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55. Female Tick laying Eggs . 125
56. Female Sheep-scab Mite . : F 129
57. Red Mange : ‘ : Mesa
5S. Demodectic Scabies (section of skin) ‘ « 132
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82,
83.
84,
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92,
93.
94.
95.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Beetle Mite (Oribata orbicularis) .
Black Currant Mite
Linguatulidie
A Hexapod (Tipula Siena
Mouth parts of Insects
Larvee of Insects .
Pup of Insects
Pupa of Tipula oleracea
Alimentary Canal of Larva (Pipula ae
Lady-birds (Coccinellide )
The Turnip Flea Beetle .
Mustard Beetle (Phedon betulc) .
The Asparagus Beetle
Apple: blossom Weevil (Anthonomus pomorum)
Apple Blossoms damaged by Apple Weevil
pomorum)
Pea Weevil (Sitones lineatus)
Red-legged Weevil (Otiorhynchus tenebricosus)
The Raspberry Weevil (Otiorhynchus picipes)
Bean Beetle (Bruchus rufimanus)
Striped Click-beetle (A griotes lincatus)
Rose Beetle (Cetonia aurata)
Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris)
Beet Carrion-beetle (Silpha opuca)
Raspberry Beetle (Bytwrus tomentosus)
Ground-beetle (Carabus violaceus)
Corn Ground-beetle (Zabrus gibbus)
Pupa of a Sawfly .
Honey-bees
Mouth and Sting of Bee, Remica
Cynipide . ‘
Saw of a Female Sawfly .
Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ribesiz)
Slug-worm of Pear (Eriocampa limacina)
Pear Sawfly (Lriocampa limacina), and Cocoon
Leaf of Cherry eaten by Slug-worms
Larva of the Large White (Pieris brassicw)
Green-veined White (Pieris napt)
133
136
xvl
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102,
103,
104,
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
Ab ie
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
sees
118.
119.
120.
121.
122,
123.
124,
125.
126.
127.
128.
129,
130.
131.
132.
133,
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Currant Clearwing (4geria tipwiformis)
Larva and Pupa of Currant Clearwing (.#ycria tipuliformés)
Black Currant Stems damaged by Larvee of Currant Clearwing
Garden Swift-moth (Hepialus lupulinus)
The Ghost Moth (//epialus humul?)
Cordyceps entomorhi-a (a fungus on Hepialus larvae)
Egg-band of Lackey Moth
Female and Male Lackey Moths
Heart-and-Dart Moth (Agrotis exclamationis)
Silvery Y-Moth (Plusia gamma)
Winter Moths
Life-history of Currant or Magpie Moth Miuas ihesanes a
Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella)
Diamond-back Moth (Plutella maculipennis)
Cherry-tree Case-bearer (Colcophora anatipencllw)
Raspberry Shoot-borer (Lampronia rubiella)
The Pear-leaf Blister Moth
Pear Leaf blistered by Cemiostoma sean
Haltere of Fly
A Mosquito (Theobaldia oe and Head of Mosquito
Plumed Gnat (Chironomus plumosus)
Larva and Pupa of a Cecidomyia
Anchor Processes
Wing of Cecidomyia
Wing of Diplosis
The Pear Midge
Bibionidee
A Sandfly (Simudium seein
Crane-fly (Tipula oleracea)
Winter Gnats (T’richocera)
Head and Proboscis of Tabanus autumnalis
Ox Gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus)
Hover-flies (Syrphide)
Ox-warble (Hypoderma boris)
Ox-bot
Horse-bot Fly (Gastrophi/us —
Larva of Horse-bot Fly .
Root-eating Flies : i
lo
De
for)
WwW Ww Nw ts
lo to toe Wo to
saad o
bo
oO
134.
135.
136.
137.
188,
139.
140,
141.
142.
143.
144,
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150,
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171,
ILLUSTRATIONS,
Onion Fly (Phorbia cepetorum) .
The Cabbage-root Fly
Card disc to prevent Egg-laying of ee Fly
Wheat-bulb Fly.
Mangold Fly (Pegomyia bete)
Ova of Mangold Fly and Adult .
Gout Fly (Chlorops tentopus)
The Frit Fly (Oscinis frit)
Carrot Fly (Psila rose) .
Celery Fly (Acidia heraclei)
House Fly (Musca domestica)
Head of Stomoxys
Sheep-tick (J/clophaqus waved).
Larva and Pupa of Hen-flea (Pulex avium)
The Hen Flea (Trichopsylla gallinw)
Thrips 2
Hop damaged by a aa iia -heteroptera
Cherry Aphis (Afy-us cerast)
Woolly Aphis :
Plum Aphis (Aphis prunt)
Female San José Scale i
Male San José and Mussel Scale
The Brown Currant Scale (Lecanium persice vy. ribis) .
Apple-sucker (Psylla malt)
A Snow Fly (Aleyrodes) .
Needle-nosed Hop-bug (Calocoris fulvomaculatus)
Louse of the Ox (Hematopinus eurysternus)
Migratory Locust (#dipoda migratoria)
Female and Male common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis)
Mole Cricket (@ryllotalpa vulgaris)
Trichodectes spheerocephalus of Sheep
Mallophaga or Bird-lice .
Lace-wing Fly bi
Dragon-flies (schna grandis) .
Silver Fish (Lepisma saccharina)
Edible Snail (Helix pomatia)
Two Transverse Series of Teeth from Radula of ime
Shells of Lamellibranchs 5 #
Nw nwn
SIoSt st ST OT
O st oro Ww
280
282
283
285
285
286
288
289
292
294
294
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS.
. Common Calamary (Loligo vulgaris)
. Water-snails (Limnide)
. Grey Field-slug (Agriolimax agrestis)
. Testacella (7. haliotidea)
. Garden Snail (Helix aspersi)
. Structure of a Tunicate.
. Development of a Tunicate
. The Lancelet (A mphioxus lanceolatus)
. Diagrammatic Sections of an Invertebrate and aialoats
. Skeleton of Horse
. Lumbar Vertebra
. Axis
. Atlas
. Skull of the ies
. Diagram of the Relations of ig Principal Bans of the Shen
malian Skull
. Fore and Hind Leg of Horse
. Pelvic Arch i
. General View of the Intestines of the Howe
. Diagram of Alimentary Canal :
. Theoretical, Longitudinal, and Median Section of heat
Cavity, to show Peritoneum
. Median Longitudinal Section of Head and oe Part of Neck
of Horse
. Uro-Genital Apparatus af Male, with Ace
194.
. Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood
Generative Organs of the Mare .
. Brain of Horse (dorsal view)
197.
. The Perch (Perce fluriatilis)
. Diagram of the Circulation in Fishes
200.
. Male Crested Newt (7'riton cristatus)
2, Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles .
203.
204.
205.
206.
Brain of Horse (ventral view)
Development of the Frog
Pleurodont and Acrodont Dentition
Head of Reptiles
Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis)
Feather of Bird .
ILLUSTRATIONS.
. Wing of Bird
. Skeleton of Fowl
. Skull of Fowl
. Pectoral Arch of Fowl
. Sternum of Fowl
. Pelvis of Fowl (lateral view)
. Alimentary Canal of Fowl
. Ovary of Bird :
. Split-Swimming Foot of Grebe Pediicenw: fluriatilis)
. Foot of Raptorial Bird
. Head of White-tailed Eagle (Haliaétus albivilla)
. Skull of Duck ‘
. Head of Grey Lag Goose and Foot of Denteatte Goose .
. Skull of Duck
. Foot of Gallinaceous Bird
2. Scolopacidee
. Skull of a Gull
. Skull of Owl
. Scansorial Foot, as seen in ee and oe
. Foot of Passerine Bird (Wagtail)
. Skull of Raven .
8. Head of Shrike
9, Ovum and Structure of a Fowl’s Egg
. Section through part of Blastoderm (first day of oe
. Transverse Section of Blastoderm, incubated for eighteen hours
. Transverse Section through Posterior Part of the Head of an
Embryo Chick of Thirty Hours
. Head of Embryo Chick of the Fourth Day
. Ovum of Rabbit ‘
. Diagram of Foetal Membranes of a Mammal
. Vertical Section of Injected Placenta of a Mare
. Diagrammatic Section of Pregnant Human Uterus with con-
tained Foetus
. Foetus of Sheep .
. Diagram of Parts of Fcetal Horse
. Feet of Ungulata é ,
. Skeleton of Foot in various forms of Equide
. Section of Horse’s Incisor Tooth
463
ILLUSTRATIONS.
. Transverse Section of Horse’s Upper Molar
. Teeth of Pig
. Skeleton of Pig .
. Stomach of Ruminant
. Skull of Ram
. Skeleton of Sheep
. Median Section of Ox’s Head
. Skeleton of Cow
. Feet of Carnivora
. Teeth of Dog, and Jaws
. Bones of Toe of Cat
Head of Rodent.
. Skull and Shoulder Girdle of Mole
3. Skull of Hedgehog (Lrinaccus europeus)
. Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus)
50]
PARP I.
ACHORDATA (INVERTEBRATA)
CHAPTER IL
THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES. THE
CLASSILICATION OF ANIMALS.
Tue foundation of all living bodies is a structure called a cell.
The cell is more or less the unit of life, and may even of itself
constitute a definite organism. Most organisms are nevertheless
built up of numbers of these cell units, numbers reaching into
incalculable figures.
In animals the cells lose their original form, whereas in plants
their true symmetry is more or less retained. All the parts,
then, of the animal (and plant) are composed of cells collected
and joined together in masses, forming the various groups or
tissues that constitute the bodies of animals.
All animals originate from either a single cell (asexual repro-
duction) or the unition of two cells (sexual reproduction).
Tae CELL-STRUCTURE.
The essential part of a cell is the protoplasm. This proto-
plasm is a clear gelatinous substance which is found in all cells,
both animal and vegetal. It has been described by Huxley as
the “physical basis of life.” Generally protoplasm is partially
enclosed by means of a constricting membrane, the cell-wall.
The protoplasm of each cell is connected with that of the
surrounding cells by minute strands passing through pores in
the cell-walls. ;
4 THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES.
This living matter may also be observed in a naked or free
state (Amebw).
This all-important living substance is endowed with the
powers of contractility and movement, and is subject to such
external influences as light, heat, and electricity. Movement
takes place by the protrusion of any part of its surface, the
protruded parts being known as ‘ pseudopodia,” the rest of the
protoplasm flowing in a wave-like manner after these processes.
Inside the protoplasm of a cell is a body called the nucleus.
The nucleus is composed of a more liquid part, the ‘nuclear
fluid,” and a more solid part, the ‘‘nuclear protoplasm.” The
nucleus varies in form: sometimes it is round, at others oval,
or again it may be elongated and twisted. ;
Both protoplasm and nucleus are surrounded, as a rule, by a
definite layer, which more or less retains the contractile proto-
plasm. ‘The essential part of the cell is the protoplasm, which
has the power of independent movement, of metabolism, and
of reproduction. All organisms that we shall deal with, except-
ing the simple Protozoa, will be seen to be made up of numbers
of these cells, which become united in various ways, and so
form the animal tissues. We know that a cell always origin-
ates from a pre-existing cell. The formation of one cell from
another takes place chiefly by a process known as karyokinesis
or ‘cell-division.”
When a cell has received its full share of nourishment—that
is, when it has reached maturity—its protoplasm commences to
separate into two equal halves. This division is preceded by a
corresponding separation of the nucleus, and then the whole cell
splits into two cells. During this process of cell-division certain
definite changes take place in the nucleus. ‘This body at first
is spindle-shaped ; its contents are drawn out into longitudinal
strie, when the centre of these strim becomes thickened and
forms an equatorial zone or “nuclear plate.” This “ plate” then
divides, and each half travels to the poles of the spindle, which
assumes a dumb-bell shape, then elongates, and the two nuclear
FREE CELLS AND EPITHELIUM. 5
masses, the remains of the equatorial plate, become surrounded
by a clear fluid. These form the two nuclei at the poles of
the spindle. As soon as this has taken, place the whole proto-
plasm constricts in the middle, and the cell divides into two.
There are two other ways in which cells reproduce—namely,
by “budding” and by “endogenous cell-formation.” “ Bud-
ding” is when one of the produced cells is smaller than the
parent cell. In “endogenous cell-formation” we get the proto-
plasm and nucleus of the parent cell, splitting up internally
into a number of small bodies, known as “spores.” These are
seen only in the lowest forms of life.
The separation of groups of various cells leads to the forma-
tion of the different tissues. Of tissues we make out two
chief kinds—namely, vegetative tissues and animal-life tissues.
The former carry out the nourishment and maintenance of the
body; the latter are those tissues which are characteristic of
animals, and whose functions are for movement and sensation.
Of vegetative cell-tissues there are two divisions—(1) epi-
thelial and free cells, and (2) connective tissues. The tissues
of “animal-life” are (3) muscular tissue, and (4) nervous tissue.
1. Free Cells and Epithelium.
(a) Free or wandering cells are those that are found floating
in some fluid medium. The corpuscles of the blood and lymph
v®
a, Of man; b, of goose; ¢, of crocodile ; d, of frog; e, of skate. (Nicholson.)
Fic. 1.—BLoop CorruscLes OF VERTEBRATA.
are excellent examples of free cells. In the invertebrate blood,
which is normally colourless, will be found numbers of pale
amoeboid bodies. In vertebrate blood these amceboid corpuscles
are augmented with red blood corpuscles (fig. 1), round cell-
discs which contain the colouring matter of blood—namely,
6 EPITHELIAL TISSUES.
hemoglobin—a substance which plays such an important part in
respiration. Besides blood and lymph corpuscles we find other
isolated cells in the body, the ova and spermatozoa, which
become detached as single cells from the epithelial walls of the
male and female organs, the testes and ovaries. The form,
especially of the spermatozoa, varies greatly : in most cases the
spermatozoa have a long thread-like tail attached to the nucleated
cell.
(b) Epithelial tissues consist of groups of cells, which in
simple layers line the exterior and interior of the body surface.
The internal lining is known as ‘‘endothelium.” There are
four chief types of epithelium, each distinguished by the form
of the cells—namely, (1) cylindrical, (2) ciliated, (3) pavement,
and (4) glandular epithelium.
The lower cells of these cell-masses retain their natural form ;
but the upper ones may become hardened. Thick stratified
layers of such cells occasionally become fused, and produce
horns, nails, claws, hoofs, &c. Sometimes the outer walls of
the epithelial cells are thickened, forming a “cuticle.” These
cuticular membranes are perforated by small pores and also by
larger passages: in these cuticular pores are placed the hairs
and feathers. The cuticular secretions may form a hard shell
or case for the organism, an exoskeleton, as seen in the
Crustacea and Hexapoda.
Glandular epithelium is that epithelium in which some cells
secrete not a solid but a liquid substance. In the most rudi-
mentary cases the gland is formed by a single epithelial cell,
the secretion passing out by either a special opening or through
the superficial membrane. Several of these cells may arrange
themselves around a central space and pour their secretion into
it; the gland then forms a blind invaginated sac opening to the
exterior or interior by the neck of the whole glandular mass,
From this simple gland a compound gland is built up by re-
peated regular or irregular outgrowths. The terminal portion
of each gland is converted into a duct in most glands, for the
CONNECTIVE TISSUES. 7
earrying away of the fluid secreted. Some glands, however, are
ductless or blind (spleen, &c.)
2. Connective Tissues are those which connect and surround
other tissues, and act as supporting and skeletal structures.
The presence of intercellular substance distinguishes this group.
This intercellular matter is secreted by the whole of the cells
which it surrounds, and is very variable both in consistency
and in structure. One variety is known as fibrillar-connective
tissue, in which elongated cells are embedded in a solid inter-
cellular substance broken up into bundles of fibres. In liga-
ments and tendons the fibres have a wavy outline, and are
parallel in arrangement. When the fibrille are treated with
acids, they swell up, and a second form, which resists these
reagents, appears. These threads are elastic fibres, and may
predominate so as to form elastic tissue, which branches and
forms a network, sometimes of great strength, such as the lega-
mentum nuche of the neck—the ligament by which the head
of quadrupeds is held up in a horizontal posture: at other times
they spread out, forming the so-called “ fenestrated membranes ”
of Henle in the arteries. The two most important skeletal
tissues are cartilage and bone.
Cartilage is a true connective tissue, and may be distinguished
by its spherical cells and gristly intercellular substance in which
the cells are embedded. We can recognise three distinct kinds
of this cartilage—hyaline, fibrous, and elastic. The cells of
cartilage are placed in clear round spaces. Its varieties will
be pointed out when we come to more special parts. Suffice to
say here that it is found in both of the great divisions of the
animal kingdom, and may even constitute the entire skeleton of
some of the fish (Elasmobranchit).
Osseous tissue, or bone, is hard and possesses a high degree of
rigidity, through the intercellular substance being hardened by
the deposition of carbonate and phosphate of lime, these salts
constituting about two-thirds of the weight of bone. ‘The cells
(the bone-corpuscles) occupy spaces in this intercellular matter.
5 MUSCULAR TISSUE.
Numerous canals (Haversian canals) run through the bone, con-
taining blood- vessels and nerves. The calcareous matter is
arranged in concentric rings round these canals, which begin
in that highly vascular periosteal layer that circumscribes the
whole bone and open into long spaces, the marrow canals, in the
axes of the long bones. In all cases bony tissue is preceded by
cither cartilage or other connective tissue.
The two animal-lfe tissues are muscle and nerve. These can
be detected in all animals save the very lowest forms, which are
apparently nothing but undifferentiated protoplasm.
3. Muscular Tissue is contractile: the power of contraction
is due, as has already been pointed out, to the protoplasm itself.
By differentiation of the protoplasm of certain cells and groups
of cells the power of contractility is brought to a higher state of
efficiency, and a tissue, the so-called muscular tissue, is formed
solely for movement. Muscle-cells during movement contract
and expand. In some of the lower animals we find cells in
which only part of the cell is differentiated into a muscle fibre.
A stage further, and we find the whole cell becoming elongated
and converted into a definite muscle fibril.
Of muscle there are two kinds, the striated and the
unstriated,
The wnstriate?d muscle is composed of flat, elongate, spindle-
shaped bodies, which contract slowly and remain in a con-
tracted state for some time. They seldom are more than y)>
of an inch in length. They form muscles over which the
animal has no control, and are thus called involuntary muscles.
This variety is prevalent in the lower animals, but is also found
in all high forms of life. Each such muscle-cell has a distinct
nucleus.
Striated or voluntary niuscle consists of multinucleated masses
called primitive bundles. It is composed of long cylindrical
fibres, about =} 9 of an inch in diameter in mammalian muscle,
Most or all of the cell protoplasm is converted into a cross-
striped substance, due to alternate double and single refractive
NERVOUS TISSUE. 9
powers. This striped or voluntary muscle is under the con-
trol of the animal will, and can contract with great energy.
Almost the entire protoplasmic contents of the cells are con-
cerned in the production of this voluntary muscular tissue. The
cells become elongated into long fibres, the primitive bundles ;
and the nucleus divides and forms numbers of nuclei, each
fibre being surrounded by a membrane, the so-called ‘“sarco-
lemma.” The sarcolemma is an elastic sheath. The primitive
buudles also arise by the fusion of several cells. Muscular
tissue, then, is cell-tissue modified for a certain definite object
—namely, movement. There is certain striated muscular tissue
called cardiac muscle, which forms the walls of the heart, and
which is involuntary in action. Cardiac muscle is cubical in
form, and has a little side projection from each area.
4. Nervous Tissue is found generally with muscular tissue.
It forms the seat of will and sensation, and is the means by
which stimuli are carried to the muscles to cause their move-
ment. The nervous tissue is supposed to have originated from
the ectodermal sense-cells found in the skin, and that, still re-
maining united to the same, they have grown inwards, and have
thus only in a secondary way become united to the muscle-cell,
which is préma facie contractile. In nervous tissue there are
two distinct elements—namely, nerve-cells and nerve-filaments—
which have separate structural differences.
Nerve-cells are found in the brain, in the spinal cord, in
the so-called ganglia of the lower animals, &c. ; they are really
central areas for the nervous stimuli. Each nerve-cell or gan-
glion cell possesses a very distinct nucleus and nucleolus, and
one, two, or more processes, when they are known as uni-,
bi-, or multipolar ganglion cells. One root is always that of a
nerve-filament.
Nerve-fibres are of two kinds: one variety carries impulses
—sensations—from the central organ (cells) to the peripheral
organs,—these are called motor or secretory fibres; the other
carries impulses from the periphery to the central organs, and
10 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
are known as sensory fibres. In most cases the sensory nerves
are united at their peripheral end with the so-called ‘end-
organs” in the skin, &c., these end-organs being derived from
the modified epithelial cells.
Such are some of the modifications that are assumed by cells
in the animal kingdom,
The lowest animals, we shall see, possess neither tissues nor
organs composed of cells, and yet each organism, although only
a single cell, is complete in itself and reproduces a similar
species.
Tue DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
Living bodies are divided into two groups called “king-
doms,” the one the Animal Kingdom, the other the Vegetable
Kingdom. Although there are apparently great differences be-
tween the two, yet when we come to examine the lowest animal
forms and compare them with the lowest vegetal forms we
shall observe so great a similarity that it is impossible to say to
which kingdom they belong. In fact, there is no hard-and-fast
line to be drawn between these two organic groups. Such
lowly creatures as Plasmodium and Volvoxr are treated by
botanists as plants, whilst the zoologist includes them in the
Protozoa! It may be said, speaking generally, that animals
are capable of free movement and that plants are fixed; but
when we examine some of the simplest forms of life this
distinction will be found untenable. Animals are endowed with
sensation, plants are not, as a rule; but such plants as Drosera,
Venus’s fly-trap, &c., surely have this phenomenon developed.
Animals have their organs internal, their absorbent surface
inside; plants have external organs, and the absorbent surface
also external. Yet the Tapeworms (Cesfoda) obtain their
nourishment by osmosis through the skin.
When we compare the tissues of an animal with the tissues
of a plant, then we observe greater differences. The cells
1 *A System of Medicine,’ vol. ii. Pt. ii., article by E. A. Minehin—
“ Protozoa,” p. 17. 1907.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. I1
of the animal are altered in form, whilst those of the plant
retain more or less their original appearance. The cell-wall,
too, of the animal is nitrogenous, that of the plant is non-
nitrogenous. But all this only applies to the higher plants and
animals: it cannot apply to those unicellular forms, where, as we
see in Ameeba, there is no cell-wall at all. It is often thought
that we can tell a plant by its green colouring matter,
chlorophyll, but not all plants have this chromatic substance
in their tissues ; whilst, on the other hand, some animals—such
as Hydra, Bonellia (one of the Worms), and some sea-anemones
(Actinuzoa)—owe their green colour to the presence of this sub-
stance. Cellulose is the substance that forms the cell-wall of
plants, and is characteristic of the vegetable kingdom ; but we
also find it in the “tests” or cases of those curious marine
animals, the sea-squirts or Ascidians. In the higher animals a
substance known as cholesterin is found: this was at one time
considered a purely animal component, but we now know that
it is also found in at least one family of plants, the Leyuminosw
or Pea and Bean family. Generally speaking, animals are nitro-
genous, plants carbonaceous ; but, as in the prior instances, this
also will not invariably apply. There are no definite distinc-
tions, then, between the animals and plants in regard to their
chemical constituents. Perhaps the greatest differences are to
be found in the metabolism of organisms. We cannot feed an
animal on purely inorganic food, whilst, on the other hand, we
can so feed a plant. Both must have salts and water; but
whilst plants can be nourished with the addition of carbon
dioxide and nitrates of ammonia, an animal must have nitrogen-
ous and carbonaceous matter in some organic form and not in a
mineral form. An animal absorbs oxygen and gives out CO, ;
a plant exhales oxygen which is derived from the absorbed COg.
Thus we see that there are differences between the plant and
the animal, but that many of them do not invariably hold good.
There are forms of life which we may fairly say bridge over
the great hiatus that separates the horse from the grass upon
which it feeds.
12 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
Tap CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
The old method of classifying animals was to divide them
into two sub-kingdoms, known as the Invertebrata and the
Vertebrata,—the absence or presence, respectively, of an in-
ternal skeleton being the character upon which this division
was based.
Inwertebrates are those animals which have no internal skel-
eton ; but, of greater importance still, they possess no structure
known as the notochord. The notochord is a primitive axial
skeletal rod, found on the dorsal surface. In all invertebrate
animals the nervous system is ventral—that is, it is always
present on the lower surface of the animal; whilst, on the
other hand, the hemal or blood system is dorsal, the ali-
mentary canal or gut being situated between. Invertebrates
may possess a skeleton, but it is always external (exoskeleton).
Vertebrates, on the other hand, always possess a notochord,
and nearly always an internal skeleton, composed of an axial rod,
the vertebral column, besides the cranium, and an appendicular
skeleton—the limbs. The vertebral column—the backbone—
and the cranium enclose the central nervous system, which is
always dorsal, whilst the nervous system in invertebrates is
ventral. The hemal system— the heart—is placed ventrally,—
that is, in the reverse position to that in which it is found in
the former group.
Just as there are intermediate forms between the animals and
plants, so are there connecting links between these two primary
groups of animals. A small fish, known as the lancelet
(Amphiowus lanceolatus), found in the sands of the Mediter-
ranean, has no proper internal skeleton at all, yet it has a noto-
chord and dorsal nervous system. The groups of Ased//ans, or
sea-squirts, are in their young stages distinctly vertebrates ; for
the young so-called Appendicularia larva has a dorsal nervous
system and an axial rod, but the adult Tunicate, as it is also
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 13
called, is distinctly an invertebrate animal with no notochord
and a ventral nervous system.
How, then, can we distinguish these from true vertebrates ?
At no time do they possess a brain or cranium as we see in the
higher animals. They are called, therefore, Acranda, to dis-
tinguish them from all the other vertebrates, which are known
as the Craniota. This was the most generally adopted primary
grouping of animals, into Invertebrata and Vertebrata; but for
many reasons a more recent classification has many advantages
over it. This latter is based primarily on the cell-structure
of the animal. By it the whole animal kingdom is divided
into two primary groups, known as the Protozoa and Metazoa.
The Protozoa are those animals of extremely simple organisa-
tion, and whose bodies are composed of a single cell.
The Metazow constitute a group that includes the majority of
animals. These are built up, not of one cell or a few cells,
but of countless numbers of cells, which form the complicated
animal tissues—muscular, nervous, connective, &c. This divi-
sion will be found to contain both invertebrates and vertebrates.
The Protozoa form the first group of animals, the lowest
organisms, single-celled creatures, which are, nevertheless, im-
portant to us, as many of them produce diseases, such as liver-
rot in rabbits, malarial fever, sleeping sickness, redwater in
cattle, psorospermosis of the skin, &c., in man and his domestic
animals.
The multicellular animals, or Metazoa, are divided into the
following groups, called classes :—
1. Coelenterata, or Jellyfish, Polyps, Sea-anemones, Corals, &.
2. Echinodermata, or Starfish, Sea-urchins, and the nearly
extinct Sea-lilies.
3. Vermes, or Worms.
Mollusca, or Shells.
5, Arthropoda, or the Jointed-limbed animals, as Insects,
Spiders, Scorpions, and Crabs, &c.
The above are all Invertebrate Metazoa. The Sponqid, or
eS
14 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
Sponges, may belong to this division ; but whether they are to
be looked upon as colonies of Protozoa, or Metazoa, there is
some diversity of opinion. They seem to present most affinities
to the Metazoa, and should doubtless be included in the Inver-
tebrate division of that group.
6. The sixth class of Metazoa include the Aseidians, Tunt-
cates or Sea-squirts, the Amphioxus or Lancelet, and the worm-
like Balanoglossus. These form the connecting group between
the Invertebrate and Vertebrate Metazoa.
The Vertebrate Metazoa are contained in five classes,
namely—
7. Pisces, or Fish.
8, Reptilia, or Snakes, Crocodiles, and Lizards.
9. Amphibia, or Toads, Frogs, and Salamanders.
10. Aves, or Birds.
11. Mammalia, or Quadrupeds and Man.
The above eleven classes of Metazoa may be grouped in two
divisions, according to the absence or presence of a notochord.
Those without a notochord are called Achordata, those with
a notochord Chordata. The latter, again, are divided into
Acrania and Craniota.
The Acrania include, besides the Tunicates, the worm-like
creature called Balanoglossus and the quaint little fish-like
Amphioxus. These always have at some period of their life
a dorsal nervous system and a notochordal rod which extends
nearly the whole length of the body; but the nervous system,
which develops as an open canal (another character common to
vertebrate animals), never expands anteriorly into a brain. In
fact, in general appearance Tunicates and Balanoglossus are in-
vertebrates, while Amphioxus forms another stage higher, con-
necting the lower animals with the Fish. Amphioxus has been
described by Couch and others as a fish, The Cranzota, on the
other hand, have the anterior end of the nervous cord enlarged
into a brain placed in a cartilaginous or bony box, the cranium,
and are supplied with an internal skeleton.
The groups of animals, then, may be tabulated as follows :—
PROTOZOA
ACHORDATA
= Invertebrata
METAZOA
CHORDATA
= Vertebrata.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 15
Sarcodina.
Mastigophora.
| Sporozoa.
Infusoria.
Spongide.
Hydrozoa,
Colenterata a { Actinozoa,
Ctenophora,
Echinuride.
Nemathelminthes
Chetopoda.
Hirudiuca.
Arthropoda
Mollusca
eee
CRANIOTA.
Holothuridie.
Echinodermata . { asterige
Platyhelminthes {gestous
Trematoda.
Nemertini.
Nematoda.
Acanthocephala.
Peripatus.
( P Tulide.
Myriapoda . { Scolopendridx
Crusta Malacostraca.
rustacea — - ) Entomostraca.
Scorpionide.
Arachnoidea . | Araneide.
| Acarina.
Coleoptera.
Hymenoptera.
Lepidoptera.
Diptera.
Insecta .
7 \4 Hemiptera.
(Hexapoda) Neuroptera.
Orthoptera.
Thysanoptera.
. Aptera.
Lamellibranchiata.
Mollusea . } Gasteropoda.
(Proper) Pteropoda.
Cephalopoda,
Molluscoidea ee
Urochordata (Ascidians).
Cephalochordata (Amphioxus).
Marsipobranchii.
{eae
{ Hemichordata (Balanoglossus).
Ganoidei.
Dipnoi.
Teleostei.
Ophiomorpha.
Anoura.
Urodela.
Chelonia.
Ophidia.
Lacertilia.
Crocodilia.
Ratite.
*( Carinatx.
Ornithodelphia= Monotremata.
Didelphia =Marsupialia.
Edentata.
Sirenia.
Cetacea.
Ungulata.
Proboscidea.
Carnivora.
Rodentia.
Insectivora.
Cheiroptera.
Primates.
Pisces
Ichthyopsida
Amphibia
Reptilia .
Sauropsida .
Aves
Mammatia. .
Monodelphia .
16
CHAPTER IL.
PROTOZOA, OR SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS.
THE Protozoa are the simplest forms of animal life: they are all
of small size, of extremely simple constitution, and invariably
unicellular. They are animals that have remained as simple
cells, to all intents and purposes like the cell described in
chap. i. Each cell is physiologically and morphologically
complete in itself. Some forms of protozoa are simple drops
of sarcode—protoplasm ; others have not only a definite cell-
wall, but possess the power of secreting calcareous and siliceous
shells. These shell-bearing species, or Yoraminifera (fig. 3, iv.
and y.), are present in myriads in the waters of the ocean, their
“tests” or shells falling to the floor of the sea as the animals
dic. Many of these tests are dissolved before they reach the
bottom, if the depth of water be very great; yet millions of
others arrive safely upon the bed of the sea, and there by slow
degrees they form a layer of a white or creamy colour. Of such
formation is the globigerine ooze on the floor of the Atlantic
and also the radiolarian ooze,—protozoa of the genera Globigerina
(fig. 3, v.) and Radiolaria taking the chief part in the formation
of these two oozes respectively. Of ancient rocks we know
that some of the Chalk has been formed in a similar way, by
the slow accumulation on the sea-bed of these and other falling
tests. Not only do we find that the Chalk in many instances is
built up of these minute organisms, but also that their tiny shells
SARCODINA. 17
represent genera existing at the present day. What countless
myriads of these microscopic organisms must be present in the
chalk rocks of our North and South Downs alone, when we
consider that thousands go to the square inch.
The Protozoa are divided into four classes: (1) the Sarcodina,
(2) Mastigophora, (3) Sporozoa, (4) Infusoria.
Sarcodina are protozoa in which the protoplasm is naked and
which have no permanent organs of locomotion, but temporary
processes called pseudopodia.
Mastigophora are more or less of definite form, and have one
or more permanent organs for locomotion or food capture in the
form of flagella in the adult.
Sporozoa are internal parasitic protozoa which have no organs
of locomotion or for the capture or digestion of food. They
reproduce only by some means of sporulation.
Infusoria are provided with cilia for locomotary purposes.
CLASS I. SARCODINA.
Although Ameoeha is specially referred to here it is only in its
resting stage that the typical body form is realised, as Sarcodina
are typically simple spherical bodies, such as the Radiolaria and
Heliozoa, which float freely on the surface of water and have
pseudopodia radiating from them in all directions. But in the
Mycetozoa—semi-terrestrial protozoal masses which live on rotten
tree-trunks, fungi, &c.—the protoplasm forms large creeping
masses called plasmodia,—the latter including the well-known
parasitic disease of Cruciferous plants, “‘ Finger-and-Toe,” pro-
duced by Plasmodiophora brassicce of Woronin.
These Sarcodina are divided into five sub-classes, the Amcebea
(fig. 2), the Foraminifera (fig. 3), the Mycetozoa, the Radiolaria,
and the Heliozoa.
We need only refer to the first here.
B
18 AM(EBAA,
Sus-Crass AMCEBZAA.
They may again be divided into the Lobosa nuda and the
Reticulosa. The former include the Amesbee (fig. 2).
Ameba is a simple unprotected mass of protoplasm or sar-
code, which may be found in damp earth and in water. In
appearance it resembles a small speck of white, transparent,
structureless jelly. If this speck is observed under strong
magnifying power, it will be seen to move by throwing out
little finger-shaped processes, the pseudopodia (Psu). This
simple organism is apparently composed of two layers, a
granular layer inside and a clear transparent layer on the
outside: the former is known as the endosare and the latter
as the ectosare. These two layers must not be mistaken for
two distinct membranes, for they are continuous, only certain
granules collect towards the interior. When the pseudo-
podia (Psu) are thrown out we shall see, if we watch care-
fully, that the granules flow up the centre of the process as it
elongates. Three other bodies are to be noticed in this minute
creature : first, a small dark oval spot, with a clear border and
permanent in shape, situated in the endosarc; this is the nucleus
(7), and it will be found to stain dark-red with picro-carmine.
The nuclear substance or chromatin here is a single mass, but it
may be divided into portions, yet it can always be distinguished
from the body protoplasm or cytoplasm. ‘here will also be
seen contracting and expanding a clear space in the ectoplasm ;
this is the so-called ‘“ pulsating vacuole ” (rv), of which there are
two in some forms of Protozoa (Parainreium). The pulsating
vacuole is said to be an excretory organ, for uric acid and
water have been extracted from these minute cavities. These
vacuoles may be looked upon as both respiratory and excretory.
Lastly, there are present a number of so-called “food vacuoles ”
(Fv), spaces surrounding the particles of food ingested by the
amecba, This proteus-animalcule is neither provided with
AMCBAA. 19
mouth nor anus. The food can be taken in and expelled at
any part of the body. This process can easily be watched if
particles of indigo are placed in the water surrounding an
amoeba: a speck of indigo will be found to be drawn to the
protozoan by the pseudopodium, and then it can be watched
gradually sinking into the protoplasm until it reaches the
endosarc, where it remains whilst the substance (if an organism)
is digested, the waste part being expelled through any part of
the animal. The food consists of organisms still smaller than
the amcebe are themselves. The granules in the endoplasm
are regarded as stages in the upward or downward metabolism
Fic. 2.—AMaBa (greatly magnified).
i, Large specimen, showing structure. ii. A smaller specimen in process of division.
iii, Later stage of ii. @ and », nucleus; b and cv, contractile vacuoles; Fv, food
vacuoles; Psu, pseudopodia, (All greatly enlarged.)
of the material of the body. Amceba reproduces by the
primitive method of “fission” or division. The nucleus of
the amceha divides into two (fig. 2, ii. and iil, @), and one of
these nuclei, surrounded by part of the original protoplasm,
breaks off and floats away; thus one amceba\becomes two,
20 FINGER-AND-TOE, OR CLUBBING.
This division may go on until one amcba has given rise to
hundreds. But by degrees each amoeba becomes smaller and
smaller, and they would eventually die out. To counteract
this, what is known as “rejuvenescence” takes place. Rejuv-
enescence is the union or conjugation of two amcebe, whose
protoplasm unites together, together with the nuclei, forming
one larger individual, which is again in a fit state to undergo
once more rapid division. This conjugation is really a kind
of primitive sexual reproduction, although there is, as far as
we can see, no difference between the conjugating individuals.
At least four species of amcebe are parasitic in man, and are
spoken of as Extameha, two of these are of no special account,
but the ALmerha col’ (Losch), and the Amuha histolytiva (Schau-
linn), are. The latter is the cause of tropical dysentery, and is
found in man’s intestines, and even the liver and kidneys.
None are so far known to attack animals or plants.
RETICULOSA.
The Reticulosa are naked amoeboid forms with slender, fila-
mentous, net-like pseudopodia.
The well-known parasite of Finger-and-Toe or Clubbing
belongs here.
Fincer-anp-Tor, or CLUBBING.
(Plasmodiophoru brassie, Woronin.)
This disease occurs in cruciferous plants, both wild and
cultivated. It frequently causes great loss in turnips and
cabbage. The roots of the attacked plants and rootlets will be
found to be swollen and spindle-shaped and smooth, others as
large gnarled masses. The attack commences in the young
plants, from minute flagellule released from the countless
spores in the soil entering the cells of the roots, where they
MASTIGOPHORA. aH |
become amosbul, and are found, often several together, in the
parenchyma cells feeding on the sap. The plant-cells mul-
tiply and become abnormally swollen, and many hypertophry.
Shortly the ameebule in each cell fuse together and become a
plasmodium. Later the nuclei of the plasmodium break up
into chromidia, part being destroyed, part reconcentrated to
form generative nuclei. These divide by karyokinesis, and
then the protoplasm collects around the nuclei to form small
uninuclear bodies called gametes, which fuse in pairs. These
zygotes then become surrounded by a tough wall to form round
spores, which pass into the soil on the decay of the plant, and
later give rise to the minute flagellule from which the attack
originates.
The plasmodium seen in the cells is a yellowish stringy slime,
which may wholly or only partially fill the cell. By October
this plasmodium has broken up into spores which closely pack
the swollen cells.
Prevention and Treatment.—It is very important after an
attack to have as far as possible all cabbage stumps and all
diseased material burnt.
Land subject to this disease should be heavily limed, the
lime being in as finely divided state as possible. As it only
attacks cruciferous plants, ceasing to grow them on the land
for two or three years will check it materially.
CLASS IL MASTIGOPHORA.
These have one or more permanent organs serving for loco-
motion or for capture of food in the form of flagella in the
adult stage. They are divided into four sub-classes: 1. Flagel-
lata; 2. Dinoflagellata; 3. Cystoflagellata; and 4. Silico-
flagellata.
The family Trypanosomatide are the most important, and
they belong to a division of the Flagellata known as Mona-
didea, small protozoa of simple structure with one or more
22 MASTIGOPHORA.
flagella. These parasites are the cause of Sleeping Sickness
in man, of Nagana or Tsetse disease in stock, of Surra in
horses, the Mal de caderas and the Dourine of horses. Trypa-
nosomes (fig. 4) are specially characterised by possessing an un-
dulating membrane. They are more or less spindle-shaped, and
along one side runs the undulating membrane. Near one end
of the cell is found the micronucleus or centrosome. The
flagellum arises from this body and runs along the free edge
of the membrane to the other end of the cell, and continues
on as a free flagellum, but it may end with the termination
of the undulating membrane. The true nucleus or macro-
Fic. 3.—MastTIGOPHORA AND FoRAMINIFERA.
i, Buglena. ii, Cercomonas intestinalis, iii. Polytoma, free and encysted.
iv. Textularia. v. Globigerinae. (Greatly enlarged.)
nucleus is placed near the middle of the body. In the genus
Trypanoplasma (Lav. et Mesn.), the centrosome is large, and
there are two flagella, one at each end of the body.
With but few exceptions Trypanosoma and Trypanoplasma
are blood parasites, and occur free in the blood plasma, never
within blood corpuscles. All the latter are blood parasites, but
some of the 7'rypanosomes may be found in lymph and other
serous fluids. Large numbers of these protozoa occur in the
blood of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, &c., but most are not
MASTIGOPHORA. 23
harmful to their hosts. Some, however, are markedly patho-
genetic, including the following :—
Trypanosoma brucei (Plimmer and Bradford), producing
Nagana in horses and cattle in Africa;
T. equiperdum (Doplein), the cause of “Dourine” in horses ;
T. evansi (Steel), the “Surra” of horses and cattle ;
T. equinum (Voges), the agents of “ Mal de caderas” in horses
in 8. America ;
T. gambiense (Dutton), the parasite of Sleeping Sickness and
Gambia Fever in man in Africa; and
L. cruzi (Cruz), which produces “Basilero” in man in 8.
America,
L. brucei occurs as a natural parasite in wild game, such as
Fic. 4.—a, A Trypanosome. x2, A Spirochete. (Greatly enlarged.)
buffaloes, antelope, &c., in Africa, and does no harm to them ;
in S. America 7. equinum is a natural parasite of the Capybara,
but directly they get to horses and cattle their evil effects are
felt. Trypanosomes have a secondary host, which is an inverte-
brate, which acts as an intermediary between the vertebrate
hosts, with one exception—namely, 7. equiperdum—which is
said to be transmitted by means of coitus.
The intermediate host. of these parasites of terrestrial verte-
brates are blood-sucking insects, Tsetse-flies (Glossina), in Africa,
and a Bug (Conorhinus megistus) is known to be the secondary
host of Basilero. The secondary hosts of the parasites of aquatic
vertebrates are leeches.
Reproduction is sexual and asexual, the sexually differentiated
24 SPOROZOA.
forms— 7.z., male and female—may, however, multiply by fission.
The three types become fully differentiated only in the inverte-
brate host. ‘lhe males are of more slender form than the females,
and have a longer free flagellum. Parthenogenesis occurs in the
females. The sexual forms conjugate: this may take place in
the blood of the vertebrate, but it is abortive. True maturation
takes place in the gut of the invertebrate host.
Spirochutw.—These are closely related to the former, but they
resemble very minute slender threads, wavy or spirally twisted
in form, and have a narrow undulating membrane, but no
flagella (fig. 4, B). There are several important parasites in
this group: one, S. obermeteri (Cohn), produces human relaps-
ing fever in Africa, and is carried by Ticks; another, 8. gallin-
avn (Marchoux and Simond), produces spirillosis in fowls in
S. America. European relapsing fever is apparently carried by
the Bed Bug (Cte), Fowl Spirochetes especially by Ticks
of the genus Aryas.
CLASS IL SPOROZOA.
Another very important group of protozoa parasitic in both
vertebrate and invertebrate animals is the class of Sporozoa
(fig. 5). These protozoa are capable of producing serious
pathological disturbances, often leading to death.
There are three orders in this class.
The order Greyarinoidea are only parasitic in invertebrate
animals, and need no further notice.
Another order of Sporozoa are called Coceidiidw, which trans-
form themselves into egg-shaped zoosperms by the formation of
a capsule and the production of several large spores from their
vranular contents.
The third order are the Hremosporidea.
Discase-producing Sporozou.—Four well-known maladies are
produced in birds, animals, and man by these low forms of life
—namely, coceidivsis, or ‘liver-rot,” in the rabbit ; psurusper-
THE COCCIDIIDEA. 25
mosis of the skin in many animals, and especially birds—the
so-called “canker” of pigeons; pdroplasmos?s in cattle, dogs,
&e., such as Redwater and East Coast fever in cattle; and
malignant Jaundice in dogs; and the Malarial fever of man.
THE COCCIDIIDEA.
These are parasitic in the epithelial cells, and always with
distinct alternation of generations—namely, endogenous non-
sexual schizogony and exogenous sexual sporogony. ‘The epi-
thelium most usually attacked is that of the gut and the liver.
Coccidiosts is a common complaint affecting the liver of the
Fic. 5.—CoccipIum ovirorMeé or Rapert’s Liver. After Balbiani.
a, b, ¢, Young Coccidia in epithelium of liver; «, e, f, encysted adult Coccidia ;
q-l, development of sporoblasts ; m, mature sporoblast, showing the two falciform
bodies ; 2, the two spores separate ; 0, a falciform spore—y, its nucleus. (From Par.
Dis. Ani., Neumann.)
rabbit, and is produced by the species known as Coceddium
oviforme (fig. 5). This sporozoan is ovoid when adult, and
enclosed in a double-contoured shell from 30 to 50m long and
from 204 to 284 broad. These extremely minute bodies become
26 THE COCCIDIIDEA.
encysted, when we observe that their protoplasmic contents
separate away from the cell-wall and form a central round or
oval mass (f). Both adult and encysted stages may be freely
detected in the liver, in the white and yellow patches which are
characteristic of the disease. Now if we collect numbers of
these encysted forms and place them on damp sand in a warm
temperature, we shall soon observe by microscopic examination
that the central protoplasmic ball splits into two and then four
(g and h). This is a kind of segmentation or division, the
round bodies being known as ‘“‘sporoblasts.” These sporoblasts
elongate, expand at each end, and are seen to be surrounded
by a thin membrane, within which is also seen a granular lump.
Each of these “sporoblasts” really contains two spores, the
falciform spores (0), described in a typical sporozoon—in fact,
the so-called sporoblast is a pseudo-navicella. Each falciform
body gives rise to a little flagelloid creature. This form migrates
from cell to cell of the animal’s liver, encysting and producing
more spores, and so rapidly increasing the area of the disease.
It is supposed that these sporiferous cysts are carried with
dust, &c., and hence get taken into the mouth with food,
eventually reaching the liver. The sporocyst ruptures through
the action of the pancreatic juice, the gastric juice having no
effect upon them, and the sporoblasts appear; these latter
burst and discharge the spores or falciform bodies, which
become active, and are said to ascend by the ductus chole-
dochus to the epithelium of the liver and bile-duct. Here the
germs, having entered some of the hepatic cells, cause these cells
to rupture, and they may even destroy the walls of the bile-duct
itself. They finally encyst, pass out into the intestine, freed by
the breaking up of the tissues in which they are embedded, and
so out to ground by the anus of the diseased animal.
Their presence causes the liver to swell. They are detected
by the creamy cystic areas, varying in size from a millet-seed to
that of a pea. They are often so abundant that the cells of the
liver atrophy, and cheesy-like masses appear not only in the
PIROPLASMOSIS. 27
liver substance but in the bile. These prurigerous masses on
microscopic examination are found to contain numbers of coc-
cidia. It may possibly be taken for tuberculosis unless carefully
examined. The walls of the intestine may be invaded as well
as the liver.
H£MosporipIia.
These protozoa have an alternation of generations correspond-
ing with an alternation of hosts: the non-sexual stage is passed
in the blood of a vertebrate, the sexual sporogonous stage in
the gut of an invertebrate. They are all parasites of the blood
of animals and man, and have risen into great prominence from
the fact that they are the cause of malarial fevers in man and
the devastating cattle diseases, such as East Coast fever, red-
water or Texas fever, and the fatal malignant jaundice of canines.
The malarial fevers are carried by several species of mos-
quitoes belonging to the Anopheline, the cattle and canine
fevers by Ticks.
Only two genera of Hemosporidia need be mentioned here—
namely, Plasmodiwm, which contains the malarial species, and
Piroplasma, which contains the animal fever parasites.
PIROPLASMOSIS.
This latter genus contains several species parasitic in the
blood of mammals (fig. 6). These species are so closely related
that they can scarcely be distinguished from one another, save
for the fact that they occur in different hosts. The diseases
these blood parasites produce are spoken of as piroplasmoses.
In acute form the chief symptom is hemoglobinuria, caused
by the destruction of the red blood corpuscles.
Redwater.—This is one of the best-known diseases caused by
Piroplasme. It is also spoken of as Texas or Southern fever in
America. This is caused by the parasite Piroplasma bigemina
(Smith and Kilborne). The species producing European Red-
water is the same. The parasites occur during one period as
28 PIROPLASMOSIS.
pear-shaped bodies in the blood corpuscles, 13 to 1:5 yw in
length, and in this species two occur in each corpuscle. They
may appear as rod-shaped bodies. Free forms also occur in the
blood and sometimes a flagellate form. They increase in the
blood corpuscles by binary fission. Animals with these para-
sites may be immune, but their blood injected into other
animals will cause the disease. Relapses also take place. The
intermediate hosts of this disease are the Ticks (Ixodes ricinus)
and (Lhiporephalus (Boophilus) annulatus). The malignant
jaundice in dogs is caused by Piroplasma canis, the East Coast
A. B. Cc. D
(PF) =D
E F é.
Fic. 6.—PIROPLAsM&.
A ton, Piroplasma bigemina. Ring forms a B; pear-shaped forms ¢ and p. E and «&
9 1 § 4 > ,
Piroplusme canis in blood corpuscles. F, Parasite free in blood. (Greatly enlarged.)
fever by P. parvum, another is found in the horse, P. equi—
all these have intermediate Tick hosts (vide Ticks). For in-
formation concerning other forms, such as P. parvum (Theiler),
the parasite of East Coast or Rhodesian fever, the P. canis,
causing malignant jaundice in dogs, and P. equi in horses, the
student is referred to Professor Minchin’s recent work on
Protezoa.1
1 An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa. By E. A. Minchin,
M.A. 1912.
INFUSORIA. 29
Mauaria.
The malarial fevers, our old Fen ague, are produced by
species of Plasmodium (Marchiafara and Celli) ; other species
also occur in mammals and birds. In all cases the agents of
transmission are mosquitoes or Culicide ; in the human malaria
only Anopheline Culicide can carry the parasites. There are
three species (1) of Tertian fever (P. vivam), (2) the quartan
parasite (P. malari), and (3) the pernicious or tropical species
(P. immaculatum). One marked character of these is that they
produce a black substance called Melanin. The parasites are
injected into man’s blood by the Anopheline mosquito, and
then enter the red corpuscles, feed, grow, break up into spores,
and destroy the corpuscles; the spores enter other blood cor-
puscles, and so the fever is set up. The Anopheline, whilst
taking man’s blood, injects the parasites with the saliva, and
the insect at the same time obtains other forms from the blood,
and a male and female stage is formed in the insect. The male
throws off portions which conjugate with or fertilise the female
parasite, which then wanders into the walls of the stomach and
later, on the outer wall, grows to a great size and eventually
breaks up into a large number of elongated spores, which enter
the salivary glands of the mosquito. In man, therefore, we get
asexual spore-formation (schizogony), in the mosquito sexual
generation ending in sporogony.
CLASS IV. INFUSORIA.
The Infusoria are Protozoa which are provided with cilia for
locomotory purposes. They have also a vegetative macro-
nucleus and a generative micronucleus.
At one time the Flagellata were included in this class.
There are two sub-classes—(1) Ciléata and (2) Suetoria.
In the first the cilia occur during the whole active life of the
30 INFUSORIA.
adult, but are not found when they are encysted. In the
second, cilia are only present during the larval stage, their
place being taken by suckers and tentacles. None of the latter
are parasites on metazoa. The Ciliata are the most complex of
the Protozoa, and several occur as parasites in metazoa. In
form they are typically ovoid, one pole being directed forwards
in swimming, whilst in creeping species the body is flattened ;
others, as the Bell Animalcule (Vorticella), are fixed by a stalk.
They are of definite form, the body being enclosed by a cuticle.
In this cuticle is an opening, the cystotome or mouth, and there
may be a definite anus or rytopyge.
The mouth is merely a pore passing
through the ectoplasm.
Ciliata reproduce by fission or
budding (gemmation), and also when
encysted by sporulation.
Parasitic forms encyst when out
of their host, and then can remain
dormant until taken up by another
host.
Those that are parasitic occur
in the digestive tract and other
internal cavities, but never as tissue
Fic, Tape es Beg cece parasites. There are four orders—
i Avante af Samia ce (1) Holotricha, in which the cilia
contractile vacuoles; p, peristome are of even length and spread all
(Stein). From Par. Dis. Ani.,
Neumann.) over the body; (2) the Hetero-
tricha, in which a special adoral
zone of larger cilia is always present; (3) Hypotricha, which
are creeping forms and flattened (not parasitic); and (4) Per?-
tricha, which are fixed forms like Vorticella, without locomotar
cilia,
Balantidum coli (fig. 7) is one of the Heterotricha. It is
found in the rectum, &, of pigs and man. These white
ciliata are found as free-swimming bodies in the rectal matter.
INFUSORIA. 31
They pass out on the dung and encyst. When food becomes
soiled by excrement they are taken into the alimentary canal.
Another species, B. minwtawim, has also been recorded in man.
Enough has been said of this group of simple animals, the
most rudimentary forms of animal life that exist, to show that
they are of some considerable importance, not only to the
farmer and poultryman but to man in general, and that a
knowledge of their habits and life-histories is not only of
interest but of very great economic value to us.
CHAPTER III.
SPONGES, C(RLENTERATES, AND ECHINODERMS.
Sponcip.£ on PorIFERa.
A SPONGE is a compound structure of true animal nature. It
is composed of contractile tissue, which is supported by a skele-
ton of hard spicules or fibres. In past ages sponges were thought
to be plants, but their true animal nature has long since been
demonstrated. The simplest form of sponge is represented by
a fixed cylindrical tube, with an exhalant opening, called the
osculum, at the free end. The contractile wall of the cylinder is
supported by rayed spicules, which may be calcareous or siliceous
and of very variable form : it is perforated by small pores, known
as inhalant pores, which lead into ciliated internal chambers.
In these ciliated chambers are found cells lining the cavities
peculiar to the Sponge. Such cells are called “collar cells,”
each being provided with a long cilium and a distinct nucleus
in the lower part of the cell. The reproduction of sponges
is much more advanced than in the Protozoa. True ova are
found in the layer of tissue known as the mesoderm, or middle
layer. These ova go through a process of cell-division known
as seymentation, a process henceforth to be observed in all the
following groups of animals. The single cell, the ovum, at first
divides into two, but, unlike the protozoan, it does not separate :
then by further division four cells are produced, then eight, then
sixteen, then thirty-two! Eventually there is formed a free-
CCELENTERATES. 33
swimming body, a larva, which is composed of a number of
cells ciliated on the exterior. This larva is called an amphi-
blastula, which, after leading a free aquatic life, eventually
settles down, and, fixing on to a stone on the floor of the
sea, becomes gradually metamorphosed into a sponge. Most
sponges are marine; a few, however, are fresh-water — one
common form, Spongilla fluviatilis, being often abundant in
our streams.
CQ@LENTERATES,
Ceelenterates include the Jellyfish, Sea-anemones, and Corals,
These marine animals have regular consistent tissues. The cells
of which they are built up have lost their original form, and
have become sorted out into different groups, each with their
special functions, the various groups forming the tissues of
which the animals are built up. In the outer layer of cells (the
skin or epithelium) there are found in all Coelenterates, more or
less highly developed, certain cells that are known as “ thread-
cells ”—cells that are modified as weapons of offence and defence,
being endowed with stinging propensities. Each of these cells,
or “cnidoblasts,” is provided with an internal barbed thread.
When the cell is touched, this thread, like a flagellum of one
of the Protozoa, is darted out and enters the skin of the prey
or enemy, carrying with it a certain amount of poison, which
produces the curious stinging and even paralysing sensation we
experience when a jellyfish settles upon us when we are swim-
ming in the sea, The amceboid cell-unit here loses its individ-
uality. Amongst these Ccelenterates we find two chief types,
the so-called Medusa or Jellyfish and the Polyp. ‘These two
totally different animals are one and the same, the medusa being
a sexual form of the asexual polyp. There is thus produced
a most remarkable phenomenon, known as the alternation of
generations—that is, the alternation of a sexual and an asexual
form of the same creature.
Cc
34 ECHINODERMATA.
The class Covlenterata contains the Corals (Actinozoa), Dead-
men’s Fingers (Octactinia), Sea-anemones (Hexactinia), the
polypoid and medusoid Hydrozoa, and the Ctenophoru. A
polyp is a simple tubular body fixed at the posterior end and
pierced by an oral opening at the free end, the mouth being
surrounded by a circle or several circles of tentacles. Polyps
may reproduce by male and female cells —spermatozoa and
ova—or by budding. All colonial forms are produced by the
latter process. A medusa or jellyfish is free-swimming, and
consists of a flattened or arched gelatinous disc, that we so
often see floating on the top of the sea. From underneath
this disc there hangs down a stalk, the manubrium, at the
free end of which opens the mouth. Tentacles may be de-
veloped around the mouth and edge of the disc. Here in the
medusa we find that the distinctly defined mouth leads into a
canal that runs up the stalk and enters a cavity in the disc, the
stomach, from which canals run out to the edge of the disc,
where they form a circular canal surrounding it.
A medusa may be compared to a flattened polyp. In the
hydroid polyp stock reproduction takes place by budding, so
that the individual colony increases ; but every now and then a
modified bud forms—a medusoid bud—in the place of a polyp.
This bud breaks off and floats away as a medusa, which becomes
sexually mature, producing ova: these ova hatch into free-
swimming larve that settle upon some rock or stone, when each
larva turns to a polyp which creates a colony by repeated
gemmation. Thus we get an alternation of a fixed asexual and
a free sexual generation.
EcuInoperus.
Starfish, Sea-urchins, and Sea-cucumbers are united into one
class known as the Evhénodermata. All these animals are
marine. They are characterised by their radial symmetry.
They have generally a hard calcareous exoskeleton, which may
ECHINODERMATA. 35
bear calcareous spines. Within the tests are placed the fully
developed alimentary canal, and the water-vascular and repro-
ductive organs. The starfish, &e., reproduce sexually. ‘The
Fic. 8.—Take Common Starrisu (Uraster rubens) From Nicholson.
ova produced give rise to curious larval forms, quite unlike the
adult,
The group must be summarily dismissed here, as they are of no
importance to the agriculturist, except in the case of the starfish
(fig. 8), which are sometimes employed as manure, the so-called
“ five-finger” manure, in neighbourhoods near the coast.
36
CHAPTER IV.
WORMS.
PLATYHELMINTHES OR FLat-Worms.
Worms are most variable in form, habits, and structure. They
are of great interest, owing to their often complex life-histories.
To man and his animals they are often deadly enemies, giving
rise to such serious and often fatal diseases as Filariasis,
Trichinosts, Miner’s Disease, Strongylosis, and Twniosis. Nearly
every animal harbours one or more vermiceous guests. Some
seem to occasion little or no inconvenience to their host, whilst
others, if not fatal, are most annoying. Some live as parasites
in the blood (Hematozon), others in the alimentary canal
(Tapeworms), others in the liver (Flukes), and even in the eye
(Filaria oculis), There are also worms, such as the earth-
worms, that are of the greatest service to man, helping to
fertilise the soil. Worms may be found in a great variety of
places. Large numbers are marine ; others live in fresh water ;
yet others upon land, in damp earth, moss, and in excreta. It is,
however, those that lead a parasitic existence, living in some
other animal or plant, that we shall have to consider most fully.
Worms are bilateral animals with unsegmented or segmented
bodies. They never possess any jointed lateral appendages,
such as we shall see in the group (Anthropoda) that includes
the insects and spiders. A dermal muscular system is de-
veloped, and there are present paired excretory tubes or canals.
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF WORMS. 37
The bodies of worms are typically elongated, cylindrical, and
soft, adapted to live in damp media. We can always dis-
tinguish a dorsal or upper and a ventral or lower surface.
Some worms are flat, and are known as Platyhelminthes ; others
are round, and are called Nemathelminthes: these round worms
are never segmented. 3, intervertebral foramen ; 4, body; 5, in- % 7
ferior spinous process ; 6, 7, inferior and superior tebra is called the azis
articulating processes, (Chanveau.) Ses
(fig. 183): this is more
like a typical cervical; but in front it has a projecting blunt
process coming from the centrum, the so-called odontotd pro-
cess (2), by which the axis can always be identified. The
thoracic vertebre number eight-
een, to which articulate the ribs.
The thoracic vertebre have large
flat and broad neural spines, the
spines heing longest in the an-
terior vertebree in the region of
the horse’s “ withers,” and direc-
ted backwards. The lumbar ver-
tebree are six in number; they
Fia. 184.—Atras. (Inferior surface.)
are small and stout, with very
1, Articular cavities for condyles of : i
occipital bone ; 2, articular facet; 3, ver- broad wing-like lateral processes.
tebral foramen; 4, cervical foramen ; 5,
transverse process ; 6, inferior spinous The sacral vertebra, of which
»rocess ; 7, superior arch, (Chauvean.) :
: cia there are five in the horse (ex-
cept in Arabs, which have six), are united in the adult into
one bony piece, the sacrum, which supports the pelvic arch.
1 Some Edentate mammals, such as the Three-toed Sloths, have a vary-
ing number of cervicals, some genera six, whilst others have nine.
THE SKULL. 319
The caudal vertebree number sixteen to eighteen ; they are
reduced to little bony cylinders. No closed neural canal runs
down them after the third or fourth vertebra.
The skull or cranium (fig. 185), which articulates with the
axis by two bony projections, the two occipital condyles
(OC), is divided into two regions, the cranial and facial.
The former is a bony box which contains the brain. The
TTS
LL
LL
LIS
ood
‘ MT .sM MF
Fic. 185.—SKULL oF tHE Horse.
oc, Occipital condyle ; ST, styloid process; OT, occipital tuberosity; P, parietal
bone; AH, auditory region; Z, zygomatic process of teinporal bone; F, frontal bone ;
O, orbit ; L, lachryinal bone; M, malar; N, nasal bone; SM, supra-maxillary; OF,
infraorbital foramen; PA, premaxillary; IT, incisor teeth; MT, molar teeth; LM
inferior maxillary ; CP, coronoid process.
facial part constitutes the largest area of the skull. The
skull, which is an elongated pyramidal box in the horse, is
built up of a great number of bones (fig. 185). Only a few
of the more important can be mentioned here; for further
details the reader must consult various works on osteology
and veterinary anatomy.
The cranium is surrounded by flat bones at the back: these
320 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.
bones are known as occipital bones (fig. 186, So, Ex.O, Bo), of
which there are several; these are perforated by a large round
hole, the foramen magnum, out of which passes the portion of
the brain, the medulla oblongata, connecting the former with the
spinal column. Beneath this opening are the two swellings, the
occipital condyles. The top of the cranium is composed of four
flat thin bones: the ones joining the occipitals are the parietal
Fro. 186,—D1AGRAM OF THE RELATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL BONES OF
THE MAMMALIAN SKULL.
Me, Mesethmoid; Ps, presphenoid; Bo, basioccipital ; Bs, basisphenoid ; Os, orbito-
sphenoid; Fr, frontal; £z.0, exoccipital; SO, supraoccipital; Na, nasal; Turb, tur-
binals; Per, periotic; 1, position of exit of olfactory nerve; 2, optic nerve ; 3, motor
oculi nerve; 4, trochlear nerve; 5, 7, 8, three divisions of 5th nerve; 6, abducens
oculi; 9, facial; 10, auditory; 11, glosso-pharyngeal; 12, pneumogastric; 13, spinal
accessory ; 14, hypoglossal; Sq, squamosal; Z'y, tympanic; Vo, vomer; P.Max, pre-
maxilla; Mz, maxilla; Pl, palatine; Pt, pterygoid; Ju, malar; La, lachrymal; ™,
mandible; Mk.C, Meckel’s cartilage ; iv, anterior hyoid arch; v, posterior hyoid arch.
(After Flower.)
bones (P (fig. 185) and Pa (fig. 186)), and those in front of the
parietals are the frontals (F and Fr); these extend behind the
eye-regions. The sides of the skull are partly shut in by the
temporal bones with the zygomatic processes (Z and Sy).
The sphenoid bones (As, Os, Ps, and Bs) shut in the side
of the cranium partly, and lie between the occipitals, frontals,
palatine (Pl), vomer (Vo), pterygoid (Pt), ethmoid, and temporals.
ANTERIOR ARCH AND LIMB, 321
The central part of the facial area is formed hy two nasal
bones (NV and Na), flat bones of an elongated triangular form
extending down the nasal cavities. Placed on each side of
these central ones are the supra-maxillary bones (S.1/), which
carry teeth. In front come the two other tooth-bearing bones,
the premawillaries (P.Mfv and PJ). In the nasal tubes are two
spongy structures, the turbinated bones (Turb) ; and between the
facial and cranial portion comes the ethmoid, which is perforated
in one part, forming the erihriform plate, situated at the end
of the nasal fossee. The floor of the facial area (or the roof of
the mouth) is built up of vomers (Vo), premaxillaries, maxillary,
and palatine (Pl) bones.
The lower jaw is composed of two van, united in the middle
line in front by a symphysis, each half bearing teeth (I2Z). The
lower jaw articulates with the skull at its posterior end.
The vhs, of which there are eighteen, rarely nineteen, pairs,
form a kind of box in which are lodged some of the organs of
the body, which they protect, especially the respiratory organs
and heart. Each rib articulates with two vertebre. The end of
the rib nearest the vertebre has two heads—one the capitulum,
the other the tuberculwm. The front ribs are flattest, and as
they pass back they become more and more arched. A rib
consists of two portions—the true bony rib, which unites with
the vertebra, and a cartilaginous portion, the costal cartilage,
which unites the rib with the sternum or breast-bone. The first
eight pairs of ribs unite with the sternum separately by their
costal cartilages. The other ten pairs have their costal cartilages
united, and meet all together with the ‘“breast-bone.” The
former are the true ribs, the latter the false ribs. The breast-
bone or sternum, with which the ribs unite, is a narrow keel-
shaped bone, partly composed of cartilage.
The anterior arch and limb are closely united by a distinct
articulation forming a ball-and-socket joint. Nevertheless the
fore-limb of the horse is not able to completely rotate, as is the
case with the human arm. The anterior or pectoral arch is
Xx
322 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.
typically composed of six bones—two scapule, two coracoids,
and two clavicles. In the horse this so-called shoulder girdle
is very simple; the coracoids are reduced to mere fragments,
small processes attached to the shoulder-blades or scapule,
and known as the coracoid processes. No clavicles or collar-
bones are found at all, ‘he arch is really reduced to a pair
of large scapule. The
scapula is shallow,
broadened above and
contracted below, where
we find a depression,
the glenoid cavity, in
which fits the head of
the arm-bone or hum-
erus. At the top of
each scapula is a car-
tilaginous prolongation
rounded at its summit,
and down the outer
face of the scapula
runs a bony ridge: this
ridge is much thick-
ened and turned back-
wards above the middle.
By noticing this point,
Fig. 187.—a, Forr, AND B, Hinp Lea or Horse. we can easily tella right
a repeats Hi hee (carpus): Ge, camen-boae; from a left scapula
ie ee oe ee
187, a) of the horse
consists of the following parts: the humerus, the radius (R) and
ulna, the carpus (K) (or knee of the horse), the metacarpus or
cannon-bone (Ca), and the phalange-bones, consisting of three
divisions. Normally in animals there are five metacarpals and
five phalanges or digits, such as we see in man; but in the
horse these latter are reduced to one. The fore-limb, which is
FORE-LIMB OF HORSE. 323
only capable of a backward and forward movement, is articu-
lated by the head of the humerus with the pectoral arch at the
glenoid cavity. The humerus of the horse can be easily felt,
although it is hidden beneath the muscles and skin in the
“shoulder.” This humerus is a short stout bone with two large
swellings, the trochanters, the head is smooth and convex, and
the distal end marked by two grooves. The head and glenoid
cavity form a ball-and-socket joint; the distal end and the
radius and ulna articulation form a hinge-joint, capable only of
a swinging motion.
The forearm consists of two bones, the radius and ulna. In
man these two bones are quite distinct, but in the horse they
are united (#). The radius forms the chief bone articulating
with the distal end of the humerus and at its own distal end
with the knee-bones (XK). The ulna is fused with the radius,
and terminates in a slightly swollen extremity about half-way
down the radius ; at its proximal end it rises above the radius
over the end of the back of the humerus, forming the olecranon
process,
The radius articulates with the carpus or “knee” of the
horse. The knee (A) is composed of seven cubical bones, with
flat articulating surfaces arranged in two rows, forming three
distinct joints, one between the radius and first row, another
between the two rows of carpal bones, and a third between the
carpus and metacarpals. The bones of the two rows are the
unciform, magnum, and trapezoid, forming the lower row; the
cunetform, lunar, and scaphoid, forming the upper row; and a
separate bone, the pisciform (Trap), behind. Sometimes there
is a fourth bone in the lower row, the ¢rapezium.1 Each bone
has a delicate serous membrane surrounding it, the synovial
membrane, which secretes a lubricating fluid of a yellowish
greasy nature called synovium. This lubricating agent is not
an off but an albuminous substance.
1 The trapezium is a pea-like bone at the back of the knee, « vestigial
remains which I have never been able to find.—(G. T. B.)
324 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.
The unciform, magnum, and trapezoid articulate with the
metacarpal bones. Normally these are five in number, as seen
in man; but in the horse only one entire digit remains, the third ;
portions of the second and fourth are found as the so-called
“ splint-bones ” (fig. 187, 8). The metacarpal bone of the horse
is the cannon-bone (Ca), and the two rudimentary ones the
splint-bones, one on each side of the cannon-bone, uniting with
it about halfway down. The remaining bones of the fore-limb
constitute the horse’s foot. The foot is composed of three
bones: the one uniting with the cannon-bone is called the
pastern (Pas), which is the largest; this is followed by the
coronet-bone (Cor); the last, or coffin-bone (Cof), being hidden
in the hoof. These form the true digit, the equivalent of our
third finger. There are also present two detached bones, or
sesamoid bones. One of these sesamoid bones is present at the
back of the joint formed by the cannon and pastern (Ses) ; the
other, the navicular bone, is found behind the junction of the
coronet and coffin bones inside the hoof. Various bony deposits
occur abnormally in this region, such as “side-bone” and “ ring-
bone.” <“‘Side-bone” is a calcareous deposit on the sides of the
coffin-bone. “ Ring-bone” is a similar deposit on the coronet.
The posterior arch and limb are homologous to the anterior.
The posterior arch (fig. 188) is called the pelvic arch or hip-
girdle, and is made up of two large hony masses united in their
middle line, the ossa innominata. Each os innominatum is
formed by three bones known as the ¢//wm (1), dschium (12), and
pubes (9), the six forming a kind of bony ring, the pelvis, which
is much larger in the female than the male. The i/iwm is a
triangular bone projecting forwards, and forms the so-called
haunch-bone. There are two noticeable parts in it, the anterior
spine and the posterior spine, the latter pointing upwards, the
former forwards. The ischiwm passes backwards towards the
tail. The pubes are the two flat bones which unite beneath
at a point of union called the pubic symphysis. The pubes
are perforated by the two large obturator foramina (10). The
POSTERIOR ARCII. 325
three bones of each os innominatum unite at one point towards
the posterior part of the pelvis, forming a concavity called the
acetabulum (5). The ischium on each side lies against the
sacrum, to which they are attached by muscle. Into the
acetabulum or cotyloid cavity fits the head of the thigh-bone
or femur, forming a ball-and-socket joint similar to the one
&
Fic, 188.—PELvic ArcH. (Seen from below.)
1, lliae surface ; 2, auricular facet; 3, crest of ilium; 4, angle of haunch; 5, cotyloid
cavity ; 6, bottom of ditto; 7, one of the imprints for the insertion of the rectus femor-
alis; 8, ileo-pectineal line; 9, channel on the external face of pubes; 10, obturator
foramen ; 11, sciatic spine ; 12, ischiatic arch. (Chauveau.)
at the junction of the forelimb and arch. The femur is a
thick solid bone with a large smooth head, at the side of which
is developed a large roughened projection called the trochanter
major. About one-third of the way down the bone is a swell-
ing or tuberosity found only, fully developed, in Solipeds (Horses,
&c.)—namely, the third trochanter—to which are attached vari-
326 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.
ous powerful muscles for the movement of the limb. The chief
motor muscle of the hind-leg is united to the trochanter major.
Following and uniting with the femur are the two bones, the tibia
(fig. 187, B, 7’) and jibula, which are quite detached in certain
animals. In the horse the tibia is well developed, being a stout
strong bone, whilst the fibula is much reduced in size and
anchyloses with the tibia. The joint formed by the junction of
these two bones with the femur is known as the sti#lejocnt. In
front of this joint is a floating bone, the patella or knee-cap,
which is attached by three bands of ligament to the tibia.
The tarsus or ankle forms the horse’s hock, like the carpus
or knee, this is made up of several small bones. There are
six tarsal bones in all, known as the arternal and internal
cunetforis, cuboil (Cu), navicular, astragalus (Ax), and cal
caneus (UC).
The astragalus is in front of the hock, at the top uniting with
the tibia. The calcaneus is behind the astragalus, and projects
upwards behind the tibia, forming the point of the hock ; it also
has an articulating surface with the tibia. Below the calcaneus
is the cuboid. Beneath the astragalus comes the navicular,
scaphoid, or large cuneiform ; the lower row consisting of the
internal and external cuneiforms, the latter being chiefly at the
back of the hock. The metatarsal or cannon-bone (Cw) is very
similar to that of the forelimb. The foot is also similar in
structure, but the ultimate toe-bone is called the pedal bone
(fig. 187, B, Cof*); and at the junction of the cannon-bone with
the large pastern are two floating bones behind (a, Ses), which
are covered by a horny growth, the ergot, upon which is attached
the tuft of hair called the fetlock.
This completes the skeleton, whose function is for the attach-
ment of the muscles and for the protection of the various soft
inner parts of the body.
1 The navicular is also called the scaphoid or centrale. The latter term
is best, as there is a scaphoid in the carpus, and the true navicular is a de-
tached sesamvid bone in the foot, the seat of the navicular disease.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE. 327
InterNAL ANATOMY.
The skin, or outer covering of the muscles, skeleton, and
organs, also represents the organ of “touch ”—certain areas,
such as the lips and limbs, being especially adapted to this
sense. The skin is composed of two layers—the outer the
epidermis, the inner the dermis. The epidermis is the thin
layer covering the face of the derma, and is formed of flat cells,
which are continually being deposited and worn off by friction.
The derma forms the chief thickness of the membrane, its inner
face adhering closely to the subjacent parts by the panniculus
adiposus, a cellulo-adipose substance. The external face is per-
forated by openings for the hairs and exits of the sudoriporous
and sebaceous glands. The nerves end in the upper part of this
layer in little papilla-like projections.
The skin of the horse having been removed, there is
found underneath a thick coating—thin, however, in places—
of a red, more or less striped appearance, which can easily be
divided up into different detached areas. These are the muscles,
the so-called flesh which is attached to the bones, forming not
only a covering for the more delicate internal parts, but also a
very complicated mechanical apparatus for the movement of the
animal, &c. The individual groups of muscles on examination
will be seen to be composed of a number of bundles of fibres, each
of which is endowed with the power of contraction. During
this contraction a muscle becomes shorter and stouter: on the
contraction ceasing the muscle regains its normal length by
an elastic recoil, muscle being also elastic in nature. Many
muscles terminate in tendons, these latter, and the muscles
themselves, are attached at each end to a bone. For such a
purpose are the roughened ends of the femur and the side
swelling of the third trochanter formed. When the muscle con-
tracts, one end to which the muscle or tendon is attached must
give way and be pulled towards the other, and thus the move-
HORSE.
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INTERNAL ANATOMY
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THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 329
ments of the body are brought about. Into the grouping of
these muscles we have not space to enter here.
In a transverse section of the horse two cavities will be seen
—the dorsal tube with the spine, and the large ventral ab-
dominal cavity. In a longitudinal section three cavities will he
exposed—the long neural tube, and the body divided also into
two by a membranous partition, the diaphragm (fig. 190, D2),
the front division being the thorax, the posterior the abdomen.
The diyestive tube or alimentary canal (figs. 189 and 190) may
be said to commence at the back of the mouth in a large space,
Ww
SSN
SS
TE
We
Sh
SSS
Fic. 190.—D1aGRam or ALIMENTARY CANAL.
Sp, Soft palate; P, pharynx; G, glottis; OF, esophagus ;
SL, salivary-glands; 1’, trachea; Lu, lungs; H, heart; Pi,
pleura; Pt, pericardium ; Di, diaphragm ; St, stomach; Py,
pylorus; L, liver; Bd, bile-duct; Pa, pancreas; Pd, pan-
creatic duct; Re, rectum; A,anus; D, duodenum; Je, jeju-
num; Ji, ileum; CAE, cacum; Coi aud Coli, colon.
the pharynx (P), which is situated behind that part of the roof
of the mouth known as the soft palate (Sp). From the pharynx
a small opening leads into the gullet or esophagus (OF and a),
which passes through the neck in close relation to the windpipe
or trachea (7), and enters the thorax in its upper moiety, runs
through it, and perforates the diaphragm dorsally. The stomach
(Sé and ) receives the cesophagus at its inner margin or
greater curvature towards one end. The stomach of the horse
is a simple sac clongated transversely, and lies across the ab-
330 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
dominal cavity. The cesophagus enters towards that end of the
gastric cavity known as the cardium, the other end being called
the pylorus. On opening the stomach we can distinguish a right
and a left half. The right half or pyloric half is lined by a red
mucous membrane, the left by a white mucous membrane, which
is partly continuous with the lining epithelium of the cesophagus,
which it receives. The right half only has, in its mucous
membrane, true digestive glands or gastric glands ; the left is in
reality part of the esophagus much dilated. From the pyloric
end (Py), at which we may notice a constriction, arises the
commencement of the small intestine. The small intestine is
divided into three parts—the duodenum (D), which leaves the
pylorus, the jejunum (Je), and the ileum (Z/). The small intes-
tine is a long thin-walled tube much folded and convoluted,
and lies especially on the horse’s left flank. It is 24 yards long
in the horse and about 1} inch in diameter. The jejunum
is situated chiefly in the left flank, and constitutes the main
part of the small intestine. The large intestine is much shorter
than the small, but of greater capacity. It is divided into two
portions—the czecum and colon. The cecum, into which opens
the ileum, is marked off from the small intestine by the so-called
ileo-ceecal valve. It is a large elongated sac ending blindly at
one extremity (CAZ). The caecum is largely developed in the
horse and all other herbivorous animals, containing as much
as 6 to 7 gallons of fluid. It is constricted and provided with
longitudinal bands of muscle, which on being cut cause the
constrictions to disappear.
Close to where the ileum enters the caecum is another opening,
from which springs the colon. The colon is divisible into two
regions—the large colon (Cv') and the floating colon (Co).
This portion of the canal is also constricted at its commence-
ment, the constrictions being much more closely united. The
colon forms a loop surrounding the cecum, and towards the end
it gives rise to a straight thin-walled tube, the rectum (2),
which opens to the exterior by the anus. The colon is about
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 331
20 feet long, the large colon holding as much as eighteen
gallons of fluid.
In connection with the digestive tube are several glands
whose products aid the digestion of the food. These glands are
as follows: salivary-glands (SL), opening into the mouth; the
liver (L), opening into the duodenum; and the pancreas (Pa),
opening into the intestine close to the liver-duct. These three
glands are spoken of as true glands. There are others—such
as the thyroid, thymus, and spleen—which have no opening
at all; these are the so-called ductless glands. ‘The salivary
glands, of which there are several, are situated in the sides
of the mouth and under the tongue ; they are branched glands
which pour out, by means of their ducts, saliva into the mouth
to amalgamate with the food. The liver is the largest gland in
the body: it consists of several large red lobes closely applied
to the diaphragm and wrapping round part of the stomach.
There can be recognised a right and a left lobe, a middle
lobe, and the lobe of Spigelii. By separating these lobes of
the liver of a cow or sheep you will observe buried in their
midst an elongated, green, thin-walled sac, the gall -bladder.
This structure is absent in the horse. Close to it can be traced
a tube, the ductus choledochus or bile-duct (Bd), which passes
from the liver and runs to the duodenum, into which it opens,
—the opening being provided with two flap-like valves, forming
the ampulla of Vater. Down this duct the bile runs so as to
reach the food. The valves are to stop the flow of food up the
bile-duct. In the horse the bile is always flowing into the intes-
tine; in other animals it chiefly flows during digestion—mean-
while it is stored up in the gall-bladder. In the horse the secre-
tion is more rapid during digestion, in spite of its constant flow.
The pancreas (Pa) or “sweetbread” is a pale pink-coloured
gland much lobulated, and lies in a membrane in close relation
to the stomach and small intestine. From it there runs off a
tube, the pancreatic duct (Pd), which opens into the duodenum
close to the ampulla of Vater.
332 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
The thyroid? is a gland which is found close to and
behind the larynx, beside the two first rings of the trachea.
This gland consists of two oval lobes of a reddish - brown
colour, united by the so-called “isthmus.” It is more im-
portant in the young and fetus than in the adult, and is
especially developed in Ruminants and Carnivora. What its
functions are we do not definitely know: some say it is
to destroy the mucin in the body, others that it is a
gland connected with the brain. The former is apparently
correct.
The thymus is another ductless gland found in the foetus
only, resembling the thyroid, white and lobulated in form, and
partly situated in and partly out of the chest.
Closely connected with the sub-lumbar region and the great
curvature of the stomach is a large vascular ductless gland, the
spleen, The spleen in the horse is falciform in shape, violet-
blue to red in colour, soft and elastic in texture. This gland is
really a floating gland, but is lightly attached by the great
omental peritoneum and by a suspensory ligament. It is an
organ that varies much in size, even in the same animal, often
becoming abnormally large. In the horse it weighs 32 ounces.
It is well supplied with blood-vessels, and is almost. solid.
Curious pale patches are found in the pulp that constitutes
the majority of the organ, called Malpiyhian corpuscles, de-
veloped in the course of the small splenic arteries. It is partly
employed in manufacturing red blood-corpuseles and in de-
stroying the same. Some physiologists look upon it as a
swelling or pouch of the portal vein.
The peritoneum (fig. 191).—The organs and parts of the ali-
mentary canal are partly supported by a thin membrane, which
may be double owing to folding, called the peritoneum. This
serous membrane lines the walls of the abdominal cavity, and
from thence passes to and around the visceral parts. There are
then two kinds of peritoneum — the parietal (Pp), which is
applied to the body wall, and the visceral (Pr), which supports
RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 333
the internal structures. The chief parts of this visceral peri-
toneum are the great omentum (Ce), the hepato-gastric liga-
ment (L), the mesentery (Af), and the meso-colic mesentery.
The omentum is the large fold that connects the stomach with
the small intestine (3), and is often laden with fat; the hepato-
Fic. 191.—Turoretican, LonciruprnaL, AND MEDIAN SECTION OF ABDOMINAL
Cavity, '0 SHOW PERITONEUM.
1, Liver; 2, stomach; 8, small intestine; 4, origin of floating colon; 5, rectum; 6,
vagina and uterus; 7, bladder; 9, posterior aorta; 10, diaphragm ; 11, post vena cava ;
12, inferior abdominal wall; Pp, Pp, parietal peritoneum ; Pv, Pv, visceral peritoneum ;
L, hepato-gastric ligament; M, mesentery; Ge, great omentum, (Chauveau.)
gastric ligament joins the liver to the stomach; the mesen-
tery supports the colon, and may also contain adipose tissue.
Rectum (5), vagina (6), and the bladder (7) are also surrounded
by it.
Situated in the thoracic cavity we shall note two important
structures—namely, the lungs and heart (fig. 190, Zw and #).
The respiratory organs are absolutely necessary for the main-
tenance of life, for life requires not only the absorption and
assimilation of nutritive matters, but also oxygen from the air
to enter into the circulation of these matters. In animals with
red blood this element in mixing with the nutritive fluid com-
mences by expelling CO,, and communicates to that fluid its
bright red colour. This produces the combustion that partly
334 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
forms animal heat. It also exercises on the organs a stimulat-
ing action, without which the animal tissues cannot manifest
their true properties. The organs that carry out this act of
respiration in mammalia are the lungs. They take in oxygen
from the surrounding air and pass out in return CO,. These
organs of respiration, so essential to animal life, are closely
shut in, in the thoracie cavity, and are connected with the air
by, first, a cartilaginous tube (fig. 192, 77) arising in the back
of the pharynx, and, secondly, by the two nasal cavities. These
latter open into the back of the mouth by two openings, the
so-called posterior nares, and to the air by the nostrils.
The whole organs of respiration may be divided into four
sections—(1) the nasal cavities; (2) the larynx; (3) trachea
and bronchi; (4) the lungs.
In the horse we shall notice very large nostrils: owing to the
. if
Te G Sp C
Fig. 192.—Mepran Loncitupinat Section oF HEAD AND Upper PART OF
Neck or Horse. (After Chauveau.)
A, Nasal septum; 7, tongue, with hard palate above; Sp, soft palate; Fs, frontal
bone and sinus; Pr, posterior nares; Ep, epiglottis; C, cerebrum; Cb, cerebellum ;
S, orcipital bone ; L, larynx; Tr, trachea; G, esophagus; Sp.C, spinal chord; Cvi and
Cvii, atlas and axis.
structure and size of the soft palate (fig. 192, Sp) at the back of
the mouth, the horse can only breathe through the nasal cavities,
RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 335
hence their size. We, however, with a smaller soft palate, can
breathe through our mouth. The nasal fosse are lined by a
sensitive mucous membrane, part of which is olfactory in
function. Closely connected with the nasal cavities are a
number of winding spaces excavated in the substance of the
bones of the head, on the limits of the cranium and face, and
around the ethmoidal masses which they envelop. These
cavities form the so-called sinus (#’s), which increases the area of
the skull for the attachment of muscles and for lightening its
weight. In the ox the frontal sinus is prolonged into those
bony cores that support the horns. Opening from the back
of the throat is a slit-like aperture, the glottds, partly protected
by a flap-like portion, the epiglottis (Zp). On each side of the
opening are placed internally the two vocal cords. These two
elastic bands project within the larynx (L), and between them
include the space forming the glottis.
The larynx is the organ of voice, and it also admits air
during respiration, It is practically a cartilaginous box
flattened on each side. Entering into its composition are
five pieces of cartilage, numerous muscles, nerves, blood-vessels,
and a lining of mucous membrane. This organ dilates and
contracts. When paralysis sets in, causing very rapid move-
ments, it produces the so-called “roaring” in horses.
The trachea (Tv) is a flexible tube arising from the base of
the larynx, and is supported by a series of incomplete C-shaped
cartilaginous rings. It passes between the two first ribs and
enters the chest, arriving above the left auricle to the right
of the big blood-vessel, the posterior aorta, where it bifurcates,
forming the two Uronchi. Each bronchial tube divides up
in the lungs, sending out an innumerable number of small
branches, resembling a tree embedded in the substance of the
lung.
The thorax or chest, in which the lungs and heart are
situated, forms a cavity shut in by the ribs, backbone, dia-
phragm, and sternum. The thorax is lined by two serous mem-
336 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF TIORSE,
branes, called the pleww. Part of these membranes surround
the walls of the thorax, part the lungs themselves. There is
one pleura on each side. Although the two pleural sacs are
apparently distinct, they are no doubt connected by a minute
opening in the mediastinum.
The Jungs are spongy in texture and are two in number,
each lying in a separate serous sac. The right lung is larger
than the left—the heart being lodged in an excavation between
the two. The lungs are very vascular. Blood is sent to them
by the pulmonary artery, which carries impure blood to the
lungs from the heart: here this impure blood is oxygenated,
and sent back to the heart by the pulmonary veins. These are
functional vessels: there are also nutrient vessels, the lym-
phatics, which not only lie around the outer portions of the
lungs, but also penetrate the internal lobules.
The organs of excretion, or the wrinary organs, consist of two
kidneys, ureters, a bladder, and urethral canal.
The kidneys eliminate the nitrogenous waste from the blood
along with water resulting from the exercise of the vital
functions. The kidneys are two in number, and are situated in
the sub-lumbar region of the body, lying against the great psoas
muscles. They are enclosed more or less completely in an
envelope of cellular fat. Support is also given to the kidneys
by the pressure of the organs in the abdominal cavity, and
again by the peritoneum, which underlies the urinary organs.
The right kidney (fig. 193, B) is in front of the left, lying
beneath the two last ribs, the left just beyond the last pair.
They also vary in shape and size, the right one being heart-
shaped, and weighing about twenty-seven ounces; the left one
(A) is kidney-bean-shaped, and about two ounces less. On one
side is a deep notch called the hi/us. The outside of the kidney
is smooth and red in the horse ; very different is the kidney of
the ox, which is lobulated. rom the hilus arises the ureter or
tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
The ureter (@ and 0), which originates in the so-called pelvis
GENITAL ORGANS. 337
of the kidney, is a thin-walled tube about as thick as a goose-
quill.
The ladder (D) is a membranous sac in which the urine is
stored up. The pelvic cavity retains this reservoir, which may
extend into the abdominal cavity. The ureters open into the
lower portion of the bladder, which becomes constricted pos-
teriorly into a kind of neck. In front the sac is rounded, and
here may be seen a scar, the spot to which a foetal structure, the
urachus, was attached. This urinary sac is united to the
pelvis, to the rectum, and to the vesicule seminales in the
horse, and in the mare to the uterus and vagina. From the
neck of the bladder arises the wrethra (K and L), which carries
away the urine to the exterior. The urethra is also the duct for
the genital products in the male, and more or less so in the
female. There is thus a connection between the urinary and
reproductive organs. They are often spoken of unitedly as the
uro-genital organs.
The genital organs (fig. 193) in the male consist of two
glands, the testicles (#) and the epididymis (¢), vas deferens
(F), vesicule seminales (H), ejaculatory ducts, urethral canal,
prostate (I) and Cowper’s glands (J), the corpus cavernosum
(M), and the penis (.V). The testicles are abdominal in the
foetus, but later descend into a sac, the scrotum, lying at the
bottom of this sac and supported by the spermatic cord. These
glands, which produce the male cells or spermatozoa, are oval
bodies, made up of a large number of lobules, each lobule
being composed of two or three long tubes, seminiferous tubes,
often over a yard in length. Closely applied to this testis is
the elongated epididymis, which is made up of from twelve
to twenty tubes, united into one twisted tube, from which
springs the straight vas deferens, a canal as thick as a goose-
quill in the horse. Situated just above the bladder are two
oval glandular pouches (#1), in which spermatozoa are stored,
and which also add a fluid to the semen. The efaculatory duct
is short, and succeeds the narrow canal of the vesicula after the
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INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
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GENITAL ORGANS. 339
latter opens into the vas deferens. The wrethra has erectile
walls, and begins at the bladder and ends at the tip of the
penis, the erectile tissue commencing towards its end portion.
The single prostate gland (Z) lies across the neck of the bladder.
Cowper's glands (J) are two in number: they secrete a fluid
which is poured into the urethral canal just before the ejection
of the semen. The corpus cavernosum is the erectile body which
passes up the penis from its base to its tip and supports the
urethra. There is considerable variation in the sexual organs of
animals, into which we cannot enter.
The female organs (fig. 194), as seen in the mare, consist of
two secretory organs, the ovaries (3), oval bodies lying just
behind the kidneys in the abdomen. The ovaries lie free and
detached in the body cavity. Closely applied to them are the
oviducts, which expand near the ovaries into funnel-shaped
bodies. The oviducts are very small tubes lodged in broad
ligaments (4), about as thick as a straw. They open into a
large sac, the uterus (1 and 2), the space in which the embryo
develops. This membranous sac lies in the sub-lumbar cavity
of the abdomen, and consists of the body and two so-called
“‘cornua” or horns of the uterus. The cornua pass amongst the
intestines, the uterus being supported by the broad ligaments,
the rectum (13), and posteriorly by the vagina (16). The inner
walls of this cavity are lined by mucous membrane; outside there
is a serous layer, and between a thick muscular layer. From the
uterus proceeds the vagina, a thin tube which terminates in the
vulva or external orifice. Inside this orifice is found a solid
body from two to three inches long in the mare, the clztorvs,
which protrudes into the vulvular cavity, and which is erectile.
The ova are dehisced at certain periods, the periods of menstru-
ation, “heat,” or “rutting.”
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
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THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD. 341
Tue Heart anp CIRCULATION oF THE Buoop.
The circulatory apparatus consists of a central muscular heart
and three sets of vessels.
Two fluids are found in connection with the circulatory ap-
paratus—viz., blood and lymph. Blood is of two kinds, arterial
and venous. The former is pure and red, the latter impure
and dark. Lymph consists of a white to pale yellow fluid,
and contains lymph-corpuscles. Intimately connected with
this lymph is chyle. Chyle is a fluid that comes from
the walls of the alimentary canal; it is lymph charged
with nutritive matter. Lymph is blood minus the red blood-
corpuscles. Chyle is lymph plus fat, &c. We can detect
three sets of vessels, as follows: (i) extend from the heart
to all parts of the body, and which contain red blood=
arteries; (ii) pass from all parts of the body to the heart,
and which contain dark blood=veins; (iii) pass from the
majority of organs and walls of intestines to one of the veins
=lymphatic. vessels.
The heart is a muscular box, by means of which the
blood is circulated or pumped throughout the whole system.
The muscle composing the heart is peculiar in structure ;
it is known as cardiac muscle, and is cubical in form and
striated, and of course involuntary in action. The heart
lies in a sac closely applied to its walls, the pericardium,
and is bathed by a fluid, the pericardial fluid. There are
four distinct chambers ; the two upper are the auricles (fig. 195,
LA and RA), the two lower the ventricles (V). The auricles
receive the convergent tubes, the veins; the ventricles give
origin to the divergent vessels, the arteries. The right and
left sides of the heart are quite separate, but the two cavities
of each half are in connection, the openings being guarded by
valves. The opening from the right auricle into the right
ventricle, the “auriculo-ventricular” opening, is closed by the
tricuspid valves, which consist of three fibro-muscular flaps; the
342 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
opening between the left auricle and ventricle by the mitral
valve, which has two flaps only. The auricular portion can be
told from the ventricular by an external constriction. From
Fic. 195,—DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLoop.
LA and RA, Lefc and right auricles; J’, ventricles; L, lungs; Li, liver; J, intes-
tines; A.vc, anterior or superior vena cava; P.vc, posterior or inferior vena cava; 4.0,
aortic arch; A.ao, P.ao, anterior and posterior aorta; Ha, hepatic artery; Hv, hepatic
vein; [’v, portal vein; Pu.A, pulmonary artery; Pu.V, pulmonary veins; Pe, posterior
capillaries; 7d, thoracic duct.
these chambers arise the blood-vessels. In the right auricle
(RA) we find three tubes—(i) the superior rena cara (Arr);
,
(ii) the fnferior vena cava (P.ve); (iii) numerous small veins
THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD. 343
from walls of the heart. In the right ventricle we find a vessel,
the pulmonary artery (Pu.A); in the left auricle the pulmonary
veins (Pu.J"); and in the left ventricle the opening of the great
aorta (A.ao and A.a).
Let us now trace the course of the blood during circulation.
The right auricle receives the venous blood from the head, neck,
and anterior extremities by the superior vena cava; it also
receives venous blood from the lower parts of the body by the
inferior vena cava. The right auricle then, holding venous
blood, contracts, and by so doing expels the blood through the
tricuspid valves into the right ventricle. The right ventricle
then empties itself by contracting, the blood being forced
through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary artery, which
carries the venous blood to the lungs; here the artery splits up
into a number of minute tubes, the capillaries, composed of
single-celled walls, thus bringing the red blood-corpuscles in
close contact with the air. Another set of capillaries also arise
in the lungs; these unite after collecting the blood, and form
several pulmonary veins, which carry the blood back to the left
auricle. During the passage of the blood through the lungs the
venous blood gives up its CO., which passes through into the
pulmonary alveoli, and so out by the respiratory tubes ; at the
same time it takes up the oxygen in the inspired air. The
venous blood of the pulmonary artery thus becomes converted
into arterial blood, carried back by the pulmonary veins to the
left auricle. The left auricle when full contracts and drives the
arterial blood through the opening and mitral valves into the
left ventricle. From the ventricle the arterial blood is pumped
into the aorta, which sends one branch to the anterior regions
and one to the posterior, carrying the pure blood to the organs
and system generally. In the organs, &ec., these two large
arteries with their minor divisions break up into capillaries, the
blood being collected again by other capillaries which unite with
the superior and inferior vene cave, and so back to the right
auricle, from which we started, the course of the circulation
344 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
in this way completing its circuit. We thus see that there
are two systems—one the “pulmonary system,” the other the
“systemic” circulation. There is also another system called
the “portal” system, which consists of a vein, the portal vein
(Pr), which runs from the walls of the intestine (Z) to the
liver (7). This latter organ is supplied by an artery, the
hepatic artery, and a vein, the hepatic vein, besides the portal
system. The kidneys have a renal artery and vein coming from
the aorta and going to the vena cava.
Lastly, opening into the inferior vena cava near the heart is
seen another vessel, the thoracic duct (Td); this arises in the
walls of the intestines in the so-called lacteal system, and pours
the nutritive fluid derived from the food into the blood-system.
The blood during its passage through the organs oozes
through the extremely thin capillary walls. The cells of the
organ obtain the nutritive elements from this, and leave behind
a watery fluid called lymph. This lymph does not return
directly back into the blood, but is drawn away from the organs
lay a series of tubes which originate as minute blind canals.
These lymph-spaces unite into the so-called lymphatic ducts or
veins, which, like the blood-veins, are furnished with valves to
stop the backward flow of the fluid to the lymph-spaces.
Eventually the lymph empties itself into the venous blood-
system, and so into the right auricle of the heart. The lacteals
and thoracic duct are part of this lymphatie system, but
specially modified for the conveyance of the chyle to the blood.
This lymphatic system is almost as important as the vascular
system, for the blood is partly dependent upon it.
The serres of blood are five in number, as follows :—
1, From material absorbed by the lacteals in the primary
digestion of food (chyle).
2. From soluble matters—such as water, sugar, and peptones
—absorbed by the blood-vessels, and sent first through the liver.
3. From matter formed by certain blood-glands, such as the
spleen, Xe.
NERVOUS SYSTEM, 345
4. From materials derived from the tissues—products of
decomposition, and solution of portions of these tissues due to
their vital activity (lymph).
5. From a small amount of matter that may be absorbed by
the skin.
The blood gives up its waste nitrogenous material in the
kidneys ; water is also lost by its progress through the same
organs, as well as various salts. The skin also yields water and
salts derived from the vascular fluid. The CO, and aqueous
vapour are passed out in the pulmonary sacs, whilst the oxygen
is absorbed by the blood in the same area. Blood also loses
material during its passage through the organs, &c., for their
constructive purposes. This waste is counteracted by the five
methods named above, from which the blood is built up and its
losses repaired,
The nervous system is divided into two distinct portions—
the most important being the “ central” nervous system, the
spinal cord and brain. The other is the “sympathetic ” nervous
system. The organs of the body are under the control of the
nervous system. Muscle and nerve are intimately connected ;
each muscular act is preceded by a nervous act: sometimes
these acts are voluntary, at others involuntary. The move-
ments of the muscles of the limbs, &c., are voluntary acts ; the
muscular movements of the heart and intestines are involuntary,
and yet both are caused by nervous mechanism.
The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous or
cerebro-spinal axis. The brain is deposited in the cavity of
the skull, the cranium, the spinal cord is protected by the
bony vertebra, and lies in the neural canal. The cerebro-spinal
axis is surrounded by three membranes—the dwra-mater, the
arachnoid, and the pia-mater. The dura-mater forms the ex-
ternal layer next the bone of the skull; the arachnoid is a
serous layer; whilst the pia-mater closely invests the brain and
nervous axis, forming a nutrient membrane. The brain varies
much in weight in different animals: in the horse its normal
346 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF JIORSE.
Fic. 196.—Brain or Horse (dorsal view), } nat. size.
B, Medulla oblongata; Cl, middle lobe of cerebellum; €2, lateral lobes of cerebel-
lun; O, olfactory lobes; 1, great longitudinal fissure of cerebrum; 2-14, fissures and
convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres. (Chauveau.)
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 347
weight is about twenty-two ounces, in the sheep about five
ounces. It is ovoid in shape. Viewed on its superior surface
(fig. 196), we shall see the following areas, starting from behind,
where it joins the spinal cord: The medulla or isthmus (B), a
kind of white peduncle running into the brain, the prolongation
as it were of the spinal cord: following this is a grey trilobed
Fic. 197.—Brain or Horse (ventral view).
Ol, Olfactory lobes; (1 and C2, cerebrum; Cb, cerebelluun; M, medulla; Op.C, optic
chiasma; Pt, pituitary gland; Cc, crura cerebri; P, pons Varolii; 1-10, roots of cranial
nerves.
mass, the cerebellum (CU), and in front of the cerebellum are seen
two other lobes separated by a deep fissure from the cerebellum
and from one another (1) ; these two lobes are the cerebral lobes,
the whole forming the cerebrum (2-14). The cerebral hemi-
spheres are more or less convoluted. On examining the under-
surface of the brain (fig. 197) it will be seen that the peduncle
348 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
runs through the base of the cerebellum and enters the cerebral
hemispheres close behind two thick white cords, the optic nerves
(Op.C), Further portions of the isthmus and other parts of
the brain are named in the figure (fig. 197).
Both from the brain and spinal cord nerves are given off to
the various parts of the body. Those coming from the brain
are called cranial nerves, those from the spinal cord xj/nal
nerves ; hoth groups are always paired. There are twelve pairs
of ‘cranials,” as follows :—
1st pair Olfactory nerves (tig. 164, 1).
2nd Optic nerves (2).
brd ou Oculo-motor nerves (3).
4th on Trochlear nerves (+).
5th on ‘Trigeminal nerves (5).
6th un external oculo-motor nerves (6).
Tth on Facial nerves (7).
8th 1 Auditory nerves (8).
9th on (slosso-pharyngeal nerves (9).
10th Vagus or pneumogastric nerves (10).
llth 1 Accessory nerves (10).
12th ILypoglossal nerves.
The olfactory constitute the olfactory lobes in the brain ;
they pass to the nose and form the sense of smell (fig. 197, O7/).
They arise from two roots at the brain. Impressions of odours
are received by them and are transmitted to the brain. The
optics are, of course, the nerves of sight: they cross one another
and form the optic chiasma (fig. 197, Op.C). The third and
fourth pairs are for the movements of the eyes. The trigeminal
are a very large pair, have many branches, and are connected
with the sympathetic system. They arise hy two roots, one
sensory, While the other contains motor fibres, there being a
ganglion on the sensory root. The sixth arises by five to eight
roots from the medulla, and also supplies the cye-muscles. The
facial nerves are motor in origin, but receive sensory fibres ;
they excite the contraction of the muscles of the face in general
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 349
and some of the salivary glands; they are vaso-motory and
excito-secretory in function. The auditory are the nerves of
hearing ; they spring from the medulla by two roots. The
ninth pair go to the tongue and take part in the sense of taste.
The vagus is the most important; it has both sensory and motor
roots, and supplies the stomach and respiratory organs. The
eleventh arises with the vagus and supplies the intercostal
muscles. The last, the hypoglossals, again, supply the tongue,
acting on the lingual muscles.
The spinal nerves. The spinal nerves leave the vertebral
canal by the intervertebral foramina and proceed to the various
organs. There are forty-two or forty-three pairs, as follows:
eight cervical pairs, seventeen dorsal pairs, six lumbar, and five
sacral ; the coccygeal vary from six to seven pairs. The spinal
nerves differ from the cranial in that they all resemble one an-
other at their origin. There are always two roots, one being
motor, the other sensory, in function. The two roots unite into
a thick trunk in passing through the foramina of the vertebra,
and then divide again into two branches, the superior branch
going to the spinal muscles and integuments covering them, the
inferior branch passing to the lateral and lower parts of the
trunk or to the limbs. All send from their inferior branch one
or more nerves to form the great sympathetic system. On the
face of the sensory root is found a ganglion. The superior
branches of the cervicals go to the oblique muscles of the
head, the cervical muscles, and here they anastomose, forming
a kind of network, the cervical plexus. The inferior branches
cover the anterior lateral parts of the neck and muscles of the
breast, and form another plexus, the superficial cervical plerus.
The last two mix with those of the dorsal region, and form
the brachial plexus. The dorsal nerves send their superior
branches to the muscles and skin of the dorsal lumbar region,
their inferior branches to the pleure and intercostal muscles,
The lumbar send the superior branches to the spinal muscles
and the integument of the loins and croup; the inferior
350 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.
branches to the muscles of the abdomen and muscles of the
flank, to the testes and “‘stifle-joint”; and the last two form a
plexus. The sacral send their superior branches to the muscles
at the side of the sacrum, and their inferior branches to the
pelvic cavity, and to the anus and penis. The coccygeal
supply the tail.
The sympathetic nervous system consists of a number of gan-
glia which are detached from the central nervous system but
connected with it by nerve-fibres. This nervous system con-
sists of a chain of ganglia on each side of the spinal cord.
This system controls the vascular system, and thus affects
animal heat: it is also connected with involuntary muscular
action,
351
CHAPTER NIII.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRANIOTA,
A. THE ICHTHYOPSIDA.
Tue Craniota are divided into five great classes—the Pisces,
Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammulia. There are two
ways of classifying these five sections. One was formulated
by the late Professor Owen, who divided them into two
primary sections, the Hematocrya and the Hematotherma, the
distinctive features being taken from the blood. The Hemato-
erya, or the Fish, Amphibia, and Reptilia, have an imperfect
circulatory system, there never being four distinct chambers to
the heart. These are called Cold- blooded Animals. The
Huematotherma are the Aves and Mammalia, in which we
always find four distinct chambers to the heart and a complete
pulmonary and systemic circulation. Circulation is rapid. These
are the Warm-blooded Animals. This division is an unnatural
one; for we find placed in the two separate groups the Birds
and Reptilia, which to a certain extent interlace when we ex-
amine the fossil species in the rocks, and which even in existing
forms present some analogous structural features.
Huxley divided the Craniota into three sections, as
follows :—
A. Ichthyopsida = Fish aud Amphibia.—These have always
gills or branchiz at sume period of their life, and their blood-
corpuscles are nucleated. The embryo has never that fcetal
membrane called the amnion, and the allantois when present
is only rudimentary, Diaphragm absent.
352 ICHTHYOPSIDA.
B. Sauropsida = Birds and Reptiles.—There are never found
branchie in either of these classes, and the embryo is provided
with both an amnion and allantoic membrane. The red blood-
corpuscles are nucleated, and the skull always articulates with
the vertebral column by a single occipital condyle, whilst the
lower jaw has always a bone between it and the skull called the
quadyate bone. Diaphragm never complete.
C. Mammalia = Mammals.—These have always two condyles
on the skull for articulating with the vertebral column. The
lower jaw, which is composed of two bones only, articulates, as
we saw in the skeleton of the horse, direct with the skull,
the quadrate bone not being present in its normal position. In
mammals it has become attached to the auditory apparatus.
Lastly, there are always developed in the female special ventral
glands—the mammary glands—for the nourishment of the young.
Diaphragm forming a complete septum.
A. ICHTHYOPSIDA,
I. Pisces or Fisu.
Fish are aquatic vertebrate animals which breathe entirely by
Fra. 198,—Tur Peren (Perea fieviatilis), a Teleostean.
p, Vaired pectoral fins; vr, paired pelvic fins; @ aud ad’, dorsal fins; cv, caudal fin;
a, anal fin; 0, operculum ; 7, lateral line. (Nicholson.)
means of gills (except in a few curious specially modified species,
such as the Climbing Perch, Anabas). The gills are covered by a
FISH, 353
bony plate, the operculum (fig. 198, 0). The limbs when present
are represented by fins ; and the heart, except in one group, the
Dipnoi, consists of two chambers only, a single auricle and a ven-
tricle. The blood runs back from the body into the auricle (a),
and from thence through the ventricle
it is sent to the gills (b) to be purified.
From the gills it runs on as arterial
blood to the various parts of the body.
The blood is only pumped to the gills ;
thus the heart is a purely respiratory
one. A skeleton is always present,
either bony or cartilaginous. Jn the
lowest fishes—Sharks, Rays, &c.—it
is cartilaginous; in the more highly
developed fish—Teleostei—it is bony.
The sexes are always distinct, ova or
spawn being deposited by the females.
The young fish or “fry” are like the
parent ; but a few, such as the Lam-
preys, have a kind of metamorphic
development. The embryonic fish has
no amnion, and the allantois, which is
represented by the urinary bladder, is
always rudimentary. Most fish are ,, seGh. metas dane eax
covered by scales, which are formed CULATION IN FisHus.
a, Auricle; v, ventricle; m,
bulbus arteriosus ; , branchial
artery; 0b, vessels in gills; c,
aorta. (Nicholson.)
by the dermal or under layer of the
skin. The vertebre are always bi-
concave or amphiccelous, the concay-
ities being filled in with notochordal matter. In the cartilag-
inous fishes, such as the sharks, we can see the vertebree being
drawn into the skull to take part in its formation. As, with
one or two exceptions, fishes are aquatic creatures, and as they
are of no importance agriculturally (except as manure!), we may
thus summarily dismiss them.
1 Fish are often used as manure in hop-gardens, &c., in littoral regions
when there has been a large glut on the market.
Zz
354 ICHTHYOPSIDA.
Il. Ampurpra (Frogs, Toads, and Newts).
Amphibia include the Frogs, Toads, Water-Newts, &c.
These must claim our attention for a while, as all three are of
much service to us as a means of keeping in check many noxious
insects, not to mention slugs, snails, and other so-called vermin.
Amphibia resemble fishes in that they always have gills during
some part of their life; but, as a rule, these gills are not
persistent. On the other hand, Amphibia have generally lungs
in the adult form, and their limbs are never in the form of fins
as in the Pisces; even the median fin-like structure seen in
Salamanders and Newts (fig. 201) is not a true fin, for there are
no fin-rays such as we find in fish. The limbs, in fact, approxi-
mate in structure to those of the higher vertebrates, whilst the
skull always articulates by two occipital condyles with the spinal
column. The heart also differs from the heart of fish, for it
consists of three chambers— namely, two auricles and one
ventricle.! On dissecting a frog, which can be taken as the best
type, one will at once observe that the rectum, ureters, and the
ducts of the reproductive organs open into one common chamber,
the so-called cloaca.
Lastly, the Amphibia develop by a metamorphosis, some-
times very marked, at others obscure, but always present.
The larve are provided with gills, which usually disappear,
giving place to lungs, in the adults. Some Amphibia do retain
the gills persistently, such as the remarkable Axolotl (Siredon
pisciforme) of the Mexican lakes, which may attain the adult
stage whilst still retaining its gills. In captivity, as the author
has found in two cases, the Axolotl may lose its branchie and
become terrestrial under forced circumstances ; whilst other ova
of a similar brood kept at the Brighton Aquarium remained with
persistent gills.
The two chief groups of Amphibia are the Urodela and Anoura.
1The Dipnoid fish have a small second auricle. These so-called “ Mud-
fish” of Africa and 8. America are transitional between Fish and Amphibia.
AMPHIBIA. 355
The Urodela are the Tailed Amphibia, the larval tail being
retained throughout life: they have a smooth naked skin
and a compressed or cylindrical tail, and their vertebre are
both amphiccelous and opisthocwlous. To this division belong
the Tritons or Water Salamanders or Newts, and the true
Land Salamanders, The Anoura are the Frogs and Toads,
or the Tailless Amphibia, which are destitute of gills in the
adult state, and always devoid of a tail; both structures, how-
ever, are present in the larva. Anoura have always two pairs
of limbs, proceelous dorsal vertebra with large transverse pro-
cesses, serving the functions of ribs, which are absent. The
radius and ulna and the tibia and fibula are anchylosed together.
The posterior limbs, which are the larger, have usually the feet
webbed and adapted for swimming. The heart of the Amphib-
ian is a stage higher than that of fishes. Although it is com-
posed of three chambers, two auricles and one ventricle, in the
adult, the larval heart is the same as in fishes. The blood in the
adult is received from the lungs in the left auricle and from the
body in the right auricle, both emptying into the single ven-
tricle, which therefore contains mixed arterial and venous blood,
and this mixed blood is pumped to both the lungs and system.
The larva has only a two-chambered heart, the blood being
driven to the gills, through them, and on to the system ; but as
the gills begin to give place to lungs, little branches pass off
from the branchial vessels, which unite as the lungs increase
and carry part of the blood to the pulmonary sacs. Event-
ually the gill supply may cease, the entire blood going to the
lungs, when we get a third chamber formed in the heart in the
form of another auricle. Other Amphibia have both branchial
and pulmonary supplies permanent. The blood-supply then
being mixed, oxygenation is comparatively slow, and thus little
heat is generated, the Amphibia, like fishes, being cold-blooded
vertebrates.
The development of an amphibian is best seen in the frog.
The spawn, which is deposited in masses in the water, is sur-
856 ICHTHYOPSIDA
rounded by gelatinous discs, the black ovum (fig. 200, 1) being
seen as a small round body in the middle. The young (3) when
hatched and free from the gelatinous envelope attach themselves
by two suckers to the jelly of the spawn. The young Tadpoles
are very like “tailed amphibia,” and in their earliest stage have
Fra. 200,—DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG.
Land 2, Ova; 3-5, tadpoles; 6, period when first pair of legs form (posterior pair) ;
7. hoth pairs of legs present (Urodela stage); 8, tail disappearing; 9, adult frog.
(Nicholson.)
both internal and external gills (4). The tail is long, thin, and
fish-like, but there are no fin-rays. The external gills soon dis-
appear. The upper and lower jaws become hardened, and form
a kind of beak. By degrees small bud-like outgrowths appear
between the body and tail, which grow out into the hind-limbs
(6), which are always the first to appear in the Frogs and Toads.
AMPHIBIA. 357
The front limbs are formed later as buds in the branchial
cavities. The next stage of the tadpole is just like a tailed
amphibian: the tadpole tail still exists with the four limbs, as
we see in the newt (7). During this metamorphosis more and
more of the blood-supply is passed to the pulmonary saes as the
larva develops, and when the adult stage is reached, and the
creature becomes purely aérial and terrestrial, all sign of the
branchial circulation has become obliterated by a gradual process
of elimination. The tail eventually disappears (8, 9).
The adult Anoura are all fond of damp situations. Their
skin is moist. The adults always feed upon insects, slugs,
worms, &c. Anowra or Tailless Amphibia have a soft skin,
with rarely any trace of exoskeleton. ‘The two chief groups
are the Bufonidw or Toads and the Ranide or Frogs. The
Toads have no teeth in their jaws, and always a tongue.
The hind-limbs are not so very abnormally developed, the toes
being only imperfectly webbed; the toes of the forefeet are
always free, and the skin is rough and granulated. The two
English species are the Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) and the
Natterjack (B. calamita). The latter, which is a large toad, is
somewhat local. Bufo vulgaris is a most beneficial animal:
when kept in greenhouses it does an enormous amount of good,
clearing off slugs, snails, and other vermin of a night.
The Toad catches its prey only when it is moving. The
tongue is then thrown forward, and picks up the fly on its tip
and returns it to the throat. Toads live to a great age. The de-
velopment is much like that of the Frog, but the eges are laid
in two long strings, the ova being surrounded by a gelatinous
substance and placed alternately. Sometimes these strings of
eggs reach four feet in length. They hatch out later than
Frogs, the larvee not maturing until August or September.
The Natterjack can be told by having a pale line down the
back. Unlike the Common Toad, it is quite active and often go
in pairs. It is found in dry places, only going to the water to
breed. In places where it occurs it is often common. At one
358 ICHTHYOPSIDA.
time the Natterjack was common in many localities around
London. It can at once be told by its olive tint, darkened
on the flanks with a marked pale yellow stripe running down
the back, the under parts yellow, with black spots, and there
are dark bands on the legs. The warts on the dorsum are
reddish-brown.
In the Ranide or Frogs the upper jaw carries teeth. The
hind-legs are enormously developed and adapted for leaping, the
toes always webbed ; the toes of the fore-limbs are free. The
Common Frog (ana temporariu), which is our common species,
is found over nearly the whole of Europe, North Asia, North
Africa, and North America. The adults hibernate in all manner
Fic. 201.—Mate Crestep Newt (Triton eristatus), (Nicholson.)
of moist situations—especially in mud, in dykes, and pools—
until the spring, when they come forth and soon commence to
breed and to deposit the gelatinous spawn in large masses in the
water. The development and growth of the tadpole have been
previously described.
The Frog often wanders far from water, but they must have
a certain amount of damp to flourish. They are most beneficial
in gardens, feeding off all kinds of vermin, and should be
encouraged with the Toad.
Amongst the Urorela we have in Britain two well-known
species, the Great Crested Newt (Vrifon cristatus) and the
Common Newt or “Eft” (Lissotiilon teniutus). The Water-
Salamanders or Tritons have a compressed fish-like tail, and
AMPHIBIA. 359
breathe only by lungs. The tongue is small and free, and the
mouth is provided with two rows of teeth. There will be
observed, if we examine a crested newt, to be four toes only to
each foot in front and five on each foot behind. All water-
newts produce oviparously, and the males can be distinguished
by having a large dorsal crest on the back and tail. This crest
appears during the breeding season, and partly goes as soon as it
is over. Newts develop very similarly to frogs; but they retain
their larval tail, and the fore-limbs always appear before the
hind-limbs. The eggs are laid singly on water-plants, often
surrounded by the leaf. Like toads and frogs they live upon
many noxious creatures.
Two other species of Newts are recorded as British—namely,
the Palmate Newt! (Lophinus pulmatus, Dum. and Bibr.), and
Gray’s Banded Newt (Ommatotriton vittutus, Gray), according
to Cooke. The former is recorded from Edinburgh and the
Pentland Hills. The latter was found near London.
1‘ Zoologist,’ May 3, 1848. J. Wooley.
2 “Our Reptiles and Batrachians.’ M. C. Cooke. P. 168. 1903.
360
CHAPTER NIV.
B. SAUROPSIDA.
1. Reprrizs.
THe Sauropsida are the Reptiles and Birds,—the Reptilia and
Aves. Although there seems much difference between a snake
and a fowl, yet we can even in such extremes find some points
of resemblance. Much greater is this affinity to be seen when
we examine extinct forms of life ; for amongst these ancient
remains of the past life of the globe are found many transi-
tional forms between the snake and the bird. These two groups
are united together because the resemblances between them are
greater and more fundamental than those between either of
these groups and the Mammals on the one hand and the
Amphibia on the other. Sauropsida, like Mammals, never
breathe by means of gills at any period of their life. They
always have, as we shall see in the Embryology of the Fowl, a
distinct amnion and allantois in the embryo—two foetal mem-
branes also found in the Mammalia; the red blood-corpuscles
are also always nucleated. In the skeleton we see many
characters common to both Birds and Reptiles, especially the
presence of the guadrte hone and the single occipital condyle in
the skull.
Reprinta (Srahes, Lizards, Se.)
The Snakes are of little or no importance to us, as they are not
in any way directly connected with agriculture in this country,
and are nowhere in such abundance as to be a serious nuisance
REPTILIA. 361
to man, Nevertheless, as one British species, the Adder (Vipera
verus), is poisonous, it is as well that we should refer very briefly
to them. Lizards, however, are decidedly beneficial, for they feed
upon noxious insects, &c. Reptiles are all provided with a bony
skeleton, and may or may not possess legs. The heart is com-
posed of. four chambers; but the tivo
ventricles are not completely separate,
except in the Crocodiles. The heart
(fig. 202) functionally only consists of
three chambers, although we have an
advance towards the typical completely
four-chambered organ. The circulation
in Reptiles is as follows: the impure
blood is returned from the body by the
large veins () and emptied into the right
auricle (a); from the auricle it passes
on to the ventricle (v). The pure arte-
rial blood from the lungs enters into
the left auricle (a’) and then into the
ventricle. Thus the ventricle with its
incomplete septum contains mixed blood
much as in the frog, this mixed blocd
being sent by the ventricle to the lungs
by the pulmonary artery (y) and to the
body by the aorta (0). We thus get py. 992,—pracram or tHe
a stage higher than in the Amphibia. C'cvzatiow IN Repmices.
Reptiles, then, like Amphibia, are cold- guide ree alee
blooded animals of sluggish habits. They Heath (Michelson) SUTETSS
reproduce like Birds, oviparonsly, the
eggs being often laid in strings; the shells may be hard, but
are sometimes soft. All the Crocodilia and most Tortoises
lay eges with a shell just as thick and hard as that of birds.
Reptile eggs are incubated by the heat of the sun or hy the
warmth generated by decaying vegetation in which they are
often laid. A few cases of an ovoviviparous nature occur,—for
362 SAUROPSIDA.
instance, the Common English Adder, which may retain the ova
in the uterus until they are incubated.
Many Reptilia are provided with numerous teeth, some being
connected with poisonous glands
at their base (fig. 204, bp). The
poison-fangs have a tube run-
ning up them, through which
the poison is ejected when the
snake bites. Teeth of reptiles,
except in the Crocodiles (fig.
203, 1 and ii), are not lodged
in sockets, as we see is the case
Fic, 203. —PLEURODONT AND ACRODONY — ; F ali 1
DEES, in the Mammalia, but are im-
i, Pleurodont dentition (in crocodiles, Planted in one long groove near
&c.); ji, acrodont dentition (note teeth =
anchylosed to the bone). (Brit. Mus. the edge of the Jaw.
Guide. gee
: There are four existing
groups of Neptiles—uamely, the Chelonia, or Tortoises and
Turtles ; the Laverfitia, or Lizards; the Ophidia, or Snakes ;
Fie. 204.—1TE vp or REpTiLEs.
A, Tfead of adder; B, of grass-snake ; (, side view of .L: Py poison fangs: 7. tongne.
J}, poison-bag anc fang. :
and the Crocoditia, or Crocodiles and Alligators. Numerous
extinct forms are found in the Mesozoic or Secondary rocks,
a period of the earth which was characterised by the abundant
and extravagant forms of reptilian life. The British Reptilia are
REPTILIA. 363
not numerous: they include three species of snakes, namely,
the Adder (Vipera berus), the Grass-snake (Zropidonotus nufrix),
and the Smooth Snake (Coronella levis)—and some Lizards
(Lacertilia), namely, the Blind-worm (Angus fragilis), the
Common Lizard (Lacerta vivipara), the Sand Lizard (L. uyilis),
and the Green Lizard (L. viridis).
The Adder (Vipera berus) can be easily told from the Grass-
snake. It has a broad head, and varies in colour from greenish-
grey to deep chestnut-brown, with a dark band of lozenge-shaped
patches down the dorsal side of the body. Sometimes entire
black specimens may be found on the North Downs. In length
the adder may attain as much as thirty-two inches. The two
poison-fangs are well developed (fig. 204, c): through them, by
a small canal in each, the poison is poured into the wound they
cause, which never seems to bleed. Very few instances of the
adder bite have proved fatal, nevertheless the poison causes
much pain and violent inflammation and swelling in the
poisoned region, which may last for some considerable time.
Adders are particularly fond of hillsides and heathy tracts,
especially where the sun strikes with much warmth. They
look after their young for a little while. Often the young are
produced alive. The food of adders consists chiefly of frogs
and mice. Strong ammonia rubbed into the wound is one of
the best remedies for the bite.
The Grass or Ringed Snake (Zropilonotus natrix) (fig. 204, B)
is longer than the adder: they have been seen over three feet
in length. It is bluish in colour, with black and creamy-white
marks on the ventral surface, and with a yellow and black
band across the neck. The eggs are laid in strings in sandy and
dry places, and incubate by the heat of the sun; they are also
often buried in leaves, which hastens their development.
The Brown or Smooth Snake (Coronella lvix) is from about
one and a half to two feet long, brown in colour, with dark-
brown patches on the back and with a dark-brown head. They
are not very common, and feed chiefly on Lacertilia.
The Blind-worm or Slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) (tig. 205),
364 SAUROPSIDA.
although snake-like, is a true lizard (Lacertdlia), but devoid of
limbs. Why it is called the Blind-worm is unaccountable, for
it has well-developed eyes. The habits of this snake-like Lizard
are very interesting. They appear from their winter quarters
long before the Snakes and Amphibia. In the winter they bury
themselves in galleries in the earth beneath heaps of leaves and
Fic. 205.—Biixnp-worm (Anguis fragilis}—atter Bell. (Nicholson.)
in banks. The chief food consists of slugs and worms, which
they take in a very leisurely manner. The young are very
pretty — shining creamy yellow above, black below ; a black
line also running down the back which expands over the head.
They vary from nine to twelve or more at a birth. When
frightened they can readily cast off their tail, which seems to
retain vitality some time after severance from the body. The
Sand Lizard’s tail breaks off similarly.
The true Lizards call for no special comment. Teaders are
referred to ‘Our Reptiles and Batrachians,’ by M. C. Cooke.
1893,
365
CHAPTER XV.
B. SAUROPSIDA— Continued.
II.—Aves (Brrps).
Brrps are oviparous warm-blooded vertebrates, with a complete
double circulation, and are covered with feathers. Their body
temperature is about 104° F. The feathers are analogous to
the hairs in mammals: they are dermal outgrowths, formed in
sacs from small papilla of dermal origin. A typical feather
(fig. 206) consists of the following parts: (1) The “calamus”
or “quill” (C'), by which it is inserted in the dermal papilla ;
part of the quill is hollow, the basal part being spongy in-
ternally. (2) The “rachis” (2), which forms the shaft, and
which is simply the continuation of the quill: on one side the
shaft is grooved, internally it is filled with a soft pithy sub-
stance. On each side of the shaft is a so-called “web,” the
two webs forming (3) the “vexillum” or “vane” (V). The
vexillum is built up of a number of “barbs” (B), the barbs being
united by small hook-like “barbules,” which attach the barbs
together towards the distal part of the feather, but not towards
their base. At the junction of the rachis and quill is found
a small accessory feather, the “aftershaft” or “hyporachis” ;
this may be large or simply reduced to a tuft of ‘“ down,” in
which the barbs are disconnected. The feathers vary in
structure in different parts of the body. Those of the tail
and wings are called “quill-feathers.” The longest quill-
366 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).
feathers are in the wing attached to the bones of the hand .
these are known as “primary feathers” (fig. 207, A 1-10).
Another series arise from the ulna, the seronJary feathers (B).
Fic, 206.—FraTHER OF Birp,
C, calamus; R, rachis; F, vexillum; B, barbs.
There is a small thumb in the bones of the wing; this is
also provided with feathers, and is called the “bastard wing”
(BW). The bases of these large wing-feathers are covered by
smaller feathers, the ‘ wing-coverts.” The tail-feathers vary in
THE SKELETON ANI) ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 367
number: they are usually from ten to twelve, but as many as
twenty-four are found in some birds. The caudal feathers are
called “ rectrices,” and have no aftershaft; their bases are
covered by “ tail-coverts.”
of “down”; these plumule have no hooks to the barbules,
The body feathers cover the mass
Fic. 207.— Wine or Brrp.
H, humerus; 2, U, radius and ulna; M.C, metacarpals; T, thumb; 7.2, two-jointed
finger; B.1, bastard wing; 41-10, primary feathers; B, secondaries.
so the barbs are quite free. Another form is found in the
so-called “ filoplumes,” which consist of simply a slender shaft
with a few barbs at the tip. If we move the feathers of a fowl
on one side, we shall observe that they are attached to the skin
in definite areas only; the bare intervening spaces are called
“apteria,” the feather-tracts “ pteryle.”
Tue SKELETON AND ANaTomy oF Birps.
The skelcton of the bird (fig. 208) is remarkable for two
things—extreme compactness and lightness. The former is
due to the excess of phosphate of lime in the bones, the latter
to the presence of hollow spaces in many of the bones. These
Fic. 208.—SKELETON oF FowL.
A-B, cervical vertebre ; 1, spinous process of third
vertebra ; 2, inferior ridge on same ; 3, styloid process ;
4, vertebral foramen ; B-C, dorsal vertebre ; 6, spinous
process of first; 7, crest formed by union of other
spinous processes; D-F, coccygeal vertebre; F, G,
head ; 8, interorbital septum ; 9, interorbital foramen ;
10, premaxillary bone; 10’, anterior nares; 11, man-
dible ; 12, quadrate ; 13, maxilla; 14, keel of sternum
(11); 15, episternum ; 16, posterior Jateral process ; 17,
oblique lateral process ; 18, membrane closing internal
notch; 19, membrane of external notch; J, ribs; 20,
posterior process; J, ribs; K, scapula; L, coracoid ;
MM, furcula ; m, m, its branches ; N, humerus; 0, ulna ;
o, radius; P, P’, carpus; Q, Q’, metacarpus; L, first
phalanx of wing digits ; 7, second ditto; Rf’, thumb; s,
ilium ; 4’, ischium ; S”’, pubes ; 21, sciatic foramen ; 22,
foramen obturatum; 7’, femur; [, patella; V, tibia ;
X, fibula; ¥, metatarsus ; y, intertarsus or heel-joint ;
23, hypotarsus; 24, process supporting the spur; z,
digits | (Chauveau,)
THE SKELETON AND ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 369
cavities are more or less connected with the air, and the bones
are spoken of as ‘* pneumatic ” bones.
The vertebra of the neck (fig. 208, A—B) allow the bird con-
siderable powers of movement in that region; they vary from
eight to as many as twenty-three. The dorsal vary from six to
ten (BC), the first four being anchylosed together (7), so as to
give support to the powerful forelimbs or wings. We cannot
Fic. 209.--SKuL'. or Fow..
PM, Premaxillary; M, maxilla; P, palatine; N, nasal; L, lachrymal; JOS, inter-
orbital septuin; OF, interorbital foramen; ZP, zygomatic process of frontal; 7P2,
same of squamosal; OC, occipital condyle; TC, tympanic recess; 0, foramen ovale ;
ATC, anterior tympanic recess; FN, forainen of fifth nerve; Q, quadrate; QJ, quadrato
jugal; Pt, pterygoid; SA, supra-angular ; D, dentary; M/F, mandibular foramen.
distinguish any lumbars. The bones between the dorsal and the
caudal are all united, forming the sacrum much as in mammals ;
but to this sacrum the ilia (|S) are joined completely : thus the
spine in this region and the pelvis (fig. 212) are incapable of
movement. The tail vertebrae (J-—£) also vary in number,
usually eight to ten, and are movable. The last joint of the
tail is long and slender, and forms the curious “ ploughshare ”
2A
370 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).
bone, which is made up of about half-a-dozen caudal vertebre
fused into one piece, and constituting the support for the
tail-quills and oil-glands. These latter contain the fluid that
the birds preen their feathers with.
The skull (fig. 209) articulates with the vertebral column by a
single condyle only, The beak (fig. 208, 10 and 11), so charac-
teristic of the Birds, consists of an inferior and superior mandible,
and never in existing species carries teeth. The upper bill (10)
Fia. 210.—Pectrorat ARcH OF Fowl.
g.c, Glenoid cavity; Sc, scapula; Co, coracoid; Hp.C, hypocleidium; f, furcula
(clavicles).
consists of greatly elongated intermaxillary bones and small
superior maxillary bones on each side. The lower jaw (11)
articulates with the skull by the quadrate bone (12), and not
direct as in mammals. The thorax is surrounded laterally by
the ribs (I and J), which vary from six to ten pairs: each rib
carries a peculiar process called (20) the ‘“uncinate” process,
THE SKELETON AND ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 371
except the first and last pair. There is a large breast-bone or
sternum (14). In flying birds this sternum has a deep sternal
ridge or keel, to which are attached the powerful muscles which
move the wings. The pectoral arch (fig. 210) consists of a
pair of scapulee (Sv), clavicles (7), and coracoid bones (Co). The
Fic, 211.—STernum or Fowt (front view),
a, Keel; 6, manubrium; c, oblique lateral process; d, anterior lateral process; e,
posterior lateral process ; /, internal notch ; g, external notch.
scapula is an elongated simple bone; the coracoids are distinct
and very strong, and articulate with the upper angle of the
sternum ; the clavicles form the V-shaped bone popularly called
the “ merry-thought.”
372 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).
The bones of the fore-limb or wing of the bird are adapted to
its peculiar atrial life, and form one of the chief characteristics
of the bird’s skeleton. This anterior limb consists of a single
short and strong humerus (fig. 208, .V), an ulna and a radius (O
and 0) (the former being much the larger bone), two carpal
bones (P and P’), the metacarpus (Q and Q’), which consists of
three bones united together, but free in the middle; at the
proximal end of the larger metacarpal is attached the “ thumb-
bone” (’), which carries the hastard wing. The hind-limb is
much as in all animals; but the chief bone is the tibia (V),
the fibula (X) being very rudimentary. The following joint,
the metatarsus (VY), is characteristic of birds. Four digits are
Fic 212.—PE.Lvis oF Fowt (lateral view).
Il, Nlium; Js, ischium; P, pubes; A, acetabulum,
normally present (x), three pointing forwards and one behind.
There is great variation in the disposition of birds’ digits.
The Digestive System.—As already said, the bill of birds
never contains teeth: it is variable in appearance, and is used
for eating the prey and food generally, for prehension, and in
some as an organ of touch. The base of the upper bill is
often surrounded by a circle of skin devoid of feathers, the
“cere.” The tongue is mostly hard and horny, and is supported
by the hyoid bone. The digestive tract consists of a long
cullet or oesophagus (fig. 213, Oe), which has a sac-like dilata-
tion in front of the “ merry-thought,” the crop (C). This crop
is seen in carnivorous and graminivorous birds. Here the food
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 373
is retained prior to the gastric digestion. The cesophagus is
followed by the proventriculus, which is the true stomach in
which gastric digestion takes place. This first stomach cor-
responds with the cardiac end of the mammal’s stomach. The
pyloric end is represented by the “gizzard” ((@), a large ex-
tremely muscular cavity situated
below the liver. There are two
distinct types of this grinding
stomach: in raptorial birds it
consists of a simple membran-
ous sac, but in graminivorous
birds, which eat hard and not
easily digested food, the gizzard
consists of a thick muscular
cavity which is lined by a hard
epithelium. By the muscular
action of the walls of the gizzard
the food is ground up against
the horny walls. In all birds
we find in this second stomach
small stones, cinders, and grit.
These aid in the trituration of
the food. They are essential to
the health of the bird, hence
poultry are given “ grit” to eat.
Fig. 213.— ALIMENTARY CANAL OF pane -
Fowt. This grit should be natural, not
Oe, Cisuphagus; C, crop; S, proven- sharp needle-like pieces of flint,
triculus; G, gizzard ; D, duodenum ; Si,
small intestine; Cae, ceca; J, junction such as some poultry merchants
of ceca; R, rectum; CL, cloaca; A, z
anus; ZL, liver; Gb, gall bladder; 0, advertise, which only damage
right lobe of liver; P, pancreas. _
: ae the walls of the gizzard and do
not grind the food. Many inflammatory diseases of the gizzard
I have traced to this reprehensible practice. The intestine con-
sists of two parts, the small and large intestine, and ends in the
cavity called the cloaca (CL). The large intestine commences
where the two long blind tubes originate, the ‘cecal tubes”
374 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).
(Cae), which are generally present in birds. The cloaca is the
cavity which receives the rectum, ureters, and sexual ducts,
there being no distinct sexual openings in the class Aves.
Salivary glands open into the mouth, the liver (Z), and pancreas
(P) into the small intestine near the gizzard.
Respiratory organs in birds not only consist of lungs, but also
of ‘‘air-sacs” and spaces in the bones. The lungs differ from
those of mammals by not being freely suspended in the pleural
cavity: they are two in number, spongy, and bright red in
colour. The air-sacs are prolongations of the lining membrane
of the bronchi, which spring from the bronchial tubes just be-
fore they enter the lung. ‘These air-receptacles penetrate the
thorax and abdominal cavity. They become filled with air prior
to the bird taking flight, and thus reduce its specific gravity,
at the same time bringing air in direct contact with the blood
in other parts of the body besides the lungs. The air-sacs are
continued in adult birds into the bones. In young birds the
pneumatic bones do not exist to the same extent.
The herrt in birds consists of four chambers, two auricles
and two ventricles. The heart essentially agrees with that of
mammals, as does the general circulation of the blood, so no
further reference need be made to this subject.
There is no urinary bladder in birds: the kidneys are two in
number and elongated; their ducts open into the cloaca. In
regard to the reproductive organs, the chief characteristic in
birds is that there is only one functional ovary (fig. 214) and
Fallopian tube in the female; this single ovary is that of the
left side. I have sometimes in the fowl found the right ovary
more or less developed. The oviduct is a long tortuous tube in
which the ovum receives first the “ white ” or albuminous cover-
ing of the yolk. Towards the end of the egg-tube dilatations
appear: in these the eggs receive the shell, which consists of
carbonate of lime. A deficiency of this in the bird's system
results in so-called ‘soft eggs.” The ege is then passed into
the cloaca, and so out of the vent. The eggs of birds are hatched
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 375
by incubation. The young are provided with a curious cal-
careous knob on the upper mandible, by means of which they
erack a hole in the egg-shell when ready to escape. Some can
feed as soon as they have escaped from the ege-shell—precocious
young ; others have to be fed by the parents—nestlings.
Birds are found in all climates, and may be residents,
migrants, or gipsy-migrants.
In cold and temperate climates many birds do not remain all
Fic. 214.—Ovary or Brrp.
a, c, ¢, Ova in various stages of development; b, streak without vessels indicating
the point where the vesicle is about to rupture to allow ova to escape; d, ruptured
vesicle; e, very small ovum showing cicatricula. (Chauveau.)
the year; these are called “migrants.” Migrants pass at the
approach of winter to a warmer climate, and return again to
nest in the spring. Prior to migrating the birds usually collect
in flocks. These migrations generally take place about the same
date every year. Most migrants are insectivorous, and even if
the temperature were warm enough for them, they could not
subsist upon our scanty winter fauna.
There are other birds which move from place to place in an
376 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).
erratic manner, the so-called “ gipsy-migrants,” which leave one
district for another owing to scarcity of food, but have no fixed
place of migration. This form of movement we see in Tits
(Pariidliv) and Woodpeckers (Pirie),
Those birds, such as the blackbird and thrush, which are
with us throughout winter and summer, are called ‘ residents.”
Fossil birds present many peculiarities. Some (Odontornithes)
have tecth; others of older date have distinct lizard -like
characters, such as the feather-tailed Archeopteryz.
377
CHAPTER XVI.
BRITISH BIRDS.
Most birds are of some economic importance to the farmer and
gardener. Many are extremely useful in keeping down an
excess of insect life and other vermin more or less destructive to
our crops. There are also some birds which are obnoxious by
destroying the buds of fruit-trees, by eating grain, and by their
depredations amongst poultry and game-birds.. The most im-
portant species only will be mentioned here, space forbidding
a more detailed description.
The old classification of Birds into Natatores, Grallatores,
Rasores, Scansores, Passeres, and Raptores is not followed here,
as by it birds of a totally different structure are grouped
together: for instance, the Ducks and Geese, formerly united
with the Gulls, are quite distinct in structure, and cannot be
reasonably grouped with them. There is no doubt but that the
so-called Passerine birds are the most highly developed, while
Grebes and Divers are some of the lowest. We therefore com-
mence with the latter, as we are here tracing life from the most
simple forms, the Protozoa, to the most highly developed
animals, the Mammalia. The groups are taken in the order
given by Dr Hans Gadow.!
1 A Classification of Vertebrata, Recent and Extinct. Gadow. 1898.
378 BRITISH BIRDS.
1. Colymbiformes.
GREBES AND Divers.
The Grebes and Divers call for little comment here: they are
included in the two families Poddéetpedidu: and Colymbide
respectively. Of these we need only deal with the first
mentioned.
The Grebes (Podictpedide) are characterised by their short
wings, with the first three primary feathers nearly equal and the
longest in the wing, by the absence of any tail, by the elongated
conical form of the bill, and by the structure of the foot, which
is known as a “split-swimming foot” (fig. 215). This form
Fic. 215.—Sriit-Swimaine Foor or GRreBe (Podiceys fluviatilis).
of foot as seen in the Grebes has three toes in front and one
behind, the three front toes much flattened, united tovether at
the base, and edged with lobate webbing ; the hind toe is also
flattened, while the claws are large and flat. The best-known
British specics is—
The Dabehich or Little Grebe (Podiceps ghiviatilis).—The
little grebe is widely distributed over England, and may be scen
CICONIIFORMES, 379
all the year round along streams and rivers, upon lakes and
pools, especially revelling in those of a reedy nature. In
colour the dabchick in summer is dark-brown above and greyish-
white below ; cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck tawny ; bill
dusky-brown, greenish-yellow at the gape; legs and toes dull
greenish-brown. In winter the plumage is paler, and the chin
is white instead of black. In length the little grebe varies from
nine to ten inches. They form their nest as a floating structure
attached to water-plants ; it is usually composed of reeds, and
is often of a large size. Nesting is said to last from April
to August. Six white eggs are generally laid, and are covered
up by the bird when the nest is left. The young grebes are
quite light in colour, and, like all members of this family, are
carried about by the parents on their back, sitting close between
the bases of the wings. All the grebes seem to have a habit of
swallowing feathers and of ejecting them again with other un-
digested products, like the owls. The food consists of small
fish, insects, and various small aquatic animals, as well as
vegetation.
4, Ciconiiformes.
Herons, Birrerns, &c. (ARDEZ).
These birds have all long legs and long strong-pointed bills.
The three chief groups are the Herons (Ardea) and the Bitterns
(Botaurus), forming the family Ardeide, and the Storks
(Ciconia), forming the family Ciconiide.
The Herons (Ardea) have long straight bills in the form of a
long compressed cone. The legs long and slender, and naked
above the tarsal joint ; three toes in front, the outer one joined
to the middle one by a membrane, one toe directed backwards ;
claws long and very sharp. They have on their breasts and
flanks tufts of decomposed powdery feathers for powdering
the plumage. Our best-known example is the Common Heron
380 BRITISH BIRDS.
(Ardea cinerea), which nests in companics, “ heron-shaws,” upon
the tops of trees, on old walls amongst ivy, &c. They may
commence to build their large nests in January if the weather is
mild; but February is the general time for them to repair to
their nesting-places, which they frequent year after year. The
nests are large flat structures, formed of crossed sticks and lined
with grasses, &e. They lay three or four bluish-green egys
about two and a half inches long, which hatch out in twenty-
eight to twenty-nine days. Young herons are nestlings, and
remain with the old ones about the heron-shaws until August.
In Richmond Park they continue all the year round in their
nesting-weod. The adult male heron is three feet long, and
has a decp blue crest, the upper parts being slaty-grey, the
under parts dull greyish-white ; sides of the head and neck white,
bluish-brown streaks run down the neck. The female is not so
bright in colour as the male. The bill is yellow. Herons feed
on a vreat variety of food, and do some good by destroying
water-rats and field-mice ; they also cat quantities of insects,
molluscs, and frogs. Fish also are yreedily devoured by them,
especially coarse fish, more expecially eels. They fly with their
legs stretched straight out behind, and move their wings very
slowly, and so can easily be recognised when flying. Several
other species occur in England occasionally.
The Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) was a resident bird, but is
now very rare, chiefly occurring as a winter visitor. The Storks
(Ciconia) are most useful as locust destroyers,
5. Falconiformes.
Vurtures, Hawks, Eaces, Bezzarps, &e. (.\ccrprTREs)
There are two families of the ccipitres in Great Britain
—namely, the Valturtde and Buleontde. The first - named
the Vultures, are so ext '
5: 8 extremely rare (only ; .
y (only a few stragglers
having been recorded) that they call for no further comment
FALCONIFORMES. 381
The Faleonide include all our Diurnal Birds of Prey—the
Hawks, Falcons, Buzzards, Kites, Harriers, and Fagles. They
have a hooked beak furnished with a sharp projection on each
side ; the cere is always devoid of feathers, with the rounded
nostrils placed laterally upon it. The feet are raptorial—that
is, are armed with long, sharp, curved talons (fig. 216). Unlike
the Vultures, they have
fourteen cervical verte-
bre. All the Accipitres
have the oil-gland tuft-
ed. They eject the un-
digested parts of the
food from ten to twenty
hours after ingestion as
small rounded or elon-
gated pellets. Vision Fic. 216.—Foor or RApToriat BrrD.
is extremely keen, and
most are endowed with very strong powers of flight. The female
is always larger than the male. Many of these Raptores are de-
cidedly beneficial, whilst others are just as harmful; the indis-
criminate slaughter of them has been attended with disastrous
results, by the undue increase of many of their kinds of prey.
The most important economic species are the following :—
Belonging to the genus Falco, which have short bills curved
from the base, with a strong, projecting, cutting tooth on the
edge of each upper mandible; with long pointed wings, and
long, curved, sharp claws, are first—
The Kestrel or Wind-hover (Falco tinnunculus),—This is one
of our most abundant and useful birds of prey. It is generally
present over Great Britain, occurring in greater numbers in
winter than summer, due to immigrants from the Continent.
The adult male kestrel has a bluish-grey head, neck, and tail ;
the tail has a broad black band towards the end, and is tipped
with white; the back is pale reddish-brown towards the head,
greyish-blue near the tail, with small dark spots in the male; the
382 BRITISH BIRDS.
female has the hack rufous and with more black bars, and there
are also several narrower bands of dark-brown on the tail; the
legs and cere are yellow. The male varies from twelve to
fourteen inches, the female usually one or two inches longer.
The kestrel nests in a variety of places: very often the nests of
rooks and wood-pigeons are taken possession of by them ; others
lay their egys in hollow trees, in holes, in quarries, and cliffs.
From four to six egys are laid, very variable in appearance,
some being creamy-white with a few reddish-brown. spots,
others almost entirely reddish-brown. The kestrel is often
looked upon by gamekeepers and others as a destructive bird,
and ruthlessly destroyed. Instead of doing harm the wind-
hover does a great deal of good, for its food consists mainly
of field-mice, voles, and insects, especially grasshoppers, locusts.
and beetles. Very seldom are birds touched by F. tinnunculus.
It should therefore be strenuously protected.
The Merlin (Falun) and the Hobby (F. xubhuteo) are both
similarly destroyed, yet they do little harm, if any. The former
feeds on small birds, such as larks, pipits, and thrushes; the
latter is chiefly an insect-feeder, cockchafers and dragon-flies
being its choicest food, although, like the merlin, small birds,
especially swallows and martins, may be taken by it.
The Peregrine Muleon (FP. peregrinus).—This is one of the
finest falcons, and the one most sought after for ‘‘ hawking.”
The adult peregrine reaches nineteen inches in length in
the female, some three or four inches smaller in the male.
The head and checks ave black, the back being slaty-grey with
black bars; the under parts rufous, barred with black, and the
cere and legs yellow. This faleon lays its eggs in nests of
the crow, raven, Xv., on cliff edges and in hollows seraped out
in similar places, as well as on high buildings and monuments.
The eggs are laid in April, and vary from two to four in
number, nearly two inches long, and often brick-red in colour,
many being only freckled with the red. The young falcons
are always driven away hy the parent towards the end of
FALCONIFORMES. 383
the summer, one pair keeping off fresh arrivals for some
distance round their “eyrie.” Peregrines are undoubtedly
injurious to game. Their chief food consists of grouse, par-
tridges, ducks, pigeons, kestrels, and various other birds, and
perhaps where this falcon is abundant there is some excuse
for destroying it.
The Sparrow-hawk (Aceipiter nisus).—The sparrow-hawk
belongs to another genus, Acctpiter. This genus is characterised
by the bill bending from the base, and by the cutting margin
of the upper mandible having a distinct festoon; the wings
are short and the legs long and slender, the claws being curved
and very sharp, the middle toe long and slender. The sparrow-
hawk is a very common bird throughout Great Britain in wooded
districts. The male is slaty-blue above, buff below, barred with
tawny-brown ; the tail is brown with three to five dark bars ;
the cere is greenish-yellow, and the legs yellow. The female
has a greyish breast barred with brown, and is much larger than
the male, being some fifteen inches long. The sparrow-hawk
builds a nest of her own, although she sometimes uses as a
foundation the remains of a crow or rook nest. As many as six
eggs may be laid in May at intervals of two days. The sparrow-
hawk, unlike the kestrel, is a great nuisance, for its chief food
is game and young poultry, amongst which it is especially de-
structive when it has a brood of young. The meal is eaten on
the ground, the sparrow-hawk requiring both feet to secure its
prey. They hunt along hedgerows and wood-sides, and devour
also large numbers of small birds.
The White-tailed Eagle (Haliaéetus albicilla).—Of the two
eagles found in Great Britain the white-tailed or sea-eagle is
that most often met with. It is this species that is recorded
as the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysactus) every now and then in
the southern counties. The two species are readily distinguish-
able by the structure of the legs and feet. The sea-eagle has
the leg above the foot devoid of feathers, and the toes with a
single row of scales all the way down ; the golden eagle has the
384 BRITISH BIRDS.
leg feathered down to the toes, and the upper part of the toes
not scaly but reticulate, three scales only being present towards
the tip. A female white-tailed eagle will reach thirty-four to
thirty-six inches in length. They breed in Scotland in April,
but not now in England. It is this species only that we find
in the South. The food consists of carrion—birds, animals, and
Fic. 217.—Hrap or Wuire-TaiLep Eac ir (Haliactus albicilla).
fish, The golden cagle takes lambs, and even fawns, whilst
hares and zrouse form its staple food. They no doubt at one
time in the North were destructive to sheep; but they are now
far too scarce to do any harm, although the golden eagle is if
anything on the increase in Scotland, owing to its being now
more or less preserved by landowners.
The two British Buzzards (Buteo vulgaris and B. lagopus) are
great destroyers of mice and voles, frogs and snakes. They are
sometimes said to destroy partridges and grouse, but this is very
rarely the case.
Amongst the Harriers (Circus), the Marsh-harrier is said to
destroy poultry ; but if it does, it is only to a limited extent, for
their chief food consists of small mammals, small birds, frogs, and
snakes—in fact, the above form the usual diet of all the Cirei.
It will thus be seen that, with the exception of the sparrow-
hawk and peregrine, the Accipitres are not destructive to any
great extent ; but, on the other hand, many are decidedly bene-
ANSERIFORMES, 385
ficial as destroyers of the hosts of voles, mice, and other small
mammals, which often increase with alarming rapidity where
these rapacious birds have heen persistently persecuted. Poultry
suffer from the sparrow-hawk, and sometimes the merlin and
hobby ; but the few chicks the two latter take are soon made
up for by the good done by their destroying vermin.
6. Anseriformes.
Ducks, GuEse, anp Swans (ANSERES).
The Ducks, Geese, and Swans are included in the family
Anatide, which contains as
many as seventeen genera in
Great Britain. The Anseres
are characterised by the beak
(fig. 218) being more or less
flattened and covered with a
fine tactile skin ; the edges of
the bill are furnished with a
series of lamellae (Z), form-
ing a kind of fringe, which
acts as a strainer to the mud
in which they seek their food.
The bill is most sensitive, be-
ing abundantly supplied with
branches from the fifth cranial
nerve. The legs are provided
with a three-toed swimmer, the
fourth toe pointing backwards,
and is free (fig. 219, B). The
body of the Anseres is heavy,
and densely covered with down
beneath the contour feathers,
yet these birds are capable of great powers of flight. The males
2B
Fic. 218.—Sxvuit or Duck.
386 BRITISH BIRDS.
especially have a peculiar harsh note, which is perhaps accounted
for by the large and peculiar enlarged end of the trachea. They
are mostly found in shallow fresh waters, where they hunt about
in the mud, but are also partly marine in habits. The young are
always precocious. Wild Ducks, Geese, and Swans are strictly
monogamous. We need here only consider the true Ducks,
Geese, and Swans.
Amongst the Geese we find the following important genera :—
1. Anser, in which the bill is nearly as long as the head;
elevated and covered with skin at the base, the under mandible
always being smaller than the upper. The nostrils are placed
about the middle of the beak, and are pierced anteriorly, lateral
in position (fig. 219, a). Legs under the middle of the body.
2. Bernicla, in which the bill is much shorter than the head,
edges nearly parallel, the lamelle being unseen.
(GEESE (ANSER AND Bernice).
Geese are often plentiful in Great Britain. They appear in
flocks especially during the winter, when they have migrated
southwards, .\t least eight species have been recorded in our
islands. Of these the Grey Lag Goose (Anser ferus), the Bean
Goose (A, segetui), and the Brent Goose (Bernicla brenta) are
the most frequently seen inland, where they sometimes do slight
damage to various crops. The geese fly in two forms, either in
a V-shape or in a long wavy or slanting line. They especially
move on the wing at dusk and are gregarious. Most of the year
is spent in high latitudes.
The Grey Lag Goose (A. ferus).—aAt one time this goose was
very abundant in England, now it is much seareer; yet I have
seen flocks in the castern fen districts carrying destruction along
with them. The bill is flesh-colour, with a white nail; the
upper plumage ashy-brown, the feathers here and there bordered
with dusky-white ; the under-plumage is ashy-erey barred with
brown on the sides and beneath, pure white behind. The
ANSERIFORMES, 387
rump and wing-coverts are bluish-grey. The legs are dull pink.
Length often nearly three feet. These geese arrive in the
autumn, and at once repair to the fields and marshes, where,
moving about in flocks, they trample down the young corn,
attack the turnips, and often do endless damage. The “grey lag”
is found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, and to the east as
Fig. 219.—a, Heap or Grey Lac Goost; 8, Foor or Domestic Goose.
(Nicholson.)
far as Persia. There seems little doubt but that this species has
given rise to some of our domestic geese. It is uncommon
in the south of England and on the west coast. The “grey lag”
still breeds in Scotland, but in decreasing numbers. In the
latter place they incubate in April, when the ganders leave the
geese and collect together on pieces of water.
The Bean Goose (A. segetum) is another common species.
The wings when folded are much longer than the body; the
base of the orange bill is black and so is the nail; the upper
plumage is ashy-grey, the under parts dusky and pure white,
and the legs orange. This goose also appears in large flocks. It
388 BRITISH BIRDS,
may be seen from October to April, especially during the period
of its migration. Like the former, it feeds on grass, roots, corn,
and other vegetation, pulling up and trampling down far more
than is devoured. The bean goose is, as its name implies,
especially fond of pulse; newly sown beans in spring often
suffer from its ravages. It breeds nowhere in England. In
Cornwall it is often very abundant, and perhaps in most dis-
tricts except the east coast it is one of the commonest geese.
The Pink-footed Goose (A. brachyrhynchus) is also very
abundant in parts of England during the winter months,
especially in the eastern counties, but in the south we seldom
see it. It is smaller than the bean goose. Like the bean goose,
it has a black nail and very similar beak ; but the white mark-
ings of the tail are much broader, and the wing-shoulder is
bluish-grey in colour.
The White-fronted Goose (A. albifrons) is also abundant in
severe weather in the south and south-east of England. It is
smaller than the grey lag, but, like it, has a white nail at the
tip of the bill. The base of the mandibles and forehead are
white ; the back is brownish-grey; breast and belly white,
with broad bands of black. Jill, legs, and toes orange. The
female is paler, and has much less black on the breast. It is
found in Syria, Egypt, &c., and with the grey lag has shared in
the origin of our domestic varieties.
The Brent Goose (Bernicla brenta) is the most abundant of
all British geese. It is found about the south and south-east
coasts all the winter, but seldom comes inland, feeding on the
mud-flats upon crustacea, weeds, &c.
Domestic Geese and thetr Origin.—The various varieties of
Geese are no doubt descended from the widely distributed grey
lag, which once bred in abundance in our country. The grey
lag has been known to cross readily with tame geese in prefer-
ence to any others. The white varieties are easily accounted
for by variation under domestication, and judicious selection and
breeding. The grey lag is very widely distributed, being found
ANSERIFORMES. 389
in abundance in India. The white-fronted goose may also have
been in some way connected with our present stock ; but that
the grey lag is the chief originator of the Toulouse, Embden, and
other geese there is very little doubt. Geese under domestica-
tion commence to lay in February and March, and may deposit
as many as eighteen eggs, but that is above their average. The
young goslings appear about the twenty-ninth to thirtieth day
after incubation commences. Although wild geese sometimes
do harm in this country, they cannot be said to be of much im-
portance to the agriculturist ; but domestic geese are thus im-
portant, not only on account of their value, but for the good
they can do in exterminating grubs and vermin in the soil in
orchards, &c.
Swans (Cy@nus).
Swans have a long slender neck, with sixteen cervical
vertebre. The bill is higher than wide at the base and
depressed at the tip, and both mandibles are furnished with
serrated lamelle along their sides. The male and female
cygnus are alike in plumage. The commonest swan in England
is the Mute Swan (C. olui’), which is said to have been intro-
duced from Cyprus by Richard I. It is now found abund-
antly not only semi-domesticated but wild. The Swans pair
for life, and breed on islands, amongst reeds, &c., in May.
The nests are large structures built of reeds and rushes. Four
egos are laid by young females, who commence to breed in
their second year as a rule; older females may lay as many as
ten eggs, of a dull greenish-white colour, nearly four inches
long. The period of incubation is between thirty-six and forty
days, the young “cygnets” being looked after by the parents
for some time, generally until next breeding season. The
cygnets are sooty-grey, with a dull grey-coloured bill. The food
of Swans consists of water-plants, aquatic insects, and grain.
390 BRITISH BIRDS.
Ducss (Anatine).
The Ducks, of which there are a great number of genera, are
sometimes provided with a very narrow membranous lobe to the
fourth toe. The legs are short, and placed behind the middle
of the body; the bill is about the same width all along, or may
be broadened at the tip. The
nostrils are small and near the
base in the true Ducks (Anas),
and large in the Sheldrakes
(Ladorna). The period of in-
cubation in ducks is about a
month, always longer than in
the fowl.
Here are included the Com-
mon Sheldrake (Tadorna Bel-
loniz), one of our largest and
handsomest ducks; the Teal
(Anas rrecea); the Widgeon
(A. penelope); the Wild Duck
(A. bosehus), &e. The last
only needs claim our atten-
tion.
The Wild Duck (Anas
boschas). — The mallard or
wild duck is found generally
throughout Great Britain, and
Fis, iii breeds wherever there are
Bpt, Basi-pterygoid ; L, lamelle of bill. Swamps and water. The
term “mallard” is properly
applied to the “drake” only, “wild duck” to both sexes. The
winter plumage of the drake is, as every one must have noticed,
very different from the duck. This winter plumage is seen
from October to May; but in the summer, when both sexes
moult, the drake assumes the plumage of the duck. The young
GALLIFORMES. 391
ducklings also appear in the same garb in both sexes. One
notices a similar change in many domestic ducks, especially
Rouens and others that assimilate to the wild ducks or their
ancestral plumage. Anas busrhas is found all over the Northern
Hemisphere. In England it remains throughout the year; but
in winter its numbers increase, owing to large enforcements
coming from the North as the cold approaches. The nests are
built in all manner of places—on the ground, amongst reeds,
grass, and on the top of trees. The young can feed at once,
but are unable to fly until nine or ten weeks old. The ducklings
feed upon tadpoles, water-insects, and small grubs. The old
birds feed upon a variety of substances—water-plants, land-
plants, oats, and grain generally, fish and fish-spawn. It is
said that they sometimes do some harm in corn-fields, but the
damage must be comparatively slight. In very cold weather
they are found along the coast. The wild duck commences to
lay about March in the south of England, later as we proceed
northwards. The nest is on the ground generally, and is made
of grass lined with down ; in it are laid twelve greenish-grey
eggs, The mallard is monogamous in its wild state, but under
domestication our varieties which have sprung from it are
polygamous.
The origin of our domestic breeds is no doubt correctly traced
back to the Anas boschas. Darwin says that, ‘‘ with respect to
the origin of the domestic duck, I have considered the case well,
and am convinced that all breeds, including the black Labrador
and penguin ducks, are the descendants of the common wild
duck.” The Rouen duck very nearly resembles the wild species,
only it is larger in form, and I have found that with “ in-and-in
breeding” they soon become almost identical with the wild
species.
8. Galliformes.
The Rasorgs (Gattinz) or “Scrarcainc Brrps” are often
spoken of as gallinaceous birds. ‘They are of considerable in-
392 BRITISH BIRDS.
terest to us, as they contain most of our domesticated birds, such
as the Fowls, Turkeys, Guinea-fowls, and Pea-hens. Our game-
birds also belong to the Rasores—the Partridges, Pheasant,
Grouse, and Blackcock. These have all a convex-vaulted upper
beak, with the nostrils pierced in a membrane close to the base
of the beak, and covered by a cartilaginous scale. The legs
are strong in the most typical forms, and always with feathers
down to the tibio-metatarsal joint. The four toes, of which
three are directed forward and one behind, are all armed with
thick claws for scratching (fig.
221). The males differ, as a
rule, very much in plumage
from the females, a distinction
recognisable in most genera;
they also have a “spur” on
the metatarsus. The food of
the scratching birds consists
of grain, seeds, and insects, &e.
They are provided with a strong
muscular gizzard for grinding
the hard food. Most Rasores
build on the ground, the female
or hen bird generally only tak-
ing part in the incubation.
The young are precocious, and
can feed almost as soon as they
have escaped from the egg-shell. With the exception of the
partridges and grouse the flight is very weak,—even the two
mentioned cannot fly for any length of time. There is usually
a fleshy comb or crest of feathers, and often naked and bril-
liantly coloured patches, on the small head. We never find, as
in the Doves, a “cere” at the base of the bill.
The two families of the Calline are the Phasianid«w and
Tetraonide.
Fic. 221.—Foor or GALLINAcEoUS Birp.
GALLIFORMES. 393
The Tetraontde include the Grouse, Blackcock, and Caper-
eaillie (Yetrao), and the Partridges (Perdix and Caccabis).
The Phasianddce or Pheasant group include the Quail, Coturnéx
communis ; the Fowls, Gadlinw.; the Turkeys and Guinea-fowls,
Meleagrine ; and the Pea-fowls, Pavoninw.
The two partridges are the Common or Grey Partridge (Perdix
cinerea) and the Red-leqged or Frenchman (Caccabis rufa).
The grey partridge is widely distributed over Great Britain,
but is especially abundant in the eastern counties. It was said
to be decreasing there, owing to the increase of the red-legged
partridge ; but this can scarcely be the case, for the two flourish
side by side, and do not interfere with one another. In Ireland
it is also said to be decreasing. They are subject to much vari-
ation in colour, according to the soil. Breeding takes place in
February, and in April the hen lays from 12 to 30 or more eggs,
which hatch out in three weeks.
The French Partridge (C. rufa) was introduced into England
in 1770; from that date it has spread, and is now firmly planted
in the eastern counties and some parts of the Midlands, &c.
In the west it has taken no hold—in fact it thrives best on
poor, bare, and dry lands. The red legs, rudimentary spurs,
and running habits soon distinguish it from our native species.
The eggs, too, are very different: those of cinerea are olive-
brown, those of rufa are yellowish-white, blotched with rusty-
brown.
The two species live, feed, and breed apart, and have no
influence upon one another. The food of the grey partridge
consists of insects, snails, weed-seeds, and grain ; the red-legged
partridge feeds especially on dry fallows and waste - land.
Although some grain is destroyed by both, yet they may be
said to do more good than harm, for countless insects and
weed-seeds are eaten at the same time.
The Red Grouse (Zetrao scoticus) is indigenous only to the
British Jsles, It is generally distributed over the Scottish moors.
394 BRITISH BIRDS,
In England it is found from Yorkshire and Derbyshire down
the Pennine Range as far as the Trent; it is also found in
Staffordshire, Shropshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and on many
of the Welsh moors, especially in Merionethshire. It was in-
troduced on Dartmoor and the Surrey heaths, but soon died
out. They pair early in spring, making a rough nest near a
tuft of heather. Young and old feed on the tips of the ling
heather, and on bilberries, &c. This bird is much subject to
diseases of various kinds.
The Blackcock (7. tefri.c) is found on Exmoor and in South
Devon, Somerset, Dorset, Wilts, &c. Farther north and in
Scotland it is abundant. Blackcocks are polygamous, but
separate from the females, the “Grey-hens,” for a short time
in the autumn.
The Capereaillie (7. wrogallus) or Wood Grouse became ex-
tinct in England and Wales, and also in Scotland, towards the
end of last century. It has been reintroduced into Scotland,
and has spread from the pine to oak and other woods, being
especially abundant in Perthshire.
The Pheasant (P. colchicus) is a native of Asia, probably
having been imported by the Greeks into Europe from the
banks of the Colchian Phasis, the modern Rion, which enters
the Black Sea: certain authorities say it was introduced from
some of the Asiatic islands. It is also abundant in the Caucasus,
the Sea of Aral, and the Caspian Sea, and is said to occur in
its wild state in Central Europe. From what we can gather,
it was well known to the Athenians soon after 1200 n.c. From
Greece it was transported to Rome. It was not until after the
Crusades that it became familiar in England. But there is
evidence that the pheasant was naturalised in the south of
England before the Norman invasion. At the end of the last
century the Chinese Ringed-neck Pheasant (P. torquatus) was
introduced: this has bred with the original species to such an
extent that we seldom get a pure-bred P. colrhicus now, there
being nearly always a trace of the white ring. The crow of the
DOMESTIC GALLIN A. 395
male may be heard in March when they are fighting for the
hens. From 10 to 15 eggs are laid, generally in a slight nest on
the ground. When flying their pace is rapid for a gallinaceous
bird; but they seldom cover great distances. The average
weight of a cock is from 3 to 32 1b, and a hen from 2 to 24 Ib.
The pheasant as a game bird is most valuable, but to the farmer
it is very destructive at times. Nevertheless, it does much
good at others. The young feed on insects and small grain,
but especially upon ants and ant-cocoons ; but when adult they
devour quantities of grain, peas, beans, turnip, red clover, and
young wheat. They love, above all, buckwheat. Enormous
numbers of wireworm and other insects are destroyed by the
pheasant.
Domesticated Gallinw.
Amongst domestic Galline we must mention the fowl, of
which we have now so many varieties, the Turkeys, the Guinea-
fowl, and the Peacock. The first two of these domestic birds
have been so altered under domestication that at least in one,
the fowl, the origin is lost in obscurity, and even in the Turkey
and Guinea-fowl some diversity of opinion exists as to the
parent stock. Much light has been thrown upon this subject
by Darwin in his renowned work on ‘The Variation of Animals
and Plants under Domestication.’
The Fowls belong to the genus Gallus, the Turkeys to the
genus Meleagris, the Guinea-fowls to the genus Numida, and
the Peacock to the genus Pavo.
The probable oriyin of the Domestic Fowls.— Where the
original stock came from we cannot say with any degree of
certainty. Remains of domestic fowls are found in the early
“cave-fauna” of France, pointing, it would seem, to a European
origin ; but we find no traces in Europe of any wild Galli. The
most eminent authorities have come to the conclusion that all
our domestic varieties are descended from one species, the
Jungle Fowl (Gallus bankiva or G. feriugineus), sometimes
396 BRITISH BIRDS.
called the Red Jungle Fowl, which is a native of continental
India. When such a mastermind as Darwin’s comes to this
conclusion, the evidence must be satisfactory."
There are four known wild Galli—viz., the Jungle Fowl
of continental India (G. bankiva), the Jungle Fowl of South
India (G. Nonneratii), the Jungle Fowl of Ceylon (@. Stanleyt),
and the Forked-tail Jungle Fowl of Java (G) frratus).
The (. bankiva or G. ferrugineus is found all over India
where thick jungle exists, and extends into the Madras Presi-
dency, where it meets Sonnerat’s jungle fowl, and is said to
interbreed with it; it also extends into Burma, Malayana, and
to Timor. This bird is subject to considerable variation in
different localities. Our black-breasted red game resemble it
in most points save in that the tail of G. bunkiva is carried
horizontally whilst the game tail is carried erect. The chicks of
G. Lankiva are hatched in twenty days, and eggs are laid from
January to July. There is not the least doubt but that the
Burmese and Arakan breeds are descended from G. bankiva,
having acquired by selection yellow legs and greater size.
The nearest ally to G. bunkiva is G. Stanley, the Ceylon
Jungle Fowl, which chiefly differs in that it has a yellow comb
edged with red and a reddish breast. This species never lives
in captivity for any length of time, a feature we may well note
in connection with the origin of our domestic birds.
The Sonnerat Jungle Fowl (G. Sonnerati/) is found in the
south of India, and is distinguished by the flattened shafts
of the hackle-feathers of the cock, which resemble spots of
creamy sealing-wax. The crow is very peculiar, quite unlike
that of the domestic cock or red jungle fowl, and the eggs are
described as being of a pinky-cream colour. This species is not
nearly so easily domesticated as G. lankira, with which, how-
ever, it interbreeds both wild and in confinement.
} The wild fowls of Fiji are descendants of the domestic poultry taken
there by the early voyagers. These fowls now resemble the Red Jungle
Fow] in appearance : they have reverted, that is, to the ancestral type.
DOMESTIC GALLINA 397
The last species is the Fork-tailed Fowl or Javan Jungle Fowl
(@. furvatus), which inhabits Java and some of the islands in
the Malay Archipelago. The neck is metallic green, the saddle
hackles orange with a brown centre, and the two central tail-
feathers curved out in a forked manner; the comb is greenish-
red or yellow, and quite clean at the edge, no serrations being
seen. Numerous crosses with domestic fowls have been pro-
duced, and it is said that two other supposed species, G.
Tenmichii and G. wneus, have arisen in this way.
There is little doubt but that G. bankzva has given rise to the
various domestic breeds, and may possibly have been helped to
some extent by G. Sonneratii, these breeds having originated
by artificial selection and breeding. The longer animals and birds
are under domestication the more they seem subject to variation.
By judicious selection it is quite possible through a long series
of ages to have formed from a single type such diverse forms as
the Bantam on the one hand and the Dorking on the other, or
the tailless fowl of Holland and the long-tailed fowl of Japan.
The Turkey (MJeleagris).—The ancestry of the turkey is
less complex, but still is a matter of uncertainty. There are
three wild turkeys—one common to Canada and the States,
the so-called American turkey, MW. americana ; another is found
in Mexico, Jf. mexicana; and a third in Guatemala and
Central America generally, MW. ocellata.
There is some doubt as to M. americana and M. mexirana being
distinct species, some authorities considering them varieties:
there is little difference except in colour, the Mexican species
having white tail-coverts and tips to the tail-feathers. If they
are distinct, there is little doubt but that our domestic turkeys
are derived from M. mexicana, for both have the white in the
tail, which is absent in the American turkey.
The Honduras or Ocellated Turkey (1. ocel/ata) is found in
Guatemala and Yucatan. It certainly has no connection with
our domestic forms, although hybrids of it have been known to
breed in domestication.
398 BRITISH BIRDS.
The domestic turkey lays from fifteen to twenty eggs—gen-
erally sixteen is the number. They breed in the wild state
on the prairies surrounding the large American forests, the
hens leaving the ‘“ gobblers” during incubation. The latter are
most pugnacious to any young they come across. We notice
similar habits in our domestic breeds.
The Guinea - fowl (Numata). — All wild guinea-fowls are
found in Africa or Madagascar. The following wild forms are
known :—
Numida meleagris, the West African Guinea-fowl, found on
the coast of Gambia. WN. pfiloryncha, the Abyssinian Guinea-
fowl, found in Eastern Africa. NV. mitrata, the mitred Guinea-
fowl of South Africa. M. tiarate, in Madagascar, probably
only a local race. All the above have a bony casque.
N. cristatus, the Crested Guinea-fowl of West Africa. V.
Purherantit, in Zanzibar, probably only an Eastern form of
cristatus, N, plumifera, the Plumed Guinea-fowl of West
Africa. All the last three have a plume of feathers in place
of a casyue. And, lastly, there is the quaint NV. rwturi‘ne or
Vulture Guinea-fowl, found in Eastern -\ftica.
Our domestic species is said by some to be descended from
the West African species, N. meleagr’s, which extends from
Gambia through Ashantee to Gaboon, and is also found in the
Cape de Verd Islands. More probably it is from the Abyssinian
guinea-fowl that ours have come, as it was a bird well known
to the Romans, and they had constant intercourse with its
native haunts wid Exypt.
The guinea-fowls take from twenty-six to twenty-eight days
to incubate. They are extremely shy, although long under
domestication, and are of the greatest service to fruit-growers,
if kept in orchards, where they devour large numbers of grubs
and larvee that fall to and are on the ground. The males are
spurless. Naturally the guinea-fowl is monogamous, yet we
often find one cock amongst several hens. White varieties
are frequently seen,
GRUIFORMES. 399
The Pea-fowl (Pavo cristatus).—The pea-fowl is a native of
India and Ceylon. Only three species seem to be known—our
common domestic one, the Javan species (P. muticus), and a
black-winged species (P. nivyipennis). These birds have a crest
of feathers on the head, and the male has some of the back-
feathers and the upper tail-coverts of considerable length and
ocellated. The pea-fowl was well known to the ancients from
the time of Solomon. It is looked upon with veneration by
the Hindoos, and in many States is not allowed to be shot.
They live to ten and twelve and even more years old, and look
after their young through the winter. Incubation lasts twenty-
eight days. It is said that they were introduced into Europe
by Alexander the Great. There is little or no difference be-
tween our tame ones and the wild birds of India at the present
day, with the exception that white varieties are found under
domestication.
9. Gruiformes.
Rais anv Coors (Ratt).
The Rails or Crakes, Moorhen, and Coots are included in the
family Rallide. They are strong-legged, active-running birds,
some being aquatic in habits. The best-known example is the
Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus).
The Jfoorhen or Water-hen is a resident bird with us, but
partial migrations take place in very severe winters from north
to south. The upper plumage is dark olive-brown ; head, neck,
and belly slaty-grey, with white streaks towards the legs; the
under tail-coverts are white; base of bill red, rest yellow; legs
yellowish-green with a red band around them above the tarsal
joint. The female moorhen is larger than the male, and often
brighter in colour. The young differ chiefly in having a
greenish beak and legs and a white throat. The nest is built
in a variety of places—amongst reeds and water-plants as a
rule; but they are sometimes found on trees some height from
400 BRITISH BIRDS.
the ground: boughs overhanging the water are also favourite
resorts. The material mainly consists of dried sedge and reeds.
Sometimes the nests reach a foot or more in height when the
level of the water has risen, the birds adding to the nest to
stop it being flooded. As many as ten eggs may be laid, but
seven or eight is the usual number. They commence to build
early in March, and, as a rule, have two broods in the year, but
even three are not unusual. It is said that the young of the
first brood help the parents to prepare the second nest. Their
food consists of water-insects, slugs, snails, and various land
insects ; but at times they will attack seed-corn, and where very
abundant may now and then cause slight loss.
The Coot (Fulica atra) has a lohate foot, and is sooty-black in
colour, rather greyish above, with pink beak and a large white
bare patch on the head. The nests are huge floating structures,
often large enough to support a man.
The Rails, of which the Landrail or Corncrake (Crer pratensis)
is the best known type, are all noted for their running powers.
The corncrake appears in England in April in the south, later
as we proceed north. Pasture lands, especially when put up for
hay, are their favourite resorts; but numbers also go to corn-
fields, where they feed off insects and weed-seeds. The nest is
placed in long grass and in standing corn, and is frequently
found in the former during mowing. Like all the crakes, this
bird will feign death when captured. It runs with great
rapidity amongst the grass, and thus we hear its harsh note, as
it seems, all over the field.
10. Charadriiformes.
PLovER, SyNirE, Sanvprpers, &e. (Larcor).
Of the four families of the Limicole—the (Wenemidw or
Stone Curlews, the GVareolide or Pratincoles, the Charadriidu:
or Plovers, and the Scolopacide or Snipe, Woodcock, Stints,
Sandpipers, Redshanks, &c.—the last two only need be referred
CHARADRIIFORMES. 401
to, These birds were at one time united with others to form
the order of “ Waders” ((rallatores).
The Charudréidw or Plovers have the bill compressed at the
tip and seldom longer than the head. The toes are short and
the hind one (hallux) absent or very small. The plovers can
both run and fly fast. Their food consists mainly of animal
substance, such as worms, snails, slugs, and insects, which they
hunt for in meadows and marshes and on mudflats. The
young are precocious. The eggs are laid, with little nesting
substance, on the ground. Some are partially migratory, such
as the Dotterel (Hudromias morinellus) and the Golden Plover
(C. pluvialis), The commonest species is the Lapwing ( Vanedlus
eristatus).
The Lapwing is also called the Peewit or Green Plover. It
is generally distributed throughout Great Britain, and is, as a
rule, resident ; but migrations take place from the north to the
south in very cold winters. Numbers also arrive from the
Continent in the autumn. The lapwing is partial to marshy
lands and moorlands, and may also be seen feeding in numbers
on mud-flats. The curious curved crest of feathers on the head
at once identifies it. Head, crest, and breast are glossy black ;
throat, neck, and abdomen white; the back dark-green and
metallic ; tail black and white; legs and feet orange-red ; bill
dull reddish-brown. The female does not differ much from the
male, but the young birds have the dorsal feathers edged with
buff and the crest shorter. The nest is formed in a depression
in the ground, especially in pasture and fallow lands; a few
pieces of grass and stalks are added during incubation. The
eggs are laid from the end of March to June, the majority in
April. Four or five are laid in each nest; they are olive-green
with dark-brown blotches, but may have a grey or even blue
ground-colour. The female when disturbed runs rapidly away
from her nest, the male at the same time rising and twirling
about in the air, uttering its shrill note to allure the enemy
from the nest and young. Like most birds in this group, the
2c
402 BRITISH BIRDS.
eggs are laid crosswise. In winter the peewits collect together
in flocks and sometimes fly great distances in lines. Migration
in this country is chiefly after food. The eggs are much sought
after for the table in spite of the Wild Birds Protection Act,
and yet this is one of our most useful birds. Their food consists
of wireworms and all manner of larvee and insects, also worms.
The large flocks—for they are gregarious even in the breeding
season—must tend largely to the destruction of many noxious
farm pests.
The Scoloparidu include the Woodcock and various Snipe, the
Fra, 222, —ScoLopacrp.k.
a, Leg and foot of Curlew ; 8, Heud of Snipe; «, Beak of Avocet. (Nicholson.)
Raff, Sandpipers, and Curlews, &e. They are all provided with
long bills, which may be straight or curved; the three forward
toes may be partially webbed as in the Avocet (Recurrirostra
avocelta), or lobed as in the Phalaropes (Phularupus), or united
at their base by webbing as in the Curlew (Yuwenius arquata),
but many are free. The legs are usually long and slender and
adapted to wading (fig. 222). The basal webbing of the foot
is not shown in the fivure.
CHARADRIIFORMES., 403
GULLS AND Trerws (GaviE).
The Gulls and Terns are united into one family, the Larilw,
They have long wings and either knife-like or hooked bills.
The three front toes are always webbed, and the fourth is often
very small. The true gulls (Larus) are the only ones we need
refer to. In this genus the fourth toe is placed high up on the
metatarsus; the three front toes are
entirely palmate. The bill has a sharp
cutting edge, hooked at the tip of the
upper mandible. The tail is square
at the end. Gulls are normally fish-
eaters, feeding upon surface- fish and
dead fish along the coast; garbage of
any kind is also devoured by them.
Very often, however, several of the
Laridie pass many miles inland and
live upon various insects, especially
such destructive larvee as wireworm,
leather - jackets, and cockchafer grubs.
They may often be found, preceding
and during stormy weather, sixty and
seventy miles inland, following the
plough as readily as the rook, and
devouring with avidity the grubs py... 999 -sxorn or a Guth
turned up during its progress across (¥*™s) Schizognathous type.
the fields. These birds usually appear ede Fe Rey
inland, as on the coast, in flocks. Most [ppuatines (a gases Pt
species breed on the coast, but some,
such as the Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), breed
inland on the banks of lakes and rivers and in marshes. The
young are nestlings. The Herring Gull (LZ. argentatus), as well
as the Common Gull (Z. canus), must also be included amongst
those whose services are beneficial to us. Small mammals, such
404 BRITISH BIRDS.
as mice, voles, and shrews, also form part of their bill of fare
when driven by stress of weather inland.
The Blach-headed Gull (L. ridibundus).—This gull is very
different in plumage in summer and winter. In summer the
head and neck of both male and female are dark-brown; in
winter this coloration has quite gone, those parts being pure
white. In spring the brown colour again appears. This change
is not due to a fresh moult, but to an actual change of colour in
the existing feathers. The legs and bill are bright red. The
young birds have quite a different plumage, being much darker,
the dark-brown feathers being mottled at their edges with
yellow, and the feet yellow, not red. This gull breeds inland on
marshes and flats as well as along the coast, and it is especially
during the breeding season that they destroy so many noxious
insects. The nest is made by trampling down a number of
reeds, grass, and sedges; in this concavity during April and
May three dusky-olive eges spotted with black are laid.
The Herring Gull (L. argentatus).—This gull is one of our
largest species, often reaching two feet in length. The head
and neck are white, often in summer with brown streaks; the
wings and the back are pale bluish-grey, the primary feathers
being black and grey with black shafts and white tips, and the
secondary feathers also edged with white. The bill is yellow
and the fect light pink. The herring gull builds its nest on
steep cliffs and rocks, in which are deposited three olive-brown
eges spotted with dark brown, This gull is one of the com-
monest that we see following the plough in the south of
England, and seems especially fond of the large soft chafer
larvee.
The only other gull seen abundantly in our fields is—
The Common Gull (L. canus).—The common gull justly
deserves its name, for it may be found all round our seaboard
and often abundantly inland. It is not so hig as the herring
eull, seldom attaining a greater length than eighteen inches.
The head and neck are white with dusky spots, ventral surface
COLUMBIFORMES, 405
and tail white, the back bluish-grey, the two first primaries
black with a large white space near the extremity, the tip
quite black. The bill is dusky-green at the base, yellow at the
tip, and the feet greenish-grey. The young have the bill
almost black with a yellow base, and dusky-yellow feet. It
breeds chiefly on rocky coast-lines, but may resort to marshes
to rest. This species commingles with the herring gulls, rooks,
and peewits in the ploughed fields, and does much good by
devouring numerous larvee.
These three gulls should be well protected, as they are
decidedly friends of the farmer.
11. Columbiformes.
Doves anp Pigeons (CoLumBa).
The Columb are endowed with strong wings and great
powers of flight. The feet are slender and adapted for perch-
ing. They are all monogamous, and pair for life or some time.
The beak is weak, with a cere at the base and thin scales over
the nostrils. The young are quite helpless for days after they
are hatched—nestlings. They are fed by the parent first with
a cheesy substance excreted by the glands of the crop, then by
soft food from the crop itself. The nests are formed in trees
and on rocky places, sometimes in holes in decaying trunks:
they are flat structures composed of loosely united twigs upon
which the longish, shiny white eggs (two in number) are laid.
There are four species found in England—the Wood-pigeon
(Columba palumbus), the Stock-dove (C. wnas), the Rock-dove
(C. livia), and the Turtle-dove (Lurtur communis).
All vigeons have long and powerful wings, and can fly im-
mense distances. The sense of sight is extraordinarily keen.
Most species feed on the ground, but do not scratch about like
fowls (Gallinw), nor do they usually dust themselves in so-called
“ dust-baths ’’—they prefer water in which to clean themselves.
406 BRITISH BIRDS.
They differ again from fowls in drinking: the fowl takes short
draughts, holding up its head between each sip the pigeon
takes one long bibition, its beak immersed in the water the
whole time. Pigeons feed exclusively on vegetable food. In
the genus Culuia the base of the upper mandible is covered
with a soft skin in which the nostrils are pierced, and the
twelve tail-feathers are nearly even. In Turtur there are two
tumid soft substances at the base of the upper mandible
covering the nostrils.
The Woodl-piyeon (CL paliumbus) does much damage. It is
also known as the ring-dove and the queest. Its recent in-
crease 1s due partly to the killing off of all the large birds of
prey and to the increase of coverts. It is most abundant on
our eastern coasts, where large numbers arrive from the Con-
tinent. They commence to breed in April; a second nest is
formed in June, and a third even in October. The nests are
placed in all manner of places—on high trees, in ivy, and on
low bushes. Incubation lasts eighteen days, and the young are
blind until the ninth day. The male sits all day, the female of
a night. ‘They unite in large flocks after the breeding season
is over. In spring and summer they are seen in pairs: at this
time they feed on the young leaves of peas, beans, and corn ;
and turnips when young are also greedily devoured. Often
whole fields of peas are spoilt by them. In winter they go to
the woods in flocks and feed on beech-nuts, acorns, &c. ; even
then they do not neglect foraging expeditions to the fields,
where cabbage and rape sutfer from their incursions. It is not
so much those wood-pigeons that breed with us that do the
damage, as the large flocks that come from abroad in the winter
and leave us again in the spring. These foreigners can be told
from our natives by their smaller size. We must not forget,
however, that they eat numbers of weed-seeds, and so do some
little good in return for the harm they occasion, but they are
far too abundant.
COLUMBIFORMES. 407
The Turtle-dove (T. communis) visits us only in spring, and
remains until the end of September. They come from South
Europe, Palestine, and elsewhere in Asia. This beautiful dove
extends into our midland counties, but seldom farther north
then Sheffield. Many a time have I watched them returning
from the wheat-fields and flying off to some belt of trees, where
they nest. They have not been eating the corn, but the seeds
of the numerous weeds on the ground, especially the seeds of
the corn-spurrey (Spergula arvensis) and the docks (Lume.) :
they are thus benefiting the farmer. At times they may do
slight harm: for instance, vetch-seeds are greedily eaten, so
also is buckwheat ; but their chief food consists of weed-seeds,
as has been many times tested by examining their crops. The
nest is a slight structure, generally on the lower branches of
trees and in high bushes. The eggs are laid in May and June
and even July, incubation lasting about sixteen days, both cock
and hen taking part in it. The tail-feathers are broadly edged
with white, which renders them very conspicuous when flying.
The male has the head, rump, and flanks bluish-grey, with a
patch of black-and-white feathers on each side of the neck ;
throat and breast pale wine-red.
The Roch-dove (C. livia) is of much interest, as it is the
original form of our numerous domestic pigeons, a fact clearly
demonstrated by Darwin. They breed in a few parts of the
rocky shores of the coast of Great Britain, and are found in
most parts of Europe. Like all our domestic pigeons, they
seldom will settle on trees. Even in the high state of domes-
tication of our fancy birds the love of rocky places still exists,
for they always fly to ledges of houses, churches, &c., when
free, and there, like their early progenitors, form their nest.
Rock-doves are very scarce in England, breeding only in a few
coast localities, notably Flamborough Head and in Devonshire.
Numbers of the following species also breed on the south coast
of Devonshire, and may be mistaken for C. livia. The white
408 BRITISH BIRDS.
rump, the white under wing-coverts, and the two very distinct
bars of black across the wings, easily distinguish it. In many
respects it resembles the common blue-rock.
The Sfoch-dove (C. nas) nests in the stocks of trees and
even in rabbit-burrows. It may be found abundantly in well-
timbered districts in the middle, west, and south of England,
and nests about March, but also right through to October. It
can be told from the Wood-pigeon by the absence of the
white-and-black neck-mark, and by the under-side being bluish-
grey ; there is also an imperfect black bar on the wing, and
the under wing-coverts are grey.
12. Cuculiformes.
Cuckoos anp Parrots (CucvLipm «xp Psrrract).
The Cweul/tormes are the Cuckoos and Parrots. The former
alone are represented in these islands, and by a single species
only, the Cuckoo (Curulus canorus). This bird comes to us
about the beginning of April, when it soon proclaims its pres-
ence by its well-known note. It is found throughout Great
Britain. The female cuckoo lays her egg on the ground, and
then by means of her bill she carries it to some nest to be
incubated. For this purpose she specially chooses the nest of
a reed-warbler, meadow-pipit, wagtail, or hedge-sparrow. The
young cuckoo grows rapidly, and soon turns out the proper
occupants of the nest, by means of a cavity on its hack, which
then grows up, commencing to disappear about the end of the
second week after birth. The food consists mainly of insects,
the foster-mother being kept busily at work, as the young
cuckoo is ravenous. Hairy caterpillars of the lackey-moth,
tiger-moth, c., are especially acceptable to the young bird.
It is a widely distributed bird, beme found in India and
Africa and many other parts.
CORACIIFORMES. 409
13. Coraciiformes.
(i) Owns (Srricgs).
The Owls or Strigide are nocturnal birds of prey, with very
soft plumage, and with raptorial feet in which the fourth toe
is reversible. The eyes are directed forwards, and are large
in size. The beak, which is short, is furnished with a number
of bristles at its base, and the nostrils are pierced in the cere.
The head is large, owing to the cranial bones being hollow,
and the eyes are surrounded
by a disc or veil of feathers.
The ear is also surrounded by
feathers and protected by a
fold of skin. The undigested
food, as in the Falconida, is
passed out in pellets from the
mouth. Striges have a wide
gullet, but rather small stomach.
There are nine genera recorded
in Great Britain, The four
common British species are the
Barn-Owl (Strix flammea), the
Long-eared Owl (Asvo otus), the
Short-eared Owl (Asio ace/pi-
trinus), and the Tawny Owl ™
(Syrntum aluco).
The Barn-Owl (S. flummea) is common in most districts of
England, Ireland, and Wales, but less so in Scotland. This
useful bird takes up its abode in sheds and out-buildings, in
church-towers and hollow trees, where it remains concealed
during the daytime. The back of the male is pale orange,
variegated with grey and white; beneath the plumage is white,
and so are the discs, which are edged with orange ; the bill is
white, and the legs are clothed in soft white feathers. Some
G. 224.—SKULL or OwL (Schizognath-
ous, with Desmognathous tendency).
410 BRITISH BIRDS.
specimens are much darker in plumage than others, a few
quite dark forms existing. The owl makes no nest, but just
lays her dull white eggs in pairs in April and May, and even
later. It hunts for its food at dusk, flying almost noiselessly
along the hedgerows. Its food consists of mice, rats, shrews,
bats, and various large insects. No harm whatever is done by
the barn-owls, and yet gamekeepers and many farmers persist
in killing them although they are their friends, and, having
slaughtered as many as they can, marvel at the increase of
rats and mice !
The Tawny Owl (S. aluco), which in some places ‘is quite as
common as the barn-owl, has the back shaded with ashy-grey
mottled with brown, the tail barred with brown and tipped
with white; the lower plumage is yellowish-white streaked
and mottled with pale and dark-brown; dases grey with a
dark-brown border; legs and feet have hairy feathers all the
way down to the claws. The female is more red-brown in
colour. They lay their eggs in hollow trees and rooks’ nests,
as well as in similar places to the barn-owl. If anything the
tawny-owl is more useful than the preceding species—voles,
rats, mice, and all kinds of vermin being taken by it. It is
especially abundant in woody districts, and is sometimes called
the Wood-owl.
Both Short- and Long-eared Owls (Asio accipitrinus and
A. otus) are common in this country, the former especially in
open, moorland tracts, but often over turnip- and stubble-fields.
Numbers come from the Continent in the autumn. It seldom
breeds here. Unlike most owls, the ‘‘short-ear” will take its
prey in the daytime. Mice, rats, birds, and reptiles, also
insects, are taken by it, and it is said fish also. It may often
be put up in the autumn when shooting, and flies off with
great rapidity. The Long-eared Owl is chiefly found in fir
plantations. There it hunts for its prey durive the night, and
clears off much vermin. Although fairly common all the year,
it is much more so in autumn, owing to migrations from the
Continent. It breeds in old birds’ nests and squirrel-drevs.
CORACIIFORMES. 411
All the owls may be said to be decidedly useful birds, and
the practice, still largely in vogue, of shooting them down
should be prohibited by all landowners and farmers.
(ii) MacrocHires.
Swirrs (CYPsELID#®),
The Swifts have all four toes directed forwards, and provided
with long and strong claws. The bill is short and wide, the
gape extending very far back, beyond the eyes. The nostrils
are longitudinal, the borders being edged with small feathers.
The wings are very long and pointed, and the tail forked in
the genus Cypselus. Swifts were formerly classed with the
Swallows, but are now shown to be related more closely to
the Nightjars, still more closely to the Humming-Birds.
Cypselus apus, the Common Swift, is an abundant summer
visitor, appearing annually about the end of April, and leaving
about the end of August. The colour is blackish-brown, more
or less shiny, with a pale-grey or white area under the throat.
They make their scanty nests in holes in thatch, in church
towers, crevices in cliffs and quarries, &c., in which they deposit
two white eggs in June. The Swifts are very useful birds, as
they devour numbers of insects, especially moths.
Nicursars (CAPRIMULGIDE).
The only representative in England is the Goatsucker or
Fern-Owl (Caprimulqus europeus), a migrant which arrives in
England about the middle of May. They have an extremely
wide gape, the edges of the mouth being furnished with a row
of bristles. Insects, such as cockchafers and moths, form the
greater part of their food, which they catch whilst flying about
at dusk and during the night. The nightjar lays its eggs upon
the ground in open places amongst fern and gorse and in wood
clearings.
412 BRITISH BIRDS.
(iii) CoracLe.
KINGFISHERS (ALCEDINID.E).
One species only occurs here—namely, Alcedo ispidu, which
is a resident bird, generally distributed over Great Britain. It
delights in lakes, ponds, rivers, and even the sea-coast, darting
about in straight lines, and suddenly plunging from its perch
into the water to secure some unwary fish, upon which it lives.
Dragon-flies and beetles are also eaten. The beautiful azure-
blue back and dark-blue tail and chestnut breast and belly
make it a conspicuous object. The nest is made in a hole in
the banks of pieces of water and rivers. The eggs are laid on a
layer of fish-bones.
Three other groups are represented in this section, by the
Roller (Coracius garrulus), Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), and
Hoopoe (Upupa epops), but they are only casual visitors.
(iv) Pict.
WoopPECKERS AND WryNecks (Pict).
The Picide have the hallux and fourth toe turned back, the
second and third forwards (fig. 225).
Three Woodpeckers occur in Great Britain,—the Great Green
Woodpecker (Geeinus cviri-
dis), the Great Spotted
Woodpecker (Picus major),
and the Lesser Spotted (P.
minor). The Woodpeckers
hammer out holes in trees
in which they form their
Fico, 225.—ScansoriaL Foor, As SEEN IN a
WoopPRckens AND PARROTS. nests. The green wood-
pecker cuts out a neat cir-
cular hole, by choice in a soft-wooded tree—this tunnel running
in as far as the hard central wood, and then turning downwards
at right angles, where a large chamber is formed, in which the
PASSERES, 413
five to seven eggs are laid on a bed of wood-chips. There is a
new nesting-hole formed every year. Sound as well as decayed
trees are attacked ; but the good the green woodpecker does in
destroying injurious insects makes up for the harm it does to a
few trees. They feed almost exclusively on insects, especially
the larve of wood-boring beetles, which we see them hunting
for up the tree-trunks. The stiff feathers of the tail help them
in their progress up the trunk. Ants and other ground-insects
are also eaten by G. viridis, it being no unusual thing to see
them hunting on the ground. This handsome woodpecker has
green upper plumage, greyish-green under plumage, and bright
crimson crown and nape.
The Great Spotted Woodpecker (Pirus major) and the Lesser
Spotted (P. minor) also live in a similar way, and feed off wood-
destroying insects.
The Wryneck (Yuna torquilla) is allied to the Woodpeckers,
and makes its nest in a hole formed in a tree like the other
Woodpeckers. Its food consists mainly of insects, which it
licks off by means of its long extensile tongue covered with a
glutinous saliva.
14. Passeres or Passeriformes.
The last remaining group includes the majority of our birds.
They have fourteen or fifteen cervical vertebrae, and the second,
third, and fourth toes
are always turned for-
ward. The brain is
more fully developed
than in other birds, and
the organ of voice is
most highly organised.
The chief families are
the Larks (Alaudi), the Rooks, &e. (Corvidw), the Starlings
(Sturnide), the Finches (Fringillide), the Wagtails (Mota-
Fic, 226.—Foor oF PassERINE Brrp (Wagtail).
414 BRITISH BIRDS.
cillidw), the Flycatchers (Muscicapidw), the Tits (Paridir), the
Swallows (Hirundinid), the Turdid or Warblers (Sylviine),
and the Thrushes (Twrdine).
All these Passerifurmes or Perching Birds have thin legs, and
the males are usually more brilliantly coloured than the females.
The young are nestlings, and are quite blind when hatched,
being fed by the parents. Both cock and hen take a share of
incubation. Their food and habits, as we shall see, are both
very varied.
TRUE OSCINES (OR SINGING - BIRDS).
Tue ALAUDIDZ OR LaRKs.
The Larks have their bill in the form of an elongated cone,
the upper mandible slightly curved, with no notch; the oval
nostrils at the base of the bill partly covered with feathers, and
the head-crest capable of being erected. The hind-claw is also
extremely long and nearly straight. The commonest English
species are the Skylark (Alauda arvensis) and the Woodlark
(A. arborea). The Larks mainly feed upon grain, but also
take insects for their young. They frequent open fields, where
they form their nests on the ground. During very cold
weather, when they unite in flocks, they sometimes commit
great havoc in gardens, eating the leaves of winter vegetables.
They are augmented by vast arrivals from the north, and from
the Continent in autumn. Larks dust themselves to get rid
of the numerous lice parasites, a habit common to many
Passeres.
Crows, Rooks, &e. (CoRvip2).
The Jackdaw (Corvus monefula), the Carrion Crow (C. corone)s
the Hooded Crow (C. rornix), the Raven (C. corar), the Rook
(C. frugilegus), the Magpie (Pica cawlata), and the Jay (Gar-
rulus ylandarius), are members of the Corvide, The jackdaw,
PASSERES (CORVID.E). 415
crow, rook, raven, and hooded crow belong to the genus Corvus,
which is characterised by the following: beak hard, stout,
straight at base, and sharp at edges; the wings long; nostrils
hidden by stitf feathers.
The Magpie belongs to the genus Pica, in which the beak is
slightly notched at the tip of the
upper mandible, and the wings
are short and rounded. The jay
belongs to the genus Garrulus, in
which the beak is shorter than
the head.
The Carrion Crow (C. corone)
is black like the rook ; the beak
is strong and bent at the end; it
has black feathers at the base,
there being no white as seen in
the rook. ©. corone breeds in
trees, usually at a great height.
The young, which are hatched out
very early—usually whilst other
birds are laying—are most vora-
cious. It is especially at this
time that the crow does so much
damage. They rob the nests of
game-birds both of their eggs
and young; poultry, leverets, and Fic. 227.—Skuvt or Raven, reduced
lambs have even been known to icneiaiaieniaa’
i Ma.p, Maxillo-palatine; Vo, vomer ;
be attacked, whilst they are said #1, palatine; Pt, pterygoid ; 2, quad-
to have killed ewes detached from
the flock. With this food they feed the young, often carrying
the bones and débris away some distance, so that their nests
should not be detected. They apparently pair for life. The
crow flies either singly or in pairs, never in large flocks as
we see the rooks in England, although it is said to do so
abroad. The only good one can see that they do is to
416 BRITISH BIRDS.
destroy carrion on the sea-shore and on land, and to keep
in check the voles and field-mice, which they devour in
numbers. They must, however, be recorded amongst our
harmful species. Yet it is doubtful if it is wise to persecute
them too far, for then we get rabbits and small mammals
increasing to excess.
The Rook (C. frugilequs) is, on the other hand, very bene-
ficial. The rook can at once be told by the white mark at the
base of the bill. Moreover, the rook is gregarious, flying about
and nesting in large companies. The main food of the rook
consists of insect grubs, especially wireworm, leather-jackets,
and cockchafer larve. Wherever we see rooks collected in the
fields, there we have a sure sign of insect infestation. Never-
theless they are often ruthlessly destroyed, for it is said they
do so much damage. What damage do the rooks do? They
pull up roots and leave them dying on the ground, they eat
grain, and they carry off large numbers of walnuts. Certainly
in the last two instances they are harmful, but not to any great
extent. The plants they pull up are not pulled up out of pure
mischief, but to get at the wireworm biting at the roots ; this
they devour: they thus destroy one turnip and one wireworm.
How many turnips and other plants would the wireworm
destroy in its three or even five years of life? Some hundreds
of thousands, and thus by killing the pest the rook must be
saving all those future doomed plants that come in the wire-
worm’s way. It is said that there are too many rooks, and thus
their number must be kept down. This cannot be correct.
If rooks are injurious, then kill them off entirely. It costs no
more to scare 1000 rooks than 10. If 10 do good, then 1000
do so much more. Moreover, grain can be well preserved by
mixing the seed with tar. If rooks and the like are killed we
should have but little corn, for man cannot control, as yet, soil-
grubs in the field.
The Jachdaiw (C. monedula), which is much smaller than the
rook and told by the grey colour of the back of the head and
PASSERES (STARLINGS). 417
nape of the neck, is often found in company with it. They
accompany rooks to their feeding-grounds, and nest if they can
somewhere near rookeries and the haunts of men. The most
favourite nesting- places are hollow trees, cliffs, and church
towers. Jackdaws feed upon insects, grubs, fruit, and all
manner of strange objects, which they delight to obtain and
destroy. On the whole, they too may be considered useful
birds to the farmer.
The Magpie (Pica caudata) and the Jay (Garrulus glandarius)
are both harmful to some extent, eating not only insects but
the eggs of many of our insect-feeding birds, ducklings, chicks,
and game, grain, cherries, as well as wild fruits. Voles make
up the bill of fare. The magpie is found in open country; the
jay, with its harsh screaming note, in woodland tracts, where it
falls a ready victim to the gamekeeper’s gun, and it certainly is
a pest in fruit and garden land.
STaRLINGS (STURNID#).
The genus Sturnus has a bill as long as the head, the edges
of the upper mandible extending over those of the lower
mandible.
The Starling (8. vulyaris) needs no description. The young,
however, might escape our notice, for they are very different in
plumage to the adult. The young starling is uniform ashy-grey
without any spots, and has even been described as a distinct
species by older writers. Starlings, especially after the breeding
season, unite in large flocks, which fly at early morn to their
feeding-grounds, and may often be seen accompanying the rooks
and jackdaws. The nests are formed in holes in trees, walls,
dovecots, chimneys, &c., in which are found five to seven pale
greenish-blue eggs. The whole family of young and parents
unite with others to form the flocks, and these break up again
in the spring for nesting. During their foraging expeditions
they feed on all manner of insect grubs, which form their chief
2D
418 BRITISH BIRDS.
food. Ticks on sheep are greedily devoured by them. On the
other hand, they cause much harm in orchards, cherries being
particularly damaged by them, as well as other soft fruit. On
the whole, they do much more good than harm. Amongst the
insects they are partial to are grasshoppers, wireworm, larve of
moths, weevils, and plant-lice ; slugs and worms are also eaten.
Fincnes anp Buntines (FRINGILLID»).
The Finches and Buntings form the family Fringillide of
the Passeres, the former being included in the sub-family
Fringillinw, the latter in the sub-family Emberizine.
The Finches are remarkable for their short, thick, and power-
ful beak, the upper and lower mandibles being about the same
size, so that the beak when closed forms a short thick cone.
All the Finches are small, great numbers of species being found.
The food consists largely of seeds, grain, and fruits; but some
are large insect-eaters, and all’ more or less feed their young on
insect life.
The Buntings have both mandibles incurved at the edges,
the upper one being slightly smaller and with a hard bony
knob.
The following are the more important British Friéngiline -
the Bullfinch (Pyrrhula), Linnets (Acanth’s), Chattineh (Frin-
gilla), Sparrows (Passer), the Goldfinch (Carduclis), and the
Greenfineh and Hawfinch (Ligurénus and Coceothraustes).
The genus Pyrrhula, which contains our common bullfinch,
is characterised by the hard short bill, which bulges at the
sides, the upper mandible being longer than the lower and thus
overhanging its point.
The Biudlinch (Pyrrhula europea) is one of the most de-
structive birds. Handsome as it is, we cannot say a word
against its destruction, for the damage caused by Pyrrhula
europea in orchards and gardens is often tremendous. In
the spring they commence to attack the blossom-buds of the
PASSERES (FINCHES). 419
fruit-trees—-cherries, gooseberries, plums, and apple being par-
ticularly chosen. The ground beneath the trees is often found
covered with the scales of the blossom-buds, showing the havoc
they have wrought. We have frequently examined the buds
of fruit-trees being attacked by these birds, but have never
been able to find any sign of insect or mite within, so they do
not pick them off for the same reason as the tits. They nest in
thick copses and hedges, forming the nest of fine twigs and dry
grasses, and lining it with fine fibrous rootlets, in which they
lay five light greenish-blue eggs, streaked and speckled with
reddish-brown and purple.
The female alone takes part in the incubation. The young
are fed partly on insects and their larve, and seeds softened, it
is said, by the female. Various seeds also form the food of the
adult, such as those of the chickweed, thistle, plantain, and
groundsel. It is needless to give a description of the bird, as
it is so well known; but the young may be pointed out as
differing from the adults by having no black on the head.
The Linnet (Acanthis cannabina). —The Linnet is widely
distributed in England and Wales. In Scotland it is replaced
by the Mountain Twite (4. flar/rostris). In colour the linnet
is very variable: the head in the male is mottled brown, red
in the centre; back chestnut-brown, dull brown towards the
tail, which is black, the outer tail-feathers bordered with white ;
primary wing-feathers black, bordered with white and tipped
with ashy-grey; breast-feathers reddish-brown, edged with
yellowish-red ; abdomen dull-white, flanks reddish-yellow ; bill
horn colour, legs brown. In summer the beak is bluish-brown in
colour and the feathers of the crown greyish-brown, tipped with
crimson, the back being bright chestnut-brown. The linnet
nests on commons and heaths, especially in gorse and juniper
bushes and low hedges, about the middle of April. Four to six
eggs are laid in the wood-lined nest, of a bluish-white colour,
speckled and streaked with reddish-brown and purplish-grey.
There may be two broods in the year. In autumn they unite
420 BRITISH BIRDS.
es:
into large flocks, and may be seen flying with a curious dipping
motion over the stubble, which they work for their food.
Mustard, rape, charlock, and other oily seeds are preferred by
them, also thistle and dandelion seeds, whilst insects are now
and then eaten: amongst other seeds we may mention flax,
hemp, docks, and corn occasionally. The residents are aug-
mented in autumn by large numbers that come from the Con-
tinent to the east coast, and by others that migrate southwards.
In spring these flocks break up and they pair off. They do
much good on the stubbles by destroying various weed-seeds.
Other British species are the Mealy Redpoll, (A. Iénaria),
the Lesser Redpole (A. rufexrens), the smallest British finch,
and the Twite (A. farirostr/s) with its longish tail, common in
the north. This latter is sometimes very harmful to young
cabbage and other ecrucifers in the north of Scotland. The
mealy redpoll is almost confined to the north, but flocks some-
times appear as far south as the Channel.
The Chaffinch (Fringilla eclels),—This is one of our most
beautiful finches, yet a veritable scourge to the gardener and
even farmer. In the male the crown of the head and nape of
the neck are French-grey, the rump green, the back chestnut
and green, the breast reddish-pink, turning to white on the
abdomen ; the black wings have two pure white bands, and the
tail is black in colour, except the two grey middle feathers,
and a broad white band on the outer two. The female is ashy-
brown and olive-green, the lower parts being paler and the
bands less distinct than in the male. The chaflinch builds
a beautiful compact nest of moss and lichen, often on lichen-
covered trees, so much resembling the tree in appearance as to be
distinguished with difficulty. Two broods are often produced in
the year. In the winter they unite in flocks, the males and
females separately, the males being most abundant in northern
counties at this time of year, the females apparently going
southwards. They feed upon all kinds of seeds, especially
those of an oily nature. As soon as the garden seeds are in
PASSERES (FINCHKS). 421
—such as cabbage, turnip, beetroot, mustard and cress, and
radishes—they soon go if the chaffinch finds them out. They
also clear off the young shoots of plants and flowers, and
even destroy germinating grain. On the other hand, they eat
numbers of weed-seeds on the stubbles, especially the per-
nicious charlock, and feed their young on insects of various
kinds, such as plant-lice, as well as devouring some them-
selves. On the whole, the chaffinch does as much good as
harm, if we could only keep it away from our seeds — an
almost impossible task.
The Sparrows (Passer),— There are two British sparrows,
the House-Sparrow (P. domesticus) and the Tree-Sparrow (P.
montanus). These two can be distinguished by the ear-region
of the house-sparrow being bright grey, whilst that of the tree-
sparrow is deep black; the former has also a reddish streak
behind the eye, and the wings with one dusky white bar; the
tree-sparrow has a black streak behind the eye and two white
bands on the wings, and a white ring nearly round the throat ;
the head is a bright chestnut colour. The tree-sparrow is not
abundant like P. domesticus ; it is usually found in company
with the latter. They are both very destructive at times. Corn,
both in the seed and when in crop, is materially damaged by
them, and there can be no doubt but that they are the cause of
much loss in that respect to the farmer; but corn is not to be
obtained all the year round, though they take it whenever
possible in the farmyard, often eating as much as the poultry.
At other times sparrows do some little good, for they devour
many insect pests which we could never get at. The writer
at one time condemned these birds before some farmers and
gardeners in Surrey, when he was promptly brought to order by
more than one, who pointed out their great benefit in destroying
insects. Certainly they can be seen clearing off the “ colliers ”
on beans, the green Dolphin on peas, and the “ blight” on corn,
and they feed ravenously on small larvee on fruit-trees, such as
the young Winter Moth and Tortrices. Water-cress growers
422 BRITISH BIRDS.
say their chief remedy for the ‘caddis-worms” is to let the
beds run dry, when the sparrows soon clear them off. Put to
this the fact that they devour large quantities of weed-seeds,
and then we may not think so ill of this cosmopolitan bird.
We know not what might happen if we eradicated them—an
almost impossible act to perform, as they are immensely prolific,
having often three broods in the year. They are, however, far
too abundant, and should be thinned out to some considerable
extent. The young, like all finches, are fed entirely on insect
food, and thus it is advisable not to destroy the nests, but to
kill off the birds later in the year. Another great fault is
that of waging war against the beneficial martins.
The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans), although not nearly so
common as formerly, is still met with all over Britain. Like
all finches, the young are fed on insects; the adults live upon
the seeds of thistles, knapweed, groundsel, and docks. Numbers
come to these islands to breed in April, and leave again about
October, migrating across the Channel.
The Siskin (Chrysomitris spinus) breeds in the central and
north-eastern portions of Scotland, although a few nests are
found every year in England. The young are fed mainly on
plant-lice, while the adults devour great numbers of weed-seeds.
The Greenfinch (Lijurinus chloris) is often very destructive to
seeds ; but the young are fed upon caterpillars, and as they are
very ravenous, there is no doubt but that the greenfinch does
some good. ‘The larve of the winter moth are taken in
numbers by them, yet as a seed-destroyer in the garden this
bird is most noxious. Its nest is built in hedges, in shrubs,
in ivy, &c.,—a loose structure built of fibrous roots, moss, and
grasses, with a lining of finer material and feathers. The first
nest is built in April, and a second brood usually follows.
Flocks of greenfinches may be seen on the stubbles in the
autumn, where they not only feed off weed-seeds but also
attack newly-sown wheat.
PASSERES (HIRUNDINIDA!). 423
Buntings (Hinberizine),
Of the eleven species of Buntings found in Great Britain,
the Yellow-hammer (Hmberiza citrinella), the Reed-bunting
(E. scheniculus), and the Corn-bunting (£. méliaria) are the
commonest.
The Yellow-hanmer (£. citvinella) has its head, neck, breast,
and lower parts generally yellow streaked with dusky-brown,
the upper surface being reddish-brown. The female is not so
yellow as the male. They may be found in all parts of Great
Britain, building their slight nest of grasses and moss on or near
the ground, in April and May. Both male and female help in
incubation. Young and adults feed off insects in the summer,
but in autumn fruits and seeds take the place of insects, and in
winter corn as well. They unite in flocks in the winter, and
may be seen in the fields busily engaged hunting for the weed-
seeds, which they eat in large numbers. Such generally is the
food of the Emberizine.
Finches, with the exception of the bullfinch, sparrow, and
greenfinch, may be said to be more or less useful birds, on account
of the numerous insects and weed-seeds that they destroy.
SwaLtows anp Martins (HiRuNDINID2).
These useful migrants have all long and pointed wings with
nine primary feathers. The three species—the Swallow, House-
martin, and Sand-martin—are placed in three separate genera.
They have all a wide gape, with few hairs on the mouth; the
feet are short, with three toes directed forwards, one behind.
The tail is more or less forked.
The Swallow (Hirundo rustica) belongs to the genus Hirundo,
in which the tail is strongly forked and consists of twelve
feathers, the outermost ones being elongated to form the two
tails; the legs and feet are bare. The swallow is only a
summer visitor, arriving about the middle of April, and leaving
again in the autumn. The nests, of clay and mud lined with
424 BRITISH BIRDS.
fine grasses and feathers, are chiefly placed in sheds and chim-
neys and ledges of rock. They feed, both in young and adult
stages, upon various insects taken on the wing, especially crane-
flies (Zipulr), moths, gnats, and beetles. Swallows unite in
large flocks prior to migrating in the autumn. Two and even
three broods are produced during their stay ; sometimes the last
brood does not develop in time to undertake the long migration.
Whether these backward birds stay all the winter seems a
disputed point. They may now and then be seen at Hastings
in November, and twice I have observed them in December
flying about on a warm day.
The House-martin (Chelidon urbica) has a forked tail, but it
is not long like the swallow, and the legs are feathered above.
This martin generally arrives a little later than the swallow, and
leaves in October and November. A few have been seen in
December. ‘The nest, of mud, is placed under the eaves of
houses, walls, and rocks; the nest is cup-shaped, with a hole at
the top or side. They, like the swallow, feed entirely on
insects. Sparrows wage war against them, and often drive
numbers away from their nests.
The Sand?-martin (Cotile riparin) often makes its appearance
at the end of March, and commences to leave at the end of
August and in September. The genus Cotile has a tuft of
feathers only on the leg, just above the hallux. It nests in
sandbanks, railway-cuttings, and sand-quarry faces, making a
slanting tunnel with a large chamber at the end. On the
floor of this chamber are placed a few pieces of fine grass and
feathers, where the bird lays from four to six pure-white eggs.
Sand-martins breed in colonies, and are often attacked by
sparrows, which they occasionally defeat when large colonies
are invaded. Like the two preceding species, insects form the
sole food.
Wacertatts and Pirits (Moractuiip.s).
The Motacillide contain two genera, the Wagtails (Motucillu)
and the Pipits (An/hus), The bill is nearly straight, slightly
PASSERES (MOTACILLID 4S). 425
notched at the tip, the mandibles nearly equal in length,
and their edges slightly compressed inwards. In the Wag-
tails, the tail, which consists of twelve feathers, is long and
the feathers nearly equal; in the Pipits the tail is only moder-
ately long and slightly forked. The tarsus in the Wagtails
is longer than the middle toe, but in the Pipits it is the same
length. The Wagtails are partially migratory in habits. Five
distinct species are now recognised in Great Britain. Of these
the Pied Wagtail (M. lugubris) and the Yellow Wagtail
(AL. rait) are the most abundant; the other three are the Blue-
headed Wagtail (IZ. flava), the Grey Wagtail (Jl. melanope),
and the White Wagtail (IZ. alla).
The Pied Wagtail (A. lwgubris) is a common bird throughout
Britain. They move southwards in the autumn, large flocks
leaving for the Continent in September and October. They
return in March—the males, as a rule, first. The “dishwasher,”
as the pied wagtail is often called, frequents the banks of
streams and ponds, where it runs about jerking its tail up and
down, and feeding upon all manner of insects. They may often
be seen following the plough, picking up with great dexterity
the insects turned up in the soil. Some remain in the south all
the year round. The nest is made in April, generally in a hole
in a bank or the hollow of a tree or wall, and is composed of
dry grass and dead leaves, lined with wool, hair, and feathers.
From four to six greyish-white eggs speckled with brown are
laid in it, and very often we find the cuckoo’s egg in the nest.
The plumage is variegated with black and white; back, chin,
throat, and neck black, except a small part of the neck which
is white; in winter the back is ashy-grey and the throat is
white.
The White Wagtail (A. alba) is the Continental form of the
above species, from which it may be told in the summer by its
back being pearl-grey and the flanks grey instead of black. Its
food and habits are identical with the above, but it is not so
common.
The Grey Wagtail (Mf. melunope) can be told by its yellow
426 BRITISH BIRDS.
tints. The head and back are grey, but the neck and breast
are yellow, and the throat is black. We find this species in the
south in winter; but in summer it goes north, to make room, as
it were, for the other wagtails that migrate from the Continent.
It is chiefly found by rapid streams and rivers in mountainous
and hilly country in the north, only coming south in winter and
during migration. It builds its nest in banks by the sides of
streams and feeds upon aquatic insects,
The Blue-healed Wagtail (AL, flava) is the Continental
form of the grey wagtail, from which it can be told by the
absence of the black on the throat. It is especially found
in the south, south-west, and east of England. It seems to
prefer flies, which it takes quite close to animals which attract
them.
The Yellow Wagtail (M. raid) is one of our regular summer
visitors, and is generally common. In colour this bird is yellow
and olive; the head, nape, and back are pale olive; chin and
lower parts yellow; a yellow streak is also present over the
eyes. The neighbourhood of ponds, canals, and ditches seems
its favourite locality ; but they may also be seen near cattle,
catching the flies attracted to them. All these birds are
insect-feeders, and thus should be encouraged and their nests
preserved.
The Pipits (Anthus) are insectivorous, but weed-seeds are
also eaten by them.
Tue Sarikes (LANip2).
The Shrikes or Butcher Birds have a rather short compressed
bill; the upper mandible hooked at the point, and with a
prominent tooth. The base of the bill is beset with bristly
feathers directed forward. Four species are found in Britain ;
the Red-backed Shrike (Lan/us colluiio) is the most abundant.
This bird arrives in the early part of May, and leaves us again
in August. The nest, which is large, is placed in a thorn
hedge as a rule, some five or six feet from the ground. The
PASSERES (PARID). 427
food consists of lizards, mice, beetles, bees, and other insects.
The food, especially the insects, are impaled on thorns around
the nest, hence their com-
mon name “Butcher Bird.”
Three others are found in
the summer, namely, the
Great and Lesser Grey
Shrikes (L. excuditor and
minor), and the Woodchat
(ZL. pomeranus). The Fic. 228,—-HEAD oF SARIKE.
Butcher Bird is looked upon The Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio).
2 (Slightly enlarged.)
as one of the farmer’s friends;
but if one examines the larder of these birds one finds as
many beneficial and useful insects as injurious ones impaled
upon the thorns.
Tue Tits (Parip2).
This useful family of birds are often accredited with de-
stroying fruit-buds. If we examine the buds being attacked
by them, we shall find that they contain either some mite or
maggot, and thus they are doing us inestimable good. They
are all mainly insectivorous. The commonest species are
the Great Tit (Parus major) and the Blue Tit (P. ceruleus).
Both these birds peck the base of pears, and so do harm;
but they may be kept from this in plantations by growing
sunflowers, so that they seed the time the pears are ripening.
The Great Tit is more abundant in the south than the north.
It is extremely vicious, and its strong beak makes it a formid-
able enemy. It is said that it attacks other small birds, and
cracks their skull open to feed upon the brain. The chief food
consists of insects of various kinds, especially small larve and
pupe. Like all the Paride, the great tit is an expert climber,
hunting for grubs as it progresses up and round the tree-trunk
and boughs. They make their nests in all manner of queer
places, the nest being lined with fur, hair, and feathers, and
contains as many as eight or nine small white eggs spotted
428 BRITISH BIRDS.
and blotched with pale red. The head and throat are black,
back olive-green, breast and abdomen yellow, a black line
running down the breast; cheeks pure white.
The Blue Tit (P. cwruleus), sometimes called the Tomtit,
is another useful bird. It builds its nest in holes in walls,
trees, &c. The young are fed with small larve and plant-lice.
The old birds hunt the orchards and clear off endless hiber-
nating insects, such as codling moth larve, American blight,
aphis, and red-spider eggs. Sometimes they damage buds, but
it is nearly always for the enclosed mite. Most fruit-growers
now encourage it for the good it does.
The other British species also feed on a similar diet, varied
with nuts and seeds. Large numbers of blue tits seem to
come from the Continent in autumn and help to clear our
orchards of insect pests.
WarBLERS (SYLVIIN2).
The Warblers, such as the Whitethroat (Sylvia cinerea),
the Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus rufus), and many others, mainly
migrants, are insectivorous in habits. Some feed upon fruits
as well as insects; the Blackcap (Sylrva atricapitia), for in-
stance, often does much harm to red-currants and raspberries,
whilst abroad it attacks figs and oranges. The Garden Warbler
(S. hortensis) also does some harm, feeding off peas and fruit ;
but its young are brought up on caterpillars, especially those
of the noxious Pieride or Whites. Similar remarks apply to
all the species, of which there are some twenty recorded in
Great Britain. The young warblers differ but slightly from
the adults in coloration. The Whitethroats do endless good
in clearing off pea aphis, spruce chermes, Xe.
Turvsues, Buacksirps, &e. (Terpry.r).
The last sub-family of the Turdidee contains the Thrushes
and Blackbirds (Zwlux), the Wheatears (Sucicola), the Robin
(Lrithacus), and the Nightingale (Daulias), ke. The young of
PASSERES (TURDIN#). 429
the Turdine differ from the adults in plumage, always having
the upper parts more or less spotted. The Turdine live upon
insects, molluscs, seeds, and fruit.
The Blackbird (Lurdus merula) need not be described, as
it is too well known, It is a resident over the greater part
of Britain. It is no unusual thing to get white and piebald
specimens of the blackbird. The food is very varied: they
destroy many insects, and are especially useful as snail and
slug devourers; but they commit sad havoc with the fruit,
notably gooseberries, in the summer, especially in dry weather ;
they peck the best apples and pears and ruin them, and
as they have of recent years much increased they should be
shot in fruit districts. The hen is dusky-brown with a spotted
breast, whilst the beak is brown with yellow edges; the cock
is deep black with a yellow bill. The curious habit it has
of raising its tail whenever it perches will always enable the
observer to detect it. It nests very early, in bushes, trees,
and hedges: the nest is lined with fine grasses, in which are
laid five greenish-blue eggs streaked and spotted with reddish-
brown.
The Thrush (T. musicus) also feeds upon much the same
food. This beautiful song-bird, the “throstle” of the north
country, is found all over the islands. They often migrate
in large numbers, this movement taking place at night. The
nest, which may be made in February, is lined by a smooth
coating of dung and mud, and in it are laid four or five blue
eggs spotted with black or dark-brown. The food, although
similar to the blackbird, is more varied. They do an immense
amount of good in the garden by crushing and eating the snails,
and by devouring hordes of slugs, wood-lice, insect-grubs, &c.
The snails ave smashed, as a rule, against a stone or tree and
soon eaten; heaps of broken snail-shells may often be found
lying about, the remains of a “throstle’s” meal. They, how-
ever, do some harm to fruit, always taking the choicest kinds ;
but in“ordinary numbers they cannot be otherwise than looked
upon as gardeners’ friends.
430 BRITISH BIRDS.
The Fieldfare (1. pilaris) and the Redwing (7. ilacus) are
regular winter visitors, feeding upon insect-grubs and worms in
the fields and woods, unless the ground is covered with snow,
when berries are eaten.
The Missel-Thrush (T. viscivorus) is another permanent species,
the largest of the genus. It breeds in our islands, and its
numbers, like so many of our birds, are greatly augmented in
winter by migrants. The “storm-cock,” as it is sometimes
called, makes its nest in the fork of a bough of a tree as
early as February. In habits the missel-thrush is very vicious,
often attacking other birds and carrying off the nestlings. The
food consists of various wild berries, worms, snails, slugs, and
insects.
The Nightinyale (Deaulias luseinia) is found in the southern,
eastern, and midland counties of England. In the west it
becomes rare, and is almost unknown in Devon and Cornwall.
In Wales it is very rare, whilst it is quite unknown in West-
moreland, Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham, Scotland,
and Ireland. This noted singing bird comes to us about the
middle of April; but I have notes of its appearance in Sussex
and Kent as early as April 3. It leaves us again in the
autumn, either singly or in small flocks. Insects form the
chief food; but fruit, berries, and worms are also devoured.
The old birds migrate later in the year than the young.
The Turdinz are mostly beneficial, although at times they
rob us of our fruit, and, in the case of the blackbird, need
keeping in check; but the vermin that they kill would do
far more damage than they do. These birds have the most
highly developed voice, and their general structure places them
at the apex of bird organisation, the hrain especially being well
formed.
431
CHAPTER XVIL
EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
THe Eca or THE Fowl.
Ir is necessary that we should have a complete knowledge of
the structure and formation of the hen’s egg before we can
consider the stages that take place within it during the devel-
opment of the chick. To examine an egg we should be careful
first to obtain a fresh one, and then compare it with one that
has been kept some time. A fertile and an unfertile ovum
should likewise be compared.
The external envelope is the shell (fig. 229, Sh), which is
composed of two layers. The shell is impregnated with calcic
salts ; it is more or less porous, to allow the free interchange of
gases, which are necessary for the respiration of the contained
embryo during the process of incubation. The shell may
become coloured with pigment, both layers of it sometimes con-
taining colouring matter. Lining the shell are two thin skins,
the shell-membranes (Sh.77), the outermost layer being much
the thicker of the two. In a fresh egg these two shell-mem-
branes are closely approximated together, but can easily be
separated at the broad end of the egg. Every day the egg is
kept the farther these two membranes separate at the broad
end of the shell, forming in eggs that have been kept some
time a cavity called the air-chamber (Ac). This air-chamber
gradually increases in size as the white of the egg becomes
432 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
smaller by the evaporation of its water. Beneath the inner
shell-membrane is the white or albumen (11’) of the egg. This
white is a mixture of proteids, fats, extractives, and saline
matters. In this layer again we can distinguish between a
fresh and a stale egg: in a stale eg the outer albumen is
always more or less soft and watery, whereas in a fresh egg
it is quite firm. This white contains no less than 86 per cent
of water. The yolk lies within the white, and is enclosed in
Fia 229.—Ovum anp STRUCTURE OF a Fow.s Ecc
n, Nucleus; nu, nucleolus; Sk shell; Sh.m,
shell membranes; Ac, air chamber; IV, white (al-
bumen); V, yolk; Fy, yellow yolk; JVy. i, white
yolk of flask; I’y. ii, other layers of white yolk;
Ch, chalaza. (Modified after Allen Thomson.)
a thin membrane called the v/feline membrane, which is partly
elastic in nature, and easily seen puckered up when we break
the yolk of an egg.
The yolk (Y) itself is of two kinds, yellow and white, it,
however, mainly appears yellow in colour, except at one place
where a small round pale area exists, about the sixth of an
inch across, the so-called astoderm. The yellow yolk is sw-
rounded externally by a thin layer of white yolk which passes
under the blastoderm, where it extends into the middle of the
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE EGC, 433
egg, forming a flask-shaped central white mass of yolk (IVy. i).
It is this part that remains soft in a hard-boiled egg. Between
the outer thin layer of white yolk and the central flask-shaped
mass are several other thin concentric layers of a pale hue
(Wy. ii), so that the yolk of an egg really consists of alternate
thin white and thick yellow strata. Between the yolk and the
shell-membranes at each pole of the egg is a twisted cord—the
chalaza (Ch). These two chalaze do not quite touch the
nembranes, but spread out to a slight extent over the vitelline
membrane. ‘They act as buffers which help to keep the yolk
in its place.
The blastoderm. varies according as to whether the egg is
unfecundated or fertile. In an unfecundated egg this “spot”
is whitish in colour and more or less uniform all over; there
may be very irregular clear spaces in it. In a fertile egg we
shall see an opaque rim called the area opaca ; internal to this
a clear space, the area pellucida. In the middle of the latter
area is a central white body, formed by the upper neck of the
flask-shaped central white showing through. This blastoderm
is composed of two layers; the upper consists of a single row
of cells, the lower of a larger number more irregularly disposed.
Tur OrriciIn anD Formation or THE Ecc.
As previously pointed out, the left ovary only is found
normally in birds, situated on the left side of the backbone and
against the dorsal wall. The appearance of the ovary varies a
great deal with age. All we need consider here is the active
adult state in which it is found when the hen is laying. At
this period the ovary consists of a number of various-sized
vascular capsules, in each of which is a primitive ovum (fig.
214), The smallest or youngest ova are simple cells) Each
ovum contains a nucleus (fig 229, 2), otherwise the ‘“ germinal
vesicle”; in this latter is the nucleolus (nw) or germinal
spot The most recently formed ova are naked cells, and
25
434 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
about 1 mm. in size. A little later each ovum is enclosed in
two membranes—the inner a radiately striated membrane called
the zona radiata, the outer one lying between the zona and the
epithelial Jayer surrounding the ovum, the vitelline membrane.
The zona disappears, and leaves the ovum surrounded by the
vitelline membrane alone. The largest of the capsules then
contains a roundish yellow yolk-like body enclosed in a thin
membrane—the ovarian ovum. Upon this body will he observed
a small disc, the yeriminal disc, which consists of a globular
body, the germinal ves/cle, embedded in a mass of protoplasm.
This yolk mass is then the true ovum, and this alone. When
quite ripe it is dehisced from the orary and passed into the
funnel-like head of the oviduct. The reader must again he
referred back to p. 339, where the structure of the oviduct is
pointed out. It is in this oviduct that the white, shell, \c., of
the egg is formed, by secretions from its glandular walls. In
the second part of the tube, the oviduct proper, the albumen is
deposited, and then the chalazz and the alhuminous layers com-
pleted. At the lowest end of this second division the shell-
membrane is produced. It is said that the egg remains in the
oviduct proper about three hours. The shell is formed by the
walls of the third portion of the oviduct, the uterine portion.
From the glandular walls of this uterine tube there is poured
out a thick white covering to the egg, in which the inorganic
matter is deposited. It takes normally from fifteen to twenty
hours to traverse this part of the egg-tube. On leaving it the
egg is rapidly passed out of the cloaca by the muscular contrac-
tions of the uterus, te. Thus by knowing the structure and
function of the various parts of the oviduct, we ean tell what
portion is diseased when we find parts of the egg ill-formed,
such as absence of white or a thin shell.
The ege is fertilised in the first part of the oviduct, where
the spermatozoa may be found freely moving about in the
fluid contents of that cavity. After the egg is fertilised,
and the various phenomena dircetly following impregnation
THE BLASTODERM. 435
have taken place, the germinal area of the egg commences to
undergo the process known as segmentation. The bird’s egg
commences to segment soon after the egeshell is formed. The
germinal area, which is a single cell in the ovarian ovum, at
first divides into two by means of a furrow running across the
gerininal disc; this is shortly followed by another furrow at
right angles to it, but not quite symmetrically. Then each
of these quadrants becomes cut up by radiating furrows, and
each is cut across again in the centre by a cross-furrow, so that
the central cells are smaller than the outer ones. This cell-
division goes on rapidly, always with greater rapidity towards
the centre of the disc. Eventually the whole disc becomes
more or less equally divided into a number of small cells, not
only from above downwards, but horizontally also. The disc
Vig 230.—SEcTION THROUGH PART OF BLASTODERM (first day of incubation).
Ep, Epiblast ; Hy, hypoblast.
now becomes the Jlastoderm, in which we can distinguish two
layers. The cells of the upper layer are closely applied, small,
columnar, and with distinct nuclei, and form a definite mem-
brane. The lower masses are composed of larger cells some-
what rounded and irregularly disposed. This stage may be seen
on taking a section of the disc in an egg soon after it is laid.
From this two-layered blastoderm the bird is built up during
the twenty odd days of incubation. Only the area pellucida
takes place in the formation of the embryo; the area opaca
gives rise to various appendages of the embryo, which all
eventually disappear. The blastoderm, as mentioned above,
consists of two layers: the upper layer becomes the epcblast
(fig. 230, Ep), and the lower the hypohlast (Hy). Between
these two a third is formed, the mesovlast. These three ger-
436 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
minal layers are present in all animals. From the epiblast
arises the epidermis, the central nervous system, and sense-
organs; the mesoblast gives rise to the vascular, muscular,
skeletal, and connective tissues, excretory organs, and the
generative glands. The lowest layer forms the lining of the
alimentary canal (except near the mouth and anus, which
are lined by epiblast) and the glands attached to the alimentary
canal.
The blastoderm gradually grows round the yolk, and forms a
sac round it by the seventh day of incubation. The area opaca
is the part that covers the yolk, not the area pellucida. Whilst
this extension of the blastoderm is going on, the embryo chick
becomes formed by a folding-off of the central part of the area
pellucida. At first there appears a semilunar groove, which, as
it were, tucks in a small part of the blastoderm in the form of a
crescent—the head-fold. Some time after the formation of the
head-fold there appears a similar, but smaller, fold at the opposite
end of the disc—the tazl-fold—which travels forwards whilst
the head-fold passes backwards. Between these two folds two
lateral folds appear; these sink inwards, whilst the head-fold
passes backward and the tail-fold forwards, tending to join in
the middle line, and thus give rise to a small sac above, con-
nected by a continually narrowing neck with a larger sac below.
The upper is the “embryonic sac,” the lower the yolk-sac;
as the former grows the latter disappears. The yolk-sac is
gradually absorbed for nourishment by the embryo chick being
formed in the sac above. Within one or two days of hatching
we shall see this yolk-sac disappear into the chick. The em-
bryo thus folded off from the yolk-sac gradually thickens, and
throws out various processes, swellings, \c., to form the legs,
wings, and other parts by unequal growth. Internally more
complicated changes go on. On the upper surface is seen a
streak, the primitive streak, in which appears a depression,
the primitive groove. In front of the primitive groove there
is formed a thickening of the epiblast, the medullary plate, the
GROWTH OF THE BLASTODERM. 437
sides of which, the medullary folds (m'), grow up and meet,
forming a tube, the neural tube, the future cerebro-spinal canal
(fig. 232, Hb). Below this, during the first day, appears pre-
viously a rod of cells, the future notochord (V9).
The blastoderm early in development becomes thickened by
the growth of the mesoblast (Mes). The mesoblast on each
side then cleaves into two layers. The upper part of the
mesoblast unites with the epiblast to form an outer layer, the
lower with the hypoblast to form a lower and inner layer.
These two layers, known respectively as the upper, outer, or
somatopleure, and the lower, inner, or splanchnopleure, grow
down and meet to form two tubes. The inner tube, lined
Fic, 231.—Traxsverse Secrion or BLasTopERM, incubated for eighteen
hours. (After Foster and Balfour.)
Ep, Epiblast; Mes, mesoblast; Hy, hypoblast; md, medullary groove; m/f, medul-
Jury fold; Not, notochord,
by hypoblast, is the alimentary canal, wnich in time becomes
perforated at each end by two infoldings of the epiblast, form-
ing the mouth and anus. The outer tube forms the tube of
the body, the space between these two tubes being the body
cavity. The embryonic sac is connected with the yolk-sac by a
gradually narrowing hollow stalk. This stalk, like the embryonic
sac, is double, there being a somatic and a splanchnic tube: the
splanchnic tube connects the alimentary canal with the cavity
of the yolk-sac ; the somatic stalk connects the body walls of
the embryo with the somatopleure of the yolk-sac. Very soon
in development the splanchnic canal becomes obliterated, and
thus shuts off the yolk from entering the alimentary tube. The
438 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
yolk then finds its way into the body of the chick by means of
absorption through the small blood-vessels. When the period
of incubation is nearly complete the yolk-sac, which has gradu-
ally dwindled away, owing to the absorption of its contents, is
withdrawn with its splanchnic membrane into the abdomen of
the chick, and the walls of the abdomen close over it, leaving
the somatic layer to shrivel up and disappear.
Another embryonic membrane of great import arising with
the two layers referred to above is the amnion (ride fig. 235),
The amnion is a membrane which arises from the somatopleure
by a series of folds, and which envelops the embryo completely.
Beneath these folds, which constitute the amnion, lies the em-
bryo in a cavity filled with liquid—the amniotic cavity (AC).
Each fold is composed of two layers, and when they meet above
the embryo, the inner limbs go to form an inner layer and the
outer a similar outer sac. The inner sac is the amnion proper,
and contains the amniotic fluid. The outer sac les cluse tu the
vitelline membrane of the yolk, while its peripheral borders
extend, as the somatopleuric layer mentioned before, over the
yolk-sac. This outer sac is the false amnion or serous meni-
brane, and must not be confounded with the true amnion.
Lastly, we find an embryonic investment formed as a diver-
ticulum from the alimentary canal. This foetal membrane is
the allantois (al), forming a projecting sac in the pleuro-
peritoneal cavity, which grows up between the true and false
amniotic sacs. The allantois then becomes full of blood-
vessels, and overlies the developmg embryo, assuming a
respiratory function.
Such, briefly, are the general structures of the embryo and
its membranes at an early period of development. We shall
now trace some of the more important changes and growths
that appear from day to day during the incubation of the
ege.
Changes during the first day.—During the first day of incuba-
tion the third or mesoblastic layer appears (Ves, fig. 231). This
CHANGES DURING FIRST DAY. 439
mesoblast originates as two masses from the hypoblast, and the
notochord referred to below arises in a similar way and at the
same time. Lefore the end of the twelfth hour a streak appears
at one end of the area pellucida, the primitive streak, which is
due to the thickening of the middle portion of the blastoderm by
rapid cell-division of the epiblast. About this time the germinal
area alters in appearance, the area pellucida becoming oval, and
then about the fifteenth hour pear-shaped, and the primitive
streak becomes the primitive groove by a lateral fold arising
on each side. Between the seventeenth and twentieth hours
there appears an axial opaque line below the primitive streak ,
this is the notochord (Not), which is composed of a number of
concentrated cells. There then appears a groove in front of the
primitive streak, the medullary groove (md), in a thickened epi-
blastic plate, which gives rise to the central nervous system ;
this is plainly seen about the twentieth hour. At the same time
there will be noticed a fold in front of the head-fold that is com-
mencing to appear; this is the amnion. From now to the end
of the first day development proceeds rapidly. The head is
definitely commencing to form. In front the medullary folds
unite in the region of the future brain, forming a canal, the
neural canal. The mesoblast on each side of the notochord
beneath the medullary folds becomes cut up into a number of
cubical plates ; these are called mesoblast/c somites, from which
the voluntary muscles of the trunk and vertebrae are formed.
The embryo now grows rapidly, and the primitive streak grows
backwards. Similarly changes have taken place in the area
opaca during the first twenty-four hours. The area vpacu has
spread out over the yolk and reaches the size of a sixpence, and
that portion of it nearest the area pellucida can be told by its
mottled appearance ; this will become the vascular area of the
embryo.
Changes during the second day.—During the second day the
embryo presents very marked changes. The head end becomes
prominent. The medullary folds in the cephalic region are
440 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
quite closed. In front the neural tube has become swollen,
forming the first cerebral resicle, and from each side of this
vesicle, by the rapid proliferation of the epiblastic cells, two
processes grow out—the opti: res/cles, A second and third
vesicle then appear behind the first, and behind the third
vesicle two pits, the auditory pits, the future organs of hear-
ing. During the first half of the second day the heart (Ht)
appears in the head-fold, its origin being connected with that
cleavage of the mesoblast already referred to. It is formed in the
pleuro-peritoneal space shown in fig. 232, and situated just beneath
the developing fore-gut (a/). At first the heart is flask-shaped,
Mic, 232 —TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH PosTERIOR Parr or THE HEAD OF
AN Empryo Cuick or Turrty Hovrs.
ifb, Hind-brain ; Cr, vagus nerve; Ep, epiblast; not, notochord ; mes, mesoblast ;
al, throat ; Ji, heart; Hy, hypoblast. (After Foster and Balfour.)
with a swelling at its anterior end and another behind, the future
auricles, The heart is formed entirely from mesoblast, on the
ventral side of the throat, by a curious process of hollowing out
of the splanchnic mesoblast: some of the original central cells
become blood - corpuscles, Concomitant with the appearance
of the heart is the vascular system, which consists of a number
of tubes hollowed out in the mesoblast. Blood-corpuscles are
rapidly formed in masses in the vascular area, called blood-ixhinds,
By degrees the heart becomes S-shaped, the right-hand curve of
CHANGES DURING THIRD DAY. 441
the S being venous and the left-hand curve arterial. The venous
bend has two bulges, the future auricles, the ventricles appear-
ing at the other bend. The first true circulation of the blood
takes place during the close of the second day. The heart at
this stage gives rise to fwu avrte ; these later unite into one
trunk behind the head, and towards the tail this trunk gives
rise to two vitelline arteries, which run to and are lost in the
vascular area. Here two veins arise from the capillary net-
work, the vitelline veins, which run back to the heart. In this
stage we may find two, or even three, pairs of aortic arches.
The whole embryo is raised up from the blastoderm, and the
head end becomes bent. In the region of the middle somites
there appears a small mass of cells seen in a transverse section ;
this is a ridge, the primitive excretory or Wolfian duct, which
becomes hollow, and connected with the embryonic excretory
organs, the Wolffian bodies.
Changes during the thin? day,—One of the most noticeable
things in an egg on the third day of incubation is the dis-
appearance of much of the white, which has been absorbed
directly by the blood-vessels and indirectly by the diminishing
yolk. The vascular area has much increased, and not only now
supplies the embryo with food from the yolk, but by virtue
of its external position (lying against the shell) it takes part in
the respiration of the embryo. The amnion forms a complete
investing membrane, and the whole embryo comes to lie on its
left. side. The head region also becomes much bent under,
forming the cranial flexure, the second brain vesicle now being
in front, the first bent below. On examining a section through
the brain region we shall see that there appears a process on each
side of the summit of the brain: these lateral processes are the
origin of the cranial nerves (fig. 232, Cr), They are formed
as paired outgrowths, which afterwards shift their attachment
to the floor of the brain. Similarly the spinal nerves now arise
and become divided into three parts—a root, a ganglion, and
the distal nerve. At this period the eyes are formed by the
449 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
optic vesicles becoming folded in, in front, producing a cup-
shaped depression, and the optic stalk becomes small and con-
verted into the optic nerve. From this cup-shaped vesicle the
various parts of the eye arise. The epiblast over the vesicles
becomes thickened and folded into them; the mouth of the
vesicle is closed, and the whole part pushed in breaks off
and forms the lens. The mesoblast round the optic vesicles
vives rise to the choroid and sclerotic, whilst in front the meso-
blast grows over the lens and forms the cornea, the epiblast
over it simply forming the epithelial covering. The organs of
hearing and smell also arise as epiblastic invaginations, the
former showing on the second day, the latter only on the third.
In the neck region appear those curious structures found in
all vertebrates, the résevral clefts. The visceral clefts are fissures
that pass through the walls of the throat to the pharynx.
There are four on each side, and they are formed by a pushing
out of the internal hypoblast and a pushing in of the external
epiblast until a perforation is made. On the anterior border of
cach cleft is wu thick fold, the asceral fol’ (fig. 233, F 1 to F 3),
the fourth cleft having two folds. These visceral clefts are rem-
nants of pre-existing gill-slits. The first pair of folds only remain
in a modified form, taking part in the formation of the mouth
and mandibles, They each send off a branch during the third
day to the anterior edge ; these two branches nearly meet, but
are separated by a median process. Between the main folds a
space appears; this becomes the mouth (./). The second and
third arches partly remain as the hyoid bones, the last two
becoming quite obliterated. The first visceral cleft persists,
being connected with the auditory organ, becoming the Eus-
tachian tube and tympanic cavity.
The three parts of the alimentary canal on the third day unite.
From the cesophagus the lungs arise as bud-like outgrowths.
Liver and pancreas also make their appearance by a similar
process, both the latter arising between the fifty-fifth and
sixtieth hours of incubation—the liver as two diverticula from
CHANGES DURING FOURTIE DAY. 443
the duodenum, and the pancreas as one solid outgrowth slightly
behind the liver, From the somites now arise the muscle-
plates, and the Wolffian bodies or primitive kidneys become
fully developed.
Changes during the fourth duy.——A still further diminution of
white is seen; the embryo, which has very much grown, hes
close to the shell-membrane. More than half the yolk is now
ASS
=
Fic, 238.—Hrap or EmMpryo Cuick or THE FourtH Day.
CH, Cerebral hemispheres ; FB, vesicle of the third ventricle ; OP, eyeball; nf, naso-
frontal process; M, cavity of mouth; SA/, superior maxillary process of F. 1, the first
visceral fold; F. 2 and 8, second and third visceral folds; N, nasal pits; e, neck be-
tween third and fourth visceral folds cut across; al, alimentary canal; V, jugular
veins; AO, dorsal aorta; nc, neural canal; ch, notochord. (After Foster and Balfour.)
invested by the germinal membrane, and the blood-area is about
an inch in diameter. The amnion obscures the view of the
chick, which lies beneath it. Both cranial flexure and tail-fold
have much increased, and thus the embryo appears spirally coiled.
On each side of the chick is now seen a long ridge—the Wolffian
ridge; on this there appear two anterior and two posterior bud-
like outgrowths, the limbs. The anterior buds or wings arise near
444 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
the heart, the legs near the tail, The eyeballs (fig. 233, OP)
project to a large extent, and the primitive skull begins to form
in the mesoblast surrounding the brain. The true vertebra
arise from the old somites by a fresh segmentation, which does
not follow that of the old segmentation of the muscle-plates.
Each vertebra is formed of parts of two somites. The vertebral
column now becomes supported by cartilage, and the notochord
vacuolated and eventually squeezed out by subsequent ossifica-
tion. Between the cightieth and hundredth hours the permanent
kidneys appear. ‘The tube of the kidney appears first as a
diverticulum from the Wolffian duct. The kidney arises from
a mass of mesoblastic cells closely applied to the Wolffian hody,
but this mass soon breaks off from the former. From the
ureters there eventually grow out a number of tubules which
become continuous with the cells of the metanephros and become
the true kidney tubules. The kidneys are complete by the
seventh day. Lastly, during the fourth day the generative
organs develop; but at this time it is impossible to tell the sex,
for the first-formed cells, the primitive cells, are the same in both
male and female. The duct of the ovary, of which only one,
the right, as a rule, remains, is formed from the Miillerian duct,
that of the testes from the Wolffian ducts. The allantois now
receives two branches from the dorsal aorta; these umbilival
arteries become very important towards the close of this day.
The first aortic arch, which runs in the first visceral fold,
degenerates, and a new one appears as the fourth arch. The
second pair also nearly disappear, and then a fifth pair come as
the fifth arch. We thus still get three pairs of aortic arches,
but placed farther back. Part of each remains to form the in-
ternal and external carotids, The hepatic circulation also be-
comes complete, and the mesenteric veins of the alimentary
canal appear, and the septum of the ventricles now shuts off the
right and left half of that chamber.
Changes during the fifth day—The whole yolk is now
enclose in the blastoderm and about two-thirds covered by the
CHANGES DURING SIXTH AND SEVENTH DAYS. 445
vascular area. The allantois forms a large vascular patch on
the right side, and the embryo is so curved that head and
tail nearly meet. The limbs have greatly increased and become
bent to form the elbow and knee, and the parts to become bone
are invaded by cartilage. Cartilaginous bars also arise in the body
walls, the ribs: some of the ventral parts of the ribs unite and
form a cartilaginous sternum. ‘The bones of the skull also
arise, and cartilaginous rods in the visceral arches. The face
undergoes great alterations, including the closing in of the nasal
passages by nasal processes. Great changes also appear in the
heart: the ventricles become pointed, and the auricular septum
begins to show, the cavity of the auricles separating from the
ventricles. The ventricles do not completely divide until after
the thirteenth day of incubation. It is not until this day that
the cells of the chick become properly differentiated, and from
now they rapidly vary in each part, forming the various definite
tissues that build up the body.
Changes during the sirth and seventh days.—On these days
the embryo becomes distinctly marked with avian features.
On opening the egg we shall note that the body is not so flexed,
and also that the neck of the bird is more prominent. Still we
may observe the heart hanging out of the body; but it com-
mences to become enclosed by the thoracic walls, supported by
the developing cartilaginous ribs. The cerebral hemispheres
are quite large. By the seventh day we can see no traces of
the visceral clefts, and the mouth and face assume avian char-
acters. The amniotic cavity is quite large on the sixth day,
being filled with liquor amnii, and gradually increases ; and on
the seventh day this amnion moves in a rhythmical manner :
by this pulsating movement the embryo is rocked to and fro in
the egg.
From the eighth day onwards.—During the eighth, ninth, and
tenth days of incubation rapid growth takes place. The allan-
tois is spread out as a sac over most of the yolk and serves as
the chief organ of respiration, and the yolk-sac rapidly decreases
446 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK,
in size. About the eleventh day one can tell to what group the
embryo belongs, generic characters being often plainly marked.
Feathers begin to appear as papillz on the ninth day along the
back and rump. ‘These feathers remain in sacs until the nine-
teenth and twentieth days, but their colour shines through the
sac. we, umbilical vesicle; am, amnion; ch, chorion; >, decidua sero-
dina; c, decidua vera; f, decidua reflexa; £7, Fallopian tube; g, cervix uteri; «, foetal
villi of placenta; e, embryo. (From Huxley, after Longet.)
chorion increases, the villi becoming much branched and form-
ing the chorion frondosum, This latter structure and the decidua
serotina form the true placenta. This placenta is discoidal, but
it is ventral, whereas the placenta of the rabbit is dorsal. At
birth the placenta and the fused decidua rera and reflera are
all shed, and the ruptured blood-vessels of the uterine wall
closed by its rapid contraction.
3. The zonary plarentu.—Here the placenta is in the form of
a broad band. The yolk-sae never fuses with the chorion. At
first the allantois fuses with the sub-zonal membrane, at one
PLACENTA. 457
part only forming a discoidal patch; but this grows out all
round, and invades the whole of the sub-zonal membrane
except at the poles. There is thus formed a broad placental
band, where the villi closely unite with the uterine pits
specially formed.
4, Cotyledonary placenta (fig. 238).—This is characterised by
SACs
AN i,
\\ [Any
Fic. 238.—Farus or SHEEP.
AL, Allantois, seen beneath chorion; Am, amnion; P, P, placente on chorion; C,
umbilical cord ; al, al, extremities of allantoidean cornua. (Chauveau.)
the villi of the placenta being found in round scattered areas,
the coty/eduns, which fit into corresponding thick areas studded
with pits in the uterus.
5. In the diffuse placenta (fig. 239) the allantois (al) com-
pletely surrounds the embryo (/), and the whole chorion (Ch)
MAMMALIA,
458
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PERIODS OF GESTATION. 459
has villi studded over it except at the poles, where small areas
are devoid of them.
All mammals except the Monotremes and Marsupials have a
placenta in one of these five forms.
The length of gestation in farm animals has been divided by
Gurlt into seven periods. The last period and the dimensions
of the embryo are given in the table below :—
SPECIES. SEVENTH (LAST) PERIOD. ear cha ars
Mare From 35th to 48th week About 454 inches.
Cow un 38rd to 40th on nu 82h on
Sheep n 19th to 21st 4 vn 192 4
Sow un 15thto17th From 93 to 104 inches.
Bitch 9th week F . n 64to 82 4
The weight of the foetus of the mare at birth varies according
to breed. The lowest, in the Corsican mare, is 35 Ib.; in a
Suffolk-Boulonnaise mare, Chauveau mentions 135 lb. The
weight of a calf at birth is about 2°31 parts of the cow, a
lamb 10 to 11 Ib, a pig 5 Ib, and a chick 14 ounce.
+60
CHAPTER XIX.
MAMMA LI A—Continued.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS.
BRITISH MAMMALS (DOMESTIC AND WILD).
MamMALIA are divided into three sub-classes — namely, the
Ornithodelphia, the Didelphia, and the Muonocelphia’—which
are characterised by the following features :—
A, The Ornithodelphia have the two uterine enlargements
of the oviducts separate, forming two uteri, each of which opens
direct into a cloacal chamber like a bird, and not into a single
vagina. This cloaca also receives the rectum and ureters.
Chorion absent. Here are placed the Monotremata, to which
belong the Echidna and Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus).
B. The Didelphia, characterised by the uterine enlargements
1 Huxley, in the ‘Proceedings’ of the Zool. Soc. for 1880, p. 649, pro-
posed the following names for these three groups: (1) Prototheria, (2)
Metatheria, (3) Eutheria. Dr Gadow, in his classification of the Verte-
brata, follows Huxley’s three divisions, and groups the Mammals in the
following order :—
Sub-class 1. Prototheria (Monotremata, Xe. |
Sub-class 2. Metatheria (Marsupials).
Sub-class 3. Eutheria.
Order 1, Edentata. Order 2, Trogontia (including the “Rodentia).
Order 38, Cetacea. Order 4, Sirenia. Order 5, Ungulata (including
Hyracoidea and Proboscidea). Order 6, Carnivora. Order 7, Insectivora.
Order 8, Chiroptera. Order 9, Primates.
ORNITHODELPHIA. 461
of the oviducts opening into two separate vagine, which have
distinct apertures in the urogenital canal, the rectum being
separated. Chorion ahsent. Coracoids reduced, not reaching
the sternum. Males without cloaca. To this group belong the
Marsupialia or Pouch-Bearers.
C. The Monodelphia, which have the two uterine enlarge-
ments of the oviducts united to form one uterine cavity, with
its two cornua, and by the single vagina, which is completely
separate from the rectum. Chorion and placenta present.
Coracoids reduced to a process only. This division contains all
the remaining mammals, which include the following :—
(i) Edentata or Sloths.
(ii) Sirenia or Manatees.
(iii) Cetacea or Whales.
(iv) Ungulata or Hoofed Animals.
(v) Hyracotdea or Conies.
(vi) Proboscidea or Elephants.
(vii) Carnivora or Beasts of Prey.
(vill) Rodentia or Rodents.
(ix) Chiroptera or Bats.
(x) Insectivora or Moles, Shrews, &c.
(xi) Quadrumana or Monkeys.
(xii) Bimana or Man.
Seven of these orders only are met with in the British Isles.
The other five need little consideration.
; = Ungulata.
\ = Primates.
A. ORNITHODELPHIA
= PROTOTHERIA.
MONOTREMATA.
These are the lowest animals, and approach the Sauropsida
nearer than other Mammalia. The two most noted forms are
the Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) and the poreupine-
like Echidnas. These animals all have a regular cloaca ; there
462 MAMMALIA.
are no teeth in Echidna, whilst the duck-bill has four horny
pads in their place. The pectoral arch is like that of Saurop-
sids—namely, the coracoid bones reach the sternum, and an
interclavicle is present. The pelvis is furnished with special
tendinous ossifications, forming the peculiar “ marsupial bones,”
although the female carries no pouch as in the marsupial animal.
The Monotremes come from Australia, Tasmania, and New
Guinea. The females have no nipples to the mamme, and lay
eggs covered by a flexible shell. These are the only oviparous
mammals.
B. DIDELPHIA
= METATHERIA.
MARSUPIALIA or POUCH-BEARERS.
No marsupial animals exist in Europe. Their present
geographical distribution is very limited: the majority are
found in Australia and the adjacent islands, where the entire
indigenous fauna is marsupial. A few species (Opossums) are
found in America and others in the Indian Archipelago (Mac-
ropus, Cuscus, &c.) The “ Pouch-Bearers” have distinct teeth
placed in sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is nearly
always inflected. A ‘marsupial bone” is always present
attached to the edge of the pelvis: its function in the female
is to act as a support for the pouch and to aid the action of the
mamme. In the males, which have no pouch, it may he in
some way connected with the testes. The “ marsupium” or
“pouch” is always present in the female, and has the nipples of
the mamme inside it: in this pouch the young, which are born
in an immature state, are carried for some time by the mother.
The long mamme force their way into the young marsupial’s
mouth without its aid; as soon as they can suck naturally, they
leave the pouch and return to it for nourishment whenever they
reyuire it, A peculiarity in the male is that the testes, which
are in a scrotum, are situated in front of the penis and not
MONODELPHIA. 463
behind asin most mammalia. In this group are the Kangaroos
(Macropodide), Wombats (Phascolomys), Phalangers (Phalan-
gistide), Opossums (Dedelphidiw), and the carnivorous Tasmania
Devil (Dasyurus), &c.
Fossil species are found in the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire,
and previously in the Triassic rocks.
C. MONODELPHIA
= EUTHERIA.
UNGULATA or HOOFED ANIMALS.
The Ungulata or Hoofed Animals include several of our
Tia, 240 —FeErr or UnauLata.
a, Artiodactyle foot (Pig). B, Perissodactyle foot (Horse).
domestic animals, such as the horse, ass, mule, pig, goat, sheep,
and oxen. It is one of the largest and most important orders of
464 MAMMALIA.
Mammalia. Ungulates have all four limbs touching the ground
by the last toe-joint only, and that joint is enshrouded in a case
or hoof of horn (except Hyracvidea). The hoof is an expanded
nail. In no ungulate do we find more than four toes to each
limb. Clavicles are absent. There are always two sets of teeth,
milk-teeth and permanent teeth ; the molars have always broad
crowns (fig. 243), adapted for chewing and grinding vegetation,
upon which all the Ungulata live. The Ungulata are divided
into two sections :—
1. Perissodactyl.—Toes always odd in number on hind feet,
either one or three (fig. 240, B). Stomach simple.
Fibula articulates with astragalus.
2. Artiodactyla.—Toes always even in number, being two or
four to each foot (A). Stomach complex. Fibula
articulates with astragalus and calcaneum.
Section 1. Perissodactyla.
This section includes the horses, tapirs, and rhinoceros, in
which the stomach is simple, and a large cecum is present as
seen in the horse. ‘The hind-feet are odd-toed in all perisso-
dactyla, and the fore-feet in many. The third toe always forms
the functional axis. The dorso-lumbar vertebre are never less
than twenty-two in number, and the femur has always a third
trochanter. If horns are present, they never have bony cores
as in cattle.
We need refer to one family only, the Equipx, So.ip-
uNGULA, or Sonrpeps. The Equide are the horses, asses, and
zebras. The features of these can be taken from the descrip-
tion of the horse already given. All our domestic varieties are
considered one species, Aquus vaballus. At Solutré are immense
bone-beds with horse remains: the descendants of these are
probably the Ardennes horses, one of the long-headed races
which seem very similar to the fossil ones of Solutré. From
these also are descended the semi wild horses in the delta of
EQUIDA, 465
the Rhone and in Alsace. The two great races of horses are
the Oriental and the Occidental. In the Oriental or Arabian
we get the skull covering the brain strongly developed, and the
facial part smaller; the enamel of the molars of the upper jaws
have few folds, and the limbs are fine. The Occidental Horse
has a much larger development of the facial part of the skull ;
the skull is long and narrow, the rims of the eye-cavities stand
somewhat forward, and the enamel folds of the crescents of the
upper molars are complicated. The bones are also thicker and
more massive, but less hard, than the Oriental. These two
main races of Equus caballus, the Arab and the cart-horse,
have undoubtedly descended from a common stock, yet now
represent two quite distinct races. Wild horses were once
abundant in Europe and Asia, as their remains in the Diluvium
testify, and from these our Lguus caballus has descended. In
America, although we have plenty of equine remains, the genus
Equus never advanced in a wild state so near our present horse
as did the diluvial horses of Europe and Asia.
The Ass (£. asinus) was domesticated before the horse.
Unlike the horse, there are no warts or chestnuts on the hind-
legs, and there is always a conspicuous line along the back,
whilst the tail is long, with a tutt of long hair at the extremity.
The ass is a native of North Africa, and probably descended
from either the Onager (Z. onager) or Kiang (£. hemionus). It is
also said by some to be descended from £. tentopus of 8.-E. Asia.
Fossil horses exist in the Eocene rocks of America, known
as Eohippos, in which the fore-feet have four toes and the
remnant of a fifth, and the hind-feet three. The Eohippos was
about the size of a dog. A division higher in the Eocene,
another genus, Orohippos, makes its appearance. In the Miocene
rocks we get another form, the Méohippos, which has three toes
on each foot, all touching the ground. In the Pliocene of
Europe we find a fossil horse called Hipparion in which three
toes exist on each foot, but the middle one alone touches the
ground. Towards the end of the Pliocene period we get the
26
466 MAMMALIA.
Protohippos in America, whose foot resembles that of Hip-
purion —the existing genus Equus not appearing until Post.
Pliocene times.
Fic. 241.—SKELETON OF Foot IN VARIOUS FORMS OF Eyt Ib.t.
ods ie ee ees EUS haus eons aad
(Nicholson, utter Marsh.)
There seem to be two distinct lines of descent, one in America
and one in Europe. In America the stages are Eohippos,
Orohippos, Mesohippos, Miohippos, Protohippos, Plohippos,
and Equus. In Europe, Hyracotherium, Paleotherium, Anchi-
therium, Hipparion, and Equus.!
1 The living and extinct horses are tabulated as follows by Dr Gadow :—
Equide. Lower molars quadrituberculate, or with two transverse
ridges curved into two half-moons. Toes, 4, 3, or }. Since Eocene.
Hyracotherium Toes, 4 Lower Eocene, England.
ye
Eohippos Lower Eocene, Wyoming.
Paleotherium Eocene to Miocene, Europe and U.S.A.
Mesohippos Jas + Lower Miocene, Dakota.
Anchitherium Upper Miocene of Europe=Miohippos, U.S.A.
Hipparion . Toes, 3. Upper Miocene of Europe, Asia, and U.S.A.
Protohippos . Toes, %. Pliocene, U.S.A.
Plichippos - Toes, }. Pliocene, U.S.A.
Hippidion - Toes, }. Pleistocene, S. America,
Equus. - Toes, }. Since Miocene in India ; since Pliocene in
Europe. During Pleistocene cosmopolitan,
excluding Australian region.
(‘Classification of Vertebrata,’ p. 47.)
AGE OF THE HORSE LY ITS TEETH. 467
In America the horse died out, but the line continued in Europe
and Asia to the present day. )
Thus we have every gradation from a four-toed horse to the
existing one-toed animal.
The Age of the Horse tuld by its Teeth.—The teeth of the
horse vary with age, so that we can tell approximately their
age by an examination of the mouth. The incisors of the
upper jaw appear sooner than those
of the lower jaw. The front milk-
incisors come through the gum
about a week after birth, the middle
milk -incisors at the age of five
weeks. At nine months the corer
milk - incisors are apparent. The
permanent incisors appear as fol-
lows: the front when the horse is
two and a half, the middle when
three and a half, the corner ones
when four and a half years old.
The milk-incisors are distinguished — pyg, 242. —Sxcrtow or Liorse’s
by being shorter and whiter and ‘S08 Toot#. (Chauveau.)
i 1, Dentine; FE, enamel; c, cement.
with a narrower neck than the per- qe dentine envelopes the an
manent ones; they also become em fa comnts (th ib
gradually shorter, which is not the Ponies hier Wea Ike
case with the permanent incisors. sents twp tings, an outer and the
The number of back tecth ab ;uamel,endis Moke! tn the bol
birth, or soon after, is twelve,
three on each side of each jaw ; these are in the position of the
three first molars. ‘The permanent molars appear as follows:
the Ist and 2nd at about two and a half years ; the 3rd at three
and a half years; the 4th at from ten to twelve months;
the 5th at two years, and the 6th at four years. The true
molars—that is, the fourth, fifth, and sixth double teeth—
have no milk-teeth in their place.
The date of appearance of the canines—the tushes—in the
male is variable.
468 MAMMALIA.
The normal number of teeth in a horse with a so-called “ full
3-3 1-1 3-3 338
oe eae ee
—the canines being absent in the mare.
Wolf-teeth ave single-fanged teeth, sometimes present in
front of the back teeth, in the upper jaw generally. Both
“tushes” and wolf-teeth are per-
manent, but the latter are often soon
shed.
The following may be taken as in-
dications of the age from birth to
thirty years old :—
1. At birth.—The front milk-incisors
can be plainly seen under the
ms.
ete needs Were 2. ene month.—The front milk-
Morar. (Chauveau.) ee
incisors are through the gums,
mouth” is forty —namely, 7
A, External cement; B, ex-
ternal enamel; c, dentine; D, the upper and lower ones meet-
internal enamel; £, internal ‘ . F
crusta pvtrosa. ing, the middle ones just show.
The structure of the molars
resembles that of incisors, but 3. At Jive months,
is more complicated. The in-
The middle and
ternal cavity is much diver- lower incisors meet and the
ticulated and enveloped by :
dentine. The enamel is placed corner ones just show.
over it, and doubled in as in 7 Se
the indiser, ‘There is seen on 4 A yearling.—The corner incisors
the worn table an external “
covering of enamel and two are through but do not yet
circles of central enamel sur-
rounding the two areas of in- meet.
ternal cement. The cement re ro
fils te the depressions pe the 5. A two-year-old.—Central enamel
aa SEs Conn ep ey of middle incisors of both jaws
now forms a complete ring.
6. At two and a half years. —Front milk-teeth fall out in
upper jaw and become replaced by permanent ones.
7. A three-year-old.—The four permanent incisors are nearly
level (front incisors).
8. At four years.— Middle milk-incisors are out and per-
manent ones come. Tushes begin to show.
9. At five years.—Permanent incisors all level. The central
10.
Li.
13.
14.
16
ARTIODACTYLA. 469
enamel of the front and middle incisors show complete
rings. Tushes quite out of gum.
At stir years.—Inner edge of corner incisors worn flat,
central enamel in complete ring. Tables of front
incisors oval. The cement of the front incisors has
nearly gone.
At seven years.—The posterior edge of the lower corner
incisor is well in advance of that of upper jaw, giving
the upper incisor a hook-like projection.
. At eight years.— Lower incisors with oblique direction.
A yellow transverse line—the dental star—is well
marked in the front incisors.
At ten years.—Tables of front and middle lower incisors
become rounded and the central enamel triangular.
The front incisors also have become longer and nar-
rower, and more or less triangular in shape. This
becomes more and more advanced with age.
At thirteen yeurs.—Central enamel] has nearly gone from
lower incisors.
. At twenty-one years.—The middle and corner incisors
converge inwards.
At thirty years.—The incisors are in nearly a straight
line, and the tables are broadest from the front to
the back.
Section 2. Artiodactyla.
Toes even in number, either two or four. The functional
axis passes between the third and fourth toes. Dorso-lumbar
vertebrae nineteen, and there is no third trochanter to the
femur.
The horns when present are always supported on
bony cores or projections from the frontal bones of the skull
(fig. 247, 3). The stomach is (with the exception of one group)
more or less complex, there being several divisions, some of
which are probably dilatations of the cesophagus ; the cecum is
470 MAMMALIA.
very small and simple in form, The families for our considera-
tion are the Nie or Pigs, and the Ruminant families Curi-
rarnia or Boridiw (Oxen), Ocihe (Sheep and Croats), and the
Cerride (Deer).
NON-RUMINANTS (=BUNODONTA).
The non-ruminating Artiodactyla are often called Pachy-
dermata on account of the thick bristly skin, and have four
toes in the Hippopotamus touching the ground; in the Pigs two
are rudimentary. The molars are tuberculate.
The Suipm or Pras have two functional toes, the other two
not touching the ground—the so-called ‘ dew-claws ” of the pig.
Now and then the first digit is present, arising from the tra-
pezium, but such cases are very rare. Canine teeth are large in
the males, forming the “tusks” of the boars. The teeth (fig.
244) vary in number in each species of pig. In the domestic
pig the dental formula is—
3—3 1—1 3—3 4—4
re j Pn gs = 44.
a
The stomach of the pig is simple like that of the horse, but less
curved on itself; the cardia has a small conical dilatation, like a
cowl turned backwards. The capacity is from 1} to 2 gallons.
The blunt snout is provided with a peculiar bone called the
“scooping-bone.” ‘The pig’s intestine resembles that of the
ox; it is 72 feet long. The mesentery that suspends the small
intestine contains an elongated mass of lymphatic glands, the
so-called mesenteric glan?. The caecum is sacculated as in the
horse, with three longitudinal muscle hands. The penis is
twisted spirally when flaccid. The testicles are round, and the
scrotum narrow and but little detached. At the prepuce is a
special pouch which secretes an unctuous fluid, which even
taints the flesh, The mamme are usually ten in number, In
the brain there are few cerebral convolutions. There are four
SUID.E OR PIGS, 471
teen pairs of ribs in the pig ; the carpus consists of cight bones,
the trapezium being fully developed ; there are also seven hones
in the tarsus.
Most of our domestic swine have probably descended from
Fic, 244.—Tretu or Pic.
1, Upper teeth, table surface ; 2, lower teeth ; 3, lateral view of jaws. (Chauvean.)
the Wild Boar (Sus serofi). The wild boar at one time in
habited this country, but has long since been extinct. It is
MAMMALIA.
472
RUMINANTS, 173
black to rusty-brown in colour when adult, and where it appears
on the Continent seems to revel in damp thickly vegetated areas,
hiding during the day and coming out at night to feed. The
food consists of roots of various kinds, corn, potatoes, acorns
and other nuts, and insects, worms, &ec., in the soil, and even
voles. The wild boar when fully mature often attains the
length of seven feet from the snout to the tip of the tail. The
young are white marked with dark-brown.
The habits of the domestic pigs are much the same as S
serufa. especially to be pointed out is the great benefit to be
derived from keeping them in orchards, where they do inestim-
able good in devouring noxious insects.
RUMINANTS (=SELENODONTA),.
The Ruminants have two toes on each foot, each toe having
a separate hoof: there may also be two supplementary hoofs
at the back of the foot. If one examines the skeleton of the
ox, it will be observed that the two metacarpal and metatarsal
bones have joined to form the “cannon-bone.” The tubercles of
the molars are transformed into longitudinally placed half-moons.
The Ruminant Stomach.—The stomach (fig. 246) is peculiarly
constituted, consisting of four divisions—namely, (1) the rwmen
or paunch ; (2) the retécwlum or honeycomb stomach ; (3) the
manyplies, psalterium, or omasuin; and (4) the abomasum or
rennet stomach. The paunch is where large quantities of
partly masticated vegetable food is stored. This is brought
back to the mouth, where it is mixed with saliva, chewed
up by the grinding teeth, and reduced to a fine pulp, the so-
ealled “chewing of the cud.” This food then passes down the
gullet, and moves along a “gutter” called the “ cesophageal
groove” into the omasum. The paunch equals nine-tenths
of the entire abdomen and lies in the left flank, the other three
divisions forming a chain along the front of its left side. In
the rumen the food is moistened. The retzcudum is internally
474 MAMMALIA.
divided into a number of polygonal spaces on its walls ; it is
small in capacity, and acts especially as « reservoir for liquids.
‘The omasum receives the “cud.” This division las its walls
thrown up into a number of deep folds longitudinally disposed,
and placed so close together that they resemble the leaves of a
book: we can recognise three series of them of different sizes,
The food, after being crushed between the leaves, is passed
through this into the fourth division, the abomasum or true
digestive stomach. Tiere the food is subjected to the action
Fie, 246.—SromacH oF RUMINANT.
Kt, Rumen; G, wsophagus ; Or.G, wsophageal groove; Re, reticulum; 0, omasum ;
-lh, abomasiun ; J), duodenum; (, constriction.
of the gastric juice, and undergoes the chief digestion. It is
called the rennet stomach Iecause of a substance formed hy the
secretion of the peptic cells going by that name, the rennet used
in cheesemaking and in “ junkets” being obtained from the
salted stomachs of calves, One must look upon the first three
chambers of the ruminant stomach as being dilatations of the
esophagus only, .As much as sixty vallons of liquid can be
stored in the stomach of an ox! The intestinal canal is very
long. The small intestine in the ox is twice the length of that
vf the horse, but is smaller in diameter (=49 yards). The
CERVID (DEER). 475
cecum has no bulges or longitudinal bands. ‘The large in-
testine is longer than in the horse (33 to 39 feet), and holds
from six to seven gallons.
Ruminant Dentition.— Another character of Ruminants is the
dentition, There are no incisor teeth in the upper jaw, their
place being taken by a horny pad on the gums of that jaw
against which the lower incisors cut; neither are there any
upper canines. [chind, there are six teeth, three premolars and
three molars. The lower jaw has six incisors and two canines,
which are small; next follows a long edentulous space, and
then three premolars and three molars on each side. The
typical Ruminant dental formula is as follows :—
9-0 0-0. 3—3 3—3
pe a aa Te a
Some deer (Cervidw) and camels have canines above, and other
slight differences.
The ruminant’s lungs differ from the horse’s in that the left
lobe is divided into two and the right into four. Ox, sheep,
and goat are characterised by the distinctness of the lobules.
=82,
Famity Crervipz (Desr).
The Cervid or deer are noted for their “antlers,” which,
except in the reindeer, are present in the males only. The
antlers are branched horns, and are solid structures, not hollow
as the horns of cattle. They are carried on bony cores on the
frontal line. The antlers are cast annually, and reproduced
every year at or after the breeding or “rutting” season. At
first the antlers are simple, cylindrical, unbranched structures
covered with a hairy sensitive skin, the “velvet”; but later
the vessels to this skin dry up, and the skin splits, peels off, and
is rubbed off by the deer against the trees and fences. The
horns in the second year have a side branch (tyne); in the
third year there are three points, then known as the “sorel” ,
the four-year-old, in some deer, has four points, the so-called
476 MAMMALIA,
“staggard” ; whilst a five-year-old or “stag” has five or more
tynes. A strong-smelling waxy secretion is formed beneath
each eye from a sebaceous gland.
Three species of Deer are found in Britain — namely, the
Red-Deer (Cervus elaphus), the Roebuck (C. eapreolus), and the
Fallow-Deer (C. duma).
The Red- Deer (C. elaphus) is undoubtedly a native of
Britain, and is still found wild on Exmoor and the Quan-
tocks in the south, and in Scotland. The antlers are rough,
and normally consist of two front branches, the “‘brow-”
and the “bez-tyne,” a middle branch called the “tres,” and
a “crown.” In colour the red-deer varies from brown to
reddish-brown, becoming brighter in summer, with a creamy
patch on the tail. A stag weighs from 180 to 280 lb. The
calves are spotted with white in their first coat, which is cast
in October and November. They breed in autumn, and par-
turition takes place in May and June. Two calves may be
produced. The horns, which often reach a great size in the
“stag,” are shed in February or March. It is strange
how few of these cast horns are found: those that one does
come across are usually single antlers. Stays no doubt eat
the antlers after being shed; and others may, as Mr Jeffreys
thinks, be covered up by the stag with leaves and brambles.
Red-deer are often very destructive, destroying agricultural pro-
duce, not only by eating it, but far more by trampling it down.
Farmers round Exmoor would sooner suffer this loss than destroy
such sporting animals. They also bark young trees and eat the
tender shoots in forests to an injurious extent. Around Exmoor
one often sees fields of wheat spoilt by them, potatoes taken from
the ground, and cabbages quite stripped. The stag only eats the
top of the turnips and throws the root over his shoulder, whilst
the hinds eat the turnips down to the ground. The excellent
sport they afford quite makes up for the local harm they
may do.
The Roebuck (C. caprevlus), once very abundant in England,
OVIDA AND BOVIDA, 477
is now chiefly confined to the wilder regions of Scotland. It is
found in Cumberland, Dorsetshire, and Essex, and may be seen in
a few parks. It has a long winter coat of a dull brown colour:
in summer the coat is reddish-brown, with a white patch on
the rump. The legs are long and slender and the antlers small,
—never any “brow-tynes,” and as a rule only three terminal
branches present. They are shed in December and January.
An adult roe weighs about 45 Ib. The fawns are spotted with
white, and are born in April and May. As a rule, each roe
gives birth to twins. The roebuck breed about August. They
pass the day in open spaces in the woods, coming into the fields to
feed, especially upon standing corn and clover. Much damage
may be done, where they are, abundant, if they get into corn-
fields. Grass and shoots of oak and spruce form the chief food.
The Fallow-Deer (Cervus duima) is not a native of England.
It stands about three feet high. The antlers are dilated towards
their extremities, They live in herds.
Cavicornia (Ovipz ayp Bovip2).
The other Ruminants interesting to us are the Caricornia,
which include the Sheep, Oxen, and Goats. In the Cavicornia
there are never any incisors or canines on the upper jaw, the
hardened gum taking their place. The dental formula is as
follows :—
0-0 0-0 3—3 3—3
at eer
3—3 1—1
Both male and female may have horns, or the male alone may be
horned. The Cavicornia have these structures very differently
formed to the antlers of the Cervide. They are persistent,
and not shed as in deer; moreover, they consist of a bony core
at the base, which is covered by a hollow case of horn. The
feet of the Cavicornia are always cloven. Here belong the
1 Dr Bischoff has shown that the fertilised ovum remains dormant for
four and a half months before development proceeds.
478 MAMMALIA.
Antelopes as well as Oxen and Sheep. The former have annu-
lated or twisted horns.
Ovid (Sheep and Goats),—These animals have short legs
and heavy bodies. The Goats (Capi) have horns in both
Fic, 247.—SKULL or Ram.
I, Occipital bone; 2, parietal; 3, core of-right frontal bone; 4, left covered by its
horn; 5, supra-orbital foramen; 5’, channel descending from it; 6, lachrymai bone ;
7, malar bone; 8, nasal bone; 9, supermaxillary; 10, premaxillary; 1v’, its internal
process ; 11, incisive opening. (Chauveau.)
sexes, and a tuft or beard of long hair on the throat. The
domestic Goat (Cavra hircus) is descended from the wild goat
of Persia and the Caucasus, the Cupra cegagrus, which lives
herds in mountainous districts,
Sheep (Qvis) never have a beard, and the horns are spirally
479
/
ETC.)
OVID.N (SHEEP,
“UEXO UL St SqIt JO sted WaaqAntL
Cneeansyo)
“MUva.log LFUVL PUB ‘XO UL URYy LeSUOT speofarao o70N,
“ATGTHY AO NOLBTENQG— "gpg “OT
480
Fia. 249.—Mep1an Section or Ox's Heap.
1, Condyloid foramen; 2, internal auditory
hiatus; 38, anterior foramen laccrum; 4, pos-
terior ditto; 5, intra-cranial orifice of parieto-
temporal bone ; 6, bony plate separating frontal
sinus; 7, lamina isolating sphenoidal sinus ;
8, lamina isolating the palatine part of the
maxillary sinus; 9, oval foramen; 10, optic
fossa; 11, vomer; 12, pterygoid; 13, large
opening leading into maxillary sinus, closed by
pituitary membrane when fresh ; 14, maxillary
turbinated one; 15, ethmoidal turbinated
bone; 16 great ethmoid cell. (Chauveau.)
MAMMALIA.
twisted. The carpus con-
sists of six bones in the
sheep and ox,—four in
the first row, two in the
second, the magnum and
trapezoid being fused to-
gether. Internally the
sheep is much like the ox,
but
no prostate gland, and the
penis is remarkable for the
two lateral folds disposed
like wings at the base of
the glans.
in the ram there is
Horned vari-
eties of sheep may have
the in both sexes
(blackfaced sheep) or only
in the male (merino sheep).
All sheep are natives of the
Old World, but from what
species our various domestic
horns
hreeds have originated we
do not know. Probably
some of the horned vari-
eties with short tails have
sprung from the ‘‘ mouftlon ”
of Sardinia and Corsica.
Owen — (Bovider), — The
oxen never have spirally
They are
provided with an immense
all chew the
cud. The skeleton of the ox
(fig. 250) differs from that of
twisted horns.
rumen, and
48]
BOVID.E, (OXEN).
‘ped. 2,
‘SoHOK, [LWWOAF JO quaUUATOTAAap Rad ‘sauoq AXBT [EX
(Cneaanryg)
rau pry AteqUUTpUs pur
0 T3994 JO anuasqe ‘etndevos prorq ‘8a0q OA\4
“MOD JO NOLZTING—"OGZ ‘DI
“(sued ET) sqit peorq ay} OJON
20
482 MAMMALIA.
the horse in that the ribs are broader, longer, and flatter, and
there are thirteen on each side; the sternum is flat and not keel-
shaped ; the scapula is broader at the top, and the premaxillary
bones do not carry teeth. The frontal bones of the skull are
enormously developed (fig. 249). The upper part of the frontal
bone forms the pole. The pole is thick, owing to the sinus in
the frontal bones, and bears laterally the conical bony cores that
support the horns. The ox, sheep, and goat have a third tur-
binated bone in the nasal cavities. In the foot of the ox and
sheep the cannon-bone is composed of the fused third and fourth
metacarpals and metatarsals; each digit is free, and carries a
hoof, A rudimentary third metacarpal is seen in the ox. The
ulna, as in the sheep, extends the whole length of the radius.
The kidney of the ox is lobulated. The sexual organs of the
Bull have certaini peculiarities: there are no Cowper’s glands,
the penis is long and thin, and lies in an S-shaped curve when
retracted. Most of the wild species are capable of domestica-
tion. The parent stock of our various breeds of cattle is not
known for certain. Some suppose that the beautiful white
Chillingham cattle, once wild over England, and now only pre-
served in one or two places, are descendants of the wild cattle
of Europe, the Urus or mountain bull (Bos priémigenius), which
existed in numbers in a wild state in Gaul at the time of
Ceesar’s invasion. The three most important races of oxen
which have been traced back to Bo prtimiyenius are—
(i) The Brachyceros race (Appenzell cattle).
(ii) Primigenius race (Holland cattle).
(iii) Frontosus race (Bern cattle).
Another wild Bovis in Europe was the so-called British Short-
horn (Bos longifrons), now extinct. Very probably most of our
smaller short-horned varieties are descended from this wild
species. Another wild species in Britain was the .\wroch (Bos
bison), a large species, which still exists in a wild state in the
Caucasian forests.
CARNIVORA OR BEASTS OF PREY. 483
CARNIVORA or BEASTS OF PREY.
Carnivora, which include all the Beasts of Prey and the
Seals and Walruses (Pinnipedia), have always two sets of
teeth, covered by enamel. Teeth are of four kinds—incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars. The incisors are generally
ae the canines = and are always large and well de-
veloped, pointed and sharp; the premolars and molars have
sharp cutting edges. Some molars and premolars, however, have
crowns adapted for bruising. As a general rule, the shorter the
jaw the fewer the molar and premolar teeth, and the more car-
nivorous the habits of the animal. The jaws can only move in
a vertical direction. The temporal muscles are strongly de-
veloped, so that the head is rather broad. All carnivora have
sharp claws, more or less curved, generally five, rarely four
toes, a short intestine, and abdominal teats. The fcetus is
enclosed in a deciduate and zonary placental membrane. The
two sections of Carnivora are as follows :—
1. Pinnipedia=Seals. Fore and hind limbs short, and in
the form of swimming-paddles.
2. Fissipedia = Dogs, Cats, Tigers, &e.1
Fissipedia.
In this section we find the Weasels (A/ustelide), the Dogs
and Foxes (Canidw), and the Felid or Cats.
MusteLipz orn WEASELS.
The body elongated and slender ; legs short; toes five, armed
with sharp curved claws. The skull is long and flat, with a
1 Another classification of the Carnivora is as follows :—
(1) Greodonta. Scaphoid and lunar of carpus separate. Extinct.
(2) Fissipedia, Scaphoid fused with lunar. Toes separate =Urside,
Mustelide, Canide, Felidae, Viverride, &c.
(3) Pinnipedia. Limbs as paddles. Toes webbed.
484 MAMMALIA,
tuberculate molar on each side of the upper and lower jaws..
All the Mustelidie have curious anal glands which emit a strong-.
smelling odour; these are greatly developed sebaceous glands.
Some animals, such as the skunk, have the power of ejecting-
Fia 251.—Frrr of CARNIVORA,
A, Plantigrade foot (Bear); B, Pinnigrade foot (Seal); v, Digitigrade foot (Lion).
(Nicholson. )
the secretion, which is most foul-smelling, some distance over
their enemy.
The Mustelide are of considerable economic importance, as
many of them are most injurious. We may here mention the
Polecat (Putorius fotidus), the Stoat (P. erminea), the Weasel
(P. vulgaris) the Marten (Murtes sylvutica), and the Otter
(Lutra vulgaris), as being generally abundant in Britain,
and also the Ferret (P. fro), which is said hy some to be a
native of Africa, but which may have been derived from the
polecat.
The Weasel (P. vulgaris) is a small elongate animal about
eight inches long with a tail about two inches long. It is brown
above and with a white belly. The body is very slender and
almost snake-like, the legs very short, and the head somewhat
larger than the diameter of the trunk. It has a similar fur
MUSTELIDAE 485
winter and summer. The weasel is extremely active in habits,
and may be seen often with its family hunting along river-hanks
and dykes, going in and out of the water-voles’ burrows. Their
food consists of voles, rats, mice, lizards, snakes, frogs, and eggs.
It is said that the weasel carries the egg it has taken under its
chin. They do an immense amount of good in destroying voles,
both in winter and summer. On the other hand, they some-
times take fowls’ eggs and do other damage in poultry-houses
of a night, whilst not a few game eggs are destroyed, and even
young birds. Weasels often migrate in numbers from place to
place, especially to where field-voles are in abundance. They
breed in spring, sometimes having two litters. On the whole,
they do more good than harm.
The Marten (Martes sylvaticu).—Only one marten is found
in Britain ; it is of a rich dark-brown colour above and reddish-
grey fur beneath, with a yellow or orange breast-spot, and a
beautiful bushy tail. It was never very common in Britain,
and is now very rare. Its skin always was, as it is now, of
considerable value. Occasionally we hear of specimens being
taken in various parts of the country.
The Stoat or Ermine (P. erminea) is found in fields and
hedgerows near woods and in rabbit-warrens. It is about
twelve inches long with a tail four inches in length, and has
a slender body. In summer it is yellowish-brown with white
belly, the tail tipped with black; in winter the fur becomes
white except the tip of the tail, which remains jet-black. In
Britain they seldom become beautifully pure white as they do
in colder regions. Stoats hunt at night, feeding upon rats,
mice, rabbits, and birds, and they sometimes commit havoc in
poultry-yards. Like the weasel, however, they do good as well
as harm.
The Polecat (P. fetidus) or Foumart is much larger than the
stoat, dark shining brown with yellow wool, and short tail com-
pared with other Mustelide. Unfortunately this animal, owing
to its unnecessary persecution, has become now very rare ; still
486 MAMMALIA,
there are some places, notably in Wales, where we may still
often see it in the winter. In those admirable articles on
British Mammals in the ‘Zoologist’ (1891), Mr Harting tells
us that twenty years ago it was comparatively common in most
of the big woods in the home counties and within a very few
miles of London. It lives in rabbit-warrens, hollow trees, c.,
in the open country, and feeds upon field- and water-voles,
rabbits, and birds. Eels form one of its favourite dishes. In
winter the polecats come nearer habitations, taking up their
quarters in wood-stacks, &c., from whence they come out
and suck the eggs in fowl-houses, and even attack the birds
themselves. The polecat’s work in a hen-house can always
be told by the eggs being sucked without being broken.
From four to six young are born in May and June; the young
are blind, and cannot see for a month. Gestation lasts six
weeks. There is no doubt but that the polecat is the ancestor
of the ferret: one cannot distinguish between the two on ex-
amining the skeleton. Instead of ruthlessly destroying the
polecat, gamekeepers would do far more good by crossing them
with the ferret, for no better workers than this cross can be
found.
The Otter (Lutra vulgaris) is still widely distributed. A full-
grown dog-otter may reach thirty-four inches in length, with
about eighteen to twenty inches of tail. Its fur is smooth, dark
shining brown. The body is more or less flattened, as also is
the pointed tail. The short legs end in partially webbed feet,
and the ears are covered with flaps of skin. Its whole structure
is adapted to a semi-aquatic life. Otters inhabit the banks of
rivers and lakes, where they feed upon fish, water-rats, frogs,
insects, and even water-birds. They are not nearly so destruc-
tive to fine fish as is generally supposed, for they in preference
take eels, roach, bream, and even jack.
The Badger (Meles tawus) is still fairly common in Britain,
although not often seen on account of its strict nocturnal
habits. In length some badgers reach over three feet, and
MUSTELID A. 487
weigh as much as thirty pounds. The head is white, with
a broad black stripe on each side widening out towards the
ears. The eyes are small, and the snout tapers somewhat to
a point. The very loose skin is clothed with short fur and
long greyish-brown hairs; throat, under parts, inside of leg,
and feet black. The tail is short and bushy, yellowish-brown
in colour, and about six inches long. The badger lives in huge
burrows in the earth, with several openings, often twenty-
five or thirty yards apart; these dwellings are made in the
thickest woods some way from man’s habitations. They some-
times use fox’s “earths” for their burrows, and live in
harmony with “Reynard.” They often stay in their burrows
for days at a time in winter, but do not actually hibernate.
There are usually two large chambers in the burrows, the
chamber in which the litter is found being lined with dry
grass and leaves. The badger is not, as is generally supposed,
a solitary animal, but where it is not disturbed it is social.
Charles St John counted seven together at one time on the
shores of Loch Ness! The badger closes the entrance to its
earth in winter when the weather is cold, but soon comes out
when the temperature gets warmer. The young are usually
four in number, being blind at birth and for nine days or so
after. The diet of the badger is very varied; they take both
animal and vegetable food. Roots of various kinds, nuts,
leaves, grass, fungi, snails, slugs, worms, insects and their
larvee, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs and young ground-birds, mice,
small rabbits, and even hedgehogs, are devoured by them. They
certainly do some damage to game, but in nowise interfere with
foxes, as is sometimes supposed. On the other hand, they
do good by destroying many vermin, and therefore should
not be destroyed, as has been too often the case in the past.
They are particularly fond of wasp-grubs, and destroy great
numbers of nests during the summer, a habit which alone
should atone for the slight loss they may occasion in game and
1 « Wild Sports and Natura! History of the Highlands.’
488 MAMMALIA.
rabbits. The period of gestation seems to be very variable,
some gving as long as fifteen months, others only nine
months: they evidently have the power of suspending gesta-
tion. The lower jaw is remarkable for being closely united to
the upper jaw, by the glenoid cavity of the latter bending
round the condyle of the former.
Canipx (Does, Foxus, Exc.)
The Canide have pointed heads, smooth tongue, and non-
retractile claws. The front feet have five toes, the hind only
four. Two or three of the molars on each side are tuberculated.
The only two species to be considered are the Fox (Canis vulpes)
and the Dog (C. familiaris). The Dogs and Wolves have round
or oblique pupils to the eyes; the Foxes have the pupil
slit-like.
Fic. 252.—Trerera or Doa, anp Jaws.
J, Incisors ; C, canines ; S, symphysis; Pmz, premaxillary bone.
The Fox (Canis vulpes) is too well known to need description.
It partly lives underground, not only in an “earth” formed by
itself, but in those formed by other animals, such as the rabbit
and badger. In cold clay soils the fox will lie above ground
under old roots of trees, in hollow trees, amongst scrub and
gorse, and under the shelter of some ledge of rock along a cliff,
FELIDA OR CATS. 489
Mountain and moorland foxes lie out curled up in the heather
and make no earth. The fox breeds in winter, the period of
gestation lasting two months. They litter at the end of March
and in April. Only one litter is produced in the year; from
three to six cubs are generally brought forth. Like puppies,
the cubs are blind for from nine to ten days; they mature in
a year and a half, and may live for fourteen years. Foxes are
supposed to do much damage by destroying game, poultry,
hares, &c.; at the same time we must remember that they
destroy numbers of voles, rabbits, and many of the larger
noxious insect-grubs. The fox does quite as much good as
harm, if not more, and thus should be preserved, even if
we do not choose to consider its great sporting value. We
may suffer severely, of course, if one foolishly leaves fowls
without protection.
With regard to the dog, we do not know its origin. All
existing wild dogs, such as the Australian Dingo (C. dingo) and
the wild New Zealand dog, are sometimes supposed to be
varieties of the so-called Canis familiaris. The dog, then, is
only known in its domesticated state. There is some probability
that the Wolf (C. lupus) may have been the ancestor of some
of our breeds.
FELIDE oR Cats.
The cat family all have short jaws and very strong masti-
catory muscles, hence the head is short and rounded. The
molar and premolar teeth are fewer in number than in any
other Carnivora; they are all cutting teeth except the last
molar of the upper jaw, which is tuberculate. The upper
carnassial has three cutting lobes, the lower only two. The
dental formula for the Cat family is the following :—
ae a: a a ee
gi oe Oe ee
2a pad ga ee
The tongue is roughened owing to a number of backwardly
490 MAMMALIA,
projecting horny papille. The fore-feet have five, the hind
four toes, armed with claws, which are retractile. When not
in use these claws (fig. 253, a) are drawn back by means of
ligaments (a and 6) into sheaths (s), so as not to be unneces-
sarily worn down. All the Felide are extremely active, and
have a very flexible backbone. They are mainly nocturnal
Fic, 253.—BoneEs or Tor or Cat—a, with retracted, », with vxtended claw.
a, Tendon of extensor muscle; b, retractor ligament; mc, metacarpal ; ph (1, 2, and
3), Ist to 3rd phalanges; s, bony sheath into which claw fits. (From Brit. Mus.
Cat.)
in habits, catching their prey by springing upon it; many of
the lighter-built Felide climb well.
One wild species occurs in Britain, but only in the north,
especially Scotland, and the writer has seen it on Cader Idris in
Wales—namely, the Wild Cat (Felix ratus). The domestic cat
is descended from the Nubian Cat (F. municulata), a native of
the Sudan and Nubia.
RODENTIA or GNAWERS.!
The order Rodentia contains the Mice, Rats, Squirrels, Rab-
bits, and Hares. These are sometimes called ‘“Glires.” The
1 The Rodentia are also placed in the order T'rogontia of Haeckel; the
two other sub-orders are the 7'%llodontia and T'ypotheria, formed for cer-
tain Tertiary specics.
RODENTIA OR GNAWELS. 491
Rodents are characterised by having two long curved incisor
teeth in each jaw (fig. 254, 7); the crowns of these are continually
being worn down, whilst growth as rapidly takes place at their
roots. These teeth are employed in gnawing, and are more
readily worn down behind than in front, so that they always
present a sharp edge. This is due to the front having a plate
of very hard enamel, whilst the back is composed of soft dentine.
The lower jaw has never more than two incisors, the upper may
have four. Canines are never present; the molars and pre-
molars are seldom more than four in number on each side of
the jaw. The molars have flat crowns, the enamelled surfaces
Fic. 254.—Hgeap or Ropent. THE Hare (Lepus europaus).
i, incisors ; pm, premolars ; m, molars.
being in transverse ridges running across the teeth. The hind-
feet are longer than the fore-feet, thus giving them the curious
springing gait; the feet have usually five toes furnished with
claws, but they may be reduced to four on each foot. The
eyes are large and directed laterally. The brain has no convo-
lutions, being nearly smooth. Many rodents have curious
lateral “ cheek-pouches” in which food can be stored for some
little time ; when this food is required, the animal presses the
pouches with its fore-feet. Most rodents are small animals, and
feed upon vegetation. They are endowed with great repro-
ductive faculties. The foetus is enclosed in a deciduate dis-
492 MAMMALIA.
coidal placenta. In the male the testes are temporarily placed
in the scrotum, at other times they lie in the abdomen.
The chief families are the Muridw (Rats and Mice), the
Arvicolide (Voles), the Leporide (Hares and Rabbits), the
Cavide (Guinea-pigs), the Casturidw (Beavers), and the Myo.-
ide (Dormice). All we need consider are the Mice, Rats, Voles,
and Rabbits.
Murips, or Rats anp Mics.
In this family the tail is long as a rule, and the body is
long and narrowish. Hind-legs longer than the fore-legs.
Head pointed. The back molars possess a tuberculate crown,
entirely covered with enamel. External ears clearly seen. The
genus J/us (Rats and Mice) have long, scaly, ringed tails.
Three species of Rats are found in Britain—namely, the
Black Rat (Mus rattus), the Brown Rat (/. decumanus), and the
Trish Rat (MM. hibernicus) ; this last species, told by the diamond-
shape patch of white in front, is only found in Ireland and the
Outer Hebrides. The Black Rat only is indigenous to Europe
(unless A. hibernicus is really a distinct indigenous species) ; it
is smaller than the common brown rat, which came over to
Europe in the eighteenth century. It was imported into
Britain in shipping, and is now spread all over the world. It
may also have entered Europe from Asia by migrating into
Russia. In any case, it has increased with alarming rapidity,
and has quite driven out the indigenous black rat. The black
rat is smaller and much darker than Jf. deewmanus, which has
a dusky-grey belly and a longer tail. Here and there specimens
are still seen, the writer having trapped it in Lundy Island.
The Rats live upon all manner of substances, and are noxious
in many ways,—a great nuisance indoors, a veritable pest in
poultry-yards and amongst corn, whilst they also distribute
the trichinosis amongst pigs, a disease which vats are very
subject to, and still more, through their fleas, plague.
A fourth species, Mus alexandrinus, is sometimes found in
RODENTIA (MICE). 493
dockyards, &e., having come over in ships from Egypt, but I
am not aware that it is established in Britain.
Three species of Mice are common in Britain—namely, the
Common Mouse (MV. musculus), the Wood-Mouse (AL. syleaticus),
and the Harvest-Mouse (MW. messorius).
The Long-tailed Field-Mouse or Wood-Mouse (M. syleaticus).
—This is the largest of our mice belonging to the genus J/us.
It can be told from the Common Mouse (Af musculus) by its
warmer-coloured fur, by the greater size of the ears and length
of the hind-legs, by the large, very prominent eyes, and by the
elongated tail: it is between three and four inches in length, the
tail being another three and a half inches long. d/. sylvatirus
is yellowish-brown with a greyish tinge, and white beneath with
a patch of fawn between the fore-legs; the feet and fore-legs are
pure white up to the carpus; the posterior feet and legs also
white below, a white streak running up to the under surface of
the body. The long flexible tail is dusky-brown above, white
below. This mouse is a great pest to both farmer and gardener.
It eats corn, and works along the rows of peas in the garden,
whilst nuts, roots, clover, and carrots all fall to its bill of fare.
These mice store up immense quantities of food for the winter,
but do not hibernate. Wood Mice have been trapped in
the hardest weather, when they come out to feed upon the
bark of small trees. This species was one of the two that
caused so much harm to the trees in the Forest of Dean in
1813. It may also take young birds, and I have found the
remains of numerous Coleoptera in their stomachs, especially
Carabide. Their burrows are found in banks, old walls, hedges
around gardens and fields, and at harvest-time in the fields.
They commence to breed in March, and have four litters, the
number of young varying from six to nine. The young are
said by Gilbert White and Barrington to stick most tenaciously
to the teats of the mother when they are frightened.
The Harvest-Mouse (M. messorius = minutus).—This mouse
is bright sandy-yellow, brightest in colour towards the tail,
494 MAMMALIA,
and white beneath; the sides of the head are orange. The
colour, however, varies a good deal, but is always brightest in the
female sex. The fect are long and delicate, and covered with
fine yellowish hairs in front and white at the sides. Tail
scantily clothed with hair. Length, as a rule, two and a half
inches; tail two inches. The period of gestation is said to
be three weeks; the young vary from five to eight. This
species builds a beautiful nest lined with fine hair and grass,
said to be split up by the animal’s teeth. The nests are often
no larger than an orange, and sometimes quite round. This
breeding-nest is much like that of a bird. A winter nest is
also formed, where they pass the cold months of the year, in
stacks, &c. The favourite localities are amongst reeds, long
grass, and low shrubs, where the nest is often placed some way
off the ground. It is no unusual thing for M. messorius to take
the nest of a warbler and build its own in and over it. They
may sometimes be found in wheat- and barley-fields, but never
in any great number. These mice feed on corn and various
seeds, also flies and other insects, and they are known to eat the
buds of gooseberries and currants. Hazel-buds are also eaten.
The Common Mouse (Af. musculus) need not be referred to,
being well known. It is chiefly this species that we find so
abundantly in corn-fields, and not M. messorvus, as is generally
supposed.
ARVICOLIDE OR VOLES.
These can be told from the true Rats and Mice by the more
solid body, thick head, and blunt snout, by the absence of ex-
ternal ears, which are covered in fur, and by scales being
found wanting on the tail, which may be partly hairy.
There are three common species—namely, the Water-Vole
(Arvicola amphibius), the Bank-Vole (A. glareolus), and the
Ficld-Vole (A. agrestix). None of these are found in Ireland.
The Field-Vole (A. agrestis), sometimes called the short-tailed
field-mouse, is a small vole with dark-brownish back and grey
RODENTIA (VOLES). 495
belly. This vole lives in colonies, preferring low-lying pastures,
where it burrows into the ground. This species is most prolific,
having often four litters in the year, each consisting of eight
to ten young. Field Voles are frequently most destructive in
pasture-land, also destroying the bark of trees.
The Water-Vole or Water-Rat (A. amphibia) lives along the
banks of streams and in damp meadows, tunnelling branched
passages into the soil. It is blackish-brown on the back, with
a greyish-brown belly, and is often very destructive to grass-
land and corn and “clamped” roots. This vole takes the eggs
of poultry, and damages the banks of rivers, canals, and dykes
often to an alarming extent.
The Bank Vole (A. glareola), a brownish-red species with
pure white breast, belly, and feet, occurs chiefly in forest tracks.
Unlike the field-vole, the tail is very long, there being twenty-
three caudal vertebra ; and the ears are also longer than those
of the field-vole, coming above the fur. It is from three and a
half to four inches long, the tail being an inch and three-quarters.
A. glareolus may be found in sheltered hedge-banks and ivy-clad
tree-stumps, and amongst the exposed roots of trees in banks.
Plagues of Voles—TIn 1891 there was a great plague of field-
voles (A. agrestis) in South Scotland. In Roxburgh and Dum-
fries alone over 90,000 acres were more or less affected. They
first increased in 1890, overran the boggy and rough land,
and then spread everywhere,’ damaging grass, heather, and
trees, and carrying ruin before them. What had preceded this
plague? Constant war with trap and gun upon the game-
keepers’ so-called “vermin.” The Scottish farmers had to
suffer for the ignorance of the gamekeepers, who had killed off
the natural enemies of the voles—namely, the hawks, owls,
crows, weasels, polecats, &c.
A still more serious outbreak of voles (A. arvalis) occurred in
Thessaly in 1892, which threatened to destroy the whole corn
crop of the district ; but, thanks to Professor LoefHer, the voles
seem to have been exterminated by inoculation on a large scale
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498 MAMMALIA.
there is not more than two inches of humus over the chalk,
and where moles are abundant. The nest is placed under a
heap of earth, and consists of a large round space lined with vege-
table matter ; this central space is surrounded by other smaller
chambers and passages. From the nest there runs a tunnel to
the place where the insects, such as wireworm, abound ; the
walls of this tunnel are firm and compressed. The chains of
mole-hills and the subterranean passages having fallen in are
certain indications of the mole’s feeding-ground : its passage to
this area is marked by a depression in the soil. There are two
Tia. 255.~a, SKULL, AND B, SHOULDER GIRDLE oF MoLF.
e¢, Carpus; cl, clavicle; Jf, falciform bone; h, humerus ; me, metacarpus ; ph, phal-
anges; 7, radius; «, ulna; sc, scapula; st, sternum ; i, inci:ors ; ¢, canines ; a, atlas;
at, axis; vi, third cervical. (After Thomas.) (Brit. Mus. Cat.)
separate chambers for living and breeding in. The latter is
often lined with fur. The depth of the tunnels varies with the
season, according as to whether the wireworms and earthworms
are near the surface or deep down. The mole hunts winter
and summer, and does inestimable good by devouring noxious
grubs, Some authorities say they store up earthworms in deep
firm-walled depressions for winter food and food for the young,
The young moles are born in June and July ; the number of
each litter varies from five to seven. Not only do they hunt
underground, but they may often be found tracking the earth-
INSECTIVORA (SHREW-MICE AND HEDGEHOGS). 499
worm above ground. In Ireland Talpa europea is unknown,
nor is it seen in the Western Islands of Scotland. They may
be a nuisance in grass-land and corn-fields at harvest-time, but
should then be trapped alive and put where they can do much
good, as long as they are not allowed to increase unduly. But
is it certain that they do any harm? Surely by tunnelling
the earth they help surface drainage; surely the mould they
bring up, spread upon the land, would act as a beneficial top-
dressing ; and what of the countless hordes of wireworm and
leather-jackets they destroy ?
THe Soricipz# or SHrew-Micr
are all small mouse-like animals with soft fur, well-developed
eyes, and external ears, and with a more or less pointed snout.
Shrews live in subterranean passages, where they devour noxious
grubs. They do not, it seems, make their own passages, but
live in those formed by voles. All the Shrews have a peculiar
smell, coming from two sebaceous glands near the anus.
Three species are found in plenty in Britain—the Common
Shrew (Sorea vulgaris), the Little Shrew (S. pyyiuveus), and
the Water-Shrew (S. fodiens). The last mentioned is quite
black, and although beneficial on land, is said to be most
harmful to fish-breeding, living upon the small fry.
Tue ERINACEIDE on HepGeHocs
are represented by one species in Europe—namely, E. ewropeus
—that lives upon grass-snakes, adders, frogs, snails, and various
grubs, voles, poultry and game eggs, and sometimes vegetation.
They hunt only of a night, rolling up into a ball when
attacked, and are thus protected by the prickly spines on the
upper surface of the body. The Hedgehog passes the winter
in a semi-dormant state, but sometimes comes out at that time
500 MAMMALIA,
of year. From three to four young are born in May: they are
pinky white, with white quills, and both eyes and cars are
Fic. 256.—SKULL or HEDGEHOG (Erinaceus europe@us). (Nicholson.)
closed. They are produced and kept in a nest of moss, covered
with leaves. In many respects the hedgehog is injurious, but
it also does good in destroying vermin.
CHIROPTERA or BATS.
The Bats, which are insectivorous mammals, are characterised
by the peculiarly modified forearms, adapted to form the
wings. The digits of the fore-limb are enormously elongated,
except the pollex. These fingers are united by a thin mem-
brane called the “patagium”’ (fig. 257, P), which is also ex-
tended between the fore and hind limbs and united to the sides
of the body. This expanded membrane is used for flight. The
pollex and first finger of the forelimb may have a claw, but the
others are destitute of them. The hind-digits have each a long
nail. Bats have teeth of three kinds, and in all the canines are
well developed. The molars in the insectivorous bats are always
sharp pointed ; in the foreign fruit-eating bats they are tuber-
culate. The bones are never hollow as in birds. Two mamme
are placed upon the chest. The body-is covered with hair, and
CHIROPTERA OR BATS, 501
( nat. size.)
ZEEE
Fic. 257,—Lone-EaRED Bat (Plecotus awritus).
P, Patagium; H, humerus; R, radius; P, pollex; Di—Div, phalanges; F, femur; Ti, tibia; T, tail.
502 MAMMALIA.
the ears may be large and sensitive. The tail (7) is sometimes
included in the patagium, which stretches between the hind-
limbs. Bats are either nocturnal or crepuscular, and therefore
the eyes are small, the sense of touch being correspondingly
developed. They pass the day hanging up in hollow trees,
amongst masonry, in caves and the crevices of rocks. Only
insectivorous bats (Insectivora) occur in Europe ; the Pruyivora
occur in Australia, Java, Asia, &c.
We have at least seventeen species in England, the commonest
being the Pipistrelle (Véspertilio pipistrellu), the Long-eared
Bat (Plecotus auritus) (fig. 225), the Large Noctule (V. noc-
tui), and two Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinuin
and hipposiderus), which have a curious leaf-like structure
attached to the nose, of a sensory nature. These bats feed
chiefly on moths, and thus prevent large numbers of cater-
pillars from attacking our crops.
The other orders of Mammalia are not of any special im-
portance to us, and thus need not be referred to in this text-
book.
The Animal Kingdom culminates in the order Primates,
which includes the Quadrumanu or Monkeys and Lemurs, and
the Bimanca or Anuthropoid Apes and Man.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX IL
THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.
ALTHOUGH we have said in chapter v. that some worms (Anguil-
lulide) occasion considerable harm to certain crops, yet it is
amongst our stock that their ravages are mostly felt, especially
in sheep, cattle, and horses. As the loss that many worms are
accountable for often reaches very serious dimensions, a few general
notes on the prevention and treatment of these parasitic diseases
may not be out of place here, after having dealt with their economic
history in preceding chapters. The three most important groups of
the parasitic worms are the Tapeworms, Round- or Thread-worms,
and Flukes. Tapeworms often cause severe diseases in animals
and man (so called Teeniosis). When we know the life-history of
a species it is usually easy to prevent the increase, if the trouble
is taken to do so; but where we are ignorant of the various stages
and habitats of the pests, remedies only lie in our power. As
pointed out in chapter iv., most tapeworms have two distinct hosts
—one in which the adult sexual tapeworm lives in the intestines,
another in which the asexual cyst or bladder-worm takes up its
abode. The cysts are usually found in carnivorous and omnivorous
animals, in the various organs and internal membranes. Each cyst
may give rise to one or hundreds of adult worms, in another animal,
on being eaten. By the destruction of these cystic parts the tape-
worm stage is prevented, and the teniosis is stopped from spread-
ing. For instance, if all the heads of “ pothery” or “sturdy ” sheep
are destroyed (and sometimes in lumbar-gid the spinal cord) with
the ccenuri in them, so many hundreds of Tenia cenurus, one of the
dog tapeworms, are destroyed. Again, if the diseased pork called
“measly pork” is not eaten insufficiently cooked by human beings,
the dreaded human tapeworm, 7’. solzwm, is prevented, and the same
with “measly” beef.
506 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.
The destruction of all parts containing the cysts or water-bags
should be carefully carried out, instead of throwing the same to
dogs, or being used cven as human food.
The ova and embryos that form the hydatid stages or cysts are
obtained in a great number of cases from polluted drinking-water.
The eggs passed out with the sexual tapeworm, and thus out of the
host, are often left upon the ground, and get carried by rain to
runnels, ditches, dykes, and rivers. Yet many are taken off the
ground direct by herbivorous animals. Sometimes whole proglottides
voided out in the dung are eaten, and then the animal is invaded,
if it be the proper host, with hundreds of small cysts, as seen in
Cysticercus cellulose in pigs. We must bear in mind that we cannot
get rid of these cysts when once they have taken up their rendezvous
in the organs, except in the isolated case of Multiplex multiplex,
which may sometimes, if a single cyst only exists, be extracted from
the sheep’s brain by trephining. It is therefore very essential to
prevent the ova of cestodes from entering an animal. To do this
we must endeavour to keep our stock free from these worms (and
other parasites). When they are noticed by such symptoms as
thinness, capricious appetite, irritation in the lumbar regions, and
the presence of proglottides in the excreta, the patient should be
shut up, well dosed, and all excrement, with the expelled proglot-
tides and scolices, burnt. We must bear in mind that as long as the
scolex remains the cestode can continue to grow, thus necessitating
the certain expulsion of this budding area.
In regard to teenicides, great numbers of substances have been
experimented with, and many are more or less successful. Before
dosing, the patient should be given no solid food for at least twelve
hours previously, but a small quantity of soft food only. A mild
dose of castor-oil should also be given beforehand. The most certain
drugs are areca-nut, male fern, calomel, pomegranate bark, and
sulphuret of calcium. Perhaps the best is a mixture of areca-nut
and male shield-fern powders in the proportion of 2 grains of areca-
nut to every pound-weight of the dog, with 15 minims (drops) of
male shield-fern extract. This tenifuge should be given in sweet
milk, and is best followed next morning with a mild dose of castor-
oil. Asa rule, two doses of the powders are necessary. thereal
extracts of male shield-fern in 2-grain to 6-grain doses also brings
away the worms. Similar drugs may be used for poultry in vary-
ing doses. But for sheep, kamala in 10-grain doses has met
with most success. In poultry I have obtained excellent results
PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 507
with the extract of male fern, about 10 drops administered in
salad-oil,
Nematode or round-worms are little affected by the above, at
least the majority of species. The round-worms may or may not
have two distinct hosts. Such groups as the Trichine live in two
different animals or in different parts of the same animal. The
asexual forms live in the connective-tissue organs, and in the blood-
vessels, &c. ; the sexual forms in the intestines, the air-passages,
and a few beneath the skin. The majority of Nematodes pass their
eggs out in the host’s dung, the worms coming away when their full
complement of eggs are laid. These ova lie about upon the ground,
get carried into the water, and are thus taken up again with food
and drink. Some undergo a slight development outside the host
upon the damp ground and vegetation ; and possibly some few may
live in a secondary host, such as earthworms, snails, insects, &c.
Some are carried by biting flies (Filariz and Mosquitoes).
The well-known disease, trichinosis in pigs, rats, and men, is
distributed chiefly by rats, and through them it is given to pigs,
and from the latter to man. Here again the knowledge of the life-
history helps us, for by stopping the common practice of giving
dead rats to the pigs, we shall tend to check a disease which in
human beings may be attended with fatal results. The destruction
of rats is most necessary.
Some pastures are known to be impregnated with certain
diseases, such, for instance, as lung-worm or husk, and the worms
producing parasitic gastritis. When this is known to be the case,
it is well to keep the animal subject to the disease off the land for
some time, feeding it down in the meanwhile with other stock
that are not invaded by the particular kind of parasite we wish
to destroy. In the red intestinal worms, the armed sclerostomes,
in horses, we can employ this way of clearing the paddocks by
grazing sheep on them for some time: these animals, feeding close
and making the land obnoxious by their excreta, destroy the
majority of the eggs passed out in the horses’ dung, and are not
themselves invaded by the equine parasites. A large number of
round-worms live in the intestines of all animals, and as the ova
are passed out in the dung, it is very essential in an outbreak of
these nematodes to see that the diseased animals, such as horses,
are boxed and all the excrement burnt, whilst the meadows should
be kept free from the hosts, and if the disease is not an ovine one,
dressed with salt and fed down by sheep. Diseases, such as husk,
508 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.
are spread by the embryos being brought up in the mucus from
the air-passages ; these germs are scattered about upon the ground,
and thus sow the seeds of disease for numbers of other lambs and
sheep. When that spasmodic cough so characteristic of “ hoose” is
heard, it is surely advisable to remove the animal, and so prevent it
from contaminating the ground.
Similar remarks apply to gapes in poultry. The ground becomes
fouled with the ova released from the bodies of the coughed-up
syngami, to such an extent that it is not possible to go on success-
fully breeding birds on the same land for any length of time. Runs
and breeding-places should be dressed with gas-lime, so as to
destroy the ova and embryos, and chicks ought to be kept far
from the stock-birds. Unfortunately wild birds suffer from gapes,
so that we shall constantly get fresh infestations, but we can
prevent epidemics.
Speaking generally, we can prevent nematode diseases hy isolating
the sufferers, burning their excrement, and removing to fresh land,
thus allowing the old land to have a rest, or by substituting other
kinds of stock until the land becomes once more clean. It is very
doubtful if any dressings can be applied to grass-land, as nothing
will touch the ova or larvee that will not burn the grass as well.
Lastly, attention to the water-supply should not fail to be given
during and after an epizootic attack on the farm. For destroying
round intestinal worms, such as the ascarides and oxyures, the drug
called santonine may be successfully used. It should be preceded
by a purgative and absence of food for some six to twelve hours.
For horses santonine is used at the rate of 20-grain to 30-grain
doses, one dose given in the morning, another of a night, followed
by a purgative next morning. By far the most certain nematocide
is thymol, given in 15-grain doses to horses morning and night,
followed by a dose of castor-oil. Thymol can be dissolved in alcohol,
and should be administered in warm sweet milk. In cases of armed
sclerostome attack the drug is especially valuable, as it not only
clears out the free red-worms (NS. egudnwm and_S. tetracanthum) but
also destroys those encysted in the mucous membrane. Generally
the two doses suffice, but it is best to follow with the same treat-
ment next day. Dogs can only stand from 2 to 3 grains of thymol,
and fowls, I find, only 1 to 2 grains, which soon removes the white
thread-worms (Heterakis).
Those vermiceous pests that attack the air-tubes, such as the
gape-worm in fowls and some of the lung-worms of sheep and calves,
PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 509
can be destroyed by tracheal injections of camphor and creosote ;
but as skilled labour has to be employed, and then only one of the
three worms in the lamb is affected, the method is scarcely to be
advised, in sheep. Fumigations with sulphur, &c., are equally un-
satisfactory. All we can do is to keep the stock well fed, isolate
the affected ones, and avoid foul pastures. In gapes, however,
allowing a drop of camphorated or eucalyptus oil to run down
the trachea is always satisfactory, and perhaps is the best way to
treat birds when only a few are attacked ; but when large numbers
have gapes the use of the fumigating-box is advisable. Blowing
into the box, with bellows, finely ground camphor and chalk causes
the worms to relax their hold and the birds to cough, and so the
nematodes are expectorated.
Flukes or trematodes are impossible to destroy, as far as our
present knowledge goes, when once fairly housed in the bile-ducts
and liver. Land along the edges of rivers and streams may be said
to be generally liable to be infested with trematode germs, which,
as pointed out previously, live in the water-snails (Limneus trun-
catulus) during part of their early life. Certain meadows in which
these molluscs abound are sure to aflect the flock ; such land
should thus be fed to beasts which, although sometimes subject,
to trematodes, are not seriously affected. Attention should be
paid to the molluscan hosts, hordes of which may be destroyed,
when cleaning out the ditches and dykes, by casting lime over the
mud brought out, when not only the primary host but the embryo
flukes are killed. In all parasitic vermiceous diseases the strength
of the host must be well maintained by good and rich feeding, so
that the invaded animal can withstand the extra drain on its
system. This and proper sanitary measures, the application of a
few well-known vermifuges, and the destruction of diseased parts
instead of giving them to dogs and other animals, are the main
points in preventing the too persistent losses from vermiceous
diseases.
In the case of infected food, which seldom now passes out of the
markets in this country, thorough cooking destroys the cysts and
germs of various diseases, the chances of infection being very slight.
Water plays a prominent part in the distribution of these com-
plaints, and where possible the purest spring-water only should be
employed, for stock as well as for man, especially during and after
an outbreak.
510
APPENDIX II.
THE PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.
To be able to cope with the numerous insect attacks which our
fruit, vegetable, and other crops and stock suffer from, it is essen-
tial that we know certain entomological facts, and something of
the life-histories and habits of those insects we wish to destroy.
A knowledge of some of the simplest elements of entomology will
enable us to understand the why and the wherefore of applying
certain remedies in certain ways and at particular times. (V7de
chapter vii.)
Certain insects are tnjurious in one stage only, others in two stages,
and those with an tncomplete life-history during their whole life-cycle,
from the hatching of the egg onwards.—In the majority of groups
it is the larva that does most harm, as in the wireworms or larvee
of the click beetles (liters), the leather-jackets or larv of the
daddy-long-legs (7ipulidw), the surface-larve or caterpillars of the
dart-moths (Noctuce), and the root-eating maggots, the larvie of true
flies (Diptera). There are, nevertheless, many exceptions to this
general rule: for instance, both larva and adult of the cockchafers
(Melolonthide) do damage ; the larva as well as the imago of the
flea-beetles (Halticide), the pea weevils (Nitones), the raspberry
weevil (Otiorhynchus), and asparagus beetle (Créoceris) also cause
considerable loss in our fields and gardens. In the case of flea-
beetles and others the adults do most harm, the damage caused by
the larvae being of secondary importance. Those insects, such as
plant-lice, which have an incomplete metamorphosis are destructive
in all their stages. With the exception of this last group, the larva,
pupa, and adult have generally different habitats. In some insects we
can best get at the larva to destroy it, in very few the pupa, whilst
many we can attack whilst in the adult phase. The egg masses
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 511
of a few may be destroyed in winter. Thus the importance of
knowing the life-histories of our insect and other pests.
Nearly every known plunt ts attacked by some cnsect.—Very often
each species of insect has a particular food-plant: the onion fly
only attacks the onion, the rust or carrot fly the carrot and parsnip,
the American blight the apple and hawthorn (seldom the pear).
More generally any member of the same family of plants is attacked
by one species of insect ; for example, the turnip flea infests all
Cruciferze alike. Some of our worst pests are general feeders, such
as the wireworm and leather-jacket, which will feed off the roots
of nearly all plants. Where we get one species feeding only off one
particular plant or family of plants, we can do much to prevent their
damage by judicious rotation in the garden and in field cultivation.
Three of the most important structural features to be considered in
regard to insect eradication and prevention of their attacks are the
structure of the mouth, the breathing apparatus, and the organs of
sense.—There are three distinct types of mouth found in insects :
the first is modified for beting, the second for piercing, the third for
sucking. Insects provided with a biting mouth devour plant-tissue
wholesale, both leaf, stem, and rootage being subject to their on-
slaughts. Prercing-mouthed insects have their mouth-parts drawn
out into needle-shaped lancets enclosed in a tube formed by the
upper and lower lips. These insects feed by plunging the proboscis
into the leaf and drawing out the sap. Sucking-mouthed insects have
a long, soft, coiled proboscis, and can do no harm. Lepidoptera
have sucking mouths, but some few in Africa, &c., have the pro-
boscis so hardened they attack fruit. This structure of the insect
mouth is a point too often neglected by people anxious to destroy
insects. Poisons such as arsenical washes are useless for piercing-
mouthed insects such as plant-lice and bugs ; on the other hand,
poisons that will hold to the leaf will be taken in by leaf- and
blossom-eating larvee, and so destroy them. The plant-louse would
plunge its beak through the poison before it used, and so escape its
ill effects ; to poison plant-lice we should have to poison the sap.
How, then, can we destroy such pests? On examining any insect
we shall observe (as pointed out in chapter vii.) at the sides of the
body a number of oval or slit-like apertures: these are breathing-
pores or spiracles. Insects do not breathe through their mouth, but
through these respiratory openings. Varnish these over, and the
insect will be asphyxiated. Plant-lice, &c., can be killed, then,
by using some spray that will block up these breathing - pores :
512 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS,
soft-soap answers this purpose ; other substances, such as quassia,
put in the wash, are of value, but are not es-cutial for killing most
aphides. Soft-soap also adheres to the aphides’ skin, and is useful
besides in fixing corrosives and poisons on the insect and foliage.
The more soft-soup used, within certain linits, therefore, the better.
Certain substances, as paraffin, corrode the skin of aphides. Mites,
on the other hand, breathe cutaneously, and not through spiracles ;
nicotine or soap washes have less effect on them.
On the head of an insect we hare observed, besides the mouth, two
kinds of eyes, simple and compound, and in front of the tro large
compound eyes a pair of jointed horn-like processes, the “ feelers” or
untenne.—What are these feelers for? They are sense organs -
whether they serve for one or two or more sensory functions we
do not know. (ne sense is certainly developed in them—namely,
“smell.” The sense of smell may also be seated in the jointed
palpi attached to the two lower pairs of jaws. Insects have the
sense of smell very acutely developed: they are attracted to their
food-plant by its odour, both for feeding purposes and for ovi-
position. Plant three heds of carrots in your garden some distance
apart : sow one thinly, so that you have no necessity to thin them
out ; sow the other two in the ordinary way, and thin out one of
these, damaging the plants by bruising as you do so, and leave the
soil loose around the plants left in the ground: thin out the third
bed in the same manner, but sprinkle over it, as you go along, sand
soaked in paraffin, so that the sand falls down and covers in the
spaces around the young carrots. You will find the middle plot
infested with “rust,” the flies having been attracted by the smell
from the bruised carrots ; the dressed plot and plot one will be
practically clean, owing to the paraffin destroying the smell of the
plant in the one case, and no smell being released in the other.
The use of these deodorants is very important as a preventive of
insect ravages, both for dressing the seed and young plants.
Thus from studying the structure of an insect we see that we can
fight them in three different ways—by poisoning, by asphyxiating,
and by destroying the natural smell of the plant.
action of certain substances must also be noted.
The two means of checking tnsect ravages «ure by Prevention and
Remedies,—By prevention the appearance of any pest is forestalled,
by either making the surroundings unfit for them to live in, by
the winter destruction of the insects, by trapping, or by the use of
deodorants upon seeds and seedlings. In regard to the eevnier de-
The corrosive
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 513
struction, which is one of the most important features in prevention,
let us see where insects generally take up their winter quarters.
After an attack of onion maggot, rust, celery fly, cabbage maggots,
and wurzel fly, &c. (all of which are the larve of Diptera), we shall
find in the ground during the winter numberless small, oval, brown
bodies known as “ puparia,” each of which contains a pupa derived
from one of the maggots. We must not forget, however, that some
of the larvee have not matured by the time the crop was lifted, and
thus some are harvested with the crop, as we find in maggoty
onions and rusty carrots; or they may remain in the leaves, as in
the case of celery-fly, or in the rotting stalks and roots, as in cabbage
maggots. Now, if these are left in and on the ground and not
destroyed, fresh generations appear next year, and should a similar
crop be grown on or near the same land it stands a considerable
risk of further attack. Again, in sazw/fly larve attack on fruit-trees,
at the end of the year the larve fall to the ground, bury themselves
a few inches beneath the bushes and trees, and forming a case of
silk and earth, likewise later pupate. They often remain as larvee
in the cocoon until the spring, and then pupate. A very large
number of moths also are found in the pupal stage in the earth
in the winter time. At this time of year one and all should be
destroyed. Two methods seem to recommend themselves—one,
turning over the land so as to expose the pup to the attack of
birds, which greedily devour them ; another, by deep trenching the
land go as to bury the insects. After a bad attack of currant saw-
fly, we may remove the soil from beneath the currant and gooseberry
bushes in winter and burn it in gardens.
It must be remembered that frost has little or no injurious effect
upon insects in the egg or pupal state, or even upon most maggots.—
I have known chrysalids frozen as brittle as glass, and yet their
vitality was unimpaired. Frost, if anything, is beneficial to insect
life, for the hard state of the ground protects the creatures from the
attack of birds. Many insects hibernate in the adult state,—such
as the turnip-flea, thrips, apple-blossom weevil, earwigs, &c.,—taking
refuge in hedgerows, grassy headlands, rubbish-heaps, under dead
bark, and so forth. Hedges bordering fields and gardens, and all
grassy patches, should be well cleaned in the winter, the material
burnt, and all rubbish cleared off and similarly destroyed. The dead
leaves that collect in currant-bushes harbour the young larve of the
currant moth (Abrawas grossulariata), and should therefore be
cleaned out. All prunings of fruit-trees should be burnt, and not
2k
514 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.
left about in heaps as we often see them, for numberless ova of
psylla, aphis, lackey moth, and winter moth may be upon them ; a
cursory examination with a lens will soon show their presence.
Clean farming is the essential of insect prevention, and this especi-
ally applies to fruit. Examine in winter an old apple-tree covered
with rough bark, moss, and lichens, and we may find numberless
larvee of the codling moth, American - blight insects, earwigs,
weevils, &c., sheltering beneath. Cleaning the bark in winter will
do away with many destructive creatures. Some insect enemies are
found beneath the fruit-trees in the ground in winter, but some de-
structive species come into activity during the cold months of the
year—namely, the winter moths. These moths appear from October
to April, and lay their eggs upon the twigs and buds. The females
are wingless in some (March moth), nearly so in others (Winter
moth), and ascend the tree-trunks to deposit their eggs: the males,
however, 1nay carry a few up to the tree in copuld. Those crawling
up the trunk are easily captured by grease-banding. This method
has now been in vogue for some time. Banding of another sort is
useful in gardens and orchards —namely, for codling moth larve.
The best plan for this pest is to tie round the trunk about a foot
from the ground a wisp of hay or sacking in May: here the larvee
find a shelter in which to pupate, and can then be taken off with
the sacking or wisp in the winter and burnt.
Another insect which may be trapped is the click beetle, the
parent of the wireworm. This is done by placing small masses of
green stuff, lucerne or sainfoin, under a board in gardens from April
to July, when numbers of click beetles will be found sheltering be-
neath during the daytime, and may then be destroyed with the
ova they have laid below the lucerne. JLeather-jackets may also be
caught by placing large lumps of rotting turf upon the ground
where they are abundant.
Considerable damage is often done to fruit, peas, Kc., in gardens
by a group of beetles called Weevils (Curculionidae). These beetles
can always be told by their having a snout and elbowed antenne
(vide p. 154). They are destructive both in the imago and larval
stages, the adults devouring leafage and the larve rootage of
plants. Weevils are always extremely sensitive, and fall to the
ground at the least shock, when they curl their legs in and feign
death. The larve are always curved, white, wrinkled, footless
grubs, and generally feed close to the surface during the winter
months. Many weevils (Otiorhynchus) have no wings. This genus
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 515
contains such noxious species as the raspberry weevils (O. picipes
and 0. sulcatus) and the plum weevils (0. fuscipes and 0. tene-
bricosus), They all hide away during daylight, coming out at night
to feed. We can best catch these depredators by “jarring” the
trees over tarred sacks or boards at nights, when the weevils fall off
and are caught in the tar beneath. Jarring may generally be em-
ployed for this group of beetles. Arsenical spraying is also said to
kill them. Some other weevils (Bruchide) attack seeds, living in
the larval state in them, such as the pea weevil (Bruchus ist). All
infested seed should either be steeped in carbolic water or fumigated
with bisulphide of carbon for some hours, when all signs of insect
life will be destroyed.
Such are some of the many ways by which we can prevent insect
attack. Cleanliness and the judicious rotation of crops will to a
large extent keep them in check; whilst, where we can, such animals
as pigs, fowls, guinea-fowls, &c., may be employed on infested land
after a bad attack, especially in orchards, where they will be seen
greedily devouring all manner of grubs that come in their way.
Substances used for the destruction of insects, or znsecticides, are
now employed with great success.—Jnsectifuges are mixtures used
for keeping insects off a crop — preventive washes or powders.
Insecticides may be liquid or dry; the liquid washes are always
preferable to the dry powders. To destroy insects by washes or
spray fluids we must carry one thing in our mind—namely, How do
the insects to be killed devour their food ? are they provided with a
biting or a sucking mouth ?
There are'six chief types of washes now in use—namely, (1) Arsenz-
cal washes ; (2) Tobacco washes ; (3) Paraffin emulsions ; (4) Sulphur
lime washes; (5) Soft-soap and Quassia washes ; (6) Caustic or winter
washes.
1. Arsenical washes are three in number—viz., Paris green, London
purple, and Arsenate of lead. These poisonous washes are only of
use for leaf-eating larvee and beetles. As to the respective merits
of each, arsenate of lead stands first, as it has a lesser tendency to
burn the leafage, a feature which has too often attended the use of
Paris green. Arsenate of lead is mixed in the following manner :
dissolve 2 ounces of arsenate of soda (commercial) in a little water,
then dissolve 74 ounces of acetate of lead also in water. Add the
arsenate of soda to 10 gallons of water, and then after stirring well
add the dissolved acetate of lead and mix the whole well together.
It may also be obtained as a paste (Swift’s, Berger's, Voss’, &c.)
516 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.
Spray in early morning and late in the afternoon, unless on dull days.
Never spray when the blossom is out, as it kills the bees. ever leave
the wash about, as it is poisonous. Three sprayings should be always
employed—one just before the buds begin to burst, the second just be-
fore the blossom opens, and the third directly the blossom has fallen.
By so doing several insect attacks are dealt with, such as Winter
moth, Tortrix, and Codling moth.
2. Tobacco washes.—Tobacco is one of the most potent insecticides.
It may either be used in the form of a wash or mixed with camphor
and used as a fumigant under glass. In many cases rag or paper
steeped in tobacco-juice is used for burning in glass-houses to kill
aphis, thrips, &c. It is best used as nicotine, but this is too ex-
pensive to use on a large scale. Nicotine wash is made as
follows :—
Nicotine (90-98 per eu : : 1 oz.
Soft-soap . : : : 2 02.
Water. : 10 gallons.
Plain tobacco-leaf waste may also be used, or home-grown tobacco,
as follows :—
Tobacco waste. ‘ - ‘ 2-3 lb.
Soft-soap . ‘ ‘ : $-1 lb.
Water. : 10 gallons.
Infuse the tobacco wane in en ine press ; then add a pinch of
soda, and add the whole to the dissolved soap and water. At
present the only way tobacco wash can be used commercially is
to buy it from insecticide makers.
3. Paraffin washes.—Paraffin-oil or kerosene forms an excellent
insecticide and insectifuge, especially if it is used with soft-soap in
the form of an emulsion, by which the paraffin is evenly distributed
in the water. This wash is useful for celery fly, marguerite fly,
scale insects, plant-lice, &. Paraffin emulsion may be prepared by
mixing equal proportions of boiling soft-soap solution and paraffin
together, and thoroughly churning them until a thick creamy emul-
sion is formed. This emulsion can be kept and mixed with sixteen
to thirty times its bulk of warm water when required for use. An-
other method is to dissolve 1 quart of soft-soap in 2 quarts of
boiling soft water. Remove from the fire, and while still boiling
hot add one pint of paraffin oil, and immediately churn the mixture
with a small hand syringe for five minutes. For use dilute with
ten times its volume of water (Cousins). By far the best mixture is
parafiin jelly, made as follows: Paraffin, 5 gallons ; soft-soap, 8 Ib. ;
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 517
water, 10 gallons. Boil together in a closed copper, and when boil-
ing add a few pints of cold water. When all is dissolved, pour into
a barrel or pails ; it then solidifies to a jelly. Use 10 Ib. of jelly to
O gallons of water. Paraffin jelly is an excellent remedy for red-
spider on fruit, for scale, aphis, and leaf hoppers.
4, Lime-sulphur washes.—The two following formule are the best
for clearing trees in winter, for pear-leaf blister mite and some
coccidee (Aspidiotus). They do not kill insect eggs, as some say,
nor are lime-sulphur washes at summer strength of much value as
insecticides. For winter use only.
(1) Lime-sulphur-soda wash—
Lime . : , : 3 lb.
Sulphur ; : : 3 lb.
Caustic soda : ; 1 Ib,
Soft-soap ; ; F 1 Ib.
Water . 10 gallons.
Make the flowers of sulphur ae a paste sah water, and then thin
and pour over the lime ; let this boil for a quarter of an hour, then
stir and add the eautie: soda ; let this boil for some time, and then
add the dissolved soap and full complement of water.
(2) Lime-sulphur-soda-salt wash—
Quicklime ‘ - F ‘i 3-6 lb.
Sulphur : ‘ . ‘ 3 Ib.
Salt. ‘ : ‘ : 3 lb.
Caustic soda . . . ‘ 1 lb.
Water . ‘ 10 gallons.
Mix soda and lime together, ain lake with some hot water in
which the sulphur has been incorporated, and then bring up to
the full 10 gallons. This is self-boiling.
(3) Lime-salt wash.— This is useful for cleaning fruit-trees of
moss, lichen, &c., and at the same time undoubtedly checks the
hatching of apple sucker and plum aphis eggs. Moreover, both
ingredients, as they get washed off, pass to the soil, and there do
much good. It is made by slaking 14 cwt. of the best white lime,
and adding this, strained through a coarse sieve, to 100 gallons of
water in which 15 lb. of salt has been dissolved. Use in March or
late February, putting on as thickly as possible.
5. Soft-soap and Quassia wash forms a very useful cleansing wash
for aphides. It is made of 1 1b. of soft-soap, 1 lb. of boiled quassia-
chips to 10 gallons of water. The quassia should be boiled separ-
ately for two hours, with just sufficient water to keep it liquid.
518 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OT INSECT PESTS.
The soft-soap should be also boiled, and then added to the strained
extract of quassia ; after both have been well mixed, they may be
added to the 10 gallons of warm water.
6. Caustic washes are used with great success in the winter as
agents for ridding the bark of trees of their vegetal incumbrances.
The best wash is made by mixing 24 lb. of caustic soda with 10
gallons of water. It must not be used until the sap is well down
the tree. Trees washed with this soon present a clean healthy
appearance, and can be told at once.
Fumigation.—This treatment is used for nursery-stock and plants
under glass. For this purpose (1) Hydrocyanic acid gas is used,
also (2) Tobacco, and (3) Pyrethrum. The first is most useful for
nursery-stock and dormant plants—it kills all life.
For every 100 cubic feet of space use 3 ounce of potassium cyanide,
and for each ounce of the cyanide use one liquid ounce of sulphuric
acid, mixed with 4 ounces of water. The cyanide is dropped by
special apparatus into the acid and water, and at once the deadly
fumes arise. Plants are best treated in a dull light, dry tem-
perature, and at about 60° F., and should be exposed to the fumes
for at least an hour. The fumigating chamber or houses must not
be entered until all the gas has escaped, and this should be allowed
to do so from above. If sodium cyanide is used, then a $ ounce
is required. One must remember that this gas is a deadly poison,
and so it must be employed with extreme caution.
Soil Fumigation.—In killing insects under ground, bisulphide of
carbon is employed. It is injected into the soil by means of the
Vermorel Injector at the rate of 4 ounces to the square yard, as
many small injections as possible. Being heavier than air, it sinks
into the soil, and is fatal to insect life that it reaches. It is also
used for fumigating grain, &c., and must then be placed at the top
of the grain. Remember it and its gas are poisonons and highly
inflammable—no light, cigar, or live electric wire must go near it.
Various patent soil fumigants, such as vaporite, fumite, and apterite,
are used with success for most ground pests, as leather - jackets,
chafer larvee, surface larvae, and ants.
The effect of artificial manures on vrsect pests is often most marked.
Nitrate of soda and kainit are frequently of much service in destrov-
ing surface grubs, whilst on the other hand superphosphates have less
effect. Bone-meal and guanos encourage many insect pests. Soot
forms an excellent deterrent to many leaf-eating beetles and onion
fly ; dusting over the seed leaves and broadcasting over beds of
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 519
pickling onions is nearly always followed by cessation of attack
in such insects as onion fly, especially if it is broadcasted when
there is dew on the leaves : at the same time it stimulates the plant
to growth, and makes good the damage caused by the insects.
Infestation is often carried to gardens in dung and leaf-mould:
these should be examined, and if found to be very foul, should be
nixed with gas-lime if possible, and not used until the lime has
done its work, and so purified the manure. I have seen many
gardens infested in this way. Mould-heaps and peat-heaps should
always have a dressing of lime on the top to keep off the daddy-long-
legs, click beetles, &c., that will lay their eggs there if they get the
chance. Lastly, every farmer and gardener should protect as far as
he can the numerous insects that are beneficiai, and the birds and
animals that help to keep down our only too rapidly increasing
insect pests.
The enemies of insects include such groups of insects as lady-birds,
lace-wing flies, hover flies, ichneumon flies, tachina flies, sand-wasps,
carabidee or ground beetles, &c., described in previous chapters.
Besides insects, frogs, toads, and shrew-mice do much good in
gardens, where they can be usefully employed ; and numerous birds
are of the greatest benefit in checking insect depredations, notably
the family of Tits or Paridw, and many of the migratory birds.
Even the thrush does good by destroying heaps of grubs, snails,
and slugs, and so makes up for the loss it sometimes occasions
amongst the fruit ; and the rook and starling kill the wireworm in
the fields which as yet we cannot do, and the plover takes no toll
and does infinite good.
INDEX.
Generic and specific names are in Italics.
Abdomen, of insect, 102; of horse, Amblyomma hebreeum, 127
329 American Blight, 266
Abdominal appendages of insect, 104 Ammonites, 296
Abomasum, 473 Amnion, the, 438
Abraxas grossulariata, 207 " the false, 438
Acanthis cannabina, 419 Ameba, 18
nu flavirostris, 419 " coli, 20
Acanthobothrium, 48 histolytica, 20
Acanthocephala, 64 Amabiwa, 18
Acaride, 119 Amphibia, 354
Acarina, 97, 99, 115, 118 " development of, 355
Accipiter nisus, 383 Amphiblastula (larva), 33
Achorutes armatus, 290 Amphioxus lanceolatus, 307, 309
" rufescens, 290 Anas boschas, 390
Acidia heraclei, 250 u— erecca, 890
Acordata, 15 penelope, 390
Acrania, 15 Anatide, 390
Actinozoa, 15, 384 Anchitherium, the, 466
Aculeata (hymenoptera), 172 Andrena, 176
Adder, the, 363 Anguillulide, 78
Alicnemide, 400 Anguis fragilis, 363
ABgeriide, 196 Amsopteryx cescularia, 207
Agriolimax agrestis, 299 Anopheline, 29
Agriotes lineatus, 161 Anoplura, 278
Agrotis exclamationis, 203 Anoura, 354, 355
nu segetum, 203 Anser albifrons, 388
Air-sacs in birds, 374 n brachyrhynchus, 388
Alauda arborea, 414 u Grenta, 388
n arvensis, 414 u ferus, 386
Alaudide, 414 un segetum, 387
Alcedo ispida, 412 Anseriformes, 385
Aleyrodide, 274 Antenne, 101; use of, 143
Alimentary canal, of insect, 105; of Anthomyia floralis, 239
horse, 329 ; of bird, 372 " radicum, 239
Allantois, the, 428 Anthomyide, 288
Alternation of generations, 39, 53 Anthonomus pomorum, 155
INDEX. 521
Anthophila, 176
Anthus, 424, 426
Antispila, 211
Antlers, of deer, 475
Ant- lions, 283
Ants, 1733 remedies for, 174
Aorta, 343
Aphaniptera, 256
Aphelenchus, 79
Aphidide, 262
Aphis brassicw, 268
nu pruni, 268
u Tumicts, 264
Apide, 176
Apion apricans, 159
Apis dorsata, 178
un fasciuta, 178
un flor, 178
nn tndica, 178
uw mellifica, 176
zonata, 178
Appendages “of head (insect), 102
Appendicularia (larva), 308
Appenzell cattle, 482
Apple-blossom Weevil, 155
n Sawfly, 191
n -Sucker, 272
Aptera, 289
Aquila chrysaétus, 383
Arachnoid, the, 345
Arachnoidea, 108, 114
Araneida, 97, 98, 99, 114, 115
Arch, pectoral, of horse, 321; of bird,
371; of mole, 498
Arch, pelvic, of horse, 324; of bird,
372
Archeopteryx, 376
Ardea cinerea, 380
Ardez, 379
Area opaca, 436
n pellucida, 436
u vasculosa, 452
Areca nut, use of, 506
‘Argantine, 126
Argas, 24
n persicus, 126
un - reflexus, 126
Arion ater, 300
1 hortensis, 299
Armadillidium vulgaris, 109
Arsenate of lead, 515
Arsenical washes, 515
Arteries, 341
Arthropoda, 97, 109; groups of, 99,
108 ; characters of groups of, 108
Artificial maaures, effect of, on insects,
518
Artiodactyla, 469
Arvicola agrestis, 494
nu amphibia, 495
" arvalis, 495
" glareolit, 495
Arvicolide, 494
Ascaridee, 85
Ascaris lumbricoides, 86
un megalocephala, 85
" suilla, 86
Ascidians, 307, 308
Asio accipitrinus, 410
un otus, 410
Asparagus beetle, 153
Aspidiotus camellia, 270
W nertt, 270
" ostreeeformis, 270
perniciosus, 270
Ass, the domestic, 465
Aster Worms, 93
Athius hamorrhoidalis, 161
Atlas, of horse, 318
Alypus Sulzeri, 117
Auditory pits, development of, 440
Auroch, the, 482
Aves, 365 ; temperature of, 7b. ; skele-
ton and anatomy of, 367; British,
Avocet, the, 402
Axis, of horse, 318
Axolotl, the, 354
Bacon beetle, 165
Badger, the, "486
Balaninus nucus, 158
Balanoglossus, 310
Balantidum coli, 30
" minutum, 31
Bank Vole, 495
Barn-Owl, the, 409
“e Basilero, 938
Bats, 500
Bdellidae, 119
Bean Aphis, 264
Bean-seed Weevils, 159
Bean Weevils, 156
Beasts of prey, 483
Bed-bug, 24, 276
Bedeguar, 185
Bee-louse, 256
it moth, 209
Bees, 176 ; mouth and sting of honey-,
180
Beet-carrion beetles, 165
n _eelworm, 83
Beetles, 145
Belemnites, 296
Bell Animalcule, 30
Bern cattle, 482
522
Bernicla brenta, 388
Bibio hortulanus, 226
Bibionide, 225
Bilharzia crassa, 47
" hamatobia, 47
Bimana, 461
Biorhiza terminalis, 184
Bird-lice, 284
Birds, 365; skeleton of, 367; ana-
tomy of, 367 ; British, 377
Bisulphide of carbon, 518
Bitterns, 379, 380
Black Bee, 177
Blackbird, the, 329
Blackcap, the, 428
Blackcock, the, 393
Black-fly, 264
Black Jack, 152
Black Rat, 492
Bladder, of horse, 337
Bladder-worms, 51
Blanjulide, 112
Blanjulus pulchellus, 112
Blastoderm, the, 482, 435
Blastodermic vesicle, the, 450
Blastopore, the, 450
Blatta americana, 282
nu germanica, 282
uu ortentalis, 99, 281
Blattida, 281
Blinding Storm Fly, 231
Blind-worm, 363
Blood, corpuscles of, 5 ; circulation of,
341; sources of, 344
Blue-bottle Flies, 252
Bombi, 1
Bombycina, 200
Bones, formation of, 8; of horse’s
skull, 319; of limbs, 322; pneu-
matic, 869; of bird’s skull, 370;
of wing, 372; of ox’s skull, 482; of
bat’s wing, 500
Book-lice, 284
Boophilus annulatus, 126
Bos bison, 482
un longifrons, 482
1 primigenius, 482
Botaurus stellaris, 380
Bothriocephalus, 53
Bovide, 480
Brachial plexus, 349
Braconide, 183
Brain, of arthropods, 98; of horse,
345 ; of pig, 470
Braula coca, 256
Breathing-pores of insect, 106
Breeze-flies, 230
“Brimps,” 280
INDEX.
British Shorthorn, 482
Bronchi, of horse, 334
Brown Rat, 492
Bruchide, 154, 159
Bruchus rufimanus, 159
Bryolia, 121
un rtbis, 118
Budding, reproduction by, 44
Bufa calamita, 357
un eulgaris, 357
Bugs, 276
Bullfinch, the, 418
Bunodonta, 470
Buntings, 423
Burying-beetles, 144, 165
Buteo lagopus, 384
un vulgaris, 384
Butterflies, 192
Buzzards, British, 384
Byturus tomentosus, 167
Cabbage Flea, 151
n -root flies, 240
Caccabis rufa, 393
Caddis-flies, 287
Cecum, of horse, 330; of pig, 470; of
ox, 475
Calandra granaria, 159
" oryze, 159
Calathus cysteloides, 169
Calepterya, 289
Calliphora, 252
Calocoris fulvomaculatus, 278
Calomel, use of, 506
Canide, 488
Canis dingo, 489
uu familiaris, 488
un lupus, 489
vulpes, 488
“Canker” in pigeons, 25
Cantharidu’, 146
Capercaillie, the, 394
Capra egagrus, 478
un hiveus, 478
Caprimulgus europwus, 411
Capside, 278
Carabide, 146, 168
Carabus nemoralis, 168
" violaceus, 168
Carbon disulphide, 518
Cardiac muscle, 9
Carduelis elegans, 422
Carnivora, 483
Carpocapsa pomonella, 209
Carpocapside, 209
Carpus, of horse, 322; of ox, 482
Carrot-fly, 248
Cartilage, 7
INDEX,
Catabomba pyrastri, 233
Caterpillar, 140
Cats, 489
Cattle, 402; Chillingham, 2. ; origin
of domestic, 482; races of, id.
Caustic washes, 518
Cavicornia, 477
Cecidomyia brussicu', 225
" destructor, 220
Cecidomyids, 219
Celery-fly, 250
Cell, structure of the, 3; division of
the, 4
Centipedes, 113
eee aon cds, 298, 295; fossil forms,
Cephenomyia rufibarbis, 238
Cephus pygmeeus, 190
Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 258
Cerceris arenaria, 183
Cercomonas intestinalis, 22
Cerebellum, 347
Cerebrum, 347
Cervical plexus, 349
Cervide, 475
Cervus capreolus, 476
uu dama, 476
u_ elaphus, 476
Cestoda, 39, 47 ; development of, 50
Cetacea, 461
Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, 159
" assimilis, 153
Chetopoda, 90
Chaffinch, the, 420
Chaleididw, 183
Chalcid Flies, 183
Charadriiformes, 400
Cheimatobia brumata, 206
Chelidon urbica, 424
Chelonia, 362
Chermes, 264
Cherry-louse, 268
un Sawfly, 188
u_ -tree Casebearer, 213
Chiffchaff, the, 42
Chilognatha, 111
Chilopoda, 111
Chiroptera, 500
Chlorophyll, 11
Chloropide, 244
Chlorops teeniopus, 244
Chordata, 15
Chorion, the, 453; false, 455; frond-
osum, 456
Chrysomelide, 146, 152
Chrysomitris spinus, 422
sops ceecutiens, 231
Chyle, 341
523
Cicadas, 260
Cicindelide, 145, 146
Ciconia, 379, 380
Ciconiiformes, 379
Ciliata, 29
Cimex, 24
un lectularius, 24, 276
Cimicide, 262
Circus, 304
Classification, of animals, 12; of
chordata, 310; of craniota, 351
Clavicornia, 165
Clay-coloured Weevil, 158
Clearwing Moths, 196
Click-beetles, 160
Cloaca, 373
Clouded Yellow, 195
Clover-sickness, 80
u Weevil, 159
“Clubbing,” 20
Coccidee, 269
Coccidiidea, 24
Coccidiosis, 25
Coccidium oviforme, 25
Coccinellidee, 146
Coccinella bi-punctata, 146
" decem-punctata, 147
" ocellata, 147
" septem-punctata, 147
Cockchafers, 163
Cockroach, anatomy of, 100; internal
structure of, 104
Cockroaches, 99
Codling Moth, 209
Ceelenterata, 32, 33
Calinius niger, 246
Cenurus, 54
" cerebralis, 54
Coleophora anatipenella, 213
Coleophoride, 213
Coleoptera, 145
Colias edusa, 195
Collembola, 289
Colon, of insect, 106; of mammal,
330
Columba wnas, 408
" livia, 407
n palumbus, 406
Columbiformes, 405
Colymbiformes, 378
Comma Butterfly, 193
Common Lizard, 363
" Newt, 358
" Shrew, 499
" Wasp, 174
Complete metamorphosis, 143
Connective tissue, 7
Conorhinus megistus, 23
524 INDEX.
Coot, the, 400 Oysticercus, 2
Coracia, 412 " bovis, 62
Coraciiformes, 409 " cellulose, 56
Cordyceps entomorhiza, 200 piseiformis, 61
Corn Aphis, 268 Cy ystojlagellata, 21
-bunting, the, 423 Cysts, 52
Corncrake, the, 400 Cytopyge, 30
Corn Ground-beetle, 169 Cytostome, 30
n Moth, 216
n Sawfly, 190 Dabchick, the, 378
Weevil, 159 nee e eitri, 270
Coronella liuvis, 363 longispinus, 270
Corvidee, 414 Daddy- -long-legs, 227
Corvus corax, 414 Dart Moth, 203
nn cornia, 414 Daulias lucinia, 430
n corone, 415 Decidua reflexa, 456
u frugilegus, 416 " serotina, 456
un monedula, 416 " vera, 456
Cotile riparia, 424 Deciduate placenta, 455
Cotyledonary placenta, 457 Deer, 475; Red, 476; Roebuck, 476;
Crabs, 99 Fallow, 477
Crambide, 209 Demodecide, 133
Crane-flies, 226 Demodex folliculorum, 133
Cranial-nerves, 348 Dermanyssus avium, 122
Craniota, 15 Dermaptera, 280
Cranium, of horse, 345 Dermatobia cyaniventris, 238
Crawtish, 110 Dermestes lardarius, 165
Crayfish, 99 Dermestidee, 165
Creeping Disease, 238 Dermis, the, 327
Creodonta, 483 Devil's Coach-horse Beetle, 170
Crea pratensis, 400 Dew-claws, of pig, 470
Crioceris asparagt, 153 Diamond-back Moth, 212
Crop, of insect, 105; of birds, 372 Diaphragm, the, 329
Crow, the, 415 Didelphia, 460, 462
Crucifer Midge, 225 Diffuse placenta, 457
Crustacea, 99 Digenea, 41
Ctenocephalus canis, 258 Digestive organs, of insect, 105; of
" felis, 258 horse, 329; of bird, 372
Clenopsylla museuli, 258 Digging Wasps, 183
Cuckoo, the, 408 Dilophus febrilis, 225
Cuculiformes, 408 Dinoflagellata, 21
Cuculus canorus, 408 Diploptera, 172
Culicidee, 29 Diplosis pyrivora, 223
Curculionidae, 146, 154 " tritici’, 222
Curlew, the, 402 Diptera, 144
Currant Aphis, 268 Discoidal placenta, 455
wu -borer, 196 Distomata, 41
" Clearwing Moth, 196 Distomum hepaticum, 42
u Gall-mite, 134 " lanceolatum, 42
n Moth, 207 " magnum, 46
uw Sawfly, 187 " pulmonale, 16
Cuttlefish, 295 Diurni, 192
Cyanide of potassium, 518 Divers, 378
Cygnus olor, 389 Dog, the domestic, 488; Australian,
Cynipide, 183, 184 489; New Zealand, 489
Cynips kollart, 185 Dogs, 488
Cyprian Bee, 177 Domestic fowls, probable origin of,
Cypselus apus, 411 395
INDEX, 525
Dotterel, the, 401
Dourine, 22, 23
Dragon-flies, 288
Drasside, 117
Duck-bill, the, 460
Ducks, 385, 390; wild species, 390;
origin of domestic, 391
Dura-mater, 345
Eagle, golden, 383; white-tailed, 383
Ear-cockles, 80
Earthworms, 90; life-history of, 91
Earwigs, 280
East Coast fever, 25
Echidna, the, 460
Echinococcus, 58
Echinococcus polymorphus, 58
" veterinorum, 58
Echinodermata, 32
Edentata, 461
Ee]lworms, 78
Egg, of frog, 356; of amphibia, 356 ;
of reptilia, 861; of fowl, 431; origin
and formation of, 433; fertilisation
of, 434; segmentation of, 435; of
mammal, 449
Elastic tissue, 7
Elateride, 146, 160
Emberizine, 418
Embryology of chick, 431; changes
during first day, 438 ; during second
day, 439; during third day, 441;
during fourth day, 443 ; during fifth
day, 444; during sixth and seventh
days, 445; from eighth day onwards,
445; of mammals, 450
Embryonic sac, 436
Enchytreide, 93
Endogenous cell-formation, 5
Entameba, 20
Eohippos, 466
Epeiride, 117
Ephemeride, 284
Ephestia kiihniella, 216
Epiglottis, 335
Epilachna, 148
Epithelium, 6
Eproboscidea, 254
Equide, 464 ; living and extinct tabu-
lated, 466
Equus asinus, 465
n caballus, 465
uu hemionus, 465
un onager, 465
1 te@niopus, 465
Ergot, the, of horse, 326
Erinaceide, 499
Erinaceus europeus, 499
Eriocampa limacina, 188
Kriophyide, 134
Friophyes pyrt, 185
W ribis, 134
Euacanthus interruptus, 276
Eudromias morinellus, 401
Euplecaptera, 280
Eutheria, 460
Euthrips pyri, 260
Eyes, of insects, 101; of mollusca, 293 ;
development of, in birds, 440, 441
Falconide, 380
Falconiformes, 380
Faico esalon, 382
uw peregrinus, 382
uu subbuteo, 382
un tinnunculus, 381
False-caterpillars, 140, 186
chorion, 455
Fasciola hepatica, 41
Feathers, of bird, 365; development
of, 446
Feelers, of insect, 101 ; use of, 143
Felidae, 489
Felis catus, 490
un maniculata, 490
Ferret, the, 484
Fetlock, of horse, 326
Fever Fly, 225
Fieldfare, the, 430
Field-Vole, 494
Filaria immitis, 87
un ocudis, 36
un papillosa, 87
Filaridee, 87
Finches, 418
Finger-and-toe, 18, 20
Fish, 352; respiration of, 353
Fissipedia, 483
Flagellata, 21
Flat-worms, 39, 40
‘¢ Plax-seed” stage of Hessian Fly,
221
Flea, of hen, 257 ; of dog, 258
Flea-beetles, 148
Fleas, 256
n and plague, 258
Flukes, 40
Foetal membranes of mammals, 449
Foot, of horse, 324, 463, 466; of pig,
463 ; of ox, 482
Foraminifera, 16
Fore-limb of horse, 322
Forest-flies, 254
Forficula auricularia, 280
Formica, 178
" rufa, 174
526 INDEX.
Formicids, 173 Globigerina, 16
Fossoria, 172, 183 Glochidium larva, 293
Fowl, skeleton of, 867; anatomy of, Glomeridw, 112
372; origin of domestic, 395; Red Gilomeris, 112
Jungle, 396; Ceylon, 376; Fork- Glossina, 23
tailed, 20. ; Sonnerat's, ib. ; egg of, Glottis, the, 335
431 Goat Moth, 193
Fowl-fly, 256 Goat-sucker, the, 411
Fowl Spirochetes, 24 Goats, 478; domestic, 478
Foxes, 488 Golden Plover, the, 401
Free cells, 5 Goldfinch, the, 422
Fresh-water mussel, 294 Goniocotes, 285
Fringillide, 418 Goniodes, 285
Frit-fly, 246 Gooseberry Sawfly, 187
Frogs, 354 Gout-fly, 244
Frost, effect of, on insects, 513 Gracilaria, 211
Fulica atra, 400 Grapholitha pisana, 211
Fumigation, for husk, 509; for gapes, Grass Moths, 209
74, 509; for insects, 518 un Snake, 363
Gray’s Banded Newt, 359
Gad-flies, 229 Grease-banding, 207
Galeriida, 209 Great Crested Newt, 358
Gall-flies, 184 Grebes, 378
n -gnats, 219 Greenfinch, the, 422
Galliformes, 391 Green Bottle Flies, 252
Gallinz, 391 ; domesticated, 395 u Lizard, 363
Gallinula chloropus, 399 Gregarinoidea, 24
Gambia fever, 23 Grey Field-slug, 299
Gamaside, 119, 122 Ground Beetles, 168
Gape-worm, 74 Grouse, 393
Gapes in poultry, 74 Grub, 141
Garden Chafer, 164 Gruiformes, 399
nu Snail, 302 Gryllotalpa vulgaris, 283
uw Swift-moth, 198 Guinea-fowl, 398; the domestic, 398 ;
Garrulus glandarius, 417 probable origin of, ib.
Gasteropoda, 296 Gulls, 403
Gastrophilus equi, 237 Gypsy Moth, 201
" hemorrhoidalis, 238
nasalis, 238 Homaphysallis, 127
- Geeinus viridis, 412 Humosporidia, 24, 27
Geese, 386 ; Grey- lag, 386; Bean-, 387; JZirmatopoda pluvialis, 231
Brent, 388 ; domestic, ib.; origin J«monchus contortus, 69
of domestic, 7b. ; Pink-footed, 7b.; Hamopis sanguisuga, 94
White-fronted, 7. Haliactus albicilla, 383
Genital organs, of horse, 337; of Halictus, 176
mare, 339; of bird, 374 Hatiotis, 297
Geometrina, 205 Halticide, 148
Geophilide, 113 Hare, the, 496
Geophilus longicornis, 113 Harpalus ruficornis, 169
" subterraneus, 113 Harriers, 384
Germinal disc, 434 Harvest Bug, 122
" vesicle, 434 Haustellata, 144
Ghost-moth, 199 Hawks, 380
Giant Honey-bee of India, 178 Hawk Moths, 196
Giant Sirex, 192 Heart, of insect, 104; of horse, 341; of
Gid, in sheep, 54 fish, 353; of” reptile, 361; “of bird,
Gizzard, of insects, 105; of birds, 874; development of, 440
373 Heart-and-Dart Moth, 308
INDEX.
Hedgehogs, 499
Helicide, 297, 299, 301
Helix aspersa, 302
wu caperata, 302
un nemoralis, 302
un virgata, 302
Heliozoa, 17
Hemerobiide, 286
Hemiptera, 144
" -heteroptera, 261, 276
" -homoptera, 261, 262
Hepato-portal system, 344
Hepialus humuli, 199
" lupulinus, 198
Heron, the, 380
Hessian Fly, the, 220
Heterakis, 508
Heterocera, 192
Heterodera, 79
" radicicola, 84
" schachtti, 83
Heterogyna, 173
Heterotricha, 30
Hexactinia, 34
Hexapoda, 138
Hipparion, the, 466
Hippidion, the, 466
Hippobosca equina, 255
" maculata, 256
" rufipes, 256
Hirudinea, 93 Apes,
Hirundo rustica, 423
Histolysis, 142
Hobby, the, 382
Hock, of horse, 326
Holland cattle, 482
Holoblastic segmentation, 450
Holotricha, 30
Honey-bee, 176
Hoofed animals, 461-463
Hoose, 68
Hop Aphis, 265
uw Flea, 151
u Frog-fly, 276
Hoplocampa testudinea, 191
Hornet, 175
Horns, of artiodactyla, 469; of ante-
lopes, 478; of sheep, 478; of oxen,
1b,
Horse, skeleton of, 315; foot of, 324 ;
internal anatomy of, 327 ; domestic
varieties of, 464 ; extinct species of,
465; descent of, 466; the age of,
told by teeth, 467
Horse-bot, oy
» Shoe Bat, 502
OU
wo
aT
House-fly, 251
Hover-flies, 282
Humble-bees, 176
Humus and earthworms, 93
Husk, 68
Hyalopterus pruni, 264
Aybernia defoliaria, 207
Hydatid plague, 58
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 518
Hydrozoa, 34
Aygromyia rufescens, 302
Hylemyia coarctata, 242
Hylobius abietis, 159
Hymenoptera, 170
Hymenoptera aculeata, 172
" parasitica, 172
" tubulifera, 172
" petioliventres, 172
" sessiliventres, 172, 186
Hypoblast, 435
Hypoderma bovis, 234
" diana, 238
" lineata, 284
Hypotricha, 30
Hyracoidea, 461
Hyracotherium, the, 466
Hystrichopsylla talpe:, 257
Icerya purchasi, 148
Ichneumon flies, 183
Ichneumonide, 183
Ichthyopsida, 852
Incomplete metamorphosis, 143
Incurvaria capitella, 215
Infusoria, 17, 29
Insect pests, prevention and destruc-
tion of, 510
Insecticides, 515
Insectivora, 497
Insects, 138; enemies of, 519
Intestines, of horse, 330; of birds,
373; of pig, 470
Trish rat, the, 492
Isopoda, 109
Tulide, 112
Iulus Londinensis, 112
u_ terrestris, 112
Teodes ricinus, 127
Ixodide, 123
Ixodine, 126
Jackdaw, the, 414, 416
Jarring, for insects, 515
Jay, the, 417
Jelly-fish, 33
Jointed-limbed animals, 97
Jungle Fowl, Red, 895; Sonnerat’s,
396; of Ceylon, 7b,; Javan, 397
528
Kamala, use of, 506
Kangaroos, 463
Karyokinesis, 4
Ked, the, 254
Kerosene oil, 516
Kestrel, the, 381
Kiang, the, 465
Kidneys, of horse, 336; of bird, 374;
of ox, 482
Kingfisher, the, 412
Knee, of horse, 323
Knot Root Disease, 84
Labia minor, 281
Lacerta agilis, 3638
un vtridis, 363
nu _ vivipara, 363
Lacertilia, 362
Lace-wing flies, 286
Lackey Moth, 201
Lacteal system, 344
Lady-birds, 146
Lamellibranchiata, 293, 294
Lamellicornia, 146, 163
Lampronia rubiella, 214
Landrail, the, 400
Laniide, 426
Lanius collurio, 426
nu exeubitor, 427
un minor, 427
" pomeranus, 427
Lapwing, the, 401
Large intestine, of horse, 330; of pig,
470; of ox, 474
Large Larch Sawfly, 191
Large Tortoisehell Butterfly, 193
Lark, the, 414
Larus argentatus, 403
n canus, 403
un ridibundus, 403
Larynx, the, of horse, 334
Leaf Hoppers, 262
Leather-jackets, 228
Lecanium persica v. ribis, 271
Leeches, 95. ; life-history of, 94 ; medi-
cal, 95; Horse, id.
Lepidoptera, 144, 192
Lepisma saccharina, 290
Leporide, 493, 496
Leptus autumnalis, 122
Lepus caniculus, 496
nu timidus, 496
Libellulide, 289
Lice, 278, 284
Ligurian Bee, 177
Limacide, 299
Limax agrestis, 299
u maximus, 300
INDEX.
Limbs, growth of, in chick, 443
Lime-salt wash, 517
» -sulphur wash, 517
Limneide, 297
Limnwus, 43, 298
" humilis, 299
" pereger, 43, 298
" trunculatus, 43, 298
" viator, 43, 299
Limnephilus flavicornis, 287
Linguatulide, 136
Linnet, the, 419
Liparis dispar, 201
Lipeurus, 285
Lassotriton teniatus, 358
Lithobiide, 113
Lithobius, 114
Lithocolletis, 211
Little Shrew, 499
Liver, of horse, 331; development of,
in fowl, 442
Liver-fluke, 43; life-history of, 7b. ;
effects of, on liver, 46
Liver-rot, in rabbits, 25; in sheep,
42
Lizards, 362
Lobosa nuda, 18
Loligo, 295
London Purple, 515
Long-eared Bat, 502
" " Ow], 409
Looper-larve, 140
Lophinus palmatus, 359
Lophyrus pini, 191
Lucilia, 252
Lumbricus terrestris, 91
Lung-finkes, 46
un -worms, of sheep, 68
Lungs, of horse, 333; development
of, 442; of ruminants, 475
Lutra vulgaris, 486
Lygeide, 262
Lymph, 341
Macrochires, 411
Maggots, 140
Magpie, the, 417
Moth, 207
Malaria, cause of, 25, 29
Ma] de Caderas, 22, 238
Male shield-fern, use of, 506
Malignant jaundice, 25
Mallophaga, 284
Mammalia, 448, 460; development
of, 449 ; foetal membranes of, 452;
British species of, 460; classifica-
tion of, 460
Mammary glands, 352; of pig, 470
Mandibulata, 144
Mange, 133
Mangold Fly, 242
Manyplies, 473
March Moth, 207
Marsupialia, 462
Marten, the, 484
Martes sylvatica, 484
Martin, the, 424
Mastigophora, 17, 21
Maw-worn, 86
May-flies, 284
Mealy Bugs, 270
Mealy Plum Aphis, 264
Measles, in pork, 56
Medical leech, 95
Mediterranean Flour Moth, 216
Medulla oblongata, 347
Medullary groove, 489
Medusa, 83
Meleagris americana, 397
" mexicana, 397
" ocellata, 397
Meles taxus, 486
Meligethes ceneus, 153
Melolontha vulgaris, 163
Melolonthide, 163
Melophagus, 254
" ovinus, 254
Membrana granulosa, 449
Menopon, 285
Menstruation, 339
Merlin, the, 382
Meroblastic segmentation, 450
Mesenteric gland of pig, 470
Mesentery, 333
Mesoblast, 485
Mesoblastic somites, 439
Mesohippos, the, 466
Meta-discoidal placenta, 455
Metamorphosis of insects, 143
Metatheria, 460
Metazoa, 13
Mice, 492, 493
Microgaster glomeratus, 184
Micro-lepidoptera, 208
Millepedes, 111
Miners’ disease, 36
Miohippos, the, 466
Missel Thrush, the, 430
Mites, 118
Mole, the, 497
nu -ericket, 283
Mollusca, 291; reproduction
292; groups of, 293; injurious,
297
Monadidea, 21
Moniexia expansa, 62
INDEX,
“ Monkey-peas,” 109
Monodelphia, 461
Monogenea, 41
Monotremata, 461
Moorhen, the, 399
Mosquitoes, 217
Moss, on fruit-trees, 514
Motucilla alba, 425
" flava, 426
" lugubris, 425
" melanope, 425
" ratt, 426
Moths, 192
Mottled Umber Moth, 207
Mountain Bull, 482
" Twite, 419
529
Mouse, Long-tailed Field, 493; Har-
vest, 493; common, 494
Mouth, of insects, 139
Mus Alexandrinus, 492
u decumanus, 492
u hebernicus, 492
un messorius, 493
un musculus, 494
un Tattus, 492
un sylvaticus, 493
Musca domestica, 251
Muscidee, 251
Muscular tissue, 8
Mussel-scales, 270
Mustard Beetle, the, 152
Mustard Blossom Beetle, 153
Mustelide, 483
Mutilla, 171
Mygalide, 117
Myriapoda, 111
Mycetozoa, 17
Myrmica, 173
Mytilaspis pomorum, 270
Myzostomaria, 40
Myzus cerasi, 268
Nagana, 22
Nautilus, the, 295
Necrophaga, 165
Necrophagi, 145
Needle-nosed Hop-bug, 278
Nemathelminthes, 63
Nematoda, 64; development of, 65;
groups of, 68
Nematophora, 39
Nematus erichsoni, 191
" ribesit, 187
Nemertinea, 39
Nepticula, 211
Nerve cord, of worms, 37 ; of insects,
108 ; of horse, 345
Nerves, cranial, 848; spinal, 349
2 L
530
Nervous system, of insect, 108; of
mollusca, 293; of horse, 348 ; sym-
pathetic, 350
Nervous tissue, 9
Nettle-head, in hops, 84
Neural canal, 439
Neuroptera, 144
Newt, the Common, 358 ; Great-Crest-
ed, 358
Nicotine, 516
“Nigger,” the, 147
Nightingale, the, 430
Nightjar, the, 411
Nitidulidir, 167
Noctue, 203
Noctule, the, 502
Nomadu, 176
Non-deciduate placenta, 455
Non-ruminants, 470
Notochord, 307, 308, 309, 437
Notodontide, 202
Nubian Cat, 491
Numida, 398; wild forms of, 398
Nut Weevil, 158
Oak-apples, 184
Occidental horses, race of, 465
Octactinia, 34
Ocypus olens, 170
Odonata, 288
Odontoid process, 318
Odontophore of mollusc, 293
Odontornithes, 376
Odynerus, 175
(CEstridx, 233
Gstrus ovis, 236
Oligocheta, 91
Omasum, the, 473
Ommatotriton vittatus, 359
Onager, the, 465
Onion Fly, 239
Oniscidiv, 109
Oniscus asellus, 109
Cpgeroliants of mollusc, 296; of fish,
35:
Ophidia, 362
Opossums, 462
Optic vesicles, formation of, 440
Orgyia antiqua, 200
Oribata orbicularis, 183
u lapidaria, 134
Oribatide, 133
Oriental horses, race of, 465
Ornithodelphia, 461
Ornithodorus moubata, 127
Ornithomya avicularia, 256
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, 461
Orohippos, the, 466
INDEX.
Orthoptera, 144
Orthotylus marginelis, 278
Oscinider, 246
Oscinus frit, 246
Ostertagia ostertagi, 70
Osseous tissue, 7
Otiorhynchus fuscipes, 158
" pieipes, 158
" sulcatus, 158
Otiorhynchus Weevils, 153
Otter, the, 486
Ova, of bird, 374; of mammal, 449
Ovaries, of insects, 1/7; of mare,
Ovis, 478
Owls, 409; Barn, 409; Tawny, 410;
Long- and Short-eared, 410
Oxen, 450
Oxyures, 86
Oxyuris curvula, 86
" mestigodes, 87
" vermicularis, ST
Oyster-shell Bark Louse, 270
Pachyrina maculosa, 228
Paleotherium, the, 466
Palmate Newt, 358
Palisade-worms, 68
Pancreas, of horse, 331 ; development
of, in fowl, 442
Panniculus adiposus, 327
Panorpide, 284
Paraffin emulsion, 516
wu jelly, 516
Paramercium, 18
Parasitic gastritis, 69
Paridee, 427
Paris green, 515
Pre the common, 393; French,
Parus ceruleus, 427
un major, 427
Passer domesticus, 421
n montanus, 421
Passeriformes, 413
Patagium, of Bat, 500
Pavo cristatus, 399
un muticus, 399
un nigripennis, 399
Peacock Butterfly, 193
Fees, the Indian, 399; the Javan,
Pea-moth, the, 211
Pea Weevil, 156
Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 135
Pear Midge, 223
u Sawfly, 188
INDEX.
ee arch, of horse, 321; of bird,
Pediculida, 278
Pegomyia bet, 242
Pelvic arch, of horse, 324; of bird, 372
Penis, of horse, 337; of pig, 470; of
ram, 480; of bull, 482
Pentastomide, 136
Penthina pruniana, 211
Perching-birds, 414
Perdix cinerea, 393
Peregrine Falcon, 382
Pericardium, 341
Periplaneta americana, 99, 282
Perissodactyla, 464
Peritoneum, 332
Peritricha, 30
Perlide, 284
Phiedon betule, 152
Phalangers, 463
Phalaropes, 402
Phasianide, 393
Phasianus colchicus, 394
" torquatus, 894
Pheasant, the, 394
Phorbia cepetorum, 239
ow brassicce, 240
Phorodon humuli, 265
Phryganeide, 284, 287
Phthirius capitis, 279
" inguinalis, 279
" vestimenti, 279
Phyllopertha horticola, 164
Phyllotreta nemorum, 148
Phytoptide, 134
Phytoptus avellance, 134
" pyri, 185
" ribis, 134
" taxt, 134
Pia-mater, 345
Pica caudate, 417
Pici, 412
Picus major, 412
. ou minor, 412
Pieridae, 193
Pieris brassice, 194
u napt, 195
un rape, 195
Pigeons, 405 ; origin of domestic, 407
Pigs, 470
Pine Sawfly, 191
nu Weevil, 159
Pinnigrade foot, 484
Pinnipedia, 483
Piophila aptt, 251
Pipistrelle, the, 502
Pipits, the, 424
Piroplasma bigemina, 27
531
Piroplasma canis, 28
" equt, 28
" parvum, 28
Piroplasme, 27
Piroplasmosis, 25-27
Pisces, 352
Placenta, 453; varieties of, 455;
discoidal, 455; meta-discoidal, 455 ;
zonary, 456; cotyledonary, 457 ;
diffuse, 457
Plantigrade foot, 484
Plant-lice, 262
Plasmodia, 17
Plasmodiophora brassicw, 17, 20
Plasmodium, 27, 29
" immaculatum, 29
u malarice, 29
" vivax, 29
Platyhelminthes, 40
Plecotus auritus, 502
Plectroscelis concinna, 148, 151
Pliohippos, the, 466
Ploughshare bone, 369
Plovers, 401
Plum Aphis, 268
uu Weevils, 158
Plusia gamma, 204
Plusiadee, 204
Plutella maculipennis, 212
Pneumatic bones of bird, 369
Podiceps fluviatilis, 378
Polecat, the, 485
Polycheta, 40
Polydesmide, 112
Polydesmus complanatus, 113
Polyps, 33
Polystomata, 47
Polystomum interrimum, 47
Pomegranate bark, use of, 506
Pompilius plumbeus, 183
Porcellio scaber, 109
Porifera, 32
ae arch, of horse, 324; of bird,
32
Pratincoles, 400
Primates, 461
Primitive groove, 313, 436
" streak, 436, 439, 451
Proboscidea (diptera), 232 ;
mals), 461 %
Proctotrupide, 183
Propolis, 182
Protohippos, the, 466
Protoplasm, 3
Prototheria, 460
Protozoa, 16
Pseudalis ovis-pulmonalis, 69
Pseudotetramera, 146, 148
(mam-
552 INDEX.
Pseudotrimera, 146 Reproductive system, of insects,
Psila rose, 248 107
Psilide, 248 " organs, of mammals,
Psocidee, 284 ~ 337 ; of birds, 374
Psoroptes, 128 Reptilia, 360
" communis vy. ovis, 129 Respiratory organs, of insects, 106 ; of
Psorospermosis, 24 horse, 333; of Ichthyopsida, 352 ;
Psychidee, 201 of bird, 374
Psylla mali, 272 Reticulosa, 20
wu pyrivora, 274 Reticulum, the, 473
Psylliodes attenuatus, 151 Rhinolophus fer vin-equinum, 502
Pteropoda, 295 " hipposideros, 502
Pulex irritans, 258 Rhipocephalus annulatus, 28
Pulicidee, 217, 256 Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 164
Pulmonary artery, 343 Rhodites rose, 185
" veins, 343 Rhopalocera, 192
Pulmonata, 297 Rhopalosiphum lactucw, 268
Pulse Seed Weevils, 159 Rhynchopora, 154
Pulvinia vitis, 270 Ribs, of horse, 321; of pig, 471: of
Puparia, 142 oxen, 482
Pupipara, 254 Rice Weevil, 159
Putorius erminea, 484, 485 Ring-bone, 324 ‘
un feetidus, 484, 485 Rock Dove, the, 407
" furo, 484 Rodentia, 490
" vulgaris, 484 Rook, the, 416
Pyralide, 208 Root-eating maggots, 238
Pyrrhula europea, 418 Root-knot disease, 84
Rose Beetle, 163
Quadrate bone, 370 Round-worms, 63
Quadrumana, 461 Rove-beetles, 169
Quail, the, 363 Rumen, the, 473
Quassia, use of, 517 Ruminants, 473; stomach of, 473;
Queest, the, 406 dentition of, 475
Rust in carrots, 248
Rabbit, the, 496
Radiolaria, 16 Salivary glands, of insects, 105; of
Radula, the, 294 mammal, 331
Rails, the, 399 San José Scale, 269
Rallide, 399 Sand-flies, 226
Rana temporaria, 358 wu Lizard, 363
Ranide, 358 1 martin, the, 424
Rasores, 391 Sand Wasps, 175
Raspberry-beetle, 167 Santonine, 86
ef shoot-borer, 214 Seprinus virescens, 153
1 Weevil, 158 Sarcodina, 17
Rats, 492 Sarcoptes, 130
Rat Fleas, 258 " scabiet vy. ovis, 130
Red Grouse, the, 393 Sauropsida, 365
un Hen Mite, 122 Sawflies, 186
u Mange, 133 Sawfly larve, 186
u Spider, 119 Surtcola, 428
1 Wood Ant, 174 Seah, 129
Red-léged Weevil, 158 Scale insects, 269
Reduviidee, 262 Sealy-leg, in fowls, 133
Redwater, 25, 27 Schizoneura lunigera, 266
Redwing, the, 430 " ulni, 264
Reed-bunting, the, 423 Sclerostomum armatum (equinum), 70
Relapsing Fever, 126 " rubrum, 71
INDEX.
Sclerostomum tetracanthum, 71
Scolopacide, 402
Scolopendridex, 113
Scolytidee, 170
Scooping-bone, of pig, 470
Scorpion-flies, 284
Scorpions, 108
Scratching-hirds, 391
Scymnus minimus, 147
Sea Anemones, 33
n -squirts, 307
Seals, 483
Segmentation of egg, 435
Segmented worms, 90
Selenodonta, 473
Sense organs, of worms, 38 ; of arthro-
pods, 101
Sepia, 295
Sexton Beetle, 165
Sexual organs, of horse, 337 ; of ram,
480; of bull, 482
Sheep, 478
n fluke, 42
un nasal-bot, 236
nn seab, 129
1 spider tly, 254
« ‘treks, 127
Sheldrakes, 390 :
Short-eared Owl, the, 410
Shot-borer Beetles, 170
Shrews, 499
Shrikes, 426
Sialidas, 284
Side-bone, 324
Silicoflagellata, 21
Silpha atrata, 166
1 — opaca, 165
Silver-fish, the, 290
Simulide, 226
Sirenia, 461
Siricide, 192
Sirex gigas, 192
u juvencus, 192
Siskin, the, 422
Sitones crinitus, 156
1 Lineatus, 156
Skeleton, of horse, 315; of bird, 367 ;
of pig, 472; of oxen, 481; of sbeep,
479
(
“Sketer” Hawks, 288
Skip-jacks, 160
Skull, of horse, 319; of bird, 369; of
ram, 478; of ox, 480
“Slaters,” 109
Sleeping sickness, 23
Slug-worm, of pear, 188
Slugs, 299, 302
Small Chafer, 164
533
Small intestine, of horse, 330; of pig,
470; of ox, 474
Sminthurus luteus, 290
Smooth Snake, 363
Snails, 801 ; natural enemies of, 303
Snake-flies, 284
Snakes, 360
Snipe, the, 400
Snow-flies, 274
Soft-soap, 516
Solidungulata, 464
Soil fumigation, 518
Solitary Wasps, 175
Solutre, fossil horses of, 464
Sorex fodiens, 499
nu pygmaeus, 499
un vulgaris, 499
Southern fever, 27
Sparrow-hawk, the, 383
Sparrows, 424
Sphingide, 196
Spider-fly, 254
Spiders, 115
Spinal cord, 345
Spiracles, 106
Spirillosis, 24
Spirochwte, 24
Spirochwta gallinarum, 24
" obermeiert, 24
Spleen, of horse, 331
Split swimming foot, of bird, 378
Spongide, 32
Spongilla fluviatilis, 33
Sporozoa, 17, 24
Stag-beetle, 163
Staphylinide, 169
“« Staggers,” 64
Starfish, 34
Starling, the, 417
Steel Blue, 192
Stem Eelworm, 80
eae of horse, 321; of bird,
1
Stifle-joint, 326
Stoat, the, 485
Stock-dove, the, 408
Stomach, of horse, 330; of bird, 373 ;
of pig, 470; of ruminant, 474
Stomach Worms, 69
Stomoxys, 254
Stone Curlews, 400
u -flies, 284
Strawberry Snail, 302
Strawberry Weevil, 158
Strigide, 409
Striped Click-beetle, 161
Strix flammea, 409
Strongyles, of horse, 70
534 INDEX.
Strongyles, of sheep and cattle, 69 Tenthredinide, 186
Strongylide, 68 Testacella, 301
Storks, 379 " hatiotidea, 301
“Sturdy,” 54 Testes, of insect, 107 ; ; of mammal,
Sturnide, 417 337
Stylopide, 145 Tetrao scoticus, 393
Sub-zonal membrane, 453, 455 u— tetrix, 394
Suctoria, 29 nu wrogallus, 394
Suide, 473 Tetraonide, 393
Sulphur washes, 517 Tetranychus malver, 119
Summer Chafer, 164 " telarius, 121
Surface larva:, 203 Tetrarhynchus, 49
“ Surra,” 22 Texas fever, 27
Sus scrofa, 471 Thoracic duct, 344
Swallows, 423 Thorax, of insect, 101; of horse,
Swans, 385, 389 329
Swifts, 411 Thread-worms, 64
Sylri atricapilla, 428 Thrips, 258
n evnerea, 428 Thrips cerealium, 259
u hortensis, 428 un minutissima, 260
Syinbiotes, 128 i ochraceus, 259
" communis v. ovis, 132 Thrush, the, 429
Sympathetic nervous system, 350 Thymol, use of, 73
Synergi, 184 Thymus gland, of horse, 331
Syngamus trachealis, 74 Thyroid, of horse, 331
Syrian Bee, 177 Thysanoptera, 258
Syrnium aluco, 410 Thysanura, 289
Syrphidz, 232 Ticks, 28
Syrphus balteatus, 232 Tinea granella, 216
" vibestt, 932 Tineine, 211
Tipula lateralis, ae
Tabanide, 229 " oleracea, 2 oo]
Tabanus autumnalis, 231 nu paludosa, 228
" bovinus, 231 Tipulide, 226
" sudeticus, 231 Tits, 427
Tadorna Bellonii, Toad, the Common, 357 ; the Natter-
Tenia cenurus, 54 jack, 357
uu echinococcus, 58 Toads, 354
n expansa, 62 Tobacco wash, 516
n saginata, 62 Torcel Fly, 238
n serrata, 61 Tortricide, 209
solium, 56 Tortrix heparana, 211
Trenicides, 506 " larve:, 309
Teniosis, 48 u pruniana, 211
Talpa europea, 497 " ribeand, 211
Talpida, 497 Trachea, of insect, 106 ; of horse, 384
Tapeworms, 47; development of, 50; Tracheal injections, 509
human, 56, 58, Trematoda, 40
Tarsus, of horse, 326 Trichinella spiralis, 76
Tasmanian Devil, the, 463 Trichinosis, 7
Tawny Owl, the, 110 Trichocephalidw, 75
Tawny Wasp, 175 Trichocera hiemalis, 289
Teal, the, 390 " regelationis, 239
Teeth, of horse, 468; of dog, 488; Trichodectes, 284
of pigs, 470; of ruminants, 475 ; of Trichopsylla qallinu, 257
carnivora, 483 ; of cats, 489 Trichosomum, 75
Tenebrionide, 146 Trichostronqulus extenuatus, 70
INDEX. 53
Or
Trichotrachelide, 75 Vapourer Moth, 200
Triton cristatus, 358 Vascular system, of mammal, 341; of
Trogontia, 460 ichthyopsida, 353; of sauropsida,
Trombidide, 118 361
Trombidium holosericeum, 122 Vedalia cardinalis, 148
Tropidonotus nutri, 363. Vena cava, superior and inferior, 342
Trypanoplasma, 22 nu porta, 844
Trypanosoma, 22 Vermiceous diseases, prevention and
" brucet, 23 treatment of, 505
" cruzi, 23 Vertebra, of horse, 315; of bird, 369
" equinum, 23 Vertebral column, the, 315
" Lvansi, 23 Vespa crabro, 175
" gambiense, 23 u rufa, 175
Trypanosomatidé, 21 nu sylvestris, 175
Trypanosomes, 22 u vulgaris, 174
Trypetid«, 250 Vespertilio noctula, 502
Tsetse disease, 22 " pipistrella, 502
Tsetse Flies, 23 Vipera berus, 3638
Tulip-root in oats, 80 Vine Weevil, 158
Tunicates, 307 Visceral arches, 313, 452
Turbellaria, 39 " clefts, 442, 452
Turdus iliacus, 330 nn folds, 442
un merula, 829 Vocal cords of horse, 335
un musicus, 329 Voles, 494 ; plagues of, 495
un ptlaris, 330 Volucella bombylans, 233
un viscivorus, 330 " zonaria, 233
Turkeys, 397 Vorticella, 30
Turnip Flea, 148 Vulturide, 380
Gall Weevil, 159
Seed Weevil, 153 Wandering cells, 5
Turtle-dove, the, 407 Warble-flies, 233; of ox, 234; of
Tylenchus, 79 pues 236 ; of horse, 237 ; of deer,
" devastatriz, 80 238
scandens, 79 Warblers, the, 428
Typhlocybidee, 262 Washes, 515
bila 174; Sand, 175 ; remedies for,
Umbilical vesicle, the, 453 175
Oncinate process of rib, 370 Water-rat, 495
Ungulata, 463 " Shrew, 499
Unio, 292; development of, 293 nu -snails, 097
Urachus, the, 454 Wax, 182
Ureters, 336 Weasels, 483 ; the common species of,
Urethral canal, 336 484
Urinary organs, of horse, 336 Weevils, 154
Uroceride, 192 Wheat Eelworm, 79
Urodela, 354 Midge, 292,
Uro- genital organs, of horse, 336; of Wheat: bulb fly, 242
mare, 339 Wheatears, the, 428
Urus, the, 482 Whip-worms, 75
Uterus, of mare, 339 Whitethroat, the, 428
Wild Boar, 471
Vanellus cristatus, 401 un Cat, 490
Vanessa C. album, 193 Windhover, the, 381
" to, 193 Wing, of bird, 365; of bat, 500
_ polychloros, 193 Winter-gnats, 229
Vanesside, 193 «Moth, 206
Vaporite, 518 Wireworms, 160
/
536
Wolf, the, 489
Wolffian duct, 444
Wombats, 463
Woodcock, the, 402
Wood-louse, 109
Woodpeckers, 412
Wood-pigeon, the, 406
nu -snail, 302
uw -wasps, 175, 186, 192
Woolly Aphis, 266
Worms, 36; classes of, 39
Wryneck, the, 412
Nyleborus dispar, 170
INDEX.
Xyleborus saxeseni, 170
Xenopsulla cheopis, 258
Xylophaga, 146
Yellow Underwing, 203
Yellow-hammer, the, 423
Y-Moths, 204
Yolk sac, 486
Yuna torquilla, 412
Zubrus gibbus, 169
Zona radiata, 434, 450
Zonary placenta, 456
Zygomatic process, of horse, 320
A 5 Lew
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Journal of Education.—“This Series has, we believe, already
won the favourable notice of teachers. It certainly deserves to do
so. Its volumes are edited with scholarly care and sound literary
judgment. They are strongly and neatly bound, and extremely well
printed.”
Saturday Review.—‘‘The print is good, and the introductions
both short and to the point, while the notes strike a happy medium
between misplaced erudition and trivial scrappiness.”
School Board Chronicie.—‘ There are no more thorough and
helpful annotated editions than those of the series of Blackwoods’
English Classics.”
Cowper—The Task, and Minor Poems.
By Exizapeta Leg, Author of ‘A School History of English Literature.’
2s. 6d.
Guardian.—'‘‘ Miss Elizabeth Lee scores a distinct success. Her introduction
is to the point and none too long; her notes are apt and adequate.”
Scott—Lady of the Lake.
By W. EH. W. Coturs, M.A. Is. 6d.
Saturday Review.—‘‘Like some other members of this series of ‘ English
Classics’ we have noticed recently, this volume is 4 good piece of work.”
Johnson—Lives of Milton and Addison.
By Professor J. WicHt Durr, D.Litt., Durham College of Scienee, New-
castle-upon-Tyne. 2s, 6d.
Educational News.—‘‘ A scholarly edition. The introduction contains things
as good as are to be found in Macaulay’s essay or Leslie Stephen’s monograph.”
Milton—Paradise Lost, Books I.-IV.
By J. Loaiz Ropertson, M.A., First English Master, Edinburgh Ladies’
College, 2s. 6d,
Saturday Review.—‘‘ An excellent edition.”
Macaulay—Life of Johnson.
By D. NicHot SmirH, M.A., Goldsmith’s Reader in English, University of
Oxford. ls. 6d.
Journal of Education.—‘‘ Mr Smith’s criticism is sound, simple, and clear.
Annotated with care and good sense, the edition is decidedly satisfactory.”
Carlyle—Essay on Burns.
By J. Downin, M.A., U.F.C. Training College, Aberdeen. 2s, 6d.
Guardian.—‘‘ A igh acceptable addition to our stock of school classics,
We congratulate Mr Downie on having found a field worthy of his labours
and on having accomplished his task with faithfulness and skill.”
Educational Works. 9
BLACKWOODS’ ENGLISH CLASSICS—continued.
Goldsmith—Traveller, Deserted Village, & other Poems.
By J. H. Loppan, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature, Birkbeck College,
London. 1s. 6d.
Literature.—‘“‘If Goldsmith touched nothing that he did not adorn, Mr
Lobban and his publishers have adorned Goldsmith.”
Pope—Essay on Criticism, Rape of the Lock, and
other Poems.
By Gzorez Sovran, M.A., Litt.D., Lecturer in English Language and
Literature, University College, Dundee. 2s. 6d.
Guardian.—“ The selection is made with taste, and the commentary is sound,
adequate, and not overburdened with superfluous information.”
Hazlitt—Essays on Poetry.
By D. NicHou Smrrx, M.A:, Goldsmith’s Reader in English, University of
Oxford, 2s, 6d.
Athenzum.—'‘ The introduction is a capital piece of work.”
Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Keats.
By A. D. Inngs, M.A., Editor of ‘Julius Cesar,’ &c., &c. 28. 6d.
Academy.—"‘ For Mr Innes’s volume we have nothing but praise,”
Scott—Marmion.
By ALExaNDER Mackie, M.A., Examiner in English, University of
Aberdeen ; Editor of ‘Warren Hastings,’ &. 1s. 6d.
Guardian.—‘‘ The volume is worthy to take its place with the best of its kind.”
Lamb—Select Essays.
By Aangs Wiz80n, Editor of Browning’s ‘Strafford,’ &c.; late Senior English
Mistress, East Putney High School, 2s. 6d.
Athenwum.—‘' Miss Wilson’s edition is well equipped.”
Milton—Samson Agonistes.
By E, H. Buagengy, M.A., Headmaster, King’s School, Ely. 2s. 6d.
School World.—‘‘ Everything testifies to excellent scholarship and editorial
Care... The notes are a joy to the critic.”
Byron—Selections.
By Professor J. Wieut Durr, D.Litt., Armstrong College, in the University
of Durham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 3s. 6d.
Academy and Literature.—‘‘ Nothing has been done perfunctorily ; Professor
Duff is himself interested in Byron, and passes on to his reader, in consequence,
some of the emotion he himself has felt.”
Mr G. K. Chesterton in ‘The Daily News.’—‘‘ Mr Wight Duff has made an
exceedingly good selection from the poems of Byron, and added to them a clear
and capable introductory study.” :
Professor R. Wiilker in ‘Englische Studien.’—‘‘ Wight Duffs Byron wird
sicherlich dazu beitragen des Dichters Werke in England mehr zu verbreiten,
als dies bisher geschehen ist. Aber auch in Deutschland ist das Buch allen
Freunden Byron’s warm zu empfehlen.”
10 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
HISTORY.
A Short History of Scotland.
By ANDREW Lane. Crown 8vo, 5s, net.
LATIN AND GREEK.
Higher Latin Prose.
With an Introduction by H. W. AupgEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada
College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ;
late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar.
2a, 6d.
*,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s, net.
Educational Times.—‘‘ Those who are in need of a short practical guide on
the subject will find Mr Auden’s little work well worth a trial....... The passages
chosen are well suited for translation.”
School Guardian.—‘‘This is an excellent Latin prose manual. The hints
on composition are first-rate, and should be of considerable use to the student
of style who has mastered the ordinary rules of prose writing. ..... Altogether,
this is a very valuable little book.”
Lower Latin Prose.
By ee P. Wimson, M.A., Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh.
2s, 6d,
*.* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.
Journal of Education.—‘' A well-arranged and helpful manual, The whole
beok is well printed and elear. We can unreservedly recommend the work.”
Higher Latin Unseens.
For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Sel i -
troductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Pacer Upuee
coe ee iadgarg formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes Co ege, Edin-
pore 2 a Ha ah olar of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Bell University
Educational News.—‘‘The hints on translation gi
hows: : given by Mr Auden are th
most useful and judicious we have se ere Uae
trated with skilful point and aptness, gee mana balk ant they are illus-
Latin Unseens.
Selected, with Introducti i
School, Glasgow. 2a. om BY We Loppan, M.A., Classical miorten, Eee
Athensum.—“‘ More interesting in substance th i
‘ an such thi: =
Journal of Education.—‘' Will be welcomed by all ae mee
seeghgol Guardian. —‘' The introductory hints en translation sh ld b
5 they are most valuable, and well put.” = es
Educational Works. I
Now issued at 1s. 6d. net to meet the requirements of the
Education Department for a Latin Translation Book suited to
pupils in the early stage of the subject. In its more expensive
form the volume has been extensively used by the greater Public
Schools, and is in its Thirteenth Edition. A specimen copy will
be sent gratis to any teacher wishing to examine the book with
a view to introduction.
THIRTEENTH EDITION.
ADITUS FACILIORES.
AN EASY LATIN CONSTRUING BOOK,
WITH VOCABULARY.
BY
A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D.,
Late Head-Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, and sometime
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ;
AND THE
Rev. ©. DARNELL, M.A.,
Late Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School, Edinburgh,
and Scholar of Pembroke and Downing
Colleges, Cambridge.
Contents.
PART I.—Stories and Fables—The Wolf on his Dvath-Bed—Alex-
ander and the Pirate—Zeno’s Teaching—Ten Helpers—The Swallow
and the Auts—Discontent—Pleasures of Country Life—The Wolf and
the Lamb—Simplicity of Farm Life in Ancient Italy—The Conceited
Jackdaw—The Ant and the Grasshopper—The Hares contemplate
Suicide—The Clever Parrot—Simple Living—The Human Hand—The
Bear—Value of Rivers—Love of the Country—Juno and the Peacock—
The Camel—The Swallow and the Birds—The Boy and the Echo—The
Stag and the Fountain—The Cat’s Device—The Human Figure—The
Silly Orow—Abraham’s Death-Bed—The Frogs ask for a King—The
Gods select severally a Favourite Tree—Hear the Other Side.
PART Il.—Historical Extracts—TuE Srory or THE Fast: Histori-
cal Introduction—The Story of the Fabii. Tux Conquest or Vzir:
Historical Introduction—The Conquest of Veii. TH SacRIFICE oF
Decrvs : Historical Introduction—The Sacrifice of Decius.
PART IIl.—The First Roman Invasion of Britain—Introduction
to Extracts from Cesar’s Commentaries—The First Roman Invasion of
Britain.
PART IV.—The Life of Alexander the Great —Historical Intro-
duction—Life and Campaigns of Alexander the Great.
APPENDIX. VooaBULARY.
Two Maps to Illustrate the First Roman Invasion of Britain and the
Campaigns of Alexander the Great,
12 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
First Latin Sentences and Prose.
By K. P. Wuson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Fettes College. With Vocabulary, 2s. 6d. Also
issued in Two Parts, 1s. 6d. each.
Saturday Review.—‘“‘This is just the right sort of help the beginner wants.
Sbek It is certainly a book to be recommended for preparatory schools or the
lower classes of a public school.”
Educational Review.—‘' Form masters in search of a new composition book
will welcome this publication.”
A First Latin Reader.
With Notes, Exercises, and Vocabulary. By K. P. Wriso0n, M.A., Fettes
College. Crown 8vo, ls, 6d.
Tales of Ancient Thessaly.
An Elementary Latin Reading-Book, with Notes and Voeabulary. By
J. W. E. Peanoz, M.A., Headmaster of Merton Court Preparatory School,
Sidcup ; late Assistant-Master, University College School, London. With
a Preface by J. L. Paton, M.A., late Fellow of St John’s College,
Cambridge; Headmaster of the Grammar School, Manchester. 1s.
Guardian.—'‘A striking and attractive volume, Altogether, we have here
quite a noteworthy little venture, to which we wish all success.”
Latin Verse Unseens.
By G. MippLeton, M.A., Classical Master, Aberdeen Grammar School,
late Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Joint-Author of ‘ Student’s
Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s, 6d.
Schoolmaster.—‘‘ They form excellent practice in ‘unseen’ work, in a great
variety of style and subject. For purposes of general study and as practice for
examinations the book is a thoroughly useful one.”
Latin Historical Unseens.
For Army Classes. By L. C. Vavauan Witxes, M.A. 2s.
Army and Navy Gazette.—‘' Will be found very useful by candidates for
entrance to Sandhurst, Woolwich, and the Militia.”
Stonyhurst Latin Grammar.
By Rev. JoHN GmRaRD. Second Edition. Pp.199. 3s.
Aditus Faciliores Greci.
An Easy Greek Construing Book, with Complete Vocabulary. By the lat
A. W. Poms, M.A., LL.D., and the Rev. C. DaRNRLL M.A. Firth
Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s.
Camenarum Flosculos in Usum Fettesianorum decerptos
Notis quibusdam illustraverunt A. Gut. Ports, M.A., LL.D, ;
Gut. A. Hmanp, M.A., LL.D. New Impression. Crown 8vo, 85, 6d, ,
Educational Works. 13
Greek Accidence.
For Use in Preparatory and Public Schools, By T. C, WEATHERH@AD,
M.A,, Headmaster, Choir School, King’s College, Cambridge; formerly of
Trinity College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar. 1s. 6d.
Literature.—‘' Not the least of its merits is the clearness of the type, both
Greek and English.”
Pilot.—‘‘ The most useful book for beginners we have seen.”
The Messenian Wars.
An Elementary Greck Reader. With Exercises and Full Voeabulary. By
H. W. Aupgn, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto ; formerly
Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ; late Scholar of Christ’s College,
Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar, 1s. 6d.
Saturday Review.—‘‘ A far more spirited narrative than the Anabasis, We
warmly commend the book.”
Higher Greek Prose.
With an Introduction by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada
College, Toronto, 2s. 6d. *,* Key (for Teachers only), 58. net.
Guardian.—‘‘ The selection of passages for translation into Greek is certainly
well made.”
Journal of Education.—‘'A manual of well-graduated exercises in Greek
Prose Composition, ranging from short sentences to continuous pieces,”
Lower Greek Prose.
By K. P. Witson, M.A., Assistant-Master in Fettes College, Edinburgh.
Qs, 6d. *,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s, net.
School Guardian.—‘‘ A well-arranged book, designed to meet the needs of
middle forms in schools.”
Higher Greek Unseens.
For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Selected, with
Introductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AupEN, M.A., Principal,
Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College,
Edinburgh, 2s. 6d.
Educational Times.—'‘‘It contains a good selection quite difficult enough
for the highest forms of public schools.”
Schoolmaster.—‘' The introductory remarks on style and translation form
eminently profitable preliminary reading for the earnest and diligent worker in
the golden mine of classical scholarship.”
Greek Unseens.
Bring ONE HUNDRED PassaGES FOR TRANSLATION aT SIGHT IN JUNIOR
CuassEs, Selected and arranged. With Introduction by W. Lospan, M.A.,
Classical Master, The High School, Glasgow. 2s.
This little book is designed for the use of those preparing for the Leaving Cer-
tificate, Scotch Preliminary, London Matriculation, and similar examinations in
Greek. The extracts are — from over a score of different authors, and regard
lias been had in the selection to literary or historical interest, and in the arrange.
ment te progressive difficulty.
14 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
Greek Verse Unseens.
By T. R. Mus, M.A., Lecturer in Classics, University College, Dundee,
formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford; Joint-Author of ‘Student’s
Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s. 6d,
School Guardian.—‘‘ A capital selection made with much diseretion....... It
is a great merit that the selections are intelligible apart from their context.”
University Correspondent.—‘‘This careful and judicious seleetion should
be found very useful in the higher forms of schools and in preparing for less
advanced University examinations for Honours,”
Greek Test Papers.
By James Mor, Litt.D., LL.D., late co-Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School.
2s. 6d,
*," A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.
University Correspondent.—‘‘This useful book....... The papers are based
on the long experience of a practical teacher, and should prove extremely help-
ful and suggestive to all teachers of Greek.”
Greek Prose Phrase Book.
Based on Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, and Plato. Arranged accord-
ing to subjects, with Indexes. By H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Editor of
‘Meissner’s Latin Phrase Book.’ Interleaved, 3s. 6d. :
Spectator.—‘' A good piece of work, and likely to be useful.”
Athensum.—‘‘A useful little volume, helpful to boys who are learning to
write Greek prose.”
Journal of Education.—‘‘ Of great service to schoolboys and schoolmasters
alike. The idea of interleaving is especially commendable.”
Aristophanes—Pax.
Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by H. SHARPLEY, M.A., late Seholar
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1 vol. 12s. 6d. net,
A Short History of the Ancient Greeks from the
Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest.
By P. Gings, Litt.D., LL.D., Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
With Maps and Ilustrations. {in preparation,
Outlines of Greek History.
By the Same AUTHOR. In 1 vol,’ (In preparation,
A Manual of Classical Geography.
By Joun L. Myregs, M.A., Fellow of Magdalene College; Professor of
Ancient History, Oxford. [Zn preparation,
Educational Works. 15
BLACKWOODS’
ILLUSTRATED
CLASSICAL TEXTS.
GENERAL Epitor—H. W. AUDEN, M.A.
Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master at
Fettes College; late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell Uni-
versity Scholar,
Literature.—‘‘The best we have seen of the new type of school-
book.”
Academy.—‘If the price of this series is considered, we know
not where to look for its equal.”
Public School Magazine.—‘ The plates and maps seem to have
been prepared regardless of cost. We wonder how it can all be done
at the price.”
BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS.
Czsar—Gallic War, Books I.-III.
By J. M. Harpwion, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rugby ; late Scholar of
St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary. 1s. 6d,
Czesar— Gallic War, Books IV., V.
By Rev. St J. B. Wynne WILson, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury College ;
late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary,
ls. 6d. Vocabulary separately, 3d.
Czsar—Gallic War, Books VL, Vil.
By C. A. A. Du PonTet, M.A., Assistant-Master at Harrow. With or with-
out Vocabulary. 1s. 6d.
Virgil— Georgic I.
By J. Saragaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Scholar
of University College, Oxford, 1s. 6d.
‘Virgil—Georgic IV.
By J. Sanczaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster; late Scholar of
University College, Oxford. 1s. 6d.”
16 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
BLACKWOODS' CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued.
Virgil—AEneid, Books V., VI.
By Rev. St J. B, Wynne Wison, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury
College. 1s. 6d.
Ovid— Metamorphoses (Selections).
By J. H. Vinog, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge,
Assistant-Master at Bradfield. 1s. 6d,
Ovid—Elegiac Extracts.
By R. B. BurnaBy, M.A. Oxon.; Classical Master, Trinity College,
Glenalmond. 1s. 6d.
Arrian—Anabasis, Books I., II.
By H. W. AvprN, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge ;
Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto ; formerly Assistant- Master
at Fettes College, 2s. 6d.
Homer—Odyssey, Book VI.
By E. E. Srxes, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of St John’s College,
Cambridge. 1s. 6d,
Homer—Odyssey, Book VII.
By E. E. Sixes, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College,
Cambridge, [Jn preparation.
Demosthenes—Olynthiacs, 1- 3s
By H. SHarpey, M.A., late Scholar of Corpus College, Oxford ; Assistant-
Master at Hereford School. 1s. 6d.
Horace—Odes, Books I., II.
By J. SaRGEAunt, M.A., late Scholar of University College, Oxford ;
Assistant-Master at Westminster. 1s. 6d,
Horace—Odes, Books III., IV.
By J. SaRGEAUNT, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster. 1s, 6d.
Cicero—In Catilinam, I.-IV.
By H. W. AvpEN, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge ;
Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master
at Fettes College. 1s. 6d.
Cicero—De Senectute and De Amicitia.
By J. H. Vincs, M.A., Assistant-Master at Bradfield.
(In preparation,
Cicero—Pro Lege Manilia and Pro Archia.
By K. P. Witson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Fettes College. 2s. 6d.
Educational Works. 17
BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued.
Cicero—Select Letters.
By Rev. T. Nickiin, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rossall. 2s. 6d.
Cicero—Pro Caecina.
By Rev, J. M. Lupron, M.A. Cantab., Assistant-Master at Marlborough
College. [Ln preparation.
Tacitus—Agricola.
By H. F. Mornanp Simpson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College,
Cambridge; Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School. [In preparation.
Xenophon—Anabasis, Books I., II.
By A. Jacagr, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Gamsldee 5 Head-
master, Queen Elizabeth’s Grammar School, Mansfield. 1s. 6d.
Sallust—Jugurtha.
By I. F. Smepuey, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Fellow of
Pembroke College, Cambridge. 1s. 6d.
Euripides—Hercules Furens.
By HE. H. Buaxgnzy, M.A., Headmaster, King’s School, Ely. 2s. 6d.
Livy—Book XXVIII.
By G. Mippueron, M.A., Classical Master in Aberdeen Grammar School ;
and A. Sourer, D.Litt., Regius Professor of Humanity in the University of
Aberdeen. 1s, 6d,
Livy—Book IX.
By J. A. Nicktin, B.A., late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Liverpenl College. [In preparation.
Nepos—Select Lives.
By Rev. E. J. W. Hovauton, D.D., Headmaster of Rossall School.
[in the press,
MODERN LANGUAGES.
FRENCH.
Historical Reader of Early French.
Containing Passages Illustrative of the Growth of the French Language
from the Earliest Times to the end of the 15th Century. By HERBERT A,
Strone, LL.D., Officier de l’Instruction Publique, Professor of Latin,
University College, Liverpool; and L. D. Barnett, M.A., Litt.D. 3s,
Guardian.—‘‘ A most valuable companion to the modern nandheoks on his-
torical French grammar.”
B
18 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
The Tutorial Handbook of French Composition.
By ALFRED Mercigr, L.-és-L., Lecturer on French Language and Literature
in the University of St Andrews. 3s. 6d.
Educational Times.—‘''A very useful book, which admirably accomplishes
its object of helping students preparing for examinations....... It is on rather
novel lines, which commend themselves at once to any one who has had to teach
the subject.”
French Historical Unseens.
For Army Classes. By N. EB. Toke, B.A. 28, 8d.
Journal of Education.—‘‘A distinctly good book....... May be unreservedly
commended.”
A First Book of ‘‘ Free Composition’? in French.
By J. EpMonD Mansron, B.-és-L., Senior Modern Language Master, George
Watson’s College, Edinburgh. 1s.
School World.—‘‘ We recommend it warmly to all teachers of French, and
trust that it will have a wide circulation.”
French Test Papers for Civil Service and University
Students.
Edited by Emme B. Le FRangois, French Tutor, Redcliff House, Win-
chester House, St Ives, &c., Clifton, Bristol. 2s.
Weekly Register.—‘‘ Deserves as much praise as can be heaped on it.......
Thoroughly good work throughout.”
All French Verbs in Twelve Hours (except Defective
Verbs).
By ALFRED J. Wyatt, M.A. 1s.
Weekly Register.—‘‘ Altogether unique among French grammatical helps,
with a system, with a coup d’cil, with avoidance of repetition, with a premium
on intellectual study, which constitute a new departure.”
The Children’s Guide to the French Language.
By Annig G. FERRIER, Teacher of French in the Ladies’ College, Queen
Street, Edinburgh. ls,
Schoolmaster.— “The method is good, and the book will be found helpful
by those who have to teach French to small children.”
GERMAN.
A History of German Literature.
By Joun G. Roperrson, Ph.D., Professor of German in the Uni i
of London, 10s, 6d. net. : DID AE eae
Times.—‘‘1n such an enterprise even a tolerable approach to success is some-
thing of an achievement, and in regard to German literature Mr Robertson
appears to have made a nearer approach than any other English writer.”
Outlines of the History of German Literature.
For the Use of Schools, By the Same AUTHOR. Crown 8vo, 8s, 6d. net.
Educational Works. 19
DR LUBOVIUS’ GERMAN SERIES.
A Practical German Grammar, Reader and Writer.
By Louis Lusovrus, Ph.D., German Master, Hillhead High School, Glas-
gow ; Lecturer on German, U.F.C. Training College; Examiner for Degrees
in Arts, University ef Glasgow.
Part I.—Hlementary. 2s.
Part II, 3s.
Lower German.
Reading, Supplementary Grammar with Exercises, and Material for Com-
position. With Notes and Vocabulary, and Ten Songs in Sol-Fa Notation.
By Louis Lusovivs, Ph.D. 2s. 6d.
Athenzum,—‘‘ The volume is well designed.”
Preparatory Schools Review.—‘' A capital reading-book for middle forms,”
Progressive German Composition.
With copious Notes and Idioms, and First InrRopUCTION TO GERMAN
PumoLogy. By Lovis Lusovius, Ph.D, 3s. 6d.
Also in Two Parts :—
Progressive German Composition. 2s. 6d.
*,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net,
First Introduction to German Philology. 1s. 6d.
Journal of Education.—‘'The passages for translation are well selected,
and the notes to the passages, as well as the grammatical introduction, give
real assistance....... The part of the book dealing with German philology deserves
great praise.”
A Compendious German Reader.
Consisting of Historical Extracts, Specimens of German Literature, Lives
of German Authors, an Outline of German History (1640-1890), Biographical and
Historical Notes. Especially adapted for the use of Army Classes. By G. B.
Brak, M.A. 23s. 6d.
Guardian.—‘‘ This method of compilation is certainly an improvement on the
hotch-potch of miscellaneous passages to be found in many of the older books.”
Spartanerjunglinge. A Story of Life in a Cadet College.
By Paul von SzozepaNski. Edited, with Vocabulary and Notes, by J. M.
Morrison, M.A., Master in Modern Languages, Aberdeen Grammar
School. 2s.
Scotsman.—‘ An admirable reader for teaching German on the new method,
and is sure to prove popular both with students and with teachers.”
A German Reader for Technical Schools.
By EwaLp F. SxcxLeR, Senior Language Master at the Birmingham Muni-
cipal Day School; German Lecturer, Birmingham Evening School ; French
Lecturer, Stourbridge Technical School. 2s.
20 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
SPANISH.
A Spanish Grammar.
With Copious Exercises in Translation and Composition; Easy reading
Lessons and Extracts from Spanish Authors; a List of Idioms; a Glossary
of Commercial Terms (English-Spanish); and a copious General Vocabulary
(Spanish-English), By WinLiaM A, Kessen, Teacher of Spanish, Hillhead
High School, Glasgow. 3s. 6d.
Investors’ Review.—‘‘To the student who wishes to master the Spanish
language for commercial or literary purposes this admirable little book will
prove invaluable.” : :
Commerce.—‘‘ Contains practically all that is necessary for the aequirement
of a working knowledge of the language.”
MATHEMATICS.
Arithmetic.
With numerous Examples, Revision Tests, and Examination Papers. By
A. VerroH Loruian, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Mathematical and Science
Lecturer, E.C, Training College, Glasgow. With Answers. 3s. 6d.
Guardian.—'‘ A work of first-rate importance....... We should find it hard
to suggest any improvement....... We venture to predict that when the book
becomes known, it will command a very wide circulation in our public schools
aud elsewhere.”
Practical Arithmetical Exercises.
For SgniorR PurILs IN Sonoors. Containing upwards of 8000 Examples,
consisting in great part of Problems, and 750 Extracts from Examination
Papers. Second Edition, Revised. 364 pages, 3s. With Answers, 3s. 6d.
JAMES WELTON, Esq., Lecturer on Education, and Master of Method,
Yorkshire College.—‘‘ Your ‘ Practical Arithmetic’ seems to me the most complete
collection of exercises in existence. Both idea and exeeution are excellent.”
Elementary Algebra.
The Complete Book, 288 pp., cloth, 2s. With Answers, 2s. 6d. Answers
sold separately, price 9d. Pt. I., 64 pp., 6d. Pt. IL, 64 pp, 6d. Pt.
III., 70 pp., 6d. Pt. IV., 96 pp., 9d. Answers to Pts. I., II, III., each
2d. Answers to Pt. IV., 3d.
Educational News.—‘‘ A short and compact introduction to”algebra....... The
exercises are remarkably good, and the arrangement of the subject-matter is on
the soundest principles. The work is, on the whole, to be commended as being
at once inexpensive and scholarly.”
Handbook of Mental Arithmetic.
With 7200 Examples and Answers. 264 pp. 2s, 6d. Also in Six Parts,
limp cloth, price 6d. each,
Teachers’ Monthly.—'‘ The examples are mainly concrete, as they should
be, are of all varieties, and, what is most important, of the right amount of
difficulty.’
Educational News,—‘‘ This is, as a matter of fact, at once a handbook and a
handy book. It is an absolute storehouse of exercises in mental computations,
perer There are most valuable practical hints to teachers.”
Educational Works. 21
Modern Geometry of the Point, Straight Line, and
Circle.
An Elementary Treatise. By J. A. THrp, D.Sc., Headmaster of Spier’s
School, Beith. 3s.
_ Schoolmaster, — ‘‘ Each branch of this wide subject is treated with brevity,
it is true, and yet with amazing completeness considering the size of the volume.
So earnest and reliable an effort deserves success.”
Journal of Education. — “An exceedingly useful text-book, full enough
for nearly every educational purpose, and yet not repellent by overloading.”
Educational News.—‘‘A book which will easily take rank among the best of
its kind, The subject is treated with complete thoroughness and honesty.”
Mensuration.
128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and Tri-
angles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids.
64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may be had separately, price 2d.
each Part.
Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered
to the students who make use of the book,”
Higher Arithmetic.
For Ex-Standard and Continuation Classes. 128 pp. Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.
With Answers, cloth, 11d, Answers may be had separately, price 3d.
GEOGRAPHY.
Fifty-Fitth Thousand,
Elements of Modern Geography.
By the Rev. ALEXANDER Mackay, LL.D., F.R,G.8. Revised to the
present time. Pp. 300. 3s.
Schoolmaster.—‘' For senior pupils or pupil-teachers the book contains all
that is desirable....... It is well got up, and bears the mark of much care in the
authorship and editing.”
One Hundred and Ninety-Sixth Thousand.
Outlines of Modern Geography.
By the SaME AUTHOR. Revised to the present time. Pp. 128. Is.
These ‘ Outlines’—in many respects an epitome of the ‘ Elements’—are care-
fully prepared to meet the wants of beginners, The arrangement is the same
as in the Author’s larger works.
One Hundred and Fifth Thousand.
First Steps in Geography.
By the SaME AuTHoR. 18me, pp. 56. Sewed 4d. ; in cloth, 6d,
22 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
A Manual of Classical Geography.
By Jon L. Myrxs, M.A., Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. ;
[In preparation.
CHEMISTRY AND POPULAR
SCIENCE.
Forty Elementary Lessons in Chemistry.
By W. L. Sarcawt, M.A., Headmaster, Oakham School. Illustrated.
1s, 6d.
Glasgow Herald.—‘‘ Remarkably well arranged for teaching purposes, and
shows the compiler to have a real grip of sound educational principles, The book
is clearly written and aptly illustrated.”
Inorganic Tables, with Notes and Equations.
By H. M. Trmpany, B.Sc., Science Master, Borough Technical School,
Shrewsbury. Crown 8vo, ls.
Things of Everyday.
A Popular Science Reader on Some Common Things. With Ilus-
trations, 2s,
Guardian.—‘‘ Will be found useful by teachers in elementary and continuation
schools who have to conduct classes in the ‘science of common things.’...... Well
a ,
and strongly bound, and illustrated by beautifully clear diagrams.’
GEOLOGY.
An Intermediate Text-Book of Geology.
By Professor CHaRLES LaPworTH, LUL.D., University, Birmingham.
Founded on Dr Pagu’s ‘Introductory Text-Book of Geology.’ With Ilus-
trations. 5s.
Educational News.—'‘ The work is lucid and attractive, and will take high
rank among the best text-books on the subject.”
Publishers’ Circular.—‘‘The arrangement of the new book is in every way
excellent, and it need hardly be said that it is thoroughly up to date in all
details.......Simplicity and clearness in the book areas pronounced as its accuracy,
and students and teachers alike will find it of lasting benefit to them.”
Education. — ‘‘The name of the Author is a guarantee that the subject is
effectively treated, and the information and views up to date.”
PALAEONTOLOGY.
A Manual of Paleontology.
For the Use of Students. With a General Introduction on the Principles of
Palzontology. By Professor H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, Aberdeen, and
RicHarD LypgkKer, B.A., F.G.S. &c, Third Edition. Entirely rewritten
and greatly enlarged. 2 vols, 8vo, with 1419 Engravings. 638s,
Educational Works. 23
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Fifteenth Edition, Revised.
Introductory Text-Book of Physical Geography.
With Sketch-Maps and Illustrations, By Davip Paas, LL.U., &c., Pro-
fessor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Revised
by Professor CHARLES LapworTH, 2s. 6d,
, Athensum.—‘‘ The divisions of the subject are so clearly defined, the explana-
tions are so lucid, the relations of one portion of the subject to another are so
satisfactorily shown, and, above all, the bearings of the allied sciences to Physical
Geography are brought out with so much precision, that every reader wil] feel
that difficulties have been removed and the path of study smoothed before him.”
PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC.
An Introductory Text-Book of Logic.
With Numerous Examples and Exercises, By SypNry HERBERT MELLONE,
M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.); Examiner in Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s.
Scotsman, —‘‘This is a well-studied academic text-book, in which the
traditional doctrine that has been handed down from Aristotle to the univer-
sity professors of to-day is expounded with clearness, and upon an instruetive
system which leads up naturally to the deeper and different speculations involved
in modern logic....... The book, in fine, is an excellent working text-book of its
subject, likely to prove useful both to students and to teachers.
Elements of Psychology.
By Sypnzy Hersert Mztxone, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.), and MARGARET
Drummond, M.A. (Edin.) Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s,
Scotsman.—‘“‘Thoroughness is a feature of the work, and, treating psychology
as a living science, it will be found fresh, suggestive, and up-to-date.”
Education. — ‘‘The authors of this volume have made satisfactory use of
accredited authorities; in addition, they have pursued original investigations
and conducted experiments, with the result that great freshness of treatment
marks their contribution to the teaching of psychology ”
A Short History of Logic.
By Ropgrt Apamson, LL.D., Late Professor of Logic in the University of
Glasgow. Edited by W. R. Sorzey, Litt.D., LL.D., Fellow of the British
Academy, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Cambridge. Crown
8vo, 58 net.
“There is no other History of Logic—short or long—in English, and no similar
short work in any other language.”
FORESTRY.
The Elements of British Forestry.
A Handbook for Forest Apprentices and Students of Forestry. By JoHN
Niszet, D.Ci., Professor of Forestry at the West of Scotland Agricultural]
College, Author of ‘The Forester.’ Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. net.
Forest Entomology.
By A. T. GitLtanpers, Wood Manager to His Grace the Duke of Northumber-
land, K.G. Second Edition, Revised. With 351 Illustrations, Demy 8vo,
15s. net.
24 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
ELEMENTARY SERIES.
BLACKWOODS’
LITERATURE READERS.
Edited by JOHN ADAMS, M.A., LL.D.,
Professor of Education in the University of London.
BOOK I. . . : , : Pp. 228. Price 1s.
BOOK II. . : f 7 3 Pp. 275. Price 1s. 4d.
BOOKIIL. . : ; : z Pp. 303, Price 1s. 6d.
BOOK IY. . , * Pp. 381. Price 1s, 6d.
NOTE.
This new Series would seek to do for Literature what has
already been done by many series of School Readers for
History, Geography, and Scierice, Many teachers feel that
their pupils should be introduced as soon as possible to the
works of the great writers, and that reading may be learnt
from these works at least as well _as from compilations
specially written for the young. Because of recent changes
in Inspection, the present is rr specially Suitable time for
the Introduction of such a series into Eiementary Schools.
in the Preparatory Departments of Secondary Schoois the
need for such a series is clamant.
It is to be noted that the books are not manuals of
English literature, but merely Readers, the matter of which
is drawn entirely from authors of recognised standing. All
the usual aids given in Readers are supplied; but illustra-
tions, as affording no help in dealing with Literature, are
excluded from the series. —
“The volumes, which are capitally printed, consist of selected
readings of increasing difficulty, to which notes and exercises are
added at the end. The selected pieces are admirably chosen, especially
in the later books, which will form a beginning for a really sound
and wide appreciation of the stores of good English verse and
prose.”—Athenzum.
_ “The selected readings...... are interesting, and possessed of real
literary value. The books are well bound, the paper is excellent,
and the unusual boldness and clear spacing of the type go far to
compensate for the entire absence of pictorial illustrations.””—Guardian.
“A very excellent gradus to the more accessible heights of the
English Parnassus......The appendices on spelling, word-building,
ye ee are the work of a skilful, practical teacher.”—Pall
a azette.
“If we had the making of the English Educational Code for
Elementary Schools, we should insert a regulation that all boys and
girls should spend two whole years on these four books, and on
nothing else.’’—Bradford Observer.
“The books ere graded with remarkable skill.”’—Glasgow Herald.
Educational Works.
25
“ Absolutely the best set of all the history readers that have hitherto
been published.”—The Guardian.
THE STORY OF THE WORLD.
FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
By M. B.
(In Five Books.)
SYNGE.
With Coloured Frontispieces and numerous Illustrations by
B. M. Synge, A.R.E., and Maps.
BOOK I.
ON THE SHORES OF THE GREAT SEA. 1s. 4d.
Colonial Edition, 1s. 6d.
THz Home of Abraham—Into Africa—
Joseph in Egypt—The Children of Israel—
The First Merchant Fleet—Hiram, King of
Tyre—King Solomon’s Fleet—The Story of
Carthage—The Story of the Argonauts—The
Siege of Troy—The Adventures of Ulysses—
The Dawn of History—The Fall of Tyre—
The Rise of Carthage—Hanno’s Adventures
—tThe Battle of Marathon—King Ahasuerus
—How Leonidas kept the Pass— Some
BOOK II. THE DISCOVERY
Tue Roman World—The Tragedy of Nero—
The Great Fire in Rome—The Destruction
of Pompeii—Marcus Aurelius—Christians to
the Lions—A New Rome—The Armies of
the North—King Arthur and his Knights—
How the Northmen conquered England—
The First Crusade—Frederick Barbarossa—
The Third Crusade—The Days of Chivalry
—Queen of the Adriatic—The Story of
Marco Polo— Dante's Great Poem—The
BOOK Ill. THE AWAKENING OF EUROPE.
Greek Colonies—Athens—The Death of
Socrates—The Story of Romulus and Remus
—HowHoratius kept the Bridge—Coriolanus
—Alexander the Great—King of Macedonia
— The Conquest of India — Alexander’s
City—-The Roman Fleet—-The Adventures of
Hannibal—The End of Carthage — The
Triumph of Rome—Julius Czsar—The
Flight of Pompey—The Death of Cesar.
OF NEW WORLDS. 1s. 6d.
Maid of Orleans—Prince Henry, the Sailor—
The Invention of Printing—Vasco da Gama’s
Great Voyage —Golden Goa — Christopher
Columbus—The Last of the Moors—Dis-
covery of the New World—Columbus in
Chains—Discovery of the Pacific—Magel-
lan's Straits—Montezuma—Siege and Fall of
Mexico — Conquest of Peru—A Great
Awakening.
1s. 6d.
Colonial Edition, 1s. 9d.
Srory of the Netherlands—The Story of
Martin Luther—The Massacre of St Bar-
tholomew—The Siege of Leyden—William
the Silent — Drake’s Voyage round the
World—The Great Armada—Virginia—Story
of the Revenge—Sir Walter Raleigh—The
‘Fairy Queen’—First Voyage of the East
India Company—Henry Hudson—Captain
Jobn Smith—The Founding of Quebec—
The Pilgrim Fathers—Thirty Years of War
—The Duteh at Sea—Van Riebeek’s Oolony
—Oliver Cromwell—Two Famous Admirals
—De Ruyter—The Founder of Pennsyl-
vania—The ‘Pilgrim’s Progress '’—William’
Invitation—The Struggle in Ireland—The
Siege of Vienna by the Turks—The Story of
the Huguenots—The Battle of Blenheim—
How Peter the Great learned Shipbuilding
~—Charles XII. of Sweden—The Boyhood of
Frederick the Great—Anson’s Voyage round
the World—Maria Therera—The Story of
Scotland.
26
William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
THE STORY OF THE WORLD—continued.
BOOK IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR SEA POWER. 1s. 9d.
Tue Story of the Great Mogul—Robert
Clive—The Black Hole of Calcutta—The
Struggle for North America—George Wash-
ington—How Pitt saved England—The Fall
of Quebec—‘‘ The Great Lord Hawke”—
The Declaration of Independence—Capiain
Cook's Story—James Bruce and the Nile—
The Trial of Warren Hastings — Maria
Antoinette-—-The Fall of the Bastile—
Napoleon Bonaparte—Horatio Nelson—The
Adventures of Mungo Park—The Travels of
Baron Humboldt—The Battle of the Nile—
Copenhagen — Napoleon — Trafalgar — The
Death of Nelson—The Rise of Wellington—
The First Australian Colony—Story of the
Slave Trade—The Defence of Saragoza—Sir
John Moore at Corunna—The Victory of
Talavera—The Peasant Hero of the Tyrol—
The ‘‘Shannon” and the ‘‘ Chesapeake ""—
Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow—Welling-
ton’s Victories in Spain—The Fall of the
Empire—Story of the Steam Engine—Water-
loo—The Exile of St Helena.
BOOK V. GROWTH OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 23.
How Spain lost South America—The Greek
War — Victoria, Queen of England—The
Great Boer Trek—The Story of Natal—The
Story of Canada—The Winning of the West
—A Great Arctic Expedition—Discoveries in
Australia—The Last King of France--Louis
Kossuth and Hungary—The Crimean War—
The Indian Mutiny—King of United Italy
—Civil War in America—The Mexican Re-
volution—Founding the German Empire—
The Franco-German War—The Dream of
Cecil Rhodes—The Dutch Republics in
South Africa—Livingstone’s discoveries in
Central Africa—China’s Long Sleep—Japan,
Britain’s Ally—Russia—The Annexation of
Burma —The Story of Afghanistan —The
Empire of India— Gordon, the Hero of
Khartum—The Redemption of Egypt—The
Story of British West Africa—The Story of
Uganda — The Founding of Rhodesia —
British South Africa—The Dominion of
Canada — Australia— The New Nation—
Freedom for Cuba—Reign of Queen Victoria
—Welding the Empire—Citizenship.
Also in 2 volumes, at 3s. 6d. each net, suitable as prize books.
Uniform with this Series.
THE WORLD’S CHILDHOOD.
With oumerous Illustrations by Brinsley Le Fanu.
STORIES OF THE FAIRIES.
10d,
CONTENTS
Lit-tle Red Ri-ding Hood.
The Three Bears.
‘The Snow-Child.
Tom Thumb.
The Ug-ly Duck-ling.
Puss in Boots.
The Lit-tle Girl and the Cats.
Jack and the Bean-Stalk.
Gol-dy.
Cin-der-el-la—Part I.
Il. STORIES OF THE GREE
SSO SHR CO ES ES
11. Cin-der-el-la—Part II.
12. The Lost Bell.
13, Jack the Gi-ant Kill-er,
14, Star-bright and Bird-ie.
15. Beau-ty and the Beast.
16. Peach-Dar-ling.
17. In Search of a Night’s Rest.
18. Dick Whit-ting-ton and his Cat.
19. The Sleep-ing Tae
K GODS AND HBROBS. tod.
CONTENTS,
1, A-bout the Gods.
2, The Names of the Gods.
8. Turn-ed in-to Stone.
4, The Shin-ing Char-i-ot.
5. The Laur-el Tree.
6. A Horse with Wings.
7. The Oy-press Tree.
8. The Fruits of the Earth.
9. Ou-pid’s Gold-en Ar-rows.
10. Pan's Pipe.
11. A Long Sleep.
12, The Re-ward of Kind-ness.
13, At-a-lan-ta’s Race.
14. The Stor-y of Al-ces-tis.
15. The Snow-White Bull.
16. The Spi-der and his Web.
17. I-o—the White Cow.
18, The Three Gold-en Ap-ples.
19. The Ol-ive Tree.
20. A Boy Her-o of Old.
21, The Thread of Ar-i-ad-ne.
22, The Boy who tried to Fly,
28, The Gold-en sand
Teacher's Appendix.
Educational Works. 27
“Tf history can be given a form likely to make it palatable to young folks, “F”
has succeded. in doing so in these ‘Stories of the English’ It is ne eaucceention to
say that the book represents not only a masterpiece in literature for children,
but a work of no slight value for the national good.”—Scotsman.
STORIES OF THE ENGLISH
FOR SCHOOLS.
By F.
FOR JUNIOR SOHOLARS.
Vov. L—FROM THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ARMADA. — 1s. 6d.
CONTENTS.—The coming of the White Horse—The coming of the Cross—The Fight
with the Raven—Alfred the Great—Edward the Confessor—William the Conquerer—The
Kings of the Golden Broom—Richard Lion-Heart—King John and Magna Charta—Earl
Simon the Righteous—Edward the Englishman—Bannockburn and Berkeley—The Lions
and the Lilies—A King dethroned—Prince Hal—King Harry—The Wars of the Roses—
Henry VIII. and the Revolt from Rome—Edward VI. and Mary—Hlizabeth, the Great
Queen : (1) English Adventurers and the Cruise of the Pelican ; (2) Mary, Queen of Scots;
(3) Papist Plots and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ; (4) The Armada,
ILLUSTRATIONS.—Dover Castle—The Pharos, Dover—Norsemen—Homes of our
Ancestors—Chfteau Gaillard—Tomb of a Crusader (Gervase Alard), Winchelsea Church—
Carnarvon Castle—Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey—Knights of the Fourteenth
Century—Edward the Third—The Battle of Cressy—Tomb of Edward the Third, West-
minster Abbey—Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral—Richard II. on his
voyage to Ireland—Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey—Henry V. with Military
Attendants—Henry V. addressing his Army—Joan of Arc—The Crowning of Henry VII.
on Bosworth Field—Henry VIII.—Wolsey—Sir Thomas More taking leave of his Daughter
—Calais during the Sixteenth Century—Queen Elizabeth—The Armada—Drake—Mary,
Queen of Scots—Drake playing Bowls with his Captains—Sir Walter Raleigh.
FOR SENIOR SCHOLARS.
Vor. I.—THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER AND GREATER ENGLAND.—1s. 6d.
CONTENTS.—The First of the Stuarts—The Struggle for Power—The Puritan Tyranny
—The Second Struggle for Power: Charles II.—The Revolution—The Fight with France:
The Dutch King—Queen Anne and Marlborough—Greater England—The Story of Anson—
The Story of Wolfe—The Story of Captain Cook—The Story of Clive—The War of American
Independence—The great French War—The Story of Nelson—The Story of the Great Duke
—The End of the Stories. -
ILLUSTRATIONS.—James I.—Bacon—Charles I.—A Cavalier—Oliver Cromwell—The
Great Fire of London—The Seven Bishops going to the Tower—Landing of William of
Orange in England—Marlborough—Gibraltar—Chatham—Fight between the Centurion and
the Manila Ship—General Wolfe—The Death of Captain Cook — Washington — Pitt—
Napoleon Bonaparte—Nelson—H.M.S. Victory, Portsmouth Harbour—Duke of Wellington
—Napoleon on board the Bellerophon.
*Neill, Author of ‘Songs of the Glen of Antrim,’ writing to Mr Blackwood,
ante atiog of the ‘English’ was written for my little daughter Susan. The
child is quite fascinated by it, but equally so are all the grown-up friends to whom
T have shown it. I lent it once to a sailor uncle, and he sat up to all hours of that
night with it, and afterwards told me that he could hardly believe that such an
account of Nelson’s great battles had been written by a woman, because it was
technically accurate. And a soldier friend and critic used almost the same words
about the account of Marlborough’s campaigns. F. is the most patient and faithful
student of history that I know. She has such a strong literary sence that she amply
could not write anything except in a literary form, and combined with it she h
that rare thing, a judicial mind. This, I think, gives her work a quite peculiar
value.”
28 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
Standard Readers.
Revised Edition, With Supplementary Pages, consisting of ‘‘Spelling
Lists,” ‘‘ Word-Building,” ‘‘ Prefixes and Suffixes,” &c. Profusely Llus-
trated with Superior Engravings,
BOOK I. 40 Lessons ‘ c F # 8d.
BOOK II. 40 Lessons - ‘ . ‘ 9d.
BOOK IIT. 60 Lessons 3 5 Gj « Ag. 0d,
BOOK IV. 60 Lessons : ‘ é » 1s, 3d.
BOOK V, 60 Lessons ‘ : . Is. 4d,
BOOK VI. 60 Lessons P ¥ ‘ . Is. 6d.
Schoolmaster.—'‘ We strongly recommend these books.......Children will be
sure to like them; the matter is extremely suitable and interesting, the print
very distinct, and the paper a pleasure to feel.”
Infant Series.
FIRST PICTURE PRIMER. 5 Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
SECOND PICTURE PRIMER, ‘ Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
PICTURE READING SHEETS,
1st SERIES. | 2ND SERIES.
Each containing 16 sheets, unmounted, 8s. 6d. Mounted on 8 boards,
with cloth border, price 14s,; varnished, 3s. 6d. per set extra.
Or the 16 sheets laid on linen, varnished, and mounted on a roller,
17s. 6d.
THE INFANT PICTURE READER. With numerous Illustrations.
Cloth, limp, 6d.
Edueational News.—‘‘ Teachers will find these Primers a useful introduction
to the art of reading. We consider them well adapted to their purpose.”
Geographical Readers.
With numerous Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. (For Stand.I.) 96pp. 94d.
BOOK I. (ForStand. II.) 96 pp. 5 ‘ 9a.
BOOK II. (For Stand. III.) 156 pp. ‘ » Is, 0d.
BOOK III, (For Stand, IV.) 192 pp. . » 1s. 8d.
BOOK IV. (For Stand. V.) 256 pp. < . Is. 6d.
BOOK V. (For Stand. VI.) 256 pp. i » Is. 6d.
BOOK VI. (For Stand. VII.) 256 pp. 7 - 1s, 9d.
Schoolmaster. — ‘This is a really excellent series of Geographical Readers.
The volumes have, in common, the attractiveness which good paper, clear type,
effective woodcuts, and durable binding can present ; whilst their conténts, both
as to quality and quantity, are so graded as to he admirably adapted to the
several stages of the pupil’s progress,”
Educational Works.
29
Historical Readers.
With numerous Portraits, Maps, and other Illustrations.
SHORT STORIES FROM ENGLISH
HISTORY . . .
FIRST HISTORICAL READER
. 160 pp. 1s. Od.
. 160 pp. 1s. Od.
SECOND HISTORICAL READER. . » 224 pp. 1s. 4d
THIRD HISTORICAL READER .,
256 pp. 1s. 6d.
Schoolmaster.—'‘ These new Historical Readers have been carefully compiled.
The facts are well selected; the story is well told in language
impress itself in the memory of young children; and the poet:
fitting accompaniments to the prose.”
most likely to
ical pieces are
School Board Chronicle.—‘‘ The treatment is unconventional, but always
in good taste. The volumes will meet with much favour generally as lively,
useful, high-toned Historical Readers.”
Standard Authors.
Adapted for Schools.
HAWTHORNE’S TANGLEWOOD TALES. With Notes and [llustra-
tions. 160 pp. 1s. 2d.
Aytoun’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers.
With Introduction, Notes, and Life of the Author, for Junior Classes.
EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN . 82 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
THE EXECUTION OF MONTROSE . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
THE BURIAL-MARCH OF DUNDEE 32 pages, 2d.; cloth, 34d.
THE ISLAND OF THE SCOTS . . 82 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
Teachers’ Aid,—‘‘Capital annotated editions....... Beautifully clear and
painstaking ; we commend them heartily to our brother and sister teachers.”
Educational News.—‘‘ Useful issues of well-known poems
are exceedingly appropriate, and leave nothing in doubt. For
we can specially recommend these little books.”
School Recitation Books.
BOOK I. 382 pages ' . . .
BOOK II. 32 pages , ‘i . ,
BOOK III. 48 pages. ‘ . .
BOOK IV. 48 pages
BOOK V. 64 pages : : ,
BOOK VI. 64pages . ‘ .
isidece The notes
class purposes
Schoolmistress.—'' These six books are a valuable contribution to school
literature. The poems for each standard are judiciously chosen,
notes and questions at the end of every lesson are very suitable.”
the explanatory
30 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
Grammar and Analysis.
BOOK II. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
BOOK III. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
BOOK IV. 48pages . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK V. 64pages . . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.
BOOK VI. 64pages . . Paper, 8d.; eloth, 4d.
BOOK VII. 64 pages . . Paper, 8d.; cloth, 4d.
Schoolmaster.—‘‘ This is a series of good practical books whose merits ought
to ensure for them a wide sale. Among their leading merits are simplicity in
definitions, judicious recapitulation, and abundance of well-selected exercises
for practice.”
Teachers’ Aid.—'' For thoroughness, method, style, and high-class work,
commend us to these little text-books....... A practical hand has impressed
every line with individuality....... We are determined to use them in our own
department.”
Arithmetical Exercises.
BOOK I. a e . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 23d.
BOOK Il. . ‘ . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d.
BOOK III. : ¢ . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK IV. , . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK V. . . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK VIL . . . Paper, 2d.; eloth, 3d.
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HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes, 128 pp. . . Paper, 6d.; eloth, 8d.
*,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.
Schoolmaster.—'' We can speak in terms of high praise respecting this series
of Arithmetical Exercises. They have been carefully constructed. They are
well graduated, and contain a large and varied collection of examples....... We
can recommend the series to our readers.”
Schoolmistress.—‘' Large quantity, excellent quality, great variety, and good
arrangement are the characteristics of this set of Arithmetieal Exercises.”
Elementary Grammar and Composition.
Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCIS. With a Chapter on WORD-BUILDING
and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. New Edition. 1s.
Schoolmaster.—‘‘A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as analytic,
and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young student how to
use the elements of his mother-tongue....... A junior text-book that is calculated
to yield most satisfactory results.”
Educational Times.—‘‘'The plan ought to work well....... A decided advance
from the old-fashioned practice of teaching.”
Educational Works. 31
Grammar and Analysis.
Scotch Code,
STANDARD II. 24 pages. Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD III. 382 pages, Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD IV. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d.
STANDARD V. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d.
STANDARD VI. 64 pages. Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.
Teachers’ Aid.—‘‘ These are thoughtfully written and very practically con-
ceived little helps....... They are most exhaustive, and brimming with examples.”
New Arithmetical Exercises.
Scotch Code,
STANDARD I. 32pages . Paper, 13d.; cloth, 24d.
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STANDARD III. 56 pages . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
STANDARD IV. 64pages . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.
STANDARD V. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d.
STANDARD VI. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d,
HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes 128 pages . Paper, 6d.; cloth, 8d.
*,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.
Educational News.—'‘The gradation of the exercises is perfect, and the
examples, which are very numerous, are of every conceivable variety. There is
ample choice for the teacher under every head. We recommend the series as
excellent School Arithmetics.”
Merit Certificate Arithmetic.
96 pp. Paper cover, 6d, cloth, 8d.
Mensuration.
128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts, Pt. 1, Parallelograms and
Triangles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids,
64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may he had separately, price
2d. each Part.
Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is
offered to the students who make use of the book.”
A First Book on Physical Geography.
For Use in Schools. 64 pp. 4d.
Journal of Education.—‘ This is a capital little book, describing shortly
and clearly the geographical phenomena of nature,”
32 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
Manual Instruction—Woodwork. DxsicNep TO MEET THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINUTE OF THE SCIENCE AND ArT DEPARTMENT
on Manuva Instruction. By GEORGE ST JOHN, Undenominational
School, Handsworth, Birmingham. With 100 Illustrations. 1s,
Blackwoods’ Simplex Civil Service Copy Books.
By Joun T. Pgaror, B.A., Leith Academy. Price 2d. each.
CONTENTS OF THE SERIES.
No. 1. Elements, Short Letters, Words,
« 2, Long Letters, Easy Words.
u 3, Capitals, Half-line Words.
«u 4, Text, Double Ruling, Sentences.
« 5, Half-Text, Sentences, Figures.
» 6, Small Hand, Double Ruling.
u 7. Intermediate, Transcription, &c.
« 8. Small Hand, Single Ruling.
The Headlines are graduated, up-to-date, and attractwe.
Blackwoods’ Universal Writing Books.
Have been designed to accompany the above series, and teachers will find it
advantageous to use them as Dictation Copies, because by them the learner
is kept continually writing at the correct slope, &c. Nol. is adapted for
Lowzr Ciasses, No. 2 for HiaHER Ciasses. Price 2d. each.
Practical Teacher.—‘‘ Our readers would do well to write for a specimen of
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School World.—‘‘ Those teachers who are anxious to train their pupils to
write in the style associated with Civil Service Competitions should find the
copy-books designed by Mr Pearce very useful. The writing is certainly simple ;
it may, in fact, be reduced to four elements, in which the pupil is rigorously
pated in the earlier books before proceeding in later numbers to continuous
writing.”
coe ee of our readers in search of new books should see
ese.
Journal of Education.—‘' Aids the eye and guides the hand, and thus
checkmates any bias towards error in the slope.”
UNIVERSITY CALENDARS.
St Andrews University Calendar.
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, BpINBURGH aND LONDON.
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