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Fish and fisheries of New South Wales.

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FRONTISPIECE,

AN “OLD MAN SCHNAPPER.”—ctv. & Van.
(Pagrus unicolor.)

FISH AND FISHERIES

OF

NEW SOUTH WALES.

BY THE

REV. J. E. TENISON-WOODS, F.L.S., F.G.8., &., &C.,

Vicz-PRESIDENT. OF THE LINNEAN Society, New SourH WaLes.

AUTHOR or ‘“‘A History of THe DiscOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF AUSTRALIA,”
‘GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA,” yo
“Nort AUSTRALIA,”
“¢ NATURAL History or New Souta WALES,”
&e., &

SYDNEY : THOMAS RICHARDS, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

12a 56-82 1882,

PREFACE.

Tuais work has been undertaken with a twofold object. The first is
to give a popular account of our useful Fishes to the colonists, together
with all that relates to pisciculture and acclimatization, with a view to
promote a development of our fish resources. To make it more
useful in its educational character, a simple explanation of the science

of the subject is prefixed.

The second object is to give an account of our Fish and Fisheries,
such as will..be required for the great Fish Exhibition of 1883. With
this view, all that relates to our laws, markets, and our fisheries generally

is given.

Finally, the work is meant to be simple and practical, so that not a
word in it may be above the comprehension of those not specially
trained to scientific phraseology. Though in places necessarily a little
technical, it is hoped that on the whole it will be found readable, and
sufficient to give to inquirers all the knowledge they require about
the Fisheries of New South Wales.

I take this opportunity of thanking the Hon. W. Macleay, F.L.S.,
and Alex. Oliver, Esq., for valuable assistance in revising these pages,
and also Prof. M‘Coy, F.R.S., for permission to use some of the plates

of his work on the Zoology of Victoria.

CONTENTS.

DEDICATION ... agi ie wwe aes va es
PREFACE atts a es as
List or PLAtTEs
GLossaRy
CHAPTER L INTRODUCTION a sta a oe
II. Tue Fish Fauna or New Soutn WALES
Ifi.. Our Marine Foop Fisurs
IV. Swarxs
V. Rays

VI. Ovr Fresu-water Foop FisHEs

VIE. Ovystzr FisHEeries
VIII. Orner Mottuvsca ...
IX. Crusvacua ... is et
X. FisHine-crounps or New Souta WALES
XI. Tue Fish Marxet
XII. Tue DEVELOPMENT OF OUR FISHERIES
XIII, AccLiMaTIZATION AND PISCICULTURE ...
XIV. Fisuery Laws anp RecuLations

XV. Inpvex or Locat Namgs...

XVI. Works RELATING To FisH AND FISHERIES ...

INDEX ... ans or me wis rF oes

. 102
. 110

oe 122
. 125
. 128
. 139
. 143

+. 150
. 160
.. 182
» 194
.. 205

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE. PAGE.
Frontispiece. ‘‘Old Man” Schnapper.
I. The Perch. ates colonorum ie +» described at 31
II. The Old Wife. Hnoplosus armatus ... 95 32
JII. Longfin. Anthias longimanus ¥5 33
IV. Wirrah. Plectropoma ocellatum ee 34
V. Australian Salmon. <Arripis salar 5 35
VI. Sweep. Scorpis aguipennis ... o 37
VII. Black-fish. Girella tricuspidata . a 39
VIII. Schnapper. Pagrus unicolor... as 39
IX. Tarwhine. Chrysophrys australis x 42
X. Morwong. Chilodactylus macropterus 3 46
XI. Red Morwong. Chilodactylus fuscus rr 46
XII. Red Rock Cod. Scorpena cardinalis ee 55 47
XIII. Banded Morwong. Chilodactylus vittatus ... 35 47
XIV. Gurnard Perch. Sebastes percoides ... ao 48
XV. Nannygai. Beryx affnis © 3 51
XVI. Jew-fish. Sciena antar‘ctica ... 33 53
XVII. Teraglin. Otelithus otelodus ...- as 54
XVII. Yellow-tail. Trachurus declivis rT 58
XIX. King-fish. Seriola lalandii ... 2 59
XX. Tailor. Yemnodon saltator ... rie is 60
XXI. John Dory. Zeus australis ... - 35 61
XXII. Horse Mackerel. Trachurustrachurus ... .. 455 58
XXIII. Whiting and Beardie. Sillago maculata and
Lotella marginata ‘ atk tae a 65.
XXIV. Northern Whiting. Sillago ciliata ... 45 65
XXV. Flathead. Platycephalus fuscus oe + 67
XXVI. Gurnard and Sergeant Baker. Trigla kumu
and Aulopus purpurissatus ees 3 68
XXVII. Flying Gurnet. Trigla polyommata... 5 68
XXVIII. Pike. Sphyrena obtusata : re 69
XXIX. Sea Pike. Lanioperca mordax 33 69
XXX. Sea Mullet. Mugil grandis 3 61
XXXI. Blue Groper. Cossyphus gouldii = 74
XXXII. Pig-fish. Cossyphus wnimaculatus 5 75
XXXIII. Flounder. Pseudorhombus russellit ... ii 76
” 77

XXXIV. Sole. Synaptura nigra...

viii LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE. PAGE.
XXXV, Sergeant Baker. Aulopus purpurissatus ... described at 82
XXXVI. Long Tom. Belone ferox ass tee ae an 83
XXXVII. Garfish and River Garfish. Hemirhamphus inter-
medius and H. regularis ... ss ot 35 84
XXXVIII. River Garfish. Hemirhamphus penibuts ae 99 84
XXXIX. The Hel. Anguilla australis ... “eis gan ue 88
XL. Leather-jacket. Monacanthus ayraudi eis 35 89
XLI. Murray Cod. Oligorus macquariensis ... side 5 102
XLII. Sea Crab. Neptunus pelagicus ... ang ad si 125
XLII. Cray-fish. Palinurus hugelii ... nae ee 5 125
XLIV. Freshwater Cray-fish. Astacopsis serratus ... 3 126
XLV. Bat-fish. Psettus argenteus ... - 61
9

A wood engraving of heads of Salmo, with epaceilenn a es

GLOSSARY.

Acuminate.—Tapering to a point.

Adipose—Fatty matter throughout the tissue.

Armature.—A prickle or bony point.

Axil.—Literally the armpit ; the inner angle at the base of a fin or spine.

Basibranchials.—Small bones uniting the branchial arches below.

Branchial,—Relating to the gill.

Branchie.— Gills.

Branchial arches.—Plates which bear the gills. In the Perch they are five, four
bearing gills; the fifth dwarfed, and bearing teeth called lower pharyngeal
bone. The arches are divided into movable portions dilated and confluent
above, beset with fine teeth, and called the upper pharyngeal bones.

Branchiostegals.—The margin of the gill-cover has a skinny fringe to close it
more effectually; this fringe is supported by one or many bony rays called
branchiostegals.

Bifurcated.—Forked.

Bumbora.—aA sunken rock or reef covered at low-water.

Canines.—Larger projecting teeth like dog teeth.

Ceratobranchials.—The middle segments of the branchial arches.

Coecal.—Blind, or closed sac, not perforate.

Confiuent.— When separate parts become united so as to lose their distiuctness
they-are said to be confluent.

Cran.—A barrel of herrings.

Deciduous.—Easily falling away.

Denticulate—Finely toothed.

Dun.—Broken dried cod-fish.

Emarginate.—Notched or cut out at the edge.

Epibranchials.—The upper segment of the branchial arch.

Ethmoid.—aA cartilage, thickest above the vomer, which extends as a narrow atripe
along the bony partition between the eyes. The nerves of smell (olfactory) run
along and through the Ethmoid.

Falcate.—Crescent-shaped or bent like a reaping-hook.

Filament.—A thread-like membrane.

Finlets.—Small fins, such as those along the tail of the mackerel.

Follicles.—Small leaf-like bags or cavities.

Gibbous.—Swollen or humped at some part. of the surface.

Grilse.—Young salmon that have never spawned.

Hill or To Hill.—Sand- -heaps formed by Salmon for the ova. Hence the expres-
sion “to hill,” for spawning time. The sand-heap is also called a ridd.

Humeral.—Belonging to the shoulder.

Hyaline—An extremely clear, transparent membrane.

Hyoid.—tThe arch which encloses the branchial apparatus.

Hypobranchial.—The lowest segment of the branchial arch absent from the fourth
arch.

Imbricate.—Laid over each other like tiles:

Incisors.—Front cutting-teeth in fishes.

Kelt,—Salmon exhausted, and often covered with parasites after spawning-time.

c

x GLOSSARY.

Klipfish.—Dried cod.

Lamell2.—Thin plates.

Laminate.—Divided into thin plates.

Lateral.—Pertaining to the side ; refers especially to the line along the sides of
some fishes called the lateral line.

Littoral.—Belonging to the shore.

Maise or Maese.—A measure of 500 herrings.

Maxillary.—The front margin of the upper jaw formed by the intermaxillary or
premaxillary bone which in most fishes bears teeth. It is spread into a flat,
triangular projection, on which leans the second bone of the upper jaw—the
maxillary.

Mesially.—Mesial ; a supposed divisional, perpendicular, longitudinal line, dividing
the fish into two halves. :

Muciferous.—Mucous system, having special reference to the lateral line, the
scales of which are perforated and exude an oily lubricating fluid.

Nancy.—A trade term for 40 lobsters.

Occiput.—The hinder part of the head or skull.

Offal.Trade term for Haddock, Plaice, and Whiting.

Olfactory.—Relating to the organs of smell.

Operculum.—Gill-cover.

Orbit.—The eye socket.

Osseous.—Bony tissue.

Ossicles.—Small bones.

Palatine—Relating to the palate bones. The palate properly consists of three
bones—1l. The Enteropterygoid, an oblong thin bone’ attached to the inner
border of the palatine and pterygoid, and increasing the surface of the bony
roof of the mouth. 2. The Pterygoid or transverse bone joined by suture to
the. 3. Palatine, which is generally toothed and joined to the yomer.

Parr.—tThe first stage of young salmon.

Partan.—A Scotch provincial name for the common edible British crab, Cancer
pagurus.

Pelagic,—Inhabiting the open ocean,

Pharynx.—The gullet.

Pharyngeal.—See “ Branchial arches.”

Pink.—Another name for smolt.

Plicate.—In folds or ridges, or plaits,

Preoperculum.—A bone with » free'‘margin on the operculum,

Prime.—Sole, Turbot, Brill, and Cod, trade term.

Pseudo-branchiz.—False gills. In the young stage of many fishes they breathe
by a gill which becomes subsequently disused. It remains in the form of a
fifth or false gill in front of the others, but not in all fishes.

Putt or Putcher.—Wicker-basket nets.

Rudd, Ridd, or Redd.—Male salmon, and the nest.

Scutes.—Small bony plates replacing scales,

Segment.—A division or joint.

Septum.—< partition.

Serrated.— Toothed like a saw.

Setiform.—Shaped like a bristle.

Shotten.—A female fish from which the roe is just discharged.

Skegger.—Young salmon.

Slat. See Kelt.

Smolt.—Young salmon in the very young state after the “Parr” stage, when they
assume scales and lose the transverse markings,

Spinous.—Thorny or with bony spines,

GLOSSARY. x1

Strikes.—Salmon that have spawned.

Suture.—Seam or division.

Truncate.—Ending abruptly, as if eut off.

Trunk,—The body of the fish, including sides, belly, and back.

Villi—Minute velvety projections. :

Villiform.—Very fine or minute conical teeth, arranged in a band.

Vitreous.—Glassy, clear.

Vittate.—Striped..

Vomer.—The thin bone dividing the nostrils, the base of which is often armed with
teeth.

Xiphoid.—Shaped like a sword.

Zonate.—With zones or bands of colour.

Any terms not found here are explained in the context where they are used.

Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales,

CHAPTER I.

Introduction.

Tue fisheries of this Colony have recently attracted much attention;
they have become an industry increasing each year in extent and value,
but it is only within a year or so that anything definite has been
known about them. One or two private individuals have interested
themselves, but, until the Royal Commission on the Fisheries of New
South Wales in 1880, any reliable and systematic information was not
within the reach of the public. Now that the defect has been remedied
it is proposed to give a popular account of our fish and fisheries, for the
benefit of the colonists generally or those interested in the subject else-
where. As far as the facts are concerned nothing would be better than
the Blue Book published by the Commission, containing the report,
the minutes of evidence, and the valuable appendices. The report
especially is admirable in every way, and abundant use will be made of
it in this essay ; but something more is requisite to make the scientific
side of the subject a little more accessible. We have popular manuals
of botany and geology, in which the technical terms in use are carefully
explained and made familiar. The terms in both these sciences are
numerous and perplexing ; it is not so with the science of fishes, or as it is
called Ichthyology. The teclinicalities are few and easily understood, and
when they are so understood the scientific manuals on the subject will
be open to all. By this means every fisherman of ordinary education
will be able to get the scientific name of any species he may find. This
would seem but a small gain, but when it is known that under this name
can be found all that science has recorded about the fish, its uses, habits,
structure, anatomy, and its place in nature, the gain of knowledge is
great. Fishermen no doubt have their own names, and in a rough way
apply their experience ; but this has no acknowledged record or defini-
tion, and the local name of a species here may be applied to a totally
different fish elsewhere. All the facts of experience may easily become
misapplied through a name which thus becomes a source of confusion
instead of knowledge ; but with a recognized name it is hardly possible
that an intelligent fisherman will not be largely benefited by the
scientific researches of others. It is not now as it was a few years ago,
when such a thing as a scientific catalogue of fishes was not to be found,
and even the incomplete works on the subject were enormously expen-
sive and quite out of the reach of persons of ordinary means. Since
Dr. Gtnther published his great Catalogue of Fishes the subject has
been placed within the reach of all, There are many copies of this

A

2 NEW SOUTH WALES

work in the Colony, both in public institutions and in private libraries.
Besides this, the Hon. W. Macleay has published a complete Catalogue
of Australian Fishes, and thus all that science has done can be easily:
and thoroughly known. This catalogue adds more than 600 to the
number of known Australian species, which is now about 1,150.

It is not intended in this essay to give a detailed description of all
our fishes, but merely figures and descriptions of the more common
ones, or those useful kinds which employ the industry of our fishermen
and fill our markets. Such information will be added as to the habits
and mode of capture as will be useful either to the professional fisher-
man or the sportsman. All that is known of our fishing-grounds will
be given too. This, with any knowledge that we have of the economical
uses of our fishes, with our fishing laws, and all the statistics available,
will it is hoped make this essay a complete handbook of our New South
Wales Fisheries.

Ihterature.—First of all it may be useful to state what has been
hitherto done in this direction. In 1870 Mr. Alex. Oliver published, in
the “Industrial Progress of the Colony,” a paper on the Fisheries of
New South Wales. In 1874 the late Mr. Edward Smith Hill wrote a
series of fourteen articles for the Sydney Mail, entitled “ Fishes of and
Fishing in New South Wales.” These are most interesting and valuable,
and will be often referred to in this essay. In 1877 there was an
Oyster Commission appointed for N. 8. Wales, which published a
report. Besides these works and the Report of 1880 already referred
to, there are the special writings on the subject of Australian Fishes
by Count F. de Castelnau, published either in the Journal of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales or in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of Victoria for 1872 and 1873. Therc were also two
scarcely less valuable or extensive essays published in the official reports
of the Victorian Intercolonial Exhibitions for 1873 and 1876. The
work of the Hon. W. Macleay has been already referred to; but it may
be mentioned that, though appearing first in the Proceedings of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, it was also published separately
in two volumes for private circulation. Finally, there is an edition of the
new Fisheries Act by A. Oliver. No other original writers need be men-
tioned, because the works of Cuvier and Valenciennes, Sir John Richard-
son, and Dr. Giinther have no special reference to Australia, and the
Australian fishes described in them occur casually. It is necessary to
state, however, that no complete knowledge of any species can be obtained
without reference to the great Catalogue of Fishes by Dr. A. O. L. G.
Ginther, F.R.S., published in eight volumes by the Trustees of the
British Museum, or the same author’s work on the Study of Fishes,
which is an augmented reprint of his article on Ichthyology in the ninth
edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

Definition.—It will be necessary first of all to state what is a fish.
Some readers will be surprised, if not amused, at such an idea. As if
everybody did not know what a fish is. Yet a ‘fish has peculiarities
which very few know, therefore a valuable increase to our knowledge
will be gained by the definition. A fish is a vertebrate animal living
in water, and breathing water by means of gills, It has cold red
blood, but circulated by means of a heart with only two chambers, a
ventricle and an anti-chamber or auricle or bulb. The limbs when

FISH AND FISHERIES. 3

present are fins, either in pairs along the sides or in a single line above
and below. The skin is either (1) naked, (2) covered with scales, (3)
with bony plates, (4) or bony armour. With few exceptions fishes
propagate their species by means of eggs, and are hence called oviparous.

Before proceeding to an explanation of the terms necessary to under-
stand scientific books about fishes, it may be well to refer to a plan for
their classification which is useful to remember. M. Louis Agassiz
proposed to arrange all fishes into four great classes according to the
structure of the scales or bony covering. Thus there were 1. PLacoips:
Without proper scales, but instead plates of enamel either large or
reduced to mere points: Sharks, Rays, &c. 2. Ganorps :—Scales
angular, bony below, enamelled above. There are few living species of
these, but there were many in former times. Our Australian Ceratodus
is one, and the Sturgeon is another. 3. Crznorps :—Scales rough with
comb-like teeth at their free margins, such as in Perch, Soles. 4.
Cyciorps :—Scales smooth without teeth at the hind margin: Salmon,
Mullet, Herring, Cod, &c. This classification is not adopted now, but it
is found useful in many ways in determining the zoological character of
a fish, and is moreover easily borne in mind.

A more elaborate system of classification, and one generally adopted,
is that of Giinther, which divides the class Fishes into four sub-classes.
]. Patzicutuyes: Sharks, Ganoids, and Rays. 2. Tsxzoste1, which
includes the majority of fishes. 3. Cycnostomata : Lampreys and a few
other rare genera. 4. Leprocarpii. These divisions are more natural
than any others, but they are founded on minute details of anatomy which
require special knowledge to determine. Thus, PaL@ICcHTHYES are
fishes with a contractile auricle to the heart ; intestine with a spiral
valve ; optic nerves not crossing. 2. TELEosTEt :—Fishes with an auricle
which does not contract, intestine not spiral, optic nerves not crossing.
Skeleton composed of bone, with vertebre separated completely. 3.
CycLostoma :—No auricle to the heart, intestine simple. Skeleton of
cartilage instead of bone. Only one nasal aperture. No jaws, but the
mouth surrounded by a circular lip. 4. Leprocarpi :—Heart reduced
to mere pulsating sinuses in the great artery. Intestine simple. Skele-
ton partly cartilaginous and partly membranaceous. No skull and no
brain.

We need not occupy ourselves with the two last orders, as CycLosto-
MATA, or Lampreys and Myxines, only include five genera and not a
dozen species, while the Lrprocarptl, or ,Lancelets, though distributed
all over the world, have not more than two species. By many it is not
considered a fish at all, but a separate class called Acranta, or headless.

Thus according to this system there is little more than a division into
—1. fishes with a skeleton of bone, and 2. fishes with a skeleton of
cartilage. Before passing to the sub-divisions of these sub-classes it will
be well to explain certain anatomical distinctions. Few fishermen will
be able to trace them, but to understand them is easily effected and will
give great insight into the physiology of fishes.

All fishes (if we exclude the Lancelets) have red ‘blood, and are pro-
vided with a complete circulation for the body, another for the gills, and
a third for the liver. But fishes differ from other animals in this, that
the heart is relatively small, and is provided with only two chambers,

“

4, NEW SOUTH WALES

which send the blood on from the veins direct to the gills, Thus all
the veins ultimately discharge their contents into a large chamber of the
heart (atriwm*), whence the blood passes by the pulsation of the ventricle
into the cone or auricle. Valves here prevent its return. The cone or
bulb of the auricle is prolonged into the gill artery, where it soon divides,
sending off a branch to each of the gill arches. After being well revived
by the oxygen of the water, the blood returns from the gills, some to
arteries where a portion is sent off to different parts of the head and
heart, but the main trunk unites to form a great artery which carries
blood to all parts of the muscles, intestines, and tail. In the great
majority of fishes it is only the ventricle which contracts. In sharks,
rays, &c. (Paleichthyes) the auricle also beats or pulsates, It is in-
teresting to study the hearts of fishes, from which much can be learned.
Its simple structure is one that can be easily understood. In the
anterior part will be found the atriwm with a large sinus venosus} or
groove, into which all the veins enter, then the ventricle, and then a
conical hollow swelling at the beginning of the arterial system. In all
the sharks and rays this swelling is still a division of the pulsating
heart. It has a thick muscular layer, but is not separated from the
ventricle by two valves (like the heart of warm-blooded animals) opposite
to each other, yet its interior is provided with many valves arranged in
a transverse series. In Cyclostomata and Teleosteans the enlargement is
a swelling of the artery without a muscular thickening, and it does not
pulsate.

The reference made to the crossing of the optic nerves is worthy of
particular notice. The optic nerves of fishes take their rise from the
optic lobes of the brain. In the Cyclostomata they go straight to the
eye each on its own side. In the Teleosteans they simply cross each
other so that each optic nerve supplies the eye on the other side of the
brain. In sharks and rays the optic nerves unite after leaving the
brain and become merged into one. This compound nerve is cylindrical
for a time, but soon flattens out like a plaited band which can be
separated and expanded.

The blood, as already explained, is carried to the gills. These are the
lungs of fishes, only lungs are organs especially designed to breathe
air, while gills breathe water. Both, however, are for the same purpose,
that is, renewing the blood by the oxygen which both air and water con-
tain, while at the same time it parts with certain elements which it has
removed from the system. In gills this is effected between what are
called the branchial arches. They are usually five in number, of which
four bear gills, while the fifth remains dwarfed.

The gills are fine lamelle covered with mucous membrane, every one
of which is supplied with a small twig from the branchial artery. This
is subdivided into the finest branchlets, and their termination being very
near the surface is what gives the red colour to the gills. The water
washing over these surfaces while the blood is moved along by the heart,
brings every portion in succession within reach of the oxygen which is
rapidly absorbed. On the inner side of the gills there are sets of organs

called gill-rakers, which act as a sieve to prevent particles of solid matter

* Latin for court or hall,
{ Latin for vein-cavity, or fold.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 5

from passing over the gills. The above account will generally describe
the gills of Teleosteans, The sharks and rays have a different arrange-
ment. There are certain other fishes in which the gills are so peculiar,
such as some Siluride, Labyrinthici, &., that larger works on Ichthyology
must be consulted concerning them.

Another organ to which attention must be paid is the air-bladder.
This is a hollow sac of very varying shape. It is situated in the abdo-
men, but not within the same sac with the intestines. It is either entirely
closed or communicates by a duct with the latter. It is full of gas, not
air, and curiously enough the nature of the gas differs in fresh-water
fishes and those of the ocean. In the former case the gas is principally
nitrogen ; in the latter, especially in deep-sea fishes, it is oxygen which
predominates. In some fishes the air-bladder assumes the character of a
lung ; in the Leptocardii, Cyclostomi, Chondropterygit and . Holocephali,
it is wanting : in the others its office is supposed to be useful in altering
by compression the specific gravity, and either to change the fish’s centre
of gravity or enable it to sink and float at will.

The shape of the intestinal tract in fishes is subject to all sorts of
variations, Asa rule it is shorter in carnivorous fishes and longer in
vegetable feeders. It is often uniform throughout, so that the different
portions of stomach, esophagus, intestine, and rectum cannot be distin-
guished. But this is rarely the case in Teleosteans. There are two
forms of stomach common. One is the siphonal, in which the organ is
bent intotwo portions ; the other is the cecal, in which one end is prolonged
into a long descending blind sac. Besides this there are commonly
among Teleosteans a number of hollow worm-like appendages, varying
in numbers in different species from two or three to 200; they open
into the intestine at the pyloric* orifice of the stomach, and are called
pyloric appendages. They are much used as distinguishing marks
between one species and another.

Fishes have liver, spleen, pancreas, and intestines variously modified.
The liver is mainly distinguished for the quantity of oil which it con-
tains. Details about these organs are not within the purpose of this
work; they are, however, of especial interest to those who wish to
pursue the subject. Gtinther’s work on the “Study of Fishes” is
recommended for the purpose. What has been already given will be
sufficient for all the purposes of classification.+ Ifany intelligent fisherman
will take one of the fishes daily met with and examine it so as to see for
himself the organs here referred to, he will learn practically what he is
taught by reading, and it will effectually be impressed upon his mind.

The skeleton next claims our attention, as it forms a great mark of
distin¢tion between the two great sub-classes, Teleosteans and Sharks, é&c.
The latter were called Chondropterygians, on account of the exclusively
cartilaginous character of their bones. But there is great diversity in
this, for while some have scarcely a consolidated cartilage, others present
almost every degree of ossification. In some the vetebre can be hard]
distinguished from one another, in others they are well defined and

* Greek—Pule, a gate—the lower opening of the stomach leading to the intestines.

+ Those who require the meanings of such terms as pancreas, spleen, &c., or the
nature of the organs themselves, can learn all from the shilling manuals of physi-
ology, published by M‘Millan, Collins, and others.

6 NEW SOUTH WALES

complete. In nearly all the Palwichthyes there is a peculiar arrange-
ment for the termination of the tail, which is called heterocercal. The
vertebree are continued into the upper lobe of the tail, which makes it
unsymmetrical. Inv Teleostean the caudal fin is more or less symmetrical
on each side of the end of the vertebre. This is called homocercal. In
this the caudal fin appears to be centred on the last vertebra, which
coalesces with a flat bony plate, the hypural bone, on the flat margin of
which the fin rays are placed.

The cartilaginous skeleton of the Paleichthyes is peculiar in leaving
no sutures in the skull, which is always formed of a single piece, but in
which we can distinguish, by means of the projections, grooves, hollows
and holes, certain regions which are analogous to the bones in the skulls
of other fishes. Again, parts of the vertebre in certain rays are united
into a single body. The gelatinous substance which in other fishes fills
the intervals of the vertebre and communicates from one to the other
only by a small hole, forms in several Chondropterygti a cord (notochord)
which runs through all the bodies of the vertebra, almost without
varying in diameter.

As already stated, most of these details will be useless to the
ordinary observer for the purposes of classification. | Other portions of
the body of a fish must be relied upon. The chief of these are the fins.

*They are supposed to correspond to the limbs of other vertebrate
animals, Those corresponding with the fore limbs are said to be
pectoral, and those which correspond to the hind limbs are called
ventral. Vertical fins on the back are said to be dorsal, and
similar fins underneath, in a line with the axis of the body and
near the vent, are called anal. The tail fin is called the caudal.
Any of these may be present or absent; sometimes they are highly
developed and extend a great length, or again may be a mere fold
in the skin; thus the dorsal fin may extend from the head to the
vent, joining the anal and caudal in one continuous line. Many
important differences are perceived in the dorsal fin on which systems
of classification are founded. The rays which support it may contain
spines of bone, or they may be all soft and jointed. The fishes with
spinous rayed dorsal fins comprise an immense order called the
Acanthopterygit or spiny fins. The soft-rayed are called Malacop-
terygians. These spines can nearly always be erected or depressed at
the will of the fish. If, when depressed, they cover each other com-
pletely so that their points all lie in the same line they are called
homocanth ; but if they are unsymmetrical, that is alternately broader
on one side than on the other, they are called heterocanth. The anal
fin may be divided into one or more fins, or be absent. In Acanthop-
terygians its foremost rays are frequently spinous.

It must be borne in mind also that though the fore and hind limbs
are represented by fins in fishes, yet in most cases they are close together
and generally near the head. The pectorals or fore limbs with their
bony supports are always fixed immediately behind the gill-opening,
The ventrals are subject to much variation in position, and formerly
were used by zoologists to distinguish large families of fishes by their
position, ‘When inserted behind the pectorals on the abdominal surface,
the fishes were grouped into one order under the old Linnean arrange-
ment, called Abdominales, This included salmon, silurus, pike,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 7

mullet, herring, pipe-fish, When the ventral fins were situated on the
breast or nearly under the pectorals, they formed an order called
Thoracier or breast-fish, including dolphins, goby, dory, sole, wrasse,
perch, mackerel, gurnard, flying-fish; and if the_ventral fins were
situated under the throat the fishes were included in an order called
Jugulares or throat-fish, including cod, whiting, hake, blenny. Fish
without ventral fins were classed together as Apodes or footless,

It will be seen that this arrangement, however convenient in one re-
spect, took no notice of the resemblances or differences of fishes in many
other respects ; and thus its groups were of the most mixed description.
For this reason it was called artificial, because it gave no knowledge of
the harmonious plan which prevails throughout nature.

But while the position of the fins is of little value in classification, the
number of rays or spines in the ventral fins is of the greatest importance
in grouping the smaller divisions, and for the determination of species ;
moreover the dorsal and anal rays or spines generally correspond to the
number of vertebre in a certain portion of the backbone ; they form
therefore constant and unvarying characters by which species, genera,
and even families may be distinguished. The only exception to this rule
is that if the number of ‘spines is very great a proportionately wide
margin must be allowed. for variation (Giinther). The number of
pectoral or caudal rays is rarely of any importance.

A few words more will be necessary to describe certain other parts of
fishes which are referred to in systems of classification. The eye is taken
as a point for dividing the head into the ante-orbital and post-orbital
portions. The organ is proportionately larger in most fishes than in
other vertebrates. Fishes with very large eyes are either nocturnal in
their habits or live at depths in the ocean to which but little light pene-
trates. Where scarcely any light is found the fishes have small-or rudi-
mentary eyes, or the eyes are hidden under the skin. Fishes inhabiting
muddy places have small eyes. The Hon. W. Macleay has described a fish
from North Australia (Polynemus cecus) which has a thick membrane
over the eyes, rendering it if not blind at least only capable of perceiving
light. It was found at the entrance of muddy rivers. This is not an
uncommon feature in the genus Polynemus all of which have long feelers
under the pectoral fins to take the place of eyes.

The space between the eyes is called the inter-orbital space or fore-
head ; that beneath them is called the sub-orbital or infra-orbital. In
the ante-orbital space are placed the mouth and nostrils. The mouth is
formed by the maxillary or inter-maxillary bones or by the inter-maxil-
lary only in the upper jaw, and by the mandibulary bone in the lower.
These bones are sometimes bare, but folds of skin, forming lips, are often
added. To the jaws are added the only weapons of attack which fishes

“have, Sometimes skin appendages called barbels are attached to both
jaws, which generally are organs of touch. In most fishes the nostrils
are a double opening on each side of the upper surface of the snout;
they lead into a shallow groove, and in only one family perforate the
palate (the Myxinoids). In sharks and rays they are underneath the
snout, and more or less confluent.

The gill-cover is called the operculum, but this name is only applied
to the hind margin. In most Teleosteans there is a semicircular bone in

8 NEW SOUTH WALES

advance of this, with a free margin like a second gill ; this is called the
pre-operculum. It varies considerably in shape, often having a toothed
edge or spines, and so becomes useful as a feature in classification. The
term operculum is, as already said, only applied to the hind margin of the
gill-cover, which is divided into movable segments. The under one is
called the swb-operculum, and the segment. above is called the inter-oper-
culwm ; they are separate bones. These bones are sometimes rudimen-
tary and sometimes absent. All of them are frequently referred to
in descriptions of fishes in scientific works.

Everyone must have noticed along the sides of most bony fishes a line
something like a division between the belly and back. It is sometimes
straight, but more often is curved in the most varied manner. This is
called the lateral line, and is caused by a series of perforated scales
through which mucus is especially secreted, though no doubt all the sur-
face of a fish secretes the same fluid to some extent. This perforated
line is provided with abundant nerves, and is called the MuUciferous
system. Some fishes have many lateral lines, and our coast and river
mullets have none at all.

All fishes are of distinct sex. The females in the majority of instances
are oviparous. A few bear the young alive; generally the eggs are
deposited by the female and are afterwards fertilized by the male. In
the males, lying along the intestines, there are two soft bodies called the
milt. In certain seasons these contain a milky secretion, which is the
fertilizing fluid. This is deposited on the eggs by the male, or merely
injected into the water. A very small quantity of this fluid is sufficient
for the impregnation of an immense number of ova, and it is owing to
this circumstance that the artificial impregnation and hatching of fishes
is easily practised and immense numbers of fish preserved.

In the same relative position as the milt (soft roe) in the male are
found the bodies called the hard roe in the female. This is a mass of
unimpregnated eggs.

In their young states fishes differ so much from the forms they assume
in full growth that they have been very frequently mistaken for distinct
species. Though a number of such mistakes have been rectified of late
years, there are doubtless still some received species which are only the
young of other forms. Until all the stages of growth are known these
errors will not be detected.

Having now dealt with all the most necessary elements of scientific
classification, we can apply them to the general divisions which are
made. Let it be premised, however, that those first entering upon this .
study must not be disheartened if they find it difficult to identify with
certainty some of the details. Though perhaps a little out of place in
such a work as this, it may be well to suggest a method by which the
details of scientific description may be mastered. Instead of taking an
unknown fish and trying to make it out by the aid of a catalogue, such
as Giinther’s or Macleay’s, let the student compare a fish, the scientific
name of which he is sure of, with the description given of it in these
works. When this has been done in the case of ten or a dozen species of
different families, the work of identification will be comparatively easy.
All who are in reach of the Museum in Sydney, or any of our colonial

FISH AND FISHERIES. 9

collections, will find themselves so aided by the named species, that instead
of a difficult study the whole process of learning will be a delightful
recreation.

In the wood-cut. at the end of this chapter, fig. 1 represents—A, the
vomerine teeth; B, the palatine; C, teeth on the tongue; D, supra-
maxillary ; E, maxillary. These terms will be frequently used.

Fig. 2. Gill-cover of Salmo salar. A, pre-operculum; B, opercu-
lum ; C, sub-operculum ; D, inter-operculum.

Fig. 3. Gill-cover of Salmon trout ; letters the same as above.

Fig. 4. Salmo salvelinus. 1, pre-operculum; 2, , operculum; 3,
sub-operculum ; 4, inter-operculum; 5, branchiostegal rays; 6, fixed
_plates forming immovable posterior margin of the gill-cover ; 7, root of
pectoral fin.

These figures are adapted from “Freshwater Fishes of Central
Europe,” by L. Agassiz,

Frc, 1.—Mouth of Trout, Salmo fario.

Fic. 2.—Gill cover of Salmo salar, Salmon.

Fie. 3.—Ditto of Salmo trutta, Sea-trout.

Lower Figure—Salmo, head of Salmo. salvelinus of Central Europe.
B

10 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER II.
The Fish Fauna of New South Wales.

In order to understand the characteristics of the fish fauna of the
coasts and rivers, it will be necessary to explain something of the fishes
of the Australian region generally. They do not differ in any singular
or remarkable degree from the fishes of the rest of the world. If there
are one or two apparent exceptions to this, it is in the case of some
Australian fishes which have representatives, not living, but in remote
periods of the world’s geological history. Such examples are found in
the Ceratodus, which inhabits the rivers of Queensland, and the
Cestracion, or Port Jackson shark (Heterodontus). The dentition of the
last is extremely like fossil teeth of Acrodus, found in mesozoic deposits.
Ceratodus isan existing ganoid fish, which is abundantly and almost
exclusively represented in the Trias formation. Its anatomy also shows
it to be a faint connecting link between a lizard and a fish.

Except for such rare instances, the families of Australian fishes are
only slightly different from those of other seas. Some are absent and
some are very poorly represented, but the great mass of them have
relations with these of neighbouring seas or those in which the same
conditions of temperature and coast line prevail. There are however
minor differences, especially in genera, and these give to Australia
whatever distinctive characteristics are possessed by its fish fauna. We
find also that these Australian features are more marked on the southern
than in the northern coasts. The more remote our coasts are from other
lands the more peculiar and distinct are the characters which the coast
fishes present, which is just what we might expect. Thus, on the north,
north-west, and north-east coasts the fauna is closely connected with
that of the Indian and tropical seas, and is in very many species identical
with it. The tribes of the colder regions are here wanting and in place
we have the fishes of the equatorial zone in all their gorgeous liveries
of red, blue, green, and gold, arrayed in those fanciful patterns which
awaken the enthusiasm of every naturalist. We find also that as we
go southwards on either coast there is a gradual disappearance of the
tropical fauna and a mingling of that of the temperate regions. Now
if we cast our eyes on the limits of the coasts of New South Wales, we
shall find that they lie in regions where the fishes are most likely to be
intermediate in character. No part of the Colony is within the tropics,
though its northern boundary is not five degrees from the tropic of
Capricorn, Again, no part of the Colony abuts upon ‘the south coast,
but its southern limits are just at the entrance of Bass’s Straits. Thus
it is cut off from the equatorial, and again from the South Australian
regions. In such a province we can only expect that what is peculiar
in its fish fauna will belong to the Pacific Ocean, and in fact it does
possess more of the fishes of that area than any other portion of the
coasts of Australia. It may be necessary further to mention that these
remarks apply to the shore fishes only, that is, fishes which inhabit
shallow waters in the neighbourhood of land. Pelagic fishes are those
which inhabit the surface or uppermost strata of the open sea and only
visit the coasts accidentally in search of prey or periodically for the

-

FISH AND FISHERIES. 11

purpose of spawning. They are not taken into account in this estimate.
“They are,” says Giinther, “subject in their distribution to the
influences of light and the temperature of the surface water,” but they
are independent of the variable local conditions which tie the shore fish
to its original home. Deep-sea fishes, or those which inhabit great
depths so as not to be influenced by light and temperature, do not come
into our estimate at all.

The following are the families of fishes represented more or less
numerously in New South Wales, the numbers following being the
number of species :—

Percide, 50; Squamipinnes, 4; Nandide, 2; Mullide, 3; Spa-
ride, 14 ; Cirrhitide, 6 ; Scorpenide, 11; Teuthidide, 2; Berycide, 3;
Kurtide, 2; Polynemide, 2; Scisnide, 2; Xiphiide, 1; Trichiuride,
1; Acronuride, 1; Carangide, 15; Cyttide, 1; Coryphenide, 2;
Scombride, 10; Trachinide, 5; Batrachide, 1; Pediculati, 4; Cottide,
7; Cataphracti, 1; Gobiide, 15; Blenniide, 17; Sphyrenide, 3;
Atherinide, 4; Mugilide, 7; Fistularide, 1; Ophiocephalidsé, 1 ;
Trachypteride, 1; Pomecentride, 4; Labride, 18; Gadopside, 1;
Gadide. 4; Pleuronectide, 9; Siluride, 5; Scopelide, 6; Salmonide,
1; Galaxide, 7; Scombresocide, 6; Clupeide, 12; Chirocentride, 1;
Symbrachide, 1; Murenide, 11; Syngnathide, 6; Sclerodermi, 21 ;
Gymnodontes, 12; Carcharide, 8; Lamnide, 1; Scyllide, 3; Cestra-
ciontide, 2; Spinacide, 1; Rhinide, 1; Pristiophoride, 1; Rhino-
batide, 2; Trygonide, 3; Torpedinide, 1; Raiide, 1.

Of these 59 families 16 have only 1 species; 8, only 2 species; 5,
only 3, and not quite half have more than 3; the largest 50, the next
14, the average about 6.

In the above families there are certain genera and species which are
peculiar to the southern temperate zone. This of course includes all
the coasts of islands and the continent south of the tropics. This zone
is characterized by a striking feature, which is visible in the molluscan
and other marine kingdoms, and is also to a certain extent in the land
fauna and flora. It is the reappearance of genera and species which are
common in the northern temperate zone. The species are said by Giin-
ther to be Chimera monstrosa, Galeus canis, Acanthias vulgaris, A. blain-
villeit, Rhina squatina (Angel Shark), The John Dorey (Zeus faber),
Lophius piscatorius, (the Angler-fish) Engraulis encrassicholus, (the »
Anchovy), Clupea sprattus (the Sprat), Conger vulgaris (Conger eel),
Centriscus scolopax (Trumpet or Bellows fish), found in Tasmania. It
must be said however that some of these instances, such as the Sprat
and the Anchovy, are of doubtful occurrence, and there are sufficient
differences in the John Dorey, and some of the cartilaginous fishes, as
to make many regard them as distinct species.

Instances of genera the same as in the northern temperate zone are
still more abundant, and we have the following on the coast of New
South Wales. The Heterodontus, which is found in Japan and Cali-
fornia, but also in the tropics (Amboyna), Pristiophorus (saw-sharks,
found also in Japan), Raia or thornbacks, Girella (black-fish), Chilo-
dactylus (the long-finned sea perches, found also on the coasts of China
and Japan), Sebastes (rock-fish), Aploactis, Lotella (rock cod), Aulopus
(Sergeant Baker).

12 NEW SOUTH WALES

The following genera are peculiar to the South Australian region,
though some, here marked in italics, extend to the coasts of New South
Wales :—Trygonorhina, Enoplosus, Lanioperca Arripis, Tephreops,
Trachichthys, Chironemus, Holoxenus, Nemadactylus, Latris, Glyp-
tauchen, Pentaroge, Anema, Craptolus, Kathetostoma, Leptoscopus,
Platystethus Brachionichthys, Saccarius, Lepidoblennius, Pateecus,
Acanthoclinus, Diplocrepis, Crepidogaster, Trachelochismus N eophry-
nichthys, Labrichthys, Oda, Coridodax, Olistherops, Siphonognathus,
Pseudophycis, Lophonectes* Brachypleura, Ammotretis, Rhombosolea,
Peltorhamphus, Teratorhombus, Rhomboidichthys, Chilobranchus, Nanno-
campus, Stigmatophora, Phyllopteryx.

Thus out of 44 genera, which are, as far as known, peculiar to the
southern portions of the Australian region, New South Wales possesses
only 18 of these, numbering in all 23 species.

Of these eighteen genera eight extend to N. Zealand, and one,
Trachichthys, is found only there and in Tasmania, and one (Leptoscopus)
has three species in N. Zealand to our one.

The following genera of the equatorial or tropical zone are found on
the coasts of N. S. Wales:—Anthias 1, Serranus 4, Plectropoma 4,
Apogon 2, Gerres 3, Pentapus 2, Chrysophrys 2, Platycephalus 3,
Lethrinus 3, Trigla 3, Sillago 2, Sciena 1, Sphyrena 2, Caranx 4,
Psettus 1, Teuthis 2, Pempheris 2, Callionymus 3, Batrachus 1,

‘Petroscirtes 5, Fistutaria 1, Pomacentrus 1, Heliastes 1, Synaptura 2,

Elops 1, Chanos 1, Chirocentrus 1, Murenesox 1, Murena 1, Hippo-
campus 1, Monocanthus 17, Ostracion 4, Tetrodon 10, Diodon 4,
Carcharias 3, Zygena 1, Wotidanus 1, Chiloscyllium 1, Urolophus.

All the above thirty genera, including more than 100 species, are.
characteristic of the tropics, and seldom seen outside the equatorial
zone. There are twenty of the same genera marked in italics which
are best represented in the tropics. Thus more than one fourth of the
fishes found on the coasts of N. 8. Wales are tropical. We have only
at the most about five and twenty of the exclusively Australian fishes.
The rest of our fish fauna is made up of fishes wide in their distribution,
or which are restricted to one or two other provinces or peculiar to our
coasts. From 160 to 170 species have been found in no other parts of
Australia-but on the coasts of New South Wales; but no accurate
conclusion can be drawn from this, as our coasts have been so very much
better searched than those of any other Colony, and there are very many
and very extensive parts of the Australian coast line which have never
been searched at all. Thus, for instance, we know nothing of the fish
fauna of the coast between Adelaide and King George’s Sound, and of
the north coast Port Darwin has been the only portion searched, and
that far from thoroughly. In a journey I made to the head of the
Mitchell I found in some of the tributaries three new species of fresh-
water fish, including a Synaptura or sole. This will show what there is
still to be done in the watershed of Carpentaria.

‘A good many of the 160 species mentioned above are Indian fishes,—
that is found on the Indian Archipelago or on the coasts of the Indian Ocean.
It may therefore be fairly inferred that, if they are found on the coasts
of N. 8. Wales, they will also be found on the intervening shores of North
and North-east Australia when they are searched.

* Macleay’s Lophorhombus is a synonym of this genus,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 13

Part of our fish fauna is made up from the Pacific region, but this is
not so large an ingredient as might be expected. Thus we have not
many New Zealand species. Dr. Giinther is the authority for the state-
ment that many of the species of the South Australian province and
New Zealand coasts are identical. It is certainly not true of the
south-east coasts of Australia, with regard to the species, and even the

’ identity of genera is comparatively small, at least of those genera which

are characteristic of South Australia or peculiar to its coasts. Of these,
as already stated, we have fifteen in N.S.W., only eight of which
extend to New Zealand, namely, Trygonorhina, Arripis, Trachichthys,
Chironemus, Latris, Leptoscopus, Labrichthys, and Odax.

The other genera which we have in common with New Zealand are—
Rhinobatus, Raiia, Trygon, Urolophus,Anthias, Haplodactylus, Pagrus,
Scorpis, Trachichthys, Chilodactylus, Scorpena, Lepidotrigla, Trigla,
Bovichthys, Thyrsites, Zeus, Trachurus, Caranx, Cristiceps, Engraulis,
Clupea, Conger, Murenichthys, Syngnathus, Monocanthus, Ostracion,
Branchiostoma. This makes thirty-five genera common to the south-
east of Australia and New Zealand. Nor can we be surprised at this
result, as the distance is great, and a very deep sea intervenes between
the two provinces. We have not at present the means of estimating the
proportion of species which occur also in other islands of the Pacific,
but it must be smaller than the New Zealand element, because of the
depth of the sea intervening, and the distance separating New South
Wales from’ most of the Pacific Islands.

To sum up the results, therefore, we find that in New South Wales
the predominating characteristic of the fish fauna of its coasts is the
prevalence of genera peculiar to Australia, but which are more common
and better represented on the south coast. The species are for the most
part peculiar to New South Wales. Secondly, more than one-fourth of
the fauna is made up of tropical genera, about half of the species of
which are peculiar to the east coast of Australia. But the data are not
sufficient to establish this with certainty. We have furthermore a very
few local genera and species. Finally, the rest of the fauna is made up
of very wide-spread genera and species. A few of these are European,
more from the Pacific, more still common to Australia and New Zealand,
but the most having a wide range over the Indian oceans and Chinese
S28,

As to our fresh-water fishes, the most of them are peculiar to our
rivers, and are not found outside our continent, at least as far as regards
the species. A very large proportion belong to the perch family ; and
one of the most common, the Murray Cod (Oligorus), is not an ex-
clusively fresh-water genus, but has marine representatives on our own
coasts and on those of New Zealand. Some other genera are peculiar
to Australia, such as Ctenolates Murrayia, Macquaria, Riverina ; but they
are all true perches, and the generic differences are slight. Therapon
is another percoid genus numerously represented in our rivers, but mostly
in the tropics, and it is also known in India. ates is also a perch, and
is known in India. We have also numbers of the herring family in the
fresh-water streams, and several species of cat-fish or Siluride. We
have also eels, and a peculiar family called Galawiade, which is known
only elsewhere in New Zealand and the extreme portions of South

14 NEW SOUFH WALES

America. There is a species in Tasmania (Galawias attenwatus) very
closely allied to a Galaxias of New South Wales which is identical with
one found in the Falkland Islands and South America. We have also
in Australia a very singular southern representative of the salmon tribe
in our Grayling, which comes nearest to the genus Coregonus of Europe.
This is Prototroctes marcena, but it is not found in New South Wales. :
All these peculiarities of our river fishes will be specially dealt with in
the chapter referring to the fresh-water species.

I now append a list of all the species of fish known to occur in New
South Wales either in salt or fresh water :—

List of Fishes found in the Rivers and on the Coasts of
New South Wales.

Class FISHES. Sub-class TELEOSTEI.

Order AcANTHOPTERYGII. Division 1. A. PExcirormes.
Family Prrcipm.
1. Lates colonorwm, Giinth. “ Perch.”
2. L. curtus, Cast.
3. L. ramsayi, Macleay.

4, Enoplosus armatus, White. ‘ Old Wife.”

5. Anthias longimanus, Giinth. “ Red Perch.”
6. Serranus damelii, Giinth. “ Black Rock Cod.”
7. &. guttulatus, Macleay.

8. S. undulato-striatus, Peters.

9. 8. heaagonatus, O. & V.
10. Plectropoma annulatum, Giinth.

11. P. semi-cinctum, O. & V.

12. P. susuki, C. & V.

13. P. ocellatum, Giinth, “ Wirrah.”
14. Genyoroge bengalensis, Bleek.

15. Glaucosoma scapulare, Macleay.

16. Priacanthus macracanthus, CO. & V.
17. P. benmebari, Temm, & Schleg.

18, Ambassis agassizii, Giinth. (rivers).
19. Pseudoambassis castelnaut, Macleay (rivers).
20. P. ramsayi, Macleay.

21. P. jacksoniensis, Macleay.

22. Nannoperca australis, Giinth, (river).
23. NV. riverine, Macleay (rivers),

24, Apogon fasciatus, White.

25, A. guntheri, Cast,

26. Arripis georgianus, OC. & V.

27.
. Oligorus macguraiensis, C. & V. Murray Cod.”

FISH AND FISHERIES.

A, salar, Richards. ‘“ Salmon,” N.S. W.

29. O. mitchelli, Cast. “Cod.” Second species.

30. Ctenolates ambiguus, Richardson, “ Golden Perch,” Rivers.
31. C. chrystyt, Cast. River fishes.

32. C. flavescens, Giinth. si

33. Murrayia guntheri, Cast. r

34, M. cyprinoides, Cast. ‘

35. MW. bramoides, Cast. i

36. M. riverina, Krefft. i

37. Riverina fluviatilis, Cast. .

38. Macquaria australasica, C. & V. River fishes.

. Therapon cuvieri, Bleek. ‘‘ Mado.” ‘5
. T. richardsonti, Cast. “Silver Perch.” ,,
. T. niger, Cast. i
. T. unicolor, Giinth. 5
. Agenor modestus, Cast.

. Labotes auctorum, Giinth.

. Gerres ovatus, Giinth.

. G. subfasciatus, C. & V.

. G. argyreus, CO. & V.

. Pentapus setosus, Bleek.

. P. paradiseus, Giinth.

. Aphareus roseus, Cast.

Family SquamipINnNes.

. Chetodon strigatus, CO. & V.

Chelmo truncatus, Kaer.

. Scatophagus argus, Linn.

S. multifasciatus, Richardson.

. Scorpis equipinnis, Richardson. “The Sweep.”
. Atypus strigatus, Giinth.

Family NanDID&.
Plesiops bleekeri, Giinth.

. Trachinops teniatus, Giinth.

Family MvuLuip4.

. Upeneoides vlamingii, OC. & V.

Upeneus porosus, O. & V.

. U. signatus, Ginth.

16

62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.

76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.

82.
83.
84,
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.

93.
94,

NEW SOUTH WALES

Family Sparing.

Pachymetopon grande, Giinth.

Girella tricuspidata, O. & V.

G. simplex, Richardson.

G. elevata, Macleay.

G. cyanea, Macleay.

G. ramsayi, Macleay.

Haplodactylus lophodon, Giinth.

HZ. obscurus, Cast.

Lethrinus nematacanthus, Bleek.

L. harak, Forsk.

L. glyphodon, Ginth.

Pagrus unicolor, C. & V. “Schnapper.”
Chrysophrys sarba, Forsk. ‘“Tarwhine.”
C. australis, Giinth. “ Black Bream.”

Family CrrrwiTipz.

Chironemus marmoratus, Giinth.
Chilodactylus vittatus, Garrett.

C. macropterus, Richardson. “ Morwong.”
C. fuscus, Cast. “ Carp.”

C. annularis, Cast.

Latris ciliaris, Forst.

Family ScorPznipa.

Sebastes percoides, Richardson.

Scorpena cruenta, Richardson. ‘Red Rock Cod.”

S. bynensis, Richardson,

S. cordinalis, Richardson.

Pterois volitans, Linn.

P. zebra, O, & Vv.

Centropogon australis, White.

C. robustus, Giinth. “ Bull-rout.”

Pentaroge marmorata, C. & V. Fortescue.”
Aploactis milesti, Richardson.

Synancidium horridum, Linn.

Family TrvTuipipz.
Teuthis javus, Linn.
T. nebulosa, Quoy & G. “ Black Trevally.”

FISH AND FISHERIES.

Division A. Brrycrrormes. Family Berycrpsz.

95. Monocentris japonicus, OC. & V.
96. Trachichthys jacksoniensis, Cast.
97. Beryx afinis, Giinth. “ Nannygai.”

Division A. Kurtirormes. Family Kurtipz,

98. Pempherus compressus, White.
99. P. macrolepis, Macleay.

Division A. Potynemirormes. Family Potynemipa.

100. Polynemus indicus, Shaw.
101. P. macrochir, Giinth.

Division A. Scrmnironmes. Family Scimyipa.

102. Scinena'antarctica, Cast. Jew-Fish.”
103. Otolithus atelodus, Giinth. ‘ Teraglin.”

Division A. XipHiirorMEs. Family X1puupz,

104. Histiophorus gladius, Brouss.

Division A. Tricuiurirormes. Family TRICHIURIDE,

105. Vrichiurus hawmela, Bl.

Division A. CoTroscomBrirormus. Family AcRoNURIDz.

106. Prionurus microlepidotus, Lacep.

Family CaraNncipa.

107. Trachurus declivis, 0. & V. ‘ Yellow-tail.”
108. Caranaz nobilis, Macleay.

109. C. georgianus, C. & V. “ White Trevally.”
110. C. hippos, Linn. .

111. C. ciliaris, Bl.

112. Seriola lalandui, C. & V. “ King-fish.”
113. 8. nigrofasciata, Rupp.

114, &. grandis, Cast.

115. S. hippos, Giinth. ‘Samson Fish.” New South Wales.

116. ? Neptomenus travale, Cast.
117. Temnodon saltator, Bl. The Tailor.”
118. Trachynotus ovatus, Linn,
119. Z. baillonii, C. & V.
Cc

17

18

120.

121,

122.

123.

124.

125.
126.
127,
128.

129.

130.
131.
132.

133.

134.

135.

136.
137.
138.
139.

140.

141.

142,
143.
144,

145.
146.

NEW SOUTH WALES

Psetius argenteus, Linn. “ Bat-fish.
Psenes leucurus, Jenyns.

Family Cyrrripz.

Zeus australis, Richardson. ‘“ John Dory.”

Family CoryPHENIDA.

Coryphena punctulata, C. & V.
Brama rait, Bl.

Family Scomprip.

Scomber antarcticus, Cast. “ Mackerel.’

Thynnus afinis, Cantor.

T. pelamys, Linn. ‘ Bonito.”

Pelamys australis, Macleay.

Aumis ramsayi, Cast. “Horse Mackerel,” of Sydney,
Cybium commersoni, Giinth.

C. guttatum, 0. & V.

Naucrates ductor, Linn. “ Pilot Fish.”

Elacate nigra, Bl. “ King Fish,” of West Indies.
Echeneis remora, Linn. Sucking Fish.”

Family TRacHINIDs.
Leptoscopus macropygus, Richardson.
Sillago maculata, Quoy & G. “ Whiting.”
S. bassensis, C. 6 V. “Trumpeter Whiting.”
Bovichthys variegatus, Richardson.
Opisthognatus jacksoniensis, Macleay.

Family BarracHip™,
Batrachus dubiue, White.

Family Pepicunati.
Antennarius marmoratus, Less.
A, striatus, Shaw.
A. pinniceps, C. & V.
A. coccineus, Less & Garn,

Family Cortina.

Platycephalus bassensis, OC. & V. ‘Red Flathead.”
P. fuscus, CO. & V. “Flathead.”

147.
148.
149.
150.
151.

152.

153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.

163.

164.
165.
166.

167.

168.
169.
170.
171.

172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.

178.
179.
180,

FISH AND FISHERIES.

P. cirronasus, Richards.

Lepidotrigla papilio, C. & V.-

Lrigla plewracanthica, Richardson.

T. kumu, Less & Garn.

T. polyommata, Richardson. “Flying Gurnet.”

Family CaTaPHRACTI.

Dactylopierus orientalis, C. & V.

Division A. Goxirrormzs, Family Gosia.

Gobius bifrenatus, Kner.

G. semifrenatus, Macleay.

G. buccatus, C. & V.

G. flawidus, Macleay.

G. ertstatus, Macleay.

Eleotris coxvi, Krefft. (River Fish.)
E. grandiceps, Kreftt.

E. compressus, Krefft.

£.,oxycephala, Schleg.

E. mastersit, Macleay.

Aristeus fluviatilis, Cast. Murrumbidgee River.
A. lineatus, Macleay.

Callionymus calawropomus, Richardson.
C. calcaratus, Macleay..

C. latealis, Macleay.

Division A. Buzwnirormes. Family BLennimpz.

Blennius unicornis, Cast.
B. castaneus, Macleay.
Petroscirtes variabilis, Cast.
P. anglis, C. & V.

P. solorensis, Bleek.

P. fasciolatus, Macleay.

P. guttatus, Macleay.

P. rotundiceps, Macleay.

P. cristiceps, Macleay.
Lepidoblennius geminatus, Macleay.
Cristiceps nasutus, Giinth.
C. fasciatus, Macleay.

C. macleayt, Cast.

19

NEW SOUTH WALES

181. C. aurantiacus, Cast.

182. C. pictus, Macleay.

183. C. argyropleura, Kner.
184. Sticharium dorsale, Giinth.

Division A. Muciuirormes. Family SpoyRanip2.

185. Sphyrena nove-hollandie, Giinth.
186. S. obtusata, 0. & V. “ Pike.”
187. Lanioperca mordax, Giinth.

Family ATHERINIDA.

188. Atherina pinguis, Lacep. “ Hardyhead.”

189. Atherinichthys jacksoniana, Quoy & Gaimard.
190. A. dubowlayi, Cast.

191. Nematocentris nigrans, Richardson. River fish.

Family Mueiuipz.

192. Mugil grandis, Cast.
193. M. dobula, Giinth.

194. M. cephalotus, C. & V.
195. Mf. peronti, 0. & V.
196. UM. compressus, Giinth.
197. M. pettardi, Cast.

198. IM. crenidens, Knor.
199, Myxus elongatus, Giinth.

* Family Fistuuaripa.

200. Fistularia serrata, Cuv.

Family OpHIocEPHALIDA,

201. Ophiocephalus striatus, Bl.

~

Family TrRacHYPTERIDA.

202. Regalecus jacksoniensis, Ramsay.

Order I. ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHL
Family PomacentRips,

203. Pomacentrus dolii, Macleay.
204. Parma microlepis, Giinth.

* The other divisions of Acanthopterygians need not be specified.

226.

FISH AND FISHERIES.

. P. squamipinnis, Giinth.
. Heliastes hypsilepis, Giinth.

Family Lasripa.

. Trochocopus unicolor, Giinth.

. Cossyphus unimaculatus, Gtinth. “ Pig-fish.”
, OC. gouldii, Richardson. “ Blue Groper.”

. Labrichthys celidota, Forst.

. L. laticlavius, Richardson.

. L. luculenta, Richardson.

. L, giintheri, Bleek.

. L. parila, Richardson.

. L. gymnogenis, Giinth.

. L. nigromarginata, Macleay.

. £. dorsalis, Macleay.

. LL. labiosa, Macleay.

i melanura, Macleay.

. Coris lineolata, C. & V.

. Heteroscarus castelnaui, Macleay.

. Odax baleatus, C. & V. “Kelp fish.”

. O. semifasciatus, 0. & V. “ Rock whiting.”
. O. brunneus, Macleay.

. Olistherops brunneus, Macleay.

Order ITT. ANACANTHINI.
Family Gapoprsipa&.

21

Gadopsis marmoratus, Richardson. “ Black-fish” of rivers.

Family Gapipz.

. Lotella fuliginosa, Giinth.

. £. callarias, Giinth. “Cod,” of Melbourne.

. L. marginata, Macleay. “ Beardy,” of N.S.W.
. L. grandis, Ramsay.

Family PLEURONECTIDE.

. Pseudorhombus russellii, Gray. “ Flounder.”
. P. multimaculatus, Giinth.

. Teratorhombus excisiceps, Macleay.

. Rhomboidichthys spiniceps, Macleay.

. Solea microcephala, Giinth,

. &. macleayana, Ramsay.

NEW SOUTH WALES

237. Synaptura nigra, Macleay.
238. Plagusia unicolor, Macleay. ‘ Lemon sole,” N.S. W,

Order IV. PHYSOSTOMI.
Family Sinvuripz.

239. Copidoglanis tandanus, Mitchell. “ Cat-fish,” rivers.

240. Cnidoglanis megastoma, Richardson. “Sea cat-fish,” N.S.W
241. C. leptwrus, Giinth.

242. Arius thalassinus, Riipp.

243, A. australis, Giinth.

Family Scopeipa.

244. Sawrus myops, C. & V.
245, Sawrida nebulosa, C. & V.
246. S. australis, Cast.

247. &. truculenta, Macleay.

248, Aulopus purpurissatus, Richardson. “Sergeant Baker,
N.S. W.

249. Chloropthalmus nigripinnis, Giinth.

”

Family SaLMonipa.
250. Retropinna Richardsonii, Gill. Rivers.

Family GauaxiIpz.

251. Galaxias hreftu, Giinth.
252. G@. scriba, 0. & V.

253. G. punctatus, Giinth.

254. G. coxii, Macleay:

255. G. planiceps, Macleay.
256. G. bong-bong, Macleay. |
257. G. nebuilosa, Macleay (marine).

Rivers.

Family Scompresocipa,

258. Belone ferox, Ginth. “Long Tom,” N.S. W.

259. B. gracilis, Macleay.

260. Hemirhamphus intermedius, Cantor. “ Gar-fish,” N.S. W.
261. H. regularis, Giinth, “ River gar-fish,” N.S. W.

262. H. argenteus, Beun.

263. H. commersonii, O. & V.

264,

‘265.
266.
267,
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274,

275,

276.

277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.

288.
289.
290.
291.
292,
293.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 23

Family Cruperpa.

Chatoessus richardsoni, Cast. “ Bony bream,” of N.S.W.
Rivers.

Clupea sagax, Jenyns. “ Herring,” N.S. W.
C. sundaica, Bleek.

C. hypelosoma, Bleek.

C. moluccensis, Bleek.

C. nove-hollandie, C. & V.

C. richmondia, Macleay.

Etrumeus jacksomensis, Macleay.

Hlops saurus, Linn.

Megalops cyprimoides, Brouss.

Chanos salmoneus, Bl.

Family CHIROCENTRIDE.
Chirocentrus dorab, Forsk.

Family SyMBRANCHIDZ.
Chilobranchus rufus, Macleay.

Family Murmnipa.
Anguilla reinhardtii, Steind.
A, australis, Richardson. ‘The Eel.”
Conger vulgaris, Cuv.
C. labiatus, Cast. “ Conger Eel.”
Mureenesox cinereus, Forsk. “Silver Eel,” N.S.W.
Myrophis australis, Cast.
Murenichthys australis, Macleay.
Ophichthys serpens, Linn.
Murena undulata, Lacep.
MM. picta, Bl.
M. afra, Bl. “ Green Eel,” N.S. W.

Order V. LOPHOBRANCHII.

Family SyNGNATHIDE.
Syngnathus margaritifer, Peters,
S. tigris, Cast.
Stigmatophora argus, Richardson.
S. nigra, Kamp.
Phyllopteryx foliatus, Shaw.
Hippocampus nove-hollandic, Steind.

24 4

294,
295.
296.
297.
298.
299.
300.
301.
302.
303.
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.

315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324,
325.
326,

327,

NEW SOUTH WALES

Order VI. PLECTOGNATHI.
Family ScLERODERMI.

Monocanthus hippocrepis, Quoy & G.
M. convexirostris, Giinth.

M. trachylepis, Giinth.

MM. guntheri, Macleay.

M. spilomelanurus, Quoy & G.
MM. maculosus, Richardson.

I. castelnani, Macleay.

MM. freycineti, Hollard.

M. prasinus, Cast.

i. margaritifer, Cast.

M. megalurus, Richardson.

M. granulatus, White.

. rudis, Richardson.

UU. ayraudi, Quoy & G. “ Leatherjacket,” N.S. W.
MM. trossulus, Richardson.

M., oculatus, Giinth.

M. macrurus, Macleay.
Ostracton concatenatus, Bl.

0. diaphanus, Bl.

O. cornutus, Linn.

O. lenticularis, Richardson.

Family GymnopontTzs.

Tetrodon levigatus.

T. hypselogenion, Bleek.

T. hamilioni, Richardson.

Tf. virgatus, Richardson.

T. hispidus, Linn.

T. frrmamentum, Schleg.

T. lineatus, Bl.

T. amabilis, Cast.

Diodon hystrix, Linn.

D. 9-maculatus, Cuv,
Dicotylichthys punctulatas, Kaup.
Orthagoriscus mola, Linn. ‘“ Sun-fish,”

Sus-Cuass IL—PALYICHTHYES.
Order CoonpRopreryell. Family CarcHARIDZ,
Carcharias macloti, Mull & Henle,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 25

328. C. glaucus, Linn. “ Blue Shark.”

329. C. gangeticus, Mull & Henle.

330. C. brachyurus, Giinth. ;

331. Galeocerdo rayneri, McD & Barr. “ Tiger Shark.”
332. Galeus australis, Macleay. “School. Shark,” N.S. W,
333. Zygena malleus, Shaw. “ Hammer. Shark.”

334. Mustelus antarcticus, Ginth.

Family Lamyipa.

335. Lamna glauca, Mull & Henle. ‘Blue Pointer.”

336. Carcharodon rondeletii, Mull & Henle. “White Pointer.”
337. Odontaspis americanus, Mitch. “Grey Nurse.”

338. Alopecias vulpes, Linn. ‘ Thresher.”

Family NoripanipzZ.
339. Notidanus indicus, Cuv.

Family ScyLiip2z.

340. Scylliwm maculatum, Bl. “ Dog-fish.”
341. Chiloscyllium furvum, Macleay.
342. Crossorhinus barbatus, Linn. “ Wobbegong,” N.S. W.

Family CusTRACIONTIDA.

343, Heterodontus phillipii, Lacep.
344. A. galeatus, Giinth.

Family Sprnacipa.

345. Acanthias megalops, Macleay.

Family Ruinipaz.
346. Rhina squatina, Linn. “ Angel-fish.””

Family PRrisTioPHORIDA.

347. Pristiophorus cirratus, Latham.

Family RuinoBaTip&.

348. Rhinobatus granulatus, Cuv. ‘“ Shovel-nose.”
349. Trygonorhina fasciata, Mull & Henle. “ Fiddler.”

Family. ToRPEDINIDA.

350. Hypnos subnigrum, Dumeril.
D

26 NEW SOUTH WALES

Family Raps.

351. Ratia lamprieri, Richardson. “Thorn Back.”

Family TRyGonipa.
352. Trygon pastinaca, Linn. “ Sting Ray,” N.S. W.
353, Z. tuberculata, Lacep.
354. Urolophus testaceus, Mull & Henle.

Family MyLoBaTip,

355. Mylobatis aquila, Linn.
356. UW. australis, Macleay.
357. Ceratoptera alfredi, Krefft.

Sus-CLtass LEPTOCARDII.
358. Branchiostoma Lanceolatum, Pall, or the Lancelet.
359. Chetodon strigatus, Bleek.
360. Periophthalmus australis, Castlenau.
361. Chilodactylus mulhalli, Macleay.

All the genera that are of any importance or have an economical value
are described at sufficient length in the next chapter ; but in the foregoing
list there are a few genera which are represented in Australia by a great
number of species. They are not important as articles of food, but as
they are so numerous in our seas, and therefore become characteristic
of our fish fauna, a more extended notice of them is desirable. Some
remarks will also be added on a few of the remarkable and exceptional
fishes which are found-on the coasts of New South Wales.

Frog-fish.

Or Antennarius belonging to the order of Pediculati, a name which
expresses the singular foot-like office of the fins, which are more fitted for
walking along the bottom than for swimming. To this order belongs
Lophius piscatorius or Fishing Frog so well known all over the world.
The genus Antennarius, of which we have many species in Australia, is
distinguished by a very large head and frog-like body without scales, with

. a, peculiar tentacle just above the snout. The species are pelagic, mostly
tropical, and found crawling on floating sea-weed in mid-ocean. They
cannot swim much, so on the coast conceal themselves amid the stones
and sea-weed, holding on by their arm-like fins. They are all highly
coloured, yet their hues are assimilated to the surrounding medium, so
that it is very difficult to distinguish them in the water. All the species
have a wide range, and this arises from their living in the open ocean,
attached to sea-weed, whence they may be drifted anywhere. As their
colour depends much on the medium where they are found, no doubt a
good many different names have been applied to the same fish by
naturalists, This is the case with our common 4. marmoratus, Less.,
which has a vocabulary of synonyms all to itself, Probably some of our
many specific distinctions will be reduced hereafter to two or three forms.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 27

Gobies or Sea Gudgeons.

These little carnivorous shore fishes give their name to the order to
which they belong. They are easily recognized by the peculiar form of
the ventral fins, which are united on each side so as to form a circular
funnel-shaped cavity. In one genus (Lepidogaster, not known in
Australia) the united rays of the ventral fins form,a flattened round disc
like a sucker. The centre of this disc is soft and flexible, so that the fish
can use the whole as a sucker, and thus adheres to rocks and stones
When attached the heaviest surf will not dislodge them. Hence it is
called the sucking-fish or lump fish, but not to be confounded with the
Remora, the sucking-fish which adheres to the shark. This belongs to the
mackerel tribe, and its sucking disc is on its head. The Gobies are
pretty equally distributed all over the temperate and tropical coasts,
and over 300 species have been described. They prefer rocky coasts,
because with their ventral fins they can adhere firmly to a rough surface
and defy the force of the waves. One British species lives, breeds, and
dies in one year, being like a plant, an annual. In this species also the
adult males have long teeth, while those of the female are very small ones.
Perhaps some of our own species have these peculiarities, and this is one
of the many fields where the Australian naturalists have a fine, easy,
and interesting opportunity for observation. On the confines of the
northern boundaries of New South Wales may be seen a very remark-
able Goby called the “ Hopping-fish.” The pectoral fins are developed
into regular legs, with which the fish hops or leaps along thé mud flats
with the greatest rapidity. The eyes are on the top of the head, and
‘very prominent, and moreover they can be thrust very far out of their
sockets, and moved independently of one another*, thus the fish can see
long distances around, and overtake the small crabs in spite of the
long stalks to their optics. This fish is called Periophthalmus australis.
Cast. I have not included it in our list, for it is a tropical form, yet it
is said to be found on the mud-flats of the Richmond River.

Callionymus or “ Dragonets” are also gobies, of which we have three
species, all beautifully coloured marine fishes. In almost all the species
the mature males have the fin-rays prolonged into filaments, and the fin
membranes brightly ornamented.

Blennies.

We have in Australia, a good number of these fishes, which are small
littoral forms, abundantly distributed on tropical and temperate coasts of
all countries. One of the principal characters of the family is the
ventral fin, which instead of being a prominent member, as amongst
gobies, is rudimentary or absent, and in any case has never more than
four rays. These fins are constantly jugular or in the throat, and either
have no function or become prongs, by means of which the fish move
rapidly along the bottom. The teeth are prominent, and in the Wolf-
fish’ (Anarrhicas lupus), which attains a length of 6 feet, they are
really formidable.

* This peculiarity they share with many blennies, pipe-fish, and sea-horses
Hippocampi).

28 NEW SOUTH WALES

Of the genus Blennius we have only two species, but there are six of
Petroscirtes, which is a fish without scales, and a long single spinous
dorsal fin. The teeth are also a long single'series, with a strong curved
canine tooth behind. The gill opening is reduced to a-small slit above
‘the root of the pectoral fin, and the ventrals are curved:organs of two
or three strong rays. ‘They are all small species, but ‘look formidable.
They frequent the pools of rocks.

Cristiceps is another kind of Blenny, of which there are many species
in Australia, and six in New South Wales. In this genus there are
two dorsal fins, and the ventrals have one long spine, with two or three
rays. The gill opening is also wide. One remarkable feature about
these fishes, which ‘are often most brilliantly coloured with tints of
bright green, violet, purple, yellow, and carmine, is that they bring
forth their young alive. The young fishes are admirable objects for
seeing the circulation of the blood under the microscope.

The Wrasses.

Some of our Wrasses or Labride will be described elsewhere, as they
are useful as food fishes, but there is one genus, Labrichthys, which is so
numerously represented that, though not much caught as food fish, it
deserves a special notice. It has the characters of the family, but the
body is compressed, covered with large scales, and a more or less
pointed snout. The opercles are scaly, and the cheeks more or less so,
while the pre-opercle is not serrated, and the lateral line is continuous.
The teeth are in a single series, but sometimes an interior line, and
génerally a canine tooth behind. There are nine spines and eleven rays
in the dorsal fin and three and ten in the anal. The difference between
these fishes and the Gropers (Cossyphus) is that the latter have four
anterior canine teeth in each jaw. They are all brightly-coloured fish,
but not growing to any size. We have no less than twenty-seven
species in Australian waters, of which one-third are caught upon our
coasts.

Scopelide.

The family is remarkable for containing fishes which have luminous
glands upon them for giving light to their path in the deep. We have
none of this genus (Scopelus), but other genera of the family, which
have the most awful-looking teeth that a fish can possess. If any one
will turn to page 586 of Giinther’s Study of Fishes he will see what
is meant, and what kind of an animal this fish must be when 6 feet long.
It is called Plagyodus ferow, It has been caught off Tasmania, and very
probably will be found off our coasts. At page 42 of the same work
there is a portrait of another unamiable-looking member of the same
family. This is a Sawrus, of which we have one species, and three of
Saurida, a closely allied genus, having a few more teeth. Fortunately
they are not large.

Sea-horses.
This is a name applied to the genus Hippocampus. These strange

fishes are known in Europe as well as in Australia, and derive their
name from the resemblance of the head and fore-part of the body to

FISH AND FISHERIES. 29

that of a horse. They are mostly tropical, and they belong to an order
which have the gills laminated, but composed of small rounded lobes
attached to the branchial arches. ‘he gill-cover is a large simple
plate. One wonderful peculiarity in the genus Hippocampus is that the
males carry the eggs in a sac at the base of the tail, opening near the
vent. The body is divided into regular rings and transverse ridges, and
where these cross each other, the tough, leathery skin has tubercles or
points. The tail is square and apparently rigid, but it easily curls up
and seizes hold of any object, by means of which it anchors itself.
‘When swimming about the Sea-horse keeps an upright position, but
the tail is ready to grasp any object it meets in the water. It quickly
entwines in any direction round weeds or other objects, and darts at
its prey with great quickness. When the pectoral fins are large and
expanded, so as to be like wings, then the Sea-horses are said to belong
to another order, Pegasidw, or Flying-horses, of which we have two
Species in Australia (Pegasus natans, Moreton Bay and Torres Straits, and
P. lancifer in Tasmania), but none in New South Wales.

The Phyllopteryx.

But of all the curious fishes that ever were seen Phyllopterys is the
most extraordinary. It is the ghost of a sea-horse, with its winding-
sheet all in ribbons around it; and even as a ghost it seems in the very
last: stage of emaciation, literally all skin and grief. The process of
development by which this fish attained to such a state must be the
most miserable chapter in the history of “natural selection.” If this
be the “survival of the fittest,” it is easy to understand what has become
of the rest. Natural selection must have inflicted upon the family
harder terms than those which were imposed on Count Ugolino by his
enemies. There is a good likeness of one species in Gtinther’s Study of
Fishes, p. 682. Never did the famishing spectres of the ancient
mariner’s experience present such painful spectacles. If these creatures
be horses, they must be the lineal descendants of those which were
trained to live on nothing, but unfortunately perished ere the experiment
had quite concluded. The odd thing about these strange fishes is that
their tattered cerements are like in shape and colour to the sea-weed they
frequent, so that they hide and feed with safety. Thus the long ends
of ribs which seem to poke through the skin to excite our compassion
are really “ protective resemblances,” and serve to allure the prey more
effectually within reach of these awful ghouls. The Phyllopteryx is
therefore, in spite of his rags and emaciation, an impostor, and like many
a sturdy human beggar puts on the aspect of misery more effectually to
ply his trade. The appendages to the spines are well worth a study.
Just as the leaf-insect is imitative of a leaf, and the staff insect of a twig,
so here is a fish like a bunch of sea-weed. If this is development, it
stopped here only just in time; one step more and it would have been
‘a bunch of kelp.

30 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER ITI.

Our Marine Food Fishes.

Tue study of fishes, were it only in an economical point of view, is of
the greatest importance and interest. As articles of food, though but
one of the uses of fishes, they must even command our attention, yet
their value in this respect is hardly appreciated. Fish is known to bea
light and easily digested diet, but it is not known that it contains as
much proteim as pork, and.consequently 100 Ibs. of fish contains as much
nourishment as 200 Ibs. of wheaten bread and 700 Ibs. of potatoes, This
encouraging fact may well awaken our interest sufficiently to enable us
to get over the following dry technicalities which are a necessary key to
the comprehension of the subject.

It will be borne in mind that fishes are divided into four sub-classes,
viz. :—Teleostei, Paleichthyes, Cyclostomata, and Leptocardii. Each of
these sub-classes are divided into orders and sub-orders. Each of the
orders are separated into divisions, and these again into families. The
families are made up of similar genera, and the genera comprise one or
more distinct species. It is very difficult for the mind to grasp these
distinctions at once, because their number becomes so'bewildering. It
will facilitate the comprehension of these methods if we suppose the
class fishes to represent a kingdom ; the sub-classes, the counties; the
divisions, the parishes ; the families, the villages or towns; the genera,
the houses ; and the residents, the species.

Sub-class TELEOSTEI.

Heart with a non-contractile arterial bulb, optic nerves crossing, intes-
tine without spiral valve, skeleton bony, vertebrae completely formed, tail
generally homocercal.

This sub-class is divided into six orders :—

1, Acanthopterygii.—Part of the rays of the dorsal, anal, and ventral
fins composed of non-articulated spines. The lower pharyngeal bones
separate. The air-bladder in the adult without a pneumatic duct.

2. Acanthopterygii pharyngognatht.—The same features as the last,
but the pharyngeal bones united,

3. Anacanthint.—Vertical and ventral fins without spinous rays.
Ventral fins (if present) jugular or thoracic. Air-bladder (if present)
without pneumatic duct, lower pharyngeal separate.

4. Physostomi.—All the fin rays articulated ; only the first of the
dorsal and pectoral fins is sometimes ossified. Ventral fins if (present)
oe and without spine. Air-bladder (if present) with a pneumatic

uct,

5. Lophobranchit.—Gills not laminated, but composed of small
rounded lobes attached to the branchial arches. Gill cover reduced to

a large simple plate. A dermal skeleton replaces the more or less soft
integuments.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 381

6. Plectognathi.—A soft dorsal fin opposite to the anal ; sometimes
the elements of a spinous dorsal. Ventral fins none, or reduced to spines.
Gills pectinate. Air-bladder without a pneumatic duct. Skin with
rough plates or shields, or with spines, or naked.

Such a large number of existing fishes are included in the first order
that no less than nineteen divisions are made by Dr. Giinther. As,
however, only a portion of these are found in Australia, it will be better
to proceed at once to the characters of the families, or at least such as
New South Wales is interested in. The first which occupies our attention
is the family of Percidss or Perches, which is thus characterized :—

First Division.—<Acanthopterygut.—Perciformes.—Body more or less
compressed, elevated, or oblong, but not elongate ;. vent remote from the
extremity of the tail, behind the ventral fins if they are present. No
prominent anal papille. Dorsal fin or fins occupying greater portion of
the back ; spinous dorsal well developed, generally with stiff spines of
moderate extent, rather longer than or as long as the soft; the soft anal
similar to the soft dorsal, of moderate extent or rather short. Ventrals
thoracic, with one spine and four or five rays.

These features are shared by ten families, of which five at least are
important to the fisheries of New South Wales.*

I—Fam. PERCIDE.

Scales rarely extending over vertical fins, lateral line generally present,
continous from the head to the caudal. All the teeth simple and
conical, no barbels. No bony stay for the operculum.

This family is very large, and consists of carnivorous fishes, which are
distributed all over the world. Fossil genera belonging to Australia
are found in European tertiary formations, such as Lates, Dules, Serranus,
and it is not improbable that they may be found in this Colony also.
One of our commonest fishes is Lates colonorum, Giinth. The genus
is distinguished by a compressed body, viliform teeth, teeth on the
palatine bones, none on the tongue, no canines. Two dorsal fins, the
first with seven or eight, the anal with two spines. Preoperculum with
strong spines at the angle of the lower limb, preorbital strongly
serrated. :

The Perch,
(Plate I.)

Lates colonorwm, the perch of the colonists, is easily distinguished by
its continuous dorsal fin, which according to Macleay should remove it
to another genus. The fourth spine in the dorsal fin is the longest,
third anal spine a little longer than the second, lateral line slightly
curved, Colour silvery, darker on the back.

* It must here be mentioned that the arrangement followed in the essay is that
of Giinther’s latest work on the Study of Fishes, and differs in the grouping from
that adopted by the Blue Book Report of the Commissioners on our Fisheries,
The difference, however, is very trifling.

32 NEW SOUTH WALES

The perch (Lates colonorum) is really « fresh-water fish, but as it is often brought
to the Sydney market from Broken Bay and other salt. water.estuaries after freshes
in the rivers, we include it among the coast fishes. It is a very delicious fish, but
never attains a great size, and is perhaps of more value for the sport it affords to
the amateur fisherman than as an article of food.—R.R.C.*

The perch affords good sport. to anglers. It loves quiet, shady, and
deep holes in the rivers, but when the tide is flowing it may be caught
in the stream. It is very voracious. In winter the bait is a small
mullet or herring, or better still one of the large grubs that bores into
trees. In the early spring months it will take.a moth readily, either
sunk or on the surface. The artificial salmon-fly is also a splendid bait
for trolling at this time. When moths get scarce a frog is a good bait
at night. It must be fastened so that it can swim, or if dead, must be
played on the water to imitate a frog swimming. No perch can resist
that bait at night. In summer grasshoppers, especially that known as
the “Percher,” a red species, are good bait, but the best is a black house-
cricket or an earthworm. This is a very attractive bait, and if the
perch are in a pool, the lines are no sooner down than the bait is taken.
For the rest of the year a prawn is the best bait, that is when crickets
cannot be got. The bait should be atleast 4 feet from the float. In
landing the fish great care should be used, as the mouth is weak and is
easily torn away. The fishes run from 1 Ib. to 7} Ibs, The largest are
caught in the holes of tributary streams rather than in the main river.
The Hunter River is much frequented by anglers for this species of Lates.

We have eight other species of Lates, two others being found in New
South Wales. The perch of the Ganges and other East Indian rivers
(L. calcarifer) enters freely into brackish water, and extends to the
rivers of Queensland. F. Hamilton, in his Account of the Fishes
found in the River Ganges, dc. (Edin., 1822, 2 vols., 4to), says of this
fish that the vulgar English of Calcutta call it ‘‘ Cock-up,” and that it
is one of the lightest and most esteemed-food brought to table. Salt
water specimens 2 feet in length are the best.

The Old Wife.
(Plate IL)

_ The ‘old wife” (Znoplosus armatus, White) is another fish which from its small
size is not esteemed nearly so highly as it ought to be. It is a most exquisite fish.
It is caught only in the seine net, and never in great quantity, but it is found at
all sprees both young and adult, in Port Jackson and all the harbours of the
coast.—R.R.C.

The genus Hnoplosus is distinguished by a much elevated body, the
depth being still more increased by high vertical fins, All the teeth are
viliform, without canines, and are on the tongue as well as all the palate
bones. Two dofsal fins, the first with seven spines. Preoperculum
serrated with spinous teeth at the angles. Scales of moderate size.

The species of our coast is the only one of the genus known in
N. 8. Wales, and it is easily distinguished by the very elevated body,
with eight black transverse bands on a whitish ground.

* The initials R.R.C. stand for Report of the Royal Commission, which will be
constantly referred to.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 33

The Longfin.
(Plate III.)

Anthias longimanus, Giinth. is a good fish that finds its way to the
market occasionally, though probably so rarely that it is not known by
any local name. The genus is known by a rather short compressed
body, with scales of moderate size. Teeth villiform on all the palatine
bones, with small canines in both jaws. One dorsal fin, with generally
ten spines, anal fin with three, tail forked. The rays of the fins some-
times prolonged. The species figured may be known by its uniform red
colour and the great length of the pectoral fins. All the fins are nearly’
covered with scales. There are two other species known in Australian
waters, which like all the members of the genus are beautifully coloured,
the prevailing tints being pink and yellow. Aristotle says that fishers
of sponges called it sacred, because no voracious fishes came to the places
which it frequented, and the diver might descend with safety.
(G.S.F.*)

’

The Rock Cod.

Serranus is a genus with oblong compressed body and small scales.
Teeth villiform on the vomer and palatine bones, none on tongue. Very
distinct canines in both jaws. One dorsal, mostly nine or eleven short
spines, rarely eight, ten, or twelve ; anal fin with three. Pre-operculum
serrated behind, and at the angle, but not below. (Giinth.)

Thése are commonly called “sea perches.” A few enter brackish and
even fresh water, one having been found high up the Ganges, but all
spawn in the sea. There are very many varieties known, probably 150,
but they vary so much that specific distinctions are extremely difficult
to define. Many are mostagreeably coloured, with spots, cross-bands, and
stripes. These fishes are small, but some reach a length of 3 or 4 feet,
and become dangerous to man. Instances of bathers having been
attacked by a gigantic species, not uncommon at the Seychelles and
Aden, are on record, where death resulted from the injuries received.
All the species are eatable (G.S.F.) In New South Wales the best
marketable species, S. damelii, Giinth., is distinguished by being of an
entire purplish black, with generally a black spot on the base of the
tail at the end of the soft dorsal ; end of tail black with a white fringe.
In fresh specimens there are faint traces of blue spots; body elongate ;
height about a third of length without the caudal fin ; canine teeth very
strong ; preoperculum very finely serrated behind ; the central spine of
the operculum strong ; scales very small ; dorsal formed of eleven spines,
the two first lower than the third, the others becoming rather shorter as
they extend backwards, soft parts of fourteen rays rather higher than
the spines; caudal fin rounded; anal with three spines, of which the
first is shorter and the others almost equal. Extreme size about 3 feet,

The genus Serranus comprises most of the fishes known as ‘‘rock cod.” There
are many species of it in these seas, and the number increases in the warmer
latitudes of the north, but one only is sufficiently useful as an article of food to
merit notice, and that is the ‘‘black rock cod” (Serranus damelii, Giinther),

without exception the very best of all our fishes. Itis found on all the rocky
parts of the coast, and in the harbours about bold headlands. It takes the hook

* Gtinther on the Study of Fishes, Edinb., 1880.
E

34 NEW SOUTH WALES

readily, and is never captured by the net. It attains a great size, fishes weighing
35 and even 40 Ibs. being not uncommon. Jt is found as far as Jervis Bay to the
south ; to the north it has probably a much more extended range. It has been
observed of this fish that those caught off the ‘ Solitaries” and other places to the
north of Port Jackson are as a rule of larger size than those found to the south.
It is rarely seen now in the Sydney market, owing to the great falling off in the
supply obtained from Port Jackson Heads, Coogee, and other places where it was
formerly abundant. It is difficult to account for this diminution of the supply,
for the causes which undoubtedly affect the supply of other fishes do not apply to
this. The spawn is not deposited in shallow bays constantly raked by nets, the
young are never taken in the seine, and the number of the adult fish captured has
never been sufficient to account for the deficiency. It is probable tHat the fish
has merely sought retreats further removed from the stir and traffic of Port
Ji ackson, EBC.

The Wirrah.
(Plate IV.)

““WirRaH” or PLectropomas is a genus similar to that of Serranus,
but armed with a row of spinous teeth on the lower jaw which are
directed forwards, besides the pair of canines above. The dorsal fin
has from seven to thirteen spines. This is a tropical fish for the most
part. There are about thirty species known, of which we have a dozen in
Australian seas. Our common marketable species is P. ocellatwm, '
Giinth. (P. cyaneo-stigma in R.R.C.) In this species the body is
equal to the length of the head, and two-fifths of the whole without the
caudal. Preoperculum with three spines, beneath the anterior of which
is the strongest spine, which is sometimes bifid. Colour, brownish ;
head, body, and base of the fins with numerous roundish spots, bluish in
the centre and black round the margin, more numerous and smaller in
older fishes.

One of our most experienced amateur fishermen (Mr. A. Oliver)
informs me that the wirrah is often mistaken by the tyro for Serranus
damelit, They are both percoid fishes ; but here the resemblance ends.
A good black rock cod is equal to the best turbot, and the best wirrah
has the flavour and consistency of leather, which no sauce or cooking
can change. Both fishes are remarkably tenacious of life. They are
lively in the boat or basket long after every other fish has ceased to
move.

The genus Plectropoma is also numerously represented in our seas; it does not
however furnish the market with a ral species of value as food. The best
known species is the ‘‘wirrah” of the fishermen—Plectropoma cyaneo-stigma of
Giinther.—R.R.C. : :

The Glaucosoma.

Glaucosoma scapulare, Macleay. An excellent food fish, but so
rare that it need not be described, especially as it is figured at the end
of the first volume of Macleay’s catalogue. The name of Ramsay as the
authority, there given, should probably be Macleay, as its first published
description was by Macleay, who quotes the name as a manuscript one
of Ramsay’s. See Proc. Linn, Soc. N. 8. Wales, vol. v, p. 334. It is
sometimes called a Jew-fish, because another species, G. hebraicum, goes
by that name in Western Australia,

Prare ILI.

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Scace oF INCHES.

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Anthias longimanus.—GuNTH.

LONGFIN.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 35

The Bull’s-eye.

_Priacantuus. A well-marked genus, easily recognized without
direct relation to other percoid genera. The body is short, compressed,
covered with small rough scales, which extend also over the short snout.
Lower jaw and chin prominent, Hye, large. All the teeth villiform,
and present on the vomer and palatine bones. One dorsal with ten
spines, anal with three. Pre-operculum’ serrated, with a more or less
flat triangular spine at the angle. (G.S.F.)

The “‘bull’s-eye” of the fishermen—Priacanthus macracanthus of Cuv. and
Val., is a fairly good edible fish. It comes into the harbour in considerable
shoals in the latter end of summer. or beginning of winter, some occasionally
appearing as early as January. Its visits are probably made for spawning
purposes, but we have no direct evidence to that effect, and we cannot find that
the young fry are ever seen. The scarcity and irregularity of the supply causes
this fish to be little cared for by the dealers, It is frequently mistaken for the
**nannygai.”—R.R:C,

This species may be known by its large eye, which is more than one-
third of the diameter of- the head. The ventral fins are long. The
colour is of a light silvery grey with a pinkish tint. The head is pink
and the belly silvery. Fins of a reddish pink, ventrals red, the back
part of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins having two rounded dark
spots on each membrane; end of the caudal rather dark. Length,
eight to twelve inches. Mouth extensible. In some respects this fish
might be confounded with Anthias longimanus by inexperienced
observers, but the colour and the eye will easily distinguish it.

The Salmon.
(Plate V.)

Arripis, Body oblong, covered with scales of a moderate ste. All
the teeth villiform, without canines. Teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin with nine slender spines, anal with three, pre-
operculum denticulated. ,

Arripis salar. Giinth, Cat. Fish. Is in the adult state the salmon
of the Australian fishermen, and their salmon trout is the young. It is
of a greenish lead colour, with the upper part of the head a deep
black ; on the upper part of the body are numerous irregular black
spots. The operculum and the end of the pectorals are usually tinged
with yellow. Its length is sometimes over 22 inches. The young
specimens are of an olive green on the upper parts, with the sides and
lower parts of a silvery white. On the sides and upper surface extend
three or four longitudinal lines of rather large rounded and golden spots,
numbering from fourteen to nineteen on each line. Dorsal fin transparent
and bordered with black, caudal yellow, with its terminal part black,
anal and ventrals white, pectorals yellow, sides of the head and eye of a
bright yellow. This is the most common of all Victorian fishes, and the
young only take the adult livery when they are at least a foot long.
During the cold months of winter the adults are hardly ever seen, but
they are common in the summer. In Victoria and South Australia
several distinct cases of fish-poisoning have been traced to this species.

36 NEW SOUTH WALES

By many it is said that if eaten perfectly fresh there is no danger in
making use of it, as it is one of the most abundant food fishes in the
Colony of Victoria. It is sold in great quantities by the hawkers round
the suburbs of Melbourne. At best it is but a poor fish for the table,
yet, strange to say, there is considerable difference in this respect
between what is caught in Port Phillip and on our seaboard: with
us it is considered to be one of the worst of food fishes and scarcely
palatable. Prof. McCoy* says, of the Victorian Arripis :—“ Nearly
all the cases of fish-poisoning in Victoria are referable to this species.
Some persons are under the impression that the bad consequences
are due to incipient decomposition; but I am certain that this is
‘not always the case, as I have known several instances in which
the effects were strongly marked after eating perfectly fresh examples,
. caught only an hour or so before cooking, It is curious that only
at certain times, and to certain people, that this fish is more or
less poisonous, while certainly good for food under other circum-
stances not yet understood. I have known three out of five people
made seriously ill from eating at breakfast newly caught fish from
one basket, and the two others felt no inconvenience whatever. The
symptoms are generally a few hours after eating, an extraordinary
redness or flush of the skin, particularly of the face, often followed by
an eruption, which soon passes away, with great derangement of the
digestive organs, headache, vomiting, &. Some cases of death have
been reported, but generally the bad symptoms pass away in a few
hours or days. Dr. Youl, the city Coroner for many years, informs me
that though he has seen many of these cases of fish-poisoning, the
deaths reported were found by the Jury to be due to other causes. The
flesh has often a dull pinkish tinge, which may be one of the reasons for
the popular application of the names of ‘salmon’ and ‘salmon trout’
to this fish, which does not resemble the true salmon in any important
respect.” It seems to “school” about the latter end of -summer, when
shoals ‘of astonishing magnitude annually visit our shores. It is the
A. truttaceus of Cuvier and Valenciennes, and is on the whole a large
and beautiful fish.

Mr. Macleay is of opinion that its evil reputation has arisen from the
rapidity with which it decomposes after capture. It is said to commence
to spawn in September on the east coast. The fry are unknown, as the
young are developed into the so-called trout form when they come into
the bay. They are caught with the net and line. There is much
variation in the colours of the young.

Of late years some fishermen of our port have been trying to devise
a drift or purse net for this fish, which sometimes commands as much as
4s, a dozen. They have not as yet succeeded.

In this family (Percide) are included some of our fresh-water fishes.
It will however be more convenient for the purposes of this volume if
they are treated altogether in a subsequent chapter.

* Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria. Decade II., p, 22.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 37

II.—Fam. ACANTHOPTERYGII PERCIFOMES—
‘ SQUAMIPINNES.

Body compressed and elevated, covered with scales, either finely
ctenoid or smooth. Lateral line continuous, but not extended over the
caudal fin. Mouth in front of the snout, generally small, with lateral
cleft ; teeth villiform or setiform, in bands without canines or incisors.
Dorsal fin consisting of a spinous and soft portion of nearly equal
development, anal with three or four spines, developed similarly to the
soft dorsal, both many-rayed. Vertical fins more or less densely covered
with small scales. Lower rays of pectoral branched, not enlarged, ven-
trals thoracic with one spine and five soft rays. Stomach cecal. Eye
lateral, of moderate size.

The name of this family will give an easy clue to its identification. |
It means scaly-finned. The soft and frequently the spiny portions of
the dorsal and anal fins are so densely covered with scales that the boun-
dary between where the fin begins and the body ends is quite obscured.
The species are generally small, and distinguished for the extraordinary
variety and beauty of their colours, including such well-known forms
as the Chatodons, of which two are found in Port Jackson.

It is said that all the family are carnivorous, and the “Sweep”
is no exception. It can be caught with almost any bait. Mr. Oliver
says, that he has caught thousands with a live or meat bait. But the
odd thing in Sweep fishing is that in nine cases out of ten they are
hooked foul. The neighbourhood of coral reefs abounds in forms of this
beautiful group.

The Sweep.
(Plate VI.)

This is one of a very numerous tropical family of fishes, remarkable for eccentricity
of form and variety of marking, but the temperate coast of New South Wales can
boast of only a few species, and of these one only, the ‘‘ sweep” ( Scorpis equipennis),

_can claim recognition among our edible fishes. It is not much thought of, yet at
times it is brought to market in considerable quantities, and finds consumers at
fair prices. The schooling season is midsummer, and the spawn is probably
deposited in the harbour, as the young sweeps are frequently caught in the seine.
The air-bladder is said to be large in this fish, so that it may be found to be valu-
able as an isinglass producer. It is seldom caught except in the seine, and is
probably entirely a vegetable feeder.—R.R.C.

The species thus referred to is described as having the family characters,
with a moderate snout. Dorsal fin with nine or ten spines, anal with
three, and the soft portions of both densely scaly. Jaws with an outer
series of stronger teeth: teeth also on the vomer and palatine bones.
Seven branchiostegals, air-bladder present, pyloric appendages very
numerous. Lower margin of the preoperculum finely serrated. The
dorsal and anal fins not falcate, the rays becoming shorter posteriorly.
Colour uniform brownish black.

38 NEW SOUTH WALES

III,—Fam. MULLIDA.

Body rather low, slightly compressed, covered with thin scales, with
or without extremely fine serrations; two long movable barbels.
Lateral line continuous. Mouth, like the last family; cleft rather
short ; teeth very feeble. Eye like the last. Two short dorsal fins
remote from one another, the first with feeble spines ; anal like the
second dorsal, ventrals with one spine and five rays. Pectorals short,
Branchiostegals four, stomach siphonal.

This family is known as “Red Mullets.” They are marine fishes,
but many species enter into brackish water. They are more tropical
than temperate, but extend into both seas. None attain to a large size,
but all are very highly esteemed as food. They are caught with the net.
We have in Port Jackson Upeneoides vlamingii, Cuv. and Val. a red
fish with a violet spot on each scale, and violet oblique streaks on the
cheeks ; and Upeneus porosus, a red fish with two silvery streaks be-
tween the eye and the mouth, parts above the lateral line darker, and
the spinous dorsal blackish. The differences between these two genera
is that Upeneoides has teeth on both jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones, and Upeneus has teeth in both jaws in a single series and none
on the palate. The name of this family is a source of much confusion.
It is derived from the Latin word Mullus, which in the form of
“Mullet” we apply to the well-known fishes of quite a different family,
the Mugilide. Another fish to which the term “Red Mullet” is
applied is of the family Cottide or Gurnards. The Greek for these
fishes ‘is “ T'rigle,” which Oppian derives from their breeding thrice a
year. The Italian name is still “ Zriglia.” An extraordinary value was
set on these fish by the Romans in the time of the Caesars. This was
Mullus barbatus. Pliny, Seneca, Horace, Juvenal-bear witness to the
extravagance of the wealthy of those times with regard to this fish.
Nothing was considered more entertaining than to watch the change of
its beautiful colours when expiring, and then when dressed it was the
grand dish of the feast.

IV.—Fam. SPARIDA or SEA BREAMS,

Body compressed, oblong, covered with scales, the serrature of which
is sometimes absent. Mouth and eye like the last. Either cutting
teeth in front or molar teeth on the side of the jaws, palate generally
without teeth. Dorsal single with nearly equal spinous and soft portions.
Three spines on anal. Lower rays of pectoral branched, with one excep-
tion (Haplodactylus). Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays,

This is a most important family of fishes, which though generally
small are nearly all useful. They are divided into four groups, from the
form of the teeth. In the first the teeth are incisors in front of the jaws
(black-fish of Port Jackson). In the second the teeth are the same, but
the pectoral rays are not branched. In the third there is a single series of
incisors in front, with several series of rounded molars in the sides. In
the fourth the jaws have conical teeth in front, molar teeth on the side,
especially adapted for crushing small shells, crabs, &c. This division
includes our most abundant market fish, such as black bream, common
bream, schnapper, &c.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 39

The Black-fish.
(Plate VIL)

The first division includes our Black-fish Girella tricuspidata. This
genus has scaly cheeks but naked opercles. Dorsal spines received into
a rather indistinct groove. Scales moderate. Six branchiostegals.
Pyloric appendages numerous, air-bladder divided into two posterior
horns. We have two species in Port Jackson, G. tricuspidata and
G. simplex, the main distinction between which is that one has tricuspid
incisor teeth and the other has smooth cutting edges with a short
series of teeth on the front of the palatine bones. But intermediate
forms arefound. The black-fish in the market is usually @. tricuspidata,
but itis quite as common to see G. simplex sold as black-fish. In certain
seasons they may be caught in abundance in shallow water with the
line, the only bait being a green confervoid weed obtained on wood

under sea-water. <A figure of G. tricuspidata, Richardson, is given at
Plate IV.

Another poor table fish of this genus is called the “Drummer.” It is
G. elevata, of Macleay. The colour is a uniform brown and the scales
are larger. The tricuspid teeth have the middle cusp large and rounded
with a few conical teeth on the intermaxillary bone behind. Tail large
and the pectoral fins about as large as the head. It is a poor table fish
and is caught rarely. Besides the above there are four other species,
one of which isa deep blue colour, G. cyanea, Macleay. Of the. second
group, distinguished by the undivided pectoral rays, we have two species,
Haplodactylus lophodon, Giinth. (brown, with a black spot behind, and
caudal and anal fins variegated with lighter colour), and H. obscurus,
Castelnau, a rare fish of nearly black colour.

The fourth group includes all our Schnappers and Breams, and from
their interset and utility will require a lengthened notice.

The genus Pagrus or as we term it in the vernacular “ Schnapper,” a
word of Dutch origin, is distinquished by an oblong compressed body,
with scales of moderate size, Several pairs of strong canine-like teeth in
both jaws: molars arranged in two series. Cheeks with scales. The
spines of the dorsal fin eleven or twelve in number, though sometimes
elongate, and can be received in a groove, anal spines three.

Thirteen species of ‘this genus are known, chiefly distributed in
the northern parts of the temperate zone, and more scantily represented
in the tropics. Several species occur in the Mediterranean and the
neighbouring parts of the Atlantic. One (P. argyrops) is well known
on the coasts of the United States under the names of “Scup,” “Porgy,”
or “Misheup.” It is one of the most important of food fishes, growing
to a length of 18 inches and a weight of 4 lbs,

The Schnapper, or Snapper.
(Plate VIIL)

The schnapper (Pagrus unicolor, Cuv. & Val.) is the most valuable of Australian
fishes,—not for its superior excellence, for we have many more delicious, but for
the abundant and regular supply which it affords of a very nutritious and whole-
some description of food. It is found on all parts of the Australian coast, but
most abundantly on that of New South Wales. It is a deep-water fish, found

o

40 NEW SOUTH WALES

generally on or near rocky points, or reefs running out for miles from the coast.
Tts food is chiefly the mollusca living on the rocks, though the readiness with
which it will snap up bait of the most varied descriptions indicates tastes of ratheran
omnivorous character. Like all or most fishes, it has its periods of migration and
accumulation in shoals, a movement so well expressed by the term ‘‘schooling
that we shall adopt the phrase for the future. The time of the appearance of the
“school schnapper” is the early part of summer ; it is then believed to be at
least three years old, the previous stages of its existence being well known under
the names of ‘red bream” at the age of one year, and of “‘squire” attwo. At
a still greater age the schnapper seems to cease to school, and becomes what is
known as the “native,” and ‘‘rock native,” a solitary and sometimes enormously
large fish. The opinion, however, of Mr. M‘Carthy, who is undoubtedly a most
accurate and intelligent observer, is that these differences actually indicate three
or more perfectly distinct species.* At the first appearance of the school fish in
early summer the roes are small, but the full size is attained in or about January,
about which tinie no doubt the spawn is deposited. The actual mode of the
deposition or attachment of the spawn has never been observed, and the same may
be said of the date of the first arpeeree of the young fry, but there can be little
doubt that the deposition takes place in moderately deep water near the land, and
that the young are probably hatched before the winter season. The young fish in
the shape of ‘red bream” are abundant in the harbours and inlets, but never in
shallow water, and are seldom captured in large quantities in the seine; they take
the hook, however, freely, and the capture of them is a very favourite pastime of
the Sydney people. The schnapper is generally caught by the hook, but instances
have been known of their being taken in Lake Macquarie and other places by
means of very deep nets.—R.R.C.

“The schnapper,” says Count Castelnau, ‘is one of the largest and hand-
somest of the fish of the Melbourne market. It is found all the year
round, but those caught in the cold months of the year are generally
small ; in Novernber and December it becomes much more abundant, and.
the very large specimens are common. It isa good article of food. As
I had already observed at the Cape of Good Hope with respect to
Chrysophrys, the specimens of this species are subject to very remark-
able changes in their form. The female has always a rather oval profile,
and the young male has the same, but in the latter sex, age brings on
the development of a curious crest on the nape of the head, anda
protuberance, which in very old individuals takes the appearance of an
enormous nose, and gives to some of these individuals a most remarkable
resemblance to the human face. The schnapper is of a beautiful silver
pink, with the lower parts of the body white and silvery, dorsal pink, '
with sometimes white spots on the membranes. The caudal becomes
blackish towards its end; all the fins are pink, with the exception of the
anal and ventral, which are white. The young specimens are covered
with white and sometimes with blue spots, which disappear with age.
These appear to be the Pagrus guttulatus of Cuvier. Some old speci-
mens assume a beautiful red colour. The species attains large proportions,
and sometimes weighs as much as 30 lbs.” +

The range of this species is very great. It is found in almost all
Australian waters, and extends to New Zealand, Norfolk Island and Lord
Howe’s Island. Any isolated reef or submerged rock, or as the sailors
term it, “bumbora,” surrounded by deep water, may be considered its
favourite haunt. Subjoined are some very interesting remarks on this

* Mr. Oliver denies that there are three species of schnapper; he regards all
as varieties, dependent on food and habitat.

+ Essay on Ichthyology, in the first volume of the Proceedings of the Victorian
Acclimatization Society, p. 70.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 41

fish and its mode of capture, by Mr. E. 8. Hill * :—“ Although by com-
parison some would imagine that there was more than one of the same
genus along our coast, this, however, is not the case; the mere
difference of shade in their colour, or lanky or chubby appearance, in
all probability is caused by the abundance or scarcity on their feeding-

grounds. The schnapper is migratory, and both herbivorous and car-
nivorous.

“ The usual grounds fished in the vicinity of the Heads of Port Jackson
are numerous, and for exaniple may be named South Reef, North
Head, Blue-fish, Colours, Pine-tree, Tumble-down, and Mud Island, and
the wide or Maori ground in deep water, all of which places are known
to fishermen by bearing of land-marks.

“The usual method of estimating quantity for sale by the fisherman is,
as the schnapper or count-fish, the school-fish, and squire, among which,
from its metallic appearance, is the copper-head or copper-colour, and the
red bream. Juveniles rank the smallest of the fry, not over an inch or
two in length, as the ‘cock-schnapper.’ The fact, however, is now
generally admitted that all these are one and the same genus, merely in
different stages of growth.

~ “The ordinary schnapper, or count fish, implies that all of a certain
size are to count as twelve to the dozen,} the shoal or school-fish, eighteen
or twenty-four to the dozen ; and the squire, thirty_or thirty-six to the
dozen—the latter just according to their size, the red bream at per
bushel. With some exceptions, these are usually caught in the vicinity
of reefs or rocks, by anchoring your boat according to the turn of tide,
so that your line will trend to or along the rocks. Occasionally, when
migratory, they are caught further off in deep water, but when in large
shoals, wide off and on the top of the water, which is termed schooling,
they will rarely take the bait.

“ Apart from these, however, the largest of the genus is more frequently
caught off points within our harbours after nightfall, and at certain
time of tide—young flood at some, ebb at others. A fine old fish,
monarch of his ground, with a figure-head as bold and defined in its
outline as that on the North Head of this port, cunning and fastidious
to a degree, a regular epicure—he must be tempted with choice morsels
before the well-chosen bit which conceals the hook will engage his
attention. And you must bear in mind at the same time that (as old
Charley Reynolds used to describe him) he is only a oncer, implying
that if he once fairly took the bait, and you pricked or missed him in
the strike, it was good-byedor that time; but fairly hook him with
strong tackle your work and anxiety for the time it lasts will be some-
what intense. The tugging, jerking motion of the schnapper is unmis-
takeable, and when he gets his shoulder to the line he goes off with a
rapidity that makes the cord whistle again, either through your fingers
or over the boat’s gunwale ; a steady and continuous strain, no stray
line, together with some skill, enables you to safely land him, at which
time you can realize that your patience, toil, and anxiety, are rewarded
with a fish from twenty to twenty-five pounds weight, fit to embellish a
noble banquet.

* Fishes of and Fishing in N. 8. Wales. Sydney Mail, 1874.
+ Count fish are usually 6 Ibs. each, so that a dozen equals 72 lbs.

F

42 NEW SOUTH WALES

“The bait for these fishes are star-fish, squid, mackerel, yellow-tail,
mullet, tailors, and a variety of other fishes; the whole of these at
particular times will be readily taken, but when the schnapper appears
dainty, mackerel and squid may tempt him when all others fail, In
their young stage, such as red bream, lean beef, for amateurs, is about
the usual bait, and which answers in the absence of fish tolerably well.
Thousands of what would be the future schnapper are destroyed in this
harbour alone, either by the line or net, or by the combination of both,
from the very smallest of the genus, and in their earliest stage they
appear willing to take the bait.

“It may be fairly presumed that this fish is known to almost everyone
in the Colony, and often recognized in the adult state, and when just
caught is the beau ideal of a fish, representing beauty to the eyes, sport
to the fisherman, firm, palatable, wholesome, and nutritious food to the
multitudes. Cook it whichever way you may please—by the primitive
and impromptu method frequently adopted by fishermen, of roasting it
before a fire, elevated an inch or so from the ground by the aid of a
couple of forked sticks, which answer the purpose also of turning the
fish by lifting them from the ground and reversing their position. No
preparation is necessary in the first instance, save to take out the inside
and wash the part clean ; when sufficiently cooked, the scales will come
off from either side in one flake, leaving a firm, beautifully white and
tempting dish. Then for the table, boiled entire, and served with egg
sauce, in fillets or as a curry, all are excellent, and as a general rule the
schnapper may be ranked as one of the first favourites. No party of
amateurs who go out for a day’s general fishing think their basket com-
plete without schnapper being among their number,—that name floats
uppermost in calling over the day’s sport, and covers many defects in
other fishes which may happen to be in the list of the day’s catch, and
indicates, as a rule, that the sport was fair or good.”

In the frontispiece is given a figure of an old male schnapper, with
the peculiar hump on the head. It is formed by an egg-shaped mass of
bone at the summit of the high crest of the supra-occipital. The
frontals and ethmoid also become enormously thickened, and there is
frequently a large egg-shaped mass on the end of the first interneural
spine. The aboriginal name of this fine fish is ‘“ Wollomai.”

The Tarwhine.
(Plate TX.)

CHRYSOPHRYS comprises the Tarwhine and Black Bream of the Sydney
fishermen.—This genus only differs from Pagrus by the upper molar
teeth, which are in at least three series, while in true schnapper they are
only two. The air-bladder is notched or has small appendages in bream,
whereas the other genus has the same organ quitesimple. Some twenty
species are known in tropical seas and the warmer parts of the temperate
zone. The common species of the Mediterranean is C. awrata, rarely
found on the south coast of England, where it goes by the name of
Gilthead. It was known to the Greeks by the name of Chrysophrys
(golden eyebrow), and the Romans, as-Aurata, or golden, and the French
name Dawrade appears to be a translation of the same. According to
Columella the Awrata was one of the fishes reared by the Romans in

VIL.

PLATE

O86 IMCHES

4
=|

a4

Girella tricuspidata.—Cuv. & Vat.

BLACK-FISH.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 43

their Vivaria, and the inventor of these Vivaria was named Orata, from
this fish. It grows extremely fat in artificial ponds. Duhamel states
that it stirs up the sand with the tail so to get at the shell fish. It is
extremely fond of mussels, and often makes its presence known by the
noise caused in breaking in the shells with its broad teeth. (G.S.F.)
These facts may give a clue to the habits of our own species.

We have two species in Australia, as already noticed. The Black
Bream, C. australis, @unth., and the Tarwhine. C. sarba, Forsk., C.
hasta, Bleek., is a common fish in India and China, entering all the large
rivers. It was supposed by Mr. Hill to be our common species, but
Giinther has shown that they are distinct. The Australian Bream, Plate
VI, is'as common on the south as on the east coast. It affords excel-
lent sport to anglers in Victoria. The author remembers in January, 1860,
catching an immense quantity with a line in the Glenelg River, Victoria,
where the river was little more than brackish, though not far from the
mouth. The bait used was a small crab, and no sooner was the line
down than the hook was swallowed. The sport was only terminated
when all the hooks were destroyed, for these ravenous fishes broke them
with their hard teeth. As a food-fish it has good qualities, and is very
abundant, but never more than about a foot in length.

It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between the two species, so
the definitions of both are given. C’\. sarba has the height of the body
nearly two-thirds of the length, and the head is one-fourth. The distance
between the eyes is rather more than their diameter. Incisors broad,:
obtuse, the molars in great number, forming four series in both jaws,
and a large ovate molar behind. Dorsal spine, moderate, rather
compressed, broader on one side, the fourth longest, second and third anal
spines nearly equal. Silvery in colour, with about fourteen indistinct
longitudinal streaks.

C. australis has the body proportionately slightly higher, and the eye
a little longer. The dorsal spines are stronger. The second anal spine
is very strong, and equal to the fourth dorsal in length. There are five
series of scales between the preorbital.and the angle of the operculum.
Colour, silvery and grey on the upper parts.” There is a slight brown
transverse band on the forehead ; dorsal, hyaline, bordered with black ;
caudal rather yellow, with a dark external border; anal either yellow
or dark ; ventrals yellow, or in part blue. Whole body with shining
longitudinal streaks, but this character is often absent from the
Victorian specimens.

The “ black bream” (Chrysophrys australis) and the ‘‘ tarwhine” (Chrysophrys
hasta) are both excellent fishes, and are frequently abundant. The schooling
season seems to be summer with both species, but where or when they spawn has
not been ascertained. They have been occasionally caught outside on the
schnapper grounds, but their chief resort is evidently the harbours and lakes along
the coast, where they are taken in the seine in great numbers. In Port Jackson
line-fishing for “ black bream” is a very favourite sport.—R.R.C.

The Silver Bream or Silver-belly.

Mr. Hill, in the series of essays already referred to, speaks of a silver
bream or white bream. It is probable he refers to-Gerres ovatus, a
common fish of very compressed form, and very protractile mouth.

44, NEW SOUTH WALES

They probably never enter fresh water. There are about thirty species
known, all of which have a plain silvery colour, with smooth or ciliated
scales, eye large, dentition feeble, and palate toothless, dorsal fin nearly
divided.

The white bream, the subject under notice, is scarcely so well known
as either the red or black bream, neither is it so great a favourite as an
article of food. This fish is seldom or never caught by hook and line.
The net is the only certain means to bring a supply, and then at par-
ticular seasons only. It is necessary to cook the silver-belly, as it is
often called, perfectly fresh, and the sooner after it is caught the better ;
otherwise, if allowed to get stale, it is flavourless, flabby, and soft, and
more like some of the muddy fresh-water ‘fishes in taste. In this species
the lower pharyngeal bones are coalescent, which makes its place among
the Perches doubtful. :

The same author gives an admirable sketch of the habits and mode
of capture of the black bream. He says that these fishes visit our
harbours “ from seaward periodically during the summer months of
February, March, and April, and are adult fishes, being full-roed at the
time of their visit ; probably they are migratory for the purpose of
spawning. These are fine conditioned, and firm, good-eating fishes, and
ranked by a majority as one of the best. During the period of their
visit they are terribly harassed by hook and line and the net. Scores
of boats wait on them during the night at Watson’s Bay, Camp Cove,
Quarantine, and Middle Harbour Points, armed with good and very
light tackle—the finer the better ; and for bait, some fresh or a day old
mackerel, or much better still, some prawn procured at low-tide by
stamping down the weeds to muddy the water ; these are called nippers,
from the disproportionate size of one claw. The black bream likes a
‘large soft bait as a rule, but on these occasions he seems to prefer the
-crustacean named; they pick it up and rush off at full tilt (no nibbling
with them), and pull hard and sheer about with a full determination if
possible to get away. Some difficulty is experienced by the novice in
-attempting to unhook his fish, and’ often a lacerated hand is the penalty
of his want of skill) The black bream is armed with spines, as the
order implies ; but his are sharper and more robust than any of the
others, and the first rays of the pectoral and ventral fins were used by
the aboriginals wherewith to tip their fish spears. ‘lo unhook a black
bream it should be firmly ‘grasped about the middle—certainly about
the pectoral fins, sufficient to paralyse him, then take out the hook.
Otherwise, if the fish is handled gingerly, the first wriggle he gives will
release him, and the second motion will perhaps cause your hand to be
cut deeply by the operculum or bony,giil covering, which is as sharp as
a good knife, or stab you with a spine or two in the struggle. The
black bream, however, which remain and are plentiful in the harbour at
most times, become terribly gross and filthy feeders. Nothing seems
to come amiss to them, and they are found more plentiful about the
mouths of sewers, hulks, and ships, which remain stationary for any
period, under wharfs, and near bathing-houses. They are often sought
.at these places by the amateur. These fishes exhibit a great deal of
-cunning, and require an artificial bait to tempt them. Dough amalga-
mated with herring, anchovy, or ling. With this the hook, already

Prats VIII.

Scat or Iecaes

Pagrus unicolor.—Cuv. & VAL.

THE SCHNAPPER.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 45

snoozed with gut, is concealed and carefully lowered down into the
water. The bait, like a plump oyster, rarely fails to attract; but very
often the darkie (as the bream is familarly called) seizes the bait and
comes off best. Dark nights and flood tide afford the best time for
black bream fishing. At such times it is usual to have a lamp in the
bottom of the boat to enable you to disentangle your line or examine
your bait, &c. This, however, is not indispensable; but in its absence
it certainly is advisable to have a set of lines ready for use, so that when
one is disabled it may be bunched up and another used. Black bream
fishing, when they bite freely, is first-rate sport, and which is much
enhanced by having one party in the boat for the express purpose of
making ready your bait and attending to the lines. Notwithstanding
the cunning and shyness of these fish during the day, they are readily
caught at night by baited baskets or traps lowered to the bottom.
A junk of beef boiled almost to tatters is secured inside to the bottom
of the trap. The small fishes are first attracted. They enter and tug
away at the bait, which is easily shredded. The bream soon follow and
are captured. Meshing nets, placed along the rocks, also secure many
at night, but the ordinary hauling net or seine very frequently secures
great numbers.

The Bream is found.in the Hunter River even where the water is
nearly fresh but most abundantly where it is brackish. The anglers
in that locality find that the best bait is a prawn (Pencus), but it must
be boiled or the fish will not touch it.

V._Fam. HOPLOGNATHID.

Only one species in Australia, of no economical importance.

VI._Fam. CIRRHITIDA.

Body oblong, compressed, with cycloid scales, lateral line continuous.
Mouth and eyes as the last families. No bony stay for the pre-oper-
culum. Six (generally), five, or three branchiostegals. Dentition more
or less complete, composed of small pointed teeth, sometimes with the
addition of canines. Dorsal fin single, of equal spinous and soft por-
tions. ‘Anal, with three spines, generally less developed than the soft
dorsal. The lower rays of the pectoral fins simple, and generally
enlarged ; ventrals thoracic, but remote from the rest of the pectorals,
with one spine and five rays.

The fishes of this family may be readily recognized (says Giinther)
by their thickened undivided pectoral rays, which in some are evidently
auxiliary organs of locomotion, in others probably organs of touch.
They differ from the following family, the Scorpenide, by the absence
of a bony connection between the infraorbital ring andthe pre-operculum.

This is a small but natural family, and is well represented in Australian waters
in the genera Latris and Chilodactylus. The first of these is the genus of the well-
known “Hobart Town Trumpeter,” a fish deservedly of high reputation, and of
three other species added by Count Castelnau to the Victorian fauna. The other
genus (Chilodactylus) is also largely ng eee! in Tasmania and Victoria, one
species being commonly imported from Hobart Town in a smoked and dried state
under the name of ‘‘perch.” The species found in New South Wales are, two
fishes called by the fishermen “‘ morwong,” both of the genus Chilodactylus. They

46 NEW SOUTH WALES

are very good fishes in the fresh state, and equal to the cod or ling for salting, but
unfortunately they are rare. They are generally caught in deep water on the
schnapper grounds, and it is quite probable that they may be found more abundant
towards the southern limit of our sea-board than they are here, but our inquiries
have not been successful in eliciting information in that direction. Another species
of Chilodactylus, known among the craft as the ‘‘carp” is more of a rock-fish,
being frequently taken in the harbour in nets, but it seems to be only an occasional
visitor. The only species of Latris (L. ciliata) found on this coast is extremely
rare, and certainly not to be compared for a moment to its Tasmanian relative
Latris hecateia, the ‘‘ trumpeter.”—R.R.C,

The two genera thus referred to are thus described :—Chilodactylus.
One dorsal fin, with from sixteen to nineteen spines; anal fin of
moderate length, caudal forked. One of the simple pectoral rays more
or less prolonged, and projecting beyond the margin of the fin. Teeth
in villiform bands, no canines. Pre-operculum not serrated. Scales of
moderate size. Air-bladder with many lobes.

Seventeen species are known, chiefly from the temperate parts of the
South Pacific and the coasts of China and Japan. They belong to the
most valuable food fishes, as they grow to a considerable size, from 5 to
25 lbs., and are easily caught in numbers. At the Cape of Good Hope
they are very abundant, and preserved in large quantities for export.

The Morwong.
(Plate X.)

The Carp or Morwong (Chilodactylus macropterus, Richardson) has
six simple pectoral rays, the uppermost very long; dorsal fin notched,
the seventh spine longest, higher than the soft dorsal, and one-half the
length of the head. The second anal strong and longer than the third.
A blackish band from the origin of the dorsal to the base of the pectoral.
Length, 12 inches, rarely 18.

Count Castelnau says that this fish is called “ Bastard Trumpeter” by
the Melbourne fishermen (but the name is also applied to Latris fosteri) ;
and adds that the colour is silvery, with the upper parts and head of
a light purple ; a black spot behind the upper part of the operculum ;
branchiostegal membrane beautiful light blue; dorsal, caudal, and anal
fins of rather dirty yellow, with the spines purple, ventrals white,
pectorals yellow, with white interior rays; eye silvery, with a blue ring.
Some iridescent longitudinal streaks on the sides, In this Colony the
Morwong is also called “ Jackass-fish.”

The Red Morwong.
(Plate XT.)

The red Morwong or Carp, (. fuscus, Castelnau (plate VIII), is of a
uniform reddish colour, and about the size of the last species. There are
six simple rays in the pectoral fins, the upper one not much longer than
the branched ones, the following very long, the others gradually shorter ;
dorsal scarcely notched, spiny portion seventeen spines, first rather
short, fourth longest, back gibbous, ridge on front edge of orbit, caudal
strongly emarginate, anal with three spines and nine rays; the eye is

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 47

very prominent. This is one of the most delicious fish of our seas; it is
often caught in nets set near the headlands of Port Jackson, as it is
peculiarly a rock-fish. The aboriginal name of this fish is “ Bingatti.”

Chitodactylus vittatus, Garrett, or Banded Morwong, Plate XIII, is
another kind which is rarely seen in the markets.

The Trumpeter.

Larris (Trumpeter) has the dorsal fin deeply notched, the spines
seventeen; anal, many rayed, none of the pectoral rays extending
beyond the margin of the fin. Teeth viliform, no canines. Preoper-
culum minutely serrated.

These are considered amongst the most delicate of our edible fishes,
but one species, Z. ciliaris, is not much valued. It has seventeen spinous
and thirty-nine soft rays in the dorsal fin, and three spinous and thirty-
‘two soft in the anal. Head only one-fifth of the whole length.

SCORPANIDA.

Body oblong, more or less compressed, covered with ordinary scales
or naked. Cleft of the mouth lateral or subvertical. Dentition feeble,
consisting of viliform teeth, and generally without canines. Some bones
of the head armed, especially the angle of the preoperculum ; its arma-
ture receiving the support of a bony stay, connecting it with the infra-
orbital ring. The spinous portion of dorsal equally or more developed
than the soft and than the anal. Ventrals thoracic, generally with one
spine and five soft rays or rudimentary.

This family consists of carnivorous marine fishes only ; some resemble
sea perches in form and habits, whilst others live at the bottom of the
sea and possess in various degrees of development those skinny append-
ages resembling the fronds of seaweeds, by which they either attract
other fishes or hide themselves. These species also resemble in colour
their surroundings, and vary with change of locality. They move or
feel by means of simple pectoral rays. Nearly all are distinguished by
a powerful armature, either of the head or fin spines, and in some the
spines are developed into poisonous organs. (G.S.F.)

Under the head of Trictips or Gurnards were formerly included the
above: family. Now we have only one or two of our edible fishes
included in it, that is to say, the genera Sebastes and Scorpena, both of
which comprise the red rock cod of our fishermen. They. are rock
and ground fish, but soft, and seldom eaten.

Supasres has the head without a groove on the occiput and few small
spines. We have only one species, S. percoides, Richardson, which is a
reddish fish with five brown cross bands.

The Red Rock Cod.
(Plate XIL)

This fish belongs to the genus Scorpena. It hasa naked groove on the
occiput, armed with spines and sometimes skinny tentacles. About
forty species are known from tropical and sub-tropical seas. They lead

48 ‘NEW SOUTH WALES

a sedentary life, lying hidden in the sand or between rocks covered
with seaweed, watching for their prey, which chiefly consists of small
fishes, Their strong undivided pectoral rays aid them in burrowing in
the sand and moving along the bottom. Their colour is very much the
same in all species, that is an irregular mottling of red, yellow, brown,
and black, but the pattern varies exceedingly in the same species, and
even in the same individuals, They never exceed a length of 18
inches, and even that size is rare. The flesh is much liked by some.
Wounds inflicted by their fin spines are exceedingly painful, but not
followed by serious consequences. (G.S.F.)

We have four species of this genus in Port Jackson. Plate IX re-
presents 8. cruenta, Richardson. The colour of this species is a beautiful
scarlet, sometimesmarbled with grey ; belly, whitish; sides, with rounded
dark blotches ; fins, reddish pink variegated with white ; the spinous
dorsal has a large black blotch covering the upper half of the posterior
portion, the soft dorsal is thinly spotted, and transversely marked with
white and red ; ventrals, pink ; pectorals, marbled with pink, white,
and brown.

At Plate XIV. a figure is given of Sebastes percoides, a fish of a closely
allied genus of the same family. It is caught at times in Port Jackson,
but has no local name. In Victoria it is called the Red Gurnet Perch.

The Bull-rout.

This is the name given by the fishermen of ‘the Hunter River to a fish
belonging to the family Scorpanip#, known to naturalists as Centropogon
robusta. It is a small fish, seldom attaining 7 inches in length or
exceeding 5 or 6 ounces in weight. Like all the scorpion-fish it is
very ugly, with prominent gaunt ghost-like eyes set in large hollow
sockets. Its colour also is dull and dirty-looking, as like as possible to
the brown, green, and black slimy weeds in which it hides with security.
There are two remarkable peculiarities about this fish. One is that it
emits a loud and harsh grunting noise when it is caught, so that if by
chance it takes a bait, the fisherman knows what he has got by the
noise before he brings his fish to the surface of the water. When out
of the water the noise of the Bull-rout is loudest, and it spreads its gills
and fins a little, so as to appear very formidable. Another peculiarity
ig that that the spines about the head are venomous, and inflict most
painful stings. If a Bull-rout is taken (when dead of course for safety
sake) and held up to the light with its back towards you, a long curved
stout spine will be noticed on each side of the snout just above the
mouth, There is also a little spine on each side in front of this. Then

“on the preoperculum there is « row of four spines, increasing in size as
they go backwards. Now if any of these spines chance to wound you,
which they may easily do, for they are as sharp as needles and very strong,
the pain is intense. It runs through the whole limb like fire. The
injured part becomes red and inflamed. But except the pain, which all
victims assert is very agonizing, there are no serious occurrences. There
is also a constant testimony that the pain usually ceases at sunset, and .
however strange it is, the fact is confidently asserted by those who have
had experience. The Bull-rout is never caught, except accidentally, as

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 49

it is quite valueless. It is very often brought in when fisherman are
trying to net prawns for bait. It will take a small prawn bait itself,
and thus becomes a great annoyance to those who are angling for Perch
(Zates), as it is very numerous. Its sting is most frequently felt by
bathers, who tread upon it as it lies on the bottom amongst the weeds.
The blacks held it in great dread, and the name of Bull-rout may possibly
be a corruption of some native word. The venom is probably a mucus
secreted by the skin, and not connected with any distinct poison gland.

In Port Jackson there are other species of the family, and other
Centropogons which need not be enumerated here. Pentaroge is, how-
ever, a genus which merits a passing notice. It has no scales and has
strong spines on the preoperculum and preorbital dorsal fin, with twelve
or thirteen spines, anal with three. No pectoral appendages ; viliform
teeth on jaws, vomer and palatine ; air-bladder small ; pyloric appendages
in moderate number ; a cleft behind the fourth gill.

The Fortescue,

The “Fortescue” (P. marmorata, Cuv. and Val.) isa common fish
in Port Jackson, with a very long dagger-shaped preorbital spine, cleft
of the mouth slightly oblique, and a dorsal fin which begins on the neck.
The colour is a dirty yellowish, largely marbled with brown. The author
when fishing once saw a man wounded in the hand by the spine of this
fish, and for an hour or two suffered intense pain, but no worse conse-
quences followed. Of this fish, Mr. Hill says : “The scorpion or Fortes-
cue, as these fish are popularly termed by fishermen, have been known for
a long time, and bear that name no doubt in memory of the pain they
have hitherto inflicted ; and for its number and array of prickles it
enjoys in this country the alias ‘ Forty skewer’ or ‘ Fortescure.’ These
are net fishes, and the moment they are captured they set up their thorns
and remain rigid, only waiting for some one to handle them.

The thorns with which it is armed cover nearly all the fish when in
this state, and one is exposed at every touch. These are small fishes,
and weigh but a few ounces, and at night fishing they often get rolled up
in the net which when being hauled in bears some pulling to get it
ashore. They are easily distinguished from Centropogon as they have
no scales, but in other respects the Fortescue is very like the Bull-rout.

‘“We were out fishing one night with a net towards Chowder, a bay in
this harbour, and were accompanied by a blackfellow named. Wallace.
He got hold of one of these fishes, which was in the net rolled up, and he
had put his whole force and pressure upon that spot. J never saw any
one in such pain for a short time. He rolled on the beach, then got up
and ran about like mad. I was necessitated to give him at intervals all
the grog that we had, and which consisted of nearly a quart of strong
spirits. This was scarce enough to cause the pain to leave, but it had
the effect of deadening it, and in a couple of hours we were enabled to
remove him to his camp, when a good sleep and the effects of the grog
put him right again. Strong ammonia is the best thing which can be
applied to these parts when stung with a fish-bone.”

G

50 NEW. SOUTH WALES

Two families follow in this division, and then we pass to the tenth and
last of the perch-like Acanthopterygians,

The TEUTHIDIDZ.

Body, oblong ; strongly compressed, covered with very small scales,
lateral line continuous ; a single series of cutting incisors in each jaw ;
palate, without teeth; dorsal, single, the spinous portion most developed ;
ventral fins thoracic with an outer and an inner spine with three soft
rays between.

This family consists of one very natural genus, Teuthis, easily recog-
nized by the singular structure of the fins, The incisors are small,
narrow, and with a serrated edge. The air-bladder is large, forked
before and behind. The skeleton is very peculiar, with twenty-three
vertebra, ten of which belong to the abdominal portion. There are thirty
species known, all herbivorous, and do not exceed 15 inches in
length.

The Black Trevally.

The “ Black Trevally” of the Sydney fishermen is 7. nebulosa, Quoy
and Gaimard, a brown fish, irregularly marbled. It extends right
round to the tropics. Of this species Mr. Hill says :—‘“‘ These are net
fishes, and are often caught by that means in large numbers, but are
not good market fish, and soon after being caught they look dirty—con-
sequently they are not esteemed as good fishes.”

“The black trevally is shaped something like the white one, but it is
slimy and more rigid, having all its prickles pointed, and has also very
small scales. These fishes appear very different, and the dorsal ray, as
well as every fin, is not only kept stiff, but each prickle or point of any
one inflicts a very painful wound when it pierces.

“T recollect many instances of only slight touches, but the pain lasted
long ; and on one occasion we were net-fishing in North Harbour, a
favourite resort for these fishes, and a goodly number was hauled in. A
young gentleman who had accompanied his father on the expedition was
cautioned at the time against handling any of these fishes; he however
made a kick at one, and a spine went through his boot and sock, and
penetrated the ball of his toe. In less than a minute the boot and sock
were off (from pain), the part was well washed with spirits, but to no
effect. The father had to put the toe in his mouth and well suck the
punctured part, and continually to apply spirits, and not for half-an-
hour did the pain commence to subside.

“The black trevally is a very good-eating fish when used at once.
When alive all the fins are cut off with a pair of large scissors we usually
provide for that purpose. When the fish is cleaned well, and fried in good
clear dripping or butter, adding pepper and salt to the palate, you will
find it really good, but they must be used fresh to get out all their nice
qualities.”

ACH

PLATE

INCHES

SCALE OF

ia

2

Chilodactylus fuseus.—CASTELNAU,

CARP OR RED

MORWONG.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 51

The White Trevally.

This is another species, the “White Trevally,”* or Teuthis javus,
Linn. The ground colour is dark with whitish spots, round on the back,
confluent at the side, and forming large natural streaks on the belly—
spots and streaks narrower than the interspaces, vertical fins without spots.

a II.—Div. ACANTHOPTERYGIANS,
Fam. BERYCIDA.

Body short, with ctenoid scales, rarely absont. Eyes lateral, large
(except Melamphies). Cleft of mouth lateral, oblique, jaws with viliform
teeth, palate generally toothed. Opercular bones more or less armed.
a a hace Head with large muciferous cavities covered with
thin skin.

Marine and generally deep-water fishes, frequenting warmer. temperatures, and
having a wide range, some species being common to Madeira and Japan. This-
family is most abundant in tropical seas, three genera only being represented in
New South Wales waters—Trachichthys, Beryx, and Holocentrum. Of these one
only merits notice—it is the well-known ‘‘nannygai,” Beryx affinis of Giinther. It
is a deep-sea fish, caught only with hook and line, and rarely taken during the
winter months. It seems generally to make its appearance soon after the com-
mencement of the warm season, and to judge by the number sometimes taken at
one time, probably comes in considerable shoals, but we have not been able to
determine whether it is a migratory fish in. the true sense of the term, visiting
these temperate seas in the summer and returning in winter to warmer latitudes,
or whether its appearance is merely, as is the case with very many fishes, a move-
ment only from deep water to the neighbourhood of the land. The same uncer-
tainty exists as to its spawning season. It is seldom seen full-roed, and we have
not found that the very young fish are ever seen in our harbours or on our coasts,
so that it may be fairly inferred that the ‘‘nannygai” does not as a rule spawn in
this vicinity. We have no evidence of its having been found south of Jervis Bay,
and we know that it is unknown in Port Phillip, but to the north its range seems
to be unlimited. As an edible fish it ranks high, indeed there are few better in
the country. It cannot however be much depended upon for the market, owing
to the irregularity of the supply, but this may proceed not so much from the
scarcity of the fish as from the fact that the fishermen never specially seek it, and
that it is only caught accidentally when fishing for schnapper. The ‘‘nannygai”
when slightly corned and smoked is said to be a great delicacy.—R.R.C.

The genus thus referred to has a very short and obtuse snout, pro-
minent chin and large eye, viliform palatine and vomerine teeth; a
strong spine at the scapulary and angle of preoperculum, rather small
scales, abdomen serrated. Dorsal with from three to six spines, ventral
with six soft rays. Four species known from New Zealand to Madeira.

The Nannygai.
(Plate XV.)

Beryx afinis. Giinth, Catal. The “Nannygai.” Dorsal, seven
spines and twelve rays, first highest, caudal very deeply forked, of four
spines and twelve rays. Ventrals with one strong spine and seven
rays, pectorals with thirteen rays. Colour, a most beautiful pink, with
silver stripes on the body and edges of the opercula. Length, from one
to two feet. Count Castelnau doubted if this Sydney fish was not

* So called by Mr. Hill.

52 NEW SOUTH WALES

different from Giinther’s B. affinis, because the lobes of the tail were
often so unequal, the lowest being shorter, but this is subject to great
variation in the species.

The name of Nannygai is said by Mr. Edward Hill to be derived
from the aboriginal name of Mura ngin a gai, whatever that may mean.
Amongst the early colonists it used also to be called “ Mother nan a di”
probably a-corruption of the native name. The following remarks of
the same author will be read with interest :—

“That which is taken on our coast visits some of the headlands once or
twice during the year, is shaped like a squire or small schnapper, and
does not attain a great size; its colour is bright red, with iridescent
streaks, and the colouring matter appears to be in the skin and epidermis,
‘as they retain a portion even after having been cooked.

“The nannygai has a very large eye, and is found in the vicinity of
reefs, no doubt for protection, and is first fished for in deep water at the
North Head of Sydney, in the month of October, with hook and line,
using the ordinary schnapper bait. Great caution is necessary at times’
in approaching the ground so that the boat may not be pulled over the
rocks where they congregate, as these fish have been known to take
alarm in such instances, and in consequence not to take a bait during
the day ; otherwise they bite freely, and many are taken. A month or
so later a few are found off Middle Head, and some have been caught
between Shark Island and Milk Beach. The North Head of Botany
Bay also affords a rendezvous for these fishes, as also at intervals along
the coast, south. *

_ “The beauty of this fish is to be seen only when first cauglit, and the
flesh is much better when fried very fresh; in fact, most of the
Australian fishes are tenfold better as food when just caught than when
stale, although some keep tolerably well ; but it cannot be expected that
the nannygai, which puts in an appearance in the month of October,
can keep many hours after removal from its element.”

The division of Kurtus-like Acanthopterygians may be passed over.
The division which contains the family Polynemide is for Acanthoptery-
gians with two rather short dorsal fins, somewhat remote from each
other ; free filaments at the humeral arch, below the pectoral fins ;
muciferous canals of the head well developed. Tropical fish in brackish
and fresh waters or very muddy rivers, the eyes are often covered with
a filmy skin, but the long filaments seem to act as feelers instead, where
eyes would be of little use. The flesh is esteemed, and the air-bladder
is valuable. They sometimes obtain the length of 4 feet.—(G.S.T.)
An instance has been mentioned in the introduction to this éssay of a
purblind fish of this family having been found at Port Darwin.

Three species of Polynemus have been seen on this coast, but their appearance is
extremely rare, and as useful fishes they are unknown. We mention them how-
ever because the group of fishes to which they helong are of the greatest service
in the tropical seas of India and Polynesia, some of the species yielding food of
the most excellent quality, and a few of them having air-bladders of good size and
average quality for isinglass. It is not improbable that some of the species may
be found to be abundant on the northern coasts of Queensland.—R.R.C;

Though three species are here referred to, only two, according to
“Macleay, have been found—/. indicus (Shaw) and P. macrochir
Giinther).

Pratt XII.

Scorpena cardinalis. RICHARDSON,

RED ROCK-COD.

FISH AND FISHERIES, 53

In the next few divisions of the Acanthopterygians there is only one
family of interest to the Colony, so this need alone be referred to.

SCLANIDEA.

Soft dorsal more developed than spinous or anal. No filaments,
head with well developed muciferous canals ; scales ctenoid. Lateral
line well developed and frequently extending over the caudal fin. Eye
lateral, of moderate size, Teeth in villiform bands, no molars or
incisors, canines sometimes present, palate toothless, preoperculum
unarmed. Stomach cecal. Air-bladder often with numerouns append-
ages. Coast fishes near rivers or exclusively inhabiting them, tropical or
sub-tropical, with very wide specific range, sometimes very large ; all
edible. Dr. Giinther says they are rare in Australia, but this is hardly
correct. Two of our largest market fishes belong to the family, the
“ Jew-fish” and the “ Teraglin.”

The Jew-fish.
(Plate XVI.)

This fish is of the genus Sciena, which has either an overlapping
upper jaw or both jaws equal. Interorbital space moderately broad and
slightly convex. Outer series of teeth larger than the rest, but no
canines, no barbels. Some fifty species are known, among which is the
“ Meagre” or “ Maigre,” attaining the length of 6 feet. It has been
found in European seas, at the Cape, and in South Australia—at least
this is Dr. Giinther’s opinion, who unites our Sciena antarctica (Castel-
nau) with the Meagre (S. aguila). Count Castelnau, however, points out
the difference. He says on comparing the fish with the descriptions of
Cuvier and Giinther, he even doubts if it belong to the same genus.
The maxillary does not reach the eye, and the eye is proportionately
smaller, The colour also different; the back is blue, changing to green,
the sides and lower parts of a dirty white, rather silvery, dorsal, anal,
and ventral fins reddish, pectorals whitish, with their extremities dark ;
some sinuosities or notches at the angle-of the pre-operculum.

‘The jew-fish is a fish that attains a great size, even to 5 feet in length, and

_ always finds a ready sale in the market. It is said to be very frequently‘ cooked |

by fishmongers and others and sold as ‘‘fried schnapper.” It is found at almost
all seasons, but most abundantly in summer. It is a deep-sea fish and caught only
by the hook, though young specimens may be occasionally taken in the net inshore.
Of its history and habits nothing further is known. It is found in Victoria, but
not in abundance. It is the ‘‘king-fish” of the Melbourne market. It has been
more than once asserted that this fish is identical with Sciena aquila, the well
known and highly appreciated ‘‘maigre” of the Mediterranean, and Count
Castelnau, though originally describing our jew-fish as a different species, has
lately admitted having some doubt on the subject.—R.R.C.

In alluding to the ordinary jew-fish, Mr. Edward 8. Hill says “that
it attains an immense size, and is caught in our bays and harbours.
Care must be taken in a description that I do not cause it either to be
confounded ‘with the teraglin or the silver jew, as there is a wonderful
difference in the value of these fishes in a gastronomic point of view,
an ounce of the latter being preferable to a pound of the former. An
old jew-fish, and what might be called a large one, will weigh 50 to 60

54 NEW SOUTH WALES

pounds; the scales are very large, the teeth formidable, flesh coarse, and
sometimes filled with parasites in the form of worms. This fish is not
looked upon with any degree of regard, and is rarely sought after,
except for an exhibition of his great strength, and which in my estima-
tion is about the only redeeming quality he has. A true carnivora,
formidable to shoals of smaller fishes on which he attends for his meals,
making havoc among them as occasion and his good appetite may require,
these adult fishes exhibit a good deal of cunning, and prefer turbid
waters for their depredations ; they will go high up rivers, even into
fresh water, and make an astonishing commotion among the shallows,
The half-grown ones frequently hunt in numbers like a pack of wolves, .
or our own. native dogs bailing up an old man kangaroo in a waterhole.
I recollect on one occasion, in the basin at Broken Bay, when some half
dozen of us were on a week’s fishing excursion, armed cap-a-pie with
boats, nets, lines, spears, and all the necessary paraphernalia for the
venture, and anchored a short distance only from the entrance. At the
dawn of day, and young flood-tide, we saw a terrible commotion among
the smaller fishes ; the net-boat was immediately equipped, and we at
once pushed off for the entrance or channel, which leads into the basin.
The tide, which had risen about a foot on the flats inside, afforded
shelter for the time for the smaller fishes, but as soon as the depth
increased a few more inches, in went the pack of jew-fishes pell mell,
which created a sensation among, and actually drove many of the fry
high and dry ashore. Our net was speedily run out, and it was suffi-
ciently long to cut off the retreat of four or five and twenty of the
medium-size jews ; their little game was at an end, and after several
desperate attempts to get out we succeeded in securing the lot, besides a
large number of various: fishes which they had hemmed in.

“The deep water of Middle Harbour, above the Spit, and along the
rocks high up near the Echo Point, are favourite resorts for these huge

fishes, and it requires good lines and hooks to resist the heavy drag they
put on.

“Sydney harbour isa great place, off the points, where the water is
deep and the tide strong. Here they lie in wait for their prey, but after
rain, when the water is muddy or discoloured, they sally out from these
lurking-places in every direction. Early morning or nightfall is the
favourite time for fishing for the jew-fish.”

The “Teraglin” belongs to the genus Otolithus, of which about twenty
species are known from the tropical and subtropical parts of the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans. The air-bladder is of extraordinary form, with
appendages above and below. Snout obtuse or somewhat pointed ;
lower jaw longer. First dorsal with nine or ten feeble spines, canine
teeth ; preoperculum denticulated ; scales moderate or small.

The Teraglin.

(Plate XVII.)
O. otelodus, Giinth. Catal. (0. teraglin, Macleay), is a bluish
silvery fish, lighter on the belly. All the fins of a dark tinge

except the ventrals, which are white, with the space between the first
and second rays black. Teeth acute, recurved; eye large, preoperculum

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 55

rounded, distinctly denticulated ; pectorals pointed, with a large skinny
flapattheaxil ; soft dorsal with a scaly sheath at base; thirty to thirty-two
rays, anal one spinous, eight soft rays; length reaching 3 or. 4 feet.

The Teraglin is also alarge and valuable fish, caught in the same way and at
the same time as the jew-fish, but seldom reaching such a great size. The air-
bladder of some of the same genus of fishes is of great value for isinglass, and
forms a valuable article of export on the Indian ane Malan coasts, the merely
dried bladder being worth equal to 3s. per Ib. In our species—the teraglin—the
air-bladder is of great size and excellent quality, and treated in the same way,
that is without any preparation or outlay except that of drying in the sun, would
probably add from threepence to sixpence to the value of each fish caught.—R.R.C.

The name Teraglin is stated by Mr. Hill to be an aboriginal one.
The same author refers to a fish called the “ Silver Jew-fish,” which he
considered from the form of the scales to be a different fish, Probably
there was some mistake in the application of the native name, which
it would seem Mr. Hill applied to the young of the true jew-fish, and
his “Silver Jew” was the true Teraglin in its young stage. He adds
that the “Silver Jew has all the appearance of one which would
recommend itself ; and certainly no one has as yet been deceived who
ventured on the mere hypothesis of judging by appearance.* It is
splendid when fresh caught, and.also keeps pretty well if immediately
cleaned after capture. They do not attain toa large size—3lbs. to 5lbs.
weight. Silvery bright, and rapid swimmers, they love a good depth
of water, and bite freely, now and then, at the ordinary bait. The
tackle should be as fine as possible consistent with the strength of the
fish, and the hooks well chosen. These fishes have much of the habit
of their larger popular namesake, and frequently come in with the net.
I doubt, however, whether the silver jew belongs either to the family or
the genus of what is called or known as the jew-fish.

“Tt will be interesting to have these three fishes described, and from
their particularly identical habits, one would almost imagine that they
belong to the same family. The aboriginals, in whose sagacity I place
great faith in such matters, have coupled two of these fishes only—
mittila and teraglin. The silver jew, in all probability, has received
its popular name from its similarity of habit.”

The Sword-fish.

Of the family Xiphiide or sword-fish, which have the upper jaw
produced into a long sword-like weapon. We have one species which
is occasionally seen at Port Jackson (Histiophorus gladius), Brouss. On
July 4, 1880, a specimen was stranded at Wollongong nearly 14 feet long.
The sword-fish is very dangerous to the schnapper fishermen. Mr.

* Mr. Oliver forwards me the following note on this subject :—‘‘I do not think
that the ‘Teraglin’ can be the same species as that popularly known as the
‘Silver Jew.’ Certainly the small silvery fish called ‘Jews’ caught in the Hunter
River, Lake Macquarie, and the rivers and inlets of our coasts are not Teraglins.
They may be, and probably are, the young of Scicena antarctica, but in my opinion
they are not Otolithus. The teraglin is a delicious fish, and is caught generally in
offings or near the Sydney Heads. The little jew is caught up rivers, never in
offings, and is wretched eating. I admit, however, that I have not compared
them according to the scientific description.”

56 NEW SOUTH WALES

Oliver states that on two occasions boats lying on the outer grounds
were impaled by sword-fishes and the crews only saved their lives with
the utmost difficulty.

Fam. TRICHIURIDA.

Body elongate ; compressed or ribbon-like; cleft of mouth wide ; with
several strong teeth in the jaws and on the palate, The spinous and
soft portions of the dorsal and anal of nearly equal extent, long,
many-rayed, sometimes terminating in finlets, caudal fin absent or forked.

These are marine fishes of very voracious habits, inhabiting mostly
tropical or subtropical seas. It is either a surface fish or goes to
moderate depths like Berycide.

‘

The Barracouta.

The “ Barracouta” (Thyrsites atun) is the only valuable fish of this
small family in Australian waters, but it is extremely rare in New
South Wales. It is got in abundance in Bass’s Straits and the Tas-
manian coasts, and is sent in considerable quantity smoked and salted
to the Sydney fishmongers. :

This genus (Thyrsites) has the body rather elongate, without scales.
The first dorsal continuous, with the spines of moderate strength, and
extending to the second dorsal. From two to six finlets behind the
dorsal and anal. Several long narrew sharp teeth in the jaws ; teeth
on the palatine bones. The species reach a length of 4 or 5 feet, and
are valuable food fishes. The Barracouta, Barracuda, or Barracoota
(and various other ways of spelling) is found from the Cape of Good
Hope to New Zealand. In the latter place it is also known as
“Snoek,” and is exported from the Colony into Mauritius and Batavia as
a regular article of commerce. J’. prometheus, another species, extends
from Madeira to Polynesia, and Dr. Giinther thinks that our 7. solandri,
Cuv. and Val. is the same. The Tasmanian King-fish is ZT. micropus,
Castelnau, one of the most delicious table fishes. It is much broader
in proportion to its length than the Barracouta, and is caught at depths
of 10 or 20 fathoms, off the south coast of Tasmania, in rocky places.
The writer has had many a day’s fishing off South Cape in Tasmania,
and very frequently ere the fish was drawn to the surface it was bitten
in half or sometimes the head only left on the hook by the numerous
sharks which abounded in the locality. The Schnapper on our outer
grounds is often brought in as a fragment, owing to the Blue Pointer
Shark and other robbers.

The Barracoutas are well described as voracious fishes. They are
easily caught from the stern of sailing-ships in Bass’s Straits with no
bait or only a piece of red rag. In 1857 the writer was on board a
pilot schooner taking emigrants to Guichen Bay, S.A. Fair weather
but foul winds kept us out to sea many days beyond our anticipated
time and food began to get very scarce. Fortunately we came across an
immense shoal of Barracouta, and for three days caught as many as we
wished with nothing but a hook and line trailing fast astern. The
quicker the vessel was going the better they used to seize the hook.

Puate XIV.

e ;
uA 5

1499 —al “qUOIZ Woy ‘peop{—e]
‘“HOY3d LANYND Gay

‘NOSCUVHOTY —‘saprooiad sayspgagy

FISH AND FISHERIES. 57

In 1875 the writer went out with fishermen into D’Entrecasteaux’s
Channel in a small whaleboat with a fish-well in the centre. In the
middle of the channel a fine shoal of barracouta was met. They
‘seemed to be following a mass of fish spawn or young fry, of which we
found quantities in their stomachs. We caught in a few hours as much
as the boat would hold, probably some seventy or eighty fish from 3 to 4
feet long. Our mode of procedure was this :—Each had a small stout
stick about 5 or 6 feet long and an inch thick ; to this was fastened a
yard of log-line and at the end a square piece of cedar an inch thick
and two or three long. The hook was fastened firmly on this so as
to leave the barb projecting. A little piece of green hide was on the
hook. All that we had to do was to splash and beat the water with the
stick, pulling the line backwards and forwards, and after two or three.
turns if the movement was brisk and the splash considerable it was
seized by a fish. The exertion of pulling it out of the water was great,
as none weighed less than 6 ibs. and they were oftener 10 bs. in weight.
They had to be lifted clean up into the air and swung into the boat.
We were always going fast through the water, and it may be supposed
that the movement and the splash made a good imitation of the efforts
of smaller fish when trying to escape from the remorseless Thyrsites
atun. One can scarcely imagine more interesting sport or harder work
than a day’s fishing in this style for barracouta.

DIV. XIII.—COTTO-SCOMBRIFORM ACANTHOP-
TERYGIANS.
Fam. CARANGIDA,

The first family in this division which need occupy our attention is
the Carangide or Horse Mackerels, which are carnivorous fishes of

tropical and temperate seas. ;

Body more or less compressed, oblong, or elevated, covered with small
scales or naked, eye lateral. Teeth, none or conical. Spinous dorsal
less developed than the soft or anal, either continuous with or separated
from the soft portion or rudimentary ; ventrals thoracic or rudimentary
or absent. No prominent papille near the vent. Gill opening wide.
Ten abdominal and fourteen caudal vertebre. Fishes of tropical and
temperate seas.

Many of the fishes of this large family are in appearance and habit very
like the more typical of the Scombride. There are very many species in Aus-
tralian waters, their numbers increasing rapidly towards the warmer seas of the
north. Those best known to the fishermen of Port Jackson are—the “* yellow-
tail” (Trachurus declivis), the ‘‘ white trevally” (Caranz gvorgianus), the ‘‘ king-
fish” (Seriola lalandii), the ‘‘Samson-fish” (Seriola hippos), and ‘‘the tailor”
(Lemnodon saltator). The first of these, the ‘‘ yellow-tail,” is almost if not quite
identical with the ‘‘horse mackerel” of Europe (Trachurus trachurus). In the
young state itis abundant at all times in Port Jackson, and is in great demand for
bait. The adult fish is seldom seen in the harbour, but is said to pass along the
coast in large shoals at or about midsummer. It is most probable that this fish
spawns in the inlets and harbours of the coast, from the fact that the young fish
of 5 to 6 inches in length are always to be found in such localities. The very
young fry have a most extraordinary and ingenious way of providing for their
safety and nutrition at the same time; they take up their quarters inside the
umbrella of the large medusw, where they are safe from their enemies, and are,
without any exertion on their part, supplied with the minute organisms which
constitute their food by the constant current kept up by the action of the curtain-
looking cilia of the animal.

H

58 NEW SOUTH WALES

The “ white trevally” is very abundant at times in the harbours and inlets of
the coast, but generally in a young state. The adult fish is large,, and appears in
summer in very ‘large shoals. The place of spawning is unknown. It is not
much esteemed as a food fish.

The ‘‘king-fish” is about the most voracious and destructive of all the pre-
daceous fishes of these seas. It grows to a large size, congregates in enormous
shoals, and habitually pursues and destroys the shoals of other fish at all smaller
than itself. It is not considered in its fresh state a very good fish, but when
corned it is esteemed by some a great delicacy.

Of the ‘‘Samson-fish” very little has been observed. It is a large and handsome
fish, affords good sport to the amateur fisherman, and is not much valued as food.

The “tailor” is well-known in Port Jackson. The young fish are constantly
making their appearance in shoals in the summer season, and are taken in the
seines in great numbers ; they are much in demand for bait, but are not a favourite

_ catch for the fishermen, as they are most destructive to the nets. The adult fish
are large, and are known in the Melbourne market by the name of ‘‘ i steal
They school in midsummer, move in enormous shoals, and are said to be most
destructive to the young and spawn of other fishes. As an article of food they are
not in much request, but when fresh there are few more delicate and well-tasted
fish.—R.R.C.

A short description of some of these species is here given. Caranz
and Trachurus are now included in one genus by Giinther.

The body is compressed or nearly cylindrical, cleft of mouth moder-
ate. First dorsal continuous, with about eight feeble spines or rudi-
mentary. Scales small, curved in front, straight behind, entirely or
posteriorly covered with plate-like scales, several of which are keeled,
the keel ending in a spine.

The Yellow-tail.
(Plate XVIII and Plate XXIJ.)

The “ yellow-tail” of Sydney is Trachurus declivis, closely allied to the
common British horse mackerel,* distinguished by having its lateral
line armed with large vertical plates for its whole length, and a yellow
tail ; isis almost cosmopolitan in the temperate ‘and arctic seas. It is
also known by the name of scad. Mr. Hill says :—“ It is not much good,
except at sea along our coast, when occasionally it is better than salt beef,
and is usually eaten when very fresh ; it is dry in its character, and requires
much garnishing to make it palatable. Like all deep-sea fishes, such as
the bonito and albicore, it prefers a live bait, and is readily caught by
an artificial one over the ship’s counter. The pace these fishes swim at
is astonishing. Coming coastwise recently in a steamer, and when off
Port Macquarie, we caught several by towing a line over the stern, the
hook covered with a piece of white rag in the shape of a small squid ;
then we were going about ten knots, and the mackerel appeared to be play-
ing near the stern in the wake—every now and then they would start
off as if the ship was at anchor. We were going too fast for the gener-
ality of fishes, that is to catch them in the way described. There are
many of the deep-sea fishes caught in this way. The usual method is,
when the vessel is going through the water at three to five knots to put
out a line with an artificial bait, and to have a small bridle of twine

* Professor McCoy states that the Victorian T'rachurus is identical with the
Horse Mackerel of Europe. “ The figure given by him (Prod. Zool. Vict. pl.
XVID) is by his kind permission reproduced here (Plate XXII) from which it
will be scen that it differs from the Z'rachurus of New South Wales,

IWOANNVN SHL
HINO Q—'suely vhvag

S3HOMISI

“AX GLyYIg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 59

fast as well as the line on board ; the bridlé being the first to have a
strain is easily snapped when any additional weight is put on ; con-
séquently that being an indicator, soon tells when anything is fast.
By this means a line can be set, and which requires little attention
except when a fish is on, and does not bore the parties by looking
after it.” Young yellow-tails are caught in immense quantities in N. 8.
— = bait for schnapper. It is a fairly good bait, but not so good as ,
mackerel.

The White Trevally, No. 2.

Caransx georgianus, the “ white trevally,” is distinguished as a deeper
fish in proportion to length, and the plates on the lateral line are little
developed. There are several other species of Caran in Port Jackson.
In Victoria it is called silver bream. Count Castelnau says it is very
beautiful when freshly taken from the water, the upper part being a
‘light celestial blue or beautiful purple, the lower parts of a silvery
white with bright iridescent tinges. Behind the operculum there is a
black spot (also in the yellow-tail), and along the body extends a fine
golden stripe. The dorsal fin yellow, bordered with black. There is
another fish called by this name which has already been described amongst
the Teuthide, but this is the White Trevally as generally known by N. 8.
Wales fishermen.

The King-fish.
(Plate XIX.)

The king-fish of Port Jackson must not be confounded with the king-
fish of Victoria (Sciena antarctica) or the king-fish of Tasmania (Thyr-
sites micropus). This shows how confusing and misleading these local
names are. Our king-fish beloigs to a genus called “ yellow-tails” in
Europe. This is Sertola lalandii—-Cuvier and Valenc. The generic
characters are the same as Caranz, but the lateral line is not armed,
and the body less compressed. In this species the colour is uniform,
and the scales small, snout elongate, height little more than a quarter of
the length, abdomen broad, not compressed, ventral fins moderate.

“The Australian king-fish,” says Mr. Hill, “ gives an idea of power
and speed, when its beautiful symmetry and powerful tail are closely ex-
amined as it lies in the boat or ashore; but this idea is considerably
enlarged when the amateur fisherman hooks one on a good fine line, with
a determination to “hang on.” That hasty resolution is quickly
dispelled, and his idea more than realized as he finds the line tightening
and: whirring through his fingers, and any attempt to stop the fish at this
moment would endanger these digits being either removed or cut clean
to the bone, or lose that portion of the line already overboard. There
are very few well practised fishermen who are desirous to catch more
than half-a-dozen large king-fishes 50 or 60 Ibs. weight in succession ;
they do a fair day’s work when that is accomplished.

“The king-fishes appear in this harbour at regular and irregular
intervals, but at all times waging a predatory warfare on other fishes,
and often make bold to harass and shepherd them in shallow waters,
making a dash and a splash among them at intervals, and which calls

60 NEW SOUTH WALES

the attention of fishermen in search, when the net is speedily shot
around them, and the depredators captured, together with their intended
victims.

“T have known them in large numbers about the line boats, both
between and outside the Heads, and along the coast, to rush up in mobs
headlong to the surface at every occasion when a fish of another kind
was hauled in; nothing would induce them to take a bait, and I have
witnessed and participated in the sport, and have killed several with the
spear when in their headlong and perpendicular career they have come
up to the surface in the way described, but these were only compara-
tively small ones, and of moderate size.

“Tf you are fishing in the harbour, and the king-fishes are about, pro-
cure, if possible, a live yellow-tail ora mackerel, pass your hook through
one of these alive, above the tail, so that it will not be disabled too
much, put out your line that it may be able to swim away, and when
all other bait have failed, the king-fish is almost certain to seize this.
When the king-fishes are in good condition, and properly fresh, the belly
part, cured and smoked, is far superior to any of the imported fish cured
in that way : and that portion cured alone and used immediately, before
it gets too salt, boiled and served up with egg sauce, is a choice morceau.
Sometimes these fishes appear out of season, are lean and lanky; and
then they are dry and comparatively ill-flavoured.

The Samson-fish.

This fish has very minute scales, and is of a silvery colour, with a
greenish back. It is much higher in proportion to its length than the
King-fish, with a large head anda high short snout. Tail deeply forked,
pectoral fins broad and short, ventrals black. This fish has five rather
broad black cross bands and one above the eye, but they disappear in old
specimens.

“ The Samson-fish (Seriola hippos, Giinth.) is occasionally caught either
in the harbour or off the headlands outside ; its habits are similar to
those of the king-fishes, except that it moves about in deep water, and
is more fond of the northern latitude.

“The great strength of these fishes is remarkable, and which probably
is the cause that gave it the name of Samson-fish, as sailors or ship-
wrights give to the name of a strong post resting on the keelson of a
ship, and supporting the upper beam, and bearing all the weight of the
deck cargo near the hold, Samson post. I saw one of these fishes caught
in Botany Bay a few weeks ago, and it gave much trouble for its size,
although I have seen them in good condition run away with a schnapper
line and break them with ease.”

The Tailor.

(Plate XX.)

Temnodon is the genus to which our “tailor” belongs. In this the
body is oblong, compressed, covered with cycloid scales of moderate
size; mouth wide, with single series of strong teeth, smaller ones on
the vomer and palatine bones, First dorsal with eight feeble spines

“HSIS-Maer

“DVNTALLISV J — dorpa.uvgun DUDS

SaWom) 40 31VIS

‘TAX SIVIG

FISH AND FISHERIES, 61

connected by a membrane, no finlets. The second dorsal and anal
covered with very small scales. Our species, Temnodon saltator, Cuv.
and Val. (Plate XX), has a bluish, lead, or olive colour above, and silvery
beneath. The maxillary bone reaches to a line drawn from the posterior
margin of the eye, preoperculum with a notch above the angle and
denticulations on the lower part. Dorsal spines very feeble. Of this
species Giinther remarks (G. 8. F., p. 447) that it is found over all
tropical and subtropical coasts, but is also met in the open sea. On the
coasts of the United States it is known as the Blue-tish, being highly

esteemed as food and furnishing excellent sport. It is one of the most

rapacious of fishes, killing many more than it devours. It grows to a
length of 5 feet, but the majority of those brought to market are not
half that length (Giinther). It is called skip-jack in Melbourne, which
is also a name by which it is known in America and Britain.

Mr. Oliver informs me that this fish is very destructive to the fisher-
men’s nets. A school of “ tailors” enclosed in aseine generally involves
wholesale destruction to the net. After such a haul a considerable
expenditure of time and twine are necessary to repair the rents made
by the sharp teeth of these very active and determined fish. Instances
have been known where the entire bunt of a net has been torn to shreds
by a few dozen sea tailors, whose vocation is the reverse of their land
namesakes, The name “sea tailors” expresses the approach to the
skip-jack size. Though Dr. Ginther is the authority for tailors 5 feet
long, 3 feet is an unusual size for those found in the South Seas.

The Bat-fish (Psettus argenteus, L., Plate XLV) belongs to this family,
and is occasionally caught at Port Jackson.

Fam, CYTTIDA.

Body elevated, compressed, covered with small scales, bucklers, or
naked, teeth conical, small dorsal fin of two distinct portions. Ventrals
thoracic. Gill opening wide. Marine fishes of temperate latitudes,
the only genus of which is Zeus, or John Dory. Our species is Zeus
australis, Plate XV, which Dr. Giinther regards as identical with the
Z. faber of Europe. The genus is distinguished by a series of bony
plates along the base of the dorsal and anal fins, and another series on
the abdomen. These fishes are regarded as excellent for the table.
“The name seems to be a corruption of the Gascon ‘Jau’ cock, Dory
being derived from the French, so that the entire name means gilt-cock.”
—G. 8. F. The name of Gallo, which it. has in other places, confirms
this,

The John Dory.
(Plate XXT.)

Among the other groups there is one fish of great value—the “‘ John Dory”
(Zeus australis). It is in every respect apparently the same as the John Dory
of Europe (Zeus faber), and by some is regarded as the same fish. It is a ground
fish, living on sandy banks and flats in moderately deep water. It enters Port
Jackson in the summer months and is then full of roe. It is eoely looked.
upon as a rare fish, but its rarity is probably owing to its being difficult to capture,
the seine, even where its haunts can be got at, not taking sufficient hold of the
ground to enclose it. The trawl would probably be found a more certain mode of
capture. The excellence of this fish is universally admitted.—R.R.C.

62 NEW SOUTH WALES

‘They are caught very often with a line in April, in about three fathoms
water in the harbour. The bait used is a small silvery piece of the side
of a fish. : . ‘

I have caught the dory at several places with the line and hook, and the
moment it was dropped into the boat the mouth was pushed out to an enormous
degree, as if indignant at the treatment it received. Singular to observe, I caught
with the net a dory in Botany Bay at the time we were trawling for turbot. The
dory has been long known, and when the currency of the Colony was in Mexican
coin it was called a ‘dollar fish,” and was esteemed a fine fish either as fried or
boiled ; but it isa rare fish, and may be considered a good one, though not from
that cause.

I don’t know how to describe the dory of the Colony; it is not a migratory
fish, as we hear of it only now and then. It must be here, as Mr. Couch calls it
elsewhere, a wanderer, following the fry of other fishes, on which, together with
shrimps, it lives. The John Dory is known by name as well as any fish in the
Colony from the scriptural allusion, and is easily identified from its peculiar mark
on either side ; that of this Colony bears all the characteristics, and those which I
have handled weigh about 4 to 5 lbs,—E. Hrnu,

The Dory is of too greedy a temperament to like the short commons imposed
upon those overgrown communities called shoals ; he lives therefore very much to
himself, frequenting such rocky sites as afford a safe retreat and an abundant
supply of small fish.—Badham’s Ancient and Modern Fish Tattle.

The families StrromaTeip#, CoryPH=NID# (Dolphins), and Nomzipz
need not delay us, as they are of no economic value to Australia.

VII.—Fam. SCOMBRIDA.

Body oblong, scarcely compressed, naked, or with small scales, eye
lateral, dentition well developed. No bony stay for the operculum
Two dorsal fins with (generally) finlets besides. Ventrals thoracic, with
one spine and five rays. More than ten abdominal and more than
fourteen caudal vertebree.

This is the Mackerel family composed of ocean fishes of prey found
in all temperate and tropical latitudes. They form, says Giinther, one of
four families of fishes most useful to man, the others being the Herring,
the Cod, and the Salmon families. Their muscles receive a greater
number of blood-vessels and nerves than other fishes, and are of a colour
more like those of birds and mammals, and the temperature of the blood
is warmer than other fishes by several degrees. Seven species are known
of the genus Scomber, of which each coast seems to have its peculiar
variety. It is distinguished by the feeble spines of the dorsal and the
rows of little finlets behind the dorsal and anal, scales very small, and
equally covering the whole body. Teeth small. Two short ridges on
each side of the caudal fin.

, The Mackerel.*

With reference to our species, Scomber antarcticus, of Castelnau, Prof.
M‘Coy says that he cannot on comparison find the slightest difference
between the Hobson’s Bay and Mediterranean specimens. This would
make our species S. pneumatophorus, De la Roche. It occurs rarely in
Hobson’s Bay, and generally in the month of June, and then in con-
siderable numbers.

*An excellent figure of this fish, which is extremely like the European
Mackerel, will be found in Prof. M‘Coy’s Prodrom. Zool. Vict., plate 28.

Pirate XVII.

or INCHES

Schce

.

Otolithus atelodus.—Gtnrvn,

THE TERAGLIN.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 63

The genus Scomber is represented in Australia by two species, Scomber austral-
asicus, Cuv. and Val., and Scomber antarcticus, Castelnau. The last-named is the
one best known in these seas as the ‘‘ mackerel.” Like all, or almost all of the
‘*Scombrina,” it is a gregarious and exceedingly predaceous fish, rejoicing in the
open sea and generally near the surface, and apparently constantly in pursuit of
shoals of other fishes. The instinct which in all fishes seems to compel them to
mass together and approach the shore at the season of spawning is not wanting in
the mackerel, and it is probable that the occasional visits of more than usually
large shoals of these fishes is due to this annual movement; at the same time their
frequent appearance in this harbour at unanticipated times may be owing to the
appearance of shoals of other fish which they may have followed up. Be that as
it may, it is certain that about midsummer, annually, shoals of enormous magni-
tude pass near the coast, going apparently in a northerly direction, that the sea
has, sometimes for miles, the appearance of being almost a solid mass of them, and
that they also have their enemies, and are followed and devoured by shoals of
larger fish of their own family if not species, as well as by hosts of other predaceous
fishes, birds, and mammals. The mackerel, which appear so frequently in Port
Jackson, and afford such excellent holiday fishing to the citizens of Sydney, are
generally very young, and it is said to be rare indeed to get an adult or full-roed
specimen. It is a very good fish when eaten fresh, but like all the scombroid.
fishes it dies immediately after leaving the water, and decomposes very rapidly;
and when eaten in that state it has been known to produce symptoms of fish-
poisoning ; a most unjustifiable prejudice has been excited against the fish in
consequence. —R.R.C.

The remarks of Mr. Hill on this family are so interesting and impor-
tant that they will bear quoting at length :—“ These are the well-known
fishes (mackerel) of the Colony, of which everybody knows, and every
fisherman has enjoyed the sport catching them, either late or early, in
deep water or on the surface, biting freely, or very carefully and slow.
Sometimes large, at others only half-grown, their name is legion ; and
they visit this harbour three or four times a year, and remain longer or
shorter as temptation offers in the shape of food, for they are very
voracious, and live chiefly on young prawns or shrimps, stopping a week,
or even.a month, at each favourite bay in succession, so long as the food
lasts. There you will see the boats congregated at dim dawn, catching
mackerel with a hook and line. At other times these boats will remain
the whole day, and during a cessation the owners will enjoy themselves
as they think best. Sometimes at night, when travelling in shoals they
will bite; and if one can manage to break the school by catching a few
he is sure to get many. The mackerel perform important services here
—first of importance is providing bait at which every fish will bite, and
at this alone when others fail. Besides they are readily caught when
about, and are fit for immediate use. They also provide abundance of
food ; but care should be taken as to when they are caught, and under
what influence they have been placed since they were caught. We have
no means in this Colony of catching them with a net in deep water, there-
fore it is not attempted, neither has this mackerel been accused of murder
like it is alleged of a Norwegian, and is now a matter of history.

“A Norwegian author relates the story of a sailor belonging to a ship
lying in one of the harbours on the coast of Norway, who went into the
water to wash himself, when he was suddenly missed by his companions.
In the course of a few minutes he was seen on the surface with vast
numbers of mackerel fastened on him. The crew went in a boat to his
assistance, and though when they got him up they succeeded with some
difficulty in removing the fishes from him, they found it was too late,
for the poor fellow shortly afterwards expired.

64 NEW SOUTH WALES

“T suppose this was from the overpowering numbers. There does not
appear to be so many here on this coast, or in its harbours and bays, but
they are numerous and migrate the same as they do on the coast of
England ; here, however, they are better disseminated, and do not move
in column when they depart. At some seasons they are more plentiful
than at others, like other fishes, and this well applies to Australia.

“In the whole of this family of fishes care should be taken when they
are eaten. J recollect many times catching mackerel, and those for use
T had their heads cut off immediately, and the body inverted in a bucket
of water to bleed well, and no ill effects ever arose from eating them.
At another time we were out for the night towards Manly Cove, and an
immense quantity of mackerel were caught. The moon partly shone on
them, and which produced a chemical change in their composition. Not
only was the party in charge of the vessel made sick by eating them,
but to whomsoever he presented them ashore they were made violently
sick after partaking of them, although the man was cautioned about
their then condition through the moon.

“The king-fish has also been the means, through this agency, of
causing violent pains in the head, the face purple, and nausea. of the
stomach, and many instances of sickness and pains can be recorded, yet
the people will not be sufficiently careful—they chance it.

“These fishes are excellent when fresh caught, but they will not stand
long either the sun or the moon. They become flaccid and dangerous as
food, and even as bait they are soft. “When perfectly fresh they require
a little more cooking than is usual with other fishes, and at the same
time care should be taken that they are quite clean. It was thought at
one time that the danger lay in the back-bone—it was consequently
removed ; others again thought it was that they were not divested at
once of their entrails. All these experiments have been tried without
effect. Of the fishes Scombride (which comprise those fishes just named,
and also the bonito and the albicore, often caught at sea), decomposition,
together with a chemical change, sets in at once, by the agency or
through the influence of the moon, after which it is dangerous to eat
them.”

The Bonito.

The bonito here referred to (Thynnus pelamys) is occasionally seen
off our coasts, and also the king-fish of the West Indies Elacate nigra.
We may also include the Remora or sucking-fish, in which the spinous
dorsal fin is modified into an adhesive disk, occupying the upper side of
the head and neck. It fastens on the shark and like the pilot-fish
(Naucrates ductor) accompanies this predaceous fish in its rambles.
They are both occasionally seen in Port Jackson.

VIII. Fam. TRACHINIDE.

Body elongate, low, naked, or scaly; teeth, small, conical ; one or two
dorsal fins, the spinous portion shorter and much less developed than the
soft ; anal, spinous and soft portions alike, no finlets ; ventrals with one
spine and five rays; ten or more abdominal and more than fourteen
caudal vertebree.

“TAYSMOVW SSYOH YO TWL-“MOTNSA
“IVA YP ANQ—‘swipoap snunyonuy

—L—SE__==_=_— =

S3HOMIEL 7) 7) sl vr e 2

TAX @1yvTg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 65

Carnivorous fishes of small size, in every shallow sea but more
numerous in the Arctic than Antarctic circle. This family contains some
remarkable genera which have the eyes on the top of the head and
directed upwards (Uranoscopus, Leptoscopus, Agnus, Anema, and
Kathetostoma). In the Trachinina division of the family the eyes are
more or less lateral, This contains our sand whiting, Sillago maculata,
Quoy and Gaim, Plate XVII. The body is covered with small ctenoid
scales, the cleft of the mouth smal] and the upper jaw longer, eye large,
lateral, two dorsals, first with nine to twelve spines, ventrals thoracic ;
villiform teeth on jaws and vomer none on palate; preoperculum
serrated; head with wide muciferous channels.

The Whiting.
(Plate XXIII, upper figure.)

The ‘‘ whitings” are not like those of Europe.* There are in all four
Australian species—the common sand whiting (Sillago maculata), abundant on the
New South Wales coast ; the trumpeter whiting (Sillago bassensis), also abundant
here, and the most common species in Brisbane ; Sillago punctata, the whiting of
Melbourne, and rare on this coast ; and Sillago ciliata, Plate XXIV, occasionally
seen here, and properly a fish of the tropical seas. The first of these whitings is far
the most important as an article of food. It is perhaps in more general use even
than the schnapper, constituting almost all through the year the most generally
used breakfast fish we have. Ofits excellent quality when in good condition and
in the proper season there cannot be a doubt, but the great favour in which it is
held induces, we fear, its extensive use at times when it ceases to be good, and
may probably be unwholesome. It is in best condition when it first appears to
come in from the sea, about the middle or latter end ofsummer. It is thena large
clean fish, with the roe formed but not full-sized, and it continues in its excellent
condition until the roe has attained full maturity or been shed. This occurs
generally about March or April. The actual deposition of the spawn has never
been observed, but there cannot be a doubt that the sandy and muddy beaches of
bays and lakes are the favoured spots. There isa similar want of reliable evidence
as to the time of the appearance of the young fry, but we believe that there are
sufficient grounds for concluding that the spawn deposited at the end of
summer does not germinate until the warmth of spring. The young fish, and those
of all stages of growth short of the adult full-roed fish, seem to reside in the
harbours, estuaries, and lakes in which they were born until their departure to the
sea ; and it is while thus still, as it were, in their nursery that the most improvi-
dent havoc is played on them by the fishermen. The ages of these fishes at the
time when they depart for the sea, and the precise period of their migration have
not been determined by any accurate observation, but itis known that they
invariably return in considerable shoals. From the evidence of Mr. C. Smith we
are inclined to think that this whiting has two spawning seasons in the year, but
if so, and there is little reason to doubt it, as it is certainly the case with the
European herring and other well-known fishes—the spring spawning is much the
least important. It is a ground fish, and, though it has been taken with the hook,
is generally caught in the seine. The “ trumpeter whiting” is not in such request
asthe other, nor is it found in such abundanee. The time of arrival from the sea
is winter, or a month or two later than the sand whiting. Its habits are much
the same in other respects. The other species of Sillago need not be mentioned
here, as they cannot be included among our useful fishes. There are other genera
of Trachinide found in Australian waters, but none of them having any pretension
to utility for food or any other purpose.—R.C.C.

In the sand whiting, which is shorter than S. punctata, the upper
parts are of a light olive colour marbled with rather larger brown spots ;

* The whiting of Europe is a-Gadus or Cod.

66 NEW SOUTH WALES

the lower parts are white; on each side of the body is a rather broad
longitudinal band ; the fins are transparent; and the rays spotted with
orange ; outer portions of caudal and dorsal dull, eye silvery.

Of the whiting, says Mr. Hill, “few will be found to dispute the fact
that this fish ranks among the tip-top of the few choice and delicate
fishes of this country ; its very appearance indicates all that is good—
beautifully clean, almost trausparent, rigid and firm, and its flesh is as
spotless as the driven snow; the fine delicacy of its flavour is nicely
perceptible, and which renders it so valuable as an aliment to the invalid.
The medical faculty, in recommending a fish diet to the patient for a
change, generally prefer the whiting, for its delicacy, ease of digestion,
and nutritive qualities.

“Fried or boiled whiting, served with suitable sauce as an adjunct to
its flavour, is a charming dish for the more robust lovers of fish, and one
which leaves not on the palate any coarse fishy redolency.

“The whiting commands the highest price generally, and is selected in
preference by those who can afford the means of purchase, They are
caught by net chiefly for the market, and the months of July, August,
and September present the best harvest to the fishermen, at which time
they go up the rivers in shoals of moderate size, and may be seen sport-
ing on clear sandy beaches or in the deep channels of the estuaries,
flashing their silvery sides to the light and making their presence known
by the glistening which is thus occasioned. They are at this time in
fine condition, and the cold season of the year offers an additional
advantage to their own good keeping qualities.

“The whiting may be caught with hook and line off sandy beaches or
sand-spits, and in open sandy bays on the coast in smooth water. The
best bait ‘is live earthworms, although they will also take fish bait, but
not so readily ; rareley however is the adult whiting caught by hook and
line ; the medium size is the rule, except on the open sea beaches, then
some of the very large ones are taken by this means. The very young
whiting, from 3 to 4 inches long, in the beginning of the year, and at
early morning flood tide will readily take a worm bait. These, nicely
cleaned, and fried crisp and brown, are not easily to be beaten, and would
fairly vie with the famous whitebait of England.

“There is also another fish called rock whiting,* from the size and
resemblance in shape to the whiting just described. They are frequently
caught in the net, and are coloured with a greenish brown tinge and a
few markings, but like many rock fishes are soft and ill-flavoured ; if
fried very fresh they are something better. A deal further south they
are of firmer material, and hold a higher place in the estimation of fish
connoisseurs.”

Kathetosma leve belongs to this family, and is known as the stone
lifter in Melbourne.

Passing over a number of families which are of no importance to
Australian fisheries, we come to that named Cottipm, which includes two
genera of common Australian fishes. PLatycePHALus or Flatheads, and
Trigla or Gurnards. The name Trigia has been already spoken of as

* This is Odax richardsonii, one of the Wrasses.

‘HSIS-ONIM ABNGAS SHL

‘TVA YP ADQ—"UpUnpD] DpOLWeg

NIX GV Tg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 67

signifying its habit of spawning thrice a year; but Athenzus affirms
that this species only breeds three times in all. The tradition is worth
bearing in mind.

Fam. COTTIDZ.

Body oblong, subcylindrical, mouth-cleft lateral, feeble teeth in
villiform bands. Head with spines and a bony stay connects the preo-
percular spine with the infraorbital ring. Two dorsal fins (rarely one),
spinous less developed than the soft or the anal. Ventrals with five or
less than five soft rays.

These fishes are small, remaining generally on the bottom in shallow
water.

The Flathead.
(Plate XXV.) ;

PuLatycEPHALUS is easily distinguished by its depressed head, and body
which becomes cylindrical towards the tail. About forty species are
known, of which some attain the length of 2 feet. They live on the
bottom in shallow water, hidden in the sand, the colours of which their
bodies resemble. They are scarce near islands or deep seas, but the
number of species is considerable in the temperate portions of the Aus-
tralian coast, where the bottom is sandy. ‘Their long and strong
ventral fins are of great use to them in locomotion.”—Giinther.

The ‘‘flatheads” of the coast are Platycephalus fuscus, levigatus, bassensis, and
cirronasus. Of these, the first, P. fuscus, is the flathead best known and most
common in Port Jackson. All the species are of excellent quality, and may be
ranked amongst the best of our fishes. Like the red rock cod the flathead is a
ground fish, but is found on a sandy bottom only, and generally at only a
moderate depth. It is taken both by the hook and net. But little information is
attainable about the history of the flathead, but it seems to come into this harbour
full of spawn in midsummer, and probably deposits its ova on the sandy banks in
tolerably deep water.—R.R.C.

Some of the species of flathead will venture up the rivers into fresh
water. Thus P. fuscus comes up the river Hunter as far as West
Maitland, where it is caught abundantly by the anglers in summer.

Of Platycephalus fuscus, Cuv. & Val., Mr. Hill says :—“ They are
ground fishes and bite freely in the summer season, but retire into deeper
water during the colder months of the winter, where they might also be
‘caught with the line. Of a calm day it is usual to let the boat drift over
the ground, which is generally sandy, when occasionally they bite freely.
I have often known fifteen or twenty dozen hauled up, and as fast as the
line could be put over. They are sluggish fishes, and do not give much
sport ; the very large ones of 3 or 4 feet in length, which are at times
caught with the line, have pretty good strength, but are soon exhausted.
The flesh is good, white, firm, and flaky, and it is preferred when bviled.
Some consider the flathead a fine fish. Certainly its outward appearance
when dead does not recommend it.

‘The flathead is armed with a double thorn over each gill operculum:
and which give a bad laceration, afterwards accompanied with pain:
Care must be taken in removing them from the hook that these bones
do not come in contact ; the usual plan is to give the fish a tap on the

68 NEW SOUTH WALES

head with a short club for the purpose, hard or gently, according to the
size. These bones appear to be lifted at will, to show the anger of the
fish, and are about from 1 to 14 inch long.

“These fishes take a bait freely at night. I have seen the deck of a
vessel strewn with flathead after a couple of hours’ fishing. Three or
four vessels had taken shelter in Botany Bay, on the south side, from a
southerly gale which prevailed. The fishes also appeared to have moved
over, from the same cause perhaps, as the place was literally alive with
them, and many were captured witn the hook and line on that occasion,
but no very large ones were caught; they appeared to be all young fishes
about 18 inches and some 2 feet long.” ,

The Flying Gurnard.

Trigla, or Flying Gurnards as they are called, are well known from
their peculiar squarish heads and their long and broad pectoral fins like
wings. One of their peculiarities is the possession of three finger-like
pectoral appendages, which serve as organs of locomotion as well as touch
They make a grunting noise when taken out of the water, which is, says
Giinther, from the escape of gas from the air-bladder through the pneumatic
duct. The colours of the pectoral fins are very beautiful, as the following
description of our species, Trigla kumu, Lesson (plate X XVI, upper
figure) will show. It is taken from the Prodromus of the Zoology of
Victoria, by Professor M‘Coy, F.R.S., who gives an excellent coloured
figure :—“ Dead yellowish on cheeks, purplish grey above on front
and behind, back and sides a dull pale cinnamon brown, with an olive
tinge and with large blotches, irregular in size, shape, and disposition,
of a dull Indian-red or reddish brown. Dorsal fins very pale brownish
and yellowish, anal and ventral with reddish rays on the outer side, on
inner side pale yellowish olive with a pale narrow greyish blue margin,
with two or three rows of small oval spots of the same colour within the
border. A large ovate black blotch between the third and sixth rays
‘from the lower edge, having about five oblong, opaque, white spots,
tinged with bluish along its upper edge, and three running down the.
middle ; caudal fin reddish, with browner rays darker towards the
margin ; throat and belly pure white, iris golden yellow.” We have
two other species in Port Jackson, besides species of the nearly allied
genus Lepidotrigla, only distinguished by larger scales, which Dr.
Ginther now unites with Zrigla. “Resplendent in their covering,
brilliant in their ornament, rapid in swimming, swift in flight, living
‘together without strife, defending without injuring themselves, one
‘would think they should be included amongst those beings on which
Nature has bestowed the most favours.” —Lacepede.

[In plate XXVII a figure is given of Trigla polyommata, Richardson, .
or the flying gurnet, which is found on all the Australian coasts, from
New South Wales to Western Australia. ]

“The gurnards,” says Mr. Hill, “also rejoice in the name of growlers,
from a sort of grunt which they give when taken out of the water.
Perhaps the present 7'rigla is exempt from such a stigma—at least it is.
in the waters of Port Jackson, so far as-I know. Certainly it is one of
the most beautiful frequenters of our harbour, and singular for the size

“AHOVPdIMS YO YOWVIL SHL

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“XN FIT

FISH AND FISHERIES. 69

of its pectoral fins, which would lead one to imagine it capable of
supporting its body in the air, like the noted flying-fish. It is not,
however, known to exert this power, or even to possess it. Their heads
are said to be so placed as to enable them to move among the stones and.
rocks, and remove from thence any crabs or shell-fish which may be
concealed, their well-armed head preventing them from receiving injuries.
while exploring the rocky retreats for their prey. The flying gurnard
is not a common fish here, and its flesh is not so dry as in gurnards of
other parts of the world,.and, served up with a nice sauce, it makes a
very good dish.”

The family Cataphracti can be passed over, merely stating that one
species, Dactylophorus orientalis, Cuv. and Val. (which has the habits
of the Flying-fish), is seen as far south as Port Jackson, though more
commonly in the tropics. It is the Indo Pacific species.

The families of “ Gobies Blennies,” d&c., have been already mentioned.
Passing at once to the eleventh division of the Ancanthopterygians, or
those generally resembling the mullets. They have two dorsal fins
more or less remote from each other; the anterior either short, like the
posterior, or composed of feeble spines. Ventrals abdominal, with one
spine and five rays.

SPHYRAENIDA.

The first family is the Barracudas, or Sea Pike.* There are three
fishes of this small family occasionally found in Port Jackson and on
other inlets of the coast. They are easily known by the elongate.
muzzle and strong teeth, and in general outline are not unlike the
British pike. This gives them the name which they bear of “ pike”
amongst the Sydney fishermen. They are only caught by the seine, and
are most abundant in summer, when they seem to come to the coast in
small shoals. They are also caught at other seasons, but the adult fish
rarely in large quantities. The young are taken much more frequently
in seines.

‘The Pike.

(Plate XX'VIIL)

“‘ Pike,” as generally understood here, is Sphyrena obtusata, Cuv. and
Val. (Plate XX VII), a long narrow fish, with a long head and scaly oper-
cula. It is greenish lead colour above, silvery beneath, fins deep yellow,
outer rays black, a dark band from snout to tail below lateral line ;
there is also a black blotch under the root of the pectorals. We have
another species in Port Jackson, S. Nove Hollandie, Ginth. Another
kind of Pike is Lanioperca mordax, Giinth. (Plate XXVIII).

Mugilide or Grey Mullets.

Distinguished by moderately large cycloid scales, dentition very feeble
or none, no lateral line.

* This name is no doubt the same as Barracouta, and is of Spanish origin. The
application of it to Thyrsites atun in the Southern seas was founded on some
fancied resemblance to the West Indian fish, which originally bore the name,
though of course they are entirely different. x

70 NEW SOUTH ‘WALES

The grey mullets, says Dr. Giinther, numerous in species and indivi-
duals, inhabit all the coasts of temperate and tropical climates. They
frequent brackish waters, where they find their food, which consists of
organic substances, mixed with sand and mud ; to protect their stomachs
and gill-openings they have the pharynx modified into a filtering
apparatus. They take in a quantity of sand and mud, and having
worked it for some time between the pharyngeal bones eject the useless
portions. These bones are coated with a thick soft membrane, which rests
upon a large fatty mass, giving it considerable elasticity. Another oval
mass of fat occupies the roof of the pharynx between the two
pharyngeal bones. Each branchial has on each side a series of closely-
set gill-rakers, which are bent sideways and downwards, each set closely
fitting into the series of the adjoining arch, thus constituting an
admirable sieve. ‘Some seventy species of grey mullet are known,
the majority attaining a weight of about 4 pounds. All are eaten,
and some are esteemed, especially when taken out of fresh water. If
attention were paid to their cultivation, great profits could be made by
securing the fry and transferring it into suitable backwaters on the
shore, in which they would rapidly grow to a marketable size,” —G.8.F.,
p. 504. , ,

Two genera only will occupy us, and they are easily distinguished.
Mugil, without teeth ; Myxus, with feeble teeth.

' The best known species in New South Wales are the ‘‘sea mullet” (Mugit

grandis, Castelnau), the ‘‘ flat-tail mullet” (Mugil Peronii, Cuv. and Val.), the
“river or hard-gut mullet” (Mugil dobula, Giinther), and the “ sand-mullet or
talleygalann” (Mycus elongatus, Gtinther). Other species there are, such as
Mugil cephalotus, Petardi, compressus, argenteus, and acutus, but they are rarely
seen and little known, and not therefore classifiable as useful fishes. “The first of
this list, the sea mullet, is a large fish, attaining when full grown a length of 2
feet and a weight of 8 lbs. It is unsurpassed in richness and delicacy of flavour
by any fish in the world, the salmon not excepted, and it offers itself for our use
in countless numbers at the very season when it is in the best possible condition.
The history of this fish is now-pretty well known, though it will be seen by a
perusal of the large amount of evidence printed in the Appendix that there are
many very conflicting statements and opinions given.

To begin with the spawning season :—In the latter end of summer, that is at
periods varying from the middle of March to the middle of May, the sea mullet
is seen to enter all the harbours and inlets of the coast in successive shoals, some of
the most astonishing vastness. . It is then full of roe, and in splendid condition.
When not interfered with by fishermen (for it is a fish easily turned from its
course) or diverted by storms or floods, these shoals penetrate to all parts of these
inlets, and run up the rivers even into fresh water in search of suitable places for
the deposition of their spawn. When a suitable spot is reached, the deposition of
the spawn commences, and the process is carried on in much the same way as
that of the salmon and other fish of similar habits. Sometimes, however, from
bad weather or the persecution of fishermen, the shoals are prevented from
seeking suitable spawning grounds, and the fish being no longer able to retain the
spawn, shed it loose upon the water, where it becomes entirely lost. When the
ova are’ properly fertilized and left undisturbed, the young fish make their
appearance on the approach of warm weather in spring, when they may be seen
in La shoals close to the land and in shallow water. From that period until
they become adult, which is probably at the age of two years, they seem to ke
entirely to the rivers, lakes, and mud flats, where they thrive and grow wit.
amazing rapidity. When in this half-grown condition they are very inferior in
flavour to what they become afterwards, having an oily and muddy taste. As
they are without teeth, they are incapable of eating either animal or vegetable
substances in the ordinary sense of the term, but they are possessed, Dr. Giinther
informs us, of a pharyngeal apparatus which sifts the organic from the inorganic

"‘AYOd NHOr
‘IFA VY AIQ—'syvugsny snaz

‘IXY gayvrg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 71

particles from the mud which they swallow and on which they live. When the
period at length arrives for the mature fish to go to the sea preparatory to
Spawning, the instinct which actuates them seems to be irresistible. In one
instance some years ago, when Tuggerah beach lake was for a time shut up at its
sea mouth, the mullet pressed in such masses in the direction in which the outlet
should have been that thousands of them were forced up on the land and perished.
An occurrence of the same kind is mentioned as having happened at Las,
Illawarra under similar circumstances. It is doubtful how long it is between tr
rush of the fish to the sea and their re-entrance into the same or other rivers ; the
belief is that the time is very short, that the movement is only from one opening
of the coast to another, and always from south to north. There can be little
doubt that the fish after spawning find their way back to their old haunts, but
they have very seldom been seen so returning. The spent fish are for a time
unfit for food, but they improve in condition very rapidly. The only instrument
of capture used for the mullet is the seine net. "The range of the species is from
the Gippsland lakes on the south up to Brisbane on the north.

The flat-tail mullet is also a very. good fish, but has neither the size nor the
extreme excellence of the sea mullet. It appears also at the end of summer or
beginning of winter and spawns in our bays and creeks, but the shoals are never
of the same enormous size as are common with the other.

The other species (M. dobula) is, except at the schooling season, almost a fresh-
water fish, living as high up the streams as it can get, but it cannot, like the
European salmon, pass up rapids or falls. It is a good fish, but inferior to both
the others. The term ‘‘hard-gut mullet” is sometimes applied to this species,
but more frequently the fishermen apply that name to immature specimens of the -
‘sea mullet.” It is sometimes taken by the hook.

The ‘‘sand mullet” (Myxus elongatus) seldom exceeds 7 or 8 inches in length,
and, though no doubt excellent eating as are all the family, is looked upon as
too small for the:market.—R.R.C.

The Sea Mullet.
(Plate XXX.)

A figure of Mugil grandis, Castelnau, is given as it is a fish which
may become of more commercial importance than any other. The
observations of Mr. Edw. Hill are here inserted, with a little alteration.

“There are several varieties in this Colony, but the one to which
especial reference is made may be readily identified by its size and obesity,
as also by the numbers which are brought into the market at atime, by
boat-loads and cart-loads, and usually at this particular season, when
they are so much needed. These fishes come from the south, and go as
far north and east as Navigator Islands, and enter the bays and harbours
of this coast from February to April.* In March, however, they visit
Botany Bay, Sydney Harbour, and Broken Bay, sooner or later in this
month, and as a rule may be looked for after every southerly gale or
easterly bad weather. As these fishes are then full-roed, no doubt they
are migrating for the purpose of spawning, and keep together in large
shoals, at times covering acres, and when they do arrive great attention
is bestowed on their movements by professional fishermen, both late and
early, and if a chance is offered by their coming into water sufficiently
shoal they are surrounded by a net, and sometimes double-banked by
net after net, at which times thousands are captured. These fishes at

* This is not quite correct. The Australian species have only been seen between
Gippsland and Brisbane. The one referred to as seen off the Pacific Islands is
another species. The fish cannot live long without the mud from which it derives
its food.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 73

“Mugils are very distinct from the sea, or sand mullet, besides which
they come down the rivers, and go in shoals or schools in their season,
but do not attain more than one-third the size of the sea mullet, and are
frequently brought to market with the ordinary net fish, and by which
means they are usually caught. They are tolerably good and palatable
fishes, but not so estimable as the large kind named, and it is curious
and instructive to see practical fishermen following these shoals of fishes
for the purpose of capture. Almost instinctively they will tell you
whether they are the hard-gut or the flat-tail, or the tallagallan, directly
they see any one of these leap from the water, a mode of procedure very
common to this family of fishes when sporting uninterruptedly. The
“‘hard-gut”* is the best marketable fish of these three, and may be dis-
tinguished by- his short thick tail, flat deep sides, and shining scales.
The tallagallan is a long-bodied fish, and found chiefly on the flats at
flood-tide, or near shoal water with a deep stream or channel in one part.
In the young state these fishes are much more delicate and palatable
than the adult. When they are dry they form, however, a very good
adjunct to the other fishes of the Colony. The flipper or flat-tail is found
at the mouths of small fresh-water streams on the clear white sand, and
readily take a bait of dough and bread-crumbs kneaded together, and at
which times they afford good sport to those who delight in the pleasure
of fishing with the rod and line, but they are not more than one-third
or half-grown at this time.”

The sea-mullet affords good sport to anglers in the Hunter and other
eastern rivers. The bait is a small worm, but a far better kind is the
fine silky green conferva which grows on the surface of stones or logs
which have been long in the water. Mullet will take this with great
avidity. The weed must be cut rather long and wound around the
hook. It must not be confounded with the coarse green woolly conferva
which covers the bottom like a blanket. Mullet will not touch this.
The other they eat so greedily that not a particle can be found on the
stones and logs of the rivers where these fish are abundant.

A good many divisions and families of fishes must be passed over to
come to those of most importance to New South Wales.

II.—Ord. ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCOGNATHI.

Parts of the rays of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins are non-
articulated spines. Lower pharyngeals ‘coalesced, air-bladder without
pneumatic duct.

POMACENTRIDA, or CORAL FISHES.
LABRIDA, or WRASSES.

The Wrasses are a large family of littoral fishes, very abundant in
the temperate or tropical zones. Many of them are readily recognized
by their lips, which are sometimes internally folded, a peculiarity which
has given the name of Labride, from labrum, lip. They feed chiefly
on molluscs and ‘crustaceans, their teeth being admirably adapted for
crushing hard substances. Many species have a strong curved tooth at
the posterior extremity of the intermaxillary, for the purpose of pressing

* The ‘“ Hard-gut” is merely an early stage of the Sea Mullet. A, Oliver.
EK

7A NEW SOUTH WALES

a shell against the lateral and front teeth by which it is crushed,
Others feed on corals or zoophytes, and some are herbivorous. Beautiful
colours prevail in this family, and some species which are the most
prized as food reach a weight of 50 Ibs.

This family includes all the rock and reef fishes known as parrot-fishes, A
large number of species are found in our seas, but many of them are only
occasional visitors from the warmer regions of: the north, where the Labride
abound. Those that are most familiar to the Sydney public are the ‘‘ blue groper”
(Cossyphus gouldii), the “‘pig-fish” (Cossyphus unimaculatus), the ‘* Maori” (Coris
lineolatus), and the ‘‘rock whiting” (Odaa semifasciatus). The first of these is a
large fish, and though very little appreciated is expoodingly good, indeed the head
makes the most delicious dish one can well conceive. It is occasionally taken in
the seine when making a haul near rocks, but the usual way of capturing it is by
a spear, a mode of fishing which the aborigines and their half-caste descendants
are very expert at. Several other species of the Labride are said to be very good
for food, but they are little known.—R.R.C.

Cossyphus here referred to has a compressed oblong body, with scales
of moderate size, imbricated scales on the cheeks and opercles, basal
portion of vertical fins scaly, lateral line uninterrupted, teeth in jaws
in a single series, four canine teeth in front of each jaw, a posterior

canine tooth.
The Blue Groper.
(Plate XXXL)

Cossyphus gouldii, Richardson, or the blue groper is a very large dark
purple fish, attaining a length of from 3 to 4 feet. It has no posterior
canine teeth, the scales on the cheek are not imbricate, dorsal fin scaly,
and the caudal truncate.

Mr. Hill speaks of this fish as the “gruper,” and says “it is popu-
larly called in this country the blue or black groper, no doubt from the
fact of these fishes groping in and out of the caverns and crevices of
rocks in search of crustacez.

“The gruper, though plentiful, is not a common market fish, neither
is it sought much after by professional fishermen, for various reasons,
among which may be mentioned that it is out of their lay for their
general fishing grounds, as it is essentially a dweller among the caves
and rocks of the coast, and the rocky points within the harbour, where
their occupations rarely extend, and also that the gruper may not be,
from its coarse appearance, a favourite with the general public.

“Tt is a clumsy-looking fish, with huge scales which hang on with
great tenacity, requiring a tomahawk to remove them, unless it is done
immediately after capture—even thén it is a tough job. These fishes
grow to a large size, and attain a weight of 30 Ibs. or more, either blue
or bronze when in the water; when taken and dead they soon change
to a very dark brown or black. These fishes carefully skirt the rocks |
at flood tide in seach of food; on the ebb they retire at once to deep
water, and of a calm day may be seen at a moderate depth sporting
leisurely near the vestibule of their own rocky halls.

“The gruper is a shy fish when he sees moving objects on the shore.
The aboriginal when seeking this fish, armed with a couple of spears,
prosecutes his search with cat-like caution, and when in view is as
motionless as a statue, keeping, if necessary, that position for a consi-
derable time till a chance offers, when he darts one of the spears with

“(QMSy 19M0]) LVHTOVIE—pgnuhenu V199]0T

‘ONILIHM ONS
‘(aansy taddn) 5 xy “O— DpBnamu obnypg

THXX ftvtg

‘SAHOIN] 40 37VOS

FISH AND FISHERIES. 75

an unerring and powerful plunge into one of the fishes, and fixes it firmly
to the rock or ground. Then the struggle commences ; the second spear
is brought to bear, and in general accomplishes the work of death.

“The gruper is often decoyed from its hiding place by oysters and
shells broken, or crabs broken up and thrown out as berley; then the
cunning and dexterity, added to which the patience of the black is
admired. There is nothing to equal his agility when he boldly pursues
from rock to rock the fugitive, perhaps with a broken or disabled spear,
and at length dashing in with his already disabled shaft he will struggle
hard and do his work effectually.

“With hook and line along the rocks of our sea-coast these fishes are
caught, but the bait should be crabs. It is usual to wrench legs and
shell off the back, and cast them out for berley. The body is then
secured on the hook with a piece of thread or flax and thrown out; if
a gruper be at home, that is the surest way to entice him.

“Boiled head or shoulder of a gruper is a perfect dish ; and I have
learned from those who are not only capable of judging but giving an
opinion also, that it more resembles the princely turbot than does any other
of the fishes of the Colony.”

The Pig-fish.

Another species called the pig-fish, C. unimaculatus, Giinth. (Plate
XXXII), is a much smaller fish, with the pre-operculum minutely
serrated, and exceedingly strong anal spines. It is of a uniform red
colour, with a deep black spot at the base of the sixth and eighth dorsal,
and a small black spot on the fifth and ninth dorsal spines.

The Rock Whiting.

Odazx, “rock whitings,” have a compressed oblong body, with small
scales, head naked, lateral line not interrupted, dorsal spines nine. We
have only one species in Port Jackson, already referred to.

The Stranger.

Odax has @ conical snout with the edge of each jaw sharp and cutting
without distinct teeth. The Port Jackson species named is about 14
inches long, of a sky-blue colour, with a golden spot on each scale, or green
with the belly white, and with transverse black spots on the back.
Another species is called the “stranger” in Melbourne (0. richardsonii,
Gunth.) and another in Tasmania, O. baleatus, Cuv. and Val. goes by the
name of “kelp-fish.” A very small one in Port Jackson, of chocolate
brown colour with reddish fins, is called O. brunneus (Macleay).

III.—Ord. ANACANTHINI.

Vertical and ventral fins without spinous rays ; ventrals jugular,
thoracic or none. No pneumatic duct in air-bladder if present.

GADIDZ, or COD-FISHES.

The cod family, so largely and usefully represented in Europe and America,
only exists in Australia in the form of two species of Lotellacallarias and.
fuliginosa, known to the fishermen by then ames of ‘‘beardie” and ‘‘ling.”
They are very rare, and generally of small size. Nothing is known of their edible
qualities. —R.R.C.

‘

46 NEW SOUTH WALES

The Beardie, or Ling.

(Plate XXIII, fig. 2.)

Loretta mararnata, Macleay (Plate XVII, fig. 2) belongs to a genus
which has a separate caudal fin, teeth in the upper jaw in a bad and anouter
series of larger ones; chin, with a barbel. There are four species known in
Australia, Our Port Jackson species is from 14 to 20 inches long, of a
uniform brownish colour with the margins of all the fins white. Of the
esculent qualities of the species nothing is known, but those in Victoria
and Tasmania are valued by some. The flesh is always very soft and
watery. There are excellent figures of the Victorian species in McCoy’s
Prodromus of {the Zoology of Victoria, Part II, plates 19 and 20,.
caught with a line off the rocks ; the fishermen state that the spawning
time in Victoria is April.

Passing over the families OpHIDIIDZ and Macruripa, the second
division of the Anacanthini demandsa more lengthened notice. It con-
sists of one family—

PLEURONECTIDZ.

These fishes are called “ Flat Fishes,” including soles, flounders, plaice,
turbot, &e. They have no air-bladder, and are so compressed that
they move on one side of the body. The lower side, which on different
genera is sometimes the left and sometimes the right, is white, the upper
side is variously and sometimes brilliantly coloured, and both eyes are
on the upper side, an arrangement which does not take place, until the
young fishes have attained some size and have been swimming in the ocean
like ordinary fishes. The fins which run all around the flat fish are the
dorsal and anal,and the name Plewronectide (Greek pleuron side, nektes
swimmer) refers to this peculiarity. In Psettodes we find a sort of tran-
sition state in the adult, and the eyes are as often found on the right
as on the left side, and not unfrequently they swim in a vertical position.
In the adult state they live on the bottom and swim with an undulating
motion. They prefer sand, with which they cover themselves, Some
enter fresh water, and others never live out of it. One fresh-water species
of sole was brought down by me from the Palmer River (Synaptura
selheimi, Macleay), obtained by Mr. Selheim and others. Giinther
says that all flat fishes are carnivorous, but this must be subject to some
exception, as these fresh-water soles were captured by a bait of grass.
The size and abundance of flat fishes and the flavour of the flesh of the
majority render this family one of the most useful to man.

There are about thirty-five genera, of which Hippoglossus, the “ Hali-
but,” Rhombus, “Turbot,” Solea, the “Sole,” and Plewronectes, the
Plaices, are the most familiar.

s

The Flounder.
(Plate XXXIIL)

“Out of the eight or nine species of flat fishes found in Eastern Australia, two
only are of sufficient size and frequency of occurrence to be classed among our use-
ful fishes. These are Pseudorhombus russellii, generally called the “ founder, *
and Synaptura nigra, best known as the ‘‘sole.” The first of these is to be found
on all the sandy bottoms both inside and outside the bays and inlets of the coast. It’

Pratt XXIV.

13 IMCHES

4
=|

ed

oh

Sillago cliata.—Cvv. & VAu., not GUNTHER.

NORTHERN WHITING (RARE IN N. S. WALES.)

FISH AND FISHERIES. 77

is generally taken by the hook, the closeness with which it adheres to the ground
making it merely a chance taking it in theseine. It is a good fish, by many people
esteemed considerably above its true merits. The other species, the “sole,” is an
exquisitely delicious fish, equal if not superior to the Thames sole, but curiously
enough is as much undervalued by the public generally as the flounder is the
reverse. It is probable that this prejudice proceeds from bad cooking, as the
“‘ chair” is of a very tough gelatinous character. The mode of capture is solely by
spearing, as it is a fish which never takes the hook, and lies far too close to the
.ground for the seine. The modus operandi is as follows :—Ona calm clear mornin,
pass slowly in a boatover the shallow flats where they abound. The fish, alarme
by the approach of the boat, seeks to hide itself in the mud. Asmallcloudis thus
raised, and into the middle of this cloud the fishermen plunges his spear, and un-
failingly secures his fish, Large numbers have been taken in this way in one
morning at the mouth of Cook’s River, in Botany Bay. Thatand Lake Macquarie
seem to be favourite haunts of this fish. Both species come to the flats inshore
after midsummer, probably only from deeper flats and banks outside. They
are then full of roe, and there can be little doubt that the spawn is deposited
on the sandy flats on which the fishes are then found. The trawl net seems

to be the most likely way of securing a regular supply of these most valuable
fishes.—R.R.C,

Some of the European soles spawn in the open sea, according to Mr.
Holdsworth.*

Pseudorhombus has a wide mouth, and teeth in both jaws of unequal
size in a single series ; none on the vomerine and palatine bones ; eyes
on left side, interorbital space not concave, dorsal fin commences on
the snout ; scales, small ; lateral line with a strong anterior curve. This
is generally a tropical genus. One species, which has been found in North
Australia is yellowish brown with two or three spots on the lateral line.
There is another species in Port Jackson, P. multimaculatus, Giinth.,
which is a greyish-brown with smaller and larger sub-ocellated blackish-
brown spots ; fins, finely spotted with brown, a series-of larger distinct
spots along the basal half of the dorsal and anal fins.

We have also many other genera and species in Victoria. The sole is
Rhombosolea bassensis, Cast., and the Flounder, 2. plesoides, Giinth.
We have also in Port Jackson two species of the true sole, viz.,—Solea
microcephala, Giinth., and S. macleayana, Ramsay. The genus Synaptura
is peculiar to the Indian and Australian seas. It has the eyes on the
right side, upper in advance of the lower, cleft of mouth narrow and
twisted to the left side. Teeth minute, on blind side only, none on
vomer or palate. Vertical fins confluent, scales smalf, ctenoid. Lateral
line straight. “We have three species, and there are two others in the.
tropics, one of which is the fresh-water species already referred to.

The Sole.
(Plate XXXIV.)

S. nigra, Macleay, is black on the right side and the left yellowish
white. The vertical fins are tipped with white. The scales are
firm and hard, and their apices glassy-looking, with seven or eight
acute points, those on the blind side like them but not so strongly
armed. In the harbour it never attains a length of more than 10 inches,
and about 6 wide (high). Mr. Macleay having tried some experiments
with a trawl net obtained some of much larger size. He regards the
fish as superior to the English sole.

* See article ‘‘ Fisheries” in the ninth edition of the Encyclop. Brit.

78 NEW SOUTH: WALES

The following is the experience of Mr. E. Hill in capturing these
fish :—“ The flounder and sole are the only representatives, so far as we
know, in our Australian waters. It was atone time alleged by a French
officer visiting this country that he had caught a turbot while off Sydney
Heads. Some years subsequent the late Sir W. Denison and Sir Daniel
Cooper fitted out a trawling expedition along the coast. A vessel of over
100 tons was placed at their disposal by Messrs. Broomfield and Whit-
taker, of this city, manned by the ordinary crew, together with a number
of additional hands placed on board by Captain Denham, of H.M. ship
‘“‘ Herald,” under charge of Captain Hixson, our present Superintendent
of Pilots, who, together with the writer and Captain Broomfield, proceeded
to the scenes of operation, which extended from Broken Bay on the
north to Jervis Bay on the south, and which voyage lasted over twenty-
eight days, without any result for the fish sought, although thousands of
fishes were caught during the time, including the flounder and the sole,
but no turbot.

“The flounder is not very abundant, and is caught by line and hook
as well as by net. With line and hook they have been frequently
caught over towards Manly Beach, and on the Sow and Pigs sandspit,
as well as at other placesin the harbour. Botany Bay also affords some
particular spots where they are most likely to be ; but there is little or
no certainty of catching a flounder at any time—they come in promis-
cuously.

* The sole is one of those rare fishes of this Colony that the founder
is very frequently made to take its place. ‘Pay your money and have
your choice.’ Call it either flounder or sole, as you please. There are
few who know the distinguishing features between flounder and sole, but
many recognize the distinction when they have them together.

“The flounder takes a bait as he is swimming, and is armed with rather
formidable teeth set in a mouth across. The sole will not take a bait,
nor does he feed except only when perfectly flat on the ground, dark
side up, and generally with sand and debris to the eyes, leaving his
mouth, which is formed very like the letter 8 and without perceptible
teeth, free to take in food.

“The usual or oly method of taking the sole is by spear during the
calm mornings of winter when the water is clear; the slightest ripple is
a serious obstacle. This is sometimes overcome by a little grease or oil
on the surface of the water, and it is usual to take a piece of fat meat
for that purpose. The spear should have but one fine steel prong, with
which you probe the sand on their feeding patches, and when the fish is
pierced it makes no resistance, and is easily brought to the surface. Very
frequently two are pierced and brought up at the same time, and in one
or two instances I have seen three brought in with one probe by strikin;
the pe where they had accidentally over-lain each other in the feeding
patch.

“The sole of this country is a very delicious fish when properly cooked.
No dependence, however, is to be placed in the certainty of a catch, and
I know of no grounds more likely than that of Cook’s River channel above
the Waterworks, or the Wallanora, up George’s River ; at this latter place
I have been successful, having taken in one morning over 100 pair.”

‘QVAHLV14
‘IVA Y ‘ANQ—snosnf snpnydaokpnjg

“AXX SivTg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 79

Mr. Lee Lord, in a paper sent to the Royal Commission, gives an
equally interesting account of this fish He says:—‘“TI procure it in
large numbers at the mouth of Cook’s River, and also near the mouth
of Shea’s Creek, where the water is shallow. The depth varies from 4
feet to 12 feet, but averages about 6 feet. My mode of capture is with
the net or spear, for they never take the hook. I use a spear 12 feet
‘long, with one steel spike at the end 9 inches long, without a barb and
quite smooth, as in this way the fish is not torn or injured. The water
requires to be as smooth as glass, so that the bottom or sand may be
easily seen, and the early morning is the best time. Low tide is most
suitable, for the boat is then more easily managed and the water not so
deep. When the tide is not too strong I propel the boat with the spear,
so as to follow along the banks and holes where the fish lie ; if a strong
tide, allow the boat to drift. They lie in the sand, mostly covered all
over, but some only partially, when they are very easily seen. As they
feed the sand is disturbed, and I find them either in holes about 4 feet
square and 6 inches deep, or else by following their tracks along the
banks. By the latter method I have often gone 15 yards before finding
the fish. The first method is the most common, and in some of these
holes I have taken four fish (for if you spear one, the other will not
move till touched). Inthe summer months they usually feed along the
edge of the channel ; in winter they go into a little deeper water, and I
find them then generally just inside the ledges or banks of sand formed
by the tide ; they are more difficult to find.

“On the 2Ist February last I speared 24 dozen in less than 14 hour,
the best lot I ever procured, nearly all the same size, very fat, and full
of roe. Those who tasted them pronounced them the most excellent
they had ever seen. In January, February, March, April, October, and
November I have always got large numbers,—as many as five dozen
before breakfast,—and in these months I have found them most plentiful,
sometimes in one part sometimes in another, say fully 1 mile apart.
In the winter months, May, June, and July, I have taken large numbers,
averaging 14 to 2 dozen per day, but the fish is not then such good eating.

“‘The appearance of the sole is oval-shaped, with little or no tail, grey
colour, very much the colour of the bottom; many are spotted all over
the top side, and get darker after being out of the water some time.
The bottom side is quite white; the eye is very prominent, and often
looks like a pearl on the sand, and is sometimes the only method of
distinguishing the fish.

“To prepare for cooking they require to be placed in boiling water from
ten to fifteen seconds, when the skin begins to come away from the outer
edge, and is then easily drawn off top and bottom, with a dry cloth, from
the tail to the head. The skin will not come off without scalding water.”

The Hon. W. Macleay, who has always taken a very active interest in
our fishes, has held the opinion that the Plewronectide are notless frequent
in our own seas than any others. As however they are all ground fishes
and except in the spawning season always keep in deep water, and
seldom take a bait, the only way to capture them is by the use of the trawl
net. The experiment had not been previously tried except in a clumsy

80 NEW sOUTH WALES

way, which was not successful.* The Government of New South Wales,
acting on the recommendation of the Royal Commission on the Fisheries
of New South Wales, lately imported a variety of nets, lines, and fishing
implements of the latest and most improved kinds, from England,
Norway, and America. Amongst these there were two trawl nets, a
large Grimsby beam trawl and an otter trawl of 42 feet width of net.
Early in January of this year (1880) a trial of the other trawl was made.
The net was put overboard off Middle Head, and was raised in North
Harbour, near Manly Beach. It was again lowered at the mouth of
Middle Harbour and raised opposite Clontarf. On both occasions the
net was quite full. Besides a number of rays and sharks, there were
gurnards, gobies, and a large number of Pleuronectide. The flounder
was got in considerable number, though rarely taken in the seine net,
(Mr. Macleay thinks that of all European flatfish it nearest approaches
is the “Brill,” Rhombus levis). Other rare flatfishes were found,
including a new species of Synaptura and a new genus entitled Lophor-
hombus cristatus. One very large sole and several smaller ones were
obtained. So large a capture where such a small space was traversed by
the trawl, and in not very deep water, shows what advantages may be
expected if trawl-fishing becomes an industry in New South Wales. It
was singular, Mr. Macleay remarks, that no species of Rhombosolea
were found, though represented by many species in Victoria, Tasmania,
and the south coasts generally. He predicts moreover that a better
acquaintance with the deep-sea fauna, by the aid of the trawl net, will
prove the existence in the deep-sea currents of species of Rhombosolea
like the &. monopus (New Zealand), rivalling the European turbot in
size and excellence.

IV.—Ord. PHYSOSTOMI.

All the fin-rays articulated, first dorsal and pectoral sometimes ossified.
Ventrals, if present, abdominal, without spines ; air-bladder, if present,
with a pneumatic duct (except in ScomprEsocipz).

SILURIDA.

No scales, sometimes osseous scutes, barbels always present ; maxil-
lary bone rudimentary, almost always supporting a maxillary barbel.
Margin of upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries. Suboperculum,
absent. Air-bladder present, generally communicating with the organ
of hearing by ossicles, an adipose fin, or none.

There are several species of Siluride in these seas, the most common in Port
Jackson being the ‘‘cat-fish” (Cnidoglanis megastoma, Richardson). Though an
excellent fish it is very seldom eaten ; the prejudice existing against the whole
family being almost universal among Europeans. It is frequently taken in the net
on the muddy beaches of the harbour.—R.R.C.

* The substance of these remarks is contained in a paper read before the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, in January, 1882, and published in the 7th volume
of the Proceedings,

‘adanve LNVS5DxYaS

“(ounsg taaoz) NOsdavHoy— ‘snzossximdind sndojne

“LANSNDS YO GYVNAND
‘(amsy aeddu) Nossaqy—nuny vpbruy

TAXX SVT

FISH AND FISHERIES. 81

The Cat-fish.

Mr. Hill says that they are chiefly nocturnal, or in day-time lie
about in secluded spots or on the edge of the fringe weeds. Cat-fish
are very numerous at several places, and when out net-fishing they are
very troublesome. The head is armed with two or three heavy spines,
placed in such a way that they are most effective—one bone on each
side of the head, low down and far back, and another at the com-
mencement of the dorsal spine, nearly at the back of the head. These
sharp bony substances are concealed by a thin membranaceous film the
colour of the fish, but which are easily bared, when they appear white.
There can be no doubt that these spines are really venomous, and to be
punctured by one of them is a serious matter. Not only is the pain
intense, but the after consequences are generally grave. All the Siluridee
have these spines as weapons of defence, which can be secured by another
spine, which acts as a bolt or fulcrum, and a bony ring, along which some
sort of virus seems to be secreted. This marine cat-fish is quite black.
They are distinguished from other freshwater cat-fish (Copidoglanis) by
having all the gill membranes united below the throat, and attached to
the isthmus along the entire mesial line. The mouth is overhung with
fleshy cirrus, and this together with their being nocturnal causes them
to bear the name of cat-fish.

“The cat-fishes make a hole or mound, to which the female may retire
at the summer season to incubate. I have often seen the blacks get them
out with very primitive means. ‘First they procure a straight thin limb
or piece of scrub tea-tree or other wood, about the size of a stout ramrod
and twice as long. This they point and harden in the fire, and then with.
another piece of stouter wood or a dingy paddle they proceed to work,
two or three stabbing in the same mound or patch, for itis raised only a
very few inches, till one or another has pierced the old one ; then with the
short stout piece of wood or paddle they dig it out, and very often as a
preliminary they will examine the spot with their foot, but are very
careful then, and can readily detect if one is at home. The blacks
appear to be very fond of these fishes ; and at this season of the year,
while the fish is roasting, and the rich-looking ovaries are bursting
through the heat, they look very tempting ; and I think this is the best
way to cook them and the proper time to eat them. They give to
fishermen a great deal of trouble with their nets, and often get their
thorns entangled endeavouring to get through the meshes. William
Anan, an aboriginal, accompanied a party net-fishing to the head of
Darling Harbour one afternoon ; the place was already celebrated for
cat-fish, and after the net had been hauled, and being prepared again
for the boat, a part of poor William’s hand came in contact with one of
the thorns of the cat-fish. This gave him great pain, and soon com-
menced to inflame, in consequence of which he had his arm amputated
to save his life. He lived long afterwards, and was useful and cheerful
when out with fishing parties.”—E. 8. H.

The other species of cat-fish Copidoglanis tandanus, Mitchell, will be
dealt with amongst the fresh-water fishes.

82 NEW SOUTH WALES

Fam. SCOPELIDE.

Like Siluride, but body often scaly; no barbels, no air-bladder.
Opercular apparatus sometimes rudimentary, an adipose fin. Pyloric
appendages few or absent. Intestinal tract very short. Exclusively
marine forms.

“They are all deep-sea fishes, and excellent for food ; but of the five
species known in these seas, one only, the “Sergeant Baker” (Awlopus
purpurissatus), is of any size. It is a beautiful as well as a good fish,
and is frequently caught by the hook in the summer season by the
schnapper-fishers. The other species of our waters belong to the genera
Saurus and Saurida.”—R.R.C.

The genus here referred to has the head and body rather elongate,
slightly compressed, covered with scales of moderate size. Mouth very
wide. Maxillary well developed, dilated behind. Teeth small, heart-
shaped, in bands in the jaws, on the vomer, palatine, and tongue; eye
moderate. Pectorals and ventrals well developed, the latter nine-
rayed, inserted close behind the pectorals below the anterior dorsal rays.
Dorsal in the middle of the body, rather long, with fifteen or more rays.
Adipose fin small, anal moderate, caudal forked. Gill opening very
wide.

The Sergeant Baker.
(Plate XXXYV.)

This fish is Aulopus purpurissatus, of Richardson, is a species
distinguished by having the second and third dorsal ray produced
into a long ray in the males. The colours of this fish are very
brilliant, consisting chiefly of purple and red. Mr. Hill says of this
fish :—“The red gurnard or gurnet, popularly known as ‘Sergeant
Baker,’ is of the genus Aulopus, ‘combining the character of the salmon
and the cod-fish’ (Cuvier).* It was long supposed in this country that
the red gurnard or Sergeant Baker and the flying gurnard were of the
same family and genus, the distinction being merely in the wings; the
colour and similarity in shape no doubt was the cause of the delusion.
The Sergeant Baker in all probability got its local appellation in the
early history of the Colony (New South Wales), as it was called after a
sergeant of that name in one of the first’ detachments of a regiment, so
were also two fruits of the Geebong tribe (Persoonia) ; one was called
Major Buller, and the other Major Groce, and this latter again further
corrupted into Major Grocer ; such was the spirit of corruption in those
days.

“Tt is not only a good fish, but combines the flavour of the salmon
with the rich flakiness of the cod-fish. It can readily be understood
why connoisseurs select them, after a day’s sport with line or net, for
they may be caught with either, and at any place, but not many are
secured at the same time, and these fishes are what may be termed
scarce. I have known the Sergeant Baker and the flying gurnard
caught with hook and line out of the same boat and off the same
ground ; both had their heads cut off and fried in the same pan, but
there was a positive distinction, although both were good.”

* There is nothing of the salmon about it, except the adipose fin.

‘GHYVNAND ONIATA SHL

“NOSMUVHOTY —'yyouwokyjod vjbi17,

TIANYX S1vt 7

FISH AND FISHERIES. 83

It will not be necessary to delay over the next eight families of fishes
any more than to state that they include the immense groups of
Cyprinide, Carps, which is not represented ‘in Australia, though the
Crucian Carp, Carassius carassius has been introduced into very many
of our rivers and ponds. There are noneof the Family of Cypinodonte:
in Australia though represented by so many genera in Africa, Asia,
America, and Southern Europe. .

SCOMBRESOCIDA.

Body covered with scales, with a keeled series on each side of the
belly. Margin of the upper jaw formed bythe inter-maxillaries
mesially and by the maxillaries, and by the inter-maxillaries laterally.
Lower pharyngeals united into a single bone, dorsal fin opposite the
anal and near the tail. Stomach not distinct from the intestine, which
is quite straight, without appendages.

Fishes of this family are generally distinguished by some peculiarity
in the jaws. In Belone both jaws are produced into a long slender
beak, no finlets. In Scombresox the jaws are the same, but there are a
number of finlets between the dorsal, anal, and caudal.

In Hemirhamphus the lower jaw only is prolonged into'a long slender
beak. In Arrhamphus the upper jaw forms a triangular more or less
convex plate, and the lower jaw is not prolonged. In Hxocetus the jaws
are shortand the pectorals converted into long organs of flying. All but
Arrhamphus are found on the coasts of N. 8. Wales, and are excellent
table fishes.

The Long Tom.
(Plate XXXVL)

Belone ferox is the “ Long Tom” of the Sydney fishermen, a “ Garfish”
which is only taken in the net. They have teeth widely set apart
in their long jaws, and they skim over the surface of the water seizing
the small prey as birds do with the beak, and which without the
teeth they would be unable to hold. They can only swallow small fish,
and swim with an undulatory. motion of the body. Dr. Giinther says
that shoals of them appear upon the coast with mackerel. In conse-
quence of their bones being of a green colour an opinion exists that they
are poisonous. There are one or two doubtful cases of fish-poisoning on
record, said to have arisen from eating the bones.

Of the ‘‘garfishes” we have four species known to be found onour coasts. One,
Hemirhamphus regularis, is the favourite breakfast fish of the citizens of Sydney.
Hemirhamphus melanochir, or ‘‘ river garfish,” is a still better fish, but has become
very scarce. Hemirhamphus argenteus, the common Brisbane species, but rare in
Sydney, and Hemirhamphus commersoni, also rare in Sydney, but abundant in the
far north, This last is the largest of the genus, but scarcely equal in quality to
the others. The ordinary Sydney garfish (H. regularis) comes in from the sea in
the latter end of summer, to deposit its spawn in suitable spots in the harbour.
It is then in the finest condition, and makes its appearance in successive shoals,
some of them of enormous size. During the latter end of February of this year the
shoals were so large that several boat-loads were taken in one hau! of the seine,
and the fish on the spot could be purchased for sixpence a bushel.—R.R.C.

84 NEW SOUTH WALES

The Garfish.
(Plates XXXVIT and XXXVIIL)

Hemirhamphus intermedius, Cant. (Plate XX XVII upper fig.) has a
dark greenish back, with a well defined silvery band on the upper sides.
H. regularis, Giinth. (Plate XX'VII lower fig.) (the river garfish of the
fishermen). The two species may be readily distinguished by the small
triangular upper jaw being in one (intermedius) longer than broad, and
in the other (regularis) broader than long. In H. intermedius also the
scales are so very deciduous that the fishes generally appear to be with-
out any. ZH. commersoni, Cuv., has four rounded blackish blotches on
the sides. HZ. .argenteus, Beun., has a very short beak. According to
Mr. Hill, “the garfish, or among professional fishermen ballahoo, is
another of the delicate fishes of this Colony, and one which is known
and recognized for its good qualities by every one who has lived in the
city of Sydney, or throughout the length and breadth of the country.
These fishes come into the harbour at various stages of growth, and may
be found from the size of sail-needles to adults of 15, or 18 inches long,
January ard February are the months when they may be seen plentiful
of mixed sizes, but by a wise enactment of the law nets only of a par-
ticular gauge in the meshes are allowed to be fished with, to prevent the
wholesale destruction which used to go on in former years, when
millions of the smaller and useless garfishes were hauled on to the shore
to perish.

“ On the Ist of April, however, that restriction is taken off, at which
time nets with meshes of a suitable size are substituted, and we may
then expect a fair supply to the market, as our harbours are now
teeming with them, and the season extends into the winter months.”

None of the true Flying Fishes are caught near Port Jackson, but
they may be seen in summer months on the more northerly portions of
the coasts of New South Wales.

A great many families must now be passed over, as they include none
of commercial importance to Australia. There are no true Salmonide
known in any of our waters, but Salmon and Salmon Trout have been
successfully introduced. An attempt has been made in Tasmania to
acclimatize Salmo purpuratus, as well as Salmo salar, S. fario, the Trout,
and S. trutta, the Bull Trout or Salmon Trout. So far the experiment
may be said to be pending. Whether S. salar is really acclimatized or
not is still doubted by some, though for no good reason, the largest
‘Specimens, over 10lbs. which I have seen caught were certainly true
Salmon, according to the opinion of the most experienced persons in
‘Tasmania. The whole evidence on this question will be stated further
on in connection with acclimatization of Fishes.

CLUPEIDA, or Herrings.

Body covered with scales, head naked, no barbels, abdomen frequently
compressed inti a serrated edge. Margin of upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillaries mesially, and maxillaries laterally, the latter composed
of at least three movable pieces. Opercular apparatus complete, no
adipose fin, dorsal moderate, anal sometimes very long. Stomach with

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 85

a blind sac, pyloric appendages numerous. Gill apparatus much deve-
loped, the openings generally very wide. Air-bladder more or less
simple. Dentition feeble.*

This family is not numerous in species, but is the most numerous in
individuals known. It comprises coast fishes spread all over tropical
and temperate seas. It was at one time thought that we had no true
Herrings, or if present not as numerously as the northern repre-
sentatives of the family, or as useful. The Hon. W. Macleay has
sufficiently disproved this, from whose essay on the subject} large use is
made in the following remarks.

Herrings are rarely seen in our markets, but this is due to the fact
that the shoals do not as a rule enter our harbours, and to fish for them in
the open sea requires appliances not at present in the possession of our
fishermen. Our species are different from those of the northern hemi-
sphere, but in excellence as food they are not inferior.

Anchovies or Hngraulis have a compressed body with a very wide
lateral mouth, and a projecting upper jaw. Scales large. We have two
species, . antarcticus, Casteln. and #. nasutus, Casteln. The first-
named species is by many erroneously believed to be identical or at most
a variety of #. encrassicholus, of Europe. Count Castelnau states that it
is very common in the Melbourne market at all seasons, and goes by the
name of “ Whitebait.” Mr. Macleay says it is never seen in Sydney
markets, or any species of Engraulis. He thinks that from its being
common. at all seasons that it must be inferior to the real Anchovy at
least in economic value, because it belongs to that class of fishes whose
visits elsewhere aré periodic and in enormous quantities ; that as this
anchovy does not occur in shoals, its fishery could never be of much
value. He however also considers it not unlikely that the specimens
may be young fish, and that the periodical ‘haunts of the large shoals
have not yet been noticed.

Chatoéssus.—Mouth transverse, inferior, narrow, without teeth, upper
jaw overlapping the lower, abdomen serrated. Two species, C. erebi,
C. richardsoni. These are fresh-water fishes which will be dealt with
separately. C. erebi is sometimes caught on the coast, and is called
“ Bony: Bream.”

Brisbania.—Mouth wide, opening upwards, maxillary large, teeth
small and numerous, last ray of dorsal elongate, abdomen not serrated.
There is only one species of this fish, which is of a genus erected by
Count Castelnau for one known as yet only in the Brisbane River.

Clupea.—True Herrings. Mouth small, teeth minute or none,
abdomen serrated, anal fin short. We have ten species if we include
the true sprat (C. sprattus) which is said by Giinther to be found in

* In 1878, the number of herrings brought into Yarmouth and Lowestoft
(England), was 423 millions, of a value of £875,000. In France, in the same year,
the value of the herring fishery was £400,000 ; In 1876, the value of the same
fishery was £825,620. In Ireland, in the same year, it was £226,803. In Scotland
it has been yearly increasing, and in 1876 reached 598,197 crans.

+ On the Clupeide of Australia, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4, p. 363.

86 NEW SOUTH WALES

Australia. (C. sagax, C. sundaica, C. hypelosoma, C. moluccensis, C.
tembang. C. Nove-hollandia, C. vittata, C.: richmondia, C. schlegelii,
and C.. sprattus, are the Australian representatives.*

The Maray.

C. sagaz, Jenyns, is almost identical with the English pilchard. Prof.
McCoy states that a specimen was brought to him in August, 1864,
from a small shoal then seen for the first time in Hobson’s Bay. In the
same month of the year succeeding they appeared in great abundance in
the bay, and were caught by thousands for the market. After remaining
for a few weeks they disappeared until the same time in 1866, when
they appeared in such numbers that baskets could be easily filled by
simply dipping them into the sea. Hundreds of tons were sent up the
country to the inland markets, and through the city for several weeks
they .were sold for a few pence the bucketful. It was known in Port
Jackson many years prior to the date above-mentioned. It may visit
the coast annually, but only by chance enters the harbours. It is
called the “‘maray” in New South Wales, probably a native name.

The ‘“‘ maray” (Clupea sagax) appears annually in immense shoals about mid-
winter, passing in a northerly direction, and portions of the shoals sometimes enter
the bays and harbours of the coast, but certainly not, as with most fishes, for the
purpose of spawning, for the shoals consist at that time of small and immature
fish, most probably driven in by the hosts of large fishes, porpoises, &c., by which
they are invariably pursued. ‘The same fish is seen to pass south on the eastern
coast of New Zealand about six or seven months afterwards, and then they are full-
grown and full of roe. The excellent bloaters of Picton, New Zealand, are made
of this fish.—R.R.C,

The shoals are described as enormous, covering miles of sea, and
accompanied by flights of birds and numbers of large fishes. They are
generally observed from 1 to 3 miles from the land, followed by multi-
tudes of gulls, mutton-birds in the air, and barracoota, porpoises, &c.,
in the water. It would be very interesting to inquire how far north
they go, and what are their spawning grounds ; facts unknown to us
hitherto.f It is unknown in the warm seas of North Australia, or the
Indian Archipelago, yet it is found in Japan and California, and other
temperate regions north of the equator.

The Southern Herring.

The next best known species is the “herring” (Clupea sundaica), a
fish of great excellence and delicacy of flavour, though but little appre-
ciated. It also appears in the winter season and in shoals. It is said

* If it be true that the sprat is only the young of the common British herring,
which is believed by some oe authorities, then we certainly have not the species
amongst our fishes. The difference between the herring and sprat is that of size,
and the possession of vomerine teeth by the former, as well as other distinctions
such as the shape, formula of the fins, the smell, the taste, the position of the fins,
and the presence of a black line on the tail. See ‘‘ Buckland’s British Fishes,”

+ It is thought that the herring always spawns in shallow grounds, because the
ova are found on shallow bottoms, in a glutinous mass, mingled with clay, sand,
weeds, &c. Mr. Holdsworth however points out that the specific gravity of the
ova causes.them to sink, and also that the roe is known to i shed at sea. See
article ‘‘ Fisheries” on this subject, Encyclo. Brit., ninth edition, where also the
interesting observations of Prof. Allman on the matter are given.

"AMIld VAS

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 87

to be found about the mouth of the Hawkesbury River at all seasons of
the year. It can easily be distinguished from C. sagax, by its much
deeper and more compressed body, its deciduous scales, and the bright
golden bands on each side of its back. It is about 7 inches long.
It is as well known to the fishermen as the herring, and visits the coast
like the last in enormous shoals which travel in a northerly direction.
It seems probable that its breeding-ground is not far distant, as some
are found in the Hawkesbury at all seasons, and the young fry, of
apparently the same, species, sometimes abundant. The adult fish is
caught in great numbers in Java and Celebes, and forms a very important
article of food to the population. In excellence and delicacy of flavour,
Mr. Macleay thinks them superior to the common herring of Scotland,
and that preserved in oil like sardines they would riva] those delicacies.

The same herring is rather common in the Upper Hunter at all
seasons, but it is small, At West Maitland the anglers value the fish
for sport, though it very seldom exceeds seven inches in length. But it
is delicious eating. It is best caught with the common house-fly dropped
gently upon the water and moved along the surface with caution.

C. hypelosoma, Bleek, is very like the last ; it is proportionately deeper,
the maxillary bones seem to extend further back under the eyes, and
there is no golden band along the upper part of each side. It is not
unfrequently seen in Port Jackson, and is called herring also. It is
considered equal in flavour to the “Maray.” It is said to pass the
Sydney heads in enormous shoals like the last, and to mingle with them.

C. mollucensis, Bleek, is a Molluca fish said to be seen in Port Jack-
son; if so, it must be extremely rare. Nothing is known of its
character.

C. tembang, Bleek. North Australia—rare.

C. Nove-hollandie Cuv. and Val. This and the two following
species are the Australian representatives of the sprat ; they are mostly
fresh-water fishes. The one named isa beautiful little fish about 5
inches long, known as the herring in all the tributaries of the Hawkes-
bury, perhaps not in-any other eastern rivers, and certainly not in any
of the western ones, Angling for this fish is a favourite sport in some
of the upper waters of the Nepean, but it is of no value as an article of
food.

C. vittata, Castelnau. Abundant in the Melbourne market at times,
and known as the smelt. It is probably a fresh-water species.

C. richmondia, Macleay. A fresh-water species peculiar to the
Richmond River, which much resembles C. nove-hollandie, except
that it is smaller and has a broad silvery stripe on the sides, margined
above and below by a dark stripe.

C. schlegelit, Castelnau, is a rare species from Port Darwin, N.A.

Sprattelloides. Mouth anterior and lateral, abdomen not keeled,
dorsal fin opposite ventrals, no teeth. Only one species, 8. delicatulus,
Beun. It was seen in enormous shoals at Darnley Island during the
fortnight that the “Chevert” lay there. At that time, the early part
of August, 1875, the whole northern shore was literally black with them,

88 NEW SOUTH WALES

and there would have been no difficulty with proper appliances in pre-
serving hundreds of tons of these finest of all sardines (Macleay, Proc.
Linn, Soc: N.SW., lst vol. p. 351).

Etrumeus jacksoniensis, Macleay. Distinguished by the absence of
compression or serration on the abdomen, and the position of the ventral
fin quite behind the dorsal. Only one species is known. It is also
called Maray, and is said to pass northwards in enormous shoals every
winter, like all the other herrings of our coasts. It is very good eating:

Elops. Upper jaw shorter than. the lower, abdomen rounded, an
osseous throat-plate, scales small. A very beautiful fish, rarely taken
in Port Jackson, as it is strictly speaking tropical. It is not much in
request for food.

Megalops, distinguished by its larger scales. One species, ©.
cyprinoides, about a foot long, is found in the Hawkesbury, but has a
very large range. Dr. Cantor says of this fish, or of one very closely
allied, that notwithstanding the numerous fine bones, the species is valued
for the flavour, and is multiplied rapidly in tanks and fattened for use.
“ Fishes of Malacca,” ‘p. 289.

Chanos. Mouth small, toothless, abdomen flat, gill membranes
entirely united, scales small.

CO. salmoneus, A uniformly silvery fish, which is the most highly
prized of all the herring family in consequence of its excellent flavour.
It is reared in tanks in India, and reaches a length of about 2 feet.
“Tf a little of the enterprise exhibited in the efforts that have been
made to introduce the salmon into our rivers were expended upon the
cultivation of this fish, in our coast rivers north of the Clarence, the
result, I venture to say, would be more satisfactory.” Macleay.

EEL FAMILY, MURANID.

Body elongate, cylindrical or band-shaped, naked or with rudimentary
scales; vent a great distance from head, no ventral fins, vertical fins
absent or confluent or separated by the projecting tip of the tail. Sides
of the upper jaw formed by the tooth-bearing maxillaries, the fore part
by the intermaxillary, which is more or less coalescent with the vomer
and ethmoid. Humeral arch not attached to the skull ; stomach witha
blind sac, no appendages. Spread over almost all fresh waters and seas
of the tropics and temperate zones, some descending to great depths. In
the majority the branchial openings are wide slits, in the true Murene
they are narrow.—G.8.F.

The Eel.
(Plate XXXIX.)

Hels are caught in tolerable abundance at times on all parts of the coast, but
their capture is only accidental when seeking for other fish—such a thing as fish-
ing for eels being unknown to our fishermen, There are four specimens of good
size and quality. The common eel (Anguilla australis), really a fresh-water fish,
but descending to the sea at certain periods to spawn, The ‘‘sea eel,” or ‘silver
eel” (Murceenesox bagio), a very fine fish, and never common, The air-bladder in
this species is of very great length, and is probably of value for isinglass. The

“LATINW WAS ASNGAS SHI
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FISH AND FISHERIES. 89

‘‘conger eel” (Conger labiata) also grows to a large size, but it is rarely brought
to market. The “green eel” (Murena afra) is found abundantly in the holes
and crevices of the rocks everywhere.—R.R.C, ;

A figure is given of the Australian eel. ‘The silver eel is not un-
common in the Hunter River and is caught by night-lines just in the
same manner as the ordinary freshwater kinds. The other genera and
species need no further remarks than those given above.

It isa singular fact in the distribution of our fishes that eels in
Victoria are only found in rivers which take their rise on the south side
of the dividing range. It is also asserted that no eels are found on any
of the western waters, but this is doubtful. It is quite certain that the
Murray cod (Oligorus macquariensis) is found on both sides of the
dividing range. On this subject Mr Hill says :—“‘So far as the cod-fish
is concerned, I have seen it caught in the Upper Clarence, where many
eels exist, and some two or three hundred miles (as the river goes inland)
towards the head of eastern waters. I have seen and partaken of
remarkably fine cod, identical with those of the Murray, and which I
have also caught in the Murrumbidgee. Mr. Wilcox, of the Clarence
River, I think, first called attention to the fact that these cod-fish did
exist in the eastern as well as in the western waters, and since which it
has been asserted that eels have been taken in particular parts of the
western shed. The report that eels are said to have been caught in the
western shed will probably cause, now that attention has been called to
the subject, many cases wherewith this may be corroborated and multi-
plied, or it may appear that they have been only the Plotosus or eel-
tish, described by Sir Thomas Mitchell.” The fish here referred to is
P. anguillaris, Lacepede, one of the Siluride, or cat-fishes.

To fish for eels it requires a well secured bait and night lines ; this
has not been much tried in the proper places of the western waters, it
having been taken for granted that the hypothesis referred to has been
correct ; certain, however, it is the fact, that these fishes have not been
found to be plentiful or well disseminated, either the eel in the western
or the cod-fish in eastern waters. There is no reason why eels should
not be in congenial places of the western shed ; but that which appears
to me to militate against their general dissemination in these regions is
great altitude and cold water, racy bottoms and rapid streams, and
further west the liability to continued droughts.

The Leather-jacket.

(Plate XL.)
The orders Lophobranchii and Plectognathi, containing the curiously formed
fishes known as ‘ sea-horses,” ‘‘cow-fish,” ‘‘toados,” ‘‘ porcupine fishes,” ‘‘sun-

fish,” and ‘‘leather-jackets,” are very numerously represented in the Australian
seas, but out of the entire number one only can be cited as being in the least
degree useful, and that one is productive of more harm than good. It is a
“‘leather-jacket” (Monacanthus ayraudi). It is said, when skinned, to be excel-
lent food, but it isa most serious annoyance to the fishermen, infesting their
favourite fishing-grounds and _ cutting their lines. The plague of these fish seems
to be on the increase, and unless some means can be found of getting rid of the
pest, schnapper-fishing will have to be conducted with wire lines.—R.R.C.

The species referred to belongs to a genus of which we have no less
than thirty-seven species in Australian waters. It belongs to the family

M

90 NEW SOUTH WALES

ScieRopzuRMI, of the order Plectognathi, in which the jaws are armed
with a small number of distinct teeth, and the skin has shields or is
merely rough. In MZ. ayraudi the skin is rough but velvety, the colour
‘is brownish, with three or four whitish longitudinal bands. It attains
a length of 18 inches.

It will be necessary to say a few words about the toad-fishes and
porcupines, because they are so poisonous, and yet abundant about all
our harbours. In 1874 a fatal accident occurred to some children at
Coogee Bay. They were out on a picnic, and having caught some toad-
fish, cooked and ate them. They died in terrible agony a few hours
afterwards.

These fishes belong to the family GymnoponTes and the genus
Tetrodon, thus described by Giinther :—

“Body more or less shortened. The bones of the upper and lower
jaw are confluent, forming a beak with a trenchant edge, without teeth,
with or without median suture. A soft dorsal, caudal and anal are
developed,—approximate. No spinous dorsal. Pectoral fins, no ven-
trals. Marine fishes of the temperate and tropical regions. Some
species confined to fresh water.”

Before appending the observations of Mr. Hill on these fishes, it is
necessary to remark that he speaks of the liver of some of these species
as being edible. No doubt it may be the case for some kinds, but it is
equally certain that the liver is the most poisonous part of others. Sir
John Richardson, in his article on Ichthyology in the Encyclopedia
Britannica, 8th edit., vol. xii, p. 331, gives an instance wherein two
sailors were poisoned at the Cape of Good Hope from eating the liver
of one fish of the genus Zetrodon. A detailed account of the symptoms
was drawn up by a surgeon in the Dutch navy who attended the men
until they died, which was in less than half an hour after eating the
liver. It should also be remarked that, though Mr. Hill identifies the
fish which poisoned the children as 7. hamiliont, yet this is question-
able. But of nineteen known Australian species seven are found in Port
Jackson. Some of them reach a length of nearly 2 feet, but such a size
is rare.

The Toad-fish.

“The toad-fishes do not grow to a large size, at all events the largest
we have seen measures something over a foot, and when they do attain
anything approaching 6 inches in this Colony they are chiefly found
along the coast outside ; there they may be found to the size of 8 or
10 inches in length. Those toad-fishes in the harbour are in the young
stage, and may be found pushing their way and following the flowing
tide to its utmost limits.

“The toad-fishes of Port Jackson alone already described number not
less than six varieties, though some of them differ but slightly in
appearance, and the whole may be recognized by one common form.
That which caused the death of those children alluded to, together with
a cat which had evidently partaken of the vomit, is of the genus
Tetrodon hamilton.

‘dad0Y) 3nd SHL

‘NOSCUVHDIY—2epnoli snydiissoy

IXNXN @iv1g

FISH AND FISHERIES: 91

_ “These fishes have often afforded amusement to the youngsters, as they
bite greedily, and may be caught with a pin hook attached to a few
yards of thread; and when landed they immediately commence to
inflate and puff themselves out to their full tension, and when returned
to the water they will collapse and assume their regular shape, and
return again to the bait. *

“This, again, led to a species of cruelty which gave a particular relish
to the boys, especially to those who were inclined that way. After the
capture of a fish, and it did not immediately commence to inflate itself,
it had to undergo the process of being rubbed on a rough stone, when it
instantly commenced a sucking noise, and was soon in a spherical form.
It was then placed on a flat solid rock or junk of stone, in a prominent
position, and another stone hurled down with all the captor’s might on
the unfortunate fish, and if the aim was sure, the sudden bursting would
make a report nearly as loud as a pistol.

“Of their poisonous qualities there can be no doubt, as it was not
uncommon at one time for certain storekeepers to employ a few boys to-
catch these fish at the rate of fourpence per dozen for the purpose of
destroying the rats with which their places of business were infested ;
and these fishes had the desired effect, for the dead rats were produced
in scores, and many still remained dead in their holes.

“The porcupine fishes are of the same family as the toads, and are of
the genus Dioden hystrix, D. maculatus, and Dicotylichthys punctatus,
with probably some others. These fishes are frequently hauled in with
the seine, and are at once discarded by the fishermen. There does not
appear to be much flesh on their bones, but I have seen the natives eat
the liver with great gusto, and, curious to remark, whilst at the island of
Fatuna, several porcupine fishes were caught with the hook and line,
and which were begged by the natives, who instantly made an incision
in the side of the already inflated fish and drew out the liver, which
they instantly devoured in its raw state, but the body they threw over-
board. :

“This is almost sufficient proof that even the porcupine’s flesh is
poisonous also, and too much care cannot be exercised in meddling with
these fishes, either as an article of food or leaving them within the reach
of the inexperienced. Even the savages of the Line Islands appear to
know of their properties, and in times of feudal warfare they will use
the fish only in its inflated and dry state as a covering for the head—
not to ward off blows, but to make them look brave and fierce in the
encounter. Some of the dried fishes may be seen in our Sydney
Museum, as also a drawing (published in the Cruise of the American
Squadron, under Captain Wilkes) of an islander dressed in this fighting
costume.” a

Diodon is only distinguished from Tetrodon by having no mesial
division in the teeth. It has also very much longer and stronger spines
over the body, and when the fish blows itself out the spines are erected
into a most formidable defensive armour. The skin is remarkably hard
and thick, and for this reason is stretched and dried by the Esquimaux,
who make it into an effective helmet.

92° NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER IV.
Sharks.

THESE unamiable predacious fishes are very well or rather very nume--
rously represented in Australia, as the list to be given will show. They
are not, however, wholly useless. It has been mentioned already how’
abundant some species are in Tasmania, where the fishermen find their.
captures of king-fish much interfered with by sharks, which snap’
them off the hooks, This is probably the Tope or School Shark (Galeus
australis), Macleay. It was generally thought that it was identical
with the Tope of Britain (@. canis), but Mr. Macleay has pointed out:
many differences. It grows to about 6 feet long, and has become an article
of export from Tasmania. It is regularly captured at Southport and
Recherche Bay. Ata visit paid by the writer to that locality he found
about ten families engaged principally in the shark fishery. The por-
tions used were the liver, which was boiled for oil,* and the fins, which
were dried and pressed for the Chinese market. There were two very
intelligent Chinese agents, who bought the fins on the spot and under-
took the water transport to the place of shipment. They gave much
information about the trade, which just then happened to be in a
depressed state. The tail fin was not used, and of the others the dorsal
fins were the most esteemed, and were packed separately. The fisher-
men found it: sufficiently remunerative to engage in no other fishery,
except when the market was very low, as it was then. There was much
sickness in the place about that time because of the way in which the
. decaying carcasses of the fish were left about. I counted over sixty near
one dwelling, and the stench was fearful. There were times when the
weather was unfavourable for the fishery, and then mutton-fish were
speared. This is the ear shell-fish (Haliotis naevosa), which was eagerly
bought by the Chinese merchants. Only the large muscular sucking
disc or foot is used. Before being packed it is boiled and dried. About
9d. per Ib. was given, but though abundant it was too troublesome a
fishery to make it a pursuit, except when nothing else could be caught. t°'

It is very probable that the majority of our sharks have a very wide
range, so that there is nothing of peculiar or local interest about them.
The following list includes all that are known to occur in our seas :—

Carcharias gangeticus, or sea shark, and Carcharias melanopterus
and C. brachyurus; the Whaler, Galeocerdo rayneri ; Tiger Shark,
Galeus australis; School Shark; Zygena malleus, Hammer-headed
Shark ; Mustelus antarticulus; Lamna glauca, Blue Pointer; Car-
charodon rondelettii, White Pointer; Odontapsis americanus, Grey
Nurse; Alopecius vulpes, Thrasher ; Votidanus indicus, Scylliwm macu-
latum, S. laticeps, Parascylliwm variolatum, P. nuchale, P. ocellatum,
Chiloscyllium furvum, Dog-fish; C. ocellatum, C. trispeculare, C.

_,” Fish oii absorbs oxygen so rapidly, and thickens to an extent which precludes.
its application to machinery.

+ The flesh of sharks contains the most nutriment of any fish, but is hard, dry,
and tasteless. From this reason it is perhaps less digestible. It is said that the
Chinese use it as food, but this is true only of the fins.

‘HSI4-Did

“HINO })—‘sagvjnavuaun snydissog

s3HoMIe!

TIXXYX Sv

t
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FISH AND FISHERIES. 93

modestum ; Orossorhinus barbatus, Wobbegong; OC. tentaculatus (at°
Cape York), Heterodontus Philipi, Port Jackson Cestracion or shark ;
Hi. galeatus; Acanthias blanwillei, A. megalops, Isistius braziliensis,
Rhina squatina, Angel-fish or shark; Pristiophorus cirratus, Saw-fish
shark, P. nudipinnis, Rhinobatus granulatus, blind or sand shark.

In this list some of the species named have not been found at Port
Jackson. They are representative species, which are, as far as known,
confined to peculiar localities.

Some of Mr. Hill’s remarks on these fishes are of such interest that
an account of our fisheries would not be complete without at least a
portion of them.

The Sea Shark.

Of Carcharias gangeticus he says :—“ This is about the largest of the
sea sharks, and, like all sharks, ravenous to a degree at times. It
arrives in this harbour about February, but at times later, in March,
just according to the migrations of the sea-mullet, of which notice has
been already taken. With these fishes it is found, and no doubt preys
on them to an enormous degree.

“ At this season—February, March, and April—it goes up the har-
bours and rivers, and may occasionally be caught with a very stout line
and hook or harpoon. It is of great strength, and would pull a large
boat about with ease. The sea shark gorges and gets rid of a great
quantity of food, and one was caught in this harbour containing in its
stomach (as far as my memory serves) the hind leg of a horse, from the
hock downwards, with a shoe on the foot, eight or nine unsound mutton
hams tied up in a gunny-bag, two ship’s scrapers, and some sundries ;
“notwithstanding all these he was ready to take more, and was cap-
tured.

“These cartilaginous fishes are very troublesome to fishermen outside
the Heads, and frequently cause the men to leave the ground. It is
astonishing to find how readily they will bite off the schnapper from the
hook as you are hauling it in, leaving the head or perhaps the head and
shoulders alone. Certain it is there are plenty of schnappers about
them, and during the time you are fast to a shark the others would be
diligent with their lines, as the fishes bite well at that time. I only
wonder that sea-bathers are not more frequently bitten about February
and March, as then they are very voracious and numerous. At the
Figtree Baths a huge dog was purposely drowned. A sea shark coming
by that way seized the dog by the middle, gave him a shake or two,
and then swallowed him, and was afterwards swimming about with the
appendage of a large stone hanging to his mouth. This did not appear
to give him much trouble, for he was looking about for more food, and
stood a few rattles on the head with an oar before he would retire to
deeper water.

“The liver occupies a great space inside the shark, and is of value,
for it yields a considerable quantity of oil which may be either rolled
or boiled out; the oil from the former method is said to be of the
better colour and gives less trouble. Tho other part of the shark is
turned to no advantage generally, but the fins and tail, when cured and

94; NEW SOUTH WALES

dried, are said to be of value among the Celestials, and are readily
bought in the Chinese market ; one of the uses they are put. to there is
for rich soups made richer by the addition of a fin of a shark boiled to
a jelly. In this Colony they are sometimes saved, but the oil is the
chief object when fishermen go out on purpose to kill sharks.”

The Wobbegong.

The same author gives the following account of Crossorhinus barbatus
or Wobbegong :—‘‘ It is marked with irregular patches, and very like
a carpet, having a brown ground. It grows to the extent of 4 to 5 feet
in length. It has a large rounded head, and the mouth, which is of
fair proportion, is situated near the extremity, with a slightly over-
hanging upper lip, armed with cirrus, which hang thickly around. The
teeth are of two or three rows—small, sharp, and point inwards, so that
the prey can scarcely escape when once fairly in its clutches.

“The wobbegong, of which there are several varieties on this coast, is
chiefly nocturnal ; but, like most other sharks, will not despise food in
the day. At that time they are generally concealed under or at the
base of overhanging rocks and patches of weeds, which it very much
resembles. At night it travels about into clear sand patches, and does
not move away from a sudden blaze of light—that, it is said, has rather
the property of attraction to these sharks. It is lured readily by smell
of fish, and it steals up with cat-like caution through the weeds, and
poises itself on the nearest eminence, close to the spot whence the odour
has arisen. This fish, except the gliding almost imperceptibly, has an
awkward motion in munching the bait, or when it attempts to turn and
move about. The stealthy manner in which it moves or lies in wait
for its prey gives one the idea that it does not travel much in search but
depends more on cunning.

“A party of us were spear,fishing one dark night at the Long Reef,
by the aid of torches, accompanied by some aboriginals (who called this
sport ‘bidgee,’ and further south ‘chitmere’), when a wobbegong seized
one of the blacks by the heel or lower part of his fustian trousers. To
attempt to move it at that time is useless, and not till the fish makes a
kind of gruff chuff, when he opens his mouth for the purpose, and offers
a chance to get loose. However, the black, being only fast by the
trousers, struggled to get loose, and did so by tearing a portion of them
behind, which ran clean up into a slip to the waist.

“The aboriginals always look out for them among the reefs and dark
corners when fishing with the torch. At Jervis Bay, one night, a black-
fellow ventured out in the shallows for a considerable distance on this
errand, and by accident placed his foot on or near the mouth of a
wobbegong; the fish immediately seized hold, but the fellow never
attempted to move but called out lustily for a light (his own torch had’
burned out), another black had started off armed with a good spear as
well as with a light to his rescue; but during this time the fish had
made the accustomed noise with a view to take a better hold, when the
darkie availed himself to haul his foot out of its mouth, but in their
alarm, and on coming ashore in haste, both he and the torchbearer fell
down and they were both in darkness, but ultimately got safe on shore.

‘SA1VM 'S 'N 3O YNSGNNOTS SHL

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TIIXXX sav1g

FISH, AND FISHERIES. 95

“The wobbegong is of little use; the liver will make some oil, and
which is particularly good for ‘parasites on animals, but the fish is not
sought after, and the natives attack it when in their way, but do not
meddle with it otherwise. South, as far as Jervis Bay, they call this
fish thubbegong. ”

The Blue Pointer.

Lamna glauca or the Blue Pointer is, Mr. Hill tells us, “not only a
very powerful but perhaps the most bold of any of the large sharks
visiting our shores. It grows to the length of 10 or 12 feet, but is not
so big in the girth as the other. On the appearance of a ‘blue pointer’
among boats fishing for schnapper outside, the general cry is raised
‘Look out for the blue pointer.’ This fish exhibits cunning, and seizes
the hooked fishes when they are near to the surface, at which time they
are nearly exhausted, and bites them off just below the hook in an
instant, leaving only the head, which has the appearance of being cleft
off with a very sharp instrunient.

“The great danger of these fishes is that in their speed and blinded by
the eagerness of pursuit they may miss the object and go clean through
the boat, or into it, as they have been known to jump high into the air.
In such a case the whole crew would in all probability be destroyed by
this one’s attendants. Sometimes they have been known to leave their
teeth in the hardwood of the keel or stern-post of the boat, no doubt
having missed their aim, but when this occurs they make the boat shake
from stem to stern.

“These are high-swimming fishes, and may be readily seen when about
pushing their pursuits ; the beautiful azure tint of their back and sides
and independent manner they have of swimming rapidly and high
among the boats in search of prey are means of easy recognition, and
they often drive the fishermen away. They have a longer and sharper
nose than the ‘sea shark’ or ‘nurse,’ and appear to be very active,
and bold enough to come straight on after they have had a good blow ;
they appear to be very keen of scent, and altogether they are objects of
interest. Various people in this as well as in other Colonies have been
fearfully mutilated by sharks, sufficient in some instances to cause death
very soon.” Scarcely a year passes that some fatal occurrence is not
recorded from sharks on some part of the coast.

The Grey-Nurse.

The “nurse” here referred to is Odontapsis americanus, about which
the same author gives many interesting facts. He says “it attains the
length of 15 feet, with a much larger girth in proportion to other sharks;
-but the females which have been caught were not so long—S8 to 12 feet—
with an exception or two where they have been longer. There are
incidents of interest connected with its season and capture worthy of
note.

“This shark in appearance is comparatively short. That, however, is
accounted for by its great girth, for I have known the length of a nurse
to be 12 and its girth 7 feet. They have a longer and more pointed nose
than the sea-shark, and the eye and nostril are in a straight line. The

96 NEW SOUTH WALES

mouth, which is situated directly under the eye, is of a crescent shape,
and the jaws are armed with four or five rows of teeth, formidable and
sharp.

“These sharks are caught in October, November, and part of December,
for their oil alone. After the latter month the liver yields little or none.
During these months they yield a considerable quantity, the quality of
which is good, and excellent for burning in lamps.

“These sharks used to be caught in Botany Bay, at regular ‘ nurse’
grounds, near to the Seven-mile Beach, and what is known as ‘ Doll’s
Point,’ where they could be seen of a calm day during the months of
October and November, lying on the bottom in regular rows like logs of
timber, and each row apparently as if they had been selected of one
length. During these months, and on these grounds, they were caught
with line and hook. Singular to remark that this operation was at one
time systematically carried out, and the oil obtained from the liver of
these sharks was used at the Tower (a Government station situated on
the inner head of the north side of Botany Bay) for years, as well as by
the fishermen of the village of that bay. The fact is also very curious
that when fishing for these ‘sharks you will, with a rare exception,
catch them all of one length—no variation which can be detected by the
eye ; and out of twenty-eight caught in 1857, at one fishing, there was
not the slightest perceptible difference. Occasionally a very large one
was caught, and which forms the exception.

“Tn fishing for the grey-nurse, and when one of them takes the bait,
the others rush towards it with a view either to participate in the food
or to protect the one which has taken the hook, for they then overlie
each other to that extent that it is like being fast to a rock ; a constant
and heavy strain alone will move the one you are fast to. When the
battle commences, it gives some sport and plenty of work before you can
get it alongside to enable you to give it a blow on the head with a club,
which is part of the equipment for that purpose. After the oil season
these sharks are very vicious, and move about freely ; and when one is
fishing for other fishes and happens to hook a ‘nurse’ on a good line, it
will, with its great strength, drag the boat about, kellick and all,
apparently without much exertion.

“The ‘nurse’ has been known to seize hold of the steer oar of a
whaleboat when the boat has been moving rapidly through the waiter,
and shake it with its teeth two or three times, let go its hold, and pursue
and seize it again as if it was a living object, or, as it were, in derision
or sport. At other times it has been known to attack the boat as if it
smelled the bait within, or hover about, putting in an appearance every
now and then. It was supposed that sharks could smell the living
freight on board the ships connected with the negro slave ships in days
of old ; so with these, they have been known to seize hold of the stern-
post and shake the boat till it quivered again.”

Heterodontus or Cestracion has a peculiar interest attached to it, on
account of its being of a form which prevailed in past geological times,
or at least fishes very like it. The fossil forms exceed in size the species
of our coast. They make their appearance in the Devonian period,
increasing in the Carboniferous, and surviving up to the Chalk. The
majority of the species however lived in the earlier secondary period.

‘A108
“AVATOV IN labiu nungdoulig

“ATXXX FLVId

FISH AND FISHERIES, 97

The Australian forms are small and harmless, as all its representatives
were. Their teeth are only formed for crushing shells. Although, as
Mr. Hill observes, “{it is armed at the front of each dorsal fin with a
strong pointed spine ; the head is bony and hard, and the mouth is filled
with a pavement of crushing teeth, curiously formed, and it seeks its
food either amongst the crevices of rocks or on the ground, foraging
about for shell-fish, cockles, crabs, and other crustacece, and at times will
examine the edges of rocks just above water-mark in search of shell-fish,
which its powerful jaws and teeth or plates are admirably adapted for
crushing.

“Tt was supposed that Port Jackson alone had this shark, and it is
the living representative of fish which once populated the Northern
Seas, wherein the fossil remains are found in multitudes. It has since
been found in many of the coast bays of Australia, and there are two
distinct species—the one is much darker than the other in colour.

“T had occasion to catch it, and tried Long Bay and Botany Bay for
that purpose, and was successful at both places. At Jervis Bay also I
succeeded in shooting one in the head whilst in the position of searching
the rocks with its head out of the water. They are also frequently
hauled in with the net, and caught also with the hook and line, but are
of no use, and only interesting from the fact that they are said to be the
living representatives of what are found in fossil remains.

“This was one of the early sharks caught in this harbour, and figured
in Governor Phillip’s time.” —E.S8. H.

The Shovel-nosed Shark.

Rhinobatus granulatus or shovel-nose which is properly speaking
a Ray, is called here the blind or sand shark, though, as Mr. Hill
remarks, it is not blind. He says “that it attains the length of 6
to 7 feet, and is also harmless, armed only with teeth resembling
small white beads secured closely upon a card; it however can see
tolerably well, and searches on sandy patches for crustacee and small
shell-fish. It is much more active than the preceding shark, and can
swim about rapidly, but it chiefly keeps on the bottom, and usually ,
in company on particular grounds with Cestracion, and distinguished by
the aboriginals from other sharks by the appellation of eragoni—without
the teeth. It is occasionally brought in with the net of a night, but
more frequently with hook and line.”

The Hammer-headed Shark.

_ None of the Hammer-headed Sharks of Port Jackson are of small size,
but one specimen in the Brisbane Museum measures over 15 feet in
length. It differs from other sharks in the shape of the head, which in
some degree resembles a hammer. The orbits of the eyes project to a
distance from cach side of the skull, and are placed on either end of the
hammer, giving to the fish a very odd appearance. It is armed with
sharp teeth, and roves about at night near to the surface of the water,
and when hooked it pulls hard and sheers about, no doubt to endeavour
to cut the line.

N

98 NEW SOUTH WALES

The Saw-shark.

The saw-shark must not be confounded with saw-fish, as their gill-
openings are lateral not underneath. The snout is armed with an
exceedingly long, flat lamina, with a series of strong teeth along each
edge at right angles. From the position in which these teeth are placed
it is problematical whether they obtain their prey by piercing or spitting
with the point. “It is more likely that a sharp blow sideways would
do greater damage in helping them to secure any living object. These
saw-sharks were in great numbers on the coast about ten or twelve years
back, and did great damage to the fishermen’s lines. Although they
might have been on this coast in their season for ages, still at that time
they appear to have created some sensation, as they were much spoken
of, In the north part of this island they are numerous, but I have not
heard of any of large size.” —E.S.H.

The Angel-fish.

The Angel-fish is Rhina squatina of Linneus, quite identical with
the British species, though as Professor M‘Coy remarks from its low
power of swimming and habit of keeping on the bottom it is difficult to
see how it could have spread over the area it occupies, or cross the
immense depths of the ocean. It is very voracious, eating fish and
mollusca, though never attaining anything above 5 feet in length. An.
excellent figure of this fish is given in Professor M‘Coy’s “ Prodromus
of the Zoology of Victoria,” Part 4, Plate 34.

“HSyNVE LNVESYAS SHL

‘NOSCUVHOIY-—‘sxgnsseindind sndopnF

“AXXX GIG

FISH AND FISHERIES. 99

CHAPTER V.

Rays.

In the family Batoidei or Rays the body is excessively depressed, and
forms with the expanded pectoral fins a somewhat circular ‘disc, to which
the tail appears as an appendage of varying length. In the families
Pristide and Rhinobatide the habit is that of sharks, but the gills are
placed underneath instead of at the sides. In all the anal fin is absent,
and the dorsals are on the tail. True rays lead a sedentary life on the
bottom ; they swim by the fins, and the tail serves merely to steer them.
The mouth is entirely at the lower surface, so that the prey is not seized
with the mouth, but the fish darts over it, and holds it down with its
body, and conveys it subsequently to its mouth.—G.8.F.

The Rays of Australia are:—Pristis zysron, saw-fish ; Rhimobatus
granulatus, shovel-nose; R. banksit, R. thowini, R. dumerilii, Try-
gonorhina fasciata, the Fiddler; Narcine tasmaniensis, Hypnos subni~
grum, Raia lamprieri, Thorn-back, Sting-ray or Stingaree ; 2. rostrata >
Urogymnus asperrimus, Trygon uarnak, Trygon pastinaca, the Sting-ray-
of Sydney fishermen ; 7. tuberculata, Urolophus eructatus, U. testaceus,.
Myliobatus aquila, M. nienhofii, MU. australis, Aétobatis narinari, Cera~.
toptera alfredi. .

The Devil Fish.

This peculiar and ugly name was applied to a stuffed specimen of”
enormous size by G. Krefft; it is in the Australian Museum. It has
never been described, says Mr. Macleay, and now never can be, so much.
painting, puttying, and clipping have been practised in setting up the
Specimen. It was called the Devil Fish when it was caught in 1874,
probably from some resemblance to the fish of that name in the Atlantic.
The disc is very broad, in consequence .of the great developement of’
the pectoral fins, which, however, leave the sides of the head free; and
at the sides of the mouth are a pair of detached fins. This fish was.
caught in the vicinity of Watson’s Bay, and deposited in the Sydney
Museum. It affords a fine specimen of the family Raia, measuring:
across the wings or fins not less than 15 feet, and must have weighed
something more than even the famous ones recorded by Cook,

The Sting-ray.

_ Tryon pastinaca and tuberculata, our true Sting-ray,'has a tapering
tail, the first with and the second without a cutaneous fold, armed with
a long arrow-shaped spine, serrated on each side. Pectorals united in
front, body smooth or tubercular, teeth flattened. Mr. Hill speaks of
one which he calls the Black Ray, though it is hard to say if it be the
true Sting-ray or Raia lampreiri. The latter is not known to occur in
New South Wales. He says that the Black Ray, “with a prominent
head, is not only a powerful fish when hooked with a good tackle, but
is of immense strength in its element; when on the bottom: its form
enables it to hold on, and it is like attempting to move a rock. Ona

100 NEW SOUTH WALES

line, when hooked, it exhibits great power, and often have I seen it
towed into beaches to enable the amateur fisherman to get a firm and
steady pull to land him. The angular form of its pectoral fins frequently
reach the distance of 8 or 10 feet, and the weight exceeds 100, 200, or
even 300 pounds.

“ Rays in their season retire to deep water, and their habit is that of
sharks, to which, as cartilaginous fishes, they are the gradation. At
the breeding season they approach the coast, and enter our bays and
harbours. In some of the species the large and well-developed pectoral
fins form a broad flat disc, with a thin and slender tail.”

The weight of some of these fishes may be readily understood by
quoting from Captain Cook, when he visited Botany Bay in 1770 :-—

“¢ He had observed that the large sting-rays, of which there is a great
plenty in the bay, followed the flowing tide into very shallow water.
He therefore took the opportunity of flood, and struck several in not
more than 2 or 3 feet of water. One of them weighed no less than 240
pounds after his entrails were taken out. The next morning, as the
wind still continued northerly, I sent out the yawl again, and the people
struck one still larger, for when his entrails were taken out he weighed
336 pounds.’ ”

With regard to the spine or sting with which these fish are armed,
though it inflicts a ragged and even a most dangerous wound, yet.
whether it is a poisonous one or not, has not been clearly established.
Dr. Ginther unhesitatingly says that it is, and this is the almost
universal belief. I have seen two or three cases of such wounds, and
the agony complained of was too great to attribute to the puncture alone.
Yet no serious consequences followed once the pain had subsided.

The Torpedo.

Our Torpedo or Electric Ray is Hypnos subnigrum, that of Tasmania
is Varcine tasmaniensis, The difference is in the teeth, which are flat
in Warcine and tricuspid in Hypnos, while the latter has the nostrils
round and open, and in the former they are confluent with a quad-
rangular valve. I quote from Mr. Hill a few facts concerning this
remarkable fish, which has an electrical apparatus at each side of the
head. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding 40 lbs., which for a ray is trifling.

In Middle Harbour, on the clear sand bottoms, at night, they are
frequently hauled in with the seine. “On one occasion, when we were
more inclined to play than to assist with the net, we amused ourselves
‘with a large torpedo which had been hauled in. Four of us, after
feeling a shock individually, joined in a circle holding hands, and those
at the extremity touching the fish ; simultaneously we completed the
circle and experienced a shock similar to that from a galvanic battery.
On another occasion, and at another place, we endeavoured to continue
some experiments on one of these fishes which had been caught, but it
was so enfeebled that the shock was scarcely perceptible. This we
attributed to having expended its power upon the net with which it had
been in constant contact during the capture. In about half an hour
afterwards the fish had apparently somewhat recovered, as the shocks
were appreciably stronger, but ceased with death.”

‘WOL SNOT
“HIND )— Olaf auojag

JAXXY wuvig

FISH AND FISHERIES. 101

The organ by which this shock is given is thus described by Cuvier:—
“The space between the pectoral fins, the head, and the gills, is occupied
on each side by an extraordinary apparatus, formed of little membranous
tubes placed close to each other like a honeycomb, and subdivided hori-
zontally into minute cells, abundantly supplied’ with nerves. It is in
this apparatus that the electrical or galvanic power resides which has
rendered these fishes so famous, and from which their name is derived ;
with it they can inflict violent shocks, and they most probably use it to
deprive their prey of power.”

The Fiddler.

The Fiddler, or Trigonorhina fasciata, otherwise a harmless fish, is a
great pest to the fishermen at times in the harbours, readily and quietly
taking the bait intended for some other fish of a more useful character.
Like all the shark tribe, they have a very powerful scent, and seize the
bait by overlying it, with a mouth which is well underneath. These
fishes, if not very cautious in their movements at this time, are struck
by the line, and the hook very often pierces some other place than the
mouth on the under part of the body.

All the stingless Rays or Raiide are useful as food, but they are never
eaten in this Colony.

102 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER VI.

Our Fresh-water Food Fishes..

In such a dry climate as that of Australia, where the rivers are few,
and except in winter mere sluggish narrow streams, itis not to be
expected that our fresh-water fishes can be either numerous or abundant.
For the colonists in the immediate neighbourhood they have a certain
economical importance, but the fisheries do not employ many hands, nor
are they ever likely to. The river system of the western side of the
Dividing Range is confined to the Murray and its tributaries, of which
only the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Macquarie, can be called
rivers, and of these some of the upper feeders run dry in seasons of
severe drought. Outside the influence of these rivers, and in the far

“western country, such a thing asa. fish is never seen. In the little
creeks small cat-fish (Copidoglanis tandanus) is found. This affords the
only sport that anglers can obtain, and the fish, one of the Siluride,
forms a delicacy which is appreciated by those to whom fish is such a
rarity. With regayd to the fish fauna of the waters of the western side
of the range, itis very uniform ; the same genera and species are found
in all of them. If there are any local peculiarities they are as yet
unknown. Foremost amongst them as an article of diet is the “ Murray
Cod,” of which there are two species ; they belong to the family of
Perches and to the genus Oligorus. It is distinguished by having an
oblong body covered with scales. The cleft of the mouth is rather
oblique, the lower jaw being the longer. Teeth viliform, extending to
the vomer and palatine bones, but with no canines. There is one long
dorsal fin, the first eleven rays of which are spinous. The anal fin has
three spines, and the tail is rounded. The preoperculum has a single
margin, which is smooth or faintly toothed. Some of these fishes grow
to an immense size, and they are found in the sea as well as rivers.
One, O. terre-regine, Ramsay, goes by the name of the Groper in Queens-
land. In the Brisbane River specimens are caught weighing over 160
Ibs., and measuring more than 6 feet in length. A large species named
O. gigas (the Hapuku of the Maoris), is caught off New Zealand, which
reaches a weight of 100 Ibs.

The Murray Cod.
(Plate XLI.)

Oligorus macquariensis, Cuv. and Val., which is the ‘ Kookoo-
bul” of the Murrumbidgee natives, “ Pundy” on the Lower Murray.
In this species the height of the body is four times and three quarters
in the total length, the length of the head three and a-half, the diameter
of the eye is one seventh of the latter. Preoperculum, supra-scapular
and preorbital entire, pectoral and ventral fins short; fifth dorsal spine
the longest ; second and third spine of the anal fin nearly equal ; colour
greenish brown, with numerous small dark green spots ; belly whitish,
but the colour varies much in different places.

‘“HSISYVSD YSAIY

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TIAXXX FVII

FISH AND FISHERIES. 103

O. mitchelli, Castelnau, differs from the above in having the head much
broader and the eye considerably larger, it being one-sixth the length of
the head, the upper jaw longer than the lower, the operculum more
rounded, and the caudal fin a little longer. The height of the body is
also three times and a third in the length without the caudal, instead
of four times and a-half, as in the other species, and the upper profile
ig more convex. It occurs in all western rivers, but 0. macquariensis
is found in a few of the eastern rivers to the north of Sydney. The
colour of O. mitchelli is a livid grey, entirely cdvered with small ‘round
obscure spots. The fishermen call this the Murray Perch, to distinguish.
it from the Cod. The smaller specimens are more spotted.

Both fishes are of the same voracious character, devouring every fish or animal
of any kind which their enormous mouths can compass. They are both excellent
fishes for the table, and have been known to reach a weight of 120 lbs. The youn
fish are found at the very head of the streams, the old ones generally lower down
in the deep reaches of the rivers ; and it is said that, like all other fishes, they have
periods of migration, appearing to ascend the streams in summer and to descend
them in winter. Very little art is required in the capture of these fish—a strong
line, a large hook, and a lump of beef for bait are all the requirements necessary.
The spawning season isin midsummer, Mr. F. A. Tompson, of Wagga Wagga,
making the time about November, and Mr. Warren, a fisherman at the same place,
positively affirming it to be January, and in this view Mr. Leitch and others
coincide. Mr. F, A. Tompson has seen the fish, as he believed, actually deposit-
ing the spawn—one fish, the female doubtless, moving along the bottom of the
water, forming a furrow in the sand with its chin, while another fish (the male)
closely followed in its wake. Mr. Warren never saw the fishes spawning, but had
often found what he believed to be the spawn attached to logs, and he affirms that

he can discriminate perfectly between the spawn of the cod and the other percoid.
fishes of the Murrumbidgee.—R.R.C.

The Golden Perch.

The Golden Perch or Yellow-belly represents two species of
Ctenolates, C..ambiguus, and C. christyi, a species described by Count
Castelnau, from the Edwards River. The first of these is common in
all the rivers and lagoons of the interior. It is a very rich and delicate
fish, and attains a weight of 7 lbs. or. more; its time and manner of
spawning is the same as the cod. The spawn is believed to be hatched
in a fortnight after deposition. When fresh this fish is coloured very
beautifully. The body is of a magnificent green, the sides and behind
the dorsal, the upper parts of the body, are rich golden. The head is a
beautiful mixture of green, purple, yellow, and scarlet, with fine golden
tinges ; the belly is white, the dorsal fin purplish green, anal scarlet,
with its base yellow and its end purple, pectorals scarlet at their base,
and. yellow in their second half; the. eye is purple, with an interior
white ring. These colours are subject to great variation, and the belly
is sometimes red. The young fish have little of the fine hues of the
adult, and they are much more elongate. The head is purple, and the
dorsal fin is grey, bordered with black.

In C. christyt the upper parts are brownish purple, and the lower
white. Itis very rare. It must be mentioned that Ginther and Castel-
nau place these fishes in the genus Dules. The main distinction from
Oligorus appears to be that the scales are small and strongly ctenoid,
the spines in the dorsal are ten in number, and the preorbital and pre-
operculum are finely serrated with small denticulations on the lower

104 NEW SOUTH WALES

limb of the latter. Dules awratus is a common synonym. Ctenolatus
was a genus erected by Giinther for this species, which he then called
C. macquariensis, but it would seem now as if the genus was abandoned
by him, while Mr. Macleay thinks it should be preserved.

The Silver Perch.

The ‘‘silver perch” or ‘‘ bream” (Zherapon richardsonii) is the perfection of
fishes, extremely rich and delicate in flavour. It frequents running streams more
than the last-mentioned fish, which is often found in lagoons and billabungs, and
it affords good sport to the angler. A full-grown fish attains a weight of 5 or 6
Ibs. Itis not caught often with the hook, the very small size of its mouth pre-
venting its taking the hooks in common use.—R.R.C.

The genus Therapon is very extensively represented in Australia. It
is partly marine, and partly fresh water, and spread over the whole
area of the tropical Indo-Pacific. 7. therops, 7. servus, and 7’. cuviert are
very common in Australia, and extend from the east coast of Africa to
Polynesia. They are readily recognized by the blackish longitudinal
bands with which they are marked. All the spines are small. The
genus has an oblong compressed body, with scales of moderate size.
Viliform teeth, those of vomer and palatine rudimentary or absent.
Dorsal fin with depression in upper margin, twelve or thirteen spines,
the anal fin with three. Preoperculum serrated. The average length
of ZL. richardsonii is about 11 inches. The preorbital is very
strongly serrated, the preoperculum is rounded, armed with a series
of long spines posteriorily, and shorter ones below. The operculum
has two spines, the lowest being the longest ; spines of the anal very
long, particularly the longest; colour, greyish blue, lower parts
dirty white, sides yellow, scales bordered with black, head bluish,
lips and lower parts rosy, eye yellow, first dorsal dark, rays purple, the
second dull yellow below, black above, caudal black, anal with purple
rays, ventrals white, rays rosy, pectorals yellow at base, black above.
Found in all the rivers of the Murray system, and called Kooberry by
the natives. To distinguish it from the other species, the catalogue of
Macleay must be consulted, as they are very numerous.

There are several other percoid fishes of good size and quality found
in the Murray River system, such as Therapon niger, Murrayia
giintheri, cyprinoides and bramoides, and Riverina fluviatilis, all
described by the late Count Castelnau. There are besides several species

of Percide of small size, which are useless except as food for other
fishes,

Murrayia is a genus placed by Count Castelnau between Dules and
Therapon. Tt has eleven dorsal spines, the operculum is denticulated
in all its length, A line of small teeth on the palatine bones, the
caudal fin is rounded, scales minutely serrated, and the head
cavernous, It is peculiar to Australian rivers.

Riverina resembles Murrayia, but has twelve spines in the dorsal
fin, and is without teeth on the palatine bones. It is found on the
Murray, but rarely.

The professional fishermen at hilg ‘Wagga, on the Murrumbidgee, and at

Albury and Echuca, on the Murray (the first supplying Sydney with fish, the
others Melbourne), use, we are told, a net with a long pocket in the middle, which

‘HSISYVS ASAIN

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TUAXXYX aayvtg

FISH AND FISHERIES. 105

they stretch across the river at night, thereby intercepting fishes passing down
the river. If, as mentioned above, these river fishes have their migratory periods,
the complete stoppage of the river by nets may be most injurious or even
destructive to them.—R.R.C.

The Freshwater Black-fish.

A very common fish in some of our rivers, both of eastern and
western waters, is the ‘ Black-fish,” Gadopsis marmoratus, which
belongs to a genus of the most extraordinary fishes known. It is,
according to Professor M‘Coy, an intermediate type between the
Acanthopterygious fishes, in which the anterior rays of the dorsal fin are
simple spines, with the scales usually ctenoid, and the Malacopterygious
fishes, in which all the rays are soft and branched, and the scales usually
cycloid. In Gadopsis the cycloid scales, the general form, the imperfect
filamentous jugular ventral fins, and the majority of the characters so
* nearly agree with Malacopterygions that all the most recent writers with
Dr. Giinther class it with the Anacanthini, although the anterior rays of
the dorsal and anal fins are distinctly spinous: Our species is a mud
fish, and attains the length of 16} inches, but it is generally caught by
emptying the water-holes where the summer heat has made them low.
It is good eating, but like all these mud-fishes, very rich and oily. In
G. marmoratus, Richardson, the head is one-fourth of the length.
Prof. M‘Coy has described two species. One, G. gracilis, in which the
head is proportionately much shorter. ‘This is found in the river Yarra,
and differs in its habits from the fish of western waters, as it is readily
caught with a line. It is alsoa far better fish for the table, and is
much esteemed in Melbourne.

There is a second species of Gadopsis (G. gibbosus, M’Coy), which is
proportionately shorter, deeper, and with a much more convex dorsal
outline. It abounds in the Bunyip River, Gippsland, Victoria. Another
distinction is that it has twelve instead of ten spines in the dorsal. The
colouring of these fishes is very variable. Some are light olive green,
becoming yellowish-white towards the belly, the sides, back, and fins being
mottled irregularly with dark brown. This marbling varies from brown
to olive in smaller or larger patches, and the yellow varies to orange.
It is only when the mottling is very dark and thick that the name
Black-fish is at all applicable. Sometimes the brown marbling is slight
and distinct, and the general colour yellowish olive. The scales vary
also from truly cycloid to an indented margin, and undulating lines of
growth approaching the ctenoid type. An excellent figure of G. gracilis
is given in M‘Ooy’s “ Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria,” decade
3, plate 27, fig. 2. The name Gadopsisis meant to mean like the cod
or Gadus.

The Freshwater Cat-fish.

The ‘‘cat-fish” (Copidoglanus tandanus) is very abundant in the lagoons and
back waters of the western rivers, and is said to be a most excellent fish, but
there is a very general prejudice among Europeans against its use: it is very fat
and eel-like in Raver, and averages, when full grown, 2 feet in length. In this
species, as in most if not all of the Siluride, the ova are fertilized by the male
fish before leaving the body of the female, and both sexes seem to unite in the
subsequent attendance on the nest in which the ova are deposited.—R.R.C.

oO

106 NEW SOUTH WALES

The genus belongs to the Silwride, which is distinguished by a short
dorsal fin in front, with a pungent spine. A second long dorsal is
united with the caudal and anal into one fin ; teeth in the upper jaw
conical, on the vomer molar-like, in the lower jaw mixed ; barbels eight,
cleft of mouth transverse ; eyes of moderate size, with a free orbital
margin. The gill-membranes are separated by a deep notch, united
anteriorily only, the united portion not attached to the isthmus. The
first branchial arch with a fringed membrane along the hinder edge of
its concave side. Ventral fins, many rayed ; head rather compressed.
There are two other genera in Australia, Plotosus and Weoplotosus. The
differences are principally in the gill-membranes and teeth. They are
found in the fresh waters of Western and Southern Australia. The cat-
fish proper (C. tandanus) is brought abundantly to Melbourne by the
Echuca railway. The fishermen distinguish three sorts, the white,
black, and blue, but they are only varieties. The colours are subject to
the greatest changes. The back is steel colour or olive, often marbled.
The head and barbels pink. Again, there are specimens of a brownish-
black, and others white, with the head yellow. The teeth are white, in
a triangular band on each maxillary, twice as broad as long, and the
vomerine in a semi-circular disc. The first dorsal arises frem the neck,
and is nearly as high as the body, and its spine is more than half the
length of the head ; pectoral as strong, but shorter.

The Bony Bream.

A fish of the herring tribe is also found in these rivers (Chatoessus
richardsonii). The native name on the Murrumbidgee is “ Ka-i-ra, ”
and by the white settlers it is sometimes known as the “ bony bream. ”
It is said to appear at times in immense shoals. It is a handsome,
good-sized fish, but almost useless for food on account of the multitude
of bones in it.

In Chatoessus, which belongs to the herring family, the body is
compressed and the abdomen serrated; scales of moderate size ; snout
obtuse, or obtusely conical, more or less projecting beyond the cleft of
the mouth which is narrow and without teeth. There are ten species
known from the brackish and fresh waters of Central America. One
species ranges to New York; the rest belong to Australia, the East
Indies, and Japan. We have two species, C. richardsont and C.
erebi. The first is a more convex and less elongate form and has the
last dorsal ray half the length of that of C. erebt. Count Castelnau
states that it is much esteemed as food in the Melbourne market and
sells at a high price ; ‘also, that according to Blandowski it is called
manur by the natives. It leaps frequently out of the water and is
easily caught by its elongated ray in thin fine nets, laid by the natives
horizontally on the water. It is most numerous on the Darling. In
June and July it is at its best, and then forms one of the principal
articles of food for the natives. ‘The young women are not permitted to
eat them, from a belief that if they did all the fishes would die. Itisa
very fat and nourishing fish. It is also placed on the tops of graves for
superstitious purposes. Mr. Macleay does not think these statements
correct. The name with the Wooradgererie or Murrumbidgee language

“Was NVIIVSLSNV

‘NOSCUVHOIY—'syn.ygsny pppnbupr

“XIXXX “VT

FISH AND FISHERIES. 107

was Ka-ee-va. The fish was not common, and considered too bony to be
good as food. The flavour is good enough, but the bones make it
useless, The average size is 10 to 14 inches.

W. Australian Herring.

C. erebi has been found (says Count Castelnau) in Western and
North-western Australia, as well as inthe Norman and Brisbane Rivers,
Queensland. In the latter place it goes by the name of the sardine.
Mr Bostock, of Swan River, says that it is known there as the
“herring, ” quantities being smoked with Banksia wood or sawdust and
sold. It is said to be excellent eating, but not likely to become of
much economical importance, as its habits are not gregarious.

The fishes of the eastern rivers are of a less exclusively fresh-water
character than those of the western. We have the “perch” (Lates
colonorum), frequently found in salt water, the “mullet” (Mugil dobula),
visiting the sea annually after attaining the adult state, and the same
has been found to be the case with the “eel” (Anguilla australis).
The “herring” of these rivers also (Clupea nove-hollandie) is
frequently found down in salt water. These four species are in all the
rivers of the east coast, and are all good fish—the perch has been
mentioned before among the salt-water fishes; and also the mullet,
the eel, and the herring. In addition to these there are in the Cox,
Nepean, and other tributaries of the Hawkesbury, a species of Apogon,
several species of Hleotris, and a Centropogon. Further north, in the
Clarence and Richmond Rivers, we find an additional mullet (Mugil
petardi), an additional perch (Zates curtus), and what is very
remarkable, two of the fishes of the Murray system—the “cod”
(Oligorus macquariensis), which is got in some branches of the
Clarence, and the “cat-fish” (Copidoglanis tandanus), abundant in
the Richmond. ’

The Apogon.

Apogon is asmall fish of the perch tribe, and belongs to a genus of
brilliantly coloured “coral fishes.” Very few species out of nearly 100 are
found out of the tropics, and fewer still are fresh-water. Our species
(A. giintheri) is about 4 inches long, of brownish pink colour without
spots or bands. On each side there is also a golden tinge, and all the
scales are covered with minute black dots. Mr. Macleay thinks it is
A. nove-hollandie Val. It occurs in Port Phillip and Tasmania, as
well as Port Jackson.

The River Gobies.

Eleotris is one of the Gobies, from which the genus differs only in not
having the ventral fins coalescent. They are, for Gobies, rather large
fishes, tropical, and more fresh-water than marine. Some occur in the
inland waters of the African continent. Our species is Z. australis,
Krefft, a fish of about 5 inches in length, occurring in all the eastern rivers
and creeks. Itis of ayellowish-brown colour, covered with minute black
spots in five or six longitudinal lines. The tail is spotted, and the base
of the pectoral fins a bright yellow; there are also some faint bands on
the second dorsal. The head is scaly to the obtuse snout, the lower jaw
prominent, and the teeth in viliform bands.

108 NEW SOUTH WALES

Centropogon robustus, Giinth., is in all our eastern rivers. It belongs
to the Scorpenide family, and a genus which is distinguished by having
no groove on the occiput, no pectoral appendages and no cleft behind
the fourth gill. The species is a small brownish fish, marbled with
black. Its scales are small, and the fourth and fifth dorsals are the
longest. None of these three fishes are of any commercial importance
whatever. It has already been shown what peculiarities this fish has
under the name of the “ Bull-rout.”

GALAXIADZ.

In the upper and shallower parts of the creeks and rivers rising
in the Blue Mountains one or two species of Galawias are found.
They are cylindrical fishes of 8 or 10 inches in length, and without scales,
inhabiting only the colder rivers of the Southern Pacific. They are
probably’good for the table, but they are rare and for the most part
small, They are known to some as the “Mountain trout.” In
describing a new species from Mt. Kosciusko, G. findlayi, the Hon. W.
Macleay makes the following remarks (Proceed. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
vol. 7,'p. 106) :—“I received from Baron von Mueller, a few days ago,
two specimens of a small fish which inhabits the icy pools of the snowy
range in the neighbourhood of Mt. Kosciusko. The Baron writes as
follows :—‘I saw the same little creature in several of the waters high
up in the Alps, during my exploration of the Snowy Mountains in
1853-4, and 1855, and again in later years when travelling, but I was
in the then pathless alpine regions, unable to preserve zoological
specimens. When in 1874, I for the second time ascended Mt.
Kosciusko, I saw this species of fish again in the little glacier ponds,
but missed catching any, my time being so much occupied, during my
brief stay on the snowy summit, in the pursuit of plants.’ The two
specimens now to be described were captured by 8. Findlay on Mt.
Kosciusko. They are both small, the largest not exceeding 3 inches, and
evidently immature.” Macleay then refers to a former paper read before
the same Society (vol. 5, p. 45), describing another species of that genus,.
from the head waters of the Colo River at Mount Wilson, and he pointed
out the probability of fishes of this kind being abundant, and of con-
siderable size in the cold snowy streams of the Australian Alps. He
remarked in the same paper that though such fishes were found in the
upper tributaries of the Grose, at heights of two or three thousand feet,
none were found in-the Nepean and Hawkesbury, into which these
streams flowed. The author attributed this not so much to the falls as
to the difference of temperature, and mentioned that its distribution
showed it to be essentially a cold-water fish. The family is a remark-
able one, containing ‘only two genera, Galawias and Neochanna. Both
are small fresh-water fishes, only found in the Southern Hemisphere.
Neochanna is a remarkable mudfish of New Zealand, which is caught
in burrows which it excavates in clay or consolidated mud, at a distance
from the water. It is, says Dr. Giinther, a degraded form of Galawias,.
from which it only differs by the absence of ventral tins, These fish
have no scales or barbels, they have a thick lip, and the ova fall into the
cavity of the abdomen before exclusion. Altogether the family is a
most isolated one, having no relationship with any other. ‘The species

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 109

of Galaaias,” says Mr. Macleay, “are numerous, but so much alike, that
it is, looking at their distribution, more than probable that they are one
and all only permanent local varieties of the same fish.

“But the chief interest attached to these fishes is in their distribution.
They are found only in the rivers of Southern Chili, Magellan Straits,
the Falkland Islands, Tasmania, New Zealand, and those parts of Aus-
tralia where the rivers take their rise in the Snowy Mountains or in cold
elevated table-lands ; so that in fact we find this singular fish in all the
lands which extend into the colder regions of the Southern Pacific and
nowhere else. The deduction from this singular fact is very plain. At
one period,—probably very remote even in a geological sense,—the area
of land above the sea in the antarctic regions must have been very much
in excess of what it is at present, at all events sufficiently extended to
admit of some kind of. continuity across the whole width of the Pacific
between the southern extremity of South America and Australia.
There is no other. way of accounting for the appearance of these fishes
in such widely different localities.” :

The subject thus suggested is a very large one, and is worthy of
attention in connection with the whole of the Australian fauna. The
agency of birds in transporting ova must not, moreover, be lost sight of,
though there are difficulties in the way of that explanation as well. It
should be mentioned, moreover, that some of our Australian freshwater
mollusca have a very wide range in the Pacific, while the marine
molluscan fauna is comparatively restricted. The spread of ova by
means of birds is the usual way of accounting for this.

The Australian Grayling.

Though not a fish of New South Wales, it may be as well to mention
here the Australian Grayling, which in character, habits, and the manner
of its capture is almost identical with the English fish of that name.
In shape there is some difference between the two fish. The local
Grayling is smaller, of a more uniform thickness, and with a less promi-
nent back-fin; but it possesses strongly the peculiar Grayling odour.
A newly-caught fish smells exactly like a dish of fresh-sliced cucumber.
It is widely distributed in Victoria, and very abundant in all the fresh-
water streams of Tasmania. It is the only native fish which affords any
sport to the fly-fisher ; but it prefers a red worm, and can be best taken
with the coarsest tackle. It seldom exceeds a pound in weight. As it
has a well marked adipose fin it was referred to the Salmonide, but it
is now placed in the family Haplochitonide, a group of fresh-water fishes
which represents the Salmonoids in the Southern Hemisphere. Only two
genera are known, viz. :—1. Haplochiton, fresh-water fishes, abundant
in the lakes and streams near the Straits of Magellan, coasts of Chili
and the Falkland Isles. It has the general habit of Trout, but without
scales. 2. Prototroctes, with the habit of Corregonus, scaly and with
minute teeth. The Australian Grayling, which used to be known as
Thymallus australis, belongs to this genus, and is called Prototroctes
marcena. In Melbourne it goes by the name of the Yarra Herring.
There is another species in New Zealand.

110 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER VII.

Oyster Fisheries.

Tue oyster fisheries of New South Wales are of immense value, and
may become more so when we remember that “natives” are now ten
guineas a bushel in London, It may soon be worth our while to export
them, especially as ice would not be wanted. London pays between four
and five million annually for oysters, and double the quantity might be
sold. In Paris oysters are 12 francs the 100. The “ tinning of oysters
might easily be conducted at a profit amongst us.”

According to Dr. J. C. Cox (Pres. Lin. Soc., N.S.W.), who has given
special attention to the subject, we have five distinct species of oyster
in New South Wales ; these are—O. angasi, Sow., mud oyster, O. sub
trigona ; Sow., drift oyster, O. glomerata, Gould, rock oyster, 0. cireum-
suta, Gould, a rare species, O. virescens, Angas, also a rare species. The
two last are of no commercial value, being rare, of small size, and
difficult to remove from the rocks.

The Mud Oyster.

O. angast was, and is still by many regarded as only a variety of O.
edulis, Linn., of European seas. The differences are that the valves are
dentate at the margins. Mr. Sowerby says that the sculpture is less
coarse, and Mr. Angas says that it is larger but more regular. Such
distinctions will, however, hardly bear specific classification. It is found
rarely in Port Jackson, though once very common, and it has grown
very scarce in Tasmania. In Port Lincoln (Spencer’s Gulf, South
Australia) it is still abundant. It was formerly abundant in New
South Wales, as the kitchen-middens of the aborigines show; it was
also formerly abundant in Pliocene times, as there are raised beaches
in Victoria and South Australia entirely composed of the shells of
this mollusc. It is undoubtedly one of the best if not the best of oysters.
The species or variety O. rutupina, Jeffreys, is abundant in Tasmania.
This is the “ native” or Colchester, or Carlingford oyster of Britain.

The Drift Oyster.

O. subtrigona.—Shell subtrigonal, oblong, or subquadrate, ponderous,
rather narrow towards the umbones, broad at the ventral margin, quad-
rate, margin strongly plicate, lower valve deep, greenish a as edged,
slightly with purple, radiately plicate outside, concentrically banded with
fawn and purple, hinge acuminated, sides crenulate near the hinge. The
sculpture of the shell is bold and. large, and the square character of the
ventral margin is striking.

This is the Drift Oyster, so called because it is believed that its beds
are shifted by the influence of storms or tides, It lies in beds consisting
for the most part of free unattached individuals, or attached to masses
of drift matter, or to each other by adhesions of the lower valve. The

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 111

beds are always in moderately deep water, and never uncovered by the
tide. It is the common oyster of New South Wales and Brisbane, and
is largely exported to the neighbouring Colonies.

It is commonly supposed, says Dr. Cox, that this species and the rock
oyster are identical, and with this view many persons have gathered
rock oysters-and planted them in beds with a view to their cultivation:
He maintains, however, that this only leads to loss, for if this species’ is
placed in positions where it is uncovered by every tide, it speedily dies ;
but if properly cultivated on the beds it usually inhabits, it will become
a most important article of food.

Mr. Oliver and many others maintain that the drift oyster will
flourish well if left under the same conditions as the rock oyster, that is
where it is uncovered by every tide. The first-named gentleman tells
me that he has tried the experiment, and succeeded in rearing a fine lot
of drift oysters. On the other hand, rearing rock oysters in drift
oyster beds is an experiment successfully and frequently effected by
every oyster grower. Altogether the evidence preponderates in favour
of the theory that 0. subtrigona and O. glomerata (that is the so-called
rock and drift oysters) are the same species under different conditions.
With ordinary care and attention they may be grown in deep or tidal
waters.

The Rock Oyster.

O. glomerata, or Rock Oyster. This is the kind which is found so
abundantly adhering to the rocks on all the east coast of Australia, Dr.
Cox regards it as distinct from that which occurs so abundantly on the
Queensland coast, especially on the coral reefs, where all the outstanding
blocks of coral (nigger heads) are covered with them. This is Ostrea
mordax, Gould. Having given the subject every consideration in
travelling along the east coast I cannot regard the species as distinct.
No definite specific distinction can be found when large numbers of species
are examined. This oyster is generally found adhering to rocks which are
not always covered by the tide. 1t is often beautifully frilled, and of a rich
purplecolour. “Tf,” says-Dr. Cox, “ individuals of this species are placed
in proper trenches or in positions where clear fresh sea-water will flow
over them at each tide, they thrive and fatten to an extent which makes
them a valuable article of food and an important commercial product,
and by placing low stakes of wood or other material for the spat to adhere
to when emitted from the mother shell, they are easily and successfully
propagated. But when placed in such positions, especially on mud flats
which are uncovered by every tide, they are liable to the attacks of a
number of other molluscs, and unless the water which flows over them
is pure, and free from decomposed vegetable matter and from grit, they
suffer from the irritation caused by such particles, some discolour
and waste-and others die.” To this species is also to be referred 0.
cacullata of Born. The variety is merely an overgrown form of the
hinge very common on the coral reefs.

A Royal Commission was appointed in the latter end of the year 1876
to take the important question of the Oyster Fisheries into consideration,
and a very excellent Report from that Commission was brought up and

112 NEW SOUTH WALES

printed early in 1877. The Report was accompanied by the draft of a
Bill, which it was hoped would have been taken up by the Government
and passed into law, but unfortunately no further steps were taken in
the matter. ;

There is no part of the world better, we might almost say so well, adapted for
the growth and culture of the oyster as New South Wales. The climate, the
nature of the coast line, with its numerous inlets and creeks, and the natural
existence of the best varieties of the bivalve itself, all combine to mark this country
out as the most likely of all places for successful ostreiculture. Unlike the coasts
of England, Scotland, and Europe generally, where the coldness of the tempera-
ture in summer is sufficient to prevent sometimes the shedding of the spat at all,
and always to. limit the quantity of it, here we have invariably the spat distributed
with a profusion which under proper regulations would make our oyster supply
unlimited and inexhaustible. And yet with all the advantage of a bounteous
supply we are actually informed that the natural beds are so nearly exhausted that
a bag of oysters can now only with difficulty be raised in a day, where a year or
two ago it would have been easy to dredge 50 bushels in the same time. The same
poem of exhaustion, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, is going on in the

eased beds, and we can see no remedy for this crying evil except by making it

more to the interest of those leasing oyster beds to conserve, improve, and keep up
the supply, than to clean the beds out in the shortest possible time and have
done with them.—R.R.C.

Many of the suggestions made above have been already carried into
effect by the Fisheries Act of 1880, as will be notified in its proper place.

A few words on the possibility of oyster culture in the manner which
is so successful in pisciculture may be inserted here. The list above
given of the species or varieties of oysters in Australia is very nearly
all that we know on the subject, and that is very little. Of that little,
much is uncertain. Many experienced persons do not regard the rock
oyster as distinct from the drift oyster, as I have already mentioned ;
they say that the difference arises merely from the manner in which it
is reared, and to this opinion I am disposed to subscribe, for reasons
which have appeared in the previous remarks, One would think that
there is not much to be said about the organs or parts of an animal so
simple in structure as the oyster, but this is not the case. Perhaps it
is for want of a knowledge that can be easily obtained that so little has
been done, and this I propose to remedy in a few explanations which
are necessary in order to understand what I have to say on the matter.

Oysters are spoken of as being fat and lean, and their shells are
described as upper and lower, all of which terms are a source of con-
fusion. There is no fat in an oyster. What is usually known as such
is the ovary or milt, that is to say, the roe or unfertilized eggs of the
male, and the soft roe or fertilizing fluid of the male. These organs
. form the great mass of oysters which are in good condition. Oysters are
of distinct sexes. It has been suggested that there may be an altenation
of the sexual character, and those which are males one season may be
females another. Such things are not unheard of in the animal king-
dom, and there is some evidence in’ its favour in the case of oysters.
On the whole, however, the weight of evidence is against it. These
remarks apply to the habits of the European and American species,
Of the Australian species we know nothing, except from analogy. They
are nearly allied to oysters in other parts of the world, and may even be
specifically identical. What is therefore true of one may be true of all.
Before proceeding further, definitions of terms must be given.

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 113

The oyster has, properly speaking, no head. or tail. The portion in
which the mouth is situate is called the head. It is nearer to the hinge
than the outer edge of the shell, and therefore the hinge side is called
the anterior and the free edge of the shell is the posterior side of the
body. In the young state the two shells of the oyster are of equal size
and alike, but it soon becomes attached by one side, and then the adher-
ing side grows much faster and is much larger. This lower valve is
invariably the left one, and it is deep and concave, while the right valve is
usually flat. If an oyster be held edgewise, so that the right valve is
on the right, and the hinge away from the observer, the dorsal surface
will be uppermost, and the ventral below. The hinge is provided with
an elastic ligament which would always keep the shells a little open
were it not for the strong adductor muscle in the middle of the inside
of each shell. This has to be cut through before an oyster can be
opened. Both valves are lined with a fine transparent membrane called
the mantle. Inside this there is a fringe with a narrow dark margin ;
this fringe will be found to consist of four lamine, which occupy the
ventral half of the valves, and extend from the open edges nearly
round to the hinge. Remembering the definition of what is the dorsal
and what the ventral edge of the body, it will be found that the gill
lamine are free on the ventral side—that is distinct from each other,
but they are joined together and united with the body and mantle on
the dorsal side. Round the adductor muscle the great mass of the sub-
stance is taken up by the ova or milt. Just by the side of the muscle is
a small transparent vesicle like a blister; it will be seen moving from time
to time in a freshly opened oyster, but very slowly and at long intervals.
This vesicle contains the heart and the movement is its pulsation. The
blood of oysters is colourless. The transparent veins and arteries can
be easily seen on a close inspection of the tissue. The heart consists of
a small compact white ventricle and a loose spongy transparent auricle.
The auricle receives the blood from the gills, and the ventricle pumps it
to the various organs. The whole process can be easily seen with a very
ordinary hand-lens. In front of the gills—that is between them and
the hinge—there are four flaps of flesh, two on each side of the body.
These are around the mouth, which is near the hinge, and away from
the open end of the shell. The oyster feeds on extremely minute
organisms, as the mouth is supplied by the currents caused by cilia.
These are organs only visible with high microscopic powers, and con-
stantly moving. They are like little hairs. The intestine is coiled up
amidst the ovary, and there is a long slit close to the middle of the
posterior face of the adductor muscle, which is the anus.

As already observed, the sexes are divided in the oyster, but there is no
external mark by which a male oyster can be distinguished from a female.
The only test is the microscope. If a portion of the white stuff called the
fat be taken out and mingled with a drop of sea water, and then covered
by thin glass and examined with a good inch objective, it is easy to say at
once whether the oyster is a male or female. If a male, the white fluid is
clouded with minute massesof granules which can scarcely be distinguished.
If a female, the ovaare quite distinct as regular granulations. It requires
a very high magnifying power to make anything out of the male fluid,
but with a good quarter of an inch objective it is seen to be filled with
small organisms like tadpoles, with tails which are incessantly moving.

P

114 NEW SOUTH WALES

By mixing the male and female fluid it has been found perfectly easy
to fertilize the ova. After a period varying from one to two days the
eggs are hatched; a minute free-swimming organism is the result. By
the aid of warmth and many favourable circumstances eggs may be
hatched in twohours. A somewhat warm temperature in the sea is the
best for hatching, and the slightest cold of a severe character destroys
the ova. Our climate should be about the best for oyster culture, and
as far as the rock oyster is concerned the more abundant it becomes as
it is traced northwards and into warmer seas. About twelve hours after
the free-swimming stage the shells begin to appear, with the germs of
other organs. The shells are distinct from the first, and for a long time
have a smooth rounded outline. At the end of six days the shells
nearly cover the embryo, which is hardly more than visible to the
unassisted eye as the merest grain. All the larger organs can be seen
with a microscope, as they are then separated, with the exception of
course of the reproductive tissues such as ovary and milt. After
swimming about in this state for a few days, the period of which has
not. been exactly ascertained, the young oyster, the so-called ‘ spat,”
fastens itself by one valve of its shell to any rough and clean body. It
is then very thin and delicate, but grows fast. If it has not some object
to fasten to it sinks to the bottom. There it may find the living and
dead shells of its relatives or a rock or other shells, and there it will grow.
It is not uncommon to find nearly a hundred small “spat” on one
oyster shell. Itis then that oyster cultivators collect them and lay
them in convenient places to fatten. Without artificial assistance there
can be no doubt that the great mass of oyster ova perish,

Many observers have asserted that the ova are fertilized within the
ovary and ‘are afterwards nursed in the folds of the mantle. Dr.
Brooks has proved that this is not true of the American oyster (0.
virguviana), and it is probably untrue of all. I have carefully examined
many ripe female oysters, and never could find any embryos on the
mantle. It is probable that the egg is discharged into the water, to be
fertilized, where in oyster-beds and amidst its own species it easily may
meet with a male cell. If however it does not meet with such, the ova
are rapidly destroyed by sea-water. The fertilized ova crowd toge-
ther on the surface as a thin scum, where they no doubt fall a prey
to many enemies, small ones of course, because they are too minute
themselves to form an article of food to any but very little creatures.
Still the chances of their escape from accident are not in their favour.
This is why preserves and ponds must be so advantageous to their culti-
vation. J£ the collection of the spat is found to be so profitable, how
much more would properly secluded places be where the ova could be
left in tranquillity with all the chances of life in their favour. Artificial
fertilization is not wanted,—all that is required is the protection of hatched
spawn. Moébius* estimated the average number of eggs laid by O. edulis
at over a million (1,012,925). Eyton rates this higher, and says that
there are about 1,800,000.t Dr Brooks calculates from a much more
accurate series of observations, and estimates the ova from the largest
Virginian oyster as about 60 million, or for an average one about ten

eee Die Austern und die Austernwirtschaft,” von Karl Mobius, Berlin, 1877.
+ ‘History of the Oyster and Oyster Fisheries,” by T. C, Eyton, London, 1858
The figures above are given at p. 24,

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TITIX Styvt¢

FISH AND FISHERIES. 115

million.* So that, as far as ova are concerned, there is no want of
material, and the male sperma are of course still more numerous: all
that is wanted is protection. With regard to.the methods by which this
can be obtained, I condense the following from Bertram’s “‘ Harvest of
the Sea” (p. 237), who states that the secret of there being only a holding-
on place required for the spat of the oyster to insure an immensely
increased supply was found by the French. Probably they were
indebted in some degree to the methods pursued in England (Colne and
Whitstable) for the idea. The plan was simple enough. Strong pillars
of wood were driven into the mud and sand, arms were added, the whole
was interlaced with branches of trees, and various boughs were hung over
beds on ropes and chains, whilst others were sunk by weights in the
water. A few boat-loads of oysters being laid down, the spat easily
found a home In 1850 the oyster beds of France were nearly
exhausted. St. Brieuc, Rochelle, Marennes, and Rochefort could no
longer supply the market. Oyster culture was begun at the Island of
Ré where there are few trees, but stones and tiles were largely used as
collectors for the oyster spat. "The work was begun in 1858, and ten
years afterwards there were upwards of 4,000 “ pares” and “‘claires” as
they are called, constructed on the foreshores of the island. The
system was inaugurated by a stonemason, named Beuf. He enclosed a
portion of the foreshore of the island,. about 30 yards square, with a
wall of rough stones about 18 inches high, and in this enclosure or pare
he laid down a few bushels of growing oysters.* In the course of a year
he was able to dispose of about £6 worth of oysters. Elated with this
success he doubled the size of his enclosure, and more than doubled his
profits, without in any way encroaching on his breeding stock. The
news of this success induced the French Government to cede portions of
the shore to be used as oyster parcs by labourers, who in return paid a

.nominal rental of a franc a week. The first duty that had to be
performed was to clear off the mud, which is fatal to young oysters, and
which abounded in that locality. After this, rocks had to be blasted
to obtain stones for the parc walls; then these had to be built, and
the pares stocked with breeding oysters. In a short time an incredible
number of oysters was gathered on shores which a few years ago were of .
no value.t ‘So that this branch of industry now realizes an extraordi-
nary revenue, and spreads comfort’ amongst families which were
formerly in a state of comparative indigence. A series of enormous
and unproductive mud banks, occupying a stretch of shore about 4
leagues in length, are now so transformed and the whole place so
changed as to appear to be the work of a miracle. .

Dr. Kemmerer, of St. Martin’s, Island of Ré, has invented a tile
which he covers with some kind of composition that can, when occasion
requires, be peeled off, and this plan is useful for the transference of the
oyster from the collecting pare to the fattening claire.

* ‘Development of the American Oyster,” by Dr. W. K. Brooks, p.15. Printed
as an Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland,
January, 1880, Annapolis, State Printers, 1880.

+ The remainder of this extract is from the Report of the Oyster Culture
Commission, Sydney, 1877, p. 10, &c. Itis abridged from Bertram’s ‘‘ Harvest of
the Sea,” to which I have added a few facts here and there of later date, taken
principally from Simmond’s ‘‘Commercial Products of the Sea.”

116 NEW SOUTH WALES

Lake Fusaro is highly interesting as being the first seat of oyster
culture. It is the Avernus of Virgil. It is still devoted to the highly
profitable art of oyster-farming. The mode of oyster-breeding at this
place is now, as it was eighteen centuries ago, to erect artificial pyramids
of stones in the water, surrounded by stakes of wood, in order to inter-
cept the spawn. Fagots of branches were also used to collect the spawn,
which must find a holding-on place within forty-eight hours after its
emission, or it will be lost for ever.

The Royal Commission (Ireland) say :—Hurdles and fascines have
been found to answer well as collectors, and they will be found cheaper.
They are fixed in rows, by means of pegs, about 2 or 3 feet above the
oysters, which are scattered on the soil under them. :

Furze bushes are also found to answer fairly, but fascines and
bushes are scarcely so suitable in a tide-way, in consequence of the
liability of the twigs to catch weed, break, and float away, when the
spat is carried with them. In all cases when wood is employed for
collectors, it should be dry, hard, and sapless, and cut, at least, in the
preceding season. Oysters are more easily detached from wood col-
lectors ; the loss or damage to the shell breaking them off is least upon
fascines, as the twigs are easily broken off; the loss is greater on
hurdles, greater still on tiles, and greatest of all on stones. The young
oyster, though somewhat malformed at times on twigs, soon regains its
shape when detached without damage. Tiles are largely used in France
because they are cheap—about £2 per thousand. One cultivator, at
Auray, possesses 200,000 tiles, and on these he obtained, in 1869, six
millions of oysters.

In New South Wales the production of oysters is immensely beyond
our present requirements, and nature has also provided us so amply
with holding-on places (rocks, mangrove trees, &c.) for collecting the
spat, that it appears almost superfluous for us to allude to the subject of
oyster-breeding ; but this state of things may not always continue, and
at some future time information on breeding oysters will be as useful as
that on the growth and fattening of oysters is at the present time.

As respects the fattening of oysters.—The nature of the bed or soil
on which it rests is a matter of the greatest importance. Bertram says
the beds of ‘natives’ are all situated on the London clay or on similar
formations. * * * The portion of the beds set apart for the rear-
ing of ‘natives’ is as sacred as the waxen cells devoted to the growth
of queen bees. But, although called ‘natives,’ in many instances they
are not ‘natives’ at all, but are, on the contrary, a grand mixture of all
kinds of oysters, being brought from Prestonpans and Newhaven, in
the Firth of Forth, and from many other places, to augment the stock.
Many circumstances highly favourable to the growth and fattening of
oysters are the reverse for successful breeding. Growth and fattening
will proceed where there may be a large amount of fresh water and a
strong current : the former would prove prejudicial to spatting, and the
latter tend to prevent the adhesion of spat—at least in the locality at which
it is voided. It is a remarkable fact that there are no fine-flavoured’
oysters where there is not fresh water, and this fact was noticed by
Pliny more than eighteen hundred years ago. The Royal Commission
(Ireland) says: For fattening there are few places better than a salt

Puate XLIV,

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FISH AND FISHERIES. 117

marsh. The fattening ponds (termed claires) at Marennes and La
Tremblade, of which sketches are appended, are at both places formed
out of salt marshes, and are in many instances only old disused salterns
or salt-pans in which rough salt was made. The number of oysters
laid down in claires is proportioned to the time it is intended they should
remain there ; for as the food of the oyster is limited, a smaller number
will of course fatten more rapidly than a larger number. The average
distribution is about two or three to the square foot. The oysters thus
fattened are of excellent flavour and quality.

Mr. Cholmondeley Pennell, Inspector of the English Oyster Fisheries,
who was sent by the Board of Trade to inspect and report upon the
French modes of oyster culture, says in his report :—‘The fattening
pits (claires) are excavated from 1 to 2 feet deep, and are of all shapes
and sizes, from 10 to 60 yards square, which latter is the maximum,
the usual size being from 40 to 50 yards square. It is in these pits
that the celebrated green oysters are fattened. Round the margin of
the claires, at Marennes, a trench or channel is excavated a yard or two
wide, and an extra foot deep, the object of which is to equalize the
temperature when the shallower water becomes too hot or too cold.
One portion of the side of each claire is cut down to the depth at which
it is wished to keep the water ; this depression communicates with the
nearest gully or natural channel, and at spring tides (when only the
water in the tides can be changed) the tide, winding its way up the
channel, finds ingress and egress, The same channel also serves to carry
away the waste water whenever it is wished to lay the pits dry, for »
which purpose the simple method is adopted of digging a hole in the
clay bank, which is readily stopped up again when desired.’ '

During the summer months the sea has free ingress and egress to the
claires to purify them, and the coating of blackish mud which has
collected on the surface during the preceding year is also removed. In.
August they usually stop up the gaps in the banks, in order that the
continued action on the soil and water may produce the greenish creamy
scum with which the surface mud of all the claires is covered. Oysters
in the claires do not begin to fatten until late in the autumn and winter.
A large quantity of oysters will live well in the pits, but they will not
fatten if too numerous. ‘There is no doubt that the fewer oysters that
are placed in a pit, the more food there will be for each of them and the
quicker they will fatten. Wherever these claires have been constructed
they have succeeded, and, when once constructed, the labour and expense
of working them are small. The claires at Marennes occupy a strip of”
low-lying clay country on the river Seudre. The soil is marl, that is, a
mixture of chalk and clay, and is of various colours—greyish, blue or black,
greyish yéllow, and in some cases red. The muddy or marly bottoms are
most favourable ‘to the growth and fattening of the oyster. Professor
Sullivan says :—‘The soil of all places successful as oyster-fattening
stations contains more or less of a fine flocculent highly hydrated silty clay,
abounding in vegetable and animal matter, derived chiefly from diatomacea,
rhizopoda, and other microscopical organisms ; and that the soils of those.
places which have proved successful as breeding-stations always contains
some of it, but not necessarily as much of those which fatten ; and lastly,
that in those places which have proved failures, this peculiar kind of mud
is either wholly absent or inferior in quality and quantity.’

118 NEW SOUTH WALES

The Royal Commission (Ireland) say, fruitful oyster mud may vary
within very wide limits, from almost pure sand to almost plastic clay.
In the very sandy grounds, there must however be always a sufficient
quantity of highly hydrated clay to render the sand adhesive and to
preserve it from becoming a mere loose running mass.

In the clayey grounds there must always be calcareous mud to make the
clay porous and prevent it becoming too hard,—clay marls, with some
intermixed sand, being perhaps the best of all materials for oyster grounds.

The earth known as the London clay appears to be the soil peculiarly
adapted for oysters. It may be well here to explain that the term
‘London clay’ is employed in.a general and a special sense. In the
former it is used as a collective name for a number of beds of the old
tertiary formation, consisting of gravels and sands below and of clays
above. In the special or limited sense, it is applied to the bluish or
blackish clay, sometimes mixed with a greenish coloured earth and white
sand, which forms the upper parts of the beds just mentioned. London
clay is plastic clay, not differing much in chemical composition from
ordinary potter’s clay. All fruitful oyster muds contain organic matter,
always due in part to the presence of ,infusoria, and sometimes in part
to small alge or conferve, remains of shell-fish and other marine
creatures.

Bertram says, one of the most lucrative branches of oyster farming in
France is the fattening of oysters in claires, at Marennes, which have
been brought from the Ile de Ré breeding parcs. In the claires the
oysters become green, and of considerably more value than the white
oyster. The peculiar colour and taste of the green oyster are imparted
to it by the vegetable substances which grow in the claires. The industry
carried on at Marennes consists chiefly of the fattening in claires ; and
the oysters operated upon were at one period of their lives as white as
those which are grown at any other place; indeed, it is only after they
have been steeped a year or two in the muddy ponds (claires) of the
river Seudre that they attain their much-prized green hue. The ponds
(claires) for the manufacture of these green oysters—the oyster par
excellence, according to all epicurean authority—require to be watertight,
for they are not submerged by the sea, except during very high tides.
Each claire is about 100 ft. square; the walls for retaining the waters
require, therefore, to be very strong. They are composed of low banks
of earth, 5 or 6 feet thick at the base, and about 3 feet in height.
These walls are also useful in forming a promenade, on which the
watchers or workers can walk to and fro and view the different ponds.
The floodgates for the admission of the tide require also to be thoroughly
watertight and to fit with great precision, as the stock of oysters must
always be covered with water, but a too frequent flow of the tide over
the ponds is not desirable, hence the walls, which serve the double
purpose of both keeping in and keeping out the water. A trench or
ditch is cut in the inside of each pond, for the better collection of the
green slime left at each flow of the tide, and many tidal inundations
are necessary before the claire is fit for its stock. The oysters placed in
them are a year or sixteen months old, and it is two years at least before
they are properly greened.

“HSIS-LVG@ AHL

“[—'snajuabiv snggasq

FISH AND FISHERIES. 119

Auray in Brittany is, next to Arcachon, the seat of the most
important of all French oyster fisheries. There is one establishment in
the Auray district which comprises about 100 acres in a single enclosure
and about 12 hectares between the enclosure and the sea. In 1864 the
sea broke in and submerged it, causing as it was thought great destruc-
tion; but the proprietor took advantage of the accident to form the
parc into an oyster tank by means of substantial and costly embank-
ments. In 1876 the owner laid down six million oysters, more than
half of which were about 14 inch long. All have grown well, and so
satisfactory have been the results that contracts were entered into for
the supply of a million of oysters to Paris, and the same to London, and
the quantity is now probably doubled to each place.

‘In this Colony we have plenty of salt-water swamps, marshes, mud-
banks (“crossets”) more or less covered by the tides, where the fattening
of oysters, or “greening” them, could be carried on. We have the
same kind of rich mud as the estuary of the Thames, which is so
celebrated for fattening oysters. Analyses made of the mud from one
of the bays of George’s River showed it to be similar to the London
clay out of which Portland cement is made. Our unsightly and
unhealthy waste marshes might then be made a great source of wealth.
The “claires” need not be of any particular shape or size. Oysters
grow best in shallow water. A fattening ground is usually a small
creek with muddy banks, and the bed is made in the middle with shells
on which the oysters are laid. Mr. Holt (Chairman of the Oyster
Commission) constructed many claires on the coasts of New South
Wales, more than 30 miles in total length, but his experience was
decidedly against damming them. At first he made many flood-gates
and dams, according to the most approved systems he had seen in
France; but he has since done away with them entirely, and let the
oysters have the full benefit of the ebb and flow of the tide. This has
been a great saving in the expense, and the oysters have done better.
It should, however, be mentioned the ebb and flow is much smaller
here than on the coasts of France, and with consequently less danger of
the stock being carried away.

Oysters have many enemies, one of the commonest of which is the
sponge (Hymeniacidon celata*), which forms for itself branching cavities
by its siliceous spicule, and completely honeycombs the shell. It is thus
easily crushed, and the animal becomes exposed and dies. It is said
that exposing the shell to the sunshine is a remedy to this, and in effect
the rock oyster, which is often long uncovered by the tide, does not
seem to be much attacked. by this parasite.

“Ten or twelve years ago the oyster industry in France was in a high
state of prosperity, but five or six years later it was in a most deplorable
state, and Mr. Pennell and others gave melancholy accounts of the
failures of oyster culture in that country. This did not arise from
natural causes, such as frost, snow, floods, &c., which occasioned such

* This was the old opinion, and is quoted by Buckland. Dr. Bowerbank contends
that the mischief is done by an annelid worm which leaves borings which the
sponge afterwards inhabits. H. celata, Bk. (which Buckland refers to as Cliona)
ig in its anatomical details one of the simplest and smallest of sponges, being a
mere thread.

120 NEW SOUTH WALES

tremendous losses of spat and oysters in England, Ireland, and Scotland,
but from the negligence and greed of the cultivators. The Royal
Commission (Ireland, 1870) say in their Report: There is no reason to
doubt that the decline in production (in France) is to be attributed to
the neglected state of the collectors, and also to the selling of too many
of the parent oysters, and thus annihilating to a considerable extent the
source of spat. This, the Commission say, is admitted by the proprietors
themselves, who have found their expectations to get spat without
parent oysters to be delusive, and they are now taking means to renew
the stock of oysters and collectors. The selling of their breeding oysters
is but a repetition of the old story of killing the goose that lays the
golden eggs. But now the tide has turned, and the French having
learned by bitter experience not to trust solely to their fine climate and
great natural advantages, have put their shoulders to the whéel, and by
skill and industry have turned the bountiful gifts of Providence to good
account. Like causes can never operate in New South Wales to injure
the oyster industry, from the fact that there are many localities where
marketable oysters cannot be profitably dredged for consumption, but
where spat can at all times be obtained in any quantity.

“ Mr. Farrar, Secretary to the Board of Trade, in the evidence he gave
before the said Select Committee of the House of Commons (1876),
said :—‘Mr. Pennell was sent by the Board of Trade, in 1868, to inspect
the French oyster fisheries, and he gave a most melancholy account of
them—nothing could be worse. The Irish Commission confirmed that
melancholy account; but now it appears from the official returns of the
French Government (1876) that the production has enormously
increased. At Marennes the private cultivators have been enormously
successful ; at Cancale the value of the oysters produced had risen from
97,375 francs in 1869 to 720,800 francs in 1874. The octriculturists,
who have established parcs on the banks of the Auray, gather consider-
able quantities of young oysters in their collectors, and many of them
have already realized important profits. Many of the proprietors of
pares are embarrassed by the abundance of their produce.’ Mr. J. A.
Blake, Inspector of Irish Fisheries, in the evidence he gave before the
said Select Committee (1876) said :—‘ French oysters will cause a great
revolution in the oyster trade in England ; so that we need to care very
little about our own production at all, but look more to the fattening,’ ”

The official value of the oyster produce in France for 1873 was given
as follows :—2,477,565 francs. The dredging in the ports of Granville,
Cancale, and L’Orient, produced in 1873 nearly 13 million oysters,
against over 4 million and a half in the previous year ; in 1874 it was
‘13 million and a half. From the official statement lately published, the
following statistics are given for the commerce in oysters in France, for
the season from the Ist Sept. to 30th April :—

Oysters taken from the beds. Value, Price per 1,000.
1874... 104,731,350... ... 7,727,000 francs. ... 73°78 francs,
1875... 227,640,212 ... ... 11,247,416 ,, ... 49°40,
1876... 335,774,070 ... ... 18,226,296 ,, ve 39°39

This shows the enormous increase of the production and the con-
sequent lowering of the price, but not proportionately, for though the
on increased more than three times the price did not fall to
one-half,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 121

The basin of Arcachon and other maritime rivers is where the artificial
cultivation of oysters has mostly been attended to. In the season end-
ing April, 1877, over 202 million, valued at 44 million francs, were
delivered from Arcachon. The Auray district delivered over 101
million oysters, valued at 500,000 francs, during the same period.

Oyster culture in England is still in its infancy, and the oyster-beds
are over-dredged and almost empty, hence the high price of the delicacy
at present, but steps are being slowly taken to remedy the evil.

The following list of works on Oysters and Oyster-culture is given for
those who wish to pursue the subject further :—

History of the Oyster and Oyster Fisheries; by T. C. Eyton.
London, 1858.

Die am und die Austernwirtshaft ; von K. Mébius. Berlin,
1877.

Die Danske Osterbanker ; H. Kroyer, Copenhagen, 1839.

On the Food and Reproductive Organs of Ostrea virginiana, &e. ;
by J. M‘Crady. Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. History, December
3, 1873.

Unterschungen iiber die Austern; K. Mobius. Nach. Deutschen
Malak, Gessellschaft III, 1871.

Organes genetaux des Acephales Lamellibranches ; par H. Lacaze-
Duthiers. Annales des Scienes Naturelles, 1854.

Same Author: Sur les Organes de la génération de JHuitre.

‘Comptes Rendus, 1855, X 4, p. 415,

On the propagation of the species in the common Oyster. Croonian
Lecture for 1826, by Sir E. Horne. Phil. Trans. 1827, p. 39.

Report of the Commissioners appointed to examine into the methods
of Oyster-culture in the United Kingdom andin France. Blue
Book, 1870.

Guide Pratique d’Ostericulture. Prof. F. Eraiche (quoted by
Dr. Brooks without date or locality).

Development of the American Oyster ; by Dr. W. K. Brooks.
Annapolis, U.S. State Printer, 1880.

Report of the Oyster Culture Commission. Blue Book, Govern-
ment Printing Office, Sydney, 1877.

Natural History of the Oyster and Economy of the Oyster Farm.
Harvest of the Sea; by James G. Bertram. 3rd edition.
Chaps, XII and XIII. ‘London, Murray, 1873.

Report Fisheries Inquiry Commission. Blue Book, Sydney, 1880.
Evidence and Appendices passim.

On the Edible Oysters found on the Australian and neighbouring
Coasts; by J. E. Cox, M.D, F.LS8., &c. Proc. Linnean
Society, N.S. Wales, vol. VII, p. 122.

Voyage d’Exploration sur le Littoral de la France et de 1’Ttalie ;
P. M. Coste. Imprimerie Impériale. This treats of. the culti-
vation of the Oyster and the breeding of Eels. A magnificent
book.

The Oyster ; where, how, and when to find breed, and cook it.
London, Triibner & Co., 1861.

Q

122 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER VIII.
Other Mollusca.

Tuer other mollusca of New South Wales are not of much importance
in an economic point of view. A mussel (I/ytilus hirsutus) is common
in this harbour, and is eaten by some people. MM. latus (var. Dunkert)
and J. rostratus are also used, but they are all dangerous articles of
food at certain times.

Trochocochlea constricta, Lam., is used as a substitute for the British
perriwinkle, but it is only consumed to a very smallextent. Our common
limpet, Patella tramoserica is quite uneatable. In speaking of the shark
fishery of Tasmania, I have already referred to the animal of a large ear
shell, Haliotis nevosa, called by fishermen the “ Mutton fish,” which is
much esteemed by the Chinese. Mr. Chin Ateak, a Chinese merchant
in Sydney, stated in his evidence before the Royal Commission that he
was prepared to give 9d. a pound for it in any quantity. As the species
is abundant on most parts of the coast, the collection of it might form a
profitable occupation for a number of people. There are other common
species on the coast.

The squids or Cephalopods are exceedingly abundant in the harbour
of Port Jackson and all along the coast. They can be easily caught
with a line as well as with the seine.

They might be made a source of considerable. profit for exportation to
Japan and China, In both of these countries all animal substances of a
gelatinous character are in great request, and none more than those of
the cuttle-fish tribe. The fine preparations of cuttle-fish in the Japanese
Court in the Garden Palace must be fresh in the recollection of every
one. It appears from the statements of Mr. Chin Ateak, that of the
Cephalopods of this coast, the “Squid” (Sepioteuthis Australis) is highly
appreciated, and in consequence highly priced. The cuttle-fish (Sepia)
is of rather inferior quality, and the “‘Star-fish” of the fishermen
(Octopus) is not used at all. Some of the latter which frequent the
harbour are of enormous size. The author purchased two from fishermen
which measure over 6 feet from tip to tip of the arms, each of which
has over 800 suckers upon them, making considerably above 6,500 suckers
for the whole fish! They are excellent eating if properly prepared, and
a few words about the economical value of cuttle-fishes will here be

useful. They are taken almost verbatim from Mr. Lee’s excellent work
on the Octopus. *

Although the cephalopods are seldom eaten in Great Britain, they are
appreciated as food by nearly all other maritime nations. Along the
western coast of France and in the countries bordering on the Medi-
terranean and Adriatic they form a portion of the habitual sustenance
of the people, and are regularly exposed for sale in the markets both ina
fresh and in a dried condition. Salted cuttles and octopus are eaten
during Lent as commonly as salted cod is brought to table in England
on Good Friday, and thus prepared generally form a portion of the

“« The Octopus,” by Henry’Lee, London, 1875, Chapman & Hall.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 123

provisions supplied to the.Greek fishing boats and coasters. The Indians
of North-western America look upon them as the proverbial alderman re-
gards turtle and devour them with the same gusto and relish. They roast
the glutinous carcass instead of making soup of it. In Chili, Peru, Brazil,
and Teneriffe they are eagerly sought for, and they are an article of daily
consumption in India and China. Japan has already been mentioned.

From a Report on the Tunisian Fisheries by W. Kirby-Green,
British Consul at Tunis,* we learn very interesting particulars about this
fish and its fishery. The villages in the neighbourhood of Karkenah
are the chief localities where the cuttlefish are obtained, and the
produce yields in a good season about 125 tons, in an average year
90 tons, in a year of scarcity 50 tons. In a good season the whole
of the island of Karkenah supplies about 150 tons, and the Jerbah
waters a third of this quantity. On the shores from the village
of Luesa to that of Chneies, in the Gulf of Khabs, the natives collect from.
4 to 5 cwt. during the season. The cuttles prefer the rocky shallows,
coming from the open sea inthe months of January, February, and March..
The fry is observed from the months of June to August, and then the
fishing is good, but if it be late, such as November and December, the
following season is bad. On the arrival of the cuttles in the shallows,
they keep in masses or shoals, but speedily separate in search of shelter
among the rocks near the beach, covered by only 1 or 2 feet of water,
and in stony localities prepared for them by the fishermen in- order to
facilitate the deposit of spawn. In deep water they are taken by means
of earthen jars strung together and lowered to the bottom where they are
allowed to remain for some time, during which the fish introduce them-
selves. ‘From eight to ten cuttles are taken at each visit of the fisher-
men. In shallower water earthenware drain-pipes are placed side by
side, for distances frequently exceeding half-a-mile in length, these the
cuttles readily enter and are captured. They are attracted by all white
smooth and bright substances, and the natives deck suitable places in
the inlets and hollows of the rocks with white stones and shells, over
which the cuttles spread themselves and are captured four to eight at a
time. But the most successful manner of securing these fish is that
pursued by the inhabitants of Karkenah, who form long lanes and
labyrinths in the shallows by planting the butt ends of palm branches at
short distances from each other, and these constructions extend over
spaces of two or more miles on the ebb of the tides.t The cuttles are
easily collected and strung in bunches of fifty. The capture can be
increased indefinitely by the use of these labyrinths of palm branches,
which seem to have a peculiar attraction for these fishes, They have
been hitherto prepared for exportation by simply salting and drying ;
but are now preserved either in oil or brine after a previous scouring
and boiling. The price varies, but the range is between 6d. and 1s. 3d.
for a pair of fresh fish. Before being dried they are beaten between two.
stones, and this labour raises the expense from between 25s. to 50s. per
cwt., to the cost price is added an export duty of 5s, 1d. percwt. Malta.

* Published in the London Standard, December, 1874.

+ In the Syrtis the ebb and flow is 10 feet, a wonderful tide for the Mediter--
ranean, See Richardson’s ‘‘Travels in the Desert.” He mentions the Palm Branch
Fishery, but did not know it was for cuttle-fish,

124, NEW. SOUTH WALES

receives the greater part of the Tunisian supplies, which are principally
sold in the Greek markets. Portugal also largely competes with Tunis
in supplying this trade.

Professor Forbes says :—“ When well beaten to render the flesh tender
before being dressed, and then cut up into morsels and served ina
savoury brown stew, they make a dish by no means to be despised,
excellent in both substance and flavour. A modern Lycian dinner, in
which stewed cuttle-fish formed the first and roast porcupine the second
course, would scarcely fail to be relished by an unprejudiced epicure in
search of novelty.”* Mr. Lee says that they may also be eaten plainly
boiled and served with egg sauce. The flavour is not unlike that of the
skate or the soft part of the scallop.

More than a hundred millions of cod are caught annually with cuttle-
fish as bait.t This bait is used in August and September, for they then
come into the fishing-ground in abundance. They are caught by means
of a jigger or conical piece of lead, round the base of which eight or ten
hooks are inserted. The fishermen go out in punts “squid-jigging” of
an evening to catch the bait required for the next day’s fishing. Whilst
they fish they shout and make a great noise, for some unknown reason.
All parts of the squid are used as bait, but they sometimes are eaten
by the fishermen, who say that they are remarkably sweet and excellent
when fried. The eyes of the cephalopods are very solid, formed of two
double concave lenses, separated by a groove. The two halves easily
separate, and exhibit internally a series of concentric coats of beautiful
nacreous aspect. They are used as ornaments in Italy, and sold as
pearls in the Sandwich Islands. The ink which is ejected by squids has
been used as a pigment from classical times. At present in London
thousands of “ink-bags” are manufactured into “sepia” by artists’
colourmen. The fishermen of some of the English northern counties,
when cleaning cuttle-fish for bait, dry the ink-bags and their contents,
and sell.them to the colour-manufacturers.

*« Travels in Lycia,” by Spratt and Forbes.
+ Edin., New Phil. Jour., 1826, p. 32.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 125

CHAPTER IX.

Crustacea.

Tux Crustacea of Australia have recently formed the subject of special
study by Mr. W. A. Hasweil, and the results have been published by
the Trustees of the Australian Museum.* From this work it appears that
our species are numerous, though very few are used as articles of food.

The Sea Crab.
(Plate XLII.)

Two swimming crabs are often seen in the market—Scylla serrata
and Neptunus pelagicus, Linnt They both have a very wide range.
S. serrata is taken in the Endeavour River as well as at Port Jackson.
They are generally taken in the seine-net, and being of excellent
quality are readily bought up in the market. With one exception,
however, they are too small to be of much use, the exception being
Scylla serrata, which is said to attain a weight of 4 Ibs. and to be
equal to the Scotch partan. It is however seldom caught, though there
is no reason to believe that it is rare on our coasts. Nothing seems to
have been observed as to the habits and breeding-time of those crustacea.
None of the numerous shore crabs are ever used as food. One species
of the latter is very common all along the east coast, from the extreme
north to Port Jackson, ie Grapsus variegatus, Fab. This species
extends all through the Pacific to the coasts of Chili.

The Cray-fish.
(Plate XLIIL)

The Marcourous Crustacea are better known. The large cray-fish (Palinurus
hugelii, Heller) is about the finest of its kind. It attains a weight of 6 Ibs., and
when in season is entirely filled with meat of the most excellent quality. It is
found during the summer season abundantly in most of our bays and along all
parts of the coast, and is caught by means of circular hand-nets from boats. In
the early part of summer the ova are found within the abdomen of the female,
when it is known to gourmets as the “coral.” The animal is then in the finest
condition. About January the ova are shed, and are carried for a long time in a
semi-hatched state on the underside of the tail or abdomen of the mother. Unfor-
tunately the quality for food of the cray-fish does not seem to suffer much at this
period, as is the case with crabs.and other crustacea while undergoing the above
process ; the consequence is that the destruction of the young fish with the mother
is going on during the entire season. The consumption in Sydney of this crus-
tacean is very considerable, and the price is generally high, but at times there is a
glut in the market, and in consequence a serious fall in price. There are many

arts of the coast too distant from Sydney for the supply of that market, where we
Batiavs that establishments for the “canning” of this most valuable crustacean
- could be most profitably undertaken. One such place is the Broughton Islands,
a few miles north of Port Stephens, where the supply of this crustacean is
unlimited. The demand for tinned lobster is great all over the world, and in North
America, from which it chiefly comes, the supply is rapidly diminishing.

*« The Stalk and Sessile-eyed Crustacea of Australia,” by W. A. Haswell, Sydney,

1882.
+ This crab is very widely distributed, and swims in the deepest seas.

126 NEW SOUTH WALES

The other species of cray-fish (Palinurus lalandii) is often to be seen in the shop-
windows of the Sydney fishmongers, but it chiefly comes from Tasmania. It is
seldom found on the coast of New South Wales north of Twofold Bay. It is not
nearly so large as the Sydney cray-fish, but is said to be equally valuable as food.

R.C.

The Prawn.

The prawn (Peneus esculentus) is abundant in most of our shallow bays and
harbours, and is a most popular article of food amongst all classes. The con-
sumption of this crustacean is so great that fears have been expressed that the
supply might become exhausted, and it is undoubted that the size of those brought
to market now is often much below the average of former years. We do not be-
lieve, however, that there is any danger of exhausting the supply for a long time
to come, and the only limit we would suggest to the capture of prawns is what we
have already advised for the protection of young fish generally—the limitation of
_ the length of the prawn nets and the size of the mesh. R.R.C.

There are two well-known species of Penwus, the one just mentioned,
and P. macleayt. The first reaches a length of 9 inches, and the
second is not quite as large. Alpheus socialis, Heller, locally named
the “ Nipper,” is abundant in Port Jackson, and is a good deal sought
for, but not:so much for food as for bait for black bream fishing. All
these prawns goa certain distance up the freshwater rivers. In the
Hunter, about West Maitland, they are much used in the end of summer
as a bait for perch (Lates), bream, and flathead.

We have also a kind of prawn in all the western fresh-water rivers.
It has long narrow claws and attains a pretty good size, so that it is
used as an article of food. This is described as Palemon ornatus. The
only true shrimp (Crangon) which Australian waters are known to’
possess is found in the Gulf of 8. Vincent, 8. Australia.

The Freshwater Cray-fish.
(Plate XLIV.)

1. Side view, one-third natural ‘size. 1. Rostrum, natural size. 18. Claw,
natural size, showing peculiar spines. le. Tail.

We have several species of fresh-water cray-fish in Australia, belong-
ing to the genus Astacopsis, or as some naturalists callit Astacoides. The
genus Astacopsis differs from Astacus, the common European fresh-water
cray-fish, principally in having no appendices to the first segment of the
abdomen and some minor peculiarities of the feet. A. bicarinatus is
abundant in all waterholes of most of the continent, Port Essington,
Cape York, Brisbane, and in both eastern and western waters. These
cray-fish prefer still waters, and burrow in the banks, often doing much
injury to dams, &c. They oan brave long droughts in their burrows.
In the western waters of New South Wales we have a larger and much
more ornamental species, A. serratus. (Plate XLIV). 4. plebius is
attributed to Sydney, but it is probably from the Pacific Islands.

There are different species in Tasmania (4. franklinii), West Australia .

(A. 5-carinatus, preissii), and North Australia (A. 4-corinatus). There
is also another species in the swamps of the extreme west, which may
be another species of the Engeus of Tasmania, which is a small cray-fish

living in burrows in the swamps, considered by most naturalists a sub-

genus of Astacopsis. Lngeus fossor is found in Gippsland : a species
of small size and no value, though the natives used to consume them.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 127

It is computed that our common saltwater cray-fish produces 100,000
eggs each season. The spawn can be artificially hatched with the
greatest ease. A series of pans with sand and gravel is all that is re
quired, The eggs can be laid on these and water be allowed to flow
over them. The water must be salt or fresh according as the cray-fish
is marine or not. In rearing the young crustaceans it must be remem-
bered that their food in a state of nature consists of marine worms, fish
spawn, and other small crustaceans, and this sort of food must be pro-
vided. In France cray-fish hatching has been very successfully tried.

Of the true lobsters New South Wales can only boast of a very few, and these
entirely confined to fresh water. Under the name ‘‘ Marami” are included two or
more species of Astacopsis, found in all the creeks and mud-holes of the country.
They are not much used as food, probably on account of their small size—seldom
exceeding 4 or 5 inches in length, for they are as good to eat as any of the. tribe.
One species, however, forms an exception to the others in point of size; it is
the lobster of the Murrumbidgee and Murray system of Rivers—Astacopsis
serratus, This beautifully coloured lobster attains a considerable size, averaging
a foot in length, and is esteemed a great delicacy. It is largely consumed by the
residents on these rivers during the winter months—the season when they are in
the best condition and most readily caught.—R.R.C.

A very good figure of A. bicarinatus is given by Prof. M‘Coy, in the
Prodromus Zool. Victoria, pl. 29. It differs from the species figured in
our Plate XLIV, in being destitute of those spines and tubercles which
ornament the shell of A. serratus, and it is smaller. It grows to
about 6 inches in length, but varies much in colour, ranging from
yellow to brown or horn colour and dark olive. The claws are always
blue with red joints in living specimens, but the smaller legs are blue,
or green, or whitish. They used to be prized as food by the aborigines ;
and near the swamps and rivers of Victoria heaps of their remains
may be seen in the old “ middens” of the natives. Some white people
like them too, but the flavour is decidedly muddy. I have reason to
be grateful to them. In 1856, in a long overland journey between
Victoria and South Australia, I must have suffered great exhaustion
but for the food these cray-fishes afforded me.

128 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER X.
The Fishing-grounds of New South Wales.

Tur following facts with reference to our Fishing-grounds have been
elicited by the evidence obtained by the Royal Commission of 1880,
and were embodied in their report. They comprise all the information
we have on the subject.

The number, variety, and extent of the fishing-grounds with which
the entire seaboard of the Colony has been endowed, all lying within a
very moderate distance of Port Jackson, afford the strongest encourage-
ment to the inhabitants of the whole Colony who may hope to see the
markets supplied with fish in a manner andupon asystem consonant with
the requirements of the community. In this Colony the fish most
adapted for food purposes do not yet require to be searched for in large
smacks or fishing-vessels, victualled and equipped for a cruise of several
months ; neither is it necessary for our fishermen to make voyages to
fishing-grounds distant hundreds of miles from home. Our best fish are
very rarely met with more than 10 miles off the coast, or in deeper water
than 35 fathoms. The schnapper, which for economic purposes may be
ranked with the cod of the northern hemisphere, appears to be distri-
buted with remarkable regularity along the whole extent of our sear
board—that is to say, over about 600 miles; and whatever the for-
mation or character of the coast may be, this fish, the most valuable of
all our forms, and perhaps the most abundant, is never absent ; and
being essentially a rock fish in its habits, is not migratory. And the
same may be said of its congener—the bream ; and in a lesser degree of
the flathead, whiting, black-fish, tailors, tarwhine, garfish, and other
varieties which frequent the bays and estuaries of harbours and lakes,
.rather than the ocean depths. Some of these fish are, no doubt, not to be
found throughout the year in their usual haunts, but they may be
treated for all practical purposes as regular inhabitants of our fishing
grounds,

The seaboard of this Colony is in a marked degree favourable to the
existence of a very large supply of the best food fishes. It is indented
by innumerable inlets and arms of the sea; it possesses many rivers
whose embouchures are of large expanse ; some of its bays, harbours, and
lakes are of vast extent, and its submarine conditions generally are of a
a eminently adapted both as nursery and feeding-grounds for

sh.

Port Jackson, although not very many years ago holding a very high
rank among our fishing-grounds for all kinds of the best net fish, is now
scarcely regarded as a source of supply at all. And this is owing not so

-much to the pollution of its waters by the sewage of a large city, or
their constant disturbance by the traffic of innumerable vessels, as to the
ceaseless and often wanton process of netting to which every bay and
flat has been subjected for the past fifteen or twenty years. The whole-
sale destruction within the harbour caused by stake nets and seines with
meshes almost small enough for a naturalist’s hand-net has of course
produced its natural effect on the outside grounds, where the schnapper

FISH AND FISHERIES. 129

can now only be taken in very small quantities, and without any degree
of certainty. The evidence given by fishermen who can remember the
large hauls of fish once taken from the beaches of North and Middle
Harbour, Rose and Double Bay, not to speak of the flats up the Parra-
matta River, affirms this. ;

The fisheries of New South Wales were classified into three large
groups by the Report of the Royal Commission, which described them
as follows :—

(1.) The Home grounds—comprising those lying between Cape
» Three Points and Sydney to the North, and between Sydney
and Wattamolle to the south. The most remote grounds
between these limits represent tolerably well the terminal
points for all open fishing-boats during the summer months.

(2.) The Middle grounds—which to the north would be comprised
between Cape Three Points and the inlet known as Cape
Hawke—and to the South would include those lying between
Wattamolle and Wreck Bite. These represent the present
limits both of open-boat fishing and of supply by steam coasters
during the winter months.

(3.) The Outer grounds, which would embrace the grounds north
of Cape Hawke and-south of Wreck Bight as far as the north-
ern and southern boundaries of the Colony, or say as far as the
Tweed River to the north and Twofold Bay to the south.
These grounds are too far distant from a market to be avail-
able for the supply of fresh fish, until at least some such fishing-
vessels as those recommended later on in our Report shall
engage in the trade.

(1.) Zhe Home Grownds.—-Within this section the embouchure and’
lower waters of the river Hawkesbury, better known as Broken Bay,
situated about 16 miles from Port Jackson Heads, has always ranked,
and perhaps ranks still, as the most extensive und most productive of all
our fishing stations. The beaches of Pittwater, the Hawkesbury proper,
and Brisbane Water, present the most favourable conditions for the net
fisherman, and the upper reaches of the river and the mud flats of its
various tributaries, especially at the places locally known as Mullet
Island Creek, Mooney, Mother Marr, Berowa, and Mangrove, have sup-
plied to the Sydney market for many years past, and may under proper
restrictions and protection long continue to supply, enormous freights of
the choicest of our river fishes, such as black and sea bream, tarwhine,
black-fish, whiting, flathead, tailors, garfish, and the large sea and flat-
tailed mullet.

Equally prolific have the outer or schnapper grounds at and near the
mouth of this river been to the line fisherman. These are to be found
in great variety from Cape Three Points to the South Head of Broken
Bay. Off the North Head of the Bay, and again off Little Head,
situated a few miles to the southward, there occur several schnapper
grounds of high renown, which a few years ago kept as many as a dozen
or more boats in full work for the Chinese fish-curers, who were then
engaged in a large business on Schnapper-man’s Flat, Pittwater, but who
have now entirely abandoned Broken Bay as a fishing station. Twenty

R

130 NEW SOUTH WALES

and thirty dozen “count” fish (i¢, fish weighing each 6 Ibs. or over),
were often taken by two fishermen on these grounds. Now, however,
both the schnapper and the net grounds about Broken Bay have fallen
off in their productiveness to an alarming degree, and through the opera-
tion of the same destructive agencies which have brought about the
impoverishment of the Port Jackson and adjacent fishing-grounds.

Being however quite out of the beat of any constable and not readily
accessible except by water, and possessing in other respects features
favourable for the prosecution of net-fishing by fishermen not always
over-scrupulous in obeying the directions of our laws with reference to
size of mesh or other statutory restraints, the Broken Bay fishing-
grounds are still much resorted to. At the present time the number of
boats frequenting them is estimated by a competent witness at about
twenty-five on an average of the year.

Many freights of valuable fish are thrown away or abandoned and
left to rot on the beaches about Broken Bay during the summer months,
and not unfrequently in the colder months. This happens when the
fisherman coming down the river with his boat fully laden finds a strong
southerly wind blowing in the offing. He has no means of taking his
fish to market overland, although the distance from the head of Pitt-
water to Manly cannot ‘be more than about 12 miles. Accordingly, un-
less the head wind takes off or veers to a favourable quarter within
twenty-four hours at most, he cannot possibly expect to save his freight,
unless he have the good luck to catch the steamer which makes occasional
visits to Broken Bay.

If the line of the proposed Northern Railway extension to Sydney
should happen to cross the Hawkesbury at any point within 10 miles
of Broken Bay, enormous losses of fish by stress of weather will be
prevented, as the fish caught in the lower waters of the river or on the

outside grounds may then be easily and rapidly transported to market
by rail.

The most.important fishing-grounds lying between Broken Bay and
the southern limit which we have given to the home fisheries are, after
leaving Little Head, the schnapper grounds, situated at varying distances
from all the main headlands, such as the South Head of Broken Bay,
Bungy, Little Reef, Narrabeen, Long Reef, Deewhy, Curl Curl, and
North Head (Port Jackson), There are at least a score of known
“school fish” grounds within these limits, i.e. about 12 miles. Vast
quantities of fish have been taken on every one of them, especially along
the line of submerged rocks known as Long Reef, which can be traced for
a distance of more than 5 miles from the shore, and on the wide grounds
off Narrabeen, Narrabeen is the bight or bay which lies immediately
to the north of Long Reef Point, and marks the small and rarely navig-
able sea mouth of the lagoon known by the same name. Other lagoons,
such as Deewhy and Curl Curl are found in this locality, but none are
of such extent or importance as Narrabeen which in times past has been
a very productive netting ground. A few “bumboras” are found in
this bight, and they (like all “bumboras” on the coast) have been and

still are the favourite resort of the schnapper-men during particular con-
ditions of the currents.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 181

The Long Reef grounds extend for a considerable distance seaward,
and being distant only some 5 miles from Sydney Heads, these grounds
have perhaps been more fished than any in the vicinity of Sydney, and
have, it must be confessed, stood the strain on their resources in a
remarkable manner.

The ordinary varieties of fish seem most to frequent the feeding-
grounds presented by this extensive backbone of rocks during the
prevalence of southerly currents, and especially after light easterly
weather. Fish are here most abundant during the summer months.
At present the fishermen complain bitterly of the leather-jackets which
infest these and other grounds near Sydney, and it is no doubt true that
these execrable pests have been gradually increasing in numbers.
Their habit is to lie between the surface and the bottom where the
schnappers feed, and to gnaw off every bait, often with the snood too,
as it descends. Their numbers do not seem to diminish, however many
are caught, and the damage done in a single day to a fisherman’s gear
has not seldom reached a far higher sum than the value of his freight
of marketable fish. As food this fish is not appreciated, though it is by
no means to be despised. The leather-jacket, however, has not the
appearance of a food fish, and in this respect, like the cat-fish, owes
much of his immunity to a rather repulsive exterior.

Tt is said that some wide grounds have lately been found at a distance-
of 10 miles or more from Long Reef Point, where in about 35 to 40:
fathoms of water schnappers have been taken in large quantities.
Between Long Reef ant the North Head the bottom is almost
uniformly foul, and no good outer grounds excepting those off Deewhy-
are found hereabout, at least for school fish. One may drop accidentally
upon a few fish almost anywhere, but these constantly recurring
patches of rocks appear to be barren of the small crustacea and other-
food affected by schnappers, until we reach the line of reefs jutting out
(under water) from North Head. This, like Long Reef, forms a series.
of fishing-grounds for schnappers, with a reputation of long standing,.
but they are not now much to be depended on. Occasionally a few
boats may be seen (chiefly of the amateur fishing class) off these-
grounds, and on the Pine-tree, the Cobbler’s ground, and others in the:
vicinity, but the fish no longer frequent these places in payable:
quantities. There was once a good fishing-ground lying about due east,
and at a distance of about 3 miles from the Heads, but it is said that
the mud-punts which here discharge the silt and harbour filth have quite
disgusted the schnapper, whatever attractions they may have created
for the “ leather-jackets. ”

The next grounds resorted to by fishermen are off the Flagstaff, and
off Mud Island (near the proposed outlet of the main sewer), and then
passing a few others of less note we come to the celebrated Coogee
fishing-grounds. These are situated at varying distances of 1 to 3
yniles from a small rocky islet known as the “Island of Rocks,” and
lying a short distance from the shore of Coogee Bay. Enormous
freights of schnapper have been taken along this line of grounds, and
fair quantities are still taken. This is a favourite fishing-ground for the
various fishing clubs which pursue their recreation in steam launches
and steam tugs, and by sheer force of numbers and the ease with which

132 NEW SOUTH WALES

they are able to shift from one spot to another without any picking up
of heavy kellicks or beating to windward, are able to count out more
fish on a fair day’s “outing” than any of our professional fishing
crews. A thousand fish, we are informed, is not an extraordinary
catch for some of these clubs. While on the subject of fishing clubs we
may here mention that a very intelligent witness examined by the
Commission (Mr. M‘Carthy) has informed us of the discovery by him
of an extensive “shell bank,” ata distance of about 10 miles eastward
of these Coogee grounds. This bank is said to carry only about 20 to
30 fathoms of water, and to be very narrow, in fact so narrow that the
steamer finds great difficulty in lying-to on it. The soundings in the
immediate neighbourhood of the ridge, which extends in a N.W. and
8.E. direction for about a mile (so far as Mr. M‘Carthy was able to trace
it), show from 70 to 90 fathoms, from which we are able to form some
idea of the character of this remarkable upheaval or submarine sand-ridge.

Between Coogee and Cape Banks (the northern headland of Botany
Bay) the fishing-grounds are wholly confined to those in the offing, there
being no lagoons or inlets capable of being worked by nets. There are
about a dozen schnapper grounds within these limits, but none of them are

f much importance. Nannygey are often caught in quantities in the

epths off Long Bay Head, and schnapper have at times been found to
abound off Marubera and Little Bay (wide); but until we reach the
long line of rocky ground which forms the submarine extension of Cape
Banks, none of the grounds hereabout possess the necessary conditions
for school fish. “What fish there are do not seem to be settled on any
one ground, but, as is the case on all foul grounds, they roam from
patch to patch in small schools. The entrance to Botany is foul ground
as a rule, and although wide off Cape Banks there are some very fair
school-fish grounds, yet they have never been much appreciated by
fishermen, who prefer the “ bumboras” and off shore grounds to the
southward of Cape Solander, Long Nose, and Curranulla Head,
notwithstanding the strength of the southerly current in the summer
months which, off some of these headlands, runs like a sluice. But
Botany, though never equal to the Long Reef and Broken Bay grounds
for school-fish, has always held its own for net-fish ; indeed it is doubtful
whether even Broken Bay, with tits far greater extent of net grounds,
has ever been or is now more productive than are the beaches and flats
of Botany. This inlet, though shallow, covers many thousand acres of
water ; and as two salt-water rivers—George’s and Cook’s—flow into it,
there is no lack of spawning or nursery grounds. Although of late
years as many as a dozen net boats have regularly plied the beaches and
flats of Broken Bay, yet fish are still caught. Of course the processes
of exhaustion common to all the grounds near Sydney have been in
active operation at Botany, and especially that most destructive of all
forms of fishery the stake-net ; yet notwithstanding all this, Botany is
perhaps less impoverished considering the amount of fishing continually
going on than any inlet or harbour within fisherman’s distance of
Sydney. But the evidence of witnesses well acquainted with the
resources of Botany leads immediately to the conclusion that, unless
arrested by legislative restraints, these’prolific grounds will in a very
short time succumb to the stake-nets and the small mesh as surely as
our other fishing-grounds have succumbed.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 183

The following extract from Mr. Oliver’s paper on the Fisheries of the
Colony describes the grounds from Botany to Wattamolle :—“ At and
off the entrance of Botany and Curranulla Head there are several well
known schnapper grounds, and about two miles within Curranulla
bight (the “Bate Bay” of our charts) isa famous ground known to
fishermen as the Mary, Merry, or Shamrock Rock, for it goes under all
these names. It is a sunken flat rock, or series of rocks, with about 8
to 11 fathoms of water, situated at the point of a reef which runs from
a little boat-harbour called ‘Doughboy,’ about half a mile to the
southward. Tons upon tons of schnappers have been taken off this
ground, which however is difficult for a stranger to find, as the
crossbearing marks are not easily described. The whole of this Port
Hacking or Curranulla Bight is one vast nursery and feeding-ground
for fish, and the harbour and river of Port Hacking at its southern
extremity is second only to Broken Bay as a net ground. Here are
caught generally the first garfish and mullet of the season, both which
fish come to us from the southward, generally seeking the smooth
harbour waters after heavy south and south-easterly weather, and, after
a few days continuing their progress northward, and putting in at every
inlet or river-mouth lying in their course. A cable-length or so distant
from ‘Jibben Head,’ the southern point of the entrance to Port
Hacking, lies Jibben ‘bumbora,’ a fishing-mark of great repute, but
not now much resorted to for school-fish, #.¢., the schnapper of about four
to six or seven years old and found on the offshore grounds in large
schools, as distinguished from the native, which is the same fish at a
later stage of growth, but frequenting different haunts (the shoals
off headlands, sunken rocks, and river points. Passing south, the
inshore grounds off Marly Head and Wattamolle are next reached, and
this latter point forms the Sydney and Botany fishermen’s Ultima
Thule. Indeed, these southern fishing-grounds are rarely troubled,
except in the winter months, when the wind generally blows off the
shore, and is fair for both the up and the down trip.”

(2.) The Middle Grounds (North).—Between Cape Three Points, a
few miles to the northward of Broken Bay, and the inlet commonly
known as Cape Hawke, a section comprising about 100 miles of coast-
line, both the breeding and offing grounds are perhaps more abundant
and of greater extent than are to be found anywhere on our coast. In
the first place we reach, soon after passing Terrigal High Land—Point
Upright of the charts—the famous Tuggerah Lakes. This series of
Jakes or salt-water lagoons, consists of Tuggerah (proper) and two smaller
connected lakes, locally known as Budgewi and Manmura. They are all
comparatively shallow, perhaps averaging rather less than 2 fathoms,
though in some places, ¢g., near Woollahra Point in Lake Tuggerah, -
the depth is considerably more. Tuggerah is by far the largest of the
series, being about 9 miles long by about 24 in width. The others are
much smaller.

The sea connection with Tuggerah is at a small rocky opening in the
beach about 3 miles north of Point Upright, and about 7 from the well-
known boat harbour called Terrigal. A dangerous line of reefs runs
out in a line about E.S.E. from the entrance, terminating in one of
‘the most treacherous “bumboras” on the coast. This entrance is

134 NEW SOUTH WALES

unfortunately a very broken and shallow one, and is rarely available even
for open boats ; still, during the prevalence of westerly winds fisher-
men’s boats do occasionally manage to navigate it.

A few miles to the northward of Ma4nmura commences the still larger
expanse of waters known as Lake Macquarie. This lake is nearly 20
miles in length, by an average of about 3 miles in width, but its contour
is so broken by deeply indented bays and recesses as to give a perimeter
of about 300 miles. Unlike Tuggerah, Lake Macquarie possesses a very
tolerable entrance, available for craft drawing up to 6 feet of water, and
when the works now in progress in the river channel and at the entrance
are completed Lake Macquarie will probably be navigable for vessels of
10 feet draught. Theaverage depth of Lake Macquarie is about the
same as that of Tuggerah. These lakes ‘are the great nurseries of almost
all our winter supplies of net and line fish. Here unquestionably the
sea mullet, bream, tarwhine, whiting, flathead, tailor, and garfish find
their most congenial spawning-grounds, and here also are their natural
sanctuaries from sharks and other predaceous fishes which devour them
in the offing. Here also, it is believed, is the chief spawning-ground of
the schnapper, which afterwards haunts the numerous reefs, bumboras,
and rocky patches which lie between Broken Bay and Newcastle. The
supplies of fish from the Tuggerah Lakes have during the past few years
been despatched to the metropolis by a small freight steamer, which goes
to Bungaree or Bungaree’s Norah (the Norah Head of the charts), a
long low point which forms the northern extremity of Tuggerah Bight.
Tnside the reef and the low-water ledge of rocks, which form a kind of
breakwater, is a tolerable anchorage for small craft and boats, and a not
very good landing, whence, however, are shipped many fine freights of
the best fish which come to our market. From Terrigal to Bird Island
the offing and inshore grounds still abound in all the best kinds of line
fish. It is almost impossible to find a square furlong untenanted
by the schnapper or other equally good fish. The fish are, how-
ever, at times in the habit of shifting their quarters from one
ground to another in the neighbourhood. These grounds are
mostly fished by schnapper men, who camp at Terrigal or Norah,
and chiefly in the cool months of the year, the distance from
market (over 30 miles) proving a formidable obstacle to even the most
hardy and enterprising fishermen during the prevalence of strong
southerly or north-easterly winds. With proper freight steamers of
course this obstacle will speedily disappear, and we shall then get fresh
schnappers and black rock cod (which are here caught of great size and
excellence) from the Tuggerah and Norah bumboras and the Bird Island
grounds, with as much regularity, but in far greater quantities, than we
are now able to furnish ourselves with from Long Reef or Coogee. At
present we are informed that there are no Chinamen on the Tuggerah
Lakes, and only a few at Lake Macquarie. This is undoubtedly not a
subject for regret, although during last winter their places have been
filled by men whose engines of destruction were far more formidable
than the Chinese. We have been told of fixed nets being used in Tug-
gerah Lake enclosing an area of more than half a square mile of water,
having meshes so small that nothing could escape. This wholesale pro-
cess—rather facetiously known as “ mortgaging”—was supplemented by
an auxiliary proceeding (presumably of foreclosure”). Inside the huge

FISH AND FISHERIES. 135

ring made by a mile or so of net, a boat from time to time throws off a
small seine, which is “bull-ringed,” or drawn to the shore where prac-
ticable round as many fish as are required for the next trip of the
steamer. We have been told on good authority that the proceeds of sale
averaged for a long time about £100 per month to one fisherman ; very
handsome results, considering the outrageous violation of the law by which
they were procured.

Crayfish are known to abound off some of the headlands in this neigh-
bourhood, but at present no supplies seem to come from these waters to
Sydney. From Bird Island to Nobby’s (Newcastle). schnapper grounds
are numerous, but not so abundant, or, it may be, not so well known as
those about Tuggerah Bight and Bird Island. Off Wabung and Spoon
Island reefs the inshore grounds are well furnished ; and again, those
lying off the entrance to Lake Macquarie (“‘Reid’s Mistake” of the charts).

In the bight between the small island so known (it is called ‘“ Creen”
Island by the aborigines and “ Green” Island by the coasters and fisher-
men) and Red Head, there are several “ bumboras” and rocky patches
where schnappers can be taken in almost any quantities, but the sharks
are usually very plentiful also in these localities.

Fresh fish are not often taken to Sydney from Lake Macquarie, the
few fishermen stationed there preferring to fish for the Chinese curers
rather than to take the chance of catching a Newcastle steamer four or
five miles in the offing. Large quantities of muliet were at one time
cured here for the Newcastle market, and it is said that a considerable
quantity of fresh fish finds its way to the Wallsend mining population at
the north end of the lake. We cannot leave this “ Lake” section of our
northern fishing-grounds, as it might very aptly be termed, without ex-
pressing an emphatic opinion as to the urgent necessity of protecting
by some effective legislation these magnificent “nurseries” from any
further destruction by nets of unlimited length and diminutive mesh,
such as an eye-witness has told us have at one haul frequently brought
to shore a fon or more of small fish, for no better purpose than to be left
to rot there. In the economy of our Fisheries these warm and sheltered
waters, abounding as they do in minute crustacea and other food, play a
most important part ; and if those in the neighbourhood of our large
centres of population be not soon relieved from the wantonly destructive
agencies which are now ruining the young fry, of which these lakes are
the natural homes, it will be futile to expect any considerable results
from the protection, at spawning-time, of adult fish—at all events within
the range of waters for which these inlets are the appointed nurseries.

Newcastle and the lower reaches of the river Hunter are at present
of far more importance to Sydney as the chief station of the prawn
fishery, and for their natural and other oysters beds, than for the supply
of line or net fish which they afford. It is even said that the population
of Newcastle is not adequately supplied by the Hunter; and the great
and constant destruction of small fish by prawn nets is stated to be the
not improbable reason. Port Stephens, about 24 miles to the north
ward of Newcastle, with its innumerable outer grounds, including the
Broughton Islands, and extending as far as the Seal Rocks, is probably
the grandest fishing station on the entire seaboard of this Colony. \ Con
nected with the vast series of lakes (the Myall Lakes) on the north, and

186 NEW SOUTH WALES

with the Karuah River, Telligherry Creek, and half a score of important
affluents inland, with miles upon miles of beaches fit for seine fishing,
with an apparently unlimited endowment of the best fish, and with a
telegraph station within very easy distance, this noble harbour is un-
questionably destined to become one of the largest factors in the metro-
politan fish supply of the future. A considerable gang of Chinamen ig
always located at Nelson Bay, and as soon as one lot returns to its native
country another takes its place. They catch their own fish here, and
preserve it after their own detestable fashion. At times these Chinese
fishermen go out seaward as far as Long Island, where they camp for
several weeks at a time and catch vast quantities of fish, and might, if
they chose, catch any quantity of crayfish (the “lobsters” of our fisher-
men). All the Broughton Island group are singularly favourable by
their formation for these crustaceans, and the reefs and outlying rocks
about Cabbage-tree and Boondelbah Islands, off the entrance of Port
Stephens, and those which lie around Long Island, abound with this
fish ; but the distance, under the existing régime, is rather too remote
from market to encourage the development of this, fishery.

Some 15 miles to the north-east of Long Island are the Seal Rocks,
and a variety of reefs and rocky patches, all lying within a range of a
few miles from Sugar-loaf Point, including the “bumbora” known on
the charts by the name of the “ Edith Breaker.” This is a great country
for schnapper and black rock cod. Sharks, unfortunately, are rather
too plentiful ; but there are few fishermen who venture so far from Port
Stephens as the Seal Rocks, and were it not for the coasters who are
sometimes becalmed hereabout, and for occasional visitations of the
Marine Board, little would be known of these grounds. Between Sugar-
loaf Point and Cape Hawke, another 15 ‘miles further north, there is
no lack of virgin schnapper grounds, and a few miles beyond Cape Hawke
is the outlet of the Wallis Lakes,—another series of rather shallow but
extensive lagoons, similar in general character to those which we have
already noticed. These lakes teem with the best of net fish, but owing
to their distance from market enjoy a complete immunity from all
sources of disturbance except the occasional net of some settler or sawyer.

The Middle Grounds (South).—This section includes the coast between
‘Wattamolle—a small boat harbour about 5 miles to the south of Port
Hacking—and a rather deep indent immediately to the southward of
Jervis Bay, known as Wreck Bay or Bight. It comprises about the
same length of coast line as the northern portion of the Middle Grounds
section, but, with the exception of Lake Illawarra, the Shoalhaven and
Crookhaven Rivers, Jervis Bay, and St. George’s Basin, possesses few
inlets or sheltered waters, This deficiency is, however, fully compen-
sated by the magnificent fishing-grounds of Jervis Bay and the extensive
banks lying toward the south-eastern corner of Shoalhaven Bight, and
known as Young Banks. About Stanfield Bay, to the south of the Watta-
molle boat harbour, some very good schnapper grounds afford fine freights
in the winter months, but beyond this point no line fish come to the
Sydney Market, the distance from Sydney being too great for the class
of fishing-boat employed. Lake Illawarra is fished by nets for the
Sydney Market with considerable success, the fish being brought to port
by steamer during the cool season of the year. Schnappers are said to be
abundant off the Five Islands and other grounds in this neighbourhood,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 137

and doubtless a little search would discover many such grounds
between Point Bass and Shoalhaven Bight. The waters of the Shoal-
haven and Crookhaven abound in the best kind of harbour fish, and the
whiting are specially excellent ; but here again the want of speedy con-
veyance to market operates as an effective prohibition against all enter-
prise. The banks just mentioned cannot, however, long remain in
their present state of isolation, but must before long be laid under con-
tribution asa source of supply. The same remark applies to Jervis Bay
in respect to net fish. Its beaches in extent and productiveness
are probably unsurpassed by any harbour or inlet on the whole of
our coast. Whiting are caught in the bay and on the outer
beaches of Wreck Bight in enormous quantities, and were a short
time ago, if they are not still, preserved in a dried or salted state by the
Chinese fishermen. St. George’s Basin, at the southern end of this
bight, is a vast nursery for mullet, river garfish, bream, and the
ordinary kinds of net fish, but very few are ever taken. Jervis Bay,
like Port Stephens, is connected with Sydney by telegraph, and like
Port Stephens is a safe and convenient harbdur in any weather. Each
of these stations is distant from Sydney not more than a few hours by
steam, and the facilities for catching large freights of every kind of
marketable fish, as well as for curing and utilizing ashore ‘such as may
be either unsuitable to or in excess of the demand are common to both.
The telegraph, it is almost needless to point out, would be an invaluable
guide as to the. state of the metropolitan supply. Here therefore, and
at Port Stephens, we should expect, in the event of our recommenda-
tions for the alternate closing of some of the home fisheries being
adopted, that a large fishing industry will be established and worked in
connection with steam fishing-vessels of the class.

(3.) The Outer Grownds.—This section of our sources of supply
embraces the remainder of our fishing territory, from Cape Hawke to the
‘Tweed on the north—from Wreck Bight to Twofold Bay on the south. As
might be anticipated from the remoteness of the fishing-grounds com-
prised within these limits, they are almost untouched, and indeed almost
unknown, at all events so far as professional fishermen are concerned.

The only information about them which we possess comes chiefly
from coasting mariners and from the pilots or other officers stationed at
the mouths of the various bar harbours which mark the outlets of such
rivers as the Tweed, the Richmond and Clarence, the Nambuccra,
Bellinger, Hastings, Macleay, Manning, Clyde, Moruya; also at Twofold
Bay, and other points of less importance. From other sources we have
been furnished with descriptions of such fishing-grounds as our infor-
mants happened to be familiar with ; and some of your Commissioners
have themselves been able, from personal knowledge of the localities, to
confirm or supplement the information so obtained.

The Solitaries and other rocky islets lying between Trial Bay and the
mouth of the Clarence enjoy a high reputation for schnappers and other
valuable kinds of line fish ; and the lower waters of the various rivers
which enter the sea within this section of our fishing-grounds are known
to abound, like all other rivers on the coast, with the best descriptione
of net fish. Similar accounts are given of the outer grounds to the
southward. In short, it may be said with perfect truth, that the whole
of these portions of our coast waters are plentifully supplied with fish of

8

138 NEW SOUTH WALES

the same species which are found on the home and middle grounds.
The time is not far distant when these outer grounds must be laid under
contribution, but for the next few years we are of opinion that the
supplies of fish procurable on the less remote and more easily accessible

- grounds will suffice for all our requirements, not only in the way of fresh
‘fish, but also of dried or preserved fish. Still, if suitable vessels were
constructed and equipped, and if the necessary capital and enterprise
were forthcoming, there can be no doubt that a profitable industry lies
ready for immediate development, not only on the middle, but also on
the outer fisheries. The demands of the metropolis and inland towns
may, however, for some time be served by the establishment of properly
organized fishing stations within a distance of 100 miles north and south
of Port Jackson. We have already drawn attention to the very
favourable situation and conditions of Port Stephens and Jervis Bay for
this purpose, and we are of opinion that better positions for fishing
villages and for the establishment of industries connected with the curing
or other utilization of surplus catches cannot be found on our coast.

Before leaving this portion of our subject, we desire to draw attention
to the alleged existence of extensive shell-banks or submarine ridges in
the immediate vicinity of Port Jackson. We are informed and believe
that these banks are a favourite resort for schnapper and other deep-sea
fish ; and it is not at all improbable that similar banks would be dis-
covered along the coast if a systematic search were entered upon.

The following are the distances of the fishing grounds from Sydney :—
To the North.

Broken Bay... oy ‘ . «. 20 miles.
pupae Beach Lake ace we vise FAO: ~ 55
Lake Macquarie de: ee at - «65 C=,
Port Stephens... sia ei sts we 7B og,
Cape Hawke ... a8 De sea Pera Bs epee
River Manning 150

And the Seal Rocks, 100 miles, for schnapper fishing.
To the South.

Shoalhaven es .. 75 miles
Jervis Bay... nit wes re . 100 ,,
Sir George’s Basin... 2c a5 sxe 21D yy
Clyde River 150 ,,

All for net fishing.

There are other fishing grounds further away both to the north and south, but
the distance would probably be considered too great.

River Fisheries.—I add here a few remarks on the river fisheries,
which was not included in the subject as examined by the Commissioners.
The differences between the freshwater fishes are dealt with in the
chapter devoted to them, where the peculiarities of the eastern and
western waters are described. In the eastern rivers there is no fishery,
properly speaking ; the freshwater kinds are only sought by anglers and
sportsmen. The list generally includes perch (Lates colonorum), a herring
(Clupea nove-hollandic), which is also called a sprat, bream (Chryso-
phrys), 2 second kind of perch (Anthias ?), two eels (Anguilla australis
and Murenesox cinereus), two or three kinds of mullet (Mugil), cat-fish
(Copidoglanis tamdanus), and in one northern river the Murray cod.
Besides these there are occasionally both bream and flathead in fresh-
water. The bull-rout, gudgeons, &c., have been mentioned as far as
their importance or interest required.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 1389

CHAPTER XI.
The Fish Market.

Tue following particulars are taken from the Commissioners’ report.
The alterations which have taken place since that time will be referred
to when dealing with the Fisheries Act, whose provisions can hardly yet
be said to have come into full operation :—

The Fish Market of Sydney, to which all fish intended for sale are
brought, is under the supervision of an Inspector of the Municipality,
whose duties are to ascertain the fitness for human food of the fish
brought into the Market, to condemn and cause the instant removal of
that which is unfit, and to dispose of the remainder by public auction.
The duties of this officer commence in the summer months at 5, and in
the winter at 6 a.m. The disposal of the fish by public competition is
an arrangement made by the Inspector and assented to by the fishermen,
and appears to be the most desirable mode of dealing with the supply.
The fish are brought into Market during the night and in the morning
immediately before the sale. The supplies which are brought from a
distance in coasting-steamers arrive generally during the night previous
to the day’s sale. A return, carefully prepared by Mr. Inspector
Seymour, gives abundant information concerning the sources of supply,
the varieties and quantities and value of the fish, extending over a period
of seven years. During the winter months these supplies are enlarged by
the facilities for bringing in a fit state to market the produce of the
fisheries of places as distant as Port Stephens to the north and Jervis
Bay to the south, As no arrangements have ever existed for the
carriage along our coasts of fish in ice, any distant fishing-grounds are
during the summer months proportionally valueless for the purposes of
a supply to the metropolis. Upto a very recent period, no arrange-
ments had been made for the reception in an ice-house at the Market of
the fish as they arrived. The consequence of the entire absence of any
means of preserving the fish after capture until their delivery at the
Market, and there up to the time of their disposal, was the loss of very
large quantities of valuable food. The particulars of this loss will be
found in the return made by Inspector Seymour, to which reference has
already been made. The result of the non-employment of ice or any
other means of bringing the fish to Market in a fresh condition, was of
course to limit the sources of supply to the harbour and to its immediate
vicinity. It would appear that the Sydney Market is regularly supplied
in the following way :—There are engaged in fishing in the numerous
bays of Port Jackson, including the Parramatta River, twenty-seven
seine-boats, each manned by four men ; and eight boats for line-fishing,
with crews of about three each. Only one steam-vessel is regularly
employed in the fishing trade, although in the winter months consider-
able quantities of fish are brought in the Hunter River and Illawarra
lines of steamers from Tuggerah, Lake Macquarie, Newcastle, Port
Stephens, and other places to the north, and from Wollongong, Shoal-
haven, and Jervis Bay to the south. The solitary steam-vessel in the
trade leaves Sydney every Monday morning at 7 o'clock, goes to Broken
Bay, and returns to the Sydney Market at 5 the next morning, bringing

140 NEW SOUTH WALES

daily freights up to Saturday morning. She collects her freights from
fishermen at Broken Bay, and goes about 10 miles up the Hawkesbury
River. It was ascertained that for this service her owners receive one-
third of the proceeds of all fish carried by this vessel to market. The
fishermen supplying the Market do not seem to have any direct dealings
with the fishmongers or hawkers who are engaged in the distribution of
the fish ; but the entire business between the producers and the fisher-
men is managed by agents, who collect the moneys from the buyers and
pay them over with commission deducted, to the fishermen. As may at
once be ascertained by a reference to the figures contained in the tables
prepared by Mr. Inspector Seymour, the fish supply is quite unequal to
the existing local demand, while with the immensely increased facilities
for disposal created by the opening up of railway communication with
places in the interior, where no supplies of fish can be obtained except
from the seaboard, there seems no reason for supposing that under
existing circumstances any such demand could be at all satisfactorily
met ; and yet, as will be seen hereafter, the sources of supply, if properly
guarded, are practically equal to any demand that could possibly be made
upon them. At present the price of fish is, as will be seen from the
evidence, excessively high.* In January of this year bream were fetch-
ing from 30s. to £2 a bushel (that is;sold wholesale to the fish-hawkers) ;
schnapper were readily fetching from 28s. to 30s. a dozen; squires, from
5s. to 15s, a dozen ; whiting, from 6s. to 8s. a dozen ; garfish were sold
at £2 18s, a bushel ; soles and flounders at times ls. to 2s. per pair, and
other varieties of fish at proportionate prices. The prices given by the
consumers, who in the absence (with but a few exceptions) of regular
fish-shops, purchase from the hawkers, are enormously increased—in some
cases, as will be seen by the evidence, doubled, and in others quadrupled.
The inadequacy of the supply to meet the demand may be inferred from
the value of the imports as it is furnished by the Statistical Register.
From this it would appear preserved fish of various kinds was imported
to the value of £161,970 in 1877, and £133,334 in 1878. We ascer-
tained that there are several places even in the city of Sydney itself
where fish is rarely if ever seen, and where the people have become so
entirely unaccustomed to the use of it as an article of food that they
seldom if ever think of purchasing it.

* This was written in 1879.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 141

_ The following return will show some of the increase in our fish supply
in the past ten years. It will be noticed that the condemned fish becomes
less on the whole :—

Return of Fish brought to the Eastern Market, Woolloomooloo, and
quanity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food, for the
years ending 30th November, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878,

and 1879,
ee ae eae | - ee ee eee 7
€3lesl25ldcl8.|aa| = Bul Ze esl Bs S\e.| 3 leg
a > Ss] os os 3 Oo
Bg |S | ee | G5 | 28 As E lee g5 |23/ a5 | g gs | 3 selas
oD S y
2-\e ja |@ |6 | |g ileie Bla |} 38 (2 8 fA
1873.
sas 901 [3,205 | 7 | 742 | se 136 [2s 768 | or | 80 m0 | 238 | ch | a7

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—Net fish, 48 bushels; schnappers, 37
dozen ; sea mullet, 594 dozen ; prawns, 5 bushels.

1874,

ssar| 1736] 951 »aer| 637 188 | 132 | 150 | 33 | 15 | 59

=| =|] |6

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—Net fish, 364 bushels ; schnappers, 13
dozen ; sea mullet, 48 dozen; prawns, 2 bushels..

1875.
49 | 9 he

12,00 2a 607 fre 219 h.ss| 401 | 196

825 | +29 134 | 40 | 2,943

Quantity of fish cond das being unfit for human food :—Net fish, 93 bushels; schnappers’
11 dozen.

1876.
rae | 2.45 | 748 [2226] 763 |+a0| 214 | 18 ss | 78 bon 170 | 247 51 | 12 | 119

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—

1877.

12071 1,201 [pau | 643 | 088 sais | 106 20 | 689 |29| 415 98. | 156 560 | 12 | 37

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—~
1878.

a | 10 | a | 42 | 19 [1143

sso 1,721 | 1,032 [224] 583 | 1,379 | 374 19 »a2e| 31

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—Net fish, 119 bushels ; schnappers, 3
A en sea mullet, 48 dozen.

1879.

311 | 17 453 | 61

28 | 113

15 | u

1,259 | 27

i204 1660 | 685 | 29 516 |e

Quantity of fish condemned as being oeitg for seat er ae fish, 57 bushels ; schnappers, 13
zen ; sea mM ,

Granp Torat of fish brought to the Eastern Market, Woolloomooloo,
with quantity condemned as being unfit for human food to 1879.

88,384 hs. 6,502 | 708 | 5,123 bros] 1,707 bss | 8,609 rs pox 1,105 | 1,669 | 1,700 | 93 | 486

142 NEW SOUTH WALES

Return of Fish brought to the Eastern Market, Woolloomooloo, with
amount realized at auction sales, market revenue, and quantity
of fish condemned as being unfit for human food, for the year

ending 30th November, 1880.

. A g
> 5 : > > $ ~ lo > & o ; |e 5 |E
go/2 12.12 1851841 8a i8ul By | se | bal oy Boles

N 4 | oN ai NOW NSN] BS | ON | BN [Bos N [8 o/h.
33 | #3 | of | ee | ps [23 | 28 [a5] 28 | 28 | 28 | 25 (28) 23 [beta
zals |@ |S g |@ | |€ | avila |3 6 |

an a 4 &
12,997] 1,715| 702 1a 611 | 1,308] 428 | 22 | 1,322] 79 | 57 | 134 | 63| 519 | 16 | 22

Amount realized at auction sales from December, 1879, to November, 1880,

inclusive, £16,047.
Market revenue—Auction fees on sale of fish, £803 12 1
: Rents, &c.. £149 10 O
£953 2 1

Quantity of fish condemned as being unfit for human food :—
Net fish, 49 bushels ; schnapper, 2 dozen ; sea mullet, 39 dozen.

Return of Fish brought to the Eastern Market, Woolloomooloo, with
amount realized at auction sales, market revenue, and quantity of
fish condemned as being unfit for human food, for the year ending

,_ 830th November, 1881.

Bo |g | gf ;_ is > S dole le Ls cn [pre g

ag | a4) hg gal] ee Zs Eis 2 ie

FURIE CE IESIELIE IEEE bore ence
~~ i=} is} ‘a ° i=} So i} i=}

a? | 32 | 8° | 23 | 35 | 2° ES (FS | Gs |22185| SEE" esies|er

nm | W2 ie]

1,784 |15,194| 316 | 860 |2,811| 6523 68 w0 | 121 | 22 | 46 hse 564) 38 oa 78 | 184

Amount realized at auction sales, £17,949 14s, 7d,
Commission on sale of fish—£899 5s, 5d. ; rents, &c., £136 15s.—£1,036 0s. 5d.

Fish condemned :—Net fish, 258 bushels; schnapper, 61 dozen ; lobsters, 25
dozen ; salt fish, 60 dozen.

FISH AND FISHERIES, 143

CHAPTER XII.

The Development of our Fisheries.

THE following valuable and most suggestive observations are taken
almost verbatim from the Report of the Royal Commission. It is not
too much to say that nothing at all equal to them has been published in
the Colonies. They comprise information from the most competent and
most experienced persons on the subject of Fisheries which the Colony
possesses. It is to be hoped that they will be studied, and made use of
by those engaged in the fishing industry.

We proceed then to offer a few suggestions as to the best mode of
utilizing and improving the vast resources which the sea offers us.
Fisheries are of two classes—those which are undertaken for the supply
of the daily demand, and those which are undertaken at fixed periods,
and for a short time only. To the first of these we shall give the name
of “Ordinary Fisheries,” to the other “Special Fisheries.” The
“Ordinary Fisheries” may be divided into “deep sea or line fisheries”
and “ harbour or net fisheries.”

Deep sea fishing is at present carried on in open boats, manned gener-
ally by three fishermen. These people have no means of preserving
from putrefaction the fish they catch, so that there is no temptation to
them to go out to any of the many fishing-grounds off the coast, even if
the description of boat in use were fitted for that purpose. But the
very reverse is the case. The boats are small, afford no comfort or
protection from wind and weather to the crew, and in fact cannot be
used with safety except on a fine day and in close proximity to the land.
Suggestions have often been made for the employment of decked boats
of considerable size, with a well for the reception of the fish—a kind of
vessel much used in the Channel and North Sea fisheries of England ;
and we believe one or two such boats have actually been tried here, but
entirely without success. Our fishes it would seem, the schnapper more
particularly, will not survive in the well above a very short time, and
are found to be bruised and made unfit for food by the process.

The general use of ice, and the cheapness of its production, render
now unnecessary such expedients as well-boats. Strong roomy vessels
of 100 to 150 tons burden, with moderate steam-power and a good ice-
house, and manned by ten or twelve fishermen, are what is best suited
to our climate and coast. It might be unnezessary to have these fish-
ing-vessels so large, or it might be advantageous to increase their
tonnage; these are matters of detail not necessary for our purpose,
which is merely to point out how our best fishing-grounds can be reached
with comfort and safety to the fishermen and secure the perfect preser-
vation from putridity of the fish. The steam-power, which would be
only used as an auxiliary in going out to and in from the fishing-grounds
when the winds were light or unfavourable, should be equal to a speed
of at least 6 knots an hour. The engines and all connected with the
victualling and bedding of the crew should be in the stern of the vessel,
and the forepart, both on deck and beneath, should be given up entirely
to the curative processes for the fish caught and for the ice-house.

144 NEW SOUTH WALES

Fishing-vessels of that description could with safety go out to sea in
any weather and take supplies and all sorts of fishing-gear for a week’s
consumption ; the crew should be experienced fishermen, and if possible
be themselves the proprietors. The cost of the vessel with a complete
outfit of everything required would probably be little short of £4,000.
The expenditure weekly, including £2 a week for the wages of each of
the crew and interest at 10 per cent. on the capital invested,
would be (say) wages £24, interest £8, add £10 for losses and wear
and tear—£42 per week. This is taking the expenses at an extreme
figure ; a moderate calculation of the week’s receipts would show a much
larger return. In the course of the week itis pretty certain that twelve
fishermen with good appliances will catch at least 4 tons of fish, and
taking these at the low estimate of £20 per ton—less than half the
price of salted and dried ling—the weekly profit would be nearly 100
per cent. on the outlay. Besides, we may fairly calculate that the best
ofthe fish will, as they are caught, be at once cleaned and placed in the ice-
house, and these of course will realize a much higher price than above
estimated. With vessels too, so commodious as these, everything may
be utilized and nothing should be lost; the inferior fish, or those not
worthy of being put in ice, should be salted on the spot, the air-bladders
should be washed and dried at once, particularly those of the jew-fish,
teraglin, and silver eel, and even the sharks may be made a source of
profit by the saving of the fins and the oil from the liver. The prime
fish, such as black rock-cod, schnapper, nannygey, gurnard, Sergeant
Baker, &c., brought in the ice-chests of these vessels would of course re-
quire to be received into a cool room the moment of their arrival ; but
the advantages attending the use of ice are becoming so fully recognized
now, and the ice itself is to be got at such a moderate price, that there
is little doubt that every fishmonger will be amply supplied with all that
is necessary to keep the fish fresh. It should be understood that it is
exceedingly injurious that fish should be ever frozen, but kept at a
temperature of 32° F. they undergo no change, and retain all the excel-
lence of the most freshly caught fish.

Some improvements on the present mode of line-fishing might also be
attempted. On the Newfoundland banks, and in the North Sea fisheries
of Norway, the “bultow” is much used for the capture of the cod and
other fish. The following description of the ‘‘bultow,” as used by the
French fishermen at Newfoundland, is taken from “Simmonds”Com-
mercial Products of the Sea,” page 27 :—“'The bultow is a long line,
with hooks fastened along its whole length, at regular distances, by
shorter and smaller cords, called ‘snoods,’ which are 6 feet long, and are
placed on the long line 12 feet apart, to prevent the hooks becoming en-
tangled. Near the hooks these shorter lines, or snoods, are formed of
separate threads, loosely fastened together, to guard against the teeth of
the fish. Buoys, buoy-ropes, and anchors or grapnels are fixed to each
end of the line, and the lines are always laid, or, as it is termed ‘shot,’
across the tide, for if the tide runs upon the end of the line the hooks
will become entangled, and the fishing will be wholly lost—for the
deep sea fisheries the bultow is of great length. The French fishing-
vessels, after anchoring on the bank, in about 45 fathoms of water, run
out about 100 fathoms of cable, and prepare to catch cod ‘with two lines,
each 3,000 fathoms in length. The snoods are arranged as previously

FISH AND FISHERIES. 145

described, and the hooks being baited, the lines are neatly coiled in
half-bushel baskets, clear for running out. The baskets are placed in
two strong-built lugsail boats, and at 3 o’clock in the afternoon both
make sail together at right angles from the vessel on opposite sides.
When the lines are run out straight, they are sunk to within 2 feet of
the bottom. At daybreak next morning the boats proceed to trip the
sinkers at the extremites of the lines, and while the crew of each boat
are hauling in line and unhooking fish the men on board heave in the
other end of the lines with a winch. In this way 400 of the larger
bank cod are commonly taken in a night. The fish are cleaned and
salted on board, and stowed in the hold in bulk; the livers to be boiled
for oil are put in large casks, secured on deck.” "We may observe that
the French method mentioned above of treating the cod livers is not to
be recommended, the extremely disagreeable smell of cod-liver oil being
due entirely to the putrefied condition of the livers. To have a per-
fectly sweet and pure oil, it should be obtained by the moderate appli-
cation of heat when in an undecomposed state.

The “harbour and net” fisheries, like those of deeper water, cannot
be made productive to a much greater extent than at present, without
increased facilities for bringing the fish fresh to market, and there is no
more effective way of accomplishing that end than by the use of ice; and
indeed that is the only suggestion we can make for the improvement
and development of these harbour fisheries. The boats in use among
these net fishermen are good and well adapted for the purposes they
serve ; the seine nets they use are undoubtedly unexcelled in securing
any fish there may be within their circumference, and the means of
getting their fish to market seems to be the only trouble to which the
rather lazy net fishermen are subject. Ice and rapid communication are
the only effectual remedies for this; but these will be quickly availed
of as soon as sufficient inducements offer in the shape of immediate
money profits.

The trawl net, the chief instrument of capture on the English
coast, has never come into general use here, and it is probable never
may to any great extent, owing to the rocky character of our coast.
If, however, .a detailed survey of our fishing-grounds should prove the
existence of some sandbanks, the trawl net would be found to be the
most useful and almost only mode of getting at such fish asthe flounder,
sole, and John Dory.

The “special fisheries” are those which like the salmon, the herring,
the pilchard, the anchovy, the tunny, the mackerel, and other fishes of
similar habit, appear at certain periods for a short time only, and there-
fore if they are fished for at all must be fished for and utilized in a very
different way from the every-day fishes. They differ from the other
fisheries also, in so far as the fishes of the special class have a value
chiefly arising from some particular mode of preparing them for the
local market or exportation—the numbers in which they are generally
taken far exceeding the possible demazd for them in a fresh state.

The sea mullet (Mugil grandis) is, of all our fishes, the one that gives
greatest inducements for a special fishery. In the months of April and
May it makes its appearance in very large shoals on our coast, never
going far from land, always proceeding in a northerly direction, and

T

146 NEW SOUTH WALES

showing a disposition to enter every inlet and harbour in its course. It
is. then in the finest condition, and full of roe. Its annual migration at
that period is simply in search of suitable spawning grounds. We are
convinced that with proper appliances, and under proper restrictions,
the mullet fishery at this time, lasting probably six weeks, might be
made of very great value to the Country. The quantity which could be
consumed in a fresh state during the fishery would be in a very small
proportion to the numbers captured, and it would therefore be necessary,
in order to utilize the vast numbers of this fine fish then offering itself
for our use, to hit upon some means of preserving the larger portion for
future use in a marketable form. At present it is not unusual to salt
and smoke it, but its very fatness and excellence make it a bad fish for
this mode of treatment——it takes the salt too readily, and is apt to
become rancid. The roe, however, salted and smoked, is equal to any--
thing of the kind in the world, and in that state is always rapidly
bought up in any quantity.

It is evident that with a fish of such richness and delicacy no plan
can be so good for preserving its excellence of flavour as that generally
adopted in the case of the salmon—a fish possessing many of the same
‘qualities—boiling and heremetically sealing in tin cans. The form of
the tin need not be exactly the same as we are accustomed to see salmon
in—in fact there is considerable variety even in that, the Dutch practice
being to tin salmon in long cans holding each two full-sized fish. The
process is extremely simple.

At the Columbia River (where in 1876 the quantity canned was
428,730 cases, each containing 4 dozen 1-lb. tins, or about 23,000,000
Ibs.), they cut the fish up with a number of curved knives—say seven or
eight—with a lever attached. -The fish are laid on a bench, and the
lever being pulled down, the knives cut the fish into sections the size of
the tin, whether 1, or 2, or 4 ibs. There are more 1 Ib. tins put up
than those of 2 lbs. or 4 lbs. Then the fish are put into the tin, and a
small tea-spoonful of salt is added to each can, to take away any
unnatural flavour. The cansare then put into a large boiler and heated
with steam, and after the fish have boiled a certain time, say twenty
minutes under the greatest heat they can get—the steam is 210 degrees,

but then they get the heat up to 280 degrees by the addition of
chemicais.

They put salt into the water to enable it to be brought to a greater
heat than the boiling-point of pure water. The salt alone would not
bring it up to 280 degrees, but they use chloride of calcium. Then
after the fish are cooked a certain time the screen that the cans are on is
raised out of the boiler, and a man goes round them with a little mallet,
having a small spike on it, and he taps every one of the cans, by which
means the gas that has accumulated in the cans escapes. After the fish
have settled down he solders the small hole, lowers the screen with the
cans again into the boiler, and the water is raised to the boiling point,
so as to produce steam inside the cans. "When they are taken out and
cooled the steam condensirig produces a vacuum in each can, and the
cans are then passed into a place where they are left for one, two, or
three days, to see that they are perfectly tight.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 147

‘Sooner or later other methods may be discovered of treating our fine
species of mullet. Whether or no, we have no doubt that its fishery is
destined to be a most important industry. The mode of capturing this
fish is a matter which requires consideration. At present the fishermen
catch them after they enter the harbours, bays, inlets, &c., and follow
them up to their spawning grounds, scattering them and effectually ‘inter-
fering with them in the discharge of these necessary functions. Such
a wanton destructive mode of fishing should not be tolerated. The
breeding of the fish need not be interfered with, for they can be got in
any quantity at the mouths of the bays or in the open sea. For this
mode of fishing, drift nets, such as are used for the herring and mackerel
fisheries, but with larger meshes, might be found to answer. But the
description of net chiefly used in the menhado fishery, on the coast of
Maine, is we think still more likely to be suitable. It is thus described
by Mr. Simmonds in the “Commercial Products of the Sea,” page
222 :—“ The seines are made of strong cotton twine and are 130 fathoms
long (780 feet), and from 80 to 100 feet deep. At the eastern end of
Long Island, where the fishing is in deep water, the depth is even
greater. Along the bottom of the seines run lines so arranged that
they can be drawn up like an old fashioned purse—whence the name
‘purse seine.’ The top of the seine is attached to buoys of cork or
wood, and these, when the whole is thrown into the water, hold the
upper edge at the surface, while the remainder hangs vertically beneath
it. The seine is loaded into two boats, which also form a part of the
outfit of the yacht, and are always with her when not engaged in taking
fish. Thus furnished the yachts start on a cruise in search of the fish,
which go in immense schools. When a school is met with it is necessary
to drop the seine in front of them, otherwise no fish would be taken, as
they would swim away in front before the seine could be closed round
them. The boats get ahead of the school and pay out the seine as they
separate. When the school is fairly in the seine the boats come together
and completely surround the fish. At the pointwherethe boats first started
a heavy weight called a ‘tom’ is attached to the bottom of the seine,
and to this weight, which rests upon the bottom, are fastened the lines
which ‘purse’ up the bottom and prevent the fish from escaping below.
When the bottom is drawn together the men haul the seine into the
boats, and shake the fish down into the bunt, as the purse formed by the
seine is called. ‘The fish are taken out of the seine into the ‘carry-ways’
by means of dip nets.” The “carry-ways” are additional vessels
attached to each yacht for taking the fish ashore.

A system also of having a look-out kept along the coast to the south
upon the movements of the shoals of mullet, so that information might
be telegraphed to the fishing stations, as is done in the case of the
tunny in the Mediterranean, would be most useful as a guide to the
people engaged in this fishery.

The “maray ” (Clupea sagaz) is a very rich, oily, well tasted fish of
the herring family, which passes north along our coast about midwinter
in enormous shoals. The same fish has been seen to pass south along
the east coast of New Zealand in the month of February, so that there
is every reason to infer that it is a migratory fish in the truest sense.
Some idea of the vast extent of the shoals of these fish may be formed
from the following quotation. Professor M‘Coy, of Melbourne, in

148 NEW SOUTH WALES

describing its various appearances in Port Phillip, says :—‘“ After
remaining for a few weeks they disappeared, until the same time in
1866, when they arrived in such countless thousands that carts were
filled with them by simply dipping them out of the sea with large
baskets. Hundreds of tons were sent up the country to the inland
markets, and through the city for séveral weeks they were sold for a
few pence the bucketful, while the captains of the ships entering the bay
reported having passed through closely packed shoals of them for miles.”

This fish is salted and smoked in some: parts of New Zealand, and
the highest award of excellence was adjudged a few days ago at the
International Exhibition in the Garden Palace to the Picton bloaters
prepared from this very fish. No attempt has been made in this Colony
at any time we believe to make any use of this fish, and yet there are
none which would yield to a little enterprise a more certain return.
Even for oil and manure it would pay well to fish for them on a large
scale. The “menhado” (also a kind of herring) fishery, on the coast of
Maine, which is conducted solely for the production of oil,was valued
in 1873 at £325,000, of which £200,000 was derived from the oil and
£125,000 from manure. But the “maray” seems fitted for a. higher
destiny than oil or manure,—the size, quality, and delicacy of this fish
point it out as a worthy substitute for the sardine. The process of
preserving fish in this way is very simple, and is thus described by Mr.
Simmonds, in the “Commercial Products of the Sea,” in his chapter on
the sardine fishery of the Mediterranean :—“ Brought to land they are
immediately offered for sale, as if staler by a few hours they become
seriously deteriorated in value, no first-class manufacturer coming to
buy such. They are sold by the thousand; the curer employs large
numbers of women, who cut off the heads of the fish, wash and salt
them. The fish are then. dipped into boiling oil for a few minutes,
arranged in various sized tin boxes filled up with the finest olive oil,
soldered down and placed in boiling water for some time to test the
boxes, those which leak being put aside. It does not always seem to be
remembered that the longer the tin is kept unopened the more mellow
do the fish become, and if properly prepared, age improves them, as it
does good wine ; but if they are too salt ati first, age does not benefit
them—they always remain tough.” The value of the sardine trade to
France is about £700,000 per annum.

The maray must be caught in the open sea, as it does not, except by
accident, enter our harbours. The fishing will require therefore to be
conducted with drift nets, such as are used for herrings in the North of
Scotland, or better still, by the purse seine, described on previous page.

The approach of the shoals from the south should in this case, as with
the mullet, be watched and signalled.

There are other herrings on the coast capable of being utilized to an
equal or even greater extent than the “maray,” but the processes of
catching and curing would be the same.

The mackerel visits our shores at intervals in very large shoals, so
does the “tailor” and a host of other fishes, all of which may ultimately
become special and important fisheries, for salting or other purposes, but

at present the development of the most obviously useful kinds is all that
can well be attended to.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 149

At the Fisheries Office, Garden Palace, there are now on view some
of the fishing implements used in other parts of the world. They were.
obtained by the Commissioners of Fisheries, with the objects of testing
the applicability of the modes of fishing practised in some parts of the
Continents of Europe and America to the fisheries of this Colony, and
of affording to our fishermen an opportunity of acquainting themselves
with the necessary appliances. Amongst the articles referred to, and
which can be inspected by persons interested, will be found the follow-
ing :—A purse seine, such as is used in the menhaden fishery on the
Maine coast, North America ; a trawl net, with beam, complete, as used
by the Grimsby fishermen; a drift net of the kind used in the herring
fishery, Scotland ; a bultow, or set line, used by the French fishermen at
Newfoundland ; a set line, used by the Norwegian cod-fishers in the
North Sea ; glass baits and floats, in use in the Norwegian fisheries; an
otter trawl net, a trammel net. In addition to these are a set of boat
fittings for working the menhaden purse seine; also, a pair of woollen
nippers, not well known to any but American fishermen; they are used
in ‘hauling the bultow. Herr Von Behr, President of the German
Fischerei Verein, said in regard to these nippers that, though insignificant
in appearance and simple in contrivance, they deserved to rank amongst
the most important of the American exhibits at Berlin. It is possible
they may be utilized in the deep sea fishing on this coast.

150 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER XIII.

Acclimatization and Pisciculture.

THis department of natural history has assumed the most important
aspects of late years, and may be said at the same time to have become one
of the most popular and fashionable of zoological recreations. Accord-
ing to Dr. Giinther, artifical impregnation of fish ova was first practised
by J. L. Jacobi, a native of Westphalia, in the years 1757 and 1763,
who employed exactly the same method which is followed now. The
idea of course was to favor the natural processes, and by preventing the
waste of ova to restore the failing supplies of rivers, ponds, and streams.
The process is as follows :—The fructifying vessel, which is tolerably large
and with a flat bottom, is filled about one inch deep with pure water, care-
fully kept at the same temperature as that into which the fish resorts for
spawning. A full-roed healthy female fish having been selected, is taken
with as much gentleness as possible by two persons, who hold it in a
manner not likely to injure the fish, by the head and tail respectively.
The fish is held in an upright position, and after it has ceased struggling,
the roe, if it be quite ripe, commences to run from the vent, and in order
to obtain as much as possible the fish’s sides and belly are gently rubbed
downwards. If the fish be large it is never worth while to press out
all the roe at one time. In small fishes only about half the roe is taken,
and the fish is put back again fora day or two into the reservoir, and
then the process is repeated. “If the eggs are quite ripe they all pour
out into the water following cach other in rapid succession, like shot
from a shot-belt. If the eggs do not come out quite easily, give the
tail a gentle shake to loosen the eggs that remain in the abdomen ; but
recollect, if you use force you will spoil the experiment. The eggs must -
run out quite freely.”—Buckland.

After the roe is pressed out it is spread over the bottom of the basin.
A male fish is then taken, and a few drops of the milt is pressed out
into the water. Pressure is made on the abdomen of the male in the
same way as the female. If the milt is ripe, it will instantly discolour
the water and make it white. The roe and milt are then stirred up
with the finger, and left for about five minutes. The milk-coloured
water is then poured off, and fresh water gently added until the eggs
appear quite clear again. The milt of one male will fertilize the ova of
many females, and the fish can be returned to the sea or river none the
worse for the operation. Then the impregnated ova are either placed
into the breeding boxes or packed for exportation, The manner
of packing is this :—The boxes are about 6 inches in height and width,
and 2 feet long. On the bottom is a layer of damp moss, mixed with
ice (if the temperature of the season or the country require it). On this is
spread a damp linen cloth, over it a thin layer of ova is laid. Another
wet linen cloth and more moss completes the packing, which has to be
rather tightly fastened to prevent shaking and friction. In many places
in Europe no roe is packed until two black spots appear in the ova (the
eyes), because the fish bear transport better in that state. If a long
transit be anticipated, the ice arrangements must be different, because
melted ice water injures the roe.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 151

The simplest hatching apparatus consists of a series of shallow boxes
halffilled with sand, and placed at a gradually descending plane from
first to last. A very small flow of water from a tap into the uppermost
box, and from that to the others, will keep the water oxydized and
prevent the development of septic germs. It is found however
that this arrangement has many disadvantages, and leads to a great
waste of roe. The uppermost boxes consume the oxygen from the water,
which by degrees loses the necessary vitality which is required for
hatching the roe in the lower boxes. The method adopted in Dr.
Klenertz’s Fish-hatching Apparatus is this :*—Each box is supplied with
it own stream of water, which is as much mixed with air as possible.
The water is brought to a large stone trough in which the fish (trout)
are kept during the summer, until the roe and milt are ready in the
autumn. The water runs from this stone trough through numerous
separate pipes to two other large troughs, one of stone and the other of
wood, the sides and bottoms of which are covered with cement; each of
these troughs is ahout 12 feet long, 2 broad, and 2 deep. Small gratings.
in the sides serve as rests for the hatching boxes. These are made of
sheet-iron well painted in oil colours to prevent rust. They are a foot
square on the bottom and 5 inches high. They are pierced with two
rows of fine holes, and on the top there is a grove which is likewise fur-
nished with fine holes. After the box is filled with clean gravel to the
height of 3 inches, and on this. the roe is thinly spread. The water
which supplies these boxes is conveyed through small perpendicular
tubes each furiiished at the end with a rose so as to separate the
falling water and bring it as much into contact with the air as possible.
This water falls over the hatching boxes, and is still further aerated by
the fine holes in the tops. The exclusion. of much light is essential to
the success of the experiment, especially of the hatching. The gravel is
boiled for some time before using, to free it from the spores of plants,
which are most destructive to the roe. This method has led to the best
results, and only a small percentage of the ova, are lost. t

Various modifications of these processes are in operation throughout
Europe. Until it was adopted in Britain the salmon-fishery was in danger
of extinction. The fecundity of fish is, well known, but the waste
was not. For instance, we find according to the late Mr. Frank Buck-
land, that the amount of ova to each pound of roe was as follows for
the different fishes mentioned :—Salmon, 1,000 ova to each pound the
fish weighs ; trout of 1 pound weight, 1,008 ; herring of half-a-pound
19,840 ; perch of halfa-pound, 20,592; jack of 44 Ibs., 42,840; mack,
erel of 1 pound, 86,220; sole of 1 pound, 134,466; brill of 4 Ibs.,
239,770 ; turbot of 8 lbs., 385,200; roach of three-quaters-of-a-pound-
480,000; cod of 15 Ibs, 4,872,000! Yet two-thirds of this or a
larger quantity is lost under the most favourable circumstances.
In some respects there is matter for congratulation in this, for
it would not do to have the seas overrun with cod-fish, however

* This plan is not selected as the best, but as a convenient instance out of
many which requires neither expensive buildings, nor apparatus.

+For a full description of the whole subject see ‘‘Fish-hatching,” by Frank
Buckland, London, Tinsley Brothers, 1863. A list of other works is given at
the end of this chapter.

152 NEW SOUTH WALES

excellent the fish may be. But in those species in which the roe is
large, such as the salmon, and the proportionate increase slow, the
effect of fisheries rapidly tells, Thus it has been computed, according
to given data and accurate calculations made by Messrs, Ashworth
and Buist from the returns of fisheries, that only one salmon’s egg
out of every thousand deposited by the parent fish ever becomes
a fish fit for human food. Other fish no doubt both in fresh and salt
water suffer in proportion, the principal enemies being :—1. Floods and
accidents to which the ova themselves are subject. 2. Fish devouring
the ova, which includes in many cases the parent-fish, 3. Prawns and
small crustacea. 4. Birds in fresh waters, ducks and swans especially.
5. Human enemies who kill or disturb the female fishes in spawning-
time.

From nearly all these evils are the ova preserved by pisciculture, and it
has now come to pass that there is not a single salmon river in Europe
which does not have annually put into ita much larger number of artifi-
cially reared fish than is taken out of it. Up toa very recent date the
most eminent establishment for pisciculture was at Huningue, near
Basle. In this magnificent institution the eggs of fish are kept and
advanced in their hatching until they arrive at the period at which they
will bear travel. By this means many rivers in France have been
actually restocked most abundantly with fish, employment given to
hundreds of poor fishermen, and the food of the people greatly increased.
The fish cultivated are the common trout, salmon-trout, lake-trout,
Rhine salmon, Danube salmon, charr, grayling, and fera.*

The French Government has for the last thirty-five years turned its at-
tention especially to Pisciculture, and may be said to have taken the lead
of all other nations on the subject. In the commencement of the work
the rivers and lakes of France were almost destitute of fish, but through
the establishment at Huningue, they have been abundantly re-stocked ;
even though every man is allowed to fish with a line in all rivers and
lakes, not on private property. The Huningue establishment was opéned
in 1852, The object in view was to stock the rivers with fish by the
introduction of ova and.young fry of the best kinds, and those of rapid
growth. Over 20,000,000 of ova are partially hatched and sent away
each year. “ Working hard and enthusiastically,” Mr. Frank Buckland
says, “in the cause of improvement of fisheries are several French
scientific gentlemen, to whom the highest possible praise should be
accorded.” Foremost amongst these is M. Coste, justly called the Father
of European Pisciculture. It is owing to his exertions that millions of
fish ova were sent not only throughout France but also to every
European nation that requested them. Amongst these the British nation
owes a debt to France for the aid thus afforded.

* A small salmon (Coregonus acronius), which when fully grown is 12 inches in
length. Each fish produces a large quantity of eggs (ten to twenty thousand), but as
it is very small the quantity is uncertain. Tera are called the herrings of the lakes,
and are principally caught in the night. The young fish on leaving the egg can
scarcely be seen in the water and passes through very small openings. In this way
it escapes from hatching boxes so that its number cannot be correctly ascertained,
but great quantities have been sent to stock the rivers and lakes of France. It
lives in deep fresh waters and only frequents the borders of lakes to deposit the
spawn, See Report of M. Coumes on Fisheries of France, 1861.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 153

About the time that M. Coste was succeeding in his experiments Mr.
Thomas Ashworth, of Cheshire, who with his brother was the owner of
the Galway Salmon Fishery, commenced his operations. In a very short
time—less than ten years—he had stocked with salmon various streams
that previously had no salmon in them, as well as a district in their
fishery 30 miles long by 10 wide.*

Scotland has also of late years done much for her fisheries. The
establishment of Stormontfield, on the Tay, is now according to the late
Mr. Buckland, a household word, and the observations both practical and
scientific made by Messrs. Buist & Brown are of the highest import-
ance, Ata very small expense hundreds of millions of ova have been
hatched and distributed. To give an example of what this has effected :
in 1828 the rental of the fishery proprietors of the Tay was £14,574 ;
it gradually fell off every year afterwards until 1852, when it reached
£7,953, or nearly one-half; in 1853 the artificial rearing commenced ;
in 1858 the rental rose to £11,487, and in 1862 it had reached the value of
1828. This rise was not due to the increase of the value of salmon, be-
cause the increased price arose from scarcity, and the other fisheries
which had not been re-stocked presented a gradually falling rental.
Things have improved generally throughout England, Scotland, and
Treland since those days. There salmon was rare and dear, and far in
arrear of the demand, and though the London market alone has increased
amazingly meanwhile, the salmon supply has kept pace with it. Not
only that, but the rivers of Scotland especially are apparently more abund-
antly stocked than ever in this century, and rivers which had been
cleared of salmon are now full again.{ The last salmon caught in the
Thames, says Mr. Buckland (writing in 1863), was nearly fifty years ago.
He was caught at Windsor, and weighed 20 lbs. George IV bought him
for twenty guineas. The mud and sewerage of the Thames has some-
what impeded the re-stocking of the river.

The salmon which we use so abundantly in the Colonies, and which
comes to us in the well-known tin cases, is Onchorrhyncus quinnat, a fish
which only differs from the salmon in the increased number of anal rays,
which always number more than fourteen. All the species are migratory,
ascending rivers flowing into the Pacific from the northern portions of
the American and Asiatic continent. There are annually many millions
of these fishes preserved, or as they call it “tinned,” on the Sacramento
and Columbia Rivers, but the supply is kept up by the artificial hatch-
ing and liberation of what is estimated to be two and a half millions of

* For a full account of these successes see ‘‘A Treatise on the Propagation of
Salmon and other Fish,” by Edward and Thomas Ashworth, London. Simpkin &
Marshall, 1853.

+ See Natural History of the Salmon as ascertained by the recent experiments
on the artificial spawning and hatching of the ova and rearing of the fry, at Stor-
montfield, on the Tay. Arthur Hall, Virtue & Co., London, 1858. By W.
Brown.

+ The value of the salmon fisheries in 1871 was as follows :—England, £90,000 ;
Treland, £400,000 ; Scotland, £200,000. The sales at Billingsgate market for the
game year were 1,764 tons of salmon, valued at £246,925, which is a little less
than the average annual sale in London.

U

154 NEW SOUTH WALES

ova—at least so far as the Sacramento River is concerned,* In Ger-
many the same efforts are made as in France, and in Sweden also the
matter has been taken up very enthusiastically. It is in contemplation
to commence something of the same kind in New South Wales, not only
for the introduction of useful European fishes, but also for preservation
of our own. At the present time the golden perch (Ctenolates auratus)
has been much spread through the zeal and industry of Mr. Warren, of
Wagga, who in the summer months transmits small boxes of ova to his
correspondents.

It is necessary to mention here that fish ova are subject to many
parasites which effectually destroy their vitality. These parasites are of
different familes of fungi and algz, especially a green conferva belonging
to the genus Q@dogonium. The ova are also very liable to the attacked
by the small fungus which is so destructive to the common house-fly'
and. affixes it to our window-panes on a little cloud of floculent threads.
This is Saprolegnia ferax, and it is the one which seems to be destruc-
tive to many animals besides fish and flies. It stands on a debatable.
ground between alge and fungi, a quality which it shares with three
other genera which infest ova, and these are Achlya, Pythium, and
Aphanomyces. The only remedy that can be suggested for this mould
is to have the water used in hatching previously boiled and the gravel
subjected to the same process, not in any case so difficult as at first
sight it might appear. Weak solutions of Hyposulphite of soda have
been suggested, but no results have been published. It is to be hoped
that the Exhibition in 1883 will help to throw light on this question.

The use of pisciculture need not be confined to fresh-water fishes ; there are
many of our sea-fishes to which the art might be most profitably applied—the sea-
mullet for one. What could be easier or less costly than to supply the drain and
destruction of that most valuable fish by artificial breeding ? Bacup out a shallow
space of ground near the sea, the bottom about the low-water level, cut a channel
of communication with the sea, so that every tide shall flow into it, put a piece
of perforated zinc or wire netting across the channel soxthat nothing can get in to
destroy the spawn ; then get a few of the fishes on the point of spawning, squeeze
out the roe gently with the hand into a tub with a little water in it, upon the roe
so deposited squeeze the milt of the male fish, then stir gently with the hand so
that every grain may comeinto contact with themale secretion, place the contents of
the tub on the sandy bottom of the pond, and cover over with a net to prevent cranes
and other water-fowl from disturbing the spawn. In the early spring the youn,
fish will make their appearance, and after a few days’ growth they may be turned,
out and left to their own resources. By the adoption of such a system the most.
extravagant waste of the old fish can be readily met. The full-sized roe of a
single female are estimated to contain nearly 3,000,000 ova, so that the careful
preservation of the yield of a very few fish would supply all the markets of the.
world. Under natural conditions the loss of spawn is enormous; by the artificial
system it is reduced to a minimum.

There would be little difficulty in keeping up the numbers in the same way of
any fishes for which the demand was so great as to risk the extinction of the,
fishery, provided they were fishes which spawned on our shallow beaches like the
mullet. In that class would be included our best net fishes—the whitings, the
garfishes, the sole, &c.—R.R.C. .

It is as well here to draw attention to the larger proportion of eggs in
the flat-fishes, which render them particularly favourable for pisciculture.

‘

me See Report of the Commissioners for Californian Fisheries for 1878-79. The
fish is generally believed to be English salmon. Also, Report of the Commissioners
of Fisheries of Maryland from 1876 to 1880, where very full diagrams, plans, and.
‘drawings of the fish-hatching apparatus and houses are given.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 155

_ The acclimatization of fish has not been carried out to a large extent
in New South Wales. The river trout’ (Salmo fario) has been
introduced with undoubted success into the rivers of Tasmania and
Victoria, and into some of those of New South Wales. Shipments
of salmon ova were made to Australia and Tasmania in 1849, 1852,
1860 and 1862, but none reached the colonies alive. After many
experiments by Mr. Buckland as to the vitality of salmon ova when
frozen for over 100 days, a shipment was sent away. In April, 1864,
the first salmon ova (Salmo salar) arrived in Tasmania, and with them
a few ova of the common trout, no salmon-trout being ‘included in that
shipment. In the spring of 1865 a number of smolts, estimated at
about 1,500, went to sea. They bad been very successfully hatched,
and the loss was not great.considering the enormous distance the ova
had been brought. The packing was under the able superintendence
of the late Mr. F. Buckland, and Mr. J. A. Youl, an old colonist
residing in London,* and the whole success of the experiment was
mainly due to the late Mr. Morton Allport, whose untimely death
(September 10th, 1878) has been an incalculable loss to every depart-
ment of science in Tasmania. In the same year that the smolts went
to sea in Tasmania (1865) about thirty common trout were liberated in
the river Plenty, and about 150 were retained in the breeding pond.
In the following spring of 1866 the remainder of the salmon smolts
from the first shipment, about 1,000 in number, took their departure
for the ocean. , Several grilse of 5 lbs. weight were reported sub-
sequently in the fresh waters of the river Derwent.

In May, 1866, a second shipment of salmon ova arrived, and with
them a number of salmon-trout ova. From this shipment, as far as
regards the salmon, the hatching was very successful, and some 6,000
smolts were liberated in 1867 and 1868. The salmon-trout ova were
not so successful. Only 496 were hatched, and of these more than 100
died before they reached the smolt stage. Of the survivors, 100 were
permanently retained in a breeding pond, so that something less than
300 salmon-trout were liberated, while 8,500 salmon were sent forth.
In October, 1869, two salmonoids were caught, one of which Dr.
Giinther pronounced to be a salmon-trout. In December, a third was
caught which was more developed, having been six weeks longer in
salt water. This was pronounced by Dr. Gtinther to be a true salmon.
‘Since 1869 the number and size of the salmon captured have steadily
increased. The late Governor, Sir Frederick Weld, frequently
captured specimens of over 10 lbs, weight. It is still maintained by a
few sceptical individuals that the fish caught are salmon-trout, and not
salmon, but as the habits of the two migratory species, (Salmo salar
and Salmo trutta) are similar, as they inhabit the same rivers and
coasts, one species was just as likely to succeed as another in Tasmania.
However, as about 8,500 salmon have been liberated to about
300 salmon-trout, and of the salmon 2,500 have had two years’ start of
the salmon-trout, it is manifest that the large fish captured are more
likely to be true salmon, and that the experiment as far as Tasmania is
concerned is a complete success. Already they afford excellent fishing,
and at the falls and weirs on the Derwent the number of the fish making

* The boxes of ova were buried inice sent for commercjal purposes. The ova
were in boxes as before described.

156 NEW SOUTH WALES

the leap is yearly increased. In the Hobarton Merewry of July 6,
1878, we read an account from Messrs. Allport and Read, of the
capture of a splendid female salmon 20 lbs. in weight, 2 feet 11 inches
long by 204 inches in girth. It was taken in a spawning bed in the
River Plenty, with a view of obtaining ova for hatching; but she had
parted with most of the spawn, and only about 1,000 eggs could be
obtained. The male fish on the same rid weighed 14 lbs.

The “Crucian carp” (Carassius vulgaris) is now abundant everywhere about
Sydney. The gold-fish (Carassius auratus) is also completely acclimatized ;
and in Tasmania they have in addition the perch of European rivers
(Perca fluviatilis) and the gudgeon (Gobio fluviatilis) These are all the
fishes which have been introduced from other countries; but a little has
also been done in the transfer of the fishes of the fresh waters of one part of the
country to another. One species of the Murray cod was many years ago introduced
into Lake George by the late Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, with the most astonish-
ing success ; the lake and all the creeks running into it are now fully stocked with
cod of large size and of excessive fatness—the ‘‘marami,” which abounds there
forming their principal food. The Wollondilly River and Mulwarree Ponds near
Goulburn have more recently been supplied-with the young cod from Lake George,
and it is said that the increase of the fish in these rivers has been most rapid and
satisfactory. There can be no doubt that the transfer from one part of the country
to another of the best of our fresh-water fishes is a much more sensible and feasible
proceeding than the introduction with much trouble and at great expense of some
of the most useless fishes of the European rivers. Old associations, however
natural, connected with the names of gudgeon, carp, perch, &c., should not induce
us to stock our rivers or fish-ponds with such inferior fishes. But it is quite possible
to go too far even in the better direction of the transfer of our western fishes
to our eastern waters. The Murray cod, as before observed, is a most destruc-
tive fish, swallowing up everything that comes in its way, not excepting its own
species ; and its introduction into new waters might result in the final destruction
of other kinds. Some caution, therefore, should be used in the introduction of
such a formidable fish ; more particularly when from the same near source we can
get supplied with fish of much better quality and less destructive tendencies. We
allude to the fishes known in the Murrumbidgee as the ‘‘ golden perch” and
‘‘silver bream”—the Kaakaalain and Koubery of the aborigines—the Ctennolates
-auratus and Therapon richardsoni of the ichthyologist. For the purposes of food
and all other objects to be attained by the akg with good fish of our eastern
rivers and fish-ponds, these fishes are infinitely superior to the cod, and their ova
an be obtained for transport with ease.—R.R.C.

The colonists of Victoria and New South Wales have been over and
over again recommended to introduce the Gourami (Osphromenus olfaa),
belonging to a family of fishes (Labarynthici) which have. a kind of
‘supernumerary gill in a cavity to itself which enables the fish to live
for some time out of the water. In the accessory branchial cavity there
is lodged a laminated organ which evidently has the function of assist-
‘ing in the oxygenization of the blood. This accounts for the ease with
which some can be acclimatized and transferred from pond to pond. The
climbing perch which ascends trees belongs to this family. They
are all cyprinoid fresh-water fishes belonging to the equatorial
zone. The Gourami is reported to be one of the best flavoured
fresh-water fishes in the East Indian Archipelago. Its original home is
Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and several other islands, but it has been tran-
sported to Penang, the Mauritius, and even South America, and success-
fully acclimatized. It is very tenacious of life, and will eat anything
and soon becomes very tame. _ It attains the size of alarge turbot. A
second, but much smaller species, O. trichopterus, is kept like the gold-
fish, for ornament. Its colours are of every hue, metallic in lustre, and of
great beauty, but it is a very pugnacious fish.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 157

Among the fishes which we would most strongly recommend to those who are
apecially interested in the subject of the acclimatization of useful fishes, we would
kee mention the salmon of the western coast of North America (Oncor-

yneus quinnat), of which the chief fisheries are in the Sacramento and Columbia

Rivers. The experiment of their introduction has been tried in New Zealand by
Dr. Hector, on behalf, of the Government of that country, we believe with success.
It is the only salmon known which we in New South Wales can possibly, with our
climate, have any chance of acclimatizing. We believe it is likely to do well in
our Australian rivers, and in quality it does not seem, from the tinned specimens
so largely imported here from California, to be one whit inferior to the salmon of
the north of Europe. One other fish we would suggest to those who are disposed
to introduce and acclimatize fishes of very superior quality. The Chanos salmoneus
is of the herring family, of large size (2 feet long), extreme beauty and metallic
brilliancy, and of the most exquisite flavour. It is found, though rarely, in these
latitudes, its true habitat being in warmer seas, This fish is cultivated and kept
in tanks in Southern India and Malacca, where it is highly prized, and regarded as
a most expensive luxury. It might be tried in some of our northern rivers, the
most evident objection to the experiment being the fact that the fish must have
occasional access to salt water, and that once out of his river he might never
sine in but after all, the same objection might be urged against salmon culture,

It should be mentioned that this fish has, like the Gourami, an
accessory branchial organ which renders it especially adapted for accli-
matization. Dr. Giinther says that it attains the length of 4 feet.

In conclusion, a few words on artificial ponds and stocking them.
The pond which is made by a dam should cover 10 or 12 acres at the
least. The sides should be steep, except on one side, the depth over 7
or 8 feet, not only to allow for evaporation but also to prevent its be-
coming clogged with a growth of weeds from the bottom. There should
be waste weirs at each end of the embankment for flood-times. The
pond may be divided off by an embankment below the surface so as to
portion off a shallow breeding-place. Trout will require a gravelly
bottom, and will not thrive without it.

Carp (Carrassius) are the best fish for a pond. They breed often and
abundantly, and their young are hardy and grow rapidly. The male is
mature in five years, but the female not until she attains the age of
eight years.

Tench (Tinca tinca) is another useful fish which will agree perfectly
with carp. They will not attack or devour each other’s spawn.
The female is wonderfully prolific, over a } of a million ova have been
counted in one roe. Tench are said to hybernate in winter ; its ova
are of a green colour.

Perch (Perca fluviatilis) are ravenous fishes which will often devour
their own ova and always that of other fishes, and therefore it is not
desirable to keep them except in ponds by themselves. It is a poor
table fish, but affords good angling.

Trout (Salmo fario) are also very ravenous, and often destructive to
its owh spawn.

Pike (Zsox lucius) can never be safely introdeced near other fishes,
as‘it devours all the small and weak ones, and will even attack young
ducks. They are excellent for the table, but must be kept by themselves.

158 NEW SOUTH WALES

Roach (Leuciscus rutilus) is a pretty fish and feeds fast, being very
much like carp in its habits and temper, but it is more use for ornament
than for the table, and therefore is never spoken of as a fish for
acclimatization. The above fish are common, hardy, inexpensive, and
easily obtained. A. full list on the subject would be a bulky affair.
For the rest the works of Francis on Fish Culture may be consulted.

It should be mentioned that there are two especial enemies of the ova
of fish which must not be overlooked. One is the stickleback (Gasteros-
teus aculeatus and spinulosus) and the water-beetle, Hydaticus, of which
we have five or six species in our ponds. The stickleback is not known
to be acclimatized, but might easily be accidentally introduced. No
fish cultivation can proceed in the presence of two such enemies.

Fish may require feeding, and if so, may be assisted by throwing earth,
worms, steeped grain or ground malt, and offals of poultry. Larve of
the common blow-fly can easily be bred and thrown to them, as also house
flies. With a long-pointed net large quantities of these can easily be
collected, scalded, and thrown to the fish.

Besides fresh-water, salt-water ponds may also be constructed. They
must of course be in places where sea-water can enter at half-tide. The
sea-water is to be introduced by means of a sluice at this depth with a
proper grating. By this means a regulated amount of water can be
maintained at low-tide, and 8 or 10 feet at flood, and the water will be
always changing. A great many of these ponds have been constructed
in Europe. The fish kept in them were those of the neighbouring seas,
such as turbot, sole, brill, plaice, flounder, rays, skate, herring, salmon,
salmon-trout. The depth was usually not much over 12 feet or less
than 3 at low water. ‘Various other fishes have been tried, but the
above enumerated have succeeded the best. Turtles have been kept in
such ponds. The food generally consisted of butchers’ offal mingled with
blood, besides periwinkles, shrimps, and prawns. The fish in general
do not improve by being kept in the ponds, they often become blind for
want of shelter. Cod-fish and flat-fish thrive well for a time, as well as
the rays and.skate. Haddock also does well. There is no reason why
the experiment should not be tried with our flat-fish. Those which we
catch are all small, and might be reared to a considerable size.

The ancients were much more advanced in fish culture than ourselves.
Artificial pieces of water for fish-ponds are of great antiquity. From
the Egyptian paintings we see that those people used them, and they
were in common use amongst the Greeks and Romans, coming down
even to medieval times in connestion with monastic institutions. M. T.
Varro, in his book “ De Re Rustica,” and Columella, in a work with the
same title, both enter fully into the methods of constructing and pre-
serving fish-ponds and salt-water vivaria. Columella’s book is exceed-
ingly interesting and enters into the fullest particulars, but as it may
not be within reach of most readers they can consult the third chapter
of the Rev. Dr. Badham’s Prose Halieutics, or Ancient and Modern
Fish Tattle (London, J. W. Parker, 1854). In this they will find.
ample details, even to the feeding of the stock and the dietary scale.
The most extraordinary announcement in Columella is that the Romans
turned lakes and rivers into natural vivaria; they placed fish and fish-

FISH AND. FISHERIES. 159

spawn in them, even the ova of marine fishes which were known to
ascend fresh-water streams. Thus they stocked, with perfect success,
several large rivers which he names.*

The following list includes the most important part of the literature
of Pisciculture -—

Fish-hatching ; by Frank Buckland. London, Tinsley, 1863,

Instructions Pratiques- sur Pisciculture; par M. Coste. Paris,
Masson.

Pisciculture Pratique; par M. G. Millet. Bordeaux, Gounouilbou.

Pisciculture Pratique; par M. G. Millet. Paris, Siége de la
Société, Rue de Lille, 19.

Pisciculture : Rapport sur le repeuplement des cours d’eau, é&:c.; M.
Millet. Paris, Goin, Quai des grands Augustins, 41.

Pisciculture: Considerations générales et pratiques sur la’ Pisci-
culture Marine; M. G. Millet. Paris, Gras et Donnaud,
Rue des Noyers, 74.

Notice Historique sur l’Etablissement de Huningue. Strasbourg,
1862.

Rapport sur la Pisciculture et les Péches Fluviales en Angleterre,
&c.; par M. Coume. Strasbourg, 1862.

Treatise on the Propagation of Salmon; by E. and T. Ashworth.,
London, Simpkin & Marshall.

The Natural History of the Salmon, as ascertained by recent
experiments at Stormontfield; by W. Brown. London,
Arthur Hall, Virtue & ‘Co.

Fish Culture; by Francis Francis. London, Routledge. Supple-
mentary Report on the Rivers of Spain and Portugal. Man-
chester, Love, & Barton.

The Salmon and its Artificial Propagation; by R. Ramsbottom.
London, Simpkin & Marshall.

Translation of the Proceedings of the French Pisciculturalists.
New York, Appleton.

Artificial Spawning, Breeding, &c.; by G. Boecius. London,
Van Voorst.

Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries in Maryland, U.S.
Annapolis, 1876 to 1880.

Harvest of the Sea; by J. G. Bertram. London, Murray, 1873.
Report of the Commissioners for Californian Fisheries for 1878-79.
State Printing Office.
Art, Pisciculture in Encyclop. Brit.
* Most excellent amusement and instruction can be promised from a perusal of

Badham’s book, where the subject is dealt with in the most learned way, yet one
sparkling with wit.

160 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER XIV.

Fishery Laws and Regulations.

A Birt “to provide for. the development and regulation of the
Fisheries of the Colony” as introduced by Sir Henry Parkes on the
13th January, 1881, in the Legislative Assembly, and of which the
present Act is the outcome, was founded, in its most important principles,
upon the Report of the Royal Commission on the Fisheries, dated the
3rd May, 1880 ; and, in respect of the Oyster Fisheries, the Bill adopted
such recommendations of the Oyster Culture Commission contained in
their report dated the 3rd May, 1877, as appeared to fall within the
scope of the new system of administration which it was proposed to
establish.

Some details of the Bill as introduced were modified in Committee,
both in the Assembly and in the Council, and it was found advisable, in
Committee, to incorporate an entirely new series of special clauses dealing
with proprietary or private fisheries. These now form Part III of the
Act as passed.

To understand the system of regulations introduced by this Act the
short and admirable compendium of Mr. Alexander Oliver (one of the
Commissioners of Fisheries), is placed before the reader. He says* :—
The sea-fisheries on the coasts and in the seas of Northern Europe (in-
cluding in that expression Great Britain) are concerned chiefly with
the capture of cod, herrings, mackerel, whiting, ling, haddock, and the
flat fish, such as turbot, brill, soles, &c. the American, or rather the
United States sea-fisheries are for cod, mackerel, menhaden (a species of
herring), halibut, and haddock. Now, with the exception of the herring,
which is known to spawn in firths and other inlets of the sea (for white-
bait caught at the mouth of the Thames is now known to be the fry of
the ordinary herring), all the other marine fishes here mentioned either
spawn on banks away from the foreshores, and sometimes hundreds of
miles distant from land, or else in places almost wholly inaccessible to
drift-nets, seines, or trawls. Nets and trawls are therefore almost
wholly incapable of destroying the young fry in the European seas ; and
on the American coast the purse-seines, by which the mackerel and
menhaden are caught, are quite innocent of any similar mischief. Of
course the baited lines by which cod, haddock, whiting, and halibut are
caught, whether in European or American seas, can do no harm either
to spawn or youg fry. Why, then, should there be any statutory pro-
tection of these fish from legitimate capture, even if such protection
were practicable ?

In this Colony, however, the conditions are quite different. The most
valuable of our fishes are those which are most abundant and most
easily captured. Of these the sea mullet, schnapper, the breams, the
gar-fish, the black-fish, and whiting may be mentioned as the most
important in an economic point of view ; and all these fish either always
spawn in quiet waters at the head of salt-water inlets and in lagoons, or

* The Fisheries Act of 1881, &c., with an Introduction, Summary, and Index,
by Alexander Oliver. Sydney, 1881, Government Printing Office.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 161

do so when they can.* The bays and creeks of every harbour and the
still waters of every lake and river swarm, under natural conditions,
with the young of these fish in all stages of development. The fishing-
net in use among our fishermen—a seine of almost unlimited length,
and having in the centre a mesh almost small enough to catch shrimps—
has long been a most destructive implement to these young fish; and
the constant harassing of the flats and beaches by “stalling” and the
ordinary hauling net, has resulted not only in driving away the full-roed
fish from their favourite haunts on the shallows into deep water, where
the spawn is often shed under compulsion, and of course is rarely
hatched, but also in something like extermination of the young of all the
best kinds of our net-fish.

Our largest supplies of fish come from inlets, and not from open sea
fishing as in Europe and America. In these truly antipodean divergen-
cies from the conditions obtaining in other couneries lies the justification
of our recent legislation, "We must protect the spawning fish and their
young fry in the inlets, if we desire to prevent the absolute extinction
of the best of our food fishes.

The Fisheries Act, 1881, is, without doubt, the first formal attempt at
comprehensive legislation based on the principle of protecting the natural
supplies of fish (including oysters, lobsters, and prawns under that term),
and of regulating and controlling their capture. The administrative
authority, subject to the customary executive control, under which the
new system is to be worked, is a body of five Commissioners appointed
by the Governor in Council, whose term of office is five years, and whose
jurisdiction extends over the entire territory. The fisheries on the sea-
board are distributed into three divisions—the Home, the Northern, and
the Southern fisheries ; in one or other of which divisions every marine
fishery, whether for fish, oysters, lobsters, or prawns, will be con-
tained. The regular supervision of these fisheries will be the duty of
inspectors and assistant inspectors; and, in addition to the regular
staff, certain Government officials are, by the Act, created mspectors
ex officio. The inspectors and assistant inspectors are required to report
to the Commissioners, in detail, at least once in every month, or oftener
if directed, as to the state of the fisheries included within their respec-
tive divisions. The most extensive powers of framing regulations on all
matters of detail are vested in the Governor in Council. The character
and importance of this feature in the new system have already been
adverted to.

* It is not perhaps correct to say that the schnapper spawns in inlets as a rule,
for there is evidence of the spawn of this fish having been found on the school
grounds at sea. It is, however, certain that the young fry of the schnapper resort
to the inlets at a very early stage of development; indeed, every inlet on our
coast seems to be the natural asylum of the young of all our best food fishes.

162 NEW SOUTH WALES

The chief protective, regulative, and penal provisions of the Act are
shown in the subjoined summary :—

SUMMARY OF THE FISHERIES ACT, 1881.*
Fisuine Nets.

In all Tidal-Water Fisheries, that is to say, all sea-fisheries on the
coast, unless during the close months or where the fisheries are abso-
lutely closed against fishing-nets of every kind, a lawful net may be of
a length sufficient to enclose a space of 300 yards measured along the
corks, but must not have a mesh{ in the bunt less than 24 inches or
3 inchessin each wing. But bona fide garfish nets (if used during the
open months, or elsewhere than in a fishery absolutely closed under
section 17) will not be illegal if each wing is equal in length to the
bunt, and if the mesh in each wing is not less than 2 inches, the bunt
and wings being hung on the same cork and lead lines; but such gar-
fish nets must not in the bunt exceed 30 fathoms in length, or have in
the bunt a mesh less than 14 inch. Prawn nets will be legal, under
the same limitations as to time and place, if they do not exceed 15
fathoms in length, or do not have a mesh less than 1 inch.

The new Act contains a saving clause in favour of nets which under
the old Acts would be legal during the “winter months” ; that is to
say, nets of 14 inch mesh in the bunt and of 2 inches mesh in the
wings—the bunt being limited to 30 fathoms and each wing to the same
length—may be used up to the 3lst July, 1882, for the purpose of
catching garfish only ; but such nets must not be used in Close Fisheries
during the close months, nor used aé all in fisheries absolutely closed
against net fishing of every kind under section 17.

Stalling is prohibited at all times and places, but bona jide meshing
nets not exceeding 60 fathoms in length, and not less than 4 inches in
the mesh, are permitted if not set during the close months in any close
Jishery, or in any fishery absolutely closed under section 17.

Drift nets and purse seines of any length or mesh may be used in the
open sea, z.¢., outside the mouths or limits of any bay, river, or inlet.

For Inland Waters a net may be any length, but must not be less in
the mesh than 3 inches, and must not to be set wholly across a river or
creek, but this restriction does not apply to nets used in private fisheries.

Ciose Season ror Net Fisu.

The Act provides a close season extending from the first of April to
the thirtieth of September in each year, during which no nets must be
used in any tidal waters proclaimed by the Governor, under a penalty
not exceeding £50 and not less than £10. Tidal waters within any
areas so proclaimed are termed “Close Fisheries.”

* The restrictive and penal provisions in the Act did not come into force until
the sixtieth day after its passing , i.¢., the 5th June, 1881.

+The mesh of a net is to be measured diagnonally, and not from knot to knot
along each side of the square, as is the rule in England and other countries,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 163

CLoseD FisHErizs,

Net-fishing of any kind is illegal in any tidal waters proclaimed by
the Governor to be closed against such net-ishing, for the period
specified by the Act.

Licenses.

_ A license for every fishing boat must be taken out annually—the
license fee being £1 ; but, after the thirtieth of June the fee is reduced
to 10s. for the remainder of the year.

Every fisherman must take out an annnal license, subject to the like
reduction for the broken: period of the year ; the fee is 10s., but subject
to the same reduction.

PRAWN-FISHING.

The riddling of prawns is only allowed while the prawns are alive.

In the river Hunter, and in any other river proclaimed by the
Governor, an annual close season is or will be established. It extends
from the first of June to the thirtieth of September.

ToRPEDOES, Dynamite, &c.

The use of torpedoes, dynamite, or poisonous matter in any waters is
prohibited under a penalty not exceeding £40 nor less than £10. The
prohibition, however, does not extend to persons lawfully authorized to
explode torpedoes or dynamite.

UNMARKETABLE FisH.

It is unlawful to sell, or expose for sale, or be in possession of any
fish under the respective weights specified in the Second Schedule to the
Act or prescribed by the Regulations. The prohibition does not, how-
ever, extend to collectors, owners of private fisheries, persons in posses-
sion of fish not intended for sale, or aboriginals, under certain conditions.

Oyster FISHERIES.

After validating the holdings, or premises of leases, acquired by certain
persons under the “Oyster Beds Act of 1868,” subject to their com-
pliance with regulations for the management of the natural oyster-beds
comprised in such holdings or promises, and forfeiture on default, the
Act proceeds to the important subject of

OvsTER LEASEs.
Of these there are two descriptions :—

(1.) The first, long leases of shore and beds of tidal waters, may
include an area, not exceeding 25 acres. The term must not
exceed thirty years, or be less than fourteen years.

The rent is 5s. per acre for the first four years, and £1 per acre for
the remainder of the term. No natural oyster-bed can be
included in a lease, and no right is acquired by the lessee to
the occupation of the shore (except so much as may be included
in the area leased) unless for certain specified purposes.

No portion of the shore fronting private land can be included in a
lease.

164) NEW SOUTH WALES

The further conditions and provisions, subject to which a long term
lease for oyster culture is granted, are stated in section 28, and
the penalties for injuring or interfering with oyster layings on
such leases, in section 30. It should be observed that, before
a lease can be granted, the notice of application for it must be
published in the Gazette and some newspaper of local circula-
tion. Objections on the ground of the area applied for con-
taining a natural oyster-bed or part of such a bed may be
lodged with the Commissioners within thirty days after the last
published notice of application ; and an inspector may be sent
to the locality to report as to the site of the lease applied for,
and the validity of such objections. The lease may be revoked
on default for two years by the lessee in taking proper measures
to form oyster-beds or layings in terms of the lease.

(2.) Annual Shore Lease for Oyster Cultwre—Under this form of
lease any portion of the shore of a tidal water (not exempted
or created a public oyster reserve under the Act) may be leased
by the owner, lessee, or occupant of land abutting on the
shore, at the rental of £1 for every 100 yards or portion
thereof, The lease ranges from the margin of mean high-
water-mark, down to an imaginary line defining an average
depth of 3 feet at low-water of spring tides. The lease must be
renewed ‘annually, and the rent is payable in advance.’ It is,
moreover, subject to such conditions and provisions as the
regulations may prescribe. The lessee has the exclusive right
during the currency of the lease (subject to the conditions and
provisions just mentioned) of cultivating and protecting oysters
within the limits of his lease, and of taking them for all pur-.
poses except burning for lime. He will, however, be required
to mark out the position of his leased area by piles, stakes, or
buoys, as directed by the regulations. ‘

Pusuic Oyster RESERVES.

The Governor in Council is empowered to declare any part of the
shore abutting on any tidal waters, and any portion of the bed of any
estuary, bay, lake, inlet, river, or creek influenced by the tides to be
exempt from the leasing provisions of the Act, or to be a Public Oyster
Reserve, subject to such regulations as may be framed under section 9.

Royatty on DrepcGEep Oysters.

Holders of dredging licenses dredging oysters on natural oyster-beds
and: layings belonging to the Crown, are required to pay for every
reputed three-bushel bag of oysters a royalty not less than 1s, 6d. and
not more than 4s. per bag. The royalty will vary for different rivers,
and must be paid to the persons and in the manner directed by the Re-
gulations.

OvsTER-DREDGING LICENCES.

Dredging for oysters on natural oyster-beds and layings abandoned or
withdrawn from lease is prohibited, except to holders of oyster-dredging
licenses. These licenses must be taken out either annually at a fee of
£10, or quarterly at a fee of £3. The annual license bears date from

FISH AND FISHERIES. 165

the lst January, and the quarterly license from the date of issue. In

all cases these licenses are to be in accordance with the Regulations, and

they authorize the holder and his servants being the crew of any one

- oyster-dredger” to work on the appointed places and at the appointed
jimes.

The penalty for unlawfully dredging for oysters is a sum not exceed-
ing £20 and not less than £5, and the forfeiture of all oysters found in
the offender’s possession. Every dredger is required to produce his
license on demand of an inspector or officer of police.

The Act also contains provisions for the registration of holders of
dredging licenses, and for the marking of dredging boats.

OysTER-DEALERS’ LICENSES.

A license is required to be taken out, at an annual fee of £5, for every
person dealing in or selling oysters, whether wholesale or retail.

MiscELLANEOUS PROVISIONS CONCERNING OYSTERS.

Further provisions are made by the Act, prohibiting the burning of
_ oysters for lime—the dredging for oysters at any time between sunset
and sunrise—providing for the carriage of oysters by sea in branded
bags, and for their entry in the vessel’s manifest—defining the property
in oysters according to their position on leased land, private fisheries, or
natural beds—and declaring the powers of the Governor in Council to
absolutely close any oyster-beds against dredging for a term not exceed-
ing three years.

PRIVATE FISHERIES.

The private (or several) fisheries authorized to be established by the
Act are limited to tidal-water fisheries, and have no applicability to
inland waters uninfluenced by the tides, such as fresh-water lakes, and
lagoons and rivers beyond the point where the effect of the tide is per-
ceptible in affecting either the surface by way of rise and fall or the
character of the water itself by imparting saline qualities. The
admission of tidal water to private property, through or over Crown
Lands (i.e., foreshores) is the characteristic feature of the private fisheries
contemplated by the Act; and this appropriation of what may be con-
sidered as one of the Crown’s regalia, and the necessary interference with
the shore and the jus publicum thereover, were considered as the circum-
stances which justified the legislation proposed.

The private fisheries authorized by the Act are established on appli-
cation to the Minister* either by the person entitled to an estate of
freehold in the land on which the fishing is to be exercised, or by the
lessee with the consent in writing of his landlord or reversioner. The
particulars required to be stated in the application, and the mode of
dealing with it, are described in the 49th and 50th sections of the Act.
If the application is granted, a license will be issued to the applicant on
the payment by him of the sum of £10. The legal effect of such a
license is to vest in the grantee, and all persons claiming under him, an
exclusive right of stocking the fishery with fish of every description.

* The Colonial Secretary is the Minister charged with the administration of the
Fisheries Act.

166 NEW SOUTH WALES

(including crustaceans and molluscs), and of taking all such fish so long
as the license is in operation, te. so long as the terms and conditions
subject to which it was granted shall be faithfully complied with. More-
over, the licensee will now be in'a position to prosecute any persons who
steal any such fish from his fishery, or who trespass within its limits.
The grant empowers him to cut a trench or passage through the shore
and to construct a sluice to admit the tidal water to his fishery, and any
public rights-of-way or of navigation over his fishery, and of taking fish
therein, are wholly abrogated by the grant. On the other hand, certain
obligations are cast on. the grantee or proprietor of the fishery. He will
be required to construct and maintain substantial bridges of prescribed
dimensions across any trenches or cuttings of the shore; also to mark
the boundaries of the fishery by stakes or as prescribed by the regula-
tions. A private fishery will pass as an incorporeal hereditament
appurtenant to and with the ownership of the soil. Although not in
terms granted as a franchise, it will more resemble a franchise than any
other incorporeal hereditament. The licensee or grantee of the fishery
will of course always remain liable to the Crown for the fulfilment of
the conditions of the grant. The property in fish in a private fishery
will vest in the owner of the fishery prior to, and not merely after,
capture, as in the case of common of piscary.

Limits oF JURISDICTION.

The fourth section of the Fisheries Act, after declaring that the duty
of protecting, developing, and regulating the public fisheries of the
Colony shall be vested in the Commissioners appointed under the Act,
enacts that the duties, powers, and authority of the Commissioners shall
extend to the territorial limits of the Colony. What those limits are on
the northern, western, and southern boundaries has been settled by
statute, and there is therefore no doubt or difficulty in respect of the
inland boundary-lines. By virtue of the Imperial Acts 14 Vic. c. 59,
18 and 19 Vic. c. 54, and the Order in Council thereunder of 6 June,
1859, validated by the next cited Act, 24 and 25 Vic. « 44, and an
Order in Council of 9 August, 1872,* the territory of New South Wales
is defined on the northern boundary by a line extending from Point
Danger, a short distance to the northward of the Tweed River, to the
head waters of the Macintyre River, where the 29th parallel of south
latitude impinges on that river; thence westward by that parallel to its
intersection by the 141st meridian of east longitude; southward, along
that meridian to the waters of the river Murray ; and eastward by the
southern bank of that river to a point where a straight line from Cape
Howe touches the nearest source of that river. By the 5th section of
18 and 19 Vic., c. 54, it is declared “That the whole watercourse of the
said river Murray, from its source therein described to the eastern
boundary of the Colony of South Australia, is and shall be within the
territory of New South Wales: Provided nevertheless, that it shall be
lawful for the Legislatures, and for the proper officers of Customs of both
of the said Colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, to make regula-
tions for the levying of Customs Duties on articles imported into the said
two Colonies respectively by way of the river Murray, and for the

* See Despatch relating to Pental Island. Votes and Proceedings, 1872-8, p. 519.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 167

punishment of offences against the Customs Laws of the said two Colonies
respectively committed on the said river, and for the regulation of the
navigation of the said river by vessels belonging to the said two Colonies
respectively: Provided also that it shall be competent for the Legisla-
tures of the said two Colonies, by laws passed in concurrence with each
other, to define in any different manner the boundary-line of the said
two Colonies along the course of the river Murray, and to alter the
other provisions of this section.” By virture of the Order in Council
already referred to, Pental Island, on the river Murray, was declared
to belong to Victoria, and not to New South Wales. Until, therefore,
by the concurrent legislation of the Colonies concerned, the river
boundary-line of this Colony is altered, the channel of the river Murray
from the intersection of that river by the 141st meridian belongs to New
South Wales, and, of course, with the channel or watercourse of the
river, all incident. powers of legislation, and all territorial jurisdiction in
and over the water and soil of the river must be considered to have
passed to and become vested in New South Wales, subject to the express
provisoes declared by the Act. '

It only remains to consider what is the seaward limit of the juris-
diction on our eastern seaboard and on the coasts of our dependencies.
It may be considered as a rule of law firmly established on the
authority both of publicists and decided cases, that the portion of the
sea washing the coast of a maritime State which lies within the range
of cannon-shot,from land, is the territorial property of that State, and
subject to its municipal jurisdiction, but that beyond that limit and out
of the reach of cannon-shot, ‘“‘ common or universal use” (to use the
words of Lord Stowell), is presumed. The sea within this limit of
cannon-shot, or as the limit has in modern times been expressed—one
marine league or 3 miles—is considered to belong to every independent
maritime State.

FISHES PROTECTED BY THE ACT.

Schnapper, black bream, silver bream, black fish, black rock cod,
red rock cod, Gurnets, flatheads, mullets (including Filat-tail and
sand mullets), whiting, flounders, soles, pike, trevally, garfish, crayfish,
Murray cod, and Murray perch.

Cormorants on Saas.

Ag these birds are found to abound on the coast, and to be most
destructive to fish, regulations are to be framed by the Commissioners
for the payment of rewards to those who kill them, but the sum must not
exceed 1s. per bird. The following short description and nomenclature of
those species which are ordinarily found on our seaboard and rivers has
been supplied by the Curator of the Australian Museum, Mr. E. P.
Ramsay, F.L.8. :—

1. Great Black Shag (Graculus nove hollandic). Black all
over ; bill and skin round face, black ; sometimes when breeding
a white spot on the thighs and a few white strie on the neck.

2. Small Black Shag (Graculus stictocephalus). Glossy black all
over ; bill and skin round face, black ; eye, green.

3. Small Black and White Shag (Graculus melanoleucus). Sides
of the head and all under side, white ; top of the head and all
upper parts, black ; skin round face, and the bill, yellow.

168

NEW SOUTH WALES

4, Large Black and White Shag (Graculus lewcogaster). Throat
and all_ under surface, white ; all the upper pee black ; bill
and skin round face, black ; eye, green.

5. Blue-eyed Shag, or Sonthern White-bellied. “Shay (Graculus

varius).

all upper surface, black ;

LEASES UNDER THE OysTER-BEDS AcT or 1868.

Locality.

121 acres Oyster Creek, Clarence River ...

98 acres 3
106 acres ,,

EE) Led 33
Fr) 2 o

Clarence River
Camden Haven
Wallis Lake (Cape Hawke)...

Port Ste a
Broken ‘ is
Kissing | Point,

Parramatta ‘River a acre)

Sides of face and ail under surface, white ; head and
skin round the eye, bright blue, with
a spot of bright yellow i in front of the eye ; bill, brown.

Date of penta of Lease.

From the Embouchure of George’s River to to Botany Heads
George’s River -

Shoalhaven and Crookhaven River.
Clyde River and Tributaries

Tuross River ..

1881
1881
1881
1883
1883
1883
1883
1883
1884
1884.
1883
1883
1883
1884

Nore.—It is ‘believed that some — of fhe Tessa. were ane valid as not

comprising natural oyster beds.

oyster beds.

The majority, however, did comprise natural

According to the Second Schedule of the Act, the following table for
the lawful weight or minimum at which the undermentioned fishes may

be sold :—

Lawful Weights for Fish.

Description of Fish.

Weight in ounces avoirdupois.

Fresh-water

Schnapper or Red Bream
Bream (Black)........

Rock-cod (Black or Red) .......
Gurme tii sccoumcsnndnctonanaveasys
Flathead
Mullet—
Sea [including the variety commonly
known as hard-gut mullet]
Flat-tail
Band wo.
Whiting ........
Flounder ...........
Bole wicca

Perch

16 ounces,

OO i 00 00 BGO

oo
Ea
”
37
Ld
”

FISH AND FISHERIES. 169

THIRD SCHEDULE.

Name of River or Place. wor dba
i Oyster-beds.

Bellinger River ... ore oe ase ek ae ...| 29 July, 1881.
Bermagui River .. wea ea sei soe ee ...| 26 August, 1881.
Brow Lake aa vai a side in ike ...| 16 August, 1881.
*Candlegut Creek... Sits aie sats its sinh ..| 7 April, 1881.
*Congo Creek ... es sis ia sis ae ...| 7 April, 1881.
Cutagee Creek ... ae i ans bse ae -..| 31 May, 1881.
*Dunn’s Creek (Hunter River) ... ae sae ex ...| 28 April, 1881.
Hunter River... th sae ae wes 25 November, 1881+
Jervis Bay i... Sh ae oes a ae .-.| 26 August, 1881.
Lake Macquarie ... ae iy uae wt ae «| 31 May, 1881.
Manning River... at die ae oe a2 | 19 January, 1882.
Nambucera River... eee ois we afte .. ©... 26 August, 1881.
Narrawillie Creek... sai ie soe sa sive .--| 12 January, 1882.
Narrabeen Lagoon... ... ait sis a et +».| 20 May, 1881.
Panbula River... as ais ea ans er -..| 26 August, 1881.
Port Macquarie ... see es sei =A ats ..| 4 February, 1882.
Richmond River ... ee vex see si re ...| 26 August, 1881.
Salt Water Creek (near Manning River) se 6 ...| 28 September, 1881.
*Smith’s Creek (Hunter River) oe sat oy ...| 28 April, 1881.
Tilba Tilba Lake ... ane a a 3 a ...| 26 August, 1881.
Tomago River... is aes are mee, ua ...| 26 August, 1881.
Towamba Lake ... wae 238 8 eae wile ..-| 26 August, 1881.
Tweed River ds ‘eC sis aie ine aa ...| 26 August, 1881.
Twofold Bay bes or aia ais = a. «| 26 August, 1881.
Wogongo River ane we aa iis a ...| 26 August, 1881.
Port Jackson, including Middle Harbour and Lane Cove and

Parramatta Rivers and their inlets ... -_ ...| 29 July, 1881.

* The date on which the Proclamations closing these waters respectively expired
were extended by notification in the Gazette for the respective periods follow-

ing,, viz. :—
Candlegut Creek—For a period of twelve months from 8th, April, 1881.
Congo Creek—For a like period of twelve months.
Smith’s Creek ) Each for a further period of six months from 28th April,
Dunn’s Creek 1881. ‘

Note.—In addition to the above proclaimed closures, Port Hacking was closed. for
twelve months, from the 8th April, 1881.

On the 6th June, 1881, the Governor, by Proclamation, closed the
tidal waters of Tuggerah Beach Lakes, including Manmurra and Bud-
gewi, and Narrabeen and Deewhy Lagoons against the use of fishing-
nets for the period of two years from that date.

170 NEW SOUTH WALES

SPECIAL REGULATIONS

Relating to the Oyster-bed Leases validated by sec. 27 of the Fisheries
Act, 1881.

In these regulations the term “lease” means a lease or promise of a
lease made under the Oyster-beds Act of 1868 as validated by sec. 27
of the Fisheries Act 1881. “Lessee” means the holder of or person
entitled for the time being to any such lease. ‘‘ Inspector” means any
Inspector or Assistant Inspector. “Bed” means any natural oyster-bed
as defined by the said Oyster-beds Act of 1868, or any other laying
included within any such lease.

2. The yearly rent payable in respect of all oyster-beds under lease or
promise thereof shall continue to be paid in advance as heretofore, to
the Colonial Treasurer or officer authorized by him to receive the
same. And on default of payment of any such rent for one calendar
month after the same shall have become due the interest of the lessee so
in default shall be declared forfeited to Her Majesty, and upon notifica-
tion of such forfeiture in the Gazette such interest shall be forfeited and
the lease or promise thereof shall thereupon terminate accordingly.

3. Every bed shall be open to inspection by an Inspector, at any time
between sunrise and sunset, and he may test, by dredging or in any
other way, the condition of such bed and of the oysters thereon.

4. No oysters capable of being passed through a metal ring having a
diameter of one inch and three-quarter (inside measurement) shall be
taken from any bed by the lessee or any other person, except for the
purpose of being laid down for culture in some other portion of the area
under lease.

5. On a report in writing of the Inspector, furnished to the Commis-
sioners, that the oysters in any specified bed or portion of a lease are
out of condition, whether by reason of spatting or for any other cause,
the Commissioners may recommend the Governor to prohibit the re-
moval of any oysters from such bed. Such prohibition shall be notified
in the Gazette, and a notice thereof served on the lessee, or posted to or
delivered at his usual place of business shall be sufficient notice to the
lessee that the taking of oysters from such bed is prohibited during the
period named therein.

6. The lessee and every person employed by him for the purpose of
dredging or taking oysters from a bed under lease shall each be severally
liable, for any breach of these regulations or non-compliance therewith,
to a penalty not exceeding £20 for every such offence or default.

7. Upon a second or subsequent conviction of the lessee for any
offence under these regulations, his lease, as validated by section 27 of
the said Act, may on the recommendation of the Commissioners, and in
addition to any penalty prescribed by these regulations, be declared by

the Governor, with the advice of the Executive Council, to be forfeited
to Her Majesty.

8. Upon receipt of a report by an Inspector that any bed has been
so stripped of oysters or otherwise so mismanaged by the lessee during
his tenancy that the production of oysters on such bed has, in such

FISH AND FISHERIES. 171

Inspector's opinion, been so reduced as to threaten the destruction of
the bed, or to render it unfit to be dredged under Royalty, or to be
worked, upon the determination of the lease, the Commissioners may
call upon the lessee to show cause why they should not recommend the
Governor, with the advice aforesaid, to declare the lease of such lessee
to be forfeited. And upon the receipt of a recommendation by the
Commissioners recommending the forfeiture of any such lease, the
Governor may, by notification in the Gazette, declare the same to be,
and the same shall thereupon be, forfeited accordingly.

GENERAL REGULATIONS.* :

Colonial Secretary’s Office, Sydney, 30th June, 1881.
His Excellency the Governor, with the advice of the Executive Council,
has been pleased, in accordance with section 9 of the Fisheries Act,
1881, to make the following Regulations for giving effect to the pro-
visions of that Act.
HENRY PARKES.

Conduct of Business—Duties of Officers.

1. The Commissioners will meet for the transaction of business at
their office on every Monday and Thursday at 2 o’clock. If either of
these days be a public holiday, the meeting will be held on the day
following.

2. The President may, by circular to be addressed by the Secretary
to the residence or office of each Commissioner, convene a special
meeting of the Commission on any day and hour mentioned in such
circular.

3. The common seal of the Commissioners shall not be affixed to any
document, paper, or writing, except by direction of the President, or,
in his absence, of the Chairman, and in the presence of some Com-
missioner.

4, It shall be the duty of the Secretary to prepare the business paper
for each meeting of the Commission, to take and record the minutes of
proceedings at the same; to conduct all correspondence, and keep all
such books of account, vouchers, reports, documents, plans, and charts
as the Commissioners may direct or require ; to keep the common seal
of the Commissioners, and to affix the same to any document or paper
if so directed by the President or Chairman ; to give such instructions
to Inspectors, Assistant Inspectors, and other officers and persons
appointed under the Fisheries Act as the Commissioners shall direct, or
as the regulations may prescribe ; and generally to fulfil zealously and
to the best of his ability all duties and obey all directions imposed on
or given to him by the Commissioners.

5. Every Inspector of a Division must report in detail to the Com-
missioners once in every month, or oftener if practicable, as to the state
of the Fisheries included within his Division so far as he has been able
by personal inspection or from trustworthy information to ascertain the

* See Government Gazette of June 30, 1881.

172 NEW SOUTH WALES

same. He will be required to report especially as to the condition of
the natural oyster-beds and deposits of oysters in all waters within his
Division ; whether the oysters are in marketable condition or otherwise,
and what number of bags of oysters have been dredged from such beds
during the preceding month, together with the amount of the royalty
paid or required to be paid thereon; to receive and transmit to the
Commissioners all applications for leases which may be sent to him; to
fill up, to the best of his knowledge and judgment, and to transmit
without delay to the Secretary, all forms of returns issued to him; to
inform the Secretary of all breaches of the Act or the Regulations,
whether by acts of commission or default, and to await the instructions
of the Commissioners before laying an information against offenders
or defaulters ; to take particular notice of the movements and habits of
the various kinds of useful fish, whether included in the Schedules of
the Act or not; to report to the Secretary the existence of any source
of pollution to the waters under his inspection, or of any mortality,
disease, or ill-condition of fish, oysters, lobsters, crabs, or prawns; to
ensure cleanliness and good order in his boat and crew (if any) ; to keep
true and particular accounts of all expenses incurred by him when
absent from his post on inspection or other service, and to enter the
same in his journal ; to keep a diary or journal in which he shall enter
every day’s work, and any other matter affecting the state of the
fisheries in his Division ; to visit and report upon all stations within
his Division at least once in each quarter, unless otherwise directed by
the Commissioners ; to report himself at the office of the Commissioners
whenever in Sydney on duty; to promote, by every means in his
power, good feeling’and concert of action in his relations with all
Inspectors, Assistant Inspectors, and other persons concerned with the
the administration of the Act within his Division, and generally to
devote his best energies to the administration of the Act and Regula-
tions, and to the performance of all duties delegated to him by the
Commissioners. _

6. The duties of the Assistant Inspector shall be the same (mutatis
mutandis ) as those of an Inspector of a Division, except that his reports
shall be in duplicate, one to be transmitted to the Inspector of the
Division, the other to the Secretary of the Commissioners, and that he
will not, unless required by the Commissioners, visit or inspect any
fisheries except those included within his district,

7. The duties of an Acting Assistant Inspector shall be to assist, the
Inspectors so far as may be in his power ; to inform them of any breach
of, or non-compliance with, the Fisheries Act or the Regulations, and,
in the absence of an Inspector, to report any such breach or non-
compliance to the Secretary, and receive the instructions of the Com-
missioners thereupon ; to take all legal and other proceedings which he
may be instructed to take; to protect the Revenue by all means in his
power from being defrauded by non-payment of royalties or otherwise ;
to report all cases of oysters being found in a vessel in unbranded bags
or otherwise in contravention of the Act or Regulations; to inform
Inspectors of all matters relating to the fisheries at or near his station
which comes to his knowledge ; and to carry out all instructions received
from the Commissioners to the best of his ability.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 173

Marking of LIncensed Fishing Boats.

8. The owner or person in charge of a Fishing Boat licensed under
section 12 shall paint and keep painted on the inside of the truck or
transom of such boat the Christian and surname of such owner, and the
words “ Licensed Fishing Boat” in legible Roman letters, not less than
3 inches in length. :

Fishing Boat Licenses.

9. Fishing Boat Licenses under section 19 shall be in form A hereto.
The fee of £1 for such license shall be paid either to the proper officer
at the Treasury, Sydney, or to the Police Magistrate, or Clerk of Petty
Sessions of the Bench nearest to the fishery wherein such license is
intended to be exercised. Owners of boats fishing within the limits of
the Home Fisheries (i.e. between Port Stephens and St. George’s Basin,
south of Jervis Bay), should, wherever practicable, take out licenses and:
pay license fees at the Treasury, at Sydney. In the other Divisions the
licenses must be taken out and the fees paid at the nearest Court of
Petty Sessions. The license must be renewed in like manner annually
at the like fee of £1. After the 30th June in any year the fee for the
broken portion of the year will be 10s.

Fishermen’s Licenses.

10. Fishermen’s Licenses under section 20 shall be in form B hereto.
The fee of 10s. for such license shall be paid at the like places, and to
the like persons, as Fishing Boat License fees. The license must be
renewed annually in like manner. After the 30th June in any year
the fee for the broken portion of the year will be 5s.

Oyster-dredging Licenses.

11. Oyster-dredging Licenses under section 36 shall be in the form C
hereto. They may be taken out either for the whole year or for any
quarter of a year. The fee for the yearly license is £10, for the
quarterly is £3, to be taken out and paid in each case at the Court of
Petty Sessions nearest to the place where the license is to be exercised
or (at the applicant’s choice) at the Treasury in Sydney. The Police
Magistrate or Clerk of Petty Sessions is the proper officer (out of Sydney)
to whom application for licenses should be made.

Oyster Dealers’ Licenses.

12. Oyster Dealers’ Licenses under section 42 shall be in the form D
hereto, and applications for such licenses must be made either to the
Secretary of the Commissioners, or to the Police Magistrates of the
nearest Bench. The license fee of £5, or £2 10s. for the broken portion
of the year, if the application be made after the 30th June in any year,
must be paid to the proper officer at the Treasury in Sydney. The
icense must be renewed annually by application made in like manner,

As to Transmitting and Accounting for Moneys.

13. The General instructions to Public Officers issued by the Treasury
shall govern all Police Magistrates, Clerks of Petty Sessions, and all
other officers collecting or receiving License Fees or other moneys under
the Act or the Regulations. :

174 NEW SOUTH WALES

Testing Length and Mesh of Nets.

14, Every net for the purpose of testing the length thereof shall be
measured along the cork line or line on which such net is hung. The
size of mesh in every case shall be ascertained by measuring the length
on the diagonal, or between knot and knot of opposite corners, the net
being first wetted and being tanned, barked, or otherwise prepared for
use. In case of dispute or doubt, a 4 pound weight shall be slung or
attached to one knot of a mesh, in order to produce a fair strain or
extension, and the space between the knots shall be measured forthwith
while the mesh remains extended Ifthe net to be measured is dry, the
part to be measured shall be soaked either in fresh or salt. water for not
less than ten minutes, and the mesh so soaked shall then be ‘measured.

Marketable Prawns.

15. Marketable prawns are prawns not caught during the close season
prescribed by section 16 for certain fisheries, and being not less than one
inch and a half in length, measured from a point between the eyes to the
end of the tail ; and all smaller prawns shall be deemed to be unmarket-
able, as well as all prawns (whatever the size) caught during such close
season as aforesaid: Provided that if in any basket of prawns, or
other vessel or receptacle in or upon which prawns shall be exhibited for
sale, a number of unmarketable prawns not being on the whole more
than one-tenth part of the contents of such basket, vessel, or receptacle,
shall be found so exhibited, no liability under the Act or Regulations
shall be incurred by any person in respect of the exhibition of such
prawns.

Priority among Netters.

16. The right of first shooting and hauling a net on any fishing-ground
shall belong to the licensed fisherman who first arrived on the ground
with his boat and net ready for shooting ; and the next turn shall belong
to the licensed fisherman who arrived next after such first-mentioned
person, and so on in order of arrival. An unlicensed fisherman shall not
be entitled to shoot a net on any fishing-ground until every licensed
fisherman then being on the ground with boat and gear ready for shooting
shall have had histurn. This regulation shall not apply to prawn fisher-
men. Two or more turns may be taken at the same time if the water
to be fished permits of double-banking, but no net shall be shot round an
inner net within a boat’s length of the cork line of such net.

Turns in Oyster-dredging.

17. Every licensed oyster-dredger shall take his turn and place on the
bed according to the time of bespeaking such turn, unless the Inspector
chooses to permit several boats to work at the same time on the same
bed, in which case the dredgers shall work in obedience to the Inspec-
tor’s directions. All turns must be bespoken from the Inspector at least
twenty-four hours in advance. Every dredger bespeaking a turn shall
lose it if he is not on the ground with boat and gear ready punctually
at the time appointed by the Inspector.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 175

Ti nspection of Artificial Oyster-beds and. Layings.

18. Artificial oyster-beds and layings of any lessee (not being private
fisheries under Part III) may be inspected by any Inspector once in
every month, or oftener if directed by the Commissioners, upon such
Inspector giving twenty-four hours’ notice either to the lessee or his
manager or his agent in charge of the beds of the intention to inspect
the same. In the course and for the purposes of such inspection the
lessee, his manager, agent and servants shall, at the request of the
Inspector, test the state of any bed or laying required by the Inspector
to be tested, by dredging or gathering by tongs, hand or otherwise (ac-
cording to the nature of the bed) oysters from such bed, under a penalty
upon every such person refusing or neglecting to do so of £5.

Dredging on Natural Oyster-beds.

19. Natural oyster-beds shall not be dredged, nor shallany oysters be
taken from such beds (except by an Inspector in the performance of his
duties) unless the same shall have been notified in the Gazette to be open
for dredging or otherwise than in accordance with the directions of the
Inspector of the fishery within which such oyster-beds are situated.

Cleaning, &c., of Natural Beds.

20. The Inspector may, notwithstanding any such notification as afore-
said, close any natural oyster-bed, or portion thereof, for the purpose of
cleaning, levelling, or otherwise improving the same, in any case where
and for such time as in his opinion such closing shall be necessary ;
but such closing shall be subject to revocation and modification by the
Commissioners. No dredging shall take place on a bed or portion
so closed until the same shall be declared’ by the Inspector or the
Commissioners to be again open for dredging.

Inspector may in certain cases stop Dredging.

21. Whenever the Inspector shall be of opinion that the further dredg-
ing of any bed would be injurious, or that the oysters therein are out of
season, and not fit for food, whether by reason of spatting, freshets, or
any other cause, he may prohibit the dredging or taking of oysters from
such bed for such period, subject to the directions of the Commissioners,
as he shall think necessary, and during such period no person shall
dredge for or take oysters from any such bed under a penalty not
exceeding £20.

None but Lncensed Dredgers to Dredge.

22. No persons shall be allowed to dredge for or take oysters from any
natural oyster-bed who shall not, on demand of the Inspector, produce
the oyster-dredging license for inspection.

No turn allowed unless to Licensed Oyster-dredgers.

23, Every person bespeaking a turn for dredging on any such bed must
produce his license (if required by the Inspector) before such turn shall
be allowed.

176 NEW SOUTH WALES

Scale of Royalties on Oysters Dredged from Natural Oyster-beds,

24, The sums payable by way of royalty on oysters dredged from
natural oyster-beds shall for every bag containing or reputed to contain
three bushels be payable according to the following scale :—

River, bay, inlet, or other locality where or near to which the natural Amount of royalty
beds are situated. per bag.

a. d.
The Tweed ...ssseseeeeee Fe deins bak sai dcdueniataitaineiticn saclea toaeie ca stesteteeted 20
The Richmond.... ie 3 0
The Bellinger .... 3.0
The Nambuccra .... 2 0
The Brunswick . 2 0
Port Macquarie .. 2 6
The Manning...... 2. 6
The Hunter .... 40
Port Hacking... 3 0
Jervis Bay....... 26

3.0

26

y eit
Any place other than those above specified ..,,........:s:sssseeeee oe

The above scale of royalties shall be in force until the Commissioners
otherwise appoint, but shall not apply to any rivers or other oyster-
bearing waters mentioned in the Third Schedule to the Act until the
proclamation closing the same shall be rescinded by a proclamation pub-
lished in the Gazette, or the term of closure limited by such Proclamation
shall have expired.

Royalty, how payable.

25, Royalties according to the prescribed scale for the time being shall
be paid to the Inspector, or in his absence, to the Assistant Inspector,
on the dredging or taking of oysters from the bed, and before the same
are removed or shipped on board any vessel ; but in all cases where such
oysters are consigned to dealers or persons resident at any port or place
within the Colony, such Inspector may give the consignor a shipping
permit in the prescribed form, and issue a duplicate thereof for the master
of the vessel in which the oysters are intended to be shipped. Such
permit shall state the number of bags shipped, the royalty payable
thereon, the brands and marks of the bags containing the oysters shipped,
and the names of the consignor and consignee. On the vessel's arrival
at the port of destination, the master shall deliver the said permit to
the proper officer of Customs, and the consignee shall on payment to
such officer at the Custom-house, or to the proper officer of Customs, of
the amount stated in the permit to be due as royalty on such oysters, be
entitled to take delivery thereof. If the royalty be not paid within
twenty-four hours after the vessel is reported to the Customs, the proper
officer of Custom shall take possession of the oysters, and either ware-
house the same or cause them to be sold as the Commissioners shall
direct. In case of sale the whole proceeds of sale shall be paid into the
Treasury, and after the amount due as royalty shall have been deducted
therefrom, the balance shall be paid to the consignee or his authorized
agent,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 177

Disposal of Cultch.

26. All dead shells and cultch, whether with or without young oysters
attached thereto, dredged up by any person dredging for oysters or
natural oyster-beds, shall be thrown back by such person in such place
as the Inspector shall appoint; and all oysters below marketable size
so dredged up shall be returned to the beds by the person who dredged
them up, at such places and at such times as the Inspector shall direct.

Marketable oysters.

27. No oysters which can be passed through a metal ring having a
clear inside diameter of one inch and three-quarters shall be deemed to
be marketable oysters ; and it shall be unlawful to dredge for, take,
consign, or expose for sale any such under-sized oysters, but they may be
taken for the purpose of being laid down on another bed or in different
water. This regulation shall apply to all lessees of Crown Lands for
oyster culture, and to all grantees of private fisheries.

If any person exposes for sale in any shop, boat, vehicle, stand, or
place, any oysters not marketable withing the meaning of this regula-
tion, he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £10; but this
regulation shall not apply to persons selling oyster-spat or brood to
lessees and owners of private fisheries, otherwise than for consumption
as food, or to oysters imported into this Colony from another Colony.

Permit to Lessees and others to procure Spat from Crown, Lands.

28. A lessee or an owner of a private fishery desirous of obtaining a
supply of spat or young oysters for the purpose of stocking his leased
land or private fisheries, must apply to the Commissioners for a permit,
which will be granted on the terms and conditions therein specified, if
the Commissioners are of opinion, after receiving the report of the In-
spector, that there is sufficient young oyster stock on the foreshores of
the tidal waters, on or near to which is situated the lease or private
fishery for which the supply is required, to allow of its distribution
among lessees and owners of private fisheries. Such permit shall de-
scribe the area within which, and the time during which the permission
may be exercised, The fee payable for such permit shall be £1, and
shall be paid to the Colonial Treasurer or officer authorized by him to
receive fees under the Act.

Disposal of seized Oysters.

29. Oysters seized under the authority of the Act shall be taken
charge of by the seizing officer and delivered to the Inspector or person
authorized by the Inspector to take delivery of such oysters. If the
Inspector shall be of opinion that the oysters so seized will die or become
unmarketable before adjudication, he shall cause them to be sold to the
best advantage, either by private contract or by public auction at his
discretion ; and the proceeds of sale shall be paid into the Treasury to
the credit of a special Suspense Account. If the oysters seized shall
afterwards be adjudged to be forfeited, such proceeds shall be paid into
the General Revenue ; if not, they shall be paid to the person entitled
to the oysters. But if the person in possession of the oysters at the

Z

178 NEW SOUTH WALES

time of seizure wishes them to be retained in the custody of the seizing
officer or Inspector, such officer shall so retain them, but at the risk of
such person as aforesaid, until the case has been disposed of, either by
adjudication of the Justices, or by order of the Commissioners directing
the Inspector to abstain from any or to stay further proceedings. Not-
withstanding anything contained in this Regulation, the Commissioners
may direct the seizing officer or Inspector to dispose of any oysters so
seized as aforesaid in such way, and subject to such terms and conditions
as they may by writing addressed to such officer appoint.

Branding of Oyster-bags, ée.

30. Oysters shipped on board any vessel shall be placed in bags branded
with the Christian and surname of the consignor and consignee and with
the name of the river or place where such oysters have been dredged or
taken. For example :—Oysters dredged by John Smith at the Clarence,
and shipped there for Sydney, must be placed in bags branded JOHN
SMITH, CLARENCE RIVER (the name and address of the con-
signor), and ROBERT BROWN, SYDNEY (the name and address of
the consignee). All such brands shall be in Roman capital letters not
less than 3 inches in length, and shall be placed on the outside of the
bag, at or near the middle thereof.

31. No brand of a consignor’s name and address shall be affixed to
any bag containing oysters so shipped unless the same has been regis-
tered either by the Inspector at the place where such oysters were
dredged or taken, or with the Inspector of the Division within which
the same were dredged or taken, or at the Office of the Commissioners
of Fisheries in Sydney, and unless a certificate of registration under the
hand of such Inspector, or a like certificate under the hand of the Secre-
tary to the said Commissioners, shall have been given to the person
desiring to register such brand.

32. The fee on the registration of an oyster-bag brand shall be two
shillings and sixpence, which must be paid before the issue of the certi-
ficate to the registering officer.

Rewards on Destruction of Cormorants or Shags.

33. On the production to an Inspector of any number of heads of cor-
morants or shags, not being less than half-a-score, such Inspector shall
give the person producing the same a receipt therefor, and on production
of such receipt at the Treasury in Sydney, the person producing the same
shall be entitled to receive a sum equal to sixpence for each head (not
being in the whole less than ten) of the larger cormorant or black shag,
and equal to fourpence for each head (not being less than aforesaid) of
the smaller cormorant or white-bellied shag.

34. The Inspector receiving such heads shall forthwith after recording
the same, destroy them by fire in the presence of some Justice of the
Peace, Officer of Customs, or of the Department of the Marine Board, or
Constable, who shall certify the fact of such destruction under his hand
on the butt of the receipt book of the Inspector.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 179

As to Public Oyster Reserves.

35. Portions of Crown Lands declared exempt from lease under the
33rd section, and notified in the Gazette as Public Oyster Reserves, shall
be divided into two classes :—(1.) Public Oyster Reserves for recreation,
(2.) Public Oyster Reserves for oyster breeding purposes.

Reserves to be under Control of Inspectors.

36. All public oyster reserves shall, subject to the directions of the
Commissioners, be under the control and supervision of the Inspector of
the tidal waters wherein such reserves are situated. And such Inspector,
or any officer of police, or Constable, may apprehend and lodge in custody
any person found: removing oysters from any Recreation Reserve in a
bag or other vessel or receptacle other than a bottle, and for his own
consumption, or found wantonly destroying any oysters on such reserve,
or conducting himself thereon in a disorderly manner, using profane,
obscene, or disgusting language, drowning or destroying dogs, goats,
cats, or any animal whatsoever, or depositing any dead carcase on, or
within one hundred yards of, such reserve; or exposing his person, or
annoying the residents or passers by. And any person charged with
the commission of any such act as aforesaid shall, on conviction thereof,
forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding £10.

Licenses to gather Oysters and Spat for sale or culture from Breeding
Reserves.

37. Annual licenses may be granted on application to the Com-
missioners or to the Police Magistrate or Clerk of Petty Sessions of the
Bench nearest to a public oyster reserve for oyster-breeding purposes, to
any persons to gather oysters and spat therefrom for the sale or culture,
whether for laying down on the layings of the applicants or on those of
other persons. The fee for every such license shall be five shillings ; but
each license shall authorize only the person named therein to gatser such
oyster or spat. If no particular portion of the reserve is specified in the
license, the licensee can gather throughout the entire reserve ; but if a
particular portion be specified, the licensee will be restricted to that
portion. Notwithstanding the grant of licenses, a public oyster reserve
for breeding purposes, or any portion thereof, may, if the Commissioners
think fit, be withdrawn from use as a gathering ground for such time as
they may appoint. And all licenses shall be deemed to be granted sub-
ject to the conditions af such withdrawal.

oy Marking of Public Oyster Reserves.

38, All public oyster reserves, and all portions of Crown Lands
exempted from lease under section,33 of the Act, will be marked or
defined by stakes, buoys, or such other mode as the Commissioners shall
direct ; but such marking or definition shall not be deemed to be manda-
tory in any case where the boundaries of any such reserve have been
defined in the Gazette notifying such reserve.

As to Recognizances under Section 62.

39. The gaoler or person in charge of any gaol, lock-up, or police
station, may liberate any person lodged in his custody under the 62nd
section of the Act, on such person entering into recognizance, with or

180 NEW SOUTH WALES

without sureties, as such gaoler or person in charge as aforesaid shall
think fit, conditioned that he will appear for examination before a
Justice of the Peace at a place and time to be therein specified. And
such recognizance shall be of equal obligation on the parties entering
into the same, and be liable to the same proceedings for estreatment as
if the same had been taken before a Justice of the Peace. And such
gaoler or person in charge as aforesaid shall make the like entries and
take the same proceedings (as shall also the Justice before whom the
same are tried, and the Clerk of the Peace and all other persons)-in
respect thereto, as are required or directed by the Towns Police Act, 2
Vic. No. 2, in respect of persons charged with any petty misdemeanour
thereunder.

Regulations for the Hauling and Landing of Gar-fish and Prawn Nets.

40. Every bond-fide gar-fish net within the meaning of section 11 of
the Act, and every net having a mesh in the centre less than 2 inches,
and in the wings less than 3 inches, shall be emptied in the water, and
shall not be hauled ashore to a beach or strand.

41. Whenever a net used for catching prawns shall be hauled ashore
_ toa beach, one end of such net shall be opened so as to allow all under-
sized fish to escape, and only the flue or centre of the net shall be brought
ashore,

Marking Oyster-beds and Leased Areas.

42. The position of natural oyster-beds shall be. marked by piles or
stakes driven into the bottom at such places and in such manner as to
define with reasonable accuracy the length, width, and shape of the beds.
Such piles or stakes shall show above the line of high-water-mark at least
6 feet, and shall be painted red, with the words, “Oyster-bed, No. ”
[stating the number of the bed on the particular river or tidal water]
painted in white Roman letters at least 3 inches in length, on a black
cross bar or batten, near the head of the pile, or stake. Piles must be
not less in average diameter than 6 inches. Buoys of iron or wood may
be substituted for piles or stakes, if the water be too deep for piles or
stakes, or in cases of necessity, or temporarily, at the discretion of the
Inspector.

43, All areas leased under section 28 or 32 shall be marked at each
corner by white piles of the samé dimensions, and showing out of water
to the same height as in the case of natural oyster-beds, or by iron or
wooden buoys, in each case painted white, at the option of the lessee, if
the bottom at any such corner shall be rock, or otherwise incapable of
holding a pile, or if the water be deeper than 2 fathoms at low water.
In all cases the words “ Oyster-lease, No. ” (inserting the registered
number) shall be painted in black Roman letters at least 3 inches in
length, on a white cross-bar or batten near the head of the pile or stake,
or across the face of the buoy. :

44. Wherever practicable the piles, stakes, or buoys shall be so placed,
both on natural oyster-beds and on leased areas, that imaginary lines
connecting the boundaries across the river, creek, or inlet shall be at
right-angles to the direction of the tide.

a

FISH AND FISHERIES. 181

45. If two or more contiguous portions leased under section 28 or 32,
or both, be held by the same lessee, the outer limits only of the block
need to be marked by piles, stakes, or buoys, as directed by these Regu-
lations, unless the Inspector satisfies the Commissioners that all the
corners or limits of each such portion ought to be marked.

46. Every lessee who shall neglect to mark and keep marked. the
limits of his leased area as required by these Regulations, shall be liable
to a penalty not exceeding £10.

47. Any person who destroys, removes, or injures any pile, stake, or
buoy, marking out the position of a natural oyster-bed, or of any leased
area, or who defaces or obliterates any letters on any such pile, stake,
- buoy, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £20 for every such
offence.

48. No person engaged in dredging oysters on a natural oyster-bed
shall make fast his warp to any pile, stake, or buoy defining such bed
under a penalty for each offence not exceeding £2.

Disposal of forfeited Fish.

49. Fish ordered to be forfeited to Her Majesty, pursuant to the
provisions of section 14 or 18, may, at the discretion of the Justice or
Justices as the case may be, be handed over to the authorities of the
Benevolent Asylum, or of any hospital or charitable institution nearest
to the place where such forfeited fish are; but, if such fish are unfit for
food, such Justice or Justices shall order them to be destroyed.

Disposal of forfeited Oysters.

50. Oysters forfeited to the use of Her Majesty, pursuant to the pro-
visions of section 39 or 46, must be destroyed if unfit for food, but
otherwise shall be sold by auction, unless the Commissioners direct that
they shall be laid down on a natural oyster-bed or in some tidal water.
If sold, the proceeds of sale shall he paid into the General Revenue.

Disposal of forfeited Nets.

51. Fishing nets forfeited to the use of Her Majesty pursuant to the
provisions of section 18 shall be sold by auction, and the proceeds of sale
shall be paid into the General Revenue ; but such sale shall not take
place until the expiration of sixty days from the date of the conviction
under the said section. The Commissioners however may in any case,
if they shall be of opinion that the offence or default leading to the
forfeiture was committed or arose through inadvertence or mistake,
recommend the Governor to restore any forfeited net to its owner.

Penalties on Breach of Regulations.

52, Any person who shall commit any act in breach of, or be guilty
of any default or non-compliance with the requirements: or prohibitions
of any of the foregoing regulations, shall in every case where no penalty
or forfeiture has been in such case provided be liable to a penalty not
exceeding £10.

182 NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER XV.
Index of Local Names.

In the following list only those local names are given which are used
in Australia, and such as from their importance or wide-spread use have
a special interest. The scientific name is always that of Giinther, in the
“Study of Fishes,” and Macleay’slist. Thelettersf.w.mean fresh-water,
and though sometimes such fishes may descend to the sea, the general
habit is meant to be expressed. When two local names for the same
fish are in use, the more common one has been chosen, and where the
currency for the titles was about the same all have been given. The
list would bear considerable extension, especially in the native names,
but those only are inserted of the identity of which with defined
species I could be quite sure. If the omissions strike readers, it must
be remembered that a full list of local names would require a volume
to itself. ;

A

Albacore. Thynnus germo,a Tunny. Pacific.
Alewife. Olupea mattawocea, N. Atlantic.

Allice shad. Olupea jfinta, Europe, R. Nile.
Anchovy. Engraulis encrassicholus, Medit.
Angelsea-morris. Leptochphalus morrisii, Britain.
Angler, Lophius piscatorius. Europ, Am., Africa.
Angel-fish. Rhina squatina. N. and 8. temp. zone.
Armed bull-head. See Hard-head, second name.
Atherine. Atherina presbyter or land smelt, Europe.
Aua, Agonostoma fosteri, New Zealand.

B
Baccalau. See Klipvisch.
Basking shark. See Pelerin.
Bass. Labrax lupus. Asea perch. Europe.
Bastard-dory. In Melbourne. See Boar-fish; also Hnoplosus armatus.
Bastard trumpeter. In Sydney, Latris ciliaris; in Tasmania and
Victoria, L. fostert. Also, see Morwong.
Bat-fish. Psettus argenteus.
Ballan wrasse. Labrus maculatus. Europe.
Banded Morwong. In Sydney, Chilodactylus vittatus.
Band-fish. Cepola rubescens. Europe.
Barbel. Barbus vulgatus. Europe.
Barracouta. Thyrsites atun. Southern seas.
Barracudas. Sphyrenide.
Barramunda. An Australian name for Osteoglossum leichhardtii, but
also applied to many river fish.
Beardie. In Sydney, Lotella marginata.
Becker. Pagrus orphus. Britain.
Bellows-fish. Oéentriscus scolopax, Brit. and Tasmania.
Bergylt. Sebastes norvegicus, Europe.
Bib. Gadus luscus. A cod, N. Atlantic.
Bitterling. Rhodeina amarus, a kind of carp. Europe.
Black bass. Hwro nigricans. A perch of Lake Huron.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 183

Black-fish. In Europe a species of Centrolophus; in America a species
~of Wrasse (tautoga) ; in Sydney, Girella cuspidata ; in Victoria,
Gadopsis marmoratus.

Black-head. A species of carp (Pimephales). WN. America.

Black-horse. Another sp. of carp. (Sclerognathus). N, Amer,

Black-bream. In Europe, Oantharus lineatus ; in Sydney, Chrysophrys
australis.

Black trevally. In Sydney, Teuthis nebulosa.

Bleek and Bleak. Alburnus alburnus, carp. Europe.

Blenny. Applied to all the species of the Blenny family.

Blind-fish. Amblyopsis speleus. Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.

Blue-cod. Percis colias, New Zealand. —

Blue-fish. Zemnodon saltator. America. Our “Tailor.” In Sydney,
Girella cyanea.

Blue groper. In Sydney, Cossyphus gouldii.

Blue-pointer. In Sydney, Lamna glauca, a shark.

Blue shark. Carcharias glaucus. Europe. ;

Boar-fish. In Melbourne, Histiopterus recurvirostris; New Zealand,
Cytius australis; in Europe, Oapros aper, one of the Horse-
mackerels.

Bogue. Bow boops. British (Sparide).

Bolti or Bulti. Species of Chromis, from African and Palestine Rivers,
CO. andre@ is the common fish of the River Jordan and the Sea of.
Galilee.

Bonito. Thynnus pelamys, all tropical and temperate seas.

Bony-bream. In Australia, Chatoessus richardsonii.

Bony-pike. Lepidosteus viridis. America, N. and Cent.

Borer. A lamprey. Mysxine glutinosa. Europe.

Bow-fin. See Mud-fish.

Bream, sea. In Europe applied to different species of Sparus, Pagrus,
Pagellus, Box, and Dentex, most commonly to Sparus auratus of
Britain ; in Australia, to different species of Chrysophrys.

Bream, river. In Europe to a carp, Abramis brama; America, A.
americanus.

Brill. Rhombus levis, Britain; New Zealand, Pseudorhombus scaphus.

Brook-trout. Salmo fontinalis. America.

Bullahoo. In Sydney, native name for garfish.

Bulls-eye. In Sydney, Priacanthus macracanthus.

Bull-head. Cottus gobio. Europe. ;

Bull-head, Sea. Cottus scorpio. Turope and America.

Bull-rout. Centropogon robustus. Hunter River, N.S.W.

Burbot and Burbolt. Lota vulgaris. Europe and America.

Burton-skate, Ratia marginata,aray. Britam = ;

Butter-fish. Centronotus gunellus, a blenny, Britain; in Australia,

_ Oligorus mitchellit ; in New Zealand, Coridodax pullus.

Butterfly-fish. Gasterochisma melampus, New Zealand.

C

Capelin. Mallotus villosus, Arctic. (Salmonide.)

Caribe. Serrasalmo scapularis, Tropical American rivers. The name
is applied to other genera of the family of CHaracrnipa@, which
replaces the Cyprinoids. Small, but very voracious.

Carmoot. A species of Olarias (S1nunrpH). River Nile.

184 NEW SOUTH WALES

Carp. Applied to many species of Cyprinus, Carassius, &ce. In Sydney,
Chilodactylus fuscus.

Cat-fish. Applied to many genera and species of Siluride. In Europe,
Anarrhicas lupus: in Sydney, Cnidoglanis megastoma ; in Aus-
tralian rivers of the interior, Copidoglanis tandanus; in New
Zealand, Kathetostoma monopterygium.

Chad. Young of Becker. :

Charr. Salmo alpinus, Europe; in Scotland, S. killinensis; in Lake
Windermere, 8. willughbii.

Chub. In Europe, Leuciscus cephalus. In the Eastern States of North
America about ten species of Calreichthys are called chub, like-
wise Leucosomus corporalis.

_ Climbing-fish. Periopthalinus australis.

Climbing'perch. Anabas scandens. India.

Cloudy Bay cod. Genypterus blacodes. New Zealand.

Cod. In Europe and America, Gadus morrhua; in Melbourne, Lotella
callarias.

Coal-fish. Gadus virens. North America.

Cobble. In Jersey a local name for Gobies.

Cock and hen paddle. Oyclopterus lumpus. North seas.

Cock-up. ates calearifer. Indian rivers.

Qork-wing. A Wrasse. Oremilabrus melops. Britain.

Cook Labrus mixtus. Britain.

Coral-fish. Squamipinnes and PoMacENTRIDA.

Craig-fluke. Plewronectes cynoglossus, a flounder. North Seas.

Crooner. rigla gurnardus, Britain.

Cruichet. Ferca fluviatilis, Europe, f.w.

Crucian carp. Carassius carassius. Europe.

Cut-lips. Exoglossum. North America.

D

Dab. A flounder. Pleuronectes limanda. Britain.

Dace. Leuciscus leuciscus, Europe. Leucosomus pulchellus, North
America.

Deal-fish. Trachypterus arcticus. North Atlantic.

Devil-fish. Rays of the family of Myzroparipz. In Australia,
Ceratoptera alfredi.

Dog-fish. Sharks of the family Scytiipa.

Dolphin. Coryphena hippurus. Northern seas.

Domine. Epinnula magistratus. West Indian Barracouta.

Dory. Zeus faber. In Sydney, Z. australis.

Dragonet. Gobies, of the genus Callionymus.

Drum. Pogonias chromis, North America (ScLm@NIDZ.)

Drummer. In Sydney, Girella elevata.

E

Eagle-ray. See Devil-fish.

Eel. In Australia, Anguilla australis.

Fel-pout. See Burbot.

Electric eel. Gymnotus electricus. Brazil.
Electric ray, Rays, of the family Torrzpinip.a.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 185

Electric-sheath or cat-fish. Malapterurus electricus. Fresh waters of
tropical Africa.

Elephant-fish. Callorhynchus antarcticus, New Zealand.

Elleck. Trigla eueulus. Britain.

Escholar. hyrsites pretiosus. Havannah.

F

Fall-fish. See Dace. North America.

Fera. Coregonus acronius. Lakes of Europe.

Fighting-fish. Betta pugnax. Siam.

File-fish. Species of the genus Ballistes. Tropical Seas.

Fishing-frog. Lophius piscatorius.

Flat-fish. All species of Prevronzcrips.

Flat-head. In Australia, all species of Platycephalus.

Flat-tail mullet. In Sydney, Mugil peronii. ~

Flounder. In Britain, Pleuronectes flesus ; in Sydney, Pseudorhombus
russelit ; in Melbourne, Rhombosolea victorie; New Zealand,
Rhombosolea monopus.

Fluke. Rhombus megastoma.

Flute-mouth. Pipe-fishes. Family Syyenarumpaz.

Flying-fish. Four different species of Hzocoetus.

Flying-gurnard. Three species of Dactylopterus.

Forkbeard. Merlucius vulgaris, Europe. Also Hake.

Fortescue. In Sydney, Pentaroge marmorata, or 40-skewer.

Frasling. The common Perch. See Crutchet.

Freshwater herring. Salmo greyi. Ireland ; In Sydney, Olupea rich-
mondia.

Freshwater cat-fish. See Cat-fish.

Freshwater sole. Synaptura selheimi. Queensland.

Frog-fish. See Fishing-frog ; also species of Antennarius.

Frost-fish. Lepidopus caudatus. Australia, New Zealand. (In Europe
this is called Scabbard-fish). Also Regalecus banksit.

G

Gallo. The John Dory is so called in South Europe.

Gar-fish. In Sydney, Hemirhamphus intermedius; in Melbourne,
Belone ferox.
Gar-pike, in America. See Bony-pike. In Britain, Belone belone ;

elsewhere, other species of Belone.
Garvie. In Britain, young of Clupea harengus.
Gaspereau. See Alewife.
Gillaroo. Salmo stomachius. Ireland.
Gilthead. In Britain, Chrysophrys aurata, also Labrus rupestris.
Globe-fish. Various species of Diodon and Tetradon.
Glut. Anguila latirostris, West Indies.
Glutinous-hag. See Borer. .
Goby. Various species of the family Gosrpa.
Gold-fish. Cyprinus auratus.
Gold sinny. See Cork-wing.
Golden orfe. See Id. }
Golden perch. In Australia, Otenolates auratus.

2A

186 NEW SOUTH WALES

Gorebill. Britain. Belone rostrata.

Gouramy. Osphromenus olfax. Indian Archipelago.

Grayling. In Britain, Thymallus vulgaris; in Australia, Prototroctes
marend,

Great lake trout. Salmo ferox. Britain.

Greenback. Britain. Belone vulgaris.

Greenbone. See Greenback.

Greenland shark. Lemargus borealis.

Grey mullet. Mugilide generally.

Grey-nurse. A Shark, Odontapsis americanus.

Grig. See Glut.

Groper. In Queensland, Oligorus terre-reging and O. goliath; in New
Zealand, see Hapuku.

Growler. Gristes salmonides (f.w.) United States.

Guard-fish. Another name for Gar-fish.

Gudgeon. Small fresh-water carps of the genus Gobio, In Australia,
species of Eleotris.

Gunnel-fish. See Butter-fish.

Gurnard. Species of Zrigla.

Gurnet. See above. In Melbourne, Centropogon scorpenoides.

Gwyniad. Coregonus clupeoides. Britain.

H

Haddock. Gadus eglefinus, Britain; in New Zealand, G. australis.

Hadot. French name for the above, sometimes used in south of
England.

Hag-fish. See Borer.

Hair-tail. Trachiurus lepturus. Tropics. Like Frost-fish.

Hake. See Fork-beard.

Haku. Seriola lalandii. New Zealand.

Half-beak. Species of Hemirhamphus.

Halibut. Hippoglossus oulgaris. North Seas.

Hammerhead. Zygena malleus. A shark.

Hapuku. Oligorus gigas, New Zealand.

Hardhead. Trigla cuculus. Britain. Also Aspidophorus europeus.

Hardyhead. In Sydney, Atherina pinguis.

, Hauture. Trachurus trachurus. New Zealand.

Hawai. Species of Eleotris. New Zealand.

Herring. Various species of Clupea.

Hiku. See Frost-fish. New Zealand.

Hipara, See Kokuku.

Hoe-dog. Acanthias vulgaris. Europe. Dog-fish.

Hoki. Coryphenoides nove zelandie. New Zealand.

Holibut. See Halibut.

Hooknose. See Hard-head, second name.

Homelyn-ray. Raiia maculata. Britain.

Hopping-fish. See Climbing-fish.

Horse-mackerel. Species of Oaranw and Trachurus; in Sydney, Ausis
ramsayt.

Hounds. Small sharks, of genus Mustelus.

Hunds-fish. Umbra kramer, fw. Hungary.

Hurling. The common perch. See Frasling.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 187

I
Id. Leuciscus tidus. Acarp. Central and North Europe.
Thi. See Gar-fish. New Zealand. ;
Inanga. Species of Galaxias. New Zealand.

J

Jackass-fish. See Morwong. ,
Jerusalem-haddock. Lampris luna. North Atlantic.

Jew-fish. In Sydney, Sciena antarctica ; also Glacosoma hebraicum.
John Dory. See Dory.

K

Kaakaa-lain. See below.

Ka-i-ra. See Murray Cod. Australia.

Kahawai. Arripis salar. New Zealand.

Kahawairoa. See Kapuku.

Kane. Mugil perusti. New Zealand. °

Kelp-fish In New Zealand, Coridodax pullus; in Tasmania, Odax
baleatus.

King-fish. In Britain, Zampris luna, also Chimera monstrosa; in
Sydney, Seriola lalandi; in Melbourne, Sciena antarctica; in
Tasmania, Thyrsites micropus ; West Indies, Elacate niger.

King of the herrings. In Britain, Chimera monstrosa and Regalecus
banksit. .

Kiriri. Macrocanthus convexirostris. New Zealand.

Kiver. See Sunny.

Klipvisch. Genypterus Cape.

Kokopu. Galawias . New Zealand.

Kohkohi. See Trumpeter. New Zealand.

Kookoobul. See Murray Cod.

Koobery. In Australia, Therapon richardsonii.

Kumu-kumu, Trigla kumu. New Zealand.

L

Lachs. Salmo salar. Britain.

Lampern or lamprey. Species of fam. PerromyzonrIpa,

Lancelet. Branchiostoma lanceolatum. In Moreton Bay (Queensland),
Epigonichthys pulchellus. ; ;

Lap-lap. A native name for a very small undescribed fish in the
fresh-water swamps between South Australia and Victoria.

Launce. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Britain; in N.W. Australia, Cono-
‘gradus subducens. .

Leather-carp. A variety of Cyprinus carpio, without scales.

Leather-jacket. In Sydney, Monacanthus ayraudi; in New Zealand,
MM. lonvexirostris:

Lemon-sole. In Britain, Solea aurantiaca; in Sydney, Plagusia unicolor.

Lesser sand-eel. Ammodytes tobianus.

Lesser fork-beard. aniceps trifurcas. Northern seas.

Ling. Molva vulgaris. Northern seas; in New Zealand, Genypterus
blacodes. : ;
Loach. Misgurnus fossilis, f. w. Europe; also species of Nemachilus,

N. barbatulus especially.

188 NEW SOUTH WALES

uuocn-leven trout. Salmo levenensis. Scotland.
Long-tom. Belone ferox in Sydney.
Lump-sucker. Oyclopterus lumpus.
Lump-fish. See above.

M

Mackerel. In Britain, Scomber scomber; in Australia,
antarcticus,

Mackerel-midge. Motella microphthalma. Britain.

Mado. In Sydney, Therapon cuviert.

Mahaseer. Barbus mosal, f.w. India.

Makawhiti. See Aua.

Maka. Maori for Barracouta.

Mako. Maori for Lamna glauca.

Mango. See above.

Mary-sole. See Fluke.

Maskinonge. In North America, Exox estor.

Marare. See Butter-fish, New Zealand.

Matiwhita, a red Kokopu. New Zealand.

Mattie. Scotch name for Herring caught in May and June.

Meagre or maigre. Sciena, ane temperate seas.
Miller’s thumb. See Bull-head.

Scomber

Minnow. Leuciscus phowinus, Britain; also applied to various kinds
of Carp in Europe and America. Galaxias attenuatus, New

Zealand.
Mishcup, Pagrus argyrops. North America.
Moki. Latris ciliaris. New Zealand.
“Monk-fish. See Angel-fish.
“Moon-eye. Hyodon tergisus, f.w. North America.
Morwong. In Sydney. Chilodactylus macropterus.
‘Mossbanker. Clupea menhaden. North America.
-Mud-fish. Amia calva, f.w. North America,

Mullet. Various species of Muarirpz, and formerly some of the

TRIGLIDZ.
Muskellunge. See Maskinonge.
“Murray cod. In Australia. Oligorus macquariensts.

N

Nefasch. Distichodus,a carp. River Nile.
Nerfling. See Id.
“Ngoiro. New Zealand. Oonger vulgaris.
-Nonnat. In France, fry of Atherina.

0

“Oar-fish. See Frost-fish.
‘Oil sardine. Clupea scombrina. ast Indies.

“Old-wife. Oantharus lineatus, in Britain. In Sydney, Eneplosue

armatus.
‘Ombre. Umbra cirrhosa. Mediter.
Ombre-chevalier. Salmo ombla. Swiss Lakes.
Opah. See Jerusalem Haddock.
Orfe. See Id.
Oulachan. Thaleichthys. North Pacific.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 189

: P

Pakirikiri. See Blue-cod. New Zealand.

Pall. See Lancelet.

Paradise-fish. Polyacanthus viridi-awratus. Indian Archipelago.

Parr. Young salmon.

Parrot-fish. Various species of Scarus. North Atlantic. In
Australia, Pseudoscarus.

Parrot-wrasse. Same as above. ;

Parrot-perch. In Australian tropics. Pseudoscarus.

Patiki. Rhombosolea monopus. New Zealand.

Peal. Salmo cambricus, and young of S. salar.

Pelerin. Selache maximus. Northern seas.

Perch. In Britain. Perea fluviatilis; in New South Wales, Lates
colonorum ; in Victoria, species of Otenolates.

Pesce rey. Atherinichthys laticlavia. Chili. |

Pickerell. In North America, species of Pike, Hsow.

Pig-fish. In Sydney. Cossyphus unimaculatus.

Piharau. Lampreys. New Zealand.

Pike. In Britain, Hsox luctus, which is the name for the American
species. In Sydney, Sphyrena obtusata and Lannioperea.

Pike-perch. Lucioperca zandra, f.w., Europe.

Pilchard. Olupea pilchardus, Britain. Clupea sagax. New Zealand.

Pilot-fish. Naucrates ductor.

Pipe-fish. Species of Syngnathus.

Piper. Triglalyra. Britain.

Plaice. Pleuronectes platessa.

Pla-kat. See Fighting-fish.

Pocket-fish. See Angler.

Pogge. See Hard-head.

Pohaiakaroa, Sebastes percoides. N. Zealand.

Pollack. Gadus pollachius. N. Seas.

Pollan. Ooregonus pollan, f.w. Ireland,

Polwig. Fry of Goby.

Pope. <Acerina cernua, f.w. N. Europe.

Porbeagle. Zamna cornubica, a shark. N. Seas.

Porgy. See Mishcup.

Port Jackson shark, species of Heterodentus.

Pout. See Bib.

Powan or powen. See Gwyniad.

Pride. A Lamprey. Petromyzon branchialus.

Prussian carp. See Crucian carp.

Pundy. See Murray-cod.

Pumpkin-seed. See Sunny. ao

Rabbit-fish. See King of the herrings.

Ray. The name applied to the Division Barorprz, of the Order
CHONDROPTERYGII. 2

Red-dace. Leuciscus leuciscus. Britain.

Red-eye. Leuciscus erythrophthalmus. Europe.

Red-fin. See above, also LZ. cornutus. N. America, fw.

Red-flathead. Platycephalus bassensis. Australia.

Red-gurnard. See Kumu-kwmu. In Melbourne, Sebastes percoides

also Red Rock-gurnard.

190 NEW SOUTH WALES

Red-horse. Carp of the genus Catostoma. N. America.

Red mullet. Several genera of fam. Murtuipm. In N. Zealand
Upenoides vlamingit.

Red rock-cod. In Sydney, Scorpena eruenta and S. cardinalis; N.
Zealand, Percis colias.

Red-snapper. Scorpis hectori. N. Zealand.

Red sole. See Solenette.

Remora. Hchineis remora or Sucking-fish.

Ribbon-fish. Species of Trachypterus. Regalecus in temperate and
tropical seas.

Rig. See Tope.

Roach. Leuciscus rutilus.

Rock-cod. In Melbourne, Pseudophycis barbatus.

Rock-cook. Centrolabrus. Britain.

Rock-flathead. In Australia. Platycephalus levigatus.

Rock-line. In Melbourne, Genypterus australis.

Rockling. Various species of Moteila. Temperate seas.

Rock-perch. In Melbourne, Glyphidodon victoria.

Rock-whiting. In Sydney, Odawx semifasciatus and O. richardsonii.

Rough-dab. Hippoglossoides. Britain.

Rough-hound. Mustelus vulgaris. Britain.

Rudd. See Red-eye, also male Salmo salar.

Ruff. See Pope.

8

Sail-fish. Carpioides. N. America.

Sail-fluke. See Fluke.

Salmon. In N. Hemisphere. Various species of Salmo. In Australia,

Arripis salar.’

Salmon-trout. Salmo trutta. WN. Hemisphere.

Salvelini. The Charr tribe of Salmones.

Samson-fish. In Sydney, Seriola hippos. In Melbourne, young of

Arripis salar.

Sand-eel. See Launce.

Sand-smelt. See Atherine.

Sand-piper. See Pride.

Sand-pride. See above.

Sandra. See Pike-perch.

Sandy-ray. Ratia circularis. Britain,

Sapphirine-gurnard. Zrigla hirundo. Britain.

Sar, also Sargus and Saragu, species of Sargus. N. Atlanticand Medit.
Sardine. See Pilchard.

Saury-pike. Scombresor sawrus. Britain.

Saw-fish. Species of Shark. Pristis.

Scabbard-fish. See Frost-fish.

Scad. See Horse-mackerel.

Seald-fish. Arnoglossus lanterna. Britain.

Schal. Species of Synodontis. R. Nile.

Schell-fish. See Haddock.

Schelly. See Powan.

Schnapper. In Australia, Pagrus unicolor.

School-shark. In Sydney, Galeus australis.
Scissors. Genus of Cypriniod-fish. 8. America,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 191

Scorpion-fish. Species of the family SconPEnrpa.

Scup. See Mishcup.

Sea-bat. Species of Platax. Indian Ocean and W. Pacific.

Sea-bream. Species of Sparm.s family.

Sea-cat. See Wolf-fish.

Sea-devil. See Devil-fish, also Fishing-frog.

Sea-fox. Alopecias vulpes. World-wide.

Sea-gudgeon. See Goby.

Sea-hedgehog. Species of Diodon.

Sea-horse. Species of Hippocampus.

Sea-needle. See Gar-fish. Bedlone.

Sea-pipe. See above.

Sea-perch. Species of Serranus. In Sydney. See Morwong and
Bull’s eye. Sebastes percoides, N. Zealand.

Sea-serpent. See Ribbon-fish.

Sea-sheep. See Maigre.

Sea-snipe. See Bellows-fish.

Sea-trout. See Salmon-trout.

Sea-wolf. See Wolf-fish.

Seeingo. Percalabrax japonicus. China seas.

Sergeant-baker. In Sydney, Aulopus purpurissatus.

Sewin. Salmo cambricus. N. Europe.

Shad. See Allice-shad.

Shagreen-skate. Raiia fullonica. Britain.

Shanny. Blennius photis. Britain.

Shark. Various species of order CoopRoprERYail, tribe Selachoider.

Sheat-fish. Stluris glanis. Europe.

Sheep’s-head. Sargus ovis. N. Atlantic.

Silver-bream. In Australia, Gerres ovatus.

Silver-eel. In Sydney, Murenesox cinereus.

Silver-fish. Variety of Gold-fish.

Silvery-hairtail. See Scabbard-fish.

Silver-perch. Therapon richardsonit.

Skate. Razia batis. Britain.

Skipper. See Saury pike.

Skip-jack. Zemnodon saltator. .

Skulpin. Csllionymus draco. Britain.

Smear-dab. Pleuronectes microcephalus.

Smelt. Osmerus eperlanus, Northern seas. In Melbourne, Clupea
vittata.

Smig. A name for Whitebait, which see.

Smooth-hound. Mustelus levis. Britain. —

Snake-pipe-fish. Syngnathus ophidian. Britain.

Snapper. See Schnapper. _

Snig-eel. Anguila mediorostris. 8. England.

Snoek. See Barracouta. ;

Sole. In Britain, Solea vulgaris; in Sydney, Synaptura nigra; in Mel-
bourne, Rkombosolea bassensis ; in N. Zealand, Rhombosolea.

Solenette. Solea parva. 8, Britain.

Sparling. See Smelt. :

Spawn-eater. Leuciscus hudsonius. N. America; also called Smelt.

Spear-fish. See Sail-fish. :

Sprat. Clupro sprattus. Atlantic coasts.

192 ; NEW SOUTH WALES

St. Mary’s trout. Motella vulgaris. Britain.

St. Peter’s fish. See John Dorey.

Stare-gazer. Species of Uranoscopus.

Starry-ray. Raita radiata. Britain.

Sterlet. Acipenser ruthenus. Rivers of Russia.

Stickleback. Species of Gastrosteus, f.w. N. Hemisphere.

Sting-bull. Zrachinus draco. Britain.

Sting-ray and Stingaree. Species of family Trygonide.

Stock-fish. See Cod, also Hake.

Stone-bass. Polyprion cernium. European coasts.

Stone-biter. See Burbolt.

Stone-clagger. See Lump-sucker.

Stone-lifter. In Melbourne, Kathetostoma leve.

Stone-lugger. Species of Carp, Campostoma. Europe.

Stone-loter. Species of Carp, Hxoglossum. N. America.

Stone-roller. See Red-horse.

Stranger. In Melbourne, Odax richardsontt.

Sturgeon. Species of Acipenser. Europe.

Sucker. See Lump-sucker and Remora; also, species of carp in N.
America, Catostomus.

Sun-fish. Species of Percipz# in N. American rivers; also, Lampris
luna; also, Orthagoriscus mola.

Sunny, Pomotis vulgaris. N. America, f.w.

Surgeon. Species of Acanthurus.

Sweep. In Sydney, Scorpis equipennis.

Sword-fish. Species of Histiophorus and Xiphias

T

Tadpole-fish. See Lesser forkbeard.
‘Tailor. In Sydney, Zemnodon saltator.

Tamure. See Snapper. New Zealand.
Tarwhine. In Sydney, Chrysophrys sarba.

Tara kahi. See Morwong. New Zealand. .
Tasmanian-trout. Galaxias truttaceus. Tasmania.
Tautoga or tautog. See Black-fish. America.
Tawa-tawa. New Zealand. Mackerel.
Telescope-fish. Monstrosity of Crucian carp.
Tench. inca tinca. Europe, f.w.

Thorn-back. See Sting-ray.

Thresher. See Sea-fox.

Tiger-shark. Stegostoma tigrinum. Ind. Ocean.
Toad-fish. Species of Zetrodqn.

Tope. Species of Galeus, sharks.

Topknot. Rhombos punctatus. Britain,

Torgoch. Salmo perisit. Wales.

Torpedo. See Electric ray.

Torsk. .Brosmius brosme. Northern seas.

Trout. Salmo fario. Europe.

Trubu. Clwpea toli. Indian Archipelago.
Trumpet-fish. See Bellows-fish.

Trumpeter. In Tasmania, Latris hecateta.
Trumpeter-whiting. In Sydney, Sillago bassensis.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 193

Tub-fish, Trigla hirundo. Britain.

Tunny. Lhynnus thynnus. World-wide.

Turbot. Rhombus maximus. N. Atlantic.

Tusk. In Scotland. See Zorsk and Forkbeard.
Twaite-shad. Clupea finta. Europe and R. Nile.

U
Umbra. See mud-fish.

Umber. See Grayling.
Unctuous sucker. Cyclopterus montagru. Britain.
Upokororo. Prototroctes oxyrhynchus. N. Zealand.

V
Vaagmaer. See Deal-fish.
Vendace. Coregonus vandesius. Britain.
Viviparous blenny. Zoarces viviparus. Europe.
Viviparous dog-fish. Mustelus vulgaris. Britain.

Ww

Wairepo and Waingenge. New Zealand. Stingaree (Zrygon).

Warehou. Neptcnemus brama. New Zealand. .

Weever. See Sting-bull, also Trichinus vipera.

Wels. Silurus glanis. Britain.

Whapuku. See Hapuku.

Whiff. See Fluke.

Whitebait. Fry of herring.

White-fish. Species of Leuciseus and Oorregonus.

White pointer. In Sydney, Carcharodon rondeletii.

White trevally. In Sydney, Oaranzx georgianus ; also, Teuthis javus.

Whiting. In Britain, Gadus merlangus ; in Sydney, Sillago maculata
aud &. ciliata; in Melbourne, S. punctata.

Whiting-pout. See Bib.

Wolf-fish. Anarrhichas lupus. N. seas.

‘Wrasses, fishes of family Lapripa.

ae

Yarra herring. In Australia, Prototroctes marena.

Yarra trout. See Tasmanian trout.

Yawlings. See Whitebait.

Yellow-belly. Ctenolates auratus. Australia, f.w..

Yellow-tail. See Horse-mackerel. In Melbourne, Seriola grandis.

Z

Zebra shark. See Tiger-shark.
Zarthe. Abramus vimba. Europe.
Zope. Abramus ballorus. Europe.
Zuzuki. See Seengo.

194) NEW SOUTH WALES

CHAPTER XVI.
Works relating to Fish and Fisheries.

Tue following list is not meant to be a complete catalogue of all the
works relating to the subject, for that would be more bulky than
the rest of the volume. No more is attempted than to give the student
the names of those books which should be consulted to obtain a mastery
of the subject, or those which contain useful or interesting information
about Fish and Fisheries. A few of the very ancient authors are given,
for they may fall within the reach of students, and they are worth
consulting if only for the sake of the figures by which they are
illustrated. Sometimes the figures are rude and even grotesque, but
often they are master-pieces, and at the worst can be generally
recognized. Finally, the Australian portion of' the list has been made
as complete as possible,

Aristotle, 384 to 322 B.c. History of Animals. A Latin edition,
with figures, was published in Venice in 1513, folio.

Marcus Terentius Varro ; born B.c. 126, died B.c. 26. Said to have
written 500 volumes, but two only extant:—De Re Rustica
and Analogia, fragments only. In the former there is much
information about fishes and fish preserves, worth reading even
at the present day, ;

Lucius Junius Columella ; De Re Rustica (on Agriculture). This
is about the most detailed work we have on the Roman Fish
preserves, from which much may still be learned.

Plinii Historia naturalis, lib. ix, de aquatilium natura. Pliny’s
Nat. History, 6 vols. Bostock and Riley’s translation ; Bohn’s
edit., vol. II. The author died a.p. 79, and the Ist edit. of
his work was printed in 1469. In the works large numbers
of Roman authors are quoted at p. 237, only afew of which
have come down to us.

Oppian’s Halieutics. (In Greek.)

Bellonius de aquatilibus. Paris, 1553, folio.

Rondeletius, de piscibus. Lugd., 1554, folio.

Salviani aquatilium animalium historiae. Rom., 1554, folio.

Conr. Gesneri historia piscium, in historia animalium. 1551, folio.

Steph. a Schonvelde Ichthyologia et nomenclatura animalium
marinorum, &c. Hamb., 1624, 4to.

Aldrovandus, de piscibus. Bonon. 1638, folio.

Jonstonus, de piscibus.

Franc. Willughby, de historia piscium. Oxf., 1686, folio.

Jo, Raii, Synopsis methodica piscium. Lond., 1713, 8vo.

Petr. Artedi; Ichthyologia, cura Carl. Linnaei. Lugd. Bat., 1738,
8vo, Curd Walbaum; Gryp., 1788, 8vo. Curd Schneider ;
Leips, 1789, 4to.

Jac. Theod. Klein ; historia piscium. Gedan., 1742, 4to.

Marc. Catesby; piscium et serpentum imagines ad naturam
expressae. London, 1731, folio.

Laur. Theod. Gronovii; Museum ichthyologicum, lLugd. Bat.,
1745, in 2 vols., folio,

FISH AND FISHERIES. 195

Jac. Christ. Schaeffer ; epistola de studii ichthyologici faciliori et
-tutiori methodo. Ratisb., 1760, 4to.

Ant, Gouan ; Historia piscium. Strasb., 1770, 4to.

Aug. Broussonet; Ichthyologia, sistens piscium descriptiones et
icones. Lond., 1782, 4to.

Jacobus Petiver ; aquatilium Amboinae icones. Lond., 1713, folios

Louis Renard ; poissons, &c., que lon trouve autour des isle.
Moluques, et sur les cétes des terres Australes. Amst., 1764,
folio. Very useful in the study of N. Australian fishes.

Schaeffer ; pisclum Bavarico Ratisbonensium pentas. Ratisb.,
1761, 4to.

Jo. Christ. Wulff; Ichthyologia regniBorussici. Regiom, 1765, 8vo. ;

Mait. T. Brunnichii Ichthyologia Massiliensis. Hafn., 1768, 8vo.

The Complete Angler ; by Isaac Walton ; with Notes by Sir John
Hawkins. Lond., 8vo., 1802.

Brookes: The Art of Angling, rock and sea fishing, with the
natural history of river, pond, and sea fish. 12mo., Lond.,
1743.

Pennant’s British Zoology, vol. iii.

E. Donovan: The Natural History of British Fishes, in 5 vols.
8vo., Lond., 1808.

Saml. Dale’s Natural History of the sea coast and country about
Harwich. 4vo., Lond., 1730.

Petiver: Memoirs for the curious, 1708. An account of the
English fresh-water fishes.

Borlase’s Natural History of Cornwall. Oxf., 1758, folio.

Eleazar Albin : icones piscium. Lond., 1735, 4to.

Carolus a Meidinger icones piscium Austriae indigenorum. Vienn.,
1785, folio.
Marc. El. Bloch: Oekonomische Naturgeschichte der Fische

Deutschlands. Berlin, 1782, 4to.

Marc. El. Bloch: Naturgeschichte der Auslaendischen Fische.
Berlin, 1785, 4to.

Marc. El. Block: Ichthyologie. Berlin, 1785, folio.

Giueseppe Olivi: Zoologia Adriatica, ossia catalogo degli animali
del golfo e delle lagune di Venezia. Bassano, 1792, 4to.
Forskahl: Descriptiones animalium, quae in itinere Orientali

observavit. Haun., 1775, 4to.

N. G. Leske : Ichthyologia Lipsiensis, 8vo. Lips, 1774.

Car Linnaei: Systema Naturae; Gmelius edit, translated by Turton,
7 vols. London, Lackington, 1806, only 72 genera of fishes
enumerated.

_—— Museum ; Adolphi Frideric. Holm., 1754, folio.

Hans Stroem : Physisks og oeconomisk, &ce. Son., 1792, in 2 vols.,
Ato.

Jo. Gottf. Richtes: Ichthyo-theologie, oder Versuch die Menschen,
aus Betrachtung der Fische zur Bervunderung ihres Schoepfers
aufuhren. Leipz., 1754, 8vo. .

La Cepede: L'Histoire naturelle des poissons, in 2 vols. 4to,
Paris, 1798. oo

John Fr. Gronovius : A method of preparing specimens of fish, by
drying their skins. Phil, Trans., vol. xcii, p. 57 and 58.

196

NEW SOUTH WALES

Reaumur : Divers means for preserving dead birds, reptiles, fishes,
and insects. Loe. cit. No. 487, p. 304.

The Zoology of New Holland; by I. Ed. Smith. 4to. London,
1798.

Ancient and Modern Fish Tattle; by the Rev. Dr. C. D. Badham.
London, Parker, 1854.

Stewart’s Natural History. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1817.

A Review of the Domestic Fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland ;
by Robert Fraser, Esq. Edinburgh, 1818.

A Treatise on Food and Diet; by Jonathan Pereira, M.D., d&e.
London, Longman & Co., 1843,

A Treatise on the Management of Fresh-water Fish ; by Gottlieb
Boccius. London, Van Voorst, 1841.

An Account of Three New Specimens of British Fishes; by
Richard Parnell. Royal Society, Edinburgh, 1837.

Angler’s and Tourist’s Guide; by Andrew Young, Invershire.
Edinburgh, A. & C. Black, 1857.

British Fish and Fisheries. Religious Tract Society.

Ceylon, Notes on; by James Stewart, Esq., of Colpeny Printed
for private circulation, 1862.

Couche’s Fishes of the British Islands. Groombridge, 1865.

Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom; Griffith’s edition, Vol. IV, Fishes.
London, Whittaker, 1834.

- Pisciculture et Culture des Eaux; par P. Trigneaux. Paris,

Libraire Agricole de la Maison Rustique.

Pisciculture Pratique et la Multiplication des Sangsues; par
Quenard. Paris, De Dusacq, 1855.

Propagation of Oysters; by M. Koste and Dr. Kemmerer.
Brighton, Pearce, 1864.

Report by the Commissioners for the British Fisheries of their
Proceedings in the Year ended 31st December, 1862, being
the Fishing of 1862, and subsequent years.

Reports of the Commissioners of Crown Lands of Canada, 1863-
64-65.

Report of the Royal Commissioners on the Operation of Acts
relating to Trawling for Herring on the Coasts of Scotland.
Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her
Majesty, 1863.

Salmon and other Fish, Propagation of; by Edward and Thomas
Ashworth, Stockport, EH. H. King, 1853.

Seaside and Aquarium; by John Harper. Edinburgh, Nimmo,
1858.

Seaside Divinity ; by the Rev. Robert W. Fraser, M.A. J. Hogg
& Sons, 1861.

Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon; by Sir J. Emerson
Tennent. London, Longman & Co., 1861.

The Herring; its Natural History and National Importance ; by
John Metchel, F.R.8., &c. Edinburgh, 1864.

The Young Angler's Guide, &e. London, | J. . Cheeto, 1839.

Vacation Tourists, 1862-63, London, Macmillan, 1864.

Log Book of a Fisherman; by F. Buckland. ‘London, Chapman
& Hall, 1875.

FISH -AND FISHERIES. 197

Forrester’s Fish and Fishing in the United States. New York,
Townsend, 1864.

Guide du Pisciculture ; par J. Remy. Paris, Lacroix, 1854.

Guide Pratique du Pisciculture; par Pierre Carbonnier. Paris,
Lacroix, 1864.

Herring-fishery, on the Existing State of the. ‘Herald’ Office,
Aberdeen, 1854.

Howitt’s Angler’s Manual. Liverpool, 1808.

Ichthyonomy. Swinnerton & Brown, Macclesfield, 1857.

L’Alienation des Rivages ; par M. Coste. Paris, 1863.

La Péche en Eau Douce et en Eau Salée; par Alphonse Karr.
Paris, Michel Levy Fréres, 1860. ;
Multiplication Artificielle des Poissons ; par J. P. J. Koltz. Paris,

Lacroix.

Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe; by L. Agassiz.

Elements of Nat. Hist.; by G. Stewart. Edin, 1817. 2 vols.
Vol. i, pp. 300 to 430.

Swainson’s Fishes, &c. 2 vols., Cab. Ency. London, 1838.

Van der Hoeven’s Handbook of Zoology. 2 vols. London, 1858.
Vol. ii, pp. 1 to 205.

Fisheries : Article in Encyclop. Brit. 9th edition.

The Harvest of the Sea; by J. G. Bertram. London, Murray,
1873.

Directions for Taking and Curing Herrings, and for Curing Cod,
Ling, Tusk, and Hake ; by Sir Thomas Lauder, Bart. Edin-
burgh, 1846.

Elements de Pisciculture ; par M. Isidore L’Amy. Paris, 1855.

Experimental Observations on the Development and Growth of
Salmon Fry, &ec. ; by John Shaw. Edinburgh, A. & C. Black,
1840.

Fish and Fishing in the Lone Glens of Scotland ; by Dr. Knox.
Routledge & Co., 1854.

Fish Hatching; by Frank T. Buckland. Tinsley Brothers, 1863.

Fisheries, The, considered as a National Resource, &c. Dublin,
Milleken, 1856. :

Ichthyology: Article in Encyclopedia Britannica ; 8th edition ;
by Sir John Richardson. :

Natural History and Habits of the Salmon, &c.; by Andrew
Young. Longman & Co., 1854.

Natural History of the Salmon, as ascertained at Stormontfield ; by
William Brown. Glasgow, Thomas Murray, 1862.

Naturalist’s Library ; by Sir William Jardine. Edinburgh, 1843.

Notice Historique sur l’Artificelles de Pisciculture de Huningue.
Strasbourg, Berger Levrault, 1862.

Les Huitriéres Artificelles de Terrains Emergents ; par M. Coste.
Paris.

The Sea and its Living Wonders; by R. G. Hartwig. London,
Longmans.

Observations on the Fisheries of the West Coast of Ireland, &e. ;
by Thomas Edward Symons. London, Chapman & Hall, 1856.

Oyster, The: Where, how, and when to find, breed, cook, and eat
it. Triibner & Co.

198 NEW SOUTH WALES

Pisciculture. Pisciculteurs et Poissons; by Eugéne Voel. Paris,
F. Chamerat, 1856.

Pisciculture et la Production des Sangsues ; par Auguste Jourdier.
Paris, 1856.

Voyage d’Exploration sur la Littoral de la France et de 1’Italie ;
par M. Coste. Paris, 1861. Imprimerie Impériale.

The Study of Fishes; by Dr. A. Giinther. Edinburgh, A. & C.
Black, 1880. .

British Fishes; by Frank Buckland. ‘London, 1881.

The Commercial Products of the Sea; by P. L. Simmonds.
London, 1879.

The Practical Fisherman; by J. H. Keene. London, 1881.

A Book on Angling; by B. F. Francis. London, Longmans ;
5th edit., 1883. ;

The Sea Fisherman. London, Longmans ; 3rd edit., 1883.

Blaine’s Encyclop. of Rural Sports. ‘London, Longmans.

The following list of works on local Faunas is, with the exception of
the Australian list, taken from Giinther’s work :-—

1.—GENERAL.

French Works.

1. Voyage autour du monde, sur les Corvettes de 8.M. l’Uranie et la
Physicienne, sous le commandment de M. Freycinet. Zoologie :
Poissons ; par Quoy et Gaimard. (Paris, 1824, 4to, atlas fol.)

2. Voyage de la Coquille: Zoologie; par Lesson. (Paris, 1826-30,
4to. atlas fol.)

3. Voyage de l’Astrolabe, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont

‘ d’Urville. Poissons; par Quoy et Gaimard. (Paris, 1834,
8vo. atlas fol.)

4, Voyage au Pole Sud; par M. J. Dumont d’ Urville. Poissons ;
par Hombron et Jacquinot. (Paris, 1853-4, 8vo. atlas fol.)

ENGLISH. ;
1. Voyage of H.M.S “Surphur.” Fishes; by J. Richardson.
(London, 1844-5, 4to.)
2. Voyage of H.M.S. “Erebus” and “Terror.” Fishes; by J.
; Richardson. (London, 1846, 4to.) -
3. Voyage of H.M.S. “ Beagle.” Fishes; by L. Jenyns. (London,
1842, 4to.)
4. Voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger.” Fishes; by A. Giinther (in
course of publication).

GERMAN.

1. Reise der dsterreichischen Fregatte Novara. Fische ; von R.
Kner. (Wien, 1865, 4to.)

IL—FAUNA.
Great Britain.

1. BR. Parnell: The Natural History of the Fishes of the Firth of
Forth. (Edinb., 1838, 8vo.)

FISH AND FISHERIES. 199

2. W. Yarrll: A History of British Fishes. (3rd edit. Lond.,
1859, 8vo.)
3. J. Couch: A -History of the Fishes of the British Islands.
(Lond., 1862-5, 8vo.)
DENMARK AND SCANDINAVIA.
1. H. Kroyer: Danmark’s Fiske. (Kjobnh, 1838-53, 8vo.)
2. S. Nilsson: Skandinavisk Fauna, (Vol. IV, Fiskarna, Lund.,

1855, 8vo.)
3. Fries och Esktrom: Skandinavisk Fauna. (Stockh., 1836, 4to,
with excellent plates.)

Russa.

1. Nordmann: Ichthyologie Pontique, in Voyage dans la Russie
méridionale de Demidoff. (Tom. III. Paris, 1840, 8vo,
atlas fol.)

GERMANY.

1. Heckel and Kuer: Die Susswasser-fische 3; von Mitteleuropa.
(Leipz., 1863, 8vo.)

Iraty anp MEDITERRANEAN,

1. Bonaparte : Iconografia della Fauna Italica. (Tom. IIL Pesci.
Roma, 1832-41, fol., incomplete.) ;
2. Costa: Fauna del Regno di Napoli. Pesci. (Napoli, 4to, about
1850, incomplete.)
FRANCE.

1. E. Blanchard: Les Poissons des eaux douces de la France.
(Paris, 1866, 8vo.)

PYRENEAN PENINSULA.

The fresh-water Fish-fauna of Spain and Portugal was almost unknown,
until F. Steindacher paid some visits to those countries for the purpose
of exploring the principal rivers, His discoveries are described in
several papers in the Sitzungsberichte der Akademie Zu Wien. B. du
Bocage and F. Capello contributed towards the knowledge of the marine
fishes on the coast of Portugal. (Journ. Science Acad. Lisb.)

Nortu AMERICA.

1, J. Richardson: Fauna Boreali Americana. (Part III. Fishes.
Lond., 1836, 4to.) The species described in this work" are
nearly all from the British possessions in the North.

2. Dekay: Zoology of New York. (Part IV. Fishes. New
York, 1842, 4to.) ;

3. Reports of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries.
(5 vols. Washington, 1873-79, 8vo. In progress. Contains

" most valuable information.)

Besides these works, numerous descriptions of North American fresh-
water fishes have been published in the reports of the various U.S.
Government expeditions, and in North American scientific journals, by
Storer, Baird, Girard, W. O. Ayres, Cape, Jordan, Brown, Goode, ée. ;
but a good general, and especially critical, account of the fishes of the
United States is still a desideratum.

200 NEW SOUTH WALES

JAPAN.

1. Fauna Japonica. Poissons; par H. Schlegel. (Ludg. Bat.,
1850, fol.)

‘East Inpies: TROPICAL PARTS OF THE INDIAN AND Pactric OcEANS.
1. E. Ruppell Neue Wirbelthiere. Fische. (Frankf., 1837, fol.)

“These two works form the standard works for the student of the
Fishes of the Red Sea, and are distinguished by a rare conscientiousness
and faithfulness of the description and figures ; so that there is no other
part of the tropical seas with the fish of which we are so intimately
acquainted as with those of the Red Sea. But these works have a still
wider range of usefulness, inasmuch as only a small proportion of the
fishes is limited to that area, the majority being distributed over the
Indian Ocean into Polynesia: Ruppell’s works were supplemented by
the first two of the following works :—

3. B. L. Playfair and A. Giinther: The Fishes of Zanzibar.
(London, 1866, 4to.); and

4, C. B, Klunzinger: Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meers.
(Wien, 1870-1, 8vo.)

5. T. Cantor: Catalogue of Malayan Fishes. (Calcutta, 1850, 8vo.)

6. F. Day: The Fishes of India (London, 1875, 4to., in progress) ;
contains an account of the fresh-water and marine species, and
is not yet complete.

7. A. Giinther: Die Fische der Sudsee. (Hamburg, 4to., from 1873,
in progress. )

“ Unsurpassed in activity, as regards the exploration of the fish fauna
of the East Indian Archipelago, is P. Blecker, a surgeon in the service
of the Dutch East Indian Government (born 1819, died 1878), who
from the year 1840, for nearly thirty years, amassed immense collections
of the fishes of the various islands, and described them in extremely
numerous papers, published chiefly in the Journals of the Batavian
Society. When his descriptions and the arrangement of his materials
evoked some criticism, it must be remembered that at the time when he
commenced his labours, and for many years afterwards, he stood aloney.
without the aid of a previously named collection on which to base his
first researches, and without other works but that of a Cuvier and
Valenciennes. He had to create for himself a method of distinguishing
species and describing them, and afterwards it would be difficult for
him to abandon his original method and the principles by which he had
been guided for so many years. His desire of giving a new name to
every individual, to every small assemblage of species, wherever prac-
ticable, or of changing an old name, detracts not a little from the
satisfaction with which his works would be used otherwise.

“Tt is also surprising that a man with his anatomical knowledge and
unusual facilities should have been satisfied with the merely external
examination of the specimens; but none of his numerous articles
contain anything relating to the anatomy, physiology, or habits of the
fishes which came under his notice; hence his attempts at systematic
arrangement are very far from indicating an advance in Ichthyology.

“Soon after his return to Europe (1860), Blecker commenced to collect
the final results of his labours in a grand work, illustrated by coloured

FISH AND FISHERIES. 201

plates—Atlas Ichthylogique des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises (Ams-
terd., fol., 1862)—the publication of which was interrupted by the
author's death in 1878,”

AFRICA,

1. A. Giinther: The Fishes of the Nile; in Petherick’s Travels in
Central Africa. (London, 1869, 8vo.)

2. W. Peters: Naturwissenschaftliche Reise Nach Mossombique,
IV. Flussfische. (Berlin, 1868, 4to.) ,

West Inpies anp Sourta AMERICA.

. L, Agassiz: Selecta genera et species Piscium, que itinere per
Brasiliam, collegit J. B. de Spix. .(Monach, 1829, fol.)

. F. de Castelnau: Animaux nouveaux ou rares, recueillis pen-

: dant l’expédition dans les parties centrales de Amérique du
Sud. Poissons. (Paris, 1855, 4to.)

. A. Giinther: An account of the Fishes of the States of Central
America, (In Trans. Zool. Soc., 1868.)

4, L, Vaillant and F. Bocourt: Mission scientifique au Mexique
et dans l’Amérique centrale. Poissons. (Paris, 1874, 4to. In
progress. )

F. Poey, the celebrated naturalist of Havannah, devoted many years
of study to the Fishes of Cuba. His papers and memoirs are published
partly in two periodicals, issued by himself, under the title of Memorias
sobre la Historia natural de la Isla de Cuba (from 1851), and Repertorio
Fisico-natural de la Isla de Cuba (from 1865), partly in North American
scientific journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner has published many
contributions, accompanied by excellent figures, to our knowledge, of
the fishes of Central and South America.

New ZEALAND.

1. F. W. Hutton and J. Hector: Fishes of New Zealand.
(Wellingt., 1872, 8vo.)

Arctic REcions.

1. ©. Liitken : A revised Catalogue of the Fishes of Greenland, in
Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of
Greenland. (Lond., 1875, 8vo.)

Although only a nominal list, this catalogue is useful, as it contains
references to all the principal works in which Arctic Fishes have been
described. The fishes of Spitzbergen were examined by A. J. Malmgren
(1865).

no ee

oo

AUSTRALIA.

Works on Australian fishes are not enumerated by Dr. Giinther.
The list given in the introduction is far from being exhaustive. They
need not be repeated here, but the following additional details will be
useful.

The following papers are all from the Proceedings of the Linnean

Society of N.S. Wales:—
Notes on the Entozoa of a Sun-fish; by W. Macleay, F.LS.;
page 12, vol. I.
Notes on the Zoology of the “‘ Chevert” Expedition ; by W. Macleay,
F.L.S. ; page 36, vol. I.

2c

202

NEW SOUTH WALES

The Ichthyology of the “Chevert” Expedition ; by Haynes Gibbes
Alleyne, M.D., and William Macleay, F.L.S8. (with plates) ;
page 261, vol. I.

The Ichthyology of the “Chevert” Expedition (2); by Haynes Gibbes
Alleyne, M.D., and William Macleay, F.L.S. (with eight
plates) ; page 321, vol. I.

Note on Monacanthus Cheverti; by William Macleay, ELS. ;
page 69, vol. IT.

Australian Fishes, new or little known ; by Count F. de Castelnau ;
page 225, vol. IT.

The Fishes of Port Darwin; by W. Macleay, F.L.9. ; plates 7, 8,
9, 10, page 344, vol. IL

Note on a species of Therapon found in a dam at Warialda; by
William Macleay, F.L.S; with Remarks by the Rev. J, HE.
Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., FL. 8&., &e. ; page 15, vol. IIT.

Descriptions of some new "Fishes irom Port Tackaea and King
George’s Sound ; by William Macléay, F.L.S. (with plates) ;
page 33, vol. IIL

Notes on the Fishes of the Norman River 3 by Count F. de

Castelnau ; page 41, vol. IIT.

On some new Australian (chiefly Fresh-water) Fishes ;. by Count
F. de Castelnau ; page 140, vol. IIT.

On a new Ganoid Fish from Queensland; by Count F. de
Castelnau ; plate 19a, page 164, vol. 3.

On a species of Amphisile, from the Palau Islands ; by William
Macleay, F.L.S ; plate 193, page 165, vol. III.

Plagiostomata of the Pacific; by N. de Miklouho-Maclay, and

"William Macleay, F.L.S. ; Part I (with five plates), page 306,
vol. III.

Essay on the Ichthyology of Port Jackson; by Count F. de
Castelnau ; page 347, vol. 3.

Notes on some Fishes from the Solomon Islands; by William
Macleay, F.L.8. ; page 60, vol. IV.

On the Clupeide of Australia ; by W. Macleay, F.L.8., &e.; page
363, vol. IV.

On the Hugilidee of Australia ; by William Macleay, F.L.S., Ba H
page 410, vol. IV.

Description of a new species of Galazias, with remarks on ‘the
distribution of the genus ; by William Macleay, F.LS., ce, ;
page 45, vol. V.

On two hitherto undescribed Sydney Fishes; by William Macleay,
FE.LS., &c. ; page 48, vol. V.

Description of a new species of Oligorus ; by E. P. Ramsay, F.LS.,
&e. ; plate 9, page 93, vol. V.

Notes. on Galeocerdo rayneri; by E. P. Ramsay, F.LS., &e. ;
plate 4; page 95, vol. V.

On a rare species of Perch from Port Jackson ; by E. P. Ramsay,

F.LS., &e. ; page 294, vol. V.

Notes on Histiophorus gladiue (with plate); by E. P. Ramsay,
F.LS. ; page 295, vol. V.

- Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of Australia; by William

Macleay, F.LS., &c. ; page 302, vol. V.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 2038

Description of two new species of Australian Fishes; by E. P.
Ramsay, F.L.S. ; page 462, vol. V.

Description of a Parasitic Syngnathus; by E. P. Ramsay, F.LS.
page 494, Vol. V.

Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes ; by William Macleay,

' F.LS.; Part IT, plates 13 and 14, page 510, vol. V.

On a new species of Regalecus, from Port Jackson; by E. P.
Ramsay, F.LS. ; plate 20, page 631, vol. V.

Descriptive Catalogue of the Fishes of Australia; by William
Macleay, F.L.S., dsc. ; plates 1 and 2, page 1, vol. VI.

Description of a new Labroid Fish of the genus Wovacula, from
Port Jackson; by E. P. Ramsay, F.L8., C.M.Z.8., &e. ; page
198, vol. VI.

Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes ; by William Macleay,
F.LS., &c.; Part IV, page 202, vol. VI.

Description of a new species of Hemerocetes? from Port Jackson ;
by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S. ; page 575, vol. VI.

On the occurrence of Psewtlophycis breviusculus, Richardson, in
Port Jackson; by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., C.M.Z.8., &. ; page
717, vol. VI.

On a new species of Gobiesox, from Tasmania; by E. P. Ramsay,
F.LS., &e., vol. VIL, page 148.

On the brain of Galeocerdo rayneri ; by W. A. Haswell, B.Sc., vol.
vil, p. 210, d&e.

205

INDEX.

N.B.—References are made to the families in a darker type, and where details
are given the page numerals are of the same character.

An asterisk distinguishes those fishes figured in the work.

A

Abdominales, 6.

Acanthias, 25, 93.

Acanthoclinus, 12,

Acanthopterygii, 6, 14, 20, 30, 37,
50, 57, 73.

Acclimatization of fishes, 150.

Acrania, 3.

Acrodus, teeth of, 10.

Acronuride, 11, 17.

Agassiz, M. Louis, Classification of
Fishes, 8.

Agenor modestus, 15.

Air-bladder, 5; in deep-sea fishes, 5 ;
gas of, 5; office of, 5; sometimes
has the character of a lung, 5;
sometimes wanting, 5,

Alopecias, 25, 92.

Ambassis, 14,

Ammotretis, 12.

Anacanthini, 21, 30, 75.

Anarrhicas lupus, 27.

Anatomy of Fishes, 3-10,

Anchovy, 11,

Anema, 12.

Angel-fish, or shark, 93, 98,

Angler-fish, see Lophius.

Anguilla australis, 88, 107, 138.

Anomalies, apparent in Australian
Fish Fauna, 10.

Anthias, 13.

Antennarius, 18, 26.

——_—__——— marmoratus, 18.

striatus, 18.
pinniceps, 18.

———_——- coccineus, 18.

Atherinidae, 20.

* Anthias longimanus, 12, 14, 33.

Apharius roseus, 15.

Aploactis, 11.

———— milesii, 16.

Apodes, 7.

Apogon, 12.

fasicatus, 14.

guntheri, 14, 107.

~ novae-hollandiae, 107.

Aristeus fluviatilis, 19,

lineatus, 19.

Arripis, 12.

trutaceus, 36.

georgianus, 14.

salar, 15, 35; poisonous, 36,
Arius, 22.

* Astacopsis, 125,
Atherina, 20.
Atypus, 15.

* Aulopus purpurissatus, 11, 22, 80.
Australian Fishes, number of, 2; ex-

clusively, 12.

Auxis ramsayi, 18,

*

B

Barracouta, 56.
Batrachus, 12.
Bat-fish, 18.
Batrachidz, 18.

* Beardy, N.S.W., 21, 74,
Bellows-fish, 11.
Belone, 22, 83.

ferox, 22, 83,

gracilis, 22.
Berycide, 11, 17, 56.

* Beryx affinis, 17, 50, 51.

* Black-fish, 11, 21, 105.
Blenniida, 11, 19, 27,
Blennius, 19, 27, 28.

unicornis, 19.
castaneus, 19,
Blenny, 27.
Blood of Fishes, 3.
Bonito, 64.
Bony Bream, 23, 106.

*

206

*

Books on Fish and Fisheries, 194-
208.

Bovichthys, 13.

— variegatus, 18,

Brachionichthis, 12.

Brama raii, 18.

Branchial arches, 4,

Branchiostoma, 18, 26,

Brachypleura, 12.

Bream, sea, 38.

silver, 43.

black, 43.

Mr. Hill on, 44.

Brisbania, 85.

Bull’s-eye, 35.

Bull-rout, 16, 48, 107,

Cc

Callionymus calauropomus, 12, 19.

calcaratus, 19.

-—— lateralis, 19.

Canning of fish, 125, 146.

at Columbia R., 146.

Carcharida, 11, 24.

Carcharodon, 25, 92.

Carangide, 11, 17, 57.

Caranx, 12, 18, 59.

nobilis, 17,

georgianus, 17, 56, 59,

hippos, 17.

ciliaris, 17.

Carassius, 83.

Carcharias, 12, 25, 92, 93.

Carp, 46, 83, 156.

Carpentaria watershed, fishes of, 12.

Cataphracti, 11, 19.

Cat-fish, freshwater, 22, 105.

sea, 22, 81,

Centriscus scolopax, 11.

Centropogon australis, 16.

-——— robustus, 16, 47, 108;
spines of venomous, 48.

Cephalopods, 122.

Ceratodus, a living ganoid, 10.

Cestracion, 10, 96.

——-—— fossil form of, 96.

Cestraciontida, 25.

Chanos, 12, 88.

Cheetodon strigatus, 15.

——-—— oligacanthus, 15.

Chatoessus, 23, 85, 106.

Chelmo truncatus, 16.

Chilobranchus, 12.

NEW SOUTH WALES

p# Chilodactylus fuscus, 11, 18, 16, 46,

macropteris, 16, 47,

vittatus, 16, 47,

Chiloscyllium, 12.

Chirocentrus, 12, 23.

Chondroptergii, 5, 24; notochord
of, 6.

Chrysophrys, 12, 16, 42,

sarba, 16.

—-———. australis, 16.

Cirrhitide, 11, 16, 45.

Classification—Linnean, 6,

Gunther’s, 3.

—-——- _L. Agassiz’s, 3,

——— Blecker’s, 200.

Clupea, 18, 23, 85, 86.

sagax, 23, 86.

——— sundaica, 86.

nove-hollandiw, 28, 87, 107,

ot

138.

sprattus, 11, 85.
shoals of, 148.
Clupeida, 11, 23, 84,
Cnidoglanis lepturus, 22.
Cod, 7, 21, 75, 89, 156, 168.
—- rock, 14, 33,
—— Murray, 15, 89,102, 107.
Melbourne, 21.
* —. ved rock, 14, 16, 47,
Conger, 11, 13, 23.
Copidoglanis tandanus, 22, 105, 106,
107, 188.
Coral fishes, 73,
Coridodax, 12.
Coris lineolata, 21, 74.
Cormorants, destruction of, 178.
Corregonus, 14, 109.
Coryphena punctulata, 18.
Coryphenida, 11, 62.
Cossiphus, 21, 28, 74, 75.

* ———— unimaculatus, 21, 74, 75,
* gouldii, 21, 74,
Cottide, 11, 67. .

Cox, Dr., on the oyster, 110, 111.
* Crab, the sea, 125,
Crangon, 126.
Craptolus, 12.
* Cray-fish, 125,
freshwater, 126; eggs of

*

127.
Crepidogaster, 12.
Cristiceps, 13, 19, 28,
Crossorhinus barbatus, 25, 93.
Crucian carp, 83, 156.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 207

Crustacea, 125,

Ctenoids, 3.

Ctenolates, 13.

ambiguus, 15, 103.

christyi, 15, 103.

flavescens, 15.

Cuba, fishes of, 20.

Cuttle-fish, 122, 123.

Cuvier, 2.

Cybium commersoni, 18.

guttatum, 18.

Cycloids, 3

Cyclostomata, 3, 5,30; optic nerve
of, 4.

Cyprinida, 83.

Cyttide, 11, 18, 61.

D

Dactylopteres, 19.
Diodon, 12, 24, 91.
Diplocrepis, 12.
Dog-fish, 25, 92.
Dolphin, 7.

* Dory John, 7, 11, 18, 61,

E

Hcheneis remora, 18, 64.
Eel family, 87.

— conger, 23.

—-— green, 23, 89.

—— silver, 23, 88,

Eggs of fishes, 8

artificial hatching of, 8,
150, 151.

Elacate nigra, 18, 64.

Eleotris coxii, 19.

australis, 107.

- compressus, 19.

grandiceps, 19.

mastersii, 19.

Elops, 12.

Encyclopedia Britannica, the, 2.
Engeus, 126.

Engraulis, 11, 13.

Enoplosus, 12.

* —__.__ armatus, 14, 32,
Equatorial fishes in Australia, 10.
——_—— genera on N.S. W. coast, 12.
Eyes of fishes, 7. influence of light

on, 7; eyes of Polynemus,7.

impregnation of, 8, 150.

F

Families of fishes in N.S.W., 11.

Fiddler, 25, 101.

Fins, value of in classification, 6 ;
correspond to limbs, 6; pectoral,
ventral, dorsal, anal, 6; rays and
spines of, 6.

Fish, what is a, 2.

Fishing, deep-sea, 143.

suggestions as to, 143.

line, improvement of, 144.

net, 145.

Fishing- grounds of N.S.W., 128-138.

—___———_ number and variety

of, 128.
“Fish and Fisheries,” object of the
work, iii; scope of, 2.
Fish fauna of North Coast, 12.
South, 12.
Fishes protected by law, 167.
Fisheries office, Sydney, 149.
Fistularide, 20.
Flathead, 18, 67.
red, 18, 67.
Flat fishes, 76.

* Flounder, 21, 76,

Flying fish, 7.

Food, fishes as, 30.

Fortescue, the, 16, 49,

Fresh-water fish fauna of N.S.W.,
102-109.

Frog-fish, 18, 26.

G

Gadide, 11, 21, 75,

Gadopside, 11, 21.

Gadopsis marmoratus, 21, 105.

an extraordinary fish, 105.

———— gracilis, 105.

—_——— gibbosus, 105.

Galaxias attenuatus, 14.

bong bong, 22.

—-—— corxii, 22.

——— kreftii, 22.

—— nebulosa, 22.

—————— planiceps, 22.

punctatus, 22,

——— distribution of, 13.

—~—-— findlayi, 107; Von Muller
on, 107.

Galeocerdo, 25, 92.

Galeus australis, 25, 92.

208 NEW SOUTH WALES

Ganoids, 3. Haplodactylus, 13.
* Gar-fish, 22, 83. lophodon, 16.

Genera, north temperate, reappear in obscurus, 16,
N.8.W., 11. Haploehitonide», 109.
Genyoroge bengalensis, 14. Hapuku, 102.
Gerres, 12. Heart of fishes, 3, 4.
ovatus, 15, 43. auricle of in paleichthyes, 4.
subfasciatus, 15. Heliastes, 12, 21.
argyrens, 15, Hemirhamphus regularis, 22, 83.
Gill-cover. See Operculum. — commersoni, 22, 83,
Gills, peculiar, 5. 84.
—— purpose of, 4. - argenteus, 22, 83, 84.
anatomy of, 4. * —___.. intermedius, 22, 83,
Girella, 11. 84.
* tricuspidata, 16, 39. Herring, 7, 23, 85.

— of N.S.W., 23, 86.
southern, 86,
—of W. Australia, 107.

——— simplex, 15,
elevata, 16.
cyanea, 16.

ramsayi, 16. Heterocercal. See tail.
Glaucosoma scapulare, ‘14, 34. Heterodontus, 11, 25, 96.
—- hebraicum, 54. ——-—— dentition of, 10.
Gobidz, 11, 19, 27. Hill, Mr. E. 8., 2, 40, 50, 53, 58, 79.
Gobies, 7, 27. Hippocampus, 12, 23, 29.

nove hollanda, 23.
peculiarity of, 23.

river, 19, 106.
Gobius bifrenatus, 19.

buccatus, 19. Histiophorus gladius, 17, 55.
cristatus, 19. Holoxenus, 12.
flavidus, 19. Homocercal. See tail.
semifrenatus, 19, Hoplognathida, 45.
Golden perch, 15, 103. Hypos, 25.
Grapsus, 124, Hypural bone, 6.

Grayling, 11, 109.
Groper, 21, 28.

* — the blue, 21,74, a
Gurnard, 7. ; India, genera of, common to Aus-
—— flying, 19, 68, tralia, 13.
Melbourne. See Centro- * Inter-operculum, 8, 9.
pogon. Intestinal tract, 5.
Giinther, Dr., Catalogue of Fishes, 1,
ae
Classification of Fishes, J
3. Jackass-fish, 46,
statement of, ques- Jew-fish, 17, 53, 55.
tioned, 18. —— silver, 55
study of fishes, 5, 29, —_——— Mr. Oliver on, 55.
31, 198. 8
Gymnodontes, 11, 24, 28, arene Y:
K
H Kaira, 106.
Kathetostoma, 12.
Hake, 7. Kelp-fish, 21, 76.
Haliotis nesvosa, 92, 122. * King-fish, 17, 59,

—_—_—_————- value of, 121, Kookoobul, 15, 102.

FISH AND FISHERIES.

L

Labrichthys, 12, 28.
Labrida, 11, 21, 28, 73.
— N.S.W. species of, 11.
Labyrinthici, 5.
Lamna glauca, 25, 92, 95,
Lamnida, 11, 25.
Lampreys, 3.
* Lanioperca mordax, 12, 20, 69.
* Lates colonorum, 13, 14, 31, 49, 107.
—~- calearifer, 32.
——- curtus, 14,
~—— ciliaris, 16.
ramsayi, 14,
Latris ciliaris, 16, 46, 47,
fosteri, 46.
Laws, the fishery, N.S.W., 160.
— Mr, Oliver on, 160.
~——- as to nets, 162.
close season, 162.
private fisheries, 165.
—as to weight of fish, 168.
oysters, 170.
* Leather-jacket, 24, 89,
Lemon ‘sole, 22.
Lepidoblennius, 12, 19.
Leptocardii, 3, 5, 26, 30.
Leptoscopus, 12.
Lepidotrigla papilio, 19.
Lethrinus, 12, 16.
* Ling, 76.
Liver of fishes, 5.
‘Lobotes auctorum, 15.
Long-fin, 33.
* Long Tom, 22, 83.
Lophius piscatorius, 11, 26.
Lophobranchii, 23, 30.
Lophonectes, 12.
Lophorhombus, 12.
Lotella, 11, 21, ‘76.
marginata, 21, 76,

*

M

* Mackerel, 7, 18, 62, 107, 148.
Macleay, Hon. W., 2, 7, 104, 106.
Macquaria, 13, 15.

Macruride, 11, 76.
Maray, 84.

— shoals of, 148.

Marine food fishes, 30-101.

Market, Sydney Fish, 139; supplies
of, 139, 140; prices in, 140.

2D

209!

M‘Coy, Prof., i, 68, 105.
Megalops, 88.
Milt, functions of, 8.
—— position of, 8.
Mitchell R., new species discovered
at, 12.
Mixinoids, 7.
Mollusca, 122.
* Monocanthus, 12, 18, 24, 89,
Monocentris, 17.
* Morwong, 16, 46,
——-—— the red, 46,
Muciferous system, 8,
Mud-fish of N. Zealand, 108.
* Mugil grandis, 20, 70, 71,
~——- cephalotus, 20, 70.
petardi, 107.
dobula, 20, 70, 107.
Mugilide, 11, 20, 69.
Miller, Baron yon, 108.
Mullet, 7, 70.
to capture, 147.
red, 38.
sea, 20, 69, 71,
—— grey, 20, 69.
sand, 70.
Mullus barbatus, 38.
Murena afra, 23, 89.
— picta, 23.
Mureenicththys,.13.
Mureenesox, 12.
bageo, 88.
cinereus, 23, 88,
Murenide, 11, 23, 88.
* Murray cod, 18, 15, 102, 107.
Murrayia giintheri, 13, 15, 104.
eyprinoides, 15, 104.
bramoides, 15, 104.
riverina, 15, 104.
Murena, 12.
Mutton-fish, 92, 122.
Myobatide, 26.
Mytilus, 122.
Myxines, 3.
Myxus elongatus, 20, 70, 71.

*

‘ N
Naucrates ductor, 18, 64.
Nandida, 11, 15.

* Nannygai, the, 17, 51, 52.
Nannocampus, 12.
Nannoperca australis, 14. °

—— riverine, 14,

210

Neochanna, 108.

Neoplotosus, 106.

Neptomenus travale, 17.

New South Wales, species peculiar
to, 12, 13.

New Zealand, genera common to
Australia, 13.

South Australia, 12,13.

—_———_—-N. 8. Wales, 12, 13.

Nipper, 126.

North Temp. Zone, genera of, re-
uppear in N.S.W., 11.

Notidanide, 25.

Notandanus, 12, 25, 92.

0

Octopus, 122.
Odax, 12, 21, 75.
richardsoni, 21, 75.
——-~ brunneus, 21, 75.
——— baleatus, 21, 75.
Odontaspis, 25, 92, 95.
* Old wife, 14, 30, 32,
Olestherops, 12. ;
Oligorus, 13, 15, 89, 102, 107.
— macquariensis, 15, 89, 102,

*

107.

— mitchelli, 15, 103.

— terre regine, 102.

gigas, 102.

Oliver, Mr. A., on the fishery laws,
2, 160.

~——_— fishing-grounds &c.,
133.
Onchorrhyncus, 153.
* Operculum, 7, 9.

Ophidiide, 76.

Ophiocephalida, 20.

Opisthognatue, 18.

Optic nerves of fishes, 4,
paleichthes, 4.
Ostracion, 12, 18, 24.

Otolithus atelodus, 17, 54.

Oyster, 110.

enemies of, 119.

anatomy of, 112, 1138.

Dr. Cox on, 111.

the drift, 110,

—-— male and female, to dis-

tinguish, 118.

—— ova of, 118, 114,
——— the rock, 111,
Commission for N.8.W., 2.

NEW SOUTH WALES

Oyster culture, 112.
at L. Fusaro, 116.

— Kemmerer, “tile,” 115.
history of, 115.
at Ile de Ré, 118.
————— at. Auray, 119.
—__—_—_—-———. books on, 121.
suggestions as to, 112.
fattening, 116.
Mr. C. Pennell on,

117.
———_-—-——. Bertram on, 118.

P

Pachymetopon, 16.

* Pagrus, 13, 16, 39-42.

-— unicolor, 16, 39,
——-— guttulatus, 40.
Palxichthyes, 3, 4, 24, 30.
Palemon, 126.

* Palinurus, 125,

Parma, 20.
Pateecus, 12.
Patella, 122.
Pediculati, 11, 18, 26.
Pegasida, 29.
Pegasus, 29.
Pelagic fishes, 10.
not included in pre-
sent work, 11.

Pelamis australis, 18.

Peltorhamphus, 12.

Pempheris, 12.

compressus, 17.

-—— macrolepis, 17.

Penceus, 126.

Pentapus, 12.

setosus, 15.

paradiseus

Pentaroge marmorata, 12, 16, 49,

Percida, 11, 31, 101, 103, 104.

Perch, 31. :

red, 14, 33.

-——— golden, 15, 103.

——- silver, 15, 103.

-—— habits of, 32.

—- bait for, 32.

Periophthalmus, 27.

Phyllopteryx, 12, 23, 29.

——— an extraordinary fish,

29.
Physostomi, 22, 30, 80.

FISH AND FISHERIES. 211

- Pig-fish, 21, 75. R
* Pike, 6, 69,

Pilot-fish, 18, 64,

Pipe-fish, 7.

Pisciculture, 150.

history of, 150.

stocking ponds for, 157.

books on, 159.
—- Frank Buckland on,
150, 151.
Placoids, 3.
Plagyodus, 28.
* Platycephalus, 12, 18, 67.
bassensis, 18, §'7.
fuscus, 18, 67.
Platystethus, 12.
Plectognathi, 24, 31.
Plectropoma, 12, 34,
annulatum, 14.
——_-——— cyneostigma, 34,
—-_-———— ocellatum, 14.
——_——_— semicinctum, 14.
susuki, 14.

Plesiops, 15.
Pleuronectide, 11, 21, 76, 79.
Plotosus, 106.

Polynemus, 52.

—— indicns, 52.

———_——_ macrochir, 52.

—— ceeus, 7.
Polynemida, 11.
Pomacentrida, 11, 20.
Pomacentrus, 12, 20.
Porcupine, 91, 89.

* Pre-opeculum, 8, 9.

Prawn, 126.

Priacanthus macracanthus, 14.
benmembari, 14.
Pristiophorida, 11, 25.
Pristiophorus, 11, 25, 93, 98.
Prionurus, 17.
Prototroctes, 14, 109.

Psenes leucura, 18.

Peettus argenteus, 12, 18.

Pseudoambassis castelnaui, 14.

ramsayi, 14.

—__—_—_—_——_ jacksoniensis, 14.

Pseudophycis, 12.

* Pseudorhombus russellii, 21, 77.

—-— multimaculatas, 21, 77.
Pterois volitans, 16.
zebra, 16.

Pyloric appendages, 5.
Pundy, 15, 102.

Raiia, 11, 13.

Raiida, 11, 99, 101.

Rays, 26, 99.

Rays (of fins). See spines.
Regalecus jacksoniensis, 20.
Retropinna richardsoni, 22.
Rhina squatina, 25, 93, 98.
Rhinobatidz, 11, 25.
Rhinida, 11, 25.

Rhinobatus, 13, 25, 97.
granulatus, 25, 97,
Rhombosolea, 12, 77, 80.
Riverina fluviatilis, 18, 15, 104.
Rock cod, 11, 14, 33.

fish, 11.

Roe, function of, 8 ; -position of, 8.

Saccarius, 12.

Salmo, 35, 84, 155.

— trutta, 84, 155.

salar, 9, 84, 155.

fario, 9, 155, 157,

— salvelinus, 9.

* Salmon of N.S.W., 35.
Salmonida, 11, 22, 84.
Samson-fish, 58,

Saurus, 22, 28,

— australis, 22.

——— myops, 22.

nebulosa, 22.

truculenta, 22.

Saw-shark, 11, 93, 98.

Scatophagus argus, 15.

multifasciatus, 13.

* Schnapper, range of, 40...
—-——- described, 39.
——--—— fishing-grounds for, 41.
——--—— bait for, 42.
Scienida, 11, 53.

Scientific descriptions, how mastered,
8.

Sciena antarctica, 12, 17, 53.

Sclerodermi, 11, 24, 90.

* Scomber, 62.

antarcticus, 18, 62.

australasicus, 63.

pneumatophorus, 62.

Scombresocida, 11, 22, 83.

Scrombride, 11, 18, 57, 61, 64.

212

Shark, 25, 91-97.
angel, 93, 98.
——- blind, 93, 97.
-~—— blue, 25, 92.
—— grey nurse, 91, 95,
-—— hammer-head, 25, 92, 97,
—-~ sand, 97.
——— saw, 93, 98,
— school, 25, 92.
shovel-nosed, 25, 97,
Scombresox, 81.
Scopelida, 11, 22, 82.
—— teeth of the, 28.
Scorpznida, 11, 16, 47, 108.
Scorpeena cruenta, 13, 16, 47,
bynensis, 16.
cardinalis, 16.
* Scorpis equipennis, 13, 15, 37,
* Scylla, 125,
Scyllium maculatum, 25.
Scyllida, 11, 25.
Sea-horse, 23, 28, 29.
* Sergeant Baker, 11, 22, 82,
Sebastes, 11.
—— percoides, 16, 47,
Siphonognathus, 12.
Sepia, 122.
Sepioteuthis australis, 122.
* Seriola lalandi, 17, 59,
nigrofasciatus, 17.
grandis, 17,
hippos, 17, 57, 60.
Serranus guttulatus, 12, 14.
—— hexagonathus, 14.
——— damellii, 14, 33,
—~———. undulato-striatus, 14.
Sex in fishes, 8.
oysters, to distinguish, 112,
Shags, destruction of, 178,
Sillago, 12, 65.
ciliata, 65.
bassensis, 18, 65,
maculata, 18, 65.
punctata, 65.
Siluride, 5, 11, 18, 22, 80, 105.
— New South Wales, species
of, 11, 22.
Silurus, 6.
Skeleton, valuo in classification, 5.
of paleichthes, 6.
Skull of paleichthes, 6.
* Bole, 7, 22, '77,
* Solea, 21, 77.

*

*

NEW SOUTH WALES

South Australia, genera peculiar to,
12,

genera common to,
and New South Wales, 12.

Sparida, 11, 16, 38.

Sphyrena, 12; Nove-hollandie, 20,
69.

* —— obtusata, 20, 69.

Sphyrenidz, 11, 20, 69.
Spinacide, 12, 25.
Spines, homocanth, 6.
hetrocanth, 6.
Spratelloides, 86,
Squampinnes, 11, 37.
Squid, 122.
Star-fish, 122,
Sticharium, 20.
Stigmatophora, 12,
Stomach, forms of, 5.
Stranger, 75.
Stromateida, 62.

* Sub-operculum, 8, 9.
Sucking-fish, 63.
Sun-fish, 24.

* Sweep, 15, 37,
Sword-fish.

Sydney Mail, 2.
Symbranchida, 11, 23.
Synaptura, 12.

* —_____~ nigra, 23, 77.

Synacidium horridum, 16.

Synganathida, 11, 23.

T

Tail, heterocercal, §,
—-- homocereal, 6.
* Tarwhine, 16, 42,
Teleosti, 3, 14, 30.
— optic nerve of, 4,
* Temnodon saltator, 17, 57, 61,
Tenison-Woods, species discovered
by, 12.
Tephreeops, 12,
* Teraglin, 54.
Teratorhombus, 12.
Tetrodon, 12, 24, 90.
Teuthis javus, 12, 16, 51.
- nebulusa, 16, 50,
Therapon, 15, 104.
cuverii, 15.
niger, 15, 104.
-———— richardsoni, 15, 104.

FISH AND FISHERIES.

Therapon unicolor, 15.

“Thompson, Mr. F. A., 108.
Thoracici, 7.

Thornback, 26.
Thymallus australis, 109,

‘Thymnus affinis, 18.

; pelamys, 18, 64,

*

*

Thyrsites, 5, 18, 56.
distribution of, 56.
Toad-fish, 90, 91.

———— poisonous, 91.
Torpedinide, 11, 25.
Trachelochismus, 12.
Trachicthys, 12, 13.
Trachinide, 11, 18, 64.
Trachinops, 15.

Trachurus, 13, 58.

ao | trachurus, 17, 57.
— declivis, 58,
Trachynotus ovatus, 17.
-—— bailloni, 17.
Trevally, the black, 16, 50.
-——— spines venomous, 49, 50.
———— the white, 17, 59.
Trichiuride, 11, 17, 56.
Trichiurus haumela, 17.
Trigla, 12, 18, 38, 66, 68.
kumu, 19, 66, 68.
pleuracanthica, 19.
polyommata, 19, 68.
Trochocopus, 21.
Trochocochles, 122.
Trumpet-fish, 11.
Trumpeter, 47.

Trygon, 13.

Trygonida, 11
Trygonorhina, 12, 25, 101,
Tunisian fisheries, 123.

213
Vv

Valenciennes, 2.
Vertebre, notochord of, 6.
sometimes hard. to distin-
guish, 5, 7.

Ww

Weapons of attack, 7.
* Whiting, 7, 65.
——— rock, 21.
———— Melbourne, 65.
trumpeter, 18, 65,
* Wirrah, 34,
Wobbegong, 25, 94.
Wrasses, 7, 28,

x
Xiphiide, 11, 17, 55.

Y

Yarra herring, 109,
* Yellow-tail, 17, 57, 58.
Young fishes mistaken for new
species, 8.

Z

* Zeus australis, 13, 18, 6],
—— faber, 7,11, 61.
Zygena, 12.

— malleus, 22, 91, 97,

Sydney : Thomas Richards, Government Printer.—1882.

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