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Rew Work 
State College of Agriculture 
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Library 


Cornell University Library 
SB 355.G82 1905 


ur fruit growing.A practical guide 


ii vi 


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http://www.archive.org/details/cu3 1924002829392 


SOE Ee ee 


AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING. 


A Practical Guide to the Growing of Fruit 
for Home Use and the Market. 


Written with Special Reference to Colder Climates. 


BY 


SAMUEL B. GREEN, 


Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota. 


ST. PAUL, MINN. 
WesB PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
1905. 


B 


COPYRIGHT, 1893. 
BY SAMUEL B. GREEN. 


INTRODUCTION. 


5% my experience as teacher of Horticulture in the School of 
7, Agriculture of the University of Minnesota I have not been 
able to find a book on fruit growing at all adapted to the 
wants of the students coming under my instruction, In fact, J 
soon found that the material along this line consisted princi- 
pally of papers scattered through reports of the various. hor- 
ticultural societies and in the agricultural press, and that these 
were not generally available, nor, indeed, sufficiently condensed 
for my purpose. The peculiar conditions that obtain in this 
section of the country, and which render the works of Eastern 
authorities of little practical value here, made it desirable for 
me to have some practical book on fruit growing that the 
students could study and refer to at their convenience. 

Another reason for presenting this book is that by so doing 
I might answer the many questions relating to the subject 
treated, which have been often referred to me, and which have 
required much time and attention in correspondence. 

The book is written for the beginner and is not offered 
as a complete manual of Horticulture, although it is believed 
to.cover all the important points in practical fruit growing. 
But few varieties are recommended, and only the kinds tuat, 
have been tried for some considerable period and can be ob- 
tained from the general nurserymen. Untried and little known 
kinds have been purposely avoided, however well they may 
have appeared. It is my earnest wish that new varieties be 
let alone by the amateur in horticulture, and that, instead of 
beginning with novelties in fruits, as is too often the case, he 
will postpone their trial until he has first tried those kinds 
that are known to be desirable. 


iv INTRODUCTION. 


Varieties of many fruits, especially of small fruits, seldom 
last in full vigor for more than a score of years, and often 
after a much less time they are superceded by new and _ bet- 
ter kinds. There are many novelties in fruits introduced each 
year, but in my experience not one new variety in ten that is 
offered for sale is worthy of trial. It is my intention to issue 
a supplementary fruit list as often as may seem desirable, and 
lists of fruits recommended in this work may be supplemented 
by reference to the fruit lists of the different horticultural soci- 
eties, 

SAMUEL B. GREEN. 

St. Anthony Park, December 15, 1893. 

A short appendix has been added to this, the third additition 
of this book, in order to bring it up to date in regard to the best 
varieties of later introduction, and to cover some matters pertain- 
ing to cultivation that are of special interest an? were left out of 
previous editions. The author hopes to get on a complete newly. 


“ revised edition at no distant day. 
Ss. B. G. 


St. Anthony Park, January, 101. 


CHAPTER [f. 


STRAWBERRIES. 


(HE strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is 
found growing from the far north to the hot south, and across 

the Continent. There is not a state in this country byt has its wild 
strawberries. There are large sections of Minnesota where the 
strawberry produces as heavily as it does anywhere when given 
good cultivation, and there is not a county in the state where it 
cannot be made to yield abundantly. It is easily grown, stands 
transportation moderately well, and is almost universally admired. 


Species.— There are three species of the strawberry common- 
ly met with in cultivation :— 

(1) Fragaria Virginiana, which forms entirely or enters largely 
into the parentage of the varieties that have become widely known 
and esteemed on account of their hardiness and reliability. 

(2) Fragaria grandiflora, the South American strawberry, is 
grown much more extensively in eastern Europe than in this coun- 
try. This variety readily hybridizes with the F. Virginiana, but in 
a pure state is not sufficiently hardy to withstand successfully our 
hot summers and cold winters. It has very handsome, large fruit, 
put it has not the sprightly quality of our native berry. 

(8) Fragaria vesea, called the Alpine or wood strawberry, is a 
native of Europe and of the northern parts of this. country and 
Canada. From this have come the ever-bearing varieties whose 
praises are so often talked of. It will not hybridize with either of 
the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is not sufficient- 
ly productive to warrant its being largely cultivated. The ever- 
bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable. They produce a 
few berries all through the season, but do not produce enough at 
any one time to make their cultivation an object of importance. 
Practically, then, this species is of little account. 

Propagation.—The strawberry is increased by seed, runners 
and plant divisions. The plants do not ‘‘come true’’ from seed, but 
seedlings vary very much in their value for cultivation. Probably 

5 


6 STRAWBERRIES. 


not one plant in five thousand seedlings that may be raised will be 
as good as any of the best half dozen varieties now in cultivation, 
but there will be a good many plants out of such a number that 
will be fairly productive of good fruit. It is this variability that 
gives us an opportunity of improving on the kinds now grown. To 
raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should be crushed 
in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as they are ‘dead 
ripe.’? The seed and sand should then be sown at once in a some- 
what shaded bed of rich soil. It will come up in a few weeks if 
well cared for. The plants should be transplanted four inches 
apart in another bed as soon as large enough to handle. By winter, 
if carefully attended to, they will be of good size and may be moved 
to the fruiting bed in the spring, where they will fruit the follow- 
ing year, that is in two years from tne time the seed was sown. It 
is a very simple process and may be carried on by any careful per- 
son, The raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very 
fascinating line of experimental work on account of the possibility 
that one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value. 

For practical purposes strawberries are increased only by run- 
ners, which.most desirable kinds produce in great abundance when 
growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the old plant 
only part of one season, the connection dying the first winter if not 
before. It is common to separate the runners into old plants and 
young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have once 
borne fruit. They can be distinguished by their black roots, and 
should never be used except in emergency as they often fail to 
grow. Plants should never be taken from beds that have fruited. 
The young runners are what should be set out. They have never 
fruited, have white roots, and were formed the season just. preced- 
ing the spring they are set. Strawberries should never be grown 


from divisions, unless it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable 
kind. 


Location and Soil.—The crop is generally most satisfactory 
when grown on a northern slope, as it is then not exposed to the 
drying southerly winds, which in exposed locations occasionally so 
dry out the land that the crop is seriously lessened; also as the 
plants start latest on north slopes the blossoms are not liable to be 
injured by the late spring frosts which sometimes cause serious in- 
jury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are very 
successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level land. 
In a general way any land or location that is good enough for a 
crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but strawberries 
should never be planted on sod-land on account of the liability of 
its béing infested with cut-worms, or with the white grub, which 
feeds on the roots of the plants. 

Manure and Preparation of the Land.—The strawberry 
is a gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The 
best fertilizer is barn-yard manure that is partially rotted, but it 
should not be plowed in very deep. It is generally best to plow the 


STRAWBERRIES. ? 


land deep in autumn, apply the manure in winter or in spring, and 
then plow the manure under very shallow as soon as may be there- 
after. The land should then be thoroughly dragged and smoothed, 
when it is ready for the plants. When so prepared the land has a 
loose surface bed in which to place the plants, while underneath it 
the soil is so firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open 
enough so that the young roots can push into it. 

Time of Planting.—Practically there is only one time to 
plant, and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended tc 
plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no 
strawberry bed in the home garden, and there is considerable mois- 
ture in the ground so the plants will live without too much care, 
but in ordinary seasons here the results from setting the plants at 
this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting of 
them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the home 
garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers from some 
bed near by, or if obtained from a distance they should have been 
potted and be well rotted in the pots. The potted plants cost more 
but are much surer to grow than layers. The growers of straw- 
berries for profit in this state always plant in the spring. The 
earlier the plants can be set: the longer the season for them io grow, 
and the cool, moist weather of early spring seems to favor the for- 
mation of roots, but they may be set as late as the first of fune 
with fair prospect of success. However, if the land is very dry at 
planting time it is best not to plant until after a rain, even if wait- 
ing for it may delay the planting considerably. In this climate it 
is poor practice to set out strawberry plants for profit in dry soil 
and try to keep them growing by watering, as so much water and 
attention is required that the operation will be found a losing one. 

If plants are received when the land is very dry it is the cus- 
tom of the best growers to open the bundles, shake out the plants, 
and dip the roots into a clay-loam mud and ‘“‘heel them in’’ close to- 
gether, putting a little soil between the plants. When thus treated 
they may be easily watered, and will commence to grow and be 
ready to set out in the field or garden as soon as a favorable time 
offers. If the space where the plants are heeled in is surrounded 
by a board fence, or other windbreak, a few feet high, it will aid 
much in preventing the drying action of the wind. 

Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to look 
white and weak when received, and are almost sure to die if at 
once set in the full sunshine, They should be heeled in and par- 
tially shaded until they assume their normal color. 

Methods of Planting.—There are many methods of plant- 
ing but I will mention only two ways, and they may be modified as 
the good judgment of the planter may suggest. 

Hitt System.—This is especially adapted to the home garden. 
By it the fruit is grown of a larger size than in the matted rows, 
but not so much is produced. It consists in setting the plants at 
about one foot distance in rows two-and-a-half or three feet apart, 


8 STRAWBERRIES. 


and keeping all the runners cut off. Managed on this plan the 
plants become very lafge, have many crowns, look neat and pretty, 
and produce a good amount of extra large fruit. The objection to 
it is that it takes three or four times as many plants to set out the 
land as are needed where the matted-row system is followed, and 
the crop is not so large. For these reasons this system is not fol- 
lowed by commercial growers. 

Martep-Row Systzm.—All large growers pursue very nearly 
the following plan: After the land is prepared in the spring it is 
marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one way and two feet the — 
other, and the plants are set at the intersections. The horse culti- 
vator is run both ways until the plants commence to make runners 
rapidly (about the middle of July), when it is run only in the four- 
foot intervals. The runners are then pushed together forming a 
bed or matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide. 
The ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in 
ten days throughout the growing season up to the first of Septem- 
ber, after which cultivation should cease for the year. Keep the 
soil loose and be sure the bed is free from weeds on the approach of 
winter. For some varieties two feet apart in the row may leave 
larger gaps than the runners can fill, but almost any of our com- 
mercial kinds will easily fill up even larger vacancies. Such varie- 
ties as the Crescent will easily fill up intervals of three feet in rich 
soil. The runners should stand about six inches apart in the bed 
by the first of September. 


Trimming and Setting the Plants.—The plants when dug 
shouid have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms 
trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves they 
too. should be cut off. All flowers that appear the first year 
should be taken off. If the roots are large they are not readily 
planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inches. 
The way growth starts from these pruned roots is shown in Fig. 1. 
If a great mop of roots is planted in 
a bunch a part of them is very apt to 
rot. Perhaps as good a way as any 
to set the plants is with a spade. 
This requires two persons, generally 
a man and a boy, to do the work rap- 
idly. After the land is marked out 
the man places the spade with the 
back side away from him, presses it 
about six inches into the moist earth, 
moves it from him and lifts it out. 
The boy takes up a plant, separates 
the roots, and puts them in the hole. 
The man puts the spade in the 
ground about four inches nearer him 
than he had it before and presses 
the soil against the plant. The boy Fic.1. Growth a pruned roots, 


STRAWBERRIES. 9 


finishes the operation by firming the plant in the soil with his 
hands. As soon as the planting is done the cultivator should be 
started to loosen up the soil. Great care should be taken to keep 
the plants from getting dry when planting them out. 


Winter Protection.—Under whatever system the straw- 
berry may be grown, itis benefited by being protected in winter 
by a mulch of sufficient thickness to prevent frequent freezing and 
thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cover- 
ing of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust to it. 
This mulch should consist of marsh hay, corn-stalks, straw, boughs, 
or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from weed seeds. 
It should be put on deep enough to cover the plants. Nothing is 
gained by covering very deep. This should be applied after the 
ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a team. In spring it 
should be drawn from over the plants into the intervals between 
the plants, where it will act to preserve the moisture during dry 
weather and to keep the fruit clean. 


Avoiding Frosts.—It sometimes happeus that the blossoms 
which appear about the middle of May, and are quite susceptible 
to frosts, are seriously injured of cold nights. They may often be 
protected when in this criticai condition py taking the mulching 
from the rows and throwing it back again on the plants for a few 
days, or until the danger from frost is past. Hay or straw sprink- 
led with coal tar may be burned to windward of the bed of frosty 
nights, and will make dense, heavy clouds of smoke that will afford 
protection. If the winter mulch is left on as late as it is safe to do 
so, which is until the new growth starts strongly, it will serve to 
retard the plants and they will not come into blossom until a week 
or so later than they otherwise would were the mulch removed early 
in the spring and not until the great danger of frost is past. This 
latter method makes the crop late, but I think it the safest plan to 
follow. An ordinary frost seldom destroys the stamens, its dam- 
age being confined to the pistils, therefore the center or berry part 
of the flower turns black. 


How to Continue Beds in Bearing.—Some growers pre- 
fer to fruit their strawberry beds but one season. I think it best 
to fruit the bed at least two seasons, provided it is in good condi- 
tion when the first crop is gathered. I have often had the second 
crop on a strawberry bed better than the first, but generally it is 
not quite as good. The best plan to follow with an old strawberry 
bed is about as follows: ; 

RENEWING STRAWBERRY BEDs.—There are several ways of re- 
newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is as 
good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered the bed 
is closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberry leaves are 
burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows and 
all but about one foot in width of itis turned under. The furrow 
thus made is filled with fine rotted manure and the cultivator set 


10 STRAWBERRIES. 


going. - The plants remaining are then thinned out with a hoe and 
special pains is taken to cut out all weeds and old or weak plants. 
This leaves the old bed clean and with plenty of manure close by, 
in which the old plants can make new roots. The plants socn send 
up new leaves which are much healthier than they would be were 
the old foliage allowed to remain, and if we have an ordinary sea- 
son an abundance of runners will be sent out, and by winter the 
old bed. will look nearly as vigorous as a new one. 
This method of renewing the old bed has the merit of destroy- 
ing all the diseased foliage, and to some extent also injurious in- 
sects. It is very important that the renewed bed be kept healthy 
‘by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any insects that may 
appear in order to have it do its best in fruiting the following 
season. 


: Sexuality of the Strawberry Blossom.—We have two 
classes of varieties of the strawberry, distinguished by their blos- 
som. One class has perfect flowers, %. ¢., all its flowers have sta- 
mens and pistils (male and female organs). These can be planted 
alone without any other variety near, and will produce fruit. This 


Fic. 2. Bi-seaual, or perfect flower Fic. 3. Pistillate. or tnperfect 
of strawberry. A, petal; B, sep- Slower of strawberry. A, petal; 
al; CO, Stamens; D, pistils. B, sepal; D, pistils (notice the 

stamens are wanting. 


class may be called bi-sexual (See Fig. 2). The other class has 
pistils (female organs), but does not have stamens, or has but very 
few ofthem. This class is called pistillate (See Fig. 3). Itis found 
in practice that the varieties with pistillate blossoms generally pro- 
duce more fruit than those with bi-sexual flowers, consequently it 
is advantageous to raise as many of such kinds as possible and as 
few of the others, but it is necessary to have some of the bi-sexual 
kinds near the pistillate kinds or no fruit is produced. Just the 
proportion that should exist between the bi-sexual and the pistil- 
late kinds is a disputed point, but it is probably about one to three 
or four, depending upon the weather at the time of blossoming. 
It is safe to say that when pistillate kinds are used every 
third row should be of some bi-sexual kind, selected so that it will 


STRAWBERRIES. i 


be in flower at the same time as the pistillate variety. The neglect 
of this precaution is a constantly recurring source of disappoint- 
ment. Some growers recommend that every third plant in the row 
be of some bi-sexual kind, The objection to this way in practice is 
that the pistillate kinds, being often the strongest growers, may 
soon crowd out the weaker variety; and then, again, when this 
plan is followed the plants when taken up are so hopelessly mixed 
as to be worthless for setting a new bed. 

Figure 2 shows the blossom of a bi-sexual or perfect flowering 
variety, and this differs from Fig. 3 chiefly in having between the 
petals and the pistils 4 ring of many stamens. This difference is 
plainly seen in flowers of the different kinds by any one who will 
take the pains to more than glance at them. It will be noticed that 
Fig. 2 is shown with six petals and Fig. 3 five petals. This is nota 
constant variation between the two kinds and is of no importance, 
but it is thus shown to call attention to the difference in the num- 
ber of their petals in varieties, and it is not uncommon to find a 
strawberry blossom with seven petals, although the normal number 
is five. Different flowers on the same plant even may vary in num- 
ber of their petals. ‘ 

Dry Berries, ‘‘Nubbins.’’—Sometimes the berries fail to fill 
out evenly all over, or are small and mostly dry and hard or one 
sided. This probably results from the pistils, or a part of them, 
being injured by the frost, dry wind, or an unusually severe rain or 
hail, which, by destroying the delicate pistils prevents the forma- 
tion of seeds and the development of the berry adjoining, for it has 
been conclusively proven that unless the seeds are perfected the 
fieshy part near them does not fill out. Sometimes the blossoms 
are stung by a snout-beetle, then they hardly form berries at all. 

Picking and Marketing.—lIf the berries are to be sold great 
care should be taken to have them carefully picked. Green berries 
are bad enough to have in a box, but, if they are to be shipped, 
over-ripe ones will cause much more trouble, for they are sure to 
decay before they reach their destination and to damage all the 
good fruit. On this account the beds should be picked clean every 
day in warm weather. The pickers will need careful watching so 
as to be sure they do not put poor berries in the bottom of the 
boxes, and that they pick all the ripe berries so none will be left to 
get over-ripe. It is always desirable to pick fruit, that is to be 
shipped, in the cool of the day unless it should be wet. 

. Gift packages holding twenty-four boxes are almost universally 
used in this state. They cost about twenty cents per crate, includ- 
ing bexes and cover. They are always made so there is room to 
heap up the boxes and to allow of a circulation of air through the 
boxes. A box holding little more than a liquid quart*"when even 
full and nearly a dry measure quart when heaped, is the size gen- 
erally used. It is called the scant quart box. 

Diseases.—The strawberry is subject to several diseases, but 
only one is very serious. It is commonly culled ‘Leaf Blight,” 


12 STRAWBERRIES, 


“Rust” or “Sunburn,” (Spherella fragarie). It is a minute para- 
sitic plant which hives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the 
early spring small purple or red spots appear on the new leaves. 
About the time the plants are exhausted by fruiting, or perhaps 
before the fruit is fairly ripe, these spots increase rapidly in size, 
and in a few days what was a promising strawberry bed is dried 
up and worthless. Many varieties that are hardy otherwise have 
foliage that is sus- 
ceptible to this dis- 
ease, and some kinds 
should not be plant- 
ed unless some fun- 
gicide is used to pro- 
tect them from it. 

Our growers at 
present prefer to ob- 
viate the necessity 
of using fungicides 
by planting only 
those varieties that 
are very robust and ak ait Poy Reach iia 

 & Ww arke el 7 
fia ie pneaee ees ye kin Sige (aatirenatlc ean tile 
to grow some varieties with weak foliage, such for instance as the 
Captain Jack, a fine bi-sexual kind that was formerly very healthy 
but of late years has frequently been ruined by blight. In such a 
case the newly set plants should be sprayed three or more times 
the first season, commencing as soon as the young plants are well 
established, and twice the following spring, with Bordeaux mix- 
ture or some other fungicide. To do this requires no more labor 
or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the same num- 
ber of times, and the grower will be well repaid in the increased 
crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to diseases than those 
that are neglected. 

Bordeaux Mixture.—This is made by slacking two pounds 
of quick lime in 20 gallons of water in one barrel, and dissolving 
three pounds of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in two gallons of 
water in another barrel. A piece of coarse burlap is now put over 
tke barrel containing the sulphate of copper, and the slacked lime 
and water is strained through it and the two compounds are well 
mixed together. It is now ready to use and should be applied with 
a spray pump. This is the same solution that is so successfully 
used to prevent blight and rot on potatoes, mildew on grapes, etc. 

White Grub (Lachnosterna Sp.)—This is the common white 
grub found in sod land and in manure. It is the larvee of a large 
beetle, and may be very disasterous when the plants are set on sod 
land, but is seldom if ever very injurious under other conditions. 

Leaf Roller.—This insect is injurious in the larvze stage. In 
feeding it folds up the leaves by drawing the edges together by 


STRAWBERRIES. 13 


silken threads and then eats out the soft parts. There are two 
broods of this insect during the year. The females deposit their 
eggs on the leaves where they soon hatch, and the worms com- 
mence their work. The second brood winters over in the pupa state 
in the ground near the plants. 

RemeEpy.—The larvie are not easily reached with any insecti- 
cide as they are nicely protected by the folded leaf. The first 
brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the fruit. 
Since the second brood does not appear until July they may be de- 
_stroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants. 
Where there are but a few infected leaves they should be crushed 
in the hand, a few trials showing the best method of crushing the 
worm inside. 

Shading the Strawberry Bed.—Some experiments recent- 
ly made seem to indicate that the fruitfulness of strawberries may 
be increased by partially shading them, as shown in Fig. 5. While 
this might not be practical on a large scale, yet it is so very inex- 
pensive that it could easily be tried in the home garden. It is sug- 
gested that such a screen, w.th a light wind-break near by, would 


Fic. 5. Sereen for shading strawberry bed. 


prevent the pollen being blown away, or the flowers or plants from 
being seriously injured by frost, drying winds or hail. It will be 
remembered that generally the best fruit, and certainly the best 
late fruit of the strawberry, is found in the wild state in somewhat 
protected and shaded locations, and that in such places the plants 
are most vigorous and the foliage is seldom diseased. Many ways 
of making such a screen will suggest themselves to the reader, but 
it may be well to add that it should be at least six feet from the 
ground—to allow of a good circulation of air and room to cultivate 
—and covered with willow or other brush sufficient to keep out_not 
more than one-half the sunlight. 


44 | STRAWBERRIES. 


Varieties.—The varieties vary much in size, color, and qual- 
ity of the fruit and vigor, productiveness and hardiness of the 
plants. The flowers also vary, as has been mentioned under the 
head of ‘sexuality of the flowers.’? There are now probably over 
a hundred varieties catalogued by nurserymen, and new varieties 
are brought out each year, but of the new kinds that we have tried 
probably not one in twenty-five has been worth the keeping. It is 
well not to pay a high price for plants. The new kinds, if good, 
are soon offered at reasonable figures. As a rule it is not necessary 
to pay over twenty-five cents per dozen, or one dollar per hundred 
for plants. In quantities of five hundred or more they can be 
bought at much less cost. About two hundred plants, if well set 
out and cared for, will give all the fruit needed by the ordinary 
family. 

WarrFieLp.—Probably the most popular berry grown. Blos- 
soms, pistillate; plant healthy, a strong grower, producing a great 
quantity of runners, and is very fruitful. The fruit ripens very 
early, is of good size, dark red and firm, but not sweet or very large. 
A good variety to ship. : 

HaveERLAND.—A popular productive variety, having pistillate 
flowers. The fruit is of the best quality but not very firm, unless 
it is picked before it is fully colored; a valuable variety for home 
use or near market. Not quite as early as the Warfield. Needs 
special care in mulching to keep the fruit clean, as it ripens close 
to the ground. Very healthy. 

CrescEent.+~-For many years this variety has been, very popu- 
lar, but the Haverland and Warfield are generally supplanting it on 
account of their being more productive. Fairly productive, vigor- 
ous, healthy, early. Berries of medium size, bright red, firm, quite 
acid. A good shipping kind and largely planted. Flowers pistillate. 

BRANDYWINE.—Bi-sexual. Fruit large, firm, good color and 
quality, heart-shaped. Plant of fair size, vigorous and generally 
productive. It blossoms over a long season and produces large 
amounts of pollen, and is one of the best pollenizers for pistillate 
sorts. Mid-season. ° 

CaPpTain Jack.—F lowers bi-sexual. An excellent variety. For- 
merly very healthy and widely grown, but for a few years past 
has blighted badly. It should be treated with some fungicide to 
preserve the foliage. 

SpLrenpDIp.—Bi-sexual. A very popular new sort. Fruit large 
and of fine appearance and color. Valuable for both house use 
and marketing. 

Lovett.—Bi-sexual, One of the most certain and profitable 
‘kinds grown. Fruit large, of high color, firm and of excellent 
flavor. Mid-season. Produces lots of pollen. 

Witson.—One of the oldest varieties in cultivation. and where 
healthy is still a most excellent pollenizer. It is, however, some- 
what fickle about its location. 

Other varieties of considerable merit are—of pistillate kinds— 
Bubach, Princess, and Gandy, a very late variety, with bi-sexual 
flowers, 


CHAPTER II. 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 


=x OME species of the cultivated raspberry are found indigenous 
to almost every climate. Many species are very prolific of fine 
fruit in their wild state,’and all of them improve rapidly under cul- 
tivation. It is an especially desirable fruit for temperate climates, 
where it is found at its best. There is a great difference in the 
adaptability of the different species as well as varieties to various 
climates, but there is no section of Minnesota where some kinds 
cannot be safely and surely grown if proper care be used in plant- 
ing and cultivating. It is a surer crop than the strawberry, and 
the plantations of it will last indefinitely, seldom needing renewing’ 
more than once in ten years, and frequently producing abundantly 
over a longer period. 

Species.—There are four species to which our cultivated 
kinds belong, and they quite readily hybridize together. They all 
have perennial roots and biennial canes; i. ¢., the canes grow one 
year and the next mature fruit and die, so that there are always 
two sets of canes to each plant during the growing season. 

(1) Rubus strigosus. This is the red raspberry of our woods, 
there are, however, some varieties of it that have yellow fruit. 
Plants belonging to this class increase by suckers, which they gen- 
erally produce abundantly from all the surface.roots. All of the 
most desirable red raspberries in cultivation, with possibly one ex- 
ception, belong to this class. 

(2) Rubus Ideus. European raspberry. In form and color of 
fruit and method of propagation this resembles the preceding, but 
differs from it botanically in several minor points. Varieties of 
this are not generally as well adapted to the climatic conditions of 
this state as our native species. 

(8) Rubus neglectus. There is much difference of opinion in 
regard to che plants grouped under this species. Some of the best 
botanists consider the varieties generally put here to be hybrids 
between RB. Strigosus and R. Occidentalis. The fruit from this class 
is often of a purplish color, but is sometimes yellow, and the plants 
often increase botn by suckers and by tip-layers. 

(4) Rubus Occidentalis. Black-cap, or thimbleberry. A native 
species, very distinct from one and two; increasing by layers, 
i. e., the tips of the new growth bend to the ground and take root 

1b 


16 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 


the latter part of the summer. They seldom produce suckers. The 
fruit is generally black, but there are a few varieties with yellow- 
ish fruit. 

All the cultivated raspberries are commonly referred to as: 

SucKERING Kinps; those that increase by suckers, which com- 
prise chiefly varieties belonging to the three species first named. 

Tip-RooTine Kinps; those that increase by tip layers, which 
chiefly comprise varieties belonging to R. Occidentalis, but a few 
that belong to R. neglectus. 

Propagation.—The raspberry may be propagated by the fol- 
lowing methods: 

By SEEp.—All the cultivated kinds may be grown from seed, 
but plants from seed are not “true,” é. ¢,, are not like the plants 
from which they came, and it is only an occasional seedling that is 
nearly as good as any of the varieties commonly cultivated. To 
raise seedlings the ‘“‘dead”’ ripe fruit should be crushed in a small 
amount of dry sand, and the whole sown at once in a light moist 
soil, somewhat shaded. The seed will seldom germinate until the 
following spring, when after the plants are large enough to handle 
they may, if too thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to 
grow the first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they 
are. The plants should be taken up in the fall, ‘‘heeled in,” and 
planted again the following spring, when they will bear fruit the 
following (third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as soon as 
obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly ‘with leaves or 
litter. In February bring the boxes into a greenhouse, transplant: 
to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have their third leaves 
formed, and plant permanently outdoors as soon as large enough 
and the weather permits; by this system some fruit is generally 
obtained the second year. : 

By Root Ccuttines.—Most of the varieties of raspberries com- 
ing under the first three spe- 
cies mentioned produce 
sprouts from the roots (Fig. 6), 
and these are generally used 
to start new plantations, but 
when there is a shortage for 
this purpose it is customary to 
grow plants of the suckering 
kinds from root cuttings, 
which may be made as fol- 
lows: In the autumn after 
the plants have stopped grow- 
ing the roots are taken up, cut 
into pieces two or three inches 
long and put in boxes, with- 


Fic. 6. Raspberry sets of the sucker- 
ing class. A, before he have start- 


alternate layers of sand or 
loam. The boxes are then 


ed. B, after buds have started. The 
stem should be cut off at the cross line. 


buried in some well drained spot until the land is fit to work in the 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. y 


spring, when the roots should show a callous on the cut ends. The 
roots are then planted three or four inches apart in furrows and 
covered about two inches deep in rich soil. By the end of the sea- 
son they will have made plants large enough to set out ( Fig. 6). 

This plan for growing plants from root cuttings may be greatly 
changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It is always 
best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cuttings from 
strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in the spring. The 
cuttings are generally made with a sharp knife or a pair of pruning 
shears, but nearly equally good results may be had by cutting the 
roots in a hay cutter. 

By Layers.—The Black-cap and some other kinds grow most 
readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach the ground 
about the latter part of August or first of September, and readily 
make new plants if held in place (Hig. 7). These tips should be coy- 
ered with a spadeful of soil, 
or better, be inserted three or 
four inches into a hole made 
by pushing a spade in the 
ground. They will be well 
rooted in three weeks. These 
rooted layers will be found to 
winter over most safely if 
allowed to remain undisturbed 
until spring, but should have 
a light mulch over them dur- 
ing winter. They may be win- 
tered over if dug and very 

AE oe carefully heeled in, or kept in 
se 4 Con Whe teaone nea cold cellar, but the plan rec- 
shows the bud that will start into growth ommended should be followed 
in the spring and form the new plant. when practicable. It is not 
considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are 
very liable to winter injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging 
the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the 
roots to facilitate handling (Fig. 7). It is generally believed that 
unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain at- 
tached to the plant during winter than they are if the layers are 
cut off in the fall. 

Location and Soil.—The common varieties of the raspberry 
succeed admirably in any good soil; but the suckering class, which 
includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather better than the 
plack-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy 
loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as 
it is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens 
the fruiting season in bad situations; but it is well known that 
some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles 
far better than others of the same species. 


18 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 


Manure and Preparation of Land.—All varieties need 
high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured and thor- 
oughly plowed and brougit into the best condition for corn or other 
gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard 
manure. Raspberries, especialiy the black-cap kinds, will produce 
very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough culti- 
vation is necessary for the best success with any variety. 2 

Time of Planting.—The suckgring kinds may be planted in 
autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done’in the 
autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the 
roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protection 
against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in autumn, as 
at that season they can give the work more careful attention than 
in the spring. Then again the new sprouts from sets (suckers) 
start very early, and if the work is deiayed in the spring they are 
often broken off or injured in the work of planting. Black-caps 
and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they 
are very liable to be winter-killed if moved at that season. They 
should always be set in the spring. 

Selection of Plants.—Since the canes are biennial there is 
no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees, when 
we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age, as they are 
perennial. Plants of one seasor’s growth are best to begin with. 
Sucker plants are generally best’ with the varieties increasing in 
that way; but plants from ro)t cuttings may be just as good, or 
even better, when well grown. The old stools may be broken up 
and the plants set out, but’ such sets have few fibrous roots and 
often start slowly; with the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by | 
breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the sucker- 
ing kinds obtained the same way, and should not be used when 
avoidable, as they ara very apt to fail even with the best of care. 
It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectly 
healthy stock. Old plantations of raspbetries frequently become 
diseased and plants from them a~e nften worthless, consequently 
care should be exercised in buying plants. 

Planting and Cultivation.—After the land is thoroughly 
prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and 

‘at three foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. 
The distance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more 
space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are planted, 
but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the 
bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach 
the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they 
should never be set any nearer; while for some of the strongest 
grcewing varieties the hills shculd not be nearer than five feet in 
the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close 
to the ground and no fruit a!lowed tc form the first season. 

A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way 
and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 19 


in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, and after- 
wards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with the feet at 
the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south, 
for planted in this way the fruit is shaded by the new growth dur- 
ing the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening. 

DrptH To PLant.—Black-cap raspberry plants should be set 
about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The roots 
should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The 
suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they natur- 
ally grew and be well firmed in. 

CULTIVATION.—The soil should be kept loose with a horse culti- 
vator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one- 
horse plow may be used, but the land should be kept flat and as 
free from ridges as possible. Frequent cultivation, especially in a 
dry time, is important. 

PRUNING AND THINNING.—Not more than two shoots should be 
permitted to grow from each root the first year, and these should 
be pinched off when eighteen inches high to encourage the growth of 
lateral brauches, for it has been conclusively proven that raspber- 
ries fruit more heavily on the laterals than on the main cane. The 
second and succeeding 
years the suckering 
kinds will produce a lot 
of sprouts a'l around 
the hill; four or five of 
those nearest the hill 
should be allowed to 
grow and the rest treat- 
ed as weeds. Ifa great 
lot of these suckers are 
allowed to remain but 
little fruit will be pro- 
duced. Black-cap rasp- 
berries will this year 
send up a half dozen or 


Fic. 8 A, young black raspberry cane as it 
appears before pinching. B, the same a so of sprouts at the 
short time after being pinched, showing the base of the old plants, 


way growth starts from the buds. and enough of these 
should be removed to allow the remainder to properly develop. All 
these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen 
inches high (Fig. 8-9). As soon as the fruit has been gathered the 
old canes which have borne fruit the current year should be cut out 
and destroyed. (fig. 10.) In the spring the suckering'‘kinds 
need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the Black-cap varieties 
should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches (Fig. 11). This 
is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that 
they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit 
unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than they can 
mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the 


20 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES, 


fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield as much fruit as 
if all the canes were left their whole length. 

Muucuine.—The first year no mulching is needed; but the 
second season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should be 
mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with 
what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on 
two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because it lies 
close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it 
makes a good manure. This material keeps the land moist, the 
berries clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as 
recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide 
between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the 
soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance 
of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a 
good profit and a big loss. 


Fie. 9. Tic. 10. Fic. 11. 


Fic, 9. A, Red raspberry cane in autumn that has been properly pinched in 
summer. B, Cane not pinched. 

Fic. 10. A, The fully grown cane of the current season's growth which wall 
Sruit next season. B, Cane two seasons old, which having fruited, 
is to be cut away. 

Fic. 10. Spring pruned Black-black raspberry plant. 


Surrort.—lIt is desirable in this climate to have fhe canes sup- 
ported in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protec- 
tion is not necessary, the bushes may be so frequently pinched as 
to make them form little trees that support themselves; but this 
kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be cov- 
ered in winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be 
easily laid down. A very good support for rasperries and black- 
berries is made by running a No. 12 galvanized iron wire on each 
side of the bushes attached to a good solid post at each end of the 
row. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty- 
five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants 10 move gently 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 21 


in the wind but not sufficiently to break them by its violence. It 
keeps the fruit off the ground and is cheap and convenient. 

WINTER PRotectTion.—As a rule it is not safe to allow any 
known variety of raspberries to go through the winters of this sec- 
tion without some kind of protection, not that they will always kill 
to the snow line if not protected, but because covering them in- 
volves no great expense, makes them almost a sure crop, and the 
covered plants seem to have more vigor than those left exposed. 
There are, however, locations near some of the larger lakes, or 
where surrounded by forests, that are so very favorable that such 
varieties as the Turner, Souhegan, and even the Cuthbert, are not 
injured when left unprotected in winter. t 

The bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground 
freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost in 
the canes. The best 
covering is fresh 
earth. In laying 
them down com- 
mence at the north 
end of the row, re- 
move the soil from 
the north side of the 
hill, about four inch- 
es deep, with a gar- 
den fork; gather the 
branches together 
Fic. 12. Canes laid down for winter but not yet with a two-tined 

covered. 
fork, press gently to 

the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the 
hill and press hard, bending the bush in the root as much as pos- 
sible, and as little as may be in the canes, until nearly flat on the 
ground (Fig. 12), and hold it there until second man covers with 
soil sufficient to hold them down. The top of each succeeding hill 
will lie at the base of its predecessor, making a continuous cover- 
ing, It will be found that a little of mulch put on the canes first 
after laying them down will hold the soil put on, and much less will 
be required than if no mulch,is used. After laying them all down 
turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as 
possible, and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed. 
It is only necessary to use soil enough to barely cover the canes. 
There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg, 
that on rich land are very difficult to cover. With them it.will 
do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover 
the tops with enough soil to hold them in place. While it would 
be better to cover them all if it were practicable, yet treated in 
this way enough snow will generally lodge in the canes to cover 
them, and if this is supplemented with a light covering of coarse 
litter or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous they 
must be poisoned, or they may eat the canes under the mulch. 


es 


22 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 


Lirtina CANES IN Sprine.—In the spring use 4a round-tined 
fork; carefully remove the earth and raise the plants to a slanting 
position. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes are 
shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised 
up straight. 

A Convenient.Box Holder.—Thay- 
er’s berry-pickers’ box carrier (see Fig. 13) 
for use in picking raspberries and black- 
berries, is made of tin of a size to easily 
hold a berry box. It has straps to fasten 
around the waist of the picker, and a slat- 
ted bottom, so the berry box may be easily 
pushed up from the under side when taken 
out. Its chief advantage is that it leaves 
both hands of the picker free to gather 

fruit and keeps dirt out of the boxes. 

Diseases.—There is a great difference HF 
in the liability to diseases of the different va- Fig. 12 
rieties of the raspberry. Some of the kinds an 
producing the finest fruit are so weak in constitution as to render 
them valueless for cultivation, and only those kinds are profitable 
which are strong ahd vigorous in constitution and resist diseases 
without .recourse to special treatment. High cultivation will be 
found the best preventive of disease, but there are three diseases 
that are occasionally very injurious even in the best cultivated 
plantations. ; 

(1) Lear Curut.—This name is indicative of one of the early 
stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they may 
remain green all through the season the plants make a poor, weak 
growth. The fruit is dullin color, small in size, and rather bitter 
in taste. Later, the plants kill out, and any healthy sets with 
which they may be replaced soon succumb to the trouble. This 
disease spreads very slowly, and, as a rule, there are only a few 
infected spots in a plantation, which slowly increase in size from 
year to year. The spread of the disease may be prevented toa 
great extent by pulling and burning the diseased plants as fast as 
they appear. In setting out a new plantation use only land which 
has not been in raspberries for several years, and to take great 
care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from a 
weak plantation on any account. . 

(2) RED ORANGE Rust (Cacoma luminatwm).—This is most hurt- 
ful to the black cap raspberries, though it frequently injures other 
kinds. It produces a weak appearance in the canes and foliage, 
and in the latter part of the summer the underside of the foliage 
becomes completely covered with a thick coating of brilliant orange 
colored spores, which easily rub off. One soon comes to know the 
plants that are diseased even before the spores appear, and they 
should be pulled and burned at once. This is especially necessary 
with the black-cap varieties; but even with these, if the affected 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 238 


plants are destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in check 
until a new plantation can be well started, and sometimes assidu- 
ous attention to pulling and burning results in stamping out the 
disease. . 

(8) ANTHRACUOSE, OR CANE-Rust—Also known as the rasp- 
berry cane-rust. It manifests itself by weakening the growth and 
causing the bark of the canes to become marked with many white 
or grayish, flattened or depressed spots, bordered by a ring of pur- 
ple; some of these spots may be one-third of an inch in diameter. 
This disease seldom does serious injury to any but cap varieties: of 
the raspberry, and it is only occasionally noticed to any extent in 
this state, and then not as being very hurtful. In some of the 
eastern states it is so abundant as to almost prchibit the growing 
of cap varieties. ; 

The treatment for this disease consists in burning all the in- 
fected canes and in applying Bordeaux mixture to the new growth 
occasionally during the growing season, commencing early. 

Insects.—The rasberry is seriously injured by but few insects, 
The most common are the following: 

RasPBERRY FLAT-HEADED Borer (Agrilus ruficollis) Fig. 14. 
The perfect form of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the 
growing canes some time during the summer. Where the eggs are 
laid peculiar gall-like 
swellings may occur 
(fig. 15), having many 
rough slits in them; but 
this is not always the 
case, for sometimes 
canes may be killed by 
the insect and no swell- 
ings at all appear on 
the canes. The eggs 
hatch into little yelow- 
Fic. 14—Raspderry Cane-borer. A, larve. ish-white larvee, having 

B, mature insect. C, Horus at extremity a flattened body, brown 

of abdomen of larve. jaws, and a tail fur- 
nished with two dark-brown horns. One swelling may contain. 
many larve. When full-grown the larve is from one-half to three- 
fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood frequently 
girdles the canes. The perfect beetles cinerge about the time the 
plants are in full blossom. They have a brilliant copper-colored 
head and thorax, and the body and hard wings are velvety black. 

As the insects winter over in the canes they may be destroyed 
by cutting and burning all the infested wood some time during the 
winter. 

Snowy TREE CRICKET (Occanthus niveus). Fig. 16. This insect 
does not feed on the raspberry plant in any way, but it is injurious 
on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with lines 
of little holes in which to deposit eggs. If this work does not kill 


24 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 


the canes it so weakens them that when they start in the spring 
they are very apt to break off as soon as the foliage is expanded. 
The eggs, which are laid in autumn, are yellow and about one 
eighth of an inchlong. They are not readily seen when laid, but 
by the latter part of winter the infested canes take on an unhealthy 
appearance by which they may be readily located. They should 
then be cut out and burned. This insect feeds on leaf lice and is 
thus beneficial to some extent, but it causes so much injury by lay- 
ing its eggs in grape and other plants with pithy wood, as well as 
the raspberry, that it should be destroyed as nearly as possible. 


Fic. 15. Fic. 16. 


Fig. 15.—Gall-like swelling resulting from work of raspberry cane-torer. 

Fig. 16.—Snow Tree Cricket. A, Shows ils method of work in the caness 
an egg enlarged with its end still further enlarged. B, The insect that does 
the mischief. 


Varieties.—There are many varieties of the raspberry offered 
by various nurserymen, but the following have been well tested 
and are the most desirable, yet there are many other good kinds. 
About fifty hills of raspberries will be found sufficient for the ordi- 
nary family garden, and it will be most satisfactory to have them 


RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES, 25 


divided so as to give one-half of red and the other of the black-cap 
«inds. 

SucKERING Kinps. Cuthbert—A strong growing, hardy, pro- 
ductive kind, having largé, red fruit of good quality. The most 
popular of the late varieties. 

Marlboro—The most popular early red berry for marketing; of 
fairly vigorous growth, hardy, and very productive. The fruit is 
very large, bright-red and firm; however, it is of rather inferior 
quality. It needs the highest cultivation. 

" Golden Queen—Like the Cuthbert, but of a yellow color. The 
best yellow fruited kind. 

Turner—The best known and the hardiest of the red kinds. 
Plant of strong, vigorous, healthy gruwth, and very productive. 
Fruit sweet, of fair size, though somewhat soft. Not popular for 
marketing. Other valuable kinds of this class are Hansell, Clark 
and Reliance. 

Tip-ROOTING Kinpbs. Scheffer’s Colossal—Very productive, but 
its dull purple color makes it a poor kind for marketing. Valuable 
for the home garden and for canning. 

Ohio—Not as early as the Souhegan, but the most popular of 
the early black-caps for general planting. 

Nemeha—A beautiful large, very productive, strong growing 
kind, of medium quality and latest in ripening. It is now the most 
popular late black-cap raspberry wtih those who are acquainted 
with it. 

Other good kinds of th's class are Souhegan, Gregg, Older and 
Johnson's Sweet. There are no good yellow varieties belonging to 
this class. 


BLACKBERRIES. 


The blackberry is nearly allied—botanically—to the raspberry. 
There are two species of it cultivated, and both of them are natives 
of Minnesota and other northern states. 

Hieu-BusH BLACKBERRY (Rubus villosus). To this species be- 
long the kinds generally cultivated. The fruit, almost without ex- 
ception, is black; but there are varieties with whitish or red fruit. 
This specie suckers freely and may be readily increased by root 
cuttings. 

Low-BusH BLACKBERRY OR DEWBERRY (fubus Canadensis). 
The fruit of this resembles the above, but the plant is vine-like and 
trails on the ground. It is propagated by layering the growing 
canes, which take root very readily. Varieties of this species are 
pot generally cultivated with much success, but in some locations 
they fruit abundantly. 


26 RASPBERRIES AND BLACEBERRIES, 


The blackberry well repays careful cuitivation. It requires 
the same soil and methods for planting, summer pinching, mulching 
and winter protection as the red raspberry. It should always be 
protected in winter. In the spring, . 
however, the plants should not be 
pruned until the flower buds can be 
plainly seen, when, if in too great 
abundance, a part of the canes may 
be pruned enough to thin tne fruit. 
(Fig. 17.) Never trim blackberries 
until the flower buds can be seen, 
for it often happens tnat the Lower 
buds which are formed the year pre- 
ceding that when fruit is produced 
are near the ends of the canes, and 
in pruning all of them are cut off. 
This is a frequent cause of failure 


with blackberries Fie. ae Bye nee ane 
af ‘ . roperly pinched. , Blac 
The insects and diseases affect- henry ans rown without 


ing the blackberry are nearly the summer pinching. 
same as those injuring the raspberry, and are subject to the same 
remedies. 


Varieties.—There are only a few varieties of special interest 
to planters in this state. About twenty-five hills of blackberries 
will be found sufficient to supply the ordinary family. They are as 
follows: : 


ANCIENT Briton.—This is probably the most valuable for gen- 
eral planting of any blackberry grown. The plant is hardy, 
healthy and productive; the fruit is large, sweet and of fine 
quality. The variety next described is often substituted by deal- 
ers for this variety. 


SyypeER.—In some sections, generally on clayey land, this vari- 
ety is most highly esteemed. It is very early, hardy, productive, 
and of good quality. 

Dewberries.—The Lucretia and Windom are the best known 
varieties of dewberries. They seem to do best on sandy loam, but 
while some growers are very successful with them, others in differ- 
ent locations, who appear to take the best of care of them, fail most 
completely. Where they do well they are very desirable, as they 
produce their fruit earlier in the season than the tall kinds. As 
the vines lie on the ground they should be heavily mulched at 
fruiting time to protect the fruit from dirt, as well as the roots 
from dry weather. 


CHAPTER III. 


CURRANTS AND CGOOSEBERRIES. 


HE currant will grow and fruit abundantly in almost any soil 

or situation in the Northern States if given good cultiva- 
tion; and even when it has but little care it is still very sure to 
produce a fair crop. However, no cultivated plant responds more 
promptly and generously to manuring and careful attention. The 
acid fruit in any of the various ways in which it is used is healthy 
and refreshing. It is not so universally esteemed'as the straw- 
berry, yet it is used in immense quantities each year, and first-class 
fruit carefully marketed generally pays the grower a good profit. 
No fruit is more satisfactory in the home garden. A currant bush 
once planted will continue to bear fruit for an indefinite period, 
often for thirty years. There are very many species of currants, 
but our cultivated kinds belong to the following: . 

(1) Rep Currant (Ribes rubrum). Native of the Northern 
States and Canada, Northern Europe and Asia. The European 
form of this species is the parent of all the red and white varieties 
in cultivation. 

(2) Buack Currant (Ribes Negrum). A vigorous, growing 
plant; native of Northern Europe and Siberia. The fruit is 
plack and all parts of the plant has a strong peculiar odor, which 
to many people is unpleasant until they become accustomed to it. 
The fruit is grown only in quite a limited way. In many markets 
there is no demand for it, while in others it brings a higher price 
than the common currant. Itis easily grown. Valued medicinally 
for throat troubles. 

(3) MissouRI OR FLOWERING CURRANT (ftibes Aureum). A vig- 
orous plant; native of Mississippi Valley; having beautiful, sweet- 
scented yellow flowers early in the spring. It is much cultivated 
for ornamental purposes. Fruit large, purplish black and rather 
astringent. A few varieties of this species have recently been in- 
troduced as fruit plants, but none of them have proved sufficiently 


valuable to warrant their extensive cultivation. : 
14 


28 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 


Propagation.—The currant does not come true from seed. 
The named varieties are grown from layers, cuttings, or divisions. 

SEEDLINGS are easily raised if treated the same as recommend- 
ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be taken 
with its seed than with that of the raspberry as it germinates very 
quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has started it 
often fails to grow. On, this account the seed should be sown in 
the fall where it is to grow the following year. Orif sown in 
boxes they should be frozen until February or March, when they 
may be put in a greenhouse or hotbed. But very few seedlings are 
of any value, and the growing of them is seldom attempted. ; 

Curtrnes are very easily rooted and varieties are almost uni- 
versally grown from them. They may be taken off at, almost any 
time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any age or size 
will root if carefully handled, but the following method is generally 
very certain to bring good results: 

Oe soon as the i. have failen—which may be io the latter 
part of August or first of September—the young wood (growth 
of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven inches long. 
They are then at once set out in rich, well drained 
soil four inches apart, in rows three feet apart. 
Only about one inch of the cutting should be above 
ground, and great care should be taken to very 
firmly pack the earth around the bottom of the 
cuttings. When thus treated they will have cal- 
loused and made some small roots (as shown in 
Fig. 18) before the ground freezes, and will start 
vigorously the following spring. The cuttings 
should remain as planted for at least one, or per- 
haps two years. If the land is in good condition 
they will be ready to set out when one year old, 
but can remain where planted for several seasons 
if well cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings 
may be shorter than recommended, but in such a 
case more care will be required to ensure that 
they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the 
cuttings may consist of a single bud each, and 
may be sown like beans in a furrow, but much ex- F eee cee 
perience is required to be successful with them in August show- 
when made so very small. : foe te = 

Layers may be made at any time during the he’ approach o, of 
growing season, but preferably in the spring or winter. 
early summer, as they will then be well rooted by autumn. They 
consist simply of branches which have been covered with earth 
and have become rooted. After becoming well rooted they are 
separated from the old plant. The way in which they are made is 
shown in Fig. 19. The branches are rather surer to root if the 
bark and wood is cut or broken a little, or if treated as in Fig. 20, 
but most varieties root very easily without this trouble. The cur- 


CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES, 28 


rant may be increased by dividing the old bushes, however plants 
so made generally have but few very hard roots and are slow to 
start into vigorous growth. 


Soil and Planting.—The currant will grow in almost any 
kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it will 
give good returns, but 
the soil cannot be too 
rich or the cultivation 
too constant for the 
best crops of fruit. 
Plants may be set out 
in the fall or spring 
with good results. If 
“ set in autumn each 
plant should be banked 
up with about two 
spadesful of soil. They 
should be put five or six 

“Sa feet apart each way, 
Fic. 19. and for the varieties 
Currant bush with six of its stems layered. most generally grown 
six is better than five feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and 
those that are young and thrifty are better than older ones. Where 
practicable they should be planted so as to allow of cultivation both 
ways. They should not be set along a fence or border, as in such 
places they are difficult to cultivate. The land should be plowed 
lightly with a one-horse plow early in the spring, and the cultivator 
started soon afterward. While the plants are in fruit, cultivation 
will have to be suspended, as the weight of the berries will bend 
the branches so that they will be in the way and liable to injury. 
As soon as the crop is gathered the working of the land should be 
again commenced and continued until the middle of August, after 
which there is no need of it. 


Mulching.—Good crops of currants may be grown without 
cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in somewhat 
dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than on any 
other. Tha mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes, hard 
wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is used it 
should not be mixed with the soil but kept on the surface. It is 
often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate in the 
center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this purpose will 
keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with the neces- 
sity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good for this pur. 
pose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely used if kept 
on the surface of the land and not mixed with it. Partially rotted 
sawdust is much to be preferred to that which is fresh. 


Pruning.—The currant is improved by some pruning eack 
year. This may be done at almost any season, but preferably ir 


30 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 


August. Todo this work properly it should be. understood that 
but very little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding season S 
growth, and that the buds which produce the greatest amount of 
fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or older. The fruit 
buds are formed late in summer and open early in the following 
‘growing season. In pruning, the old wood which is weakened by 
age, should be cut out close to the ground and enough new sprouts 
from the roots should be encouraged to take its place. Not more 
than from four to six shoots from the roots should be allowed to 
remain; the rest should be cut away, for if allowed to grow too 
much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will consequent- 
ly be very small. The wood which is infested by borers should 
also be cut out as nearly as may be. But for the past few years in 
some sections of Minnesota all the shoots of the currant have been 
infested with -this insect. In such extreme cases necessity may 
compel the leaving of those least injured. 


Fic. 20.—Currant layer split before layering to en- 
courage ‘he formation of roots. 


Tree Currants are frequently advertised as being very desir 
able and are often sold at a much higher price than commoner cur- 
rants; while in fact they are our common currants pruned so as to 
make them take on a tree-like form. They appear very pretty 
while growing, but having only one stem the first borer that attacks 
it destroys the plant. To make plants take on this tree-form all 
but one upper bud is rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out. 
The remaining bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to 
branch at about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature 
tree. Such plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be 
renewed. The common red currant is sometimes grafted on the 
Ribes aureum, but such plants are open to the same objections as 
other tree currants, and are only valuable as curiosities. 


CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERKRIES. 31 


Winter Protection.—The Red Dutch and a few other very 
excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situa- 
tion, but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are occasion- 
ally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, however, be 
easily protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated 
they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep the 
fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well in the 
spring after being bent down all winter. Another way of giving 
some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn witha string 
or willow withes. This is very desirable where the snow drifts‘ 
over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by it when it 
settles in the spring and more protection is afforded by this treat- 
ment, than is generally supposed. 


Marketing.—lt is customary to market the currant in baskets 
holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart boxes and 
other packages are used for this purpose. One must study the 
local market to learn which package is the best to use. This fruit 
is generally sold by the pound. Unlike the raspberries and straw- 
berries it will remain in good condition on the plants for some little 
time after getting ripe, but it does not ship as well if very ripe as 
when it is a little green. The fruit makes the firmest jelly before 
it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is sometimes most profit- 
able to market the crop when the berries at the ends of the bunches 
are still quite green. 

Insects._THE Currant Worm (Nemaius ventricosus) is the 
most troublesome insect that attacks this plant. The female lays 
her eggs in rows on 
the veins on the un- 
der side of the © 
leaves (as shown in 
Fig. 21) quite early 
in the season. They 
are white in color 
and about one-twen- 
tieth of an inch long. 
These eggs hatch in 
about ten days. The 
young worms feed 
in companies, at 
first eating small 
holes in the leaves 
as shown at 4, B 
and C in Fig. 21, but 
’ later on they de- 
y stroy all the green 
8 tissue in the leaf 


Fic. 21.—A, Hogs of currant worm on the vineson and then spread in 
the under 098 Og the leaf. Cand B, Holes all directions ower 
made by the young worms when they first com- i 
mence to seed shortly after coming from eqg. the bush eating th 


’ 


32 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 


‘foliage. They will frequently strip a bush of its leaves in a few 
day’s time if left to themselves. Figure 22 shows the worms at 
work in the latter stage of their growth. When full grown they 
are three quarters of an inch long. There are two broods of these 
worms; the first appearing before or about the time the fruit is 
ripe, and the second two or three weeks later. The mature insect 
is a fly somewhat resembling the housefly (Fig. 23). 
Remedy.—Powdered hellebore nixed with its bulk of flour 
may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet, or it may be 


‘use at the rate of one ounce of powdered hellebore to a gallon of 


waver and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a 
vey cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is 


Fic. 22.—Currant worms (Nematus ventricosus) at work on the sed» 


quite poisonous and is not safe to use when the fruit is rive, 
although no danger will exist if several days should elapse after 
the application before the fruit is gathered, and a light shower 
after the hellebore is applied will remove all danger from it. Py- 
rethrum insect powder is a good, safe and effective remedy when 
applied just at night, but it is very expensive and difficult to obtain, 
of a good quality, at any price. 

Where these insects have made their appearance the first in- 
dication of them should be watched for in following years and 
great care taken to destroy the first brood each season. Growers 


CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 83 


of this fruit should be very particular not to neglect the bushes 
after the crop is gathered, for it is very important for the next 
year’s crop that they should make a good growth of wood, and 
neglecting them at this time often allows a crop of worms to 
mature to cause more extensive injury the following year. The 
flies seem to prefer the foliage of native varieties of goose-ber- 
ries, such as the Houghton seedling, for its eggs, and a few of 
these bushes may be plant- 
ed among the currants, 
when most of the worms 
can be very easily de- 
stroyed on them as soon as 
the eggs hatch. 

Imported Currant 
‘Borer (Aegeria tipuliform- 
is). Fig. 24, In many sec- 
tions this insect in its lar- 
val state causes great in- 
jury to the stems of the 
currant and gooseberry by 
s0 weakening them that 
CF they break off when loaded 

with fruit, and by making 
them sickly. The female 
lays her eggs in the stems 
early in the summer. In 
afew days the eggs hatch 
into little white grubs, 
which work into the pith 
of the stem where they 
make their burrows and 
Fig. 23.—Mature form of the Currant Worm.live until the following 
: A, male, B, female. season. They then finish 
their transformation and appear as wasp-like moths and the fe- 
males shortly commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly 
the red and white currant, but it also attacks the black currant 
and occasionally the gooseberry 

Remedies.—The infested stems should be cut out in the au- 
tumn or very early in the spring and be burned at once. If the 
growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort 
they can keep this insect in subjection. However, it is quite 
certain this pest will not continue for many years so very abundant 
as it is now, but that following the natural course of events it will 
be checked by parasites or some disease, and we may then enjoy a 
period of comparative immunity from it for a series of years. 

Lice (Aphis ribis) are frequently very abundant on the foliage 
of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves to curl 
up and become distorted thus checking their growth, but sel- 
dom causing serious injury. They may be destroyed by spray- 


34 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 


ing the foliage with tobacco water made by steeping the raw leaf 
or stems in hot water until it is the color of strong tea. ieerneen? 
emulsion is also a very excellent remedy, It may be made as fol- 
lows: Soft soap, one quart; hard soap (preferably whale-oil soap) 
one-fourth pound; two quarts hot water, and one pint kerosene. 
Stir thoroughly until all are permanently mixed, then add two 
quarts more of water. A force pump will be found the pest thing 
to mix it with, and the mixture should be forced through the pump 
back into the receptacle containing it many times in order to make 
it permanent. In using this mixture its strength may have to be 
varied a little to suit the plant or the aphis. In fighting these in- 
sects it is very important to commence as soon as the first are seen, 
as they often increase with 
great rapidity. Onaccount of 
the position of the leaves these 
lice are very difficult to get at 
with a spray, and on their 
first appearance the infested 
foliage should be destroyed. 
t+ is sometimes most practi- 
cable to dip the branches into 
the emulsion. 
Diseases.—There are sev- 
eral fungi that attack the fol- 
iage of the currant. Perhaps 
the most common is the rust 
(Septosia Ribes), which causes 
the leaves to fall prematurely 
in July or August. The Bor- 
deaux mixture mentioned un- 
der the head of the strawber- 
ry is probably the best pre- 
ventive, but should be used 
quite early in the spring and ae nae sane (Aegerte tipuli- 
again after the crop is gath- ormis). A, wenged moth, &, grown 
ered. If used just before the open’ to show ‘ch/crpillar’ tuside ond 
fruit is ripe it will badly dis- an empty pupe skin above. 
figure it. 


Varieties.—There are not so many varieties of the currant 
offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated fruits, 
but still there is much difference in the size and quality of the ditf- 
ferent kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the plants. 
For the home garden about one dozen plants well cared for will 
give an abundance of fruit. The following are the most important 
kinds: 

Rep DutcH.—The variety most commonly cultivated and the 
most productive, hardiest and best kind known for general plant- 
ing. Fruit bright red, small to medium in size and in gru.l bunch- 
es. It will hang on the bush a long time after getting ripe without 


CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 35 


being seriously injured. The fruit seldom brings the highest price 
on account of its rather small size, but if severely pruned and high- 
ly manured it is greatly improved in this respect. 

Victor1a.—One of the latest varieties in time of ripening. 
Very satisfactory in every way and especially valuable for market- 
ing. Fruit red, of large size in large bunches, and it hangs on the 
bush well after getting ripe. 

Fay’s Prouiric.—Plant of moderately spreading growth. Ber- 
ries dark red, very large and borne in large bunches. It brings the 
highest price, but the plant'is somewhat tender and liable to have 
its fruit buds injured in severe winters if exposed; on this account 
it should be protected, except in favorable locations. 

Lone Buncn Hotitanp.—A very popular market currant. Ber- 
ries red in color, in long bunches. Rather more liable to drop its 
fruit as soon as 1t is ripe than is the case with the Victoria or Red 
Dutch. 

CHERRY AND VERSAILLES.—Nearly identical large red-fruited 
varieties. They are not as hardy as the two kinds first mentioned, 
but do well in favorable locations. 

Waitt Grape is the best of the white varieties and is sweeter 
and more desirable for table use than any before mentioned. It is 
prolific and very satisfactory in the home garden. But white cur- 
rants seldom bring as good a price in the markets as the red kinds. 


, 


0 
GOOSEBERRY. 


The gooseberry is closely related to the currant, but is not so 
generally esteemed. There are many species, but the varieties in 
cultivation are generally included under two species, yet a third 
may enter into the parentage of a few of them. 

(1) Ribes hirtellum, Native of the Northern States and Canada. 
Our best wild gooseberries belong here, and such well known kinds 
as Houghton Seedling, Downing and Smith are improved selections 
of it, little removed from the better representatives of the type 
in its wild state. Varieties belonging to this class are very hardy 
and generally most desirable. 

(2) Ribes grossulacee. The European gooseberry in its wild 
state is not nearly so fine a fruit as the native American species, 
but by painstaking care many kinds having large berries and often 
of luscious quality have been developed, until in England it is re- 
garded a fine table fruit. Varieties belonging to this species are 
poorly adapted to the dry climate of this section, and are prone to 
mildew and sunscald. Quite recently some very interesting hy- 
brids between the two species have been brought out which pro- 
duce very large fruit and yet appear adapted to our severe climatic 
conditions. 

The directions given for growing the currant apply with equal 
force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars which are in- 
cluded under the following heads: 


36 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 


Propagation.—Most varieties do not grow as readily from 
cuttings as the currant, and kinds with coarse wood it is almost 
impossible to root in this way. For this reason layering 15 the 
most common method of propagation. If the layers are carefully 
put down in June after the new growth is several inches lovg each 
twig will be found slightly rooted by autumn. They should then 
be taken up, cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with 
each twig. These little layers should be set out at once in the 
spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cuttings. 
Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken when they 
are laid down, but most kinds root readily without this trouble. 


Planting.—Autumn is the time usually preferred for setting 
the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very early in the 
spring that any delay at that time causes them a set-back from 
which they may not readily recover. But plants may be very suc- 
cessfully set in the spring if planted early. 


Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or weak 
stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the size and ap- 
pearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be greatly improved 
if from one-third to one-half of the new growth is cut off annually. 
However, some of the newer kinds producing the largest fruit may 
need this recommendation somewhat modified. Large fruit is 
picked and sold most readily and the quantity produced from a 
trimmed bush is, as a rule, fully as much as from one not trimmed. 
This is especially true of our native kinds which are inclined to 
overbear. 

Mildew (Sphaerotheca Mors-uvac) is the worst disease of the 
gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which becomes covered with a 
whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up and drop off and the wood 
fails to mature. In bad cases the berries too are discolored, and 
perhaps ruined. Asarule this disease does not cause serious in- 
jury in good locations in this section, but in wet seasons, or any 
season on wet land, or where there is a poor circulation of air, it 
may be very destructive even here. 

' Remedies.—These should be preventive largely, and consist 
of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good circula- 
tion of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of health as 
possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease makes its 
appearance in the face of these precautious recourse should be had 
to the following remedy, which is very satisfactory: 

Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young ijeaves 
begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eighteen or twenty 
days, except in times of heavy rains when it must be done oftener. 
For this purpose use liver of sulphur (potasszwm sulphide) dissolved 
in water at the rate of one-half ounce to the gallon. The liver of 
sulphur dissolves very readily in hot water; costs from fifteen to 
twenty cents per pound, and one gallon of the solution is enough 


CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 37 


for ten or twelve large bushes if applied with a spray pump, but if 
sprinkled on the foliage much more of the solution will be required. 

Varieties.—The American kinds are best for general planting. 
Those most commonly offered by nurserymen are as follows: 

Hovueuton SEepuine is the hardiest and most satisfactory of 
the gooseberries for this section. It is prolific with little care in 
almost any situation. 1f neglected the fruit will be small, but it 
responds readily to good cultivation. Berries reddish brown in 
color when ripe. 

DowninG has larger and sweeter fruit than the Houghton, but 
the bush is not so hardy. If laid down and covered with earth in 
winter it is a sure cropper, but otherwise it is liable to lose its fruit 
buds in this section. Berries pale-green when ripe. 

Smita’s IMprovep is w productive variety of good quality. 
Berries larger in size than the Houghton and yellowish green in 
color. 

None of the European or their hybrids have proven a great 
success in this state. They generally mildew badly or sunscald, 
and require much care. The best of this class are the Industry 
and Triumph. The latter is a new kind ef more than usual 
promise. . 


CHAPTER IV. 
THE GRAPE. 


(HERE is probably no large section of Minnesota, or other 
=r, regions east and west on the same latitude, where some of the 
hardiest kinds of grapes cannot be grown and ripened, while on the 
latitude of the southern half of the state, and on the highlands near 
rivers and lakes many of the best varieties are easily grown in 
large quantities. Our popular cultivated grapes are almost with- 
out exception the result of the selection and hybridization of native 
species. Ina few varieties we find a little of the European wine 
grape, but they are not generally as vigorous and free from dis- 
eases as the former. There are many native species in the United 
States, but those which enter largely into the parentage of the 
kinds most valuable at the north are:— 

(1) Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca), the species from 
which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Examples 
of these are Concord, Worden, Moore’s Early and Lady. As usu- 
ally found it has a large purple fruit, thick skin, and very pulpy 
meat surrounding the large seeds. The leaves are large, with 
whitish down on the underside. Found occasionally in the east- 
ern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in states farther east. 
The Concord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild 
vine which had been cultivated for two generations. Seedling 
labrusca are frequently white in color. The cultivated grapes of 
this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens. 

(2) Winter, or Frost Grape (Vitis riparia), the common 
wild grape found throughout Minnesota, except north of Lake 
Superior; as yet not much cultivated, but it is probable that some 
of its hybrids will prove valuable for severe locations in the North- 
west. 

(3) European Wine Grape (Vitis vinifera). In its pure state 
this has never been a success in open air culture in the Northern 
States, but the fine quality of its fruit has greatly improved the 
hybrids into which it has entered. The so-called Roger’s hybrids, 

38 


THE GRAPE. 39 


tae Srighton, Delaware and others are the product of the union of 
¥. vinifera with V. labrusca, and as a result we have among them 
varieties of the finest quality, though almost without exception 
they exhibit some weakness in foliage or root, and a predisposition 
to disease not found in those of pure labrusca origin. 

These species of the grape readily hybridize together. The 
blossoms of the cultivated kinds of grapes are generally perfect, as 
shcwn in Fig. 26, This is especially true of varieties of pure fox- 


Fie. 25. Fi. 26, Fig. 27. 


FIG, 25.—Shows the way in which the stamens push off the covering of the 
Jlower. The petals separating at the lower edge. 

Fig. 26.—A perfect flower with erect (full developed) stamens. 

Fic. 27.—A flower with reflex (weak) stamens. 


grape (V. labrusca) origin; while hybrids having some of the Euro- 
pean wine grape (V. vinifera) in their parentage often have flowers 
which are deficient in pollen. The latter have their stamens some- 
what crooked and are said to be reflexed (Fig. 27). They frequent- 
ly do not produce enough pollen to fertilize their own flowers, and 
when grown alone the bunches of fruit on them are perhaps only 
partially filled out, having many small, seedless berries. This fea- 
ture is characteristic of the Lindley, Brighton and others, and 
varities with this weakness in their flowers should be grown near 
such kinds as the Concord, Worden, etc., which produce an abund- 
ance of pollen.. 

Propagation.—The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- 
ers, and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. Pro- 
pagation from seed is resorted to only when new varieties are 
desired. 

| By Spzp.—If vines are to be grown in this way the seed should 
be saved from ripe berries. It should %< at,once sown in boxes of 
rich soil, or in a fine seed-bed, covering it a half inch deep and pro- 
tecting by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of 
one or two feet the first season, and will show blossoms about the 
fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, 
while others will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seed- 
ling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances 
for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- 
gent hybridization is resorted to. 

By Curtinas.—Grape cuttings are of three kinds—long and 
short, hard wood and soft wood. The process by’ which they are 


40 THE GRAPE. 


rooted varies greatly in its details, but the general principles are 
the same in every case. 

Long Hard-wood Cuttings.—These should be made in the fall 
from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to 
make them about eight inches long, if wood is abundant. The 
length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between 
the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of 
some varieties they may be ten inches long, They are often made 
six inches long, but so short as this they are more liable to fail 
from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if 
cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings 
should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury 
them in some well drained place with the tops down, and cover 
with about six inches of.soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure 
the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that 
they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is 
dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- 
tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to 
induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary, to insure 
their rooting, and they should not be planted out until well cal- 
loused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings 
with a box and sash, which will confine the sun’s rays and so warm 
the roots that they will start a callous. When the soil is settled 
and warm they should be planted out, six inches apart, in rows two 
or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. They 
should be at least seven inches deep in most locations. 


Tae Lanp For Curtines.—The land selected for growing cut- 
tings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be greatly 
improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and having 
a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When 
planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line, 
and a sub-soil plow.run eight inches deep in the mark to loosen the 
soil, after which the cuttings ean easily be set by hand. The rows 
should next be straightened with a line, and each cutting carefully 
firmed by pressing close to each side of each cutting with the ball 
of the foot. When this work is well done the cuttings will be in 
the ground so solid that they cannot easily be pulled out with the 
fingers. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the 
top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are 
weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for 
another season’s growth; but if strong, they may be dug and used 
for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig 
‘all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in 
out doors for winter, or else put them in a cold cellar, Inthe 
spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weak- 
er ones be set out in the nursery to grow another year. 

Ont-rvE Currines.—The wood for these should be cut in the 
fall and wintered over in a cold cellar, buried in moss, sand, saw- 
dust, or other similar material. or it may be buried out-doors. In 


THE GRAPE. 41 


the spring, generally in March, these canes should be cut up into 
pieces having one inch of wood be‘ow and half an inch above the 
bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four 
inches deep, and having holes for drainage, should be prepared by 
putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the 
same amount of clean sand on top of it. The cuttings should be 
set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting them 
two inches apart each way. The boxes may now be put in a gentle 
hot-bed, or on a bench in a greenhouse, and kept moist. The cut- 
tings should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made 
a good root growth they should be planted at a favorable time in 
rich soil out-doors. The time for this will be as late as the latter 
part of May in this section. Very nice plants may be grown in 
this way, but they do not make as strong.a growth the first year as 
long cuttings, and often need a second year in the nursery before 
they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. 

Sort-Woop Curtines.—These are made from the green wood 
taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in 
much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, 
fuschias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very val- 
uable, and as a means to increase new varieties. Plants grown 
this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well started, 
and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be 
obtained, 

Layering.—This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of 
increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow them where but 
few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, which are 
called spring and summer layers, from the season at which they 
are made. 

‘SUMMER LAYERS are made in the summer, generally the last of 
July, from a branch of the same season’s growth. They are likely 
to be weak for several years, and do not make as good plants as the 
spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch 
or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the 
cane four inches deep in ‘the ground and it will be rooted by late 
autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year- 
ling vines grown from hard-wood cuttings. 

Spring Layers.—These may be made by laying down any 
cane early in the spring. It will root in one season. By fall it will 
have made a good growth of roots, when it may be cut from the 
main cane, and if strong it may be divided into two plants. This 
form of layer is illustrated in figures 28 and 29. By a little dif- 
ferent treatment of the spring layer a vine may be grown from 
each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane 
should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried. 
Tu the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted 
to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about 
six inches from each bud the whole cane should be layered about 
four inches deep, handling it carefully co 1s not to break the new 


42 THE GRAPE. 


growth. Figure 30 shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is 4 
good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill 
up the trench as the shoots grow. If covered four inches deep at 
once the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom hap- 


pens, and some skillful growers fill the trench full at once. In the, 


autumn roots will be found growing from each joint, and these 
may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines 
grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used 
_ to some considerable extent vines should be grown specially for the 
purpose. It is nota good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to 
any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. 
The subject of grafting the grape will be considered later in a 
special chapter on grafting and budding. : 
Location of the Vineyard.—Some of the hardy, early rip- 
ening but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but 
the better kimds need a 
warm .exposure and free 
circulation of the air about 
them to insure their ripen- 
ing each year. High south- 
ern slopes generally offer 
the best locations; in such 
places there is the greatest 
amount of heat in summer, 
very general immunity 
from the late frosts of 
spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at 
all times; all of which are important matters in growing grapes. 
Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for 
this purpose, but on northern exposure the fruit will be later in 
ripening than if in situa- 
tions where the plants re- 
ceive the direct rays of the 
sun. However, excellent 
fruit may often be grown 
on a northern slope if it is 
near some large body of 
water, which will help 
maintain an equable tem- A 
perature, and especially to re. 29.—The rooted layer separated, mak 
keep off the early frosts of _ ing two plants. 
autumn. Ina vineyard closely shut in so that the foliage of the 
vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers it will be 
found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes, on 
account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. The 
cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to 
allow a free movement of air through the vines at all times, has 
often been the means of making the difference between failure and 
success in growing grapes. 


Fic. 28.—A Rooted Layer. 


THE GRAPR. 43 


Soil.—The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy 
loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey loam wil) 
do very weil if sufficiently drained to remove any excess of mois- 
ture. Before planting the land should be thoroughly prepared by 
plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. Where there is 
not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be 
found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six 
furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept 
smooth. 

The Best Vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty 
two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those having 
a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years 
old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon outgrow those 
that are old and large when transplanted. It matters little about 
the direction of the rows, they should be laid out so as to prevent 
the wash as much as possible. 


Fic. 30.—A rooted layer. Hach bud making a new plant. 


The Distance Between the Plants will depend somewhat 
on the kinds planted, the manner of pruning and the soil; but the 
strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should gener- 
ally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, to allow for the growth 
of roots and a. good circulation of air between the vines. When 
the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to in- 
crease this distance, but when located in an airy position and on 
retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet. 

Planting.—The most rapid way of planting is to furrow out 
the land both ways and put the vines at the intersection of the fur- 
rows. Before planting the tops of the vines should be cut off so as 
to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it 
will facilitate planting to cut them back to eight or ten inches in 
length; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure 
the growth of the plant. On light soil it is exceedingly important 
to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be 
made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about fifteen 
inches below the surface. The top loam should be put around the 
roots, but the plants should not be covered at once more than two 
inches deeper than they grew inthe nursery. The soil should be 


44 ; THE GRAPE. 


gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes 
are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe 
to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the 
right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on 
the one-cane system, which is generally practiced by grape growers 
in this region, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction 
in which they are to be trained on the trellises, this should be in 
the direction of the prevailing summer winds. 

Cultivation.—Soon after planting the vines should be well 
cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be 
grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the 
vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of a shal- 
low plowing early each spring and during the summer. The top 
soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultivation. Deep 
cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a 
vineyard, and it may cause serious injury. If the land is lightly 
plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; 
put if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will 
get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. 

Pruning and Training are the great bugbears to amateurs 
in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar method 
has done more than anything else to discourage the growing of this 
fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact vines will grow and bear 
fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done simply to 
get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for prac- 
tical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are, however, 
many systems described in books, and occasionally used in prac- 
tice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to un- 
derstand. The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes 
are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears 
again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the 
bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left 
on the vine it will bear ten times more 
clusters than it can properly develop, 
and they will all be small and imperfect. 
(4) If ninetenths of the new wood is cut 
away leaving only from three to six 
buds to each stalk the yield of good 
grapes will be much increased. (5) 1t 
is desirable in severe climates to train 
the vine so that it can be laid down on 
the ground with but little resistance, for 
in such locations it is necessary to pro- 
tect it each winter. Fic. 31.—Autumn of first year. 

If these points are borne in mind it ae pruned and prepared 
matters not so very much what system Cn mer 
or whether any system at all is pursued 
in pruning. However, it will be found 
most convenient to adhere somewhat cleariy to some simple system 


THE GRAPE. 45 


of pruning. But whatever plan for after-training is adopted the 
care of the vine for the first two years should be about the same. 

Tus First YEAR no support or pruning is needed. The vines 
will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as if 
tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivating if 
they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year all of the vines 
should be cut away except three or four buds, as shown in Fig. 31, 
which should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches 
deep, and later on, before cold weather sets in, apply a covering of 
mulch, two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some sort. 
This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the wintering of 
newly transplanted vines. 

Trellis.—The following spring a trellis should be built—unless 
stakes were set the first year, when they may be used again—and 


| 


Fig. 32.— Vine in spring of the third season. 


the work of putting up a trellis be deferred until the opening ot 
the third year. The form of trellis may vary greatly, but a very 
practical and simple kind is made by setting posts twelve feet 
apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, 
putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and 
those above ten inches apart. The wires should be fastened 
securely to one end post, passing through the other end and 
through staples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires 
free play through them. This method allows the loosening of the 
wires in autumn and tightening them in summer. 

THE SECOND YEAR, as Soon as the weather is settled, the vine 
should be uncovered; the garden fork being the best tool for this 
purpose. Permit only one bud to grow, and that the strongest that 
starts. Rub off all the others that show, while they are small. 


46 THE GRAPE. 


Tie the cane as it grows to the stakes or wires, and if it grows 
rapidly pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. In 
carrying out some systems two canes are permitted to grow this 
year, but the system best adapted to commercial vineyards is prac- 
tically as follows: The pruning in the fall of the second year 
should consist in cutting off all the laterals—in other words in cut- 
ting off all the side branches close to the main cane, In pruning 
the main cane leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made, 
but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried 
as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient 
to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage 
take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the 
bend to come near the ground. As the vines get older and stiffer 
they will be found to bend most easily and safely below ground. 


j 7 7 


| it. 


Ee es SB ote yer Sar ee ey "Qua 
n of the third season. Dotted lines show where 
pruning should be done. 


TuHIrRD Season.—The third spring the cane should be tied along 
the lower wire (see Fig. 32). If it has wintered well two shoots 
will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four 
inches long the weakest should be broken off and only the strongest 
ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. Iy 

-selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those 
coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots 
push upwards from the main cane they should be tied to the wires 
(see Fig. 33), and when they have reached the top of the trellis 
each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will 
check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed 
nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further 
pinching is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit 
are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and 


THE GRAPE. 47 


é 


some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is 
probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is 
followed. 

If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this 
year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the 
vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill 
the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of the 
leaves on the vine. In this region the time of pruning is between 
the middle of October and tenth of November. Where one has but’ 
few vines it is best to wait until there is danger of the ground 
freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is 
not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence ear- 
lier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extrem- 
ity of the main cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the 


. next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire 
the following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent 
main cane (see Fig. 34). The rest of the pruning this fall will con- 
sist of cutting back to from three to six buds the other shoots that 
have grown from the main cane. Any small side branches that 
may remain should be cut off, and the vine when ready to lay down 
should resemble Fig. 35, which shows it properly tied to the trellis 

‘ the following spring. In pruning do not cut nearer than within 
one inch of any bud, to avoid winter killing. Bury as directed. 

Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the laterals 
that remain on the main cane in this and following years after prun- 
ing. From these spurs come the new growth and fruit each sea- 
son. It is desirable to keep them as short as possible, but with 
some varieties it will be found difficult to keep them very short; 


48 THE GRAPE. 


for instance, Moore’s Early is a shy bearer, and if pruned very 
close will not bear even a fair crop, consequently the spurs on it 
must be left longer than on some other kinds that are more prolific. 
But careful attention in pruning to save the growth from the low- 
est bud on the spur will aid very much in keeping them within 
bounds. (See Fig. 31.) 

These spurs should be about ten inches apart on the main cane. 
If in after years some of them are lost, or they become too long, a 
new main cane may be introduced by encouraging the growth of a 
new shoot or by renewing the main cane with a shoot from a spur 
near the ground, after which, when well started, the main cane 
may be cut away. However, there are vineyards in the hands ot 
careful cultivators that have grown large crops for many years. on 
which none of the spurs are lost, neither are they long enough to be 
at all troublesome, and yet the main cane has never been renewed. 


det 


| 
(WWE Ld 


ee 


Fic. 35.—Vine in autumn of the fourth season Dotted lines show whert 
pruning should be done. 


FourtH Srason.—Tie the vine to the lower wire in the spring 
as directed, when it should appear much as in Fig. 34, Permit 
only one shoot to grow from each bud on the spurs. These should 
be pinched once when they have reached the top wire, and after 
that allowed to grow freely. This autumn, and subsequently, 
when pruned the vine will consist of a main cane extending along 
the lower wire of the trellis to the next vine. It will have spurs 
on it of three or more buds each, standing some eight or ten inches 
apart, as shown in Fig. 36. Under this system if the canes' are not . 
pinched in summer the fruit buds will be formed high up on the 
laterals and consequently the spurs will have to be left very long 
in order to have any fruit, while if pinched, the fruit buds will be 
formed nearer the main cane, an@ the spurs can be kept short. It 


THE GRAPE 49 


has frequently happened that inexperienced persons failed to get 
much fruit on their vines because in pruning they had cut away all 
the fruit bearing wood. However, this pinching should never take 
off more than the tip of the cane. 

Removing Foliage.—Under no circumstances should any 
considerable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. 
The notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at 
jault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the 
leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both 
lungs and stomach to the plant, and anything that injures them 
prevents the ripening of the fruit. 

An Easy System of Pruning, ard also one that is well 
adapted to practical purposes, may be described as follows: Plant 


SS ERT err aioe 
Fic. 36.—Permanent vine in autumn of fifth and subsequent years. 
Dotted lines show where pruning should be done, f 

the vines twelve feet apart in the rows. The second year permit 
two shoots to grow, and in pruning in the autumn of this year cut 
out the weak wood only. The third year tie one cane to the lower 
wire and the other to the third wire. Encourage the vine to spread 
over the trellis, and in pruning leave perhaps one-third of the new 
wood. In after years retain enough young thrifty wood to fully 
cover the trellis, which will be a‘1 that the roots can properly sup- 
port, and cut out as much old and weak wood as practicable, and 
shorten any very long canes. This will require the cutting out of 
perhaps four-fifths the new wood each year. As the vine gets old 
encourage the growth of one or two young shoots from near the 
root. When the main cane becomes so stiff that it cannot be easily 
buried in winter it may be replaced with one of these shoots from 
near the root, or what is generally preferred, the stiff part of the 
main cane may be buried permanently and some of the younger 


30 - THE GRAPE. 


wood, branches from the main cane, may be trained to form a new 
main cane. The main cane so laid down will become rooted and 
thus strengthen the new vine formed from one of its branches. 
Under this system no summer pinching is necessary. After the 
vines have been trained in this way for eight, ten, or more years, 
there should be many flexible main 
canes, and as they get old and too stiff 
to bend easily they should either be cut 
out and replaced by some young bear- 
ing shoot or layered as recommended. 
Trained in this way a vineyard does not 
look as symmetrical and pretty as when 
grown on some more regular plan, but 
it will produce as much fruit as any 
system. A little experience will soon 
show the beginner the amount of wood 
to leave each year. Vines may be grown 
on this system for covering high arbors, 
trees, the sides of buildings or other Fic 37.—A Spur. The dotted 
objects. In fact it is better adapted to oa lee oe Beane 
a rather high than to a low support. 


Training vines against buildings or walis is a good 
plan, and such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and 
protect from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern ex- 
posure is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be 
about one foot away frem the wall or building. In such locations 
it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes’*where otherwise 
they would be a failure. It is doubtful if there is a habitable sec- 
tion of northwestern United States where fairly good grapes will 
not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every 
farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The soil 
close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can easily 
be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind substituted. 
And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for many other 
crops is just what is needed for the grape. There are cases where 
in such locations single vines have borne several hundred pounds 
of grapes in one season. 

Pruning Neglected Vines.—When vines have been neg- 
lected for several years it is often a difficult matter for the begin- 
ner to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on 
this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some- 
times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting away 
nine-tenths of the wood and then carefully thinning out and pinch- 
ing the young growth that may start. At other times again it may 
be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of the ground. If 
this is done at the proper season for pruning several sprouts will 
start from near the root, but only one, or at most two, should be 
saved. These sprouts should be trained the same as a newly 
planted vine, except that in one season they will make a vine large 


TUE GRAPE. 51 


enough to bear a good crop of fruit the following year. By either 
method only one fruiting season is lost, but as a rule the greatest 
success attends the latter method. 


; Time of Pruning.—The best time to prune the grape is Jate 
in the fall or very early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid - 
on the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in autumn, 
as doing it-then will greatly facilitate the laying down process. If 
for any reason the vines have not been pruned until the buds have 
started, it is far better to do it then than not at all. The so-called 
“bleeding”? of vines does not appear to seriously injure them, 
though pruning when the sap will run from the cut surfaces is a 
bad plan. 


Fic. 374.—An old grape vine pruned_on the one-cane, a renewal system 
az recommended. From a photograph. 


Thinning the Fruit.—Under almost any system of pruning 
some varieties will set more fruit than they can properly mature. 
Where this is the case the poorest bunches should be cut away as 
soon as the berries are well formed. As « rule, the improved ap- 
pearance of the remaining fruit 1s so great, as the result of this 
thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one. 

Manures.—Ordinarily the new soils of the northwestern 

’ states contain an abundance of plant food. Grapes do not require 
much manure, and the best kinds for them are those which have 
but a small amount of organic matter, such as wood ashes. Yet on 
gravelly or sandy lands they may be much benefited by the liberal 
use of stable manure. Never apply manure so long as the vines 
are making a satisfactory growth without it. A very rapid, long 
growth is not nearly as desirable as that which is well matured 
and moderate in quantity. 


52 THE GRAPE. 


Bagging Grapes.—In sections of the country where blach. 
rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the 
grapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occasion- 
ally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But in grow- 
ing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is wanted, it 
will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for labor and ma- 
terial need not exceed a half cent per pound. The bagged grapes 
have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, are free from dust 
and spiders’ webs, and are not so liable to be caught by the first 
autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen more evenly when 
bagged. 

Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size of 
small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For this 
purpose ordinary one-pound manilla paper bags should be used, 
such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They should be 
cut down about two inches on each side, and a small hole made 
in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, to let out 
any water that might’ collect in them. They are then ready for 
use, A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the branch, and 
securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be left on until 
picking time, when the bag and bunch may be taken off together. 
If the fruit is to be stored it will be found that the fruit will 
keep longer in the bags than without thém. Generally the bags 
remain on the whole season without trouble, and some growers use 
the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags made especially for 
this purpose will last about four years. In France a wire bag is 
used to some extent for this purpose. 

Keeping Grapes.—The keeping qualities of grapes varies 
much with the different kinds; some varieties will hardly keep a 
week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for two or 
three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold cellar is 
a very good place to keep them. The bunches should first be re- 
lieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid one tier deep 
on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may circulate freely . 
among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry when put in the 
cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed for use some ice may 
be put in it in a tub and the windows kept shut in the day time and 
opened at night. If the grapes are packed in dry saw dust or cork 
bark they will keep even better than on trays. Where cold storage 
is accessible they may be packed in baskets before being stored, 
but in any case great care should be taken to remove any injured 
berries, or they will rot and spoil those near them. 

Girdling the Grape to advance the period of ripening is 
practiced to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of 
opinion regarding the ultimate effect of the operation on the health 
and vigor of the vine. It seems, however, to be pretty generally 
conceded that it can be done to a limited extent without serious, if 
any injury. That it generally advances the period of ripening 
from seven to ten days, and that the fruit from girdled vines is 


THE GRAPE. 53 


considerably larger than from vines not girdled and of just as good 
quality. But on the other hand, some very careful experiments 
made by Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, Mass., seem, in his words, 
to show that ‘‘whenever a grape will ripen fairly well by natural 
processes girdling is a complete draft upon the future without 
prospect of means to pay it through the gains of the present ’? The 
operation consists in taking out a ring of bark one-fourth inch or 
more in width, at any time during the growing season, but gener- 
ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a special 
tool is often used, which makes two cuts and takes out the bark 
with one movement (Fig. 38). If the whole vine is girdled at the 


Fie. 39.—Girdled 
Cane. A, wherering 
of bark has been re- 
moved. Band LZ, 

+ where the vine is to 
be pruned in the 

Fic. 38. orn ees elang 
in ali ; 0. egird'ed woo 

seed entirely. Cand D, 
thin steel growth Vande fol. 

p maining buds infol- 

blades with Doing Wear when. 
cleaner at a. Dshould be girdled 


surface of the ground it will soon show great weakness, so when 
practiced at all it should be done by girdling the lateral canes; 
those that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned 
(Fig. 39). In sections where early autumn frosts are common it is 
frequently desirable to try this method of advancing the period of 
ripening. 

Diseases.—There are many diseases which may at times 
attack the grape, but only two are commonly met with in the 
northwestern states, where on account of the dryness of the air 
there is less trouble from fungus diseases than where the climate 
is more humid. 


54 THE GRAPE. 


Downy MiLpEw (Poronospora viticola). This fungus maY. at. 
tack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same tt e. 
When it attacks the foliage it first appears as greenish-yellow OF 
brownish irregular spots on the upper surface, with corresponding 
spots of whitish frost-like mildew on the under ‘side. The effect of 
this is to cause the leaves to dry up and fall off, frequently when 
the fruit is quite green, which consequently does not ripen. 
But besides the loss of the fruit from this disease the wood is often 
jeft in a very immature state, and the whole plant so seriously 
weakened that it will not produce a full crop of fruit for several 
years. It frequently acts in this manner on the Delaware, while it 
seldom injures the fruit of that variety. On other varieties tne 
fruit is more susceptible than the foliage, and it produces brown 
rot of the berries, which may cause severe losses some seasons. In 
this case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a pur- 


Fie, 40, . Fic, 41, 
Berries affected with brown rot. Berries affected with black rot. 


plish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is 
covered with a white mould, and ina short time the whole fruit 
curns brown, and later on becomes soft and wrinkled. Figure 40 
shows a cluster of mouldy berries. 

Buack Ror affects the fruit which it seldom attacks until the 
berries are two-thirds grown; these shortly dry up, turn black, 
and remain hard and dry on the vines, often until the following 
spring. Each dried berry is covered with minute postules. This 
disease is only occasionally injurious in the northwestern states, 

Preventives.—There are no remedies for either of these dis- 
eases, for after the fungus finds a lodgment in the tissues of the 
plant we are powerléss to destroy it without injuring the plant 
itself. Consequently every effort should be used to keep the fun- 
gus from getting a hold on the plant. It has been found that where 
the vines are closely shut in, so that there is but little circulation 
of air and the water does not quickly dry off the foliage, or where 


THE GRAPE. 5a 
the soil is wet and cold, that the vines are very liable to become 
diseased. On this account where a vineyard is subject to these 
troubles the first thing to do is to remedy, so far as is practicab'e, 
anything that obstructs free circulation of air through it. If the 
land is moist and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and 
black rot of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found 
quite effective. But after these things are done disease may gain 
a foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties in warm, wet 
seasons. Some varieties are almost uniformly healthy in good 
locations, while others are very susceptible to disease. Yet these 
latter are often the most profitable kinds to grow for marketing 
purposes. To grow these successfully recourse must be had to 
treatment with fungicides, and the following is probably the best 
method of proced ire, and if carefully followed the expense of the 
operation and the loss from disease will be very slight. : 

Use of Fungicides.—As soon as the fruit has set spray the 
vines thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, made as recommended 
in chapter on strawberries. Repeat the spraying once in two 
weeks until the grapes begin to color, using Bordeaux mixture un- 
til August Ist, and after that date the ammoniacal solution of car- 
bonate of copper, made as recommended below. Bordeaux mix- 
ture should never be used after August Ist, or it may adhere to the 
grapes when they are ripe and make them unsalable. The carbon- 
ate of copper mixture has sometimes been successfully used alone 
without the Bordeaux mixture, but the latter is most desirable be- 
cause it stays on the vine even in very rainy weather, when the 
former would be washed off. 

For applying these mixtures a knapsack sprayer and a nozzle 
that makes a fine spray should be used. There are now many good 
patterns of these offered by different companies at reasonable 
prices. Of course a common syringe with a rose nozzle could be 
used for this purpose, but it will be found to waste a great deal cf 
the material on the ground and put more on the plant than there is 
any need of. Carefully conducted experiments show that when 
these insecticides are applied as directed there need be no fear 
that injury wiil result from the small amount of copper that is put 
on the fruit. Almost without exception the copper is all washed 
off the fruit before it is ripe. In extreme cases where Bordeaux 
mixture remains on the fruit it can all be taken off without even 
injuring the bloom by dipping the fruit into water slightly acidu- 
lated with vinegar. The fruit does not absorb any of the copper. 

Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper is made by dissolving 
one and one-half ounces of precipitated carbonate of copper in one 
quart of commercial ammonia. Then add this solution to twenty- 
tive gallons of water. The ammonia should be kept tightly corked 
in a glass or earthen vessel. ‘The solution should be added -to the 
water immediately before spraying, otherwise some of the am- 
monia may be lost by evaporation. 


56 THE GRAPE. 


Insects.—The grape is generally quite free from insects in 
this section, but the two following named species are occasionally 
troublesome, besides which there are several others that may 
cause damage in the future, but as at present they are not numer- 
ous enough to do much harm they are not referred to here. 

Grape Vine Flea Beetle (@raptodera chalybea) is the name 
of a small, dark colored beetie that is most injurious from its habit 
of gnawing out the buds from the canes in early spring before 
vegetation has started. Later in the season it’ feeds upon the 
leaves on which the female lays her small orange-colored eggs in 
the last of May or first of June. The young Jarve riddle the leaf 
with holes, or if very numerous eat all except the largest ribs, but 
they or the beetles seldom cause serious trouble after the vine is 
in leaf. : 

Remepy.—The beetle may be jarred from the vines by a sud- 
den shake, therefore by putting a piece-of cotton cloth, saturated 
with kerosene, on the ground under and on each side of the vine 
before it is jarred the beetles are destroyed. They have only to 
touch the kerosene-covered cloth and they are almost instantly 
killed. Care should be taken that the pieces of cloth are together 
around the base of the vine. A warm, bright afternoon is the 
proper time to do this work, and it should be very faithfully per- 
formed every day until the vines are out of danger. By two per- 
sons working together, 2ne on each side of a row of vines, each 
with a piece of cloth, the work can be done very rapidly. 

The Eight Spotted Forester (Alypia octomaculata) is the 
name given to a blueish looking caterpillar that sometimes is quite 
destructive to grape vines and the Virginia creeper by eating the 
foliage. It may be kept in check by hand picking where there is 
only a limited number, but when very abundant recourse must be 
had to the poisoning of the foliage with arsenites. 

Varieties.—For home use the hardy, healthy, productive 
kinds that do not require much special culture, should always be 
given the preference; while for marketing varieties those that 
need special culture may sometimes be most profitable. The fol- 
lowing list includes the best of the varieties that have been well 
tested, yet there are many others that produce well, and in favored 
locations may even be superior to some of those mentioned. For 
the ordinary family a dozen vines are a great plenty, and three or 
four that are well managed may give far more fruit than a dozen 
that are neglected. ; 

BricHTon.—A superb red grape of finest quality, of strong 

growth and productive. It gives quite general satisfaction, but in 
poor locations frequently fails to ripen evenly. Its flowers have 
reflexed stamens and it should be planted near perfect flowering 
kinds. . 
Concorp.—Where it will ripen it is the most productive and 
satisfactory grape grown. Of good quality, vigorous, hardy and 
healthy. In unfavorable locations in this section it often fails to. 
ripen. Black grape. 


THE GRAPE. 57 


CortagE.—A vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive black grape 
of very good quality. Very early, and on account of this and its 
quality it should be generally planted in the home garden. It is 
rather undesirable for marketing on account of the berries easily 
separating from the stem soon after being ripe. 

DeLawarz.—A small, red grape of extra good quality. Gener- 
ally more popular than other kinds with commercial growers, but 
it is quite liable to mildew in some seasons, and on this account 
should be avoided except by those who have extra good locations, 
or who will give it extra good care. 

HartrorpD.—A well known early black variety of fair quality. 
Very productive and hardy. 

JANESVILLE.—Very vigorous, healthy, hardy and productive 
berry, black, rather acid, of medium size in a very compact cluster. 
It colors very early. This is the most desirable kinds for very 
severe locations, 

LinpLey.—Like the Brighton, deficient in pollen, but quite 
productive when grown near other kinds. Of extra quality and 
one of the best keeping kinds; with ordinary care it will keep until 
January 

Lapy.—An early white grape of excellent quality; hardy and 
healthy. Not very productive. 

Moorg’s Earuty.—The earliest grape of extra good quality. 
Vine hardy, vigorous, healthy, but not very productive. Berries 
very large and black with a heavy bloom. It requires rich soil 
and high cultivation for best results. 

Pocx.ineton.—A little later in ripening than Concord, and is 
among white grapes what that variety is among black kinds, the 
most productive and satisfactory where it can be ripened. Hardy, 
healthy and productive. Only adapted to best locations. 

Worpen.—A magniticent black grape of better quality and ten 
days earlier than Concord. Hardy, productive and healthy. For 
general planting to be preferred to Concord. It should be in every 
collection. Occasionally it drops badly fromthe stem. It brings 
the highest price where well known. > 

GREEN MovuntaIN is a new grape that is promising for home 
use on account of its being very early and of extra quality. Berries 
small and greenish-white in color. They seem inclined, however, 
to drop easily from the bunch. 

Moorz’s Diamonp.—A very promising new white grape of 
good quailty, ripening from four to eight days before the Concord. 
Very hardy and productive. 

List of Varieties Recommended.—/or very severe locations: 
Janesville, Ives, Hartford. ‘ 

For fairly good locations: Janesville, Hartford, Cottage, Wor- 
den, Lady, Brighton, Moore’s Early. 

For extra good locations: Concord, Delaware, Worden, Lady, 
Cottage, Pocklington, Lindley, Moore’s Early. 


CHAPTER ¥. 


THE CRANBERRY, 


RANBERRY (Vaccinium macrocarpo!:.) This is the low trail- 
ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. 

The form and habit is well illustrated in figure 42. The so called 
high bush cranberry is a shrub and is much more widely distrib- 
uted than this. The 
latter has one flat seed 
in each fruit, while the 
former is a many seed- 
ed berry. This plant 
is not adapted to gen- 
eral cultivation, and 
seldom if ever does well 
on the prairies of the | 
West. It may be laid 
down as a general ru.e 
that it cannot be suc- 
cessfully cultivated ex- 
cept on the granitic 
soils of the northern (( 
states, and that it will . 
be a failure on the lime- 
“stone drift soils, such 
as are common to the 
prairies of Minnesota, 
Iowa and the Dakotas. 
In Wisconsin and east- 
ern and northern Min- 
nesota it is often very 
productive, either wild 
or cultivated, and is an 
article of much impor- 
tance in the markets of 
ihose sections each 


a ‘ Wig, 42 --Cranherry plant and fruit. 
year. Where this fruit One-half natural size. 


58 


THE CRANBERRY. 59, 


can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be 
grown. 

Best Location for Cranberry Beds.—In a wild state this 
plant is found atits best on moist land where the water level is 
within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather indif- 
ferent about the soil, sometimes growing on sand and then on peat 
mud or moss. Asa rule the best locations are low meadow lands 
sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat 
sheltered but shaded. On uplands it has been successfully culti- 
vated, but in such situations it is generally unprofitable and fre- 
quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the 
soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied 
with water, and yet the land must be so drained that the water 
can at will be drawn off to af least ten inches below the surface. 
The best cranberry bogs are so arranged that both the flowage and 
drainage can be controlled: at will. Land that has been covered 
with stagnant water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not 
fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and ex- 
posed to the air for a year or more. 

Soil Adapted to It.—Wherever the cranberry is growing 
naturally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its 
culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed proper 
location it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of the most 
favorable portion of it as an experiment before spending much 
time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile. 
With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of 
the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit is assured for almost 
every year, if the work of preparation is properly done. ‘Yet there 
are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profit- 
able crops for many years where the flowage has not been con- 
trolled, and hence if that factor cannot be directed at will is not 
necessarily a sufficient reason why an attempt should not be made 
to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small 
cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be 
greatly increased by a little judicious expenditure. 

Preparation of the Land.—The first steps should be di- 
rected to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The 
proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and 
condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by flooding the 
land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallowing, 
and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog, 
with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But in some way 
the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made 
level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If it is to be flowed it 
should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water 
for flowage than if uneven. This matter is especially important 
where the water supply is limited. 

Supplying Sand.—It is of great advantage to have the sur- 
face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and 


60 THE CRANBERRY. 


this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand 
used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from 
clay or loam, as anything that encourages the taking of the surface 
of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good place for the 
plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it 
conduces to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat 
beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used 
without sand the surface should be exposed to frost one year 
before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one sea- 
son’s frost it becomes loose and fine. 

Drainage and Flowage.—The method of securing these 
conditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The 
drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open ditch 
four or more feet wide through the center of the land; a smaller 
ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided 
into beds by lateral ditches, about five rods apart. Where springs 
are met with they must be connected with a ditch. 

Importance of Water.—The flowage may sometimes be 
controlled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek 
running through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to 
secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons: 
(1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in 
periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and 
occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up, destroying 
all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except 
by flooding. (2) The water kept over the plants in the spring will 
serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and 
will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (8) Beds that 
are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously 
injured by insects. (4) Beds do best when protected by a water 
covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously 
injured. 

Where there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to 
finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where 
there is not more than two or three feet of fall one dam is quite 
sufficient. Dams should be made strong and have sluice ways 
large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them. 

About Flowing.—Ail that is required in flowing a bog is 
sufficient water to cover the vines; they should be covered about 
the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered 
during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not 
hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they 
are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the 
ground, is where the great danger lies. To avoid this the sluice- 
ways should be kept sufficiently open to allow any surplus water 
to pass off. 

The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines 
until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in condi- 
tion to bear, the water sbould be kept on until the last of May or 


THE CRANBERRY. 61 


first of June, The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent in- 
jury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm, 
which are the worst foes of the cranberry. If the fruit is covered 
with water in warm weather it is very liable to be ruined, but the 
vines are uninjured by such flowage. Throughout the growing 
season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface 
of the bed. 

Plants and Planting.—In selecting plants great care should 
be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren, 
There are very many named kinds, and they vary greatly in size, 
growth, time of ripening and pro- 
ductiveness, but it is doubtful if any 
of the named kinds, the most of 
which have originated in the East, 
are adapted to the climate of this 
section, and it is probably bet’er for 
the present to depend on getting 
plants from the most fruitful wild 
cultivated beds near at hand. The 
kind most esteemed at th® East is 
called the Early Black. It is very 
early and productive, though not a 
vigorous grower. : 

The cranberry plant grows very 
readily from cuttings, and on this ac- 
count slovenly growers sometimes 
cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow 
the pieces broadcast and harrow 
them in, but that method of planting 
is not advisable. The most common 
way is to make cuttings of the 
younger parts of the vines about ten 
inches long, and plant three or four 
together, as shown in Fig. 48, but 
sometimes longer cuttings are used 
which are doubled when planted. 
The cuttings may be carried over a 
whole season with good success, if 
they are kept covered with running water, but in stagnant water 
they would be likely to-spoil. On this account they may be set at 
almost any season of the year if the flowage is controlled, but the 
spring of the year is generally preferred, and if there is no chance 
to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant. 

Before planting is commenced the bed should be marked off 
each way at eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a wooden dibber 
is used having an incurved or reversed wedge-shaped point, with 
which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into con- 
tact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first making 
a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the 


Fic. 43 —Showing method of 
planting cranberry cuttings. 


6% THE CRANBERRY. 


cuttings are planted the vatcr should be raised in the trenches 
sufficiently to keep the surface land a litt'e moist to encourage the 
rooting of the cuttings. The after cultivation consists in keeping 
the soil moist and giving clean cultivation. 

Picking.—If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine 
they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there 
is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked 
as soon as they commence to color, though when picked thus early 
they will seldom keep well after the middle of January. If severe- 
ly frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a 
“white frost.” Picking is generally done by hand, though some 
few growers “‘rake’’ them off the vines. The berries keep well in 
a dry, cool place, but they are more easily kept if covered with 


water. 


CHAPTER VL 
DWARF JUNEBERRY:. 


7.) WARF JUNEBERRY |(.4melanchier Canadensis, variety obl_ng- 
| ifolia.) This is also called shad bush and service berry. 

There are several so-called varieties of it found in the north- 

crn states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is better known 
in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as 
to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter 


Fig. 44.—Foliage and fruit of Dwarf Juneberry, about one-half 
natural size. A, Fruit natural size. efi 


64 : THE DWARF JUNEBERRY. 


form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the 
selected kinds of it that are cultivated for fruit. It generally 
grows from four to six feet high; is covered with a profusion of 
white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with 
the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly 
one-half inch in diameter. Figure 44 shows its size and form. 
Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather 
tame, but by the addition of a little lemon juice it makes an excel- 
lent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and 
abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit 
must be protected from the birds or they will take it as fast as it 
ripens. Mosquito netting, or the coarse wire netting—such as is 
used for chicken yards—is useful for this purpose. When grown 
on a large scale the depredation of the birds is not so apparent. 
The'plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by 
our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from insect} 
pests. On account of its many good qualities it should find a place 
in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near 
market at a profit. 


Fic. 45.—Full size lowers of Dwarf Juneberry. 


Propagation and Cultivation.—The plants are readily in- 
creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around 
the old plants. These should be set out at about four foot intervals 
in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They commence to bear in 
two years, but will not produce a full crop until the fourth year. 


THE DWARF JUNEBERRY. 45 


They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be 
mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning, 
though the suckers should be thinned out if they become abundant. 

Varieties.—There are but few varieties of this fruit offered 
by nurserymen, and these are the result of selections made from 
plants growing in the wild state. They are, however, much super- 
ior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly 
found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by 
cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings new 
varieties’ much superior to those now known will be criginated. 
The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their 
fruit. The varieties that have been grown long enough to give 
them a fair trial are as follows: E 

Success.—This probably originated in Kansas. It is productive 
of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit, 
with pendulous fruit clusters. Earlier than the others mentioned, 
ripening about with the early currants, Probably as good as any 
if not the best for general cultivation. 

Chester Center and Alpina are strong growing kinds of decided 
merit. They are rather close and erect in habit, and may attain a 
heighth of seven or eight feet; very productive; fruit reddish pur- 
ple; fruit clusters more erect than in Success; season a little later 
than that variety. 

Osage.—Resembies the Success in habit but is not so produc- 
tive, and is the latest of the kinds mentioned. 

Aside from its fruit producing qualities the Dwarf Juneberries 
make nice‘lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when 
covered with their profusion of graceful white flowers, which 
appear early in the spring. See Fig. 45. 


CHAPTER VII. 


SAND CHERRY. 


YAND CHERRY (Prunus pumila). This fruit plant is found 
S in Northern Michigan, Wisconsin,' Minnesota, the Dakotas, 
and elsewhere. It is especially fruitful even in the most 
severe situations. It frequently fruits prodigiously in dry, gravelly 
embankments where scarce any other plant can find existence. In 
fact it seems to be better adapted toa very dry than to a moist 
location. In my experience with it plants from rich, moist land 
have flowered profusely but have failed to set much fruit. It 


Fic. 46 —Foliage and fruit of Sand Cherry. A, Fruit natura! size. 
66 : 


THE SAND CHERRY. 67 


seems quite probable that where the rainfall is light this plant will 
do well on rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is 
best adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly 
on the sandy land of Northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land 
of the Dakotas. See Fig. 46. 


Description.—Some plants will reach a heighth of four feet’ 


and spread five feet on the ground, while others will scarce attain 
to half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but 
varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It 
is generally of a reddish—almost black—color when ripe. The ripe 
fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five-eighths of an 
_inch in diameter. In some the pit is small, while in others it is 
very large. The quality is generally too astringent to be relished 
uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants, 
some being fairly palatable. When cooked its astringency disap- 
pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abund- 
antly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which is said to be 
very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit plant, but a clean, 
strong growing shrub, and well adapted to severe locations on the 
lawn, The fruit ripens in the latter part of July and first of 
August. Itseems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and 
perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it. 


Propagation.—It grows freely from seed, which should be 
sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings 
vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. 
They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the 
wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants 
may be increased by layers, suckers and from root cuttings, and by 
budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The 
easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the 
plants but eight inches away from the main stem sometime when 
the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form 
new plants. If the roots are cut into pieces about six inches long, 
and these treated like willow cuttings they will grow nearly as 
readily. When budded on the plum peculiar looking, interesting 
trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. The plum may also be 
worked on the sand cherry and it forms a good union, but the roots 
are so very flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the 
union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely 
on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymen, there 
having been no named kinds introduced. 

A form of this called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry has 
recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been sufficiently 
tried to warrant conclusions as to its value bere. It is, however, 
extremely doubtful if it is any better than the best of our native 
kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry somewhat resembles this but has 
amore erect habit. A quite limited experience seems to show it is 
much inferior to our best native kinds. 


+ 


CHAPTER VII. 


BULLBERRY, OR BUFFALOBERRY. 


| ULLBERRY, or BUFFALO-BERRY (Shepherdia argentea). 
This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and 
coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though 

but sparingly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and cen- 
tral states, yet it grows freely ard fruits abundantly in all the 


northern states. (Fig. 47.) 


Fig. 47.—oliage and fruit of Buffalo-berry; one-half natural size. 
A, Fruit natural size. 

Description.—A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- 
age and young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit 
are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on 
very short stems. The plants are dicecious, #. e., one has pistillate 
and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have 
both oo near together in order to get fruit. The flowers appear 

8 


THE BUFFALO BERRY. 69 


very early in the spring before the leaves, and are small and in- 
conspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abundance—often so 
thickly as to conceal the branches on which it grows,—and when 
ripe gives a scarlet 
appearance to the 
whole plant. Occa- 
sional plants have 
yellow fruit. It is 
about the size of red 
currants, and con- 
tains one oval, quite 
large seed. The 
quality is very good, 
even of the best. It 
makes a fine jelly, 
but on account of 
the large seeds it is 
not so desirable for 
a@ sauce as red cur- 
rauts, and it is 
doubtful if it will 
Fic 48 —Flowers of Buffalo-berry. (0) Pistillate ever be popular for 
Rowers; (b) Staminate flowers. About natural fruit where the red 
siee currant is product- 
ive and reliable; but it is an elegant ornamental shrub, and it will 
probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. (Fig. 48.) 
Propagation.—This plant suckers readily if the roots are 
cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readily 
if not allowed to dry and is winter covered with earth and sown in 
the spring. An easy tvay to winter it is to cover the seed on the 
surface of the ground with an inverted sod. ' 


CHAPTER IX. 


RUSSIAN MULBERRY. 


a USSIAN MULBERRY (Morus Tartarivne). The ‘svulberries 
c7* commonly grown in the eastern and central states are not 

hardy in this section, but that introduced from Russia under 
the above name is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The 
Menonites of Nebraska were the first to intruduce it into this coun- 
try, aud they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree, 


but is much better 
adapted to being 
grown in the form 
of a hedge or wind- 
break. In this form 
it will often attain 
the height of twenty 
feet and become 
very close and pret- 
ty if given an occa- 
sional pruning. It 
is of very rapid 
growth. (Fig. 49) 
Hardiness.— It 
isvery hardy in 
Southern Minnesota 
and Southern Dako- 
ta, and even north 
to the latitude of St. 
Paul it stands fairly 
well. | Occasionally 
jn very severe win- 
ters it will lose a 
partofits new 
growth, but it quick- 
ly outgrows any in- 


Fic 49 —Russian Mnulherry, showing folrage 
and frat, reduced about One half natural 
size. (a), Fruit natural size 


jury and it is less liable to winter-kill when old than when young. 


70 


RUSSIAN MULBERRY. 1 


Its Fruit.—With very few exceptions all the trees of this now 
. growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as 
with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces 
fruit of value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others 
are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some 
trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and 
occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies 
nearly as much as the size of the berries; some being insipid and 
even unpleasant, while others are sweet and agreeable, but like a'l 
mulberries, they laék high quality. They are quite soft when ripe 
and quickly fall to the grounc, which should be kept smooth so 
that they may be readily gathered. It is at its best just as it falls 
from the tree. It generally commences to ripen just before the 
first currants, and continues ripening for a week or more. It gen- 
erally resembles the blackberry in appearance, but the fruit of 
some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel- 
dom, if ever, as good eating as the black. The age at which plants 
commence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six 
years old they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they 
grow older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it prob- 
ably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. 
Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit 
alone to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this 
purpose something should be added to it for flavor. 

_Propagation.—The seed grows readily if sown as soon as 
ripe. For this purpose the berries may be crushed in dry sand 
and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In 
two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the permanent 
location, but these vary much in their productiveness, and while 
for a wind-break they many answer as well as any, yet when 
plants are wanted for fruit they should be grown from cuttings or 
layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. For 
this purpose the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve 
inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land, 
with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches 
root easily when layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the 
sprouis until they root they make good plants. 

Varieties.—There are no named kinds offered by nurserymen, 
and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. However, if 
any large wind-break is looked over in the fruiting season ons or 
more trees can generaliy be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional 
value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two 
xinds; Sometimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) 
are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex. 
On this account some care is necessary in selecting a variety to get 
one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind 
near a tree haying staminate flowers. 


CHAPTER X. 


THE APPLE. 


(HE APPLE is a native of Northern Europe and Asia, Its 
: botanical name is Pyrus malus. The crab-apples have de- 
scended from the wild Pyrus baccata of Siberia. These two 
species readily hybridize, and there are quite a number of varieties 
of the apple in cultivation that show the characteristics of both 
species. The American native crab-apple (Pyrus coronaria), so 
abundant in some sections, seems to be poorly adapted to cultiva- 
tion. It often blights badly in its wild state, and when exposed in 
the orchard is not nearly as hardy as the hardier kinds of culti- 
vated crab-apples. There is, however, one variety’ (the Soulard) 
belonging to this species, that is cultivated to some extent. 

This is the most ancient and also the most highly esteemed and 
valuable of cultivated fruits. It reaches its highest development 
in tree and fruit in cold climates, yet in extremely cold situations 
it seems to be somewhat beyond its limit and to require special 
care, to make it profitable. Many of the failures which have 
attended the planting of apple trees in the northwestern states 
need not be repeated if the subject is given careful study before 
new plantings are put out. It is far better that one should be en- 
tirely ignorant of the subject, but come to it with a desire and in- 
tention to learn every detail, than that he should undertake it with 
the belief that his experience in Eastern orchard methods and vari- 
eties is sufficient to guide him in similar work here. The methods 
and varieties adapted to Eastern and Southern orchards do not 
hold well here, and the following out of such methods, and the use 
of such varieties as are used there, has generally led to failure and 
discouragement, and to the often heard remark that “apples can- 
not be successfully grown here.”’ 

Among those who have given this matter the most careful 
attention there is a well grounded belief that this section will 
eventually raise all the apples that can be used within its borders, 
and that too of varieties adapted to every season. The season of 
1892 saw the markets here abundadtly supplied with the Duchess 


of Oldenburgh apple, and many car-loads of it were shipped to 
72 


THE APPLE. 7 


adjoining states. The large crop in that year resulted from its 
being a favorable season, and also from the fact that after the 
Severe seasons of some ten years previous, which proved the great 
value of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, it was largely planted, and 
these plantings had just commenced to come into heavy bearing 
condition in 1892. There is every reason to believe that several 
other varieties will prove even more widely adapted to general cul- 
tivation here than the Duchess of Oldenburgh. 

In this section apple trees are not so long lived as in a some- 
what milder climate, but they come into bearing much earlier and 
are very productive. The profits from properly planted orchards 
here are far in excess of those realized from Eastern orchards, and 
orcharding in some parts of this section offers a good field for prof- 
itable investment. The reason for this is found largely in the 
superior quality, higher color and generally brighter appearance of 
our fruit, and the proximity to good markets, together with the 
fact that our summer and autumn varieties do not come into mar- 
ket until the great rush of early Southern shipments has ceased 
and the winter kinds have not commenced to come in. F 

Locations Especially Adapted to Orcharding.—While 
apples will undoubtedly be grown in the near future to some ex- 
tent over the whole of this section, yet at present the facts will 
only warrant their being planted on a commercial scale, in favor- 
able locations south of the latitude of St. Paul, and in other loca 
tions where the climate may be much equalized by bodies of water 
and other modifying conditions. There are many excellent loca- 
tions for orchards on the high rolling land and admirable soils in 
this section. ; 

Loeation of the Apple Orchard.—The best lovation for 
an apple orchard is on high northern slopes, tipping down to the 
northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, providing it does 
not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred 
because it is least affected by drouth, by sudden changes in temper- 
ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the 
south. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are 
located on southern slopes. It is important to plant apple trees on 
the highest land available. If the elevation is not more than ten 
feet above the general level of the adjacent land it is a great ad- 
vantage in furnishing air, drainage, equalizing the temperature in 
summer and lessening the danger from frost in the blossoming 
period. 

The Worst Location for an Orchard is what is called a 
warm, sheltered spot, where the sun has free access and the winds 
are entirely shut off. Into such agplace the cold air from surround- 
ing higher elevations settles7at night, and while it is the hottest 
place during the day, it is the coldest at night. Blight and winter 
killing are apt to be abindant in such places. In some sections,— 
most generally those protected by water, forests or wooded hills— 
but little if any difference is to be noticed in the growth and pro- 


74 THE APPLE. 


ductiveness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed 
places this difference is very marked. 

Wind-breaks.—A free circulation of air is very desirable in 
an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting in too clusely, 
yet in a full exposure is not found the best condition for a success- 
falorchard. It should be surrounded with wind-breaks on the ex- 
vosed sides, sufficient to somewhat break the force of the wind, 
but not heavy enough to prevent a good circulation of air through 
the orchard at any time. It is much 'more important to have a 
wind-break on the south’and west sides of an’orchard, than on the 
north or east, for it is from the former directions that come the 
most injurious winds. 

The Land Best Adapted to the Growth of Apples in 
this section is, what might be called a deep, open, clayey loam, 
that is well drained, either naturally or artificially, and does not 
suffer severely from drouth or excess of water. But the apple 
may be grown successfully on almost any soil, even on that which 
is dry and gravelly ; but the orchard requires more careful manage- 
ment in severe situations than in those that are favorable. - 

The land must be retentive and rich in plant food, for it is im- 
possible to raise good fruit on poor soil. Sufficient moisture can 
generally be secured by heavy mulching, and the newer soils of 
this section are generally rich enough for apples without manur- 
ing; indeed, heavy, black prairie loam is generally so rich in plant 
food that it stimulates in most varieties of apples a late growth, 
especially when the autumn is warm and moist, and only the 
hardiest kinds, such as do not make a late growth in autumn, 
should be planted in such locations. 

If the sub-soil is such very hard clay that the roots can scarce- 
ly penetrate, if at all, very deep plowing should be resorted to; 
but as this cannot go deep enough to give the roots much of a 
chance in very hard, dry clays, the hoies should be dug very deep. 
A better way than digging holes into such hard pan is to explode a 
medium charge of dynamite in it, which will so loosen it that 
the roots can penetrate. In some locations such treatment will 
make all the difference between success and failure. 

Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with 
plenty of strong roots (Fig. 50). It is really of little importance 
as to the size or form of the top of a tree, providing it has good 
roots, and is healthy and free from blemishes; for if vigorous the 
form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are those 
not over four years old, that have made moderate and not a rapid 
growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most varieties, 
are generally the best to set. Two-year-old trees do very well, 
and are often as good as any.’ Those one year old are too small to 
conveniently cultivate around in the field, and are better off in the 
nursery for another year. 


Seedlings.—Apple seed grows readily and generally forms 
plants about twelve: inches high, with a tap-root of about the 


THE APPLE. 6) 


same length, the first season. The seed does not re-produce in 
quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling 
in a thousand would be as good as any of the better cultivated 
kinds. Seedlings; however, are raised in large quantities, to be 
used in grafting, to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is 
generally obtained by washing out the pomace from cider mills. 
The seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated 
from it by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry, 
and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in the fall short- 
ly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and keep it buried 
in the ground until sprirg. Ifthe sced gets very dry it often fails 


F'1G. 50.—-(A) Tree with very poor roots, which were spoiled by being cut off 
too short in digging A common form. 

(B) A well rooted tree with all the roots coming from the scion. The ovigi- 
on root in which the scion was set has been broken off. An uncommon 

orm. : 

(C) A well rooted tree with fibrous roots. Such roots grow wellif carefully 
spread out when planted. An uncommon form. 

(D) A well rooted tree properly dug, leaving some roots from the scion. 41 
common form. 


76 THE APPLE. 


to start, or does not start for one year, unless scalded or mixed 
with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw a few times. In 
a small way the seed may be kept mixed with sand and buried in a 
box in the ground until spring, when it should be put in a warm 
place until it starts into growth a little. It should then be sown in 
drills three inches deep and about three feet apart, in rich, warm 
soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the foot. 

Root-grafted Trees should always be preferred to those 
that are budded, for this section, unless in the case of hardy trees 
that are already once root-grafted, and are budded to change the 
bearing qualities, when budding is as good as grafting. The objec- 
tion to budded trees is not to the method of propagation, but from 
the fact that the buds must be inserted above the ground into a 
seedling root, which seedling is of doubtful hardiness, and is per 
haps quite tender; yet is partly exposed above ground, where it is 
liable to fail at any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below 
ground and send out roots from above the graft, which increases 
the hardiness of the trees. Quite frequently the roots of a budded 
or grafted tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy 
and sound ; consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy 
asthe top. But as this is not always practicable every effort 
should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In more 
favorable locations budded trees may be just as desirable as those 
that are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft, whether with whole 
or piece roots, makes but little difference to the ordinary planter, 
who should look especially to getting good trees, when he should 
be careful to plant the graft well below the surface of the ground. 

Planting.—The land should be in as good condition as is re- - 
quired for corn. The work of planting will be greatly facilitated 
if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large plow, and the 
trees set at the intersections. If the trees must be set in sod, a 
hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree; no grass 
should be allowed to grow in this: space, and it should be heavily 
mulched. In setting the trees the holes should be made large 
enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If it is neces- 
sary to set trees into the sub-soil, and it often is, then in digging 
the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the sub-soil 
and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in contact 
with the roots. The roots should be evenly spread out in the hole 
and the fine top-soil carefully worked among them so as not to 
leave any air spaces between or under them. If the soil is dry it 
can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If wet but little 
pressure should be used. 

The Time to Plant.—In the north apple trees should never 
be set 1n the fall of the year, nor should they be dug from the nur- 
sery rows in the spring, as they are very liable to be weakened ; if 
not seriously injured by the winter if left exposed. They should 
be dug in the autumn and buried root anc branch—“‘heeled in’’— in 
dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in a cold 


THE APPLE. WM 


cellar, with their roots buried in soil. As few cellars are fit for 
this purpose it is generally safer to bury them outside. As a rule 
it is best for planters to get their trees in the fall, as they are then 
more certain to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for 
them to come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the 
soil works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf. 
As a rule moderately early planting gives the best results, but trees 
should never be set in wet, sticky soil. 

Heeling In is a term used to designate the temporary bury- 
ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If the 
trees are to be moved again in a few days a very light covering 
will be sufficient; but if they are to remain several weeks much 
care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with, select a 
dry, mellow piece of ground; dig a wide trench, put in the trees— 
afew ata time—either in an erect or sloping position, and cover 
them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out. If apple or other 
somewhat tender trees are to remain heeled in over winter it will 
be found best to commence by digging a trench about two feet deep 


ow 
Frc. 51.— Various stages of the operation. A, Row of trees with roots 
covered; B, a row bent down and the tops covered with earth at C. 

and three feet wide in dry land, where no water will stand in the 
trenches; put in a layer of trees sloping; cover the roots with a, 
thin layer of fine, mellow earth, filling in carefully and solid all the 
interstices among the roots and stems; continue thus until all the 
trees are in, when the tops and all should be bent down to the 
ground and entirely covered with about six inches of earth. Fig- 
ure 51 shows the various stages of the operation. (A, Row of trees 
with roots covered; B, A row bent down and the tops covered 
with earth at C.) The.stems and all should be completely covered 
when the work is finished. 

Depth to Plant.—In the best locations the trees should be set 
about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In very 
dry, light soil they may be put twelve inches deeper than they 
naturally grew. On steep hillsides they must be set much deeper, 
or they will come too near the surface owing to the slope of the 
Jand. One of the most important objects secured by deep planting 


78 THE APPLE. 


is the sending out of roots from the scion, for when trees are well 
rooted from the scion they are generally much improved in har- 
diness. However, in heavy retentive soil deep planting is not 
desirable. 

Distance Apart to Plant.—Apple trees in eold regions 
should be set quite close to one another. In.favorable locations 
they should be set further apart than when the conditions are very 
severe. Most varieties do best when not over sixteen feet apart; 
but upright growing kinds should be set closer. The Duchess of 

Oldenburgh does very well 

North. in severe locations when 

co * * * * set not over twelve feet 
apart each way. The trees 

should be set so as to 

“break joints’’, north and 

south—that is, the trees in 

* s * * x one row should be set op- 
posite the vacancies in the 
next. If the rows run 


* & 
: : northeast and southwest 
the trees will shade one 
a i * another on the southwest 
South. side, which is most liable 
Fic. 52.— Asterisks showing desirable ar- to injury from the sun. 
rangement of the trees in the orchard. Figure 52 shows the ar- 


rangement of the trees. 

Cultivation.—Young orchards should be cultivated in some 
hoed crop that does not necessitate the working of the soil in 
autumn, but will keep the land well worked in the early summer. 
For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good crops. 
Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buckwheat, 
however, seems to be an exception to this rule, and on account of 
its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose. After the 
trees begin to bear it is often a good plan to seed the land toclover, 
which should be broken up occasionally. The trees should be well 

‘ mulched, and if they do not make a satisfactory growth should be 
well manured. When an orchard becomes “‘sod bound’’ nothing 
will do it more good than a drove of hogs sufficient to root up all 
the sod, but they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides 
breaking up the sod the hogs are very beneficial by destroying 
many kinds of insects. 

Forming the Tree.—Whatever may be the shape of the 
tree when it is received from the nursery, it will need careful 
attention in the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with 
a long or a short trunk, is a much disputed one; but it may be laid 
down as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of t! 
hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three f 
from the ground, but ia such cases it should have sore protect”. 
In very severe and exposed locations, or in the case of some 


THE APPLE, 79 


tender varieties, it will be better to have the trees branch near to 
the ground (Fig. 53), since when so formed they are hardier and 
less exposed to the wind than if they have tall trunks. There is a 
constant tendency for our trees to incline to the northeast, and this 
should be prevented so far as possible. To do this the growth 
should be encouraged on the southwest side by light summer prun- 
ing on the north side. Also, in setting the trees they should be 
slightly inclined to the southwest, and an effort made to keep them 
in that position. 


PIG. 53.—A low-headed tree with trunk boxed. Form and treatment 
adapted to severe locations. 


Pruning.—In pruning it is well to remember that pruning in 
thy summer checks growth, and pruning at suitable times, when 
the tree is dormant, stimulates growth. Pruning apple trees just 
as the sap is starting in the spring is a bad practice, and generally 
results in quite a portion of the pruned limb dying back or being 
seriously weakened. The best time to prune is in June, as then 
the wounds heal over at once. But if a very large amount of wood 
must be removed it would be better to cut it off in October, or dur- 


80 THE APPLE. 


ing warm days in March, before the sap starts, as the removal of a 
large amount of foliage in June might give a serious check to the 
tree. Scions for grafting are generally cut in November, before 
severe weather. Very light pruning may be done safely at almost 
any time, except as noted above. If the work of pruning is pro- 
perly attended to there will be no need of heavy pruning, and gen- 
erally a little pinching or rubbing off of the growth in summer is 
sufficient. In a northern climate it is better not to prune at all 
than to prune too much, and apple trees only need to have inter- 
locking and straggling branches removed or shortened. They need 
all their wood for the protection it affords. All wounds over one- 
half inch in diameter should be covered with grafting wax. 

When trees are received they should have all broken or bruised 
roots removed, and the énds of all roots cut off smooth. The top, 
too, should be cut back about one-half or more of its new growth to 
correspond to the loss of roots. Some varieties—the Wealthy, for 
instance—will sometimes kill back severely and then sprout from 
the roots. In such a case the sprouts should be encouraged to 
make a new tree, which they will do very quickly if given a little 
care, and then they are often more productive than ever. 

Injured Trees.— One of the most common forms of injury to 
trees is girdling by mice or rabbits. If the girdling is not com- 
plete, even though only a small part of the inner bark extends 
across the wound, the best treatment is to bank up around it with 
earth, and this is good treatment for any wound. If injury of any 
kind is so far from the ground that banking up is impracticable, 
the wound should be covered with grafting wax and cloth, or with 
clay or cow manure, so as to exclude the air. When large wounds 
are left exposed they do not heal readily, and often the wood sea- 
sons through and permanent injury results. Covering the wounds 
with heavy paper, even without other protection, aids very much 


ae wr 


Fig. 54.—Girdled tree with wound bridged over. A, @ girdled trunk. 
B, scions inserted; C, method of inserting scions. 


in the healing process. Another way of saving girdled trees is to 
wait until the bark peels freely and then spring in scions long 
enough to connect the sound inside bark above and below the in- 
jury. The ends of long scions are cut all on one side and shoved 
under the bark as in budding (Fig. 54). The tree eagerly seizes 


THE APPLE. 81 


upon this opportunity for making a connection between the root 

and top in the cambium layer, and the scions increase in size until 

ie they close up and make a covering as good as the original 
ark, 

Muiching.—The advantage of a mulch around trees is not 
generally appreciated. It checks evaporation and prevents the 
running off of water which allows it to soak into the land. It 
helps to equalize the moisture in the soil throughout the growing 
season, and prevents root-killing in winter. It is of the greatest 
assistance in rather dry locations, where its use makes success 
possible with many varieties that otherwise would be complete 
failures. In almost any soil in the Northwest the chances of trees 
living and doing well would be increased by the use of a mulch 
around them, but this is especially true of sandy land and southern 
exposures. It is generally best to cultivate the land around trees 
when’ they are small; but if they are set on sod land, or after they 
begin to bear, or if they suffer from drouth, they should be heavily 
mulched at once, and this should be renewea as often as necessary, 
to keep a covering five or six inches in depth on the ground at all 
times extending at least four feet on all sides from the tree, and 
in the case of larger trees extending out as far as the branches. 
This mulch may consist of any litter, straw, bagasse, hardwood 
sawdust, brush, weeds and grape trimmings, and even coal ashes 
are good for this purpose. 

Manuring.—Young orchards are sometimes injured by too 
much man dre, which stimulates a late autumn growth that may so 
weaken the tree that it may be winter-killed. But if crops are 
grown in an orchard enough manure must be added to put back the 
plant food carried off in the crep. After trees begin to bear fruit 
they need manuring, and without it they are very liable to run out. 
All manures for orchards should be applied to the land during the 
time between the fall of the leaves in the autumn and their appear- 
ance again in the spring. In case the manure is well-rotted it 
should be applied in the spring. Barnyard manure is as good as 
anything for this purpose. Some soils, however, will maintain 
their fertility without manure, providing a crop of clover is plowed 
in every few years. 

Sunscald.—This is the name given to a condition of trees 
when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest sides of 
trees (Fig. 55). This is a very serious cause of loss of trees in 
high latitudes, and all trees should be protected against it. It is 
probably due to the action of the sun in starting the growth on the 
southwest side of the trees and then being suddenly checked by 
the cold. Itis most liable to occur in the latter part of winter. 
Some varieties are much more liable to this trouble than others. 
Trees that incline to the northwest, so that the sun’s rays fall di- 
rectly on the trunk, are very liable to it. If trees are planted and 
kept inclined to the southwest until the tranches shade the trunk, 
they will not be affected. Anything that shades the trunk pre- 


82 THE APPLE. 


vents this trouble, and various means are employed to that end. 
Sometimes the trunk is covered with hay, straw, corn-stalks, bur- 
lap or paper, wire netting or laths wired together, or it may be 
shaded by a board set up on the southwest side. All these are good 
and answer the purpose, and many of them protect from mice, 
rabbits, and flat-head borers as well, if properly attended to; but 
one of the best is the lath screen, which is easily made, is cheap, 
durable and satisfactory. 


Fig. 55.—Sunscalded tree, Fic. 56.—Lath screen in 
a, a, @, dead wood. place around tree. 

The lath screen protector is shown in Fig. 56. It is easily and 
quickly made, but whether it will be cheaper to use than wood 
veneers will depend on circumstances. Each of these methods of 
protection secures immunity from sunscald, mice, rabbits and the 
flat-head borer to the part they cover, and also protect the bark 
from whiffle-trees. Six cr seven common laths and three No. 18 


THE APPLE, 83 


wires are necessary to make the lath screens. The laths are left 
one-fourth of an inch apart, and the wire is simply crossed between 
the laths and not twisted. Methods of making 1t will readily sug- 
gest themselves. It may be made on a common work-bench by the 
device shown ir Fig. 57, which is from an article by Prof. Goff, in 
the Wisconsin Horticultural Report for 1891. A, A, A represent 
nails in the bench to which are attached the wires. JB, the first 
lath put between the 
wires and attached to 
the spring stick, C, 
which holds the wires 
taut while the other 
laths are inserted from 
the end, and these are 
always put under the 
: lower and over the up- 
Fic. 57.—Showing method of making lath per wires, thus crossing 
eeree ns the wires. H# show the 
eud of spring stick and part of first lath held together with a 
hooked wire. D shows lath screen partly made. The laths should 
be long enough to reach nearly to the lower branches of the trees. 
A bunch of hay may be stuffed in at the top to keep the protector 
in place and keep it from rubbing the tree. The screens should be 
left on until the wires rust off. Tar or tarred paper should never 
be used in contact with the bark of apple trees. _ 


Protection by banking up the trunks 
of young trees about one foot, on the 
approach of winter, as shown in Fig. 58, 
is a good practice. It protects the graft 
and is a sufficient barrier against mice, 
unless there is a deep fall of snow. This 
is not a very laborious matter, for about 
three spadesful of soil is enough for each 
tree. When there is danger of mice 
working under the snow trod it down 
quite firmly around the trees. To guard 
against mice and rabbits when not oth- 
erwise protected, wash the stems with 
thin whitewash thickened with copperas 
and sulphur. If this is washed off by % 
rains renew the wash as often as neces- ~ LOD 
sary. : ¢ Z = 
Protecting the trunks by box- Fig. 58.—Apzple tree banked 
ing them up and then filling the boxes up for winter. 
with earth, as shown in Fig. 53, is a method that is well worthy of 
being adopted, especially by those who wish to grow apples in very 
severe locations. Such treatment protects the trunk from sun- 
scald, mice and rabbits, and also from urying winds, severe cold, 


84 THE APPLE, 


and from sudden freezing and thawing, and commends itself in 
every way. The boxes may be kept filled with soil all the year 
around, but care should be taken that if the practice is to be dis- 
continued that they are not taken off on the approach of winter, 
bat in the spring. In more favorable locations such treatment is 
unnecessary with hardy kinds, but even in such places the good 
effect will be apparent. 

Top-working.—By top-working is meant the grafting or bud- 
ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term is 
used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. It 
is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat tender 
kinds, such as the Wealthy, which, besides being somewhat tender 
and liable to sunscald, is weak in the stem and crotches. If this 
variety is grafted on the branches of the Virginia crab, which is a 
very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is formed that has 
much of the hardiness of that crab, but at the same time bears 
Wealthy apples. By this method we may 
increase the hardiness of trees to a consid- 
erable degree. Some varieties seem to be 
better adapted to one stock than to another. 
The Virginia crabis a stock that is hardy 
in every particular, and especially desir- « 
able for top-working. It grows rapidly, 
makes a large tree, and will keep up in 
rapidity of growth with any of our larger 
apples. But most of the: larger growing 
crabs make good stocks for top-working. 
The Transcendent crab may be successfully 
used for this purpose. When itis intended 
to grow an orchard by this: method. the 
stocks should be set in the spring, to be 
budded the following August, or should be 
grafted the following spring. Figure 59 
shows where the grafts should be made. If 
to be budded the buds should be inserted in 
about the same positions in the head of the 
tree as the grafts. 

Picking and Marketing.—In order 
to have apples keep well, or command the 
highest price, they must be hand-picked 
before they are fully ripe and handled very * 
carefully. They should never be shaken WES =O etek 
from the trees, for although they may not Fic.59.—Top-worked tree. 
show the bruises at once, yet they will 4, &, a, grafts. 
show plainly in a few days, and cause premature decay. This is 
especially true of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, and other varieties 
which, like it, easily become spotted. They should be carefully 
sorted into three grades—best, second best, and culls. The latter 
grade had better be kept at home and fed to stock, or made into 


THE APPLE. 85 


vinegar. If to be shipped to a distance apples should be packed in 

clean, new barrels, into which they should be pressed so firmly 

that they cannot move. If packed loosely they are almost certain 

to arrive in market in a badly injured or worthless condition. A 

ata press is made for this purpose and is sold by all implement 
ealers. 


Some Important Things to Remember Are:— 

(1) If the roots of trees are frozen out of the ground, and 
thawed again in contact with air, the tree will probably die. 

(2) If frozen roots are well buried before thawing at all the 
tree will be uninjured. 

(8) Manure should never be placed in contact with the roots 
of trees when they are set, but old pulverized earth compost 
answers well. 

(4) Trees that are received in a shrivelled condition may gen- 
erally be revived by burying, tops and all, with earth for a few 
days. 

(5) If trees are to be watered in dry weather it is very im- 
portant that they have a heavy covering of mulch, otherwise the 
earth will be crusted over, causing the water to dry out rapidly. 

(6) If watering is commenced it should be continued until 
rain comes, otherwise it may be worse than no watering at all. As 
a rule heavy mulching is better than watering. 

(7) <A tree of small or medium size that is thrifty is much to 
be preferred, for transplanting, to one that is very large, but 
which will be checked in its growth by being moved. 


Diseases.—Buiceut. In order to be truly hardy and desirable 
for northern sections an apple tree should be hardy against fire 
blight as well as the weather. This is the blight that kills the 
growing wood in the summer. It is due to the growth of a very 
small microscopic plant termed Micrococeus amylovorus, It is much 
the same as the germs of ‘disease which attack animals. These 
germs are very light, are thrown off by the plant and readily blow 
about. They grow in and destroy the tissues of the tree. It is a 
very insidious enemy, and as yet we know of no method of destroy- 
ing it or stopping its ravages. Some varieties, for reasons not 
known, are not subject to its attacks, while others are only slightly 
affected or only in occasional years, When it appears the best 
treatment is to remove and burn all the diseased parts as soon as 
may be, cutting considerably below where the disease appears. 
The only way to avoid itis to plant varieties that are not subject 
to its attacks. In pruning it should be borne in mind that the dis- 
ease may be carried from a diseased to a healthy tree by the prun- 
ing implement. 

Scas (Fusicladium).—This is the disease that causes the scab or 
blotches that deface the skin of apples and destroys the leaves. 


86 THE APPLE. 


It also attacks pears. Figure 60 shows the appearance of an apple 
affected with this disease. It not only injures the aEecataE 
of the fruit, and conse- 
quently its market value, 
but seems to dwarf its 
growth. It is only occa- 
sionally abundant in this 
state, and as a rule our 
hardy varieties are not in- 
jured by it. In case it be- 
comes abundant it may be 
prevented by spraying the 
trees with Bordeaux mix- 
ture, made as recommend- 
ed in the chapter on straw- 
berries, but diluted by 
adding twice as much 
water. Spray the trees 
with it as soon as the first Fig. 60 —Apple affected with scab, 
leaves appear; again just 

after bloom, and a third time two or three weeks later. If rains 
are frequent in June a fourth spraying should be given in tha 
latter part of that month. 

Insects.—FLat-HEADED APPLE TREE Borer (Chrysobothris 
femorata). This borer is quite abundant in some sections, but 
generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work 
in trees that are newly transplanted, or weakened by some dis- 
ease, and makes its borings in the trunk and larger branches, often 
completely girdling them. It is the larva 
of a beetle which is oblong, flattish in 
form, and of a shining greenish-black 
color, about three-eighths of an inch 
long. The beetles emerge from the bor- 
' ing in the trees in the early summer. 
They are very active in the middle of 
warm days, and may be found in the hot 
sunshine running up and down the 
trunk of the tree, whence they fly quick, 
ly if an attempt is made to catch them, 
They lay their eggs, which are yellow, 
under loose scales on the bark, or in 
cracks and crevices. The young soon 
hatch and eat their way through the 
FiG. 61.—Flat-headed apple bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the 

tree borer; a, larva (borer); borer approaches maturity it usually 

upa: a, beetle somewhat bores into the more solid wood, and 

en ag eas finally out to the bark, where it changes 

into the beetle form. Figure 61 shows the borer in its severa| 
forms. 


THE APPLE. 87 


ReMEpins.—All trées should be examined early in autumn, 
when, if there are borers present, they may be detected by the 
dry appearance of the bark, by the borings, or by the exudation of 
Sap, or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts 
should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. 
As a preventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to 
coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft-soap re- 
duced to the consistency of a thick paint with a solution of wash- 
ing soda, and if a little carbolic acid is added it will be even more 
repulsive to the beetles. This should be kept on the trees during 
the summer months, when this insect is injurious. 

New York WEEVIL (Jthycerus noveboracensis). This is a very 
large snout-beetle of gray color marked 
with black, about one-half inch long. 
It breeds in the oak, and is only abun- 
dant where there are oak groves near 
by. In such locations it often causes 
great injury by gnawing out the buds 
early in the season, and later by cutting 
off the young shoots, so that the trees 
are destroyed or seriously injured. It 
attacks cherries and plums as well as 
apples. It seems to do its work at night, 
or early in the morning, for it does not 
work much if at all during the day. 
Figure 62 shows this insect in its differ- 
ent stages of growth. 

Remupy.—The only known remedy 
for this pest is to jar the trees, when 
they curl up and fall to the ground, and 
then may readily be gathered and des- 
troyed. When the trees are badly in- 
fested they should be jarred once a day 
as long as any are found. They disap- 
pear about the first-of July. 

TENT CATERPILLAR (Clisiocampa Americana).—The characteris- 
tics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 63, which shows the 
caterpillar resting on the outside of the tent-like structure in 
which they live, and also a twig sustaining a bunch of eggs. The 
habit of this insect is about as follows: The eggs are laid on the 
smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first 
two weeks in July. Two or three hundred eggs are laid in each 
cluster, and they are firmly cemented together. These hatch out 
early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars 
soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of web across 
the nearest forks of the twigs, and this tent or nest is enlarged as 
more room is needed. It has holes in it through which the cater- 
pillars enter. The caterpillars retreat te the nest at night and in 


Fic. 62.—New York Weevil 
6, larva; c, beetle. 


88 THE APPLE. 


stormy weather, and usually when not feeding. They generally 
come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after- 


oe satiny 
\s ont i 7 


is 


S\ 
Wi 


Fic. 63.—Zarly stages of Orchard Tent Caterpillar. 
a,b. Caterpillars resting on tent-like nest; ¢, rung 
of like egg mass on twig; da, cocoon. 
noon to feed. They are very voracious, and soon strip the infested 
tree of its foliage. They change to moths (Fig. 64) in June and 
soon commence laying eggs. 
RemepDy.—The tents 
are readily seen. They 
should be destroyed ear:y 
in the season when the 
worms are within them. 
The egg masses are also 
readily seen against a 
cloudy sky, and are easily 
gathered and destroyed. Fic. 64—Moth of Orchard Tent Caterpillar. 
The foliage may be poisoned with Paris green, used at the rate of 
one pound to two hundred gallons of water. 
The forest tent caterpillar, which has caused so much damage 


THE APPLE. 89 


in this section some years, closely resembles the foregoing in ap- 
pearance, but it builds only a very thin web against the trunk or 
branches of the .rees, and they march in every Gizection. At night 
they collect in groups on the trunks and branches of the trees, 
where they may be easily destroyed. The egg masses resemble 
those of the tent caterpillar, but as these are generally high up on 
forest trees it is impracticable to gather and destroy them. The 
best remedy is to poison the infested trees with Paris green, as 
recommended for the tent caterpillar. 


CuimBIne Cur-Worm (4grotis sp).—When the foliage or buds 
are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cut- 
worms should be searched for. They will be found buried in the 
ground near the base of the trees. They are closely allied to and 
resemble the common cut-worms, so well known to gardeners, and 
occasionally do much damage. They may be destroyed by spray- 
ing the foliage as recommended for the tent caterpillar and by 
jarring the trees after dark, having first spread sheets on the 
ground, Putting a cone-shaped piece of zine or tin around the 
tree, so that they cannot gain a foothold on it, will keep them off 
the trees. P 

Copiine Mots (Carpocapsa pomonella).—Figure 65 plainly 
shows the work of this pest. It is the common cause of wormy 
apples, and causes the 
infested fruit to ripen 
prematurely and fall to 
the ground. The moths 
deposit their eggs in 
the calyx or eye of the 
apple just as the blos- 
soms fall. On hatching 
the worm eats into the 
fruit, where it lives un- 
til it is ready to change 
‘to the moth stage, when 
it leaves the fruit and 
spins a cocoon in which 
it undergoes its change. 
There are several 
broods in a season. The 
worms that are in the 
i late apple leave them 
% in the winter and find 
Fig. 65.—Codling Moth. a, Apple injured byPplaces to spin their co- 

worm; b, calyx, end where the larva entered; coons near by, often be- 


e. larva (worm) escaping; f, moth at rest; g, 
same it wings sprea +d, chrysalis; i, co-tbween the hoops and 


coon. staves of the barrels 
holding the fruit. 

RzemeEpizs.—The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and 

destroyed. Keeping hogs in an orchard is very beneficial. If 


90 THE APPLE. 


bands of burlap, or even paper, six inches wide, are fastened. 
around the trunks not later than the first of June, the worms and 
chrysalides of this moth will be found under them and may be 
easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in 
ten days until the last of August. 

The most common way of protecting against this insect is by 
Spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the apples 
stand upright, with Paris green and water, at the rate of one 
pound to two hundred gallons. When the trees are sprayed to 
prevent scab the Paris green may be added to the Bordeax mix- 
ture at the rate of one pound to two hundred gallons of the mixture. 

Fatt Wez-Worm (Hyphantria tector).—This resembles the or- 
dinary tent caterpillar in having a tent, but is smaller in size. It 
appears in the late summer and fall. It is quickly seen and easily 
destroyed by cutting off the twig on which the web is found and 
destroying the caterpillars, or by spraying the foliage with Paris 
green, as recommended for tent caterpillar. 

APPLE CURCULIO (Anthonomus quadrigibbus). This is a snout- 
beetle which cuts small holes 
in fruit as it feeds, and also as 
a place for its eggs. The lat- 
ter soon hatch a small grub, 
about one-half inch long. The 
special injury to the fruit 
comes from the hard knots 
that form around the hole, 
which makes the apples 
gnarled and of poor quality. 
(See Figs. 66 and 67 ) 

RemMepvy.—This insect pe 
breeds mostly in the wild Fic. 66.—Apple Curculio; a, natural 
haws and wild crab apples, size; b and c, the beetle much enlarged. 
and destroying these generally results in lessening the damage to 
the apples in their vicin- 
ity. The windfalls should 
be destroyed, and pastur- 
ing hogs in the orchard is 
probably the easiest way 
to accomplish it. Spray- 
ing the fruit with Paris 
green and water, as recom- 
mended for the tent cater- 
pillar, is a satisfactory 
remedy and may be ussd 


$8 
Fic. 67--Apple curculio. a, Pupa stage; to supplement the other 


b, Larva worm. The hair lines indicat! ‘ - 
the natural size, ions remedies mentioned. 


THE APPLE, OL 


APPLE LzaF Lice (Aphis mali).—The leaves of the apple are 
frequently attacked by lice, which by sucking the sap cause the 
leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearance. They 
‘work almost entire- 

ly on the lower side 
of the leaf and are 
most abundant on 
. the new and tender 
growth. Similar 
lice attack the foli- 
age of plum, currant 
and other plants. 
The eggs of these 
lice are very small 
but shiny black in 
is eee color, and may be 
IG. 68.— e Le ice, ii rh i 

GF nin usagi unmade tmete oe on tne Wiss 
trees during the winter. They hatch out early in the spring and 
multiply with great rapidity. (Fig. 68.) ' 

RemzviEs.—The lice should be destroyed early in the spring 
before they have become numerous. The eggs hatch out about the 
time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear they 
should be sprayed with strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or 
tobacco water; the latter made by boiling one pound of rough 
stems or leaves in a gallon of water; will be very effective against 
the young lice. Kerosene emulsion is easily made, cheap and very 
effective. It should be sprayed on the infested trees. If the lice 
are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced 
the work will have to be repeated several times. Kerosene emul- 
sion made as follows: 

Kerosene Emulsion.—Soft soap, one quart, or one-fourth pound 
of hard soap; two quarts hot water; one pint kerosene. Stir until 
all are permanently mixed, and then add water until the kerosene 
forms one-fifteenth of the whole compound. A good way to make 
the emulsion permanent is‘ to pump the mixture back into the re- 
ceptacle several times. 

There are many other insects that occasionally injure the 
apple. For those that eat the leaves Paris green and water is 
generally the best remedy, and it may be used as strong as Oue 
pound to one hundred gallons of water without injury to foliage, 
but generally one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water 
is considered about the right proportion. 

' Warieties.—The following list of varieties includes only the 
hardiest kinds and those that are generally successful in the loca- 
tion for which they are recommended, and that can be readily ob- 
tained from nurserymen. In very favorable locations less hardy 
varieties may be profitable, but it will be best for the inexperi- 
enced planter in severe climates to try only the hardiest kinds. 


92 THE APPLE, 


In selecting varieties it should always pe borne in mind that 
ihe experience of reliable and progressive tree growers of a neigh- 
borhood will indicate what varieties will succeed in that particular 
location far better than any list one is apt to receive from those 
not acquainted with the local peculiarities of climate and soil. 

In planting do not put in many varieties, and especially avoid 
using many of those that are untried, or new seedlings. These 
latter often sell at high prices, and are generally of doubtful value 
and disappointing in results. ‘ Past experience would seem to show 
that not one in fifty of new seedling apples introduced are worth 
growing. If one wants to and can afford to experiment, it is a good 
plan to try new fruits, for it is a very interesting pursuit, but at 
the same time such work can and is being done in a much more 
thorough way by the Experiment Station. 

Russian Apples.—Under this head is includea severa: nun- 
dréd varieties of apples that have been introduced into this coun- 
try from Russia. They vary wonderfully in form, size and quality 
of fruit, and in hardiness of tree. All of them have not been tried 
here long enough to determine their value, but enough has been 
learned to say that among them are many so tender, or susceptible 
to blight, as to be worthless for the colder portions of the United 
States. Others are of too poor quality, while others are too long 
in coming into bearing. But some of them have shown wonderful 
hardiness, productiveness and freedom from blight, so that they 
are now being more largely planted by the most intelligent apple 
growers of the North than any other kinds. These few Russian 
apples have proven to be much superior to the varieties in the old 
lists. In this connection it should be remembered that the apple 
known as Duchess of Oldenburg has been conclusively shown to be 
a Russian variety. Among the Russian apples are varieties 
adapted to every season, and the near future will undoubtedly 
warrant a more liberal selection of them than is here indicated. 

Summer Varieties.—TEToFsKY (Russian). Fruit is medium 
size, yellow, and of a sprightly, agreeable acid quality. Ripe early 
in August and quickly perishable. The tree is a close, very up- 
right grower, and is doing well over a large portion of the North- 
west. More desirab'e for home garden than for market. 

YELLOW TRANSPARENT (Russian).—A fine, early, yellow sum- 
mer apple of extra quality, good size and productive. It is fairly 
hardy against climatic changes, but is very liable to blight, and 
should not be planted wherethis disease is prevalent. Bears young. 

Late Summer and Early Autumn Varieties.—OLpEnN- 
BURG, OR DucHEss, on DucHEss or OLpunBuRG (Russian), The 
first name is now recognized as official. The most popular late 
summer or early autumn apple, and the standard of hardiness as 
far north as Minneapolis. Of large size and beautifully colored ; 
rather acid. It comes into bearing very young, and is very pro- 
ductive. Season: August and September. Excellent for cooking 
in a green state or when ripe. 


THE APPLE. 93 


Borovinka (Russian).—Closely resembles the Oldenburg in 
every particular, except that it is said to be a little less acid and a 
better keeper. 

CuarLamorr (Russian).—In colom of fruit resembling the Olden- 
burg, but oblong in form, of good size and quality, season a little 
later than Oldenburg, and the tree about as hardy. 

LoneGFizLp (/ussian).--A small, light colored, pretty desert 
apple, of extra good quality, that with ordinary care will keep un- 
til January. It bears young and regularly. It does best when top- 
worked on hardy crab-stocks. and should generally be grown in 
that way. 

REcuMBENT, also called Liesy (2ussian).—Without doubt the 
hardiest of the well-tested varieties. The tree is very spreading 
in habit, and is considerably hardier than the Oldenburg. A rather 
early and regular bearer and productive. It seldom if ever 
blights severely, the blighting part being confined to the new 
growth. The fruitis large and colored much like the Oldenburg; 
rather sour but excellent for cooking, and not to be despised for 
table use, when fully ripe. Season, late autumn and early winter 
as far north as Minneapolis, but may be kept until March by a 
little extra care. 

HIBERNAL (Ruscian).—As it is generally grown practically the 
same as Recumbent. 

Mac Manon Wuirs.--A very handsome, very large, very pro- 
ductive light green apple ot good quality. The tree is fairly pro- 
ductive and nearly hardy in Southern Minnesota and Norther 
Iowa; highly esteemed for planting in very favorable locations. 
Originated in Wisconsin. 

WeattHy.—A beautiful ved apple of extra quality and quite 
hardy; it occasionally blights badiy, but is wonderfully productive 
in good locations. It bears very young and has great recuperative 
powers. If killed back to the ground it seldom fails to sprout from 
the root, and these sprouts generally produce remunerative crops 
of fruit. In the bushy form thus made the trees often fruit for 
many years. It does best, however,.when top-grafted on the 
branches of strong growing crabs. Season, late autumn and early 
winter, and it may be kept until spring by special care. Origin- 
ated in Minnesota. 

Supplementary List of Apples.—The following varieties 
have been tried to a limited extent in northern sections and are of 
great promise: 

Breskovea (Russian).--Resembles the Yellow Transparent in 
fruit, though somewhat later in ripening. It has been tried only 
in a limited way in Minnesota, but it is quite free from blight; a 
full and regular bearer and much hardier in tree than the Yellow 
Transparent, which it will probably supplant when better known. 
Trees of this kind are very scarce. 

THALER, OR CHARLOTTENTHALER (Russian).—Much like the 


94 THE APPun. 


Yellow Transparent and of about the same season, but a much 
better tree; very productive. 

BLUSHED CALVILLE (Russian).--A fine summer apple resem- 
bling the Yellow Transparent in fruit, but the tree is hardier and 
not subject to blight. 

ANIsim (fussian).--An early winter apple of extra nice table 
quality; fruit medium in size; tree extra hardy and a strong 
grower. This variety has generally been sent out under the name 
of Good Peasant. It is not subject to blight and seldom sun-scalds. 

Crab Apples.—Among these are some delicious little dessert 
apples, while others are only valuable for cooking. Some are very 
hardy and resist blight, while others are quite tender, or perhaps 
blight badly. 

HARLY STRAWBERRY.—Tree very hardy, of spreading growth, 
bearing young and heavily; fruit tender and delicious, but quickly 
perishable. It seldom blights severely. 

Wuitney No. 20.—Tree much hardier than the Oldenburg, 
and generally very productive; of very close, upright habit. Fruit 
of large size, handsomely striped with red, of excellent dessert 
quality. It seldom blights badly. 

Minnesota.:-Tree quite hardy, but rather a shy bearer when 
young. Fruit large, yellow; of fine table quality, and keeps until 
January. Itis highly thought of by those whé are growing it in 
Southern Minnesota and Northern Iowa. It seldom blights. 

TRANSCENDANT.-—- Very hardy ; a strong grower and very pro- 
ductive; it often blights severely. Fruit ripens in September, and 
is well known. 

MartHa.—Tree very hardy, a fine, thrifty grower and a heavy 
bearer. It seldom blights. Fruit large and of a rich red color; of 
fine quality for cooking. Ripens in September and will keep until 
December. Originated in Minnesota. : 

Virainia.—Tree very hardy and free from blight; a strong 
grower. It probably will stand more adverse conditions than any 
other apple known. Fruit as large or larger than Transcendant, 
and more completely covered with red. Excellent for jellies or 
preserves. Ripens in September and keeps for two months. Per- 
haps the best variety for top-grafting with the larger kinds of 
apples. 

TonKa.—Tree very hardy, of upright growth, quite free from 
blight and very productive. Fruit about the size of the Traus- 
cendant but flat; quite acid. Season, October. Excellent for 
cooking. Originated in Minnesota. 

PRIDE oF MINNHAPOLIS.—Tree very hardy, a good grower, pro- 
ductive and quite free from blight. Fruit of green color, medium 
size, quite acid. Ripens late and keeps into winter. Excellent for 
jellies. Were it not for its unattractive color this would be one of 
the most profitable crabs to grow for market as it is immensely 
productive. Not generally offered by nurserymen. Originated in 
Minnesota. 


CHAPTER XI, 


THE PLUM. 


YjyCHE plum is one of the most valuable of our cultivated fruits. 
In point of hardiness it is surpassed by none other. Some 
varieties of good quality are hardy as far north as Winni- 

peg. It is valuable for cooking or eating uncooked. It should be 
more generally grown, and more attention should be paid to get- 
ting varieties that will prolong the season, which will last for at 
least six weeks if a proper selection is made of the kinds now 
offered by nurserymen at reasonable figures. There are four 
species of the plum which are of interest to us in this section: 

(1) Prunus domestica, is a native of Europe, and from it have 
come the varieties of plum commonly cultivated in the Eastern 
States and in California, but varieties of it generally cultivated in 
these sections are not hardy here. There are, however, a number 
of varisties of this species which have been introduced from Rus- 
sia and promise to be of some value here. 

(2) Prunus Americana, is the plum found in our woods in its 
wild state. It is far superior to the original form of the preced- 
ing species, and it is. very probable that under cultivation many 
very desirable varieties will be developed, which will be hardy 
enough for this section, Already selections have been made from 
it by our nurserymen which are vastly superior to the kinds ordi- 
narily found in the woods. These vary much in size, form, quality 
and color. Some are very nice dessert fruit, some have free-stones, 
while generally they have cling-stones. This is the most promising 
species for this section. 

There are two forms of this. One is rather a small tree with 
black twigs and close head, having small, very astringent purplish 
fruit. The other is more open in its habit, makes a larger tree, and 

has rather large fruit colored with red and yellow. itis to this 
latter form that we must look for the best varieties for cultivation. 

The two other species of interest to us are (8) Prunus hortulane 
and (4) Prunus angustifolia, These species are seldom found north 
of Central Iowa. Many of them are not hardy enough for North- 
ern Jowa, but some varieties of it are hardy as far north as Si. 


de 


96 THE PLUM. 


Paul, although, as a rule, they do not fruit well so far north, All 
these species readily hybridize together. 

Propagation.—The plum does not come true from seed, al- 
though there are some varieties which nearly reproduce themselves 
in this way. However, the seed is sown in order to produce new 
varieties, and the stocks into which the named kinds are budded 
or grafted. If the seed is allowed to get very dry before planting 
it will lie in the ground one year before it will start; but if it is 
buried at once after separating it from the flesh it will come up the 
following spring. Seedlings bear in from three to five years from 
seed, They are generally large enough to graft upon when one 
year old, and if given plenty of room, in rich soil, are large enough 
to be budded the first year from seed. 

Nurserymen generally offer plants that are grafted or budded. 
It matters not by which method they are grown, as long as the root 
on which they are worked is hardy. For this purpose native seed- 
lings are most desirable and should be used when possible, but 
Angustifolia and Hortulana stocks do very well if planted pretty 
deep. A European form of the plum called Myrobolan is frequently 
used by nurserymen for stocks, but its use in this section is to be 
discouraged, as it does not stand well here. If plums are to be 
grafted the work should be done very early in the spring, even 
before the frost is out of the ground. 

Thrifty Suckers make very desirable trees when grown for 
a year or two in the nursery. They should be taken up with a 
short piece of the main root 
from which they grew (Fig. 
69). Ifsimply pulled up they 
are often of little value. If 
the smaller roots around the 
trees are cut while they are 
dormant, as in the early fall 
or early spring, they will read- 
ily sprout. Most varieties of 
the plum will grow from 
pieces of the root made into 
cuttings about six inches long 
in the fall of the year and 
planted out in spring. Such 
cuttings should be buried in 
the ground until planted out. 
One advantage of having trees 
that are grown from suckers 
or cuttings is that they are on 
their own roots and conse- 
quently any suckers from 
them will be true to name, 
while suckers from grafted or 
budded trees are of little if as Ye be OF ne fon 
any value. whioh tt grew. 


THE PLUM. a7 


Profits of Cultivation.—Io good locations this fruit may be 
grown at considerable profit. Occasionally the numerous wiid 
plums somewhat affect the demand for the cultivated kinds, but 
wild plums are growing scarcer with each succeeding year, and the 
consumers already begin to discriminate between the wild and the 
cultivated varieties, and are willing to pay more for the latter. No 
one should be contented to plant with the common wild kinds when 
Varieties so very much better can be obtained at a moderate price. 


Location.—The best, location for the plum is on high land, 
sloping to the north and having a retentive soil, and protected from 
the east winds, as the storms from this direction are most injurious 
at blooming time. It will, however, grow and fruit abundantly in 
almost any situation. It will stand much neglect, but responds 
quickly to good cultivation, which if, must have to be profitable. 

Planting.—The trees may be set out either in the fall or 
spring of the year, but spring setting is most desirable. If planted 
in autumn the work should be done by the middle of October, and 
the soil watered if dry. The best trees are those which are two 
years from the graft or bud and grown on native seedling stocks. 
Thrifty suckers also make good plants if well rooted. The trees 
should be planted about ten feet apart in rows, leaving sufficient 
distance between them to allow for a free circulation of air. It is 
preferable to plant in rows running north and south, and they 
should not be nearer together than twenty-four feet. The same 
general directions given for planting the apple will apply here. 


Cultivation.—Land around the trees should be thoroughly 
cultivated for the first three years. If thorough cultivation cannot 
be given the trees should be heavily mulched, and this is by far the 
best treatment for them when they become old. 

Renewing Old Trees.—Plum trees are inclined to over-bear 
and to exhaust themselves, after which they often die out or the 
fruit becomes very small and of poor quality. On that account 
manuring should be resorted to when the trees fail to make a satis- 
factory growth. Quite frequently as the trees get oid the fruiting 
branches become very long and bare with all the fruit near their 
extremities. In such shape they are liable to split down in the 
crotches. When trees get into this condition the longer branches 
should be shortened back (as shown in Fig. 70), and some care 
taken in removing or shortening the suckers that will start so as to 
make a good top to the tree. Where a crotch is found cracked it is 
a good plan to hold it in place, driving a wire nail through it far 
enough so that its end can be turned over. This will often affect a 

- permanent cure. 

Pruning.—The notes on time and manner of pruning given in 
the chapter on the apple will apply here. Plum trees should be 
pruned so as to allow the branches to start out about two feet 
from the ground. The trunks of plum trees do not sun-scald read- 
ily, but if long stems are 2xposed the grorth on the south side is 


98 THE PLUM. 


weakest and the trees are very liable to become onesided. Ex- 
posed trunks are also liable tn a fatal gumming disease. 

Mixing Varieties.—Some varieties of the plum have flowers 
which seem to be impotent to their own pollen, that is they are not 
fruitful when growing away from other varieties of the plum. 
Then again other varieties, while seemingly potent to their own 
pollen, fruit much more abundantly if they are pollenized with 
some other variety. On this account it is always desirable to 
plaat more than one variety of the plum, and even to mix the vari- 


one Fe ‘Le, Dey 


AS QS 
baer ee OL 


Fic. 70.—Renewing an old plum tree, The long branches have been 
shortened in to encourage compact form. The figures 1 indicate 
where pruning has been done. 

eties together by planting them alternately in the rows. Some 
varieties which are entirely unfruitful when growing alone are 
very productive when grown by the side of some other kind having 
strong pollen. 

Marketing.—The rule of never sending fruit to market in 
rough, unsightly or unusual packages, holds well here. Plums 
should never be marketed in rough baskets, tubs or boxes, as is 
often practiced, but in some of the popular commercial fruit pack- 
ages, which can now be obtained at very low prices. 


THE PLUM. 


Varieties.—The varieties mentioned below ripen about in the 
order in which they are described. They are all good fruits and 
desirable. By selecting three or four kinds the season of fruiting 
may be made a very long one. There are a number of other vari- 
eties that are very good, and several untried ones said to be better 
than any mentioned, but those referred to have been tried for a 
considerable time. 

CHENEY.—A very early plum of largest size and excellert qual- 
ity. Tree, a very strong grower, hardy and productive. This 
variety flowers very early, and on this account is more liable to 
have its blossoms injured by late frosts than some others. 

Forrest Garpen.—An early plum of 3 
high flavor and fair size, but its skin is 
rather thick and astringent. Tree a strong 
grower and fruitful. 

Wo tr.—A free-stone plum of large size 
and excellent quality; pit very small. Tree 
a good grower, hardy and fruitful. 

Ro.iinesTtonz.—A large plum of excel- 
lent quality. Tree vigorous, hardy, with 
very crooked branches. Season, second ene 
early. In scme location a heavy bearer. Fic. 71.—Seclinn through 

Weaver.—A valuable late large plum forest Garden plum. 
of good quality, having its pit free from the flesh. Skin not astrin- 
gent. Tree a strong grower, very hardy and fruitful. 


Fig. 72.—Section through Fria. 73.—Section through 
Weaver plum. De Soto plum. 


Ds Soro.--A late variety of medium size and good quality. 
Tree a vigorous, good grower. Thought by many to. be the most 
reliable of our native plums. 

Wraxt.—Fruit large, firm, quality good. Mid-season. Tree 
vigorous, productive, hardy. One of the best sorts. 


Pi 


100 THE PLUM. 


Diseases of the Plum.—Pium Pocsers.—This is a name 
given to certain peculiar hollow deformities which occasionally 
take the place of the plums (see Fig. 74). They consist merely of 
a thin shell with no evi- . 
dence whatever of seed. 
Some seasons this dis- 
ease is very. abundant, 
and then for a number 
of years it may scarce 
appear atall. Itis due 
to the presence of a 
parasitic fungus (Taph- 
rina pruni) which at- 
tacks the young fruit, 
and by growing within 
it causes the peculiar 
development which fin- 
ally results in the for- 
mation of the so-called 
pocket. The only 
course of treatment 
which can be recom- 
mended is that of re- 
moving and destroying 
the pockets before they 
reach maturity. It will 
sometimes be found 
that a single tree will 
be troubled with this 
fungus for a series of 
years, and it will not 
spread much. When 
this is the case such 
trees should be des- 
troyed, as they are we. 74.—Plum pockets, or diseased plums. 
likely to be centers of 
infection. Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others. 

BLACKE-ENOT, OR WART OF THZ PLUM, is the common name of 
tha fungus disease of this tree which manifests itself by knot-like - 
or wart-like growths appearing on the smaller limbs as well as on 
the larger branches, and sometimes even on the trunk (see Fig. 75). 
In sections of the country where Prunus domestica is grown this is 
one of the most serious obstacles to successful cultivation of the 
pium. Our native plums are not often destroyed by it, but it 
sometimes causes serious injury to them. This knot-like growth is 
spongy and of a black color. Upon examining it with a microscope 
it is found that the surface has many little cavities which contain 
the spores by which the disease spreads. It is probable that the 


THE PLUM. 101 


Spores escape from the knots during the late winter or early spring 
months. 

Remedy.—Upon their first appear- 
ance these swellings should be removed 
and burned, if they are on the smaller 
branches where it is practicable to cut 
them off; if on the trunk or larger 
branches where they cannot be cut out 
they should be painted with a paste 
made of yellow ochre and linseed oil, 
using care to keep the oil away from 
the healthy bark; where trees are very 
badly infested they should be removed 
entirely. This same disease also grows 
in the wild black and choke cherries, 
and if abundant on them their removal 
will make the extermination of the dis- 
ease more easy. 

Other Diseases.—There are sey- 
eral other fungus diseases which occa- 
sionally injure the plum. One of them 
(Honilia fructigena) causes the fruit to 
rot, while another produces round, dry, 
scabby spots on the skin. Probably the 
best treatment where these are abun- 
dant is to spray the fruit with Bordeaux 
mixture as soon as it is well formed, 
and again when about half grown. For 
recipe for making Bordeaux mixture 
see chapter on the strawberry. 

Insects.—PLuM CurcuLio.—This is 
the insect which causes the plums to 
prematurely ripen and drop to the 
ground. .IJt is not nearly so destructive 
to our native plums as to those of the 
Prunus domestica tribe. The latter are 

often so badly infested that none of the 
ane me pio Bio GF wart suit comes to full maturity. While our 

native plums are stung just as much by 
the curculio as the others, but few of the eggs of the curculio de- 
velop into the grub. This insect is a small, rough, greyish or 
blackish beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long with a black, shin- 
ing lump on the middle of each wing, and behind this a more or 
less distinct band ofa dull yellow color, with some whitish marks 
about the middle (see Fig. 76). The snout is rather short. The 
female lays her eggs in the young green fruit shortly after it is . 
formed. After laying the egg she cuts a circle round it to prevent 
the part in which the egg is laid from growing (see Fig. 77). The 
egg hatches in a few days and the larva works around the outside 


102 THE PLUM. 


of the stone. This causes the fruit to become diseased and it falls 
prematurely to the ground. Within the plum the growth of the 
iarva is completed. It then goes into the ground and transforms 
to the beetle and soon goes to the surface and escapes. 

Remedy.—When the curculio gets alarmed it draws itself to- 
gether and falls to the ground. Advantages are taken of this 
peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under the 
trees and the tree and its branches are suddenly jarred, when the 
beetles, which fall on the 
sheet, may be gathered up 
and destroyed. As it is im- 
portant to catch as many 
beetles as possible before any 
mischief has been done, jar- 
ring should begin while the 
tree is in blossom, and be con- 
tinued daily morning and 
evening, if the insects are 
abundant, for three or four 
weeks, or until they become 
very scarce. 

_ Another remedy which is sancneae : 
less laborious and has been Me ee ree 
down rene efcokie! 1 ie 0 a eae alec tone 
spray the plums as soon as the iure made ini deposing the “go. and 

fruit is formed with Paris the crescent cut. The hair-lines just 
_sreen in the proportion of one Selina and.c, anda fe ferl ude of 

pound to two hundred gallons 

of water, and repeating the application at intervals of a week or 

ten days until the curculios disappear. If the weather is very 
showery three sprayings 
may be necessary, but gen- 
erally two is sufficient. It 
will be found that where 
hers with their broods of 
chickens are inclosed with- 
in the plum orchard that 
they will devour a large 
number of the larva of the 
curculio. If hogs are kept 
in the same inclosure as 
the plum trees they will 
pick up the fallen fruit 
and so destroy agreat 


Fic. %7/.—a, Part of plum showing egg-punc- many of the larva. 
ture, and location, of egg, from above; 
b, section through egg-puncture, showing PLtum Gou@ErR.—The 


egg. plum gouger is a snout- 
beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily distinguished 
from it by a little carefulexamination. it is about five-sixteenth 


THE PLUM. 103 


of an inch long. The head and wing cases are brown with a leaden 
grey tinge, the latter with whitish and black spots scattered irreg- 
ularly over their surface. It appears in the spring about the same 
time as the curculio, and it causes the plums to drop in much the 
same way as the curculio, but instead of working around the stone 
it eats through the soft shell and lives within the stone, where it 
undergoes its changes and emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of 
the plum gouger bore cylindrical holes in the fruit or food. These 
cause the fruit to become knotty and worthless, but it does not 
prevent their remaining on the tree uatil maturity. This insect 
does not cut a flat or half circle around the hole in which the egg is 
placed, as is characteristic of the curculio. The remedies recom- 
mended for the curculio are the best for preventing the work of 
this insect. 

ApHis, or Lear Licz.—These are often abundant upon the 
native plums. They live upon the under side of the leaves; are 
generally not observed until they are very abundant, and increase 
with great rapidity. They resemble very much the apple aphis 
before described, and the same remedies will be applicable here. 
It is of the utmost importance that treatment be commenced early. 
As a rule, if they are abundant during the summer their presence 
could easily have been detected early in the spring when they were 
not numerous, and when it would have been but a small matter to 
destroy them. ; 

There are a number of other insects that injure the plum, but 
they have been referred to under the head of insects injurious to 
the apple, 


CHAPTER XII. 


THE CHERRY. 


HE species from which the commonly cultivated cherry is 
derived was probably the Prunus cerasus, of Europe and 
Asia. It is not indigenous to this country. There are two 

distinct groups of this fruit. The first comprises those kinds of a 
strong, upward, straight growth, pyramidal form, and sweet or 
bitter but not sour fruit. The second group has sour fruit, and 
either a spreading or upright habit, and the young branches are 
crooked. This group is divided into two classes, which were for- 
merly termed Morrellos and Dukes, although the reason for this 
distinction has been largely done away with by their becoming 
intermingled by crossing. To this latter group belong all the vari- 
eties that can be successfully grown north of what might be called 
the ‘‘peach belt’’, and therefore those that are of interest to grow- 
ers in such latitude. 

Historical.— Until the importation of East European varieties 
of cherries there was little encouragement for any one to plant this 
fruit in the colder sections of the West. The hardiest West Euro- 
pean varieties, such as the Karly Richmond and English Morello, 
are not reliable in the North, though after lasting well for a few 
years. The East European kinds, which are often referred to as 
the Russian cherries, while as yet tried for but a short time, give 
promise of being an important addition to the list of cultivated 
fruits for all northern regions. At present they can be bought of 
but few nurserymen, but as they are easy to propagate it will not 
be long before they can be readily and cheaply obtained, 

Soil and Loeation.—-The best soil for the cherry is one that 
is drier than is desirable for most other fruits; a sandy or gravelly 
loam, with porous subsoil, is best. In wet places. or on water- 
soaked subsoils, it soon perishes. The best locations are on high 
land, but a rise of even a few feet, above the surrounding country 
is of great advantage 

Propagation.—The cherry does not come true from seed, 
though seedlings are often of very good quality. Seedlings are 

104 


THE CHERRY. 105 


generally used as stocks on which to work the named varieties. 
The yits (seed) should be managed as recommended for plum pits. 
Nameu varieties of the cherry are propagated by budding, graft- 
ing, and from suckers. Budding and grafting are generally done 
on eithe:- vf two kinds of seedling stocks, called Mazzard and Mabh- 
aleb, whicu are imported from France. These are notas hardy as 
is desired, aad in fact are too tender to be left without protection 
in winter, tuough they may last well if protected by deep plant- 
ing. Seedling dird cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) is the best for 
stock purposes. Recent experiments with the sand cherry (Prunns 
Pumila) seems vo indicate that it may be useful for this purpose by 
budding, but not oy 15% grafting. 


Fic. 78.—Showing fruit of Early Morello Cherry. 


Suckers.—Most of the cultivated kinds that are valuable for 
northern sections sucker readily if they are cut back to the surface 
of the ground, but,‘of course, where such practice is attempted the 
trees must be on their own roots, or the suckers will not be like 
them. This method of propagation is seldom practiced in tiis 
country, but may readily be followed wherever there are old trees 
on their own roots. It is the method generally preferred in Russia, 
and will undoubtedly prove best adapted for severe locations here. 

Cuttings.—A few of the various cherries may be grown from 
cuttings, but this method is very uncertain and requires much 
careful management. On this account it is seldom practiced. 

Planting.—The varieties of cherries that are hardy in this 
section do not make large trees, but are ouite dwarf and bushy in 
habit, and on this accovnt they may be planted quite close to- 


106 THE CHERRY. 


gether. It is generally best to plant about eight feet apart, in rows 
fifteen feet apart. Most of the plants sent out are budded or 
grafted on tender roots, as they are most easily obtained. These 
may easily be winter-killed if exposed and cause the death of a 
tree which might otherwise be perfectly hardy. On this account 
the roots should be planted from four to six inches deeper than 
they grew in the nursery, to afford them the protection of the soil. 
Besides this, when planted deep the scion sends out roots, and 
when a tree is thus on its own roots its powers of resisting adverse 
conditions is greatest. 

Cultivation.—The cultivation suggested for the plum applies 
here. It is important also to mulch the trees when on exceedingly 
dry soils, but this is not so necessary as in case of the plum, since 
they do well on much drier land. 


UY 2p ef, gh Oe 
EOS 


i re 


Fic. 79.—Cherry tree of good form. 


Pruning.—The cherry needs-only enough pruning to keep the 
tree in shape, and but very little is required to accomplish that. 
In Russia it is grown in bush form, and when it becomes too old to 
bear profitably the older parts are cut away and new sprouts take 
their places. The fiaportant point to remember in connection with 
this, as well as all stone fruits, is that they should be trained to 
branch low. 

Insects and Diseases.—The insects and diseases which 
affect the cherry are about the same as those that injure the plum, 


THE CHERRY. 107 


and the same remedies are applicable here. But the cherry may 
be injured by several insects that injure the apple, and they will be 
found referred to in the chapter on that fruit. 

Varieties.—The varieties which have proven most hardy thus 
far are Early Morello (23 Orel), Sklanka, Bessarabian (No. 62), 
Cuse d’ Ostheim; but there are several others that are standing 
well and may prove valuable. 


CHAPTER XII. 


BUDDING. 


N its broad sense the term grafting, or graftage, inciudes all 
there is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree 
is growing. But as generally used budding applies to the 

process by which a bud of the season is removed from its parent 
plant and induced to unite with and grow upon some other plant 
congenial to it. In the northern states it is commonly practiced 
to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and apples and pears, 
all of which are readily increased in this way. The varieties of 
some ornamental trees and plants may be propagated by budding, 
as for instance some varieties of elm, maple, poplar and birch. 


Most trees that graft readily will bud as 
readily, while others that are very difficult 
to graft will bud very easily. Budding is 
rather a simpler operation than grafting, 
and easier for the beginner to perform suc- 
cessfully. 

The word “‘stock’”’ is used to designate 
the plant into which the bud is inserted, 
and for success 'it must be of the same or 
some nearly allied species. Stocks are gen- 
erally grown from seed and the buds are in- 
serted in them before they are five years 
old, and as near the ground as may be. But 
budding may be done very successfully on 
any growing branch or stem where the bark 
is not too hard and stiff to bend easily. It 
is often used to change the bearing quali- 
ties of fruit trees of small or medium size. 

Bud-stick is the name given to the 
shoots from which the buds are taken. It 
is also referred to as the scion, but the scion 
proper is the piece which is inserted in the 
stock. In Fig. 80 is shown at D' a bud-stick 
prepared for use by cutting off all but 
about one-half inch of the stock of the leaf, 
which part is left for a handle. 


Fic. 80.—Showing Bud 
Sticks. 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 109 


Time for Budding.—In a general way, budding may be 
done at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds are 
sufficiently matured on the new growth of the season. The proper 
time will be influenced by the kind of stock used, the season, and 
sometimes by attacks of insects and diseases. For instance, the 
native plum is generally budded to best advantage about the tenth 
of August, but should the stocks be attacked by some insect or dis- 
ease that seriously injures the foliage in the latter part of July the 
growth of the stocks will soon be checked, and the work must be 
performed at once or not at all. A period of severe drouth may 
check growth, and in a similar way make early budding necessary. 
If the stocks are growing very fast it is often best to delay the 
operation until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else 
its rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable 
pruning of the stocks is necessary {o make a place for the bud it 
should be done at least two weeks before budding is commenced, 
for the heavy pruning of any plant when it is in active growth re- 
sults in a serious check to the growth, and if done just when the 
puds are inserted it may prevent the success of the operation. The 
ordinary season for budding in the northern states is fromthe 
middle of July to the first of September, and the earliness or-late- 
ness at which a variety is most successfully budded depends on the 

condition of growth. The stocks that stop growing early in the 
season are budded early, and those that grow until autumn are 
budded late. The conditions for success are: 

(1) The stock and scion must be perfectly healthy and free from in- 
sects. If either of them are weak or sickly unsatisfactory results 
may be expected. To this end everything necessary should be ; 
done to keep off insects and diseases. 

(2) The buds should be well developed in the axils of the leaves on the 
young shoots from which the buds are to be taken. It seldom happens 
that they are in this condition until the bud at the end is formed, 
but sometimes the buds in the center of the twigs will be large 
enough to grow, while those at the base and at the extreme tip are 
still quite small. In Fig. 80 the buds shown between B and C are 
supposed to be mature enough for budding, while those at the base 
are too small, and those at the tip, beyond the cross-line, are too 
soft. Ifthe buds are thought to be too immature they may readily 
be developed by pinching off the tips of the twigs. In ten or 
twelve days after such pinching, of even a very soft shoot, its buds 
will be fit for working. 

(8) The bark must separate easily from the wood on the stocks to 
be budded. This will take place only when they are growing 
capidly. 

(4) A sharp, thin knife is absolutely necessary. 

(5) The work must be done rapidly, and the buds firmly and 
evenly tied into place. No wax is needed. 


110 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


Necessary Implements.—A common shoe-knife with the 
corners rounded off, as shown in Fig. .81, makes a very cheap 
and yet a most excellent budding knife. There are many specially 
designed forms of 
knives for this pur- 
pose, and most of 
them have an ivory 
point or blade in the 
base of the handle 

for lifting the bark, but the rounded corner of the back of the shoe- 
knife is just as good as the best ivory blade for raising the bark, 
and a shoe-knife costs not one-fourth as much as an ordinary bud- 
ding knife, and generaily holds an edge better. 

Besides a shoe-knife, tying material is necessary. For this 
purpose basswood bark is pcrhaps the best, since it is but little 
affected by moisture, and if put on wet remains tight and close. 
But corn husks, cotton warp or woolen yarn answcrs very well, 
and a tying material called rhaphe is largely used for this purpose, 
but it should be put on dry, while basswood bark should be used 
wet. 

Basswoop Ty1nc MateEriau is prepared by soaking sections 
of the bark in water until the inner layers separate easily. The 
bark peels from the trees readily in June and July, and it requires 
about three weeks of soaking in stagnant water to gct the fiber in- 
to the right condition. After the layers readily separate the bark 
shou!d be stripped into pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide. 
If hard and stiff it may be softened by rubbing or pounding it. 

The Process of Budding will be found illustrated in Fig- 

“ures 82, 83, 84, 85 and 86, which show the successive stages in shic!d 
budding, which is the form generally used in this country. When’ 
everything is ready for the work prepare a lot of bud-sticks, as 
shown in Fig. 80, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the 
leaf stalks. These sticks should be carefully protected from wilt- 
ing, and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in 
moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to store them after 
they are cut they should be kept in a cool, moist place in moss or 
sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often kept fora 
week before using, but should be used as soon as may be after they 
are cut. 


To Insert the Bud a smooth place should be selected (on 
small stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and 
on the north side if practicable, since buds are less. liable to be in- 
jured by freezing on that side than on any other. A cross-cut shou'd 
be made at this point, and from it a cut about 114 inches long, 
as shown in Fig. 82; at the same time the bark should be raised, as 
shown in Fig. 85. <A bud-stick is then taken and a bud cut off with 
the bark and a thin piece of wood (Fig. 8614) extending about one- 
aalf inch above and below the bud, as shown in Fig. 838. The lower 


Fic. 81.—Budding Knife. 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 11 


Fic. 82, Fic. 83. Fic. 84. Fic. 85. Fic. 86. 


VIG 82 — The way the cuts are made in the atock. Fa. 83.—The bud when 
cut off; see from under site. iG 84 —The bark raised for the insertion 
of the bud. F1G. 85..—The bud inserted, 1 1G, 86.— The bud lied in place. 


if 


Fic 86% —Showing the way in which the bud is cut off and ts relative size 
The ences part around the bud represents the prece of bark taken off 
w.th she bud. 


112 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


point of the bud (by which is meant the bark and wood cut off as 
well as the bud) is now inserted under the bark at the cross-cut, 
and is gently pushed down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If 
the bark of the stock will nct raise when the bud is thus pushed 
down the stock is not in the best condition for budding, and it will 
be necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade, or 
with the ivory blade previously referred to, in order to let the bud 
come into its place. The sides of the bud should come under the 
bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit quite all the 
bud, any small part that may project above the cross-cut should be 
cut off by again drawing the knife through the cross-cut. The bud 
must now be securely and firmly tied in place, taking care to draw 
it down evenly and firmly and to cover all the wounds with the 
‘tying material (Fig. 86), but not to draw the string over the bud 
itself. In less severe sections the ties do not need such careful 
attention as here in the northwestern states, where it is im- 
portant to tie very carefully. After the bud is tied the bands 
should be watched so that when the growth of the stock becomes 
so great that the bands are too tight for it (which is generally in 
about a week) they should be loosened, and when the bud is well 
united the band should be cut off altogether. The buds will gener- 
ally unite in about two weeks, but sometimes they will require a 
longer time, and it is often desirable to leave the ties on for some 
little time after this period. It is a bad practice to neglect the 
bands and allow them to severely cut the stock. 

The inserted buds should not start at all until the following 
spring. If they start into growth the season they are inserted they 
are almost certain to be killed the following winter. If the bark of 
the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains fresh and the bud fails 
off the work is entirely lost, though the stocks that have missed 
one year may be budded the next, and even while loosening the 
bands it may not be too-late to again bud those that have failed. 
To make the work more certain two buds are often inserted in each 
stock, although only one is allowed to grow. 

In the spring the inserted bud will resemble Fig. 88. Just as 
the buds commence to swell the budded stocks should be cut off at 
least one inch above the inserted bud, and sometimes seven or eight 
inches of the old stozk is left above the bud to serve as a stake to 
support the shoot starting from the bud (Fig. 87). All the shoots 
that come from the stock should be rubbed off so that all its 
strength shall go into the inserted bud (Fig. 87). 

Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just abaya 
the bud as shown by the line at Bin Fig. 87. The growing shoot 
should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a low one, so as to 
make a straight tree. If the root is strong the bud will makea 
growth of from two to four feet the first year. Some kinds of trees 
readily take on an upright form, while others naturally grow very 
crooked and need special care to induce them to grow straight, 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 113 


On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the earth 
up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be done when 
the buds are more than two or three inches from the ground. If 
the buds are too high up to allow of this earthing up from the 
ground, especially in the case cf somewhat tender kinds, some 
growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax around the bud, 
taking care not to cover the tip of the bud more than a very little. 
This covering is a protection against ice forming behind the bud 
and from sudden freezing and thawing in winter. However, with 
our hardy trees this precaution is not necessary. 


Fie. 87. Fic. 88. Fie. 89. 


Fig. 87 —The shoot starting from the bud tied to a portion of the stock, 
B—A. The line B indicates where the stock should be cut off tate in the 
> geason FIG, 88.—A plum bud in the spring of 1893 before growth com- 
menced. FG, 89.—The way in which a bud should be cut if the bark is to 
be taken out. A form not used much in this country. 


June-Budding.—Many eastern nurserymen offer what they 
call June-budded trees, at low prices. They are small trees that 
can be easily sent, by mail, and are made by an operation similar to 
common budding, as described herewith, except that the work is 
done in June, and the inserted buds are forced into growth as soon 
as they adhere to the stock by cutting off the latter. They make 
only a small growth the season they are budded. The buds for this 


114 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


purpose may be hastened in maturing by pinching in the ends of 
the shoots to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes noth- 
ing is gained by budding in June, for a plant budded in August 
will make as large, if not a larger, growth by the end of the follow- 
ing year than a June-budded tree of the same age will make in its 
two years of growth, and will make a straighter tree. 

The bark is removed from the bud after it is cut off by some 
budders, but in general practice in this country it is left on. How- 
ever, care should be used not to cut the bud very thick, or the large 
amount of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly 
and evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud the 
latter is cut off in a little different way from the method des- 
cribed, and the way this is done is illustrated by Fig. 89. The cuts 
A and B are made in order and by a dexterous twist the bud and 
bark removed. It is then inserted as previously described. 

Other Forms of Budding are used occasionally, but in all 
of them the same general laws, as laid down for shield budding, 
are necessary for success. Figure 90 shows what is called flute 
budding, to perform which 
the bark of the stock is cut 
out to exactly fit the bark 
of the bud to be inserted. 
Figure 91 shows a form of 
budding wherein a circle 
of bark is taken out of the 
bud-stick and inserted into 
a stock or branch of about 
the same size. These are 
unusual forms and only 
used for some special pur- 
pose. In budding on the 
branches of trees it is gen- 

Frc. 90. sting: best to entre ca E f ae 

ade ud on the upper side, but _ FIG. 91. 
silceaiiai the place for its insertion Ring Budding. 
should be governed by the form of the tree. Budded trees are no 
better than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps 
worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If the 
buds and stocks are 
perfectly hardy, as for 
instance when our na- 
tive plum seedlings are 
budded with similar 
kinds of improved qual- 
ity, as with the DeSoto 
plum, then the tree re- 
sulting is as good as if 


root-grafted. But if . ‘ 
Fic. 92.—At work inserting buds near the 
the hardy kinds of ap- ground on pale stocks, 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 115 


ple are budded on ordinary seedling. which are mostly not hardy, 
then there is a part of the tender seedling which is above ground 
and is liable to be killed out by cold. In this case the resulting 
tree would be much improved if the seedling root had been grafted 
below ground instead of being budded above, so as to have the ben- 
efit of the protection the ground afforded. On the other hand 
where hardy trees are budded on the branches to change the bear- 
ing the work is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish, then, to 
pay more money for a budded than a grafted tree. 


CHAPTER XIV, 
GRAFTING. 


AFTING is distinguished from budding by being performed 

at a season of the year, generally in the spring, when vegeta- 

tion is dormant—at least when the plant operated upon is not 
in fullleaf; but there are many exceptions to such a definition, 
and it might be better to include the two subjects of budding and 
grafting under the general head of graftage, as they are closely 
related. Itis the object of this chapter to discuss some of the 
methods of grafting as used in the propagation of fruits. 

Limits of Grafting.—It is quite common to hear very sur- 
prising stories about grafting. Quite lately a prominent grape 
grower referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red 
maple tree. Even Pliny says: ‘Some apples are so red that they 
resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted on a mul- 
berry stock.’? But grafting or budding is never successful unless 
the graft and stock are nearly allied, and the closer the relation- 
ship between them the more certain the success. Snidley says: 
“Varieties of the same species unite most freely ; then species of the 
same genus, then genera of the same natural order, beyond which 
the power does not extend.’ For instance: pears work freely on 
pears; very well on quinces and mountain ash; less successfully 
on apples or thorns, and not at all upon plums and cherries; while 
the lilac will take on the ash, because of the near relationship be- 
tween the two. But there are many exceptions to any rule that 
could be laid down concerning this matter. Some plants are in- 
creased most readily by budding, while others graft more easily 
than they are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded, 
but grafting them is a much more uncertain operation. 

Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted upon, 
whether large or small. 

Scion is the term used to express the part inserted, of what- 
ever size or form it may consist. These should be of the new, well 
ripened growth of the season. If scions are to be used in the 
spring they should always be cut late in the fall, as they are liable 
to be injured by the winter. However, spring cut scions may 

116 


BUDDING AND GKAFTING. 117 


eften be used successfully, but it is not safe to trust to them, espe- 
cially if when cut open the heart wood appears dark colored. 
Scions should not be cut when frozen. They should be stored in 
moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar, or buried in the ground out- 
doors during winter. Cherry scions are most safely carried 
througu the winter when packed in moist leaves. If packed in 
sand or sawdust they sometimes become water-soaked. 


The Principles which under ie grafting are the same as in 
budding, i. e., the scion and stock must be closely related; the 
work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of both 
scion and stock come closely in contact; and at a season of the 
year, and under such circumstances, that they may unite at once, 
or as soon as growth starts. The success of the operation largely 
depends (1) on having the stock and scion perfectly healthy; (2) in 
selecting the proper season, which varies somewhat with different 
plants; (8) in getting a perfect union of the inner barks of scion 
and stock at least on one side; (4) in making all the cuts witha 
sharp knife, that the parts in contact may have a smooth surface; 
(5) in doing the work rapidly, so that the surface may not be 
exposed. 

Grafting Wax is generally used for covering the wounds 
made in grafting. A gocd grafting wax is one that will not 
become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run down the stock, 
or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. A very reliable 
grafting wax is made by melting together: resin four (4) parts, by 
weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one (1) part. When well 
melted pour into a pail of cold water, grease the hands slightly and 
pull the wax until it is about the color of pulled molasses candy. 
Make into balls and store for use. This wax should be warmed 
when applied. If it is too hard more tallow and less resin may be 
used. Some propagators use linseed oil instead of tallo-v. 

Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by graftiag, 
and it gives quite as gaod results as any of the waxes, if properly 
applied. For this purpose some very tenacious clay should be used, 
and it is thought to be improved when mixed with about one-third 
fresh cow dung and a little plasterers’ hair. The wane mass 
should be thoroughly worked over before using. 

Cleft Grafting is.a very common form of grafting, sl is 
mcre universally known and used than any other. It is commonly 
performed to change the bearing of apple, plum and various other 


trees and plants. Iti is generally the - 

most practical method to use on mmm 
branches two or three inches in 

diameter, but it also works well on a b 


quite small stocks. 

The tools used are a sharp, fine FIG. 93.~Grafting chisel. 
saw and a grafting chisel, a good 
pattern for which is shown in Fig. 98. where a represents blade for 
splitting the stick; 0, the wedge-shape end for holding the cieft 


118 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


open; ana ¢, a hook by which the tool may be hung on some con- 


venient branch. 


Cleft grafting is performed as follows: 


The place selected for 


the insertion of the scion should be where the grain of wood is 


straight. The stock is then cut 
“square”? off with a sharp saw 
and is split through its center, 
with the grafting chisel, to a 
depth sufficient to allow the scion 
to be put in place. The cleft is 
held open by the chisel (Fig. 94) 
until the scion (Fig. 95) is cut 
and inserted, when the wedge is 
withdrawn, allowing the stock to 
close on the scion and so hold it 
in place. If the stock does not 


perspective. 


covered with wax. 


put together. 
Fig. 95. 
Showing the 
scion cut 
Sor inser- 
tion. 


Whip Grafting is illus- 
trated in Fig. 100, in which A 
represents the stock with a 
slit at a; B the scion witha 
slit at 6; C the scion and stock 
When finished 
all the cut surfaces should be 
covered with grafting wax, as 
shown in Fig. 99. In this 
form of grafting it is seldom 


Fie. 94.—Stock cut off and split and 
cleft held open with wedge-shaped 
end of grafting chisel. 


spring back so as to hold the scion firmly it should be 
tightly drawn together with a string. The numbers 
of scions inserted will depend on the size of the stock. 
If the stock is not over three-quarters of an inch in 
diameter one scion is enough to insert, but on larger 
stocks two may be putin. All the cut surfaces, in- 
cluding the ends of the scions, should now be covered 
with wax, as shown in Fig. 99. 
The Scion to be inserted in cleft grafting should 
be cut wedge-shaped lengthwise, as shown in Fig. 95, 
and its cross-section should resemble Fig. 96, in which 
w shows the outer bark and 0 the inner. 
represents a cross-section through a newly made 
graft, showing cleft in the stock and two scions in 
place (note how the edges of the wood come together). 
Figure 98 represents the scion and graft as seen in 
Figure 99 shows the appearance of the 
graft when completed and e 


Figure 97 


Fia@. 96. — Cross-section 
of wedge-shaped end of 
scion. 


that the inner barks come together on more than one side of scion 
and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by one 
accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems under 
three quarters of an inch in diameter, but for stocks coming within 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING, 119 


this limit it is very convenient. It is much used by nurserymen in 
root-grafting apple, pear and plum seedlings. It is done toa large | 
extent during the winter months, when but very little can be 
accomplished out of doors. It is performed as follows: 


Root-Grafting.—Seedlings which are dug in autumn and 
packed in moss or saw- 
dust in a cold cellar, 
are taken as needed to 
@ warm room and the 
scions grafted upon 
them just below the col- 
lar, i.e, the place 


se o.4° where root and to 

\— p are 
(SD Chet. (Ce) joined. The kind of 
4 ee graft made is illustrat- 


ed in Fig. 101, which 
shows the successive 
stages of the work. A 
shows a seedling apple 
root with top removed, 
which is to be cut off 
: and grafted at the cross 
Fig. 97.—Uross-section through a graft showing line; B shows scion; C 
cleft and scion in place. scion and stock pre- 
pared for being united, but with the cut held open. This cutis 
made by the knife-blade, and no wood is removed from it. JD, the 
same united. #, the union wrapped with a strip of paper or cloth 
which has previously been covered with 
grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string 
for this covering. The grafts should be 
about eight inches long. When completed 
they shovld be tied in bundles and put 
away, packed very firmly in sand or light 
soil, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring 
they should be planted in the nursery, 
about six inches apart, in rows three feet 
apart, setting all but the upper bud of the 
scion below the surface of the ground. It 
is important to plant the scion deep so as 
to encourage it to throw out roots, as the ; 
trees are then more hardy than when they r 
depend entirely on the seedling root for aN) en bo ae 
support. Great care should be taken to pleted graft. 
have the soil very firm and solid around the base of the root and at 
the union, This may be secured in several ways. Some nursery- 
men attain this end by the use of a large dibber, having a guard on 
the side to prevent its going too deep. With this a hole is made 
sufficiently wide and deep to permit the insertion of the graft 


120 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


easily so tnat not more than one or two buds project above the 

, ground. To do this work most expeditiously the grafts should ail 
be of the same length and free from side branches. Two persons 
should work together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who 
carries the grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the 
boy puts in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole 
by the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft, 
and pressing towards the graft packs the soil firmly around it. 
After each row is finished in this way the man should turn back on 
the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the ball of 
the foot. , 


Fie. 99.—Graft covered with FIG. 100.—A, s/ock; B, scion; C, scion 
wax. AA, Scions; B, wax. and stock united. 


Another method of planting root grafts which is as applicable 
for planting cuttings on a small scale is as follows. Itis nota fast 
method, but a very excellent one for a few grafts: The thoroughly 
plowed land is smoothed off, a line stretched and walked where the 
row is to come and then thrown to one side. With a spade throw 
out a furrow along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth. 
Against this place the grafts, and then with a hoe turned bottom 
up push a little earth against the lower part of the root of each 
graft, and afterwards draw three inches of soil into the furrow 


BULDING AND GRAFTING. 121 


4round the grafts and then press firmly against each graft with 
the ball of the foot. Fill the trench full and repeat the footing 
process again. A more expeditious way is to plow out a furrow 
instead of making it with a spade, and then fill the trench vith a 
plow. In this way the work may be successfully done if the soil is 
not dry and the season is favorable. But it pays well to do good 
work, and where one has only a few hundred or a thousand grafts 
to plant the spade method is most certain. In planting in a dry 
time the great key to success is to have the land firm and solid 
around the root and the 
union so that there will 
be no airspace. This 
is very important. In 
two or three years from 
the root-graft the trees 
will be large enough to 
be transplanted to the 
orchard. The kind of 
roots which they will 
bear at this time is 
well illustrated in Fig. 
50. %In this figure 4A 
shows a tree which has 
been ruined by improp- 
er digging; Band C 
trees that have rooted 
from the scion and 
have lost the original 
root stocks. 

Side Grafting.— 
Side grafting is illus- 
trated in Fig. 102, in 
which « represents the 
scion, 0 shows the stock 
prepared for the scion, 
e the graft made, and d 
the same covered with 
wax. This form of 

a ee tock: Statting is especially 

FIG ion: U, motor dnd atock prepareds D, applicable to cherry 

graft made; EL, gree completed and wrapped seedlings, on which 

with waxed cloth, union should be made 

at the crown of the plant, which is just below the surface of the 

land. This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, 

apples, and other fruits. Ifit is done on the branches of a tree 

there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft until 
the scion starts into growth. 


Grafting Below Ground.—If graiting is done just below 
the surface of the ground the work is much more certain of being 


122 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


successful than if above the surface, and the resulting tree will be 
hardier than if the union were above ground, since the weakest 
point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of 
course very frequently itis impracticable to do the work in this 
manner. Figure 103 shows a grape root.so grafted. The methods 
adapted for grafting below ground are the same as for above 
ground, only not so much wax is required. 


In grafting below ground it is important to remove the soil 
until a smooth straight part is found of sufficient length to contain 
the scion. It is impor- 
tant, also, to keep the 
wounds free from dirt, 
for however much it 
may help to have the 
whole graft covered in 
this way, any soil on 
the cut surfaces will 
prevent that desirable 
close contact of the cells 
which is necessary for 
successful work. When 
grafting is done below 
ground suckers will 
often start from the 
stock in great numbers. 
These should be all re- 
moved or the graft will 
be ruined. A little ob- 
servation soon teaches 
one to distinguish at a 
glance the sprouts from 
the stock from the 
scion. In removing: 
these suckers they 
should be pulled away 
from the stock and not 
simply cut off. Only 
one shoot should be per- 
mitted to grow from 
each scion, and this 
should be the thriftiest Fic. 102.—Side-grafting as practiced on cherry. 
and generally that oy i era €, graft made; d, graye 
starting lowest down. 

The lowest is saved because wherever a shoot starts there is gen- 
erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it is not unsightly. 

Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper bag that is 
sometimes drawn over and tied below the graft as soon as it is 
completed. It is well illustrated in Fig. 194. Its use is to prevent 
the shriveling of the scion due to exposure to drying winds. It is 


} 9 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING, 123 


especially desirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or in ex- 
Posed locations. It is a very valuable adjunct to the grafting outtit 
and its use should be more general, Of course the bags should be 
removed as soon as the scions start, and the same care should be 
taken in the use of wax around the graft as if the night cap was 
notused, » 

The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps be 
of Interest: : 

Grafting Apples.—Apples in the open ground should be 
grafted about the time the buds are nicely started, but the scions 
should not have started atall. It is the easiest of all the fruits to 
graft, and almost any method may be used successfully on it. The 
scions should be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting tiie Plum.—The plum is most successfully grafted 
very early in the spring—even before the frost is out of the ground 

or a bud has commenced to 


1 swell. The work when 


done at this time is gener- 
ally successful, though not 
as certain as the apple. It 
is said that the plum may 
be grafted very successful- 
ly later in the spring, even 
after the buds have com- 


\\ menced to swell, providing 

. ~ the buds on the scion are 
WY) \\ 

\\ Aw N started as much as those 

WS \\ on the stock at the time 

The plum may be quite 

successfully root-grafted 

in the house in winter, as 

recommended for the apple 

Fic. 103.—Grape vine root.grafted. but ‘it generally takes a 

year longer to get the tree 

formed, since in this case the growth from the scion is quite 

slow the first t~yo years. 

often crooked and unpromising. This defect, however, may be 

remedied by cutting away in the early spring of the second year 

all the growth from the scion except one strong bud at its base. If 

this work is done very early in the spring it will result in throwing 

a stem that is straight in place of the former crocked one. A much 

better and more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the 

stocks in the nursery one year before they are intended to be 

grafted, and then graft them below the surface of the ground very 


SS the work is performed. 
- S 
N WS 
and treated the same way, 
On account of the slow growth trees grown in this way are 
the whole strength of the root into a single bud and the forming of 
early in the spring. For this purpose cleit or whip-grafting should 


‘ 


124 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 


be used. When the work is done in this way the resu't is a very 
strong growth from the scion. If the suckers are pinched off and 
the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the result, on 
rich land and in the case of strong, healthy stocks, will be to give 
a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Sometimes the 
growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the branches are 
liable to be broken off in the wind, and should be tied to stakes 
with soft string. The scions should be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting the Cherry.—The cherry may be root-grafted in- 
doors in the winter. When this is done what is called side-grafting 
is employed, and it gives results far ahead of any other method. 
But with the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this 
fruit makes it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be 
achieved by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks 
well established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended 
for propagating the plum. In regard to this 
fruit it is also reported that, as in the case of 
the plum, ‘the work may be done after the 
stocks start into growth a little, providing the 
scions are as far advanced. The scions should 
be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting the Grape is done most safely 
very early in the spring, even before a sign of 
growth appears, but it may also be grafted 
about the time the first leaves are nicely ex- 
panded, if the scions are kept dormant until 
that time. The work should always be done 
below the surface of the ground. Any form 
of graft may be used, but that most commonly 
used is cleft-grafting, as shown in Fig. 103. 
In making a cleft-graft upon a grape root it is 
often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock 
with a fine saw on account of the crooked, 
twisted grain of the wcod, which does not 
allow it to split straight. Some growers do 
not use any wax around the graft but simply 
cover it with a mound of well packed earth up 
to the upper bud of the scion. In grafting 
after the leaves are expanded some propaga- Fic. 104. — Grayted 
tors prefer to use side-grafting, and do not plum with graft 
cut the vine severely until it is beiieved the foo uae 
scion has grown fast to the stock, when the 
vine is cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this 
purpose. The scions should be about six or eight inches long. 

To change the varieties in a vineyard it is sometimes practiced 
to graft on a cane from the old vine. In this case a cane from the 
old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vine is 
grafted with a scion which should be at least two feet long. When 
grafted the graft, including the cane and scion, should be buried 


BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 125 


Six inches deep, the end bud of the scion being brought above 
ground where the new vine is desired. The following year the old 
vine may be largely cut away and the growth from the scion will 
take its place. This method is not so neat as when the vine is cut 
off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, but it has the 
merit of being very much more certain of not necessitating the 
destruction of the old vine until a new one is established. 

Grafting by Approach or Inarching is a form of grafting 
in which’ the branches of growing plants aré brought together. It 
is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to 
grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa- 
gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. It 
may be done at any time during the growing season and on any 
flexible growth of whatever age. It is performed by shaving outa 
piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the scion, of the 
same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each may be 
together. If this is done even so late as the middle of July they 
will grow firmly together before winter. It is customary when 
this method is to be used for propagation to either plant a lot of 
small plants around the one from which the scious are to come, or 
to grow them in pots and set pots and plants near by. When the 
branches’ have unitcd they are permitted to grow until autumn, 
when the scions are cut off just below the union and the plants 
with the scions on them are heeled in for winter or protected in 
some other way. No wax is needed as the union is very sure if the 
parts are closely tied together. This is a very safe and sure 
method and is easily performed, even by the novice. 


APPENDIX. 


STRAWBERRIES. 


Winter Protection.—In winters when there is not much 
snow-fall it is important in this section to cover strawberry plants 
much deeper than is customary in the eastern and central states. 
Twelve inches is generally none too much, and where straw is 
very abundant, as is the case where grain growing is largely prac- 
ticed, it is a good plan to use as much as this every year. This is 
especially true in Western Minnesota and the Dakotas, where a 
heavy covering will often make all the difference between success 
and failure. However, where a heavy covering is used it is ira- 
portant to set the plants in rows at least six feet apart, so that 
there will be room between the rows for the straw when the plants 
are uncovered. Itis then very convenient for replacing over the 
plants if a very cold spell comes when the flowers are open. The 
use of straw as here recommended has been known to save the crop 
for several years in succession in some of the most severe locations 
in this section. It is a good plan to not wait until the ground 
‘freezes hard before covering, but some covering should be put on 
as soon as the ground begins to freeze hard, say by October 25th, 
in average years. Nubbins may be frequently prevented by heavy 
covering, which prevents the plants from injury by severe freezing 
in winter. 

Plants for setting out may occasionally be found to have the 
fleshy part of the interior of their stems discolored by the winter. 
if not moved they will frequently grow and overcome this injury, 
but if transplanted they often die. The loss from this cause may 
be greatly lessened if in such a.case the plants are not set out until 
late in the spring, after they have partly recovered from the 
trouble. Cases have occurred where all the plants set early have 
died from this cause, While those from the same bed set out late 
have done well. as 

Burning Over the Strawberry Bed is very important 
where old beds are to be fruited again, but it is absolutely nec- 

126 


’ 


APPENDIX. 127 


essary for best success that the burning shall be done quickly; 
that is, the trash should be thoroughly dry, so that it will ‘‘go like 
a flash.” If the trash is somewhat moist, so that it will burn but 
slowly, the roots and crowns of the plants will almost certainly be 
Killed. Sometimes it may be impracticable to get the trash suffi- 
ciently dry to burn well. In such cases the material should be 
raked from over the plants into a windrow between the rows, to be 
burned, or it may be best to cart off a part if the covering is very 
heavy. 

In Renewing Old Beds a common two-horse corn cultivator 
will be found a very satisfactory implement. A disc harrow with 
the inner sections removed is also good. Either of these imple- 
ments will do the work better in hard soil than the one-horse plow. 

Some Varieties of Strawberries produce too many plants 
to be productive. In such cases they should be thinned by destrey- 
ing all that start after the rows are well filled. The plants should 
average about six inches apart each way in the rows. 

Varieties.—For the home garden beginners will find it betler 
to use some good bi-sexual kind alone, rather than plant pistillate 
sorts. For this purpose Beder Wood is very satisfactory, and it is 
perhaps by far the best variety for beginners to start with. 

Beder Wood.—An extremely hardy, vigorous, productive 
sort. Well adapted to the home garden, but rather too soft for 
marketing at a considerable distance. However, it is probably the 
most popular bi-sexual kind now grown. 


—-0-+ Ga 
RASPBERRIES. 


Winter Protection.—It is a good plan to get all raspberry 
plants laid down by the 20th of October, with enough earth to hold 
them in place, but it is not necessary to put on the final covering 
until the approach of hard freezing weather, when they may be 
covered by plowing a furrow over them from each side with a 
16-inch plow. The canes are more flexible before than after hard 
freezing weather. 

In Selecting Plants those that have been transplanted once 
before setting out permanently are much more certain to grow 
well than ordinary one-year-old sets, but they are somewhat more 
expensive. The uncertainty of the ordinary sets of the tip rooting 
kinds makes ‘‘transplants”’ of this class especially desirable. 

Anthracnose can be held in check by the following treat- 
ment: Spray the canes before they leaf out with thick Bordeaux 
mixture, i. e., made of 5 lbs. lime, 5 Ibs. sulphate of copper, and 25 
gallons of water; and again after the leaves have started with 


128 APPENDIX. 


Bordeaux made with twice as much water. The young growth 
should be sprayed when 12 inches high. 

Varieties.—Lovpvon.—A very vigorous, healthy, hardy kind 
that produces a large amount of fruit over a long season. Fruit 
bright red, large, firm, and of good quality. Perhaps as well 
adapted to general cultivation as any variety known. Some grow- 
ers complain that the fruit adheres so firmly to the stern that it is 
difficult to pick. This feature may perhaps be worse in some sec- 
tions than others. 

Kine.—A desirable, productive, vigorous, early red raspberry. 

OLDER.—A vigorous, productive blackcap raspberry of best 
quality. The objection to it is that it is rather soft for marketing. 

CoLUMBIAN,—A very strong growing, productive, purple berry 
of the tip-rooting class. The canes make an enormous growth, but 
bend to the ground quite readily. <A peculiarity of this variety is 
the great productiveness of its side shoots, even when the canes 
are broken off not more than a foot above the ground. Fruit pur- 
plish, with more acidity than ordinary kinds. Its color is not pop- 
ular, so that it does not sell well except where known. It is, how- 
ever, very desirable for preserving. Perhaps the most productive 
raspberry grown in this section. = 


— wo Gaaa 


GRAPES. 


The Munson System of Training.—T. V. Munson, of Den- 
ison, Texas, is one of the best authorities on grapes in this coun- 
try. As the result of much careful study and observation, he sug- 
: gests the following system of training grapes: 
He makes a trellis as follows: Two rather 
small posts, each about eight feet long, are set 
in the same hole, with their tops diverging 
about three feet, and held together by a cross- 
wire about twelve inches below their tops. 
Three wires are used for the trellis, one fast- 
ened near the top of each post, and one at the 
middle of each cross-wire, as shown in Figs. 
105 and 106. The vine is then encouraged to 
grow a long cane to reach to the lower wire as 
soon as may be, and it is there secured. From 
this point two or four canes are trained along 
the middle wire, as shown in the figures. 
These canes are left at each annual pruning 
and tied to the central wire. The shoots from 
these canes stand upright ut first, but soon 
fall down as they grow and drop over the side. 


Fic. 105.—Munson 5 y 
Training. End View. Wires, thus making a trough-shaped mass of 


APPENDIX. 129 


foliage. Mr. Munson describes his method of training as follows: 

__‘‘After the vines have flowered the bearing laterals have their 
tips pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, 
©xcept to rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. 

wo to four shoots, according to strength of vines, are started 
from the forks or crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but axe 
trained along over the lower central wire for renewal canes. 

hen pruning time arrives the entire bearing cane of the present 
year, with all its laterals, is cut away at the point aear where the 
young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are shortened 
back, according to strength of vine. Some, such as Herbemont, 
being able at four years to fill four shoots six or eight feet long 
with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three or 
four feet each way of one shoot only. The different varieties are 
set at various distances apart, according as they are strong or 
weak growers. : 

_ “Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the 
simplest form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and 
a few ties complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the 
work well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower 


Fic. 108.—Munson Training. Side View. 


wire, along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning, and 
from which the young laterals which produce the crop are to 
spring. These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon clinging to 
them with their tendrils, and are safe from destruction, while the 
fruit is grown in the best possible position for spraying and gath- 
ering, and is stillshaded with the canopy of leaves. I have now 
used this trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines, and Iam 
more pleased with it every year. The following advantages are 
secured by this system: 

“First—The mutual habit of the vine is maintained, which is a 
canopy to shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit without 
smothering. 

“Second—New wood, formed by sap which has never passed 
through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop—a very impor- 
tant matter. 

“Third—Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free 
passage in any direction through the vineyard; circulation of air 
without danger of breaking tender shoots; ease of pruning, spray- 
ing, cultivation, harvesting. 

“Fourth—Perfect control in pruning off amount of crop to suit 
capacity of vine, 


130 APPENDIX. 


“Fifth—Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the 
nature of nearly all our American species far better than short 
spurs. 

“Sixth—Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being 
pruned and not tied, standing away from posts, can be bent down 
to one side between the rows and earth thrown upon it, and can be 
raised and tied in position. 

“Seventh—Cheapness of construction and ease of removing 
trellis material and using it again. 

“Highth—Durability of both trellis and vineyard.” 

The Grape Phylloxera, or root louse, is an American insect 

‘ that is frequently found on the roots or leaves of American vines. 
On the roots its presence results in the formation of swellings or 
knotty excresences. It occasionally appears on the leaves of some 
species that have thin leaves, such as those of the Riparia class, 
where it forms many galls on the under side. This leaf form, 
however, is not necessary for the propagation of the species. It is 
spread by winged forms that occur on the roots or leaves, and may 
travel through or over the land for considerable distances. On 
the American vines its presence does not necessarily cause their 
death or seriously check their growth; but European vines suc- 
cumb very quickly to its attacks, and it has been the principal 
cause why the European grapes could not be successfully grown in 
this country. The importation of this insect into Europe, and its 
spread there, threatened to destroy the vine industry of many sec- 
tions. The danger from this source has, however, been largely 
overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American 
species, for which purpose the V. riparia (our River Bank grape) 
is preferred. Immense quantities of wood of this species have 
been sent to Europe for this purpose. The phylloxera is a native. 
of America east of the Rocky Mountains, but it has been intro- 
duced into California, and foresighted growers there are practic- 
ing grafting to get their vines on V. riparia roots. 

The Grape Vine Leaf Hopper is one of the most trouble- 
some insects the grape grower has to deal with. Itisa small, 
gray insect that moves very rapidly. Where they are abundant, a 
slight rustling of the leaves on a warm, dry day will cause them to 
start in clouds. They suck the juice of the leaves, generally col- 
lecting on the underside, and cause them to appear yellowish or 
rusty, and when very numerous cause them to dry up. They are 
especially injurious on varieties having no down on the underside 
of the leaves, such as the Clinton, Bacchus, and similar kinds. 

Remedies.—The ordinary remedies for sucking insects, such 
as spraying with kerosene emulsion or tobacco water may some- 
times be used to advantage, and where there are but few insects 
may drive them off. But where they are very numerous such 
remedies have little effect. It may be that the use of water and 
kerosene in a suitable force-pump will destroy them, but this has 
yet to be determined. But by taking advantage of the fact that the 
insects are dumpish early in the morning, and may be easily jarred 


APPENDIX. 131 


to the ground; large numbers have been destroyed by jarring the 
vines after first laying down strips of cloth covered with coal tar 
or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best rem- 
edy is that practiced by Mrs. S. Erwin, of Minnesota, which con- 
sists in making two frames four feet square out of common lath, 
and covering them with cloth which is coated with fresh coal tar. 
Two men are required to use them, in doing which they place the 
frames opposite one another on each side ofthe rows, and as near 
as practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the 
vines by striking downwards with a few light branches on each 
side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught, and 
if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept in check. 


The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug eats roses, the flowers of 
the grapes, and, when very abundant, many other garden plants. 
It is a beetle with long, hairy legs, and rather slow in its move- 
ments. It is especially injurious by reason of its eating the flowers 
of grapes. Where they are very abundant insecticides are too 
slow in acting to do much good, and all remedies fail. Where not 
unusually abundant they may be kept in check by hand-picking. 
Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with ex- 
cellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to them, 
and spraying with this material will often largely prevent their 
ravages as well as check fungus diseases. 

Additional Varieties.—Brta is a grape that originated with 
L. Suelter, of Carver, Minn. It is like the Janesville, in being a 
probable hybrid with our native V. riparia. pt is an exceedingly 
hardy, productive purple grape, quite acid and inferior for dessert 
use, but very valuable for cooking. ' Desirable for severe situations. 

Wild Grapes.—In some portions of Northern Minnesota and 
the Dakotas it is very difficult to do much with the cultivated var- 
ieties of grapes. In such places it is well worth while to grow 
vines from cuttings of fruitful native plants. These can be found 
along the rivers throughout this whole section. They make a good 
porch or trellis cover, and will produce much fruit. In selecting 
vines from which to propagate, it is very important to select fruit- 
ing plants, as many of the wild vines have staminate flowers only, 
and while they may make an enormous growth of vine are abso- 
lutely unproductive of fruit. 

Bordeaux Mixture.—Further experience with Bordeaux 
mixture seems to show that the following directions for making 
it are most certain to give best results: In a barrel, or other suit- 
able vessel, place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out six pounds of 
sulphate of copper (blue stone), and tie the same in a coarse gunny 
sack and suspend it just beneath the surface of the water. By 
tying the bag on a stick laid across the barrel no further attention 
will be required. In another vessel slack four pounds of lime, 
using care, in order to obtain a smooth paste free from small 
lumps. To accomplish this it is best to put the lime in an ordinary 


132 APPENDIX. 


water pail and add only a small amount of water at first, say a 
quart or three pints. When the lime begins to crack and crumble 
and the water to disappear add another quart or more, exercising 
care that the lime at no time gets too dry. Towards the last con- 
siderable water will be needed, but if added slowly a perfectly 
smooth paste will be obtained if the lime is of good quality. For 
this purpose what is sometimes known as ‘double strength” white 
lime is best. When the lime is slacked add enough water to bring 
it up to 25 gallons. When the copper sulphate is entirely dissolved 
and the lime is cool stir the milk of lime and pour it and the copper 
solution slowly together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The 
mixture should then be thoroughly stirred. This is then ‘“‘ordin- 
ary Bordeaux’? mixture. Thick Bordeaux is just twice as strong, 
i. e., has one-half as much water and is used for spraying dormant 
plants. It is too strong for the foliage of most plants. Thin Bor- 
deaux mixture has twice as much water as ‘ordinary’? Bordeaux 
mixture. It is used for the tender foliage of peach and plum trees. 

To determine if the Bordeaux mixture is safe to use on tender 
foliage, two simple tests may be used. First, insert the tip of a 
penknife for at least one minute, when if metallic copper forms on 
it, i. e., the tip is the color of copper, more lime should be added. 
df on the other hand the steel remains unchanged it is safe to con- 
clude the mixture is all right. 

Another test is to pour some of the mixture into a shallow 
dish; then blow into it for at least one-half minute, when, if prop- 
erly made, a thin oil-like scum will form on the surface. 


> -0- Ga 


CRANBERRIES. 


Highbush Cranberry.—The Highbush Cranberry (Vibernum 
opulus) is far removed (botanically) from the common cranberry of 
commerce. It is a shrub growing six feet high and has very orna- 
mental flower clusters, these are followed by oblong yellow or red 
fruit, which has one rather large flat seed in its center. A form of 
it in which all the flowers are sterile is the common Snowball of 
the gardens. The Wild Black Haw (V. prunifolium) and the 
Sheepberry (V. lentago) are also closely related to it. 

The fruit is of a pleasant acid flavor and esteemed for sauces. 
It is common in thickets and moist land in the northern states and 
is often gathered, although it is seidom offered in the markets in 
any considerable quantities. There is, however, a good market for 
it whenever it is offered for sale. 

On moist, heavy soil it will fruit abundantly, and it could often 
be planted to advantage. For this purpose plants may be taken 
from the woods, or propagated especially for this purpose. They 
should be set about four feet apart in rows five feet apart. 


APPENDIX. 138 


Propagation.—The seed grows readily if mixed with moist 
sand and kept buried out of doors all winter. The plants may be 
grown by division, but the common and preferred method is layer- 
ing, by which it is easily increased. For this purpose any of the 
branches are partially covered with earth, as recommended for the 
propagation of the grape by layers. It will also grow from cut- 
tings made up in the autumn and treated as recommended for 
hardwood grape cuttings. 


——--0- aa 
BUFFALOBERRY. 


Buffaloberry.—In order to facilitate the planting of the 
proper number of each kind of plants one should familiarize hini- 
self with the peculiarities of each sex, and these are so distinct 
and marked that a little careful observation will enable any one to 
distinguish them when dormant. This is done by noting the shape 
and form of the flower buds, which in the staminate plants are 
large, round and very numerous. In the pistillate plants the buds 
are fewer, smaller and oblong in form. 


——>--0- Ga 
APPLE. 


Root-killing is occasionally a very destructive source of in- 
jury to apple trees. This comes from the practice of grafting on 
roots that are too tender to stand our winters. It shows itself by 
the root dying and the top remaining alive, and either growing by 
means of roots sent out above the graft or by eventually dying for 
lack of its own roots. This injury can be largely prevented by 
mulching the soil around the trees in winter. Since the disasters 
from this cause in the winter of 1898-99 there has been much talk 
in regard to the importance of hardy roots and seedlings from our 
strongest growing crabs are now recommended as stocks for the 
common apple. 

Prof. N. E. Hansen says that in Russia they have overcome 
this trouble by grafting on the true Siberian crab (Pyrus baccata). 
This is a rather dwarf tree having very small fruit, in which it is 
very prolific. Is can hardly be found in this country, but is easily 
grown, and if wanted will soon be abundant. The seed grows very 
readily. As astock it has a tendency to dwarf the trees grafted 
on it, and there is some question about its being well adapted to 
the apple. This matter is in a rather experimental stage and 
needs some careful trials. It is also recommended to graft on seed- 
lings from large hybrid crabs, such as Transcendant and Virginia, 


134 APPENDIX, 


and these are known to make very good stocks for grafting pur- 
poses. 

Apples and Crabs.—The difference between the well-known 
erab apples and the so-called ‘apples’ of our markets is well 
known in a general way, but in some cases it is not very clear. 
The term “crab” is applied in England to small, inferior seedlings 
of the apple (Pyrus malus), while here the same term is used to in- 
dicate the crab apple (Pyrus baccata), or its hybrids. 


Fic. 107.—Different forms of apples. cea a) B-—Round; (—Conical; 
é 


D—Oblate. Numbers refer as follows: 1—Stem; 2—Cavitys s—Calyx; 

4—Basin; 5—Core. Drawing by R. S. Mackintosh. 

Pyrus malus, the true apple, is distinguished by leaves that 
are woolly on the underside, woolly calyx and flower stems. Fruit 
various, but always holding the calyx, i. e., the parts of the flower, 
on the end of the fruit. Leaves thicker and broader and the new 
growth thicker and more woolly than in the crab. 


APPENDIX. 135 


Pyrus baccata, the true crab apple, is characterized by 
Smoother and more wiry growth than the apple. Narrower and 
thinner longer stemmed leaves than the above, that are scarcely 
woolly. The flower clusters are more open and not woolly. The 
fruit is set on long, slender, wiry stems. The seed is enclosed in 
very hard, close-fitting hulls, and the calyx falls off or becomes 
loose when the fruit is mature. Hybrids between Pyrus malus and 
Pyrus baccata have become very numerous, and as a result of such 
hybridization we have many varieties that embrace more or less 
the qualities of each of these species, some of which bear fruit of 
considerable size and value, such as Transcendant, Virginia, Min- 
nesota, and Whitney No. 20. 

For Describing Apples a certain convenient nomenclature 
has been accepted. It frequently happens that the color, shape 
and quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The char- 
acteristic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less 
liable to change, and in the identification of fruits it is often neces- 
sary to take it into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip- 
tion should include the tree as well as fruit. These terms, as ap- 
plied to the growth of a tree, are “strong and vigorous,” as the 
Duchess of Oldenburg; ‘‘vigorous and slender,’’ as Anisim; “stout 
and short jointed,” as the Yellow Transparent. 

For the general form of the tree the term ‘“‘upright spreading” 
would indicate the Duchess ; ‘‘spreading’’ the Hibernal; “upright” 
Whitney No. 20; ‘round headed” the Anisim. 

In describing the fruit the word ‘‘base’’ means the part of the 
apple at the stem end; ‘‘apex’’ the portion at the blossom end; 
“cavity” is the depression around the stem; “‘basin’’ the depres- 
sion around the flower end; ‘‘calyx” the co-called flower in the 
apex of the apple. The general form is referred to as being 
“round,” ‘“‘oblate,’’ “conical,” and ‘‘oblong,’’ which terms are illus- 
trated in Fig. 107. As regards size, apples are said to be small 
when two and a half inches in diameter, or under; from two and a 
half to three and one-half inches they are termed ‘“‘medium,” and 
above this “‘large.”’ 

Autumn Planting.—While it is best, as a rule, to plant trees 
in the spring, yet it is quite practical to plant in the autumn 
apples, plums, and most other trees, providing that they are after- 
wards laid on the ground on the approach of winter and covered 
with earth and a little mulch. This makes considerable additional 
labor over spring planting. On the other hand, however, it per- 
mits of planting in the autumn when the general farm and garden 
work is not as pressing asin the spring. It really amounts to the 
‘“heeling in’ of each tree separately. In the spring the trees 
should be uncovered and straightened up before growth starts, 
and they are then all ready to go on and grow.. 

Additional Varieties.—CuarLamorr.—There are two varie- 
ties sent out under this name. One of these so closely resembles 


136 APPENDIX. 


the Duchess as to be practically the same. The most desirabie 
kind is known as Petczson’s Charlamoff, which has fruit more or 
less conical and a spreading top to the tree. The frais of this is 
milder in quality than the Duckess, and ripens 9, little later. It is 
of fine quality when picked fully ripe, but soon loses this quality 
by storing for a few days. The tree is much hardier than Duchess. 

Patten’s GREENING.—Originated by C. G. Patten, of Iowa. 
At the annual meeting of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, in 
1899, it was classed in the list recommended for general planting in 
Minnesota, and of first degree of hardiness. This is the only 
American seedling apple admitted to this class. The tree is of ex- 
oeedingly strong growth and very hardy and productive. The 
fruit is large, green in color, sub-acid, and flesh rather coarse. Ex- 
cellent for cooking purposes. Keeps into December. 

Mauinpa.—A very pretty, conical, almost sweet apple, that 
keeps easily until late winter. About as hardy as the Wealthy. 
Rather a tardy bearer on its own roots, but productive when once 
it commences to bear. It is hardiest and most productive when 
top-worked on very hardy kinds, such as Transcendant and Vir- 
ginia crabs and Hibernal. 

Sweet Russerr Cras.—A very hardy crab that is highly es- 
teemed for home use. The fruit ripens in August, and is a very 
pleasant, sweet apple. Very productive. 

GipEon’s No. 6.—A large, deep red crab of good coooking qual- 
ity that ripens in August and September. Tree hardy and prolific, 
and well worth a place in the orchard. 


—>-0- aa 
PLUM. 


Prunus Nigra is the name that has been given to a group of 
plums that have for many years been included under the Prunus 
Americana, Some botanists even now refuse to make it a separate 
species. The characteristics of this group are: dull (not glossy) ; 
flat foliage, i. e., not trough-shaped; early flowering (the flowers 
often appearing a week before those of the P. Americana). The 
fruit ripens earlier, and is characterized by a flat, thin stone, while 
the pits of the P. Americana are much swollen. Examples of this 
are the Aitkin and Cheney plums. 


Cutting Plum Scions.—In propagating the plum by graft- 
ing it is generally safest in the case of hardy kinds of native origin 
not to cut the scions until shortly before they are wanted for use. 
If plum scions are cut in autumn they are liable to be injured dur- 
ing winter. The wood and bark will often come through the win- 
ter in good condition, while the buds will become rotten. If they 
must be cut in autwmn and wintered over in the cellar they can 
probably be kept to best advantage in moist leaves. 

Plums may be worked successfully on sand cherry stocks. 


; APPENDIX. 187 


Seedling Plums may often be set in forest plantations, 
where they will generally give a few crops of fruit and at the 
same time give necded shade. For this purpose small seedlings 
should be used, which are very inexpensive. 


Plum Pocket.—Recent experiments with a similar disease 
of peach trees known as the “leaf curl,” in which the leaves in- 
stead of the fruit becomes swollen, indicates that Bordeaux mixt- 
ure will prevent it. For this treatment spray the trees before the 
leaves appear with thick Bordeaux mixture, i. v., made of 5 lbs. 
jime, 5 lbs. sulphate of copper, and .25 gallons of water; and after 
the flowers fall with Bordeaux mixture made of 2 lbs. of lime, 
2 lbs. sulphate of copper, and 50 gallons of water. A further appli- 
cation may be necessary if the weather is rainy, but if dry the 
latter will be found sufficient. 

In addition to the above treatment it is desirable to pick and 
destroy the plum pockets that appear. 


Plum Leaf Aphis, commonly called ‘‘leaf lice,” is frequent- 
ly troublesome, and occasionally appears in such large numbers as 
to seriously check the growth of trees. Tobacco water, kerosene 
emulsion and similar materials often hardly appear to have any 
effect when lice are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and pro- 
tect the lice so they are not easily reached. At such times it will 
be found that tobacco smoke is a most valuable and certain rem- 
edy. In applying it a tent made of unbleached cotton large enough 
to cover the tree should be used. The best form for this tent is , 
bag-shaped, and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent 
should be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In 
operating the hoop-tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge, close to 
the tree, and gradually lifted up over it, the slender long side- 
branches being pushed inside the tent. When the tree is finally 
enclosed tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled with 
smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the face, when 
it is allowed to thus remain for 15 minutes, which is long enough 
to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring the tree if the 
tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this the tobacco used 
should be dampened. The most convenient form of tobacco to use 
is leaf stems which come from cigar factories. These can be ob- 
tained very cheap. 

A tent that will answer the purpose very well may be made 
out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wooden 
frame. Where the trees are very large, i. e., require a tent more 
than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope will be found to 
work better than a gas-pipe hoop to hold the bottom of the tent. 


The Identification of Plums is more easily accomplished 
by the pits (stones) than by any other portion. These have very 
strong individuality, and wil often serve to make identification 
sure when every other mcans fail. A collection of the pits of 
named varieties of plums is desirable for a horticulturist and is 


188 APPENDIX. 


easily obtained. If these are kept in small bottles they can be 
easily used for identification. 

Additional Varieties of Plums.—Svurprrisz.—Originated 
with M. Penning, Brown county, Minnesota, probably from seed 
of the Miner. The fruit is of large size and keeps remarkably 
well; the flesh is firm and does not cling very closely to the stone, 
and is rich and delicious. The skin is tough and without astrin- 
gency. The tree is hardy, vigorous and productive; has gloss?, 
rather light colored foliage and strong crotches and readily takes 
on a good tree form. Of recent introduction, but it gives much 
promise of easily taking the first rank over all the older varieties 
of plums. 


Page. 

BEPENDIN ccs eecadoxexgencsg lel, JOB 
APPLES ..... 72, 94 
Crab apples... 94 
Cultivation..,. 73 
Depth to plant. ¢¢ 
Diseases 85 
85 

RtGish oscnee 85 

tt to plant 18 

Forming the tree 78 
injured trees 80 


Insects....... 
Climbing cut-worm 
Codling moth.............. 89 
Curren seins ce csceweereirsannds 
Flat headed a pple tree 
DOLEvicis teense siete’ 
Fall web worm........... 90 
_ Leaf lice............ cee eee OL 
New York weer Es. iaitabsletereers 87 
‘Tent caterpillar.. 87 


Location e: ee adapted 


to orcharding.............. 73 
Manuring 81 
Marketing... : 84 
mulching... 81 
Picking....... 84 
PLANING cess ies ersicpacairrieners'ein 76 
Protecting trunks by boxing 83 
PUD 5 ots ostieneaiiccdoce eatetan 79 
Root-grafted trees..... ..... 76 
Russian apples.:............. 92 
Seedlings.... ......-.....206- 74 
Some important things to 

remember .......-....5-056 85 
Sunscald .........ce eee e eee 81 
Supplementary Hehe of reperes 93 
Time to plant ... 76 
Top-wor'! jin 84 
Trees . 4 
Varietic 91 

Late summer ane early op 

92 
94 
93 
BLACKBERRIES . 25, 26 
Dewberries.. .. -. 26 
Species ........- scthavelosec" GeO. 
Varieties. ........ 0. cece cece eee 26 
RORDEAUX MIXTURE..... .... 12 
BUDDING .....cc cece ee ee eeeee 108, 115 
Bud-stick..... 108 
June-budding 
Necessary implements...... 110 
Other forms of............--- 114 
Process Of.........56 eee eee 110 
Time for...... 
BUFFALOBERBRY... 
Description . .. 


Propagation, -..........6+6. 69 


CHERRY.... 


Cultivation - 106 
Diseases . - 106 
Insects. - 106 
Locatio: . 104 
Planting. . 105 
Propagati - 104 
Cuttings 105 
Suckers . 105 
Pruning . . 106 
1c) Le eee err eee 104 
VAIO ES car catie soci ccrncsate trea oitee 107 
CRANBERRY... 6. ... 000. e sees 58, 62 
About flowing................ 60 
Best location for beds....... 59 
Drainage and flowage....... 60 
Importance of water......... 60 
PACK Gs sccenasestierssivaies he 


Plants and planting .. 
Preparation of land .. bie 
Soil adapted to it............ 
Supplying sand..... 5 
CURRAN’ 


Currant worm.. 3L 
Imported currant borer... 33 
TCO. issiacicciievomsieyncion Hee 33 
Marketing..............0002-5 31 
Mulching... 
PIANO. « « scsivie tia since aes 3 29 
Propagation...............6.5 28 
By spl cae 
By layers.. 


Species...............05 


VALICUICS iiss, 0:sc0sinreieinreieins 39.019 

Winter protection 
DEWBERRIES ...........000 05 wee 28: 
DISEASES OF THE— 


Planting . 


ENARCHING ...... 200.0200 scene 125 
GRAPFTING.......- 
Below ground. 
Cleft-grafting 
Night cap............ ie 
Root-grafting ................ 119 
SCHOD cose ceeneseeeeee eee ee ees 116 


aan hac a Page. 
Side-grafting................. 121 
Stole siiccsccaosiansoinacae evens 116 
Whip-grafting 118 
GRAFTING WAX 117 
8, 57 
52 
43 
44 
53 
Downy ‘mildew: 54 
Black rot 54 
Distance between plan Ss. 43 
Fungicides, use of........... 55 
Ammoniacal carbonate of 
COPDOM sie teccs oie sje avstice:cvaraca rs erat 55 
Girdling.......... 52 
Insects........ 56 
Hight spotted forester. 56 
Grape-vine flea beetle, . 56 
Keeping fruit .......... 52 
ayering ....... is 41 
Spring layers.... . 421 
Summer layers ............ 41 
Lgeation of vineyard........ 42 
Manures........06  eeececeeee 51 
Planting............ceeeee eee 43 
Preventives of disease....... 54 
Propagation ........ .... 39 
Cuttings......... ...... 39 
OOO occccisisienisprgivomaterciamecais 39 
Pruning and training ....... 44 
Pruning, easy system ....... 49 
ing Hee Sue ee 50 
Pruning, time of aisevenes “DL 
Removing foliage. is hvege sane 49 
SOM ciwsacicvaeasie aie oounisigs 43 
WD OCLOS ace essed scien oe oh aes 38 
Thinning the fruit........... 


51 
Training vines against build- 
ings or walls ............... 


MP PONS ois cies siaiainecgiedwoaa, qnuiow ots 3 
Varieties ............ cee 
Varieties, list recommended 3 
INSECTICIDES— 
Kerosene emulsion.......... 9L 
Paris green.................6. 90 
Tobacco water............-.. 91 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO— 
P44) 0): eRe ne Ree 86, 91 
Currant .............0...008- 31, 34 
Grape....... ~ 56 
Raspberry 28, 24 
Strawberry 12, 18 
JUNEBERRY, 63, 65 
Cultivation....... . 64 
Propagation. 64 
Varieties............ 65 
KEROSENE EMULSION . Ot 
MULBERRY, RUSSIAN -70, 7 
Hardiness .......... asia 1 
Its fruit....... val 
EOP ES EO. val 
Sg ty aaa, TU 
M, THE...... ie 103 
Gultieation 9 
Diseases...........-.-.000+ 0, 101 
ees rot, or Wart of ite 
aiseases, other........ tose: LOL 


Page. 

Plum Pockets.............. 100 

TNSOCbB sinccisautyans nes 101, 103 
Aphis, or Leaf Lice _ 


Plum Curcuiio... 
Plum Gouger. 


Location 
Marketin 98 
Mixing var: 98 
Planting 
Profits of cultivation.... 
Propagation ........ 
Pruning ..........- 
Renewing old tree: 
Species ........... .. 
Suckers, thrifty. 
Varieties .......... 
RASPBERRIES .........-..- 
Convenient box holder 
Cultivation.............. 
Diseases ........-2.-05+ 
Anthracnose 
Leaf curl..............2-045 
Red orange rust........... 2 
TDSC CUB ie: ojaja a isinstieratoieycivininle ia/oratice 23 
Flat-headed borer......... 23 
Snowy tree cricket........ 23 
Location 17 
Manure... 18 
Mulching. 20 
Planting 18 
Preparation of land......... 18 
Propagation ................. 16 
Layers......... 17 
Root cuttings. 16 
taf -T tt Ree Cena tee Ceres 16 
Pruning and thinning....... 19 
Selection of plants........... 18 
SOLD, ses sccescaincciciece is istaihe cate Setsaieaye 17 
See ee ci syarb ate isia ease east w nee nshignee 15 
Support............ 20 
Time a planting............. 18 
MariOtiesi si. icici ceadecnsnciueaceins 24 
Winter protection.. zt 
STRAWBERRIES ........ 5, 14 
Avoiding frosts..... else: 
Bordeaux mixture........... 12 
DISCASOS. wiicicsis cise caine ais 1 
Dry berries—‘‘nubbins’’..... il 


How to continue in HeHEInG 9 
Insects... 1 


Leaf rol 

White grub 12 
Location. 6 
Manures.. 6 
Marketing............. 1t 
Methods of planting......... 7 

Hill system................. 7 

Matted row system........ 8 
PCI IDE oa pieswvag ox vrei a ogy as 1L 
Preparation of land......... 6 
Propagation...............04- 5 
Sexuality of blossoms....... 10 
Shading the bed.............. 13 
SOM orotate to ete aayattitiatesticleun. acces 6 
ID OCLC iis de sobs shew a ean wekiawn 5 
Time of planting............. 7 


Trimming and setting pl -nts 8 
MAVIOUOS o donas cee exe ensenes $i ¢ 14 


A 


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WEEDS AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM. 


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GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM 


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