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Cornell University
Mew Work State College of Agriculture
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY
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ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY
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WOOD AND FOREST
By WILLIAM NOYES
Assistant Professor of Industrial Arts,
Teachers College, Columbia University
NEW YORK CITY
THe Manuat ARTS PRESS
Peoria, ILLINOIS
COPYRIGHT
‘WILLIAM NOYES
1912
SECOND EDITION, DECEMBER, 1912.
FOREWORD
This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the au-
thor’s Handwork in Wood. It is an attempt to collect and arrange
in available form useful information, now widely scattered, about
our common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.
As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion
of the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who
has made the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof,
and carried the work thru to its final completion.
Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
suggestions in the text to the following persons:
Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to
Insect Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.
Mr. George G. Hedgecock, of the United States Bureau of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating
to the fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.
Mr. 8. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.
Professor Charles R. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual
Training Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lec-
turer of the course out of which this book has grown.
Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of
Teachers College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.
Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of American
Woods and Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Can-
ada, for suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter IIT.
The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and
maps credited to it, and for permission to reprint the key to the
identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
10, Timber, by Filibert Roth.
The Division of Publications, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture,
for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.
William Noyes, Handwork in Wood, Peoria, Ill. The Manual Arts Press,
231 pp., $2.
The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce
Fig. 86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Rot, from Timber and
Some of its Diseases, by H. M. Ward.
Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.
Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
references at the end of each chapter.
CHAPTER
CONTENTS.
General Bibliopraphy cosa: Seet-ae en ibe eo ee aes -
The: Structure of Wood sG.acnikool cliente eee eG 6 9
Properties 0f W00d).....d.0ce 34 ucdeas qeaeenian ewes 41
The Principal Species of American Woods.............. 57
The Distribution and Composition of the North American
TAGTOS ESS ce shat ate heccmsrod ou tractor hestavisod oe ei meee 197
acherWorest) (reams: 5) 2 eucAeyssncees se ata aedeatt eos setetus ah aadine tees 211
Natural Enemies of the Forest...................005. 229
The Hxhaustion or the Worest 220) co thee oka.s a eo Goe 251
PhesWsecok thle Honest ents 4 Gh sccees avs seeuuek eae santos 271
PAP OU OLR: war acest ea sthen ON ee can ceet sat semana mana eee 289
DT Oe — AG hea art ese tienineice, ~ 1a e ay ane eaneraee oy oe om eae eroes & 304
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Apgar, A. G., Trees of the Northern United States. N. Y.: American Book
Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany of trees, giving de-
scriptions of their essential organs, and particularly valuable for the
leaf key to the trees. It should be supplemented by Keeler or Hough’s
Handbook.
Baterden, J. R., Timber. N. Y.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908, 351 pp. A
description of the timbers of various countries, discussion of timber
defects, timber tests, etc.
Bitting, K. G., The Structure of Wood. Wood Craft, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172,
June-Sept., ’06. A very scholarly and valuable series of articles on
wood structure and growth. Excellent microphotographs.
Britton, Nathaniel Lord, North American Trees. N. Y.: Henry Holt & Co.,
1908, 894 pp. )
(b) Bast
(2) Cambium
(3) Wood
(a) Sap-wood
(b) Heart-wood
(4) Pith. FIRST YEAR'S
GROWTH
(1) The rind or bark is eitikay
made up of two layers, the RAYS
outer of which, the “cortex,”
is corky and usually scales or
pulls off easily; while the in-
ner one is a fibrous coat called
“bast” or “phloem.” To-
gether they form a cone, wid-
OND YEAR'S
SEC OWT
THIRD YEAR'S
i GROWTH
‘CAMBIUM
BAST
: CORTEX
est, thickest, and roughest at
A i ~ CORK
the base and becoming nar- LENTICEL EPIDERMIS
rower toward the top of the
tree. The cortex or outer L =
2 x Fig. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three
bark serves to protect the stem Year Old Stem of Basswood.
of the tree from extremes of
heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of
animals. It is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which
has taken the place of the tender skin or “epidermis” of the twig.
Because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water
supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead
matter. The cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark.
As we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed
in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being
thus successively cut off.
The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make
tbe tree easily recognizable.
14 WOOD AND FOREST.
Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as
in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest
form of bark.
The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has pe-
culiar markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, es-
pecially on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin len-
ticula, freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in the
inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of California,
Fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being practically in-
combustible, and hence serving to protect the tree; while some bark,
as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. It there-
fore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather.
Inside the cork is the “phloem” or “bast,’ which, by the way,
gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough
and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a liv-
ing tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has
been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.
(2) The cambium. Inside of the rind and between it and the
wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med.
Latin, exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem,
familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between
the bark and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fra-
grant, mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium
is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are
formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.
In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
“protoplasm” (Greek, protos, first; plasma, form). These meshes
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 15
were first called “cells” by Robert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
“cells” are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
substance which filled
the cells was found to
be the essential part.
This slimy — substance,
called protoplasm, con-
stitutes the primal stuff
of all living things. The
cell walls themselves are
formed from it. These
young cells, at the apex
of a stem, are all alike,
very small, filled with
protoplasm, and as yet,
unaltered. They form
embryonic tissue, 4%. @.
one which will change.
One change to which any
cell filled proto-
with
plasm is liable is divi-
sion into two, a new par-
tition wall forming with-
_ Wig. 5. Young Stem, Magnified 18% Diameters, Show-
ing Primary and Secondary Bundles. By Courtesy of
Mrs. Natharine Golden Bitting.
E, epidermis, the single outside laver of cells.
in it. This is the way C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.
Saal te ; ; HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ri rotecti
plant cells imerease. the soft bast. gee wep eee
SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.
Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the
wood.
In young plant cells,
the whole cavity of the
chamber is filled with W, wood, segments showing pores.
neonate ey: jean eL ee ne
cells grow older and : Ms, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just
inside the bundles.
larger, the protoplasm P, pith, the central mass of cells.
develops into different
parts, one part forming the cell wall and in many cases leaving cavi-
ties within the cell, which become filled with sap. The substance of
the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers consist of al-
most pure cellulose). At first it has no definite structure, but as
growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or
16 WOOD AND FOREST.
hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be per-
formed. Where there are a group of similar cells performing the
same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a
tissue system.
When cells are changed into new forms, or “differentiated,” as it
is called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues
of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed,
viz., the rind, the pith and the wood.
The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered,
is the protoplasm: where there is protoplasm, there is life and
Fig. 6. Vhree Stages in the Development of an Kxogenous
Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C,
cambium; PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW,secondary
wood; PS, procambium strands, After Boulger.
growth. In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees—some-
times together called exogens—this protoplasm is to be found in the
buds and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of
the tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes
a stem, into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without
break into the protoplasm of the bud.
In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the
central pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are
really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of
leaves thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and
are called the “procambium strands,” Fig. 6.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 17
In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands
change completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their proto-
plasmic cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why
palms can grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more
densely in the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved
trees, the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part
bast (bark). Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the cen-
ter with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts
of the original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith
or medullary rays (Latin, meduila, pith). The number of medullary
rays depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on
the width of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicu-
ous, as in oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the coni-
fers. But they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily
be seen with the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from
the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others,
the cambium formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath
from the bud downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium
sheath and is the living, growing part of the stem from which is
formed the wood on the inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.
In the first year the wood
and the bast are formed di-
rectly by the growth and
change of the inner and outer
cells respectively of the pro-
cambium strand, and all such
material is called “primary ;”
but in subsequent years all
wood, pith rays, and_ bast,
originate in the cambium, and
these growths are called “gsec-
ondary.”
(3) The wood of most
* Fig.7. Sap-wood and
exogens is made up of two Heart-wood, Lignum Vitac.
parts, a lighter part called the
sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part called the
heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature heart-
wood. The difference in color between them is very marked in some
woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in others.
18 WOOD AND FOREST.
as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct heart-
wood, birch (Betula alba) being an example.
In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily
quite different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the
roots to the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other
ways assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sap-
wood varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per
cent. of the stem.
As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the
sap can no longer flow
thru them. It loses its
protoplasm and starch
and becomes heart-
wood, in which ail
cells are dead and
serve only the me-
chanical function of
holding up the great
weight of the tree and
in resisting wind pres-
sures. This is the rea-
son why a tree may
hecome decayed and
hollow and yet be alive
and bear fruit. In a
tree that is actually
dead the sap-wood rots
first.
us ‘hemic; g =
= Chemical sub
Fig. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual : : A
Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk. Americ an stances infiltrate into
Museum of Natural flistory, N.2
the cell walls of heart-
wood and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon
turns black, walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown,
tulip and poplar yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many
woods, as mahogany and oak, darken under exposure, which shows
that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable.
Wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as su-
mach, logwood, red sanders, and fustie. Many woods also acquire
distinct odors, as camphor, sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and
mahogany, indicating the presence of oil.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 19
As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods lke hickory and ash,
however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
more valuable than heart-wood.
In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce,
Fig. 8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of
the ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone en-
veloping its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily
constitutes a year’s growth, and therefore there
is a greater number of them at the base of a tree
than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
thickness, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings
vary in width; in general, those at the center
being thicker than those toward the bark. Va-
riations from year to year may also be noticed,
showing that the tree was well nourished one
year and poorly nourished another year. Rings,
S55
however, do not always indicate a year’s growth.
“False rings” are sometimes formed by a cessa- |
tion in the growth due to drouth, fire or other
accident, followed by renewed growth the same
Fig. 9. Diagram of
season. Radial Section of
ea NY i , ne Log (exaggerated)
In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these Showing Annual
ae : ; Cones of Growth.
“rings” appear as a series of parallel lines and i mn
if one could examine a long enough log these
lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.
In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and
since almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these nes are wavy,
and give the charactistic pleasing ‘‘grain” of wood. Fig. 27, p. 3.
The annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as
in the wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the
cork oak, a product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.
The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel
20 WOOD AND FOREST.
edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
walls form across them in the lonaitudinal, tangential direction, so
that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells radially
disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as in
Fig. 12. Finally the inner-
Bi most cell ceases to divide, and
uses its protoplasm to become
thick and hard wood. In like
manner the outermost cambium
cell becomes bast, while the cells
= - between them continue to grow
Fig.10. Annual Rings in mie
Bark (cork). and divide, and so the process
goes on. In nearly all stems,
there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells.
In other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.
In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat,
when the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the
bark, split by winter,
does not bind very
tightly, the inner cam-
bium cells produce ra-
dially wide wood cells
with relatively thin
walls. These constitute
the spring wood. But
in summer the jacket
of bark binds tightly,
there is plenty of heat
and light, and the
leaves and roots are
very active, so that the
rambium cells produce
thicker walled cells, era
Fig. 11. iagram Showing Grain of Spruc
ealled summer wood. Highly Magnified. PR, pith rays; BP, borlered
: ‘ ‘ pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW, summer wood;
During the winter the CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.
trees rest, and no
development takes place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells
are formed again, making a sharp contrast with those formed at the
end of the previous season.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. Df
It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty
years old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four
feet from the ground one hundred years later.
Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one’s finger
nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft
portion of the ring is the
part that grows in the
spring and early summer, anmpssee Ss x
is ¢ he “spring
and = called the ep ons Fig. 12.Diagram Showing the Mode of Div i-
rood”? Thi . sion of the Cambium Cells. The cambium
wood ML hile the part that cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
grows later in the season is cells derived from it. Note in the last di-
vision at the right that the inner daughter
called “‘summer wood.” As cell becomes the cambium cell while the
x outer cell develops into a bast cell. From
the summer wood is hard Curtis: Nature and Development of Plants.
and heavy, it largely deter-
mines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as a rule, the
greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better the wood.
This can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry methods, as
is done in European larch forests, by “underplanting” them with
beech.
In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion
of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that
in neither youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of sum-
mer wood as in middle age.
It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and in-
creasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
would represent the successive annual “rings” of conifers.
The medullary rays. While most of the elements in wood run
longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at right
angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of cells
called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, medulla, which means
22 WOOD AND FOREST.
pith). hese are the large “silver flakes” to be seen in quartered
oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig. 32, p. 38,
They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as broad, shin-
ing bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines tapering at
each end on the tangential section. In other words, they are like
flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise
from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in different
woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak they
are often several hundred cells wide (7. ¢., wp and down in the tree).
This may amount to an
inch or two. They are
often twenty cells thick,
tapering to one cell at
the edge. In oak very
many are also small,
even microscopic. But
in the conifers and also
in some of the broad-
leaved trees, altho they
can be discerned with
the naked eye on a split
radial surface, still they
are all very small. In
pine there are some 15,-
000 of them to a square
Fig. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Mag- ne ane 1 sec-
nified 37 Diameters. Note the large size of the inch of a tangential Bee
pith rays, A, A (end view). tion. They are to be
found in all exogens. In
a cross-section, say of oak, Fig. 14, it can readily be seen that some
pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out. Those
that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called pri-
mary pith rays, while those that begin in a subsequent year, starting
at the cambium of that year, are called secondary rays.
The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer
formative material from one part of a stem to another, communicat-
ing with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered
pits in them, and (2) they bind the trunk together from pith to
bark. On the other hand their presence makes it easier for the
wood to split radially.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 23
The substance of which they are composed is “parenchyma”
(Greek, beside, to pour), which also constitutes the pith, the rays
forming a sort of connecting Jink between the first and last growth
of the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.
If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
stretch out radi-
ally, retaining
their protoplasm,
and so continue
the pith ray
As the tree
grows larger,
new, or second-
ary medullary
rays start from
the = cambium
then active, so
that every year
new rays are
formed both
thinner and
shorter than the
primary rays,
Fig. 14.
ae Fig.14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating White
NOW suppose Lines are the Pith Rays.
that laid among
the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes, so that one
could tell the “ring” not only by the thin walls but by the presence
of large tubes. That would represent the ring-porous woods, and the
large tubes would be called vessels, or trachew. Suppose again that
these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers. This ar-
rangement would represent the diffuse-porous woods.
By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
quite distinct arrangements in the structure may he distinguished.
This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
presence and distribution of “pores,” or as they are technically called,
“vessels” or “tracheae.” By this classification we have:
24 WOOD AND FOREST.
(1) Non-porous woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and
spruce.
(2) Ring-porous woods, in which the pores appear (in a cross-
section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.
(3) Diffuse-porous woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings
are scattered ir-
regularly thru
the wood, as in
bass, maple and
yellow poplar.
In order to
fully understand
the structure of
wood, it is nec-
essary to exam-
ine it still more
closely thru the
microscope, and
since the three
classes of wood,
non-porous, ring-
porous and dif-
fuse-porous, dif-
Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White ; .
Pine, Full Size (top toward pith). ° fer considerably
in their minute
structure, it is well to consider them separately, taking the sim-
plest first.
Non-porous woods. In examining thru the microscope a trans-
verse section of white pine, Fig. 18:
(1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of ar-
rangement of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged
in ranks and files.
(2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts,
the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the
cells diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin
again, and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of
a single year’s growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed
in spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer,
the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength
being caused by there being more material in the same volume.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
= aes rae
Fig.16. Cross-section of Ring-porous Wood, White
Ash, Full Size (top toward pith).
Fig. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
Maple, full size (top toward pith).
26 WOOD AND FOREST.
(3) Running radially (wp and down in the picture) directly thru
the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These
are the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative
material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree
together from pith to bark.
(4) Scattered here and there among the ould cells, are to be
seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of
the arrangement. These are resin ducts. (See cross-section of white
pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates, oozing out
when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect
the tree from attacks of fungi.
Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18:
(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
chisels laid together, Fig. 11
(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called “pits.”
These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls thicken,
except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and delicate.
The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining
cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that there is prac-
tically free communication of fluids between the two cells. In a
cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of which depends
upon the thickness of the walls. In sone cells, the thickening around
the pits becomes elevated, forming a border, perforated in the center.
Such pits are called bordered pits. These pits, both simple and bor-
dered, are waterways between the different cells. They are helps in
carrying the sap up the tree.
(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and inter-
woven in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of
several cells, one above another.
In the tangential section, Fig. 18:
(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen
again, and
(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.
In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood
of conifers technically valuable.
WOOD.
STRUCTURE OF
THE
CROSS SECTION 196 DIAMETERS
37 DIAMETERS
196 DIAMETERS
woop RADIAL SECTION
ING
37 DIAMETERS
SUMMER
Wooo = SPRI
196 DIAMETERS
TANGENTIAL SECTION.
NON-POROUS WOOD (wHite PINE)
37 DIAMETERS
Fig. 18.
28 WOOD AND FOREST.
The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning “like trachew.”
They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not ab-
sorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. In other
words, conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or “trachew,”
and hence are called “non-porous” woods.
But in other woods, the ends of
te >} some cells which meet endwise are ab-
sorbed, thus forming a continuous series
of elements which constitute an open
tube. Such tubes are known as pores,
or vessels, or “trache,’’ and sometimes
extend thru the whole stem. Besides
this marked difference between the por-
ous and non-porous woods, the porous
woods are also distinguished by the fact
that instead of being made up, like the
conifers of cells of practically only one
kind, namely tracheids, they are com-
posed of several varieties of cells. Be-
sides the tracheae and tracheids already
noted are such cells as “wood fiber,’
} “fibrous cells,” and “parenchyma.” Fig.
19. Wood fiber proper has much thick-
ened lignified walls and no pits, and its
main funetion is mechanical support.
Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers
| i except that they retain their proto-
ae Lee A plasm. Parenchyma is composed of
ee a vertical groups of short cells, the end
ar fo eee ones of each group tapering to a point,
Se ae ee and each group originates from the
tracheid; cn aan proper. transverse division of one cambium cell.
They are commonly grouped around the
vessels (trachee). Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other
similar fibers, retains its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch
in autumn.
The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
contains trachee, trachwids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and paren-
chyma. Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In
TILE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 29
some, as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple have no
woody fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.
This recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved
trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It
DS RAYS
CROSS~SECTION
37 DIAMETERS 196 DIAMETERS
PORE”
RADI Ue SECTION TANGENTIAL SECTION
DIAMETERS DIAMETERS
RING-POROUS WOOD Wwnite ae
S SRE R= SSR ER ESTEE SCR OTOOSTDS/
Fig. 20.
is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that
particular woods are identified microscopically. See p. 289.
Ring-porous woods. Looking thru the microscope at a cross-section
of ash, a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20
(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in
the spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite
30 WOOD AND FOREST.
distinet, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the num-
ber and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are
distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
greater their share in the volume, the hghter in weight and the
weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see Chap. III, beautiful pat-
terns are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.
(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as
with the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a nar-
row, dark line along the largest pores in each ring.
(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in
oak. No. 47, Chap. III.
(4) The irregular arrangement and
(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact
that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements
and not one (tracheids) as in the conifers.
Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20
(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is
most noticeable. Fig. 32, p. 38. They are often an inch or more
wide; that is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain,
seen thru the microscope, but are not prominent.
(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of
their forms show the structure as being very complex.
In the tangential section, Fig. 20:
(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
ihe denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the ves-
sels (pores).
(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.
In diffuse porous woods, the main features to be noticed are: In
the transverse section, Fig. 21:
(1) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,
(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year’s
growth,
(3)
(4) The irregular arrangement and,
(5) The complex structure, .
The radiating pith rays,
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. bl
In the radial section, Fig. 21:
(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, No. 53, Chap. III,
they are quite large.
(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
variety.
aa +
(\
eds Mone RAYS ———_ “MURA
37 DIAMETERS CROSS~SECTION 196 DIAMETERS
d a4 f ; i
RADIAL, SeCrrON TANGEyTIAL SECTION |
DIFFUSE- POROUS WOOD crettow Porzar) J
Fig. 21.
In the tangential section, Fig. 21:
(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen
fo run in waves around the pith rays.
(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.
32 WOOD AND FOREST.
ILE GRAIN OF WOOD,
The term “grain” is used in a variety of meanings which is likely
to cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain
to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect the
structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cross, including
spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird's-eye, gnarly, etc., may all
be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture the
proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.
Usually the word grain means the pattern or “figure” formed by
the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If
the annual rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called
“coarse grained,” if narrow, “fine grained,” so that of two. trees of
the samme species, one may be coarse grained and the other fine
grained, depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth.
The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores,
like chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry
and lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse
and fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the
large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller
elements in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears
darker. In the “fine grained” (or better, fine textured,) woods the
pores are absent or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so
that they are capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the
meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-
maker, the reference being primarily to texture.
Tf the elements of which a wood are composed are of approxi-
mately uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as
in white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements,
tho of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
woods.
The term “grain” also refers to the regularity of the wood struc-
ture. An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular
cones, but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and oes in
those that are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that
: re 5 at
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 33
one side of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than
the other, Fig. 14, p. 23.
The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis
of the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called “straight-
grained,’ Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule.
Whenever the grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part,
TRAN
PREAH
i : i
ORAS
‘ :
Fig. 23. Mahogany, Showing Alter-
Pine (full size). nately ‘lwisted Grain (full size).
oblique to the sides of the board, it is called “cross-grained.” An il-
lustration of this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole
tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the
board more difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases
than not, the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the
logs in Fig. 107, p. 254.) This produces “spiral” or “twisted” grain.
34 WOOD AND FOREST.
Fig. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.
After Roth.
Vig. 25. Planed Surface of Wavy-Graiued
Maple (full size).
Often, as in mahogany and
sweet gum, the fibers of several
layers twist first in one diree-
tion and then those of the next
few layers twist the other way,
Fig. 24. Such wood is pecu-
liarly cross-grained, and is of
course hard to plane smooth.
But when a piece is smoothly
finished the changing reflec-
tion of light from the surface
gives a beautiful appearance,
which can be enhanced by
staining and polishing. It
Vig. 26. Split Surface of Wavy-Grained
Maple (full size).
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 85
constitutes the characteristic “grain” of striped mahogany, Fig. 23.
It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.
Sometimes the grain of wood is “cross,” because it is “wavy” either
in a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.
“Curly grain” refers to the figure of circlets and islets and con-
tours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in
tire,
Curly Yellow Poplar
(full size).
Fig. 27. Curly Grained Long-leat Pine Fig 28.
(full size).
crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig. 28,
yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are con-
torted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
near the roots of trees, the effect is called “burl,” Fig. 29. The term
burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks, Fig. 31.
Burl is used chiefly in veneers.
36 WOOD AND FOREST.
Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventi-
tions and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs
on the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive an-
nual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to pre-
serve the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,
Fig.29. Redwood Burl (full size). Fig. 30. Bird’s-eye Ma pie tint size).
a great unmber of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain, as
n “Bird’s-eyve maple,” Fig. 30. These markings are found to pre-
dominate in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a distinct
variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common variety,
in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great value,
oo pee ee have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for
re wood
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. oF
The term “grain” may also mean the “figure” formed by the
presence of pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word “grain”
may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is com-
mon in sweet gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.
The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregu-
larity in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on
the upper and lower
sides of the limb behave
differently, those on the
lower side running un-
interruptedly from the
stem into the limb, while
on the upper side the
fibers bend aside making
an imperfect connection.
Consequently to split a
knot it is always neces-
sary to start the split
from the lower side. On
the other hand it is eas-
ier to split around a
knot than thru it. The
texture as well as the
grain of wood is modi-
fied by the presence of a
branch. The wood in
and around a knot is
much harder than the
main body of the trunk
on account of the crowd- oi TOE eas
ing together of the ele- Fig.31. Burl on White Oak.
ments. Knots are the
remnants of branches left in the trunk. These once had all the parts
of the trunk itself, namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Nor-
mally, branches grow from the pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and
redwood, among the conifers, and most of the broad-leaf trees have
the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may
develop into branches. When a branch dies, the annual layer of
wood no longer grows upon it, but the successive layers of wood on
ve a
38 WOOD AND FOREST.
the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it, until it is broken
off. Then, unless it has begun to decay, it is successively overgrown
by annual layers, so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut
open. A large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may
have many knots around its center, remnants of branches which grew
there in its youth, as in Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, p. 18. The general ef-
4
Fig. 32. Figure Formed by Pith Rays Fig 33. Sweet G i
i j by d G : um, Showing Uneven
in Oak (full size). Deposit of Coloring Matter (full size.)
fect of the presence of a knot is, that the fibers that grow around and
over it are bent, and this, of course, produces crooked erain,
Following are the designations given to different knots by lumber-
men: A sound knot is one which is solid across its face and is as
hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A pin knot
is sound, but not over %4” in diameter. A standard knot is sound
>
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD. 39
but not over 14%” in diameter. A large knot is sound, and over 114”
in diameter. A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
dead, or, loose knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
position.
(4) Pith. At the :
center or axis of the i
tree is the pith or
medulla, Fig. 34. In
every bud, that is, at
the apex of every stem
and branch, the pith is
the growing part; but
as the stem lengthens
and becomes overgrown
by successive layers of
wood the pith loses its
vital function. It does
not grow with the
plant except at the
buds. It varies in
thickness, being very
small, — hardly more
than 1/16”, in cedar
and = larch,—and so
small in oak as to be L |
hardly discernible : and Fig. 34. Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year
; . fs 5 Old Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main
what there 1s of it Stem. A, B, two branches which were killed after
a few years’ growth by shading, and which have
turns hard and dark. been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a
I 1 } 1 P r limb which lived four years, then died and broke
nh herps a: § off near the stem, leaving the part to the left o
el ee an shoots it XY a ‘tsound’’ knot, and the part to the right a
is 7 rely Or io, “dead” knot, which unless rotting sets in, would
= elatively large, Fig in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk;
5 le 5 1 } ree- D,a branch that has remained alive and has in-
2 BD 15, ais three creased in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of
vear old shoot of. el- both stem and limb.
der, for example, be-
ing as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies early and pul-
verizes, leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of only tem-
porary value to the plant.
40 WOOD AND FOREST.
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
REFERENCES : *
Roth, Forest Bull. No. 10, pp. 11- Bitting, Wood Craft, 5: 76, 106,
23. 144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).
Boulger, pp. 1-39. Ward, pp. 1-38.
Sickles, pp. 11-20. Lneye. Brit., 11th Ed., “Plants,”
Pinchot, Forest Bull. No, 24, I, pp. p. 741.
11-24. Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part
Keeler, pp. 514-517. II, See. II.
Curtis, pp. 62-85. Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.
Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.
*For general bibliography, see p, 4.
Cuaprer II.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
There are many properties of wood,—some predominant in one
species, some in another,—that make it suitable for a great variety
of uses. Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value
to a wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage,
weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.
THE ILYGROSCOPICITY OF WOOD.
It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways: In the sap which
fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell walls which
it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it constitutes 90
per cent. The younger the wood, the more water it contains, hence
the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood, at times even
twice as much.
In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent. of the water is in the cell cavities,
35 per cent. in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent. in the protoplasm.
There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon
sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less water in
heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and hence with-
out sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates the
cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.”
‘Hygroscopicity, “the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorb-
ing or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly.”—
Century Dictionary.
2This is shown by the following table, from Forestry Bulletin No. 10,
p- 31, Timber, by Filibert Roth:
POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.
Sap-wood or Heart-wood
outer part. or interior.
1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs........+-2--++eeeees 45-65 16-25
2. Cypress, extremely variable .......-.20-2000+ 00-2 +. 50-65 18-60
3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood .........+++ee eee sees 60-65 40-60
4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut,
walnut, and sycamore ......... see eee e eee cere 40-50 30-40
42 WOOD AND FOREST.
The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thus
sycamore has more than hickory.
Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter
as in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the water
in wood keeps the cell walls distended.
THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.
When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate.
This process is called “seasoning.” In drying, the free water within
the cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water
has been removed, the cell walls begin to vield up their moisture.
Water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as
when green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.
The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from
other kinds, e. g., from white pine than from oak, from small pieces
than from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal sec-
tion; and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.
Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength, im-
portant as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage, which
often involves warping and other distortions. The water in wood
affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.
Tf all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some
small, some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally
and some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various
in differently shaped pieces of wood hut they can easily be accounted
for if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is
in the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink
much, if any, lengthwise.
(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells
that compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated
by the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single cell.
‘See Handwork in Wood, Chapter TIT.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 43
The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening, or
lumen, of the cell becomes larger.
(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that
is, summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that
they contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the
more the shrinkage.
Consider the effects of these
changes ; ordinarily a_ log
when drying begins to “check”
at the end. This is to be ex-
plained thus: Inasmuch as
evaporation takes place faster
from a cross than from a lon-
gitudinal section, because at
the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that
the end of a piece of timber, Fig. 36, A, will shrink first. This
would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the
piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are stiff and resist this bend-
ing with the result that the end splits or “checks” as in C, Fig. 36.
But later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes
of equal thickness again and the “checks” tend to close.
(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
Fig. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.
fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent.
Fig.360. The Shrinkage and Checking at the End of a Beam.
This is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the
log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.
In addition to “checking” at the end, logs ordinarily show the
effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is
44 WOOD AND FOREST.
to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.
(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run
at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their
shiinkage is contrary to that of
{is \ the main cells. The pith rays,
which consist of a number of
cells one above the — other,
tend to shrink parallel to the
length of the wood, and what-
ever little longitudinal shrinkage
there is in a board is probably
due mostly to the shrinkage of
the pith rays. But because the
cells of pith rays do not appre-
ciably shrink in their length, this
fact tends to prevent the main
body of wood from shrinking
Fig.37. he Strinkage and Splitting a :
of a Log. radially, and the result is that
wood shrinks less radially than
tangentially. T'angentially is the only way left for it to shrink. The
pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep
the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom
for circumferential contraction.
(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than
spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the
log. Consider first the tangen- ;
paws cna po ae A= :
tial shrinkage. If a section of a olofal i [a ale 8
|
Oo} IDG
a,
DI). me
single annual ring of green wood ‘tai fe)
of the shape A B CD, in Fig. mi
38, is dried and the mass shrinks I
according to the thickness of the
He J
cell walls, it will assume the Fig.38. Diagram to Show the Greater
a ; e Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than
shape A’ B’ C’ D’. When a num- of Spring Cells, C, D.
ber of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer
wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than
they would naturally shrink of themselves. Since there is more of
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 45
the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log
shrinks circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood,
however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-
wood, so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential
shrinkage. As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential
shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage.
Putting these two factors
together, namely, the length- =
wise resistance of the pith rays eee cere
to the radial shrinkage of the a ee )
mass of other fibers, and sec- ee oe ia
ond, the continuous bands of Se Z
summer wood, comparatively =
free to shrink circumferentially, Pak seen wy
and the inevitable happens; the wee ee ae
log splits. If the bark is left i ie
on and evaporation hindered, WW ao
the splits will not open so wide. 2
There is still another effect
of shrinkage. If, immediately MBE A a Babess ob aH alved'Log:
after felling, a log is sawn in
two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the
flat sides will tend to become convex, as in Fig. 39. This is ex-
plained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than
radial shrinkage.
If a log is “quartered,” the quarters split still less, as the inevitable
shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then tend to assume
the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. Ifa log is sawed into timber, it checks
from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig. 40, D. Sometimes
the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split.
When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends to warp so
that the concave side is away from the center of the tree. If one
plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will become
thinner at its edges than at its center, i. e., convex on both faces.
Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig. 40.
In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential
shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are ac-
counted for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.
*See Handwork in Wood, p. 42.
WOOD AND FOREST.
Fig. 40. Shapes Assumed by Wood in Shrinking.
PROPERTIES OF Woop. 47
Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting
more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center
of the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the
other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the
center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board
will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the
treatment is very severe. his shows again that water distends the
cells laterally but not longitudinally.
The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
to have three results, all included in the term “working,” viz.:
shrinkage, a diminution in size, splitting, due to the inability of
parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
warping, or uneven shrinkage.
In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of
each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
Handwork in Wood, Fig. 280, a, p. 188.
Under warping is included
bowing. Bowing, that is, bend-
ing in the form of a bow, is,
so to speak, longitudinal warp-
ing. It is largely due to
crookedness or irreeularity of
grain, and is likely to occur in
boards with large pith rays, as
oak and sycamore. But even
a straight-grained piece of
wood, left standing on end or
subjected to heat on one side
and dampness on the other, will
bow, as, for instance a board
lying on the damp ground and
in the sun. Fig. 41. a, Star Shakes; 4, Heart Shakes;
ine apes a c, Cup Shakes or Ring Shakes; ¢, Honey-
Splitting — takes various combing.
names, according to its form in
the tree. “Check” is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more
particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. “Shakes” are splits
of various forms as: star shakes, Fig. 41, a, splits which radiate from
48 WOOD AND FOREST.
the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; heart shakes, Fig.
41, b, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the cen-
ter; and cup or ring shakes, Fig. 41, c, splits between the annual
rings. Honeycombing, Fig. 41, d, is splitting along the pith rays
and is due largely to case hardening.
These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in
the growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.
Vood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if
not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to
wet steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden
wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking
and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short
of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.
Rapid drying of wood tends to “case harden” it, 7. e., to dry and
shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning
of wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of
shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.
Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
evenly than the broad-leaved woods.’ Wood, even after it has been
well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves con-
stant care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
considered in Handwork in Wood, Chapter IIT, on the Seasoning of
Wood.
*The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage
of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air:
Shrinkage
: ; Inches.
1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) ...........5...005 3
2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew) honey locust, box elder,
WOOd OL UGId (OBIS). 4 bareeoisecuam conscien oe aa ne Rie Mloeida Bocciiew obe 4
3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, cherry, black locust. 5
4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, young locust.... 6
5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak............0.0000..---. Up to 10
The figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 49
THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.
Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be
proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since
the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the
wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air en-
closed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as
it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. A
longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
filled with air it would float.
In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but
the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight va-
ries accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone,
the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the
same; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine,
ebony or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is
lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-
walled and air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as
lignum vitae, are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is
because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are
small.
In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.
The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic
foot or as specific gravity.
It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more
than that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark
weighing more than either the center or the outside.’
‘How much different woods vary may be seen by the following table,
taken from Filibert Roth, Timber, Forest Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:
50 WOOD AND FOREST.
The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use.
A mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.
Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable.
The lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
in the spring wood.
The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood
is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason
WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.
Approximate.
Weight of
Specific 1 cubic | 1,000 feet
weight. foot. of lumber.
Pounds Pounds
(a) Very heavy woods:
Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage
orange, black locust, hackberry,
blue beech, best of elm, and ash. | 0.70-0.80 42-48 3,700
(b) Heavy woods:
Ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple,
beech, walnut, sour gum, coffee
tree, honey locust, best of south-
ern pine, and tamarack.......... .60- .70 36-42 3,200
(ec) Woods of medium weight:
Southern pine, pitch pine, tamar-
ack, Douglas spruce, western
hemlock, sweet gum, soft maple,
sycamore, sassafras, mulberry,
light grades of birch and cherry.. -50- .60 30-36 2,700
(d) Light woods:
Norway and bull pine, red cedar,
cypress, hemlock, the heavier
spruce and fir, redwood, bass-
wood, chestnut, butternut, tulip,
catalpa, buckeye, heavier grades
OFA PO Plan ss eeerana tea arsine hee else hans 40-50 24-30 2,200
(e) Very light woods:
White pine, spruce, fir, white ce-
Ca POplatvi3a netinaene cer sane 30- .40 18-24 1,800
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 51
that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and com.
pactness of the fibers.’
THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.
Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength
is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.
—
=~
(w) A
——<——_—_— ZB
— ——> Compression a im -
SSS Se SS WNeviral Asisss 222222 S23 3 seamen
mm _ Fension ——_ > =
e; 7, oe ao
ae ao 7 Se eZe
L — iy
Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral Axis, and the Lines of
Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in Such a timber should be in the
upper half, as at A.
Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory
bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar
of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater
compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height
and weight. It approaches the strength of cast iron under the same
conditions.
Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, how-
ever, the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each
bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed
together. As a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under
tension than under compression, varying from two to four times.
‘For table of weights of different woods see Sargent, Jesup Collection,
pp. 153-157.
WOOD AND FOREST.
on
Lo
Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under
tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine,
being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like
hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods
are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension.
Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
When thoroly sea-
soned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression
extrinsic condition.
outweighs all other causes which affect strength.
and in bending, than when
=e green or water soaked.’
The tension or pulling
streneth of wood is much af-
\
Y ae fected by the direction of the
| Za erain, a cross-grained piece be-
| :
] ing only 1/10th to 1/20th as
7 Dee
strong as a
ce
ne
— so that if a timber is to be
straight-grained
piece. But under compression
there is not much difference;
Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured
by the Adhesion of the Portion A, B,C,
D or to the Wood on both sides of it.
subjected to cross strain, that
is the lower half under tension
and the upper half under com-
pression, a knot or other cross-
grained portion should be in the upper half.
Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
“shearing strength.’ It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when
the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber,
ABCD, Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would
be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resist-
ance of the portion A BC D, i. ¢., its power of adhesion to the wood
adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised
piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoul-
der, that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, be-
“See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and Forestry Cireular No. 108.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 53
cause moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the
fibers to each other.‘
CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.
Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, 2. ¢.,
the ease of splitting.
When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood
splits in advance of the ax edge. See Handwork in Wood, Fig. 59,
p. 52. The wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly
as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other
edge and it were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft
ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The
longer the cleft, the easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and
shearing strength and hardness hinder it.
A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along
any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood sep-
arates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is much
easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are inter-
laced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard.
Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.
All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy
is because of their difference in cleavability.
ELASTICITY OF WOOD.
Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape,—
bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape.
When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back
from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is brittle-
ness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.
"For table of strengths of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection,
pp. 166 ff.
54 WOOD AND FOREST.
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints
for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
when green, but quite brittle when dry.
Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.*
HARDNESS OF WOOD.
Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and de-
pends primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the small-
ness of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than
spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine
on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See Handwork in Wood,
p- 41, and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both
spring and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard
makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are com-
paratively soft.
The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces to-
gether. Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers
can be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry
is stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, how-
ever, it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to
insure a strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made
with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on
hard wood.”
TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.
Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks
and blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, par excellence,
‘For table of elasticity of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection
pp. 163 ff.
*For table of hardnesses of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collec
tion, pp. 173 fF.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 55
are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded, pulled, com-
pressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that hickory is
used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, ete.
In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes
one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of quali-
ties that makes it fit for use.”
It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
of different woods that made “the one horse shay,’ “The Deacon’s
Masterpiece.”
“So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
Where he could find the strongest oak,
That couldn’t be split nor bent nor broke,—
That was for spokes and floor and sills;
He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,
The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
But lasts like iron for things like these.
The hubs of logs from the “Settler’s Ellum,”—
Last of its timber,—they couldn’t sell ’em.
Never an ax had seen their chips,
And the wedges flew from between their lips,
Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;
Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,
Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;
Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,
Found in the pit when the tanner died.
That was the way to “put her through.”
‘There!’ said the Deacon, ‘naow she’ll dew!’ ”
WFor detailed characteristics of different woods see Chapter II].
56 WOOD AND FOREST.
THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
REFERENCES*
Moisture and Shrinkage.
Roth, For. Bull., No. 10, pp. 25- Busbridge, Sci. Am. Sup. No, 1500.
37. Oct. 1, 704.
Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
Roth, For. Bull., 10, p. 37-50. Roth, First Book, pp. 229-233.
Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140. Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 153-
176.
Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.
*For general bibliography, see p, 4.
CuHaprer III.
THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.
NOTES.
The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37%
diameters.
Following the precedent of U. 8. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sud-
worth’s Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States, the com-
plicated rules for the capitalization of the names of species are aban-
doned and they are uniformly not capitalized.
On pages 192-195 will be found lsts of the woods described, ar-
ranged in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity,
and hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent’s
The Jesup Collection.
In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the
various kinds of wood.
Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal mar-
kets of the country can be had from the U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture,
The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., Record of Wholesale Prices
of Lumber, List A. These lists are published periodically. No at-
tempt is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of
wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ consid-
erably, especially in soft woods (conifers) ; (3) prices are constantly
varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities.
57
58 WOOD AND FOREST.
Wire Pint, Wrymouri PINE.
Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.
Pinus strobus Linnaeus.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; strobus refers to the cone, or strobile,
from a Greek word, strobus, meaning twist,
o,
ee
Leaf,
Habitat: (See map);
now best in Michigan,
Wisconsin and Minnesota.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-120’,
even 200’; diameter, 2’-4’;
branches in whorls, cleans
poorly; bark, dark gray,
divided by deep longitu-
dinal fissures into broad
ridges; leaves in clusters
of 5, 37-5" long; cone
drooping, 4”-10" long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, heart-wood, very
light brown, almost cream
color, sap-wood, nearly
white; non-porous; rings,
fine but distinet; grain,
straight; pith rays, very
faint; resin ducts, small,
inconspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, very light (59th
in this list), 27 Ibs. per
cu. ft.; sp.. gr. 0.3854;
strength, medium (55th in
this list; elasticity, me-
dium (47th in this list) ;
soft (57th in this list) ;
SPECIES OF WOODS. 59
shrinkage 3 per cent; warps very little;
durability, moderate; works easily in
every way; splits easily but nails well.
Common Uses: Doors, window sashes
and other carpentry, pattern-making,
cabinet-work, matches.
Remarks: This best of American
woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and
higher in price. Its uses are due to its
uniform grain, on account of which it
is easily worked and stands well. Known
in the English market as yellow pine.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
60
WOOD AND FOREST.
2
Western WHITE PINE.
Pinus monticola Douglas.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; monticola means mountain-dweller.
Habitat.
—}
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows at great elevations,
7,000’-10,000".. Best in
northern Idaho.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-160';
diameter, 4’ to even 8’;
branches, slender, spread-
ing; bark, gray and
brown, divided into squar-
ish plates by deep longi-
tudinal and cross fissures ;
leaves, 5 in sheath; cones,
12”x18”" long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown or red,
sap-wood nearly white;
non-porous; rings, sum-
mer wood, thin and not
conspicuous ; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure; resin ducts, nu-
merous and conspicuous
tho not large.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, very light (58th
SPECIES OF WOODs. 61
in this list), 24 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this
list); elastic (35th in this lst); soft
(63d in this list) ; shrinkage, 3 per cent;
warps little; moderately durable; easy
to work; splits readily but nails well.
Common Uses: Lumber for construc-
tion and interior finish.
Remarks: Closely resembles Pinus
Strobus in appearance and quality of
wood.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
[oP
bo
Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.
SuGar PINE.
SPECIES OF WOODs.
Pinus lambertiana Douglas.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; lambertiana, from the botanist, A. B.
Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.
Habitat.
AN
re
LOO
pide
ae
XS
ea
ALF
cae
ehcp
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows on high elevations
(5,000’), best in northern
California.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-300';
diameter, 15”-20” ;
branches, in remote reg-
ular whorls; bark, rich
purple or brown, thick,
deep irregular fissures
making long, flaky ridges;
leaves, stout, rigid, in
bundles of five; cones,
10”-18” long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pinkish brown, sap-
wood, cream white; non-
porous; rings, distinct;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, obscure; resin
ducts, numerous, large
and conspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, very light (61st
SPECIES OF WOODS. 63
in this list), 22 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this
list); elasticity, medium (56th in this
list); soft (53d in this list); shrink-
age, 3 per cent; warps little; durable;
easily worked; splits little, nails well.
Common Uses: Carpentry, interior
finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels,
ete.
Remarks: Exudes a sweet substance
from heart-wood. A magnificent and
important lumber tree on Pacific coast.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
64 WOOD AND FOREST.
4
Norway PINE.
Red refers to color of bark,
Rep PINE.
Pinus resinosa Solander.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; resinosa refers to very resinous wood-
Habitat.
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows best in northern
Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-90';
diameter, 2’-3’; tall,
straight; branches = in
whorls, low; bark, thin,
scaly, purplish and red-
dish-brown; longitudinal
furrows, broad flat ridges;
leaves, in twos in long
sheaths; cones, 2”.
Appearance of Wood:
Color of wood, pale red,
sap-wood, wide, whitish;
non-porous; rings sum-
mer wood broad, dark;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, pronounced, thin ;
very resinous, but duets
small and few.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, light, 43d in this
SPECIES OF WOODS. 65
list), 31 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.4854;
strong (39th in this list) ; elastic (16th
in this list); soft (48th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 3 per cent; warps moder-
ately; not durable; easy to work; splits
readily, nails well.
Common Uses: Piles, electric wire
poles, masts, flooring.
Remarks: Often sold with and as
white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
(Pinus sylvestris). Bark used to some
extent for tanning. Grows in open
groves.
Jkadial Section,
life size.
reyrrrrrritiry
CSORTR90RT0%
PEGBABES »
9
Cross-section, ‘Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
66 WOOD AND FOREST.
5
WESTERN YELLOW PINE.
Bull refers to great size of trunk.
Buy PINE.
Pinus ponderosa Lawson.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; ponderosa refers to great size of trunk.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Rocky Mountains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’ to
300’; diameter, 6’ to even
12’; branches, low, short
trunk; bark, thick, dark
brown, deep, meandering
furrows, large, irregular
plates, scaly; leaves, in
twos or threes, 5” to 11”
long, cones” to 6” long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light red, sap-wood,
thick, nearly white, and
very distinct; non-porous;
rings, conspicuous; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure; very resinous but
ducts small.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, light (44th in
this list), 25-30 lbs. per
cu. ft. sp. gr. 0.4715;
strength, medium (45th
SPECIES OF WOODS. 67
in this list) ; elasticity, medium (41st in
this list); hardness, medium (42nd in
this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps
..3 not durable; hard to work,
brittle; splits easily in nailing.
Common Uses: Lumber, railway ties,
mine timbers.
Remarks: Forms extensive open for-
ests.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
68
WOOD AND FOREST.
G
LonG-LEAF PINE.
GEORGIA PINE.
Pinus palustris Miller.
Pinus, the classical Latin name;
priate here.
Habitat.
a
LTS)
OI)
SEI
OR a
cae er
Leaf.
palustris means swampy, inappro-
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Louisiana and East
Texas.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80'-100’';
diameter, 2’-3'; trunk,
straight, clean, branches
high; bark, hght brown,
large, thin, irregular pa-
pery scales; leaves 8”-12”
long, 3 in a sheath; cones
6”-10" long.
Appearance of Wood:
Heart-wood, spring wood
hight vellow, summer
sap
non-por-
wood, red brown;
wood, lighter ;
ous; rings, very plain and
strongly marked; grain,
straight: rays, numerous,
conspicuous; very resin-
ous, but resin ducts few
and not large.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (18th in this list),
38 lbs. per cu. ft.. sp. gr.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 69
0.6999; very strong (7th in this list) ;
very elastic (4th in this list) ; hardness,
medium (33d in this list); shrinkage,
4 per cent; warps very little; quite
durable; works hard, tough; _ splits
badly in nailing.
Common Uses: Joists, beams, bridge
and building trusses, interior finish, ship
building, and general construction work.
Remarks: Almost exclusively the
source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin
in the United States. Known in the
English market as pitch pine.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
Suort-LeaAr PINE.
WOOD AND FOREST.
YELLOW PINE.
Pinus echinata Miller.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; echinata refers to spiny cones.
Habitat.
==
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Mississippi
basin.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Straight, tall trunk,
sometimes 100’ high;
branches high; diameter
2’-4'; bark, pale grayish
red-brown, fissures, run-
ning helter-skelter, mak-
ing large irregular plates,
covered with small scales;
leaves in twos, 3” long;
cones small.
Appearance of Wood:
Color: heartwood, sum-
mer wood, red, spring-
wood, yellow; sap-wood,
lighter; non-porous; an-
nual rings very plain,
sharp contrast between
spring and summer wood;
grain, straight, coarse ;
rays, numerous, conspicu-
ous; very resinous, ducts
large and many.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 71
Physical Qualities: Weight, medium
(32nd in this list), 32 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in
this list) ; very elastic (8th in this list) ;
soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4
per cent; warps little; durable; trouble-
some to work; hkely to split along an-
nual rings in nailing.
Common Uses: Heavy construction,
railroad ties, house trim, ship building,
cars, docks, bridges.
Remarks: Wood hardly distinguish-
able from long-leaf pine. Often forms
pure forests. The most desirable yellow
pine, much less resinous and more easily Radial Section,
? : life size.
worked than others.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
I
bo
WOOD AND FOREST.
8
LosLtotty Pine. OLxp FIELD PINE.
Loblolly may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to
habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.
Pinus taeda Linnaeus.
Pinus, the classical Latin name; taeda, the classical Latin name for
pitch-pine, which was used for torches.
See: ;
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows best in eastern Vir-
ginia, and eastern North
Carolina.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-150';
diameter, often 4-5’;
branches high ; bark,
Habitat. :
purplish brown, shallow,
j meandering fissures, broad,
| flat, scaly ridges; leaves,
3 in sheath, 4”-7" long;
cones 3”-5” long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, heart-wood orange,
sap-wood lighter; non-
porous; rings very plain,
sharp contrast between
spring wood and summer
wood; grain, straight,
coarse; rays conspicuous ;
| very resinous, but duets
|
\ el few and small.
H
Physical Qualities:
Leaf. Weight, medium (39th in
SPECIES OF WOODS. 73
this list), 33 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.5441; strong (26th in this list) ; elas-
tic (17th in this list); medium hard
(43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per
cent; warps little; not durable; diffi-
cult to work, brittle; splits along rings
in nailing.
Common Uses: Heavy construction,
beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
flooring, house trim.
Remarks: Resembles Long-leaf Pine,
and often sold as such. Rarely makes
pure forests.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, , Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
74 WOOD AND FOREST.
9
SLasH Pine.
CuBAN PINE.
Pinus caribaea Morelet. Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth.
Pinus, the classical Latin name;
caribaea refers to the Caribbean Is
lands; heterophylla refers to two kinds of leaves.
NS | MO ?
bok ENN’
: 1A H VY SZ
Lem AmisshyALay GA
E ‘ 1
LAK
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows best in Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisi-
ana.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, sometimes
110’, straight, tall, branch-
ing high; diameter 1’-3';
bark, dark red and brown,
shallow irregular fissures ;
leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath,
8-12” long; cones, 4-5”
long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dark orange, sap-
wood lighter; non-por-
ous; annual rings, plain,
sharp contrast between
spring wood and summer
wood; grain, — straight;
rays numerous, rather
prominent; very resinous,
but ducts few.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (7th in this list),
SPECIES OF WOODS. 75
39 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.7504; very
strong (6th in this list); very elastic
(3d in this list); hard (24th in this
list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent; warps lit-
tle; quite durable; troublesome to work ;
splits along annual rings in nailing.
Common Uses: Heavy construction,
ship building, railroad ties, docks,
bridges, house trim.
Remarks: Similar to and often sold
as Long-leaf Pine.
Radial Section,
life size.
OT TO
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
1
for)
10
Tamarack. LaArcH.
Lartx laricina (Du Roi) Koch.
Larix, the classical Latin name.
Leaf.
WOOD AND FOREST.
HACKMATACK.
Larix americana Michaux.
Habitat: (See map) ;
prefers swamps, “Tama-
rack swamps.”
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-60’
and even 90’, diameter 1’-
3’; intolerant; tall, slen-
der trunk; bark, cinna-
mon brown, no ridges,
breaking into flakes ;
leaves, deciduous, — pea-
green, in tufts; cone, %4”-
34”, bright brown.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, ght brown, sap-
wood hardly distinguish-
able; non-porous; rings,
summer wood, thin but
distinct, dark colored;
grain, straight, coarse;
rays, numerous, hardly
distinguishable; very res-
inous, but ducts few and
small.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (29th in
SPECIES OF WOODs.
“NI
J
this list), 39 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.6236; strong (24th im this list); elas-
tic (11th in this list); medium hard
(40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
Cont WALDS xis cement ; very durable ;
easy to work; splits easily.
Common Uses: Ship building, elec-
tric wire poles, and railroad ties; used
for boat ribs because of its naturally
crooked knees; slenderness prevents com-
mon use as lumber.
Remarks: Tree desolate looking in
winter.
Radial Sectiv.i,
life size.
_ Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 374 diameters. life size.
WOOD AND FOREST.
11
WESTERN LarcH. TAMARACK.
Larix occidentalis Nuttall.
Larix, the classical Latin name; occidentalis means western.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in northern Montana
and Idaho, on high eleva-
tions.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 90'-130’,
even 250’; diameter 6’-8';
tall, slender, naked trunk,
with branches high; bark,
cinnamon red or purplish,
often 12” thick, breaking
into irregular plates, often
2’ long; leaves, in tufts;
deciduous; cones small.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light red, thin,
whitish, sap-wood; non-
porous; grain, straight,
fine; rays numerous, thin ;
very resinous, but duets
small and obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, heayy (11th in
this list), 46 lbs. per cu.
ft., sp. gr. 0.7407; very
SPECIES OF WOODS. 79
strong (3d in this list); very elastic
(1st in this list); medium hard (35th
in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent;
WARDS crores aie nee ; very durable; rather
hard to work, takes fine polish; splits
with difficulty.
Common Uses: Posts, railroad ties.
fencing, cabinet material and fuel.
Remarks: A valuable tree in the
Northwest.
Radial Section,
life size.
H
H
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
80 WOOD AND FOREST.
12
WHITE SPRUCE.
Picea canadensis (Miller) B. 8. P. Picea alba Link.
Picea, the classical Latin name; white and alba refers to the pale color
of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark.
Habitat: (See map).
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60-100’
and even 150°; diameter,
1-2" and even 4’; long,
thick branches; _ bark,
fof ec fel Px ES light grayish brown, sep-
Has A
Tabitat. arating into thin plate-like
scales, rather smooth ap-
pearance, resin from cuts
forms white gum; leaves,
set thickly on all sides of
branch, finer than red
spruce, odor disagreeable ;
cones, 2” long, cylindrical,
slender, fall during sec-
ond summer.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light yellow, sap-
wood, hardly distinguish-
able; non-porous; rings,
wide, summer wood thin,
not conspicuous; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
prominent; resin ducts,
Leaf. few and minute.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 81
Physical Qualities: Weight, light
(51st in this list) ; 25 lbs. per cu. ft., sp.
er., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this
list); elastic (29th in this list); soft
(58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent;
Warps 22 direc ; fairly durable; easy to
work, satiny surface; splits readily.
Common Uses: Lumber and paper
pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
Black Spruce in market).
Remarks: Wood very resonant, hence
used for sounding boards. The most im-
portant lumber tree cf the sub-arctic
forest of British Coiumbia.
Radial Section,
life size.
_ Cross-section, Tangential Sectior
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
foo)
bo
13
Rep Spruce.*
WOOD AND FOREST.
Picea rubens Sargent.
Pioea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; rubens refers to red-
dish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood.
Ny
4
i)
yj
i
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
stunted in north.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70-80’,
even 100’; diameter, 2’-3’,
grows — slowly; trunk,
straight, columnar,
branches in whorls, cleans
well in forest; bark, red-
dish brown with thin ir-
regular scales; leaves,
needle-shaped, four-sided,
pointing everywhere;
cones, 114”-2” long, pen-
dent, fall during the first
winter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dull white with oc-
casional reddish streaks;
sap-wood not distinct;
non-porous; rings, sum-
mer rings thin, but clearly
defined; grain, straight;
rays, faintly discernible;
resin ducts, few and small.
*Noi distinguished in the Jesup collection from Picea nigra,
SPECIES OF WOODS. ; 83
Physical Qualities: Weight, light
(47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in
this list); elastic (21st in this list) ;
soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3
per cent; warps little; not durable; easy
to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.
Common Uses: Sounding boards,
construction, paper pulp, ladders.
Remarks: The exudations from this
species are used as chewing gum. Bark
of twigs is used in the domestic manu-
facture of beer. The use of the wood for Le
@ < Varwacs ea “oe
sounding boards is due to its resonance, Radial Section,
ire size.
and for ladders to its strength and
lightness.
_ Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
14
84 WOOD AND FOREST.
BLACK SPRUCE.*
Picea mariana (Miller) B. 8. P. Picea nigra Link.
Picca, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine: mariana named for
Queen Mary; black and nigra refer to dark foliage.
=
\, Sean Se
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Canada.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-S0’
and even 100’; diameter,
6"-1' even 2’; branches,
whorled, pendulous with
upward curve; __ bark,
gray, loosely attached
flakes; leaves, pale blue-
green, spirally set, point-
ing in all_ directions:
or
cones, small, ovate-ob-
long, persistent for many
years.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pale, reddish, sap-
wood, thin, white, not
very distinct: non-por-
ous: rings, summer wood,
small thin cells; grain,
straight; rays, few, con-
spicuous: resin ducts, few
and minute.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, light (47th in
*Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from Picea rubens.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 85
this list), 33 lbs. per cu. ft. sp. gr.,
0.4584; medium strong (41st in this
list); elastic (21st in this list); soft
(54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per
cent; warps little; not durable; easy
to work; splits easily in nailing.
Common Uses: Sounding boards,
Jumber in Manitoba.
Remarks: Not distinguished from
Red Spruce commercially.
eo sae
Radial Section,
life size.
r Cross-section, ‘Langential Section,
magnified 3714 diameters. life size.
86
WOOD AND FOREST.
15
WHITE SprucE. ENGELMANN’s SPRUCE.
Picea engelmanni (Parry) Engelmann,
“abitat.
Leaf.
Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist
Habitat: (See map);
grows at very high eleva-
tions, forming forest at
8,000’-10,000'; best in
British Columbia.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75’-100’,
even 150’; diameter, 2’-3’,
even 5’; branches whorled,
spreading; bark, deeply
furrowed, red-brown to
purplish brown, — thin,
large, loose scales; leaves,
blue-green, point in all
directions ; cones, 2”
long, oblong, cylindrical.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pale yellow or red-
dish, sap-wood hardly dis-
tinguishable; non-porous;
rings, very fine, summer
wood, narrow, not con-
spicuous; grain, straight,
close; rays, numerous,
conspicuous; resin ducts,
small and few.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 87
Physical Qualities: Weight, very
light (57th in this list); 22 lbs. per
cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in
this list); elasticity medium (55th in
this list); soft (56th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps......... :
durable; easy to work; splits easily.
Common Uses: Lumber.
Remarks:
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-150’
“Fabitat. and even 200’ high; di-
ameter 3’-4’ and even 15’;
trunk base enlarged; bark,
thick, red-brown, scaly:
leaves, standing out in
all directions; cones,
2%”"-4"” long, pendent,
eylindrical, oval.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood whitish; non-por-
ous; rings, wide, sum-
mer wood, thin but very
distinct, spring wood, not
plain; grain, — straight,
coarse ; Tays, numerous,
rather prominent; resin
Teak, ducts, few and small.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 8&9
Physical Qualities: Weight, light
(52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in
this list); elastic (31st in this list) ;
soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3
per cents) WaEPS ee o.casid ; durable ;
easy to work; splits easily.
Common Uses: Interior finish, boat
building and cooperage.
Remarks: Largest of the spruces.
Common in the coast belt forest.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
90 WOOD AND FOREST.
41"
aé
HEMLOCK.
Tsuga canadensis (Linnaeus) Carriere.
Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized; canadensis named for Canada.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in North Carolina
and Tennessee.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60’-70',
sometimes 100’; diameter,
2’-3'; branches, _ persist-
ent, making trunk not
very clean; bark, red-gray,
narrow, rounded ridges,
deeply and irregularly
fissured; leaves, spirally
arranged, but appear two-
ranked; cones, 34” long,
graceful.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood just distinguishable ;
non-porous; rings, rather
broad, conspicuous; grain,
95
crooked; rays, numerous,
thin; non-resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, light (53d in
this list); 26 Ibs. per cu.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 91
ft., sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th
in this list); elasticity, medium (40th
in this list); soft (51st in this list) ;
shrinkage, 3 per cent; warps and checks
badly; not durable; difficult to work,
splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds
nails well.
Common Uses: Coarse, cheap lum-
ber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and
laths.
Remarks: The poorest lumber. Bark
chief source of tanning material.
Radial Section,
life size.
_ Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
WOOD AND FOREST.
Western Henmiocn. Biack HEMLock.
Tsuga heterophylla (Rafinesque) Sargent.
Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized;
of leaves.
Habitat.
Leaf.
*Not in Jesup Collection.
heterophylla refers to two kinds
Habitat: (See map);
best on coast of Washing-
ton and Oregon.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 150-200’;
diameter, 6’-10'; branches,
pendent, slender; — bark,
reddish gray, deep, longi-
tudinal fissures between,
broad, oblique, flat ridges;
leaves, dark green, two-
ranked; cones, small, like
Eastern Hemlock.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pale brown, sap-
wood thin, whitish; non-
porous; rings, narrow,
summer wood thin but
distinct; grain, straight,
close; rays, numerous,
prominent ; non-resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Light in weight, strong,
elastic, hard;* shrinkage,
SPECIES OF WOODS. 93
3 per cent.; warps..........; durable,
more so than other American hemlocks;
easier to work than eastern variety;
splits badly.
Common Uses: Lumber for construc-
tion.
Remarks: Coming to be recognized
as a valuable lumber tree.
Radial Section,
life size.
’ Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
94 WOOD AND FOREST.
19
DouaLas SPRUCE. OREGON PINE.
Rep Fir. Doves Fir.
Pseudotsuga mucronata (Rafinesque) Sudworth.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lambert) Britton.
Pseudotsuga means false hemlock; mucronata refers to abrupt short
point of leaf; tawifolia means yew leaf.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Puget Sound re-
gion.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 175’-300';
Q'
diameter, 3’-5’, sometimes
10’;
2
ing clean trunk; bark,
branches high, leay-
rough, gray, great broad-
rounded ridges, often ap-
pears braided ; leaves, radi-
ating from stem; cones,
o” 4” ;
2”-4" long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light red to yellow,
sap-wood white; non-por-
ous; rings, dark colored,
conspicuous, very pro-
nounced summer wood;
grain, straight, coarse;
rays, numerous, obscure :
resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (41st in
this list) ; 32 lbs. per ecu.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 95
ft., sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st im this
list) ; very elastic (10th in this list) ;
medium hard (45th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 3 per cent. or 4 per cent.; warps
; durable; difficult to work,
STAT TESTER Tae ides
flinty, splits readily.
Common Uses: Heavy construction,
masts, flag poles, piles; railway ties.
Remarks: One of the greatest and
the most valuable of the western timber
trees. Forms extensive forests.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
96
WOOD AND FOREST.
20
Granp Fir. Waite Frr. Lowrnanp Fir. Sitver Fir.
Abies grandis Lindley.
Abies, the classical Latin name.
Ney,
, Loan
[SLD cove
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Puget Sound re-
gion.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, in interior
100’; diameter, 2’; on
coast, 250’-300’ high; di-
ameter, 2’-5'; long pend-
ulous branches; _ bark,
quite gray or gray brown,
shallow fissures, flat
ridges ; leaves, shiny
green above, silvery be-
low, 1%4”-2” long, roughly
two-ranked; cones, eylin-
drical, 2”-4” long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood lighter; non-porous ;
rings, summer cells
broader than in other
American species, dark
colored, conspicuous ; grain
straight, coarse; rays, nu-
merous, obscure; resinous.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 97
Physical Qualities: Very light (62d
in this list); 22 Ibs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.,
0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elas-
tie (34th in this list); soft (65th in
this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent; warps
little; not durable; works easily; splits
readily.
Common Uses: Lumber and packing
cases.
Remarks: No resin ducts. Not a
very valuable wood.
Radial Section,
life size.
c Cross-section, ‘Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
WOOD AND FOREST.
21
Bic Tree. Sequoia.
Sequoia washing’oniana (Winslow) Sudworth.
Decaisne.
Habitat.
Leaf.
GIANT SEQUOIA.
Sequoia gigantea,
Sequoia lJatinized from Sequoiah, a Chero kee Indian; washingtoniana, in
honor of George Washington.
Habitat:
in ten groves in southern
(See map) ;
California, at high eleva-
tion.
Characteristics of the
Height,
320’;
Tree: 205,
sometimes diame-
ter, 20’, sometimes 35’;
trunk, swollen and often
buttressed at base, ridged,
often clear for 150’; thick
horizontal branches; bark,
1’-2’ thick, in great ridges,
separates into loose,
fibrous, cinnamon red
scales, almost non-com-
bustible; leaves, — very
small, growing close to
stem: cones, 2”-3” long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, red, turning dark
on exposure, — sap-wood
thin, whitish; non-por-
ous; rings, very plain;
grain straight, coarse;
rays, numerous, thin;
non-resinous.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 99
Physical Qualities: Light (65th in
this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brit-
tle (62d in this list); very soft (61st
in this list); shrinks little; warps lit-
tle; remarkably durable; easy to work,
splits readily, takes nails well.
Common Uses: Construction, lum-
?
ber, coffins, shingles.
Remarks: Dimensions and age are
unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood
survivors of a prehistoric genus, once
widely distributed. Some specimens
3600 years old.
Radial Section,
life size.
_ Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
100 WOOD AND FOREST.
22
Repwoop. Coast ReDwoop. SEQUOTA.
Sequoia sempervirens (Lambert) Endlicher.
Sequoia, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; sempervirens
means ever living.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in southern Oregon
and northern California,
near coast.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 200’-340';
diameter, 10’-15’, rarely
25’; clean trunk, much
buttressed and swollen at
base, somewhat fluted,
branches very high; bark,
very thick, 6”-12", round-
ed ridges, dark scales
falling reveal inner red
bark; leaves, small, two-
”
ranked; cones, small, 1
long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, red, turning to
brown on seasoning, sap-
wood whitish; non-por-
ous ; rings, distinct ;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, very obscure ; non-
resinous.
SPECIES OF WOODS.
Physical Qualities: Light in weight
(55th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list) ;
brittle (60th in this list); soft (55th
in this list); shrinks little; warps ht-
tle; very durable; easily worked; splits
readily; takes nails well.
Common Uses: Shingles, construc-
tion, timber, fence posts, coffins, rail-
way ties, water pipes, curly specimens
used in cabinet work.
Remarks: Low branches rare. Burns
with difficulty. Chief construction wood
of Pacific Coast. Use determined
largely by durability.
Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
101
Radial Section,
life size.
Tangential Section,
life size.
102 WOOD AND FOREST.
23
Bap Cypress.
Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.
Taxodium distichum (Linnaeus)
L. C. Richard.
Taxcodium means yew-like; distichum refers to the two-ranked leaves.
Mabitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in South Atlantic
and Gulf States.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75’, oc-
casionally 150’; diame-
ter, 4-5’; roots project
upward into peculiar
knees; trunk — strongly
buttressed at base,
straight, majestic and
tapering; bark, light red,
shallow fissures, flat
plates, peeling — into
fibrous strips; leaves,
long, thin, two-ranked,
deciduous; cones, nearly
globular, 1” in diameter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, heart-wood, red-
dish brown, — sap-wood,
nearly white; non-por-
ous; rings, fine and well
marked; grain, nearly
straight, burl is beauti-
fully figured; rays, very
obscure; non-resinous.
SPECIES OF WOODs. 1038
Physical Qualities: Light in weight
(48th in this list) ; 29 Ibs. per cu. ft.,
sp. er. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in
this list); elastic (28th in this list) ;
soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3
per cent.; warps but little, likely to
check; very durable; easy to work, in
splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.
Common Uses: Shingles, posts, in-
terior finish, cooperage, railroad ties,
boats, and various construction work,
especially conservatories.
Remarks: Forms forests in swamps;
subject to a fungous disease, making
wood “peggy” or “pecky’; use largely Radial Section,
’ ife size.
determined by its durability. In New
Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are
said to be made of it.
Cross-section, ‘Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
104 WOOD AND FOREST.
24
WESTERN Rep CEDAR. CANOE CEDAR.
GIANT ARBORVITAE.
Thuja plicata D. Don. Thuya gigantea Nuttall.
Thuya or Thuja, the classical Greek name; plicata refers to the folded
leaves; gigantea refers to the gigantic size of the tree.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Puget Sound re
gion.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-200';
diameter, 2’-10’, even 15’;
trunk has immense but:
tresses, often 16’ in di-
ameter, then tapers;
branches, horizontal,
short, making a dense
conical tree; bark, bright
cinnamon red, shallow
fissures, broad ridges,
peeling into long, nar.
row, stringy — scales;
leaves, very small, over-
lapping in 4 ranks, on
older twigs, sharper and
more remote; cones, 4"
long, small, erect.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dull brown or red,
thin sap-wood nearly
white ; non-porous ; rings,
SPECIES OF WOODS.
summer bands thin, dark colored, dis-
tinct; grain, straight, rather coarse;
rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.
Physical Qualities: Very light in
weight (60th in this list); medium
strong (40th in this list) ; elastic (26th
in this list); soft (60th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks
little; very durable; easy to work; splits
easily.
Common Uses: Interior finish, cabi-
net making, cooperage, shingles, electric
wire poles.
Remarks: Wood used by Indians
for war canoes, totems and planks for
lodges; inner bark used for ropes and
textiles.
Cross-section,
magnified 3712 diameters.
Radial Section,
life size.
Tangential Section,
life size.
105
106 WOOD AND FOREST.
25
WHITE CEDAR.
Chamaecyparis thyoides (Linnaeus) B. S. P.
Chamaecyparis means low cypress; thyoides means like thuya (Abor-
vitae).
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Virginia and
North Carolina.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60’-80';
diameter, 2’-4'; branches,
low, often forming im-
penetrable thickets ; bark,
hight reddish brown,
many fine longitudinal
fissures, often spirally
twisted around stem;
leaves, scale-like, four-
ranked; cones, globular,
1%” diameter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pink to brown,
sap-wood lighter; non-
porous; rings, sharp and
distinct; grain, straight;
rays, numerous, obscure ;
non-resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Very hght in weight
(64th in this list); 23
SPECIES OF WOODS. 107
Ibs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.3322); weak
(64th in this list); brittle (63d in this
list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage
3 per cent.; warps little; extremely dur-
able; easily worked; splits easily; nails
well.
Common Uses: Boats, shingles, posts,
railway ties, cooperage.
Remarks: Grows chiefly in swamps,
often in dense pure forests. Uses deter-
mined largely by its durability.
Radial Scction,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential | Section,
magnified 3714 diameters. life size.
108 WOOD AND FOREST.
26
Lawson Cypress. Port OrrorD CEDAR. OREGON CEDAR.
WHITE CrpDaRr.
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murray) Parlatore.
Chamaecyparis means low cypress.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best on coast of Oregon.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-200’;
diameter, 4’-8’, even 12’;
base of trunk abruptly
enlarged; bark, very
thick, even 10” at base
of trunk, inner and outer
layers distinet, very deep
fissures, rounded ridges;
leaves, very small, 1/16”
long, four-ranked, over-
lapped, flat sprays; cones,
small, 14”, globular.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pinkish brown,
sap-wood hardly distin-
guishable; non-porous;
rings, summer wood thin,
not conspicuous; grain,
straight, close; rays, nu-
merous, very obseure;
non-resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Light in weight (46th in
SPECIES OF WOODS. 109
this list); 28 Ibs. per cu. ft. sp. gr.
0.4621; strong (25th in this list) ; elas-
tic (12th in this list); soft (50th in
this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.;
warps little; durable; easily worked;
splits easily.
Common Uses: Matches (almost ex-
clusively on the Pacific Coast), interior
finish, ship and boat building.
Remarks: Resin, a powerful diuretic
and insecticide.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘Yangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
110 WOOD AND FOREST.
27
Rep CEDAR.
Juniperus virgiuuana Linnaeus.
Juniperus, the classical Latin name; virginiana, in honor of the State
of Virginia.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Gulf States in
swamps, especially on the
west coast of Florida.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, +0’-50’,
even 80’; diameter, 1’-2';
trunk, ridged, sometimes
expanded ; branches, low;
bark, ght brown, loose,
ragged, separating into
long, narrow, persistent,
stringy scales; leaves, op-
posite, of two kinds, awl-
shaped, and scale-shaped ;
fruit, dark blue berry.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dull red, sap-wood
white ; non-porous ; rings,
easily distinguished ;
erain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, very obseure;
non-resinous.
Physical Qualities:
Very light in’ weight
SPECIES OF WOODS. 111
(42d in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in
this list); brittle (61st in this list) ;
medium hard (34th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 3 per cent.; warps little; very dur-
able; easy to work; splits readily, takes
nails well.
Common Uses: Pencils, chests, cigar
boxes, pails, interior finish.
Remarks: Fragrant. Pencils are
made almost exclusively of this wood,
because it is light, strong, stiff, straight
and fine-grained and easily whittled;
supply being rapidly depleted.
Radial Section,
life size.
(Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
WOOD AND FOREST.
112
28
3LACK WILLOW.
Salix nigra Marshall.
Salix, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; nigra refers to the
dark bark.
Habitat: (See map) ;
grows largest in southern
Illinois, Indiana and
Texas, on moist banks.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 30'-40',
sometimes 120°; diame-
Habitat. ter, 17-2, rarely 3/-4';
stout, upright, spreading
branches, from common
ss base; bark, rough and
i dark brown or black, of-
A ten tinged with yellow or
Ay! brown; leaves, lanceo-
J \ late, often scythe-shaped,
fe,
i serrate edges; fruit, a
aN capsule containing small
tf \\ } fo peace)
i WV hairy seeds.
i \4\
iV |
; Appearance of Wood:
ve i { Color, light — reddish
‘ 4 Bee brown, sap-wood, thin,
NS | whitish; diffuse-porous ;
rings, obscure; — grain,
close and weak; rays,
obseure.
Leaf.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 113
Physical Qualities: Light in weight
(51st in this list); 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list) ;
very brittle (64th in this list); soft
(46th in this list); shrinks consider-
ably ; warps and checks badly ; soft, weak,
indents without breaking; splits easily.
Common Uses: Lap-boards, baskets,
water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gun-
powder.
Remarks: Its characteristic of in-
denting without breaking has given it
use as lining for carts and as cricket
bats. Of the many willows, the most
tree like in proportion in eastern North Kadial Section,
ire size.
America. Bark contains salyeylic acid.
(Cross-section, Jangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
114
WOOD AND FOREST.
BurrEeRNUT.
29
WHITE WALNUT.
Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.
Juglans means Jove’s nut;
Juglans cinerea Linnaeus.
¥ 35 -
RK. t . y
- AMIS: ten
ie.
Habitat.
”
v
Leaf.
cinerea refers to ash-colored bark.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Ohio basin.
Characteristics of the
Height, 75’-100';
diameter, 2’-4'; branches
Tree:
low, broad — spreading
deep roots; bark, gray
ish brown, deep fissures.
broad ridges; _ leaves,
15”-30" long, compound,
11 to 17 leaflets, hairy
and rough; fruit, ob.
long, pointed, edible, oily
nut.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, hght brown, dark
ening with exposure, sap
wood whitish; diffuse
porous; rings, not prom
iment ;
grain, — fairly
straight, coarse, takes
high polish; rays, dis
tinct, thin, obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Light in weight (56th in
SPECIES OF WOODS. 115
this list), 25 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.4086; weak (57th in this list) ; elas-
ticity, medium (52d in this list); soft
(47th in this list); shrinkage .......
per cent.; warps little; durable; easy
to work; splits easily.
Common Uses: Cabinet work, inside
trim.
Remarks: Green husks of fruit give
yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘ Tangential Section,
magnified 371%4 diameters. life size.
116 WOOD AND FOREST.
30
Buack WALNUT.
Juglans nigra Linnaeus.
Juglans means Jove’s nut; nigra refers to the dark wood.
me ra ae A Habitat: (See map) ;
J pie S GAX best in western North
1 ahpaKy) THs Wien aS al
bao EA ( anh Sy Carolina and Tennessee.
L 8. { oMlo “aN:
ILL. (ND, x ae
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 90’-120’,
even 150’; diameter, 3’
to even 8; clean of
branches for 50’ to 60’;
Habitat. 5
bark, brownish, almost
black, deep fissures, and
broad, rounded ridges;
leaves, 1'-2’ long, com-
pound pinnate, 15 to 23
leaflets, fall early; fruit,
nut, with adherent husk,
and edible kernel.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, chocolate brown,
sap-wood much lighter;
diffuse-porous ; rings,
marked by shghtly larger
pores; grain, straight;
rays, numerous, thin, not
| conspicuous.
ej>
Physical Qualities:
{eats Weight, medium (31st
SPECIES OF WOODS.
in this list) ; 38 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.6115; strong (32d in this lst) ; clas-
tic (23d in this list); hard (21st in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
little; very durable; easy to work; splits
with some difficulty, takes and holds nails
well.
Common Uses: Gun stocks (since
17th century), veneers, cabinet making.
Remarks: Formerly much used for
furniture, now scarce. Plentiful in Cal-
ifornia. Most valuable wood of North
American forests. Wood superior to
European variety.
117
Radial Section,
life size.
(Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
Tangential Section,
life size.
118 WOOD AND FOREST‘.
31
Mocxernut. Buiack Hicxory. Buut-Nur. Bic-Bup Hickory.
Wuitr-Heart Hickory. Kina Nut.
Mockernut refers to disappointing character
of nuts.
Hicoria alba (Linnaeus) Britton. Carya tomentosa Nuttall.
Hicoria, shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernels; alba refers to the white wood,
carya, the Greek name for walnut; tomentosa refers to hairy under surface
of leaf.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio val-
ley, Missouri and Ar.
kansas.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75’.
rarely 100’; diameter,
2’-3'; rises high in for-
est; bark, dark gray,
shallow, irregular inter-
rupted fissures, rough
but not shaggy in old
trees; leaves, 8”-12” long,
compound, 7-9 leaflets,
fragrant when crushed;
fruit, spherical nut, thick
shell, edible kernel.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dark brown, sap-
wood nearly white; ring-
porous; rings, marked by
few large regularly dis-
tributed open ducts;
erain, usually straight,
close; rays, numerous,
thin, obscure.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 119
Physical Qualities: Very heavy (3d
in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.,
0.8218; very strong (11th in this list) ;
very elastic (14th in this list); very
hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10
per cent.; warps ......... .3 not dur-
able; very hard to work; splits with
great difficulty, almost impossible to
nail.
Common Uses: Wheels, runners, tool
and axe handles, agricultural imple-
ments.
Remarks: Confounded commercially
with shellbark hickory.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
120
SHELLBARK Hickory.
HHicoria ovata (Millar) Britton.
WOOD AND FOREST.
SHAGBARK Hickory.
Carya alba Nuttall.
Hickory is shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernels; ovata refers to oval nut: carya,
the Greek name for walnut.
NX
Habitat.
DT oN
LALA SD
ae
aN
eS
ee
aN
INS |
a>
Teaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio val-
ley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-90’
and even 120’; diameter,
2'-3’, even 4’; straight,
columnar trunk; bark,
dark gray, separates into
long, hard, plate-like
strips, which cling to
tree by middle, on young
trees very smooth and
close; leaves, 8”-20"
long, compound 5 or
(7) leaflets; nuts, glo-
bular, husk, four-valved,
split easily, thin-shelled,
edible.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown,
sap-wood whitish; ring-
porous; rings, clearly
marked; grain, straight;
rays, numerous, thin.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 121
Physical Qualities: Very heavy (1st
in this list) ; 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.8372; very strong (Sth in this list) ;
very elastic (7th in this list) ; very hard
(5th im this list); shrinkage, 10 per
cent.; warps badly; not very durable
under exposure; hard to work, very
tough; hard to split, very difficult to
nail.
Common Uses: Agricultural imple-
ments, handles, wheel spokes.
Remarks: American hickory is fa-
mous both for buggies and ax handles,
because it is flexible and very tough in
5 Zi bE Rt)
resistance to blows. Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
£22 WOOD AND FOREST.
33
PIGNUT.
Nuts eaten by swine.
Hicoria glabra (Miller) Britton.
Carya porcina.
Hicoria is shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernel;
glabra refers to smooth bark;
Carya the Greek name for walnut; porcina means pertaining to hogs.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio val-
ley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80-100’;
diameter 2’-4’; trunk of-
ten forked; bark, light
gray, shallow fissures,
rather smooth, rarely ex-
foliates; leaves, 8-12”
long
g, compound 7 leaflets,
sharply serrate; fruit, a
thick-shelled nut, bitter
kernel.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light or dark brown,
the thick sap-wood
lighter, — often nearly
white; ring-porous; rings,
marked by many large
open ducts ; grain,
straight; rays, small and
insignificant.
Physical Qualities:
Very heavy (4th in this
SPECIES OF WOODS. 128
list) ; 56 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217;
very strong (15th in this list) ; elastic
(27th in this list); very hard (2d in
this list); shrinkage, 10- per cent.;
warps ..........3 hard to work; splits
with difficulty, hard to drive nails into.
Common Uses: Agricultural imple-
ments, wheels, runners, tool handles.
Remarks: Wood not distinguished
from shellbark hickory in commerce.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. f life size.
124 WOOD AND FOREST.
34
Buiue Beecnw. HornNBEAM. WATER BEECH. JRON-WOOD.
Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to
horny texture of wood.
Carpinus carolimana Walter.
Carpinus, classical Latin name; caroliniana, named from the state.
V0 Habitat: (See map) ;
best on western slopes
of Southern Allegheny
Mountains and in south-
ern Arkansas and Texas.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, a small
tree, 30’-50’ high; diam-
eter, 6-2’; short, fluted,
sinewy trunk; bark
“ 2 2
Habitat.
smooth, bluish — gray;
leaves, faleate, doubly
serrate; fruit, small oval
nut, enclosed in leaf-like
bract.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood thick, whitish; dif-
fuse-porous; rings, ob-
scure; grain, close; rays,
\
| numerous, broad.
ms
| Physical Qualities:
Vv
Heavy (138th in this
list) ; 45 lbs. per eu. ft.,
teak sp. gr. 0.7286; very
SPECIES OF WOODS. 125
strong (9th in this list) ; very stiff (15th
in this list); hard (14th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and checks
badly; not durable; hard to work; splits
with great difficulty.
Common Uses: Levers, tool handles.
Remarks: No other wood so good
for levers, because of stiffness.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Laligcuuar oucuiui,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
126
CANOE BIRCH.
All names refer to bark.
WOOD AND FOREST.
35
WHITE BIRCH.
Paper BIRCI.
Betula papyrifera Marshall.
Betula, the classical Latin name; papyrifera refers to paper bearing bark.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best west of Rocky Moun-
tains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60’-80';
diameter, 2’-3'; stem
rarely quite straight;
bark, smooth, white, ex-
terior marked with len-
ticels, peeling freely
horizontally into thin
papery layers, showing
brown or orange _ be-
neath, contains oil which
burns hotly, formerly
used by Indians for ca-
noes, very remarkable
(see Keeler, page 304) ;
leaves, heart-shaped, ir-
regularly serrate; fruit,
pendulous strobiles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, brown or reddish,
sap-wood white; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure ;
grain, fairly — straight;
Tays, Numerous, obscure.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 127
Physical Qualities: Weight, medium
(33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.;
sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this
list) ; very elastic (2d in this list) ; me-
dium hard (39th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 6 per cent.; warps, .........3 not
durable, except bark; easy to work; splits
with difficulty, nails well, tough.
Common Uses: Spools, shoe lasts and
pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.
Remarks: Forms forests. Sap yields
syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable to
woodsmen in many ways.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnited 37% diameters. life stze.
WOOD AND FOREST.
Rep Bircu.
River Bircw.
Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.
Betula, the classical Latin name.
Betula nigra Linnaeus.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Florida, Louisi-
ana and Texas.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 30’-80',
and even higher; diame-
ter, 1’, even 5’;
; trunk,
often divided low; bark,
dark brown, marked by
horizontal lenticels, peels
into paper plates, curl-
ing back; leaves, doubly
serrate, often almost
lobed; fruit, pubescent,
erect. strobiles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, thick
sap-wood, whitish; dif-
fuse-porous; rings, not
plain; grain, close, rather
crooked; rays, numerous,
obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (36th
in this list); 35 Ibs. per
SPECIES OF WOODS. 129
cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in
this list); very elastic (19th in this
list) ; medium hard (37th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .......3
not durable when exposed; hard to
work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails
well.
Common Uses: Shoe lasts, yokes,
furniture.
Remarks: Prefers moist land.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Langentia! Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
130 WOOD AND FOREST.
37
Crerry Biron. Sweet Biro. Briack Biron. Manocany
BIRCH.
Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the
taste of the spicy bark.
Betula lenta Linnaeus.
Betula, the classical Latin name; lenta, meaning tenacious, sticky, may
refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk.
es i Wye
Tet weONce
EV, [So —
Pn as
LoD ee twats t
Uae re ag ee
~ aha)
\ S du
Habitat.
a
Aniz~ [ny Khe
ve
Leat.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Tennessee Moun-
tains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-80';
diameter, 2’-5’; trunk,
rarely straight; bark,
dark reddish brown, on
old trunks deeply fur-
rowed and broken into
thick, irregular _ plates,
marked with horizontal
lenticels; resembles
cherry; spicy, aromatic;
leaves, ovate, oblong, 2”-
6” long, irregularly ser-
rate; fruit, erect stro-
biles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dark, — reddish
brown; — diffuse-porous ;
rings, obscure; grain,
close, satiny, polishes
well, often stained to
imitate mahogany; rays,
numerous, obscure.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 1381
Physical Qualities: Heavy (6th in
this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
0.7617; very strong (4th in this list) ;
very elastic (6th in this list); hard
(11th in this list) ; shrinkage, 6 per cent.
warps, little; not durable if exposed;
rather hard to work; splits hard, tough.
Common Uses: Dowel pins, wooden
ware, boats and ships.
Remarks: The birches are not usu-
ally distinguished from one another in
the market.
es
- Lin
Kkadial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 371% diameters. life size.
132 WOOD AND FOREST.
38
YELLOW BIRCH.
Gray BIRCH.
Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.
Belula lutea F. A. Michaux.
Betula, the classical Latin name; lutea refers to the yellow color of the
bark.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in northern New
York and New England.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60-100’; di-
ameter, 3’-4'; branches,
low; bark, silvery, yellow,
gray, peeling horizontally
into thin, papery, persist-
ent layers, but on very old
trunks, there are rough,
irregular, plate-like scales ;
leaves, ovate, sharply,
doubly serrate; — fruit.
erect, 1” strobiles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light reddish brown,
sap-wood white; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, close, fairly
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (21st in this list) ;
40 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
SPECIES OF WOODS. 1338
0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list) ;
very elastic (2d in this list) ; medium
hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6
per cent.; warps.........3 not durable;
rather hard to work, polishes well; splits
with difficulty, holds nails well.
Common Uses: Furniture, spools,
button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill
boxes, yokes.
Remarks: The birches are not usu-
ally distinguished from one another in
the market.
Kauial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘Langential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
134 WOOD AND FOREST.
Fagus grandifolia Ehrhart.
39
BEECH.
Fagus americana Sweet. Fagus ferru-
ginea Aiton. Fagus atropunicea (Marshall) Sudworth.
Fagus (Greek phago means to eat), refers to edible nut; ferruginea.
refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; atropwnicea, meaning
dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper
beech,
Habitat.
—
bie
LS
a
WSS
\
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in southern Alleghany
Mountains and lower Ohio
valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-80' and
even 120°; diameter, 3’-4’;
in forest, trunk tall, slen-
der, sinewy; bark, smooth,
ashy gray; leaves, feather-
veined, wedge-shaped. ser-
rate: leaf buds, long,
pointed; fruit, 2 small
triangular nuts, enclosed
in burr, seeds about once
in 3 years.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish, variable,
sap-wood white; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, straight; — rays,
broad, very conspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (20th in this list) ;
42 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
SPECIES OF WOODS. 135
0.6883; very strong (10th in this list) ;
elastic (13th in this list) ; hard (22d in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
and checks during seasoning; not dur-
able; hard to work, takes fine polish;
splits with difficulty, hard to nail.
Common Uses: Plane stocks, shoe
lasts, tool handles, chairs.
Remarks: Often forms pure forests.
Uses due to its hardness.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
136 WOOD AND FOREST.
40
CHESTNUT.
Castanea dentata (Marshall) Borkhausen.
Castanea, the classical Greek and Latin name; dentata, refers to toothed leaf.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in western North Car-
olina, and eastern Ten-
nessee.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75’-100';
diameter, 3’-4’, and even
12’; branches, low; bark,
thick, shallow, irregular,
fissures, broad, grayish
brown ridges; leaves,
lanceolate, coarsely ser-
rate, midribs and _ veins
prominent; fruit, nuts,
thin-shelled, sweet, en-
closed in prickly burrs.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter ; ring-porous ;
rings, plain, pores large;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, light (50th in
this list), 28 lbs. per eu.
ft.; sp. er. 0.4504; me-
dium strong (46th in this
SPECIES OF WOODS. 137
list) ; elasticity, medium (46th in this
list) ; medium hard (44th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly;
very durable, especially in contact with
soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and
saw; splits easily.
Common Uses: Railway ties, fence
: ‘ : j
posts, interior finish.
Remarks: Grows rapidly, and lives
to great age. Wood contains much tan- j
nic acid. Uses depend largely upon its 4
durability. Lately whole regions depleted j
i
by fungous pest.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘Langential Section,
magnified 37%4 diameters. life size.
138 WOOD AND FOREST.
41
Rep Oak.
Quercus rubra Linnaeus.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; rubra, refers to red color of wood
j / Fae,
= a, : Fe
Koy ser “ os
j Mair! fe \ ° NB ,
Sead igen
oe fN "4, ey ; y
oan. LF CUO ATR
L -——2MI N oe v 'o .
: Ks wis. IC \ 5
ads (Jee:
1QwA BG \
EB. \ 1 OHIO At
NS. | MO. opi fan
eer wae Aan Be
Sr Hane Ce
! 1 Al ; Ws aay
Swale usa ca. *
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map),
best in Massachusetts and
north of the Ohio river
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-100,
even 150’; diameter, 3’-6';
a tall, handsome _ tree,
branches rather low; bark,
brownish gray, broad, thin,
rounded ridges, rather
smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 tri-
angular pointed _ lobes,
with rounded — sinuses;
acorns, characteristically
large, in flat shallow cups
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap
wood darker; ring-por
ous; rings, marked by sev
eral rows of very large
open ducts; grain, crooked,
coarse; rays, few, but
broad, conspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (23d in this lst),
SPECIES OF WOODS. 189
45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6540; strong
(21st in this list) ; elastic (18th in this
list) ; hard (26th in this list); shrink-
age 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks
badly; moderately durable; easier to
work than white oak; splits readily,
nails badly.
Common Uses: Cooperage, interior
finish, furniture.
Remarks: Grows rapidly. An infe-
rior substitute for white oak. Bark used
in tanning.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
140 WOOD AND FOREST.
42
Buack Oak. YELLOW Bark OAK.
Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner
bark, which is orange yellow.
Quercus velutina Lamarck. Quercus tinctoria Michaux.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; velutina, refers to the velvety surface
of the young leaf; tinctoria, refers to dye obtained from inner bark.
Habitat: (See map);
best in lower Ohio valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-80’,
even 150’; diameter 3’-4’;
branches, low; bark, dark
gray to black, deep fis-
Pc sures, broad, rounded,
firm ridges, inner bark,
yellow, yielding dye;
leaves, large, lustrous,
leathery, of varied forms;
acorns, small; kernel, yel-
low, bitter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter; ring-por-
ous; rings, marked by
several rows of very large
open ducts ; grain,
crooked ; rays, thin.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (17th in this list),
ese 45 Ibs. per eu. ft.; sp. gr.,
SPECIES OF WOODS. 14]
0.7045; very strong (17th in this list) ;
elastic (25th in this list); hard (18th
in this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent. or
more; warps and checks in drying; dur-
able; rather hard to work; splits read-
ily, nails badly.
Common Uses: Furniture, interior
trim, cooperage, construction.
Remarks: Foliage handsome in fall;
persists thru winter.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37'%4 diameters. life size.
142 WOOD AND FOREST.
43
Basket OaKx. Cow Oak.
Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.
Quercus michauaii Nuttall.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; michauwii, named for the botanist
Michaux.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Arkansas and
Louisiana, especially in
river bottoms.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80’-100’;
diameter 3’, even 1;
trunk, often clean and
straight for 40° or 50’;
2
Habitat.
bark, conspicuous, light
gray, rough with loose
ashy gray, scaly ridges;
leaves, obovate, regularly
scalloped; acorns, edible
for cattle.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood lght buff; ring-por-
ous; rings, marked by
few rather large, open
ducts; grain, likely to be
crooked ; rays, broad, con-
spicuous,
Physical Qualities:
Leaf. Very heavy (5th in this
SPECIES OF WOODS. 143
list), 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039 ; { RR
very strong (12th in this list) ; elastic } ;
(33d in this list); hard (10th in this |
list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; es 7
warps unless carefully seasoned; dur- I
able; hard and tough to work; splits
easily, bad to nail.
Common Uses: Construction, agri-
cultural implements, wheel stock, bas-
kets.
Remarks: The best white oak of the
south. Not distinguised from white
oak in the market.
Radial Section,
life size.
ie 53
Cross-section, ‘langential Section,
magnified 3714 diameters. life size.
144 WOOD AND FOREST.
44
Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Over-Cup Oak.
Quercus macrocarpa Michaux.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; macrocarpa, refers to the large acorn.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in southern Indiana,
Illinois and Kansas.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-130’,
even 170’; diameter, 5’-7";
branches, high; corky
wings on young branches;
bark, gray brown, deeply
furrowed; deep opposite
sinuses on large leaves;
acorns, half enclosed in
mossy-fringed cup.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, rich brown, sap-
wood, thin, lighter; ring-
porous; rings, marked by
1 to 3 rows of small open
duets; grain, crooked;
rays, broad, and conspic-
uous.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (9th in this list),
46 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7453; very strong (16th
SPECIES OF WOODS.
in this list) ; elastic (87th in this list) ;
hard (9th in this lst) ; shrinkage, 4 per
cent or more; warps, .......... ; hard,
and tough to work; splits easily, resists
nailing.
Common Uses: Ship building, cabi-
net work, railway ties, cooperage.
Remarks: Good for prairie plant-
ing. One of the most valuable woods of
North America. Not distinguished from
White Oak in commerce.
(Cross-section,
magnified 3714 diameters.
(Me
Radial Section,
life size.
@ aaa
‘Tangential Section,
life size.
146
WOOD AND FORKS.
45
Wuite Oax (Western).
Quercus garryana Douglas.
Habitat.
Leat.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; garryana, named for Garry.
Habitat: (Sce map) ;
best in western Washing-
ton and Oregon.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60’-70'
even 100’; diameter, 2’-
3’; branches, spreading;
bark, hght brown, shallow
fissures, broad ridges;
leaves, coarsely pinnati-
fied, lobed; fruit, large
acorns.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood whitish; ring-por-
ous; rings, marked by 1
to 8 rows of open ducts;
grain, close, crooked;
rays, varying greatly in
width, often conspicuous
Qualities:
Heavy (10th in this list),
46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7449; strong (28th in
this list); elasticity me-
Physical
SPECIES OF WOODS, 147
dium (54th in this list); hard (8th in
this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
warps, unless carefully seasoned; dur-
able; hard to work, very tough; splits
badly in nailing.
Common Uses: Ship building, ve-
hicles, furniture, interior finish.
Remarks: Best of Pacific oaks.
Shrubby at high elevations.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
148
Quercus stellata Wangenheim.
WOOD AND FOREST.
46
Post Oak.
Quercus minor (Marsh) Sargent.
Quercus obtusiloba Michaux.
Quercus, the classical Latin name;
stellata, refers to the stellate hairs
on upper side of leaf; minor, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby;
obtusiloba, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in Mississippi basin.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-75’,
even 100’; but often a
shrub; diameter, 2’-3’;
branches, spreading into
dense round-topped head;
bark, red or brown, deep,
vertical, almost continu-
ous, fissures and broad
ridges, looks corrugated;
leaves, in large tufts at
ends of branchlets; acorns,
small, sessile.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, brown, thick, sap-
wood, lighter; ring-por-
ous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of
not large open ducts;
grain, crooked; rays, nu-
merous, conspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
2d in this
list), 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;
Very heavy
SPECIES OF WOODS. 149
sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this
list) ; medium elastic (50th in this list) ;
very hard (4th in this list) ; shrinkage,
4 per cent. or more; warps and checks
badly in seasoning; durable; hard to
work; splits readily, bad to nail.
Common Uses: Cooperage, railway
ties, fencing, construction.
Remarks: Wood often undistin-
guished from white oak.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘Langential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
150 WOOD AND FOREST.
47
WHITE Oak.
STAvE OAk.
Quercus alba Linnacus.
Quercus, the classical Latin name; white and alba, refer to white bark.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best on western slopes
of Southern Alleghany
Mountains, and in lower
Ohio river valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80’-100';
diameter, 3’-5'; trunk, in
forest, tall, in open, short;
bark, easily distinguished,
hight gray with shallow
fissures, scaly; leaves,
rounded lobes, and sin-
uses; acorns, 34” to 1”
long, ripen first year.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood paler; ring-porous;
rings, plainly defined by
pores; grain crooked;
rays, broad, very conspic-
uous and irregular.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (8th in this list),
50 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 151
gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list) ;
elastic (82d in this list); hard (13th
in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10
per cent.; warps and checks consider-
ably, unless carefully seasoned ; very dur-
able, hard to work; splits somewhat
hard, very difficult to nail.
Common Uses: Interior finish, furni-
ture, construction, ship building, farm
implements, cabinet making.
Remarks: The most important of
American oaks.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
152 WOOD AND FOREST.
Cork Etm. Rock ELM.
Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.
Hickory Exum. Wuitrre Hum.
CLIFF Eun.
Ulmus thomasi Sargent. Ulmus racemosa Thomas.
Ulmus, the classical Latin name; racemosa, refers to racemes of flowers.
Habitat.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Ontario and south-
ern Michigan.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80’-100';
diameter, 2’-3’, trunk of-
ten clear for 60°; bark,
gray tinged with red,
corky, irregular projec-
tions, give shaggy appear-
ance ; leaves, obovate,
doubly serrate, 3”-4" long;
fruit, pubescent, samaras.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, ight brown or red;
sap-wood yellowish; ring-
porous; rings, marked
with one or two rows of
small open ducts; grain,
interlaced; rays, numer-
ous, obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (15th in this list),
45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.
0.7263; very strong (13th
SPECIES OF WOODS. 153
in this list) ; elastic (22d in this list) ;
hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5
per cent.; warps, ...4.... 3 very dur-
able; hard to work; splits and nails
with difficulty.
Common Uses: Hubs, agricultural
implements, sills, bridge timbers.
Remarks: The best of the elm
woods.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
154 WOOD AND FOREST.
49
Wuite Etim. AMERICAN ELM. WatTER ELM.
Water, because it flourishes on river banks.
Ulmus americana Linnaeus.
Ulmus, the classical Latin name.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best northward on river
bottoms.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 90’, even
120’; diameter, 3’-8’;
trunk, usually divides at
30’-40° from ground into
upright branches, making
triangular outlne; bark,
ashy gray, deep longitu-
dinal fissures, broad
ridges ; leaves, 4-6”
long, oblique obovate,
doubly serrate, smooth
one way; fruit, small,
roundish, flat, smooth, sa-
maras.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, ght brown, sap-
wood yellowish; ring-po-
rous; rings, marked by
several rows of large open
ducts; grain, interlaced;
rays, numerous, thin.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 155
Physical Qualities: Heavy (24th in
this list, 34 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp.
gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list) ;
elasticity, medium (59th in this list) ;
medium hard (28th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 5 per cent.; warps.......... ; not
durable; hard to work, tough, will not
polish ; splits with difficulty.
Common Uses: Cooperage, wheel
stock, flooring.
Remarks: Favorite ornamental tree,
but shade light, and leaves fall early.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, ‘tangential Section,
magnified 371% diameters. life size.
156 WOOD AND FOREST.
50
CucumMBER TREE. Mountain Maano.tia.
Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.
Magnolia acuminata Linnaeus.
Magnolia, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist; acuminata, re-
fers to pointed fruit.
oe Habitat: (See map) ;
best at the base of moun-
tains in North Carolina
and South Carolina and
Tennessee.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60-90";
diameter, 3’-4'; in forest,
Habitat.
clear trunk for 2/3 of
height (40’ or 50’); bark,
dark brown, thick, fur-
rowed ; leaves, large,
smooth; flowers, large
greenish yellow; — fruit,
dark red “cones” formed
of two seeded follicles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, yellow brown, thick
sapwood, lighter; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, very straight, close,
satiny; rays, numerous
thin.
Physical Qualities:
Leaf. Light (45th in this list),
SPECIES OF WOODS. 157
.... Tbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4690;
medium strong (49th in this list) ; elas-
tic (38th in this list); medium
hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5
per Cent: 5. WALPS: ..ceneae very dur-
able; easy to work; splits easily, takes
nails well.
Common Uses: Pump logs, cheap
furniture, shelving.
Remarks: Wood similar to yellow
poplar, and often sold with it.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
158 WOOD AND FORES'.
51
YELLOW PopLar. WHITEWOoD. TuLiIp TREE.
Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar
family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is
greenish yellow.
Liriodendron tulipifera Linnaeus.
Liriodendron, means lily-tree; tulipifera means tulip-bearing.
Habitat: (See map);
best in lower Ohio valley
and southern Appalach-
jan mountains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-90's,
even 200’; diameter, 6’-8’,
even 12’; tall, magnifi-
Habitat.
cent trunk, unsurpassed
in grandeur by any east-
ern American tree; bark,
brown, aromatic, evenly
furrowed so as to make
clean, neat-looking trunk;
leaves, 4 lobed, apex, pe-
culiarly truncated, clean
cut; flowers, tulip-like;
fruit, cone, consisting of
many scales.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light greenish or
yellow brown, sap-wood,
sf creamy white; diffuse-
porous; rings, close but
distinet; grain, straight ;
Leaf. rays, numerous and plain.
SPECIES OF WOODS.
Physical Qualities: Light (54th in
this list), 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.4230; medium strong (51st in this
list); elastic (39th in this list); soft
(49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
cent; warps little; durable; easy to
work; brittle and does not split readily,
nails very well.
Common Uses: Construction work,
furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bod-
ies, wooden pumps.
Remarks: Being substituted largely
for white pine.
Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
Radial Section,
life size.
Tangential Section,
life size.
159
160 WOOD AND FOREST.
52
SWEET GUM.
Gum, refers to exudations.
LTiquidambar styraciflua Linnaeus.
Liquidambar, means liquid gum; styraciflua, means fluid resin (storax).
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in the lower Mississ-
ippi valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80-140’;
diameter, 3’-5'; trunk,
tall, straight; bark, ght
brown tinged with red,
deeply fissured; branch-
lets often having corky
wings; leaves, star-shaped,
five pointed; conspicu-
ously purple and crimson
in autumn; fruit, multi-
capsular, spherical, per-
sistent heads.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, lght red brown,
sap-wood almost white;
diffuse-porous; rings, fine
and difficult to distin-
guish; grain, straight,
close, polishes well; rays,
numerous, very obscure.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (34th in
SPECIES OF WOODS. 161
this list), 37 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp. er.,
0.5909; medium strong (52d in this
list; elasticity medium (44th in this
list) ; medium hard (36th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and
twists badly in seasoning; not durable
when exposed; easy to work; crumbles
in splitting; nails badly.
Common Uses: Building construc-
tion, cabinet-work, veneering, street
pavement, barrel staves and heads.
Remarks: Largely used in veneers,
because when solid it warps and twists
badly. Exudations used in medicine to
some extent. Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
inagnified 3714 diameters. life size.
162
Sycamore. Burronwoop.
WOOD AND FOREST.
Button Batt. WatrEr BEECH.
Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood
and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.
Platanus occidentalis Linnaeus.
Platanus, refers to the broad leaves; occidentalis, western, to distinguish
it from European species.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in valley of lower
Ohio and Mississippi.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-100’,
and even 170°; diameter,
6’-12'; trunk, commonly
divides into 2 or 3 large
branches, limbs spreading,
often dividing angularly;
bark, flakes off in great
irregular masses, leaving
mottled surface, greenish
gray and brown, this pe-
culiarity due to its rigid
texture; leaves, palmately
3 to 5 lobed, 4”-9” long,
petiole enlarged, enclosing
buds; fruit, large rough
balls, persistent through
winter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter; —_diffuse-
porous; rings, marked by
SPECIES OF WOODS. 163
broad bands of small ducts; grain, cross,
close; rays, numerous, large, conspicu-
us.
Physical Qualities: Weight, medium
(38th in this list), 35 lbs. per cu. ft.;
3p. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th
in this list); elasticity, medium (43d
in this list; medium hard (30th
in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.;
warps little; very durable, once used
for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits
very hard.
Common Uses: Tobacco boxes, yokes,
furniture, butcher blocks.
Radial Section,
Remarks: Trunks often very large life size.
and hollow.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
164 WOOD AND FOREST.
Witp Buack CHERRY.
Padus serotina (Ehrhart) Agardh.
Prunus servtina Ehrhart.
Padus, the old Greek name; prunus, the classical Latin name; serotina,
because it blossoms late (June).
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best on southern Allegheny
mountains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 40’-50’,
even 100’; diameter, 2’-4’;
straight, columnar trunk,
often free from branches
for 70°; bark, blackish
and rough, fissured in all
directions, broken into
small, irregular, — scaly
plates, with raised edges;
leaves, oblong to lancco-
late, deep, shiny green;
ce
fruit, black drupe,
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown or red,
sap-wood yellow; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, straight, close, fine,
takes fine polish; rays,
numerous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (35th in
SPECIES OF WOODS. 165
this lst), 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.5822; strong (35th in this list) ; elas-
ticity medium (45th in this list);
hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5
per cent.; warps, httle; durability
ie Adhere seeie ; easily worked; splits eas-
ily, must be nailed with care.
Common Uses: Cabinet-work, costly
interior trim.
Remarks: Grows rapidly.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential | Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
166 WOOD AND FOREST.
55
Buack Locust. Locust.
Yellow, from color of sap-wood.
YELLOW Locust.
Robinia pseudacacia Linnaeus.
Robinia, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; pseudacacia, means false acacia.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best on western Allegheny
mountains in West Vir-
ginia.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-80’;
diameter, 3'-4'; bark,
strikingly deeply — fur-
rowed, dark brown ;
prickles on small branches,
grows fast, forms thick-
ets, on account of under-
ground shoots; leaves,
8”-14" long, pinnately
compound; 7 to 9 leaf-
lets, close at night and in
rainy weather; fruit, pod
3”-4" long.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, brown, sap-wood
thin, yellowish; ring-por-
ous; rings, clearly marked
by 2 or 3 rows of large
open duets ; grain,
crooked, compact.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 167
Physical Qualities: Heavy (12th in th fia ge Soo
this list), 45 Ibs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., i '
0.7333; very strong (1st in this list) ;
elastic (9th in this list); very hard
(6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
cent.; warps badly, very durable; hard
to work, tough; splits in nailing.
Common Uses: Shipbuilding, con-
struction, “tree-nails’ or pins, wagon
hubs.
‘Remarks: Widely planted and cul-
tivated east and west. Likely to be in-
fested with borers.
ul
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section,
n Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
168 WOOD AND FOREST.
56
MAHOGANY.
Swietenia mahagoni Jacquin.
Swietenia, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria ; mahagoni, a
South American word.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
only on Florida Keys in
the United States.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 40'-50';
diameter, 2’ or more, for-
eign trees larger; immense
buttresses at base of trunk ;
bark, thick, dark red-
brown, having surface of
broad, thick scales; leaves,
4”-6" long, compound, 4
pairs of leaflets; fruit,
4”-5" Jong, containing
seeds.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, red-brown, — sap-
wood, thin, yellow; dif-
fuse-porous; rings, incon-
spicuous; grain, crooked;
rays, fine and scattered,
but plain.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (14th in this list),
45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7282; very strong (20th
in this list) ; elastic (24th
in this lst); very hard
(1st in this list) ; shrink-
SPECIES OF WOODS.
age, 5 per cent.; warps very little; very
durable; genuine mahogany, hard to
work; especially if grain is cross; some-
what brittle, and comparatively easy to
split, nails with difficulty; polishes and
takes glue well.
Common Uses: Chiefly for cabinet-
making, furniture, interior finishes and
veneers.
Remarks: Mahogany, now in great
demand in the American market for fine
furniture and interior trim comes from
the West Indies, Central America and
West Africa. The so-called Spanish
mahogany, the most highly prized va-
riety, came originally from the south of
Hayti. The Honduras Mahogany was
often called baywood. Botanically the
varieties are not carefully distinguished ;
in the lumber yard the lumber is known
by its sources. The Cuba wood can be
partly distinguished by the white chalk-
like specks in the pores and is cold to
the touch, while the Honduras wood can
be recognized by the black specks or lines
in the grain. Both the Honduras and
West India woods have a softer feel
than the African wood, when rubbed
with the thumb. The Cuba and St. Do-
mingo wood are preferred to the Hon-
duras, and still more to the African, but
even experts have difficulty im distin-
guishing the varieties.
Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar
(Cedrela odorata) belongs to the same
family as mahogany and is often sold
for it. It is softer, lighter, and easier
to work.
Radial Section,
life size.
Tangential Section,
life size.
170 WOOD AND FOREST.
57
OREGON MApLe. WHITE MAPLE.
LARGE LEAVED MAPLE.
Acer macrophyllum Pursh.
Acer, the classical Latin name; macrophylluwm, refers to the large leaves.
Nev.
> sha a :
A oy ee
b. ani nite}
Habitat.
ee i, ae
eS Sean
2 —_/ Ms oe
eS /| | t —
Sees IN
Leaf.
Habitat:
best in southern Oregon.
(See map) ;
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70’-100';
diameter, 3’-5'; stout, of-
ten pendulous branches,
making a handsome tree;
bark, — reddish brown,
deeply furrowed, square
scales; leaves, very large,
8”-12” and long petioles,
deep, narrow sinuses;
fruit, hairy samaras.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, rich brown and red,
thick,
diffuse-porous ;
sap-wood nearly
white ;
obscure ;
rings, grain,
close, fibres interlaced,
sometimes figured, — pol-
ishes well; rays, numer-
ous and thin.
Physical Qualities:
Light in weight (26th in
this list), 30 lbs. per eu.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 171
ft., sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th
in this list); elasticity medium (57th
in this list) ; medium hard (31st in this
list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps
........3 not durable; rather hard
to work; splits with difficulty.
Common Uses: Tool and ax handles,
furniture, interior finish.
Remarks: A valuable wood on the
Pacific coast.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Daabenitiel Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
172 WOOD AND FOREST.
58
Sorr Marple. Write Marie. Sinver Mapie.
Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.
Acer saccharinum Linnaeus. Acer dasycarpum Ehrhart.
Acer, the classical Latin name; saccharinum, refers to sweetish juice;
> : ‘
dasycarpum, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-90’,
even 120’; diameter, 3’-5';
form suggests elm; bark,
reddish brown, furrowed.
surface separating into
Habitat.
large, loose scales; leaves,
palmately 5 lobed, with
narrow, acute sinuses, sil-
very white beneath, turn
only yellow in autumn;
fruit, divergent, winged
samaras.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, brown and reddish,
sap-wood, cream; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, twisted, wavy, fine,
polishes well; rays, thin,
humerous.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (40th in
Let, this list), 32 Ibs. per cu.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 173
ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th
in this list; very elastic (20th in this
list); hard (25th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 5 per cent.; warps, ...........63
not durable under exposure; easily
worked; splits in nailing.
Common Uses: Flooring, furniture,
turnery, wooden ware.
Remarks: Grows rapidly. Curly
varieties found. Sap produces some
sugar.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
174 WOOD AND FOREST.
59
Rep MAPLE.
Acer rubrum Linnaeus.
Acer, the classical Latin name; rubrum, refers to red flowers and
autumn leaves.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80’-120';
diameter, 2’-4’; branches,
low; bark, dark gray,
shaggy, divided by long
ridges; leaves, palmately
Habitat.
5 lobed, acute sinuses;
fruit, double samaras,
forming characteristic ma-
iN ple key.
iN
\
AYN Appearance of Wood:
{IN Ze cea 1 * :
nl 7 4 ee Color, light reddish brown,
N | OG sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-
\ RS \ \ Ly porous; rings, obscure;
be eee i
—— ie var grain, crooked; rays, nu-
Se ef merous, obscure.
Ze Ae ; 8 e
(eet Ne ;
tae / | ihe ee Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (30th in
‘ this list), 38 lbs. per cu.
. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong
+
(36th in this list); elas-
tie (36th in this list) ;
Leaf. hard (27th in this list);
SPECIES OF WOODS. 175
shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .......3
not durable; fairly hard to work; splits
with difficulty, splits badly in nailing.
Common Uses: Flooring, turning,
wooden ware.
Remarks: Grows rapidly. Has red
flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
Tangential Section,
life size.
WOOD AND FOREST.
60
Harp Marie. SuGar MaApuLe.
Rock MAPLE.
Acer saccharum Marshall.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Acer, the classical Latin name; saccharum, refers to sweet sap.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in regions of Great
Lakes.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100’-120’;
diameter, 114’-3’, even 4’;
often trees in forest are
without branches for 60’-
70’ from ground, in the
open, large impressive
tree; bark, gray brown,
thick, deep, longitudinal
fissures, hard and rough;
leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
lobed, scarlet and yellow
in autumn; fruit, double,
slightly divergent samaras.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown tinged
with red; diffuse-porous
rings, close but distinct;
grain, crooked, fine, close,
polishes well; rays, fine
but conspicuous.
Physical Qualities:
Heavy (19th in this list),
SPECIES OF WOODS.
43 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6912; very
strong (8th in this list); very elastic
(5th in this list); very hard (7th in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
badly; not durable when exposed; hard
to work; splits badly in nailing.
Common Uses: School and other fur-
niture, car construction, carving, wooden
type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano ac-
tions, ships’ keels.
Remarks: Tree very tolerant. The
uses of this wood are chiefly due to its
hardness. Bird’s-Eye Maple and Curly
Maple are accidental varieties. Pure
maple sugar is made chiefly from this
species. Its ashes yield large quantities
of potash.
Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
Radial Section,
life size.
‘Langential Section,
life size.
178
61
Basswoop.
Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.
WOOD AND FOREST.
LINDEN.
Tilia americana Linnaeus.
Tilia, the classical Latin name.
Habitat:
best in
(See map) ;
bottom lands of
lower Ohio River.
Characteristics of the
Height, 60’-70',
even 130’; diameter, 2’-4';
pillar-like,
Tree:
trunk, erect,
Habitat.
= aL
oN wa Z
1
K\\ Cee
os ee
we rd
—— ae ee
Leaf.
branches spreading, mak-
ing round heads; bark,
light
sealy surface, inner bark
brown, furrowed,
fibrous and tough, used
for matting ; leaves,
oblique, heart-shaped, side
nearest branch larger;
fruit clustered on long
pendulous stem, attached
to vein of narrow bract.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, very light brown,
approaching cream color.
sap-wood, hardly distin-
ewshable; diffuse-porous ;
rings, fine and close but
grain,
clear ; straight;
rays, Numerous, obscure.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 179
Physical Qualities: Light in weight
(49th in this list), 28 lbs. per cu. ft.;
sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list) ;
elasticity, medium (49th in this list) ;
soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6
per cent.; warps comparatively little;
quite durable; very easily worked ; some-
what tough to split, nails well.
Common Uses: Woodenware, carriage
bodies, ete., picture molding, paper pulp,
ete.
Remarks: May be propagated by
grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
to attack by many insects. Wood used
for carriage bodies because flexible and Radial Section,
ire Size.
easily nailed.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37% diameters. life size.
180 WOOD AND FOREST.
Sour Gum. ‘TUPELO.
Tupelo, the Indian name.
PEPPERIDGE. BLAcK GUM.
Nyssa sylvatica Marshal.
Nyssa, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of
Dio-nysus (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands) ; sylvatica, refers
to its habit of forest growth.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Southern Appala-
chian mountains.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 40'-50’,
even 100’; diameter, 1”-
6”, even 5’; variable in
form; bark, brown, deeply
fissured and scaly; leaves,
in sprays, short, petioled,
briliant scarlet in au-
tumn; fruit, bluish black,
sour, fleshy drupe.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, pale yellow, sap-
wood, white, hardly dis-
tinguishable; diffuse-por-
ous; rings, not plain;
grain fine, twisted and in-
terwoven; rays, numer-
ous, thin.
Physical Qualities:
Medium heavy (25th in
this list), 39 Ibs. per eu.
ft; sp. er, 0.6356;
SPECIES OF WOODS.
strong (34th in this list); elasticity,
medium (51st in this list); hard (20th
in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
cent.; warps and checks badly; not
durable if exposed; hard to work; splits
hard, tough.
Common Uses: Wagon hubs, handles,
yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
wharves, rollers in glass factories.
Remarks: The best grades closely re-
semble yellow poplar.
Cross-section,
magnified 37%4 diameters.
Radial Section,
life size.
Tangential Section,
life size.
182 WOOD AND FOREST.
63
Buack AsH. Hoop ASH.
Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.
Fraxinus nigra Marshall. Frazvinus scambucifolia.
Frazinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; sambucifolia, refers to the fact that the leaves are
in odor like those of Elder (Sambucus).
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in moist places.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80’-90'; di-
ameter, 1-114’; slender-
est of the forest trees, up-
right branches; bark, gray
tinged with red, irregular
Habitat. * iy
plates, with thin scales;
leaves, 10”-16” long, com-
pound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in
autumn rusty brown;
fruit, single samaras in
panicles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, dark brown, sap-
wood light; ring-porous;
rings, well defined; grain,
straight, burls often form
highly prized veneers;
rays, Numerous and thin.
Physical Qualities:
Medium heavy (27th in
this list), 39 Ibs. per eu.
Leaf. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong
SPECIES OF WOODS. 183
(38th in this list); elasticity, medium
(12th in this list); hard (23d in this
list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,
but not very much; not durable when
exposed; hard to work; separates easily
in layers, hence used for splints.
Common Uses: Interior finish, cab-
inet work, fencing, barrel hoops.
Remarks: The flexibility of the
wood largely determines its uses.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37%4 diameters. life size.
184 WOOD AND FOREST.
64
Oregon ASH.
Fraxinus oregona Nuttall.
Fravinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; oregona, named for the State of Oregon.
Habitat: (See map) ;
ft hest in southern Oregon.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50’-80'; di-
ameter, 1’-114’, even 4’;
branches, stout, erect;
bark, grayish brown, deep
interrupted fissures, broad,
flat ridges, exfoliates;
wen a leaves, 5”-14” long; pin-
nately compound, 5 to 7
leaflets; fruit, single sa-
maras in clusters.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, brown, sap-wood
thick, lighter; ring-por-
ous; rings, plainly marked
by large, open, scattered
pores ; grain, coarse
straight; rays, numerous,
thin.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (37th in
this list), 35 Ibs. per cu.
pak ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; me-
SPECIES OF WOODS. 185
dium strong (50th in this list); elastic-
ity, medium (48th in this list; me-
dium hard (29th in this list); shrink-
age, 5 per cent.; warps, .......... ve
not durable; hard to work, tough; splits
with difficulty.
Common Uses: Furniture, vehicles,
cooperage.
Remarks: A valuable timber tree of
the Pacific coast.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 371% diameters. life size.
186 WOOD AND FOREST.
65
Buvue ASH.
Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.
Fraxinus quadrangulata Michaux.
Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phrawvis) meaning split, refers to the
cleavabilty of the wood; quadrangulata, refers to four-angled branchlets.
Habitat.
A
AY
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Wabash val-
ley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60’-70,
_even 120’; diameter, 1’-2’;
tall, slender, four-angled,
branchlets; bark, light
gray, irregularly divided
into large plate-like scales,
inside bark, bluish, yield-
ing dye; leaves, 8-12”
long, compound pinnate,
5 to 9 leaflets; fruit,
winged samaras in pan-
icles.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light yellow.
streaked with brown, sap-
wood lghter; ring-por-
ous; rings, clearly marked
by 1 to 3 rows of large,
open ducts; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 187
Physical Qualities: Heavy (16th in
this list), 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7184; strong (37th in this list) ; elas-
ticity, medium (58th in this list) ; hard
(12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
CONUS “WALPS> «s-utawes e% .; most dur-
able of the ashes; hard to work; splits
readily, bad for nailing. -
Common Uses: Carriage building,
tool handles.
Remarks: Blue ash pitchfork han-
dies are famous.
Radial Section,
life size.
‘Tangential Section,
life size.
188 WOOD AND FOREST.
66
Rep Asu.
Red, from color of inner bark.
PFraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall. Fraxinus pubescens Lambert.
63. Engelmann’s spruce.
Fravinus, from a Greek word (phraxvis) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; pennsylvanica, in honor of the State of Pennsyl-
vania; pubescens, refers to down on new leaves and twigs.
Pat aiesy® OS Kd Habitat: (See map);
ae re o a Pp);
L7- oax.| A fo AG best east of Alleghany
= -— tai Neen S\ “EN 5
V1 AeRany) PAWS MN), NN Nis mountains.
FL own Ste EA a ae
AS re oe Characteristics of the
- if fe
Tree: Height, 40’-60'; di-
ameter, 12”-18"; small,
shim, upright branches;
bark, brown or ashy, great,
shallow, longitudinal fur-
rows; leaves, 107-12”
long, pinnately compound,
7 to 9 leaflets, covered
with down; fruit, single
Samara.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light brown, sap-
wood lighter and yellow-
ish; Ying porous; rings,
marked by pores; grain,
straight, coarse; rays,
numerous, thin.
Physical Qualities:
Weight, medium (28th in
this list), 39 lbs. per cu.
rae ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong
SPECIES OF WOODS.
(30th in this list); elasticity, medium
(53d in this list; hard (17th in this
list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps lit-
tle; not durable; hard to work; splits
in nailing.
Common Uses: Agricultural imple-
ments, oars, handles, boats.
Remarks: Often sold with and as
the superior white ash.
Cross-section,
magnified 37% diameters.
Radial Section,
life size.
‘Tangential Section,
life size.
189
190
White, refers to whitish color of wood.
Wuitr ASH.
WOOD AND FOREST.
Fravinus americana Linnaeus.
Fravinus, from a Greek word (phravis) meaning split, refers to the
sleavability of the wood.
Habitat.
Leaf.
Habitat: (See map);
best in the bottom lands
of lower Ohio valley.
Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70-80’.
even 120’; diameter, 3’-6';
branches rather high, tree
singularly graceful; bark,
eray, narrow furrows,
clean, neat trunk; leaves,
8”-15" long, compound,
tufted, smooth, turns in
autumn to beautiful pur-
ples, browns and yellows ;
fruit, panicles of samaras,
persistent till midwinter.
Appearance of Wood:
Color, light reddish brown,
sap-wood whitish; ring-
porous, rings clearly
marked by pores; straight-
grained; pith rays ob-
scure.
Physical Qualities :
Heavy (22d in this list),
39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
SPECIES OF WOODS. 191
0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elas-
tic (30th in this list); hard (17th in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps
little; not durable in contact with soil;
hard and tough; splits readily, nails
badly.
Common Uses: Inside finish, farm
implements, barrels, baskets, oars, car-
riages.
Remarks: [Forms no forests, occurs
scattered. Its uses for handles and oars
determined by combination of strength,
lightness and elasticity.
Radial Section,
life size.
Cross-section, Tangential Section,
magnified 37%4 diameters. life size.
192 WOOD AND FOREST.
List or 66 Common Woops ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF TITEIR
WEIGHT.
1. Shellbark hickory. 34. Sweet gum.
2. Post oak. 35. Wild black cherry.
3. Mockernut. 36. Red birch.
4, Pignut. 37. Oregon ash.
5. Basket oak. 38. Sycamore.
6. Cherry birch. 39. Loblolly pine.
7. Slash pine. 40. Soft maple.
8. White oak. 41. Douglas spruce.
9. Bur oak. 42. Red cedar.
10. Western white oak. 43. Norway pine.
11. Western larch. 44. Western yellow pine.
12. Black locust. * 45. Cucumber tree.
13. Blue beech. 46. Lawson cypress.
14. Mahogany. 47. Black spruce and Red
15. Cork elm. spruce.
16. Blue ash. 48. Bald cypress.
7. Black oak. 49. Basswood.
18. Longleaf pine. 50. Chestnut.
19. Hard maple. 51. Black willow.
20. Beech. 52. Tideland spruce.
21. Yellow birch. 53. Hemlock.
22. White ash. 54. Yellow poplar.
23. Red oak. 55. Redwood.
24. White elm. 56. Butternut.
25. Sour gum. 57. White spruce.
26. Oregon maple. 58. Western white pine.
27. Black ash. 59. White pine.
28. Red ash. 60. Western red cedar.
29. Tamarack. 61. Sugar pine.
30. Red maple. 62. Grand fir.
31. Black walnut. 63. Engelmann’s spruce.
32. Shortleaf pine. 64. White cedar.
33. Canoe birch. 65. Big tree.
SPECIES OF WOODS.
1938
List or 66 CommMon Woops ARRANGED IN THE ORDER oF THER
YW WW TH WW W W W W W ®W LH
YN Or S © HO ~~ o Cr PF
Go Ow eH <
Black locust.
. Yellow birch.
. Western larch.
. Cherry birch.
Shellbark hickory.
. Slash pine.
. Longleaf pine.
. Hard maple.
. Blue beech.
. Beech.
. Mockernut.
. Basket Oak.
. Cork elm.
. Canoe birch.
5. Pignut hickory.
5. Bur oak.
. Black oak.
. Shortleaf pine.
. Soft maple.
Mahogany.
Red oak.
Red. birch.
White oak.
Tamarack.
. Lawson cypress.
. Loblolly pine.
. Douglas spruce.
. Western white oak.
9. Post oak.
. Red ash.
. White ash.
. Black walnut.
88. White elm.
STRENGTH.
wWowwow ww w
so
St Ot Or
>, oO HP WwW WH S&S
-2
we)
Or Or Sr Or St Sr Or
on)
Oo Mm & Cee
>
Sour gum.
Wild black cherry.
Red maple.
Blue ash.
Black ash.
Norway pine.
. Western red cedar.
41.
Black spruce and Red
spruce.
2. White spruce.
Red cedar.
. Hemlock.
5. Western yellow pine.
). Chestnut.
7. Oregon maple.
. Bald cypress.
. Cucumber tree.
. Oregon ash.
. Yellow poplar.
. Sweet gun.
. Tideland spruce.
. Sycamore.
White pine.
. Western white pine.
. Butternut.
. Redwood.
Sugar pine.
. Basswood.
. Engelmann’s spruce.
. Grand fir.
. Big tree.
. White cedar.
. Black willow.
194 WOOD AND FOREST.
List or 66 Common Woops ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF TITEIR
IeLASTICITY.
. White oak.
Basket oak.
Grand _ fir.
1. Western larch.
2. Canoe birch and Yellow
Go ©
A
birch
3
3
3
3. Slash pine. 35. Western white pine.
4. Longleaf pine. 36. Red maple.
5. Hard maple. 37. Bur oak.
6. Cherry birch. 38. Cucumber tree.
7. Shortleaf pine. 39. Yellow poplar.
8. Shellbark hickory. 40. Hemlock.
9. Black locust. 41. Western yellow pine.
10. Douglas spruce. 2. Black ash.
11. Tamarack. 43. Sycamore.
12. Lawson cypress. 44. Sweet gum.
13. Beech. 45. Wild black cherry.
14. Mockernut. 46. Chestnut.
15. Blue beech. 47. White pine.
16. Norway pine. 48. Oregon ash.
17. Loblolly pine. 49. Bass.
18. Red oak. 50. Post oak.
19. Red bireh. 51. Sour gum.
20. Soft maple. 52. Butternut.
21. Red spruce and Black 53. Red ash.
spruce. 54. Western white oak.
22. Cork elm. 55, Engelmann’s spruce.
23. Black walnut. 56. Sugar pine.
24+. Mahogany. 57. Oregon maple.
25. Black oak. 58. Blue ash.
26. Western red cedar. 59. White elm.
27. Pignut hickory. 60. Redwood.
28. Bald cypress. 61. Red cedar.
29. White spruce. 62. Big tree.
30. White ash. 63. White cedar.
31. Tideland spruce. 64. Black willow.
SPECIES OF WOODS. 195
List or 66 Common Woops ARRANGED IN TIIE Onder or THEIR
HARDNESS.
1. Mahogany. 34. Red cedar.
2. Pignut. 35. Western larch.
3. Mockernut. 36. Sweet gum.
+. Post oak. 37. Red birch.
5. Shellbark hickory. 38. Short leaf pine.
6. Black locust. 39. Canoe birch.
7. Hard maple. 40. Tamarack.
8. Western white oak. 41. Cucumber tree.
9. Bur oak. 42. Western yellow pine.
10. Basket oak. 43. Loblolly pine.
11. Cherry birch. 44. Chestnut.
12. Blue ash. 45. Douglas spruce.
13. White oak. 46. Black willow.
14. Blue beech. 47. Butternut.
15. Cork elm. 48, Norway pine.
16. Wild black cherry. 49. Yellow poplar.
7. Red ash. 50. Lawson cypress.
18. Black oak. 51. Hemlock.
19. White ash. 52. Bald cypress.
20. Sour gum. 53. Sugar pine.
21. Black walnut. 54. Red spruce and Black
22. Beech. spruce.
23. Black ash. 55. Redwood.
24. Slash pine. 56. Engelmann’s spruce.
25. Soft maple. 57. White pine.
26. Red oak. 58. White spruce.
27. Red maple. 59. Tideland spruce.
28. White elm. 60. Western white cedar.
29. Oregon ash. 61. Big tree.
30. Sycamore. 62. White cedar.
31. Oregon maple. 63. Western white pine.
32. Yellow birch. 64. Basswood.
33. Long leaf pine. 65. Grand fir.
196 WOOD AND FOREST.
THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOODS.
REVERENCES : *
Sargent, Jesup Collection. Baterden.
Sargent, Manual. Sargent, Silva,
Britton. Sargent, Forest Trees, 10th Census,
Roth, Timber. Vol. IX.
Hough, Handbook. Boulger.
Keeler. Hough, American Woods.
Apgar. Snow.
Mohr. For, Bull., No. 22. Lounsberry.
Fernow, Forestry Investigations. Spaulding. For. Bull. No. 13.
Lumber Trade Journals. Sudworth. For Bull No 17.
Forest Service Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber, List. A.
For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
For. Service Clussificd List of Publications,
*For general bibliography, see p. 4.
Cuapter LY.
THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH
AMERICAN FORESTS.
The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveni-
ently divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of
the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to west-
ern Texas.”
The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass,
lying in three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of coni-
fers, (2) the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous
(hardwood) forest lying between these two.
(1) The northern belt of conifers or “North Woods” extended
thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wiscon-
sin and Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree
in the eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, p.
213, and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the
western part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine,
has been cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of
spruce, second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.
(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Poto-
mac River in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the
Atlantic coast, across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of
1ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF TITE UNITED STATES.
Area Area
Thousindacres Per cent
Noxrtherty fOrest:. eas sc be Leen Rea emiaunen dan awe oe es 158,938 8.4
Hardwood forest... aloues sav ae taades aap y Gadde sax dee 028,183) 17.3
Sot het LOLESE, seas cae hen ee ee ee I we egal a ures Bees 249,669 13.1
Rocky Mountains forest .......56 000s ceeccee eee e eens 155.014 8.1
Pacifien LOrest:’. p.ckioes gee Hew Welh eene oa se ads canna 121,356 6.4
Mraelesseavear phskckecoe le wih Se Shien E PBR Gs WES Wie ie Taney 887,787 46.7
Total Mand, ATC sacs oc wod So enanes eed Ramee eae s ere 1,900,947 100.0
197
WOOD AND FOREST.
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DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION.
FOREST
ee
Minn,
Cass Lake,
se White Pine Forest,
Interior of Den
ig. 45.
F
U.S. Forest Service.
WOOD AND FOREST.
200
nce.
S. Forest Ser
Georgia. U.
Oscilia
orest.
Long-leaf Pine
46,
Vig.
FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION. 201
Mexico, skipping the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great
forest in Louisiana and Hastern Texas. It was composed of almost
Fig. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida Live Oak, Surrounded by Cabbage Palmetto,
and Hung With Spanish Moss, U.S. Forest Service.
pure stands of pine, the long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the lob-
lolly, with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern
202 WOOD AND FOREST.
Florida the forest is tropical, Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies,
and in southern Texas it partakes of the character of the Mexican
forest.
(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater
Porest, Protected from Cattle and Fire.
Hancock Co., Indiana.
U.S. Forest Service.
FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION.
‘II1AAIS JSILOT "SQ “epeIOLOD
SWS
OQ oour[Td oly
“WIR HeENLY Ssapoary, uo yOueY pawsiay
‘oh SIT
204 WOOD AND FOREST.
part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
southern New England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. he higher ridges of the
Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Ilinois, was
without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
hickory, sycamore, elin, and ash, with birch appearing toward the
north and pine toward the south.
Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing
feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might
properly be called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees
was to be found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this
region is still the souree of the best hardwood lumber.
This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly
from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, mak-
ing way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts
are still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
the white pine, “the king of American trees,” only a little of which,
, 1s left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
tree, is fast being lumbered out.
in valuable sizes
The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down
the Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast.
Between them hes the great treeless alkali plain centering around
Nevada, Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost
a monopoly. Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river
beds and in ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance.
The forest is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature
of this western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the
trees, in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching,
so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
There is no dense “forest cover” or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted
FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION. 205
by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods.
It was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The open-
ness of this forest on the Rockies and on the eastern slopes of the
Sierra Nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the
Sierras, where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable
woods of the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution
of the rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon
the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large
Fig.50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flagstaff, Arizona.
U.S. Forest Service. ~
part of the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the
continent. But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the
high Sierra Nevadas from the western winds, has a very light and
irregular rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense ;
and where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.
Along the Rockies the characteristic trees are Engelmann’s spruce,
bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are concerned,
far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United States,
206 WOOD AND FOREST.
80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. The Pacific
forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species—Doug-
las fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar and redwood.
Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir and Red Cedar. Pierce Co.,
Washington, U.S. Forest Service.
But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already men-
tioned, and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small,
FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION, 207
and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet
high, and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
B.M., of good spruce in Maine. The redwood, Fig. 53, occupics a
|
Fig. 52. Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and Oregon
Maple. Ashford, Washington. U.S. Forest Service.
belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to
a point not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the
famous big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diam-
eter, occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.
208 WOOD AND FOREST.
The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees
of other kinds.
Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. U.S. Forest Service.
The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be
before long the center of the lumber trade of this country.
These two great forests of the east and the west both run north-
ward into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of
FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION. 209
subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is
open, stunted, and of no economic value.
Forest Service.
Ss
Sierra National Forest, California. U.
Big Tree Forest.
Taking all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
regions, but the species having continental range are few. They are
210 WOOD AND FOREST.
the following: Larch (Larix laricina), white spruce (Picea canaden-
sis), dwarf juniper (Juniperus communis), black willow (Salix
nigra), almond leaf willow (Salix amygdaloides), long leaf willow
(Salix fluviatilis), aspen (Populus tremuloides), balm of Gilead
(Populus balsamifera), and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis).
THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
REFERENCES : *
Sargent, Forest Trees. Intro. pp. Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.
3-10. Fernow, For. Inves., pp. 45-51.
Bruncken, pp. 5-16. Fernow, Economics, pp. 331-368.
Roth, First Book, pp. 209-212.
*For general bibliography, see p. 4.
CiAPLER V.
THE FOREST ORGANISM.
The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, it
is an organism; that is, the trees that compose it have a vital rela-
tion to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own,
since it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.
Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance
which forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.
Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the for-
est, in order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is neces-
sary to know something about the conditions of forest life.
A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which
anchor it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist
soil; (2) the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the
branches and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the
leaves; (3) the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which
they hang, and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand
together in the forest, their united crowns make a soit of canopy or
cover, Fig. 55, which, more than anything, determines the factors
affecting forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature, the moisture, and
most important of all, the light.
On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
in respect to these very factors of temperature,—moisture, soil and
light. These are called its silvical characteris ‘tes.
SOIL.
Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting
others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the
soil; while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to
live there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on
such poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow
211
212; WOOD AND FOREST.
Pig. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany.
U.S. Forest Service.
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 213
anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed for-
ests, Fig. 57, 7. ¢., those having a variety of species, grow on good
loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on such
soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other hand,
pure stands—4. ec., forests made up of single varieties—of pine occupy
poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a
pure stand of pine in
the south, a change in
the soil will produce a
dense mixed growth of
broad-leaves and coni-
fers.
The soil in the for-
est is largely deter-
mined by the forest it-
self. In addition to
the earth, it is com-
posed of the fallen and
decayed leaves and
twigs and tree trunks.
altogether called the
forest floor, It is
spongy and hence has
the ability to retain
moisture, a fact of
great importance to ;
the forest. “Fig. 56. Vi
rgin Stand of Fed Spruce. White
Mountains, New Hampshire. U. .S. Forest
Service.
MOISTURE.
Some trees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum,
Fig. 59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the pinén and
mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places; while others, as
the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both excess-
ively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees.
In many instances the demand for water controls the distribution alto-
gether. In the Puget Sound region, where there is a heavy rain-fall,
the densest forests in the world are found, whereas on the eastern
slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not essentially different,
there are very few trees, because of the constant drouth.
214 WOOD AND FOREST.
TEMPERATURE.
The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow
only in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in
the tropics, is commonplace; but a fact not so well known is that it
is not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely deter-
Wig. 57. Typical Mixed Porest,—Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash,
Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Lake, New
York. U.S. Forest Service.
mine the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not
live at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 215
Fig. £8. Cypress and Cypress ‘‘Knees.”” Jasper Co., Texas.
U.S. Forest Service.
Wades g WM ii Silos wi
Fig. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses.
River, Arkansas. U.S. Forest Service.
St. Francis
216 WOOD AND FOREST.
In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted ;
south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther south
in tropical Florida, there is
the greatest variety of all.
The slopes of a high moun-
tain furnish-an illustration
of the effect of temperature.
In ascending it, one may
pass from a tropical forest
at the base, thru a_ belt
of evergreen, broad-leaved
trees, then thru a belt of de-
ciduous broad-leaved trees,
then thru a belt of conifers
and up to the timber lne
where tree life ceases. Figs.
61, and 62.
LIGHT.
More than by any other
factor, the growth of trees
in a forest is determined by
the effect of light. All
trees need light sooner or
Fig. 60. Northern Forest,—Young Spruce
Growiug Under Yellow Birch. SantaClara,
New York. U.S. Forest Service.
later, but some trees have
much more ability than
others to grow in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple
and spruce are examples, are called tolerant, while others, for in-
stance, larch, which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or
none at all, are called intolerant. The leaves of to'erant trees endure
shade well, so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the
shadow of their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole
tree, as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow; whereas the leaves
of intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 217
Fig.61. Mixed Hardwoods on Lower Levels. Spruce and Balsam Dominate
on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York.
U.S. Forest Service.
Ly a SS r pe ee
Fig.62 Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster,
New Hampshire. U.S, Forest Service.
218 WOOD AND FOREST.
balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light
is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can
plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the
narrow annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider
ones of later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the
maple sending up a
Jong, spindly stem thru
the trees about it and
having at its top a lit-
tle tuft of leaves, Fig.
64. By so doing it
survives. The fact that
a tree can grow with-
out shade often deter-
mines its possession of
a burnt-over tract. The
order in the North
Woods after a fire is
commonly, first, a
growth of fire weed,
z then raspberries or
Fig. 63. Cross-section of Balsam Fir,
Showing FastGrowth After Years of
Suppression. Notice the width of the
annual rings in later age compared
with early. U. S. Forest Service.
blackberries, then as-
pen, a very intolerant
tree whose light shade
in turn permits under
it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a “nurse,” Fig. 65. In
general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade
the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate climates, as a rule,
do not.
This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching
of trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will
not thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
This is called “cleaning,” or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir, retain
their branches longer.
The distribution of a species may also be determined by geograph-
ical barriers, ike mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 219
Re re,
Fig. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are too
slender to stand alone. U.S. Forest Service.
Fig.65. Intolerant Aspen, a ‘‘nurse” of
Tolerant Spruce. U.S. Forest Service.
220 WOOD AND FOREST.
western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the
forest of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the
world.
Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light.
The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives which can
take the best advantage of the existent conditions.
Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help deter-
mine the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region gradu-
ally became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were best
able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the character
of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture or what-
ever. This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gain-
ing ground.
Besides these external factors which determine the composition
and organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an impor-
tant factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are
two, (1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.
(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief ex-
ceptions are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood,
ig. 67. This power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as
may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood
timber. Altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground, the
young sprouts spring up from the still living roots. This may hap-
pen repeatedly. Coppice woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout
with great freedom, are the result of this ability. The wood is poor
so that it is chiefly used for fuel.
(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield
these in great abundance, to provide for waste,—nature’s method.
Many seeds never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals,
many fall on barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die
The weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy
seeds like acorns, chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they
THE FOREST ORGANISM.
i
Fig. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles. U.
S. Forest Service.
222 WOOD AND FOREST‘.
fall, unless carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by
birds and squirrels.
Trees with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and
pine, or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by
the wind to great distances.
Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or
;
Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif.
U.S. Forest Service.
four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a fire bursts
them open, and so they live at the expense of their competitors.
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 223
It is such facts as these that
help to account for some of the
facts of forest composition,—
why in one place at one time
there is a growth of aspens, at
another time pines, at still an-
other oaks; and why beeches
spring up one year and not an-
other. That red cedars grow
in avenues along fences, is ex-
plained by the fact that the
seeds are dropped there by
birds, Fig. 69.
The fact that conifers, as
the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, p.
200, and spruce, Fig. 55, p. 212,
4
Qa
tc’
~
#3
Fig. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood;
2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8,
Pines. U.S. Forest Service.
are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees, is largely
accounted for by their winged seeds; whereas the broad-leaved trees
grow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plenti-
DLLME MDs Site Se x
by birds which perched on the fences.
Indiana. U.S. Forest Service.
Fig.69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped
tifully and widely scattered. This
is a rule not without exceptions,
for beech sometimes covers a
whole mountain side, as Slide
Mountain in the Catskills, and
aspens come in over a wide
area after a fire; but later
other trees creep in until at
length it becomes a
forest.
The essential facts of the
relation of trees to each other
in the forest has been clearly
stated by Gifford Pinchot
thus :*
The history of the life of
a forest is a story of the help
and harm which trees _ receive
from one another. On one side
every tree is engaged in a re-
mixed
1 Gifford Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, p. 44.
aot WOOD AND FORESY.
lentless struggle against its neighbors for light, water and food, the three
things trees need most. On the other side each tree is constantly working
with all its neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power
sf every other tree.
The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in
which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not
quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open.
This collection of “duff” or “the forest floor’ retains the moisture
about their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature
of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest
cover, Fig. 55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect,
Broux Park,
ig. 70. Shallow Roots of Hem1
New York, N. Y
eke
and in addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the
trees from the direct and continnous hot rays of the sun. Without
the shade of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die,
as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass
of standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might over-
throw some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.
But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their roots
out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root. Those
succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a
THE FOREST ORGANISM. 225
tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abunuance
of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.
Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must
have light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
upward reach. This produces
the characteristic “long-bodied”
trunk of the forest tree, Fig. 71,
in contrast to the “short-bodied”
tree of the open, where the
branches reach out in all direc-
tions, Fig. 72. In this constant
struggle for existence is involved
the persistent attempt of scat-
tered seeds to sprout whenever
there is an opening. The result
is that a typical forest is one in
which all sizes and ages of trees
grow together. Scattered among
these are bushes and_ scrubby
trees, called “forest weeds,” such
as mountain maple and dogwood,
Fig. 80, p. 234, which do not
produce timber.
By foresters the trees themi-
selves are classified according to
their size into:
Seedlings, less than 3’ high,
Saplings,
Small, 3’-10' high.
Large, 4” in diameter, at
breast height (4' 6”).
Poles,
Small, 4”-8” in diameter, at
breast height.
Large, 8”-12” in diameter,
at breast height.
Standards, 1’-2’ in diameter, al breast height.
Veterans, over 2’ in diameter at breast height.
Fig. 71. Long-bodied White Oak of the
Forest. U.S. Forest Service.
226 WOOD AND FOREST.
Every age has its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate,
many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing
in the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room to
spread laterally, thus overtop-
ping others which are sup-
pressed and finally killed,
beaten in the race for life.
If the growth should re-
main about even so that the
trees grew densely packed to-
gether, the whole group would
be likely to be of a poorer qual-
ity, but ordinarily the few out-
grow the many and they are
called dominant trees. Even
then, they still have to struggle
against their neighbors, and at
this, the large sapling stage,
many perish, and of those that
AAGa warts bodied Vican aes survive there are great differ-
Opens Bort bee Ned: ences in size. Trees make their
most rapid growth in height,
)
and Jay on the widest yearly “rings,” at the large sapling and small
pole age, Fig. 114, p. 263. It is at this stage, too, if the growth is at
all dense, that the young trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly
of their branches. The growth in diameter continues to the end
of the tree’s life, long after the height growth has ceased.
When trees become “standards,” and reach the limit of height
growth, thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their
branches must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle
for life thus takes a new form.
How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still un-
explained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow
”
THE FOREST ORGANISM. aal
taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
‘and certain eucalypts in Australia.
This inability of trees to grow above a
certain height results in a flattening of
the crown, Fig. 73, and at this stage,
the trees struggle against each other by
crowding at the side.
Inasmuch as trees grow more sen-
sitive to shade with advancing age, the
taller trees have the advantage. Hach
survivor ig one of a thousand, and has
outlived the others because it is best
fitted for the place.
This fact has its effect upon the next
generation, because it is these dominant
surviving trees which bear seed most
abundantly. After the tree has finished
growing in height and diameter most
vigorously—the pole stage—and proved
to be fitted for the place, its energy is
largely spent in raising seed. As this
process goes on generation after genera-
tion, only the best coming to maturity
in each, the poorer sorts are sifted out,
and each region and continent has
those species best fitted to meet the con-
ditions of life there.
This is the reason why exotics are
very likely to be sensitive and perhaps
succumb to influences to which native
trees are immune.
Standards and veterans are the sur-
vivors of all the lower stages, each of
which has had its especial dangers. If
left alone, the tree gradually dies and
Fig. 73. Flattened Crown of
Red Pine. U.S. Forest Serytce.
at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest
soil. From the point of view of human use, it would far better
have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It is a mistake to
228 WOOD AND FOREST.
suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest, and
that it should therefore be left alone. In the National Forests the
ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available. But
nature’s way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life.
How she does so will be explained in the next chapter, on the enemies
of the forest.
THE FOREST ORGANISM.
REFERENCES : *
Pinchot, For. Bull. No. 24, I, pp. 25-66.
Bruncken, pp. 13-31
For. Cire. No. 36, p. 8.
Fernow, Economics, pp. 140-164.
*For general bibliography, see p. 4.
Craprer VI.
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.
The natural enemies of the forest—as distinct from its human
enemies—fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vege-
table, (3) Animal.
METEORGLOGICAL FORCES.
Wind. “Windfalls” are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting
a few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms,
Vip a , oy!
Fig. 74. Effect of Wind, Tuly,1902, Cass County, Minnesota.
U.S. Forest Service.
Hie. 74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with
long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The “slash”
thus formed, when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and
burn furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-
rooted trees, as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on
229
230 WOOD AND FOREST
Fig. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey.
76. Sand-dune. Oregon. U.S. Forest Service.
Vig.
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 231
shallow soil underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces
give the wind free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a
great protection to itself. The only precautions against wind there-
fore, that can be taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbro-
ken by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a
given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of pre-
vailing storms and working toward them.
In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the
sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These
dunes occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of
Lake Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000
square miles of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the
sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up
the streams and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential
marsh. This region has been reclaimed at great expense by building
fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving
sand within limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest
have been obtained.
On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.
Drouth both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
grain of wood, the latter appearing as “false rings.” These arise
from the effort
of the tree to bi |
resume growth Bi sil.
when the water
supply is re-
stored. See p. 19.
Water. Cer-
tain trees have
become —_accus-
tomed to living Fig. 77. , Effect of Floo ug. First Connecticut
Lake, New Hampshire. U.S. Forest Service.
in much water,
as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest
land, the trees soon die, Fig. 77.
Lightning frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may
set fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west
232 WOOD AND FOREST.
than in the east,—in the Rockies, for instance, where there are elec-
trical storms without rain.
Fires will be considered later under man’s relation to the forest.
Snow and ice often bring serious harm to saplings by perma-
nently bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and
branches.
Frost kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
seriously affect grown timber, producing “frost checks” and “wind
Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich,
Switzerland. U.S. Forest Service.
shakes.” When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
pistol-like report, the check running radially up and down the tree.
This is called a “frost check” or “star shake,” Fig. 41.a, p. 47, and
such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.
On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
they separate with a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a cir-
NATURAL ENEMIES OF HE FOREST. 233
cular direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
ealled “wind shakes” and “cup shakes,’ Fig. 41.c, p. 47. These in-
juries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.
VEGETABLE ENEMIES.
Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a numbet
of unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig.
80, which crowd out young trees; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind
about trees and often choke them
by pressure, cutting thru the
bark and cambium; _ sapro-
phytes, which smother the foli-
age of trees, of which Spanish
moss, Fig. 47, p. 201, is an ex-
ample; and finally such para-
sites as the mistletoes, which
weaken and deform the trees.
The most important of the
vegetable enemies of trees are
fungi. It should be remembered,
however, that, without the decay
produced by them, the fallen
trees would soon cover the ground,
and prevent any new growth, thus
destroying the natural forest.
livery tree, as has been noted
(p. 17), is composed of two parts, Pipe. Coutraction Frost Ghedh,
a : U.S. Forest Service.
ove part, including leaves, young
branches, roots and sap-wood, living, and the other part, namely, the
heart-wood, practically dead.
iungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
saprophytes. The line, however, between these two classes of fungi
is not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
irees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.
234 WOOD AND FOREST.
Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
portion which bears the spores—which correspond to the seeds of
flowering plants—and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color, ete.
The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces
(the Hymenomycetes). In toadstools (the agarics) these exposed
surfaces are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which in-
clude the shelf fungi, the spore
surfaces are tubes whose open-
ings constitute the pores. In
the dry-rot, or tear fungus (Me-
rulius lacrymans), the spore
surfaces are shallow cavities.
Some varieties, called true
parasites, develop in uninjured
trees, while others, called
wound parasites, can penetrate
the tissues of trees, only where
a cut or injury makes a suit-
able lodgment for the spores.
Some fungi attack only a sin-
gle species of trees, others
whole genera; some attack
only conifers, others decidu-
ous trees, while a few attack
: trees of nearly all kinds alike.
wabae Modi Cassie Ua yee eran Fungal spores when brought
in contact with a wound on a
tree or other suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of
growth, germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly.
These spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the
cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming
a network in the wood called the mycelium.
Rotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of
fungi. This sometimes shows in the color, as the “red rot” of pine
or the “bluing” of ash. Sometimes as in “pecky” or “peggy” cypress,
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 23
the decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly the decayed parts are
of irregular shape.
The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant
life, both bacteria and fungi.
A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.
Trametes pint (Brot.) Fr.
Foremost among the timber de-
stroying fungi is the large brown
“punk” or “conch” found in its
typical development on the long-
leaf and short-leaf pines, Pinus
palustris and Pinus echinata, Fig.
81. The fruiting bodies form
large masses which grow out from
a knot, oftentimes as large as a
child’s head. They are cinnamon
brown on the lower surface, and
much fissured and broken, on the
black charcoal-like upper surface.
This fungus probably causes four-
fifths of the destruction brought
about by the timber destroying
fungi. It occurs on most of the
conifers in the United States
which have an value as lumber Cpa A Harel Mate Gali aaa ae
trees, and brings about a charac- Trametes pint, ou Sugar Pine. [Agric.
teristic white spotting of the PERE OLE aa Rel ATTEN a
wood, Fig. 82, which varies with
the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1900, p. 206.)
Fig. 82. Effectof Fungus. (Trametes pint.) U.S. Dept. Agric.
bo
ww
oO
WOOD AND FOREST.
Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the com-
monest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like Polyporus sulphu-
reus, Fig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and other
standing timber.
Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into
the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellow-
ish-white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon
becomes a deep brown color and decays.
Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool,
called the honey mushroom (Agaricus nielleus), is a good example,
Fig. 84.
This fungus, of common occurrence in
the United States as well as in Europe, is
exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
the white pine in particular suffering greatly
from its attacks. It also fastens upon vari-
ous deciduous species as a parasite, attack-
ing living trees of all ages, but living as well
upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that
hes been cut and worked up, occurring fre-
quently on bridges, railroad ties, and the
like, and causing prompt decay wherever it
has effected an entrance. The most conspicu-
ous part of the fungus is found frequently in
Fig. 83. “Shelf” Fungus on P: = | =
Pine. a. Sound wood; 6, Resin- the summer and fall on the diseased parts
ous‘ light” wo d;c. Partly de- ° : baie ‘ A
caved wood or punk: We Taser of the tree or tmber infested by it. It is
of living spore tubes; e, Old one of the common toadstools, this particular
filled-up spore tubes; 7 Flut- A i : a
ed upper surface of the fruit- species being recognized by its yellowish color,
ing body of the fungus, which * or
gets its food thru a great gills extending downward upon the stem,
number of fine threads (the itch: 46° enmaaladioe. 1s ees =
mycelium), iis vegetative tis- lich is encircled a little lower down by a
sue penetrating the wood and ring, and by its habit of growing in tufts or
causing its decay. | Aster 7 : : nes
Hartig.| little clumps of several or many individuals
together. Tt is also particularly distinguished
by the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of compact
mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described arise. These hard
root-like strings (called rhizomorphs) extend along just beneath the sur-
face of the ground, often a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots
of sound trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white, mass of mycelium,
which, as the parts around decay, gradually produces again the rhizomorphs
already described. These rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the
fungus. Occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to
the adjacent parts, and extending in the soil from root to root, they constitute
a most effective agency in the extension of the disease. * * *
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 237
External symptoms, to be observed especially in young specimens re
cently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and
often the production of short stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom
is the formation of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
injured parts and out into the ground. (Forestry Bulletin No. 22, p. 51.)
Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
true parasite, i. ¢., one that finds lodgment without help, called Poly-
porus annosus and also Trametes radiciperda, Fig. 85. It is peculiar
in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots, beneath the
Fig. 84, Honey Mushroom. Agaricus mellens. 1. Cluster of small sporophores.
2. Larger sporophore with root-like organ of attachment. Forestry Bulletin 22.
Plate XII, Figs.land 2.
svil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications. It
attacks only conifers.
Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other
burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots: the fine
threads of “spawn” penetrate the cortex, and spread thru and destroy the
cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and
there, bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the sub-
terranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white,
felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or
238 WOOD AND FOREST.
“pores” in which the spores are produced. The wood attacked by this
fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits
minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white
patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)
Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most impertant
“dry rot” or “tear fungus” (Merulius lachrymans), Fig. 86. It
Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Nocw ay Spruce, with a a sporophore of
polyporus annosus several years old; the inner portions of the
stump wholly decayed.
Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small
sporophores of polyporus annosus attached. Forestry Bulle-
tin 22, Plate XIII, Figs. 1 and 2,
flourishes on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
habit of dripping moisture.
The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight
and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it crumbles up when dry
into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neighbor-
hood, becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned tim-
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 239
ber is most susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its
spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or
saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood
if diseased timber is left about near it; but on the other hand dry timber
kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.)
About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is
to keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
or to cut them out and destroy
them. Such methods have here- =
tofore been too expensive to em- las en |
ploy in any ordinary American
forest, but the time is at hand
when such action will prove
profitable in many localities.
For the preservation of cut
timber from decay, several
methods are used. Fungi need
heat, air, moisture and food. |
If any one of these is lacking Fig. 86. Portion of the myce-
ie 2 lium of dry rot or tear fungus,
the fungus cannot grow. Air Merulius “lachrymans. 'Phis
5 i=) cakelike mass spreads over
and heat are hard to exclude theisurfaceof the timber. Vn
. a moist environment pellucid
from wood, but moisture and drops or “tears” distil from
? : its lower surface; Hence its
food can be kept from fungi. name. |Ward: Trméer; Fig 21.)
The removal of moisture is
called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process
of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these processes
are described in Handwork in Wood, Chapter III.
ANIMAL ENEMIES.
The larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly ro-
dents and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and
squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The
acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of
their sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber
of comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come
to possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of
“mast,” ¢. €., acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other
240 WOOD AND FOREST.
forests. They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer
and cattle, work harm by trampling a
nd browsing. Browsing destroys
the tender shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling en-
tirely kills out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp
Fig. 87. Goats Eating lolage,
New Mexico. U.S. Forest Service.
cleft hoofs injures the forest
floor, by pulverizing it and al-
lowing it to be readily washed
away by storms until defores-
tation may result, as was the
case in France after the Revo-
lution. It has cost the French
people from thirty to forty
million dollars to repair the
damage begun by the sheep. In
this country, this matter has
become a very serious one on
the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and there-
fore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands
there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place rapidly.’
The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
The average annual loss of trees in tl
ne United States from this cause
alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.
Insects have two objects in their
food, as when they are in the larval s
for offspring, as do certain beetles.
Fig.88. Sheep Grazing in Forest, Idaho. U.S. Forest Service.
attack on trees, one is to obtain
tage, and the other is to provide
*The evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes
started intentionally in order to increase
the area of grazing land.
NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 241
The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the
St. Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred
such insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the
beetles (Coleoptera), which have horny wings and biting mouth parts,
and the moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), with membraneous
wings and sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects
attack every part of
the tree, the seed, the
shoot, the flower, the
root, the leaf, the bark
and the wood, both
standing and cut.
Of the fruit and
seed pests, the most
destructive are wee-
vils, worms and gall
insects.
Of the twig and
shoot pests, beetles,
weevils and _ caterpil-
lars are the worst.
Among insects that
attack roots, the peri-
odical cicada (17 year
old locust) may be
noted.
Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying Beetle:
The leaf pests are «4. Primary gallery; 6. Borings packed in side; c, En-
f . trance and central burrow thru the packed borings;
ar mor T Sg. d, Warval mines. Note how the eggs are grouped on
‘ e serious. They ‘the sides. [Agric. Year Book, 1902, Fig. 24, p. 268.|
include the true and
false caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.
Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive.
‘hese are also called Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut figures
which are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.
Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of
the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees. They bore thru the outer
bark to the inner living portion, and thru the inner layers of the latter;
they excavate long, irregular, longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of
these at irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The eggs
soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark, and
242 WOOD AND FOREST.
as they increase in size, extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general
transverse but irregular course, away from the mother galleries (see illus-
tration). When these young and larval forms are full grown, each exca-
vates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky
bark. (Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1902.)
Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.
All of the above in-
directly affect both the
quantity and quality
of the wood supply.
They can be studied
more in detail in the
publications of the U.S.
Bureau of Entomology.
Of the insects di-
rectly attacking wood,
the most important
are the ambrosia or
timber beetles, the bor-
ers, the ants, and the
carpenter. bees. The
most remarkable fea-
ture of the beetle is the
manner of its boring
into the harder parts
Fig.90, Complete Brood Galleries of the Hickory r 7 e Fare
Bark Beetle in Surface of Wood. [Agric. Lear Book, of the w ood. Its jaws
1903, Fig. 28, p. 316.] are particularly —con-
structed for this work,
being heavy and strong. The boring is done something after the man-
ner of countersinking, and the jaws are believed to he self-sharpening,
by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion.
Ambrosia or timber beetles, Fig. 92. This class of insects attacks liv-
ing, dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber, and_ stave-bolts, often
causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects
caused by their brood galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent
beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood, and
the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the walls of
galleries. (Hopkins, Entom, Bulletin No. 48, p. 10.) The growth of this
ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles and the
young are dependent on it for food. (Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904.)
NATURAL ENEMIES
Fig. 91. Brood Galleries of
the Oak Bark Beetle, showing
Character of Primary Gallery
at 6; Larval or Brood Mines at
a. | Agric. Year Book, 1903, Fig.
30, page 318.]
OF THE FOREST.
Fig. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle,
Xyloborus celsus, in Hickory Wood: a,
Larva; 6, Pupa; c, Adult beetle; ¢@, Char-
acter of work in’ lumber cut from in-
jured log; e, Bark; f, Sap-wood; ¢, Heart-
wood. |Agric. lear Book, 1904, Fig. 44,
p. 384. |
There are two general types or classes of
these galleries, one in which the broods de-
velop together in the main burrows, the other,
in which the individuals develop in short
separate side chambers extending at right
angles from the primary gallery, Fig. 93.
The galleries of the latter type are usually
accompanied distinct staining of the
wood, while those of the former are not.
(Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904, p. 383.)
Bark borers, Fig. 94.
by a
and wood This
class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs on the surface.
The elongate, whitish, round-headed (Cerambycid), flat-headed (Buprestid),
or short, stout (Curculionid)
grubs hatching from these
eges cause injury by bur-
rowing beneath the bark, or
deep into the sap-wood and
heart-wood of living, in-
jured dead trees,
jogs, etc. Some of the spe-
cies infest living trees, Fig.
95, causing serious injury
or death. Others attack
only dead or dying bark and
wood, but this injury often
and saw-
results in great loss from
the so-called wormhole de-
fects. (A. D. Hopkins,
Pntom. Bull., No 48, p. 10.)
Fig. 93. Werk of Ambrosia Beetles in
Oak: a, Monarthum malt, and work;
6, Platypus composttus, and work; c,
Bark; d, Sap-wood; e, Heart-wood; f,
Character of work in lumber from in-
[Agric. Tear Book, 1904, Fig.
jured log.
45, p. 384.]
244 WOOD AND FOREST.
The pine sawyers are
among the most trouble-
some pests in the mill
yard, and their large,
white larvae often do
much damage to logs by
eating great holes thru
| their solid interior. While
| burrowing in the wood
\ me gee ; | the larvae make a_pecu-
Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed_and liar grating sound that
Flat-Headed Borers in Pine: a, Work ae e
of round-headed borers, “‘sawyer,”’ Afono- may be heard on quiet
hamnus sp.; 6, Ergates spiculatus; c, Work . ao 8S ee eee
of flat-headed borer, Buprestis, larva nights at a considerable
and adult. [Agric. Jear Book. 1904, distance. This is a fa-
Fig. 46, p. 385.] = ‘
miliar sound in the lum-
ber camps of the North,
and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by which these
insects are known. (Forestry Bulletin, No. 22, p. 58.)
Powder-post beetles, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects representing
two or three families of beetles, the larvae of which infest and convert into
fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products, such
as hickory and ash handles, wagon spokes, lumber, ete., when wholly or in
part from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes
injured to a great extent, and the structural timbers of old houses, barns,
ete, are often seriously injured, while hop poles and like products are at-
tacked by one set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood
for the purpose of
depositing their
eggs. (Hopkins,
Forestry Bulletin
No. 48, p. 11.)
Timber worms,
Fig 97. This class
of true wood-bor-
ing “worms,” or
erubs, are the lar-
vae of _ beetles.
They enter the
wood from eggs de-
posited in wounds
in living trees,
from which they
burrow deep into
the heart-wood.
Generation after * a NS n os Li ie
: - a EE A AE
Douglas ir te
Wikin = ——_-
lermloci —_—_—
Spruce ina
Western Fine =—mtmow
laple =
Foplar =
ress ===
Re Gum =
Chestnut =
Fedwood ==
Beech -_
Birch >
ass =
Cottonwood =
lm =
Ash =
Cedar =.
Larch -
Nickor >
White Py
Super Fine:
Tamarack -
Tupelo :
Sycamore +
Whinut .
All others =-
Mixed a
Fig. 117.
lock, the meanest of all woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21.00 in
1911, Fig. 118.
It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any re-
gion becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly low-
ered, and the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer
268 WOOD AND FOREST.
8100 ] White Pine, Wa fi
NG
95 y
86 ht, 90
A— 85
85
x 4
60 / 80
Price, per 1000 feet
70
% / ( Yellow Poplar, S
60 / 60
Vm }
SS ReaD White Ash *>
White Oak /} | |
2 aire ate:
White Pine NY Sons / iN A Velo Tine
ree pel"
40K Wh p ZS bassiroad| 40
ite Ash W4 y NL |
AS 35
Mey ilce ilies
Yellow Poplar
x
NX
|
mee
(aa 30
30) | t(/-——
25| Basswood / = Br: 25
77 Spruce aan = emlack |
20 Yellow Piné 4 20
15 fal 5
Hernlock |_| alee /
/0
990 '9/ 92 '93'94 '95'96'97 98 99 00 0! 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 II
Fig. 118. Wholesale lumber prices, 1887-1911,
The qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows:
White Ash, Istand 2d, 1” and 144” x 8” and up by 12?— 10°.
Basswood, Ist and 2d,1° x 8° and up by x 00°.
White Oak, quarter-sawed, Ist and 2d, all figured, 1” x 6 and up x 10° — 10’,
Yellow poplar, lst and 2d, 1 x 7° —17” x 12? — 10°.
Hemlock, boards
Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1 and 144% x 4" x 13°.
White pine, rough uppers, 1 x 8” and up x 00°.
Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct, for the
standard of quality has been changed several times.
EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST. 269
species and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are
now accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a commen
cutting diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the
minimum limit, and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut
below 18 inches. This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the
capacious maw of the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest
stuff. Altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in
comparison with the total lumber production, being about 5.4 per
cent., yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devas-
tated. In 1906 nearly 9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper
pulp in the United States.
No one who is at ali familiar with the situation doubts for an instant
that we are rapidly using up our forest capital. In fact it is unquestionably
safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is
from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests.
Even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing
we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great cur-
tailment in the use of wood, if the present methods of forest exploitation
are continued. Every indication points to the fact that under present con-
ditions the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a
whole has been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there will
be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now in several items.
(Kellogg, Forestry Circular, No. 97, p. 12.)
On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influ-
ences which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.
THE EXHAUSTION
REFERENCES : *
(1) Fires.
Bruncken, pp, 183-207.
Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., p.
189.
Suter, For. Circe. No. 36.
U. 8S. Tenth Census, Vol.
IX, p. 491 ff.
(2) Destructive Lumbering.
The Settler’s Tradition.
Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.
Roth, First Book, pp. 41-45.
Taxation.
For. and Irr., April, ’06.
Reckless Practices.
Pinchot, Primer II, 42-47.
Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1898,
p. 184.
Pinchot, For. Cire., No. 25,
p. ll.
Price, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1902,
p. 310.
Fox, For. Bull., No, 34, p. 40.
The Timber Supply.
Kellogg, For. Cire., No. 97...
Zon, For, Bull., No, 83.
*For general bibliography, see p. 4.
WOOD AND FOREST.
OF THE FOREST.
Pinchot, Primer, pp. 77-88.
Roth, First Book, pp. 104-112.
Sterling, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904, p.
133.
Vinchot, Primer, II, p. 82.
Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1898, p. 184.
Peters, Agric. Yr. Bk.,
494,
Graves, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1899, p. 415.
1905, pp. 483-
Suter, For. Bull., 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.
Mohr, For. Bull. No. 13, p. 61.
Bruncken, pp. 90-98.
Fernow, Economics, pp. 35-45,
Report of the Commissioner of Cor-
porations on the Lumber Indus-
try, Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.
CHaptrer VIII.
THE USE OF THE FOREST.
Man’s relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and
injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences
which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and
improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
Forestry.
The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The wtili-
zation of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The preser-
Fig.119. National Forests in the United States.
vation of the forest, 7. ¢., its continued reproduction ; 3. The improve-
ment of the forest.
UTILIZATION.
The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Pro-
ductive, and (3) Esthetic.
(1) Protective. The forest may be used as a protection against
floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, ete. The National Forests
of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include
271
WOOD AND FOREST.
IINLAISY JSOLOMT *S */
*BUT[OIVD YAON
*SIULOITS JO S1JJVMpPLIP olf} Huey ure
¢
JSa10 J UOl}I9}01g V
“OCT
os
THE USE OF THE FOREST.
Forest Service.
Se
U~.
North Carolina.
Hillside Erosion.
Fig. 121.
274 WOOD AND FOREST.
one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as “protection
forests” to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made
to reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appa-
lachians is chiefly for this purpose of protection.
A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference
between a region protected by forest and one unprotected.’
(2) Productive. All practical foresters have as their first aim the
yield of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape archi-
tecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and im-
provement of a given tract. ‘Ihe crop to be produced is as truly the
prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is
the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122. The
prejudice of Iumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misun-
derstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting down
of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future
there will still be trees to cut. “Thru use to a greater use,” is the
motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive lum-
bering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop
regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop
indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the trees to
be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate mar-
ket value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester’s motto.
So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and
were treated as mines are, 7. ¢., exploited for the sake of immediate
profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes
use of various methods, some negative, some positive.
Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
roads, ete., care is taken in “falling” trees and in dragging out logs,
that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical disposal of
the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the
*A concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to
rain and floods is to be found in Pinchot: Primer of Forestry, Bulletin No.
24, Part II, Chap. TIT.
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 20d
saw-mill, (see Handwork in Word, Chapter II,) so one object of
forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.
One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
“yield,” 7. e., the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a
given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature
and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ulti-
mately be exhausted.
This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in
any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing
itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. The United
States Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with
farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with
skilled foresters for direction in this matter.
In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the
yield is by area, 7. ¢., a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over
276 WOOD AND FOREST.
once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time between
two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow
the young trees left standing to ripen.
In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of
the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3)
young growth so left as to replace the outgo.
The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
among the great manufacturing industries of the United States, be-
ing exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
industries. It turns out a finished pioauel worth $567,000,000.00.
And yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the
total output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of
a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people
burn wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the lst is shin-
gles and laths, $32,000,000. (See Forestry Bulletin No. 74, p. 7.)
Outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so
indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow, Econ., p. 21.)
The importance of forest products may also be learned from a
metre list of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would
include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population
of the United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of
masonry and steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and out-
houses; ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel
ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual ex-
penditure $50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles
and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing;
cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing
erates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost
about $10,000,000) ; piles and submerged structures, like canal locks
and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,-
000), indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of
coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed); street paving ;
veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually); vehicles, including
carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and
their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles;
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 277
musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils;
(815 million a year in the U. 8., requiring over 7 million cubic feet
of wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of
shoes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles;
playthings and toys, for both children and adults; Christmas trees
and decorations; pipes; walking sticks; umbrella handles; crutches
and artificial limbs; household utensils; excelsior.
Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,-
000,000 a year; tar; oils; tan-bark, 114 million cords worth $13,-
000,000 a year; wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year) ;
nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medi-
cines; lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac
and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907) ; vinegar and acetic
acid; confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a
year).
(3) The H#sthetic and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation
of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.
PRESERVATION.
The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or
continued reproduction.
In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep
the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
and never become exhausted.
This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a
given area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the indi-
vidual farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some
for woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms,
some for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean
that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thous-
ands of square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lum-
bering.
In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for for-
estry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better
278 WOOD AND FOREST.
land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There are in
the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but for-
ests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been
made for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of for-
estry,—to treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.
In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,
moisture, temperature, and light,
the forest cover, the forest floor,
the density and mixture of
growth, all conditions of forest
growth. It is only as the for-
ester preserves these conditions,
or to put it otherwise, it is only
as he obeys the laws of the forest
organism that he can preserve
the forest. For a long period
of our national history, we Amer-
icans were compelled to conform
our life and institutions to the
presence of the primeval forest,
but by long observation of what
happens naturally in the forest,
there have been developed in
Fig. 123. Chestnut Coppice. U.S. Forest Furope and in America certain
Service.
ways of handling it so as to make
it our servant and not our master.
These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based
on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they
are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.
As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either
by sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods
of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.
Coppice, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will ma-
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 279
ture a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where
the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
called the “rotation period.” The coppice is said to be managed on
a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff,
as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining an
overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is
used with admirable results by the French.
Seed Forests. In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.
Seeding from the side, Fig.
124. Many forests naturally
spread at their borders from
the scattering of their seeds.
“Old field pine’ is so called
from its tendency to spread in
this way on old fields. This
natural “Seeding from the
Side” has given rise to the
“Group System,’ im which an
area of ripe trees is cut off and
the trees alongside are de-
pended upon to reproduce new
ones on the cut-over area. The
openings are gradually enlarged
until all the old timber is cut
out, and the young growth has
taken its place. In its best Fig. 124. Seeding from the Side. White Pine.
form there is a definite “rota- New Hampshire. U.S. Forest Service.
tion period,” say eighty years.
This system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small open-
ings in woodlots. A modification of this is the “Strip System,” in
which long narrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out
and gradually widened. The strips are cut in the proper direction
so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of
avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. Where the soil is
very dry, the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings
from the sun.
280 WOOD AND FOREST.
Selection Forests. The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either
“mixed” or “pure.” If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and
Fig.125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina.
U.S. Forest Service.
every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve
the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 281
amount of the average growth, he would be using the “Selection
System.” This system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and
of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain
slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high
state of care, as in Europe, where this system has been in use for
seven centuries. But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is
high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the
United States, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.
Localized Selection. If instead of the whole forest being treated
in this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts,
and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber
as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system
would be called “Localized Selection.”’ The cost of logging would be
greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed
trees and to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the
forest would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been
appled with great success in certain private forests in the Adiron-
dacks.
Regular Seed Forest or High Forest. In the system already men-
tioned above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas
are depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains
are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all
trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under
such conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be
maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this pur-
pose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes lasting
even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference, now
to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed
bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later, the old
crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty years, the
new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one
hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated. This is
called the “Regular Seed Forest.” It produces very valuable timber,
and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially for beech
and balsam.
The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands,
and the logging is expensive.
282 WOOD AND FOREST.
Two-storied Seed Forest. A modification of the system of Regu-
lar Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of
tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to
prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of
the upper growth.”
An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in
Fig. 126.
Planting. The planting of forest trees is a comparatively unim-
portant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not uncom-
No.126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Virunder Beech, Germany. U.S. Forest Service.
mon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. It is
true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce forests
of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is ab-
surd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting
a tree every time one is cut. ven if planting were the best method,
many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut,
*For an interesting account of an application of this method, see Ward,
p. 35.
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 2838
in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned, not
for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.
The greater portion of American woodlands is in the condition of culled
forests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut,
leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarket-
able species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean
cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds
blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals
left standing. (Bruncken, p. 133.)
The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. The
Fig.127. Planted White Pine, Fifty Years Old,
Bridgewater, Mass. U.S. forest Service.
area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred
thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.’
?To encourage such forest extension, the Forest Service is doing much
by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to
special regions, as, e. g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill
Region of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western
Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.
284 WOOD AND FOREST.
Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irri-
gation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires,
which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. In many
parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie States, there
is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago.
What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in
New England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a
period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho
the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western
lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted
at a profit even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pas-
tures are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income
of $3 or more an acre.
IMPROVEMENT.
Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of for-
estry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon mis-
take to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America,
that a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised
than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, “You
never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first
growth.” As if this “first growth” were not itself the successsor of
thousands of other generations! There is even a legend that white
pine will not grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,
Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, “by nature’s
own hand planted,” cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees,
and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. But the
very opposite is true. No wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in
productiveness. To hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to
expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in
his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in the first place does
not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may
have survived the strugele for life with their own and other species ot
plants occupying the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hindered by
stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that might be occupied by
valuable timber may be given up to trees having Jittle or no market value.
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 285
The rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be
taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
may -bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain, therefore, that
in the future, when most American forests shall be in a high state of cul-
tivation, the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area, ex-
ceed everything known at the present day (Bruncken, North American
Forests and Forestry, pp. 134-135 )
It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful
material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow, p. 98.)
Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particu-
lar quality,—for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar
and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attri-
bute of 1 tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has
created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six
times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years,
preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their
forebears. The grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same
time. The trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manu-
facture. (Harwood, The New Earth, p. 179.)
Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will sur-
vive. Man, by interfering in Nature’s processes but obeying her laws,
raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive are fit
and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched
or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit for human
uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than Na-
ture, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for
our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just
as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our de-
scendants will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that
they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cul-
tivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
quantity and better in quality.
There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improve-
ment cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
“wolves”; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvi-
286 WOOD AND FOREST.
cultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
systems involve steady improvement of the forest.
The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying
on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of
their branches.
Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and
ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that im-
provement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.
THE USE OF THE FOREST. 287
THE USE OF THE FOREST.
REFERENCES : *
I Utilization.
Pinchot, Primer, II, pp. 14-18,
38-48.
(1) Protective.
Pinchot,
66-73.
Craft, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1905,
pp. 636-641, (Map. p.
639.)
Primer, II, pp.
(2) Productive.
Kellogg, For. Bull., No. 74,
Fernow, For. Invest., p. 9.
Roth, First Book, p. 133.
Zon & Clark, Agric. Yr.
Bk., 1907, p. 277.
Esthetic.
Roth, First Book, p. 180.
(3)
II Preservation.
Pinchot, Primer, II, pp. 18-36.
Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.
Graves, For. Bull., No. 26,
pp- 67-70.
Planting.
Roth, First Book, pp. 76-94,
195-198.
Hall, Agric. Yr, Bk., 1902,
pp. 145-156.
For. Cires., Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.
III Improvement.
Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-
160.
Graves, For. Bull., No, 26,
p- 39.
*Tor general bibliography, see p. 4.
Bruncken, pp. 121-131, For. Bull. No.
61.
Toumey, Agric. Yr,
279.
Bruncken, pp. 166-173.
For. and Trrig., passim.
Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.
Bk., 1908, p.
Boulger, pp. 60-76.
Roth, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1896, p. 391.
Fernow, Economics, pp. 23-33.
Roth, First Book, pp. 41-76, 193-194.
Roth, For. Bull., No 16, pp. 8, 9.
Fernow, Hconomics, 165-196.
Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.
Forestry Bulletins Nos. 18, 45, 52,
65.
Pinchot, Adirondack Spruce, p. 4.
Harwood, pp. 143-181.
APPENDIX.
HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.*
By B. E. FERNOW AND FILIBERT ROTH.
The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them
thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of dis-
tinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he
has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to
select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in
appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their
identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and_ soft
pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are charac-
teristically different; but when it comes to distinguishing between the several
species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable
characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it.
Hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.
To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the
often variable differences in their appearance. These structural differences
may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or
they may require a microscopical examination. In some cases such an ex-
amination can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure.
There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute
anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.
In the following key an attempt has been made—the first, so far as we
know, in English literature—to give a synoptical view of the distinctive
features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found in
the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the distinction
has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of
woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without
elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has
been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the
naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful
to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason
to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color,
taste, smell, weight, etc.
The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult
*From Forestry Bulletin No.10, U. S Department of Agriculture.
289
290 WOOD AND FOREST.
to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing
shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when relative, and
not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more
readily approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly
seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice.
In some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one
other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Ala-
bama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitze of the West
and the arbor vitw of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality
from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly ap-
preciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the
woods which are more commonly met with.
The features which have been utilized in the key and with which—their
names as well as their appearance—therefore, the reader must familiarize
himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they ap-
pear in cross-section. They are:
(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood
from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some
Hater Apret ates Bb ees ,
ee <> 7 Thala hos
ae ice ra Matla raped ceria eke Bikey
\ 0.02
a :
SW : rd-sw.
; '
HBS W
(Sp. spw
gels ‘ai
:
Neen: aot
Fig. 128. ‘‘Non-porous” Woods. A, fir; B, “hard” pine; C,soft
pine; a7, annual ring; o.e., outer edge of ring; 7. ¢., inneredge
of ring; s.w., Summer wood; sf. w., spring wood; rd., resin
ducts.
cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-
wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one
can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-
wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory,
yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon.
If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined;
in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids
in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
spirals.
(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19.
(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by
such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible.
APPENDIX. 291
(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of
the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges
into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which
the pores appear distributed in either.
(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-sec-
tion, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (See
p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called,
hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indis-
tinct when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and man-
ner of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in
the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines,
in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.
(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but
Fig. 129. “Ring-porous’”? Woods White Oak and Hickory.
a. 7., annual ring; suv. w., summer wood; sp. w., spring
wood; v, vessels or pores; c. 7, “‘concentric’’ lines; 7¢,
darker tracts of hard fibers f rming the firm part of
oak wood; p7, pith rays.
much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, and their pres-
ence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction
in these woods.
(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section
appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying
breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They are
most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-
leaved woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely
packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and
their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being
styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when
no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.
(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much
finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)
292 WOOD AND FOREST.
Of miscroscopic features, the following only have been referred to:
(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.
(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in
the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.
For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for stand-
ards of hardness, table on page 195.
Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section
of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only
shades, and often only general color effects appear.
HOW TO USE THE KEY.
Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the dis-
tinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some
practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to
Beechiio 2. 52s eSycamoness 24s Se Bache a 4
Fig. 130. ‘‘Diffuse-porous” Woods. a7, annual ring; p7, pith rays
which are “broad” at a, ‘‘fine’ at 6, “indistinct” at d.
vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the
present. The best course to adopt is to supply one’s self with a small
sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small, polished tablets are
of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, if possible,
to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection
of the cross-section. By examining these with the aid of the key, begin-
ning with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features
described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker
of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work
of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to
be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened:
all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and
smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful
cut may be madealong one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections
may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of
APPENDIX. 293
thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they may be
examined by holding them toward the light.
Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we
know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected in the
spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru
the ring, we turn at once to the class of “Diffuse-porous woods.” We now
note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring.
Finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger
nor more abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this
class. We now note the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor con-
spicuous, but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once
exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in
the third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the
wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster,
we are further assured that our determination is correct. We may now
turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the oc-
currence, qualities, and uses of the wood.
Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group
or section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each of
the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely
wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may anticipate
some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen,
gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. Color will
often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. In many cases, especially with
conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish, a knowledge of the locality
from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. Thus, northern white
cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even
without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key.
KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.
I. Non-porous woops—Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section,
even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands
of summer wood (Fig. 128).
II. Rrinc-Pporous woops—Pores numerous, usually visible on cross-section
without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected
in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. 129).
III. Dirrusre-porous woops—Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible
on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line of
denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru an-
nual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 130).
Note.—The above described three groups are exogenous, i. e., they grow by
adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the
endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions.
I.—Non-Porous Woops.
(Includes all coniferous woods. )
A. Resin ducts wanting.’
1. No distinct heart-wood.
a. Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under
microscope pith ray without tracheids) ................... Firs.
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the
resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary
rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-
wood color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visi-
ble resin ducts.
In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery
character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to
a less degree.
Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the
parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid.
The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination.
The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the
log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:
'To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is nec ssary, since resin ducts are
frequently seen only with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker
spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the an-
nualring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential
sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as in-
dentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction,
294
APPENDIX. 295
b. Color effect reddish (roseate) (under (in pith ray with
GEACHEIGS)) cars sive, Goes te orale ves sual Slee ie aes acne Se HEMLOCK.
2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly anierauh in kind from sap-wood.
a. Heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood, heavy
Gnd: Hard My se cenwy: eee et esc be ae ea sale 5 She ie farsi pene YEW.
b. Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap- anit yellowish white;
wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with aromatic odor,
Rep CEDAR.
c. Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood
light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays
very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section... ..REDWOOD.
3. Heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood, dingy:
yellowish brown. ;
a. Odorless and tasteless .........0..00 eee eee Reine BALD CYPRESS
b. Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ...... WulITE CEDAR.
ce. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut,
INCENSE CEDAR.
B. Resin ducts present.
1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not nu-
METOWBSy 5h paced oem Saad aaah eee Sl Ssh rata tie crease Sopadens SPRUCE
Distinct heart-wood present.
a. Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.
a’. Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual
ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells;
color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light. .Sorr Pines!
b’. Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less
abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from
light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy. Harp Pres.
The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, dis-
tinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines
(all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual
change of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is
abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or
less broad band.
The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can
be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more
rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition
of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.
The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually
very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing in
this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have
wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in that respect.
"Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the
limit.
296 WOOD AND FOREST.
b. Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
a’. Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish (same as
hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to
30, forming lines on the cross-section (tracheids with spirals),
DovucLas SPRUCE.
bv’. Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish
brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids
without-spirals): icc ineee aacns ae Ae estas recat: TAMARACK.
II.—Rine-Porous Woops.
(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous. )
A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.
1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.
a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.
a.’ Color of radial section not yellow .........--.e++seeeee ASH.
b.’ Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its
hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized,
OSAGE ORANGE.
b. Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10
£02300 aaeccasuasedndannies, Gis eeecinneean esuue eater CATALPA.
2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single
or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood
yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section ...... SASSAFRAS.
3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.
a. Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. .BLAcK Locust.
b. Heavy; medium hard to hard.
The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups,
proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen
in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:
Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.
a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1. Represented in this country only
by P. resinosa.
b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of
the pith ray.—Group 2. P. taeda, palustris, ete., including most of our
“hard” and “yellow” pines.
Section If. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projec-
tions.
a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell
of the pith ray.—Group 3. P. strobus, lambertiana, and other true
white pines.
b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.
Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, including also P. balfouriana,
APPENDIX. 297
a.’ Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of
3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown ....... Rep MULBERRY.
bd.’ Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-
wood: cCherity Ted). sce vas aks eer Sete Bee eaeeer CorFEE TREE.
4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of
heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ............... Honey Locust.
B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes
branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential
section.
1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood
absent or imperfectly developed ..............0..0 20005. THIACKBERRY.
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of
mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.
Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appear-
ance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays,
especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black
locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together
with its darker brown color.
ee}
Fig. 131.
The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear
to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring
wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak
exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appear-
ing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distin-
guish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very con-
spicuously defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more
or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less
brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial
surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.
298 WOOD AND FOREST.
2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood
grayish to: reddish: White! wncawsreseuek, Bbaves amie oeseses ‘.... ELMs.
C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).
1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................... CHESTNUT.
2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous ...................00005 Oak.
D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring
wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of
the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-
porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)
1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the
very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-
wood. light reddish: brown) ia... .6disekssien Coe tgew nena waneas HicKory.
2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge
in summer wood; sap:wood white; heart-wood blackish....PERSIMMON.
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
O}
oa:
Fig. 132. A, black ash; B, white ash; C, green ash,
The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132) :
1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.
a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the
TING. Sagas Sevres Gr ae ea eee part meet ia nan ee WHITE ASH.
b. The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer
WOO Ci bart .c en ccu ctome Gk menue duce arent ace le erotaicosers cake ee GREEN ASH.
2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.
a. Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ............... Rep Asn.
b, Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ..... BLack ASH.
APPENDIX. 299
ADDITIONAL NOTES—continued.
In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the
white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer
part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are
larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as struc-
ture is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and
are exceedingly heavy and hard.
Fn ote
Fig. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (For white oak
see fig. 129, p. 291.)
z 55
0% 90
u%
Oy IG
0 "0.9
0)
Fig. 134. Wood of Chestnut.
300 WOOD AND FOREST.
II].—Dirrust-Porous Woops.
(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedarelm may
seem to belong here.)
A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.
1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal sec-
tion) “Chocolate DYOWN: 45 .¢eccerca na toh Aw a gare siete o Birack WALNUT.
2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown. .BUuTTERNUT.
B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving
rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section),
thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous
reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes
indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are
readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the sum-
MEL WOOd:).. esau as oewenae. Hush incsicuciestes je Dine wae Le Wtaee Goes CHERRY.
C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numer-
ous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.
1. Broad pith rays present.
a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on
tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split.
SYCAMORE.
b. Only part of the pith rays broad.
a.’ Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish
white to reddish ............
b.’ Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small
rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery
of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and
out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows
or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish ...BLUE BEECH.
2. No broad pith rays present.
Fig. 135. Woo
APPENDIX. 801
a. Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.
a.’ Wood hard.
a.” Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer sum-
Mer WOO. .25Gercaeahisd owe eee y Meas ee NES ..... MAPLE,
b.” Color white, without reddish tinge..... aeieeliee a eats HOoLty.
b.’ Wood soft to very soft.
a.” Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith
rays.
a.” Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in
HeactWoOod! isecis wala cay: (bale Saget need eas TULIP PoPLaR.
CUCUMBER TREE.
b.”” Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark
reddish brown «.cscss cea vee sax enedsaa wens SWEET GuM.
b.” Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space
between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to very light
TO Wire aitelca Setar Seteetaer saute wana tnainter agus Giese an res Basswoop.
b. Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier,
plainly visible.
a.’ Pores indistinct to the naked eye.
a.” Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even
on sbhe:madiall sections csa.eitaw. beds tecmats Cence ts BUCKEYE.
b.” Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith
rays conspicuous on the radial section ....... Sour Gum.
b.’ Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on
the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish. .Bircu.
D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.
1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky
usher vow eer eacde esate tet ak mueat os aie aeons CoTToNwoop (POPLAR).
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.
Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and
spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the
latter will prove helpful.
Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distine-
tion is not always possible.
1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant
in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker, :
Cuerry Bircn and YELLOW Brrcu.
2. Pith rays barely distinet, pores more numerous and commonly forming
a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight,
CANOE OR PAPER BircH.
The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:
1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous.
Sugar MAPte.
802 WOOD AND FOREST.
ADDITIONAL NOTES—continued.
Beech 2... =.2..c Sycamores.
Fig. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.
2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.
a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and com-
monly spotted on cross-section .........0 62... eee eee Rep MAPLE.
b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored.
SILveR MAPLE
ara SEES
a6
{ys
BiG
ile
Halk 5
Fig. 137. Wood ot Maple.
SS
Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple.
The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:
1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows: easy split-
ting; dark: brown cheart,.c 2esaj. Gn Aissde sues Snes Ae BER BO Rep Ev.
2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.
a. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so......... Wirre Evtm,
b. Pores of spring wood small to minute.
APPENDIX. 303
ADDITIONAL NOTES—continued.
a.’ Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the inter-
mediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain...Rock ELM.
b.’ Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate
spaces
Rea pata eg ree eGo ale oats niaeteles* Teosel enema WINGED ELM.
c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous
WOOD nea ach ede We ees peN ae Mears
CEepAR ELM.
att Get Hh be |
Fig. 138. Wood of Elm.
a red elm; 6, white elm; c, winged elm.
Fig. 139. Walnut. f. ”.,’pith
rays; c./.,concentric lines;
v, vessels OF pores; Si. We,
summer wood; sf. w,
spring wood.
ood of Cherry.
Fig. 140.
Abies grandis, 96.
Acer dasycarpum, 172.
Acer macrophyllum, 170.
Acer rubrum, 174.
Acer saccharinum, 172.
Acer saccharum, 176.
Agaricus mellens, 236.
Agarics, 234, 236.
Alburnum, 17.
Ambrosia beetles, 242.
Angiosperms, 9,
Animal enemies, 239.
Arborvitae, Giant, 104.
Ash, 182-191, 296,
Ash, Black, 182, 298.
Ash, Blue, 186.
Ash, Hoop, 182.
Ash, Oregon, 184.
Ash, Red, 188, 298.
Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.
Bamboo, 10, 11.
Bark, 10, 13, 14.
Bark borers, 243.
Basswood, 14, 178, 301,
Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.
Beech, 134, 300.
Beech, Blue, 124, 300.
Beech, Water, 124.
Beech, Water, 162.
Bees, carpenter, 246.
Beetles, 241-246.
Betula lenta, 130.
Betula lutea, 132.
Betula nigra, 128.
Betula papyrifera, 126.
Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.
Birch, Black, 130.
Canoe, 126
Birch, Cherry, 130.
Birch, Gray, 132.
Birch, Mahogany, 130,
Birch, Paper, 126.
Birch, Red, 128.
3irch, River, 128.
Bireh, Sweet, 130.
Birch, White, 126.
Birch, Yellow, 132,
INDEX.
Bird’s eye maple, 36.
Bluing, 234.
Bole, 211, 218.
Borers, 243-246.
Bowing, 47.
Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.
Brittleness, 53.
Broad-leaved trees. See Trees,
Broad-leaved.
Browsing, 240.
Buckeye, 301.
Bud, 14, 16, 36.
Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.
Bullnut, 118.
Buprestid, 243.
Burl, 35.
Butternut, 144, 300.
Button Ball, 162.
Buttonwood, 162.
Calico poplar, 246.
Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.
Canopy, 204, 211, 212.
Carpenter worms, 245,
Carpenter bees, 246.
Carpinus caroliniana, 124.
Catalpa, 296.
Castanea dentata, 136.
Case-hardening, 48.
Carya tomentosa, 118.
Carya porcina, 122.
Carya alba, 120.
Cedar, Canoe, 104.
Cedar Incense, 295.
Cedar, Oregon, 108.
Cedar, Red 110, 223, 295.
Cedar, Port Orford, 108.
Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.
Cedar, White, 106, 295,
Cedar, White, 108.
Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26,
41, 42.
Cellulose, 15.
Cells, Fibrous, 28.
Cerambycid, 243.
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, 108,
Chamaecyparis thyordes, 106.
Checks, 43, 47, 232.
304
INDEX. 305
Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.
Chestnut, 136, 298.
Cleaning, 218, 286.
Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.
Coffea Tree, 297.
Color of wood, 18.
Cold, 214, 216.
Coleoptera, 241.
Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.
Columbian timber beetle, 245.
Comb-grain, 54,
Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.
Compression, 51, 52.
Coneh, 235.
Cones, Annual, 19.
Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48,
58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.
Conservation of forests, 262.
Coppice, 220, 278, 279.
Cork, 13, 19.
Cortex, 13, 15.
Corthylus columbianus, 245.
Cottonwood, 301.
Cover, 211.
Crop, The Forest, 274.
Crown, 211, 227.
Cucumber Tree,
Curculionid, 243.
Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.
Cypress, Lawson, 108.
Decay, 235.
Deciduous trees, 10.
Dicotoledons, 9, 10.
Differentiation of cells, 16.
Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-
porous,
Distribution of species, 218.
Distribution of forests, 197-210.
Drouth, 213, 231.
Dry-rot, 234, 238.
Duff, 224, 251.
Duramen, 17.
Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.
Elm, 152-155, 298.
Elm, American, 154
Elm, Cedar, 303.
Elm, Cliff, 152.
Elm, Cork, 152.
Elm, Hickory, 152.
Elm, Red, 302.
Elm, Rock, 152, 303.
Elm, Slippery, 14.
Elm, Water, 154.
Elm, White, 152,
Elm, White, 154, 302.
Elm, Winged, 303.
156, 301.
Endogens, 10, 17.
See Monocotoledons.
Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.
Engraver beetles, 241.
Entomology, Bureau of, 247.
Epidermis, 13, 15.
Erosion, 273.
Evaporation, 42, 47.
Evergreens, 10.
Exotics, 227.
Exogens, 12, 16.
Fagus americana, 134.
Fagus atropunicea, 134.
Fagus ferruginea, 134.
Fagus grandifolia, 134.
Figure, 37.
Fir, 96, 294.
Fir, Douglas, 94.
Fir, Grand, 96.
Fir, Lowland, 96.
Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.
Fir, Silver, 96.
Fir, White. 96.
Fire, 232, 251-258.
Fire Janes, 257.
Fire losses, 253.
Fire notice, 258.
Fire trenches, 256.
Fire Wardens, 257.
Fires, Causes of, 252.
Fires, Control of, 256-258.
Fires, Crown, 255.
Fires, Description of,
Fires, Fear of, 261.
Fires, Opportunities for, 251.
Fires, Statistics of, 253.
Fires, Surface, 252.
Floor, Forest, 213, 224.
254-256.
Forest, Abundance of, 260,
Forest, Appalachian, 204.
Forest, Atlantic, 197.
Forest, Broadleaf, 202.
Forest, Eastern, 197-204.
Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.
Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.
Forest, Esthetie use of, 277.
Forest, Fear of, 260.
Forest, Hardwood, 197.
Forest, High, 281.
Forest, Hostility toward,| 260.
Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.
Forest, Northern, 197, 216.
Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.
Forest, Productive, 274-277.
Forest, Protective, 271-274.
Forest, Puget Sound, 206.
Forest, Regular Seed, 281.
306 INDEX.
Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, Gum, Sour, 180, 301.
205. Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.
Forest, Seed, 297-282. Gymnosperms, 9.
Forest, Selection, 280-281.
Forest, Southern, 197.
Forest, Subarctic, 209.
Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.
Forest, Use of, 271-287.
Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.
Forest, Virgin, 280.
Forest, Western, 197.
Forestry, 271-287.
Forests, Composition of North Amer-
ican, 197.
Forests, National, 228.
Forests and agriculture, :
Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.
Forest conservation, 262.
Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.
Forest crop, 274, 276.
Forest devastation, 261.
Forest fires, 251-258, 261.
Forest floor, 213, 224.
Forest improvement, 284-286.
Forest map, 198.
Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp.
211-228.
Forest ownership, 262.
Forest’ planting, 282-284.
Forest preservation, 277-284.
Forest, products, 276.
Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.
Frarinus americana, 190.
Fraxvinus nigra, 182.
Fraxinus oregona, 184.
Frarinus pennsylwanica, 188.
Fraxvinus quadrangulata, 186.
Frost, 232.
Frost-check, 232.
Fungi, 26, 233-239.
Ginko, 12.
Gluing, 54.
Goats, 240.
jrain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.
Grain, Bird’s eye.
Grain, coarse, 32.
Grain, cross, 33, 53,
Grain, curly, 35.
yrain, fine, 32.
Grain, spiral, 33.
Grain, straight, 33, 53.
Grain, twisted, 33.
Grain, wavy, 34,
Grazing, 239.
Group system, 279.
Grubs, 243, 244.
Gum, Black, 180.
Hackberry, 297.
Hackmatack, 76.
Hardness of wood, 41, 54.
Hardwoods, 12.
Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.
Hemlock, 90, 295.
Hemlock, Black, 92.
Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.
Hicoria alba, 118.
Hicoria glabra, 122.
Hicoria ovata, 120,
Hickory, 118-123, 298.
Hickory, Big-bud, 118.
Hickory, Black, 118.
Hickory, Shagbark, 120.
Hickory, Shellbark, 120.
Hickory, White-heart, 11S.
Holly, 301.
High Forest, 281.
Honeycombing, 48.
Hornbeam, 124.
Horn-tails, 246.
Hygroscopicity of wood, 41,
Hymenomycetes, 234.
Tee, 232.
Tchneumon fly, 247.
Identification of woods, 289-303.
Improvement of forests,
Inflammability of bark, 14, 251,
Insects, 240-248.
Insects, parasitic, 247.
Insects, predaceous, 247.
Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.
Tron-wood, 124.
Juglans cinerea, 114,
Juglans nigra, 116.
Juniperus virginiana, 110.
Key for the distinction of woods,
292-303.
Kine-nut, 118.
Knot, 35, 37, 38.
Larch, 76,
Larch, Western, 78.
Larix americana, 76.
Larix laricina, 76.
Larix occidentalis, 78.
Lenticels, 14.
Leaves, 14, 216,
Lepidoptera, 241.
Light, 216-218.
Lightning, 231, 251.
Lignin, 16.
Linden, 178.
Liquidambar styraciflua, 160.
INDEX.
Liriodendron tulipifera, 158.
Localized Selection system, 281.
Locust, 166.
Locust, Black, 166, 296.
Locust, Honey, 166, 297.
Locust, Yellow, 166.
Long-bodied trunk, 225.
Lumber consumption, 264.
Lumber, 9, 10.
Lumber prices, 267, 268.
Lumber production, 265-267.
Lumber, substitutes for, 264.
Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.
Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.
Lumberman, 260.
Magnolia acuminata, 156.
Magnolia, Mountain, 156.
Mahogany, 168.
Maple, 170-177, 301.
Maple, Hard, 25, 176.
Maple, Large Leaved, 170.
Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.
Maple, Red, 174, 302.
Maple, Rock, 25, 176.
Maple, Silver, 172, 302.
Maple, Soft, 172.
Maple, Sugar, 176
Maple, White, 170.
Maple. White, 172.
Medullary rays. See Rays.
Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.
Merulius lachrymans, 234, 238.
Meteorological enemies, 229-233.
Mice, 237.
Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290,
Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.
Mockernut, 118.
Moisture, 213,
Moisture in wood, 41, 52.
Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17.
See also Endogens.
Mountain, 216.
Mulberry, Red, 297.
Mushroom, 236.
Mutual aid, 224.
Nailing, 53.
Needle-leaf trees, 12.
Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.
North Woods, 197, 218.
Nurse, 218, 219.
Nyssa sylvatica, 180,
Oak, 138-151, 298.
Oak, Basket, 142.
Oak, Black, 140.
Oak, Bur, 144.
Oak, Cow, 142.
Oak, Live, 201.
307
Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.
Oak, Over-cup, 144.
Oak, Post, 148.
Oak, Red, 138.
Oak, Stave, 150.
Oak, White, 150.
Oak, White (Western), 146
Oak, Yellow bark, 149.
Odors of wood, 18.
Osage Orange, 296.
Organism, Forest, 211.
Padus serotina, 164.
Palm, 9, 17.
Paper pulp, 263.
Parasites, 233.
Parenchyma, 23, 28.
Pecky cypress, 234.
Pegey cypress, 234.
Pepperidge, 180.
Persimmon, 298.
Phanerogamia, 9.
Phloem, 132.
Picea alba, 80.
Picea canadensis, 80.
Picea engelmanni. 86.
Picea mariana, 84.
Picea nigra, 84.
Picea rubens, 82.
Picea sitchensis, 88,
Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.
Pignut, 122.
Pines, 58-75, 295.
Pine, Bull, 66, 205,
Pine, Cuban, 74.
Pine, Georgia, 68,
Pine, Loblolly, 72.
Pine, Long-leaf, 68,
Pine, Norway, 64.
Pine, Old Field, 72.
Pine, Oregon, 94.
Pine, Red, 64.
Pine, Short-leaf, 70.
Pine, Slash, 74.
Pine, Sugar, 62.
Pine, Western White, 60.
Pine, Western Yellow, 66.
Pine, Weymouth, 58.
Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.
Pine, Yellow, 70.
Pine sawvers, 244.
Pinus caribaea, 74.
Pinus echinata, 70.
Pinus heterophylla, 74.
Pinus lambertiana, 62.
Pinus monticola, 60.
Pinus palustris. 68.
Pinus ponderosa, 66.
282.
200.
308
Pinus resinosa, 64.
Pinus strobus, 58.
Pinus taeda, 72.
Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.
Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.
Pits, 26, 292.
Planting, 282-284.
Platanus occidentalis, 162.
Poles, 225.
Polypores, 234
Polyporus annosus, 237.
Polyporus sulphureus, 236.
Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245,
301.
Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.
Powder-post beetles, 244.
Preservation of forests, 277-284.
Prices of lumber, 267, 268.
Primary growth, 17, 22.
Procambium strands, 16.
Protection against fungi, 239,
Protection against insects, 247.
246,
Properties of wood, Chap II. p. 41.
Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41
Pruning of branches, 286,
Prunus serotina, 164.
Pseudotsuga mucronata, 94.
Pseudotsuga tawifolia, 94.
Quartering a log, 45.
Quartered oak, 22.
Quercus alba, 150.
Quercus garryana, 146.
Quereus macrocarpa, 144.
Quercus michauati, 142.
Quercus minor, 148.
Quercus obtusiloba, 148.
Quercus rubra, 138.
Quercus stellata, 148,
Quercus tinctoria, 140.
Quercus velutina, 140.
Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.
Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22
23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.
Red rot, 234.
Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.
Regularity of cells, 24.
Reproduction, 220.
Reserve sprout method, 279.
Resin ducts, 26, 291.
Rhizomorphs, 236.
Rind, 13,
Ring-porous.
226, 290.
Rings, False, 19, 231.
Robinia pseudacacia, 166.
Rodents, 239,
See Wood, ring-porous.
Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44,
INDEX.
Roots, 211, 224.
Rotation period, 279.
Rotting, 234.
Salia nigra, 112.
Sand dunes, 230, 231.
Saplings, 225, 226,
Saprophytes, 233.
Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.
Sassafras, 296.
Sawyers, Pine, 244.
Secondary growth, 17.
Section, cross, 21, 22, 29.
See also Section, transverse.
Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.
Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.
Seasoning, 42.
Sections, transverse,
gential, 12.
Seed forests, 279-282.
Seeding from the side, 279.
Seedlings, 225, 226.
Seeds, 220-223, 226.
Sequoia, 98.
Sequoia, 100.
Sequoia, Giant, 98.
Sequoia gigantea, 98.
Sequoia sempervirens, 100,
Sequoia washingtoniana, 98.
Settler, 258.
Shake, 47, 232, 233.
Shearing strength, 52.
Sheep, 240.
Shelf fungus, 234, 236.
Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.
Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.
Silver flakes, 22. See Rays, Medul-
lary.
Silvical characteristics, 211.
Silvicultural systems, 278-284.
Slash, 229, 251,
Slash-grain, 54.
Snow, 232.
Slash-sawing, 45, 47.
Softwoods, 12.
Soil, 211, 213.
Specific gravity.
Splint-wood, 17.
Splitting. See Cleavability.
Spores, 234.
Spring-wood, 20, 21,
538, 54, 291.
Sprouts, 220, 222.
Spruce, 80-89, 295.
Spruce, Black, 84,
Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.
Spruce, Engelmann’s, 86.
radial and tan-
257.
See Weight.
24, 30, 32, 44,
INDEX.
Spruce, Red, 82, 213.
Spruce, Sitka, 88.
Spruce, Tideland, 88.
Spruce, Western White, 86.
Spruce, White, 80.
Stand, mixed, 213, 223.
Stand, pure, 213, 223.
Standards, 225, 226.
Steamboats, 246.
Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig.
4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.
Strength of wood, 41, 51-53
Strip system, 279.
Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.
Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.
Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44,
53, 54, 291.
Swietenia mahagoni, 168.
Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.
Tamarack, 76, 296,
Tamarack, Western, 78.
Taxes on forests, 261.
Taxodium distichum, 102.
Tear fungus, 234, 238.
Temperature, 214.
Tension, 51, 52.
Texture of wood, 32.
Thuja gigantea, 104.
Thuja plicata, 104.
Tilia americana, 178.
Timber beetles, 242, 245.
Timber supply of U. S.,
Timber trees, 10.
Timber worms, 244.
Tissue, 16.
Toadstools, 234.
Tolerance, 216, 219,
Toughness of wood, 41, 54.
Tracheae, 23, 28.
Tracheid, 28, 30, 290,
Trametes pini, 235.
Trametes radiciperda, 237.
Tree, parts of, 211.
Treeless area, 197, 203.
Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10,
Trees, deciduous, 10.
Trunk, 13, 211.
Long-bodied, 225.
Short-bodied, 225,
Tsuga canadensis, 90.
Tsuga heterophylla, 92.
Tulip Tree, 158.
See Poplar Yellow
264-269.
292.
28, 29.
309
Tupelo, 180.
Turpentine, 263,
Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.
Ulmus americana, 154.
Ulmus racemosa, 152.
Ulmus thomasi, 152.
Utilization of forests, 271-277.
Veneer, 10, 35.
Vessels, 23, 28, 29.
Vegetable enemies, 233-239.
Veterans, 225.
Walnut, Black, 116, 300.
Walnut, White, 114.
Warping, 45-47.
Waste, Avoidance of, 274.
Waste in lumbering, 263.
Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.
Weeds, Forest, 225.
Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.
Whitewood, 158.
Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.
Willow, Black, 112.
Wind, 229, 252, 253.
Windfalls, 229.
Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.
Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-
296.
Wood, Primary, 17.
Wood, Properties of, Chap. IT., 41-56.
Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.
Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44,
53, 54, 291.
Wood, Structure of, 9-40.
Wood, secondary, 17.
Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32,
44, 53, 54, 291.
Wood borers, 243.
Wood cells. See Cells.
Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.
Wood dyes, 18.
Wood fiber, 28.
Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.
Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-
303.
Working, 47.
Worn-holes, 243.
Worms, carpenter, 245.
Worms, Timber, 244.
Wound parasites, 234.
Yew, 295,
Yield, 275.
Yueea, 10.
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HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.
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