellectual and moral features, more- over, which place man high above all other ani- mals. The scope of his mind and the possibilities of an immortal soul, mark the rank of a being who is alone declared to have been created “in the image of God.” Common Origin of Man.—While in the human race there is but a single species, zoologists are accustomed to speak of several very distinctly-marked varieties. In respect to the dividing lines of the commonly-enumerated five races, authors disagree. So that, although there are some differ- ences of structure and great diversity in the texture of the skin and the character of the hair of mankind in various localities, yet in the same nation there are similar varieties; and as marked diversities have repeatedly been observed in a
Apouio Belvedere.
18 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
single species of the domestic animals. We therefore agree with Dr. Prichard “that no other differences occur than may fairly be attributed to the differences of external cir- cumstances; and hence it may safely be concluded that the different races are all members of the same family, and the offspring of one common stock.”
Dental Formula.—As the teeth present important char- acteristics for classifying the mammals, zoologists designate the number by a formula which, as applied to man, reads
.2—2 — —2 38—8 : thus: i555, oS. pm >, moa = 32. This signifies that there are eight incisors, two on each side of each jaw ; four canine teeth back of the incisors; eight pre- molars (bicuspids) back of the canine; and twelve molars back of the premolars.
,
ORDER QUADRUMANA.
General Characteristics——The peculiar feature of Monkeys is the power of opposing the great toe to the other toes, making the hind feet be- come hands end the animal quadrumanous or four-handed. They are further distinguished from man by the spinal open- ing in the cranium being in the posterior third of the base ; by the‘single curve of the ver- tebral column; the shortness of the thumb, which does not
eer eer reach the base of the index
b, Human hand and foot. finger 3 the long and narrow
pelvis; the impossibility of
placing the foot at right angles with the leg, the sole resting
on the ground ; the relative length of the arms, which reach
at least to the knee, and in some species to the ankle; the greater prominence of the canine teeth, etc.
Fig. h.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. 19
Skeletons of Orang, Chimpanzee, and Man.
The order is divided into families as follows:
ORDER. FAMILIES. EXAMPLES. ¢ HEAD OBLONG; DENTAL FORMULA AS IN Monkeys MAN; NOSTRILS CATARHINE (oblique) ; Simiide, of the
NAILS FLAT ON ALL THE FINGERS. Old World.
HEAD ROUND;
2-2 1-1 38-3 3-3 _ ; Monkeys
Glo Haq alee Ge 8 OM 5
2-2 1-1 38-5: 3-3 Cebide. of the SQUADRU MANA. NOSTRILS PLATYRHINE (wide apart) ; NAILS New World.
SOMEWHAT COMPRESSED.
HEAD POINTED; DENTITION ASIN CEBIDZ ; NOSTRILS STREPSORHINE (twisted; NAILS Monkeys FLAT EXCEPT A LONG CURVED CLAW on } Lemuride. THE FIRST FINGER, SOMETIMES THE FIRST
‘ TWO FINGERS OF THE HIND FEET.
Simiide.—The Cafarhine Monkeys, with the exception of a single species found upon the Rock of Gibraltar, belong to Asia and Africa. This family comprises animals which
20 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
greatly vary in their organization and lead down by degrees from man to the common animals, as is shown in the follow-
ing table:
WITHOUT POSTERIOR CALLOSITIES.*
Without tails
ANTHROPOID APES,
WITH POSTERIOR CALLOSITIES.
MUZZLE ROUNDED, WITHOUT
CHEEK-POUCHES.t With tails MuzzLt MORE OR LESS PROJECTING, WITH CHEEK-POUCHES.
MONKEYS PROPER,
SIMIIDA, or CATARHINE MONKEYS.
GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLES. Troglodytes niger, Chimpanzee. (Black cave-dweller.) Troglodytes _ gorilla, Gorilla. Simia satyrus, Orang -outang.
(Snub-nosed satyr.)
Hylobates
agilis, Agile Gibbon.
(Agile wood-walker.)
Hylobates
syndactylus, Siamang.
(Yoke-fingered.)
Semnopithecus entellus, Sacred Monkey. (Revered ape.)
Semnopithecus nasica, Proboscis Monkey.
Colobus polycomus, Colobe. (Mutilated.)
Cercopithecus mona, Guenon. (Tailed ape.)
Cynocephalus mormon, Mandrill, (Dog-headed.)
Troglodytes niger, Chimpanzee.
Anthropoid Apes.—The Chim- panzee bears the greatest resemblance to man, though infe- rior in stature and strength. Like the Gorilla, it has its home in the dense forests of Western Africa. Both have been represented as dwelling in huts built in trees and snatching up the un- wary traveler who
* The posterior callosities are hardened protuberances, to obviate friction when
the animal takes a sitting posture.
+ The cheeks of some monkeys are capable of being greatly expanded, so as to form a sort of temporary larder in which the monkey lays by its food or carries it off.-
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA.
Troglodiytes gorilla, Gorilla. yy
22 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
passes beneath; whereas they generally remain upon the ground, eat fruits and vegetables, and merely bend down branches for a seat and, perhaps, for concealment.
The Orang differs more widely from man, and is adapted to an arboreal life. It inhabits Southern Asia. In the wild state it is frugivorous (fruit-feeding), not even eating eggs, though the teeth are adapted to either vegetable or animal food. Matured orangs of the same species and sex vary in height from five to over seven feet.
The Gibbon is distinguished by the length of its arms and the slenderness of its form. With a height of three feet, the reach of the extended arms is six feet, enabling it to swing through the air among branches twenty feet apart.*
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
Hylobates agilis, Gibbon. Hylobdtes syndactylus, Sitimang.
The Siamang derives its specific name from the adhesion of the first and second fingers as far as the joint which bears the nail. The posterior callosities of this genus link it to the
* When the Ateles wish to cross a river, the strongest ascenda high tree over« ooking the stream. The leader hooking his tail firmly to a limb’ drops downward, while the next attaches himself to his predecessor, and so on, forming at last a jong chain of monkeys. This swings to and fro until the end monkey grasps a limb upon the opposite bank. Along this living suspension bridge the troop pass over, a mise , chievous monkey occasionally playing off a practical joke on some member as he hurries forward. To get the bridge across, the first monkey lets go and the chain swings over, perhaps ducking one or two, when all unfasten and catching at the branches, descend to the ground. (See page 25, Fig. 16.)
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. 23
monkeys* proper, which have tails and cheek pouches, or some equivalent modification of the digestive organs.
Fig. 10.
v
Semnopithécus entellus, Sacred Monkey.
1 To"
Fig. 12.
AS Semnopithecus nasica, Stomach of a Semnopithécus. Proboscis Monkey. 34..
i Y i se Simiide having tails, which serve * The term Monkey is properly applied to those Simiidee | ails, W like a balancing-pole to the rope-dancer or as & rudder to guide the animal in its leaps
through the air. 2
24 * SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Monkeys Proper.—The Semnopithecus lacks the cheek- pouches, but is compensated by a stomach with distinct sacs. The Sacred Monkey receives divine honors from the natives of India, who believe it a metamorphosed prince, and punish its slaughter by death, although a trifling fine com- pounds for the murder of a man.* It is permitted to ravage their gardens at will.
The Proboscis Monkey of Borneo has a flabby nose, six inches long and capable of enormous inflation.
The Colobe (mutilated) is named trom its lacking a thumb on the anterior extremity. The long white hair of its head falls over the back like a cloak.
The Guenon approaches the ape in the shortness of its muzzle. With bushy whiskers and varied colors, it is the fop of the monkeys. Its cheek- pouches will contain two days food. Driven by famine, it descends into the fields and commits great havoc. Docile in nature, it is easily tamed, but is an arrant thief, and while gravely receiv- ing caresses will pick the pocket of its confiding
Cercopithtcus mona, Guenon. ;. admirer. +
Fig. 13.
“Tt may have become interwoven so remarkably with the superstition of the Hindoos on account of being an expert serpent-killer.
+ The last two genera, with others, include a great number of species which inhabit Africa—the headquarters of the monkey tribe. It is believed that each is restricted to a small territory and jealously guards any intrusion,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. 25
The Baboon, with its dog-like muzzle, is the ugliest and most ferocious of the mon- keys. It dwells among craggy rocks, which it climbs with great agility. Its food con- sists of bulbous roots, eggs, insects,* etc. In this tribe the Mandriil is conspicuous for its variety of color — its nose being red, with a bright scarlet tip; its cheeks, a brilliant blue; its beard, citron-yellow; its hind-parts violet; and its body a grayish brown, tinged above with olive.
Cebida.—The Platy- rhine monkeys are found in great numbers climbing among the trees in the forests of South America. Having no callosities, cheek pouches, or opposable thumbs, they are classified according to the differences in the tails:
Fig. 16,
Cynocephdlus mormon, Mandrill, 35.
FAMILY. GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLES. TAILS PREHENSILE, Ateles pentadactylus, Spider Monkey. CEBI DA, 1 (able to grasp). Mycetes ursinus, Bear Howler or Platyrhine Tarn a SREB STEaS § Brachyurus cacajao, Saki. Monkeys. SABO Hapale jacchus, Marmoset.
Fig. 16. The Atéles, or four-
fingered monkey, has no thumb on the an- terior extremity. On account of the length, flexibility, and slender- ness of its limbs, it is termed the Spider Mon- key. The tail is prehen-
* Tt devours scorpions with great dexterity, whipping off their stings so quickly as to give them no chance to strike it.
2
4
ENG
NOS, SE Mycéles urstnus, Bear Howler.
SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
_o
Fig. 18.
sile, and the end being bare and sensitive, can be used as a fifth hand to pick up small ob- jects or to insert into the hollows of trees to hook out eggs. The Bear Howler has the power of dilating the larynx so as to render the voice louder than the roar of a lion, hay- ing been heard two miles off. The Saki is a striking example of the non-prehensiles, as its tail is short and ‘so covered with hair as to look in some species like a mere knob.
Fig. 19.
OLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. a”
The Marmoset,* by its sharp, crooked claws, and the short thumb on its hind feet, stands at the extreme of the monkey tribe in America. Its food is not grasped by the fingers, but held between the forepaws. Several species have tufts of hair projecting from the sides of the head.
Lemuride.— The Lemurs + have opposable thumbs like the Simiida, and their dentition is the same as the Cebide; while, unlike both, they have a long, curved claw on the first, sometimes on the first two fingers of the hind feet. The true Lemurs are found only in the forests of Mada- gascar. The presence or ab- sence of tails furnishes a
Fig. 20.
basis of tabulation. Hand and foot of Lemur. FAMILY. GENUS. SPECIES. | EXAMPLES. patie a TAILS. § oe ores on LE. {cheromy Tmndagascesiensn ye dye Monkeys. TAILLESS, OR RUDIMENTARY. ee aaa Pale a
Fig. 21.
The Ruled Lemur is the largest and hand- somest of this family. Wrapped up in its long, bushy tail, it passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth at night to search for food. The
Lemur macaco, Ruffled Lemur.
* This little creature is only six or eight inches in length, and a century ago was held in great estimation as a pet by ladies of quality. So great is its fondness for insects, that it has been known to tear out the pictures from an Entomology and greedily swallow the printed scraps |—( Wood.)
+ Lemur means spectre, and is descriptive of the nocturnal habits and stealthy step of the animal. In fact, it is known among sailors as the ‘‘ Madagascar Cat.”
28 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Aye Aye has some resemblance to a squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies it to the Lemur.* The middle
Fig. 22. Fig. 23.
Cheirimys madagascariensis, Aye Aye. Hand ns Dicih. dog.
finger of its fore leg, long, slender and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes in the ground or in trees,
Fig. 2h. The Bush-dog is marked by the absence of the first finger of the hand. The Grace- ful Loris inhabits Ceylon, Java, etc. Prowling through the darkness, it is almost invisible, save for its round, shiny eyes. Espying a sleeping bird among the branches, it creeps toward it with noiseless, imperceptible movements, until it can place its fingers over its prey, when it seizes it with a spring sudden as a flash.
\ Tort grace. Graceful Tots
ORDER CARNIVORA.
General Characteristics.—This order includes the flesh- eating animals. Strong, agile, and with senses highly devel-
* Tt is an illustration of what is known as acomprehensive type, since it possesses peculiarities which link it to different orders—the Quadrumana and the Rodents.
CLASS MAMMALS:
oped, they are organ- ized for slaughter. Among their ana- tomical peculiarities are: (1), their denti- tion, marked by long, sharp canine teeth, and a molar on each
side, above and below, #
larger and sharper than the others, known as the “car- niyorous tooth,” and used for crushing bones; and (2), their feet, which are pro- vided with toes and often armed with claws. The differ- ence in these physi- cal features affords the basis of a classifi- cation.
( b toma?
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144 | oe aaa Vtyb ipl oo co [oo ® !eo 29 co bt [29 nO loo {iyi oo me ]29 29
|
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Diet |
eee liones tore 20 0
Lott aetl Laseti eel Lee aod Loni sed Ueto d elle seals ro 29 0
| weslows
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ry
wre
CARNIVORA. jarla ala ala DIR | Blo ala alo
HR It Bele ros | ~ or 39 [29 2 {oi ane
yore Ae | "
na
| to
14 rmdi- 5-5
2 mentary 5 —§ , indefinite 5
a 8 [> = 2
olw hla x U
° i °
5
yi
Z , Hyp Y
a : Skeleton of a Lion,
claws retractile, claws semi-retractile, claws non-retractile, claws non-retractile, claws non-retractile, claws non-retractile, claws non-retractile,
claws non-retractile,
claws on posterior feet only,
claws on all the feet,
claws on posterior feet only,
ORDER CARNIVORA.
Skull of a Carnivorous Animal.
29
Fig. 26.
Mitty Wty
FAMILY. EXAMPLES Felide, Lion, etc, Viverride, Civet. Hyenide, Hyena. Canide, Dog, ete. Mustelide, Weasel, etc. Urside, Bear. Procyonide, Raccoon. Bassaride, Civet Cat. Otariide, Eared Seal Phocide, Seal. Rosmaride, Walrus.
30 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Felidz.—The Cats form the typical family of this order. They are all digitigrade (toe-walkers). Lest their claws should be blunted by coming in contact with the ground or impede their progress by getting entangled in the grass, they are retracttle, i. e., the upper tendons of the foot hold them back without any exertion of the will. Resting upon its soft, padded feet, and with its claws sheathed, the animal steals noiselessly toward its prey. As the fatal spring is made, the lower muscles suddenly contract, and, drawing the claws forward, bury their sharp points in the victim’s
Fig. 27.
1. Claw Sheathed. Tongue of a Carnivorous Animal 2. Claw Extended. Highly Magnified.
flesh. The tongue is covered with innumerable little hooks, pointing backward. These are for rasping the bones which it gnaws for food, and beautifully illustrate the economy of Nature, which allows no waste. The whiskers on the upper lip are of great service to the animal while skulking about in the darkness, seeking its food. They equal the body in width, and by indicating the breadth of any opening, warn it from attempting too close a bush, and thus causing a rustle which might alarm its prey.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 31
‘Fig. 29.
Tongue of a Carnivorous Animal.
The family is classified into genera according to
their mode of life: y) YY FAMILY GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLE. Felis leo,* Lion. Terrestrial. \ ‘* tigris, Piger. ‘concolor, Puma. ‘ leopardus, Leopard. FELIDA. Terrestrial and arboreal. 4 “ — onga, Dae. “domestica, Domestic Cot. Résorast { Lynx canadensis, Common Lyna. . «rufus, Wild Cat.
The Zion is known as the “King of Beasts,’ more from his majestic appearance than any nohleness of disposition.+ The tail is tufted, while the neck of the male is ornamented with a flowing mane that in some varieties reaches nearly to the ground.{ His tawny, uniform color, closely correspond-
* Zoologists have described different species of the lion, but they are now con- sidered only geographical varieties distributed over Africa and southern Asia.
+ Livingstone and Gérard pronounce him cruel and cowardly. He secures his prey by lying in ambush till it comes within reach of his terrible bound, and if the first spring fails, like the tiger, he sneaks back to his covert ashamed and disap- pointed. In fact his speed is too slow to permit his overtaking his game.
t It is asserted by some travelers that the roar of the lion is terrific beyond description, while others declare it to resemble the discordant cries of the ostrich. Probably the degree of fear aroused colors the narration. Since the lion’s larynx is relatively larger than that of any other mammal, there may be no exaggeration in the statement that its roar sometimes shakes the ground like an earthquake, and carries dread to every animal within hearing.
32 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ing to that of the desert tracts in which he lives, aids his concealment in stealing upon his prey. The pupil of his eye is round, giving as extensive horizontal vision as vertical;
Fig. 30.
Felis leo, Lion. 35.
and his strength is such that he can carry off a cow with ease, even leaping broad dikes and keeping ahead of pursuing horsemen for miles without dropping it. He naturally feeds
Tuft of Lion's Tail, showing hook.
at night, so that his apparent magnanimity in sometimes sparing man and beast during the day is only because he is already satiated with food. Like other animals, he has no desire to kill merely for the sake of killing.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 33
Felis tigris, Tiger. ”.
The Tiger, being destitute of a mane and tail-tuft, lacks the noble bearing of the lion, but is beautifully decorated with black stripes upon a ground of reddish-yellow fur, tend- ing to white beneath. Its ferocity, especially that of the dreaded “ man-eater,” is fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off a buffalo thrown over its shoulder. Inhabiting Southern Asia, its home is in the long jungle-grass, with the coloring of which its stripes so exactly assimilate that it is impossible for unpracticed eyes to discern it at even a short distance. This adapta- tion of the color of an animal to that of sur- rounding objects in its native wilds is termed mimicry, and is one of the most wonderful provisions of Nature.
The Puma* inhabits North and South Amer- ica. Its uniform dun Y color gives 2 mimicry Felis concdlor, Puma.
Fig. 33.
* In different parts of the continent the puma is styled the ‘ painter,” the ‘ pan- ther,” the “cougar,” and even the ‘‘catamount,”’ though there is no panther in America, and the true catamount is the wild cat of Europe.
34 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
for its protection while crouching upon the branches of trees. Having a black tail-tuft and a sameness of color, it has been called the “American Lion,” though none of its habits Fig, 8h. resembles those of its African namesake.
The Leopard, now con- sidered identical with the panther, inhabits Africa, India, and the adjacent islands. Smaller than the Tiger, it is as beautiful and its mimicry as strik- ing—its skin being mark- ed with circles of dark spots instead of stripes, Fig. 35. corresponding to the leaves of the tree among which it conceals itself.
The Jaguar, inhabiting the warmer parts of Amer- ica, is the analogue (see Glossary) of the Leopard, though more powerful, i being able to carry off a horse with ease. The Felis onea, Jaguar. 4. circles upon its sides have
a black spot in the cen- tre, well calculated to deceive the eye as the animal glides through the dense foliage of the tropical forests in pur- suit of monkeys, swims in the lagoons for tur- tles, or prowls around the herds of cattle for Felis domestica. Cat. larger prey.
Felis leopardus, Leopard. 75.
Fig. 86.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 35
Domestic Cat—No wild animal is known that can be the original of the do- mestic cat, though iil there are several which bear some resemblance to it. There is a marked difference in the tail of the wild and the domestic species. Still greater varia- tions, however, are found in dogs of the : ee a same race. :
The Zynz is anatomically distinguished by having two less molars in the upper jaw. Only two species are found in North America—the Canada Lynz and the Wild Cat. The former has its ears tipped with pencil-like tufts of black hair, while its prevailing color is gray with a wash of black. It
* Probably, animals designed by the Creator for domestication, have inherent ‘endencies to variation in form and color, according to climatic and alimentary infinences, so that individuals may be more readily recognized. See note p. 39,
36 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
lives upon birds and small mammals, pursuing them among the branches of the trees as well as upon the ground. Its gait is by bounds with all four feet at once, the back being arched. The Wild Cat may be recog- nized by its lacking long ear-tufts, and by having the inside of the legs ES banded or spotted. Lyne rufus, Wild Cat. go Viverridze.—The Civet Fig. 40. is the type of this numer- ous and varied family. The true civet has semi- retractile claws. It isalso characterized by a double pouch, secreting a fatty substance used as a per- fume; and by the pupil of the eyes being circular during the day instead of vertical, as in the Cats. Fig. 41. The Genet has retrac- : tile claws. It wages war on rats and mice,* and in many parts of the east is domesticat- ed. The Jehneumon is semi-plantigrade, and has the pupils elongat- ed transversely. It preys on the eggs and young of the crocodile and various reptiles.
Fig. 39.
oa Viverra civetta, Civet. 75.
* The ancient Egyptians gave it free access to their houses and paid it divine honors. It is sometimes called ‘‘ Pharaoh's Rat.”
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 37
Fig. 42.
Viverra ichneumon, Ichneumon. ;4. Hyena vulgaris, Hyena. 3.
Hyenidez.—The Hyenas are peculiar to the warmer regions of the Old World. The enormous strength of their jaws and the size of their blunt molar teeth, enable them to crush the largest bones, which they swallow without masti- cation. In adult animals, the vertebre of the neck often grow together, enabling them to endure a violent strain. The toes are four, with blunt, non-retractile claws. The bending of the hind legs makes them seem shorter than the fore legs and gives an awkward shuffle to the pace. The hyena is the true scavenger among the mammals, removing offal which would endanger the health of man.*
Canidee.—The Dogs have the muzzle more elongated, and hence the jaws weaker than the previous Families. The teeth are blunter, and the toes, five in front and four behind, are armed with non-retractile claws adapted to burrowing in the ground. The dog never perspires, even in the hottest weather. It drinks by lapping,} and ‘so avoids the danger of swallowing large quantities of cold water when the body is overheated. ‘The shape of the pupil affords a basis for tabulating:
Canis lupus, Wolf. Pupil round. Canis familiaris, Dog.
CANIDA, P Canis aureus, Jackal. Pupil vertical. Vulpes vulgaris, Fox.
* Its work is most useful, as it consumes even the skeletons of the decaying carcasses on which it feeds. In performing this mission, its occasional attacks upon graveyards have, however, given it an unenviable reputation.
t In lapping, Felide turn the tip of the tongue backward, and Oanide forward.
38 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The Wolf, of which there is now considered to be but one species in North America, is the best representative of the Family. It generally hunts in packs. Unless impelled by
Hig. hh.
a
Canis lupus, Wolf. 3.
hunger,* they seldom attack prey larger than themselves, and they are so wary of traps that a traveler, when pursued, has frightened them away by merely trailing a cord. ‘Their bite, unlike that of any other animal, is a succes- sion of quick, violent snaps.
The Dog—Of all the conquests achieved by man over animuls, that of the dog is the most complete, and. perhaps, the most useful. Not only is he the sole mammal that has fol-
Fig. 4b
Canis familidris, Mastiff.
* Such is then their rapacity that they will make a meal of a harness or even of old shoes that may be within their reach.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 39
lowed man to the ends of the earth, but more than any other is he capable of education and disinterested affection. His habit of repeatedly turning round before lying down is regarded as a singular retention of his mode in the wild state* of making a lair in the tall grass. The dog attains maturity in two years, and lives from fifteen to twenty.
The Jackal derives its specific name from the golden tint ofitsskin. Like the wolf, it hunts in bands; but it associates more intimately with man, acting the scav- enger in consuming the street offal in the filthy @ towns of the East.t+
The For is mostly noc- turnal, springing upon its prey as it passes by, or = stealing upon it while asleep. Its dentition is SEs Repatie BCU. ae calculated for a mixed diet, so that mammals, birds, mol- luses, and even grapes, furnish a dainty meal. Its character- istic is craftiness.t Its maternal instinct is also highly developed, and it will peril its life to save its young.
Fig. 16.
* The canine race, like the human, inherently adapted to variation and develop- ment, through the influence of climate and condition, presents innumerable varieties ; though all are considered by most naturalists as having a common origin and to be regarded of one species. Mauy have supposed the wolf to be the progenitor of the dog. But, while the osteological structure of the two is identical, the total want of similarity in disposition, especially in affection for man, their hostility to each other, and their permanent physical differences—as the obliquity of the wolf's eye, and its drooping tail—oppose this theory. Besides, it is as reasonable to presume that the wolf descended from the dog, as the dog from the wolf. But no wild dogs— as, for instance, those of the Antilles, known to have sprung from domestic varieties —have ever approximated the characteristics of wolves. Hence, with Prichard, we conclude, ‘“‘ As with the race of man.so with the race of dogs, the varieties have become permanent from one original pair.” It is, however, a mooted question.
+ In uninhabited regions, it often feeds upon the remnants of carcasses left by lions, and hence the absurd idea that it is the eompaut of that beast, and runs down his prey for him.
+ A hunted fox will run a long way in a straight alae. then doubling on its track, suddenly spring cff to a great distance one side and quietly steal away, while the hounds are eagerly following up the scent; it will leap from tree to tree, and hide in some convenient hollow; it will perfume itself with any odorous substance it may
40 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Different species abound in all parts of the world.*.
ee Vale vulgaris, Fox. 34. Mustelide.—The [easels are greatly diversified in size, habits, color, etc. All have fine fur, short legs, and slim, flexible bodies, which enable them by gliding movements to pursue their prey through small openings. Nearly all have glands secreting a disagreeable odor. Differences in denti- tion and manner of walking afford a means of tabulation:
as Mustela pennantii. Fish
Terri =38. a pe i ‘isher.
‘ DIGITIGRADE. | noe te americana, Sable.
td ; Terta= "4. Putorins ermineus, Weasel. oO | Terrestrial. “— Jutreolus, Mink.
a SEMI Tertu = 3{.~ Mephitis mephitica, Skunk.
o DIGITIGRADE. Taxidea americana, Badger. wn l TEETH =38. Gulo, luscus, Wolverine. = Aquatic. TeetH =36. Lutra canadensis, _—Otter.
The Fisher and the Sadle are the representatives of the Genus Mustela in North America. The former is the largest
meet, in order to deceive the dogs; it will run at full jump to the crest of a hill, then quickly lie down, while the headlong speed of its pursuers carries them pell-mell to the bottom; and even if caught it will feign death, permitting itself to be handled, kicked about, and carried away, without showing any sign of life until a chance of escape offers. when it will suddenly dash off to the intense surprise of those whom it has so cleverly duped. * So varied, however, are their individual markings according to age and locality,
that naturalists disagree as to the number of species in North America, or whether there is more than one genus.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. Al
of the known species. Its long head and bushy tail, resem- bling those of the Fox, mark the transition from the Canidae to the Mustelide. The Sable is arboreal, climbing with ease to the highest branches in pursuit of birds and eggs. Its fur will lie smoothly in any direction.
The Weasel, at the north, during. summer, is reddish-brown above and white beneath. It changes from _ brown to white in October and November, and back again in
Fig. 8.
1 To
% A Ss Ta Musttla americdna, Marten or Sable.
March, except the extremity of the tail, which is always black. At the south, the same species does not vary its fur.
42 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Unger Os Putorius erminéus, Weasel in winter. }.
These alterations are effected, not by shedding the coat, but by changes in the color of the hair. Weasels destroy mice, and hence are beneficial to farmers.*
Putortus ermin€us, Weasel in summer, }.
* Their carnivorous propensities are, however, not unfrequently displayed in the hen-roost. An ermine has been known to kill forty full-grown fowls in a single
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 43
The Mink is brown, with a white spot under thechin. It is semi-digitigrade and semi-palmate (webbed), being thus fitted for hunting in the streams for fish, frogs, etc.
The Skunk is striped with black and white; but individuals of the same species differ in their markings. It emits in self-defence an intoler- able odor, that no other animal can endure. The fore feet are adapted to digging holes, in which it hibernates without becoming torpid —entering its retreat in the fall, fat, and coming out in the spring, lean.
The Badger, inhabit- ing the northern part of the continent, has long silky hair and short tail. Its stout claws are well ss SS adapted for burrowing. Mephitis mephitiea, Skunk. }. Though 80 peaceable as to resign its nest without a struggle to those much weaker than itself, it can bite more fiercely than any animal of its size. Its skin is so loose and thick, that while the teeth of its assailants can make little impression upon it, the badger can turn itself round in it, so as to bite them in their tenderest parts. It feeds upon small animals, whieh it
Fig. 62.
night, as it devours the brain and sucks the blood, but never eats the flesh of an animal. Its mode of attack is to pounce upon its prey transversely, and piercing the brain at a single bite, to throw itself lengthwise upon the body, to which it clings until the death of its victim. Its ability to bend the head at right angles with the neck facilitates this mode of attack.—Ermine skins have long been used in England to decorate the robes of judicial officers, and hence their association with ideas of moral purity—The expression “catch a weasel asleep” is based upon the ease with which the animal may be caught when sleeping, on account of the soundness of its slumbers.
44 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
digs out of their burrows, leaving dangerous trap-holes for the unwary traveler.
Fig. 54.
“= 4 Ny
a
\. ties, 7
ea re ‘axidéa americdna, Badger. y's.
The Wolverine inhabits the northern parts of Europe and America. Extravagant stories are told by trappers of its strength and ferocity,* whereas it is harmless to man, and
Fig. 66. only annoying by de-
vouring animals caught
in traps, and by destroy-
Lp , ing the hunter’s hoards.
Z With a sagacity rarely
permitting it to be en-
snared, it skillfully tears
: the trap to pieces, and — carries off the bait.
The iver Otter has
but one species in North America, though it ranges from
Hudson’s Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Its webbed feet exhibit
Gulo luscus, Wolverine or “ Glutton.” yy.
* Thus we are gravely informed chat the Wolverine will drop from a tree upon the back of an animal passing underneath, and, clinging to its neck with long tren- chant claws, tear open the blood-vessels until the poor victim falls lifeless.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 45
an approach to the amphibious mammals. The peculiar position of its eve enables it, with a slight motion of the head, to see the fish on which it preys. whether swimming above, below, beside, behind, or before. It burrows in the
Fig. 56
banks of streams, forming the entrance under water, and providing numerous cells to occupy. according to the height of the stream. Its pastime of sliding in companies into the water, down a snow-bank in winter and a slippery clay-bank in summer, presents a singular
feature of animal life. Wig. 7:
Urside.—The Bear is a typical ¢ example of a plantigrade (see Glos- i sary). The entire sole of the foot ‘ A applied to the ground: the broad, ee flat crowns of the molars; large, — curved, non-retractile claws; smooth é : tongue: mobile nose; circular pu- pils, and short tail, exhibit such variations from the strictly carniv- orous animals as betoken different - Std view of Bear's upper jaw.
is = - bd. Top view of Bear's lower jaw. habits of life. Bearsare carnivorous ¢. side view of jaws shut.
46 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
SO
A a
only from necessity, their preference being for roots, nuts, honey, and even insects. The single American genus is thus tabulated :
Terrestrial only. t SOLES OF THE? Ursus horribilis, @rizedly Bear. if FEET N. 2 i i Black Bear. URSIDA. ¢ Terrestrial and arboreal. } “*#™ XAKED are ere
ee SoLEs oF THE Maritime.
FEET covenen ‘“ maritimus, White Bear. WITH BAIR.
The Grizzly Bear, so called because of the intermixture in its fur of grayish hairs with black and brown, is the most ferocious of the North American carnivora. Its sharp, powerful claws, often five inches long, move independently of one another, and, when the animal strikes with its paws, cut like so many chisels. Its strength enables it to carry off a bison, and dig # pit in which to bury it.*
Black Bear.—While the Grizzly Bear is limited to the Rocky Mountain regions, the Black Bear, under a variety of names, is distributed over North America. An _ expert
* Such is the terror inspired by this formidable beast, that no other animal will dare to touch a deer which it has killed and left behind ; the simple print of the bear’s foot frightening away even a hungry wolf. Its tail is very short and entirely hidden beneath its fur, The Indians sometimes amuse themselves with the perplex- ity of persons who are ignorant of this fact, by requesting them to lift the carcass ot a Grizzly which they say is easily done if seized by the tail.—( Wood.)
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 4?
Fig. 59.
Orsus horribilis, Grizzly Bear. 3.
climber, honey is its favorite food; though its powerful claws are adapted to tearing up young shoots and succulent roots. Its mode of attack is to rear upon its back feet, and seizing its victim between its fore legs, either to suffocate it with its embrace, or disembowel it with its hind claws. In the colder
Fig. 60.
Orsus americanus, Black Bear. 3: 3
48 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
latitudes it passes the winter usually in a hollow log, without becoming insensible.
The Polar Bear* is the largest member of this family. It feeds on seals, fish, and walruses, which it pursues in the water, swimming and diving with great skill. To secure firm footing on the ice, the soles
Ursus maritimus. White Bear. yo. of the feet are thickly
covered with long hairs. It passes January and February in a lethargy, buried in the snow or hidden in the ice-rifts.
Procyonidee.—The Raccoon is the only representative of its family in the United States. It derives its specific name from its habit of dipping its food in the water before eating. Though its entire foot is naked, yet in walking it does not, like the bear, bring its whole sole to the ground. Om- nivorous in its food, it is, according to circumstances, a fish- er, a hunter, a trapper, a reaper, or a fly- catcher, having the instinctive cunning of © the fox, the inquisi- tive meddlesomeness of the monkey, the greediness of the bear, and the slyness of the cat.
Fig 61.
Fig. 62.
a Procyon oe Raccoon, or Common ‘‘ Coon.” yy.
* Its sense of smell being exceedingly keen, several are frequently collected about acarcass. This fact has given rise to the idea that the Polar, unlike other Bears, is social in its nature. The ice-fields on which it lives are often detached and float off, carrying it to sea, where it has been descried by sailors a hundred miles from land.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 49
Bassaridze.—The Civet Cat* is raccoon-like in appear- ance and habits, but differs in the length and size of its banded tail, and its more arboreal life. The California miners make it a domestic pet.
Otariide.t — The Eared Seals are prin- cipally found in the Pacific Ocean. The most remarkable spe- cies is the Northern Sea Bear,t so called from the striking resemblance of its head to that of the
Fig. 63.
om
* The true Civets, Viverride, belong to the Old World, while the Civet Cat is found in the New.
+ The three following families are grouped under the general name of Pinnipeds (fin-footed), or Pinnigrades (fin-walkers).
t The Sea Lion (Eumetopias stelléri) is a species of the Eared Seals with habits similar to those of the Sea Bear. Full-grown males are often thirteen feet long and weigh nearly a ton. In the harbor of San Francisco hundreds of these animals are seen, scrambling over the steep rocks, biting and pushing off their comrades, and rolling over one another, keeping up, meanwhile, a peculiar and incessant barking.
Callorhinus ursinus, Sea Bear.
50 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Urside. It is polygamous, families of over a hundred, with one male chief, keeping entirely separate. Each dam, in returning from a fishing excursion, will pass by thousands of others lying along the shore and bleating like sheep, till it comes to its singlecub. The Sea Bear furnishes the choicest seal fur.
Skeleton of Seal.
Phocidze.—The Common Seal abounds upon the Atlantic coast. The different species vary in length from three to twenty feet and present every variety of marking and color.
Fig. 66.
\
Phoea vitulina, Common Seal,
Their eyes are large and full of intelligence,* and the animal is easily tamed.
* Emerging unexpectedly from the depths of the sea, with dripping manes (which some species possess) and uttering a feminine scream, it is not strange that the imagination has mistaken them for human beings and given rise to the legends of
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 51
Fig. 67.
Rosmaridze.—The Walrus, unlike the seal, has neither lower incisors nor canines, while the upper canines project downward, sometimes two feet. By means of these and the vacuum- forming soles of its feet, it often ascends almost perpendicular ice- bergs a hundred feet high. It is omnivorous, feeding on shrimps, small fish, young seals, and marine vegetables, using its tusks for grub- bing up the plants on the sea-bottom. The parental affection of the dams is great, and on the first alarm they ( take their cubs under their fins and — Canine Teeth and Underjaw escape to the water.* of Walrus.
tritons, sirens, sea-nymphs, and mermaids. All the Phocide have the singular habit of swallowing stones, as many as four pounds of sharp pebbles having been found in a single stomach, but no satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has been given.
* The Seal and the Walrus are the subsistence of the inhabitants of the Arctic regions. The flesh furnishes food; the fat, light and fuel; the lining of the intestines, windows for their snow-huts; the skin, clothes, thongs and boats; the tendons supply thread and bow-strings ; and the teeth, hunting implements,
52 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER UNGULATA.
General Characteristics.—The distinguishing feature of this extensive order is that the toe-nails form hoofs. The Families differ in almost every other respect.*
Ruminant Digestion._.The food of Ruminants con- sists of vegetable matter, little nutritious, and hence demanded in large quantities. As they are in turn the food of carniv- orous animals, and their only safety lies in flight, while mastication is a work of time, they fill a large stomach- reservoir by rapid grazing, re-chewing its contents in a place of security. The stomach is divided into four compartments. The food passes without mas- tication into the rumen (p), next into the reticulum (0b), thence back through the cesophagus (0) to the mouth, where it is masticated ; then down the cesophagus a second time into the leaflet (f), and thence into the caillette (c) or truestomach. The mechanism by which the food goes through the same orifice at the bottom of the cesophagus, at one time into the ramen and at another
Stomach of @ Ruminant. into the leaflet, may well create surprise. The cesophagus is
continued below in a tube (¢ a), with a slit on the under side whose lip-like edges shut water-tight, forming a passage from the cesophagus to the leaflet. If, however, the mouth- ful of food swallowed be large and solid, as it is when first eaten, it distends the tube, and, separating the edges of the slit, falls into the first stomach; but if it be soft and pulpy, as it isafter being re-chewed, it does not force apart the edges
* Those having the number of toes even are styled Artiodactyls, and odd, Perisso dactyls, The Artiodactyls that chew the cud are termed Ruminants,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 53
of the slit, and so reaches the third stomach. Here it under- goes further preparation and passes directly into the fourth stomach, where the actual process of digestion is carried on. The mechanism for conveying the unchewed mass in the first stomach back into the mouth also depends upon the lip-like tube. The contraction of the walls of the rumen forces portions of the food into the reticulum; in turn, the contraction of its walls crowds a part against the outside of the lips, which, opening, pinch off a portion, and, compress- ing it into a ball, present it to the cesophagus, the fibres of which, contracting successively from below upward, push it forward into the mouth.
The order can be tabulated into Families by a comparison of their hoofs and horns:
a WITHOUT HORNS ; Camelide, Camel. 3 |e {814 are Persistent ; ¢ By hairy skin. Giraffide, Giraffe. ae s (with { covered, ? By a horny case. Bovide, Ox, ete, +7 z z She Antilocapride, P: he . S EXCEP- i : lid bone. rong: horn, fad 3 fm | TION.) Deerduousss: OF sored one ; Cervide, Deer, etc. Le 22 = Es Hi ide, Hippop Oo POUR TOES; . ww le lt ; Suide, Hog. z Dicotylide, Peccary. > ONETOB; 2. 2. 2 6 Equide, Horse, ete. Perissod mey I; j ER TORS « Rhinocerotide, Rhinoceros. THREE } . * . Tapiride, Tapir. Cametidee.—Camels tg: a0
have two toes, united nearly to the point by the callous sole. The , second stomach is used fp eA as a receptacle for ! water, the excess over- flowing into cells along }} Se the upper part of the [ first stomach, which Sm Wy ) the animal can open at Skeleton of a Camel. - will, and supply the
moisture necessary for digestion.
54 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 12.
Foot of a@ Camel. Water-cells of Camel’s Stomach.
The Family is tabulated as follows:
Toes ited ONE HUMP ; Camelus dromedarius, D.omedary. Unite P Two HUMPS ; Camelus bactrianus, Bactrian Camel, CAMELIDA. to the nail. Toes Without uume; Auchenia lama, Llama. separated.
The Dromedary is peculiarly adapted to sterile regions. Its long neck, incisors and canines in both jaws, prehensile, Rigs: cleft upper lip, and
narrow cheek-bones, enable it to crop its food of thorny bushes by the way- side without retard- ing its speed; its hairy nostrils, which close intuitively, = protect it from in- haling the particles driven by the si- moom: its broad, cushioned foot prevents its sinking in the sand; its many-
Camblus dromedarius, Dromedary. os
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 55
celled stomach enables it to go a week without drink, and the gradual absorption of its fatty hump as long without food ; its callosities on the breast and joints permit its kneel- ing to receive its load; its projecting eye, sheltered from the sun by a double lid and a bony arch, and with the sight habitually directed to the path, gives sure-footedness.*
Fig. 7h.
a 30"
The Bactrian Camel has two humps, and is adapted to cold climates, as the dromedary is to hot. :
* The camel, poetically called by the Arab the “ship of the desert,” constitutes his wealth. Its milk, and often its flesh, furnishes him food ; its skin, leather; its hair, clothing; its excrement, fuel; and, in an extremity, the water in its stomach will save bis life. It will carry 600 and even 1000 Ibs. burden. A swift dromedary will travel 10 miles per hour for 20 hours on a stretch. Its gait has a peculiar swing- ing, jerking motion that is terribly trying to the novice. Its disposition is said to be naturally gentle, but the brutality of its drivers often renders it ugly. Thus says a traveler: Watch it when it is being loaded. See its keeper struggling frantically, and making it kneel only by sheer force, and when down, keeping it there by tying neck and fore legs together tightly. Hear it grumbling in deep, bubbling tones, with mouth savagely opened as each new burden is laid on its back. Look how it refuses to rise until a part is removed; then see it get up—a great, brown mountain, still groaning and bubbling—and dash to and fro, shaking off beds, furniture, and trunks inashower. Mark it, subdued by blows, march through the day, occasionally biting at a passer-by, and at night kneel to have its load removed, grumbling as ever, Certainly not the picture of our ideal patient animal!
56 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 76.
Auchenia Uama, Liama. 34.
The Liama, the camel of the New World, is of small size, and has no humps. To adapt it to its home in the Andes, its cushioned toes are completely divided, and its nails project so as to hook downward, and give it a fearless step among the crags.
Giraffidee.—The (Graffe, inhabit- ing the arid regions of Africa, where herbage quickly disappears after the rainy season, is adapted by its long neck * to browse upon the branches of trees. There is an apparent difference in the length of the fore and hind legs; but the heads of the humerus and femur are on a level, and the great height of the fore-shoulder is caused
Fig. 76.
* Seven—the typical number of cervical vertebree Foot of Llama. for all mammals—is not, however, varied from,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 5Y
by the length of the scapula and the spinous processes. As its greatest enemy is the low-crouching lion, that usually springs upon its prey fron behind, its eye is so placed on the side of the head, that it can see backward as well as forward ;
Fig. 77.
Skeleton of a Giraffe.
’ and, as the danger is from below, while its food is above, the sensitive tufts on the tips of its skin-covered horns indicate, as it stalks among the trees, the presence of leaves overhead. It uses its short horns for defence by a sidelong sweep of the neck rather than by butting. Its chief reliance, however, is on rapid and powerful kicks—sufficient to break the skull of
58 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Eyes of a Giraffe.
Fig. 80.
Tongue of a Giraffe. Cameloparddlis giraffa, Giraffe. gy.
alion. The long tongue is prehensile, and so flexible as to be flattened and rounded like a plate, or contracted to enter a quill. In mimicry it resembles the branchless trunks among which it stalks and upon whose umbrella tops it feeds.*
Bovidee.—The Ox family comprises ruminants having horns and cloven feet. It may be tabulated according to the structure of the horns.
* “Tn the case of the Giraffe, which is invariably met among venerable forests, where innumerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks occur, I have repeatedly been in doubt as to its presence, until I had recourse to my spy-glass; and on referring the case to my eavage attendants I have known even their optics to fail, at one time mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and again confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the forest.”— Cumming’s Adventures.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 59
Bony axis of Horns with cells, which
the frontal sinus with the nose Horns curve
BOVIDA.
Bony axis of Horns
Horns curve
The Musk Oz, so called from the flavor of its flesh, inhabits Arctic North America.* It feeds on grass and lichens. Thehorns
widen at the base, ©
so as entirely to
cover the crown of ~
the head. Difference be- tween Herbivora
and Carnivora.t —A distinguishing
communicate through 4
without cells or pores. 4 FOREHEAD
( OUTWARD, DOWNWARD, Ovibos moschatus, Musi Ox. THEN UPWARD. eacane aiinm Bos taurus, Domestic Ox. chew UPWARD ‘On Bos americanus, Bison. SORTA Te Bos bubalus, Buffalo. i Bos grunniens, Yak. CRESCENT: [ Bos indicus, Zebu. [ Aplocerus montanus, Mountain Goat. Antilope rupicapra, Chamois. Antilope dorcas, Gazelle. ¢ DIVBRSIFORM: { Antilope kuda, Koodoo. | Antilope gnu, Gnu. Antilope oryx, Gemsbok, UPWARD AND BACKWARD: | Capra wegagrus, Goat. Capra ibex, Ibex. CONCAVE. BACKWARD THEN SPIRALLY Ponta Oe Ovis montana, Mountain Sheep. H Eerie ‘i eogeaeae Ovis aries, Domestic Sheep. CONVEX. Fig. 81.
Ovibos moschatus, Musk Ox. 7.
feature of the Ruminants is the elevation of the heel, which compels the animal to walk upon its nails (the Camelide excepted). The Carnivora bring the entire toes to the ground,
* The Esquimaux hunters will attack this irritable animal with only a knife, and turning around quicker than it can wheel, stab it to death,
+ A comparison of Figs. 27, 65, 77, 82, will show that the differences in the various parts of the skeleton are those of relative size and adaptation rather than of number.
60 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
and being thus unable to outrun their victims, pounce upon them from concealment.
Fig. 83.
Teeth of Herbivora.
The Carnivora have incisors,
canines, and molars, but many of the Herbivora lack upper incisors, and all, true canines, while the surfaces of the molars are no longer trenchant, but ridged either longitudinally or transversely.
The Domestic Ox evinces no trace of its origin or that of its nu- merous varieties. En- dowed by the Creator with inherent qualities adapting the genus to easy acclimation, it is everywhere found the
companion of civilized man. There are in this country three noted breeds, each distinguished for peculiar excellencies. *
The Short Horn, or Durham, from Durham county, England,
* A careful study of Figs. 84, 85 and 86 will clearly define the points of distinction in these varieties, and enable the student to identify each in a herd or at a Fair,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 61
Fig. 85.
Jersey.
is pre-eminent for beef. The Jersey, from the island of Jersey, is unrivaled for the quality, and the Ayrshire, from Ayr- shire, Scotland, for the quantity of its milk. The Bison is the only bovine, except the Musk Ox, indige- nous to America.* Originally ranging in
Bos americanus, Bison. 3.
* Having the distinctive hump on the fore-shoulders, it is a true Bison and not a Buffalo, as it ig generally called.
62 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
immense herds over the most of the United States, it is now found only on the great plain between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains and is fast becoming extinct. The old males sometimes weigh a ton, and though so cumbrous Fig. 88. in appearance, are very swift. Their horns are used for defence, and for tear- ing up'roots and fur- rowing the snow in search of food. The Buffalo in- habits the southern ~ part of Asia, and is distinguished by its enormous horns. Their bases are of great strength, while their length exceeds four feet, with tips five feet apart. In order to use even the tamest Buffalo, a ring is put in its nose. The traveler over the Gampagna of Rome often sees these wild-looking animals employed in agricultural labor.
Bos bubdlus, Buffalo.
Fig. 89.
Bos grunniens, Yak. 35.
The Yak, or grunting ox, is found both wild and domesti- cated in Central Asia. Its characteristics are so modified by subjugation as to produce many tame varieties.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 63
Bos indicus, Zebu. db.
The Zebu is the beast of burden for the eastern coast of Africa, the Indian Archipelago, and Southern Asia.*
The Mountain Goat is found on the higher slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It has small, jet black, ringed horns, and long white hair.
The Chamois inhabits the Alps, living in small flocks upon the giddy heights where the eye can hardly detect a standing-place. Springing diagonally down an almost per- pendicular rock and striking the face of the cliff three or four times with its feet, it will land securely at the desired point.+ At a suspicious sound a flock will stand for an incredible time as quiet and fixed, apparently, as the rocks around them. A sentinel is always posted to give the signal of danger.
Aplocérus montanus, Mountain Goat.
* It is not a bison though it has the distinctive hump, for the bison’s consists of muscles that move the head, while the hump of the Zebu is composed of fat.
+ Though chamois-hunting among the Alpine fastnesses is attended with great peril, so that in one instance father, son, and grandson successively perished in the pursuit, yet the occupation is so fascinating as to be rarely relinquished.
64 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 92. Fig. 98.
Ty yibe ae a Antilope rupicdpra,
The Gazelle has an elegant form ; black, round, and thick horns; large, dark, and lustrous eyes;* and a swiftness so great that the greyhound cannot overtake it.
Fig. 9h.
A, kudu, Koodoo. 35.
The Koodoo is characterized by its curiously twisted horns It inhabits South Africa, and is exceedingly handsome and graceful.
* These are so proverbially beautiful as to give rise to the expression * gazelle-eyed.” (See Moore’s Lalla Rookh—The Fire-Worshippers.)
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 65
The Gnu resembles the horse, buffalo, and deer. It is, however, a bovine antelope.*
Fig. 95.
A. gnu, Gnu. 3.
The Oryx, or Gemsbok, is sometimes called the Unicorn, as its straight horns, seen in profile, so exactly cover each other as to seem but one. It is Fig. 96. the only antelope that defends . itself against the lion; receiy- ing its enemy on the point of its sharp horns, which serve as natural bayonets.
The Goat, notwithstanding its diversity in form, color, shape of horns, and in fineness of hair—which in some species approximates wool — possesses characteristics bringing it into the unity of a genus. It is an indiscriminate feeder, thriving upon many plants that are poisonous to other ruminants, and
1 Boe
A. oryx, Gemsbok.
* Gnus live in herds, often mixing with ostriches, zcbras, and giraffes in one great mass. When alarmed they spring up, and whisking their long white tails, pur- sue one another at full speed, pawing, kicking, and the bulls fighting and tumbling down at every shock. This strange conduct has given them the name of Wildebeeste among the Dutch settlers. Gnus are so timid that at the first sight of a strange object they will set off as if half-crazy with fear, but their curiosity soon leads them to return to inspect it, though at the risk of their lives. A hunter, by merely tying a
-red handkerchief to the muzzle of his gun, has thus enticed a herd within musket range. He must look out, however, lest they charge down upon him so savagely as in turn to put him to flight.—( Wood.)
66 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
thus serves in the great creative scheme to diminish weeds that would become excessive in grazing districts.* It is the cow of the European peasantry, a pair often yielding half the support of a family.
The Jbex differs from the Goat in having longer and recurved horns, with two longitudinal ridges instead of one, and their transverse markings knotted. The Goat inhabits
Fig. 97.
SE ESS a
Capra ibex, Ibex. 3.
* It prefers steep and solitary places, leaping singly, or even when two are tied together, across frightful chasms, and always alighting in concert at the desired spots If two meet in a narrow path, one will lie down and the other walk over its back.—Cashmere shawls, kid gloves, morocco leather, goat’s-hair wigs, and rock venison are Inxuries derived from these humble but useful animals,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 67
the lower stage of mountain slopes, the Chamois the middle, and the Ibex the highest.*
The Mountain Sheep, found wild on the Rocky Mountain slopes, differs from the Ibex in having a convex: forehead, horns directed backward, then spirally forward, and two kinds of hair, one being crimped. It feeds on grassy knolls
Fig. 99.
Ovis monténa, Mountain Sheep. 74.
surrounded by craggy rocks, to which it retreats when attacked by wolves. Its horns sometimes grow so long and curve so far forward and downward that it cannot graze on level ground.
The Domestic Sheep exhibits no less than forty well-marked varieties, and yet so shading into one another that all have doubtless originated from a common stock.t Its sharp,
* The story of the Ibex throwing itself from lofty precipices and landing upon its horns is considered a myth, though often reported by the earlier Naturalists.
+ The influence of climate is remarkably shown in the tendency of the Merino breed to develop an additional pair of horns when transferred from Spain to Peru, A breed found in Syria have tails weighing from seventy-five toa hundred pounds,
68 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
chisel-like incisors and cleft upper lip enable it to bite closer than the Ox, and thus procure sustenance where that animal would starve. The Goat, in defending itself, rears upon its hind legs, and comes down head first upon its opponent with the weight of its body; the Sheep runs forward and butts with the combined force of its weight Ovis aries, Sheep. and impetus. Antilocapride.—The Prong-horn Antelope is allied both to the Antelope and the Goat. Like the former, its horns contain an osseous core, but unlike it they are deciduous, and have a prong about mid- way. The hair on the body Stands out straight, and, being hollow like a bird’s feather, when bent will not resume its form. Cervidea.—The Deer Family have solid, deciduous horns, which are cast an- nually, and at each renewal grow larger and more branch- ing. Two cartilaginous prominences first appear on => the forehead. These ossify 4 nujscapra ameriaans and form the horns, which : are still covered with velvety skin. Soon a ring of bone
Fig. 100.
Fig, 101.
‘N Prong-horn. ;4.
which the shepherds support with a board set on wheels. In Angola is a variety called the goitred sheep from its having two lobes of fat beneath the throat, which, like the hump of the Dromedary, serve it for food during the dry season.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 69
gathers around the base of each horn, with passages for the arteries. These openings narrow, and gradually shut off the blood, that it may not by a sudden stoppage rush to the brain and produce apoplexy. The velvet, now deprived of its nourishment, soon withers and is rubbed off, leaving the white horn beneath. The Family is classified into Genera by the conformation of the antlers:
BROADLY. Alces _ malchis, Hoose. ALMAT E ATED, Ae ates { Rangifer tarandus, Reindeer. H . Rangifer caribou, Caribou. orns d | d: BENDING { Cervus canadensis, Wapiti. wi eveloped ; BACKWARD. Cervus capreolus, Roebuck. a > CONICAL; eval ates \ Cervus virginianus, Deer. faa mat PRONGS PARTLY oO \ Cervus dama, Fallow Deer. UNITED. Horns not developed 7 Moschus moschiferus, adfusk Deer.
The Moose, once abundant in the northern parts of North America, is now becoming extinct. Its broad, palmated
Fig. 102.
pas = ce pagd r 3 Mic. Se es. =.
Alces malchis, Moose. 3.
horns, weighing fifty to sixty pounds, are used in bending
down boughs and ploughing up the snow. For defence, it
relies upon rapid blows with its fore feet—a stroke of which
will kill a wolf. Its pace is a quick trot, the feet being lifted
so as to pass over a fence five feet high without apparent | change of step.
Z
70 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The Reindeer* has widely-spreading hoofs, as a special pro- vision for traveling on the snow; while to give a secure hold upon the crags, the toes of the closed foot are firm and pointed. In summer, it subsists upon Arctic shrubs, and in winter upon moss, which it detects under the snow by its keen smell, and digs up with the palmated tips of its antlers.t — : The Wapiti, or Rangifer tarandus, Reindeer. zy. American Elk, iden- tical with the red deer or stag of Northern Europe, has long, branching, conical horns, sometimes six feet apart at the tips.
The Roebuck, marked by its white haunches, is the small- est of the British deer. Tis short, straight horns are divided into three branches. Unlike other deer, it pairs for life, and lives in families.
Fig. 103.
Fig. 104.
* The Caribou of North America is now considered identical with the Reindeer of Lapland, and, if domesticated, would doubtless, in a few generations, shdw. as many varieties. ,
+ Harnessed to a sledge, with only a collar and a trace passing between its legs, and guided by a single rein attached to its neck, the Reindeer easily draws its mas- ter over the snow a hundred miles a day. It has been known to run nearly 19 miles in an hour and 150 in 19 hours. To the Laplander, it is at once horse, cow, and sheep. Its horns supply tools; its hide and hair, clothing ; and its flesh and milk, food. Without it Lapland would be uninhabitable. The inhabitants reckon their wealth by their reindeer, as the Arabs do by their camels, A rich Laplander owns one thousand or more.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA.
4,
Cervus caret Roebuck. 3;.
V1
42 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The Virginia Deer is common in the United States. It differs in size according to locality, the Southern specimens being smaller.* Its antlers bend forward, with varying prongs. The males while fighting some- times interlock their antlers, and, unable to release them- selves, perish miserably. The spotted young are called Fawns, and may be easily domesticated. The sagacity of the deer is shown in taking to the water when
— wa. “ <== hunted with dogs, its greater Cervus virginidnus, Virginia deer, 34. heigh i giving ap = fro fine while they, compelled to swim, are comparatively helpless.
The Fallow Deer, so called from its tawny brown color, is the domesticated species of the English parks. A large buck takes the lead of the herd, and suffers none but a few favorites to approach his regal presence.
Fig. 107.
¥
Fig. 108.
Cerous dama, Fallow deer, gy.
* The deer is a great destroyer of rattlesnakes, cutting them to pieces by alighting upon them with all four feet.—Its skin is tanned by the Indians by pounding in a solution of its own brains, and is known as ‘ buck-skin.”
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 73
The Musk Deer of Thibet has no horns, the male having two sharp projecting uppercanines. It fur- nishes the musk of commerce, which it secretes in a kind of pouch.
Hippopotamide. The Hippopotamus of Africa is amphibious, with horizontally-pro- jecting lower incisors and strong vertical canines. <A greedy feeder, it sinks to the bed of the sluggish stream, where it can remain six or eight minutes, digs up a quantity of aquatic vegetation, rises to the top, and, washing
Fig. 109.
Moschus moschiférus, Musk deer. ae
Fig. 110.
the mass, devours it while leisurely floating on the surface. It is exactly fitted to dredge the rivers and keep open the chan- nels, so apt to become filled with the luxuriant growth of that tropical region.
*~ Suidee.—The Hog’s skull is adapted to rooting in the ground for food, the lower canines projecting nearly horizon-
04 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
tally, and by friction upon the upper being sharpened so as to constitute formidable weapons.
The Wild Boar of the Old World is the parent of the domestic varieties and of the wild hogs of the New. The Babi- roussa, found in Borneo, has its long upper canines recurved in a semicircle, thus serving to protect the eyes in rushing through the bushes.
The Peccary of the New World represents the Wild Boar of the Old. There are but two species, the collared and the
white-lipped—the former living in families,* and the latter in a, |
Fig. 111.
Skull of Hog.
Fig. 112.
Sus scrofa, Wild Boar. 3s.
* The whole company of twenty or more are accustomed to back singly intoa hollow log to sleep, the last one acting as a sentinel. This one being shot, the
CLASS MAMMALS:
ORDER UNGULATA.
Sus babiroussa, Babiroussa Hog. 34. Fig. 11h.
herds which stretch out for miles in their destructive migra- tions. They resem- ble pigs, but have slender tusks capable of inflicting terrible wounds.
Equide. — The Horse family have a single hoof* to each foot, with wmeta- carpals elongated so as to compel them to carry the heel (c) high up from the ground. Strictly herbivorous with up- per and lower incis-
ors, they seem design- —
ed to crop after the
Skull of Babiroussa. Fig. 115.
Dicotyles torquatus, Peccary.
a ae"
%
others successively take its place, so that, if skillfully managed by the hunter, the
whole number may be captured.
* The earlier fossil species had five, later ones four, and still later three toes, the
indications of two suppressed, called splint bones, being still seen,
"6 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 116.
Skeleton of Horse
ox, and in their turn to be followed by the narrow-jawed sheep with the cleft upper lip, enabling it to nibble where neither
Fig. 117.
Equus caballus, Horse.
of the others could thrust its wide mouth.
The Horse has been so diversified by domestication as to defy all at- tempts to trace its origin.* It is adapted to con- stant movement by having a simple stomach without a gall bladder which
* Careful research proves that there is not a distinctive Arabian breed—often- times considered the parent of the horse—any more than there is a Persian or an
English one.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. ts U7
permits uninterrupted Fig. 118. digestion. Changingits @ coat of hair to suit the season, it is easily accli- mated; in tropical re- gions the hair remaining short and sparse, in colder, lengthening to three or four inches and thickening so as to be- come almost woolly. =
The Ass is generally ... employed by the peasan- try throughout the East. Feeding upon coarser herbage than the horse, and being more patient under abuse, it is better adapted to be the slave of the poor.*
The Zebra is the most elegant of quadrupeds, but all attempts to domesticate it have failed.
Equus asinus, W. d Ass. 75.
Fig. 119.
* It is common in European cities to see these animals driven every morning tc the door of the sick to be milked for their use.
48 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 120.
Rhinocéros unicornis, One-horned Rhinoceros, India. 5.
Rhinocerotidze.*—The Rhinoceros, paradoxical as it may seem, possesses a skeleton more nearly allied to the horse than any other hoofed quadruped. It has a hard, naked, rough skin, laid in large folds, and so elastic that a bullet or spear-hole imme- diately closes, thus
. : el =" stanching the wound. Rhinocéros bicornis, Two-horned Rhinoceros. The horn is composed Africa. 3h. Se a
of agglutinized hairs, Fig. 122. and, being attached : * Closely allied to the rhi- noceros in structure is the Hyrax, the only genus of the order Hyracoidea. The Da- man, in its various species, is a rabbit-like animal found in Syria, Mozambique, and Southern Africa. <A timid creature, it hides itself in the clefts of the rocks, and is,
doubtless, the Coney of Scrip- Alyrax syridcus, Daman, 3. ture (Proverbs xxx, 26).
Fig. 121.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER PROBOSCIDEA. 79
unly to the skin, is movable; when, however, the animal is enraged, it becomes fixed as though a part of the bone itself. Individuals attain the weight of 6000 pounds.
Taptrus bieblor, Indian Archipelago. 3
Fig. 128.
=
Tapiridze.—The Tapir links the artiodactyls and perisso- dactyls, its fore feet having four toes and its hind feet
three. Flight being its only means of defence, the head, covered with hard skin and shaped like a conical wedge, is adapt- ed for boring through tangled brushwood. The uniform black color oi the South American Ta- pir is in striking contrast to the white back of the Indian.
Fig. 12h.
ORDER PROBOSCIDEA.
Elephantidze.—The Elephant is the largest of living quadrupeds, attaining eight’ to ten feet in height and 10,000 pounds in weight. It roams the forest in herds of twenty or more, and is supposed to live over one hundred years. Un-
80 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
like the Horse, it has the metacarpal bones short- ened, so that the heel (c) is brought near the ground, The two upper incisors are pro- longed into tusks, which serve for defence and for ploughing up the ground to obtain succulent roots. ’ The nose is length- ened into a probos- cis or trunk con- taining several thousand muscles, which permit every conceivable motion; while a mobile lip at the end is delicate enough to pick up a grain of wheat. This enables the Elephant to reach its food, which it Fig. 11. could not do with its mouth, on ED
Fig. 125.
Skeleton of Elephant.
au. Tooth of Asiatic Elephant. == b. Tooth of African Elephant. Section of Elephant’s trunk.
account of its short neck and huge tusks. Water is also drawn into the trunk by suction, and then, the end being inserted into the mouth, discharged down the throat. The
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER PROBOSCIDEA. 81
Fig. 128.
Eléphas africinus, African Elephant.
Asiatic species is alone tamed at the present day.* It hasa concave forehead,
small ears, and the TG: IN:
enamel of the teeth ee arranged in trans- verse bands. The African species has a convex forehead, enormous ears, and the enamel of the teeth lozenge- shaped. Both sexes have tusks, the male’s often being eight feet long and ==
weighing a hundred vos 2 pounds. E. indicus, Asiatic Elephant.
* Tts intelligence is sometimes almost human. It can be taught to lay stone wall, and to pile logs uniformly, rolling them up an inclined plane. It is even entrusted with the care of young children—the huge nurse being lavish in its attentions, and when its charge crawls between its legs, moving with the utmost caution, and, with its trunk, carefully lifting the child out of the way. Tennant, in his work on Ceylon
82 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER SIRENIA.
Trichechidee.—The Manatee, or Sea Cow of the Florida coast, has, like the elephant, a short neck, dense bones, and the nostril in the end of the snout. It has no hind limbs,
Fig. 130.
Trichéchus mandtus, Manatee. 5.
and its fore limbs are flippers, with vestiges of nails on the edges, enabling it to crawl on the shore. It feeds upon aquatic plants, whence it is styled an “herbivorous whale.”
ORDER CETACEA.
General Characteristics._The Cetaceans are swim- ming, carnivorous mammals. They have nostrils on the top
says: ‘‘ One evening my horse manifested uneasiness at a sound which approached us while we were traveling in the thick jungle. A turn in the road soon brought us to a tame elephant, without an attendant. It was carrying a heavy timber which it had balanced across its tusks, but the path being narrow, it was forced to bend its head 80 as to let the beam pass endways. The exertion and inconvenience led it to cry Urmph! Urmph! in a dissatisfied tone, and it was this sound which had alarmed my horse. The elephant, on seeing us halt. stopped, reconnoitered us for a moment, flung down the timber, and forced itself back into the brushwood to let us pass. As my horse still hesitated, the sagacious creature pressed still further one side, repeating its cry of Urmph! in an encouraging tone, as if bidding us come on. Finally my horse did so tremblingly, and when we were by, the elephant came out, lifted the timber, balanced it on its tusks, and resumed its march, snorting discontentedly as before.”
ORDER CETACEA. 83
CLASS MAMMALS:
‘1ST “But
84 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
of the head ; fore-limbs, which, like the human arm, consist of a shoulder-blade, humerus, radius, ulna, and five fingers ; a tail, horizontally flattened and fiuked ; and no hind limbs. They are subdivided into Families, according to the presence or absence of teeth:
TEETH IN BOTH JAWS. Delphinide, Dolphin. CETACEA. j “4 LOWER JAW. Physeteride, Sperm Whale. “| WANTING. Balenide, Right Whale.
Delphinidz.— The Common Porpoise frequents the mouths of rivers, often venturing some distance up stream in pursuit of herring and other migratory fish.*
The Delphinus delphis is the Dolphin ¢ of Grecian
mythology.
“The Beluga of the north- ern Atlantic coast is re- markable when mature for the clear white hue of its skin, though when young it is black.
The Narwhal, or unicorn, has one of its upper canines developed into a straight, spirally-twisted pole of ivory, seven to ten feet long.}
Fig. 13h, Fig. 185. _
Phocena comminis, Common Porpoise. 35
ae
Beliga canadensis, White Whale.
va "
Bee
Delphinus delphis.
; * It frequently comes to the surface of the water to breathe, where it tumbles and frisks about, presenting an appearance which has given it the name of the Puffing Pig.
a This is common to all seas, but should not be confounded with the Dolphin of sailors, which in dying displays all the colors of the rainbow—the latter being the coryphéne, a true scaly fish.
+ This formidable weapon has been forced through the sides of a whale ship. It can be used only as a means of defence or of ploughing up the mud for food, as tk<« animal feeds mainly upon soft shell-fish. :
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CETACEA. 85
Fig. 186.
ee a
Monddon monoctros, Narwhal. a
Balenidze.—The Greenland Whale, being the one most sought by whalemen, is known as the Right Whale. Its huge mouth is cleft to the depth of twenty feet, with a breadth of six or eight.* The upper jaw, instead of teeth, has slabs of whalebone (baleen) hanging freely, about an inch apart. These are often 1800 in number and the longest ten feet in length; the outer edges being smooth and solid, the inner {¢ fringed with fibres. In feeding, | the whale moves rapidly forward near the surface of the water, not with open mouth, but with its sai lower lip dropped over, leaving the baleen exposed. The water rushes in, carrying myriads of minute animals. The great tongue being then raised and the lower lip lifted, the water is strained out through the baleen, and discharged at the sides of the mouth in torrents,} while the food remains, to be swallowed at leisure.
Fig. 187.
* Curiously, the throat opening out of this enormous cavity will hardly admit the entrance of the two fingers. As the whale has no teeth, it can therefore eat only very small animals.
+ Close observers maintain that the whale in breathing never spouts water from the nostrils as the ordinary pictures represent. When it rises to the surface, a foot or more of water over the head is blown away by the breath escaping from the lungs. This is followed by the vast body of air expelled, surcharged with moisture hot from
86 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The veins being destitute of valves, this huge animal bleeds to death from the single thrust of a lance, and in its last struggles, if the lungs are pierced, blood is forced out with the breath.
The whale has a reserve system of blood-vessels. As fast as the venous blood returns and flows into a waste reservoir, a portion of the extra arterial blood passes into the circula- tion, and thus it can remain under water for an hour. Being an air-breathing ani- mal, it must come quickly to the sur- face; hence its tail * is flattened horizon- tally instead of verti- cally, that a rapid stroke may throw up the head. Its skin consists of interlaced fibres, among which the fat is diffused to the depth, in some instances, of two feet,f forming the “blubber.” A wise Creator adapted this thick, non- conducting, India-rubber-like coating to withstand the tremendous pressure of the water { and to protect the body from the freezing cold. §
To keep the water out of the Jungs when diving, the blow- holes are provided with valves that, like a cork in a bottle, close more firmly the greater the pressure outside.
Fig. 138.
Balena mysticéius, Right Whale. 335-
the lungs, which, cooling, changes to vapor, and in its circling descent resembles a shower of spray.
* The tail has often an area of 100 square feet, is exceedingly flexible, and so strong that the whale can spring clear out of the water “like little fish leaping into the air after flies,” falling again to the sea with a crash that is heard for miles.
t In other animals, as the hog, the fat lies between the skin and the muscles.
+ The whale often descends to the depth of a mile, where, according to Scoresby, the pressure upon it is equal to 200,000 tons, and wood becomes so watersoaked as not to rise again.
§ This enormous bulk of fat is lighter than the water and gives great buoyancy, 80 that the dead body of a whale floats until the layer of blubber is “ flensed off,” when it sinks.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CHEIROPTERA. 87
Physeteridze.—The Sperm Whale is found in deep water in all tropical regions. It has no baleen, and is distinguished by forty or fifty conical teeth in the lower jaw, which fit | into cavities in the up- per; and by a singular- ly-abrupt snout with blow-holesinfront. An , immense cavity in the head is filled with cells containing an oil which . hardens into spermaceti. Arnbergris is found in the intes- tines in masses of thirty or forty pounds.* The food of the Sperm Whale is mainly a molluscan animal called Squid. To procure this, it is said to descend into the water with its immense lower jaw hanging down perpendicularly. When a sufficient number, attracted by the glistening color of the teeth, are collected in the mouth, the treacherous jaw closes and the precious morsels are swallowed.
Fig. 139.
Skull of a Sperm Whale, Phystter macrocephdlus.
ORDER CHEIROPTERA.
General Characteristics.—The Bats are true flying mammals, the body of a beast being adapted to the life of a bird. The great change is a prolongation of the fingers, to sustain a semi-transparent membrane used as a wing. The thumb is left free and armed with a strong claw, en- abling the bat to climb walls and to suspend itself, its favorite position when at rest. Its molars bristle with points for crushing its insect food. Its flight is that of a bird, though fluttering and lacking ease of movement. On the ground it can only drag itself along by its hooked thumb-
* This substance is very valuable, as it has the property of strengthening other perfumes. It is thought to be a product of disease, as it is oftenest found in sickly-looking whales.
88 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 140.
Skeleton of a Bat. nails. During the day it hides in caves, lofts, etc., and ven- tures out only with the twilight. Its eyeis small and appar- ently of little service, as it flits among bushes and intricate Fig. tht.
Y. Co ¢
Geoffrey's nyctéris, Geoffrey’s Bat. passages when blinded.* Associated with ideas of gloom, it inspires universal dread, yet it renders great service by devouring noxious insects. To capture these, it curves for-
* This has led some Zoologists to think that it has a sixth sense. It is probably due, however, to its extraordinary delicacy of touch.—The cry of a bat is so shrill that many persons’ ears cannot detect it, and Homer (Odyssey 24, 6) compares it to the cries of ghosts.—The bat is frequently infested with the common bed-bug ( Cimex lectularius), and this fact may answer the question of the despairing housewife, “ Where can the bugs come from ?”
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CHEIROPTERA. 89
ward that part of the membrane expanded between the hind legs and tail, to serve as a skim-net. Its flight is uncertain and awkward, as ever and anon it dives downward, making complete somersaults in its effort to take the “catch” from the net. There are over 30 genera and 200 species—20 at least being indigenous to North America. The families of the order are as follows:
. With | smmpLe; § aby riatin } Phyllostomide, Vampire. a nose e oc FORE-FINGER ie , ; i i e leaf, COMPLEX ; § Sua couean, Rhinolophide, Horse-shoe Bat. [e) PROLONGED FORE-FINGER br a Without TAIL; § ONE SOINTED. } Vespertilionids, © Common Bat. SHORT, THICK FORE-FINGER nose 1 Preners . 3 leaf TAIL ; § TWO-JOINTED. Noctilionid, Harelipped Bat. eat. TAILLESS; et te ee Pteropodide, Wing-footed Bat.
Phyllostomideze.—The Vampire of South America has, instead of a stomach, a long pouch for the reception of its
Fig. 12.
Phyllostima spectrum, Vampire. 3 food, which requires little digestion. Its teeth make a triple puncture, through which it sucks the blood of its victim till gorged. The bite, however, is rarely serious.* Rhinolophidze.—The Horse-shoe Bats have large nose- appendages, consisting of skin curiously folded, perhaps as an extra organ of touch. The Puff Bat diminishes its spe-
* Most exaggerated stories have been reported by travelers, as that the Vampire, winging its silent flight in the darkness, poises itself over the exposed toe of an incautious sleeper, and painlessly extracts his life-blood, all the while by gentle fan- ning inducing a deeper slumber, until its victim expires.
90 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
cific gravity by blowing air beneath the cuticle through openings in the cheek-pouches until the creature looks like “a mere ball with head and limbs artificially attached.” The Great-eared Bat has ears nearly as long as its body, folding them up when it sleeps. Their large development compen- sates for the smallness of the eyes; the diminutive size of which has H\ given rise to the saying “ Blind as a fy) bat.”
Megaderma frons, Great-eared bat. Vespertilio subuldtus, Little brown bat,
Vespertilionidee.—The Common Bats are found in every part of the world. The Little Brown Bat frequents the haunts of man and
¢ is especially service- able by destroying mosquitoes, while it is said that it will devour 40 flies at a meal. With the failure of food in the fall, it hides away to hibernate, when its respiration
Z b / A ge a sinks from 200 to 30
pn eae per minute. — d N74 ies ae Noctilionide.— le oe
_ The Noctilios of
Noctilus leporinus, Hare-lipped bat. South America are
repulsive from their cleft upper lip. Some have the hinder
thumb placed ata distance from the rest of the toes and op- posable to them, like the Quadrumana.
Fig. 145.
ee
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER INSECTIVORA. 91
Fig. 1h6.
Pterdpus ediilis, Flying Fox, Java.
Pteropodidze.—The Wing-footed Bats are adapted toa vegetable diet. There are no points on their molars, and the pyloric, or digestive end of their stomach, is lengthened to correspond to their fruit-eating habits. The Flying Fox—so called from the shape of its head—is no larger than a squir- rel, but is five feet across the wings. It receives its specific name because its flesh is eaten.*
ORDER INSECTIVORA.
General Characteristics.—The members of this order are insect-eating, and have teeth studded with points for crushing the hard integuments of their prey. They are plantigrade, with a tendency to an underground life. Those inhabiting cold countries hibernate, as their food fails them during the winter.
* Hundreds are sometimes found suspended by their hind claws to the limbs of trees, presenting the appearance of uncommonly large fruit. If killed, they still remain hanging. They commit great depredations on orchards, and in Java the natives protect their trees by bamboo baskets.
92 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ARBOREAL. Galeopithecidz, KEabung. BODY COVERED SusTERRANEAN. Talpide, Hole. INSECTI- WITH HAIR. T Sorecide, Shrew. VOROUS, ERRESTREAL: Chrysochloride, Golden Mole cov. gee a (es ee { TERRESTRIAL. Erinaceida, Hedgehog.
Wig. thr. Galeopithecidee.— The Ka- S077 | bung* has a bat-like membrane clothed with hair, serving as a parachute to support it in a de- scending leap from tree to tree, sometimes for 100 yards. It is nocturnal and sleeps suspended by the hind legs. Galeopithécus volans, Talpide.—The Moles are Ser mee aes adapted to a subterranean life by having small eyes hidden in the fur, though capable of being brought forward for use; acute hearing and smell; velvet- like fur inserted vertically, so as to lie smoothly in any
Skeleton of a Mole.
direction ; shovel-shaped paws, with sharp, stout nails turned outwardly for throwing the earth backward; and cylindrical bodies for moving rapidly through their tunnels. The Com- mon Mole, contrary to its specific name, lives upon land, often, in its pursuit of worms and insects, burrowing a
* The Kabung seems to be a transitional animal, linking different orders. The generic name, meaning cat-monkey, indicates this peculiarity. Its membrane allies it to the Cheiroptera ; its teeth to the Insectivora; and its cranium and reproductive organs to the Quadrumana,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER INSECTIVORA. 93
Hobitation of a Mole.
gallery a hundred feet long in a single night. Strictly carnivorous, it is ex- i es ceedingly useful, and should be protected by every cultivator of the soil. The Star-nosed Mole burrows in moist places to form chambers for rearing its young.* Sorecidea.— The Shrew’s foot is not formed for digging, indicating its habit of living above ground. It has a long, movable snout, and bristly tail.
Scalops aquaticus, Common Mole.
~~
Fig. 151.
Sorex thompsoni, Thompson’s Shrew. 4.
* This species is frequently found in mid-winter with its tail swollen with fat probably to be absorbed as food during its partial hibernation. + Cats and dogs often kill them, mistaking them for mice; but on account of
94 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 152.
“he a
Condylira cristata, Star-nosed Mole. v
Chrysochloridz.—The Golden Mole has short legs, a
chunky body, and only three toes on the fore feet. Its fur shines with rich metallic tints of variable hues.
Fig. 153.
7 Chrysochloris auréus, Golden Mole, Africa. 4,
Erinaceidze.—The Hedgehog is not found in America. Mingled with its hair are prickly spines (quills) pinned through the skin from the inside, and retained by the head. They are so bent that when the animal rolls itself into a ball, they project in every ai : ‘om Girection—a _ cheval-de- Migs =~ = frise which baffles the dog Erinacéus auritus, Long-eared Hedgehog. 4%. and the fox. If a pool is near, however, the latter will sometimes tumble the curled-
their disagreeable odor refuse to eat them. They are exceedingly pugnacious, and their fierce combats would be fearful were they not ludicrous from the diminutive size of the creature,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER RODENTIA, 95
up hedgehog into the water; when the frightened animal, unrolling itself for an instant, will be caught by its crafty enemy before it can close up again.
ORDER RODENTIA. :
General Characteristics.—The Rodents (gnawers) lack canine teeth, but have two upper and lower incisors fitted to gnaw bark, roots, woody stems, nuts, etc. These are long, slightly curved, chisel-edged, and deeply rooted in the jaw. Friction upon each other and constant growth at the base keep the edges sharp.* The molars are generally ridged transversely and the lower jaw moves backward and forward to as acacia aid in mastication. Most of the order have clavicles, and hence rotary motion of the fore paws, between which they hold their food while gnawing.
TAIL LONG, THINLY HAIRED.
Jaculide, Jumping Mouse,
TAIL VARYING, Murida, Mouse. SCALY. .
ya Geomyide, Gopher.
With MOLAR TEETH | PARTIALLY NAKED. clavicles ; WITH ROOTS; TAIL FLATTENED,
SCALY, Castoride, Beaver.
TAIL LONG,
ares oh BUSHY. Sciuride, Squirre?.
TAIL SHORT,
BRISTLY. Hystricida, Porcupine.
5 ; TAIL LONG, : j ; 3
RODENTIA.
: TAILLESS. Caviide, Guinea Pig. Without t MOLAR TEETH | :
clavicles: ( WITHOUT ROOTS; TAIL SHORT, : l FURRY.
} Leporider, Hare. Jaculide.—Jumping Mice are remarkable for their cheek- pouches and long, zigzag leaps. There is but a single species
in North America.
* If one of the incisors be broken off, its opposite continues to grow, some- times curving, in which case at length it locks the jaw, and the wretched animal starves to death. 5
96 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 156.
Jaciilus hudsonius, Jumping Mouse. 3. Murideze.—The Common Rats and Mice have naked tails; five toes on the hind feet; and four on the front, with a sort of wart representing a thumb. The Meadow Mouse is noticeable for the winding, shallow paths it traces among the Fi
57.
re ee ee ee Pe gee
Arvichla riparia, Meadov Mouse. 3.
grass leading to its nest. The Decr Mouse dwells in the
woods and fields in summer, and in granaries in winter. The Fig. 158.
oe... Hesperomys leucdpus, Deer, or White-footed Mouse. }.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER RODENTIA. 9%
House Mouse and the Fig. 159. House Rat (M. decu- manus), originally from-Central Asia, are now found, through transportation by ships, in every part of the world.* The rat’s tail is prehensile and can be used as a “hand, a balance, or a projecting spring.” The Musk Rat lives on the river bank and in the water, using its vertically-flattened tail for sculling. Its home is constructed of reeds, with one entrance above and another below the surface of the water. Geomyidze.—The Pouched Gopher is so called from its curious, hair-lined cheek- pouches. ‘These open externally, and are used for carrying out sand from its burrow and for taking in food. Gebmys bursarius, Pouched Gopher. ae
Mus muscilus, Common Mouse.
Fig. 160.
Fiber zibethicus, Musk Rat. Fig. 161.
* They are exceedingly cleanly and, in limited numbers, useful for their scavenger work and destruction of insect vermin. When food fails they migrate in companies to new places. In such journeys they often travel long distances and cross broad rivers. They take with them the old and infirm, and Dr. Franklin asserts that he once saw a rat leading a blind comrade by a twig grasped in its mouth.
98 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA,
Fig. 162.
SS i Castor canadensis, American Beaver. 33.
Castoridze.—The Beaver was once abuudant in North America, but it retires before civilization, and is fast becom- ing extinct in this country as in Europe. Its scaly tail and webbed hind feet enable it to swim with great ease. The enamel of its incisors is very hard.* It is noted for its inge- nuity in building its habitations.t
* The Indians, before the introduction of iron among them, were accustomed to use these as chisels for working wood and horn. A tame beaver will take an apple in its forepaws, and, by dextrously turning and pressing it against its incisors, pare jt as readily as if the work had been done with a knife.—( Wood.)
+ If the place chosen is by stagnant water, the beaver at once commences build- ing on the bank, with lower entrances from the water ; but, if it isarunning stream, a large company combine to build a dam in order to keep the water at the same level. Going up stream they gnaw off trees one to ten or more inches in diameter. These they float down to the spot selected, and, laying them crosswise, fill in the interstices with mud and stone, which they carry between their forepaws and chin, When the water is high enough to prevent freezing to the bottom in winter, they separate into small families, and build their houses against the dam or the adjoining bank. The entrance is beneath the water, and the vaulted roof is well plastered with a thick coat of earth, to protect against the Wolverine. When they dive they always slap with their tail, and also when upon the tops of their houses inspecting them, or about their work. This has given rise to the absurd idea of their using it for a trowel to plaster their buildings, and as a hod to carry the mortar they are said to prepare.—They lay up food for winter by sinking logs and bark near their houses; but in summer feed upon grass, fruits and roots.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER RODENTIA. 99
Sciuridz.—The Squirrels have clavicles, and hence use
their fore feet as hands. Fig. 168. Their bushy tail aids them in leaping, the hairs spreading out and breaking their fall. They provide for winter by hiding nuts, which they skillfully cut from the stock. In the coldest weather they remain in their nests in a semi- torpid state, but with the first mild day are gamboling among the Fig. 16h. trees or skipping along iy the fences.
The Southern Fox Squirrel has the ears and nose white, the Western dark or black; while the body is gray, black, mot- tled, russet, or orange. — The Gray Squirrel is the most abundant in New England and the Middle States, the black variety prevailing in Western New York.* The Flying Squirrel has an extension ,
Scitirus vulpinus, Southern Fox Squirrel. }.
=—_—_S=-
Mle
IF,
HALES
fa 4
zy
* Congregating in great num- bers, they venture into unknown regions in an undeviating.course, swimming broad rivers (not sail- ing over on a piece of bark as fabulously related), sweeping ff through fields and forests, till, the 7 imperious but inscrutable instinct satisfied, they scatter and find Scitirus carolinensis, homes. Gray Squirrel. Black variety of Gray. 3,
100 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Pterémys volucella, Flying Squirrel. 3. of the skin of the flank between the fore and the hind legs, which, with the flattened tail, forms a parachute to sustain it in leaping from tree to tree.* There is probably but one species in North America, differing in color and size accord- ing to locality. The Chipmunk, or Striped Squirrel, has cheek-pouches opening internally outside the teeth, capable
Fig. 166.
Tamias stridtus, Chipmunk. }. Spermophilus tridécem linedtus, Striped Prairie Squirrel.¢ 2.
7
* It is not fight, since the squirrel cannot propel itself in the air, nor even sus- tain itself at the same height. The first impulse being given by its powerful hind legs, it descends obliquely, and just before reaching the point aimed at, by an upward movement of the tail and the impetus of its velocity, ascends a short distance, and thus alights flat upon its four feet.
¢ In Iowa, Minn., Wis., and northern 1), this squirrel is popularly known as the Gopher. The true animal of this name is given on p. 97. The former is sometimes destructive to crops in new districts, but a few pails of water will drive it out of its shallow burrow ; while it fully recompenses all its damage by destroying mice and noxious insects.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER RODENTIA. 101
of carrying away four or five large acorns at a time. The Striped Prairie Squirrel is beau- tifully marked by thirteen stripes on a ground of reddish-brown. It is a western burrowing species. The Prairie Dog is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi. It has a short, puppy-like yelp, accompanied with a quick jerk of the tail. It digs a burrow, de- yy scending at an angle of forty degrees; and having a bed of dried grass at the end.* These are often placed close together, form- ing a dog-town reaching for ; miles. The animal has a curious Cyndmys tudovicidnus, habit of standing erect on the sie keh little mound at the mouth of its hole, watching intently, and at the first alarm tumbling down into its burrow. Hystricidz.—The Porcupine of North America has its back, sides, and tail covered with spines three to five inches a long. These are barbed with s numerous reversed hooks or prickles, which are easily de- tached, and, once embedded in the flesh, work deeper and deeper.t Caviidee.—The Guinea Pig, originally from South America, is domesticated in all parts of the world. Though exceedingly quarrelsome with its fellows, it is gentle toward other animals.
Fig. 168,
Hystrix cristata, Porcupine, Europe. <&.
* Rattlesnakes and burrowing owls are often found sharing its home, being tolerated by the rightful owner from necessity.
t None of the species can throw their quills, though all can erect them by means of powerful subcutaneous muscles. When attacked the Porcupine, like the Hedge- hog, rolls itself partially into a ball, and, brandishing its tail, stands ready for the onslaught. The assailant, with nose, lips, jaws, and tongue filled with the treacher- ous barbs, soon retreats with a howl of pain. ‘
102 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 170. Leporide.—The Hares are distinguished by two small teeth behind the chisel-like upper in- cisors. Flight being their : only means of escape, their ears are peculiarly ‘adapted to catch the faintest rustle and their eves to look easily in every direction. When alarmed, they stamp with their fect, as if to give notice of danger; and, with seeming consciousness of their mimicry, often merely squat behind a clod, and, suffering their pursuers to run over them, quickly start off in a contrary direction. They gen- erally lie concealed during the day, and venture forth only at night, seeking their food of grass, roots and tender buds. In Europe they are hunted with dogs, the greyhound being kept almost exclusively for their pursuit.
The Northern Hare has in summer a tint of reddish- brown, and in winter an impure white. It never burrows,
Cavia cobaia, Guinea Pig. 2.
Fig. 171. Fig. 172.
. SAL 2 ess
Styles = Ttti=
Rabbit.* 3h.
Lepus sylvaticus, Gray
_. ah but makes a “form™ of grass, eae” > ote., in which it crouches, its Lepus americanus, Northern Hare. js. : . i ears laid along its back, and trusting to its mimicry for concealment. It is a timid
* This animal, the smallest of the hares, is misnamed in this country, as there is no rabbit indigenous to America.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER RODENTIA. 103
creature, loving the recesses of the thickest woods. It runs with great speed, and has been known to clear over twenty feet at a single bound. It is very fierce, however, and when overtaken will scratch and bite severely. The Gray Rabbit
Fig. 173.
Lepus callotis, Jackass Rabbit or Hare. 35.
does not change its fur in the winter to so decided a white as the Northern Hare, or White Rabbit, as it is often called. Never making burrows itself, when pursued it will take refuge in those of other animals. The Lepus callotis of Texas and Mexico is remarkable only for its big ears.
104 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER EDENTATA.
General Characteristics.—The Edentates (toothless) are related only negatively by being destitute of incisors, Different members of the order being herbivorous, insectivor- ous, carnivorous, as well as omnivorous, no tabulation is given.
Myrmecophagide.— The Giant Ant-eater of South America has toothless jaws a foot long. It can open its
Fig. 17h.
Myr mecophaga jubdta, Giant Ant-eater.
mouth, however, only far enough to thrust forth its long, worm-like tongue.* This is covered by a viscid saliva, and can be darted hither and thither with lightning-like rapidity. With its fore feet, armed with powerful nails, it tears open an ant-hill, when the bewildered inmates rush out, and, stick- ing to its tongue, are rapidly swept into its mouth. When sleeping, it wraps itself in its large, bushy tail, presenting the appearance of a heap of dried grass, and thus escapes the notice of its enemies. Attacked, it rises, bear-like, upon its hind feet and clasps its enemy, its strong claws being a match for the Jaguar. It is, however, quite inoffensive, and rarely uses its great strength, even in its own defence.
* Though the animal is only four or five feet long, it is said that the thread-like tongue can be thrust out to a distance of two feet and as often as twice per second.
CLASS MAMMALS! ORDER EDENTATA, 105
Bradypodidee.—The Sloth,* of which there are two varieties—the two-toed and three-toed—is also peculiar to South Amer- ica. The latter species, called the Ai, from ; its cry, lives on the zg under side of the NS branches of trees, even 7Y¥ wW7/f. sleeping suspended AW 7 back downward. Cling- “
Ij Wy ing to a limb with its Bradypus tridactylus, ‘Ai or Three-toed Sloth. 5. short hind legs, it draws in other boughs with its long fore legs, in order to strip off the leaves for food.
Dasypodi- dee.—-The Ar- madillos were so called by the Spaniards from their ‘coat of mail.” This bony armor con- sists of aggluti- nated hairs. The middle is divided into bands, to give freedom of mo- tion. The ani- mal’s snout is
7
Fig. 176.
Dasijpus novemcinctus, Nine-banded Armadillo. 2.
* Cuvier said of this family, ‘“ Nature seems to have amused herself in producing something imperfect and grotesque.” Their fore legs are so much larger than their hind ones that when they try to walk on the ground they have to drag themselves along on their knees, and they seem awkward enough; but when moving on the forest. trees they are seen to be in harmony with their intended life. In avoiding pursuit they spring from tree to tree with great rapidity, particularly in a gale of
106 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
pointed, for digging in search of roots and worms, and for hiding from its enemies.*
The Nine-banded Armadillo abounds in Central America, and is domesticated to clear the honses of ants. The Mataco, or
y Three-banded Armadillo, does not burrow, but for defence rolls itself into a ball. The Pichicta- go resembles the mole in its ~ habits. Its short tail, flattened at the end and bent under the body, serves to throw the earth
Fig. 177.
Dasypus tricinctus. i Three-banded Armadillo, gy. backward when burrowing.t+
= = Is ig!
Chlamyphbrus truncatus, Pichiciago. * 3. wind when the branches are swaying toward one another. Their fleshis good eating and they need all their agility to escape their numerous enemies.
* Its legs are very strong, and Wood relates that he has seen an Armadillo run- ning around with ease carrying three monkeys who had chosen to takearide. When caught, though so small, it will kick with great effect. Some varietics will burrow xo fast that it ix said the animal will sink out of sight before a man on horsehack seeing one can dismount and catch it. In Paraguay the natives detect the presence of av Armadillo in its hole by thrusting down a stick, when, if it is there, a swarm of mosquitoes will fly buzzing out.
t The Armadillos are the true scavengers of the plains, speedily devouring the carcasses of wild animals, and especially of such as have been slaughtered merely for their hides.
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER MARSUPIALIA. 107
ORDER MARSUPIALIA.
General Characteristics.—The Marsupials (pouched) are not over an inch long at birth, but are immediately Wig. 179. transferred to a pocket formed by the skin of the mother’s abdomen. Nourished by milk, they remain there, as in a living cradle, till able to take care of themselves. Except a single Family, they be- long to Australia and adjacent islands.
Macropodide.—The Kanga- roos are noted for their small fore limbs and large hind ones. The latter with the powerful tail form a tripod to sustain the ani- mal when sitting; but when feed- ing, it goes upon all fours, and ; the young often protrude their 7%" maior, Kangaroo. xy. heads from the abdominal pouch and crop the herbage at the same time with the mother. When alarmed, the Kanga- roo bounds off twenty feet at a leap.* Its eyes are large and have a peculiar gazelle-like expression in strange contrast to that of its gleaming white teeth. The different species vary in height from that of a rabbit to that of a man.
Didelphys virginiana, Opossum.
* It is eagerly hunted for its flesh and skin. When brought to bay by the hounds it seizes them with its fore limbs and endeavors either to drown them, if water be at, hand, or to lay them open with its hind claw.
108 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Didelphidze.—The Opossum belongs to this Continent, but of the thirty species, only one is found in North Amer- ica. The common variety is about the size of a cat, with a pointed head; large, naked ears ; sharp teeth; rough tongue; long, prehensile tail; and curved claws.* It is mostly noc- turnal and arboreal, and both herbivorgug.and carnivorous.
ORDER MONOTR
aort tail General Characteristics.—The ae mes, found
only in Australia and vicinity, form a ayo 1ecting link between the Mammals and Birds.
The Porcupine Ant-euter has a nearly cylruurical beak covered with skin, except at the end, where there is a small
Fig. 181.
opening for its long, flexible tongue. It has no teeth, and feeds on insects. Its body is covered with hair and spines. When surprised, it rolls itself into a ball, or burrows flatwise into the earth with surprising rapidity.
* Hunting the animal is a favorite sport in some of the Southern States. In the bright moonlight evenings of the autumn, parties go out for this purpose with dogs. The opossum soon hides in the thick branches of a tree ; but, when shaken down, rolls into a ball and feigns itself dead; after a few moments it slowly opens one eye, then the other, and if unhindered sneaks away. The young weigh only about four grains when put in the pouch, and are blind and deaf. Within a week their tails become prehensile enough to twine around one another's bodies. In five weeks they are able to crawl out and are sometimes found on the back of the mother, with their tails grasping hers, which, in turn, is twisted about a branch,
CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER MONOTREMATA. 109
The Water Mole* caps the climax of the eccentric Aus- tralian Zoology. The bill of a duck is attached to the body of an otter; while on each side of either mandible is a tooth without roots. In the sides of the mouth are capacious cheek-pouches. The fore feet have a web extending beyond their extremities, which can be folded up when the feet are used for burrowing, or expanded when employed in swim- ming. The hind feet are webbed only to the base of the nails. The body is covered with fur, beneath which is a layer of soft wadding, impervious to water. Its burrow runs underground forty or fifty feet, with one entrance under
Fig. 182.
water, and another just above. At the further end is a nest of grass for the rearing of its young, which are born and nourished like those of other mammals. It swims upon the surface, diving continually, and also, like the duck, thrusting its beak into the mud for food. So far as present discoveries indicate, it stands at the extreme of the mammals.
* See ‘‘ Fourteen Weeks in Geology,” p. 173.
110 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
CLASS II. AVES.
General Characteristics.—Birds are marked by being clothed with feathers. The modifications in the skeleton of a mammal necessary to adapt it for flight are very few, and are mainly those pertaining to the fore limbs and the breast- bone. The latter (y) is greatly enlarged to furnish support to the powerful muscles* which move the wings; and the former have the bones below the elbow (2) more or less consolidated to give them a firm stroke against the air. The hand contains, in most species, three fingers. The clavicles (7) are generally united at one end, forming arm. the “wish-bone” To hy) XC strengthen the body the lum-
~ “s+ bar and sacral vertebre are joined to the hip-bones (7), the dorsal are more or less x — wnited, and the ribs are ossi- fied throughout, with each a process (f) lapping upon the adjoining rib. The inner toe or thumb has two phalangeal bones; the next, three; the middle, four; and the last, five. The number of cervical vertebree () varies from nine to twenty-three; and the upper one articulates with the skull hy only one process, thus aiding in that variety of motion so essential in the act of ‘* preening.”
The bones are light. This is owing to their being com- posed largely of phosphate of lime, and the marrow in many of them being replaced by air. Singularly, at one stage they are solid, like those of all Vertebrates, but the hony tissue is afterward absorbed. “The thinnest-walled and widest air-
Fig. 183.
are
Skeleton of a Bird.
* The pectoral muscles form the great part of the so-called “ breast’ of a fowl.
CLASS AVES. 111
bone of the bird of flight,” says Owen, “ was first solid, next a marrow-bone, and finally became the case of an air-cell.” The Plumage is a model of adaptation. The quills are hollow, and like the bones, filled with air. They are compos- ed of the same substance, chemically, as the hair of mammals and the scales of fishes. The delicate filaments of a feather are covered with grasping barbs of a microscopic fineness. The under side of a feather is concave, to resist an upward
Fig. 18h.
PLumMAGE oF A Brrp.—1, crown ; 2, forehead ; 3, nostrils ; 4, upper mandible ; 5, lower do.; 6, throat; 7, neck, 8, spurious quills; 9, occiput; 10, ear; 11, nape; 12, breast ; 13, middle coverts; 14, large do. ; 15, belly ; 16, tibia; 17, tarsus ; 18, inner toe ; 19, middle do.; 20, outer do. » 21, thumb; 22, under tail-coverts ; 23, tail; 2h, primaries ; 25, secondaries ; 26, tertiaries.
pressure. On the tail is a gland containing oil, with: which the bird lubricates its plumage and makes it waterproof. The whole plumage is renewed (molted) once or twice a year. The Wing has a motion somewhat like the stroke of an oar; it strikes the air with the broad side, but, in returning, presents only the sharp edge. The flight of a bird offers
112 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
a curious problem. It is supposed that the upward pressure of the air caught in the saucer-like hollow of the wing can- not bend the inflexible bone and muscles of the front margin, but curves the ends of the elastic quills upward, pushing them forward, and so vorcing the bird ahead.
Respiration takes place not only in the lungs, but also in the substance of the other organs; the air penetrating into the interior of the bones and feathers, sometimes even to the toes. So complete is this second process that it is said a bird will breathe through the end of a broken bone when the windpipe is tied.
Hatching birds’ eggs requires a varying length of time, according to the species. The temperature needed is 104° Fahr. The chick first pierces its shell by a pegging motion — of the hardened point of the under mandible, and then enlarges the aperture by pressing with the knob-like* end of the upper mandible. Finally, by turning from left to right, it breaks the shell about half around, when a vigorous stretch of the body, assisted by bracing with the feet, parts the shell transversely and the young bird is liberated.
The class of birds is divided into orders as follows :{
* This falls off soon after the chick emerges from its shell, as Nature abhors a useless appendage.
+ Sometimes the fracture extends entirely around the egg, and the two portions are completely separated from each other. But if the inner membrane of the shell be not wholly divided, the connecting portion serves as a hinge, and the two parts of the shell may, in the movements of the young bird, become set, like two cups, one within the other.
t The classification of Birds is unsettled. Ornithologists have not as yet agreed even upon the number of orders, Attempts have been made to establish an ordinal system. Thus the form of the bill has been made a basis of separating the almost interminable series of Passerine birds into Conirostres, with stout, conical bill; Dentirostres, with a toothed and usually more or less hooked tip; Tenuirostres, with an e‘ongated and awl-shaped bill; and Fissirostres, with a depressed, wide-gaped bill. These distinctions have proved unveliable and are generally discarded, In such uncertainty the classification here adopted is essentially that of Lilljeborg in “A History of North American Birds,” by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway. It is, however, considered only provisional. The fifteen orders given in the table have been sub- divided by recent authorities into over one hundred families, several hundred genera, and at least ten thousand epecies. The limits of this book will permit the descrip- tion of only one or two species typical of each family selected, American examples being generally chosen.
cLass
AVES.
Upper part of crus (tibia and fibuiay
free as well as the lower part of the femur.
not free, but inclosed within the skin
Base of hinder toe or hallux
Bill
Feet palmate.
of the trunk,
CLASS AVES.
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.
(not elevated { NOT EXCEEDING HALF THE LENGTH OF THE above the SECONDARY QUILLS. CLAW OF THE POS- TERIOR TOE NOT SMALLER THAN THE ae the CLAW OF THE ANTERIOR MIDDLE ONE. rior toes; the (two anterior and two pos- ) entire terior, or three anterior posterior and one posterior, with the toe outer anterior versatile. insistent, | ZECEEDING | two anterior and two pos- rarely BALE THE: terior, outer not versatile. } LENGTH OF obsolete. to ? f SECOND- , covered with a Nort. 0 A4RY cere at the base secondaries QUILL. and with the of first series Tors point of the three | upper mandible anterior hooked. and one + l posterior. without cere or Bill hook. Generally naked at base, or with large, swollen skin * above nostrils, FEATHERED; POSTERIOR TOE RARELY ; ABSENT. elevated above base as without crest. \ . NAKED ; of anterior POSTERIOR long, and toes, TOE usually flexible Inferior SOMETIMES with and sensitive. L WANTING. part of crus 2 ish crest. 4 long, stout, and Bill inflexible. short usually. ( lamellate caer a a \ CONNECTED BY MEMBRANE WITH INNER TOE AND NEARLY LEVEL WITH OTHERS. long, passing beyond base of without tails Legs at 1 Jamelle as Hinder tad available | equilibrium. for flight, short, when FREE OR closed scarcely qaeichen reaching the tail. Legs AWINGS posterior. | unavailable for flight. Coe
1138
ORDERS
1. PAssEREs. Thrush, etc,
2. PicaRia.
Woodpecker, ete
3. PsITTAct. Parrot, etc.
4, RapTores. Falcon, ete.
5. COLUMB. Dove, etc.
6. GALLINE. Turkey, ete.
7. BREVIPENNES. Ostrich, etc.
8. Limicova. | Plover, etc.
9. HERODIONES. Heron, ete.
10. ALECTORIDES. Rail, etc.
ll, LAMELLIROS- Tres. Duck, etc.
12, STEGANOPO-
pEs. Pelican, ete.
13, LONGIPENNES.
Gull, etc.
14, PYGOPODEs. Loon, etc.
15, SPHENISCI. Penguin, etc.
114 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER PASSERES.
General Characteristics.—The Passeres (sparrows) al- ways have the four toes on nearly the same level, with the hind one exactly opposite the others, giving great facility in perching.* They excel in vivacity and song.
Turdidz.—The Thrushes are found in all parts of the world. The bird organization reaches in them its highest development, especially in the complex vocal apparatus of certain species.
The Rodin t alone of its family seems to court the society of man, following close upon the plough and spade and often nesting in a corner of the piazza. It is a ground bird, sel- dom picking worms from t a tree, and never catching Turdus migratorius, Robin. }. them as they dangle in
Fig. 185.
* They are therefore known also as Insessores or Perchers._Some authors have subdivided this order into Oscines, songsters, and Clamatores,screamers. Amid such diversity any tabulation into families would be unsatisfactory.
+ The following is taken from Baird, Brewer and Ridgway as a specimen of what every thorough teacher will require from each of his pupils in writing, Fig. 186. with simple sketches attached, for = every bird that can be obtained in the immediate vicinity ;—‘* Tur- DUS MIGRATORIUS, Hobin, Ameri- can Redbreast. Tail slightly rounded; above olive-gray; top
and sides of the head black; chin : Ss " and throat white, streaked with ee Cg ee) black; eyelids and a spot above ‘ pee a) the eye, anteriorly white; under _—
parts and inside of the wings chest- u ———
nut-brown ; the under tail-coverts wa eae
and tibie white, showing the plum- aa EE VE beous inner portions of the feath- Sketch of principal parts of the Robin.
ers; wings dark brown ; the feath-
ers all edged more or less with pale esh; tail still darker, the extreme feathers tipped with white; bill yellow, dusky along the ridge and at the tip. Length 9.75; wing 5.43; tail 4.75; tarsus 1.25 inches, Habitat, whole of North America,”
CLASS AVES: ORDER PASSERES. 116
the air, but snapping them up the moment they touch the sod. One of the earliest-comers and latest-goers of the migratory birds, no one labors more zealously in the service of all, or, in comparison with the good it does, takes a smaller amount of toll.* The female robin sits fourteen days. Two broods are usually reared in a season, and often three in Southern New England and the Middle States.
The Mocking-bird + is remarkable for its nen varied melody and won- S& derful power of imita- tion. There is no song or sound which it does not mimic so perfectly as to deceive the most experienced ear. As it pours forth its medley of ’ harmonious music and Mimus polyglottus, Mocking-bird. 2. discordant noise, birds answer to what they think is the call of their mates or the scream of the hawk; the dog hastens to what he imagines the whistle of his master ; the hen hurries at the fancied cry of her frightened brood, and the child runs to the window, attracted by the supposed sound of a creaking wheelbarrow.
Saxicolidze (rock-dwellers).—The Blwe-bird alone repre- sents this family in America, and the Robin-redbreast { (#rythdeus rubectla) typically in Europe. Were the blue of
* However voraciously he may for a single month feed upon strawberries and cherries, the rest of the season he serves both the horticulturist and the agricultur- ist. Tn nothing is he injurious to the latter; while to both he is invaluable for de- stroying the larve of almost every insect found upon or (within the length of its bill) beneath the surface of the soil. Wherever the robins and birds of similar habits are destroyed, these insects and worms increase to an alarming extent. A wise Creator has designed the birds not only for ornament and pleasure, but to serve a definite purpose in protecting vegetation. Prudence would teach us to protect them as our faithful servants.
t Southern Pennsylvania is the usual northernmost limit of the Mocking Bird, although it has been known to breed for successive years in Massachusetts.
¢ The European Robin-redbreast must not be confounded with the American robin, which, as we have seen, belongs toa different family.
116 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
the former replaced by the brown-olive of the latter, the two birds could hardly be distinguished.*
Motacillide.— The Wagtail incessantly flirts its tail up and down, accompanying each elevation with a jerking spread. This is due to the length of the tarsi (Fig. 184), which, on the lowering of the bill, throws the centre of gravity in front of the feet and gives the body a constant tendency to tumble forward. The quickly-expanding tail striking against the air, raises the head again with little effort.
Fig. 188.
Sialia sidlis, Blue-bird. }.
Fig. 189. Fig. 190.
e Be5-
Motacilla alba, White Wagtail. }. Philoméla luscini
Sylvicolidz (wood-warblers).— The Nightingale of Europe has been famed from time immemorial for the sweet- ness of its voice. It is a shy bird, but its song is occasion- ally heard during the day, though it is most pleasing in the
* Their social nature corresponds as fully as their physical, and the blue-bird would figure as appropriately in the beautiful legend of ‘‘ The Babes in the Wood "as the traditional robin-redbreast.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PASSERES. 117
silence and serenity of a moonlight evening. Both sexes sing, though the male excels. Its plumage is a modest reddish-brown above and a whitish-gray beneath—a mim- icry adapting it to the foliage among which it loves to hide itself.
Hirundinidze.—The Swal- lows have long wings, which enable them to be almost con- stantly in flight.* The Barn Swallow is the most common species, and is deservedly a : favorite, as there is no evil girunao horredrum, Barn Swallow. 3. blended with its many bene- fits. Purely insectivorous, it destroys alike the pests of fruit trees, of cattle, and of man.
Ampelidze (wax-wings)—The Cedar-tird is noticeable for the exquisitely fine and silky texture of its plumage ; its erectile crest; and the remarkable ap- pendages to the shafts of the sec- ondaries (and sometimes to the tail), of a bright vermilion, re- sembling red sealing-wax. It ap- pears in New England about the last of May, in flocks of fifteen or twenty, ridding the orchards of the destructive span-worm and the canker-worm; and then pairing off and nesting late in June or Ampilis cedrorum, Cedar-bird, # early in July. ih return for its
Fig. 191.
Fig. 192.
* The Swallow attains the rate of more than a mile a minute, which. if sustained during ten hours a day for ten years, the supposed life of the bird, would give over two million miles, or upwards of eighty-seven times the circumference of the globe. —The wide-spread belief that the flying high of swallows indicates settled fair weather, and the flying low foul weather, may have foundation in the barometric changes of the atmosphere, varying the height of the strata of air in which they forage for insects.
118 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
invaluable services, it helps itself somewhat freely to the smaller fruits, and hence
is most unwisely perse- cuted.*
Laniidea.— The Shrike devours the larger insects and smaller birds, striking them senseless by one blow upon the head with its powerful
(a toothed beak. Its claws
Collurio boredlis, Shrike or Butcher-bird. being feeble, it impales its victims upon thorns, often a number at a time on the same bush, that it may eat them at its leisure. While dis- membering, it cunningly stands upon the inner side, so as to transfix them more completely.t
Tanagridze.—The male Scarlet Tanager, in the third and following years, has, with the exception of the jet-black wings and tail, a fiery-red Fig. 19h. plumage, in brilliant con- trast with the green leaves among which it flits. After the August molting, and during the first year, it is not distinguishable, in its greenish livery, from the female, its gay summer . plumage being assumed on re-entering our southern borders in the spring. The f birds of this family feed Pyranga rubra, Scarlet Tanager. i mainly upon the insects in the topmost branches of trees,
Fig. 193.
ee
\
* Often alighting side by side, the outer one of the serics will pluck a cherry within reach and pass it to the second, and he to the third, and so on to the end, and then back again to where it started, repeating the manceuvre several times, until, the appetite whetted up, some one of fhe line will take a bite and spoil the fun.
¢ In like manner it has been observed, when in confinement, to weave the body of a mouse between the wires of the cage, that it might bear a heavier pull while being torn in pieces.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PASSERES. 119
and claim protection as among the most useful of our songsters.
Fringillidee.—The Finches* are distinguished by a short, conical bill, usually notched. The Song-sparrows are our earliest and latest musicians. Those nesting in the far north pass the latitude of New England late in November, and return in early March; always in full song, with notes “louder, clearer, and more vibratory than those that come to us and remain to breed.” + It nests both on the ground and in trees, only the older birds selecting the latter, as though taught by experience the greater security.
Fig. 195. Fig. 196.
Curvirostra leucoptéra, Curvirostra americana.
Melospiza melodia, Song Sparrow. 3. Cross Bill. 3.
The Cross Bill, when matured, has its mandibles lapping, though the young do not possess this peculiarity. While this anomalous form does not unfit the bird for eating
* The necessity of examining not only a great number of specimens of the same bird, but also those from different localities, is especially apparent in this family. Each region of North America seems to possess a different variety. So completely, however, do the forms of a series of hundreds of specimens from different places insensibly grade into one another, that eight species have been united in one by recent authors
+ Individuals have been known to sing ‘nine eutirely different sets of notes,” usually uttering them one after another in the same order.”
120 SUBKINGDOM V;
"RTEBRATA- insects and soft fruit, it peculiarly auupts sv 2 obtain food from the seed ¢ pine and
Fig. 197.
fir cones. *
Alaudidee.—_; "The Larks are distinguishl ed by long and nearly gotraight hind claws. The Shore Lark is the only rep esentative in- digenous to Nortu ‘yeAmerica, * but the most noted iste ~ are . European Skylark, now par-
Eremophila cornita, Shore Lark. }. tially domesticated in the
United States. It rises with
quivering wings almost perpendicularly, singing the while,
until it passes out of sight, though not out of hearing; and
then, closing its wings, drops headlong down into the meadow again, in a very ecstacy of song.
Icteridze.—The Bobolink is one of the most beneficial or destructive of birds, according to the season of the year and the locality. In its spring migrations, it is the pest of the Southern wheat-fields ; and in its autumnal flight, of the rice planta- tions. It renders, however, a re- deeming service in devouring cotton- worm larve, and in its breeding- places it is purely insectivorous. ‘The female conceals her nest on the ground among the standing grass by ** aligiing or rising a distance from it.t
Fig. 198.
Dotichdnyx oryzivorus, Bobolink, or Rice-bird. 3.
* These seeda are concealed beneath hard ecales. To secure them the bird, cling- ing to the slender twig with one foot, grasps the cone with the other; then inserting its bill between the scales, by drawing the lower mandible sideways, pries them apart, when the tongue, which is furnished with a peculiar horny scoop, darts into the opening, dislodges the seed and carries it to the mouth.
+ The grotesque, though charming song of the Bobolink is a curious medley of jingling, incomprehensible notes, uttered with a volioility and earnestness that bor- ders upon the ludicrous, especially when thirty or forty begin, one after another, and
CLASS AVES: ORDER PASSERES. 121
The Cow-bird is gregarious and polygamous, exhibiting neither conjugal nor parental affection. ‘The female lays in the nests of other birds, usually those of similar appetite, and whose eggs hatch two days later. The adopted nestling being larger, obtains the greater share of food, and its foster compan- ions are generally soon stifled or starved.*
The Baltimore Oriole, noticeable for its brilliant plumage, almost invariably reaches the latitude of Southern New England on the 10th of May. Its rich and full-toned melody defies verbal equivalents.t Though pernicious by injuring the pea-crop, it more than compensates by destroying the canker- worm and the tent- caterpillar, which few birds venture to dis- turb. The oriole’s nest
Ictérus baltimore, Golden Robin. 3. is composed of vege- table fibres, hair, etc., woven into a kind of purse hung from the end of a limb.t
at length get into an exact concert; but, when the listener is just beginning to be enraptured, the music ceases as suddenly as if an organ-bellows had burst.
* Their dead bodies are probably removed by their parents, as they are never found near the nest, which would be the case, if, like the cuckoo of Europe, they were thrown out by the young cow-bird.
+ Nuttall describes the notes of its song thus: Tshippe-tshayia-too-too-tshippe- the-tshippe-too-too. The failure will be apparent to all who compare it with the original.
+ In the museum of Brown University is a nest originally sustained by threads fastened around two twigs forming a fork, One of the twigs breaking off three days before the young were ready to fly, the old bird procured a piece of twine at least
Fig. 199.
Holothrus pecbris, Cow-bird.
Fig. 200.
122 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 201. Corvidze.— The true Crow and the Jay pass so insensibly into each other as hardly to present a di- viding line. The Raven, though rare in the Hastern States, is generally dis- tributed throughout North
Spee tas ; eet ae Am erica. It exhib- Corvus corax. Raven. qs. its wonderful sagacity in
two feet in length, and, after winding several inches of one end many times around the part of the branch still imbedded in the matting of the nest, drew all taut and then fastened the other end by a tuck-under knot to a fork in the branch full ten inches above. Fig. 202 is en- graved from a photograph of this curiously-mended nest, kindly furnished by
the curator of the mu- Fig, 202, seum, Prof. J. W. P. Jenks.
* The Raven is generally consid- ered as of evil omen. It is easily tamed and taught to repeat sentences. Pliny tells of one which was accus- tomed to stand in a public place in Rome, and call out the name of every passer-by. There is a story related of an awkward horseman who fell from his seat, and at that moment a raven in the tree above cried out, with its solemn voice, ‘‘ How silly !’ Charles Dickens in his preface to Bar- Nest of Oriole. naby Rudge, gives his amusing experience
with tame ravens. Our Common Crow (Cor-
vus americdnus) can be distinguished from the Raven by being much smaller and by
CLASS AVES: ORDER PASSERES. 123
eluding the hunter, seeming to detect at a glance the differ- Fig. 208. ence between a person going quietly about his business and one “on mis- chief bent.”
The Blue Jay’s pleasing plumage is in startling contrast with the harsh notes of its ordinary song. Though irritable and quarrelsome, it has been tamed and taught to pronounce cer- tain words. Itis of great service in planting the seeds of forest trees and in devouring, during the winter sea- son, the eggs of the destructive tent- N caterpillar.
Ploceide.—The Weaver-birds are Cyanitra cristata, Blue Jay. 3. found only in India and Africa, and are named from the inimitable construction of their nests. Some are pendent from the twigs of tall trees overhanging a stream, and are shaped like an inverted bottle or chemical retort, with a long tube Fig. 20h.
for the entrance, made of fibres so loosely put to- gether that a_ reptile would drop off into the water. Others similarly suspended are pyramidal in shape and divided into two chambers—the outer, perhaps, for the use of the male and the inner for the eggs.
The Sociable Weaver- bird is polygamous. A colony of two or three hundred con-
oe ae os fe Nest of Sociable Weaver-bird.
having its throat-feathers oval and close; while those of the raven are sharp and scattered. The Rook (0. frugilegus), so familiar to every European traveler and which congregates in flocks about churches and old ruins, does not eat carrion. The fondness of the raven for such food explains why the one sent from the Ark by Noah returned no more to him.
124 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 205. struct in a tree a huge, sloping roof, impervious to rain. Beneath this, side by side, each female makes her nest, three or four inches in diameter, weaving it to the roof. When completed, the lower surface of the umbrel- la-like structure appears per- Bo forated by small openings, ble Weaver-bird. 4. ike the cells of a bee-hive, all the birds living together in perfect harmony. Paradiseidz. — The Fig. 206. Paradise-birds are na- tives of New Guinea and theadjacent islands. The apoda* (footless) is the most beautiful. The brilliant plumed tufts beneath its wings and the bright emerald green of its head and neck are particularly striking. Menurideae.—tThe Lyre-birds of Australia are noticeable for the shape of the tail and their habit of making small round hillocks, on — Pa”agis’a apbda, which the male is con- Bird of Paradise. 3. tinually trampling while gracefully erecting and spreading its plumes.
Ploctus socius, So
* The bird was so named from the absurd belief pre- vailing, when it was first introduced to the civilized world, that it had no feet, the cunning natives being accustomed to cut them off, and to assert that the bird hung to the trees by its plumes, and that it passed the breeding-season in Paradise, fed on dew.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PICARILA. 125
Fig. 207 Fig. 208.
Myiarchus crinitus, Mentira superba, Lyre-bird. 45. Great Crested Flycatcher. 4,
Tyrannide.—The Fly-catchers are American, though comparatively few of the genera belong to North America. They are not strictly insectivorous, but in general are indis- pensable to the farmer.
The Great-crested F. is extending its habitat northward and eastward to localities where it was unknown at the beginning of the century. It makes its nest in hollow trees or stumps, generally lining it with cast-off snake-cuticles.
ORDER PICARIA.
General Characteristics.—To the peculiarities of this order given in the table, p. 113, may be added their altricial nature, though the young are in some species hatched with down.
Alcedinidee.—The King-fishers* have a long, pointed beak, and the outer and middle toes united as far as the last joint. For nesting, they dig holes ten to fifteen feet deep in a sandbank.
* They always bring the fish out of the water seized near the tail. If small, it is swallowed immediately, head foremost ; if large, it is carried to a rock or stump and thrashed till dead.
126 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Caprimulgidze (goat-suckers).— Fig. 210. The Night Hawh,* notwithstanding Fig. 209.
Chordeiles popetiie, Night Hawk. }.
its popular name, retires to rest at = ————— the close of twilight, when it can no Ceryle alcijon, i 5 . Belted King-fisher. }.
longer discern its insect prey.t Its
sharp squeak is occasionally varied by a loud, booming sound, emitted when its downward flight is arrested during a swoop near the surface of the earth.t Its two eggs are usually laid on a rock or some place exposed to the sun, without any nest, though the mother broods them assiduously, fluttering away, when alarmed, as though wounded. If dis- turbed, it will, like the S whippoorwill, carry off the eggs or young In its capa- cious mouth to another locality. The Whippoorwill Antrostémus HOC SES Wibenoery il . is silent during the day,
Fig. 911.
* The Night Hawk: and Wiippoor ‘will are commonly believed to be identical. They are really, however, distinct not only in color markings, but also generically, thus: ; : si PRM ee a eee + Its singular habit of perching lengthwise on a limb or rail is well known; but in confinement it often perches across a finger, or the back of a chair. + The former sound is produced by its vocal organs; the latter, by a quick, vibrating motion of the wings.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PICARIA. 127
but at night comes forth to watch for beetles, moths, ete. If it does not seize an insect at the first dash, the exceedingly sensitive bristles lining the sides of the upper mandible tell which way the prey is moving. After each sally it returns to the same spot. Its middle toe is pectinated, doubtless for cleaning its bristles.
The Chuck-will’s-widow of the South is larger than the Whippoorwill, and has bris- tles with lateral filaments. |
Trogonide.— The Tro- | gons of the tropics are pre- eminent for brilliancy of J plumage.*
Cypselidz.—The Swiftt | alights readily on a perpen- dicular surface, to which it clings with its sharp claws and short spined tail. The Chimney-swallow, the only
* The ancient Mexicans kept large aviaries of these birds both on account of their beauty and their gorgeous plumes, which were plucked at a certain season and worked into mosaic images and pictures.
+ This bird is so called from its un- rivaled power of wing, though it lacks the speed and grace of the Hirundinide. —One species of this family (Collocalia esculenta) is the principal maker of the ‘‘ Edible birds’ nests.’? These are con- structed with bits of sea-weed, meta- morphosed in the bird's stomach, disgorged ana attached to the rocks. When washed and soaked, they form a gelatinous substance highly esteemed among the Chinese for making soup. Trogon resplendens, The nests are taken down three or four Resplendent Trogon. 7.
Fig. 212.
128 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 218. American species, with its feet, while on the wing, adroitly breaks off twigs and fastens them to the chimney with its tough, glue-like. saliva so strongly that the brick to which the nest is attached will sometimes yield before the cement. Trochilide. — Humming-birds are peculiarly American. About 450 species are recognized, yet only one, the Ruby-throated, visits the North Atlantic States, and but ten hectare: jalan: any part of the United States. Chimney-swallow or Swift. 3. They are the smallest as well as the gayest of birds, blending in their rich plumage the rarest colors of flower and gem. Their bills, shaped according to the form of the blossom they are designed to pene- trate for insects, vary great- ly—some being short and straight, others longer than their bodies, and yet others greatly curved. The hum- ming-bird can fly so rapidly that the eye can scarcely Trockilus colitbris, — follow its flight, or, by beat- Ruby-throated Humming-bird. }. ing the air with its wings, Fig. 215. sustain itself in front of a flower almost immovable. All the species build tiny, times per year from the caves to which the swallows are accustomed to resort, the old nests being destroyed to com- pel the birds to build new ones, which, when fresh and unused, bring their weight in silver. The proprietors of a cave in Java are anid to receive 50.000 florins annually for rent, and 4,000,000
nestsure yearly exported trom the coast aa of Cochin China, Nest of Humming-bird.
Fig. 2h.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PICARLA. 129
cup-shaped nests of vegetable down, with an outer coating of lichens glued on with saliva. Each contains two little white eggs, the size of a pea. Cuculidee.—The Cuckoos in- habit all countries. Their toes are in pairs, the exterior being somewhat reversible, in one species’ entirely so. The only species found in England is parasitical in its incubation, like the American cow-bird. Its young, however, hatches simul-
taneously with its nest-compan- ; NN . 7 Coccigus americinus, lons, whom it soon tosses out Yellow-billed Cuckoo. }.
upon the ground to perish.
The Roud Runner, a ground bird * found in southwestern North America, is so swift of foot that for a quarter of a mile it will outrun a fleet horse.
The Yellow - billed Cuckoo, with its near . relative, the Black-billed (Coceygus erythroph- -thalmus), is found throughout North America, They are both fond of hairy caterpil- lars, which few birds will eat.t Unlike the European species, they build a nest, though it is rude and airy. Laying their eggs, however, at long intervals, they protract the breeding season from one to four months; the same nest often containing a freshly-laid
Fig. 217.
* It always carries the beetles and snails on which it feeds to a particular spot in order to break the shell, and thus piles of the broken fragments collect at that place.
t The cuckoo's gizzard is often found lined with caterpillar’s hairs, so tenaciously adhering by their minute barbs as to require microscopic examination to prove that they do not grow from the coating of the stomach.
130 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
egg, one just hatching, a young bird partly fledged, and another ready to fly.
Rhamphastide.—The Zoucan* is noted for an enor- mous bill. Its honeycomb structure, however, makes it light, and its form adapts it to extract eggs from deep holes and nests for food.
Fig. 218, Fig. 219.
Rhamphastos tucdnus, Campephilus principalis, Toucan, South America. 2. Ivory-billed Woodpecker. 5.
Picidee.-The Woodpeckers are the typical Zygodactyles (yoke-toed), having toes in pairs, one before and one behind. Their tongue can be thrust far out, and a hole once made to the lurking-place of an insect, the tip, barbed on the upper side and viscid with saliva, quickly transfers the victim to the gullet of its captor. The spiny tail of most of the species aids in supporting the body. The lustrous, white eggs are laid on chips at the bottom of their holes.
The Lvory-billed Woodpecker is the largest north of Central America. With its wedge-shaped bill it can bore a hole three feet deep for its nest in the trunk of a living tree. As
* The word Toucan means feathcr,and refers to its barb-covered tongue. On account of its habit of assembling in flocks to chatter, it is called among the natives the Preacher-bird.
+ This bird is so strong that strips of bark several inches in length are often detached at a single blow, and with such rapidity as to sound like a falling shower.
CLASS AVES: ORDER PSITTACI. 131
a protection from the rain, it generally makes the opening under a large branch. Its undulating flight, often by a sin- gle sweep from tree to tree, as if the bird had been swung with closed wings in a curved line, is the perfection of graceful movement.
The Golden-winged Woodpecker is the most extensively distributed through North America, and the most beautifully colored of its family. The male cannot be distinguished from the female, except by the black patches on its cheeks, looking like side-whiskers.
Fig. 221. Fig. 220. i
Colaptes auratus, Picoides hirsiitus, Golden-winged Woodpecker. 2. Banded Three-toed Woodpecker. 2.
The Three-toed Woodpecker, of which there are three spe- cies, is rarely found south of the Canadas or Northern Maine.
ORDER PSITTACI.
General Characteristics.—The Parrots have a thick bill, the upper mandible strongly hooked at the end, with a naked space at the base; tongue fleshy and round; and neither toe versatile. In captivity they may be taught to imitate the human voice, but not as well as other species of birds.* The only family (Psittacide) embraces about three
* Its language is often so pat as to show that the bird really understands its use. Goldsmith tells a story of a parrot belonging to Henry VIII, which fell into the
132 - SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 223.
Contirus carolinensis, “ Cacatita sulphuréa,
Carolina Parrot. 2. Sulphur-crested Cockatoo. 3. { hundred and fifty species, fully one-half belonging to South_! America. a“
The Carolina Parrot, the single species found in the United States, is rapidly becoming extinct. Its curiosity is its greatest foe. One of a flock being shot, the rest will keep alighting near by, till all are captured.
Cockatoos are forms often seen in our menageries. One genus is distinguished for its size and erectile, sulphur- colored crest, but especially for its longevity—individuals having lived in captivity more than a hundred years.
ORDER RAPTORES.* General Characteristics.—The canine teeth and power-
Thames. It immediately bawled out ‘‘ A boat! a boat! twenty pounds to save me.” Aman thinking some one was drowning, threw himself into the river, but was astonished to discover it was only a bird. Finding the king was its master he carried it to him and claimed the promised reward. Henry laughing at the story paid the amount “ with good grace."—Lord Dundonald, in his autobiography. says that once some ladies were being hoisted up the sides of a vessel by means of a chair euspend- ed bya rope. Two or three had been safely deposited on deck, when, as the chair was just starting again, a parrot shouted out “Let gol” The sailors, thinking it the boatswain’s order, dropped the rope, and away went the poor lady, chair and all, into the sea.
* The birds of prey do not deserve the name of “‘robbers.” Their carnivorous propensities are only in accordance with their physiological structure, which de-
CLASS AVES: ORDER RAPTORES. 133
ful claws of the carnivorous mammals find their counterpart in the hooked beak and powerful talons of the carnivorous birds. The plumage of the sexes is usually unlike, and the offspring for two or three seasons resembles the mother-bird. The male of most species is smaller than the female, and not quite so plain in its color.
The order is thus tabulated into Families:
EYES DIRECTED ren FORWARD ; i OUTER TOE REVERSIBLE, Strigide, Owl. EYES LATERAL; : RAPTORES. HEAD FEATHERED; 2 CLAWS SHARP. Falconide, Hawk.
EYES LATERAL ;
HEAD NAKED; 3 CLAWS BLUNT. Cathartide, Vulture.
Strigidz.*—The Owls comprise about two hundred spe- cies. The sexes are colored alike, and the mottled markings are nearly as apparent in the young as the old. Many species, however, | are dimorphous (double form) in & plumage.t So soft and downy are , the feathers, that in its nocturnal foraging the owl’s flight is noiseless as a shadow; while its acute sense of hearing detects the feeblest tread of amouse. Living upon in- jurious vermin, it deserves protec- tion from the ruthless war waged against it. The owl is the only bird that can bring both eyes simul-
Fig. 22h.
5 Bubo virginiainus, taneously to bear upon an object. Great-horned Owl.
po 1a"
mands animal food. Their place in the economy of nature is therefore as fixed as that of the animals on which they prey; and to associate with them notions of cruelty and rapine is unwarrantable and irreverent. They do not, it is true. charm our ears by their songs, nor delight our eye with their colors—for either would betray their presence to their victims and frustrate the design of their creation—but they faithfully perform their mission as scavengers. They also, like the carnivora gener; ally, serve to prevent the undue increase of the Herbivora.
* This extensive family is cosmopolitan, several species being circumpolar, and at least two existing all over the world, unless Australia be an exception.
+ Two young of the same sex in the same nest may start with different markings and retain them through life.
134 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The Great-horned Owl, with a single exception, is the largest in the United States. It is often called the Cat Owl, as its tufts, erectile at will, give its head a sinister aspect not unlike that animal.
Falconidee.—The Falcons, Hawks, und Eagles are in- cluded in this family. They are wont to dash their prey to the ground, and with their powerful talons* carry it to a quiet spot to eat uninterrupted ; or, if too large to bear away, to gorge themselves and then retreat to some sequestered place for digestion. + Fig. 226.
Fig. 225.
Falco sparverius, Sparrow Hawk. 3. Astur atricapillus, Goshawk. y.
The Sparrow Hawk, though one of the smallest, is a typical Falcon. So quickly does it close its wings when alighting
* When a Bird of Prey wishes to kill an animal with its claws it has only to rest down with its own weight, and the bending of the legs will thrust its talons deep into the flesh of its victim, (see Fig. 27).—The priuciple is illustrated in the roosting of 2 common fow], When aslcep it retains its hold of its perch by one foot, the other being drawn up under the feathers, Its grasp of the perch is involuntary, the muscles of the leg being so contrived that when the limb is bent the foot closes and remains so without any exertion of the will; and when straightened, the toes open and the hold is relaxed. A bird cannot keep its foot open when its leg is bent. This may be verified by watching a fowl walking. It closes its toes as it lifts its foot, and spreads them out again as they touch the ground.
+ They then vomit forth, in rounded pellets, the indigestible bones and feathers which they have swallowed in their eager haste.
CLASS AVES: ORDER RAPTORES. 135
that they seem to disappear. It will often imitate the ery of a young bird, to call the old within its grasp. (
The Goshawk, or Blue Hen Hawk flies low, until just over its prey, when it stretches down its power- ful talons and catches it up, with hardly a devia- tion from a_ horizontal course. *
The Caracara Eagle of tropical America relishes dead and is animals equally, and carries off its prey with either beak or claw.
The Swallow-tailed Hawk feeds upon reptiles and in- sects,t but never upon birds or quadrupeds.
The White-headed Eagle is the chosen symbol of our country.{ It rises in the air by a series of spiral curves, and with an almost imperceptible motion of its
Nauelérus furcdtus, wings, until it is a mere Swallow-tailed Hawk. speck inthesky. Thence it descends with lightning-like velocity. Its swoop is in a
Fig. 227,
Polyborus tharus, Caracara Eagle. 3.
* A Goshawk was once observed to dart with the swiftness of an arrow upon a flock of blackbirds crossing a river, and, giving five successively the death-squeeze, to return and pick them up one by one and bear them to the shore to be eaten at leisure.
+ Fond of wasps, it may sometimes be seen holding a nest in one claw and picking out the grubs with its bill. It has been known to pursue a swarm of bees, catching them with its claws.
+ Equally indifferent to the extremes of heat and cold, as well as to a maritime or an inland life; now honestly pursuing an independent vocation, and anon acting the part of a freebooter and robbing the Fish-hawk of its well-earned food, it is not an altogether unsuitable emblem of the nation.
136 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
cycloid, which is a line of swifter descent than a perpendic- ular, and also easier for alighting. To give a more powerful hold on the air when carrying its prey to its eyrie, its wings are hollow on the under side.
Cathartide.* —The American Vultures being designed in the econ- omy of nature to dispose of carrion, lack the powerful talons of the Falcons, but possess a strong beak for dismembering the dead bodies on which they feed. If one soaring aloft detects with its telescopic eye a car- cass, the change of its flight from a
Huliaétus leucocephilus. circular sweep to a right line of
White-headed Bagle- 2 — descent is probably noticed by many others too distant to be seen by the human eye, and thus a large flock quickly gathers from all quarters of the heavens.+ The head and neck are bure of feathers, to enable them to be plunged deeply into a carcass. As the naked skin, however, would suffer in the cold upper air, the base of the neck is encircled with a ruff of soft down, arising from a. loose fold, into which the neck and most of the head can be with- drawn, while the bird remains
Fig. 929.
Fig. 230.
* Recent researches prove the Vultures of the Old and New World so osteologi- cally different as to require the latter to be placed in a separate family, and the for- mer to be degraded to the rank of a sub- family of the Falconidw, the Vulturine.
+ Both sight and smell seem to aid them in the pursuit of their food. The latter sense is remarkably keen, and they have been seen to descend directly from a great height in the air to putrefying food Rhynogryphus aura, that was concealed from their vision, Turkey Buzzard. 44.
CLASS AVES: ORDER COLUMBA. 13%
in a semi-torpid state Fig. 231. during the digestion of its over-gorged meal.
To this family be- long the California Vulture (Pseudogry- phus californianus), ¢\' the Black Vulture & (Catharista atrata), pe. the Turkey Buzzard : (Rhynogryphus aura) = = of the warmer regions | of America, and the Condor of the Andes. The last is typical of the family, and in size excels all except Sarcorhamphus gryphus, Condor. 25. the California Vulture. Its alar extent is about ten feet.* It will frequently soar for half an hour without once flapping its wings; but how it is accomplished has not been satisfac- torily explained. To man, the Condor is inoffensive, nor does it often attack living prey.
[rs
ORDER COLUMB2&.
General Characteristics.—The Pigeons + have the bill shorter than the head, with the nostrils imbedded in soft skin; and the hind toe on a level with the others. Both male and female disgorge into the mouths of the young a milky substance, and, after a few days, macerated grain.
Columbidz.—The Wild or Passenger Pigeon is common to all parts of North America. It frequently collects in such
* The exaggerated accounts of the earlier writers are to be accounted for by the fact that the Condor, when soaring at no great height from the ground, seems much larger.
+ All the domestic varieties, now numbering nearly forty, are believed to have sprung from the Rock Dove (Columba livia) of Europe and Asia.
138 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
numbers as to load with nests every tree in a forest forty miles long. Each nest contains two eggs, hatch- ing usually a male and female, which are believed to pair at maturity. The male often makes daily excursions of a hundred miles to procure food.* Many millions being thus congregated, it is astonish- ing how each bird in re- Ectopistes migratoria, turning should go straight SESHEER Tone he to its own mate and nest.
Fig. 232.
ORDER GALLINA.
General Characteristics. — This order includes the hen-like birds. They generally have feeble powers of flight,
* Their speed is very great. Pigeons have been killed near New York with their crops full of rice, which must have been eaten in the plantations of Georgia and Carolina, six or seven hundred miles distant, As they would digest grain in twelve hours, they must have traveled a mile per minute. They flyin enormous columns miles in length and width. It is estimated that sucha flock would require millions of bushels of food each day, Andubon gives a vivid description of a resting-place on Green River, Kentucky. Hesays: ‘“‘ The noise which they made reminded me of a strong sea-breeze amongst the cordage of a ship. When they passed above my head I felt a current of air which astonished me. Thousands were already struck down by meh armed with poles, but they continued to arrive without intermission. Fires were lighted. The birds precipitated themselves in masses, and pitched where they could, one upon the other, in large heaps like barrels. Then the branches gave way under the weight, cracked and fell, bringing to the ground and crushing the closely- packed flocks, which covered every part of the trees. It was a scene of tumult and confusion. In vain I tried to speak, or even to call the persons nearest tome. It was with difficulty that I could hear the guns fire, and I only perceived the men had fired by seeing them reload their arms, Pixeons continued to come, and it was past midnight before I noticed any diminution. The uproar continued all night. At last the day approached, the noise began to abate a little, and long before we could dis- tingnish objects the pigeons commenced to start, and at sunrise all that could fly had disappeared. Now it was the wolves’ turn, the howls of which saluted our ears. Foxes, lynxes, cougars, bears, rats, opossums, and martens, bounding, running, climbing, pressed to the quarry, whilst eagles and falcons of different species flew down from the air to take their part of such rich booty. The sportsmen then, in their turn, entered into the midst of the dead, the dying, and the wounded. The pigeons were piled in heaps, each took what he wished, and the pigs were left to satiate themselves on the remainder.”
CLASS AVES: ORDER GALLINA. 139
characterized by a whirring sound. To aid them in scratch- ing, the hind toe is elevated. Their food is first softened in a crop, then mingled with the drink in a second expansion of the gullet, and lastly ground in the gizzard.* To elude
Fig. 233.
Argus gigantéus, Argus Pheasant. 3.
the sharp eye of their enemies, the Raptores, they squat upon the ground and lie quiet—their mimicry corresponding to the herbage they frequent. They are mostly polygamous,
* This is lined with hard cartilage, and is so strong and muscular as to pulverize glass and metals. The trituration of the food may be distinctly heard by standing peside fowls on their roost at night.
140 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
feeding in flocks of ten or twelve females to one male. As the female leaves her nest, her cackling is answered by the male, and thus she is guided to her com- panions.
Phasianide.—The Pheasant is indigenous to Asia, but some species have become naturalized in the parks of HKuropean castles. The Argus has its secondaries, which are three times the length of the primaries, ornament- ed with rows of richly- tinted “eyes.” Its tail has two feathers, so long that, while the bird is only the size of a common fowl, its extreme length is five feet.
Pavonidee.—The Pea- cock’s tail-coverts are dec- orated with “eyes.’? The true tail-feathers are short, unvariegated, and serve only as a support for the so-called “ tail.”
Numididez.—The Guinea-fowl came from Africa. Its harsh, ring- ing cry of camac, camac, makes the bird very useful in the poultry yard asa = protection from crows and Numida meledgris, Quinea-fowl. 25. hawks.
Fig. 28h.
CLASS AVES: ORDER GALLINA. 141
Meleagride.—The Turkey is indigenous to America. There is but one genus (Meleagris), with two species. One of these is the WM. ocelldta of Honduras, whose tail is enam- elled with blue ‘‘eyes,” each surrounded by a ring of yellow and purple. The other species has two varieties, the IM. gal- lopavo and VM. mexicana. The latter is the one from which
Meleagris gallopavo, Turkey. ;’s.
the Domestic Turkey sprung. The Wild Turkey nests in some secluded spot, which it guards jealously, seldom approaching it twice by the same path, and luring the intruder away by various wiles. As soon as the young are hatched, the female takes them under her entire care, leading them long distances for food, and carefully avoiding marshes until her brood have exchanged their down for feathers impervious to water.*
Tetraonidee.—The Grouse is distinguished by having the
* Turkeys are often captured in the following manner: A pen of logs is raised about four feet high. At one point an entrance is dug underneath and corn sprinkled both without and within. The Turkeys greedily picking this up enter the pen. Once entrapped, they vainly seek with elevated head to escape between tie logs, but never think of stooping down to pass out where they entere¢,
J42 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
tarsi and the nasal groove partly feathered.* Not being Fig. 237. migratory, it is hunted during the colder months. In the spring, it drums upon a log with its wings, closely imitating distant thunder. When the young are hatched, they follow the mother, and the males joining the flock, all remain to- gether during the winter, after which they separate, the young A selecting their own homes, not far from their parents. Perdicide.t—The Partridge is not migratory, but passes the win- terinswamps. Unlike the Grouse, Huthed Grousee 2: it is monogamous, the young re- maining with their parents till spring, and then pairing. At
* The Ruffed Grouse is called Partridge in New England and the West, and Pheasant in the Middle States. + In New England the Perdicide are called Quails. The true quail (Coturnia
CLASS AVES: ORDER BREVIPENNES. 148
Fig. 239.
1 SERS of 7 aes Ortyx virginiainus, Coturnix comminis, Bob-white or Quail. 3. European Quail.
night, the whole covey roost on the ground in a close circle, their heads directed outward.*
ORDER BREVIPENNES.
General Characteristics.—The Short-winged birds are confined to the earth, and hence the wonderful muscular power in the fore limbs of other birds is in them transferred to the hind limbs. They have two or three toes, terminating in strong claws. The breast-bone is flat, and the pelvic bones are united in front.
NosTRILs AT THE BASE OF THE BILL, Struthionide, Ostrich. BREVIPENNES. § ss ‘© END OF A LONG BILL. Apterygida, Apteryz.
Struthionide.—The Ostrich is the largest living bird. Its bill is broad, its long tarsi are covered with scales, and large femur bones with voluminous muscles.
The African Ostrich stands eight to ten feet high, and is the swiftest-footed of all animals.+ It is remarkable chiefly
comminis) is found in the Old World and is migratory in habit, leaving Africa in the spring and returning from Europe inthe autumn. Passing the Mediterranean in immense flocks, millions are captured as they alight upon the rocky islands,
* To this order belongs the Domestic Fowl] (Gallus bankiva). The original stock, however, has been so modified by cultivation for thousands of years, that it cannot be identified though it is generally supposed to have come from India,
+ The Ostrich will run thirty miles per hour. It is captured by the Arabs on their fleet steeds only after a chase of a day or two, by several relays of horses and
144 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
for its beautiful plumes, which have been prized as an adorn- . ment from time immemorial.
Fig. 2h1.
=
Struthio camélus, African Ostrich.
riders, and by pursuing in a straight line while the bird runs in a curve. One male accompanies two to six females who lay in one nest. The hens take turns in sitting during the day, thus enabling the others to travel the long distances necessary to get food in that desert country, without leaving the nest uncovered. The male assumes the task of incubation at night when his superior strength is needed to drive off prowling animals, which are sometimes found lying dead near the nest, killed by its powerful kick. As the young cannot for some time go far, or digest the hard food of the old ones, the females continue to lay extra eggs for their nourishment. In this entire system of incubation one can but see the nice planning of a Creator, fruitful in methods for meeting an end by varied means.—An Ostrich egg is equal to two dozen of those of the domestic hen. It is cooked by placing one end in the hot ashes and making a small orifice in the other, stirring the contents with a bit of stick till the omelette is roasted.—In Cape Colony there are now Ostrich-farms where these birds are reared for their plumes, which are plucked every eight months,
CLASS AVES: ORDER LIMICOLA. 145
The South American Ostrich * is only about half as large as the African, but is more completely covered with feathers. It has three toes instead of two, and a larger hooked-spur on the end of the wings.
ae Fig. 248.
=F SS
Rhea darwinti, Patagonian Ostrich. {;. Aptéryx australis, Apteryx. 4.
Apterygidee.—The Apteryx of New Zealand has stumps of wings and no tail. Its feathers look like fur. For incu- bation it digs deep holes in the ground, into which it flees when pursued—characteristics linking it to the lowest order of mammals.
ORDER LIMICOLA.}+
General Characteristics.—The Plover-snipes have a long slender beak, without hard-cutting edges, and wholly or in great part membranous. Their narrow nostrils are placed low down, and entirely surrounded with soft skin.
Charadriidz.—The Plovers frequent commons and un- sheltered shores, running around in search of insects, slugs,
* It is also polygamous, the females laying their eggs scattered at random, which the male collects into a nest, and then broods, hatches, and even tends the young.
+ The old order Grallatdres (waders) is now classed as three distinct orders, viz: Limicdle, Herodidnes, and Alectorides,
146 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 2hh. worms, etc. The Golden Plover inhabits all the continent of America. Hematopodidze.— The Oyster-catcher of the Atlantic coast has a bill, long, abrupt, and chisel-like, adapted to opening the shells of bivalve mollusks and detaching limpets from Ha the rocks. Charadrius virginicus, Golden Plover. Recurvirostride.— The Avocet possesses a re- curved, flattened bill, use- ful for scooping up small fish and aquatic insects, as it sweeps the narrow runs, with a movement like that of a mower swinging a scythe. Scolopacide.—The Snipes have long, grooved, flexible bills, well supplied with nerves to the end,
Fig. 25.
Hematopus pallidtus, Oyster-catcher.
Fig. 247.
Fig. 2h6.
Beet re
Phitoheia minor, Woodcock. }. Recurvirostra americana, Avocet. }.
CLASS AVES: ORDER HERODIONES. 14%
that in probing deep into the bogs and moist turf, they may detect the worms and larve. Their upper feathers mimic well the herbage beneath them, and their eyes are placed so far back, that, like the Giraffe, their range of vision meets behind the head.
ORDER HERODIONES.
General Characteristics.—The Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc., are generally of large size, with long, §-bent necks, and tufts of matted feathers (powder-down) on both sides of the breast and rump. In flying, they double their neck and stretch back their legs. The latter serve as a rudder, their short tail being unfitted for this office.
Ciconiidee.—The White Stork of Europe (see Fig. 253) is exceedingly useful, feeding upon garbage and noxious crea- tures. It is easily tamed, and its sagacity is marvellous. *
Plataleidez.—The Roseate Spoonbill of the South is the only rep- resentative of this fam- ily in the United States. It breeds the second year, but does not attain its perfect plumage un- _ til the fourth or fifth. It is then a beautiful rose color, with carmine wing and tail-coverts, head naked with golden-yellow skin shading into glossy black around the top of the neck, and with patches of rich buff on each side of the breast and upper part of the tail.
Fig. 248.
Plataléa ajaja, Roseate ‘Spoon
* A tame stork has been known to join children playing hide and seek, run when touched and to distinguish the child whose turn it was to pursue the rest so well as to be on its guard along with the others. The Germans and Dutch esteem it a good omen when a stork builds its coarse nest of sticks on their house-top. Innumerable stories are current among different nations, ascribing to the stork gratitude, chastity, parental affection, conjugal fidelity and filial piety. In the Tyrol, for example, a male stork refused to migrate, and passed several winters with his mate, who, being wounded, could not fly.
148 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Ardeidz.—The Great Blue Heron has a sharply-pointed, stout, conical-shaped bill, in striking contrast with that of the Spoonbill, though they associate together, and often nest upon the same tree.
Fig. 249. Fig. 250.
Ardéa herodias, Great Blue Heron. }. Tantdlus loculdtor, Wood Ibis. te,
Tantalidee.—The Ibis inhabits all parts of the world, and some species migrate so irregularly as to be nowhere at home. Its long, arcuate bill is adapted to rooting in the mud in search of worms and small insects.* The Wood Ibis has a strong bill, with which it strikes the fish, frogs, young alli- gators, and snakes that come to the surface on being dis- turbed by the bird’s dancing about in the water.t
* The Sacred Ibis (Z. religidsa) was venerated by the ancient Egyptians, probably because it rid them of serpents, the skins and scales of which have been found in the Ibis mummies, Some think, however, that the reason of this worship was merely because the coming of the bird was simultaneous with the annual overflow of the Nile, and hence symbolical of fertility. Whoever killed an Ibis was mobhed while the dead bird was embalmed. The Ibis multiplied in consequence to such an extent as to impede travel in the streets. The affection of the bird for Egypt was so great that, according to Acteon, when taken away it died of home-sickness. But now, being killed and eaten by the modern inhabitants, who have abandoned the faith of their fathers, it has almost deeerted the country.—(Piguier.)
+ When a sufficient number of its victims lies floating around. it gorges itself, often leaving many untouched, and then, stationed on the margin of the stream with its breast turned towards the sun, patiently awaits the process of digestion.
CLASS AVES: ORDER ALECTORIDES. 149
ORDER ALECTORIDES.
Gruidze.—The Whooping Crane (see Fig. 253) is princi- pally confined to the Mississippi Valley. It seeks its food in
Fig. 251,
Convoluted Trachea of the Crane.
the wild uplands, feeding upon insects and plants. About thirteen inches of the windpipe are twisted up in a hollow of
the breast-bone, thus giving to the voice a sonorous, trumpet-like tone.
Rallida.—The Rails have more or less pervious nostrils; long, slender toes; a compressed body and short tail. The Vir- ginia Rail* is a type of the genus Rallus, which contains about twenty species. The Purple Gal- linule, abundant in the Southern, but accidental in the Northern
* Except in being smaller it is almost iden- tical in form and color with R. elegans, thus showing the value of size as a specific and dis- tinctive character.
Fig. 252.
Rallus virginidnus, Virginia Rail. 2.
ERTEBRATA.
SUBKINGDOM V
150
“MO19H UOWUIDD ‘D200U29 DADLP “fk
"HIOIG OITA “QI DIU00I9 %
"996 ‘Ota
‘aUBID Suidovy MM ‘OUDILLIULD SNL “T
CLASS AVES: ORDER LAMELLIROSTRES. 151
States, has a rich and variegated plumage. It seeks its food of larve, weeds, and grains, upon the surface of the water only, its compressed body and large feet enabling it to thread its way among aquatic stems and to walk upon floating
Fig. 25l Fig. 255.
Gallinila martinica, Purple Gallinule. 3}. Fulica americana, Coot. 3.
plants. The Coot, with its lobed feet, is adapted to a more exclusively aquatic life, and hence, swimming and diving with great address, it is seldom seen on the land.
ORDER LAMELLIROSTRES.*
General Characteristics.—The Geese, Ducks, etc., have palmate feet and lamellate bills, with corresponding laciniate processes on the sides of a fleshy tongue, ending ina horny tip.
LAMELLIROSTRES { ia ae ails frmsra MOSTLY BARE. Pheenicopteride, Flamingo. . : LEGS SHORT, TIBIA FEATHERED. Anatide, Duck.
Phoenicopterideze.—The Flamingo,t when feeding, lays the upper part of its bill next the ground, and with its feet stirs up the mud for small fish, insects, and seeds, which it
* The old order Natatores (swimmers) has been broken up by recent ornitholo- gists into five distinct orders, viz: Lamellirostres, Steganopddes, Longipennes, Pygopédes and Sphenisci.
+ The flamingo, with its heron-like legs but full-webbed toes, eases the transition from the waders to the swimmers. So many of its characteristics are common to both, that it has been tossed back and forth from the days of Liunzus to the present, nor is it certain where it will be allowed to rest.
‘ 152 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
secures by straining through its lamelle. * Its plumage is a déep scarlet on the back, ani roseate On the wings. It builds a hillock of mud as high as its body, and on the top makes its nest and lays its eggs, its long legs hanging down on each side.
\natidee.—The Ducks ( havé the legs short, with the hind toe separate, and the pill covered with soft, sensitive skin, and highly lamellated, to filter the . 0026 in which they feed.
Phanicoptérus ruber, Flamingo. vx = They are close-feathered, and keep the plumage well oiled, so as to dive without get- ting wet.
The Swan’st neck, apr
unlike the Flamin- go’s, 18 in NO propor- tion to the length of its legs, but is adapt- ed to a swimmer that never dives, yet feeds upon aquatic roots. The stroke of its wing is power- = ful enough to frac- Cygnus buecindtor,t Trumpeter Swan. 75.
Fig. 256.
a al
* Its tongue is very fleshy, and, during the days of Rome’s extravagance, her gluttons were wont to parade a dish composed of flamingoes’ tongues.
+ The two species of Swans in America are easily distinguished, the Cygnus buc- sinator not having the orange or yellowish spot in front of the eye which is so char- acteristic of C. americanus.
t The voice of (. buccinator is remarkably raucous in comparison with that of C. americanus, though each has the convolution of the trachea in the keel of the sternum, like that of the whooping-crane,
CLASS AVES: ORDER LAMELLIROSTRES. 153
Fig. 258.
1. Larus atricilla, Laugbing Gull. 2. Cygnus olor, Mute Swan.
ture a man’s leg.* Swans fly high in their migration, to be ee 7 1
keep “ the sky of rapacious birds. Fig. 259,
They are said to live a hundred
years.
The Canada Goose in the spring migrates in great numbers to the north to breed, and returns to the tropics in the autumn. It always flies in flocks, having the form of an acute angle, the leader falling back when fatigued, and the next one taking its place. The sexes are distinguished by the greater length of the male’s neck. They are monogamous, but are supposed to pair anew every spring.
* This is explained by its swiftness, on the = Fae mechanical principle that the effect increases Bernicla canadensis,
as the square of the velocity. Canada or Wild Goose. 2.
154 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The Wood Duck nests in hol- low trees, sometimes twenty feet above the ground, and six feet below the opening. For lining, it uses down from its own breast. As soon as the whole brood of twelve or fifteen are hatched, the mother takes them by the wing or back of the neck, and deposit- ing them on the ground, hastens with them to the water.
Aix sponsa, : : Wood or Summer Duck. 4. The Lider Duck inhabits the Arctic regions, occasionally migrating to the middle Atlantic coasts.* The dark, rock- Fig. 261.
colored hue of the females is an excellent mimicry, and they will remain on the nest till trodden upon.
The Goosandert has a narrow, cylindrical bill, with a saw-like margin, the teeth pointing back- ward, and the tip armed with a hooked nail. It swims wholly submerged, seizing fish, whose very struggles force them more readily into the gullet of their captor. t
Somateria mollissima, Lider Duck. .
* Tt breeds upon the cliffs, andthe - down with which it lines its nest has great commercial value. It is obtained by robbing it two or three times a season, the male at last sup- p'ying the deficieucy from his own breast.
t+ This is one of the species of Ducks popularly called Mergansers ; or Sheldrakes, oe Sa
$+ Sometimes the fish is so long Mergus americanus, Goosauder. ;';.
CLASS AVES: ORDER STEGANOPODES. 155
ORDER STEGANOPODES.
General Characteristics.—The Foot-covered birds are readily recognized by the totipalmate feet and unfeathered gular pouch—a sac beneath the bill sometimes holding a gallon, and used for a temporary larder.
Pelecanidze.—The White Pelican* swims upon the sur- face, darting down its long bill at the fish swimming near, till its pouch is filled, when it retires to the sand-banks and stands with its fellows in long rows, Hip: Hes while the contents of the sac gradually : pass into the stomach, as the process of digestion goes on.
The Brown Pelican flies ten to twenty feet above the surface, watch- ing the shoals of fish beneath, till a chance offers, when it falls flatwise, often with a force that immerses the whole body,} scooping up one or more with its pouch. Then rising, it re- peats the operation as often as the capacity of its pocket will permit.
Graculidze.—tThe Cormorant { pursues its prey under the water, using its wings to increase its speed. It is fond of eels, but often has a hard Brown Pelican. sh. battle to keep one down, sometimes struggling for half an hour, and then taking it to a rock and
that the tail projects and it can be introduced fully into the stomach only after the head has been digested. as
* The White Pelican (P. erythrorhynchus) ranges from Florida to the northwest coast. The Brown Pelican (P. fuscus) from the coast of North Carolina around to California. The former is remarkable for a horny excrescence on the top of the upper mandible.
t This dash upon the water would be fatal to itself if it were not for a thick layer of air-cells just beneath the skin, which breaks the force of the blow.
+ Cormorants are abundant in all parts of the world, and by the Chinese are tamed and used for fishing, by placing a ring at the base of the neck to prevent the bird from swallowing the game,
156 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
thrashing it till disabled. Its iris is bright green, and its plumage well oiled and glossy.
Fig. 265. Fig. 26h. Z
Plotida.—The Snake-bird is found throughout our Southern Plotus anhinga, coasts. It is adapted to catching S®#ke Bird or Water Turkey. yy, its prey under water, either by impaling upon it® sharp, pointed beak, or by seizing between its serrated mandibles. Its favorite position is just above the water, into which it drops head first, so quietly as to make scarcely a ripple. Swimming beneath till it finds tufts of reeds, perhaps a thousand feet away, it shows at the surface only its bill and eyes, as it reconnoitres the neighborhood. The crimped tail- feathers serve as a rudder, but the wings are not used in swimming.*
ORDER LONGIPENNES.
General Characteristics.—The Long-winged birds are distinguished by the size of their pointed wings and their palmate feet, with free, elevated hind toe. Generally oceanic, they rest upon the water, but do not dive.
[ NOSTRILS NOT LONGIPENNES. | Yocenmrg
NOSTRILS § HALLUX RUDIMENTARY l TUBULAR; OR WANTING.
} HALLUX SMALL. Laride, Gull.
2 Procellaride, Albatross.
* Even before the young leave the nest a parasitic worm is found in their stomach, which works its way to the brain, and there thrives in clusters of ten or
CLASS AVES: ORDER LONGIPENNES. 15?
Laridz.—The Gulls Hig 266. are cosmopolitan and the \ true scavengers of the ocean. The Great Black- back is typical of those which visit the Atlantic coast. It feeds upon fish, and soinetimes upon small birds or quadrupeds. The Skua is remarkable for its stout, cered bill, hooked upper mandible, and pirat- ical habits. Like the White-headed Eagle among the Fish- hawks, it pursues birds of its own family, and forces them Fig. 267. to give up their booty; and sweeping down with the velocity of an arrow, catches it before reaching the water. The Tern has long, pointed wings, a forked tail, and slender, straight bill. The grace- ful evolutions of this “Swallow of the Sea,” as Stercorartus parasiticus, Arctic Skua. 4. it skims along the sur-
Fig. 268. face, are a perpetual de- light to the observer. The Scissors-bill has its long, lower mandible com- pressed laterally to the shape and sharpnéss of a knife-blade,* while it shuts into the grooved edge of
Wei: EL My el Larus marinus, Great Black-backed Gull. 34.
more. Nine-tenths of adult speci- mens are thus infested, and yet are in apparently good health.
* This cultrate edge is specially Sterna wilsdni, Wilson’s Tern. }. useful in cutting off the contractor
158 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 269.
Rhynchops nigra, Scissors-bill. }.
the short upper one, like a razor into its handle. Darting swiftly* along, cutting the water with its lower mandible, small fishes » struck by it slide upward to the throat, and are im- mediately swallowed. Procellariidz. — The Albatross and Petre] are characterized by a hooked ° bill and nostrils united in a double-barrelled tube. The Common Albatross is the largest sea-bird, hay- ing an expanse of ten to fifteen feet. Reposing on the sur- face of the water, with its head under its wing, it is often found a thousand miles from land. Once elevated in the air, it sel- dom flaps its wings, and °
Fig. 270.
Diomedea exiilans, Wandering Albatross.
ie 18
muscle of the oyster and other bi- valves which the scissors-bill finds a little open on the beach.
* In the swiftest swallow the ex- pansion of wing is twice the length of the body ; but in the scissors-bill it is much greater, viving corre- SS ee sponding increase of power, Thalassidroma pelagica, Stormy Petrel.
ae
CLASS AVES: ORDER PYGOPODES. 159
yet ascends or descends apparently without an effort.* The Petrel, sometimes called Mother Carey’s Chicken, is espe- cially dreaded by sailors as the harbinger of a storm.t
ORDER PYGOPODES.
General, Characteristics.—The “Rump-footed” birds have the tibize buried in the body nearly to the heel. This prevents walking, but favors swimming. Their feet are lobate or palmate, and their plumage is glossy.
| PERT EOURTOUD, Fussirx YRATE} coymbide, Zoo. PYGOPODES. ene , § saeco aaa } Podicipide, Grebe. aera § HALLUX ABSENT. Alcide, Puffin and Auk. Colymbide.—tThe Loon, or Fig. 272.
Great Northern Diver, in its mature plumage of the fourth year, has few rivals in beauty. Unable to move on land, except by a constant suc- cession of awkward tumbles, in the water it is a rare swimmer and diver. Usually floating about half submerged, it can at pleasure settle , down, showing only its head, or en- § tirely sink and, escaping with great [PA swiftness, rise far distant. { Podicipide.—The Grebe§ has
its toes partly separate and flat, the canines en ee
* It is found south of the equator, but there are other species on the western coast of North America.
+ Gleaning its scanty pittance from the whirling surges of the sea and making its appearance in great numbers just before a storm, seeking food and shelter in the wake of the vessel, it has been charged with creating the tempest.—Its flesh con- tains much oil and the natives of the Faroe islands are said to make a lamp by drawing a wick through the body of a very fat one, and lighting the end which pro- jects from the beak.
¢ Its cry is somewhat like the howling of a wolf, and is thought to portend rain.
§ The Grebe, the Auk and other aquatic birds are a source of revenue to the people inhabiting the rocky coasts, which they frequent in multitudes. The nests
160 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
edges being furnished with a broad, stiff membrane, making each one a paddle. On the land, not being able even to tumble, like the loon, it lies down and pushes itself along by its feet. In the water, however, it is perfectly at home, diving and using its wings in pursuit of fishes and aquatic insects.*
Fig. 273. Fig. 27h.
Podiceps cornitus, Fratercila arctica, Crested Grebe. 4. Puflin, Arctic Regions. 2.
Alcides.—The Puffin and Auk} have three toes fully webbed, short wings, and a general adaptation to a purely aquatic life. On the land they sit upright. Most species pluck out feathers to bring their eggs into immediate contact
are often built in the ledges of inaccessible cliffs, but the hardy fowlers suspend themselves by stout ropes from the summit of the precipices, and by swinging to and fro reach every cranny and crevice of the rock, gathering eggs and young birds. The calling is a perilous one. Often the rope chafes against a projecting edge of the tock, or vertigo seizes the fowler, or be reaches too far, or slips from his footing. The men holding the rope above hear a shriek of despair, and then all is still save the roar of the remorseless waves below.
* Singularly enough, the stomach of the Grebe always contains amass of its own feathers, involuntarily swallowed, probably in dressing and cleansing its plumage.— One species makes a floating nest upon which it sits and hatches its progeny. But if disturbed, it plunges one foot into the water and, employing it as an oar, transports its dwelling from the threatened danger.
t+ The Great Auk (Alca impennis) is said to have become extinct within the last half-century. A high value is placed upon the few specimens which have been preserved, there being now known only thirty-four birds and forty-two eggs,— ( Wood.)
CLASS AVES: ORDER SPHENISCI. 161
with their flesh, for greater warmth during incubation. The Puffin drives rabbits from their holes, or burrows to the depth of two or three feet to lay its single egg, while the Auk deposits its two eggs upon a rocky shelf in the side of a cliff overhanging the sea.
ORDER SPHENISCI.
General Characteristics.—The Penguin is half fish and half bird in its habits. It has paddle-wings, with short, rigid, scale-like feathers, disposed in regular order, and is incapable of flight. Its bones are dense and heavy, with no apertures for
LUG: B75.
Spheniscus demersus, Jackass Penguin. 45.
the admission of air. It usually keeps near the land, but seldom visits it, except for nesting. Whole companies then sit erect along the shore, where they might easily be “mis- taken for a party of choristers with surplices and black gowns.” The Penguin is confined to the colder regions of the South,* as the Puffin and Auk are to those of the North.
* The Patagonian Penguins are said to collect in such num)ers at breeding-places as to cover thirty or forty acres. The ground is laid out in squares for their nests,
162 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS.
Many species of birds leave certain localities in the fall, and, spend- ing the winter at the South, return in the spring. Why they do thus has never been satisfactorily explained. The failure of food in rigor- ous climates is, without doubt, the main factor in the solution of the problem, but it is by no means the only one. Birds might incu- bate in warm latitudes as well as in cold; unless, perhaps, a second factor be found in the physical necessity of maintaining a uniform temperature. But individuals of many migratory species remain in the region of their nativity with no apparent inconvenience. Greater freedom from molestation in rearing their broods has been suggested as a third factor. If it be so, then all southern birds should come north. Some birds return, year after year, tothe same localities, as proved by tying bits of red silk to their legs; but it cannot be positively asserted of many species. The southernmost limits of some individuals of a species may also be the northernmost limits of others, so that the spe- cies may be regarded as resident, though the individuals are migratory.
The males of some of the Thrush family, as well as those of certain species of other families, in migrating northward precede the females by two or three weeks, while the sexes associate in going southward.
It is not determined whether any of the northern birds migrate as far as the Equator, thongh many individuals of most of the species are known not to pass beyond the Gulf States, especially the southern half of Florida. The strictly insectivorous birds, as swallows, martens, ete., collect in flocks and leave earliest in the fall. They are followed by the granivorous when seeds become scarce or covered with snow.
Extensive districts become gradually depopulated of certain species, while in other regions they multiply. After atime the former local- ities are revisited by the species that had become nearly or quite extinct, while the latter lose their abundance. Hence, to the annual migrations must be added others marked by cycles of years; and not necessarily in lines of longitude, but as frequently in those of latitude.
Birds come and go; but whence they come and whither they go is a matter of conjecture. One morning the trees of Independence Square, in the heart of Philadelphia, were found filled with crows. Not a caw was to be heard nor a movement seen. The birds appeared to be awaiting in silence further instruction. After some time several new-comers glided among them, threading their way through all the flock, when suddenly the teeming thousands rose simultaneously and departed as mysteriously as they came.
as accurately as if a surveyor bad been employed; stones are removed, streets made, a wall is thrown up on the windward side, and sentinels are posted,
DIRECTIONS FOR PRESERVING SKINS. 163
HINTS FOR PRESERVING SKINS OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS.
Mammals.—Stuff cotton into the mouth, nostrils, large shot-holes, etc. Split the skin from the top of the breast-bone to the tail, being careful not to cut through the abdominal muscles. Push off the skin, not pull it off from the body. Separate the limbs from the body, preserving all the bones, including the shoulder-blades. With a cleft stick slide out the tail, if covered with hair ; but, if naked like the tail of a rat, cut it off, as it cannot be skinned. Turn out the legs and clean away all flesh to the toes, leaving the tendons around the joints. Skin over the head, taking off the ears close to the skull, and preserving unin- jured the eyelids and lips. Cut into the mouth on the inside of the teeth only to remove the tongue. Cut off the head, cleaning away all muscle and taking out the brain and eyes. While the skin is wrong side out and moist, sprinkle it thoroughly with a mixture of equal parts, by weight, of powdered alum and arsenic. Fill the eye-orbits with cotton. Push the skull and legs back, supplying the place of the flesh in those portions with tow or cotton. Force a wrapped wire into the tail, if skinned, to hold it in place. Leave the skin a few hours, flattened to bring the inner surfaces together, to absorb the mixture. Finally, distend the skin, without stretching it, into its natural shape, as nearly as possible, with any dried vegetable substance.
Birds.—Take the girth of the body over the wings with a slip of paper, pinning it in the form of a ring, and slide it off over the tail. Begin the incision with the lower third of the breast-bone. Cut off the legs at the knee-joint, and the wings at the elbow-joint. Skin over the head to the bill, pulling out the ears and enlarging the orifice to take out the brain by cutting forward into the roof of the mouth. In all other respects proceed as with Mammals, with such slight modifi- cations as will naturally suggest themselves. Most web-footed birds have the head too large to force the skin over. For these, skin the neck as far as possible, amputate, and after the skin is poisoned and turned back, an incision must be made on the top of the head or under the throat, by which the head may be skinned in the usual way. Then poison, turn back, and carefully sew up the incision. Great care must be taken to work the poison around the roots of the tail and the wrist-bones of the wings, opening orifices on the inside with the blade of the knife, and inserting a pinch of the powder. In the case of very long wings, after turning the skin back, cut a slit along the under-side of the arm and remove the muscles. Stuff cotton loosely into the neck and body and around the bones of the legs. Tie the bones of the wings in their natural position. Sew up the slit, and after a careful
164 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
arrangement of any displaced feathers, place the bird in the paper ring, and Jabel. Upon the label should be written the scientific and the local name ; the length in inches, from tip of beak to tip of tail, the bird lying on its back with neck not stretched ; length of wing from carpal joint to tip of longest quill ; and of tail from insertion to end ; the sex; kind of food found in the stomach; locality ; date; and the name of the collector. To remove blood, wash freely with warm water and dry immediately by dusting on finely powdered plaster of Paris or chalk; also sprinkle on the chalk-or plaster if fat annoys while skinning. Oily stains may be removed from feathers by a solu- tion of potash or soda (half a teaspoonful to a cup of water), and wash- ing immediately after with pure water and drying with plaster. If the feathers to be cleansed are colored, ox or sheep’s gall, diluted one- half with water, should be used instead of the potash or soda. Single feathers, permanently bent, may be at once restored to their natural position by simply holding them in a jet of steam issuing from the spout of a tea-kettle. For study, unmounted specimens of birds or animals are always preferred ; and as mounting is a distinct art from simply preserving, and can be learned only from a teacher, no attempt is made to give instructions in it. 7
Eggs should never be washed, even to remove the filth of the nest. A dentist’s tooth-drill or a nail filed three-cornered may be used for drilling a hole in the side. By inserting a small glass tube or straw the contents may be blown out of the same hole, around the tube. Blowing in a little water and shaking thoroughly will often facilitate the process. If the embryo is partly developed, a larger hole may be cut, and the contents removed with a hooked pin, pulling out one limb at a time, and cutting it off. The operation of blowing eggs should always be performed over water. Labels for eggs should note particularly the date, locality, site chosen by the bird, scientific and common name, and any tacts of interest.
een oA , ald bee, ean “OA Tat te as
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER TESTUDINATA. 165
CLASS Ill. REPTILIA,
General Characteristics (see Table, p. 13).—Reptiles*, being cold-blooded, require nothing to retain the heat, and so are covered only with naked skin, scales, etc. The three- chambered heart does not send all the venous blood to the lungs. Pure oxygenated blood, however, goes to the head. Reptiles are most abundant in hot climates, those of cold regions hibernating. They are generally carnivorous, and swallow their prey whole.
NEARLY COVERED WITH A BONY OR HORNY
CASE WHICH BLENDS WITH THE NEURO- t Testudinate, Tortoise, etc. SKELETON.
COVERED WITH SQUARE PLATES. . Loricata, Alligator, ete.
MOUTH NOT DILATABLE ;
LEGS GENERALLY DEVEL- t Lacertilia, Lizard, ete. COVERED WITH OPED, EYES WITH LIDS. IMBRICATE SCALES ; :
REPTILIA. Body
MovurtH DILATABLE ; NO
{ Ophidia, Snake, ete. LEGS, NO EYE-LIDS.
ORDER TESTUDINATA.
General Characteristics.—The Turtles have the skel- eton on the exterior of the body. The vertebre and ribs are
Skeleton of European Tortoise.
* There seems little resemblance between a crawling reptile and a flitting song- ster; yet, in structure, reptiles are much nearer related to birds than to mammals. This is shown especially in the fossil, reptile-like bird, Archwopteryx, and the bird- like reptiles, Dinosauria and Ornithosauria. See Geology, page 183-5.
166 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
consolidated into an upper shell called the Carapace, while the broadened sternum forms a lower one termed the Plas- tron.* Into this portable cas- tle the reptile retreats with marvelous rapidity,} in one ¥ ocnus the limbs and head be- ing withdrawn so as to show no apparent opening. The viscera, the shoulder and. hip- bones, und the muscles are all packed in the thorax. Breath- ing is performed by enlarging the cavity of the mouth, when the air rushes in through the nostrils, and by contraction is forced down the windpipe.
Fig. 277.
eZ
Skeleton of a Marine Turtle.
ST OE Testudinide, Cistudo virginiana, Box Tortoise. << ee Emydide, Chelydra serpentina, River Tortoise. EB FLATTEN- ae ane Chelydida, Chelysmatamata, Bearded Tortoise. Z| ewer} as DISTINCT CARAPACE a = a m eel Trionychide, Trionyx ferox, Snapping Tortoise. a SKIN. a
FLATTENED AND FORMED INTO PADDLES FOR SWIMMING, WITH TOES CONCEALED.
| Chelonidz, | Chelonia midas, Green Turtle.
Testudinide.—The Land Tortoises} have feet formed only for walking, and hence they never enter the water. Their food consists of soft plants, as mushrooms. The plas- tron of the female is convex, and that of the male concave.§
* The same number of pieces is found in the skeleton as in the ordinary \erte- brates, the shape and size alone being changed.
¢ The long, slender muscles which move the flexible neck are tied to the under side of the carapace. When dried they may be capable of producing musical sounds and thus have given rise to the poetical legend of the origin of the lyre.
¢ Many authors use the terms tortoise and turtle synonymously; but the former term is properly applied to the land species, and the latter to the marine.
§ The “ Gopher,” a small tortoise about cighteen inches long, found at the South, belongs to this family. It will burrow six feet in the ground.
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER TESTUDINATA. 167
Emydide.—The River Tortoise is a common North American species. Its sharp-edged jaws are strong enough to bite asun- der a stick half an inch in } diameter. It is fond of water-fowl, swimming be- neath the surface and quietly dragging them un- der. About June 10th, in the temperate climates, it lays thirty to fifty spherical eggs. For their reception, a hole is scooped in the sand by the hind feet, and then smoothed over and left. This en- tire work is done within
fifteen or twenty min- Chelydra serpentina,
River Tortoise, ‘Snapping Turtle.” 3. utes. The e ggs are hatched by the heat of
the sun in about three months, when the young immediately take to the water. Chelydidee.—The Bearded Tortoise is at once the type
Fig. 280.
3 ye el i i:
as SS my ee as)
Cistido virginidna, Box Tortoise. 4.
Chelys matamdta, Bearded Tortoise, South America. 7.
and the grotesque member of this aquatic family. Its flesh is highly prized. Trionychide.*—The Fierce Trionyx is destructive to
* For an interesting account of the great fresh-water tortoise read Bates’s “‘ The Naturalist on the Amazon.” 8
168 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
fish, smaller quadrupeds, birds and reptiles. One bite of its formidable jaws will sever the fingers from the hand or the toes from the foot. Its eggs have brittle shells.
Fig. 281.
Trionyx ferox, Snapping Tortoise. 3.
Chelonidz.—The Sea Turtles are provided with flippers, and venture far out from land, visiting the shore only at stated places and times to lay their eggs. They frequent the tropical waters in herds.* The Green Turtle is the most prized of the edible species. It sometimes weighs two thou-
sand pounds. Fig. 282.
Chelonia midas, Green Turtle. 3.
* In the Antilles and other breeding-places the turtle is exceedingly valuable. Its eggs are a delicacy; its flesh is used for food ; its fat for oil and butter; its carapace for drinking troughs, bathing tubs, canoes, roofs to the native huts, and the tortoise- shell is an article of commerce.
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER LORICATA. 169
Fig. 288.
Turtles nest in the sand,
ORDER LORICATA.
General Characteristics.—The Mail-clad reptiles are found in the swamps and rivers of warm regions. Bony plates set in the leathery hide form a bullet-proof cuirass. The lower jaw is composed of six bones of varying length, put together like the steel plates in carriage-springs. This secures the elasticity required by its inconceivably-quick
Fig. 28h,.
Alligators lower jaw. snapping bite. To get an enormously-large gape, the lower jaw is articulated to the back part of the skull, giving the appearance of motion to the upper jaw independent of the cranium. The conical, deciduous teeth are constantly re- newed. The nostrils at the end of the snout communicate with the pharynx behind cartilaginous plates, which prevent the water from running down the throat, and enable the animal to breathe while it has its mouth open in drowning its prey. The nose and ears are also provided with valves to keep out the water. The tail articulates with the backbone by a ball-and-socket joint, so that with a quick lateral mo- 8
170 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
tion it can knock its victim forward into the mouth which is turned sideways to receive it. The eggs are laid in an arti- ficial heap of mud and vegetable matter, which in decaying
Fig. 285.
Skeleton of Alligator.
affords heat to hatch them. The mother remains near, and, attracted by the yelping, tears open the pile, liberates the brood of fifty or sixty, and leads them to the water.*
MUZZLE NOTCHED TO RECEIVE THE FOURTH TOOTH OF THE LOWER JAW , FEET WEBBED Crocodilide, Crocodile TO THE NAILS.
LORICATA.
Muzz.e WITH A HOLE TO RECEIVE THE ; : FOURTH TOOTH OF THE LOWER /AW ; FEET Alligatoride, Alligator, ete. PARTIALLY WEBBED.
Crocodilidze.—The Crocodile of the Nile and the Ganges is thirty feet long, while that of the Western Continent sel- dom exceeds fifteen. It often ventures out several miles at sea.
Crocodilus vulgaris, Crocodile.
* They are go generally the prey of birds, tortoises, and male alligators, that the racs would become exiinct were not tne progeny eo abundant.
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER LACERTILIA. 171
Alligatoridz.—The Alligator belongs to the New World.
Fig. 287.
Alligator mississippiensis, Alligator. 3.
In the colder portions of its habitat it hibernates in the mud, but within the tropics is active at all seasons.
ORDER LACERTILIA.
General Characteristics.—The teeth are simply at- tached to the surface of the jaw. In the Leptoglossa (slender-tongued) group, the tongue is long, nicked, and enclosed in a sheath, from which it can be protruded through a notch when the jaws are closed. In the Pachyglossa (thick-tongued), this organ is fleshy, and can be thrust out only when the mouth is open.
Chamezeleonidze.—The Chameleon is confined to the Old World.* It leads a double life. It may be asleep on one side and awake on the other. One eye can watch an insect crawling in the rear, and the otherin front. When agitated, each half of its body wishing
Fig. 288.
Chameléon vulgaris, Chameleon.
* Many of the stories current about the chameleon’s change of color are doubt- less fabulous; yet it can become at pleasure yellow, green, or black. =H In the skin,” says Bert, “there is a network of minute ducts, connecting with pigment-vesicles on the under eurface, which contain the coloring liquid. The tint of the animal depends on the amount of this liquid injected into the ducts.” The process seema somewhat analogous to that of blushing in the human species.
e
172 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 289.
1. Tongue of Chameleon. 2. Foot of Chameleon.
to go its own way, the animal tumbles about as if intoxicated.
Fig. 290. Three of its five toes on = each foot are united in ; an opposable bundle to the other two, giving a firm grasp to the branch around which it winds its prehensile tail. It never moves two feet at ounce, and often car- { = ries one sluggishly for- Igudina tuberculiita, Iguana. 2. ward after the other, with the imperceptible movement of the hour-hand of a watch; but its long, gummy tongue is quick enough to catch a fly buzzing past, at the distance of twice the length of the Chameleon’s body.
Iguanide.—The /yuana occurs in both hemispheres, but the typical genus only in South America. Some species of this arboreal lizard are prized as food.
Agamide.—The Aorned Toad of Western North America may be tamed as a pet and taught to come and go at: call.
Geckotide.—The (Gerko has ex- panded toes, from which a sticky fluid
qf
: : Phrynoséma cornita. exudes, enabling it to ascend smooth Horned Toad. 3.
CLASS REPTILIA!: ORDER OPHIDIA. 173
walls and run along Hig. 402. ceilings, with its back downward. Ameivide.—tThe Lizards of the New World are small, and useful as destroyers of noxious insects. Scincide.—tThe Glass Snake of the Mis- sissippi Valley is one of the aberrant forms belonging to this
Platydactylus seychellensis, Gecko. }.
Fig. 293. Fig. 29h.
en a oe ei $
“Ameiva sexlinedta, Striped Lizard. 3. Ophisaurus ventralis, Glass Snake,
family. When frightened, it contracts its muscles so vio- lently that its tail will break off as if it were brittle.
ORDER OPHIDIA.
General Characteristics.—Serpents are distinguished by their dilatable mouth and the absence of a sternum. They crawl by using the movable ribs and under scales as legs.* The vertebra are joined to each other and to the ribs
* The method is easily realized by allowing one of the non-yenomous kind te crawl over the palm or back of the hand.
174 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
by ball-and-socket joints. The eyesare destitute of lids, and hence the unblinking stare of a serpent. Some species are hatched from the egg before it is deposited, and are said to be ovoviviparous; but nearly all lay eggs in the sand, to be hatched by solar heat. In some varieties, the mother looks after her young for a season, and swallows them in case of danger. The teeth point backward. Most of the venomous serpents have, in place of teeth in the upper jaw, two fangs, through which the poison is ejected to the bottom of the wound.* The jaws are fastened with clastic ligaments,
Fig. 295.
yyy
" @ Serpent.
which allow them to be separated, so that the snake can swallow an animal twice its own size. Snakes shed their epidermis once, and, in many cascs, three or four times a year. It parts uround the mouth, and the reptile slides out of it by crawling through a crevice to hold it, reversing the cuticle. The slough is perfect, even to the epidermis of the
* Snakes, in repose, coil with the tail in the middle and the head outside, laid over. at times, across the folds of the body to the centre of the coil; so that on an alarm they can uncoil with a forward motion, as they have no power of moving tail first. When about to strike, resting upon the latter third of their body, they double themeelyves into folds, not coils, and suddenly straightening, reach forward their Jength only, and always instantly recover their darting position.
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER OPHIDIA. 1%5
eyes. In cold climates, snakes hibernate, gathering often in their holes in large masses.*
Crotalidee.— Rattle- snakes have on the end of the tail a series of horny enlargements, loosely attached to each other, which, when shaken, make a rattling noise. Each slough leaves a new button, while the end ones are dropping off from wear; hence the number is no indication of age. The Copper-head, Mocca- sin, etc., are venomous snakes belonging to this family.
Skull of Rattlesnake, showing fangs.
Fig. 297. Fig. 298.
Rattlesnake’ s tail. Crotdlus durissus, Rattlesnake.
* Naturalists are divided as to whether snakes have the power of “ charming” birds and animals. The general belief is that it is only a paralysis caused by fear on the part of its victim.
176
SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Bascanion constrictor, Black-snake.
They are more dangerous than the rattlesnake, as they give no warning.*
The Adder, a spotted snake of New England, though biting severely, is not poisonous.
The so-called Vipers are con- fined to the Old World. The Cobra de capello (Naja tripue dians) of South- ern Asia can ex- pand the upper part of its body
* The percentage of persons dying from the effect of a snake-bite is very small. In many instances fear is more fatal than the poison. Hence the snake that has bitten should be immediately killed, and its mouth exam- ined for fangs. If they are not found, all anxiety may cease at once, with regard to all our land snakes, If dis- covered, the only known remedy is some form of alcoholic drink, which should be taken as speedily as possible in large quantities, till intoxication results, which is a sign that the poison is neutralized.
CLASS REPTILIA: ORDER OPHIDIA. 177
into a kind of hood, and its dilation is a sign of anger, as strikingly as the rattle in Crotalus. The hood is marked by a figure not unlike a pair of spectacles. The bite is greatly dreaded, as the poison is very subtle. In India, the Cobra is reverenced, and when one takes up its abode in a house, the Hindoo will induce it to enter an earthen jar, and then carefully carry it off to a distance and release it.*
Colubridz.—The Black-snake, Striped-snake, Water- snake, etc., are included in this family. They are all perfectly inoffensive.
Fig. 301.
Boa anaconda. Hooks of Anaconda.
Boidee.—The Boa and Anaconda of South America, and the Python of Africa and the East Indies, are the largest ser-
* This serpent is also used by snake-charmers, who handle it with impunity and pretend to throw it into a lethargy and bring it out at will. ‘“ Drawing the reptile from its cage they will irritate it by presenting a stick. The animal immediately erects the fore part of its body, swells its neck, opens its jaws, extends its forked tongue, and begins to hiss. Then a sort of battle begins between the serpent. and the charmer. The latter striking up a monotonous song, opposes his clenched fist to his enemy ; the former fixes its glittering eyes upon the fist and follows all its move- ments, balancing its head and thus keeping up a kind of dance.”
178 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
pents known. They are frequently found over twenty feet in length. Their bite is harmless, but, suspending themselves from the branches of trees, they dart upon their victims as they pass beneath, entwine them in massive folds, crush their bones, and then swallow them entire.* Hydrophide.— The si cae Sea-snakes inhabit the Ze fresh and salt waters of warm regions. They are @ distinguished by their ; vertically-flattened tail and uniform arrange- ment of teeth, showing no distinct fangs, though proved to be highly ven- omous. The nostrils, on the upper part of the snout, are provided with valves, which proves them to be air-breathing. At least forty-eight species have been discovered, all but six belonging to the Eastern Hemisphere.
Sea-snake.
* To aid in grasping the limb, they have on each side, at the base of the tail, 4 horny spur. These are internally connected with a series of bones, rudimentally representing the hind legs of quadrupeds.
Bascanion constrictor, Black-snake.
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER ANURA. 179
“CLASS IV. AMPHIBIA.
General Characteristics.—Amphibians have a double life—an immature or tadpole stage passed in the water, during which they breathe by gills; and a mature stage passed in the air, during which they breathe by lungs. To this metamorphosis there are a few exceptions, but the typi- cal species lose the gills and tails by absorption, and develop lungs and limbs. Some retain the tails and others the gills, but all when mature have lungs. As arule, the tadpoles are herbivorous, the adults carnivorous.
TAILS AND GILLS TRANSIENT. Anura, Fiog, Toad, ete. AMPHIBIA. 4 Tatts PERMANENT AND GILLS TRANSIENT. Urodela, Salamander, ete. TAILS AND GILLS PERMANENT. Amphipneusta, Siren, etc.
ORDER ANURA.
General Characteristics.—The Tailless Amphibians are distinguished by their broad heads, naked skin, prominent but retractile eyes, and, in the adult state, lack of tails. The eggs are laid” and hatched in the water. The young tad- pole resembles a little fish, with a large head ie and compressed tail, Skeleton of a Frog. but no limbs. Soon Fig. 06. gills (branchiz) appear; and then small, vascu- CS SS lar tufts aid respiration + by extracting air from the water that passes ke? 2S through the mouth and ¢
out of temporary slits. Tadpole changes.
180 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
At length the posterior extremities show themselves; then the anterior; the tail is absorbed (not dropped off); the lungs are developed; the branchie waste away; and the little animal matures into a frog. Destitute of ribs, it breathes like the tortoise, by swallowing air.
PRESENT ; TYMPANUM DISTINCT ;
a BPaR CWROOLEER: \ Ranide, Rana pipiens, Bull-frog.
PRESENT ; TYMPANUM INDISTINCT ;
\ Bufonidz, Bufo americana, Common Toad. JAWS TOOTHLESS.
ANURA. Tongue
ABSENT ; TYMPANUM CONCEALED ; Pipida, Pipa americana, Surinam Toad.
JAWS TOOTHLESS.
Ranide.—The Common Frog (Rana pipiens) is a type of this family. Living mostly in the water, the toes of
Rana pipiens, Sa its hind limbs are webbed. The Tree Frog (Hylidw) has a viscid ball or sucker on each of the toes, by which it can climb easily. It lays its eggs on trees which overhang the water, and, when hatched, the young drop into it. In cold latitudes, all the species hibernate in the mud.
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER ANURA. 181
Bufonidee.—Toads differ from frogs in the absence of teeth on the upper jaw. ‘They hibernate beneath rocks and in holes which they dig Fig. 307. in the ground,* only visiting the water to lay their eggs. Living ex- clusively upon insects, and having a voracious appetite, + no more use- ful animal can be har- bored in a garden. In both frogs and toads, Bufo americanus, Common Toad. the tongue is fastened at the front of the mouth instead of the back. The viscid tip, armed with two finger-like prongs, can be darted out with incredible velocity. An insect venturing near is thus glued fast and put down the animal’s throat without masti- cation.
Pipidee.—The Su- rinam Toad lays its eggs in the water, but the male quickly places them upon the back of thefemale. Adhering to this, cells soon form beneath, in which they become imbedded. Here the young are hatched, and pass
Pipa americana, Surinam Toad. 4.
* No doubt they can remain a long time without food, but there is no well authen- ticated instance of their having been found enclosed in cavities of solid rock with no crevices connecting with the outside world.
+ A naturalist once fed to a toad twenty-three squash-bugs and ninety-four cater- pillars, an inch and a half in length, before it turned away to digest its meal. Feed- ing mostly by night, the toad is of great aid to the Entomologist in furnishing him with specimens of insects he might otherwise never see ; though he is compelled to sacrifice the life of his assistant in order to avail himself of its services. In spite of popular prejudice against handling toads, etc., all the members of this order are per- fectly harnfless, except a temporary smarting that the exudations of the skin may produce if transferred from the hands to the eyes.
182 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
through the usual metamorphosis from the tadpole to the full-limbed stage: Finally, the whole brood emerge, present- ing a singular sight as they struggle out with heads and paws projecting in all directions.
ORDER URODELA.
General Characteristics.— The Tailed Amphibians resemble lizards, but, unlike them, have gills in the early stage of their development. Except the retention of their tails, they pass through essentially the same transformations as the Anura, the fore limbs, however, appearing before the back ones.
{ Salumandra maculose, Salamander.
URODELA;
Salamandride.
TAIL CYLINDRICAL ; TERRES- TRIAL ,; VIVIPAROUS.
Tain Pee auaeeae 5 t Triton cristatus, Newt.
Salamandridz.—The Salamander exudes a milky, gluti- nous kind of perspiration. By its evaporation this will for a time protect the body from the heat, and hence the popular
superstition that the animal is fire-proof. The New? skill- fully encloses its eggs, deposited singly, in the fold of a leaf whose edges are carefully glued together. It possesses a remarkable facility for repairing damages ; if a tail or leg be broken off, it will be restored, and the operation may be repeated many times.*
* The branchie of the Frog and Newt, when the limbs are partially developed,
CLASS AMPHIBIA: ORDER URODELA. 183
Ma Ga Ze GU =} OM, j
a i, a ‘ Triton cristatus, Newt or Triton, Sirédon lichenoides, Axolotl, 3.
Amphipneusta.— The Double-breathing Amphibians present anomalous forms, which are of interest on account of the apparent permanency of their gills) Among them are the Siren, or Mud-eel, of the Carolina rice swamps, the Axo-
Fig. 312.
Protéus anguinus,
lotl of the Mexican lakes, and the Proteus, which inhabits certain caves in Austria, and has only rudimentary eyes. Recent investigations suggest a doubt whether they are not merely the larve of other animals whose life history is not yet fully known.*
furnish the most convenient means for observing the circulation of the blood. Plac- ing the little creature in a vial, with a pocket-lens the globules may be seen chasing one another as they go out through the arteries and return by the veins.
* As they have tuft-like branchiz besides lungs, they have been thought to illus- trate the general law that the ‘‘ transient embryonic stages of the higher members of any division of the animal kingdom are often represented by the permanent condi- tion of its lower members.”
184 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA,
\ CLASS V. PISCES.
General Characteristics.—Fishes rank lowest among vertebrates. Their bodies occupy a horizontal position, with no power even of elevating the head independently. Their senses are blunted. Their eyes are large, but generally have no motion. The external ears are want- ing. They progress mainly by horizontal movements of the vertical tail, in marked contrast with the vertical movements of the horizon- tal tail of the mammals in- habiting the water. The two pairs of fins underneath, corresponding to the four limbs of quadrupeds, as well as the fins upon the back, serve as balancers. Most fishes have a swimming-blad- der—a sort of rudimentary Iung—whose use is doubt- ful, though it is thought to be serviceable in changing their specific gravity. They breathe by means of gills. These are delicate fringes or laminz on each side of the
Fig. 313.
CrrcunaTory System or FisH.—a. Bran-
chial artery; ». Arterial bulb ; c. Ven- tricle of heart; d. Auricle; e. Venous sinus ; f. Vena porte, etc. ; g. Intestine; h. Vena cava; i. Gill vessels ; k. Dorsal artery ; 1. Kidneys; m. Aorta.
head, generally protected by a bony lid called the gill- cover. The water, usually taken into the mouth in a
way similar to the act of swallowing, bathes the gills, and is then
CLASS PISCES: ORDER DIPNOI. 185
discharged at the gill-openings. Meanwhile, the blood cir- culating in the gills absorbs the oxygen of the air which the water contains, and is purified. As the heart has but one
Fig. 314.
SKELETON oF 4 FisH.—a. Pectoral Fins ; b. Ventral ; c. Dorsal ; a. Anal ; Tail, caudal.
auricle and one ventricle, the blood, after being aerated in the gills, is not returned to the heart, but is driven directly through the body. The mouth is the only prehensile organ. All the species are essentially oviparous, a few being ovovi- viparous.
ORDER DIPNOI.
General Characteristics.— The Double-breathing fishes have both gills and luags, two pairs of limbs, and two auri-
Fig. 315.
Lepidosiren annectens, Mud-fish. yy.
cles. They thus ease the transition from the Amphibians to the Fishes. There is only one family, the singular Mud-fish of tropical rivers.
186 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER ELASMOBRANCHII.
General Characteristics.—The Strap-gilled fishes have fixed gills and no gill-covers. Their skeleton is cartilagi- nous ; skin, rough ; and the ventral finsare far back. In some families the tail-lobes are of unequal length (heterocercal).
Fig. 316.
Pastinaca hastata, Sting Ray.
Raiidz.—The Rays are noted for their enormous pec- toral fins, formidable tail, and tesselated teeth. They some- times weigh half a ton. The teeth are adapted to crushing sea-weed and shell-fish; while the tail, armed with hooked spines, can be suddenly lashed
around an enemy, the barbs ) frightfully lacerating the flesh.*
Rhinobatidee (nosed-skate). —The Saw-fish has a sword-like snout one-third the length of
Tesselated: Teeth of @ Bay. the body, and edged with tooth- like spines. Brandishing this among a school of fishes, many are at once. disabled, and afterward eaten at leisure.
* To this family belongs the famous Torpedo, which on being touched gives a violent electric shock. It possesses a kind of voltaic pile composed of parallel prisms, 1262 of which have been counted in a single fish. The electricity has been used in galvanic experiments, as making a magnetic needle, etc.
CLASS PISCES: ORDER ELASMOBRANCHII. 187
Pristis antiquorum, Saw-fish,
Zygenidee (yoked).—The Sharks are the butchers and scavengers of the ocean. They follow ships pertinaciously, swallowing greedily anything thrown overboard.* Their teeth
Fig. 819.
Zygena malléus, Hammer-head Shark. 75. Shark’s Teeth.
* On slow-sailing merchant-ships, shark-fishing is a favorite pastime, especially when the vessel is becalmed. A recent account says: ‘‘ I was holding the heavy hook and wire rope over the side, when I felt that I had caught a big fish, and pulling it cautiously, a shark came to the surface. I called out, when the passengers ran to my help. He struggled so violently, lashing the water with his tail and trying to bite the hook asunder, that we were obliged to keep dipping his head under water and then haul him up two or three feet. to let it run down his throat. At last he was nearly drowned, when, sending a running bow-line down the rope by which he was caught, and making it taut under his back fin, we clapped the line'around the steam
188 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Fig. 321.
the Silirus glans, Sly Sildrus.
1. Acipenser oxyrhynchus, Sturgeon. 3
CLASS PISCES: ORDER GANOIDEI. 189 are in numerous rows, held by strong skin upon the rounded edge of the jaws; but only the outer row stands perpendicular- ly and can be used. As fast as any drop out from wear or fracture, inner ones move forward to take ¢ their place. The f Hammer-head Shark ene is sometimes thirty feet long. Its eyes are at the end of the lateral prolongations of the head, which can be bent so that the shark can see its victim on both sides as it settles down upon it. The eggs of both Rays and Sharks are horn-like sacs, with tendrils for clinging to the sea-weed.
Fig. 322.
ORDER GANOIDEI.
Ganoidei (enameled).—The Ganoids include the Gar- pike, with its enameled scales in oblique transverse rows,
Fig. 328.
Lepidostéus osséus, Gar-pike. 2.
and the Sturgeon, with its bony plates. The latter feeds upon the garbage and vegetation on the muddy bottoms of the great rivers.
winch, and turned the steam on. Some then hauled his tail up, while all available
hands dragged at the other line, which held his head. As soon as we got him on
board he broke off about three feet of the ship’s bulwarkse by a single lash of his ~ tremendous tail. This was then cut off by the boatewain with a hatchet, while a
dozen of us with bowie-knives finished him. We found in his stomach six large
snakes, two empty quart bottles, two dozen lobsters, a sheep-skin and horns and the
shank-bones, which the cook had thrown overboard two days before. The liver
filled two large wash-deck tubs, and when tried out gave us ten gallons of oil.”
190 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ORDER TELEOSTEI.
General Characteristics.—The Teleosts (perfect bone) include nearly all the common fishes. The skeleton is more or less ossified, the skull complicated, the single gill-opening protected by a bony flap or “gill-cover ” (opercttlum), and the tail equal-lobed (homocercal).
Syngnathide (jaw-tied).—The Pipe-fish has a tube-like jaw. Its single dorsal fin, set far back, works like the screw
Fig. 32h.
Syngnathus peckiainus, Pipe-fish. 4. {
of a propeller. The male has a kind of marsupial pouch, in -~ , , which the female places the egg for hatching, and thither the young flee for safety. It feeds upon minute insects and |). shell-fish, thrusting its lor St. Ht every crevice, an sometimes, where that cannot enter, blowing in water to drive out its prey.
Diodontide (two-toothed).— The Puffer inflates its body by swallowing air. Floating bottom up, it presents to its ene- mies beneath only a ball of spines,
#4 with which its back is thickly cov- ered. ue Lophiide (crested). — The Tetrabdon turgidus, Putter. 3. Lishing Frog has the ventral fins forward of the pectoral. The latter serve as legs, and enable it to hop about upon the heach. Upon the head are three spines—the first, witha shiny mem- brane at the tip, fastened by a ring-and-staple joint and able
Fig. 325.
CLASS PISCES: ORDER TELEOSTEL, 191
Lophiius americanus, Fishing Frog. 4.
to move in every direction ; the other two turning only back- ward and forward. The sluggish creature lies in the mud at the bottom of the water, and, waving the first spine, attracts the curious fishes with this glistening bait; but, as they nib- ble, the rear spines knock them into its capacious mouth.
Percide (dusky).— Perch are found both in salt and fresh water. Their operculum is so constructed . that they can be kept alive in the air for hours by occasionally pouring water upon their gills. Perea flavescens,
Xiphiide (sword-like).—The Yelow Perch. 3. Sword-fish is remarkable for its upper jaw being prolonged into a formidable weapon. As its food consists only of squid and small fishes, the use of the ‘“‘sword” is a mystery.*
Fig. 327.
Fig. 328.
fo Xiphias gladius, Sword-fish. 7;.
* Some species have a sword so strong that it has frequently been driven through the coppered hull of a vessel, a third of - length being sawed off on the inside.
192 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ig: $29. Scomberidze (mackerel-like). —The Mackerel, in May and June, approach the shores in enormous shoals to spawn, and great num- bers are then caught for market.
Fig. 330.
Scomber verndlis, Mackerel. 3.
Blepharidez.—The Cobdler-fish is noticeable for the lengthening of the spines of the dorsal and anal fins into hair-like filaments.
Cheetodontidee (hair-toothed). —The Archer can shoot a drop of water from its mouth with such precision as to bring down a fly at ‘the distance of two or three feet.
Blephiris crinitus, Cobbler-fish. 3
Fig. 831.
Chetodon rostratus, ‘Archer, 3.
a
Gadideze—The Cod* is caught in deep seas with hook
* The use of the barbule on its chin is unknown, unless from its similarity to a worm it may be attractive to the smaller fish upon which the Cod preys,
CLASS PISCES: ORDER TELEOSTEI. 193
Pig. 382.
Morrhiia americana, Cod. 3.
and line. It is so numerous in certain localities that eight
men have taken eighty score in a single day. Nine millions
of eggs have been found in the roe of one female. Echeneidze (ship-holder).—The Remora, or Sucker-fish,
Fig. 333.
Echenéis albicauda, Remora. 4.
has on its head a flat disc, not unlike the sole of an India- rubber shoe. This enables it to cling to rocks, vessels, and even to other fish, twelve or fifteen having been found hang- ing to a single shark. The pressure of the atmosphere holds
Fig. 33h
Platessa plana, Flat-fish. 3.
194 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
it so tightly that a strong man can hardly drag it loose. This arrangement probably serves it for cheap and easy transpor- tation, as it is not a good swimmer.
Pleuronectide (side-swimmer).—The /lat-fish has its head singularly twisted, so that both eyes are on the same side of the body. This is always the upper and dark-colored, while the lower side is white. The Family furnishes im-
Fig. 385. portant food fish as the Halibut, Turbot, Sole, and Flounder; the first sometimes reaching a weight of six hundred pounds.
Exoccetide (sleep- er-out).—The Flytng- fish has large pectoral fins, by which it can support itself in the air for a few seconds.* Its brilhant coloring > makes it the common
prey of bird and fish.
* This so-called “flight” is only the result of an impetus acquired by swimming to the surface with great velocity, in order to escape its enemies. It cannot change its course nor raise itself in the air, and its fins cannot be flapped like wings, but serve only as a parachnte.—Capt. Basil Hall gives a very animated dcscription of the pursuit of a school of flying-figh by a dolphin (Coryphwna hippiris, Coryphene, note, p. 84). “The flying-fish took their flight to windward. A large dolphin, which had been keeping company with us abreast of the weather gangway, and, as usual, glistening most beautifully in the sun, no sooner detected our poor dear friends take wing than he turned his head toward them, darted to the surface, and leaped from the water with a velocity little short, as it seemed to us, of a cannon-ball. But though the impetus with which he shot himself into the air gave him an initial velocity greatly exceeding that of the flying-fish, the start which his fated prey had got enabled them to keep aheud of him for a considerable time. The length of the dolphin’s first spring could not have been less than ten yards, and after he fell we could see him gliding like lightning through the water for a moment, when he again rose and shot upwards with considerably greater velocity than at first, and of course to a still greater distance. In this manner the merciless pursuer seemed to stride along the sea, while his brilliant coat sparkled and flashed in the sun. Ag he fell headlong in the water at the end of each leap, a series of circles was sent far over the surface, for the breeze—just enough to keep the royals and topgallant studding- sails extended —was hardly felt as yet below. The group of wretched flying-fish,
CLASS PISCES: ORDER TELEOSTEI. 195
Fig. 33
Pimeodus atrarius, Cat-fish or Horned-pout. 3
* Siluridz.—The Cat-jish, or Horned-pout, has a naked skin, and the mouth surrounded by tentacles.
Clupeide (shad-like)—The Herring ascends fresh-water streams to spawn, thus coming each spring from the depths of the ocean to the hand of man. Im- mense schools go up the same stream in which they were spawned the previous year, and always select the branches leading to certain head-waters, for which they have a preference.
Fig. 337.
Clupéa serrata, Herring. 45.
thus hotly pursued, at length dropped into the sea ; but we were rejoiced to observe that they merely touched the top of the swell, and instantly set off again in a fresh and even more vigorous flight. The direction they now took was quite different from the one in which they had set out, implying that they had detected their fierce enemy, who was gaining rapidly upon them. The greedy dolphin was fully as quick- sighted; for whenever they varied their flight in the smallest degree, he lost not the tenth part of a second in shaping his course go as to cut off the chase; while they, in a manner really not unlike that of the hare, doubled more than once upon their pur- suer. Butit was soon plainly to be seen that the strength and confidence of the flying- fish were fast ebbing; their flights became shorter and shorter, and their course more fluttering and uncertain, while the leaps of the dolphin seemed to grow more vigorous at each bound. Eventually this skilful sea-sportsman seemed to arrange his springs so as to fall just under the very spot on which the exhausted flying-fish were about to drop. This catastrophe took place at too great a distance for us to see from the deck what happened; but on our mounting high on the rigging, we may be said to have been in at the death; for then we could discover that the unfortunate little creatures, one after another, either popped right into the dolphin’s jaws as they lighted on the water, or were snapped up instantly after.”
196 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
Salmonide.—The Salmon has habits similar to those of the Herring, but, on account of its greater size, is able to ascend waterfalls ten or twelve feet in height. Arrived at the spawning ground, a hole is scooped in the gravel and the eggs deposited and covered over, the parent returning leisurely to the sea. Its food in the ocean consists of small shell-fish, not excepting its own progeny.
Fig. 338.
Salmo salar, Salmon. 3. The Esocidee include the voracious European Pike and American Pickerel (Esox reticulitus). They are masters of the waters in which they reside, destroying mercilessly every other fish and even the young of their own kind, as well as mammals and birds—three water-rats and the remains of a duck having been found in the stomach of one pike.* Hence they should be exterminated from all streams intended for the raising of trout, gold-fish, and other soft-finned fishes.
* A swan was perceived to keep its head under water longer than usual. Upon examination it was found that a pike had so far gorged its head as to kill both itself and the swan.
CLASS PISCES: ORDER TELEOSTEI. 197
Fig. 339.
eer —— = Ld
1. Cyprinus carpio, European Carp. 2. Lsox luctus, European Pike.
Cyprinidee.—The Carp, indigenous to Europe, has been successfully naturalized in America. It is especially culti- vated in reservoirs for the table, attaining sometimes to the weight of 100 pounds, and living to the age of 150 years.
The Gold-fish (Cyprinus auratus), originally from China, has become a common pet of the parlor and the fountain.*
Cyprinus barbus, Barbel, Europe.
* Gold-fish should be fed once a week with some animal food. as worms, and more frequently with stiff dongh of flour and water.
198 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
The'Silver-fish is only a variety of the Gold, resulting from artificial treatment.
The arbel, belonging to the same genus, has four beards or barbules hanging from the mouth, probably to aid it in grubbing with its nose in the soft banks for aquatic larvee.
| SS Anguilla latirostris, Broad-nosed Eel. 3.
Anguillide (snake-like)—The Common Eel is oviparous, and so tenacious of life as to wander across dewy meadows from pond to pond, its gill-openings being far back and thus protecting the gills from drying.
ORDER MARSIPOBRANCHII.
General Characteristics.—The Pouch-gilled fishes have a cartilaginous skeleton, naked skin, only one nasal organ, and no lower jaw.
Petromyzonide (stone-suckers).— Fig. 818. The Lamprey occurs in both salt and
Fig. 3h2.
Petromijzon americdnus, Lamprey. 45. Mouth of Lamprey.
CLASS PISCES: ORDER PHARYNGOBRANCHII. 199
fresh water. Its mouth is simply a circular sucking-cup, armed with numerous teeth. The tongue, working like a piston, produces a vacuum by which the animal adheres to any object. Assisted by the current, it thus drags away quite large stones from the spot it chooses for depositing its spawn.
ORDER PHARYNGOBRANCHIIL.
Pharyngobranchii (gullet-gilled). The Lancelet, a sin- gular little fish not over two inches long, found on differ- ent coasts, is the only repre- sentative of this order. It has no skull, jaws, brain, heart, true fins, nor eyes. The mouth is only aslit. It swims by means of a membranous border above and beneath. Yet the little creature breathes, eats, and its blood circulates by means of rhythmical contractions of the vessels. Itis considered the lowest type of organization yet known in the Vertebrata.
Branchiostéma lanceoldtus, Lancelet.
HOMOLOGIES AND ANALOGIES OF THE VERTEBRATES.
A comparison of Figs. 26, 58, 70, and 116, illustrating the anatomy of some of the various orders of Mammals, shows a remarkable similarity of structure. Thus, while the figure and size of the head of the mam- mals vary greatly, it is always composed of the same parts, marked by the same processes and united in the same order. Any difference is only a modification of form and structure, rather than of omission or addition. These variations are least observable in the embryonic state,. and become more apparent in maturity, through the ossifying or non- ossifying of the sutures, the greater or less development of the processes for muscular attachment, and the adaptation of the cranium to the size and shape of the brain. ‘The so-called ‘facial angle,” formed by a line drawn from the forehead to the most prominent part of the upper jaw, and meeting a line from the middle of the ear to the base of the nose, shows the difference in the form of the head, and is an index to the intelligence of the several orders of mammals.
Homologies of Limbs in the same Animal.—In the skeleton of the horse, a careful study of the angle formed by the scapula and humerus with that formed by the ilium and femur, will show how antagonism in direction gives stability of position. Were
200 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
both angles directed the same way, the bones would shut together and the animal fall. That there may be a double antagonism and a lower
Man.
Ape.
Bat.
Mole. Dog.
Seal.
Deer.
Bird.
Limps.— Anterior members of Vertebrata. H. Humerus ; RU. Radius and Una; C. Carpus ; MC. Metacarpus ; PH. Phalanges
Tortotse.
Fish.
against an upper, the angle formed by the humerus and forearm antagonizes that formed by the femur and leg; but each respectively
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 201
in the contrary direction to the antagonism immediately above it, thus intensifying the stability.
Homologies of the Limbs of different Animals,—Com- paring the anterior limbs of different orders of mammals with those of birds, reptiles and fishes (See Fig. 345) the same fundamental idea will be recognized in all, yet so modified as to adapt the several species to the most diversified modes of life. Thus from man to the fish are found the humerus (H), the radius and ulna of the forearm (RU), the carpal bones (C), the metacarpal (MC), and the phalanges (PH). The greatest modification is observable in the wrist-bones (indicated by the dotted line) and those beyond. The normal number of carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges, is sometimes reduced and sometimes multiplied, that the limb may be used specifically, according to the wants of the animal, for swimming, crawling, flying, paddling, running, digging, climbing, ete. The perfection of the human hand, which combines nearly all these'uses, depends chiefly on the free revolving motion of the humerus and the rotation of the radius about the ulna. This mode of action necessitates a clavicle. The more perfect this bone, the greater the power of rotating the forearm; and, when the clavicle is wanting, the radius and ulna are usually consolidated and the fore limbs become only columns of support or instruments of progression. This latter condition existing in the horse and the ruminants, the meta- carpals are greatly elongated, elevating the heel to the height of the knee in other quadrupeds, and permitting the toe only to touch the ground.
The posterior extremities follow the analogies of the anterior in most mammals, the true knee with its patella being more or less con- cealed in the flanks, with a corresponding elongation of the heel, the toe only touching the ground.
Laws of Comparative Anatomy.—The foregoing remarks upon homologies and analogies prepare for a deduction of some of those great laws of coexistence, which lie at the foundation of com- parative anatomy.
1. Since the extremities by means of which the animal procures its food must always bear a certain relation to the teeth which masticate and fit it for the stomach, the former decide the animal's external structure, and the latter its internal organization.
2. The position and size of the processes of different bones deter- mine the direction and force of the muscles by which they are worked.
8. The character of the muscles determines the structure of the nerves which call them into action, and of the brain in which the nerves originate.
4, The nervous system determines the degree of intelligence.
The structure of an animal, its natural habit and mode of life, can be deduced from the bones of the extremities, and even from the
202 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA.
ends only of any one of them. For instance, the shape of a single finger-bone indicates the necessary form of the one with which it articulates; this latter its fellow, and so on through the series includ- ing the metacarpal, carpal, radius and ulna, humerus, scapula and clavicle. The result of this investigation suggests at once to a com- parative anatomist the structure of the teeth, whether herbivorous or carnivorous, and thus enables him to decipher the entire character of the animal. Any bone in the series answers equally well for a starting-point, and the skill of the investigator is shown in the readi- ness with which he reconstructs the whole bony fabric from the exiremity furnished. Thus Cuvier, from single bones found in the gypsum near Paris, drew the entire outline of fossil genera of mam- mals; and Agassiz, from isolated scales, restored the whole fish. (See Geology, pp. 182 and 203.)
HINTS FOR STUDYING REPTILIA, AMPHIBIA AND PISCES.
In the latitude of southern New England during fifteen or twenty days after June 10th, the smaller tortoises may be found about sundown on the margins of the ponds and streams digging holes and laying their eggs; the larger, as Chelydra serpentina, doing the same thing about sunrise in the morning. Removing the eggs carefully without turn- ing them over, they may be placed two or three inches deep in garden sand, protected with: net-work, kept moist, and so the progress of embryonic development watched till they hatch in September or October, by examining one egg at a time every two or three weeks.
The Amphibia may be studied in a similar way by transferring frog and toad spawn, found in streams about the first of June, to a glass vessel of water containing sand and pebbles. It will be noticed that frogs’ eggs are in a glairy mass ; toads’ eggs ina glairy string. Ifa female newt be placed in the vessel with some growing aquatic plant like spotted knot-weed (Polygénum persicaria), its curious habit of folding a leaf in which to deposit its egg may be observed, and in time all the changes pertaining to its metamorphosis.
Large Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes may be skinned and pre- served according to the directions already given for Mammals and Birds. Small specimens should be kept in alcohol, after making an incision low down on the side, by simply inserting a penknife at as small an angle to the surface as will permit the point to enter the cavity of the abdomen. After a few days, alcoholic specimens should be changed into fresh alcohol at least 80° proof. Glycerine may be substituted for alechol, when it is desirable to preserve the colors.
Il. SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
General Characteristics.—The Articulates (jointed) constitute more than four-fifths of the Animal Kingdom.
Z An Articulate.
The body is composed of a series of rings, formed of skin more or less hardened and serving for a skeleton (Table, p. 13).
Fig. 347.
Nervous System of Insects.
Each segment generally has its nervous ganglion, which acts independently as a kind of local brain.
SUBKINGDOM. CLASSES. < RESPIRATION BY TRACHEZ OR PULMONARY Pig WHITE; ks. Insecta, Insects. — 3 JOINTED 5 ' Limes. ESPIRATION AQUATIC, USUALLY BY GILLS; o = 8. 7 saia HORESP TAN IEA { Crustacea, Lobsters, elc. = RED; WITHOUT JOINTED LIMBS. Vermes, Worme. x Sup-CLassEs. Guise: DISTINCT HEAD, THORAX, AND ABDOMEN; ) Insecta \ Flies, ete. WINGED, LEGS SIX. proper, INSECTA. SEGMENTS AND LIMBS NUMEROUS, WINGLESS. Myriapoda, Ceutipedes, ete,
HEAD AND THORAX UNITED, LEGS EIGHT, : ida, Spiders. WINGLESS. rechnlasy. “Spiders
CLASS I. INSECTA. SUB-CLASS L—INSECTA PROPER.
General Characteristies.—Insects (cut into) have the body divided into three portions— head, thorax, and abdomen. From the head proceed two little stems called antenne, which are sup- posed to be organs of touch, and perhaps also of sound. The thorax - is composed of three rings, each bearing a pair of legs, and the second usually, and the third some- times, in addition, a pair of wings. The abdomen has typically eleven segments.
Respiration is effected by a number of breathing apertures,in each side of the body, that open into tubes (trachew), formed of a spirally-rolled, cartilaginous fila- ment, communicating freely with
Anatomy of External Skeleton one another, and, in their last
ghia Wane tates ramifications, penetrating the sub- stance of the organs. In the wings, where this network of horny tubes is particularly apparent, they are called veins and veiniets. Inclosing them » is a larger tube filled with blood, which is aerated ‘Y by absorbing air through the membranes of the tubes.
The Digestive Apparatus is very complicated,
= tie d Trachea 9 consisting of mandibles, gullet, stomach, crop, an pated
gizzard, intestines, ete. The Lyes of most insects are compound, consisting of a multitude of small eyes * (facets), each perfect in itself; but
* The number of these facets is often enormous—in certain kinds of beetles it exceeds twenty-five thousand, and in the common house-fly it is four thousand.
CLASS INSECTA.
some have simple eyes (ocell/), which are usually placed on the top of the head ; and some have both kinds.
Fig. 351.
Facets of the Eye of an Insect.
Metamorphosis——The young insect passes through a series of changes before reaching the form of the adult. Thus, a moth, on emerging from the egg, appears as a larva ; if with legs, a caterpillar; if without, a grub or maggot. Its whole business now is to eat, and hence in this stage it is most injurious to vegetation. After repeated molts, to allow for the enlargement of its body, it usually rolls itself into a co-
205
DicEstoRY APPARATUS OF INSECTS.— a. Head; b. Antenne, c. Mandibdles; d. Pulpi; e. Csophagus; t. Crop; g. Gizeard ; h. Stomach ; i. Intestine; j. Rectum; kk. Biliary vessels; 1. Se ereting organs.
coon and becomes a pupa, during which stage it remains
quiet. bursts forth an imago.
At length, the time varying with different species, it It is now furnished with wings, and
METAMORPHOSIS OF AN InsEOT.—a, Egg; b. Larva; c. Pupa.
206 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
the two sexes pairing, eggs for the next generation are laid, and the parents die. *
Four, MEMBRANOUS. Hymenoptera, Bee, Wasp, etc. Four, SCALY Lepidoptera, - Butterfly, Moth, ete nas & TWO, IN SOME SPECIES WANTING. Diptera, Fly, Mosquito, etr, oO o Four, TWO HORNY AND TWO MEMBRANOUS. Coleoptera, Beetle, ete. to = FOUR GENRRALLY, SPARSELY VEINED Uemiptera, Cicada, ete. Zz Four, ANTERIOR THICKENED, STRAIGIIT. Outhoptera, Grasshoppe , ee.
Four, NET-VEINED, POSTERIOR GENERALLY
Neuroptera, Diagon-fly, etc. LARGEST Prere ragon fly, ete
ORDER HYMENOPTERA.
General Characteristics.—The Hymenopters (mem- brane-winged) have the wings coarsely veined and the ante- rior pair hooked to the posterior in flight. The females have stings, or ovipositors, and the social instinct is highly developed.
Apidz.—Honey-bees are of three sorts—queens (females), drones (males), and workers (imperfectly-developed females).
Fig. 855.
Worker.
In each swarm is one queen, which lays the eggs in three broods: the first producing workers; the second, drones; and the third, queens. The drones are the idlers, and are killed by the workers after the pairing season. The workers are the laborers; some being wax-producers; others, builders; and others, nurses. Honey, wax, and the cement used by
* Althongh the majority pass through this complete transformation, some are distinguished from the larval state by wings, while others undergo no change except in size from the egg to maturity.
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 207
bees to stop up cracks in their hives, are in some mysterious way elaborated out of materials obtained from plants. The various classes of bees are hatched in eo different-shaped cells, and fed with pecu- liar food. The workers and drones have horizontal cells, differing only in size; but queen-cells are larger, vertical, and open downward. When the population becomes too large, a portion emigrate (swarm), accompanied by the old queen.* The Humble-bees have two sorts of females—large and small. The eggs of
a. Cells of Drones and the former produce males, females, and yrorieng . . Cell of Quasi
* A swarm of bees is a carefully-organized community where the division of labor is carried to the utmost limit, In a hive containing about twenty thousand bees there would be one queen, five hundred drones, and nineteen thousand five hundred workers.—The loss of the queen throws everything awry, and if her place is not supplied the hive will perish. A grub is selected, its cell enlarged to royal dimen- sions, and the stimulating food destined for the queen fed to it. In sixteen days its transformation to a queen will be complete, and it will be ready to assume the royal functions. As but one queen can reign in a hive, the young queens in the royal cells are carefully guarded until it is settled whether there will be new swarms sent off. If not, then the old queen comes in and stings the rest to deatb. If a swarm leaves under her care, a young queen is released which at once tries to destroy her sisters, but is prevented by the sentinels. If she also departs with a swarm, then a third queen is set free. Finally the reigning queen puts to death her remaining rivals. When a swarm is to start, great preparations are made ; scouts are sent out to select a suitable place for the new settlement, and the workers gather food to carry with them. Ata signal the queen starts and the rest follow, lighting wherever she stops, and returning if she goes back.—Within a hive all is bustle and hurry, yet allis order. Every outlet is besieged. Hundreds of bees arrive laden with provisions and material. Cautious sentinels scrutinize every arrival. Purveyors, anxious to be away again, stop at the entrance and deliver their loads to other bees. Scavengers clear the hive of everything which would impede the traffic, or injure the health of the inmates. Workers drag out the bodies of their dead companions. Any rash intruder is stung to death, and if he cannot be removed is at once embalmed; if it be a snail that can retire from their attacks within its shell, they cement it close, and its house becomes its tomb.—In making their cells the bees suspend themselves so as to form hanging festoons, which serve as bridges for the workers to pass. One of the bees takes the flakes of wax adhering to the abdomen, moistens it, kneads it with its mandibles, and sticks it to the roof. It then retires and another does the same. Soon shapeless blocks of wax depend. A second set of workers hollow these out and shape them into cells. Meanwhile new ones are being roughly laid, and so the work goes on with marvellous rapidity, a swarm being able to construct four thousand cells within twenty-four hours.—Article on Bees in Appleton's Cyclopedia, Wood's ‘Homes without Hands,” Rendre’s “I'Intelligence des Bétes,” and Réaumur’s ‘* Histoire des Insectes.”
208 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
workers; those of the latter only males.* Late in the autumn, all die except the large females, which pass the winter in a torpid condition. Awaking in the spring, each sallies forth to seek a convenient place and found a new colony. Within half an’ hour she will make a cell, store it with pollen and honey, and deposit a few eggs. On hatching, the larva eats the pollen, and shapes for itself a cell. Quickly spinning its co- coon, it passes from a pupa to an imago. Meanwhile the queen continues to lay, and, as fast as the workers mature, keeps them busy in aiding her to build new cells and tend the young.
Formicide.—The Ants are a numerous family, over one thousand species having been described. The eggs laid by the last brood of females each summer do not hatch til spring, when they are cared for by the workers that alone, as a rule, hibernate. On a hot day, the winged males and females rise into the air in vast numbers, pair,t and then separate, the males to die, and the females to lose their wings, and, entering the ground, found new colonies.
Fig. 357.
Bombus, Humble-bee and cells.
* The male Humble-bees, like those of the Hive-bee, are harmless and may be known by their white faces. The same is true of the Wasps, which form a family, Vespidx of the Hymenoptera. They resemble the Bees in their habits. They do not, however, secrete wax; but scraping wood and plants with their mandibles they manufacture a kind of papier maché for building their nests. They thus made paper long before man had learned the art.
t The winged ants have a strong disposition to desert and found new colonies. The workers, however, are on the watch for this, and their sentinels may occasion- ally be seen dragging back a deserter. Sometimes a party overtaking a queen at a distance from home, do not return but establish a new settlement. The eggs are tended by the queen and the nurses or workers, both eggs and larve being brought ovt into the sun every pleasantday. As they are frequently seen bearing these white-
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER HYMENOPTERA, 209
a. Egg ; b. Larva; c. Pupa of Ants ; a. Ponéya grandis, Giant Ant; F. Formica sanguinéa, Red Ant; G. Myrmecia forficata; H. Mutilla cephaldtos.
looking grains about, an erroneous idea has arisen that the ants lay up food for winter. The habits of the various species are well worth study. The Agricultural Ants of Texas havea tiny farm, where they cultivate a plant (Avistida stricta) whose seed they harvest. The Sanguinary Ants are warriors. They rob their neighbors and recuce their captives to abject slavery, compelling them to do all their work for them, “to lick them, brush them, carry them on their back, and feed them.” The Foraging Ants hunt in vast armies, clearing the region they traverse of every wing- less insect. They build covered ways for the advance of their columns, and in one case constructed across a chasm a tubular bridge one-half an inch in diameter and twelve inches long. The Leaf-cutting Ants dig wells in search of water, sometimes thirty feet deep. In one place they dug a tunnel under the river Parahyba. Insome parts of Brazil they render agriculture almost impossible ; they undermine buildings, carry off provisions by night, and strip a tree of all its leaves in a day. The White Ants (a Neuropterous insect, Termes bellicosus) of the tropics, erect conical hills twelve feet high, and so strong that the buffaloes use them for watch-towers. They destroy furniture and even houses. They have been known in a single night to ascend a table-leg, eat the contents of a trunk on top, and descend through another leg. The female lays 80,000 eggs in a day, yet in spite of this fecundity their number is kept down, because man and beast alike feed upon them as a dainty. Read Bell's ‘Naturalist in Nicaragua,” Popular Science Monthly, July, 1875, Bates's ‘‘ Natural- ist on the Amazon,”’ Figuier’s ‘‘ Insect World,” etc.
210 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
Cynipidee.— The Gall-jfly produces the gall-nuts used in making ink. It punctures the leaves and other parts of certain plants, especially the oak, and deposits an egg in the wound, fy, with some irritating fluid that causes the excrescence.
Ichneumonide (hunter family)—The Ichneumons number more than six thousand species. Their mission is to prevent the increase of other insects. They are furnished with an auger by which they introduce their eggs underneath the skin of caterpillars. The maggots feed upon the body of their victims. With wonderful Cunive quercus-folli, Gall_fy. discrimination, however, they consume only the adipose part,
and spare its vitals until they are themselves ready to enter the pupa state.
Fig. 860.
Ichneumon manifeatator, Ichneumon Fly depositing its eggs in the larve at the bottom of the holes,
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 211
ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
General Characteristics.— The Lepidopters (scale- winged) have wings covered with colored scales, that come off at the slightest touch. These are so minute that four hundred thousand have been counted on a single insect. The larve are all Caterpillars, with legs on the thorax and not on the abdomen. The But- terflies have knobbed an- tenne, and hold their Wings upright when at rest. The Moths have antenne feathery and variously shaped, but never knobbed. They usually spin cocoons, the metamorphosis being complete.
Papilionidez.—The Butterflies* are strictly diurnal, and produce cat- erpillars destructive to foliage.
Sphingide.—The Sphinges (moths) usually fly in the twilight or night. The Death’s-head PEERAGE Oty PETE? Moth, so called because on the back of its thorax there is a
Fig, 361.
* Their long, tongne-like proboscis consists of two threads, each a semi-canal, which unite to form a tube for thrusting into flowers to extract their sweet juices. When not in use it can be coiled up like a watch-spring. The Lepidopter’s flitting flight aids in escaping its enemies. The number and variety of this beautiful family make it the delight of the student, while the wonderful transformation from the’ crawling worm to the brilliant insect, affords an ever welcome and touching type of the final release of the soul of man from the darkness of the grave,
212 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
rough figure of a human skull, emits a plaintive squeal, when disturbed.
Fig. 362.
Acherontia atrépos, Death’s-head Moth.
Bombycidze.—The Common Silk-worm spins its thread from a spinneret placed near the mouth. Its cocoon is formed by the larva attaching a few threads lengthwise to adjacent objects, and then turning itself around, thickening the walls with a continuous thread, often one thousand feet long. The Tent Caterpillar deposits its eggs in a bunch
Fig. 363. Fig. 364.
plod da dat
¢ SN
Bombyx mori, Clistocampa americana, Silk-worm Moth and Cocoon. Tent Caterpillar. Eggs, Larva, Imago.
CLASS INSECTA! ORDER DIPTERA. 213
around the twigs of trees. The insect, hatching in April or May, weaves a spider-like net, into which it retires at noon and night. As it goes forth to feed, it marks its track by a thread as a clue for its return, and to give a foothold on leaves and smooth places.
ORDER DIPTERA.
General Characteristics—The Dipters (two-winged) number in North America about ten thousand species. The larvee are footless maggots, and go through a complete trans- formation. ,
Fig. 865.
Culex pipiens, Mosquito. Female, Male, and Transformaticns.
Culicidee (gnat family).—The Mosquito lays its eggs, two or three hundred in number, in the water. On hatching, they become “ Wiggle-tatis.” ues? breathe by means of a long
214 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
tube on the last segment of the body, till they change into the pupa state, when respiration is transferred to two tubes in the thorax. Assuming the imago state, they burst through their envelopes, and rise from the water perfect -insects. There are three or four generations in a season. The female alone has a piercing proboscis, which for fineness is to the point of a needle as that is to a sword.*
Fig. 366.
Cecidomyia destructor, Hessian Fly ; C. trifici, Wheat Midge ; Larve of latter feeding in wheat-flowers, magnified.
Cecidomyide: (high-leaping family).—The Hessian and the Wheat Fly are injurious to wheat, some species by attack- ing the flower and some the stalk.
Muscidee.—Flies can walk upon smooth surfaces overhead, because the broad dise of the foot secretes a vis- cid fluid, by which they adhere. In the imago state there is no growth, so that smaller and larger specimens of flies are different species. +
Fig. 967.
* Its minute wound should quickly heal; but whether the irritation results from the injection of a poisonous liquid, or from the barbed proboscis, as well as how its hum is produced, are unsettled ques tions,
+ The common House-fly is an importation from Europe, and according to Packard (American Nat- uralist, Aug., 1876) its life may be summed up a8 follows: “It lives one day in the egg elate, hatched in the ordure of stables; from five days to a week as a maggot; from five to seven days in the pupa state, Foot of House-fly. —in all from ten to fourteen days in the month of
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER COLEOPTERA. 215
Pulicidz.—The Fleas are wingless Dipters.* They un- dergo a complete metamorpho- sis, and the imago possesses rudimentary wings. Their tough skin makes it difficult to crush them between the fingers, while their wonderful muscular _ power enables them to jump— two hundred times their length, T’ and to draw a hundred times Pulex irritans, Human Flea. their weight.t
Fig. 368.
ORDER COLEOPTERA.
General Characteristics.—The Coleopters (sheath- Pig.ee winged) have the an-
= terior wings (elytra)
of a horny texture, and the posterior, membranous. The latter are the sole organs of flight. The mandibles are very strong, and often armed with acute teeth on the inner : oi fe margin. Their met- Lachnosterna “fused, May-beetle. amorphosis is com-
August,—before the winged adult period. Most of those which are born in August live for a month or six weeks, and die at the coming of frost. A few probably winter over and survive until mid-summer, and thus maintain the existence of this useful species, to which civilized man owes more than he can readily estimate, and with which he can dispense only when the health of our cities and towns is looked after with far greater vigilance and intelligence than is perhaps likely to be the case for several centuries to come.”
* Horse-ticks, sheep-ticks, bird-ticks, bat-ticks, bee-lice, etc., are other anomalous forms of Diptera.
+ Fleas have been trained to show their strength and docility. The so-called ‘learned fleas,” exhibited in Paris, went through military evolutions, standing on their hind legs and shouldering tiny spears: and two of them drew a companion 1n a little wagon, a fourth sitting on the coachman’s box and wielding the whip. The spectators viewed this wonderful exhibition through magnifying glasses,
216 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
plete, the soft larve usually having a horny head with sim- ple eyes and distinct jaws.
Searabeeidee (cased).—The May-beetle, or Dor-bug, lays its eggs in the ground during May or June. They hatch in about three months. The larva, called by farmers the “ white-worm,” grows to the size of the little finger, devour- ing voraciously every kind of vegetable. After remaining some years in this state, passing the winter in the ground below frost, it changes to a pupa, emerges a beetle, lays its eggs, and dies.
Lucinus cervus, Stag-beetle, Europe.
Lucanidee.—The Horn-bugs* lay their eggs under the
* So strong are the jaws of Stag-beetles that one has been known to gnaw a hole an inch in diameter through the side of an iron canister.
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER COLEOPTERA. 217
bark at the roots of trees, and their metamorphosis goes on within the trunk. Silphide.—The Burying-beetles dig underneath small
Fiq. 871.
te 8 Fe SE >,
VS
Necrophérus vestigator burying a Mouse.
dead animals—mice, birds, ete—and soon bury them as pro vision for their young.
Cerambycidze.—The Long-horns have filiform, recurved antennee, often much longer than the body. Their eggs are laid in crevices of bark, and the larve bore into the hardest wood, oftentimes destroying whole forests. To this family belongs the destructive “ apple-tree borer.” *
Scolytidz.—The Bark-borers cause great devastation among trees by digging, just beneath the bark, radiating
* To the family Chrysomelide belongs the Striped Squash Beetle (Diabrotica vittata), a yellow bug which attacks the vines as soon as they are up.
218 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
Cat Se.
Cerambyx moschitus,
Scolijtus destruétor,
Long-horned Musk Beetle. Bark-borer.
galleries bearing a rude resemblance to written characters, an
Fig. 3%.
Brenthus nasicus, Curculio.
egg being placed at the términation of each gallery. : Curculionide.— The Teevils have a long proboscis for boring holes in which to deposit their eggs. Different species attack every part of a plant. The Plum-weevil makes a crescent-shaped incision into a plum, and its egg hatches a whitish grub that soon penetrates to the kernel of the fruit. Bren- thus attacks hazel-nuts. Dytiscidze.—The JWater-beetles are oval in form, and have strongly- fringed hind-legs for swimming. The larve are called “ Water-tigers,” as their scissor-like jaws enable them to snip off the tails of tad- poles, and even hold on to young fishes while sucking their blood. On assuming the pupa state, they
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER HEMIPTERA. 219
Fig. 375.
Dytiscus fasciventris, Water-beetle and Larva of Water-beetle. “ Water-tiger.”
crawl upon the land, construct a round cell, and come forth as beetles.
ORDER HEMIPTERA.
General Characteristics.—The Hemipters (half-winged) have fore wings half leathery and half membranous; usually both ocelli and compound eyes; and asuctorial mouth. The metamorphosis is incomplete.
Cicadidze.—The Harvest-fly family includes the “Seven- teen-year Locusts.”* The females, with a saw-like oviposi- tor, furrow the twigs of both forest and orchard trees longi- tudinally to the length of fifteen or eighteen inches, piercing every two-thirds of an inch to the pith, and depositing two
* They appear in different localities annually, but in any one only once in seven- teen years, C. V. Riley states that there is a “‘ Thirteen-year Locust.”
220 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
eggs, side by side, with a thin layer of woody fibre between. The larve, on hatching, drop to the ground, in which they live for seven- teen years, feed- ing upon the roots of trees. When ready to enter the pupa state, they make cylindrical burrows, cemented water-tight, and at length issuing forth, in appearance like the imago except the want of wings, attach themselves to any ‘ ba on Pea acy object at hand, particular- Ciolds septendécim, “ Seventeon-year Hoenst” ty the trunks of trees. Ina short time, the thorax splitting on the back, the perfect imago crawls out ; after pairing, the female deposits its eggs, and the male fills the air with the noise of the ear- piercing kettle-drum beneath its wings.*¥ Coreidze.—The Squash-buy hibernates in crevices, but lays its eggs on the under side of squash leaves. The young brood \, are of a pale ash color, and, after molting < several times, appear in their perfect state with wings and wing-covers. : . Aphid (exhausters).—Plant-lice+ ——condus tristia, have a wonderful life-history. The eggs Squash-bug.
Fig. 876.
* This apparatus is concealed under two valves in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. The membrane of the drum-head is thin, brittle, and slightly wrinkled. There is a muscle attached to it on the inner side. By contracting this, the drum-head is drawn in, but on relaxing. it springs back of itself, thus producing tbe familiar clicking noise of the Cicada. The pupil can aed make a dissection of the insect, and examine the apparatus for
imself.
+ Nothing can be more amusing than to watch the plant-lice for half an hour,
CLASS INSECTA: ORDER HEMIPTERA. 221
deposited on the plants in the autumn hatch in the spring asexual and wingless individuals. These produce living young, likewise asexual, in succession, often to the twelfth generation. At the close of summer, winged and sexual ones appear. These pairing, Fig. 378. their eggs do not hatch until the folowing called Parthenogenesis. It has been calcu- lated that a single Aphis will produce a billion young in a summer. One species p,,, (Hriosima lanigéra), covered with a woolly, flocculent substance, causes the apple-blight by stinging the bark, when the leaves turn yellow and drop off.
Aphis rose, Louse, magnified.
Fig. 379.
NZ us
Acrydium aleutacéum, Leather-colored Locust (upper figure). Cyrtophyllus concdvus, Katydid dower figure),
while gorging themselves with the honey extracted from the tender bark, and observe the treatment they receive from the ants, which keep them, as we do cows, extracting from them a sweet liquid of which they are very fond.
222 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
ORDER ORTHOPTERA.
General Characteristics.—The Orthopters (straight- winged) have strong, horny, and toothed mandibles for biting. The anterior wings are of a leathery texture; the posterior, membranous and folding, like a fan. The legs vary much in form and size, in some families the anterior pair being greatly enlarged for seizing, and in others the posterior for leaping. The metamorphosis is incomplete, the young resembling the parents, except in size and the want of wings.
Locustidee.—The A’atydid is silent during the day, but musical throughout the night. Its familiar notes are pro- duced by the friction of the bases of the wings upon each other.
Fig. 380,
Gryllotalpa vulgaris, Mole Cricket.
Gryllide.—The Mole Cricket has its anterior extremities shaped like those of the mole, for constructing subterranean galleries.
Acrydidz.—The “Grasshoppers,” or Locusts of the Western States, belong to this family. They come in such multitudes as to give sunhght the yellow tinge of dense smoke, and to eat a large field of grain in an hour.
CLASS INSECTA! ORDER NEUROPTERA. 223
Forficulidee.—The Zarwig* sits upon Fig. 981. its eggs till they are hatched, and then broods its young as a hen does its chickens.
ORDER NEUROPTERA.
General Characteristics. —The Neu- roptera (nerve-winged) have an elongated body with four membranous wings of beau-
Fonficitl tiful network, minutely subdivided. The en
metamorphosis is notalwayscomplete. None = #"wis-
of them are injurious to living plants.
Libellulidze.—The Dragon- fly (or Devils Darning- needle) has very large com- pound eyes and also three ocelli on the top of the head. Tt feeds upon mosquitoes, flies, etc. It has no sting, and is perfectly harmless. The larvee pass through their transforma- tions in the water.
Myrmeleonide.—The | Ant-lion in repose folds its | wings like a roof upon the Wi sides of the body. The larve iy dig funnel-shaped pitfalls in the sand, and lie concealed at. the bottom, snapping up any insect that tumbles in, and even tossing a shower of sand
to destroy the foothold of any — = == victim that tries to escape up Lace of Danae 9 the sloping sides. (Fig. 383.)
* This insect must not be confounded with the “ Thousand-legs,” which bears the same popular name, The term Earwig should be Ear-wing, their large wings when expanded having the shape of ears.
224 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
Fig. 883.
Myrmeléon obsolétus, Larva, Imago and Pit-fall of Ant-lion,
HINTS FOR PRESERVING INSECTS.
A small hand-net, which can be easily made of gauze by any pupil, will be of great use in catching insects. Butterflies may be killed by a gentle squeeze under the wings, or better by a drop of chloroform 01 ether applied with a camel’s-hair brush to the proboscis or the sides of the abdomen. Beetles should be dropped into alcohol, ether or ben- zine ; when dead, they may be taken out and a pin thrust through the right wing-cover near the thorax. Pin other insects throngh the mid- dle of the back, fastening the wings in place, if large, with strips of paper pinned across each one. When dry, transfer to a tight shallow box with a glass cover. Bits of camphor-gum kept in the box will vrevent the ravages of Dermestes and Anthrenus. (See Index.)
OLASS MYRIAPODA: ORDER DIPLOPODA. 225
SUB-CLASS II. MYRIAPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Myriapods (ten-thou- sand-footed) are worm-like in appearance, and have the head free and the thorax merged in the abdomen.
EACH SEGMENT WITH A SINGLE i Chilopoda, Earwig, Centipede, etc.
PAIR OF FEET.
MYRIAPODA. , EACH SEGMENT WITH TWO ; Diplopoda, § Thousand-legged Worm, ete. PAIRS OF FEET,
ORDER CHILOPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Chilopods (lip-footed) are distinguished for their predatory habits and venomous bites. They feed upon earth-worms.
Fig. 38h. L\ 4 q SS ys .\ 1 f fi of’ Va ‘ i 1 \ q NS f f f { ( \ X ‘ iS
Scolopendra gigantéa, Centipede. 4.
Scolopendridz.—The well-known Centipede of the Southern States is the type of this family.
ORDER DIPLOPODA.
General Characteristics.— The Diplopods (double- footed) have the mouth modified for eating.plants. They
Fig. 385.
Julus canadensis, Thousand-legs. 4.
226 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
are harmless, and beneficial in destroying dead vegetable matter.
Julidze (down-like)—The “ Thousand-legs” being slow- moving, when alarmed, coils its body in a ring, with the tail in the centre and the feet entirely concealed.
SUB-CLASS III. ARACHNIDA.
General Characteristics.—The Arachnids (spider-like) have the head and thorax amalgamated ; ocelli from two to eight; and four pairs of legs. They molt six times in coming to maturity, but undergo no metamorphosis.
ABDOMEN WITHUUT SEGMENTS AND JOINED BY
A SLENDER PEDICEL TO THE t Aranee, Spider. CEPHALO-THORAX.
ARACHNIDA. 4 AspomEN WITH SEGMENTS AND INDISTINCTLY
UNITED TO THE CEPHALO-THORAX. f Pedipalpi, Scorpion, etc.
ABDOMEN WITHOUT SEGMENTS AND MERGED Acarina, Mite, etc. WITH THE CEPHALO-THORAX.
ORDER ARANES.
General Characteristics.—Spiders have neither com- pound eyes nor antenne. ‘They possess a prehensile organ, with a hook at the end, through which issues a poison fatal
Fig. 386. Fig. 387.
Spider's Thread. Spider's Claw.
CLASS ARACHNIDA: ORDER ARANE. 227
to the animals upon which they feed.* At the posterior extremity there are four to six projections, sptnnerets, pierced oftentimes with a thousand holes, through which flow little streams of gluey matter, that harden on exposure to the air, and uniting, form a single thread.+ Some species emit the threads freely into the air, till their buoyancy will sustain them in a balloon-flight, or, the ends adhering to some dis- tant object, a bridge is formed by which they can pass over streams and ditches.
Fig. 388,
Epeira diadéma, Geometrical Spider.
Araneidz.—The Geometrical Spider is so called from the regularity of the radiating and circular lines of its web. Mygalidz.—The Mason Spider constructs a subterranean
* This is injurious to man only when the system is predisposed to erysipelas, etc., even a mosquito bite then being poisonous.
+ The union of the threads is effected by a skillful manipulation of the hind feet, the comb-like structure of the claws being peculiarly adapted for this purpose. The silk of some genera is produced in great quantity. Thus Dr. B, G. Wilder wound several miles of threads from the spinnerets of the Wephila plumitpes found near Charleston, See Harper's Magazine, vol. xxxiv, p. 450; also vol. xxii, p, 323,
228 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
residence. This is closed with a water-tight trap-door, : having an elastic hinge, the outside mimicking the soil around, and held down with the whole force of the _ spider’s claws fastened on the side of the door opposite the hinge.
Fig. 389.
ORDER PEDIPALPI.
General Characteristics.—The Pedipalpi (foot-feelers) have large “\ maxillary palpi and the jointed ab-
Nest of Mygdle. oe prolonged sometimes into a ail.
Scorpionide.—The Scorpion has a powerful poison-sting at the end of its tail-like abdomen, which wounds by curving
‘" Buthus carolinidnus, Scorpion. }.
over the back, while the victim is held between the forceps- like feelers. Its wounds are rarely fatal, the antidote being hartshorn.
ORDER ACARINA.
General Characteristics.—The Acarina .have the mouth adapted either for sucking or biting. They are of small size, and generally parasitic.
Acaridee.—The Jich-mite, burrowing in the flesh, multi-
* The Phalangide include the Harvest-man or ‘' Daddy-long-legs ’’ (not the crane-
fly), which is carnivorous, feeding especially upon the Aphide, and is hence very beneficial.
CLASS CRUSTACEA. 229
plies rapidly, and produces the loathsome disease to which it
.- gives name. Fig. 391. Fig. 892.
Izbdes bovis, Western Cattle Tick.
Ixodide.— Ticks infest man and beast in great variety. Quickly bury- Sarcoptes scabiei, ing themselves beneath the skin, they Ttch-mite, magnified. cannot readily be extracted without leaving behind portions of their claws, which, if allowed to remain, soon produce inflammation and serious ulcers.
CLASS II. CRUSTACEA. ;
General Characteristics. — The Crustaceans (hard- covering) are articulate animals with jointed appendages and essentially aquatic respiration. The body typically con- sists of twenty segments, though some species have sixty and some only ten. The hard exterior crust not yielding for growth, frequent moultings are necessary, which are effected by the shell splitting open, generally on the back, and the animal crawling out. The heart, when it exists, is on the back, immediately under the shell. The nervous system lies on the under surface. In their growth from the egg they undergo the most astonishing changes, the young in no way resembling the adult. The Crustacea are mostly marine; some, however, live in fresh water, and a few in damp places on the land.
Fig. 393.
SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
8. Serpula.
2, Sea Anemone.
1. Cancer pagtrus, Edible Crab.
CLASS CRUSTACEA: ORDER DECAPODA. 231
LEGS TEN. Decapoda, Crab, Lobster. LeGs FOURTEEN. Tetradecapoda, Beah Flea, LEGS LAMELLATE. Phyllopoda, Brine Shiimps. CRUSTACEA. LEGS ABORTED. Siphonostoma, Fish Lice. ANIMALS ATTACHED. Cirripedia, Barnacle. LEGS ANSWERING FOR JAWS. Merostomata, Horse-shoe Crab.
ORDER DECAPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Decapods (ten-footed) have the anterior portion of the body covered with a single piece called the carapaa, the gills attached to the anterior feet, and the eyes situated on movable peduncles.
Astécus fluviatilis, Cray-fish or River Lobster.
The Brachyura (short-tailed) have the abdomen smali and folded under the thorax. The anterior pair of feet are furnished with pincers. The Crab (Fig. 393) is an example.
The Macrura (long-tailed) have, as in the Lobster and Cray-fish, the abdomen large and extended.*
* The Fiddler Crab when alarmed holds up in front its big claw in a threatening way, The Sand Crab runs to its hole so swiftly as to be overtaken with difficulty. The
232 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
ORDER TETRADECAPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Tetradecapods (four- teen-footed) have sessile (low-sitting) eyes and
all the segments of the ~ thorax free.
The Amphipods have the four anterior pairs of feet directed forward and the three posterior backward. They live in both salt and fresh water, and are abundant on the
b. Orchestia longicornis, Sand-fleas, sea-shore between tide- marks. (Fig. 395.) The Isopods have a flattened body, Fig. 396.
the three anterior pairs of feet directed forward and the four posterior pairs backward. The gills are borne under the abdomen. Sow-bugs are familiar examples.
ORDER PHYLLOPODA.
General Characteristics. — The Phyllopods have from 10 to 60 pairs of leaf-like feet, answering the purpose of gills. They are found in both salt and fresh water. Fig. 396 represents a species discovered by Dr. E. Coues, in small prairie pools in Montana. Lepiditrus couesii.
Hermit Crab is protected only in front, and so ‘‘ backs” into the spiral shells of other Mollusks, leaving its temporary home only when outgrown. The Marine Lobster has a broad fin at the base of its tail, by one stroke of which it can spring backward twenty feet.
CLASS CRUSTACEA: ORDER CIRRIPEDIA. 233
ORDER SIPHONOSTOMA.
General Characteristics.—The Siphonostoma (suck- ing-mouth) in their early stages have eyes, jointed limbs, and swim freely, but when adult they are attached to fish, and live mainly on the mucus which covers their host. A permanent hold is secured by insinuating their barb-like head into the flesh, often the eye. (Fig. 397.)
Fig. 397. Fig. 398.
Lerneonéma spratti, Sprat-sucker, attached to eye of Sprat. Balénus crenatus, Acorn Barnacle.
ORDER CIRRIPEDIA.
General Characteristics—The Cirripeds (curl-footed) in their early stages have eyes, antenne, and limbs. After swimming about for a while they attach themselves to any solid substance, the eyes become rudimentary and the antenne obsolete. The thoracic feet by constant motion create currents of water which float food to the animal’s mouth.
Balanide.—The Acorn Barnacle is sessile, the shell
234 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
containing the soft parts being cemented directly to a rock, apile, ora ship’s bottom. It consists of a short tube with a lid of four pieces between Fig. 400. which the feet (cirri) are iB thrust when in search of
food. (Fig. 398.) Lepadide. — The Stalked Barnacle is pedun- culate, having the shell (capitulum) containing the soft parts on the extremity of a long flexible stem. In cleaning the hull of the 2 ch Great Eastern several years Shell of Barnacle. Body of Cirriped ago, over three hundred
or Barnacle. tons of barnacles were found attached to it. (Figs. 399, 400, 401 )
Fig. 401.
Lepas anatiféra, Stalked Barnacles.
CLASS VERMES: ORDER MEROSTOMATA. 236
ORDER MEROSTOMATA.
General Characteristics.—The Merostomata (thigh- mouths) have the limbs placed around the mouth and use the basal joints for jaws, whence the name of the order.
Limulide.—Limulus, the Horse-shoe Crab,* is the only
Fig. 402.
Liméiilus mollucdnus, Horse-shoe Crab. xy. Onder Surface of Limiilus.
genus now living. When moulting, the shell splits along the anterior border and not down the back as in other Crustacea.
CLASS Ill. VERMES.
General Characteristics.—The Vermes (worms) are articulated animals without jointed limbs, their place being supplied in some by bristles. The blood is generally red and
* The Trilobites. which figure so largely in Paleozoic Geology, were nearly related to the Horse-shoe Crab. (Figs. 402, 403.)
236 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
respiration is effected in some by gills and in others by the whole surface of the body. Eyes are occasionally found. Worms exist everywhere, in salt and fresh water, and on land, and as parasites in man and other animals.
- 6 Most ti { WITHOUT CILIATED DIScs, Annulata, Nereis. a OSkly BqUAtIC: WITH CILIATED DISCS. Rotatoria, Rotifer, = M | ROUND. | WITH SPINES. Acanthocephalix, Echinorhynchus. it ost y { “Uwirgovr spines. Nematelminthes, Trichina. > | Parasitic.) ay ap Platyelminthes, Tape-roorm, etc.
ORDER ANNULATA.
General Characteristics.—The Annulata have red blood, a nervous system resembling that of insects, and the alimentary canal extending the whole length of the body. The body is elongated and the segments are distinctly marked. Some are furnished with bristles, others are with- out; some have gills, others have none.
Fig. l0k.
Lan : a at
: Feaeite 1° eS fase ~ UTE, Yue Riz,
Nereis pelagica. a, Male; d, Female. Natural size.
The Nereide have both bristles and gills arranged on each side of the body, and the mouth is armed with powerful jaws.
The Serpulidee (see Fig. 393) are marine, with gill-tufts around the head. Some live in calcareous tubes variously contorted, adhering by the closed end to oyster-shells, etc., but protruding from the open end brilliantly-colored, fan-like appendages, with one dilated to close the shell when the
CLASS VERMES: ORDER ANNULATA. 237
animal is withdrawn into the tube. Other worms nearly allied to Serpula form a tube by cementing together grains of sand and bits of broken shells.
The Lumbricidee (Common Earth or Angle-worms) are wanting in gills, but minute apertures on the sides com- municate with internal respiratory sacs, on the walls of which the blood circulates for aération. Tiny spines directed backward enable the worm to force its way through the
Fig. 405. Fig. 406. p ANG . " an
i
a. Lumbricus terrestris, Angle or Earth- ———e— worm. b. Anterior segments magni- Hirildo medicindlis, Ueech, Europe. jied, showing bristles directed back-
ward ; ¢. Higg, enclosing two young; earth. Digesting the organic Seer nee yore matter in the dirt it eats, the rejected “ worm-casts” are of service in the garden, and often cover barren tracts with a layer of productive mould. It is oviparous—a single egg frequently containing two embryos.
238 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
The Hirudinidee (Leeches) are aquatic without bristles or gills.) They are used in medicine for bleeding, France alone using a hundred million annually. A saw-like move- ment of their tri-radiate jaws readily cuts the skin, and with the aid of the vacuum produced by the sucker, causes a copious flow of blood. So slow is its digestion that a single meal will answer ifor a year. Over thirty species are | known to inhabit the fresh waters of North America. (Fig. 406.)
Fig. 407.
ORDER ROTATORIA.
The Rotifers (wheelbearers) are aquatic and microscopic, seldom ex- ceeding one thirty-sixth of an inch in length. Anteriorly they have one or two discs surrounded by cilia, whose rapid motion et Pie the optical illu- sion of revolying wheels. They are ovi- parous, and, according to Ehrenberg, one species multiplied in twelve days, to sixteen millions, as “ determined by actual experiment.” The upper and lower segments shut together like a telescope, and the animal often assumes a spherical shape. By some the Roti- fers are considered Crustacea.
Rotifer vulgaris. Wheel Animalcule, greatly magnified.
Fig. Los
Echinorhynchus gegas, Spine-neaued Wor,
ORDER ACANTHOCEPHALI.
Acanthocephalidze.—The Acanthocephali (spine-head- ed) are represented by Hchinorhynchus, a parasite found in
CLASS VERMES: ORDER NEMATELMINTHES. 239
the alimentary canal of the hog. Its proboscis is retractile and is armed with four circlets of sharp, recurved spines sur- rounding a simple suctorial mouth. (Fig. 408.) Koleops is another genus found in the eel.
ORDER NEMATELMINTHES.
General Characteristics. — The Nematelminthes (thread-like worms) are parasitic during a portion of their lives in the interior of various animals. ‘The head is without a circle of hooks and the sexes are separate.
Gordiidee.—The Hair- snake is so called from the erroneous notion that it originates from horse- ; hairs soaked in water. ‘ Probably, by the eggs being eaten, the larve obtain access to the bodies of grasshoppers, ete., and, coiling up within the cavity, reach a length oftentimes tenfold that of their host. At maturity, they desert the insects at whose expense they have been nourished, and seek the water to lay their eggs and die
Fig. 409.
Gordius aquaticus, Hair-snake. u. Tail.
Trichina spirilis, Muscle-worm. 1. Migrating in muscles ; 2. Encysted ; 3. Free state.
Trichinidee (hair-worms)—The Trichina is parasitic in
240 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
swine. Leaving the intestines by boring through the walls, it lays its eggs in the muscular tissues. Portions of this infected meat eaten raw in Bologna sausages or ham, may transfer the eggs to be hatched in the intestines of man. There they multiply, and the embryos, penetrating the walls of the alimentary canal, work their way through the mus. cles. The victim suffers great pain and shows symptoms like those of the typhoid fever. If he can endure this migration of the trichinz, they become after a time encysted, and he is safe, since they cannot mature until transferred to some other animal. By thoroughly cooking pork the trichina is destroyed.
ORDER PLATYELMINTHES.
General Characteristics.—The Platyelminthes (flat- worms) are mostly parasitic, being found in the viscera or muscles of various animals. They are without bristles and the segments of the body are indistinct.
Fig. bit. Distomidz (double-mouthed).—The Fluke has one or two suckers by which it adheres. The alimentary canal divides behind the mouth, and terminates in blind extremities. This parasite is found in the liver of sheep and deer, producing the disease called “ rot.”
Cestoididee (ribbon-shaped).—The Tape- worm of the human system is sometimes more than twenty feet long, The anterior extremity is furnished with hooks and suckers for anchor-
Distéma : : : : i said hepaticum, ing to the intestines of its victim; but, so far as
Liver Fluke. appears, there is no mouth or digestive organs,
and the worm seems to derive its nourishment entirely by absorption through the skin. It grows by new joints formed next to the head. The older ones ripen and fall off. Each of these can move, and contains a multitude of eggs, which, on escaping to the outer world, it scatters far and wide. The eggs are oftenest swallowed by the hog, that omnivorous feeder. In its stomach they hatch, and the embryos, boring
CLASS VERMES: ORDER PLATYELMINTHES. 240a
Fag. 412.
i 3 ay ?
ff
Fi
aN lie ie ype alta }
Tenia soltum, Human Tape-worm,
their way into the blood-vessels, are swept to = Fi. 413. all parts of the system. Entering the organs, they become surrounded by a cyst or crust. When “ measly pork,” 4. ¢, pork thus infested, is eaten, the vesicle bursts and the worm is rapidly developed.*
Planaride (flat-formed).—- The Planaria is of gelatinous consistency, and not parasitic. — pianoctra Any portion amputated is reproduced in a _ neduldsa,
brief ti Planarian Worm, rier time. magnified double.
* The life-history of the tape-worm is always the same. Some animal eats the eggs and develops the larve; another eats its flesh and develops the mature worm. The other common tape-worm of man is derived from ‘“‘ measly” beef. The tape-worm of the cat comes from the cystic worm of the mouse ; that of the fox from the cystic worm of hares and rabbits; and that of the dog from the cystic worm which causes the ‘‘ staggers” in sheep.
2400 SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATA.
The Articulata are divided by many Naturalists into two groups, the Arthropoda (including the Insecta and Crusta- cea) and the Vermes. The former are characterized by the presence and the latter by the absence of jointed appen- dages.
The classification of the Vermes is still in an unsettled state, very little being known concerning the lower forms, and almost every Naturalist holding views of his own.
HINTS FOR PRESERVING INSECTS, CRUSTACEA, Etc.
Prof. Packard, in his “Guide to the Study of Insects,” recommends preparing a wide-mouth collecting bottle by putting two or three small pieces of cyanide of potassium (pupils should remember that this is very poisonous) in the bottom and covering with perforated paper. Insects of every kind dropped in, die instantly. A bottle well-prepared will last for months. The nests, cocoons and chrysalids of insects may be preserved from injury from other insects by being soaked in arseni- ated alcohol, or dipped into benzine, or a solution of carbolic acid or creosote. “ Setting-boards.” for spreading the wings may be made by sawing in a thick board deep grooves of varying widths, and glueing at the bottom of each a strip of cork or pith. The body of the insect having been placed in a groove and the wings set horizontally, square pieces of glass may be laid upon them until they are dry. Bottles containing sponges saturated with benzine should be kept in the cases containing the specimens.
All crustacea may be preserved by drying, after eviscerating the larger specimens. Caterpillars may be preserved with the colors unchanged, according to Mr. E. Burgess, by immersing them in boiling water thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts of alcohol and water. Worms must be kept in spirit. Star- fishes and all the echinoderms die instantly on being immersed in fresh water.
Il. SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
General Characteristics.— The Molluscans (soft- bodied) have yielding tissues of great contractile power, inclosed in a soft flexible skin called the mantie. pi Ait The nervous ganglia are placed irregularly, but: all communicate with a larger mass forming around the throat a ring, which may be considered the brain. Except in one class, the muscles are attached to the skin, which is usually pro- tected by a shell consisting principally of carbonate of lime, which in turn is defended by an epidermis of animal matter, to prevent corrosion by the water. The blood is white, and
Nervous System of a Motlusk.
Fig. 415.
== ~ ~<.SS A Mollusk.
the circulation effected by means of a distinct heart. Mol- lusks are mostly oviparous. 11
242 BUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
CLASSES. Bi-LATERALLY SYMME- TRICAL ; FEET AROUND Cephalopoda, HEAD AND FOOT J Teer e ss PRESENT ; LATERALLY UNSYMME- Mollusca vera TRICAL; FOOT BENEATH ( Gasteropoda, L THE BODY HEAD ABSENT; FOOT PRESENT; . Lamellibranchiata,
SHELL, DORSAL, AND Brachiopoda. VENTRAL VALVE.
MOLLUSCA.
: HEAD AND FEET } Lg&aTHERY, ELASTIC COV- Molluscoidea. { ABSENT ; 4 ERING ; SIMPLE OR t Tunicata. COMPOUND.
L COMPOUND ; MOSS-LIKE. Polyzoa,
CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA.
General Characteristics.— The Cephalopods (head- footed) have muscular tentacles or arms around the mouth; beaked, horny jaws; two large eyes: arms covered with sucking discs; and a bag of ink, with which most species blacken the water to hide from pursuit.
ORDERS. Two-GILLED. Dibranchiata, Argonaut, ete. CEPHALOPODA. { oe Se Four-GILLED. Tetrabr , te,
ORDER DIBRANCHIATA.
General Characteristics—The Dibranchiates (two- gilled), have an ink-gland and the power of changing color like a chameleon.
Fig. 416.
Argonauta argo, Paper Sailor. 4.
The Argonautidee (sailors) are named from the fabulous
CLASS CEPHALOPODA: ORDER DIBRANCHIATA. 243
account of their using their delicate shell as a boat, their ten- tacles as oars, and their expanded mantle as a sail. The female secretes an unchambered shell for transporting her eggs, but is not united to it, though she swims backward with it by enveloping it in her two broad disks and forcing water for- ward through her breathing funnel. The male has no shell.
The Loliginide are the “cuttle-fish ” of the Atlantic coast. There are many spe- cies, some furnishing the thin ‘“‘pen” and others the ae thick “cuttle-bone” used for oligo bartramii, Squid, Atlantic. 3. canaries. Some varieties are the “squid” which form the food of the sperm whale.
The eight-armed cuttle-fish (Sepia octépus) often grows to a length of eight feet, with arms reaching twice that dis- tance. The ten-armed (8S. offcindlis) is common in the Mediterranean Sea. Its ink is a favorite pigment used in water-color painting, under the name of sepia. Its cuttle- bone is a calcareous internal shell occupying a hollow in the back. The Sepiz are flesh-eaters, devouring fishes, crusta- ceans, and mollusks. In turn they are the prey of the porpoise and dolphin, who eat only the tender head and arms, and reject the rest of the body. The shore of the sea at certain places is covered with these mutilated remains.*
ORDER TETRABRANCHIATA,
General Characteristics.—The Tetrabranchiates (four- gilled) have an external chambered shell, the partitions of which are united by a tube called the “siphuncle.” As the
* These monsters of the deep have furnished material for the novelist and the painter. See Victor Hugo’s ‘‘ Toilers of the Sea,” and Harper's Magazine, vol. xxi, page 185. Their accounts are greatly exaggerated.—Mr. Beale in his Natural History of the eperm-whale describes a specimen of the so-called ‘' Rock- squid,” not larger than his fist, but with arms expanding four feet. He grasped one of its tentacles, but the cuttle-fish held to the rock with its suckers so strongly as to resist all his strength, A sudden jerk exasperated the animal, which fixed its glaring eyes upon its tormentor and, suddenly releasing its hold, sprang upon his naked
244 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
animal increases in size, it partitions off the part previously occupied and moves forward. ‘here are over two thousand fossil species, but only few living.
Fig. 418.
Nautilus pompilius, Pearly Nautilus. 3. Section showing Chambers and Siphuncle.
The Nautilidee (sailors) have about a hundred short tapering tentacles, which are quickly withdrawn into the first chamber on an alarm, so that their habits are little known.
CLASS Il. GASTEROPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Gasteropods (belly- footed) move from place to place by a single fleshy disc or foot placed under the abdomen. Most inhabit univalve shells, though some species are naked. ‘The viscera occupy the upper part of the shell, which is secreted by the mantle in various ways, according to the habits of the different forms.
rs
arm and endeavored to reach him with its beak. Its slimy grasp sickened, while its threatening look so alarmed him that he loudly called for assistance. His release was at last effected only by killing the cuttle-fish with the boat-hook, and cutting off ite arms bit by bit,
CLASS GASTEROPODA: ORDER PROSOBRANCHIATA. 248
GILLS IN FRONT. Prosobranchiata, Murex, etc. LUNG-BEARERS. Pulmonifera, Snail, etc. GASTEROPODA. } Guts seatnp. Opisthobranchiata, olia, ete. GILLS CLUSTERED. Nucleobranchiata, Carinaria, de. WING-FOOTED. Pteropoda, Clio, ete.
SHELLS OF GASTEROPODS USED FOR ORNAMENTS.—1. Cymbium broderipii; 2. Ce rithium ; 8. Voliita imperidlis ; 4. Cardium elatum; 5. Phorus agglutinans; 6. Murex tenuispinus ; 1. Vermétus eburnéus ; 8. Trochus niloticus ; 9. Lithodémus lithophigus ; 10. Turritella.
ORDER PROSOBRANCHIATA.
General Characteristics.— The Prosobranchs (gills forward) have the gills placed in front of the heart.
Muricidz (rock-shells)—The Murex has the aperture of its shell prolonged into a canal.* It is carnivorous, destroy-
* The Shetlanders use this shell for a lamp, inserting the wick in the canal and filling the body of the shell with oil._From these Mollusks the ancients obtained the costly Syrian dye, the ‘‘ purple” of Scripture.
246 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
ing its prey with its terrible armature (odontophora) or tooth- ribbon, analogous to the band of a chain saw, and set with adamantine teeth, sharp-edged, and pointed as those of a shark.
Fig. 420. Fig. 421.
al
Teeth of Murex. Cyprea tigris.
The Cyprzeidze (Cowries) have the mantle, in many spe- cies, covered with filaments and the foot enormously devel- oped. The eyes are near the base of the tentacles, and the tooth-ribbon is armed with a series of powerful teeth.
The Harpidee (harp-shells) are found on the shores of the Mauritius, and are remarkable for having too large a foot wholly to conceal within the shell.
The Haliotidze (sea-ears) have shells of a pearly lustre, with resplendent metallic hues, useful for inlaying the darker woods and for sleeve- links.
The Fissurelide (fissured) have an aperture in the top, and, adhering to the rocks, seem adapted to a sedentary life.
The Dentalidze (toothed) have a shell shaped like a miniature elephant’s tusk. At the base of the conical foot is situated the head.
issurella listéri.
Dentalium dentilis.
ORDER PULMONIFERA.
General Characteristics.—-The Pulmonifers (lung- bearers) are air-breathing, even those inhabiting the water being obliged to come frequently to the surface. They have
CLASS GASTEROPODA: ORDER PULMONIFERA. 247
Helicide, Land Snails.
the simplest form of lung—a mere cavity, with an orifice at the right side of the neck which the animal can open or close at will. They are herbivorous, and often very destruc- tive to grain fields and fruit trees.
v
Es gS oe =o bv
7 ” Lima antiquorum, Great Gray Slug, Europe.
248 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
Helicidze (spiral-form).—The Land-snail has four tenta- cles, the longer pair with eyes at the extremity. It lays its eggs singly, while the other Orders lay theirs in chains.*
Limacidze.—The Slugs are snails without the shell, or with only a rudimentary one concealed in the mantle.
ORDER OPISTHOBRANCHIATA.
General Characteristics.—The Opisthobranchs (gills behind) are generally naked, with feathery gills behind the
heart. Fig. 426.
lis, Britain.
The ols is typical of the order, having its gills arranged in tufts along the back, and the tentacles non-retractile.
ORDER NUCLEOBRANCHIATA.
General Characteristics.—The Nucleobranchs (clus-
Fs 73> = By Jedete? > a > + a» P22 ey
Carinarta mediterranéa.
* Tf placed upon a pane of glass, by looking underneath, one can easily observe its curious progression by means of a single foot.
CLASS GASTEROPODA: ORDER PTEROPODA. 249
ter-gilled) have their respiratory organs in a nucleus, and their foot modified into a sort of fin for swimming.
The Carinaridz (keeled) have the more delicate organs protected by a small shell fringed around the mouth with gills, while the larger part of the animal is exposed. The fin-like foot has a small sucker for attaching to sea-weed, compelling them to swim with the back downward.
ORDER PTEROPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Pteropods (wing-footed) move by means of two wing-like fins. The animals are small, yet occur in such numbers as often to color the ocean for miles. They are probably carnivorous, and, in turn, are food for the whale.
Clio borealis.
Cliidze.—The Cilio is only an inch long, but its prehensive apparatus is elaborate. Six labial tentacles bear about three hundred and sixty thousand suckers for seizing and holding its minute prey, which is speedily reduced by the laterally- working jaws full of long, comb-like teeth, and by the tongue rough with sharp, spiny, recurved hooklets.
250 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
CLASS Ill LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
AD: ES General Characteristics.— The Lamellibranchs* (lamellated gills) are all bivalves. The two parts of the shell are con- nected by a hinge, usually with interlocking teeth. To hold them open—that being always the unconstrained position—an elastic ligament is fixed to the hinge, if inside, acting by expan- sion, if outside, by contraction. The valves are closed by muscles, ordinarily two, but sometimes monly one. ‘The respiratory organs are leaf-like gills, to which in the lower forms the water is brought by a double tube, one orifice for ingress, and the other for egress, after it has laved the gills and circulated around the mouth which filters out the food. Most move by means of a foot, which MP 36 is often very powerful, and, in the OTERO boring species, is covered with Sy flinty particles.
SIPHONs 2siphonata. § sc
i LAMELLI- | PREsent. fc. RS es BRANCHIATA. | sirsons Oyster, Mya arenaria, Clam.t ABSENT. } Asiphonata, { on
* All this class are headlese, and hence they are sometimes termed ‘t Acephala.” They are also called Conchifers (shell-bearers).
+ All the viscera, right valve and half the siphon retained. g. Gills; s. Siphon introducing water to the gills and mouth ; 3’. Siphon carrying out the water after it has bathed the gills and surrendered the food which it contained to the mouth, 0; t. Four lip tentacles ; h. Heart, the intestine v passing through it ; m. Mantle ligament uniting the valves around their edges ; p. Orifice in the mantle through which the foot f protrudes ; c. Cloaca; a, a’. Muscles closing the valves by their contraction.
CLASS LAMELLIBRANCHIATA: ORDER SIPHONATA. 251
ORDER SIPHONATA.
General Characteristics.—The Siphonata (siphoned) include those lamellibranchiates which have respiratory tubes
distinctly separated from each other, and the lobes of the mantle more or less united.
vy
“Ae Ye
CONNER TEED 2 seen
Solen ensis, Razor Shell. Terédo navéailis, Ship-worm.
Solenidze (channeled) have a shell shaped like a razor- handle, with a large foot, that can be turned into an awl for boring into the mud, and then into a ball for pushing them- selves to the surface.
The Cardiidez (heart-shaped) put forth a foot capable of distention with water introduced through an orifice near the mouth. By a rotary movement of the foot thus thick-
252 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
ened, they excavate a burrow sufficiently large to receive the Fig. 482. entire shell.
The Teredinidze (borers) have on their anterior part a pair of valves which they use to bore into wood. They line the cavity, as they proceed, with shelly matter, often making a tube two feet in length. They work CE ER EG in various directions, but never en- One-half of a Cockle She, croach upon one another, though it is showing lines of growth. difficult to comprehend how they be- come aware of the proximity of their neighbors.
ORDER ASIPHONATA.
General Characteristics—The Asiphonata (siphonless) include all bivalves with open mantle and without a siphon.
The Mytilidz (mussel-fish) anchor their shells to rocks by means of gluey threads, that seem either to grow or be spun from the foot. This “byssus” is in some species so long and silken, as, for a curiosity, to be woven into cloth.
Ostreeidee. — The Common Oyster, found along the Atlantic coast, when young, is : free, but soon attaches itself to Uyfilus editlis, with byssus. rocks by the left or rounded valve. It thus generally lies on its left side. By ciliary movements, it produces currents which convey the water through the open mantle to the gills for respiration, and then hurry it on to the mouth, which lies back, near the hinge, where the labial fingers extract the food it may contain.*
Fig. 133.
* The hard part always cut in opening the shell is the adductor muscle whose business is to shut the valves, These open naturally about one-half of an inch. The mantleg on the two sides of the shell meet at the aperture. Their edges are fringed with cilia—the English call them the oyster’s beard—which can be protruded from
o
CLASS LAMELLIBRANCHIATA :
ORDER ASIPHONATA. 253
ET
Meleagrina margaritiféra, with lead images covered with pearl nacre.
The Aviculidze (little-bird) include the pearl-makers. These gems are caused by the effort of the animal
the shell and used in bringing inside animalcules and the spores of alge for food. The
lime for building the shell is secreted by the mantle. The plaited frills on the mantle are the gills. The heart, shaped like an old-fashioned purse, has an auric.e and ventricle, and circulates a limpid colorless blood. Ifthe shell be opened with care, the beating of this organ may be distinctly seen. The black liver is large and secretes a deep yellow bile in large quantity. The mouth is provided with tentacles by which food ix selected and carried inside. The oyster wants brains and eyes, and has no sense except that of touch, which is located in the tentacles. The eggs are yellowish, and a single oyster may contain two millions, lying in the folds of the mantle and looking like thick cream. When the proper time arrives they are ejected into the water ina milky cloud. Each little oyster, though not larger than the point of a pin—a whole troop being able to swim freely about in a drop of water—has a perfect shell, and is provided with a fleshy pad for attaching itself to any object at hand. Crustaceans, worms and enemies of all kinds, with a natural liking for raw oysters, flock in to the feast, and a few score only of the millions escape. The survivors anchor themselves to some rough surface and grow rapidly. In a month they will be as large asa pea. If we examinea shell we can see the layers overlapping each
Fig. 435.
Ostréa ediilis, Common Oyster, in shell, upper valve removed, a. Upper portion of mantle covering the mouth with its four lips; b, c. The mantle; d. The breathing organs; e. Portion of the lobes of the mantle, between which is the extremity of the intestinal canal ; f. Part of the heart; g. Adductor muscle.
254 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
to cover up with nacre any irritating substance, as a grain of sand, that may have gotten beneath the mantle.*
The Hammer Oyster of the Indian Ocean presents one of those singular forms seemingly designed to puzzle natural-
Fig. 436.
Malléus vulgaris, Hammer-oyster.
ists in endeavoring to account for the utility of the anomalous appendages.
other like shingles, each one indicating a season’s growth and the series showing the oyster’s age. In three or four years a marketable size will be reached. The little red crab offen found sharing the oyster’s home is the Pinnothéres ostréum, The female is generally seen, as the male is scarce. The latter has its back ornamented with a white figure very like an anchor.—At the discovery of America the oyster was abundant upon the Atlantic coast. Immense mounds of shells lie along the shore, from Maine to Florida. They antedate the time of the Indian, and are so large that in Florida, during the late war, some were used as forts, See Lockwood's ‘' Natural History of an Oyster,” in Popular Science Monthly, Novem- ber, 1875.
* Taking advantage of thie, the Chinese have long been in the habit of producing pearls artificially by slipping metal images under the mantle and then releasing the animals, In six months the figures are found overlaid with a pearly secretion, Sometimes, however, the crafty Celestials paste these images upon the interior of a dead shell and then paint it over with a mixture of powdered “ mother of pearl,” in exact imitation of the genuine.
CLASS TUNICATA. 255
CLASS IV. BRACHIOPODA.*
General Characteristics.— The Brachiopods (arm- footed) have the valves on the upper and the under side of the body, instead of the later- al; are without a hinge ligament, the valves opening and shutting by a complicated ar- fj rangement of muscles; respire by blood- vessels ramifying minutely over the surface of the mantle; and obtain their food, in most species, by two long spiral arms, capable.
Fig. 433, 1 being unrolled and extended €
¢ to a great distance. bee eA
The Terebratulidee (boring “one spiral urm family) have the back of the ven- 24”#y wneoiled. tral valve pierced with a hole for the passage of the pedicle, by which the animal is permanently attached to solid substances.
The Lingulidee (tongue-shape) have a long
Fig. 437.
Terebratulina fi E 5 . 5 septentrionais, pedicle issuing from the interior of the shell
Lamp-shell. through the hinge.
Fig. 439.
Lingtla anatina.
CLASS V. TUNICATA.
General Characteristics.— The Tunicata (cloaked) have no shell, head, feet, or arms, and usually look like shapeless gelatinous masses, composed of two tunics or coat- ings, forming a tube, with one orifice for the inlet and
* Prof. E. §. Morse, endorsed by some other Naturalists, classes the Brachiopods with the Annelids.
256 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
another for the exit of water. They havea stomach, pulsating
heart, branchial appendages, and highly developed secretory organs. Some are simple, others attached to a common mantle, but each individual
q maintains a separate exist- ence.
Clavellinide (little knobs).—These Ascidians are united by a common stem.* The elongated heart con- tracts from behind forward,
Clavelfina lepidiformis, Social Tunicates 80 as to propel the blood in or Ascidians. a. Ineurrent orifice; one direction, and after a b. Excurrent do. ; c. Stomach ; d. Intes- a tinal canal; e. Common stem. few moments, the pulsations
becoming fainter and fainter, the heart gives the opposite impulse, and the blood travels the other way, through the same vessels.
The Salpidze (stocked) are so transparent that the structure of their internal organs may be exam- ined through their coatings. They present an example of alternate generation. An individual Salp re- sembles “its grandparent, its grand- children, and its own brethren,” but differs equally from its parent and : its own children. A single egg”
Fig. hh.
* The history of a cluster is as follows: A sin- gle individual just from the egy possesses active powers of locomotion. After wandering a time it attaches itself, and sends forth creeping stems, from which, at brief intervals, there bud and grow to maturity other individuals. From each of these Salpa cabotti. a. Posterior orifice ; proceed young, to become in like manner the b. Anterior do.,; c. Processes by parents of other colonies. This free motion of which the individuals of the the immature Ascidians provides for the general chain were united ; h. Heart; n. diffusion of these animals, and prevents their Nervous ganglion; 0. Nucleus ; being crowded in particular spots. r. Gill.
CLASS POLYZOA. 25%
gives birth to an individual which, by budding, produces long chains of aggregated individuals* greatly different from the parent. Each of these produces an egg, which hatches an individual like the grandparent. ‘Thus the series is repeated endlessly.
CLASS VI. POLYZOA.
General Characteristics.—The Polyzoans (many-animals), or Bryozoans (moss-animals), , are compound; each individual, however, in- habiting a separate cellor tube. ‘The mouth is surrounded with ciliated tentacles, and the whole animal can usually be entirely withdrawn into the cell, which is in some species soft and flexible, in others horny, and in others calca- reous. In the genus Bowerbankia, the struc- ture is so delicate and transparent that the interior may be clearly seen. The Bryozoan is thus perceived to have a complex digestive ap- paratus floating freely in the general cavity—a gizzard for triturating the food, a liver for secreting bile, an intestinal tube, and a distinct excretory orifice outside the circle of tentacles. pean
The Flustre, or “Sea-mats,” are Bryozoan a. Gsophagus ; communities, consisting of a multitude of >. Sézard;
. . : c. Stomach ; horny, calcareous cells, some species incrusting a. Zeeretory orifice. stones, others spread out like a thin net-work of gauze, each cell containing an individual polyzoan. The whole progeny of a single isolated specimen of sea-mat spring, by budding, from an embryo produced in each egg, within which two little Bryozoa are found. These make their
* The progeny of a single egg unite by the adhesion of their surfaces, or of little suckers, so as to string out as far as the eye can reach. Being phosphorescent in the night, these long-drawn bands give the effect of ribbons of fire, twisting and doubling as they rise and fall with the waves,
258 SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCA.
escape, and, after swimming about for a time, attach them. selves, and the pairs lay the foundation of a new colony.
Flustra foliacéa, Sea Mat.
Some genera of Polyzoans possess singular processes resembling a bird’s beak, each cell having one and sometimes two. These open and shut constantly, and if they are touched with a needle, the mandibles will snap together upon it so forcibly that the whole branch may be shaken by it.
IV. SUBKINGDOM ECHINODER- MATA.
General Characteristics——The Echinoderms (spiny- skinned) have all the parts symmetrically arranged around a central axis, thus necessitating a peculiar system of radiating canals and nervous ganglia. They are all ovipa- rous. They respire by a water-vasculary system permeating the entire body. There is also a blood vascular system, with a central contractile heart.
BovY CYLINDRICAL ; FREE ; MOUTH FORWARD. Holothuroidea. EC INODERMATA, Bopy SPHERICAL OR FLAT; FREE; MOUTH UNDERNEATH. Echinoidea. H * | Bopy STAR-SHAPED ; FREE; MOUTH UNDERNEATH. Asteroidea, BopyY CUP-SHAPED ; FIXED ; MOUTH UPP ST. Crinoid
CLASS I. HOLOTHURQIDEA.
General Characteristics.—The Holothuroids (whole- mouthed) have a tough skin, sprinkled with calcareous granules. The mouth is surrounded with feathery tentacles,
Pentacta fronddsa, Holothuroid or Sea-cucumber.
and the body is worm-shaped, though constructed upon the radiate plan. By means of their powerful longitudinal and transverse muscles, they can disgorge their own stomachs, and even throw off their tentacles, and, after remaining inert for a season, take on a new set of the rejected organs.
260 SUBKINGDOM ECHINODERMATA.
CLASS II. ECHINOIDEA.
General Characteristics.—The Echinoids (hedgehog- like) are covered with spines, moved by the general envelop- ing membrane. Their shell is composed of reg- ularly-shaped plates, arranged in radiating zones, every al- ternate plate per- forated for the passage of suck- ers (ambuldcra), which can be ex- tended beyond the spines,* and by adhesion en- able the animal to move over the rocks. Mingled with the spines are stems (pedicillarie), each ending in forceps, apparently for pre- hension and for rid- ding the animal of parasites. The mouth is armed with five sharp § teeth, which con- g tinually wear upon one another, but,
Fig. hh5.
Echinus sphera, Sea Urchin, Spines removed from left half.
* A full-grown Urchin may have five hundred plates, four thousand spines, and perhaps two thousand suckers. Melita quinquefora, Key-hole Urchin.
CLASS ASTEROIDEA. 261
like the incisors of a rodent, are constantly renewed. These are worked by thirty-five powerful muscles—the whole apparatus being known as “ Aristotle’s lantern.” *
CLASS III. ASTEROIDEA.
General Characteristics.—The Asteroids (star-like) haye five or more radiating arms, which contain portions
Asterias, Star-fish.
of the viscera. Their mouth and locomotive suckers are on the lower side—the former without teeth, digestion being performed by the animal’s turning its stomach out of its
* Some species, like the Key-hole Urchin, are singularly modified from the typical forms, aud are hence called Irregular Echinoids.
262 SUBKINGDOM ECHINODERMATA.
mouth and wrapping it over the shell-fish, etc., upon which it feeds. On the end of each ray is a red eye, over which a circle of spines may be thrown for its protection.
The Star-fish can adapt itself to the inequalities of the surface over which it moves, and even enter narrow fissures.
Fig. 448.
Astrophyton agassizii, Basket-fish.
On the back is a kind of sieve (madreporic body), through which water filtered of sand passes to the locomotive suckers. In some species, the five arms are subdivided till the number of branches is nearly five thousand.*
* All the Star-fishes, of which there are at least one hundred and fifty species, have the power of disintegrating themselves, especially the many-branched varieties, and of restoring in a brief time the portions broken off. Hence when fishermen vent their spite upon them for stealing their bait, by tearing them in pieces and throwing them overboard, they simply multiply the evil. Immersed in fresh cold water they die instantly.
CLASS CRINOIDEA. 263
CLASS IV. CRINOIDEA.
General Characteristics.—The Crinoids (lily-form) are Echinoderms that during a portion or the whole of their lives are fixed to some solid body by a foot-stalk (peduncle). They strikingly resemble a flower. The mouth is in the
Fig. 449.
Comatila rosacéa, Rosy Feather-star. Adult free Crinoid.
centre, with arms springing from the disk or calyx, but speedily ramifying until the complete internal skeleton, exclusive of the stem, consists of many thousand joints. All parts are covered with a fleshy integument, dipping down between each joint. Some of the species remain fixed for life, while one at least (Comatula) is known at maturity to drop from the stem and ever after to wander free. (See “Geology,” pp. 129, 153, 171.)
SUBKINGDOM ECHINODERMATA.
264
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Vv. SUBKINGDOM CCZLENTERATA.
General Characteristics.—The Celenterates (hollow- entrailed) are radiates having a distinct body-cavity, whose walls consist of an outer layer (ectoderm) and an inner layer (endoderm). They are all aquatic, and multiply alike by budding, by eggs and by fission. They are usually armed with peculiar stinging filaments.
DIGESTIVE CAVITY, WITH TWO OPENINGS. Ctenophora. CCELENTERATA, | DIGESTIVE CAVITY, DOUBLE, WITH RADIATING SPACES. Anthozoa. DIGESTIVE CAVITY, SINGLE. Hydrozoa,
CLASS I. CTENOPHORA.
General Characteristics.—The Cteno- Fig. 451. phora (comb-bearers) are transparent, ge- ji latinous bodies, with eight rows of comb- — like fringes and two long tentacles provided with lateral filaments spirally coiled. The latter can: be instantly withdrawn into the cavities from which they spring, and as quickly shot forth again. The Ctenophora have a nervous system and complex diges- yrobrachiia pitius, hore.
tive apparatus. a, a, Tentacule ; b. Mouth.
CLASS II. ANTHOZOA.
General Characteristics.—The Anthozoans (flower-like animals) or Polyps (many-f. ~tc 7) compri:> the Ceelenterates in which a distinct digestive sac opens velow into the general cavity of the body, though separated from the body-walls by an intervening space. The mouth is surrounded by one or more rows of hollow tentacles, which are covered with cilia in constant motion, to produce currents for bringing food
12
268 SUBKINGDOM CCQBLENTERATA.
The Sea-fan is another representative form of sclerobasic coral, the branches having a horny axis (as may be detected by the smell in burning), and uniting in a beautiful net-work.
The Madrepores and other reef-forming corals deposit within the tissues of the animal a calcareous frame-work of sclerodermic coral.
The Mushroom Coral is remarkable as being the
skeleton of a single Polyp, ! often fifteen inches in diam- eter. Though fixed in its early stages, it becomes free, and, but for its habit of lying in the clefts of the rocks, would be speedily destroyed by the violence of the waves.
The Organ-pipe Corai consists of cylindrical tubes arranged like the pipes in a church organ. Each one is the cell of a single polyp, and the whole number in the mass is the progeny of the one that first became fixed at the base.
eres echindita, Mushroom Coral.
Fig. 458.
Tubipora musica, Organ-pipe Coral.
* Dana, in describing the coral reefs of the Pacific, says—The actini (Fig. 459) May well be called the asters, carnations and anemones of the submarine garden; the tubipores (Fig. 458) are literally its pink beds; the gorgonie (Fig. 456) its flow. ering twigs; the madrepores (Fig. 455) its plants and shrubbery. Astreas (star corals) often form domes amid the grove, a dozen feet or more in diameter, em- bellished with green or purple blossoms, which stud the surface like gems; hemi- spheres of meandrina (brain coral) appear as if enveloped in a network of flow ering vines; and vases of madrepores stand on a cylindrical base covered with brauches
apreading gracefully from the center and decked with sprigs of tinted polyps.
CLASS HYDROZOA, 269
The Sea Anemone is a soft-bodied Polyp, that can.change its locality at will, adhering to the rock by a fleshy disk that adapts itself to all inequalities. Its stomach is simply a sac suspended in the cavity of the body, into which it opens at the bottom by a wide aperture. Between the stomach and
Fig. 459.
Metridium margindtum, Sea-anemone or Actinia, A. Opened; B. Closed; C. Opening.
the body-walls are mesenteric spaces, which communicate freely with the numerous hollow tentacles. By muscular contraction, water is forced from these chambers into the tentacles, to prolong them. The animal, plastered, as it were, to a rock, with its tentacles bloomed out like the rays of its flowery namesake, awaits its prey ; and woe to the luck- less victim that walks over the trap and springs it into activity. (See Fig. 393.)
CLASS III. HYDROZOA.
General Characteristics.—The Hydrozoa (water-dragon animals), or Jelly-fishes,* have no mesenteric spaces, and the eggs are developed on the external instead of the internal
* On account of the stinging sensation produced when handled, the animals belonging to this class have been called Acalephe (Nettles); Meduse from the numerous tentacles resembling the hair of Medusa; and Jelly-fishes from the gelati- nous nature of their substance,
270 SUBKINGDOM CG@LENTERATA.
surface of the body-wall. Interspers- ing the tentacles and other parts of the body are cells containing long, spirally-coiled threads, barbed and serrated, which dart forth with incon- ceivable velocity to lasso their prey.*
Fig. 161.
Pelagia cyanella, Jelly-fish.
The Discophorze (disc-bearers) include those Jelly-fishes with an umbrella-like disc, by the contraction of which the water is expelled and swimming effected. Some of this family measure seven feet in diam- eter, with tentacles a hundred feet in
* They are the terror of bathers, as the pain in- flicted by the lash of their envenomed filaments is exceedingly deranging to the whole nervous sys- tem, though at first seeming to be no more than the tingling sensation of the common stinging nettle,
CLASS HYDROZOA. Q71
length; yet so largely composed of water that, when dried, nothing is left but a film scarcely sufficient to stain a sheet of white paper. They are voracious, feeding on small fishes,
crustaceans, and even on their own species. Mere transparent masses of jelly, and only visible because of their brilliant colors, they move through the water rapid- ly, and lasso their prey with great precision. The Siphonophorze (tube-bearers) are free swimmers and character- ized by having one or more large air-sacs, giving great buoyancy. The Hydroidz (hy- dra-form) include the compound Sertularians (see Fig. 393) and the simple Hydras. The former resemble minute ‘ferns, and are often mis- taken for sea-weed. Some species of Hydre are found in fresh water, attached to the stems of
Fig. 462.
Physalia utricitlus, Portuguese Man-of-war, Tropical Atlantic.
plants. When contracted, they are a little mass of green jelly. Expanded, their body is a tube, half an inch long, not larger than sewing-thread.* By the sucker at the base
* It may even be turned inside out like a glove—what was the outer surface becoming a stomach and beginning to digest the food, and what was the intestinal canal taking up the fanctions of absorption and respiration. Sever a Hydra’s stomach, and the mouth will still keep taking in food, though there is nothing to hold it until the digestive organ grows again. ‘‘ The same Polyp may be successively inverted, cut in sections, and turned back again without serious harm.’
272 SUBKINGDOM C@LENTERATA.
they attach themselves at will to any solid object. Their mouth is surrounded by hollow tentacles, by which they seize their food, and
oe si quickly benumb it. Cut
ae) into pieces, each part
83 \\ A 1 quickly grows into e ~W/ iy perfect animal.
Fig. 6h.
Y Ls > Ge. Campanularia volubilis. i) The Campanularia : are allied to the Sertula- Fresh water Hydras. 1. Stem of plant ; 2. Hydra tia. From their bell- attached and budding ; 3. Partly expanded ; shaped cups there drop
4, Fully expanded ; 5. Free and progressing. out at maturi ty piace Medusoids. After leading an independent and locomotive existence for a time, these produce ova and sperm-cells, the resulting embryos of which fix themselves and develop into plant-like colonies, from which fresh medusoids may bud. The Med- usoid little resembles the plant-like Zoéphyte from which it thus springs. It sails through the water by the contraction of its bell, the tentacles hanging like a fringe below, and the four radiating canals leading to its central stomach.
Medusoid.
CLASS SPONGIDA. 273
CLASS IV. SPONGIDA.
The Sponge of commerce is the frame-work which, in the living animal, is covered with a slimy material resembling the white of an egg, but so delicate that. it is usually washed off by merely draw- ing the mass from the water. This investing sponge-flesh consists of numer- ous minute nuclei acting independently of one another, and yet individually con- ," £ tributing to the sustenance of the whole colony. Canals permeate this gelati- nous substance in every direction. The smaller ones permit the ingress of water 2g Sponge magnified. to take the place of that constantly rushing out by the larger orifices. These currents are due to the action of cilia in enlarged portions of the canals, and thus food is diffused throughout the mass. The cells along the route select and appropriate the nutritive particles. The Common Sponge (Huspongia officinalis) is not a single sponge but a commu- nity, “representing,” as Huxley remarks, “a kind of sub- aqueous city, where the people are arranged about the streets and roads in such a way that each can choose his food from the water as it passes along.” The skeleton is composed of horny fibres interlacing and strengthened with spicules of lime or flint. The frame-work in some species is calcareous or silicious. In the Huplectella the silicious fibres form a beautiful mesh of lace, known as Venus’s Flower Basket, formerly considered an unique specimen of Chinese industry.
Fig. 466.
VI. SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOA.
General Characteristics.—The Protozoans (first ani- mals) are small, aquatic, mostly microscopic unicellular animals. They are composed of a mucous, albuminous substance called protoplasm. As yet, neither nerves, mus- cles, circulatory or digestory organs have been discovered. They, however, apparently possess the functions of animal life—motion, sensation, nutrition, and reproduction. In- numerable Invertebrates feed upon them. The “ Edible- earths ” and “Infusorial-earths” probably owe their nutri- tive value to the remains of Protozoans. All subdivisions are provisional.
CLASS INFUSORIA.
General Characteristics.—The Infusoria (originating in infusions) include a large variety of microscopic animal- cules found in vegetable infusions that have been left exposed to the air for a few days. + Their presence is doubtless due to the dried bodies of their ancestors or minute germs float- ing in the air till a lodgment in the infusion favors development.*
Vorticels (vortex) are types of fixed forms. To the naked eye they are simply mold on the stem of a plant; but in the microscope the mold becomes a forest of single animalcules, each Vorticela. attached by astem several times its own length,
* Re-moistening the hard, baked mud from the bottom of a dried-up pool is found to re-vivify them in innumerable quantities. ‘‘ These Infusoria,” says Fignier, “ may be and are without doubt carried to great distances, for an indefinite period of time, end then, abandoned on some ledge of rock, on a housetop, in the cleft of a wall, or
CLASS RHIZOPODA. 275
and capable of being contracted into a spiral form. The ciliated fringe can also be retracted within the body. They multiply by fission, budding, and encysting. If by fission, the body simply splits into two portions, each becoming a new being.* If by budding, a swelling com- mences near the base of the bell, which at length detaches itself, and developing a stalk, becomes fixed. If by encysting, a coating of gelatinous matter covers the bell, the stem and cilia being absorbed. In time, the cyst bursting, a number of germs are set free, which develop stalks and become like the orig- inal. It has been calculated that the progeny of a single individual of some species of Infusoria may amount to two hundred million in a month. Noctiliica miltaris, magnified. The Noctiluceze are examples
of free forms, in which locomotion is effected by thread-like organs called flagella. The phosphorescent glow upon the sea is largely due to their presence.
CLASS RHIZOPODA.
General Characteristics.—The Rhizopods (root-footed) are minute masses of gelatinous matter capable of assuming all varieties of shape according to the irritation result-
under the capital of a column, lie there undisturbed ; but let a drop of water approach it, and the dormant being awakes immediately, the microscopic Lazarus springs again into existence, feeds and multiplies as before, and its life, suspended possibly for years, resumes its interrupted course!”
* “ By this mode of propagation,” says Dujardin, ‘‘an Infusorian is the half of the one which preceded it, the fourth of the parent of that, the eighth of its grand- parent, and so on, if indeed we can apply the terms father or mother to an animal, which must see in its two halves the grandfather himself, by a new division again, living in his four parts. We might imagine such an Infusorian to be an aliquot part of one like it, which had lived years, and even ages before, and which by continued subdivisions into pairs might continue to live forever by its successive development,”
276 SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOA.
ing from contact with foreign substances. Some species are naked, while others are protected by a shell. When particles
Fig. 469.
Ameba radidsa, Rhizopod.
of food are wafted into contact with this gelatinous mass, finger-like processes—in some species filamentous, in others blunted—shoot out and wrap up the nutritive particles, so completely enveloping them as to appear like a thin
Fig. 471.
Foraminifera in Ohatk.
OLASS GREGARINIDA. Q77
film over the enclosed mass. The food is gradually absorbed by the coating of this extemporized stomach. The processes thus shot forth and answering as hands or feet are termed pseudopo- dia (false feet). In those species protected by a shell there is the same power of throwing out pseudopodia at the orifice for locomotion or prehension, and in the latter case, of transpos- ing the prehensile instrument into a mouth or alimentary canal. Reproduction is by fission, budding and cysting, a detached pseudopodium being developed sometimes into a separate animal. When, by budding, the new Rhizopod re- mains attached to the shell of the parent, in some species, particularly the Foraminifera (hole-bearing),* it gives rise to the beautiful aggregated forms known as Nummulites, Globi- gerinas, ete.
CLASS GREGARINIDA.
General Characteristics.—The Gregarinidans (flocks) are parasitic forms found particularly in Cockroaches and Earth-worms. They give out no pseudopodia, and assimilate food only by the absorption on the general surface, as is common in internal (§ parasites. Their anatomical structure usually Xé presents a single cell, having in it, among fatty — eregarina granules, a central vesicle, itself enclosing a ae Soe solid particle. Elongation and contraction of med: the body are the ordinary signs of life.
Still lower forms, however, are revealed by the microscope, as the Monera, comprising the genera Bathybius, Prot- amoeba, etc., by some Naturalists disbelieved in as really organic beings, and by others doubtfully y referred to the Vegetable rather than to the Animal Kingdom. Of these Bathybius,} a mass of albumin- ous jelly neither distinctively animal nor plant, is Bathybius, considered the simplest structure known to man.
Fig. 472.
Fig. 473.
* See “ Fourteen Weeks in Geology,” pp. 188 and 198. + Recently Huxley retracts his opinion concerning Bathybius as having vitality.
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INDEX,
GLOSSARIAL, EXPLANATIVE, AND REFERENTIAL.
OS SRR
Abranchiata, 235, 236.
Abranchiates, 236.
aonehe (nettles), 269.
Acant! eres 238.
Acaride, 228.
Acarina (mite), 226, 228.
Acephala, 250.
Acipenser oxyrhyncus (sharp-nosed), 188.
Actinia, 269.
Adder, 176.
Adipose (fatty), 210.
ABolis, 245, 248.
Acrydidie, 222.
Acrydium alutaceum, 221.
Agamida, 172,
Agile Gibbon, 20.
Aix sponsa, 154.
Alar (wing), 157.
Alaudide, 120.
Albatross, 158. ;
Alca impennis (wingless), the Great Auk, 160.
Alcedinidz, 125.
Alces malchis, 69.
Alcidie, 159.
Alectorides, 113, 145, 149.
Alligatoride, 171.
Alligator mississippiensis, 171,
Altricial Gmmarcesy. 125.
Ambergris, 87.
Ambulacra, 260,
Ameivide, 173.
Ameiva sexlineata, 173.
American Lion, 34.
American Bear, 98.
Ameeba (changing) radiosa, 276.
pom Fe (wanting form). (See p. 138.)
Ampelide, 117.
Ampelis cedrorum, 117.
Amphibia, 179.
Amphipneusta (double-breathing), 1'79.
Anaconda, 177.
Analogue (an organ in one species equiv- alent to a different organ in another, or a representative species in one country related to one in another), 34.
Anastomosing (running into each other),
266. Anatide (duck-family), 151, 152. Anguillide, 198. Anguilla latirostris, 198.
Annelida (ringed), 203, 235.
Annelids, 235.
Annulata, 236.
Annuloids, 236.
Ant-eater, Giant, 104
Antelope, Prong-horn, 68.
Authozda, 265.
Anthrenus (a genus of beetles), 224. Antilope rupicapra, 59, 64; dorcas, 59, 645 Kudu, 59, 64; gnu, 59, 65; oryx, 59, 65.
Anthropoid Apes (man-like), 20.
Antilogapride, 53, 68.
Antilocapra americana, 68.
Ant-lion, 223.
Antrostomus (cave-mouthed) vociferus (loud-voiced), 126.
Ants, egg, larva and pupa of, 209; Agricultural, 209; Sanguinary, 209; Foraging, 209; Leaf-cutting, 209;
hite, 209.
Anura (without a tail), 179.
Aphide (exhausters), 220.
Aphis rose, 201.
Apide, 206.
Aplocerus montanus, 59, 63.
Apoda (footless), 124.
Apollo Belvedere, 17.
Apple-tree Borer, 217.
Apterygide (without wings), 143.
Apteryx australis, 145.
Arachnida (spiders), 208, 226.
Arachnids, 226.
Aranes, 226.
Archeopteryx, 165,
Archer, 192.
Arcuate (bow-shaped), 148.
Arctic Skua, 157.
Ardeide, 148.
Ardea berodiar, 148; cinerea, 150.
Argonautide, 242.
Argonauta argo, 242.
Argus siganteus, 189.
Aristotle’s Lantern, 261.
Armadillo (armed), Nine-banded, 105; Three-banded, 106.
Articulate (jointed), 203.
Articulata (jointed), 203.
Artiodactyls, 52, 58
Arvicola (field-inhabiter) : A. riparia, 96.
Ascidian (small leathern-bottle), 256,
Asiphoniita, 250, 262.
INDEX.
Aas, Wild, 7%.
Astacidee, 231.
Astacus fluvialis, 281. Asteria, 261.
Asteroidéa (star-like), 261. Astrophyton agassizil, 262. Astur atricapillus (black-headed), 184. Ateles pentadactylus, 25. Auchenia (neck) llama, 56. Auk, 159; impennis, 160. Aves (birds), 110, 113, Avocet, 146.
Axolotl, 183. |
Aye-Aye (dYe’-GHe), 28. Ayrshire, 61.
Bab-i-rous-sa, 74. Baboon, 2.
Bactrian Camel, 54, 55. Badger, 40, 43; cut of, 44. Balanide (acorn), 234. Balanus crenatus, 233. Balena mysticetus, 86; skeleton of, 83. Balenide (whalebone), 85.
Baleen (whalebone), 85.
Barbel, 197.
Bark-borer, 218.
Barnacle, 229; Stalked, 234; Acorn, 234, Barn Swallow, 117.
Bascanion constrictor, 176, 178. Bassaride, 29.
Bassaris astuta (fox-cunning),
Cat, 49.
Bathybius, 277.
» 16; Vampire, 89; Horse-shoe or Geoffrey's, 88, 89; Hare-lipped, 89, 90; Wing-footed, 89, 91; Puff, 89; Common or Little Brown, 89, 90.
Bear, 29; Black, 46; cut of, 47; Grizzly, 46 ; cut of, 47; White, 46; cut of, 48; cut of Brown, 278.
Bear Howler, 25; cut of, 26.
Bear Monkey, 24.
Beaver, 95; American, 98.
Bee, Honey, 206; Humble, 207.
Bee Lice, 215.
Beetle, 206.
Beetle, Stag, 216; Burying, 217; Striped Squash, 217; Long-horn Musk, 218.
Beluga canadensis, White Whale, a species of porpoise, 84.
Bernicla canadensis, 153.
Bimana, 16.
Bird, plumage of, 111.
Bird of Paradise, 124.
Bison, American, 59, 61.
Blepharidz, 192.
Blepharis crinitus, 192.
Blue-bird, 115
Blue Hen-hawk, 135.
Blue Jay, 123.
Bobolink, 120.
Bob-white, 143.
Boa anaconda, 17%; hooks of, 177.
Boide, 177.
Bombus (buzz), 208.
Bombycide, 212.
Bombyx mori, 212.
Bonasa umbellus, 142.
Civet
299
Bos taurus, 59; americanus, 59; buba- ins, 59, 62; grunniens, 59, 62; indicus,
, 63.
Bovidee (ox), 58, 58, 59.
Bowerbankia, 257.
Brachiopéda, 242, 255.
Brachyurus cacajao, 25.
Branch.dta, 235.
Branchiates, 235.
Branchiostoma lanceolatus, 199.
Brady podide (slow-footed), 105.
Bradypus tridactylus (three-toed), Com mon Sloth, 105. '
Brenthus nasicus, 218,
Brevipennes (short-winged), 118, 143.
Bryoza (moss animals), 257.
Bubo virginianus, 133.
Buffalo, 59.
Bufonide (toad), 180.
Bufo americanus, 181.
Bull-frog, 180.
puey ine Peete, 217.
Bus poe 28.
Butcher-bird, 118.
Buthus carolinianus, 228,
Butterflies, 206, 211.
Buzzard, Turkey, 136.
Byssus (fine flax), 252.
Cacatua sulphurea, 182,
Caillette, 52.
Callorhinus ursinus, 49,
Camelide, 58, 54.
Camelus dromedarius, 54; bactrianus, 54. Camel, 53; foot of, 54; water-cells of, 54. Camelopardalis giraffa, 58.
Campanularia volubilis, 272.
: Campephilus principalis, 130.
Canada Goose, 153
Cancride, 231.
Cancer pagurus, 230.
Canide (canis. dog). 29, 37.
Canis aureus (golden), 37, 39; lupus, 37; familiaris, 37, 38.
Capra egagrus (wild), 59; cut of, 66;
ibex, 59; cut of, 66.
Lota (goat-suckers), 126.
Caracara Eagle, 135.
Carapace, 166.
Cardiide, 251.
Caribou, 69.
Carinaria, 245: mediterranean, 243.
Carinaride, 249. >
Carnivora (flesh-devouring), 16; order of,
59. Carnivorous tooth, 29.
Carp, European, 197.
Castoridz, 95, 98.
Castor canadensis, 98.
Cattle tick, western, 229.
ee ae 31; Domestic, 31, 35; cut
OI, 04, Catamonunt, 33. Cat-monkey, 92. Catarhine, 19. Catharista atrata, 187. Cathartide, 133, 186. Cat-fisb, 195. Cat Owl, 184.
300
Caviider, 95, 101.
Cebide, 19, 25.
Cecidomyide, 214.
Cecidomyia (high-leaping fly) destructor, 214; tritici, 214.
Cedar-bird, 117,
Centipede (hundred-footed), 208, 225.
Cephalopdda (head-footed), 242
Cerambycide (long-horns), 217.
Cerambyx moschatus, 218.
Cere (naked skin at base of bil}), 113.
Cervical (neck} vertebre, 56.
Cervidee (cervus, deer), 53, 69.
Cervus canadensis, 69; cut of, 71; capre- olus, 69, 70; virginianus, 69, 72; dama,
Ceryle alcyon, 126.
Cestoidide (girdle-like), 240.
Cetacéa (cetus, whale), 16, 82.
Chetura pelasgia, 128.
Chetodontide (hair-teeth), 192.
Cheetodon rostratus (beaked), 192.
Chameleonide, 171.
Chameleon vulgaris, 171.
Chamois (shdm/-my), 59, 63; cut, 64.
Charadrius virginicus, 146.
Charming of Snakes, 175.
Cheiromys madagascariensis, 28.
Cheiroptéra, 16, 87.
Chelydra serpentiva, 166, 167.
Chelydide, 166, 167.
Chelys matamata, 166, 167.
Chelonida, 166, 168.
Chelonia midas, 166.
Chilopdda, 225.
Chimney-swallow, 128.
Chimpanzee ( Chim-pdin’-zee), 20.
Chipmunk, 100.
Chlamyphorus (cloak-bearer) truncatus (truncated), 106.
Chordeiler popetue, 126.
Chrysochloride, 92.
Chrysochloris (golden green) aureus (golden), 94.
Chrysomelids, 217.
Chuck-will’s Widow, 127.
Cicadide, 219. : 7
Cicada, 206 ; septen-decim, 220; tri-decim,
Ciconiide, 147.
Ciconia alba (white), 150. Cirripeds (hair-footed), 233. Cirripedia (curl-footed), 229, 233. Cirri, 2233 ae
Cistudo (hox) virginiana, 166, 167. Civet, 29, 36.
Civet Cat, 29, 49.
Clam, 250.
Classes, how formeé, 11. Classification, 11.
Clavellinide, 256. : Clavellina (little knob) lepidiformis,
256. Cliidee, 249. Clio, 245; borealis, 249. Clupeide (shad), 195. Clupea serrata, 195. Cobbler-fish, 192. Cobra de Capello, 176.
INDEX.
Coccygus (cuckoo) americanus, 129; erythrophthalmus, 129.
Cockatoo, Great Sulphur-crested, 132.
Cod-fish, 193.
Ceenosarce (common flesh), 266.
Ceelenterata, 265.
Colaptes auratus, 131.
Coleoptéra (sheath-winged), 206, 215.
Colobe, 20.
Colobus polycomus, 20, 24.
Collurio borealis, 118.
Colubride (snake), 177.
Columbe (doves), 137.
Columbide, 137.
Columba livia, 137,
Colymbus torquatus, 159.
Comatula rosacea, 263.
Comparative Anatoniy, laws of, 201.
Conchifers (kénk’-i-fers), 250.
Condor of the Andes, 137.
Condylura (excrescence tail) cristata (crested), 94.
Condyle (knob hinging bead to spine), 15.
Conirostres (cone-beaked), 112.
Conurus (cone-tailed) carolinensis, 132.
Coot, 151.
Corallium rubrum (red coral), 266.
Coral, Red, 266; Madrepore, 267; Mush- room, 268; Organ-pipe, 268.
Coreidee, 220. ;
Coreus tristis, 220.
Cormorant, 156.
Corvide, 122.
Corvus corax, 122; frugilegus, 123.
Coryphena hippuris, 194.
Coturnix communis, 143.
Cougar, (k06’-gar), 33.
Cow, Jersey, 61; Ayrshire, 61.
Cow-bird, 121.
Crab, Fiddler, Sand, Hermit, Soft-shell, 281; Horse-shoe, 282: Little-red, 254.
Crane, Whooping, 149, 150.
Cray-fish, 231.
Crinoid, living, 264; adult, free, 263.
Crinoidéa (lily-like), 263.
Crocodilidz, 170.
Crocodilus vulgaris, 170.
Crocodile, 170.
Cross-bill, 119.
Crotalide (rattler), 175.
Crotalus durissus, 175.
Crow, Common, 122.
Crus (hind limb), 110, 118.
Crustacéa (crust), 208, 229.
Ctenactis echinata, 268.
Ctenophora come Dearers) 265.
Cuckoo, Black-billed, 129; billed, 129.
Cuculidz, 129.
Culex pipiens (piping), 213.
Culicidee, 213.
Curculionide, 218.
Curculio, 218.
Curvirostra (curve-beaked) leucoptera (white-winged), 119.
Cuttle-fish, 243.
Cyanura cristata (blue-tail crested), 128.
Cyclopide (circle-eye),
americanus, 122;
Yellow-
INDEX.
eres communis. Cygnus americanus, 1523 (trumpeter), 152; olor, 153. ~ Cynipide, 210. Cynips quercus-folii, 210. FE Judovicianus, 101, Ces ae iy mormon, 20, 25. Oeeiie Cyprinide, 19%. (golden), 197; 'yprinus auratus (golden), carpio 197; barbus, 197. me Cyrtoph lus concavus, 221. Cypselide (swift), 127. Cystic-worm, 239.
Daddy long-legs, 228.
Daman, 16,
Dasypodidee (thick- footed), 105.
Dasypus novem-cinctus (nine-banded), 105; tri-cinctus oe -banded), 106.
Death’s-head Moth, 2
Decapdda (ten-! ee 229, 231.
Deer, 58, 69; Fallow, 69, 72; Musk, 69, "3: Vir inia, "2.
Delphini ze (dolphin), 84.
Delphinus delphis, 84.
Dental Formula, 8.
Dentalids (tooth- like), 246.
Dentalium dentalis, 246,
Dentirostres (tooth” beaked , 112.
Devil's Darning-needle, 2
Dermestes (a beetle, Coleoptera, in larval state destructive to animal sub- stances), 224.
Diabrotica vittata, 217.
Dibranchiata (two- gilled), 242.
Dibranchiates, 242.
Dicotylide, 53.
Dicotyles (two- -cupped) torquatus (col- lared), 75.
Didelphide (twice-wombed), 108.
Didelphys virginiana, 107.
Digitigrade (toe-walking), 40
Dinosgauria, 165.
Diodontide, 190
Diomedea sae (banished), 158),
Diplopdda, 225.
Diplopods, 225.
Dipuoi, 185.
Dipsas ‘margaritifer a, 253.
Diptéra (two-winged), 206, 218.
Dipters, 213.
Distomide, 240.
pene hepaticum, 240.
Bol oh, isi 194. olichonyx’ oryzivorus, 120. Domestic Ox, 59; Sheep,
buccinator
59, 60;
Duck, 13; Wood, 154; Summer, 154;
Eider. 154, Duek-bill, 16. Durham, 60, = Dytiscide, 21, Dytiscus oct antsia, 219,
301
Eagle, White-headed, 186; Caracara, 135, Farth- -worm, 235. Earwig, 223, 225. ¥cheneide, '193. Echenets albicauda, 193. chidna hystrix (porcupine), 108. Echinodermita, SS aie: Echinoid&a (spiny), 260, 259. Echinus sphzra, 260. Echinorhynchus gigas, 238. Ectoderm (skin without), 265. sat Ps istes (traveller) migratoria (mnigrat.
ing), 138. Edentita (toothless), 16, 104. Edible Crab, 230, Edible- earth, 274, Eel, Broad-nosed, 198,
Hees, hatchin, , 112. Elasmobranchii (strap-gilled), 186. Elephant, 16; Asiatic, 81; African, 81
Elephantide,. 79.
Elephas africanus, 81; indicus, 81. Elytra, 215.
Endoderm (skin-within), 265. Entomostraca (insect-shell), 233.
Epeira diadema, 227.
Equidee, 53, 75.
Equus aginus, T%; caballus, %6; zebra,
Eremophila cornuta (horned), 120. Erinaceide, 92, 94.
Erinaceus auritus, 94,
Eriosoma lanigera, 221. Erythacus rubecula, 115. Esocide, 196.
Esox reticulatus, 196; lucius, 197. Eumetopias stelleri, 4g. Euplectella, 273.
Euspongia officinalis, 273. Exoceetide, 194.
Facets, 204.
Falcon, 118.
Falco sparverius, 134.
Falconide, 133, 1
Families, how ‘indicated, 16.
Family, how formed, 12.
Felide (felis, cat), 23). 30, 31.
Felis concolor (similar color), 31, 33; do- mestica, 31; leo, 31; leopardus, 31;
31; tigris, 3 31. Fiber ibelhicns, 97. Finches, 119. Fisher, 40; cut of, 41. Fishes, 1 i184, Fishing Frog, 1! Fissirostres (Get-beateay, 112, Fissurelide,
Fissurella listeri, 246. Flagella, 275.
Flamingo, 151.
Flat-fish, 193.
Flea, Sand, 282.
Flies, 206.
Flounder, 194,
Flustra (sea-mat), 257, 258. Fly-catcher, Great-crested, 125. Flying-fish, "194,
Flying Fox, 91.
302
Forficulide, 223.
Forficula auricularia, 223.
Formicide, 208.
Formica sanguinea (bloudy), 209.
Foraminiféra, 276.
Fox, 37, 89; cut of, 40.
Fringillide, 119.
Frontal (forehead) sinus (cavity), 59.
Frog, Skeleton of, 179; Common, 180; Tree, 180.
Fulica americana, 151.
Gadide, 192.
Galeopithecide (cat-ape), 92. Galeopithecus volans (flying), 92. Gallinz, 1138, 188.
Gallinula martinica, 151. Gallinule, Purple, 151.
Gallus bankiva, 143. Gammaride, 282.
Ganglions, 13.
Ganoidéi (brightness), 189. Gar-pike, 189.
Gasterop&da (belly-footed), 242, 245. Gazelle, 59; cut of, 64.
Gecko, 172.
Geckotide, 172.
Gemsbok, African, 59, 65.
Genera, how formed, 12.
Genet, 36. Geococcyx californianus, 129.
Geoffrey’s nycteris, 88.
Geometrical Spider, 227.
Geomyide, 95, 97.
Geomys bursarius (pouched), 97. Gibbon, 22.
Giraffide, 53, 56.
Giraffe, 53, 56.
Glass Snake, 173.
Globigeryna, 277.
Glutton, 44.
Gnu, African, 59, 65.
Golden Mole, 92.
Goat, 59, 65; Mountain, 63. Goat-suckers, 126.
Goitered (swollen-neck) sheep, 68. Gold-fish, 197.
Golden Robin, 121; Plover, 146. Goosander, 154.
Goose, Canada, 153; Wild, 153.
Gepbets 95, 100; Pouched, 97; tortoise,
Gordiide (hair), 289. Gordius aquaticus, 289. Gorgonia flabellum, 267. Gorilla, 20. 21.
Goshawk, 134,
Graculide, 155.
Graculus carbo, 156. Grallatdres, 145. Grasshoppers, 206, 222. Great Black-backed Gull, 157. Grebe, Crested, 159, 160. Gregarina sipunculi, 277. Gregarinida (flocks), 277. Gregarious (in flocks), 121. Grou-e, Ruffed, 142. Gruide, 149.
Gryllidee, 222.
INDEX.
| Grylotalpa (mole-cricket) vulgaris (com- ) mon), #22.
Guenon (gwe/non), 20, 24.
Guinea Fowl, 140.
Guinea Pig, 95, 101.
Gull, 113; Great Black-backed, 157.
Gular (throat), 155.
Gulo luscus, 40 ;- cut of, 44.
Hematopodide (blood-footed), 146. Hematopus aati 146. Hair-snake, 238. Haliaetus (sea-eagle) (white-headed), 136. Halibut, 194. Haliotide (sea-ear), 246. Hammer Oyster, 254. Hapale jacchus, 25; cut of, 26. Hedgehog, 92, 94. Helicide (spiral), 247, 248.
leucocephalus
| Hemiptéra, 219.
Hemipters, 206, 219. Herbivora (herb-devouring), 59; teeth of, 60.
Herodidnes, 118, 145. 147.
Heron, 113; Great Blue, 148.
Herring, 195.
Hesperomys leucopus, 96.
Hippopotamide (1iver-horse), 53, 73.
Hippopotamus amphibius, 53, 73.
Hirundinide, 117.
Hirundo (swallow) horreorum (of the granaries), 117.
Hirudinide (hirudo, leech), 238.
Hirudo medicinalis (medicinal), 236, 237.
Hog, 58; skull of, 74; babirouesa, 7%.
Holothuroidea (whole gate), 259.
Hominid (homo, man), 16.
Homo (man) sapiens (wise), 16.
Honey-bee, 206; cells of, 207.
Horned Toad, 172.
Horned-pout, 195.
Horn-bug, 216.
House-fiy, 214
Humble-bee, 207.
Humming-bird, 128.
Hydroide, 271.
Hydrozda, 269.
Hyena, 29; vulgaris, 37.
Hydra, 271, 272.
Hylobates agilis, 20; syndactylus, 20.
Hymenoptéra, 206.
Hyracoidea, 16, 78.
Hyrax syriacus, 78.
Hystricide (porcupine), 95, 101.
Hystrix cristata (crested), 101.
Tbex, 59.
This, 147; Wood, 148; religioga, 148. Ichneumonide, 210. Ichneumon-fly, 210.
Ichneumon, 36; cut of, 87. Icteride, 120.
Icterus baltimore, 121.
Iguana tuberculata, 172.
Imago, 205.
Imbricate (lap like shingles), 165. Infusdria (infused), 274.
Insectivdra (insect-eaters), 16, 92.
INDEX.
Insects, nervous system of, 208; external skeleton of, 204; trachea of, 24; diges- tive apparatus, 204, 205; antenne of, 204; respiration of, 204; eyes of, 204.
Tosistent esting on), 118.
Itch-mite, 228.
Ivory-billed Woodpecker, 180.
Ixodide (adhere), 229.
Ixodes bovis, 229.
Jackal, 39.
Jaculide, 95.
Jaculus hudsonius, 96. Jaguar, 31; cut of, 34 Ha Blue, 123. Jelly-fishes, 269.
Jersey Cow, 61. Julidee, 226.
Julus canadensis, 225. Jumping Mouse, 95, 96.
Kabung, 92. Kangaroo, 10%. Katydid, 221. King Crab, 233. King-fisher, 126. Koodoo, 64.
Lacertilia, 171.
Laciniate (fringe-like), 151.
Lamellate (thin-plated), 113. Lamellibranchiata (thin-plate-gille), 250. a: a (thin-plate-beaked), 113,
Lamp-shell, 255.
Lamprey, 198.
Lancelet, 199.
Land Snails, 247.
Land Tortoises, 166.
Laride, 156, 157.
Larus atricilla, 153.
Lark, Shore, 120; Sky, 120.
Lasso, 270.
Laughing Gull, 153.
Leaflet, 52.
Leech, 235, 287.
Lemuride (ghost), 27.
Lemur macaco, 27.
Leopard, 31, 34.
Lepadide, 283.
Lepas anatitera, 234.
Lepidoptéra, 206, 211. ,
Lepidosiren annectens (uniting), 185.
Lepidosteus osseus (bony), 189.
Leporide, 95, 102.
Leptoglossa (slender-tongned), 171.
Lepus americanus, 102; sylvaticus, 102; callotis, 103.
Lerneide, 233. ‘
Lernconema spratti, 233.
Libellulide, 223.
Limacide, 248.
Limax antiquorum, 247.
Limicole (shore-dwellers), 113, 145.
Limulus mollucanns, 285.
Limulide, 283.
Lingula anatina. 255.
Lingnlide (tongue), 255.
Lion, 81; cut of, 32.
303
Liver-flukes, 237.
Lizard, common striped, 178. Llama, 56.
Lobster, 208, 229; River, 281. Locustide, 222.
Locust, Leather-colored, 221. Loliginide, 243.
Loligo bartramii, 243, Longipennes (long-winged), 113, 151, 156. Loon, 113, 159.
Lophiide (crested), 190. Lophius americanus, 191. Loricata, 169, 170.
Loris gracilis, 27; cut of, 28, Lucanide, 216.
Lucanus cervus, 216. Lumbricide, 237.
Lumbricus terrestris, 237, Lutra canadensis, 40, 45. Lynx canadensis, 31, 85; rufus, 31, 36. Lyre Bird, 124.
Mackerel, 192.
Macropodide Cons footed), 10%.
Macropus major, 107.
Madrepora aspera, 267.
Mammalia, 16.
Man, 16; dental formula, 18.
Manatee, 16
Mandrill, 20, 25.
Man-eater, 33.
Margaritatidee, 253.
Marsipobranchii (pouch-gilled), 198.
Marsupialia, 16, 10%.
Marten, 41.
Mastiff, 38.
Mataco, 106.
May-beetle, 216.
Meduse, 269.
Medusoids, 272.
Meleagride, 141.
Meleagris gallopavo, 141; ocellata, 141; Mexicana, 141.
Mellita quinquefora, 260.
Melospiza melodia, 119.
Menuridze, 124
Menura superba, 125.
Mephitis mephitica, 40; cut of, 43.
Merganser, 154.
Mergus americanus, 154.
Mesentery (membrane keeping the in- testines in place) i
Metamorphosis of insects, 205.
Metridium marginatum, 269.
Migration of Birds, 162.
Mimicry, 33.
Mimus polyglottus (many-tongued), 115.
Mink, 43.
Mite, 226.
Mocking-bird, 115.
Mole, 16; Common, 92; Golden, 92, 94; habitation of, 93; Star-nosed, 93, 94.
Mollusca, 241; vera, 242.
Molluscans, 241.
Molluscoidéa, 242.
Mollusk, 24
Molothrus
121, Molting (shedding feathers), 118.
1. (clamor) pecoris (of a flock),
304
Monéra, 277.
Monkey, The, 16.
Monodon (one-tooth) monoceros (one- born), 85.
Monotremata (one orifice), 16, 108.
Monotremes, 108
Moose, 69.
Morrhua americana, 193.
Moschus (musk) moschiferns (musk- bearing), 69, 73.
Mosquitoes, 206, 213.
Motacilla alba (white), 116.
Mother Cary’s chicken, 159.
Moths, 206, 211.
Mountain Goat, 59, 63; Sheep, 59, 67.
Mouse, 95.
Mud Eel, 183.
Murex, 245, 246.
Murex tenuispinus (tender spine), 245.
Muricide (shell-fish), 245.
Muride (Mus, gen. muris, a mouse), 95, 96.
Mus decumanus, large, 97; musculus (very small), 97.
Muscide (fly), 214.
Mushroom Coral, 268.
Musk Deer, 69, 73.
Musk Ox, 59.
Musk Rat, 97.
Muscle-worm, 239.
Mustela americana, 40; pennantii, 40.
Mustelide, 29, 40.
Mya arenaria, 250.
Mycetes ursinus, 25.
Myygalide (mouse), 227.
Myzale, nest of, 228.
Myiarchus crinitus, 125.
Myriapdda (many-footed), 203, 225.
Myrmecophaga (ant-devourer) (maned), 104.
Myrmecophagide, 104,
Myrmeleonide (ant-lion), 223.
Myrmeleon obsoletus (hidden), 224.
Mytilidae, 252.
Mytilus edulis (edible), 252.
jubata
Naja tripudians, 176.
Narwhal, 84.
Natatores (swimmers), 151.
Nauclerus (pilot) fureatus (forked), 135.
Nautilide (sailor), 244.
Necrophorus (dead-carrier) vestigator (tracker), 217.
Nephila plumipes, 227.
Nereis, 236
Nervous System, 13.
Neuroptéra (nerve-winged), 206, 223.
Neuro-skeleton (nerve skeleton), 165.
Newt, 183.
Night Hawk, 126.
Nightingale, 116.
Noctilionide, 89.
Noctilus leporinus, 90.
Noctiluce (night-shiner), 275.
Noctiluca (night-shining) (pimply), 275.
Northern Hare, 102.
Nucleobranchidta, 245, 248.
Numida meleagris, 140.
Numidide, 140,
miliaris
INDEX.
Nummulites ataica, 276.
Obsolete (obscure), 113.
Odontophéra, 246.
Geophagus, 52.
Operculum (cover), 191.
Ophidia, 165.
Ophisaurus (snake-lizard), 173.
Opisthobranchiata, 245, 248.
Opossum, 16, 107.
Orang-outang, 20, 22.
Orchestia longicornis, 232.
Orders, how formed, 12.
Organ-pipe Coral, 268.
Or:ole, Baltimore, 121.
Ornithorhynchus paradoxug (paradox ical), 109.
Ornithosanria, 165.
Orthoptéra (straight-winged), 206, 222.
Orthopters, 222.
Ortyx virginianus, 143.
Osteological (bony), 39.
Ostrea edulis, 253.
Ostrich, 118, 143; African, 144; S. Amer- ican, 145; Patagonian, 145.
Otariidse, 29, 49.
Otter, 40, 45.
Ovibos (sheep-ox) moschatus (musk), 59,
Ovipositor (egg-placer), 219.
Oviparous, 15.
Ovis aries, 59, 68; montana, 59, 67.
Ow], 133; Burrowing, 101.
Ox, 53, 60; Musk, 59.
Oysters, 253, 253.
Oyster-catcher, 146.
Pachyglossa, 171.
Palmate (palm-shaped), 69.
Panther, 33.
Paper Sailor, 242.
Papilionide (butterfly), 211.
Papilio machaon, 211.
Paradiseide (paradise), 124.
Paradise-bird, Emerald, 124.
Paradisea apoda (footless). 124.
Parasitical (living on others), 129.
Parthenogenesis, 221.
Partridge, 142.
Parrot, 118; Carolina, 132.
Passenger Pigeon, 138
Passéres, 113, 114.
Passerine, 112.
Pastinaca hastata (spear), 186.
Pavo (Peacock) cristatus (crested), 140.
Pavonide, 140.
Peacock, 140.
Pearly Nautilus, 244.
Peccary, 53, 74.
Pedipalpi (feet-feelers), 226, 228.
Pelagia cyanella, 270.
Pelecanide. 155.
Pelecanus (Pelican) erythrorhynchus (red-beaked), 155; fuscus (brown), 155.
Pelican, 113; White, 155; Brown, 155.
Penguin, 113, 159; Jackass, 161; Pata- gonian, 161.
Pentacta frondosa, 259.
Pentacrinus asteria, 264.
Perca flavescens, 191.
INDEX.
Percid, 191.
Perdicide, 142.
Perdix cinerea, 142.
Peripatidse ie onne 285.
Peripatus juliformis, 235.
Perissodactyls, 52, 53.
Perodicticus potto, hand of, 28.
Petrel, Stormy, 158.
Petromyzonide, 198.
Phalangide, 228.
Pharyngobranchii, 199.
Phasianide, 140.
Pheasant, Argus, 139.
Philohela minor, 146.
Philomela (song-lover) luscinia, 116.
Phoca vitulina, 50.
Phocidee, 29, 50, 51.
Phocena communis, 84.
Pheenicopteride (red-winged), 151.
Pheenicopterus ruber (red), 152.
Phrynosoma (lizard-body) cornuta (horned), 172.
Phyllostoma (leaf-mouthed) spectrum,
Phyllostomide, 89. Physalia (bubble) utriculus (bladder), 271. Physeteride, 84, 87. Physeter macrocephalus (large-headed),
87. Picariz, 118, 125. Pichiciaégo, 106. Picide, 130. r Picoides hirsutus (hairy), 181. Pickerel, 196. Pike, 196. Pimelodus atrarius 195. Pinnipeds, 49. pipe tinea 49, Pinotheres ostreum, 254. Pipe-fish, 190. Pipa americana, 181. Pipide, 181. Pisces, 184, Planaride (flat), 240a. Planocera nebulosa, 288. Plantigrade (-ole-walker), 45. Plant-lice, 220. Plastron, 166. Plataleide, 147. Platalea ajaja G-hd-hd), 147. Platessa plana, 193. Platydactylus (wide-fingered) seychellen-
sis, 173. Platyrhine, 19, 25. Pleurobranchia ee 265. Pleuronectide, 194. Ploceide, 123. Ploceus socius, 124, Plotide, 156. Plotus anhinga, 156. Plover, 118, 145. Plumage, 111. Podicipide, 159. Podiceps cornutus, 160. Polyborus (very greedy) tharus, 135. Polyp (many-footed), 266. Polypidom (house of the polyp), 266. Polyzda, 242, 257. Porcupine, 95, 101; Ant-eater, 108.
305
Porpoise, Common, 84.
Pouched Gopher, 97.
Powder-down, 147.
Preening (dressing its plumage), 110.
Pristis songueeua (of the ancients), 187.
Proboscis Monkey, 20, 24.
Proboscidéa (proboscis), 16, 79.
Procellariide (tempest), 158.
Procyor lotor (washer), 48.
Procyonide, 29, 48.
Prong-horn, 53, 68.
Prosobranchiata, 245,
Protameeba (tirst-changing), 277.
Proteus anguinus, 183.
Protoplasm (first-form), 274.
Protoz0a (first-life), 274.
Pseudogryphus (false-beaked) california- nus, 137.
Pseudopodia iietentee) 277.
Psittaci, 113, 131.
Psittacide, 181.
Pteromys (wingéd-mouse) volucella, 100.
Pteropdda, 249.
Pteropodide, 91.
Pteropods, 245, 249.
Pteropus edulis, 91.
Puffer, 190.
Puffin, 159.
Pulicide, 215.
Pulex irritans, 215,
Pulmoniféra, 245, 246.
Puma, 31, 83.
Pupa, 205.
Purple Gallinule, 151,
Putorius ermineus, 40; cut of, 42; lutre- olus, 40; cut of, 43.
Pygopddes, 113, 151, 159.
Pyranga rubra, 118.,
Python, 177.
Quadrumana, 16; Dental formula of, 19. Quail, Common, 143; European, 148.
Rabbit, Gray, 102; Jackass, 103.
Raccoon, 29.
Raiide, 186.
Rail, 118; virginian, 149.
Rallide, 149.
Rallus virginianus, 149 ; elegans, 149.
Rana pipiens, 180; hyla, 180; tempo- raria, 180.
Ranide, 180.
Rangifer tarandus, 69; caribou, 69.
papier (robbers), 113, 182, 138.
t, 16. Rattlesnake, 175. Raven, 122.
cana, 146. Recurvirostride, 146. Red Coral, 267.
Reindeer, 69, 70.
Remora, 193.
Reptilia (eregpne 165. Resplendent Trogon, 127. Respiration of a bird, 112. Reticulum, 52.
306 INDEX.
Retractile (drawn-back), a cuts of, 30. Sea Cow, 82. Reversible (turned-back), 129. Sea Cucumber, 259. Rhamphastide (beaked), 130. Sea Fan, 267. Rhamphastos tucanus, 130. Sea Lion, 49.
Rhea darwinii, 145.
Rhiuobatide, 186.
Rhinocerotidz (horned-nose), 53, 78.
Rhinoceros, 58; unicornis (one-horned), 48; bicornis itwo- horned), 78.
Rhinolophidee (noge-crested), 89.
Rhizopdda (root-footed), 275,
HL YECHOE (snout-face) nigra (black),
Rhynog Pig (curve-nose) aura, 136. Rice-bir
Road-runner, 129.
Robin-redbreast, 115.
Robin, 114; Golden, 121.
ecae aa 16, 95.
Rodent, 9
Roebuck, “69, 70; cut of, 71. Rook, 123.
Rosmaride, 29, 51. Rosmarue obesus, 51. Roseate Spoonbill, 147%. Roge Louse, 221.
Rosy Feather-star, 263. Rotatoria eae ae Rotifers, 238.
Rotifer vulgaris, 240, Rumen, 52.
Ruminant Digestion, 52. Ruminants, 53.
Sable,
Sacred ioiiae 20, 24; cut of, 23. Saki, 25, 26.
Salamandra maculosa, 182. Salamander, 182. Salamandride, 182. Salmonide, 196.
Salmo ealar, 196.
Salmon, 196.
Salpide, 257.
Salpa maxima, 256 Sand-fleas, 229, 282. Sarcoptes scabiei, 229,
Sarcorhamphus (fiesh-beaked) gryphus (curve), 137, Saw-fieh,
186. Saxicolide (rock-inhabiter), 115. Scarlet Tanager, 118. Scalops aquaticus, 93. Scarabeidee, 216. Sciuride (shade-tail), 95, 99. Sciurus vulpinus, 99 ; carolinensis, 99. Sclerobasic (hard- Mbage), 266. Sclerodermic (bard-skin), 268. Scolytide, 217. Scolytas destructor, 218. Scolopacide, 146. Scolopendrida, 225. ees Sipe nted, 225. Scomberide, 1 Scomber aia 192. Scorpion, 226, 228. Scorpionide, 228. Sea Anemone, 269, Sea Bear, 49.
Sea Mat, 257, 258. Sea Nymph, 51. Seal, 29; Eared, 29; Common, 50.
Semhopithecus entellus, 20; hasica, 20; cut of stomach, 28.
Sepize, 243.
Sepia serene, 248 ; officinalis, 243.
Serpula, 2
ScreRUne & (cree er). Shark, Hammer ead, ae, 189 ; egg of, 189. Shark-fishing, 187.
Bheeh Rocky Mountain, 67;
; Goitred, 68; Tick on,
shetiretee, 154,
Ship-worm, 251.
Shore lark, 120.
Short-horn Cow, 60.
Shrew, 92.
Shrike, 118.
Sialia sialis, 116.
Siamang, 20 ; cut of, 22.
Silk-worm, 212.
Silphide, a7.
Siluridee, 195.
Silurus glanis, 188.
Silver-fish, 198.
Simia satyrus, 20.
Simiide, 19.
Siphonata pipboped), 250, 251.
Siphonophora, 271.
Siredon pohenoldee, 183,
Siren, 51, 1
Sirenia, ie 2.
Skeleton, ‘preparation of, 14; bat, 88; bear, 46 ; bird, 110; camel, 58; chim- panzee, 19; cow, éo; elephant, 80; fish, 185; frog, 179; giraffe. 57; horse, %6 ; lion, 29; man, 19; manatee, 83 5 mole, 92 ; ording, 19’, seal, 50; serpent, 174; Whale,
Skull, ereae animal, 29; hog, 74; babiroussa, WH ; rodent, 95; rattle- enake, 175.
Skunk, 40: cut of, 43.
Sky- lack, 120.
Sloth, 16; Three- ‘toed, 105.
Slug, 248.
Snail, 245.
Snake, Black, 176, 178;
Domestic, 345.
Charming of,
1%5 ; Copper-head, 175: Glass, 173; Moccasin, 1%; Sea, 1%8; ; Striped, W775 Water, 177.
Spake-bird, 156.
Snipe, 146.
Sociable Weaver-bird, 124; nest of, 123. Solenide, 251.
Solen ensis, 251.
Sole, 194.
Somateria mollissima, 154, Song Sparrow, 119.
Sorecide, 92.
Sorex thompsoni, 93.
Sparrow, Song, 119; Hawk, 134. Species (division ofa genus), 12, Sperm Whale, 87.
INDEX,
Spermophilus tridecim lineatus, 100.
Sphenisci (wedge), 118, 151, 161.
Spheniscus demersus (plunger), 161.
Sphingide, 211,
Spider Monkey, 25.
Spiders, 203, 226.
Spinneret, 227.
Spongida, 273.
Spoonbill, Roseate, 147.
Sprat-sucker, g
Squid, 87, 248: Rock, 243.
Squirrel, 95; Black, 99;
‘ox, 99; Gray. 99;
Striped Prairie, 100.
pias peslle, ae 95 taggers in sheep, 239.
Star-fish, 261.
Star-nosed Mole, 94.
(covered-feet), 113, 151,
Stercorarius parasiticus, 157. Sterna wilsoni, Amer e 186. Stork, 147; White, 147, 150. Stormy Petrel, 158. Strepsilas (stone-turner) interpres (di- viner). See Hematopodide. Strepsorhin® (twisted-nose), 19; Mon- keys, 27.
Strigide, 133.
Striped Squash Beetle, 217.
Struthio camelus, 144.
Struthionide, 143.
Sturgeon, 188, 189.
Sucker-fish, 193.
Suide, 53, 73.
Sus scrofa, 74; babiroussa, 75.
Swallow, 117; Barn, 117; Chimney, 127; Esculent, 127.
Swan, Trumpeter, 152; Mute, 153; Americanus, 152.
Swift, 128.
Sword-fish, 191.
Sylvicolidx, 116.
Syngnathidee (jaw-tied), 190.
Syngnathus oe 190.
Syrian dye, 245.
Fiying, 100; Striped, 100;
Steganopddes 155.
Tadpole changes, 19.
Tenia solium, 240a.
Talitrus locusta, 232,
Talpide, 92.
eaten (store-keeper) striatus (striped),
Tanager, Scarlet, 118.
Tanacride, 118.
Tantalide, 143.
Tantalus loculator, 148. Tape-worm, 240.
Tapir bicolor, 79 ; americanus, 79. Tapiride, 79. is Taxidea americana, 40.
Teleostei (complete bone), 190. Tenuirostres (slender-beaked), 112. Tent. Caterpi lar. 212. Terebratulide, 255.
Terebratula septentrionalis, 255. Teredinide, 252.
Teredo navalis, 251.
30?
Termes bellicosus (warlike), 209.
Tern, Wilson’s, 157.
Tesselated (checkered), 186. Testudinadta, 165, 166.
Testudinide, 166.
Tetrabranchiata fons giled); 42, 243. Tetradecapoda, 229, 282.
Tetraodon (four-toothed) turgidus (swell-
ing), 190.
etonidee, 141,
Thalassidroma (sea-wanderer) pelagica (sea), 158.
Thompson's Shrew, 93.
Thousand-legged worm, 225.
Thrush, 113
Tick, Horse, Sheep, Bird, Bat, 215.
Tiger, 31, 33.
Toad, Common, Horned, 172.
Tortoise, 165, 166; River, 166, 167; $
Toucan, 130.
Tree Frog, 180.
Trichechide, 82.
Trichechus manatus, 82.
Trichinide, 239.
Trichina spiralis, 239.
Trionychide (three-nailed), 166.
Trionyx ferox (ferocious), 166.
Triton, 51, 183.
Triton cristatus, 182; cut of, 183.
Trochilidee, 128.
Trochilus colubris, 128.
se niger, 20; gorilla, 20; cut of, 21.
181; Surinam, 181;
Bearded, 166, 167; mapping, 166, 168.
Trogon resplendens, 127.
Truncated (cut. short), 166.
Tubipora (tube-porous) musica, 268.
Tunicata, , 255.
Tunicates (social), 256.
Turbot, 194.
Turdide, 114.
Turdus migratorius (migratory), 114.
Turkey, 113; Common, 141; Mexican, 141; Ocellated (eyed), 141.
Turkey Buzzard, 137.
Turnstone. See Hematopodide.
Turtle, nest of, 169; Green, 168.
Tyrannide, 125.
Ungulata (hoofed), 16, 52. 53.
Urodéla (tail apparent), 179.
Urside, 29, 45, 46.
Ursus americanus, 46 ; arctos (northern), 278 ; horribilis, 46; maritimus, 46.
Vampire, 89.
Vascular (com osed of small vessels), 259.
Ventral (lower : Dorsal (upper), 242, 255.
Vertebrata (turning-joint), 15. “
Vertebrates, homologies and analogies of, 199 ; of same animal, 199; of differ- ent animals, 201.
Vespertilionidz, 89.
Vespertilio subulatus, 90.
Vespide, 208.
Viper, 176.
Virginia Rail, 149.
Viverride, 29, 36.
308
Viverra civetta, 36; Genetta, 36; Ichneu- mon, 3
Viviparous, 15.
Voluta imperialis, 245.
Vorticels (whirlpool), 274.
Vulpes vulgaris (common), 37; cut of,
Vulture, 133; California, 187; Black, 137. Vulturine, 136.
Wareall, White, 116.
Walrus, 29, 51.
Wapiti, 69, 70; cut of, 71.
Wasps, 208.
Water-beetles, 219.
Water-mole, 109.
Water-turkey, 156.
Weasel, 29, 40; cut of, 42.
Weaver-bird, Social, 123.
Web of Spider, 227.
Weevil, Plum, 218.
Whale, 16: Greenland, 85; Sperm, 87; White, 84.
Wheat-fly, 214.
Whippoorwill, 126.
White Wagtail, 116.
White Stork, 147, 150,
e
INDEX.
Whooping Crane, 149, 150.
Wild Boar, 74.
Wild Cat, 36.
Wilson’s Tern, 157.
Wing, Motion of, 111.
Wolf, 37, 38.
Wolverine, 40.
Worms, 203.
Wood Ibis, 148.
Woodcock, 146.
Wood Duck, 154.
Woodpecker, 118; Banded Three-toed, 131; Golden-winged, 181; Ivory- billed, 130.
Xiphiida, 191. Xiphias gladius (sword), 191.
Yak, 59, 62.
Zebra, 7%.
Zebu, 59, 63.
Zoology, 11.
Zoophyte, 272. Zygenide (yoked), 18%. Zygena malleus, 187. Zygodactyles, 130.