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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002868671
APPLETONS’ HOME READING BOOKS
THE
STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
AND
THE REPTILES
BY
JAMES NEWTON BASKETT
AUTHOR OF THE STORY. OF THE FISHES
THE STORY OF THE BIRDS, ETC.
AND
RAYMOND L. DITMARS
CURATOR OF REPTILES AT THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK
NEW YORK AND LONDON
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1912
eet § “bey
CopyricHt, 1902
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
Published June, 1902
Printed in the United States of America
TO
MY SON
HOWARD GORDON BASKETT
A LOVER OF
THE HUMBLER CREATURES
INTRODUCTION TO THE HOME READING
BOOK SERIES BY THE EDITOR
td
TuE new education takes two important direc-
tions—one of these is toward original observation,
requiring the pupil to test and verify what is taught
him at school by his own experiments. The infor-
mation that he learns from books or hears from his
teacher’s lips must be assimilated by incorporating it
with his own experience. :
The other direction pointed out by the new edu-
cation is systematic home reading. It formsa part of
school extension of all kinds. The so-called “ Univer-
sity Extension ” that originated at Cambridge and Ox-
ford has as its chief feature the aid of home reading by
lectures and round-table discussions, led or conducted
by experts who aldo lay out the course of reading.
The Chautauquan movement in this country prescribes
a series of excellent books and furnishes for a goodly
number of its readers annual courses of lectures. The
teachers’ reading circles that exist in many States pre-
scribe the books to be read, and publish some analysis,
commentary, or catechism to aid the members.
Home reading, it seems, furnishes the essential
basis of this great movement to extend education
vil
viii STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
beyond the school and to make self-culture a habit
of life.
Looking more carefully at the difference between
the two directions of the new education we can see
what each accomplishes. There is first an effort to
train the original powers of the individual and make
him self-active, quick at observation, and free in his
thinking. Next, the new education endeavors, by the
reading of books and the study of the wisdom of the
race, to make the child or youth a participator in the
results of experience of all mankind.
These two movements may be made antagonistic
by poor teaching. The book knowledge, containing as
it does the precious lesson of human experience, may
be so taught as to bring with it only dead rules of
conduct, only dead scraps of information, and no
stimulant to original thinking. Its contents may be
memorized without being understood. On the other
hand, the self-activity of the child may be stimulated
at the expense of his social well-being—his originality
may be cultivated at the expense of his rationality.
If he is taught persistently to have his own way, to
trust only his own senses, to cling to his own opinions
heedless of the experience of his fellows, he is pre-
paring for an unsuccessful, misanthropic career, and
is likely enough to end his life in a madhouse.
It is admitted that a too exclusive study of the
knowledge found in books, the knowledge which is
aggregated from the experience and thought of other
people, may result in loading the mind of the pupil
with material which he can not use to advantage.
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ix
Some minds are so full of lumber that there is no
space left to set up a workshop. The necessity of
uniting both of these directions of intellectual activity
in the schools is therefore obvious, but we must not,
in this place, fall into the error of supposing that it is
the oral instruction in school and the personal influ-
ence of the teacher alone that excites the pupil to ac-
tivity. Book instruction is not always dry and theo-
retical, The very persons who declaim against the
book, and praise in such strong terms the self-activity
of the pupil and original research, are mostly persons
who have received their practical impulse from read-
ing the writings of educational reformers.. Very few
persons have received an impulse from personal con-
tact with inspiring teachers compared with the num-
ber that have been aroused by reading such books as
Herbert Spencer’s Treatise on Education, Rousseau’s
Emile, Pestalozzi’s Leonard and Gertrude, Francis
W. Parker’s Talks about Teaching, G. Stanley
Hall’s Pedagogical Seminary. Think in this connec-
tion, too, of the impulse to observation in natural sci-
ence produced by such books as those of Hugh Miller,
Faraday, Tyndall, Huxley, Agassiz, and Darwin.
The new scientific book is different from the old.
The old style book of science gave dead results where
the new one gives not only the results, but a minute
account of the method employed in reaching those re-
sults. An insight into the method employed in dis-
covery trains the reader into a naturalist, an historian,
a sociologist. The books of the writers above named
have done more to stimulate original research on the
x STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
part of their readers than all other influences com-'
bined.
It is therefore much more a matter of importance
to get the right kind of book than to get a living
teacher. The book which teaches results, and at the
same time gives in an intelligible manner the steps of
discovery and the methods employed, is a book
which will stimulate the student to repeat the ex-
periments described and get beyond them into fields
of original research himself. Every one remem-
bers the published lectures of Faraday on chemistry,
which exercised a wide influence in changing the
style of books on natural science, causing them to
deal with method more than results, and thus train
the reader’s power of conducting original research.
Robinson Crusoe for nearly two hundred years has
aroused the spirit of adventure and prompted young
men to resort to the border lands of civilization. A
library of home reading should contain books that in-
‘cite to self-activity and arouse the spirit of inquiry.
The books should treat of methods of discovery and
evolution. All nature is unified by the discovery of
the law of evolution. Each and every being in the
world is now explained by the process of development
to which it belongs. Every fact now throws light on
all the others by illustrating the process of growth in
which each has its end and aim.
The Home Reading Books are to be classed as
follows :
First Dwision. Natural history, including popular
scientific treatises on plants and animals, and also de-
EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION x1
scriptions of geographical localities. The branch of
study in the district school course which corresponds
to this is geography. Travels and sojourns in distant
lands; special writings which treat of this or that
animal or plant, or family of animals or plants; any-
thing that relates to organic nature or to meteorol-
ogy, or descriptive astronomy may be placed in this
class.
Second Division. Whatever relates to physics or
natural philosophy, to the statics or dynamics of air or
water or light or electricity, or to the properties of
matter; whatever relates to chemistry, either organic
or inorganie—books on these subjects belong to the
class that relates to what is inorganic. Even the so-
called organic chemistry relates to the analysis of
organic bodies into their inorganic compounds.
Third Division. History, biography, and ethnol-
ogy. Books relating to the lives of individuals; to
the social life of the nation; to the collisions of na-
tions in war, as well as to the aid that one nation
gives to another through commerce in times of peace;
books on ethnology relating to the modes of life of
savage or civilized peoples; on primitive manners
and customs—books on these subjects belong to the
third class, relating particularly to the human will,
not merely the individual will but the social will,
the will of the tribe or nation; and to this third
class belong also books on ethics and morals, and
on forms of government and laws, and what is in-
cluded under the term civics, or the duties of citi-
zenship.
xi STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
Fourth Division. The fourth class of books in-
cludes more especially literature and works that make
known the beautiful in such departments as sculpture, |
painting, architecture and music. Literature and art
show human nature in the form of feelings, emotions,
and aspirations, and they show how these feelings
lead over to deeds and to clear thoughts. This de-
partment of books is perhaps more important than
any other in our home reading, inasmuch as it teaches
a knowledge of human nature and enables us to un-
“derstand the motives that lead our fellow-men to
action.
Pian ror User sas SupPLEMENTARY READING.
The first work of the child in the school is to
learn to recognize in a printed form the words that
are familiar to him by ear. These words constitute
what is called the colloquial vocabulary. They are
words that he has come to know from having heard
them used by the members of his family and by his
playmates. He uses these words himself with con-
siderable skill, but what he knows by ear he does not
yet know by sight. It will require many weeks,
many months even, of constant effort at reading the
printed page to bring him to the point where the
sight of the written word brings up as much to his
mind as the sound of the spoken word. But patience
and practice will by and by make the printed word
far more suggestive than the spoken word, as every
scholar may testify.
In order to bring about this familiarity with the
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xiii
\
printed word it has been found necessary to re-en-
force the reading in the school by supplementary
reading at home. Books of the same grade of diffi-
culty with the reader used in school are to be pro-
vided for the pupil. They must be so interesting
to him that he will read them at home, using his time
before and after school, and even his holidays, for
this purpose.
But this matter of familiarizing the child with the
printed word is only one half of the object aimed at
‘by the supplementary home reading. He should
read that which interests him. He should read that
which will increase his power in making deeper
studies, and what he reads should tend to correct his
habits of observation. Step by step he should be
initiated into the scientific method. Too many ele-
mentary books fail to teach the scientific method be-
cause they point out in an unsystematic way only
those features of the object which the untutored
senses of the pupil would discover at first glance. It
is not useful to tell the child to observe a piece of
chalk and see that it is white, more or less friable,
and that it makes a mark on a fence ora wall. Sci-
entific observation goes immediately behind the facts
which lie obvious to a superficial investigation.
Above all, it directs attention to such features of the
object as relate it to its environment. It directs at-
tention to the features that have a causal influence in
making the object what it is and in extending its
effects to other objects. Science discovers the recip-
rocal action of objects one upon another.
xiv STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
is essential in one class of objects he is jh a measure
fitted to observe for himself all objects that resemble
this class. After he has learned how-to observe the
seeds of the milkweed, he is partially prepared to
observe the'seeds of the dandelion, she burdock, and
the thistle. After he has learned ow to study the
history of his native country, he has “acquired some
ability to study the history of\ England and Scotland
or France or Germany. In the same way the daily
preparation of his reading lesson at school aids him
to read a story of Dickens or Walter Scott.
The teacher of a school will know how to obtain
a small sum to invest in supplementary reading. In
a graded school of four hundred pupils ten books of
each number are sufficient, one set of ten books to be
loaned the first week to the best pupils in one of the
rooms, the next week to the ten pupils next in ability.
On Monday afternoon a discussion should be held
over the topics of interest to the pupils who have
read the book. The pupils who have not yet read
the book will become interested, and await anxiously
their turn for the loan of the desired volume. Another
set of ten books of a higher grade may be used in the
same way in a room containizig more advanced pupils.
The older pupils who have left school, and also the
parents, should avail themselves of the opportunity to
read the books brought home from school. Thus is
begun that continuous education by means of the pub-
lic library which is not limited to the school period,
but lasts through life. W. T. Harris.
Wasuineton, D.C., Nov. 16, 1896.
After the child has learned how to fen what
a
PREFACE,
THE average reader, old or young, does not usually
find himself so much interested in an amphibian or
reptile as he does in fishes, birds, or mammals, because
they are not often objects of pursuit for either “sport”
or food. In fact, casually, they are abhorrent. But if
he should be one of those whose intest goes beyond
that of the mere amusement whic). satisfies the most
primitive of his instincts, he w.ll nowhere in the
realm of animal life find objects more worthy of his
attention. Herein Nature, w'th the potter’s clay of
’ plastic things in her palms, eemed to have tarried in
delightful experiment befr ce she shaped the higher
and better creatures; and in the amphibians especially
—even more so than the fishes—appears to have in-
dulged every passing caprice and suggestion.
To look in on her in some of her vagaries, and
note her as she seems to put, drop by drop, the al-
chemy of. change into the fuming elements, is partly
the object of this little volume. The author indulges
the hope, also, that the humble, creeping things herein
described may not be longer despised, but that a more
intimate knowledge of them will help to arouse a
sympathetic interest in one of the ostracised families
of the animate world.
J.N. B.
xv
CONTENTS
PART I—AMPHIBIANS
CHAPTER
Eprror’s INtRopucTION .. - . . . .
PREFACE s é : . - é 5 . .
I.—WHart AMPHIBIAN MEANS . : eo 7 :
II.—Limss, TOES, CLAWS, WEBS, FINS, AND TONGUES IN
AMPHIBIANS . ij , . . . .
IIL—TrxtH, BEAKS, FOOD, FEEDING HABITS, FASTING, IM-
PRISONMENT, DRINKING, AND WATER RESERVOIRS’IN
AMPHIBIANS . P ‘ F : ‘ 7 é
IV.—SpRING CALLS, VOCAL ORGANS, HAUNTS, HATCHING,
COURTSHIP, DRESS, COLORS, CHANGES, AND OTHER
ORNAMENTS ; WEAPONS, DEFENSE, SKIN SECRETIONS,
AND BLUFF, IN AMPHIBIANS . F . , .
V.—Ee@@s, SPAWNING PLACES, VIVIPAROUS FORMS, AND
PECULIAR CARE OF YOUNG IN AMPHIBIANS. :
VI.—RESPIRATION, LUNGS, SKIN-BREATHING, CIRCULATION,
HEARTS AND LYMPH-HEARTS IN AMPHIBIANS , ‘
VIIL—SKIN, SMELL, HEARING, EYES, DIGESTIVE TRACT. ;
VIII.—SKELETON GENERALLY—BACK-BONE, RIBS, SKULL, MUS-
CLES, NERVES, REFLEX ACTION, TENACITY OF LIFE,
AND REPAIR IN AMPHIBIANS . . 7 A .
IX.—FossILs, KEYS, ETC. . ‘. FS ; ‘ ; 4
2 xvii
14
19
41
50
58
xvili STORY OF CTH AMPHITRLANS
PART Te REPTILES
omarreu rade
Noe TSPROPECHION 2 DREENTETON S WELAE Gr UN WET
TIES REP RILES | ORDERS, LIMES, ORS, CL UNS, fob
WALRING ‘ ‘ , < 3 ‘ Py . aD
Nie Pats, HEADS, UWS, TEU, AND DANGERS EN BRE
ULES, , 7 . , ‘ : ‘ s
ATL Moen, abe tes OF DERENSI, WACAISINS, TEER, ODOR,
ORNAMENTS, COLORS, COLOR PREEREEIIN, UND
COLOR CHANGING UN REE RULES ‘ : ‘ » 2
NULL = Mareen, Ges et ders, THR ETTON, TELE ES, DIS
WRUEETTION, WHORE URION, BEAL. WILETIE, EN BALERS,
DISEASE, AGR, UND SITE Ob REE EIEES e tt
XLV Dictesrivte rm ver, ESPER ETFO, OTRCUUELON,
LUNGS, TRAIT, COLE THRO TE ATBTE ERR VES,
MKKERTON, ORWELL, OAUESETLES, NIEVES, UK ALN,
WISDOM, SUN, AND SEALERS IN REPT ‘ 2 UN
XAV.--SUnsk ORG UNS, KERSTIN, CARE OF VOENG,
GROLOUL AND MOURN RICERELIS, fENNHTEDS, VA
RERTTEN OR OPOSSTE, OIA, DAG AM Ot bE NCEE,
VOMALEN TS ON CTDUERS OR ORDERS OF RNTENCE URE:
THES, AND ONBV OO, ‘ . “ i s 2 URS
XVEH-Oureranie or outer RHUL WEE Tretia ev PAS
PART TE A COLLBOTORS EXPERIENCE
WIETHE REPTHLES
XVIL—Sn ates AN HOUSEHOLD pier PIV aALLING Die
DOW AG ATNNT eT oa
‘ . 172
XIX.—THE cARE OF REPTILES IN CAPTIVITY—ECCEN-
TRICITY OF APPETITE—F'ASTING OF POISONOUS
SNAKES—HowW THE BIG PYTHON WAS SAVED—
CANNIBAL SNAKES——-NOVEL METHOD OF FEEDING
THE KING COBRA—MALADIES OF CAPTIVE REP-
TILES. 4 ‘ é 3 5 a a . 179
XX.—PECULIARITIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES—THE ART OF
HANDLING VENOMOUS. REPTILES—THE GILA MON-
STER—EXPERIMENTING WITH SNAKE POISON—
SHEDDING OF THE POISON FANGS—CONCERNING
‘THE IOSTILITY OF POISONOUS REPTILES—SURGI-
CAL OPERATION ON A COBRA-—COMPOSITION OF
SNAKE POISON: ITS EFFECTS—ANTITOXIN . . 189
XXI—CoLLectina REPTILES—How WATER-SNAKES ARE
CAUGHT—-DIFFICULTIES IN CAPTURING LIZARDS—
HUNTING THE LOCAL REPTILES—WHERE REP-
TILES MAY BE FOUND—THE TIME TO COLLECT—
HUNTING AT NIGHT ; ; : ‘ . . 196
XXIL—INTELLIGENCE OF REPTILES—TRAINING ALLIGATORS
—TueE story or SztLiIma—Do sNakES SWALLOW
THEIR YOUNG?—GIANT TORTOISES—THE LAST
SURVIVORS OF THE REPTILIAN AGE 3 i . 205
Inpex Fi ‘i ‘ P : A ‘ ‘ » 218
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Frog in action . eS ‘ ee. Ge oe ¥ ooh “ae. BS
Giant salamander . . Sa veh Oe (a. #
Slender cecilia—White-bellied cwcilia ‘ é : vane 5
Congosnake . . . . « «© «© «© «© « 8
Spadefoot frog se; ee eS Car ae a. LD
Surinam toad and tadpole . . . . . . . 10
Flying tree-frog . § < . i onde . 5 oe: ld.
Head of frog . ‘ons . r - “ ‘< - 12
Tooth of labyrinthodont » eo 2g Gel GR Sb. at all
Horned frogof South America. r ‘ s » » 16
Common toad . ‘ ‘ : ; eo . » «6 20
Green frog i : oe F 7 he he . - 20
Bullfrog . . ‘ . ; . ; é js rs . 21
Tree-toad . 7 ; qi 7 : A 2 F A ~ 21
Crested newt, male and female. : & os) 27
Eggs of bird, toad, fish, butterfly, katyaia, ats * « » 31
Development of frog . ay de : : 3 - -« 88
Pouched frog . 3 A 3 3 - . é : . 36
Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana . es eo 43 . . 37
Axolotl, tadpole state . . ooo . . - + 88
Axolotl, adult . ‘ F s 5 . . - : . 39
Obstetric frog . 5 a “Sy ee Oe a » »« 40
Skeleton of frog . ‘ ‘ . . ‘ : . . O51
Xxii STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
Skull of Rana esculenta .
Slab of sandstone, with amphibian footprints
Jaw of Dendrerpeton acadeanum .
Section of hollow stump filled with sandstone
Archegosaurus . i .
Ptyonius. . .
Limnerpeton laticeps
Mastodonsaurus Jaegeri .
Trematosaurus
Section of tooth of labyrinthodont
Serpent . . x
Lizard. é é
Crocodiles ; .
Tuatera . ‘ : .
Foot of a chameleon
Glass-snake . . re
Spine-tailed lizard .
Sea-snake .
Whip- or tree-snake
Shield-tail snake . .
Pterodactyl . : .
Ramphorhynchus
Action of crocodile’s jaw
.
Dasypeltis-unicolor swallowing fowl’s egg
Dicynodon lacerticeps
Lycosaurus ‘
Rhynchosaurus
Skull of rattlesnake.
Anolis or American chameleon‘
Horned toad . " .
Head of leguan j .
.
102
104
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Moloch lizard . F ‘ . . i c F
Frilled lizard . x ‘ - é z "
Flying lizard . Se, Ge OR AE OR Oe
Gila monster , . : ‘ a : :
Skeleton of lizard ‘ F é F F 5 .
Wall gecko. ee ee ee ee ee
Tortoise-shell turtle ‘i ‘ is : F .
Stegosaurus ungulatus . ‘. ‘ . ei .
Gavial . a a ‘ a . . a
Circles showing aatip . w- -% ; . :
Plesiosaurus dolichodirus ‘ oe ow ow OA
Ichthyosaurus communis i> cis . . .
‘ Edestosaurus . . : a . ‘ . .
Triceratops prosus . . ww lt
Brontosaurus excelsis . . . . < *
Restoratién of Laosaurus ‘ c é 7 .
Diclonius mirabilis . , é oot ‘ .
Hesperornis regalis. . » » + «© «+
Slab with tracks of several species of Brontozoum
Finback lizard . ‘ i ‘ aor Se
Skeleton of Pterodactylus spectabilis ‘ - ‘
The collector with some of his pets Se: aks fe
Rattlesnake. c oe @
Forcing food down the ‘iva at a weitile . .
‘Blacksnake .. a ee ee
“ Big Mose,” the — ‘ 7 ‘ ‘ .
Giant tortoise . ‘ F ‘ i. . . ,
PART I
AMPHIBIANS
By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT
STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
CHAPTER I
WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS
Tur term Amphibians is used to designate that
_ great class of the backboned animals, which includes
the Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, Mudpuppies, ete.
Unfortunately there is no good English word for all
these, as there is for the fishes and for the birds, or no
good Anglicized word as those for the reptiles and for
the mammals. '
We are a little apt to confuse amphibian with the
‘amphibious; but the latter term is used loosely to
define any creature capable of staying for indefinite
periods either in water or air—such as may have two
abiding- places. But an amphibian is a creature hav-
ing, usually and normally, as it grows, two forms of
life. Thus seals, otters, muskrats, and beavers are
often spoken of as amphibious, but they are really
mammals; while nearly all true amphibians, such as
frogs, salamanders, etc., have a tadpole state through
which they pass in their growth, and in which they
are entirely water-haunting ; and later they have an
adult stage in which they may be either land-haunters
purely, water-hgunters, or amphibious, like those mam-
1
2 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
mals mentioned. Having two lives is the original
meaning of amphibious ae the Greek, amphi,
two, and 020s, life). °
Some writers speak of this i of the vertebrates
as the Batrachians (from Greek batrachios, a frog),
but the author prefers to leave this term as the scien-
tific name of the tailless amphibians only.
There are a few fishes that, when young, have a
tadpole state, but these, when grown, are easily distin-
guished from any amphibian, either because they have
no true legs, or because they have very distinct fins.
But there are many tadpoles of the amphibians, which
outwardly resemble certain fishes, and close examina-
tion is required and technical terms must be used to
distinguish them.
In a general way, every tadpole is a low order of
fish, having gills and living a thoroughly aquatic life,
but later they all either acquire true limbs with toes, or
else they have better lungs than has any fish. There
are fishes with lungs, but no legs. At the same time
there are many amphibians with legs, that still retain
the gills of their tadpole state and have a very poor
sort of lungs indeed.
From the classes above them the tadpole condition
of the amphibians is the most characteristic distine-
tion, though some do not have this larval condition
outside of the egg. This egg is also quite different
from that of reptiles and birds, and in the process of
hatching, the tadpole is not enclosed in certain sacs or
membranes, which grow round the young of the other
two classes and nourish them.
WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS 3
Anatomically, the rule is that amphibians have no
such complete ribs as are found in the other classes.
Externally, it may be said in a general way of those
living now, that amphibians are naked-skinned, rep-
tiles are scaly, mammals have hair and birds have
feathers. Some reptiles, however, are not, and a few
mammals are scaly.
Fic. 1.—Frog (Discogtossus pictus) in action, showing free develop-
ment of limbs as compared with other members of its class.
Likewise many extinct amphibians’ and reptiles
had paddle-shaped limbs. Their structure, however,
shows that these were not true fins, but were made
out of a true three-jointed leg. Likewise some of
each of these classes have no legs at all, but they are
readily distinguished by the other characters noted.
Amphibians were once classed with reptiles, be-
4 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
eause both were cold-blooded creeping things; but
although a lizard and a salamander may look much
alike, mere resemblance is no longer a basis of classi-
fication. Kinship is a matter of structure.
While the fishes were the first creatures to have
a backbone, the amphibians were the first to take this
great weapon and go out to conquer the dry land.
Ne
Fig. 2.—Giant salamander (Megalobatrachus maximus).
They were thus the pioneers of all the reptiles and
mammals, which have since subdued the earth, and
WHAT AMPHIBIAN MEANS 5
of the birds which have invaded the air. With them
came in the three-jointed limb and the fingers and
the toes. The many fringes of the fins of the fishes
Fie. 3.
Slender cecilia White-bellied cecilia
(Cezeilia gracilis). (Cexcilia lentaculata).
rapidly decreased to five digits in this next class, and
then the human hand lay in ‘its cradle among the
rushes—a giant which should rise and strike and
strangle.
With the jointed limb and toe came in the lung,
also, in its best development—permitting the excur-
sion away from the water. ;
There are now living three orders of amphibians,
easily distinguished from each other. , First there are
‘the tailed forms, like the salamanders, always having
a tail and at least two limbs. Second there are the
6 STORY OF THE: AMPHIBIANS
tailless forms, such as frogs and toads, always having
four limbs. Third there are the legless forms, the
Cecilians, which have no perfect limbs at all, though
stumps show in the very young. They are wormlike
in shape—are burrowing creatures and are practically
eyeless.
In the long-ago there lived many other kinds of
amphibians.
CHAPTER II
LIMBS, TOES, CLAWS, WEBS, FINS, AND TONGUES IN
AMPHIBIANS
Lives anp Tozs
Tue typical form of each order is illustrated in
the last chapter. In place of a tail the frogs have
their hind limbs capable of stretching out directly in
line with the body. This gives them a great thrust
in leaping and swimming, and the long legs thus trail-
ing act like a feather on an arrow in one case, and
like a rudder in the other. The fore legs of the tail-
less forms are weak, and are used mostly in alighting
and in propping up the forepart of the body. Thege
nearly all leap.
In the tailed forms, the legs are all usually sees
weak, and there is no great difference in the size of
the fore and hind pair's, as there is in the frogs. To
this order the forward pair seems the more important
since they serve to drag the creature slowly along, and
-they are never lost, though the rear ones are gone in
the sirens. So, also, the fore limbs first develop in
their tadpoles, while in those of the frogs the rear
‘limbs show first. In one tailed form, known as the
Congo snake (though it is not a snake), all four of the
= 3 %
8 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
limbs are small and useless. The creature moves by
wriggling. (See Fig. 4.)
Fic. 4.—Congo snake (Murenopsis tridactyla).
The Cecilians have bands around the body, by
which they pull themselves through the ground.
In the legged forms the number of the toes varies.
In the grasping hand of the frogs and tree-toads,
there is found the first thumb in nature. So perfect
is this that many tree-toads can suspend themselves
for some time by a single hand. These have soft
round pads on the ends of the digits, which enable
them to stick to smooth surfaces—the slipping being
prevented by moisture. The cricket-frog can, by the
mere adhesion of its moist underparts, climb up ver-
tical glass and remain there even when so turned that
its back is downward ; and one little salamander, hay-
ing neither pads nor claws, can so run on ceilings.
Claws are very poorly developed in the amphibi-
LIMBS AND TOES 9
ans. Some of the tailed forms have horny tips on
their toes all the time; others have these at certain
seasons only, when they chase or grasp each. other.
These latter are on the fore feet, and are shed later.’
In Africa, there is a frog armed with spurlike claws
on: three toes of the hind feet, and our own spade-
foot toad (Fig. 5) has a flat spur on its rear foot, which
is evidently used as a burrowing implement.
The feet of the so-called Surinam toad (Fig. 6)
(Pipa) are tipped with a starlike sprangle. The rule
PONS ah tara
Fig. 5.—Spadefoot frog (Scaphiopus holbrookit).
among frogs and toads is that the rear toes are webbed
and the front ones are not. The length of rear toes
and the extent of the webs vary much.
10 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
It is said that in one tree-toad of Borneo, the usual
disks are so large, and the membranes between them
so broad, that when the toes are spread, the creature
Fic. 6.—Surinam toad (Pipa Americana), ‘ails on the left.
may sail from tree to tree on them, after the manner
of the flying squirrels. (See Fig. 1. .)
In the European newt, a dry-land tailed form, the
males develop webs at that season only when all go
to the water; and these dry up and fall off when
they go back to the land.
Talzs
Of course when in the water the tailed forms
swim largely by means of their tails, and in those
which remain there most of the time the tail is flat
TONGUES 11
vertically, like that of a fish, and has a fringe on the
upper edge, like a fin. But in those which are almost
purely land-haunting, as the true salamanders, the tail
is round. But some amphibians, also, have a fringe
on the tail at that time only when they come to the
water. In none of these fins now are there any sup-
porting filaments or spines, as there are in those of
the fishes ; and no amphibian has fins on its sides.
TonGusEs
In this class of vertebrates the tongue is an in-
‘teresting member, and here finds its first and best
one eee
BN nag isa oe sae oe bike eis
Fic. 7.—Flying tree-frog (Rhacophorus reinhardtii).
development (Fig. 8). In some frogs it is entirely
absent, but in most of them it is large, and canbe
thrust out very far as a capturing instrument—having
12 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
usually a sticky substance on its end. In the tailed
amphibians, the tongue is variable, and quite helpful
in describing groups. In some it is a mere wrinkling
of a membrane on the floor of the mouth. It is so in
the giant salamanders.
In no case is it ever
split, nor is it thread-
like and capable of
being thrust far out
while the mouth is
closed, as it is in some
reptiles. Legless' am-
phibians may always
be thus known from
— ——_—!_ legless reptiles.
Fig. 8.— Head of frog, showing In the tailed ‘am-
tongue fixed in front but free ceva
behind. phibians, the tongue
is not free behind and
tied in front only, as in frogs, but in a few sala-
manders it is free all around and tied in the cen-
ter. This freedom may be so great that there is
left only a central stem (or pedestal), and the whole
becomes mushroom-shaped. In a few cases this ped-
estal is capable of stretching, so that the cap may
perhaps be thrust out of the mouth, But since above
this kind of tongues there is usually a quantity of
teeth on the roof of the mouth, it is not unlikely that
the tongue is used to grind the food against these.
In other salamanders, the tongue is free at the sides,
but only so in a limited degree behind. In the sirens,
which have no teeth, it is free in front to a slight ex-
TONGUES 13
tent. A peculiarity of one American genus (Ambly-
stoma) is that the tongue is pleated or wrinkled on
top, and the folds or creases run from some point
within outward, as the spokes of a wheel. This point
may be in the center or toward the rear ; and its posi-
tion aids in distinguishing species. Here as elsewhere
the tongue is helpful in “ diagnosing the case.”
In the Cacilians the tongue is like that of the
salamander forms—fixed to the floor of the mouth—
and can not be thrust out, as in legless reptiles.
CHAPTER III
1
TEETH, BEAKS, FOOD, FEEDING HABITS, FASTING, IM-
PRISONMENT, DRINKING, AND WATER RESERVOIRS
IN AMPHIBIANS
TEETH
Wirn the amphibians of to-day teeth seem to be
of less importance than in any other class of back-
boned creatures. Even fishes have developed them
much more terribly. But there were once fierce
amphibians which had great teeth; and because
these, when cut across their Jength, showed mark-
ings made by the folds, which resembled labyrinths,
these old monsters are called Labyrinthodonts (Fig.
9). The horned toad of Brazil, still has these in-
folded teeth, with grooves on the sides. In reptiles
having such grooved teeth there is always found a
poison ready to flow down them, and so it is said that
this wrinkled-toothed toad bites viciously, pursues its
enemies, and has poisonous teeth.
While the amphibians may have teeth el’ewhere
than on the jaws, none have them on the tongue,
as do many fishes. The labyrinthodonts had great
tusks in the throat, but in many modern forms teeth
may be absent from either or both jaws. In the
United States common toads have no teeth on the
14
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS 15
jaws, but this is not true of toads everywhere. The
tree-toads (which are toads not frogs) have teeth on
the upper jaw, and some real tree-frogs (Dendro-
batid@) have no teeth on either jaw. In the tailed
amphibians there are
usually teeth on both
jaws, but the siren
has a beak only, like
that of turtles and
some fishes. Tad-
poles of the frogs
and toads have simi-
lar beaks. In the
Cecilians there are
teeth on both jaws—
especially the lower.
Foop anp FrEpine
Hasits
In the grown-up
state, when not con-
fined, all amphibians
appear to be either
flesh-eaters or insect-
eaters. In confine-
ment many tailed
forms will eat bread
and milk, or bread
alone, and _ other
cooked forms of vege-
table food. But their
Fria, 9.—Tooth of labyrinthodont,
natural size.
16 STORY OF THE amruislaANs
tadpoles are, to a large extent, vegetable eaters—liv-
ing on grass and reeds. The tadpoles of the spade-
foot toad are said to be especially fond of each other,
and many are otherwise carnivorous. Such creatures
as ducklings, goslings on the water, and even chickens
on the banks, may be gulped by immense bullfrogs.
One large frog of the Solomon Islands is recorded
as catching birds, and the poisonous horned frogs of
South America—already noted (Fig. 10)—catch small
Fic. 10.—Horned frog of South America Lenalbutlene cornuta).
!
mammals. Large frogs may sometimes turn the tables
on the snakes and swallow the smaller ones. A snake
eighteen inches long has been found in a frog’s
stomach. Fish and reptiles are sometimes eaten. In
confinement frogs eat each other.
ié
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS 17
It is surprising what long fasts frogs are capable
of, if the numerous recards are to be trusted. There
.1s no doubt that at certain seasons while they have
not yet gone into the winter sleep, some frogs cease
to eat—at least to any great extent—perhaps alto-
gether. Of course when torpid in winter they do not .
eat. Dr. Abbott records that he kept a cricket-frog
without food for one hundred days. At the end of
seventy-five days it had lost only forty-four grains in
-weight. The author kept a common tree-toad in a
bottle properly ventilated, one winter. It was al-
ways active when roused, ‘but it could never be in-
duced to eat. It finally died after many weeks, from
what cause could not be seen, but no loss of flesh
_ Beemed evident.
In this connection it is proper to notice the won-
derful stories we hear about amphibians being found
in the hearts of trees, crevices of rocks, etc.—places
not having any opening large enough, at the time
of discovery, for the creature to crawl through. It
would seem that it had been there a long time, and
the query is double, How did it get there and what
has it lived on? Scientists are not much inclined to
believe that such things have happened. But it is
always best to see upon what such assertions are
‘based. It is recorded that a frog has lived a year
enclosed in a plaster cavity; and Semper—a great
“naturalist—notes a definite instance of this kind
-where a Triton (a tailed form) was found enclosed in
a cavity of rock from which an opening of one-twenty-
fifth of an inch only in diameter and one-sixth of an
18 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
inch in depth ran to the outer world. In this case
he thinks that the very young Triton crawled in
through this hole—not so large as a big broom-straw
—and grew so that it could not get out. It wasa
year or two old and two inches long when found, and
the naturalist thinks that sufficient food may have
strayed in there to support it. It is probable that in
some other cases an outer opening may have been
overlooked. At any rate the subjects is an interesting
one in this connection.
It has been said that amphibians do not drink.
Just how this is proved in all cases the author does
not know. It is well known that the frogs can con-
dense water into their bodies by means of their skins,
or absorb it from green leaves by means of special
glands; that they have a reservoir of pure water
within the body that is filled quite likely in this way. ’
To say that the aquatic kinds never drink is a broad
assertion, but that they may have no need to do so
may be true, because in this case also the skin may
merely absorb a sufficient quantity.
CHAPTER IV
SPRING CALLS, VOCAL ORGANS, HAUNTS, HATCHING,
COURTSHIP, DRESS, COLORS, CHANGES, AND OTHER
ORNAMENTS ; WEAPONS, DEFENSE, SKIN-SECRETIONS
AND BLUFF, IN AMPHIBIANS
Carts anp Music
In those warm days in February when, in our
middle latitude, the little male frog first awakes from
his winter sleep and puts his head forth, the first cry
is not for bread but for company to cheer his lonely
heart; and he never ceases the croak or squeak till
he finds it—or, at least, knows that the season is past
for finding it, and that bachelorhood for another year
stares him in the face.
Our ponds in the spring are thus made noiey by
toads as well as frogs. In fact many of the early trills
—especially those which are so prolonged—are from
the toads (Fig. 11). Those who have had experience
can tell what species is singing, as others can know
the songs of birds. Dr. Abbott says that the little
cricket-frog cries “ pee-ceet” repeatedly ; Dr. Jordan
notes that the swamp tree-toad’s call is like “ the scrap-
ing of a coarse-toothed comb,” and Professor Cope
says the same is “a rattle with a rising inflection at
19
20 STORY f
“| a
the end.” The cry of our common tree-toad (14)
is described as “a clear loud-trilled rattle.” The
Fic. 11.—Common toad.
common green frog (Fig. 12) is called Rana clamata
(“screaming frog”) because it has a sort of barytone
BA
Fic. 12.—Green frog (Rana clamata).
CALLS AND MUSIC 21
which it uses very frequently, and has the habit alse
of “squeaking out” as it leaps into the water when
Fre. 13.—The bullfrog (Rana catesbiana).
disturbed. The spadefoot toad croaks fearfully in a
deep rasp—as if his vocal alae needed oiling;
and the voice of the
bullfrog (Fig. 13)—
especially when quiet
and reflective in the
later season—is de-
scribed as “ jug-er-
rum,” with a deep
really musical ring at
times. Again it may
bea series of very ex-
plosive “ chee-ungs ”
very far apart; but
Fia. 14, —iirse-tead nae versicolor).
22 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
in the spring when in concert with others it takes on
various forms of squawks, croaks, etc., which may
“make night hideous.”
Frogs evidently sing in concert—even different
kinds chiming in with others, as any one may ob-
serve; and among the bullfrogs there are leaders of
the groups of singers, which seem to start first and
thus get the whole band into pulsations or throbs of
sound. In some tropical regions there is really a
musical harmony in these concerts, and they are
rather pleasant to human ears. It is known that
some birds sing in harmony—the one making a
good “second” to the other. But in many other
eases the noise of frogs in the Tropics is so great
that nervous persons sometimes have to leave the
region.
As a rule amphibians do not ery out in fright,
though our spring- frog (or green frog) is noted as
an exception. Rarely do they express any sound in
distress. A few groan under suffering, but usually
they go silently to their doom, even while being swal-
lowed alive by a snake. Neither do they as a rule
express rage by sound. Dr. Lydekker, however,
notes that the horned frog of South America (Fig.
10)—the one that has been noted a8 vicious and poi-
sonous—defies its foes with a sort of bark, but that
it has a clear bell-like tone for its friends. Perhaps
then here low down in the backboned folk the lan-
guage of rage is first separated from the language of
love. Some of the fishes, however, had been calling
for mates before this, for the heart is older than the
WATER-HAUNTING 23
head, and music older than speech. Perhaps the cat-
fish when bellowing is defying his foe.
We shall not go into the structure of the larynx
or special sound-apparatus in the frog-forms—further
than to say that many of the males have membranous
sacs on each side of the mouth which can be filled
with air; and these greatly aid in producing a loud
sound. In some they remain full so long as the pro-
longed sound prevails; in others the sacs go down
with the short call and are refilled before the next.
The females do not have these sacs, but many of
them call in a weak voice.
In the tailed ‘forms there are calls also, especially
from the land-haunters, but they are not strong nor
striking. They are doubtless eas to calling and
charming.
Something of cries in connection with the weather
will come up under “ Skin.”
Warer-Hauntine
Among most amphibians that are land-haunters
there is, in connection with the voice, the habit of
forming bathing parties at the social seasons, when
better opportunities of being agreeable to each other
are afforded. Many of them hibernate at the bot-
toms of shallow ponds and awake there; but others
hibernate in holes on land and must awake, dig out
and make this excursion to the water-party. It is an
instinct in most animals below the mammals to at-
tempt to rear their young in the place where they
themselves were hatched. We see this very strikingly
4
24 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
in birds and fishes. So the amphibians, being origi-
nally from the water, go back to it usually to bring
up their babes.
In a general way water is necessary to the hatch-
ing of the amphibian egg and (since the young are
usually fishlike), to the rearing of the tadpoles. There
are a few exceptions to this now, though there was
doubtless a time when the whole class resorted to-
water to lay eggs. In some cases, as on our dry
plains, frogs and salamanders depend upon little tem-
porary rain-pools in which to rear their young; so
that here is one reason why amphibians should re-
joice at the prospect of a storm.
OrrerR Carmina Fratures
. Having discussed the voice to call with and the
place to assemble at, let us notice other means of
charming or securing a mate among the amphibians.
Frogs are especially active in making themselves
agreeable, though they do not resort to all the cere-
monies of the “ best society.” But besides music and
a decent bath the amphibians seem to condense our
bowing, dancing, and posing into some very extrava-
gant antics at times; and on such occasions they sport
all the finery they can afford.
Many of them in every-day life are exposed to
great dangers and must dress so as not to be seen
easily, as is the case with the toad and many which
are dull-colored; but others that live among pretty
things can match their dresses (and their complex-
ions) to their surroundings, and yet remain pretty.
OTHER CHARMING FEATURES 25
Thus our wood-frog’s coat looks as if it were crossed
with twigs and plant stems and blotched with moss
and leaves; the tree-toads are greenish or gray like
leaves or lichens; and yet the pattern of these colors
is pretty. In some of these, their under parts only
may be beautifully orange or golden—often marbled,
ete. ; and as they swim above their mates these beauty
spots may be ravishingly displayed.
Still others, which are active or can escape their
foes in other ways, are gorgeously brilliant on the
back and upper sides of the legs. This does not al-
ways expose them, for in the Tropics the ,tree-toads
are said to be colored like the blossoms and fruits
on the trees. Some of the salamanders, which can
escape into the water or otherwise hide, are brightly
striped—even rivaling the snakes in green and gold.
Among many there is quite a tendency to be spotted
on the sides in the regular “ polka-dotted” way.
In dangerous creatures which are nat liable to be
attacked, there is often great brilliancy—perhaps be-
cause beauty is always desirable, and they can afford
it. But a great naturalist has supposed that this
beauty is a warning to the enemy—a warning which
is, however, purely for the ;warner’s benefit. Thus
in South America there is a little frog that is con-
spicuously colored, but it has a very acrid skin-secre-'
. tion, which keeps ducks and other things from eating
_ it. It hops abroad fearlessly in daylight, and flaunts
its gaudy colors defiantly. The horned frog (see Fig.
10) (not horned toad) is also brilliant with green and
gold, and it fights and poisons.
26 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
Cotor CHANGES
To return to color as a protection, many amphib-
ians have the ability to change their colors at will
to suit the surrounding—to dress for the emergency.
The common tree-toads all have it, and some terres-
trial frogs also.
One of’ our little tree-toads is nearly solid green
above, sometimes slightly spotted, but it is rare. The
only specimen the author ever saw was on a green
leaf, and the toad was solid green with no spots
noticeable.
At the season when amphibians desire a mate,
both sexes put on their brightest colors, and the males
are not so noticeably the more brilliant here as they
are in the birds and fishes.
OraEeR ORNAMENTS
We have noticed, under their respective heads, the
putting on of extra claws, webs, fins, and the enlarge-
ment of fingers and arms during the social time. In
this connection it is noticeable that many males, like
the birds, put special ornamentation and color, on
these also. The English male newt or eft (Fig. 15)
has his vertical fin on the back,much larger at this
time than is the female’s; and he has the edges of it
all beautifully scalloped, as are sometimes the edges
of collars, kerchiefs, etc., with the ladies. The end
of the tail is similarly scalloped. He seems to think
that his mate can appreciate beauty of form also. In
this fin there are no muscles to move it, and in later
WEAPONS 27
months it disappears. It was an ornament only—a
pretty thing—made out of an old implement that was
once useful otherwise.
Fic. 15.—Crested newt (Triton cristatus). Lower figure, male ;
upper figure, female.
Sometimes the Axolotls (Figs. 16 and 17)—a
Mexican tailed form—are found albino or white—
from causes not understood.
WEAPONS
Besides the horns noted in the South American
poisonous frogs (and these may be mere ornaments)
the modern amphibiahs are scarcely endowed with spe-
cial weapons-—aside from tongue and teeth for prey-
taking. Frogs have been recorded as fighting desper-
ately with each other, some having had their bodies
ripped open; but with what kind of weapons it is
not stated. The teeth on the margin of the jaws may
28 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
come into play. The spur-toed frogs noted as having
claws on hind feet can probably scratch severely.
Salamanders when teased turn themselves sud-
denly like caterpillars and snap their jaws at the dis-
turbing object. In general there is no such vicious-
ness found in the amphibians as prevails in the
reptiles, where the enemy is sometimes pursued and
a bulldog kind of grip is often taken.
This sudden bending of the body is a favorite
means of leaping by some tailed forms.
Sxin-SECRETIONS
As means of defense skin-secretions prevail more
largely in amphibians than elsewhere, though some
low mammals, as the opossums, possess them. In no
case are such secretions agreeable to an enemy, but
snakes do not seem to care for that of the toad, though
it is nauseating toa dog. That of the brilliant little
South American frog has been mentioned. The skin-
secretion in the salamanders is very great. The an-
cients thought that it could resist fire—perhaps because
this quantity of ooze might protect it a little. .They
thought the secretion deadly and blasting—even to
vegetation. They imagined that it produced all sorts
of spells even at long range. We now know that this
is a fallacy, but its slime is really poisonous to lizards
and small things which may get it in the mouth. So
there may be a grain of truth in many myths. The
impression prevails among many persons that the
secretion of toads produces warts. Its own back is
pointed out as a proof. But the wartlike lumps there
SKIN-SECRETIONS 29
are merely the glands from which the secretion flows.
On the neck behind the eye these glands are larger
and the fluid from these parts is usually more acrid.
A threatening attitude is a frequent means of
escape or defense among amphibians. Toads nor-
mally have the sections of the breast-bones overlap-
ping, so that they can swell themselves enormously
when angry. Frogs have their breast-bone pieces
meeting edge to edge, which prevents this power of
expansion.
CHAPTER V
EGGS, SPAWNING PLACES, VIVIPAROUS FORMS, AND
PECULIAR CARE OF YOUNG IN AMPHIBIANS
Fees.
Tux eggs of frogs and toads are, in general, like
those of the higher fishes. They consist of dark dots
that are yolks enclosed in a mass of jellylike matter,
which is the “white.” This “white” may be all in
one great sheet or string; but in tailed forms, the
eggs may be separate, buttonlike masses of “ white”
—each with a yolk in the center. In the upland frogs
and toads, some of which do not lay their eggs in tits
water, the eggs may be separate, and placed singly
here and there in crevices. These single eggs are apt
to be much larger than those which are laid in masses.
In the land-haunting tailed amphibians, the eggs are
laid in packets or flat bunches. There is no shell or
very tough membrane around the eggs of the amphib-
jans, as in the birds and reptiles or sharklike fishes.
In the ceecilians the eggs are also separated (Fig. 16).
The place where eggs of most amphibians are laid
is in the water, generally a shallow stagnant pool.
Usually they sink to the bottom or are twined around
the stems of plants. Among the newts the mother
30
EGGS 31
!
climbs the stem of a submerged plant and puts an egg
on each stem or leaf as she goes—one for each leaf ;
but the axolotl swims over and amony the plants and
may put more than one of her flat, buttonlike eggs,
tthe
Fie. 16.—Eggs of different’ animals, showing variety in external
appearance. a, egg of bird; 6b, eggs of toad; ¢, egg of fish ; d, egg
of butterfly ; e, eggs of katydid on leaf; f, egg-case of{skate.
all in a row, upon the stem. The Congo snake (Am-
phiuma) lays its eggs in a string in the water, then
coils its long body about them and bunches them into
a circular mass. So also the spotted triton (or spotted
salamander) bunches its eggs. The more land-haunt-
32 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
‘ing tailed forms lay their packets under damp moss
or stones, etc.; and here their young are hatched, and
in some cases they never go to the water. They
begin at once a terrestrial life, though the gills, which
they have at first, show their aquatic origin.
TTADPOLES
Generally speaking, the eggs of amphibians (Fig.
17) are hatched by the sun’s heat. At first the little
amphibian in its egg shows as a bloody streak, and
appears to develop in its early stages much as a little.
fish. Later, however, it absorbs all the yolk into the
stomach and does not have it suspended below the
body as have the little fishes. From the egg the tad-
pole breaks away to liberty, if in the water, as a small
plump beanlike body with a round sucking mouth and
a slim wiggling tail. At first no gills are seen, but
soon they grow as branches outside of the neck. Later
these are lost, a hole is formed in the neck for breath-
ing by gills that are developed ¢nszde—as in the fishes
—a pretty strong hint that the amphibian did not get
its gills from the present kind of fishes. This con-
dition prevails only where the creature is going to be
a land-haunter to any extent, as in the frog-forms and
the salamanders. If it be destined to remain in the
water, as in the case of sirens, mud-puppies (“ water-
dogs ”’), etc., these outside gills remain, and no inside
ones are formed. Finally in the adult frog-forms and
in the more upland tailed forms the holes on the side
of the neck close, and the creatures become lung- |
breathers only. While no amphibian may wholly
Fig. 17.—Development of the frog. 1, eggs when first laid; 2, eggs
at a later stage; 3, egg containing embryo; 4, newly hatched
larve or tadpoles; 5, 5, 5, tadpoles with external gills; 6 to 11,
later stages in the development of the tadpole ; 12, perfect frog.
- 33
34 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
reject the use of the lung, yet in the more aquatic
kinds it has much degenerated or never developed,
and these creatures die when out of the water as
quickly as many fishes. Since these show a tendency
to have weak limbs they are likely degenerate forms
that have lost their high estate by laziness.
In all tadpoles which develop into land-haunters
the limbs begin to appear about the time the lungs
develop. It is remarkable that these limbs should be
almost complete in all their parts before they come
forth from under the skin, where for a time they
form a small stump. It is one of those “shortened
up” processes of Nature of which we shall find so
many from this on. In the tadpoles of the frog-
forms, modern demands have reached back so far as
to grow out the hind limbs first, but in all others it
is the fore limb that first shows. In frog-forms the
tail soon departs—is not lost—but is absorbed into the
body—as the limbs grow. In all others it remains,
and has vertebre (joints of the back-bone) form in
it. There is never any vertebra in the tail of the
tadpole of the frogs, which have ouly horny jaws, and
are rather more vegetable-eating than the other forms.
It is said, however, that they have teeth before they
have the beaks. In all tadpoles the gape is small—
the mouth rather sucking. Those of toads, like the
eggs, are always much blacker than those of frogs.
It is impossible here to outline any further means of
recognizing the various kinds of tadpoles. But an
expert naturalist will know many if not all of them
by some peculiarity. Those of frog-forms show only
VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS 35
two pairs of gills on each side; those of some tailed
forms (tritons, newts, etc.) have three pairs, while the
shape of the body, tail, limbs, and the number of these
last and their toes are all different in different species.
The body in the tadpoles of frogs and toads is much
shorter than that of the tailed forms, and in the former
only there are sucking disks under the head.
The cecilian tadpole shows a swimming tail, some
internal gills only, and in one kind the stump of a leg
—all of which are lost later when the creature begins
to burrow.
Vivirarous AMPHIBIANS
In many amphibians, as in fishes and reptiles, the
eggs are hatched in the body before they are laid.
In some instances the eggs are laid but are hatehed
immediately. In a few cases the entire tadpole-state
is run within the body of the parent, and the young
are born in the complete form. A remarkable in-
stance is that of the Alpine salamander. Many eggs
are formed in the mother but two only are hatched.
All the others then run together in a mass to feed the
two growing tadpoles. These have very long bushy
gills which they lose at birth. They have been taken
from the mother before they were born and put into
water, whereupon they lost their first gills at once,
but grew other new shorter ones—those by which they
breathed in the parent’s body, being quite likely too
large for the much better aerated water. This, Mr.
Mivart, a great naturalist, has cited as an instance
where at once a creature could adapt itself to its sur-
36 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
rounding, while young and plastic, without waiting
for generations of the survival of those best fitted to
it by mere accident.
Another species nearly akin, the nototrema, or
pouched frog, hatches all of its many eggs within the
body (Fig. 18).
It is said that in some kinds of cecilians the
young are born alive in the water, while another
species certainly lays rather large eggs in a burrow
near the water, and the mother coils above them and
. hatches them out,
like a hen. If s0
this is probably the
first instance of real
incubation in na-
ture. Some others
which must have
water to hatch their
eggs, resort to queer
methods to get it.
One little West In-
dies tree-toad (Hy-
lodes) lays her eggs
at the point where
the leaf joins the
trunk in palms or
Fia. 18.—Pouched frog (Nototrema mar- _ gimilar trees. Here
Ha ik at opened Tittle pockets of
waver are found
after rains. Another of the same group takes the
matter more by faith still. At the time when she
VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS 37
lays there is usually a drought. So she places her
eggs on limbs of trees above dried-up pools. Here
they dry up also
and are preserved,
and when the rains
finally come they
are washed off and
hatch in the pool
below. Other spe-
cies deposit them
on the bottoms of
dried pools.
Some toads have
learned how to get
along without wa-
teratany time. In |, hee ce
the island of Gua- Fre. 19.—Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana (Hy-
del oupe, where lodes liniatus), with tadpoles attached to
her back. They do not fall off even
when she leaps rapidly away.
marshes are not
found, a little toad
places its eggs under damp leaves, and the whole tad-
pole-state is run within the egg, and the young come
forth perfect.
There are various stages of taking care of the tad-
poles when they form, without allowing them to re-
main in the water. It is well known that the female
Surinam toad has a pitted skin at the breeding season,
and that the male takes up the eggs and with his fore
paws presses them into these pits. Here they swell,
after the female enters the water, till each fills its cell,
‘when a covering grows over them and remains till they
38 wm STORY_OF THE AMPHIBIANS
hatch and come out again perfect frogs, having, how-
ever, been tadpoles a little while in the pits. Several
other frogs have sacs on the back in which the eggs
are hatched. A tree-frog of Dutch Guiana, and also
one of Trinidad, carry their tadpoles around on their
backs, where the tadpoles cling by their peculiar suck-
ing disks (Fig. 19).
The males of a great many frogs have a peculiar
habit. They take the strings of eggs and wind them
about their thighs. Some of these then go at once
into the water, while others sit in a burrow till the
eggs are ready to hatch and'then go. Our spadefoot
SEN ios Bandar conn aan
Fic. 20.—Axolotl (Amblystoma tigrinum), tadpole state.
\
toads are said sometimes to do this. A frog in the
Solomon Islands, which we have noted as laying its
VIVIPAROUS AMPHIBIANS 39
eggs in crevices, has its young hatched perfect—active
and leaping. -
The Mexican axolotl (Figs. 20 and 21) shows a
peculiar form of suspended growth. If all the con-
Fig. 21.—Axolotl (Amblystoma tigrinum), adult.
ditions be not fair, it will cease to grow, and spend
the rest of its life in the tadpole state, reproducing its
young in this immature state while in the water, and
these young are capable of either becoming land-
haunters, by losing their gills, or remaining always
aquatic. It is probable that other blunt-nosed sala-
manders do the same, or they may make the change
the second year and not the first.
In the obstetric frog (Fig. 22), which wraps the
string of eggs about his legs, the tadpoles are hatched
in water, but they have no gills.
There is a number of nest builders among the
5
\
40 STORY, OF THE AMPHIBIANS
frogs. A Japanese frog makes a nest in the ground.
Another in Brazil makes circular nests in shallow
water, smoothing and shaping rings or atolls of mud,
and laying its eggs in these cup-like depressions.
Fic, 22.—Obstetric frog (Alytes obstetricans), with strings of eggs.
i
CHAPTER VI
RESPIRATION, LUNGS, SKIN-BREATHING, CIRCULATION,
HEARTS, AND LYMPH-HEARTS IN AMPHIBIANS
Respiration
Since amphibians have no ribs to expand their
lungs, those which breathe air get their breath by
literally swallowing it, but they have muscles which
expel it. In the rater baanitans with gills, the lungs
are mere sacs, without cells or pouches. In the cx-
cilians the left lung.is small and nearly useless, . All
the kinds which stay under the water long have cer-
tain places in the body where well aerated blood is
stored; and a large blood supply runs to the skin
also. The skin aids the amphibians in breathing,
even where there are good lungs, as in the frogs.
To be thus useful it must be moist, like the gills of a
fish, so that frogs and toads especially have water
condensed into the body which they can cause to flow
out over the skin.
In the tailed forms, the body has a “lateral line”
or series of pores along the side of the body, like that
of fishes, whence a secretion keeps the skin moist and
slick. They have many other mucus glands besides.
We can thus see that frogs may breathe better
41
42 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
a
in damp weather, and hence the tree-toads rejoice
at the prospect of rain.
CrrcuLaTion
Amphibians, as a rule, are above fishes in that
they have better hearts. a
Although the heart is usually three-chambered, the
blood is piped away from it in such a way that only a
portion of it passes through the lungs or gills, the re-
mainder going the round of the body again without
reaching any aerating surface. They are not, there-
fore, warm-blooded. Before the lungs of tadpoles are
used, the heart has only two chambers, as in fishes,
while the blood runs from the heart through a pipe for
each of the three gills on each side; but when the frog’
is grown, two of these tubes go to each lung and one
other is absorbed. This is a noticeable step upward,
since the warm-blooded creatures have only one of all.
these six tubes left, while the earliest fishes had eight.
In the frog which may sit part of the time with
his rear parts in the water, and his foreparts in the
air, there is a beautiful arrangement of pipes, valves
and obstructing glands whereby Nature seems to com-
promise with him, and make the part of him in the
air warmer-blooded than that in the water. Only in
the crocodile (a reptile) elsewhere is there any such
arrangement, and that is not just like this.
Lymrx CrrcuLaTIon
The body of all creatures has a special fluid for
carrying material for repair to the muscles, etc., and
LYMPH CIRCULATION 43
for bringing away the waste. This is called lymph.
Nature always supplies a surplus of this liquid food ;
and yet not being wasteful, she carries this lymph
back and again pours it into the blood. To get this
back there is in the higher animals a very large system
of vessels, along which the fluid is pressed by the
action of small vessels—as a sponge absorbs water.
But in the amphibians and some other low forms,
this fluid may move in large spaces between muscles
or in long sacs (sinuses) under the skin or other mem-
branes; and since these easily expand under pressure
the spongelike action (capillarity) does not move the
fluid properly. So Nature has made these spaces and
sacs (sinuses) to pulsate and thus send their contents
onward. They are therefore called “ lymph-hearts. ‘i
Now if we look closely at a frog, we can see
places on its ides “beat” as if he had the “ heaves”
or “thumps,” to use a horseman’s words. There may
be one or more fluttering places on each side, and they
do not all throb at once or with any regularity with
each other. There is one on each side of the tail.
If you did not know how a frog breathed you might
think that this pulsing was his way of getting his
breath. In the amphibians these great lymph-canals
often surround the blood-vessels; but this is not the
case in man. There are two of these lymph-hearts in
some birds also, as the goose, at the root of the tail.
Unlike other hearts they degenerate as the creature
gets higher.
CHAPTER VII
SKIN, SMELL, HEARING, EYES, DIGESTIVE TRACT
Sxin SHEDDING
Tux skin of amphibians is shed frequently—some-
times at regular intervals; but the frequency depends
upon many conditions of growth, health, ete. In the;
frog-forms some shed it once a week with great regu-
larity, at certain seasons in summer. Again this may
become quite irregular. In these, the skin tends ta
come off all in one piece, but there are instances
where it is torn off in strips. Toads appear to get
rather excited at this disrobing, and while the process
may be usually easy there are times when the skin
comes with great difficulty. They seem to call upon
that internal reservoir of water to moisten the dried
skin occasionally; and whether it come in strips
or as a seamless whole, they invariably swallow it
—sometimes rolling the mass into a ball with the
hands.
The dry-land forms are said to shed their skins in
strips, and these too are eaten at once. We should
remember that this is not really the skin proper that’
is shed, but a thin, membranous—almost horny—out-
side covering called the epidermis. In all creatures
44
SMELL 45
this must be got rid of in some way because it does
not grow as the true skin beneath does. In all above
_ the reptiles it is shed in little fragments, dropping off
all the time or going with some special bath.
The true skin of the amphibians stays and en-
larges with the body, as in other vertebrates. It is
this that has in it the glands for secretions, the arteries
for breathing, and which lies above the lymph-cavi-
ties, ete.—a great and important organ in every verte-
brate.
Smx iu
Amphibians are better endowed for smelling than
are the fishes.
In the tadpoles the nostrils are mere depressions
in the snout, not connected with the mouth, and they
are then like those of most fishes. But in adult
forms the nostrils open into the mouth, whereby the
creature both breathes and smells by the air. The
positions of these openings differ in the frog-forms
and in the tailed forms. They differ in separate spe-
cies of each group also, and are sometimes used in
classification or description. There is much in the
arrangement of the mucous membrane of the frog’s
nose which implies that it smells well. If the strong
odors from the glands of the neck are used as charm-
ing perfumes (they are more ‘likely for defense or de-
fiance) this would hint that there must be fairly good
smelling powers. But it does not take much nose to
smell some odors—especially that of garlic, which the
excretion of the toad resembles.
46 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
HEARING
All amphibians when adult have ears, but the
tailed forms and some frogs have very poor ones
which are devoid of any drum cavity. In most of
them, however, there is an internal ear of some sort
opening into the mouth—sometimes by one hole in
the roof—sometimes by two, always behind those of
the nostrils. The number and position of these holes
aid in describing groups. In the lowest forms and in
the tadpoles, the ear is a mere sac in a cavity of bone.
In this sac a sort of chalky body (or bodies) is found
as is the case in all higher ears. The cavity is simply
covered with skin. No amphibian has an outside
opening to the ear, but the higher frogs and toads
have a drum cavity and a tough drum-membrane
over it, which is flush with the surface. The size
and shape of this membrane is tery distinctive. In
the genus ana (bullfrog, green-frog, wood-frog,
etc.) it is set in a sort of gristly ring and is very
noticeable. Sometimes the drumhead seems itself to
be a gristly plate.
There can be no doubt about frogs hearing well.
While writing this book, the author stepped out to
listen to some frogs in a pond one-fourth mile away,
but he unfortunately let the door slam a little too
hard, whereat the concert ceased. Similar experi-
ences occur in trying to creep upon them.
There is much doubt, however, about their hear-
ing high-pitched tones, or distinguishing changes.
A frog “changes his tune” very slightly; and while
EYES AT
certain students claim that there is some evidence of
that part of the ear (cochlea) which appreciates pitch
_ being found in frogs, it is, if there at all, very rudi-
mentary. This may be the reason why they croak in
such rasping quavers. Any one near a cfoaking frog
can feel his ear-drums fairly flutter in the coarse
vibrations.
As in fishes, it is not improbable that the sense-
glands of the lateral line also may aid the tailed
forms to appreciate jarring sounds.
Eyzs
In the frog-forms the eyes are very good, being
usually fairly large and projecting. The eye is not
so large anywhere as we should expect in creatures
so nocturnal as many amphibians are, but this is
probably accounted for in the great range of the size
of the pupil. Those which, when examined in day-
light, appear as slits are doubtless large and circular
at night, as are those of the cat. Whether the pupil
be a horizontal or a vertical slit, whether triangular
or circular in daylight, these are very characteristic
marks of various species. It seems that the vertical
pupil implies more nocturnal habits than any other
shape. :
Frogs have some muscles which aid them in pro-
jecting the eye upward for observation. Those which
haunt the water have projecting eyes which, with the
nostrils, can be thrust above the water while the body
is beneath. There is no partition of bone between
the eye-sockets and the mouth, so that if the mouth
48 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS |
be inflated the eyes project more. All the frog-
forms have eyelids. The lower one tends to be trans-
parent (like glass), and hence it has been said that
they have a third lid or “nictitating membrane.”
There are no tear glands. Immersed in the water,
the amphibian has no need for tears to wet the eye.
Many frogs, like some fishes, can roll the balls over
in the sockets and thus moisten them. The lids are
moist,from other sources. Frogs floating on the water
are often seen to immerse the head suddenly and roll
the eyes backward as if to wet them.
In the tailed forms the eyes are much smaller and
less perfect. Some have eyelids, but in those which
always keep their gills, either external or internal, the
eye is usually much like that of some fishes, having
no lids, but the outer skin runs directly over them.
In Proteus, which lives in a cave in Austria, in Ty-
plotriton, found in a cave in Missouri, and in the
burrowing cecilians the eyes are covered by the thick
skin proper, and they remain as mere dots. While
the lens is gone, enough of the nerve-matter of the
eye remains to enable the creature to tell light from
darkness. In one of the cecilians this sort of eye
has even sunk beneath the bones of the skull; but its
tadpoles have better eyes, along with a fan tail, and a
hint of a leg—all of which show how low these crawl-
ing creatures have fallen.
The flying tree-toad only has large, owl-like eyes,
and needs to see at a distance, to make its tremen-
dous leaps. In our slow-going common toad, which
is also nocturnal, the eyes are small and dull.
DIGESTIVE TRACT, ETC, 49
Digsstive Tract, ETC.
In the grown-up amphibians, all of which avoid
vegetable food in the wild state—at least very largely
—the digestive tract is as simple as that of the fishes,
more so than that. of some fishes. In, many, the
stomach tends to be a mere swelled place in the long ’
tube, and there are very few kinks or bends anywhere.
There are no salivary glands, as in reptiles, and the
other organs, as liver, kidneys, etc., occur, but their
uses are much simpler than in the higher creatures.
The tadpoles, however, are so largely vegetable
feeders that the digestive tract is long and much
twisted, as it always is where tough matter is to be
digested, But while the gills are being lost, the
limbs growing, and the lungs forming, it shortens up
into a much simpler form and takes a sudden step
backward—an instance of another wonderful ‘emer-
gency met almost in a moment.
CHAPTER VIII
SKELETON GENERALLY—BACK-BONE, RIBS, SKULL, MUS-
CLES, NERVES, REFLEX ACTION, TENACITY OF LIFE,
AND REPAIR IN AMPHIBIANS
SKELETON
Tue skeleton of the amphibians is interesting for
both what it has and what it has not (Fig. 23). The
back-bone in the lower forms is much like that in the
lower fishes. In some fossil forms’the original gristly
string around which the back-bone is built still, re-
mains. In many others the ends of the vertebree (or
pieces of the back-bone) are flattish, or merely a little
cupped at both ends—a very oe state, like that
of the sharks.
In the frog-forms, however, are found the most
interesting peculiarities of skeleton. The number
of vertebrae are very few—those of the tail being
gone as noted; and instead of many joints in the rear
part of the body there is one long, unjointed rod,
which runs from about the middle of the back to the
rear end of the body.
Note that the rear legs are attached far back,
near the point where the tail should be, and not well
up on the back-bone as they are even in man, and that
50
SKELETON 51
behind the junction there are only two little vertebrae
to represent the tail bones. Note also that the for-
ward end of this bony rod (called the wrostyle) has on
each side a projection against which the bones to which
the legs are fastened join directly. This really makes
three stiff rods side by side in the back here to resist
Fig. 23.—Skeleton of frog.
the sudden thrust of the powerful hind legs. Many
creatures leap, but none have themselves hurled for-
ward by a stroke directly at the rear end of the spinal —
column, as the frogs. These projecting pieces at the ,
‘forward end of the rod are called “the transverse
processes of the sacral vertebrae,” and may or may
not be more or less expanded at their outer ends,
52 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
by which peculiarity frog-forms may be arranged into
groups or classified.
You can see that there are no ribs—just mere
“transverse processes.” Only one family of frogs
has any hint of true ribs. In the skeleton of sala-
manders there are pieces of ribs which in cecilians
are longer.
If we turn the skeleton of our frog over, we shall
find that while there are no ribs to meet it, there is a
very respectable breast-bone (sternum) to see the
fore limbs are well anchored. This is the first real
breast-bone in Nature, though the fishes have hinted
at it. The tailed amphibians have it in gristle only.
SKULL
A noticeable amount of open space is seen in the
top view of the skull of our frog. Opposite is an en-'
larged figure of the head (Fig. 24). Much of it in’
life is gristly, and in the lowest tailed forms it is so
much more so that Professor Huxley has said that
here it is little better than that of the lamprey—a
low form of the fishes. In the long-ago, however,
the monsters of the class had more bones and more
bone in the roof of the head, as you may see from
Figs. 31 and 32, page 63. ~
Nervous System
The amphibians— especially the frogs—show
many peculiarities of the nervous system not found
so strikingly in the mammals. They retain in their
bodies hints of their low ancestry; and indications
NERVOUS SYSTEM 53
toward a more intelligent condition are found in their
heads. We may glance at this briefly.
A Paz B pe
C, from the left side. .z, parasphenoid ; Ms girdle-bone; Z, the
““temporo-mastoid,” ‘ ‘
The lowest animal tissue, where no nerves are ap-
parent, seems to be able to feel, or to draw back or go
on when touched. In this case it is supposed that
feeling goes through any part in any direction, from
one cell to another, where there is more than one
cell. But as in time there came to be special cells for
digesting, breathing, etc., so there came to be special
cells for feeling and for stimulating other cells into
action. These arranged themselves in rows, so they
could communicate with each other, and these rows
54 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
were the beginnings of nerves. They can be recog-
nized as having distinct form and structure in those
creatures which are well up the scale but yet far below
the back-bone. In time the two duties of nerves, that
of feeling things and stimulating muscles into action,
were separated also, and separate row(@pf vorve-cells
were given to each duty, though the fies lay close
alongside. At the inner end of thegtwo nerve-
threads there was a union, which swellfd into a little
knot called a ganglion. It was simply a little crude
brain, which received the news from he outer edge of
the creature by one thread, and sent ward_baek by the
other, telling the members out there what, to do. It’
was merely the rebounding place where the sensation
returned and became stimulation. For a long time
these little brains lay disconnected from one another
as the early nerve-cells did. They were the lords of
their own little realms. Each small margin or fila-
ment of the low creatures had its little brain to re-
port to and to obey, and literally the right side
(there were no hands then) knew not ‘what the left
was doing.
But in time these little brains became connected
by nerve-threads, or else they massed themselves into
bunches; and soon these bunches took control of
larger areas of tissue; but we can not attempt to
follow this development, which doubtless continued
till a great confederacy was formed—which was
massed in the back-bone—and then much later a
seat of government arose at the forward end of this,
which we call the brain. But ad/ of these little brains
NERVOUS SYSTEM 55
did not come into the mass. Many were left out for
a kind of picket work, and they still acted according
to their own will, to some extent, and did not always
telegraph to headquarters (literally) for instructions
or orders. Nor can the central government always
control them wholly. Thus, if the sole of your foot is
tickled you jerk it away, and your brain or will has
little to do with it; often can not prevent your foot
from jerking. This is. because there is a lot of little
brains away down there which have very small con-
nection with the big brain proper; and before the’
latter can have anything to say, the sensation has
come to these, and from them the stimulation has gone
back—reflected—to the foot. Hence this reflection
is called “reflex action.”
In the movements of the heart and other inside
organs, and in the opening and closing of the pupil
of the eye, etc., the action is more independent still
in answer to outside stimulation.
The amphibians have a large arrangement of
nerve-matter for this purely reflex action—this kind
of unconscious work which is not controlled by the
brain. ,
If a frog’s head be cut off the body will still be
able to move and perform a great many acts which
seem intelligent though it will never move of its own
-will. Something outside of itself must stimulate it.
If the skin be pricked here it will scratch the place
on this side; if there, it uses the foot on thé other
-side. If that foot. be cut off it uses the opposite foot
and stretches it across the body. If the body be
6
56 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
turned over it will right itself. In some of the low
creatures (as starfish) if a limb be cut off and laid up-
side down, this lone limb will right itself by the nerve
matter in it. ‘All this is the so-called reflex action.
Perhaps in the frog the stimulation goes to the spinal
cord, but it can not in the starfish.
Now if we hurt both sides of the frog at once, but
make one side more painful than the other, the head-
less creature moves away from the worst pain. One
reflex action—the stronger—overcomes another, and
what appears to be an intelligent act may come in as
the combined result of many merely reflex actions.
Thus we may see how with a proper arrangement of
these, all under the guidance of one great ganglion—
even one so inferior as the frog’s spinal column—in-
telligence or mind may arise in a certain form.
The intelligence of the amphibians is not remark-
able, but toads and even salamanders become quite
tame, and, in their indolent way, make interesting
pets, coming to be fed at a call or whistle.
We have turned aside here to this little outline of
the nervous system because nowhere else in the verte-
brates are there so many interesting peculiarities all
in one group.
Repair
It is because, partly, of this peculiar nervous
arrangement that amphibians can so readily repair in-
juries or renew lost parts; and doubtless for the same
reason their sufferings are not so'great under wounds
as are those of more conscious or less automatic be-
ings. Below the amphibians, below the fishes, there
HIBERNATION 57
are many creatures which not only grow new parts,
but can grow new individuals out of each old part;
because their nerve-matter is so arranged that no
serious separations are made by the cutting. In more
advanced creatures—even in the high fishes—the con-
centration of the great nerve-centers is too complete
for the best repair work. A leg of an axolotl will be .
reproduced in a month, and a tail, replacing one that
is lost, will soon grow out again with new vertebre or
bones forming in it. It is said that the bones do not
again form in the regrown tails of lizards—only gristle.
Fishes often eat off the gills of water-newts, and these
are readily regrown. But in all cases of legs and tails,
though they may be regrown repeatedly, the new ones
are rarely so perfect as the old. ones.
HIBERNATION
All forms of amphibians hibernate in winter.
Some dive into the mud at the bottoms of pools,
some dig burrows, sonie crawl into crevices. Methods
differ in species close akin. Some terrestrial tailed
forms hibernate on land. On the other hand, some
bury themselves in mud in summer and sleep away
months in the tropics—awaking again with the rainy
season, as is the case with some fishes (the lung-fishes)
which are in many respects quite like amphibians.
The common toad, the cecilians, the spadefoot
toad, the obstetric frogs, and some salamanders bur-
row and spend much time at any season in holes.
Some of the tailed forms are known to revive after
being frozen solid.
CHAPTER IX
FOSSILS, KEYS, ETC.
AMPHIBIANS OF THE Far Past
Excert the cecilians, living amphibians are far
away from the old fossil forms which had such
peculiar teeth (usually), strong armors, and bony
skulls. Perhaps they became so stiff and awkward
that they could not escape from their enemies ; or they
may have become so inflexible in their structure that
they could not change, as the conditions of the air
and earth changed, and hence they perished.
The cecilians, as noted, have something of scales
and style of skull which was formerly fashionable.
Their burrowing habits may have saved them, and
the very humble habits of'our little denizens of the
slime may have preserved them also. Many connect-
ing links between these and modern forms have per-
ished. There seems to be no form yet found that
stands between the frog-forms and the tailed forms
of to-day; nor between either and the cecilians. No
salamander leaps much; no frog has a vestige of a
tail outside of the body when grown. In their baby-
hood only the two groups come close together. As
58
AMPHIBIANS OF THE FAR PAST 59
far back as frogs are found in the rocks, they are all
JSrogs and their tadpoles can be recognized even as
differing from others. The fossils of all living am-
phibians are in rocks that are modern compared with
those in which rest the monsters of the class. Hence
there has been plenty of time for the fossil forms to
degenerate into the kinds now living.
ul
‘
AU
NU
TM
tt \
Fie. 25.—Slab of sandstone with amphibian footprints, from coal-
measures of Pennsylvania, x 1/5.
But no fossil among those giants approached the
form of a frog. No reptile or amphibian which can be
recognized as such is found fossil away down where
fishes are so abundant. Just under the coal period
some amphibians show, and just above it some reptiles.
60 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
According to Professor Le Conte the first traces
of an amphibian ever found were some tracks in an
ancient mud-flat near Pottsville, Pa. It was the foot-
prints of one of the giant labyrinthodonts, breaking.
Fig. 26.—Jaw of Dendierpeton acadeanum, and section of tooth,
enlarged, (After Dawson.)
into the records as a creature with fully developed
limbs, whose ancestry had lived long enough to lose
one finger, as you may see_ by the cut (Fig. 25).
Then the next was found in a stump which was set,
petrified also, into a great table of rock (Fig. 97).
This one was quite reptilian in structure. Above is a
-eut of its jaw (Fig. 26). Figure 28 shows the Orche-
gosaurus which is quite fishlike. It was three
and one-half feet long. It
was ‘Ganoid in scales and
had both lungs and gills as
aa some Ganoid fishes yet have;
Fie. 27.—Section of hollow and ?. is about the best
ee ee es known connecting link be-
tween the old monsters, the
. sturgeonlike fishes and the living amphibians. Re-
cently hosts of little labyrinthodonts have been found
in Ohio. They had sharp noses and snakelike, limb-
less bodies (Fig. 29). There were some of these old
Fie. 29.—Ptyonius. (After CoPr.)
SESESreroPEEr
AX
Fig. 30.—Limnerpeton laticeps, natural size. (After Farrscy.)
61
62 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
forms, it is said, which did not have the skull so com-
pletely roofed with bone. Fig. 30 is also a cut of
a small salamanderlike form which is, however, still
‘a labyrinthodont, when its teeth are examined. Note
that it has slight ribs, and that the skull-roof is com-
plete. It is found in the more modern upper car-
boniferous, and it looks as though it was getting
Fic. 31.—Mastodonsaurus Jegeri.
near to the living kinds. But higher still and more
recent (in the Triassic) there lived a monster with a
head two feet wide and three feet long (see Fig.
31). It was called Mastodonsaurus, and Fig. 32 is a
cut of the head and jaws of 7rematosaurus—though
neither were really saurians. But saurians (lizard-
like reptiles) and amphibians had not got so far
AMPHIBIANS OF THE FAR PAST 63
apart then as now. Fig. 33 is a cut of the true laby-
rinthodont tooth already noted. s
Fic. 32.—Trematosaurus. (After HUXLEY.)
In the Triassic age the frogs appear, and we won-
der what it was that made the amphibians lose their |
wrinkled teeth, set in the bones of the jaw, and
allowed the reptile only to bring these on up to the
present time. .
Professor Huxley remarks that since amphibians
seem to possess characters which belong to each of
fishes; and since these are
known to be well sepa- 4
rated from each other
very far below the
place where any fos- f,
sils of amphibians
are found, it is
quite probable
that these latter
branched from
the parent back-
boned ancestor at about the same time that the.others
did, and hence are very ancient. To the author it
Fie. 33,—Section of tooth of a labyrinthodont.
64 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
seems highly probable that this is true, and that the
reptiles, which we shall discuss next, branched off
independently at about the same time or at least
very low down on the amphibian stem. Hence both
are very ancient.
CLASSIFICATION
This class of vertebrate animals is characterized
by two states of existence—one aquatic the other ter-
restrial—at least by a larval form in the egg or out
of it. Eggs are always formed and true limbs are
always indicated at some. stage of life. The eggs.are
small, the body (now) uncovered, and the skull joins
the back-bone by éwo ball-and-socket joints as in the
mammals; but the lower jaw is hinged to the skull
by special bones, which is not the case in mammals,
In these last only the lower jaw is hinged directly to
the floor of the skull. The following is a key to the
orders of the amphibians, both fossil and living; then
follows a key to the tailed forms, and finally there is
a key to our common frog-forms in the Eastern United
States.
- ORDERS OF AMPHIBIANS 65°
ORDERS OF AMPHIBIANS
Notr.—If the specimen is not described at the single letter, say A,
go on to where the letter is doubled, as AA.
A. Skull roofed with bone—at least behind the eye. Teeth often
A
wrinkled, Fossil. STEGOCEPHALA.
AA, Skull not so roofed.
B. Legs absent. CACILIANS,
BB. Legs present two or four.
C. Tail present. Salamander-forms,
CC. Tail absent. , Frog-forms,
D. Tongue present.
E. Gristles of breast-bones overlapping.
Suborder Toaps,
EE, Gristle of breast-bone not overlapping,
Suborder Frogs.
DD. Tongue absent.
Suborder Tongueless Frogs.
The salamander-forms are divided into families by various
modes of classifications, based on anatomical differences; but the
following simple artificial key will, by outside features purely,:
lead to the families (as now divided):
TAILED FORMS
A. Outside gills gone in the adult.
B. Eyelids present, no gill-opening (the real salamander-forms).
C. Tail round—no fin. Salamanders.
CC. Tail flat—with a fin above. ' Newts.
BB. Eyelids absent.
D, Toes two or three behind and three in front.
Congo Snake.
DD. Toes five behind, four in front.
Giant Salamander,
AA. Outside gills present in adult. :
E. Limbs four. aaa Mud-puppies,
EE. Limbs two. Sirens,
The frog-forms have their suborders scientifically divided
into many families, genera, and species. The discussion is too
great for our space and too technical for our plan,
66 STORY OF THE AMPHIBIANS
To know such as the reader is apt to meet in the Northeastern
United States the following may be helpful:
A. Teeth absent from upper jaw.
B. Skin warty, toes webbed. Common Toad.
BB. Skin smooth, toes free. (Toothless Frogs)
AA. Teeth present in upper jaw.
C. Fingers and toes with slight dilatations or pads at tips.
(Hylide, our) TREE-ToaDs.
D. Webs absent on fingers; pads mere dots.
E. Brownish above; head green. “Cricket Frog.”
EE. Grayish above; no green or brownish.
r Swamp Tree-toad.
DD. Webs present’ on fingers; pads large, shotlike.
E. Greenish above.
G. The green has a yellowish or olive cast; some
spots on back (as well as the sides),
Ayla squirrella,
GG. The green pure—pea green; no spots on back.
Green Tree-toad, Hyla andersonit.
EE. Not greenish above; yellowish drab or dusk-colored.
Pickering’s Tree-toad, Hyla pickeringit,
CC. Fingers and toes not dilated or padded at tips; they end in
sharp points. (Rana.)
H. Spots on the back es their edges or outlines nearly
straight.
I, Back greenish; spots a6e in straight rows; thighs with
three broad bars. Leopard Frog.
II. Back brownish; spots rectangular, in rows; those on
thigh not forming broad bars. Pickerel Frog.
HH. Spots on back not squarish; either round dots or
irregular blotches. *
K. Web of feet not reaching the tip of the fourth _
toe. Green Frog or Spring Frog.
KK. Web of feet reaching tip of fourth toe.
Bullfrog.
Other frogs are found in our region, but they are not so com-
mon as these.
PART II
STORY OF THE REPTILES
By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT, M.A, |
STORY ‘OF THE REPTILES
‘CHAPTER X
INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION ; WHAT CAME IN WITH THD
REPTILES 5 ORDERS, LIMBS, TOES, CLAWS, TOE-WALK-
ING
Tue Reptiles are known from Amphibians, as we
have seen, by their scaly bodies, and by having no
gills at any time, and also by having the head joined
to the neck by only one ball-and-socket joint instead
of by two. The tongues also of the two classes differ.
Nearly all reptiles and some fishes are scaly, but the
scales of the two classes are usually very different.
Those of most fishes, when present, can be scraped off,
or are loose and outside of the skin ; while those of
the reptiles are mere horny folds of the skin itself and
do not come away. A few reptiles and many fishes
are scaleless, however, but no reptile has gills or gill-
openings, while no fish is without both of these; they
are thus distinguished the one from the other.
As we go upward, the rule is, scales for reptiles,
feathers for birds, and hair for mammals. If we had
lived in one of the long-ago geological periods (J urassie
or lower), we should doubtless have seen creatures half-
bird half-reptile; and feathers and scales would have
69
70 STORY OF THE REPTILES
been mixed all over the body on at least one creature,
as we find them now mixed on the legs of birds. Then
also a little lower, perhaps, the mammals and reptiles
could not have been distinguished from each other by
their covering—or, indeed, by anything else; for all
classes were very much merged into each other at an
early date. Even now the pangolins, the armadillos,
and other mammals show scales and plates; so that
some reference to internal anatomy is necessary in
certain cases to distinguish reptiles and mammals.
Many distinguishing features might be mentioned,
but the presence of glands for nourishing the young
by milk is peculiar to no class but mammals. It gives
them their name, thus separating them from all others:
Outwardly, then, a reptile may be defined as a strictly
lung-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrate usually cov-
ered with scales or horny plates, while the young are
hatched from large eggs and are never nourished by
means of milk-glands, and never have a tadpole state.
Besides the complete abandonment of gill-breath-
ing there is found now with the reptiles the first
sternum or breast-bone having the ribs completely
reaching it. As noted, there is some evidence that
amphibians once had ribs nearly complete, but have
lost them. The fishes hinted at the breast-bone, but
it was useless; the amphibians had it to swing the
fore limbs to but not to join the ribs to, but in the
reptiles it first becomes an implement of respiration,
whereby the lungs are made to open and shut. In
tortoiselike reptiles it is absent, and the ribs are stiff-
ened into the shell, but a muscle called the diaphragm
THE GREAT GROUPS OR “ORDERS” val
—the muscle inside of us which hiccoughs—helps to
force the breath out; and the reptiles have the honor
of introducing this muscle also. In serpents there is
no breast-bone, but a great array of leng ribs, that
almost encircle the body, help them to breathe. The
reptiles also, through the crocodiles only, brought in
the first four-chambered heart, and hinted first of hot
blood. Thus have all the creatures shown their prog-
ress by their breathing and circulation. We shall
see that some other things came in first with the rep-
tiles, but we shall note them later. This little pre-
view is given that we may know why we should be
interested in this class—a class which in its backward
ties and upward outlook has no equal.
Tue Great Groves or “Orprrs”
As we glance at the living (not extinct) reptiles
they seem, like the amphibians, to be divided by their
forms into three great groups: First, the tortoise-
forms; second, the lizard-forms; and third, the ser-
pent-forms. But this will not hold with the scientist
s—except in the case of the tortoise-forms. He tells
us that the crocodiles, though lizardlike in shape are
far from being so in structure, and really a much
older family; that another lizard-shaped creature in
New Zealand (Sphenodon, Tuatera or Hatteria) ac-
tually belongs to one of the old families further back
still, and that there is considerable doubt whether
lizards and serpents should be separated at all, since
some snakes have rudiments of legs and some lizards
have none at all. He would even hint that the
vi
72 STORY OF THE REPTILES
chameleon should be separated from the lizards. We
have seen that outward form is not a safe guide,
since 4 lizard and
a salamander may
have thesame gen-
eral shape with-
out being nearly
related.
For our pur-
poses we shall
speak of the rep-
tiles under the
following orders, and we shall learn their peculiari-
ties later: tortoises, serpents, lizards, crocodiles, and
tuateras. The last three have legs and a tail like
those of lizards.
Fie. 34.—A serpent.
SaaS is
Fig. 35.—A lizard,
THE GREAT GROUPS OR “ORDERS” 73
The tortoises have shells over the body ; the croco-
dilians have plates placed edge to edge; the lizards
and serpents have overlapping scales; and on the
Fie. 36.—Crocodiles,
tuatera the skin is warty. The serpents are practically
legless. We know enough now to begin to learn some-
Fic. 37.,—Tuatera.
74, STORY OF THE REPTILES
thing further. Besides these there were once many
forms, now extinct, the peculiarities of some of which
will be referred to as we go along.
Limsgs
The limbs of the reptiles are rather like those of
the amphibians in a general way, except that the
claws are well developed. | The webs-of the toes are
not so noticeable, though the torpbises, crocodiles,
and tuatera have swimming membranes. All rep-
tiles swim well, however, and ‘the tortoise-forms,
crocodiles, and some snakes are especially aquatic.
Many fingers and toes, rather than few, prevail gen-
erally, though there are some remarkable exceptions.
The number of toes may run from one to five. Nor-
mally there are five before and five behind, but where
the limbs tend to be lost, the toes decrease also, till in
a certain skink-like lizard there is only one toe be-
hind, and in some greaved lizards there is only one
finger in front.
In the sea-tortoises the toes are all massed into
paddles which are often much like fins, except that
they have the three divisions.of the leg, a characteris-
tic of all quadrupeds ; and in some ancient forms (Mo-
sasaurs and Ichthyosaurs) the limbs were still more
fused and flattened. In the fossil Zchthyosaurs, some
species were found which had six, possibly seven, rows
of bones inside the paddles. It seems probable, in
one case, that the two outside rows were merely extra
bones on each side of the original five fingers for they
are not joined to the hard bones properly; but in an-
LIMBS 45
other case both feet had six good toes. If this state
of affairs had continued on down, or up, to man, we
should not be counting now by tens or decimals, but
by twelves or duodecimals—a really much more con-
venient system if we were only used to it; for while
ten has only two factors, twelve has four.
Whether these old swimming reptiles had gained
these toes extra. or inherited them from the fishes,
and whether the others have lost all but five, can
not be determined. If they were once land-haunters
and went back to the water, Nature may have spread
the foot for them, as she has the paddle of the whale,
by putting in extra
bones. If they came
of ancestors which
were always aquatic
—having acquired
their good lungs and
good three - jointed
limbs while yet in or
near the water, as the .
amphibians did, then
the five-toed land-
haunting animals
have lost a sixth toe. Fie. 38.—Foot of a chameleon, showing
It is said that there . how the toes are bunched together,
is a hint of this in ae a
some frogs. Against
this last view lies the fact that a fin or flipper does
not need to be three-jointed to be used as such, while
a good walking limb certainly does—-which facts
46 STORY OF THE REPTILES
argue slightly for a land origin for all three-jointed
limbs, whether legs or paddles.
As a rule, there is not any marked opposition of
the thumb or big toe in the reptiles. In the chame-
leon proper (not our little Florida lizard, so-called)
the toes are bunched wonderfully (for grasping) into
twos on one side of a twig and threes opposite
(Fig. 38).
But most reptiles with limbs climb by claws, or
claws and toe-pads combined, as in the geckos (see
Fig. 60). One order of fossil reptiles had the little
finger greatly lengthened, by which it doubtless flew
by means of a skin-membrane attached.
Criaws
The claw, as such, came in fully with the toed rep-
tiles, and is now often sharp and clinging. In the
tortoises claws are present to aid the creature in
scrambling along, and in burrowing. In fact these
creatures walk almost exclusively by the claws, or push
by them rather. But the more aquatic turtles have
some missing usually. The pond-turtle omits one;
and those with flippers may have only two on each
limb. In the crocodilians, where the toes are four
behind and five in front, there are only three claws
to each foot.
Another thing which came in with the reptiles
more fully was the act of walking on the toes only,
leaving the heel high up. This is a practice found in
many mammals, such as dogs, horses, etc. Most rep-
tiles are flat-footed walkers, however, while some
CLAWS Q7
others, such as the frilled lizard, like the mammalian
raccoon, are flat-footed when going slowly and toe-
walkers when in a hurry.
The number of joints in the toes of lizards is
especially interesting in that they have the same
order in number that occurs in the birds. The bird,
however, lacks the fifth toe. The first toe has two
joints; the second toe, three joints; the third toe,
four joints; the fourth toe, five joints; and the fifth
toe the same as the third, four joints. But in some
old paddle-limbed kinds of reptiles there were a great
many joints in the digits, as there are in the paddles
of the fringe-finned and other fishes now.
Besides the serpents, many lizards are limbless, as
are the Amphisbena (no English name), and the so-
called slow’ worms (Anguis) of the Old World, the
glass-snake or joint-snake (Fig. 39) (which is a lizard
‘—Ophisaurus) of America, and many others found
in the families of skinks, greaved lizards, and other
groups. In some of these the rear pair of limbs
only may remain, and in others the fore pair only are
present.
It is well known that most serpents are limbless;
but the family of crushing or constricting snakes
(Boida), boas, pythons, and anacondas, and many of
their near-by kin, show rudiments or stumps of limbs
at the rear end of the body. In some other families
near to these, the stumps do not show, yet the little
bones to which the hind legs are usually attached—
the so-called pelvic girdle—are found beneath the
‘ skin. But no vestige of a fore limb, or of the
78 STORY OF THE REPTILES
“shoulder girdle” even, is ever found in a serpent;
and no lizard—though appearing legless in front
or everywhere—has ever been found without these
shoulder-bones. Hence, by dissection a limbless liz-
' Fig. 39.—Glass-snake (Opheosaurus ventralis). The tail is twice the
length of the body, and breaks off at the slightest blow. When
broken off it grows again.
ard may be known from a snake; but we shall see
later that the tongue also will usually distinguish all
limbless forms.
By the walking on the. toes only, the reptiles
brought in the first outlook for speed afoot which
finds such high development in the running birds
and the strictly toe-walking mammals, such as the
horse, the antelope, the greyhound, etc.
In keeping with this, one of the extinct reptiles
had its toes hoofed instead of clawed.
CHAPTER XI
TAILS, HEADS, JAWS, TEETH, AND TONGUES IN
REPTILES
Taris
In the reptiles the tail seems quite important, for
no reptile, except the Amphisbana, is without one;
and even in this family some even show stumps.
These creatures run backward, and a tail would be
in the way here. In some sea-turtles it is very
short, as it is in some of the dry-land kinds. These
latter, when they close their shells, take great pains
to get the tail well boxed in.
In some extinct lizard-forms, known generally as
Dinosaurs, the tail acted as a fifth limb or prop as
they walked, stood, or sat erect on the two hind legs
only; and these tails must have been terrible weapons,
as that of the crocodilian is yet. .
Our smaller lizards retain the tail for various
uses, and doubtless for ornament also. Some of the
large monitors can strike serious blows with it. In
others, as the chameleon, flying lizard, and some tree-
lizards, it is prehensile and can be curled around a
limb to aid them in clinging and climbing. Doubt-
less the tail in lizards, as in the salamanders, is a
79
80 STORY OF THE REPTILES
means of expressing the emotions, and, since we find
it (alone) highly colored occasionally, it is probably
an ornament also. Some run with it curled over the .
back like a scorpion’s, and such lizards have been
wrongly called “scorpions” because of this habit. In
this connection, some lizards have a peculiar use of
the tail which is found in other creatures as well, but
not frequently. It is that of making with it a sort of
unconscious prayer and sacrifice for the safety of the
body. In the European lizards, in our glass- or
jointed-snakes (see Fig. 39), and others, not only are
the bones of the tail. loosely attached to each other, but
they have a sort of membrane, which runs between the
joints and extends outward through the muscles and
skin even. By this means the whole tail is “‘ jointed ”
and the parts may be separated, without loss of much
blood, as the parts of an orange come apart, without
any loss of the juice.
If a pursuing enemy grasp this tail, it breaks off
readily and may allow the body to escape, as if the
creature thought it better to go maimed into salvation
than to go whole into destruction—especially since the
part lost, in such cases, is soon regrown.
Seriously there is no thinking about it, by the
creature. In some instances the exertion even of
trying to escape may break off the tail of our glass-
snake, and leave it wriggling for a while to attract
the enemy’s attention; and so purely mechanical is
this action that sometimes the body itself has been
known to turn and swallow the squirming thing.
All stories about these parts reassembling are myths.
TAILS 81
The new tail simply grows again,-and no part of the
body breaks. .
On the contrary, one lizard has a tail set with
spines all around nearly as numerous as hairs (Fig.
40), and if this be left outside when escaping into a
burrow it is not a savory mouthful to the pursuer.
Fig. 40.—Spine-tailed lizard (Uromastic spinipes) and young.
The ancient forms of lizards often had great spines
on their tails which were very effective weapons.
Others had the tail flexible and flat for swimming
purposes, as it now is in crocodilians.
In snakes the tails taper with the body usually,
and thus complete the symmetry or beautiful shape,
but they are useful in many other respects. In the
82 STORY OF THE REPTILES
sea-snakes (Fig. 41) they are flat and fringed like those
.of eels, and they are thus the means of swimming.
In the land-snakes, tails are helpful in springing and
running. Our “spreadhead” (Heterodon) sometimes
makes great leaps down-hill by this means, and our
Fie. 41,—Sea-snake (Hydrophis cyanocincta).
common “ blue-racer” (blacksnake) can erect its body
half its length and run rather rapidly on what must
be mainly the tail. All the tree-haunting and the
constricting, or crushing snakes, use the tail to cling
with, and to aid them in climbing and anchoring
themselves while crushing or holding their prey.
The whip-snakes (Fig. 42) and other tree-snakes have
tails that are longer than the body, wherewith they
Fia. 42.—Whip- or tree-snake (Passarita myeterizans).
83
84 STORY OF THE REPTILES
tie themselves almost as if with a string-while they
hurl their remaining length almost as a bolt upon
their prey below them.
, In some burrowing snakes the tails are very short
and blunt; and in one family—the shield-tails (Fig.
43)—there is a shieldlike button at the end which
better enables them to push the body through the
‘Fig. 43.—Shield-tail snake (Silybura macrolepus).’ These remarkable
snakes look as though their tails had been cut short off. In some
species the body ends in a naked disk, in others with a rough
horny point, in others again, as in the species illustrated, the disk
is covered with keeled scales.
earth. Others have a sort of horny tip for the same
"purpose, as our common pine snake, and in some cases
in the Old World kinds there are broad scales beneath
with sharp, backward-set spines on them which are
helpful in pushing the creature along or in.
TAILS 85
This horny shield reminds us that rattlesnakes
have a series of horny rings upon the end of the tail,
by vibrating which a buzzing sound is made that is a
warning or threat of anger or attack. Some harmless
snakes rapidly vibrate the tail against a dead leaf or
other object and thus produce a similar sound for
similar purposes—perhaps an imitation. Many others
vibrate the tail, but not necessarily against anything.
Among the extinct flying reptiles, the kind known
strictly as the Pterodactyls had no more tail than the
Fie. 44.—Pterodactyl.
modern birds (Fig. 44), but another kind, called the
Rhamphorynchus, had a most preposterous racket-
shaped affair, like that of a windmill, which must
have been used as the tail of a kite to hold the crea-
ture against the wind, in which direction only could
they probably fly (Fig. 45).
86 STORY OF THE REPTILES
\
X
Heaps
The heads of the tortoise-forms are, in a rude way,
quite birdlike, ending as they do in a toothless horny
beak which often has on it a downward hook at the
tip. That.of tuatera (or Hatteria) is more turtlelike
than most others which are not turtles, though certain
Fie. 45.—Rhamphorhynchus,
lizards tend to have horny beaks. In all these, how-
ever, there are teeth. In a general way the heads of
snakes and lizards are much alike, though in some
snakes the neck is very much smaller than the head,
and the latter is then apt to be diamond-shaped. In
fact not till she got to the reptiles did Nature seem
much concerned about the neck, but at an early
date among the fossils some of these necks were ex-
tremely long and flexible. The heads of crocodilians
are long and flat, with a slight neck evident, which is
smaller than either head or body. But in lizards and
tortoises the neck is usually about as large as the head.
Perhaps in all modern reptiles the head extends
JAWS 87
in the same line as the neck, as it does in nearly all
fishes and amphibians; but in many extinct forms
of reptiles the head was placed at right angles to the
neck, as it is in the horse and so many other mam-
mals. This doubtless resulted from the high eleva-
tion of the forepart of the body in these old mon-
sters. All modern forms are primarily crawlers, and
hence the low horizontal head and neck.
In perhaps all reptiles the size of the head is very
small in proportion to that of the body; and in some
fossil monsters it was so absurdly small as to make us
feel that the creatures to which they belonged had
just sense enough to feed themselves and to walk
around.
The heads of crocodilians have the skin tightly
drawn over the skull and the bones are much carved
or sculptured. The skin here is not covered with
horny plates or scales as it is in most lizard-forms.
Some lizards have beneath the skin a shield of loose
bones which are not a part of the skull or skeleton
proper.
JAWB
The jaws of the reptiles are very interesting to
the student. In all the vertebrates below the mam-
mals, the upper jaw has some slight movement upon
the skull, though it is in no sense hinged as the lower.
This is especially true of the beaked kinds. In the
crocodilians, the upper jaw appears hinged as they
lie flat with the mouth open, but it is really the
whole head that is lifted. It is true that the flat
8
88 STORY OF THE REPTILES
head is well fitted for this, but if you will lay your
lower jaw on the table and open your mouth the
lower will not move but the whole upper jaw will
lift the head up and back (Fig. 46). The lower jaws
of reptiles are peculiar in that each side is made up
of a great many
separate bones,
usually, though
notalways, grown
together. In the
| higher animals
‘|. there are not so
‘pe As noted,
the reptiles and
all below them
hang the jaw to
the skull by one
or more bones—
often by only
one, the so-called
‘“quadrate.”’
Usually this is
hinged or loose,
Fic. 46.—A crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) é
lying with its mouth open, showing the a8 1N snakes and
apparent movement of the upper jaw most lizards: but
instead of the lower one. : ‘
in tortoise-forms,
tuatera, the crocodilians and the chameleon, it is fast
to the skull in various ways, of which the classifier
makes much. In the snakes the bone to which the
quadrate hangs is itself loosely hung to the side of
the skull, so that the jaw can be pried well away
JAWS 89
from the head as their bulky prey passes into the
throat (Fig. 51). Here also the two halves of the jaw
never fuse together in front, but are tied together
merely by an elastic ligament which allows them to
spread apart in swallowing large objects. Again, this
and the double hinge at the skull allows the jaw to
be thrust forward, first that on one side then on the
other, so that the mouth is thus worked over the prey
by the backward-curved teeth—one side holding what
is gained while the other advances. The snake thus
literally gets over (or “outside of”) its prey.
There was an old fossil monster called Mosasaurus
(which was a lizard, but quite serpentlike) that had
a better arrangement still. In the middle of each
side of the lower jaw was a joint bending downward
and outward. On the front part were backward-set
teeth. Its jaws also were capable of moving first one
side then the other; but you can see that every time
it bit its prey the joints straightened like a nearly
open jack-knife and pushed the front part forward
by the pressure of the bite.
Something. similar to this, though not just like it,
is found now in the upper jaws of those poisonous
serpents which have fangs that lie down when the
mouth is closed but are erect when the mouth is
open. By means of a joint in the middle of the
upper jaw (which is pulled straight by the muscles
as the mouth opens), the bone lying across the upper
end of the mouth, to which the fangs are fastened, is
rolled downward and forward, thus letting down the
deadly fangs.
90 STORY OF THE REPTILES
By means of the separation of the lower jaw at
the chin, snakes are known from lizards, and it will be
observed that there is a marked difference otherwise.
The jaws of mammals al] have an upward projec-
tion upon the jaw itself, which is formed purposely
to meet the skull, but in all other creatures the skull
itself sends down the bony projection—either loose
or securely set in such direction as to meet the jaw.
The jaws of serpents are rarely used for crushing
or killing, but largely for seizing, holding, and slipping
the throat over the food, and in the poisonous kinds,
for foreing i in the fangs. Snakes are strictly swallow-
ers, and their whole head-skeleton is arranged for this
practice.
Trrra
In the reptiles Nature seems to have experimented
with all kinds of teeth. Here she seems to have made
useful the wrinkled or grooved sorts found in the
ganoid fishes and labyrinthodont amphibians. She
made the grooves the channel for poisons, and even
folded some of their edges in. till they became tubular.
But more of that later. While many lizards and all
serpents, perhaps, have teeth somewhere on the roof
of the mouth (to speak generally) it was in the rep-
tiles that teeth first became confined to the jaws only;
yet, in a few cases, Nature has made the most pre-
posterous effort in this class by projecting the lower
spines of the back-bone through into the swallow tube
and putting enamel upon them, so that several species
of serpents which eat eggs may have them broken after
TEETH 91
they are partially swallowed, thereby losing none of
the liquid contents (Fig. 47).
Many of the fossil monsters were terribly armed
with teeth that grew in sockets or grooves directly out
of the jaw-bones. Some also had teeth set in several
Fig. 47.—Dasypeltis-unicolor, in act of swallowing a fowl’s egg.
rows or pavements, which were used evidently to
grind vegetable food, and some had beaklike, duck-
shaped jaws, like those of the spoonbill. Others had
rather turtlelike, or birdlike, beaks with a pair of
great tusks projecting, and others had mouths armed
with short sharp teeth, and in their midst were ter-
rible fangs, like those of dogs and tigers (Figs. 48,
49, and 50).
92 STORY OF THE REPTILES
_ These Professor Cope called “ Theromorphs” or
beast-forms, because their teeth were so very much
Fic. 48.—Dicynodon lacerticeps.
{
like those of some modern mammals (or beasts). The
grinding teeth here first began also to show cusps or
more points than one. Le-
Fic. 49,—Lycosaurus.
laps, a terribly clawed carnivorous fossil reptile, had
teeth that were serrate (saw-toothed).
In the crocodilians, the teeth grow much as in
some of the old monsters. They come up out of the
TEETH ; 93
jaw-bone and are renewed by one pushing out the
hollowed and partially absorbed tip of the other;
but they have many sets, and the new teeth below
the gums are said to be “nested” into each other as
Fie. 50.—Rhynchosaurs-Hyperodapedon ; Trias (after Huxley).
are thimbles. As a rule, modern lizards have their
teeth grown down to or up from the jaw-bone, though
they are not set in it, but are fast to it. In the
Tuatera there are two front peculiar teeth which are
a little like those of rodents (rats, rabbits), but which
fuse together and form almost a beak above.
In lizards some teeth are conical, some serrate, as
in Jguana,and some are flat and merely crushing or
grinding—according to food. Nearly all lizards re-
new their teeth by having the new one form directly
beneath the old; but. in the Anguide (slow worm)
the new grow between the old.
The teeth of serpents are usually recurved, sharp
conical points.
The erectile poison-fangs mentioned are always
found with other smaller ones (to the number of three
or four) concealed beneath the flesh behind them,
which are thus ready to rise up and take the place
94 STORY OF THE REPTILES
of the forward active one, should it be broken; so
that jerking the poison-fangs out of a rattlesnake
makes it harmless for a short time only. The new
ones do not have to grow much, but merely rise into
place (Fig. 51).
pone grap sree ce sseseraceres Mastoid bones
Cranium -.. e/a which, to-
Nasal bone ¥% s ether with
€ Se the tympanic
Upper jaw (~*~ bon oe awe
‘ \S ends e
Poison-fangs. lower to the
upper jaw.
‘ anic
Lower jaw —* fone
a
fe ~~ Muscles which
elevate the
lowerjawand
also serve to
compress the
poison-gland,
thus forcing
the venom
into the
fangs.
Nostrils -.
Poison-gland connect- ---.
ed by a passage with
the movable hollow
tube as here shown.
Two large movable
teeth orfangsthrough
which the poison J
reaches a wound
made by them. . fa
' Salivary glands
Poison-gland --
Passage from the poi- --"--—afl
son-gland to the fang.
MS
Reserve fangs +-----"\-
‘Small aperture in end of
fang through which
the poison escapes into
a wound.
Fie. 51.—1, skull of rattlesnake, showing the manner in which the
upper jaw is connected with the lower one ; 2, head of rattlesnake
dissected to show poison-glands, etc.; 3, poison-gland of rattle-
snake,
ToneuEs
The tongues of reptiles are various in shapes.
So far as known none are tied down in front only, or
are largely free behind, as in the amphibians. The
TONGUES 95
front is free if it be free anywhere, and two points
may project backward from the rear edge, as may be
seen in the tongues of birds. These points are aids
in swallowing. In one genus of lizards (Chaleis)
these forks are especially long.
In the tortoise-forms, the tongue is usually short,
flat, and cupped, rather fleshy and smooth, as if it
were a tasting organ. It is much like that of some
fishes, and, within small limits, very movable, though
it can not be thrust out. In the. crocodilians it is.
fast to the lower jaw all around and acts merely as a
floor to the mouth.
In the lizards it takes on two extreme forms gen-
erally, with many shapes between these. In most it
is flat and much the same thickness everywhere
(forked behind or (not), and is usually notched in
front. This kind of tongue rarely runs in any sheath
throughout. One, type of this form is flattish and
runs in a sheath at: the base only; and another sort
is thick at the base, thin and'wide at the tip, which
latter runs under a sheath or strap.
The other form of tongue is long, slim, and deeply
forked at the tip. Sometimes it consists of only two
mere threads. This is the kind found in all snakes
and two or more large families of lizards. In the
snakes and many lizards (monitors, etc.) this slim
tongue is entirely sheathed when inside the mouth,
and is thrust forth very rapidly either for feeling or
threatening; but the tongue itself is s, perfectly harm-
less—even for securing prey.
In other lizards this slim, forked tongue is cov-
96 STORY OF THE REPTILES
ered with scales, or deep wrinkles, or rough, brushlike
points (like the tongue of a cat), and it must, there-
fore, be used to grasp small objects or assist in chew-
though the general color of the animal beneath is white, the
upper parts may quickly assume hues varying from a vivid emer-
ald green to a dark iridescent bronze color.
ing them. This kind is noticeable in the greaved
lizards. In a few others, the tongue is said to,be
spearlike at thé tip, somewhat like those of Wood
peckers, and it is evidently a capturing implement.
TONGUES 97
In all the true lizards of the Old World the
tongue is forked and smooth, but not sheathed. In
the family of the skinks, which includes;our blue-
tailed and ground-lizards, the tongue is only slightly
notched, and is rough or scaly; but in the family of
the Zguanide, which includes our so-called “ chame-
leon” (Fig. 52), the common little “swift lizard,”
and all the host of horned toads (PArynosoma), the
tongue is smooth, short, and barely notched, and it
can be put out a slight distance only.
The chameleon proper has a tongue which it can
expand at the end at will, and thrust far out by
means of a long stretchy stem—thus easily capturing
insects.
CHAPTER XII
FOOD, MEANS OF DEFENSE, WEAPONS, BLUFF, ODOR, OR-
NAMENTS, COLORS, COLOR-PROTECTION AND COLOR-
CHANGING IN REPTILES
Foop
Tue food of the Reptiles is various. The tortoise-
forms are largely flesh-eaters, catching fish, frogs,
floating water-birds—anything; but some are vege-
table feeders, such as the green turtle, renowned for
soups, and the case is the same to some extent with
the sea-turtles; but the “hawkbill” and “logger-
head” and leather turtle are carnivorous. The croco-
diles are known, of course, to be fearfully carnivorous
(flesh-eating). They may approach large prey near
the shore and strike it into the water with their tails
or grab it suddenly with their jaws and draw it under
water and drown it. They usually stow it away in
some cavern or safe place till it partially decays, when
they bring it to the surface later to eat it.
The chameleon’s diet is one of insects especially,
and not even a frog is more highly equipped for their
capture.
So far as the author knows no snake is at all in-
clined to feed on anything vegetable, though many
98
FOOD 99
eat worms and insects, and drink milk. In all cases
snakes do not chew their food, but gulp it, often while
it is yet alive. It is well known, however, that the
great crushing snakes suffocate their prey before swal-
lowing it, and that the poisonous kinds kill it first with
their fangs, and then eat it some time after. Their
poison causes the flesh to tend rapidly to decay and
thus aids in digestion. All the reptiles, unlike the
amphibians, have salivary glands, and.in the serpents
these are large. As snakes begin to swallow their
prey these glands are very active, but the snakes do
not slime their victims over with the tongue, as is
often reported. They doubtless pass it over their vic-
tims for the purpose of examination, for the tongue is
their best investigating organ. Perhaps the size of
objects swallowed even by the anaconda has been
much exaggerated. A sheep or a calf or other small
young cattle is about the limit of what they can do in
this respect.
We have noted the special arrangement of teeth
in serpents. It is said that some tree-snakes—not
poisonous—which capture birds, have an extra long
tooth, designed perhaps for penetrating through the
feathers. \
As to a snake’s ability to charm a bird there is
much uncertainty and some strong assertions and
denials. But it is certain, at least, that the presence
of a snake is often so terrorizing to some small crea-
tures that they seem unable to move or escape, and
that birds do often approach a quiet serpent gradu-
ally nearer and nearer till they come within its reach.
100 STORY OF THE REPTILES
It may be a sort of madness of attack, and not any
special “charm.” The author once witnessed a sum-
mer yellow-bird so behaving, but he was prevented
from seeing the end by the noise of others approach-
ing. The testimony of many concerning actual cap-
ture having taken place in this manner is sufficiently
worthy of belief. But the kind of attraction or para-
lyzing effect exerted is by no means settled.
Lizards are both carnivorous and vegetable eaters.
In a few cases, like the snakes, they eat each other,
though there is not anywhere now a “ lizard-of-prey”
(corresponding to the bird-of-prey or preying mam-
mals) which is adapted to devour its kind, as was the
old Zelaps—a reptile of a past age.
Most lizards are fond of insects. Many found in
the Western States eat leaves, buds, and blossoms of
plants. One of these, the “chuck-walla,” is a large,
fat, lazy lizard, faring well on this weak diet. There
is a sea-lizard that haunts rocks by the ocean and
eats seaweed. Many of the giants among the fossils
had peculiar methods of feeding, as we may infer from
their teeth; but we will note these later when we
mention the families. The land-monsters were mostly
browsers, while the sea-monsters were carnivorous.
Orrensz, Drrrensz, anp EscarE
Nowhere are there more various offensive and de-
fensive methods, or means of being disagreeable, than
appear in the class of the Reptiles. While all are not
well endowed, some are armed and armored won-
drously. We have already spoken of the teeth,
HORNS 101
which are weapons not only against prey but against
enemies. The poison-fang and its sac or gland full
of deadly fluid is the most terrible of close-range
weapons. It is overcome only by means of superior
strength, armor, or activity.
In the large fossil forms there were many weapons
proper. Besides the terrible array of tusklike teeth,
some Dinosaurs had special spurs on the paws, and
others had their large tails armed with spines. An-
other still had many horns about the snout, and a
spiked collar of immense spines about the neck, and
others had these along the back. One, already noted
(Zelaps), had long, curved, tearing tdlons on the rear
feet, and walked erect, and was able to strike down
prey much larger than itself. In no modern form
do claws play a special part as weapons.
Horns
But several lizards and some snakes have appar-
ent horns, which may be weapons proper, not con-
nected with prey-taking. Quite likely they are often
useful in fighting or tantalizing a rival only. Among
a few lizards, as our so-called horned toad (Fig. 53),
battle consists jn the turning of each other over on
the back. It is rather more of a wrestle than a fight,
and the one flipped topsy-turvy “gives up” at once.
While in these “toads” there is no special horn or
hook on the tip of the snout, yet in some other lizards:
these are present, as may be seen in Fig. 54. Wher-
ever these are found, they are on the male often and
not on the female. This happens frequently in the
102 STORY OF THE REPTILES
chameleons, where in one case there are as many as’
three horns. In another there is a peculiar forked
prolongation of the snout.
Among the snakes some vipers have horns—some-
times one on the tip of the snout, sometimes two—
one over each eye. Their use can scarcely be under-
a % "6 renee sal nn pssst
as ‘ GON ime eethnceer afi
ragtenoy =" eC nen ena
1 Fig. 53.—The horned toad.
f
stood. It is said to be the rule that snakes do not
fight as rivals; and it is fairly well known that the
bite of a poisonous snake is not harmless to his
brother, and often not injurious to other non-poisonous
kinds. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell states that he has re-
peatedly injected the poison of snakes into their own
bodies and seen no ill effects from it; and a corre-
spondent of the author (a scientific collector) states
that he has frequently boxed rattlesnakes and non-
poisonous sorts together and observed them bite one
another without ill effects. But more recently a Paris
experimenter claims that one snake is affected by the
venom of another in proportion as it is itself poison-
ous. This should cause innocent snakes to suffer. It
DEFENSIVE ARMOR, SPINES, ETC. 103
‘is very certain and frequently observed that our black-
snake and others which are non-venomous will attack
and destroy the rattlesnake. The superiority in this
case has usually been attributed to quickness and
strength preventing the rattler from striking; but
the safety may possibly consist in the scales acting
as an armor. Certain it is that the poison-fang is not
usually a weapon for fighting a rival, but it is said,
however, that non-poisonous snakes die of the bite
of sea-snakes. The question can scarcely be said to
be settled yet.
DerensivE Armor, SPINES, ETC.
The most striking armor now found in Nature is
that of so-called box-turtles where every part of the
body is protected. That of the armadillos is almost
as good, however. The shells of all tortoise-forms
are not so complete as these, and may consist (in a
low form) of a mere cap over the body and a mere
cross or strip ,of shell on the bottom. The soft-
shelled or leathery sort of turtles have the outer
covering above skinny, leathery, or gristly. But in
all there is a layer of bones beneath which “ breaks
joints” in a rough way with the usual array of horny
scutes outside. Likewise in many lizards there are
flat bones on the back beneath the skin.
While no ancient reptile had just any such armor
as this, we may see that many were rich in bony plates
and spines which were very effective. A hint of this
remains in the crocodilians. Here there are thick
horny plates placed edge to edge, so strong that they
9
104 STORY OF THE REPTILES
formerly turned balls of the old muzzle-loading
musket.
Of course the scales of lizards and snakes are
shields, but, as noticed, some lizards have bones in or
beneath the skin over the back and rear part of the
head. aS =
14
184 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
Fatima had continually fasted, and it was decided to
take desperate measures to save her life.
Seven rabbits were killed and neatly fastened to-
gether with twine, making one long string. Fatima
was taken from her cage, held by six keepers, and
the rabbits forced down her throat with a smooth
pole. When two feet of the ten-foot pole protruded
from her mouth the pole was withdrawn, leaving the
rabbits inside; then the snake was placed in the
cage again. This operation was repeated for eleven
months, at intervals of ten days, and from the begin-
ning Fatima grew rapidly stronger ; after some weeks
of the compulsory feeding the “python squad” con-
sisted of twelve men instead of six, and all of these
had their hands full as they swayed and fought to re-
tain the mastery over twenty feet of reptilian muscle.
At last came victory. All through the time of
compulsory feeding the keepers had continued to
offer Fatima her regular food, hoping that she might
begin taking it voluntarily. One night at dusk, as
Snyder was feeding a large snake in Fatima’s cage,
which had been docile from the first, he was amazed
to see within a foot of his face the great head and
neck of the regal python, her yellow eyes scintil-
lating brightly in the light of his lantern. All her
attention seemed concentrated upon the black-tailed
python, which was calmly swallowing a chicken.
Seizing another fowl, Snyder threw it in front of the
reptile as she slid from the big tree in the cage, aud
with wild excitement and joy beheld Fatima seize
and devour it. Such was Snyder’s exultation that he
A COBRA’S DIET 185
performed a wild dance on the spot, then rushed for
more chickens. That first voluntary meal in cap-
tivity consisted of eleven big fowl. Never afterward
did Fatima cause the slightest trouble in her feeding,
and thus the “ python squad” was disbanded.
In captivity the cannibal snakes frequently cause
embarrassment by exhibiting appetites which threaten
to cause a famine. This was illustrated in the case of
the big king cobra in the reptile house. Every week
this twelve-foot serpent received a five-foot black-
snake, but it showed signs of growing thin under the
Fie. 80.—A blacksnake.
fare. It was clearly seen that unless more snakes
were given to the reptile it could not thrive. The
outlook was decidedly embarrassing; the cobra was
making serious inroads among the exhibition speci-
186 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
> mens, and the blacksnake and coachwhip cage was
almost empty. It was decided one day, after a large
blacksnake had been killed, to stuff it to its utmost
capacity with half-grown rats and frogs, and present
the distended carcass to the cobra. When the black-
snake was fully prepared it more closely resembled a
generously filled Christmas stocking than a serpent,.
and was equal to half a dozen snakes.
The cobra gravely inspected the unique morsel,
and finally engulfed it entire, although the process
was quite heroic. Since then the cobra has been fed
“stuffed” snakes, and presents a sleek and hearty
appearance.
But it is not only the cobra that has been deluded,
in a spirit prompted by economy. Rat snakes are
tempted to eat strips of beef by clipping a small.
quantity of fur from a rat or rabbit and sprinkling it
over the meat. A small amount of fur will bait a
dozen strips of meat. In the same way the larger
snakes are induced to partake of meat by sprinkling
over it a few chicken feathers.
It is a mistake to suppose that captive snakes
must kill their prey or they will not eat. Of course,
in a natural condition this is necessarily the case.
The majority of captive specimens feed readily upon
freshly killed material, and such food is always pre-
ferred by their keepers. The poisonous snakes gen-
erally offer an exception to this rule, although the
cobra and its allies are not at all particular. If a live
rat be placed in a cage containing a dozen ravenous
snakes all rush for it at once, and a serious tangle
DISEASES OF SNAKES 187
ensues. The keepers feed the specimens individu-
ally, killing the food and offering quietly to each
specimen its share of the meal. If the food were
thrown at random into a cage of snakes the smaller
specimens, if persistent in their hold of choice mor-
sels, would be swallowed with them, and find a rest-
ing-place in the interior of their more powerful cage-
mates. *
The maladies of snakes are few, but of these few
the consequences are often quick and fatal. Most -:
prevalent among captive snakes is “canker.” This
disease, generally attacking the mouth-parts, is, the
cause of nine-tenths of the deaths among the big
snakes of the shows. It is most likely to occur
where conditions are not suited to the reptile, and
frequently results’ from chilling. The big constric-
tors are particularly subject to canker ; with them the
disease is generally incurable. The term “ canker”
is purely a popular one, and is invariably used by the
animal dealers and show people. The first sign of
the disease is inflammation of the mouth-parts; sores
rapidly form, throwing off small white flakes; these
lesions become gangrenous and penetrate into the
jaw-bones, showing microbice characteristics, and in
fact resembling in a way diphtheria. The best meth-
od of treatment is the application of disinfecting or
antiseptic solutions of mild character. The writer
has cured many cases of “canker” by washing out
the reptile’s mouth twice daily with a saturated solu-
tion of boric acid.
It is not probable that snakes are troubled with
188 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
the malady when in a wild state. From the many
cases observed, the writer is led to believe that the
sores in the mouth are frequently brought™about by
the fact of the reptile’s striking frequently, as wild
reptiles do, and the subsequent infection of these
lesions by the many forms of microbic life which
abound in the quarters of captive animals, especially
if these are not vigorously disinfected at frequent in-
tervals. Snakes being naturally delicate in captivity,
suffer from such infections, and, in the case of weak
specimens, the blood does not possess enough of its
sterilizing qualities to fight the invading germs, which
start their colonies and poison the surrounding tissue.
The care of reptiles is anything but a mechanical
process. Unlike the mammals and birds, their feed-
ing is eccentric and indefinite. The keepers must be
thoroughly versed in the peculiar characteristics of
their charges, and sympathetic in the extreme in the
filling of their many needs.
i
CHAPTER XX
PECULIARITIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES—THE ART OF
HANDLING VENOMOUS REPTILES—GILA MONSTERS—
EXPERIMENTING WITH SNAKE POISON — SHEDDING
OF THE POISON-FANGS—-CONCERNING THE HOSTILITY
OF POISONOUS REPTILES — SURGICAL OPERATION ON
A COBRA-——COMPOSITION OF SNAKE POISON: ITS EF-
. FECTS—ANTITOXIN
In captivity, poisonous serpents seldom adapt
themselves so readily to their surroundings as do the
harmless reptiles. Venomous snakes generally re-
tain their wild disposition and can never be trusted.
While most harmless serpents submit to handling
after a few weeks in captivity, their poisonous rela-
tives resent the least attempt at familiarity by the use
of their formidable fangs. For the most part these
reptiles are high-strung and nervous; many feed
irregularly or refuse food altogether ; with the excep-
tion of those species which resemble in form the
harmless serpents, like the cobras and closely related
snakes, the life of the captive poisonous reptile is
generally of short duration. Few of the viperine
snakes live more than two or, possibly, three years,
unless they be reared from an early age. In the
latter case many delicate species live indefinitely.
189
190 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
There is only one species of poisonous lizard
known. This is the good-natured Gila “monster,” a
hardy and attractive animal for exhibition. It in-
habits the burning wastes of Arizona, and delights to
bask in a temperature which would kill many of the
snakes. The poison of this creature, although re-
sembling in composition that of the snakes, is by no
means as powerful as with the latter. The Gila
“monster” is provided with a number of grooved
teeth in the lower jaw, and can bite with a power
that approaches the grip of a metal vise.
In the care of a great collection it frequently be-
comes necessary to handle the poisonous snakes, a
process as dangerous as it is simple. The reptile is
coaxed into a favorable position with a long stick,
when the latter is placed firmly across its head, pin-
ning that member to the ground. The operator
quickly grasps the reptile by the neck, immediately
behind the head, and victory is his. Held in this po-
sition the snake can not turn and bite, although its
jaws will often fly open and shut, disclosing the
poison-bearing fangs in a manner quite terrifying to
any one with weak nerves. Thus the poisonous snakes
are taken from their cages and helped out of old skins,
or relieved of a portion of their poison for the pur-
pose of study.
While experimenting with snake poisons the writer
had occasion to extract the venom from a number of
water-moccasins. The apparatus used was simple, but
very effective. Over the top of an ordinary gradu-
ating glass was tightly tied a piece of thin chamois.
POISONOUS SNAKES 191
The snake was caught by the neck, its jaws applied
to the chamois, and it immediately bit fiercely, sending
the fangs through the soft covering of the glass vessel.
As it»closed its jaws on the apparatus the fangs dis-
charged their venom. From a snake four feet in
length fully half a teaspoonful was the amount usually
obtained, and the large diamond-back rattlesnakes of
our Southern States are able to eject a considerably
larger amount from their deadly weapons.
_ The entire amount of venom in the poison-sacs is
never expended in a single bite; a poisonous snake of
moderate dimensions is capable of dealing successively
half a dozen deadly wounds. The manufacture of
venom is rapid, and even though a snake’s glands be
‘entirely emptied of their contents through a mechan-
ical process, forty-eight hours affords ample time
for refilling the glands under the chemical action
exerted by the organs which manufacture the deadly
fluid.
‘That a poisonous snake may be rendered harmless
by the extraction of its fangs is a fallacious ideg. The
venomous serpents are constantly shedding their fangs.
Strangely enough, the fangs which ‘are shed are, in
the majority of instances, swallowed by the reptiles.
This is frequently illustrated in the cleaning of cages.
It may be explained, in a way, from the fact that a
loose fang may be left embedded in the body of an
animal struck by the snake for food, and subsequently
swallowed, but it is nevertheless remarkable that a
snake which has not eaten for months regularly sheds
its fangs, and swallows them in the process.
, f
192 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
Growing behind the tual fangs in use are other
fangs, and still the embryos of others. Every six or
eight weeks the fangs are shed| By a wonderful pro-
vision of Nature, the serpent ie loses an old fang
until the new member is strongly attached at its side,
and connected with the pesmi then the old
fang comes loose from its socket, and is left deeply
embedded in the body of the next animal struck for
food. In case the snake were artificially deprived of
its fangs, the openings of the a oe ducts would con-
tinue to discharge their secretions, and if, in such an
instance, the reptile should inflict a bite, the wounds
made by the small palatine teeth would form excellent
sources for the absorption of the poison.
Although much has been said concerning the
aggressive disposition of the venomous snakes, the
writer, after many years of experience, has failed to
note a single instance of the deliberate intention on
the part of a poisonous serpent to pursue or exhibit
aggressiveness toward an enemy. The defensive is
always the attitude assumed by the poisonous reptile,
and although a specimen will occasionally show the
temper of a fiend, it never advances to the attack, but
always keeps its corner. By no means cowardly, the
reptile simply wishes to be left alone. The viper-
ine snakes, comprising the rattlesnake, copperhead,
water-moccasin, and fer-de-lance of this hemisphere,
and the typical vipers of the Old World, coil them-
selves when assuming a fighting position, although
the coil is in no way necessary for the act of striking.
It merely forms an anchor, and aids the reptile in
A SURGICAL OPERATION 193
dealing a hard blow. Such snakes can strike one-
half their length, and a six-foot rattlesnake may
launch its terrible jaws three feet at the object of its
wrath. It happens oftener, however, that the strike
of a viperine snake is about a third of its length.
Stories of snakes casting themselves bodily in the
direction of their anger are entirely erroneous.
.Owing to the great danger attending the handling
of the larger venomous snakes, interesting measures
are frequently called into play when it is necessary to
shift specimens or to treat them for disease or injury.
It was with great anxiety that we noticed a small
growth appearing on the king cobra’s upper jaw.
The lesion grew until it resembled a small abscess,
and but one thing was left to do. That was to re-
move the growth. As the cobra was very powerful,
and represented the most deadly known species of
reptile, the operation presented many difficulties.
But it was successfully performed. A coachwhip
snake about six feet long was killed and thrown into
the cobra’s cage. Fortunately the cannibal still re-
tained a good appetite. In the meantime the instru-
ments, consisting of a pair of surgical scissors, a rub-
ber syringe, together with a bow! of disinfecting solu-
tion, were made ready. When the coachwhip was
half-way down the cobra’s throat it was grasped by
the tail and pulled toward the door of the cage,
bringing with it the cobra, which held on tenacious- —
ly. By twisting the coachwhip’s body the cobra was
rolled over on one side and the abscess in the mouth
disclosed. The operation was necessarily a quick one.
194 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
There was scarcely time to cut away the diseased
tissue, flush out the wound with the syringe, and
quickly close the cage door when the cobra prepared
to disgorge the snake and fight. For a moment after
it was over, the big serpent looked surprised, then,
after due consideration, the coachwhip was swallowed,
The operator is not ashamed to acknowledge that
when the iron door rolled to and shut off the dan-
ger his pulse had quickened to a substantial degree.
Avoiding technicalities, the poison of all snakes
may be said to be composed of the same elements;
but in different species these elements vary in their
proportions, and there are different symptoms after a
bite. The viperine snakes are provided with a venom
which is composed of about ninety per cent of a
product which acts upon the blood and ten per cent
of a nerve poison. The bite of these snakes pro-
duces great local effect. There is the destruction of
the blood itself and of its vessels, with great attend-
ant swelling ofthe bitten parts. In the cobras and
coral snakes these proportions are exactly reversed,
for the venom is a deadly nerve poison, and causes
but little local effect. This poison tends to paralyze
the nerves, the walls of the chest collapse, and there
is inability to breathe, followed by speedy death un-
less immediate and proper remedies be applied.
As all snake-poisons tend to paralyze the heart’s
action, a stimulant is necessary and beneficial; hence
the use of strychnine as a valuable alterative, owing
to its action as an excitant. Whisky is also a good
stimulant, but'the practise of taking it in great quan-
TREATMENT OF SNAKE-BITES 195
tities after snake-bite is in no way to be recom-
mended,
The treatment of snake-bite has fallen into line
with the scientific administration of an antitoxin, as
in the case of many diseases, and probably most of
them at no far future time. The antitoxin or serum
employed is obtained by immunizing horses against
the action of the venom, and procuring from these
animals a product which has shown the same benefi-
cial results as’those exhibited by the serum manufac-
tured at the laboratories of the New York City Board
of Health and used so extensively in the treatment of
diphtheria. This antivenomous serum is now being
employed in India, where the death-rate from the
bites of poisonous snakes has averaged 20,000 a year.
Constant association with the venomous snakes
renders their keepers entirely immune to fear, but
carelessness in a reptile house is considered a positive
crime, and caution is the watchword. A trip through
the reptile house at night shows much activity among
the viperine snakes, while the slender cobras, which
delight to bask in the genial sunlight, lie quietly
sleeping. Glittering in the light of a lantern, the
rattlesnakes, copperheads, and tropical vipers may be
seen alert and gliding noiselessly about their cages.
It is at this time that these creatures prefer to take
their food.
CHAPTER XXI
COLLECTING REPTILES —- HOW WATER-SNAKES ARE
CAUGHT — DIFFICULTIES IN CAPTURING LIZARDS—
HUNTING THE LOCAL REPTILES —- WHERE REPTILES
MAY BE FOUND—THE TIME TO COLLECT—-HUNTING
AT NIGHT
As the writer begins this chapter a flood of remi-
niscences comés to his mind, and he recalls the balmy,
humid air of the South Carolina coast in spring; the
graceful live-oaks, clad in the long, trailing moss;
a moonlit background with silhouettes of tall pal-
mettos, and many happy days which he has spent
among the savannas, for there reptilian life abounds.
To one thoroughly interested, the collecting of
reptiles is comparatively easy. The necessary appli-
ances are few, and they may be carried in a gripsack
or in the pockets of a canvas coat. It might be inci-
dentally explained that these remarks exclude the big
reptiles of the tropics, which will be considered later. -
On a windy March day keeper Snyder, of the
reptile department of the Zoological Park, and the
writer left New York in a whirl! of sleet, and arrived
three days later in a land where roses bloomed in pro-
fusion. Our collecting headquarters were on the Sa-
196
HOW REPTILES ARE CAPTURED 197
vannah River. The collecting outfit consisted of can-
vas bags, plenty of fine soft copper wire for noosing,
and—an abundance of quinine. On the return of the
expedition to New York we brought four hundred
and nine reptiles, comprising snakes and lizards.
Abounding in the Southern swamps and along the
waterways running parallel with unfrequented roads,
are water-snakes of many kinds, some of them ex-
ceedingly beautiful in brilliant shades of red and yel-
low, some sinister and ugly in coloration and equally
so in temper, others (the cottonmouths) possessing
highly dangerous fangs, but all primarily anxious to
seek their native element when disturbed. Of all the
shy creatures the writer has ever seen, these Southern
water-snakes deserve first mention. It is quite dis-
heartening to observe one moment a brilliant speci-
men coiled gracefully around a branch overhanging
the water, and to think of the interest which the
creature would cause in captivity, and an instant later
to see the prize glide sinuously into the water below,
leaving but a few bubbles as mementoes. This often
happens after one has stalked the animal in most can-
tious fashion with a long bamboo pole equipped with
a ready noose, while the persistent mosquitoes attack
the collector viciously, seemingly realizing that if he
moves a finger-tip the coveted specimen will vanish.
It is safe to say that at least half the water-
snakes stalked in this manner, escape. The wire of
the noose must be of about the thickness of a pin,
and it wll tremble as one reaches forward. A noose
of thick wire does not respond to a pull from the
198 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
operator in time to prevent the active snake from
gliding through it as quickly as falling water. The
art is to pass the noose over the reptile’s head, then,
with a sharp tug on the pole, make it a prisoner.
The gyrations of a captured water-snake are be-
wildering. It coils into all sorts of fantastic knots,
and snaps at the pole, itself, and its shadow, and will
ultimately break the wire unless overpowered. A
few seconds’ maneuvering enables the operator to get
the reptile by the neck, unfasten tho noose, and drop
it into a canvas bag. Never will the writer forget
one experience while noosing snakes in this manner.
He was attracted by the head of what appeared to be
a large turtle among some aquatic plants. As tur-
tles can also be taken by a noose properly manipu-
lated, he slipped a miniature lasso of wire over the
creature’s head and pulled; but instead of hauling in
a turtle, the body of an enormous water-moccasin
came thrashing ashore, its dark eyes sparkling wicked-
ly, and its widely distended jaws disclosing a pair of
fangs that sought for vengeance. The apparition
was so startling that for a moment the collector was
quite overcome with astonishment. This was. his first
“eottonmouth,” and he presumes that the startled
feeling was practically identical with “buck fever.”
But there were other moccasins in that swamp, their
turtlelike heads just visible above the surface of the
weedy water. The catch that morning was eleven,
and those same eleven snakes are thriving in cap-
tivity.
With the capture of most of the terrestrial snakes
t
HUNTING LIZARDS 199
the noose is out of the question. It is a question of
the one making the fastest time—the snake in rush-
ing to a place of security, or the collector in reaching
the snake. If the collector wins, a quick grab is in
order, which is usually followed by a burst of indig-
nant protest on the reptile’s part. To get the rep-
tile by the neck before receiving a bite requires some
~ skill; but in the case of a harmless snake little cau-
tion is necessary, and the prize is soon in a bag. In-
cidentally it may be said that poisonous snakes do
not run, and their capture involves pinning down the
head and grasping them by the neck. This sounds
easy, and in fact it 7s easy for one who understands
it, but the writer would entreat the novice to think
twice before coming within striking distance of a
poisonous snake.
Most elusive of capture are the lizards. In sum-
mer it is practically impossible to obtain many of the
species. The movements of many species are so rapid
that the eye can scarcely follow them. Fallen trees,
exposed to the morning sun, are the favorite congre-
gating places of many lizards, and here they perform
their antics until disturbed, when they disappear like
magic into crevices of the bark or into the surround-
ing vegetation, where their bright eyes watch care-
fully for succeeding events. By stealthily approach-
ing their haunts, and upon locating a specimen, stalk-
ing it with outstretched hand, it may be sometimes
seized, providing the movements of the collector are
lightninglike in character. Generally, however, the
collector is left ruefully examining a wriggling tail,
15
200 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
the owner of which is scampering off with the speed _
of the wind, never to stop until secure.
Spring is the proper time to collect lizards, as
during this season the vegetation/is ie and the
_ reptiles, intent in their enjoyment of the sunshine,
are less cautious. In South Carolina, where several
species of showy lizards are abundant, the writer
‘collected many specimens during fhe early spring
months by stripping the bark from dead trees where
the reptiles, which were quite inactive, had passed
the winter. In the same district, a few weeks later,
many lizards representing the species collected were
seen, but they eluded capture in nearly every in-
stance.
Although ponderous and exceedingly powerful in
proportion to their size, alligators and crocodiles are
easily caught by baiting a powerful hook with flesh,
fastening it to a rope, and placing it in the lairs of
the saurians. Since they are exceedingly tenacious
of life and survive injuries which would immediately
prove fatal to warm-blooded animals, the superficial
wound made by the hook heals within a few days
and causes the reptile no inconvenience, Better
than this, however, is the practise of stealthily ap-
proaching these reptiles as they lie sleeping, and
noosing them with a strong rope. In this fashion
the thirteen-foot alligator “Big Mose,” now in the
reptile house of the New York Zoological Park, was
taken.
Many of our local reptiles, owing to their shy ..
and retiring habits, are difficult to discover. The .
HAUNTS OF REPTILES 201
diminutive DeKay’s snake and the closely allied
Storer’s snake are generally found beneath flat
stones or strips of bark at the edges of woods.
These little reptiles are seldom seen abroad except
in spring or fall, when they delight to bask in the
Fig. 81.—“ Big Mose,” the alligator.
sunlight. Precisely the same are the habits of the
tiny and dainty, ring-necked snake. These reptiles
are most frequently found by stripping the bark from
decaying trees.
In collecting reptiles it is useful for the beginner
to know that snakes or lizards are seldom found in
thigk woods; in such places the collector will seldom
find anything but a few batrachians, such as sala-
manders and newts. Snakes prefer the borders of
woods or small clearings. Several of our local spe-
cies frequent rocky places, and the borders of swamps
are the favorite lurking-places of others.
To the beginner a reptile hunt is generally most
discouraging. The anticipation is that careful search
202 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
will reveal many specimens. But such is not gener-
ally the case. In the northeastern United States a
collector may pass an entire day searching for rep-
tiles and see not a single specimen. It is usually by
accident that one meets the larger snakes. Often
the collector returns wearily from a tramp through
seemingly the most favorable country without the
sign of a specimen, unless it be a crushed and battered
one on the roadside.
In spring the reptiles issue from their places of
hibernation, and, possessed with a spirit of sociability,
sun themselves in little colonies. As the season grows
older they scatter. Some glide into the long grass
of the meadows, others go searching through rocky
ground, and a locality previously teeming with rep-
tile life becomes depopulated, so that the collector
can expect little luck during the summer months.
Those first warm days, always heralded by a chorus
of frogs and toads, afford the reptile hunter’s most —
favorable time. Along old stone walls and hedge-
rows the reptiles venture forth, and the sparse vege-
tation of the season makes their discovery and cap-
ture easy.
The poisonous snakes may be hunted during the
summer months along quiet roads, at dusk. Whena
long spell of heat and drought has been broken by a
refreshing shower they also venture forth to hunt
their prey.
It is surprising to note the seeming rarity of the
local poisonous snakes compared with the harmless
species. Many times has the writer tramped through
NOCTURNAL EXCURSIONS 203
f
miles of country said to contain rattlesnakes and
copperheads, and he has seen only an occasional dead
specimen by the roadside. In the extreme Southern
States, however, poisonous snakes are more numer-
ous, and rattlesnakes of several species may be
hunted at night. Well does the writer remember
the consternation among the colored folk created by
his companion and himself during their nocturnal
hunts. Nor‘can these simple people be blamed for
evincing astonishment at the apparition of two canvas- |
elad figures entering the swamps at night, armed with
a powerful acetylene lamp, and emerging later with
canvas bags which writhed and pulsated with strug-
gling serpents.
So difficult is it sometimes to discover specimens
in good “ snakey ” ground, that a friend of the writer
tried the novel plan of taking with him a pair of
opera-glasses and surveying the bushes and grass from
some elevated point. With the glasses he once dis-
covered a young copperhead snake swallowing a
wood-mouse, presumably some fifty feet from him,
among some bushes, but after taking the glasses from
his eyes and searching carefully for the snake he
failed to find it. This happened in the fall, when
the ground was well covered with dead leaves, and
the gentleman declared that if the snake had crawled
away he would have heard it rustling through the
leaves. Several times the writer has noted the sim-
ilarity of the copperhead snake to autumnal foliage,
and one of the finest specimens added to his collec-
tion was discovered coiled within a short distance of
204 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
his feet as he sat resting after a long walk through
the woods. The writer had been facing in the snake’s
direction for fully a quarter of an hour, but so closely
did the reptile resemble a little heap of fallen leaves
as it lay coiled that it failed to attract his attention,
and might have entirely escaped his notice had it not
vigorously vibrated its tail as a significant warning of
its presence. |
CHAPTER XXII
INTELLIGENCE OF REPTILES—TRAINING ALLIGATORS—
THE STORY OF SELIMA—BO SNAKES SWALLOW
THEIR YOUNG ?—GIANT TORTOISES—THE LAST SUR-
VIVORS OF THE REPTILIAN AGE
In this final chapter the writer seeks to describe
odd phases of reptile life, the intelligence of these
creatures and how it is shown, and the peculiar char-
acteristics observed in the case of aden particularly
interesting specimens.
As a rule, reptiles show no great amount of intel-
ligence. Devoid of affection, their interest in the
person who cares for them is. prompted either by ap-
petite or hostility. With a view of experimenting
upon the intelligence of large saurians, and inciden-
tally devising more convenient feeding measures,
a collection of big alligators at the reptile house
was put through a course of training. Instead
of having their fish and meat thrown into the big
tank, where they could devour it at leisure, the
food was offered from the edge of the tank by the
keepers. The intention was to teach them to take
their food from the men. In this way the supply of
food could be regulated, and feeding-time would
205
206 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
be made more interesting to visitors. For days the
*gators deliberately starved and their food went to
other animals. Time and time again the keepers pre-
sented tempting morsels from the edge of the tank;
five pairs of yellow eyes gleamed hungrily, but ob-
‘stinacy still ruled. At last temptation proved too
strong. “Big Mose” swam toward his keepers, and
his cavernous mouth yawned for only a second, but
long enough. A fowl was quickly cast between the
gaping jaws, and ‘the spell was broken. From that
time on “Big Mose” stood ready with open mouth
at feeding-time. His companions soon followed his
example, and some three weeks after the beginning
of the experiment the ’gators had all acquired the
habit of lining up for meals, with mouths wide open,
a practise which continues now.
The domestication of the ‘gators was convincing
enough as to the possibilities of training reptiles,
but was exceeded in interest by an episode involving
a snake. The snake was a python, and the reader
can draw his inferences from its behavior. At a cir-
cus and menagerie visited by the writer there was
found in an annex a large case guarded by a young
woman. The case was enameled in white and elab-
orately decorated with brass, and across the front, in
shining letters, was the word SNAKES. Heralded
by a blare of brass and crash of drums, the Lady of
the Serpents drew forth yards upon yards of glitter-
ing, richly tinted pythons. One of these she coiled
about her neck and shoulders. The reptile was ex-
ceedingly beautiful in coloring and seemed especially
A PYTHON’S ECCENTRICITIES 207
docile. After the act of the “snake enchantress”
the writer made his way to her throne and inquired
about the beautiful python which had so attracted
him. He was informed’ that the snake was called
“Selima,” and had been in the show business for
some years. Selima was very fond of her mistress,
was the information imparted, and would not eat
unless fed by hand. The conversation concluded
by the purchase of Selima, and the reptile was taken
to the reptile house of the New York Zoological
Park.
The python seemed actually to miss its old life
and grow lonesome. When the keepers in their trips
down the line of cages came to her compartment and
rolled back the iron door, she would crawl over
their shoulders, and seemed to appreciate their atten-
tion. \If placed back in the cage, she would imme-
diately crawl out again. She would never eat unless
the food were given her by hand: Having become
much interested in the snake, the writer took her
feeding entirely in hand. Day after day she was
‘taken from her cage for the benefit of privileged vis-
itors as an example of reptilian docility.
Some months after Selima’s installation, the writer
was seriously injured. Month after month went by,
but finally came recovery and a release from the sick-
room. After a three-months’ absence he returned to
the reptile house, there to discover that Selima’s cage
contained a huge rattlesnake, which glared with stony
and unfriendly eye at its observer. “Where is Se-
lima?” was the immediate question. The keepers
208 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
explained that she had deliberately starved herself to
death. Not fully appreciating the peculiar habits of
the snake, they had regularly placed the food in her
compartment, and gone “down the line” to look
after their other ‘charges. Finding she did not eat,
‘the snake was subjected to the vigorous process of
having food run down her throat by force ; but under
this treatment she did not thrive, and finally devel-
oped the dreaded “canker.”
In describing this incident, the writer does not
wish to argue that the snake deliberately starved itself
from grief, but simply desires to explain what actually
occurred. Aside from the daily inspection of the
cage, and the introduction of the customary food at
five-day intervals, Selima had received no special
attention during the writer’s absence. This followed
the time when his friends were so frequently intro-
duced to the reptile, which was taken from its cage
on each occasion; at such times, as has been ex-
plained, the snake seemed to appreciate being han-
dled. Although he realizes that the assertion is a bold
one, the writer contends that this snake, which had
been accustomed to being noticed and handled, missed
the many attentions previously received, and also
missed the practise of feeding it by hand, and, under
the changed conditions, worried and lost appetite ;
and its long fasting led to its death.
Following the story of Selima, it might be inter-
esting to bring up that familiar query: “Do snakes
swallow their young to protect them, in time of dan-
ger?” Those who believe in this performance,
PREVALENT FALLACIES 209
which, if possible, would tend to demonstrate great
affection on the part of the parent for her offspring,
are generally persons who have paid little attention
to the scientific side of natural history. In all his
exgerience, both afield and with captive specimens,
the writer has failed to notice even an intimation of
such an occurrence, which is practically a physical
impossibility. “Observers” allege that the young
run quickly down the mother’s throat; just! before
this happens she makes a whistling sound to call
them together. As snakes are deaf, this latter state-
ment is quite absurd; furthermore, it would nec-
essarily 'take some little time for a colony of young”
snakes to make their way down the smooth throat
of the parent; and again, it can be stated that if
the young snakes ever reached the interior of the
parent, where ‘gastric juices strong enough to dis-
solve bones and teeth are stored, they would soon be
killed by these chemicals. It is reasonable to say
that the observations of the alleged protecting of
young snakes by the mother in this manner are the
results of observers mistaking a cannibalistic reptile
devouring its prey, for a fond parent “swallowing”
her offspring.
Before closing these remarks about his reptilian
friends, the writer desires to briefly describe a collec-
tion of creatures which can not fail to enlist the inter-
est of all. From a far-off group of desolate islands,
abounding in innumerable craters, their rocks and sand
bleaching under a tropical sun, came five representa-
210 A COLLECTOR’S EXPERIENCES
tives of an age that has long passed. The islands
whence these creatures came are supposed to be one
of the rare portions of this earth left undisturbed
when, thousands upon thousands of years ago, terrific
voleanic disturbances shook the globe, and the seas
rushed over whole continents while others were born
above the waters.
These five representatives of the age of reptiles
are giant tortoises from the Galapagos Islands. Of
the times when scaled and plated forms of gigantic
proportions—forms like the visions seen in troubled
dreams—stalked in abundance through an atmosphere
of humidity and heat in forests of equally gigantic
foliage, these great tortoises are the sole survivors.
Weighing three hundred and fifty pounds, the largest
specimen to arrive at the New York reptile house
makes an ordinary land tortoise appear in about the
same proportion as a musket-ball to the huge round
shot of an old-time cannon.
The largest specimen of the five which arrived
at the Zoological Park was appropriately named
“ Buster.” After due comparison with the few other’
specimens in captivity, and records of the same, it
was decided that Buster was about three hundred and
seventy years old. During all this time he had slow-
ly shuffled about the sterile soil of a volcanic island,
devouring cactus leaves, and growing slowly—very
slowly, probably an inch or so every five years; then
he stopped growing, and his great shell began to wear
against the rocks. It is estimated that this wearing
must have taken a couple of centuries, as these crea-
A GIANT SPECIMEN 911
tures are not noted for activity. When captured,
Buster took matters easy, simply blinking hard and
puffing indignantly. It took twelve men some days
Fig. 82.—A giant tortoise.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.
to get him from voleanic ground down to the coast,
about fourteen miles away.
Without much difficulty, Buster can carry two
men on his back. His limbs resemble the extremities
of a small elephant, and are fitting illustrations of his
strength. During the summer, he and his four com-
panions—which cost the neat sum of one thousand dol-
lars—are fed upon watermelons. Buster’s share of
212 A COLLECTOR'S EXPERIENCES
these dainties is generally two of the largest, includ-
ing all portions from the rinds to the seeds.
Quite different are these tortoises from species
ordinarily seen. On crowded days, when the fence
about their enclosure is lined with visitors, they take
an active interest in the spectators and stalk about,
close to the fence, holding their heads erect to the
utmost limit. Frequently they have short combats,
snapping fiercely at each other ; and these elephantine
combats suggest scenes of the Ageof Reptiles. At
such times they utter a shrill trumpeting sound,
which can be heard for some distance. But these
little quarrels are always of short duration, and never
result in injury. As sundown approaches they all
trudge slowly, one after another, to their favorite’
corner, where their keeper provides bedding of hay;
in this they turn slowly round and round, until par-
tially concealed. By sunset, all have sought the
same corner for the night—and thus we leave them,
sleeping.
INDEX
Agamide, 164.
Age and size, 122.
Alligators, 119, 120, 122, 200.
Alpine salamanders, 85.
Amblystoma, 13.
Amphibians, 1.
Amphisbena, 77, 79, 125, 127, 165.
Anaconda, 77.
Anguide, 93, 165.
Anguis, 77..
Anolis, or American chameleon
(Anolis principalis), 96, 110.
Archegosaurus, 61.
Armadillos, 70, 103.
Aquatic turtles, 76.
Axolotl, 27, 38, 57.
Baptanodon diseus, 148.
,Batrachians, 2.
Beavers, 1.
Beetles, 107.
Blacksnake, 82, 112, 120, 170, 185.
Blue-racer, 82.
Blue-tailed lizard, 165.
Blunt-nosed salamanders, 39.
Boas, 77, 174.
Boidee, 77,.173.
Box-turtles, 103.
Brain, 134.
Brontosaurus excelsis, 151.
Brontozoum, 154.
Bullfrog (Rana. catesbéana), 21, 46.
Burrowing cacilians, 48, 58,
Burrowing snakes, 84, 108, 161. -
Cacilia gracilis, 5.
Cacilia lentaculata, 5.
Cecilians, 6, 8, 13, 15, 36, 41, 57, 58,
Capture, 198.
Calla, 19.
Care of young, 141.
Caterpillars, 107.
Chalets, 95.
Chameleon, 75, 76, 79, 88, 97, 98,
104, 119, 127, 140, 166,
Charming, 99.
Chuckwalla, 100.
Circulation, 42, 126,
Classification, 64.
| Claws, 76.
Cobras, 178, 185, 198.
Cochlea, 139.
Color, 109.
Color changes, 26.
Color protection, 109.
Collecting: reptiles, 196, 201.
Collectors’ experiences, 169.
Combats, 212.
Common pine snake, 84,
Common tree-toad, 20.
Congo snake, 7.
Copperheads, 162.
Coral-snake, 163.
Cottonmouth snake, 162.
213
214
Crawlers, 87.
Crested newt ( Triton eristatus), 27.
Cricket-frog, 8, 19.
Crocodile, 42, 71, 78, 74, 76, 87, 98,
104, 109, 116, 118, 146, 200. ©
Crocodilians, 81, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95,
103, 108, 118, 127, 128, 129, 182,
189, 140, 141, 142, 178; key to, 160,
Dasypeltis-unicolor, 91.
Defense, 100.
Defensive armor, 108.
Dendrerpeton acqdeanum, 60.
Dendrobatida, 15.
Development of the frog, 83.
‘Diaphragm, 126.
Diclonius mirabilis, 152.
Dicynodon lacerticeps, 92,
Digestive tracts, 49, 128,
Dinosaurs, 79, 101, 124, 180, 181,
184, 149.
Diseases of snakes, 187,
Ears, 47.
Edestosaurus, 149,
Eft, 26.
Eggs, 24, 80, 81, 86, 88, 40, 64, 141,
142, 143,
Elapide (genus laps), 109, 162,
178.
Enemies, 120.
Epidermis, 44.
Escape, 100. ;
European lizards, 80.
European newt, 10.
Extinct flying reptiles, 85,
Extinct lizard forms, 79,
Eyes, 47.
Fangs, 89, 91.
Feeding, 15.
Finback lizards, 155.
Fishes, 57.
INDEX
“Flat-footed walkers, 76.
Flesh-eaters, 15, 98.-
Florida lizards, 76, 110,
Flying-dragon, 113.
Flying lizard, 79, 118, 114,
Flying mammals, 113.
Flying tree-frog (Rhacophorus rein-
hardtiz), 11.
Flying tree-toad, 48.
Food, 15.
Footprints, 60.
Fossil forms, 50, 58.
Fresh-water snakes, 161.
Frilled lizard, 77, 105, 106.
Frog, 1, 8, 34, 38, 41, 48, 47, 58, 68.
Frog forms, 50, 52. .
Ganoid, 60, 68.
Garter-snake, 112, 178.
Geckos, 118, 180.
Giant salamander (Megalobatrachus
maximus), 4, 11.
Giant tortoises, 210, 211.
Gila monster (Heloderma suspec-
tum), 121, 122.
Gills, 39, 49, 69.
Glass-snake, 77, 78, 80.
Gophers, 115.
Grasshoppers, 107.
Greaved lizards, 74, 77, 96.
Green frog, 20, 22, 46.
Green turtle, 98.
| Ground-lizards, 97.
Ground-snakes, 161.
Hatching, 141, 144.
Hatteria, 71, 86.
Haunts and distribution, 116.
Heads, 86.
Head of frog, 12.
Hearing, 46, 189.
Heart, 55.
Hesperornis regalis, 158.
‘ INDEX
Heterodon, 82, 114, 126.
Hibernation, 28, 57, 115,
Hiding-places, 115.
Hoop-snake, 118.
Horned frog of South America
(Ceratophrys cornuta), 16, 22, 25.
Horned toads, 97, 101, 102, 186,
Horns, 101.
Hylodes, 36.
Ichthyopterygia, 147.
" Ichthyosaurs, 74, 148, 149.
Iguanide, 97, 165. ~
Insect-eaters, 15.
Intelligence of reptiles, 205.
Japanese frog, 40.
Jaws, 87.
Joint-snake, 77,
Jurassic period, 69.
Kinship, 4.
Labyrinthodonts, 14, 60, 63.
Lacertide, 165.
Lelaps, 92, 100, 101, 152.
Lamprey, 52.
Land-haunters, 2, 75.
Land-snakes, 82. ©
Land-tortoises, 115.
Laosaurus, 151.
Leguan, 104,
Limbs, 7, 74.
Limnerpeton laticeps, 61.
Lizards, 72, 77, 79, 80, 86, 87, 90, 98,
95, 100, 101, 112, 116, 118; key
to, 163.
Lung-fishes, 57, 63.
Lungs, 124, 125, 128.
Lung-sacs, 126.
Lycosaurus, 92.
Lymph circulation, 42, 48.
Lymph-hearts, 129.
. 16
215
Mammals, 8, 70, 90, 127.
Mastodonsaurus Jegeri, 62,
Matamata, 188.
Means of motion, 111.
Mexican axolotl, 39.
Migration, 116.
Mock fights, 118.
Moloch lizard (Moloch horridus),
104, 105.
Monitors, 79, 95, 127.
Mosasaurs, 74, 89,149.
Motion, 123.
Mudpuppies, 1.
Mud-turtles, 115, 117.
Muscles, 188.
Music, 19.
Muskrats, 1.
Musk-turtle, 108.
Nerve-cells, 54.
Nerve-matter, 55.
Nerves, 184.
Nervous system, 52.
Newts, 26, 85.
Nototrema, 36.
Nourishing the young, 70.
Obstetric frog, 39, 57.
Odor, 107.
Offense, 100.
Ophisaurus, 77.
Orchegosaurus, 60.
Orders of amphibians, 65.
Ornaments, 26, 108.
Otters, 1.
‘Oviparous snakes, 173.
Pangolins, 70.
Perfumes, 45.
Phrynosoma, 97.
Plesiosaurus, 147, 148.
Poison-fangs, 98, 94, 169, 128.
Poisonous serpents, 102, 107.
216 INDEX
Pond-turtles, 76. Skeleton of frog, 51.
Potiched frog, 36. Skeleton of lizard, 180,
Prairie-dogs, 115.
Protective resemblance, 109.
Proteus, 48.
Pterodactylis-spectabilis, 156.
Pterodactyls, 85, 131.
Ptyonius, 61.
Pythonomorpha, 149, 161.
Raccoon, 77.
Rattlesnake, 85, 94, 102, 108, 115,
117, 120, 136, 162, 175, 176,
Rearing of young, 24.
Reflex action, 55.
Repairs, 56.
Reptiles, 69.
Reptiles, key to, 158.
Rhamphorhynchus, 85, 86.
Respiration, 41, 123,
Rhychosaurs-hyperodapedon, 98.
Rodents, 93.
Salamander, 1, 5, 12, 28, 56, 57, 72,
79.
Salivary glands, 123.
Sauropterygia, 147.
Scincida, 165,
Seals, 1.
Sea-lizard, 104.
Sea-snakes, 103, 115, 136, 161.
Sea-tortoises, 74.
Sea-turtles (Sphargis), 79, 116,
182.
Sense-organs, 138.
Serpents, 72, 77, 139.
Serpents, key to, 160.
Shark-forms, 63.
Shield-tail snake (Silybura macro-
lepus), 84.
Sight, 139.
Siren, 15.
Skeletons, 50.
Skin, 45, 136.
Skink, 77, 97, 139.
Skin-secretions, 28.
Skin-shedding, 44.
Skulls, 52, 183.
Skull of Rana esculenta, 53.
Slow-worm, 93.
Smell, 45, 140.
Snakes, 90, 99, 104; as pets, 169,
198.
Snake-poison, 190, 194,
Spadefoot toads, 9, 38, 57.
Sphenodon, 71.
Spines, 103, 104,
Spine-tailed lizard ( Uromastic spin.
pes), 81.
Spotted triton, 31.
Spread-head, 114, 126.
Stegosaurus ungulatus, 135, 150,
Surinam toad, 9, 10, 87.
Swamp tree-toad, 19.
Swift lizard, 97.
Tadpoles, 2, 32, 34, 38, 45, 49.
Tailed amphibians, 52, 65.
Tailed forms, 5, 7.
Tailless forms, 6.
Tails, 10, 79.
Taste, 188.
Tuatera, 71, 78, 74, 86, 87, 88, 98,
104, 132, 146, 187, 140, 180.
Tear-glands, 189.
Teeth, 14, 90.
Teiida, 165.
Terrifying methods, 104,
Toads, 1, 19, 34, 48, 56, 57.
Toes, 7.
Toe-walkers, 77.
Tongues, 11, 94.
Tooth of labyrinthodont, 15.
Tortoise, 72, 74, 140, 180.
INDEX
Tortoise forms, 86, 95, 109, 112, 116,
120, 145; key to, 159.
Tortoise-shell turtle, 132.
Touch, 188.
Tracks, 254. -
Training reptiles, 206.
Tree-frog of Dutch Guiana (Hylo-
des linigtus), 87.
Tree-haunters, 82, 109.
‘Tree-lizard, 79.
Tree-snakes, 99, 161.
Tree-toads, 8, 21, 36, 42.
Tree-toads of the tropics, 10, 25.
Trematosaurus, 63.
Triassic age, 68.
Triceratops, 150,
Tritons, 17, 85.
217
Turtles, 117.
Typlotriton, 48.
Varanide, 165.
Venomous snakes, 192.
Vipers, 162.
Viviparous amphibians, 85.
a
Wall gecko (Platydactylus mura-
lis), 181.
Water-haunters, 1, 23.
Water-moccasins, 162.
Water-newts, 57.
Water-snakes, 140, 197.
Weapons, 27, 108.
Whip-snakes (Passarita myeteri-
zane), 82, 88,
Wood-frog, 46.
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THE END
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