a Mf if y. Lf) EEE if, SSE ZES LE LES ELLE PLIe, Sie BasaceiNse 9 Sarna CAHIERS em Beaeeneen > Re ic feS8 5, a Sacapsag Sees : S : hey ras i Sneen Wi Css > Baits tebe) acon < Siete Sates Mospproara erate tate > 2p ses cate Rterereeielateiess P25, ane Cetetetesetes P25 nie Retstete ‘ if Re : Ghote eenite et eC an ees EES ORE ae Sneha te 7 Saha teats MM idseSs W484 2 hemes zoos wae br 4 Riisienlen cui. 25525 aE Ce atotat Hie te tees eSesedie > (Se Bt pepe ete > net Bee ch Soke i eee eases ists Beek Siete ies 54 8 oes cs ose ae » Fs 55. Female Tick laying Eggs . 125 56. Female Sheep-scab Mite . : F 129 57. Red Mange : ‘ : Mesa 5S. Demodectic Scabies (section of skin) ‘ « 132 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82, 83. 84, 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92, 93. 94. 95. ILLUSTRATIONS. Beetle Mite (Oribata orbicularis) . Black Currant Mite Linguatulidie A Hexapod (Tipula Siena Mouth parts of Insects Larvee of Insects . Pup of Insects Pupa of Tipula oleracea Alimentary Canal of Larva (Pipula ae Lady-birds (Coccinellide ) The Turnip Flea Beetle . Mustard Beetle (Phedon betulc) . The Asparagus Beetle Apple: blossom Weevil (Anthonomus pomorum) Apple Blossoms damaged by Apple Weevil pomorum) Pea Weevil (Sitones lineatus) Red-legged Weevil (Otiorhynchus tenebricosus) The Raspberry Weevil (Otiorhynchus picipes) Bean Beetle (Bruchus rufimanus) Striped Click-beetle (A griotes lincatus) Rose Beetle (Cetonia aurata) Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) Beet Carrion-beetle (Silpha opuca) Raspberry Beetle (Bytwrus tomentosus) Ground-beetle (Carabus violaceus) Corn Ground-beetle (Zabrus gibbus) Pupa of a Sawfly . Honey-bees Mouth and Sting of Bee, Remica Cynipide . ‘ Saw of a Female Sawfly . Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ribesiz) Slug-worm of Pear (Eriocampa limacina) Pear Sawfly (Lriocampa limacina), and Cocoon Leaf of Cherry eaten by Slug-worms Larva of the Large White (Pieris brassicw) Green-veined White (Pieris napt) 133 136 xvl 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102, 103, 104, 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. Ab ie 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. sees 118. 119. 120. 121. 122, 123. 124, 125. 126. 127. 128. 129, 130. 131. 132. 133, ILLUSTRATIONS. Currant Clearwing (4geria tipwiformis) Larva and Pupa of Currant Clearwing (.#ycria tipuliformés) Black Currant Stems damaged by Larvee of Currant Clearwing Garden Swift-moth (Hepialus lupulinus) The Ghost Moth (//epialus humul?) Cordyceps entomorhi-a (a fungus on Hepialus larvae) Egg-band of Lackey Moth Female and Male Lackey Moths Heart-and-Dart Moth (Agrotis exclamationis) Silvery Y-Moth (Plusia gamma) Winter Moths Life-history of Currant or Magpie Moth Miuas ihesanes a Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) Diamond-back Moth (Plutella maculipennis) Cherry-tree Case-bearer (Colcophora anatipencllw) Raspberry Shoot-borer (Lampronia rubiella) The Pear-leaf Blister Moth Pear Leaf blistered by Cemiostoma sean Haltere of Fly A Mosquito (Theobaldia oe and Head of Mosquito Plumed Gnat (Chironomus plumosus) Larva and Pupa of a Cecidomyia Anchor Processes Wing of Cecidomyia Wing of Diplosis The Pear Midge Bibionidee A Sandfly (Simudium seein Crane-fly (Tipula oleracea) Winter Gnats (T’richocera) Head and Proboscis of Tabanus autumnalis Ox Gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus) Hover-flies (Syrphide) Ox-warble (Hypoderma boris) Ox-bot Horse-bot Fly (Gastrophi/us — Larva of Horse-bot Fly . Root-eating Flies : i lo De for) WwW Ww Nw ts lo to toe Wo to saad o bo oO 134. 135. 136. 137. 188, 139. 140, 141. 142. 143. 144, 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150, 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171, ILLUSTRATIONS, Onion Fly (Phorbia cepetorum) . The Cabbage-root Fly Card disc to prevent Egg-laying of ee Fly Wheat-bulb Fly. Mangold Fly (Pegomyia bete) Ova of Mangold Fly and Adult . Gout Fly (Chlorops tentopus) The Frit Fly (Oscinis frit) Carrot Fly (Psila rose) . Celery Fly (Acidia heraclei) House Fly (Musca domestica) Head of Stomoxys Sheep-tick (J/clophaqus waved). Larva and Pupa of Hen-flea (Pulex avium) The Hen Flea (Trichopsylla gallinw) Thrips 2 Hop damaged by a aa iia -heteroptera Cherry Aphis (Afy-us cerast) Woolly Aphis : Plum Aphis (Aphis prunt) Female San José Scale i Male San José and Mussel Scale The Brown Currant Scale (Lecanium persice vy. ribis) . Apple-sucker (Psylla malt) A Snow Fly (Aleyrodes) . Needle-nosed Hop-bug (Calocoris fulvomaculatus) Louse of the Ox (Hematopinus eurysternus) Migratory Locust (#dipoda migratoria) Female and Male common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis) Mole Cricket (@ryllotalpa vulgaris) Trichodectes spheerocephalus of Sheep Mallophaga or Bird-lice . Lace-wing Fly bi Dragon-flies (schna grandis) . Silver Fish (Lepisma saccharina) Edible Snail (Helix pomatia) Two Transverse Series of Teeth from Radula of ime Shells of Lamellibranchs 5 # Nw nwn SIoSt st ST OT O st oro Ww 280 282 283 285 285 286 288 289 292 294 294 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS. . Common Calamary (Loligo vulgaris) . Water-snails (Limnide) . Grey Field-slug (Agriolimax agrestis) . Testacella (7. haliotidea) . Garden Snail (Helix aspersi) . Structure of a Tunicate. . Development of a Tunicate . The Lancelet (A mphioxus lanceolatus) . Diagrammatic Sections of an Invertebrate and aialoats . Skeleton of Horse . Lumbar Vertebra . Axis . Atlas . Skull of the ies . Diagram of the Relations of ig Principal Bans of the Shen malian Skull . Fore and Hind Leg of Horse . Pelvic Arch i . General View of the Intestines of the Howe . Diagram of Alimentary Canal : . Theoretical, Longitudinal, and Median Section of heat Cavity, to show Peritoneum . Median Longitudinal Section of Head and oe Part of Neck of Horse . Uro-Genital Apparatus af Male, with Ace 194. . Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood Generative Organs of the Mare . . Brain of Horse (dorsal view) 197. . The Perch (Perce fluriatilis) . Diagram of the Circulation in Fishes 200. . Male Crested Newt (7'riton cristatus) 2, Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles . 203. 204. 205. 206. Brain of Horse (ventral view) Development of the Frog Pleurodont and Acrodont Dentition Head of Reptiles Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis) Feather of Bird . ILLUSTRATIONS. . Wing of Bird . Skeleton of Fowl . Skull of Fowl . Pectoral Arch of Fowl . Sternum of Fowl . Pelvis of Fowl (lateral view) . Alimentary Canal of Fowl . Ovary of Bird : . Split-Swimming Foot of Grebe Pediicenw: fluriatilis) . Foot of Raptorial Bird . Head of White-tailed Eagle (Haliaétus albivilla) . Skull of Duck ‘ . Head of Grey Lag Goose and Foot of Denteatte Goose . . Skull of Duck . Foot of Gallinaceous Bird 2. Scolopacidee . Skull of a Gull . Skull of Owl . Scansorial Foot, as seen in ee and oe . Foot of Passerine Bird (Wagtail) . Skull of Raven . 8. Head of Shrike 9, Ovum and Structure of a Fowl’s Egg . Section through part of Blastoderm (first day of oe . Transverse Section of Blastoderm, incubated for eighteen hours . Transverse Section through Posterior Part of the Head of an Embryo Chick of Thirty Hours . Head of Embryo Chick of the Fourth Day . Ovum of Rabbit ‘ . Diagram of Foetal Membranes of a Mammal . Vertical Section of Injected Placenta of a Mare . Diagrammatic Section of Pregnant Human Uterus with con- tained Foetus . Foetus of Sheep . . Diagram of Parts of Fcetal Horse . Feet of Ungulata é , . Skeleton of Foot in various forms of Equide . Section of Horse’s Incisor Tooth 463 ILLUSTRATIONS. . Transverse Section of Horse’s Upper Molar . Teeth of Pig . Skeleton of Pig . . Stomach of Ruminant . Skull of Ram . Skeleton of Sheep . Median Section of Ox’s Head . Skeleton of Cow . Feet of Carnivora . Teeth of Dog, and Jaws . Bones of Toe of Cat Head of Rodent. . Skull and Shoulder Girdle of Mole 3. Skull of Hedgehog (Lrinaccus europeus) . Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus) 50] PARP I. ACHORDATA (INVERTEBRATA) CHAPTER IL THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES. THE CLASSILICATION OF ANIMALS. Tue foundation of all living bodies is a structure called a cell. The cell is more or less the unit of life, and may even of itself constitute a definite organism. Most organisms are nevertheless built up of numbers of these cell units, numbers reaching into incalculable figures. In animals the cells lose their original form, whereas in plants their true symmetry is more or less retained. All the parts, then, of the animal (and plant) are composed of cells collected and joined together in masses, forming the various groups or tissues that constitute the bodies of animals. All animals originate from either a single cell (asexual repro- duction) or the unition of two cells (sexual reproduction). Tae CELL-STRUCTURE. The essential part of a cell is the protoplasm. This proto- plasm is a clear gelatinous substance which is found in all cells, both animal and vegetal. It has been described by Huxley as the “physical basis of life.” Generally protoplasm is partially enclosed by means of a constricting membrane, the cell-wall. The protoplasm of each cell is connected with that of the surrounding cells by minute strands passing through pores in the cell-walls. ; 4 THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES. This living matter may also be observed in a naked or free state (Amebw). This all-important living substance is endowed with the powers of contractility and movement, and is subject to such external influences as light, heat, and electricity. Movement takes place by the protrusion of any part of its surface, the protruded parts being known as ‘ pseudopodia,” the rest of the protoplasm flowing in a wave-like manner after these processes. Inside the protoplasm of a cell is a body called the nucleus. The nucleus is composed of a more liquid part, the ‘nuclear fluid,” and a more solid part, the ‘‘nuclear protoplasm.” The nucleus varies in form: sometimes it is round, at others oval, or again it may be elongated and twisted. ; Both protoplasm and nucleus are surrounded, as a rule, by a definite layer, which more or less retains the contractile proto- plasm. ‘The essential part of the cell is the protoplasm, which has the power of independent movement, of metabolism, and of reproduction. All organisms that we shall deal with, except- ing the simple Protozoa, will be seen to be made up of numbers of these cells, which become united in various ways, and so form the animal tissues. We know that a cell always origin- ates from a pre-existing cell. The formation of one cell from another takes place chiefly by a process known as karyokinesis or ‘cell-division.” When a cell has received its full share of nourishment—that is, when it has reached maturity—its protoplasm commences to separate into two equal halves. This division is preceded by a corresponding separation of the nucleus, and then the whole cell splits into two cells. During this process of cell-division certain definite changes take place in the nucleus. ‘This body at first is spindle-shaped ; its contents are drawn out into longitudinal strie, when the centre of these strim becomes thickened and forms an equatorial zone or “nuclear plate.” This “ plate” then divides, and each half travels to the poles of the spindle, which assumes a dumb-bell shape, then elongates, and the two nuclear FREE CELLS AND EPITHELIUM. 5 masses, the remains of the equatorial plate, become surrounded by a clear fluid. These form the two nuclei at the poles of the spindle. As soon as this has taken, place the whole proto- plasm constricts in the middle, and the cell divides into two. There are two other ways in which cells reproduce—namely, by “budding” and by “endogenous cell-formation.” “ Bud- ding” is when one of the produced cells is smaller than the parent cell. In “endogenous cell-formation” we get the proto- plasm and nucleus of the parent cell, splitting up internally into a number of small bodies, known as “spores.” These are seen only in the lowest forms of life. The separation of groups of various cells leads to the forma- tion of the different tissues. Of tissues we make out two chief kinds—namely, vegetative tissues and animal-life tissues. The former carry out the nourishment and maintenance of the body; the latter are those tissues which are characteristic of animals, and whose functions are for movement and sensation. Of vegetative cell-tissues there are two divisions—(1) epi- thelial and free cells, and (2) connective tissues. The tissues of “animal-life” are (3) muscular tissue, and (4) nervous tissue. 1. Free Cells and Epithelium. (a) Free or wandering cells are those that are found floating in some fluid medium. The corpuscles of the blood and lymph v® a, Of man; b, of goose; ¢, of crocodile ; d, of frog; e, of skate. (Nicholson.) Fic. 1.—BLoop CorruscLes OF VERTEBRATA. are excellent examples of free cells. In the invertebrate blood, which is normally colourless, will be found numbers of pale amoeboid bodies. In vertebrate blood these amceboid corpuscles are augmented with red blood corpuscles (fig. 1), round cell- discs which contain the colouring matter of blood—namely, 6 EPITHELIAL TISSUES. hemoglobin—a substance which plays such an important part in respiration. Besides blood and lymph corpuscles we find other isolated cells in the body, the ova and spermatozoa, which become detached as single cells from the epithelial walls of the male and female organs, the testes and ovaries. The form, especially of the spermatozoa, varies greatly : in most cases the spermatozoa have a long thread-like tail attached to the nucleated cell. (b) Epithelial tissues consist of groups of cells, which in simple layers line the exterior and interior of the body surface. The internal lining is known as ‘‘endothelium.” There are four chief types of epithelium, each distinguished by the form of the cells—namely, (1) cylindrical, (2) ciliated, (3) pavement, and (4) glandular epithelium. The lower cells of these cell-masses retain their natural form ; but the upper ones may become hardened. Thick stratified layers of such cells occasionally become fused, and produce horns, nails, claws, hoofs, &c. Sometimes the outer walls of the epithelial cells are thickened, forming a “cuticle.” These cuticular membranes are perforated by small pores and also by larger passages: in these cuticular pores are placed the hairs and feathers. The cuticular secretions may form a hard shell or case for the organism, an exoskeleton, as seen in the Crustacea and Hexapoda. Glandular epithelium is that epithelium in which some cells secrete not a solid but a liquid substance. In the most rudi- mentary cases the gland is formed by a single epithelial cell, the secretion passing out by either a special opening or through the superficial membrane. Several of these cells may arrange themselves around a central space and pour their secretion into it; the gland then forms a blind invaginated sac opening to the exterior or interior by the neck of the whole glandular mass, From this simple gland a compound gland is built up by re- peated regular or irregular outgrowths. The terminal portion of each gland is converted into a duct in most glands, for the CONNECTIVE TISSUES. 7 earrying away of the fluid secreted. Some glands, however, are ductless or blind (spleen, &c.) 2. Connective Tissues are those which connect and surround other tissues, and act as supporting and skeletal structures. The presence of intercellular substance distinguishes this group. This intercellular matter is secreted by the whole of the cells which it surrounds, and is very variable both in consistency and in structure. One variety is known as fibrillar-connective tissue, in which elongated cells are embedded in a solid inter- cellular substance broken up into bundles of fibres. In liga- ments and tendons the fibres have a wavy outline, and are parallel in arrangement. When the fibrille are treated with acids, they swell up, and a second form, which resists these reagents, appears. These threads are elastic fibres, and may predominate so as to form elastic tissue, which branches and forms a network, sometimes of great strength, such as the lega- mentum nuche of the neck—the ligament by which the head of quadrupeds is held up in a horizontal posture: at other times they spread out, forming the so-called “ fenestrated membranes ” of Henle in the arteries. The two most important skeletal tissues are cartilage and bone. Cartilage is a true connective tissue, and may be distinguished by its spherical cells and gristly intercellular substance in which the cells are embedded. We can recognise three distinct kinds of this cartilage—hyaline, fibrous, and elastic. The cells of cartilage are placed in clear round spaces. Its varieties will be pointed out when we come to more special parts. Suffice to say here that it is found in both of the great divisions of the animal kingdom, and may even constitute the entire skeleton of some of the fish (Elasmobranchit). Osseous tissue, or bone, is hard and possesses a high degree of rigidity, through the intercellular substance being hardened by the deposition of carbonate and phosphate of lime, these salts constituting about two-thirds of the weight of bone. ‘The cells (the bone-corpuscles) occupy spaces in this intercellular matter. 5 MUSCULAR TISSUE. Numerous canals (Haversian canals) run through the bone, con- taining blood- vessels and nerves. The calcareous matter is arranged in concentric rings round these canals, which begin in that highly vascular periosteal layer that circumscribes the whole bone and open into long spaces, the marrow canals, in the axes of the long bones. In all cases bony tissue is preceded by cither cartilage or other connective tissue. The two animal-lfe tissues are muscle and nerve. These can be detected in all animals save the very lowest forms, which are apparently nothing but undifferentiated protoplasm. 3. Muscular Tissue is contractile: the power of contraction is due, as has already been pointed out, to the protoplasm itself. By differentiation of the protoplasm of certain cells and groups of cells the power of contractility is brought to a higher state of efficiency, and a tissue, the so-called muscular tissue, is formed solely for movement. Muscle-cells during movement contract and expand. In some of the lower animals we find cells in which only part of the cell is differentiated into a muscle fibre. A stage further, and we find the whole cell becoming elongated and converted into a definite muscle fibril. Of muscle there are two kinds, the striated and the unstriated, The wnstriate?d muscle is composed of flat, elongate, spindle- shaped bodies, which contract slowly and remain in a con- tracted state for some time. They seldom are more than y)> of an inch in length. They form muscles over which the animal has no control, and are thus called involuntary muscles. This variety is prevalent in the lower animals, but is also found in all high forms of life. Each such muscle-cell has a distinct nucleus. Striated or voluntary niuscle consists of multinucleated masses called primitive bundles. It is composed of long cylindrical fibres, about =} 9 of an inch in diameter in mammalian muscle, Most or all of the cell protoplasm is converted into a cross- striped substance, due to alternate double and single refractive NERVOUS TISSUE. 9 powers. This striped or voluntary muscle is under the con- trol of the animal will, and can contract with great energy. Almost the entire protoplasmic contents of the cells are con- cerned in the production of this voluntary muscular tissue. The cells become elongated into long fibres, the primitive bundles ; and the nucleus divides and forms numbers of nuclei, each fibre being surrounded by a membrane, the so-called ‘“sarco- lemma.” The sarcolemma is an elastic sheath. The primitive buudles also arise by the fusion of several cells. Muscular tissue, then, is cell-tissue modified for a certain definite object —namely, movement. There is certain striated muscular tissue called cardiac muscle, which forms the walls of the heart, and which is involuntary in action. Cardiac muscle is cubical in form, and has a little side projection from each area. 4. Nervous Tissue is found generally with muscular tissue. It forms the seat of will and sensation, and is the means by which stimuli are carried to the muscles to cause their move- ment. The nervous tissue is supposed to have originated from the ectodermal sense-cells found in the skin, and that, still re- maining united to the same, they have grown inwards, and have thus only in a secondary way become united to the muscle-cell, which is préma facie contractile. In nervous tissue there are two distinct elements—namely, nerve-cells and nerve-filaments— which have separate structural differences. Nerve-cells are found in the brain, in the spinal cord, in the so-called ganglia of the lower animals, &c. ; they are really central areas for the nervous stimuli. Each nerve-cell or gan- glion cell possesses a very distinct nucleus and nucleolus, and one, two, or more processes, when they are known as uni-, bi-, or multipolar ganglion cells. One root is always that of a nerve-filament. Nerve-fibres are of two kinds: one variety carries impulses —sensations—from the central organ (cells) to the peripheral organs,—these are called motor or secretory fibres; the other carries impulses from the periphery to the central organs, and 10 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. are known as sensory fibres. In most cases the sensory nerves are united at their peripheral end with the so-called ‘end- organs” in the skin, &c., these end-organs being derived from the modified epithelial cells. Such are some of the modifications that are assumed by cells in the animal kingdom, The lowest animals, we shall see, possess neither tissues nor organs composed of cells, and yet each organism, although only a single cell, is complete in itself and reproduces a similar species. Tue DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. Living bodies are divided into two groups called “king- doms,” the one the Animal Kingdom, the other the Vegetable Kingdom. Although there are apparently great differences be- tween the two, yet when we come to examine the lowest animal forms and compare them with the lowest vegetal forms we shall observe so great a similarity that it is impossible to say to which kingdom they belong. In fact, there is no hard-and-fast line to be drawn between these two organic groups. Such lowly creatures as Plasmodium and Volvoxr are treated by botanists as plants, whilst the zoologist includes them in the Protozoa! It may be said, speaking generally, that animals are capable of free movement and that plants are fixed; but when we examine some of the simplest forms of life this distinction will be found untenable. Animals are endowed with sensation, plants are not, as a rule; but such plants as Drosera, Venus’s fly-trap, &c., surely have this phenomenon developed. Animals have their organs internal, their absorbent surface inside; plants have external organs, and the absorbent surface also external. Yet the Tapeworms (Cesfoda) obtain their nourishment by osmosis through the skin. When we compare the tissues of an animal with the tissues of a plant, then we observe greater differences. The cells 1 *A System of Medicine,’ vol. ii. Pt. ii., article by E. A. Minehin— “ Protozoa,” p. 17. 1907. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. I1 of the animal are altered in form, whilst those of the plant retain more or less their original appearance. The cell-wall, too, of the animal is nitrogenous, that of the plant is non- nitrogenous. But all this only applies to the higher plants and animals: it cannot apply to those unicellular forms, where, as we see in Ameeba, there is no cell-wall at all. It is often thought that we can tell a plant by its green colouring matter, chlorophyll, but not all plants have this chromatic substance in their tissues ; whilst, on the other hand, some animals—such as Hydra, Bonellia (one of the Worms), and some sea-anemones (Actinuzoa)—owe their green colour to the presence of this sub- stance. Cellulose is the substance that forms the cell-wall of plants, and is characteristic of the vegetable kingdom ; but we also find it in the “tests” or cases of those curious marine animals, the sea-squirts or Ascidians. In the higher animals a substance known as cholesterin is found: this was at one time considered a purely animal component, but we now know that it is also found in at least one family of plants, the Leyuminosw or Pea and Bean family. Generally speaking, animals are nitro- genous, plants carbonaceous ; but, as in the prior instances, this also will not invariably apply. There are no definite distinc- tions, then, between the animals and plants in regard to their chemical constituents. Perhaps the greatest differences are to be found in the metabolism of organisms. We cannot feed an animal on purely inorganic food, whilst, on the other hand, we can so feed a plant. Both must have salts and water; but whilst plants can be nourished with the addition of carbon dioxide and nitrates of ammonia, an animal must have nitrogen- ous and carbonaceous matter in some organic form and not in a mineral form. An animal absorbs oxygen and gives out CO, ; a plant exhales oxygen which is derived from the absorbed COg. Thus we see that there are differences between the plant and the animal, but that many of them do not invariably hold good. There are forms of life which we may fairly say bridge over the great hiatus that separates the horse from the grass upon which it feeds. 12 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. Tap CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. The old method of classifying animals was to divide them into two sub-kingdoms, known as the Invertebrata and the Vertebrata,—the absence or presence, respectively, of an in- ternal skeleton being the character upon which this division was based. Inwertebrates are those animals which have no internal skel- eton ; but, of greater importance still, they possess no structure known as the notochord. The notochord is a primitive axial skeletal rod, found on the dorsal surface. In all invertebrate animals the nervous system is ventral—that is, it is always present on the lower surface of the animal; whilst, on the other hand, the hemal or blood system is dorsal, the ali- mentary canal or gut being situated between. Invertebrates may possess a skeleton, but it is always external (exoskeleton). Vertebrates, on the other hand, always possess a notochord, and nearly always an internal skeleton, composed of an axial rod, the vertebral column, besides the cranium, and an appendicular skeleton—the limbs. The vertebral column—the backbone— and the cranium enclose the central nervous system, which is always dorsal, whilst the nervous system in invertebrates is ventral. The hemal system— the heart—is placed ventrally,— that is, in the reverse position to that in which it is found in the former group. Just as there are intermediate forms between the animals and plants, so are there connecting links between these two primary groups of animals. A small fish, known as the lancelet (Amphiowus lanceolatus), found in the sands of the Mediter- ranean, has no proper internal skeleton at all, yet it has a noto- chord and dorsal nervous system. The groups of Ased//ans, or sea-squirts, are in their young stages distinctly vertebrates ; for the young so-called Appendicularia larva has a dorsal nervous system and an axial rod, but the adult Tunicate, as it is also THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 13 called, is distinctly an invertebrate animal with no notochord and a ventral nervous system. How, then, can we distinguish these from true vertebrates ? At no time do they possess a brain or cranium as we see in the higher animals. They are called, therefore, Acranda, to dis- tinguish them from all the other vertebrates, which are known as the Craniota. This was the most generally adopted primary grouping of animals, into Invertebrata and Vertebrata; but for many reasons a more recent classification has many advantages over it. This latter is based primarily on the cell-structure of the animal. By it the whole animal kingdom is divided into two primary groups, known as the Protozoa and Metazoa. The Protozoa are those animals of extremely simple organisa- tion, and whose bodies are composed of a single cell. The Metazow constitute a group that includes the majority of animals. These are built up, not of one cell or a few cells, but of countless numbers of cells, which form the complicated animal tissues—muscular, nervous, connective, &c. This divi- sion will be found to contain both invertebrates and vertebrates. The Protozoa form the first group of animals, the lowest organisms, single-celled creatures, which are, nevertheless, im- portant to us, as many of them produce diseases, such as liver- rot in rabbits, malarial fever, sleeping sickness, redwater in cattle, psorospermosis of the skin, &c., in man and his domestic animals. The multicellular animals, or Metazoa, are divided into the following groups, called classes :— 1. Coelenterata, or Jellyfish, Polyps, Sea-anemones, Corals, &. 2. Echinodermata, or Starfish, Sea-urchins, and the nearly extinct Sea-lilies. 3. Vermes, or Worms. Mollusca, or Shells. 5, Arthropoda, or the Jointed-limbed animals, as Insects, Spiders, Scorpions, and Crabs, &c. The above are all Invertebrate Metazoa. The Sponqid, or eS 14 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. Sponges, may belong to this division ; but whether they are to be looked upon as colonies of Protozoa, or Metazoa, there is some diversity of opinion. They seem to present most affinities to the Metazoa, and should doubtless be included in the Inver- tebrate division of that group. 6. The sixth class of Metazoa include the Aseidians, Tunt- cates or Sea-squirts, the Amphioxus or Lancelet, and the worm- like Balanoglossus. These form the connecting group between the Invertebrate and Vertebrate Metazoa. The Vertebrate Metazoa are contained in five classes, namely— 7. Pisces, or Fish. 8, Reptilia, or Snakes, Crocodiles, and Lizards. 9. Amphibia, or Toads, Frogs, and Salamanders. 10. Aves, or Birds. 11. Mammalia, or Quadrupeds and Man. The above eleven classes of Metazoa may be grouped in two divisions, according to the absence or presence of a notochord. Those without a notochord are called Achordata, those with a notochord Chordata. The latter, again, are divided into Acrania and Craniota. The Acrania include, besides the Tunicates, the worm-like creature called Balanoglossus and the quaint little fish-like Amphioxus. These always have at some period of their life a dorsal nervous system and a notochordal rod which extends nearly the whole length of the body; but the nervous system, which develops as an open canal (another character common to vertebrate animals), never expands anteriorly into a brain. In fact, in general appearance Tunicates and Balanoglossus are in- vertebrates, while Amphioxus forms another stage higher, con- necting the lower animals with the Fish. Amphioxus has been described by Couch and others as a fish, The Cranzota, on the other hand, have the anterior end of the nervous cord enlarged into a brain placed in a cartilaginous or bony box, the cranium, and are supplied with an internal skeleton. The groups of animals, then, may be tabulated as follows :— PROTOZOA ACHORDATA = Invertebrata METAZOA CHORDATA = Vertebrata. THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 15 Sarcodina. Mastigophora. | Sporozoa. Infusoria. Spongide. Hydrozoa, Colenterata a { Actinozoa, Ctenophora, Echinuride. Nemathelminthes Chetopoda. Hirudiuca. Arthropoda Mollusca eee CRANIOTA. Holothuridie. Echinodermata . { asterige Platyhelminthes {gestous Trematoda. Nemertini. Nematoda. Acanthocephala. Peripatus. ( P Tulide. Myriapoda . { Scolopendridx Crusta Malacostraca. rustacea — - ) Entomostraca. Scorpionide. Arachnoidea . | Araneide. | Acarina. Coleoptera. Hymenoptera. Lepidoptera. Diptera. Insecta . 7 \4 Hemiptera. (Hexapoda) Neuroptera. Orthoptera. Thysanoptera. . Aptera. Lamellibranchiata. Mollusea . } Gasteropoda. (Proper) Pteropoda. Cephalopoda, Molluscoidea ee Urochordata (Ascidians). Cephalochordata (Amphioxus). Marsipobranchii. {eae { Hemichordata (Balanoglossus). Ganoidei. Dipnoi. Teleostei. Ophiomorpha. Anoura. Urodela. Chelonia. Ophidia. Lacertilia. Crocodilia. Ratite. *( Carinatx. Ornithodelphia= Monotremata. Didelphia =Marsupialia. Edentata. Sirenia. Cetacea. Ungulata. Proboscidea. Carnivora. Rodentia. Insectivora. Cheiroptera. Primates. Pisces Ichthyopsida Amphibia Reptilia . Sauropsida . Aves Mammatia. . Monodelphia . 16 CHAPTER IL. PROTOZOA, OR SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS. THE Protozoa are the simplest forms of animal life: they are all of small size, of extremely simple constitution, and invariably unicellular. They are animals that have remained as simple cells, to all intents and purposes like the cell described in chap. i. Each cell is physiologically and morphologically complete in itself. Some forms of protozoa are simple drops of sarcode—protoplasm ; others have not only a definite cell- wall, but possess the power of secreting calcareous and siliceous shells. These shell-bearing species, or Yoraminifera (fig. 3, iv. and y.), are present in myriads in the waters of the ocean, their “tests” or shells falling to the floor of the sea as the animals dic. Many of these tests are dissolved before they reach the bottom, if the depth of water be very great; yet millions of others arrive safely upon the bed of the sea, and there by slow degrees they form a layer of a white or creamy colour. Of such formation is the globigerine ooze on the floor of the Atlantic and also the radiolarian ooze,—protozoa of the genera Globigerina (fig. 3, v.) and Radiolaria taking the chief part in the formation of these two oozes respectively. Of ancient rocks we know that some of the Chalk has been formed in a similar way, by the slow accumulation on the sea-bed of these and other falling tests. Not only do we find that the Chalk in many instances is built up of these minute organisms, but also that their tiny shells SARCODINA. 17 represent genera existing at the present day. What countless myriads of these microscopic organisms must be present in the chalk rocks of our North and South Downs alone, when we consider that thousands go to the square inch. The Protozoa are divided into four classes: (1) the Sarcodina, (2) Mastigophora, (3) Sporozoa, (4) Infusoria. Sarcodina are protozoa in which the protoplasm is naked and which have no permanent organs of locomotion, but temporary processes called pseudopodia. Mastigophora are more or less of definite form, and have one or more permanent organs for locomotion or food capture in the form of flagella in the adult. Sporozoa are internal parasitic protozoa which have no organs of locomotion or for the capture or digestion of food. They reproduce only by some means of sporulation. Infusoria are provided with cilia for locomotary purposes. CLASS I. SARCODINA. Although Ameoeha is specially referred to here it is only in its resting stage that the typical body form is realised, as Sarcodina are typically simple spherical bodies, such as the Radiolaria and Heliozoa, which float freely on the surface of water and have pseudopodia radiating from them in all directions. But in the Mycetozoa—semi-terrestrial protozoal masses which live on rotten tree-trunks, fungi, &c.—the protoplasm forms large creeping masses called plasmodia,—the latter including the well-known parasitic disease of Cruciferous plants, “‘ Finger-and-Toe,” pro- duced by Plasmodiophora brassicce of Woronin. These Sarcodina are divided into five sub-classes, the Amcebea (fig. 2), the Foraminifera (fig. 3), the Mycetozoa, the Radiolaria, and the Heliozoa. We need only refer to the first here. B 18 AM(EBAA, Sus-Crass AMCEBZAA. They may again be divided into the Lobosa nuda and the Reticulosa. The former include the Amesbee (fig. 2). Ameba is a simple unprotected mass of protoplasm or sar- code, which may be found in damp earth and in water. In appearance it resembles a small speck of white, transparent, structureless jelly. If this speck is observed under strong magnifying power, it will be seen to move by throwing out little finger-shaped processes, the pseudopodia (Psu). This simple organism is apparently composed of two layers, a granular layer inside and a clear transparent layer on the outside: the former is known as the endosare and the latter as the ectosare. These two layers must not be mistaken for two distinct membranes, for they are continuous, only certain granules collect towards the interior. When the pseudo- podia (Psu) are thrown out we shall see, if we watch care- fully, that the granules flow up the centre of the process as it elongates. Three other bodies are to be noticed in this minute creature : first, a small dark oval spot, with a clear border and permanent in shape, situated in the endosarc; this is the nucleus (7), and it will be found to stain dark-red with picro-carmine. The nuclear substance or chromatin here is a single mass, but it may be divided into portions, yet it can always be distinguished from the body protoplasm or cytoplasm. ‘here will also be seen contracting and expanding a clear space in the ectoplasm ; this is the so-called ‘“ pulsating vacuole ” (rv), of which there are two in some forms of Protozoa (Parainreium). The pulsating vacuole is said to be an excretory organ, for uric acid and water have been extracted from these minute cavities. These vacuoles may be looked upon as both respiratory and excretory. Lastly, there are present a number of so-called “food vacuoles ” (Fv), spaces surrounding the particles of food ingested by the amecba, This proteus-animalcule is neither provided with AMCBAA. 19 mouth nor anus. The food can be taken in and expelled at any part of the body. This process can easily be watched if particles of indigo are placed in the water surrounding an amoeba: a speck of indigo will be found to be drawn to the protozoan by the pseudopodium, and then it can be watched gradually sinking into the protoplasm until it reaches the endosarc, where it remains whilst the substance (if an organism) is digested, the waste part being expelled through any part of the animal. The food consists of organisms still smaller than the amcebe are themselves. The granules in the endoplasm are regarded as stages in the upward or downward metabolism Fic. 2.—AMaBa (greatly magnified). i, Large specimen, showing structure. ii. A smaller specimen in process of division. iii, Later stage of ii. @ and », nucleus; b and cv, contractile vacuoles; Fv, food vacuoles; Psu, pseudopodia, (All greatly enlarged.) of the material of the body. Amceba reproduces by the primitive method of “fission” or division. The nucleus of the amceha divides into two (fig. 2, ii. and iil, @), and one of these nuclei, surrounded by part of the original protoplasm, breaks off and floats away; thus one amceba\becomes two, 20 FINGER-AND-TOE, OR CLUBBING. This division may go on until one amcba has given rise to hundreds. But by degrees each amoeba becomes smaller and smaller, and they would eventually die out. To counteract this, what is known as “rejuvenescence” takes place. Rejuv- enescence is the union or conjugation of two amcebe, whose protoplasm unites together, together with the nuclei, forming one larger individual, which is again in a fit state to undergo once more rapid division. This conjugation is really a kind of primitive sexual reproduction, although there is, as far as we can see, no difference between the conjugating individuals. At least four species of amcebe are parasitic in man, and are spoken of as Extameha, two of these are of no special account, but the ALmerha col’ (Losch), and the Amuha histolytiva (Schau- linn), are. The latter is the cause of tropical dysentery, and is found in man’s intestines, and even the liver and kidneys. None are so far known to attack animals or plants. RETICULOSA. The Reticulosa are naked amoeboid forms with slender, fila- mentous, net-like pseudopodia. The well-known parasite of Finger-and-Toe or Clubbing belongs here. Fincer-anp-Tor, or CLUBBING. (Plasmodiophoru brassie, Woronin.) This disease occurs in cruciferous plants, both wild and cultivated. It frequently causes great loss in turnips and cabbage. The roots of the attacked plants and rootlets will be found to be swollen and spindle-shaped and smooth, others as large gnarled masses. The attack commences in the young plants, from minute flagellule released from the countless spores in the soil entering the cells of the roots, where they MASTIGOPHORA. aH | become amosbul, and are found, often several together, in the parenchyma cells feeding on the sap. The plant-cells mul- tiply and become abnormally swollen, and many hypertophry. Shortly the ameebule in each cell fuse together and become a plasmodium. Later the nuclei of the plasmodium break up into chromidia, part being destroyed, part reconcentrated to form generative nuclei. These divide by karyokinesis, and then the protoplasm collects around the nuclei to form small uninuclear bodies called gametes, which fuse in pairs. These zygotes then become surrounded by a tough wall to form round spores, which pass into the soil on the decay of the plant, and later give rise to the minute flagellule from which the attack originates. The plasmodium seen in the cells is a yellowish stringy slime, which may wholly or only partially fill the cell. By October this plasmodium has broken up into spores which closely pack the swollen cells. Prevention and Treatment.—It is very important after an attack to have as far as possible all cabbage stumps and all diseased material burnt. Land subject to this disease should be heavily limed, the lime being in as finely divided state as possible. As it only attacks cruciferous plants, ceasing to grow them on the land for two or three years will check it materially. CLASS IL MASTIGOPHORA. These have one or more permanent organs serving for loco- motion or for capture of food in the form of flagella in the adult stage. They are divided into four sub-classes: 1. Flagel- lata; 2. Dinoflagellata; 3. Cystoflagellata; and 4. Silico- flagellata. The family Trypanosomatide are the most important, and they belong to a division of the Flagellata known as Mona- didea, small protozoa of simple structure with one or more 22 MASTIGOPHORA. flagella. These parasites are the cause of Sleeping Sickness in man, of Nagana or Tsetse disease in stock, of Surra in horses, the Mal de caderas and the Dourine of horses. Trypa- nosomes (fig. 4) are specially characterised by possessing an un- dulating membrane. They are more or less spindle-shaped, and along one side runs the undulating membrane. Near one end of the cell is found the micronucleus or centrosome. The flagellum arises from this body and runs along the free edge of the membrane to the other end of the cell, and continues on as a free flagellum, but it may end with the termination of the undulating membrane. The true nucleus or macro- Fic. 3.—MastTIGOPHORA AND FoRAMINIFERA. i, Buglena. ii, Cercomonas intestinalis, iii. Polytoma, free and encysted. iv. Textularia. v. Globigerinae. (Greatly enlarged.) nucleus is placed near the middle of the body. In the genus Trypanoplasma (Lav. et Mesn.), the centrosome is large, and there are two flagella, one at each end of the body. With but few exceptions Trypanosoma and Trypanoplasma are blood parasites, and occur free in the blood plasma, never within blood corpuscles. All the latter are blood parasites, but some of the 7'rypanosomes may be found in lymph and other serous fluids. Large numbers of these protozoa occur in the blood of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, &c., but most are not MASTIGOPHORA. 23 harmful to their hosts. Some, however, are markedly patho- genetic, including the following :— Trypanosoma brucei (Plimmer and Bradford), producing Nagana in horses and cattle in Africa; T. equiperdum (Doplein), the cause of “Dourine” in horses ; T. evansi (Steel), the “Surra” of horses and cattle ; T. equinum (Voges), the agents of “ Mal de caderas” in horses in 8. America ; T. gambiense (Dutton), the parasite of Sleeping Sickness and Gambia Fever in man in Africa; and L. cruzi (Cruz), which produces “Basilero” in man in 8. America, L. brucei occurs as a natural parasite in wild game, such as Fic. 4.—a, A Trypanosome. x2, A Spirochete. (Greatly enlarged.) buffaloes, antelope, &c., in Africa, and does no harm to them ; in S. America 7. equinum is a natural parasite of the Capybara, but directly they get to horses and cattle their evil effects are felt. Trypanosomes have a secondary host, which is an inverte- brate, which acts as an intermediary between the vertebrate hosts, with one exception—namely, 7. equiperdum—which is said to be transmitted by means of coitus. The intermediate host. of these parasites of terrestrial verte- brates are blood-sucking insects, Tsetse-flies (Glossina), in Africa, and a Bug (Conorhinus megistus) is known to be the secondary host of Basilero. The secondary hosts of the parasites of aquatic vertebrates are leeches. Reproduction is sexual and asexual, the sexually differentiated 24 SPOROZOA. forms— 7.z., male and female—may, however, multiply by fission. The three types become fully differentiated only in the inverte- brate host. ‘lhe males are of more slender form than the females, and have a longer free flagellum. Parthenogenesis occurs in the females. The sexual forms conjugate: this may take place in the blood of the vertebrate, but it is abortive. True maturation takes place in the gut of the invertebrate host. Spirochutw.—These are closely related to the former, but they resemble very minute slender threads, wavy or spirally twisted in form, and have a narrow undulating membrane, but no flagella (fig. 4, B). There are several important parasites in this group: one, S. obermeteri (Cohn), produces human relaps- ing fever in Africa, and is carried by Ticks; another, 8. gallin- avn (Marchoux and Simond), produces spirillosis in fowls in S. America. European relapsing fever is apparently carried by the Bed Bug (Cte), Fowl Spirochetes especially by Ticks of the genus Aryas. CLASS IL SPOROZOA. Another very important group of protozoa parasitic in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals is the class of Sporozoa (fig. 5). These protozoa are capable of producing serious pathological disturbances, often leading to death. There are three orders in this class. The order Greyarinoidea are only parasitic in invertebrate animals, and need no further notice. Another order of Sporozoa are called Coceidiidw, which trans- form themselves into egg-shaped zoosperms by the formation of a capsule and the production of several large spores from their vranular contents. The third order are the Hremosporidea. Discase-producing Sporozou.—Four well-known maladies are produced in birds, animals, and man by these low forms of life —namely, coceidivsis, or ‘liver-rot,” in the rabbit ; psurusper- THE COCCIDIIDEA. 25 mosis of the skin in many animals, and especially birds—the so-called “canker” of pigeons; pdroplasmos?s in cattle, dogs, &e., such as Redwater and East Coast fever in cattle; and malignant Jaundice in dogs; and the Malarial fever of man. THE COCCIDIIDEA. These are parasitic in the epithelial cells, and always with distinct alternation of generations—namely, endogenous non- sexual schizogony and exogenous sexual sporogony. ‘The epi- thelium most usually attacked is that of the gut and the liver. Coccidiosts is a common complaint affecting the liver of the Fic. 5.—CoccipIum ovirorMeé or Rapert’s Liver. After Balbiani. a, b, ¢, Young Coccidia in epithelium of liver; «, e, f, encysted adult Coccidia ; q-l, development of sporoblasts ; m, mature sporoblast, showing the two falciform bodies ; 2, the two spores separate ; 0, a falciform spore—y, its nucleus. (From Par. Dis. Ani., Neumann.) rabbit, and is produced by the species known as Coceddium oviforme (fig. 5). This sporozoan is ovoid when adult, and enclosed in a double-contoured shell from 30 to 50m long and from 204 to 284 broad. These extremely minute bodies become 26 THE COCCIDIIDEA. encysted, when we observe that their protoplasmic contents separate away from the cell-wall and form a central round or oval mass (f). Both adult and encysted stages may be freely detected in the liver, in the white and yellow patches which are characteristic of the disease. Now if we collect numbers of these encysted forms and place them on damp sand in a warm temperature, we shall soon observe by microscopic examination that the central protoplasmic ball splits into two and then four (g and h). This is a kind of segmentation or division, the round bodies being known as ‘“‘sporoblasts.” These sporoblasts elongate, expand at each end, and are seen to be surrounded by a thin membrane, within which is also seen a granular lump. Each of these “sporoblasts” really contains two spores, the falciform spores (0), described in a typical sporozoon—in fact, the so-called sporoblast is a pseudo-navicella. Each falciform body gives rise to a little flagelloid creature. This form migrates from cell to cell of the animal’s liver, encysting and producing more spores, and so rapidly increasing the area of the disease. It is supposed that these sporiferous cysts are carried with dust, &c., and hence get taken into the mouth with food, eventually reaching the liver. The sporocyst ruptures through the action of the pancreatic juice, the gastric juice having no effect upon them, and the sporoblasts appear; these latter burst and discharge the spores or falciform bodies, which become active, and are said to ascend by the ductus chole- dochus to the epithelium of the liver and bile-duct. Here the germs, having entered some of the hepatic cells, cause these cells to rupture, and they may even destroy the walls of the bile-duct itself. They finally encyst, pass out into the intestine, freed by the breaking up of the tissues in which they are embedded, and so out to ground by the anus of the diseased animal. Their presence causes the liver to swell. They are detected by the creamy cystic areas, varying in size from a millet-seed to that of a pea. They are often so abundant that the cells of the liver atrophy, and cheesy-like masses appear not only in the PIROPLASMOSIS. 27 liver substance but in the bile. These prurigerous masses on microscopic examination are found to contain numbers of coc- cidia. It may possibly be taken for tuberculosis unless carefully examined. The walls of the intestine may be invaded as well as the liver. H£MosporipIia. These protozoa have an alternation of generations correspond- ing with an alternation of hosts: the non-sexual stage is passed in the blood of a vertebrate, the sexual sporogonous stage in the gut of an invertebrate. They are all parasites of the blood of animals and man, and have risen into great prominence from the fact that they are the cause of malarial fevers in man and the devastating cattle diseases, such as East Coast fever, red- water or Texas fever, and the fatal malignant jaundice of canines. The malarial fevers are carried by several species of mos- quitoes belonging to the Anopheline, the cattle and canine fevers by Ticks. Only two genera of Hemosporidia need be mentioned here— namely, Plasmodiwm, which contains the malarial species, and Piroplasma, which contains the animal fever parasites. PIROPLASMOSIS. This latter genus contains several species parasitic in the blood of mammals (fig. 6). These species are so closely related that they can scarcely be distinguished from one another, save for the fact that they occur in different hosts. The diseases these blood parasites produce are spoken of as piroplasmoses. In acute form the chief symptom is hemoglobinuria, caused by the destruction of the red blood corpuscles. Redwater.—This is one of the best-known diseases caused by Piroplasme. It is also spoken of as Texas or Southern fever in America. This is caused by the parasite Piroplasma bigemina (Smith and Kilborne). The species producing European Red- water is the same. The parasites occur during one period as 28 PIROPLASMOSIS. pear-shaped bodies in the blood corpuscles, 13 to 1:5 yw in length, and in this species two occur in each corpuscle. They may appear as rod-shaped bodies. Free forms also occur in the blood and sometimes a flagellate form. They increase in the blood corpuscles by binary fission. Animals with these para- sites may be immune, but their blood injected into other animals will cause the disease. Relapses also take place. The intermediate hosts of this disease are the Ticks (Ixodes ricinus) and (Lhiporephalus (Boophilus) annulatus). The malignant jaundice in dogs is caused by Piroplasma canis, the East Coast A. B. Cc. D (PF) =D E F é. Fic. 6.—PIROPLAsM&. A ton, Piroplasma bigemina. Ring forms a B; pear-shaped forms ¢ and p. E and «& 9 1 § 4 > , Piroplusme canis in blood corpuscles. F, Parasite free in blood. (Greatly enlarged.) fever by P. parvum, another is found in the horse, P. equi— all these have intermediate Tick hosts (vide Ticks). For in- formation concerning other forms, such as P. parvum (Theiler), the parasite of East Coast or Rhodesian fever, the P. canis, causing malignant jaundice in dogs, and P. equi in horses, the student is referred to Professor Minchin’s recent work on Protezoa.1 1 An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa. By E. A. Minchin, M.A. 1912. INFUSORIA. 29 Mauaria. The malarial fevers, our old Fen ague, are produced by species of Plasmodium (Marchiafara and Celli) ; other species also occur in mammals and birds. In all cases the agents of transmission are mosquitoes or Culicide ; in the human malaria only Anopheline Culicide can carry the parasites. There are three species (1) of Tertian fever (P. vivam), (2) the quartan parasite (P. malari), and (3) the pernicious or tropical species (P. immaculatum). One marked character of these is that they produce a black substance called Melanin. The parasites are injected into man’s blood by the Anopheline mosquito, and then enter the red corpuscles, feed, grow, break up into spores, and destroy the corpuscles; the spores enter other blood cor- puscles, and so the fever is set up. The Anopheline, whilst taking man’s blood, injects the parasites with the saliva, and the insect at the same time obtains other forms from the blood, and a male and female stage is formed in the insect. The male throws off portions which conjugate with or fertilise the female parasite, which then wanders into the walls of the stomach and later, on the outer wall, grows to a great size and eventually breaks up into a large number of elongated spores, which enter the salivary glands of the mosquito. In man, therefore, we get asexual spore-formation (schizogony), in the mosquito sexual generation ending in sporogony. CLASS IV. INFUSORIA. The Infusoria are Protozoa which are provided with cilia for locomotory purposes. They have also a vegetative macro- nucleus and a generative micronucleus. At one time the Flagellata were included in this class. There are two sub-classes—(1) Ciléata and (2) Suetoria. In the first the cilia occur during the whole active life of the 30 INFUSORIA. adult, but are not found when they are encysted. In the second, cilia are only present during the larval stage, their place being taken by suckers and tentacles. None of the latter are parasites on metazoa. The Ciliata are the most complex of the Protozoa, and several occur as parasites in metazoa. In form they are typically ovoid, one pole being directed forwards in swimming, whilst in creeping species the body is flattened ; others, as the Bell Animalcule (Vorticella), are fixed by a stalk. They are of definite form, the body being enclosed by a cuticle. In this cuticle is an opening, the cystotome or mouth, and there may be a definite anus or rytopyge. The mouth is merely a pore passing through the ectoplasm. Ciliata reproduce by fission or budding (gemmation), and also when encysted by sporulation. Parasitic forms encyst when out of their host, and then can remain dormant until taken up by another host. Those that are parasitic occur in the digestive tract and other internal cavities, but never as tissue Fic, Tape es Beg cece parasites. There are four orders— i Avante af Samia ce (1) Holotricha, in which the cilia contractile vacuoles; p, peristome are of even length and spread all (Stein). From Par. Dis. Ani., Neumann.) over the body; (2) the Hetero- tricha, in which a special adoral zone of larger cilia is always present; (3) Hypotricha, which are creeping forms and flattened (not parasitic); and (4) Per?- tricha, which are fixed forms like Vorticella, without locomotar cilia, Balantidum coli (fig. 7) is one of the Heterotricha. It is found in the rectum, &, of pigs and man. These white ciliata are found as free-swimming bodies in the rectal matter. INFUSORIA. 31 They pass out on the dung and encyst. When food becomes soiled by excrement they are taken into the alimentary canal. Another species, B. minwtawim, has also been recorded in man. Enough has been said of this group of simple animals, the most rudimentary forms of animal life that exist, to show that they are of some considerable importance, not only to the farmer and poultryman but to man in general, and that a knowledge of their habits and life-histories is not only of interest but of very great economic value to us. CHAPTER III. SPONGES, C(RLENTERATES, AND ECHINODERMS. Sponcip.£ on PorIFERa. A SPONGE is a compound structure of true animal nature. It is composed of contractile tissue, which is supported by a skele- ton of hard spicules or fibres. In past ages sponges were thought to be plants, but their true animal nature has long since been demonstrated. The simplest form of sponge is represented by a fixed cylindrical tube, with an exhalant opening, called the osculum, at the free end. The contractile wall of the cylinder is supported by rayed spicules, which may be calcareous or siliceous and of very variable form : it is perforated by small pores, known as inhalant pores, which lead into ciliated internal chambers. In these ciliated chambers are found cells lining the cavities peculiar to the Sponge. Such cells are called “collar cells,” each being provided with a long cilium and a distinct nucleus in the lower part of the cell. The reproduction of sponges is much more advanced than in the Protozoa. True ova are found in the layer of tissue known as the mesoderm, or middle layer. These ova go through a process of cell-division known as seymentation, a process henceforth to be observed in all the following groups of animals. The single cell, the ovum, at first divides into two, but, unlike the protozoan, it does not separate : then by further division four cells are produced, then eight, then sixteen, then thirty-two! Eventually there is formed a free- CCELENTERATES. 33 swimming body, a larva, which is composed of a number of cells ciliated on the exterior. This larva is called an amphi- blastula, which, after leading a free aquatic life, eventually settles down, and, fixing on to a stone on the floor of the sea, becomes gradually metamorphosed into a sponge. Most sponges are marine; a few, however, are fresh-water — one common form, Spongilla fluviatilis, being often abundant in our streams. CQ@LENTERATES, Ceelenterates include the Jellyfish, Sea-anemones, and Corals, These marine animals have regular consistent tissues. The cells of which they are built up have lost their original form, and have become sorted out into different groups, each with their special functions, the various groups forming the tissues of which the animals are built up. In the outer layer of cells (the skin or epithelium) there are found in all Coelenterates, more or less highly developed, certain cells that are known as “ thread- cells ”—cells that are modified as weapons of offence and defence, being endowed with stinging propensities. Each of these cells, or “cnidoblasts,” is provided with an internal barbed thread. When the cell is touched, this thread, like a flagellum of one of the Protozoa, is darted out and enters the skin of the prey or enemy, carrying with it a certain amount of poison, which produces the curious stinging and even paralysing sensation we experience when a jellyfish settles upon us when we are swim- ming in the sea, The amceboid cell-unit here loses its individ- uality. Amongst these Ccelenterates we find two chief types, the so-called Medusa or Jellyfish and the Polyp. ‘These two totally different animals are one and the same, the medusa being a sexual form of the asexual polyp. There is thus produced a most remarkable phenomenon, known as the alternation of generations—that is, the alternation of a sexual and an asexual form of the same creature. Cc 34 ECHINODERMATA. The class Covlenterata contains the Corals (Actinozoa), Dead- men’s Fingers (Octactinia), Sea-anemones (Hexactinia), the polypoid and medusoid Hydrozoa, and the Ctenophoru. A polyp is a simple tubular body fixed at the posterior end and pierced by an oral opening at the free end, the mouth being surrounded by a circle or several circles of tentacles. Polyps may reproduce by male and female cells —spermatozoa and ova—or by budding. All colonial forms are produced by the latter process. A medusa or jellyfish is free-swimming, and consists of a flattened or arched gelatinous disc, that we so often see floating on the top of the sea. From underneath this disc there hangs down a stalk, the manubrium, at the free end of which opens the mouth. Tentacles may be de- veloped around the mouth and edge of the disc. Here in the medusa we find that the distinctly defined mouth leads into a canal that runs up the stalk and enters a cavity in the disc, the stomach, from which canals run out to the edge of the disc, where they form a circular canal surrounding it. A medusa may be compared to a flattened polyp. In the hydroid polyp stock reproduction takes place by budding, so that the individual colony increases ; but every now and then a modified bud forms—a medusoid bud—in the place of a polyp. This bud breaks off and floats away as a medusa, which becomes sexually mature, producing ova: these ova hatch into free- swimming larve that settle upon some rock or stone, when each larva turns to a polyp which creates a colony by repeated gemmation. Thus we get an alternation of a fixed asexual and a free sexual generation. EcuInoperus. Starfish, Sea-urchins, and Sea-cucumbers are united into one class known as the Evhénodermata. All these animals are marine. They are characterised by their radial symmetry. They have generally a hard calcareous exoskeleton, which may ECHINODERMATA. 35 bear calcareous spines. Within the tests are placed the fully developed alimentary canal, and the water-vascular and repro- ductive organs. The starfish, &e., reproduce sexually. ‘The Fic. 8.—Take Common Starrisu (Uraster rubens) From Nicholson. ova produced give rise to curious larval forms, quite unlike the adult, The group must be summarily dismissed here, as they are of no importance to the agriculturist, except in the case of the starfish (fig. 8), which are sometimes employed as manure, the so-called “ five-finger” manure, in neighbourhoods near the coast. 36 CHAPTER IV. WORMS. PLATYHELMINTHES OR FLat-Worms. Worms are most variable in form, habits, and structure. They are of great interest, owing to their often complex life-histories. To man and his animals they are often deadly enemies, giving rise to such serious and often fatal diseases as Filariasis, Trichinosts, Miner’s Disease, Strongylosis, and Twniosis. Nearly every animal harbours one or more vermiceous guests. Some seem to occasion little or no inconvenience to their host, whilst others, if not fatal, are most annoying. Some live as parasites in the blood (Hematozon), others in the alimentary canal (Tapeworms), others in the liver (Flukes), and even in the eye (Filaria oculis), There are also worms, such as the earth- worms, that are of the greatest service to man, helping to fertilise the soil. Worms may be found in a great variety of places. Large numbers are marine ; others live in fresh water ; yet others upon land, in damp earth, moss, and in excreta. It is, however, those that lead a parasitic existence, living in some other animal or plant, that we shall have to consider most fully. Worms are bilateral animals with unsegmented or segmented bodies. They never possess any jointed lateral appendages, such as we shall see in the group (Anthropoda) that includes the insects and spiders. A dermal muscular system is de- veloped, and there are present paired excretory tubes or canals. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF WORMS. 37 The bodies of worms are typically elongated, cylindrical, and soft, adapted to live in damp media. We can always dis- tinguish a dorsal or upper and a ventral or lower surface. Some worms are flat, and are known as Platyhelminthes ; others are round, and are called Nemathelminthes: these round worms are never segmented. we, umbilical vesicle; am, amnion; ch, chorion; >, decidua sero- dina; c, decidua vera; f, decidua reflexa; £7, Fallopian tube; g, cervix uteri; «, foetal villi of placenta; e, embryo. (From Huxley, after Longet.) chorion increases, the villi becoming much branched and form- ing the chorion frondosum, This latter structure and the decidua serotina form the true placenta. This placenta is discoidal, but it is ventral, whereas the placenta of the rabbit is dorsal. At birth the placenta and the fused decidua rera and reflera are all shed, and the ruptured blood-vessels of the uterine wall closed by its rapid contraction. 3. The zonary plarentu.—Here the placenta is in the form of a broad band. The yolk-sae never fuses with the chorion. At first the allantois fuses with the sub-zonal membrane, at one PLACENTA. 457 part only forming a discoidal patch; but this grows out all round, and invades the whole of the sub-zonal membrane except at the poles. There is thus formed a broad placental band, where the villi closely unite with the uterine pits specially formed. 4, Cotyledonary placenta (fig. 238).—This is characterised by SACs AN i, \\ [Any Fic. 238.—Farus or SHEEP. AL, Allantois, seen beneath chorion; Am, amnion; P, P, placente on chorion; C, umbilical cord ; al, al, extremities of allantoidean cornua. (Chauveau.) the villi of the placenta being found in round scattered areas, the coty/eduns, which fit into corresponding thick areas studded with pits in the uterus. 5. In the diffuse placenta (fig. 239) the allantois (al) com- pletely surrounds the embryo (/), and the whole chorion (Ch) MAMMALIA, 458 Cnvoaneyg) “proqUEtTE Jo Apravo 4) Esnqaoy Sy ‘ pave [volpiquiu jo sjassaa 44 $a jo Aytavo ‘g {uote ‘fo Ssuyoum ‘o fslopUYL]B Jo Je kay yeuseyur 77! (mun jo sayemad ‘yf $ UOTUUe LOYULT[E JO LaABl [WaLoyNo “PP | UoLWyo ‘uy “UQ sBdavV[g ‘dd *AOI4R}SAB JO aTPPMU spAVAOJ “ASUOFT IVD] AO SLUVG JU WVAOVICL —'6HG “YLT a, ANON of 40 oan PERIODS OF GESTATION. 459 has villi studded over it except at the poles, where small areas are devoid of them. All mammals except the Monotremes and Marsupials have a placenta in one of these five forms. The length of gestation in farm animals has been divided by Gurlt into seven periods. The last period and the dimensions of the embryo are given in the table below :— SPECIES. SEVENTH (LAST) PERIOD. ear cha ars Mare From 35th to 48th week About 454 inches. Cow un 38rd to 40th on nu 82h on Sheep n 19th to 21st 4 vn 192 4 Sow un 15thto17th From 93 to 104 inches. Bitch 9th week F . n 64to 82 4 The weight of the foetus of the mare at birth varies according to breed. The lowest, in the Corsican mare, is 35 Ib.; in a Suffolk-Boulonnaise mare, Chauveau mentions 135 lb. The weight of a calf at birth is about 2°31 parts of the cow, a lamb 10 to 11 Ib, a pig 5 Ib, and a chick 14 ounce. +60 CHAPTER XIX. MAMMA LI A—Continued. CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS. BRITISH MAMMALS (DOMESTIC AND WILD). MamMALIA are divided into three sub-classes — namely, the Ornithodelphia, the Didelphia, and the Muonocelphia’—which are characterised by the following features :— A, The Ornithodelphia have the two uterine enlargements of the oviducts separate, forming two uteri, each of which opens direct into a cloacal chamber like a bird, and not into a single vagina. This cloaca also receives the rectum and ureters. Chorion absent. Here are placed the Monotremata, to which belong the Echidna and Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus). B. The Didelphia, characterised by the uterine enlargements 1 Huxley, in the ‘Proceedings’ of the Zool. Soc. for 1880, p. 649, pro- posed the following names for these three groups: (1) Prototheria, (2) Metatheria, (3) Eutheria. Dr Gadow, in his classification of the Verte- brata, follows Huxley’s three divisions, and groups the Mammals in the following order :— Sub-class 1. Prototheria (Monotremata, Xe. | Sub-class 2. Metatheria (Marsupials). Sub-class 3. Eutheria. Order 1, Edentata. Order 2, Trogontia (including the “Rodentia). Order 38, Cetacea. Order 4, Sirenia. Order 5, Ungulata (including Hyracoidea and Proboscidea). Order 6, Carnivora. Order 7, Insectivora. Order 8, Chiroptera. Order 9, Primates. ORNITHODELPHIA. 461 of the oviducts opening into two separate vagine, which have distinct apertures in the urogenital canal, the rectum being separated. Chorion ahsent. Coracoids reduced, not reaching the sternum. Males without cloaca. To this group belong the Marsupialia or Pouch-Bearers. C. The Monodelphia, which have the two uterine enlarge- ments of the oviducts united to form one uterine cavity, with its two cornua, and by the single vagina, which is completely separate from the rectum. Chorion and placenta present. Coracoids reduced to a process only. This division contains all the remaining mammals, which include the following :— (i) Edentata or Sloths. (ii) Sirenia or Manatees. (iii) Cetacea or Whales. (iv) Ungulata or Hoofed Animals. (v) Hyracotdea or Conies. (vi) Proboscidea or Elephants. (vii) Carnivora or Beasts of Prey. (vill) Rodentia or Rodents. (ix) Chiroptera or Bats. (x) Insectivora or Moles, Shrews, &c. (xi) Quadrumana or Monkeys. (xii) Bimana or Man. Seven of these orders only are met with in the British Isles. The other five need little consideration. ; = Ungulata. \ = Primates. A. ORNITHODELPHIA = PROTOTHERIA. MONOTREMATA. These are the lowest animals, and approach the Sauropsida nearer than other Mammalia. The two most noted forms are the Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) and the poreupine- like Echidnas. These animals all have a regular cloaca ; there 462 MAMMALIA. are no teeth in Echidna, whilst the duck-bill has four horny pads in their place. The pectoral arch is like that of Saurop- sids—namely, the coracoid bones reach the sternum, and an interclavicle is present. The pelvis is furnished with special tendinous ossifications, forming the peculiar “ marsupial bones,” although the female carries no pouch as in the marsupial animal. The Monotremes come from Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The females have no nipples to the mamme, and lay eggs covered by a flexible shell. These are the only oviparous mammals. B. DIDELPHIA = METATHERIA. MARSUPIALIA or POUCH-BEARERS. No marsupial animals exist in Europe. Their present geographical distribution is very limited: the majority are found in Australia and the adjacent islands, where the entire indigenous fauna is marsupial. A few species (Opossums) are found in America and others in the Indian Archipelago (Mac- ropus, Cuscus, &c.) The “ Pouch-Bearers” have distinct teeth placed in sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is nearly always inflected. A ‘marsupial bone” is always present attached to the edge of the pelvis: its function in the female is to act as a support for the pouch and to aid the action of the mamme. In the males, which have no pouch, it may he in some way connected with the testes. The “ marsupium” or “pouch” is always present in the female, and has the nipples of the mamme inside it: in this pouch the young, which are born in an immature state, are carried for some time by the mother. The long mamme force their way into the young marsupial’s mouth without its aid; as soon as they can suck naturally, they leave the pouch and return to it for nourishment whenever they reyuire it, A peculiarity in the male is that the testes, which are in a scrotum, are situated in front of the penis and not MONODELPHIA. 463 behind asin most mammalia. In this group are the Kangaroos (Macropodide), Wombats (Phascolomys), Phalangers (Phalan- gistide), Opossums (Dedelphidiw), and the carnivorous Tasmania Devil (Dasyurus), &c. Fossil species are found in the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire, and previously in the Triassic rocks. C. MONODELPHIA = EUTHERIA. UNGULATA or HOOFED ANIMALS. The Ungulata or Hoofed Animals include several of our Tia, 240 —FeErr or UnauLata. a, Artiodactyle foot (Pig). B, Perissodactyle foot (Horse). domestic animals, such as the horse, ass, mule, pig, goat, sheep, and oxen. It is one of the largest and most important orders of 464 MAMMALIA. Mammalia. Ungulates have all four limbs touching the ground by the last toe-joint only, and that joint is enshrouded in a case or hoof of horn (except Hyracvidea). The hoof is an expanded nail. In no ungulate do we find more than four toes to each limb. Clavicles are absent. There are always two sets of teeth, milk-teeth and permanent teeth ; the molars have always broad crowns (fig. 243), adapted for chewing and grinding vegetation, upon which all the Ungulata live. The Ungulata are divided into two sections :— 1. Perissodactyl.—Toes always odd in number on hind feet, either one or three (fig. 240, B). Stomach simple. Fibula articulates with astragalus. 2. Artiodactyla.—Toes always even in number, being two or four to each foot (A). Stomach complex. Fibula articulates with astragalus and calcaneum. Section 1. Perissodactyla. This section includes the horses, tapirs, and rhinoceros, in which the stomach is simple, and a large cecum is present as seen in the horse. ‘The hind-feet are odd-toed in all perisso- dactyla, and the fore-feet in many. The third toe always forms the functional axis. The dorso-lumbar vertebre are never less than twenty-two in number, and the femur has always a third trochanter. If horns are present, they never have bony cores as in cattle. We need refer to one family only, the Equipx, So.ip- uNGULA, or Sonrpeps. The Equide are the horses, asses, and zebras. The features of these can be taken from the descrip- tion of the horse already given. All our domestic varieties are considered one species, Aquus vaballus. At Solutré are immense bone-beds with horse remains: the descendants of these are probably the Ardennes horses, one of the long-headed races which seem very similar to the fossil ones of Solutré. From these also are descended the semi wild horses in the delta of EQUIDA, 465 the Rhone and in Alsace. The two great races of horses are the Oriental and the Occidental. In the Oriental or Arabian we get the skull covering the brain strongly developed, and the facial part smaller; the enamel of the molars of the upper jaws have few folds, and the limbs are fine. The Occidental Horse has a much larger development of the facial part of the skull ; the skull is long and narrow, the rims of the eye-cavities stand somewhat forward, and the enamel folds of the crescents of the upper molars are complicated. The bones are also thicker and more massive, but less hard, than the Oriental. These two main races of Equus caballus, the Arab and the cart-horse, have undoubtedly descended from a common stock, yet now represent two quite distinct races. Wild horses were once abundant in Europe and Asia, as their remains in the Diluvium testify, and from these our Lguus caballus has descended. In America, although we have plenty of equine remains, the genus Equus never advanced in a wild state so near our present horse as did the diluvial horses of Europe and Asia. The Ass (£. asinus) was domesticated before the horse. Unlike the horse, there are no warts or chestnuts on the hind- legs, and there is always a conspicuous line along the back, whilst the tail is long, with a tutt of long hair at the extremity. The ass is a native of North Africa, and probably descended from either the Onager (Z. onager) or Kiang (£. hemionus). It is also said by some to be descended from £. tentopus of 8.-E. Asia. Fossil horses exist in the Eocene rocks of America, known as Eohippos, in which the fore-feet have four toes and the remnant of a fifth, and the hind-feet three. The Eohippos was about the size of a dog. A division higher in the Eocene, another genus, Orohippos, makes its appearance. In the Miocene rocks we get another form, the Méohippos, which has three toes on each foot, all touching the ground. In the Pliocene of Europe we find a fossil horse called Hipparion in which three toes exist on each foot, but the middle one alone touches the ground. Towards the end of the Pliocene period we get the 26 466 MAMMALIA. Protohippos in America, whose foot resembles that of Hip- purion —the existing genus Equus not appearing until Post. Pliocene times. Fic. 241.—SKELETON OF Foot IN VARIOUS FORMS OF Eyt Ib.t. ods ie ee ees EUS haus eons aad (Nicholson, utter Marsh.) There seem to be two distinct lines of descent, one in America and one in Europe. In America the stages are Eohippos, Orohippos, Mesohippos, Miohippos, Protohippos, Plohippos, and Equus. In Europe, Hyracotherium, Paleotherium, Anchi- therium, Hipparion, and Equus.! 1 The living and extinct horses are tabulated as follows by Dr Gadow :— Equide. Lower molars quadrituberculate, or with two transverse ridges curved into two half-moons. Toes, 4, 3, or }. Since Eocene. Hyracotherium Toes, 4 Lower Eocene, England. ye Eohippos Lower Eocene, Wyoming. Paleotherium Eocene to Miocene, Europe and U.S.A. Mesohippos Jas + Lower Miocene, Dakota. Anchitherium Upper Miocene of Europe=Miohippos, U.S.A. Hipparion . Toes, 3. Upper Miocene of Europe, Asia, and U.S.A. Protohippos . Toes, %. Pliocene, U.S.A. Plichippos - Toes, }. Pliocene, U.S.A. Hippidion - Toes, }. Pleistocene, S. America, Equus. - Toes, }. Since Miocene in India ; since Pliocene in Europe. During Pleistocene cosmopolitan, excluding Australian region. (‘Classification of Vertebrata,’ p. 47.) AGE OF THE HORSE LY ITS TEETH. 467 In America the horse died out, but the line continued in Europe and Asia to the present day. ) Thus we have every gradation from a four-toed horse to the existing one-toed animal. The Age of the Horse tuld by its Teeth.—The teeth of the horse vary with age, so that we can tell approximately their age by an examination of the mouth. The incisors of the upper jaw appear sooner than those of the lower jaw. The front milk- incisors come through the gum about a week after birth, the middle milk -incisors at the age of five weeks. At nine months the corer milk - incisors are apparent. The permanent incisors appear as fol- lows: the front when the horse is two and a half, the middle when three and a half, the corner ones when four and a half years old. The milk-incisors are distinguished — pyg, 242. —Sxcrtow or Liorse’s by being shorter and whiter and ‘S08 Toot#. (Chauveau.) i 1, Dentine; FE, enamel; c, cement. with a narrower neck than the per- qe dentine envelopes the an manent ones; they also become em fa comnts (th ib gradually shorter, which is not the Ponies hier Wea Ike case with the permanent incisors. sents twp tings, an outer and the The number of back tecth ab ;uamel,endis Moke! tn the bol birth, or soon after, is twelve, three on each side of each jaw ; these are in the position of the three first molars. ‘The permanent molars appear as follows: the Ist and 2nd at about two and a half years ; the 3rd at three and a half years; the 4th at from ten to twelve months; the 5th at two years, and the 6th at four years. The true molars—that is, the fourth, fifth, and sixth double teeth— have no milk-teeth in their place. The date of appearance of the canines—the tushes—in the male is variable. 468 MAMMALIA. The normal number of teeth in a horse with a so-called “ full 3-3 1-1 3-3 338 oe eae ee —the canines being absent in the mare. Wolf-teeth ave single-fanged teeth, sometimes present in front of the back teeth, in the upper jaw generally. Both “tushes” and wolf-teeth are per- manent, but the latter are often soon shed. The following may be taken as in- dications of the age from birth to thirty years old :— 1. At birth.—The front milk-incisors can be plainly seen under the ms. ete needs Were 2. ene month.—The front milk- Morar. (Chauveau.) ee incisors are through the gums, mouth” is forty —namely, 7 A, External cement; B, ex- ternal enamel; c, dentine; D, the upper and lower ones meet- internal enamel; £, internal ‘ . F crusta pvtrosa. ing, the middle ones just show. The structure of the molars resembles that of incisors, but 3. At Jive months, is more complicated. The in- The middle and ternal cavity is much diver- lower incisors meet and the ticulated and enveloped by : dentine. The enamel is placed corner ones just show. over it, and doubled in as in 7 Se the indiser, ‘There is seen on 4 A yearling.—The corner incisors the worn table an external “ covering of enamel and two are through but do not yet circles of central enamel sur- rounding the two areas of in- meet. ternal cement. The cement re ro fils te the depressions pe the 5. A two-year-old.—Central enamel aa SEs Conn ep ey of middle incisors of both jaws now forms a complete ring. 6. At two and a half years. —Front milk-teeth fall out in upper jaw and become replaced by permanent ones. 7. A three-year-old.—The four permanent incisors are nearly level (front incisors). 8. At four years.— Middle milk-incisors are out and per- manent ones come. Tushes begin to show. 9. At five years.—Permanent incisors all level. The central 10. Li. 13. 14. 16 ARTIODACTYLA. 469 enamel of the front and middle incisors show complete rings. Tushes quite out of gum. At stir years.—Inner edge of corner incisors worn flat, central enamel in complete ring. Tables of front incisors oval. The cement of the front incisors has nearly gone. At seven years.—The posterior edge of the lower corner incisor is well in advance of that of upper jaw, giving the upper incisor a hook-like projection. . At eight years.— Lower incisors with oblique direction. A yellow transverse line—the dental star—is well marked in the front incisors. At ten years.—Tables of front and middle lower incisors become rounded and the central enamel triangular. The front incisors also have become longer and nar- rower, and more or less triangular in shape. This becomes more and more advanced with age. At thirteen yeurs.—Central enamel] has nearly gone from lower incisors. . At twenty-one years.—The middle and corner incisors converge inwards. At thirty years.—The incisors are in nearly a straight line, and the tables are broadest from the front to the back. Section 2. Artiodactyla. Toes even in number, either two or four. The functional axis passes between the third and fourth toes. Dorso-lumbar vertebrae nineteen, and there is no third trochanter to the femur. The horns when present are always supported on bony cores or projections from the frontal bones of the skull (fig. 247, 3). The stomach is (with the exception of one group) more or less complex, there being several divisions, some of which are probably dilatations of the cesophagus ; the cecum is 470 MAMMALIA. very small and simple in form, The families for our considera- tion are the Nie or Pigs, and the Ruminant families Curi- rarnia or Boridiw (Oxen), Ocihe (Sheep and Croats), and the Cerride (Deer). NON-RUMINANTS (=BUNODONTA). The non-ruminating Artiodactyla are often called Pachy- dermata on account of the thick bristly skin, and have four toes in the Hippopotamus touching the ground; in the Pigs two are rudimentary. The molars are tuberculate. The Suipm or Pras have two functional toes, the other two not touching the ground—the so-called ‘ dew-claws ” of the pig. Now and then the first digit is present, arising from the tra- pezium, but such cases are very rare. Canine teeth are large in the males, forming the “tusks” of the boars. The teeth (fig. 244) vary in number in each species of pig. In the domestic pig the dental formula is— 3—3 1—1 3—3 4—4 re j Pn gs = 44. a The stomach of the pig is simple like that of the horse, but less curved on itself; the cardia has a small conical dilatation, like a cowl turned backwards. The capacity is from 1} to 2 gallons. The blunt snout is provided with a peculiar bone called the “scooping-bone.” ‘The pig’s intestine resembles that of the ox; it is 72 feet long. The mesentery that suspends the small intestine contains an elongated mass of lymphatic glands, the so-called mesenteric glan?. The caecum is sacculated as in the horse, with three longitudinal muscle hands. The penis is twisted spirally when flaccid. The testicles are round, and the scrotum narrow and but little detached. At the prepuce is a special pouch which secretes an unctuous fluid, which even taints the flesh, The mamme are usually ten in number, In the brain there are few cerebral convolutions. There are four SUID.E OR PIGS, 471 teen pairs of ribs in the pig ; the carpus consists of cight bones, the trapezium being fully developed ; there are also seven hones in the tarsus. Most of our domestic swine have probably descended from Fic, 244.—Tretu or Pic. 1, Upper teeth, table surface ; 2, lower teeth ; 3, lateral view of jaws. (Chauvean.) the Wild Boar (Sus serofi). The wild boar at one time in habited this country, but has long since been extinct. It is MAMMALIA. 472 RUMINANTS, 173 black to rusty-brown in colour when adult, and where it appears on the Continent seems to revel in damp thickly vegetated areas, hiding during the day and coming out at night to feed. The food consists of roots of various kinds, corn, potatoes, acorns and other nuts, and insects, worms, &ec., in the soil, and even voles. The wild boar when fully mature often attains the length of seven feet from the snout to the tip of the tail. The young are white marked with dark-brown. The habits of the domestic pigs are much the same as S serufa. especially to be pointed out is the great benefit to be derived from keeping them in orchards, where they do inestim- able good in devouring noxious insects. RUMINANTS (=SELENODONTA),. The Ruminants have two toes on each foot, each toe having a separate hoof: there may also be two supplementary hoofs at the back of the foot. If one examines the skeleton of the ox, it will be observed that the two metacarpal and metatarsal bones have joined to form the “cannon-bone.” The tubercles of the molars are transformed into longitudinally placed half-moons. The Ruminant Stomach.—The stomach (fig. 246) is peculiarly constituted, consisting of four divisions—namely, (1) the rwmen or paunch ; (2) the retécwlum or honeycomb stomach ; (3) the manyplies, psalterium, or omasuin; and (4) the abomasum or rennet stomach. The paunch is where large quantities of partly masticated vegetable food is stored. This is brought back to the mouth, where it is mixed with saliva, chewed up by the grinding teeth, and reduced to a fine pulp, the so- ealled “chewing of the cud.” This food then passes down the gullet, and moves along a “gutter” called the “ cesophageal groove” into the omasum. The paunch equals nine-tenths of the entire abdomen and lies in the left flank, the other three divisions forming a chain along the front of its left side. In the rumen the food is moistened. The retzcudum is internally 474 MAMMALIA. divided into a number of polygonal spaces on its walls ; it is small in capacity, and acts especially as « reservoir for liquids. ‘The omasum receives the “cud.” This division las its walls thrown up into a number of deep folds longitudinally disposed, and placed so close together that they resemble the leaves of a book: we can recognise three series of them of different sizes, The food, after being crushed between the leaves, is passed through this into the fourth division, the abomasum or true digestive stomach. Tiere the food is subjected to the action Fie, 246.—SromacH oF RUMINANT. Kt, Rumen; G, wsophagus ; Or.G, wsophageal groove; Re, reticulum; 0, omasum ; -lh, abomasiun ; J), duodenum; (, constriction. of the gastric juice, and undergoes the chief digestion. It is called the rennet stomach Iecause of a substance formed hy the secretion of the peptic cells going by that name, the rennet used in cheesemaking and in “ junkets” being obtained from the salted stomachs of calves, One must look upon the first three chambers of the ruminant stomach as being dilatations of the esophagus only, .As much as sixty vallons of liquid can be stored in the stomach of an ox! The intestinal canal is very long. The small intestine in the ox is twice the length of that vf the horse, but is smaller in diameter (=49 yards). The CERVID (DEER). 475 cecum has no bulges or longitudinal bands. ‘The large in- testine is longer than in the horse (33 to 39 feet), and holds from six to seven gallons. Ruminant Dentition.— Another character of Ruminants is the dentition, There are no incisor teeth in the upper jaw, their place being taken by a horny pad on the gums of that jaw against which the lower incisors cut; neither are there any upper canines. [chind, there are six teeth, three premolars and three molars. The lower jaw has six incisors and two canines, which are small; next follows a long edentulous space, and then three premolars and three molars on each side. The typical Ruminant dental formula is as follows :— 9-0 0-0. 3—3 3—3 pe a aa Te a Some deer (Cervidw) and camels have canines above, and other slight differences. The ruminant’s lungs differ from the horse’s in that the left lobe is divided into two and the right into four. Ox, sheep, and goat are characterised by the distinctness of the lobules. =82, Famity Crervipz (Desr). The Cervid or deer are noted for their “antlers,” which, except in the reindeer, are present in the males only. The antlers are branched horns, and are solid structures, not hollow as the horns of cattle. They are carried on bony cores on the frontal line. The antlers are cast annually, and reproduced every year at or after the breeding or “rutting” season. At first the antlers are simple, cylindrical, unbranched structures covered with a hairy sensitive skin, the “velvet”; but later the vessels to this skin dry up, and the skin splits, peels off, and is rubbed off by the deer against the trees and fences. The horns in the second year have a side branch (tyne); in the third year there are three points, then known as the “sorel” , the four-year-old, in some deer, has four points, the so-called 476 MAMMALIA, “staggard” ; whilst a five-year-old or “stag” has five or more tynes. A strong-smelling waxy secretion is formed beneath each eye from a sebaceous gland. Three species of Deer are found in Britain — namely, the Red-Deer (Cervus elaphus), the Roebuck (C. eapreolus), and the Fallow-Deer (C. duma). The Red- Deer (C. elaphus) is undoubtedly a native of Britain, and is still found wild on Exmoor and the Quan- tocks in the south, and in Scotland. The antlers are rough, and normally consist of two front branches, the “‘brow-” and the “bez-tyne,” a middle branch called the “tres,” and a “crown.” In colour the red-deer varies from brown to reddish-brown, becoming brighter in summer, with a creamy patch on the tail. A stag weighs from 180 to 280 lb. The calves are spotted with white in their first coat, which is cast in October and November. They breed in autumn, and par- turition takes place in May and June. Two calves may be produced. The horns, which often reach a great size in the “stag,” are shed in February or March. It is strange how few of these cast horns are found: those that one does come across are usually single antlers. Stays no doubt eat the antlers after being shed; and others may, as Mr Jeffreys thinks, be covered up by the stag with leaves and brambles. Red-deer are often very destructive, destroying agricultural pro- duce, not only by eating it, but far more by trampling it down. Farmers round Exmoor would sooner suffer this loss than destroy such sporting animals. They also bark young trees and eat the tender shoots in forests to an injurious extent. Around Exmoor one often sees fields of wheat spoilt by them, potatoes taken from the ground, and cabbages quite stripped. The stag only eats the top of the turnips and throws the root over his shoulder, whilst the hinds eat the turnips down to the ground. The excellent sport they afford quite makes up for the local harm they may do. The Roebuck (C. caprevlus), once very abundant in England, OVIDA AND BOVIDA, 477 is now chiefly confined to the wilder regions of Scotland. It is found in Cumberland, Dorsetshire, and Essex, and may be seen in a few parks. It has a long winter coat of a dull brown colour: in summer the coat is reddish-brown, with a white patch on the rump. The legs are long and slender and the antlers small, —never any “brow-tynes,” and as a rule only three terminal branches present. They are shed in December and January. An adult roe weighs about 45 Ib. The fawns are spotted with white, and are born in April and May. As a rule, each roe gives birth to twins. The roebuck breed about August. They pass the day in open spaces in the woods, coming into the fields to feed, especially upon standing corn and clover. Much damage may be done, where they are, abundant, if they get into corn- fields. Grass and shoots of oak and spruce form the chief food. The Fallow-Deer (Cervus duima) is not a native of England. It stands about three feet high. The antlers are dilated towards their extremities, They live in herds. Cavicornia (Ovipz ayp Bovip2). The other Ruminants interesting to us are the Caricornia, which include the Sheep, Oxen, and Goats. In the Cavicornia there are never any incisors or canines on the upper jaw, the hardened gum taking their place. The dental formula is as follows :— 0-0 0-0 3—3 3—3 at eer 3—3 1—1 Both male and female may have horns, or the male alone may be horned. The Cavicornia have these structures very differently formed to the antlers of the Cervide. They are persistent, and not shed as in deer; moreover, they consist of a bony core at the base, which is covered by a hollow case of horn. The feet of the Cavicornia are always cloven. Here belong the 1 Dr Bischoff has shown that the fertilised ovum remains dormant for four and a half months before development proceeds. 478 MAMMALIA. Antelopes as well as Oxen and Sheep. The former have annu- lated or twisted horns. Ovid (Sheep and Goats),—These animals have short legs and heavy bodies. The Goats (Capi) have horns in both Fic, 247.—SKULL or Ram. I, Occipital bone; 2, parietal; 3, core of-right frontal bone; 4, left covered by its horn; 5, supra-orbital foramen; 5’, channel descending from it; 6, lachrymai bone ; 7, malar bone; 8, nasal bone; 9, supermaxillary; 10, premaxillary; 1v’, its internal process ; 11, incisive opening. (Chauveau.) sexes, and a tuft or beard of long hair on the throat. The domestic Goat (Cavra hircus) is descended from the wild goat of Persia and the Caucasus, the Cupra cegagrus, which lives herds in mountainous districts, Sheep (Qvis) never have a beard, and the horns are spirally 479 / ETC.) OVID.N (SHEEP, “UEXO UL St SqIt JO sted WaaqAntL Cneeansyo) “MUva.log LFUVL PUB ‘XO UL URYy LeSUOT speofarao o70N, “ATGTHY AO NOLBTENQG— "gpg “OT 480 Fia. 249.—Mep1an Section or Ox's Heap. 1, Condyloid foramen; 2, internal auditory hiatus; 38, anterior foramen laccrum; 4, pos- terior ditto; 5, intra-cranial orifice of parieto- temporal bone ; 6, bony plate separating frontal sinus; 7, lamina isolating sphenoidal sinus ; 8, lamina isolating the palatine part of the maxillary sinus; 9, oval foramen; 10, optic fossa; 11, vomer; 12, pterygoid; 13, large opening leading into maxillary sinus, closed by pituitary membrane when fresh ; 14, maxillary turbinated one; 15, ethmoidal turbinated bone; 16 great ethmoid cell. (Chauveau.) MAMMALIA. twisted. The carpus con- sists of six bones in the sheep and ox,—four in the first row, two in the second, the magnum and trapezoid being fused to- gether. Internally the sheep is much like the ox, but no prostate gland, and the penis is remarkable for the two lateral folds disposed like wings at the base of the glans. in the ram there is Horned vari- eties of sheep may have the in both sexes (blackfaced sheep) or only in the male (merino sheep). All sheep are natives of the Old World, but from what species our various domestic horns hreeds have originated we do not know. Probably some of the horned vari- eties with short tails have sprung from the ‘‘ mouftlon ” of Sardinia and Corsica. Owen — (Bovider), — The oxen never have spirally They are provided with an immense all chew the cud. The skeleton of the ox (fig. 250) differs from that of twisted horns. rumen, and 48] BOVID.E, (OXEN). ‘ped. 2, ‘SoHOK, [LWWOAF JO quaUUATOTAAap Rad ‘sauoq AXBT [EX (Cneaanryg) rau pry AteqUUTpUs pur 0 T3994 JO anuasqe ‘etndevos prorq ‘8a0q OA\4 “MOD JO NOLZTING—"OGZ ‘DI “(sued ET) sqit peorq ay} OJON 20 482 MAMMALIA. the horse in that the ribs are broader, longer, and flatter, and there are thirteen on each side; the sternum is flat and not keel- shaped ; the scapula is broader at the top, and the premaxillary bones do not carry teeth. The frontal bones of the skull are enormously developed (fig. 249). The upper part of the frontal bone forms the pole. The pole is thick, owing to the sinus in the frontal bones, and bears laterally the conical bony cores that support the horns. The ox, sheep, and goat have a third tur- binated bone in the nasal cavities. In the foot of the ox and sheep the cannon-bone is composed of the fused third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals; each digit is free, and carries a hoof, A rudimentary third metacarpal is seen in the ox. The ulna, as in the sheep, extends the whole length of the radius. The kidney of the ox is lobulated. The sexual organs of the Bull have certaini peculiarities: there are no Cowper’s glands, the penis is long and thin, and lies in an S-shaped curve when retracted. Most of the wild species are capable of domestica- tion. The parent stock of our various breeds of cattle is not known for certain. Some suppose that the beautiful white Chillingham cattle, once wild over England, and now only pre- served in one or two places, are descendants of the wild cattle of Europe, the Urus or mountain bull (Bos priémigenius), which existed in numbers in a wild state in Gaul at the time of Ceesar’s invasion. The three most important races of oxen which have been traced back to Bo prtimiyenius are— (i) The Brachyceros race (Appenzell cattle). (ii) Primigenius race (Holland cattle). (iii) Frontosus race (Bern cattle). Another wild Bovis in Europe was the so-called British Short- horn (Bos longifrons), now extinct. Very probably most of our smaller short-horned varieties are descended from this wild species. Another wild species in Britain was the .\wroch (Bos bison), a large species, which still exists in a wild state in the Caucasian forests. CARNIVORA OR BEASTS OF PREY. 483 CARNIVORA or BEASTS OF PREY. Carnivora, which include all the Beasts of Prey and the Seals and Walruses (Pinnipedia), have always two sets of teeth, covered by enamel. Teeth are of four kinds—incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. The incisors are generally ae the canines = and are always large and well de- veloped, pointed and sharp; the premolars and molars have sharp cutting edges. Some molars and premolars, however, have crowns adapted for bruising. As a general rule, the shorter the jaw the fewer the molar and premolar teeth, and the more car- nivorous the habits of the animal. The jaws can only move in a vertical direction. The temporal muscles are strongly de- veloped, so that the head is rather broad. All carnivora have sharp claws, more or less curved, generally five, rarely four toes, a short intestine, and abdominal teats. The fcetus is enclosed in a deciduate and zonary placental membrane. The two sections of Carnivora are as follows :— 1. Pinnipedia=Seals. Fore and hind limbs short, and in the form of swimming-paddles. 2. Fissipedia = Dogs, Cats, Tigers, &e.1 Fissipedia. In this section we find the Weasels (A/ustelide), the Dogs and Foxes (Canidw), and the Felid or Cats. MusteLipz orn WEASELS. The body elongated and slender ; legs short; toes five, armed with sharp curved claws. The skull is long and flat, with a 1 Another classification of the Carnivora is as follows :— (1) Greodonta. Scaphoid and lunar of carpus separate. Extinct. (2) Fissipedia, Scaphoid fused with lunar. Toes separate =Urside, Mustelide, Canide, Felidae, Viverride, &c. (3) Pinnipedia. Limbs as paddles. Toes webbed. 484 MAMMALIA, tuberculate molar on each side of the upper and lower jaws.. All the Mustelidie have curious anal glands which emit a strong-. smelling odour; these are greatly developed sebaceous glands. Some animals, such as the skunk, have the power of ejecting- Fia 251.—Frrr of CARNIVORA, A, Plantigrade foot (Bear); B, Pinnigrade foot (Seal); v, Digitigrade foot (Lion). (Nicholson. ) the secretion, which is most foul-smelling, some distance over their enemy. The Mustelide are of considerable economic importance, as many of them are most injurious. We may here mention the Polecat (Putorius fotidus), the Stoat (P. erminea), the Weasel (P. vulgaris) the Marten (Murtes sylvutica), and the Otter (Lutra vulgaris), as being generally abundant in Britain, and also the Ferret (P. fro), which is said hy some to be a native of Africa, but which may have been derived from the polecat. The Weasel (P. vulgaris) is a small elongate animal about eight inches long with a tail about two inches long. It is brown above and with a white belly. The body is very slender and almost snake-like, the legs very short, and the head somewhat larger than the diameter of the trunk. It has a similar fur MUSTELIDAE 485 winter and summer. The weasel is extremely active in habits, and may be seen often with its family hunting along river-hanks and dykes, going in and out of the water-voles’ burrows. Their food consists of voles, rats, mice, lizards, snakes, frogs, and eggs. It is said that the weasel carries the egg it has taken under its chin. They do an immense amount of good in destroying voles, both in winter and summer. On the other hand, they some- times take fowls’ eggs and do other damage in poultry-houses of a night, whilst not a few game eggs are destroyed, and even young birds. Weasels often migrate in numbers from place to place, especially to where field-voles are in abundance. They breed in spring, sometimes having two litters. On the whole, they do more good than harm. The Marten (Martes sylvaticu).—Only one marten is found in Britain ; it is of a rich dark-brown colour above and reddish- grey fur beneath, with a yellow or orange breast-spot, and a beautiful bushy tail. It was never very common in Britain, and is now very rare. Its skin always was, as it is now, of considerable value. Occasionally we hear of specimens being taken in various parts of the country. The Stoat or Ermine (P. erminea) is found in fields and hedgerows near woods and in rabbit-warrens. It is about twelve inches long with a tail four inches in length, and has a slender body. In summer it is yellowish-brown with white belly, the tail tipped with black; in winter the fur becomes white except the tip of the tail, which remains jet-black. In Britain they seldom become beautifully pure white as they do in colder regions. Stoats hunt at night, feeding upon rats, mice, rabbits, and birds, and they sometimes commit havoc in poultry-yards. Like the weasel, however, they do good as well as harm. The Polecat (P. fetidus) or Foumart is much larger than the stoat, dark shining brown with yellow wool, and short tail com- pared with other Mustelide. Unfortunately this animal, owing to its unnecessary persecution, has become now very rare ; still 486 MAMMALIA, there are some places, notably in Wales, where we may still often see it in the winter. In those admirable articles on British Mammals in the ‘Zoologist’ (1891), Mr Harting tells us that twenty years ago it was comparatively common in most of the big woods in the home counties and within a very few miles of London. It lives in rabbit-warrens, hollow trees, c., in the open country, and feeds upon field- and water-voles, rabbits, and birds. Eels form one of its favourite dishes. In winter the polecats come nearer habitations, taking up their quarters in wood-stacks, &c., from whence they come out and suck the eggs in fowl-houses, and even attack the birds themselves. The polecat’s work in a hen-house can always be told by the eggs being sucked without being broken. From four to six young are born in May and June; the young are blind, and cannot see for a month. Gestation lasts six weeks. There is no doubt but that the polecat is the ancestor of the ferret: one cannot distinguish between the two on ex- amining the skeleton. Instead of ruthlessly destroying the polecat, gamekeepers would do far more good by crossing them with the ferret, for no better workers than this cross can be found. The Otter (Lutra vulgaris) is still widely distributed. A full- grown dog-otter may reach thirty-four inches in length, with about eighteen to twenty inches of tail. Its fur is smooth, dark shining brown. The body is more or less flattened, as also is the pointed tail. The short legs end in partially webbed feet, and the ears are covered with flaps of skin. Its whole structure is adapted to a semi-aquatic life. Otters inhabit the banks of rivers and lakes, where they feed upon fish, water-rats, frogs, insects, and even water-birds. They are not nearly so destruc- tive to fine fish as is generally supposed, for they in preference take eels, roach, bream, and even jack. The Badger (Meles tawus) is still fairly common in Britain, although not often seen on account of its strict nocturnal habits. In length some badgers reach over three feet, and MUSTELID A. 487 weigh as much as thirty pounds. The head is white, with a broad black stripe on each side widening out towards the ears. The eyes are small, and the snout tapers somewhat to a point. The very loose skin is clothed with short fur and long greyish-brown hairs; throat, under parts, inside of leg, and feet black. The tail is short and bushy, yellowish-brown in colour, and about six inches long. The badger lives in huge burrows in the earth, with several openings, often twenty- five or thirty yards apart; these dwellings are made in the thickest woods some way from man’s habitations. They some- times use fox’s “earths” for their burrows, and live in harmony with “Reynard.” They often stay in their burrows for days at a time in winter, but do not actually hibernate. There are usually two large chambers in the burrows, the chamber in which the litter is found being lined with dry grass and leaves. The badger is not, as is generally supposed, a solitary animal, but where it is not disturbed it is social. Charles St John counted seven together at one time on the shores of Loch Ness! The badger closes the entrance to its earth in winter when the weather is cold, but soon comes out when the temperature gets warmer. The young are usually four in number, being blind at birth and for nine days or so after. The diet of the badger is very varied; they take both animal and vegetable food. Roots of various kinds, nuts, leaves, grass, fungi, snails, slugs, worms, insects and their larvee, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs and young ground-birds, mice, small rabbits, and even hedgehogs, are devoured by them. They certainly do some damage to game, but in nowise interfere with foxes, as is sometimes supposed. On the other hand, they do good by destroying many vermin, and therefore should not be destroyed, as has been too often the case in the past. They are particularly fond of wasp-grubs, and destroy great numbers of nests during the summer, a habit which alone should atone for the slight loss they may occasion in game and 1 « Wild Sports and Natura! History of the Highlands.’ 488 MAMMALIA. rabbits. The period of gestation seems to be very variable, some gving as long as fifteen months, others only nine months: they evidently have the power of suspending gesta- tion. The lower jaw is remarkable for being closely united to the upper jaw, by the glenoid cavity of the latter bending round the condyle of the former. Canipx (Does, Foxus, Exc.) The Canide have pointed heads, smooth tongue, and non- retractile claws. The front feet have five toes, the hind only four. Two or three of the molars on each side are tuberculated. The only two species to be considered are the Fox (Canis vulpes) and the Dog (C. familiaris). The Dogs and Wolves have round or oblique pupils to the eyes; the Foxes have the pupil slit-like. Fic. 252.—Trerera or Doa, anp Jaws. J, Incisors ; C, canines ; S, symphysis; Pmz, premaxillary bone. The Fox (Canis vulpes) is too well known to need description. It partly lives underground, not only in an “earth” formed by itself, but in those formed by other animals, such as the rabbit and badger. In cold clay soils the fox will lie above ground under old roots of trees, in hollow trees, amongst scrub and gorse, and under the shelter of some ledge of rock along a cliff, FELIDA OR CATS. 489 Mountain and moorland foxes lie out curled up in the heather and make no earth. The fox breeds in winter, the period of gestation lasting two months. They litter at the end of March and in April. Only one litter is produced in the year; from three to six cubs are generally brought forth. Like puppies, the cubs are blind for from nine to ten days; they mature in a year and a half, and may live for fourteen years. Foxes are supposed to do much damage by destroying game, poultry, hares, &c.; at the same time we must remember that they destroy numbers of voles, rabbits, and many of the larger noxious insect-grubs. The fox does quite as much good as harm, if not more, and thus should be preserved, even if we do not choose to consider its great sporting value. We may suffer severely, of course, if one foolishly leaves fowls without protection. With regard to the dog, we do not know its origin. All existing wild dogs, such as the Australian Dingo (C. dingo) and the wild New Zealand dog, are sometimes supposed to be varieties of the so-called Canis familiaris. The dog, then, is only known in its domesticated state. There is some probability that the Wolf (C. lupus) may have been the ancestor of some of our breeds. FELIDE oR Cats. The cat family all have short jaws and very strong masti- catory muscles, hence the head is short and rounded. The molar and premolar teeth are fewer in number than in any other Carnivora; they are all cutting teeth except the last molar of the upper jaw, which is tuberculate. The upper carnassial has three cutting lobes, the lower only two. The dental formula for the Cat family is the following :— ae a: a a ee gi oe Oe ee 2a pad ga ee The tongue is roughened owing to a number of backwardly 490 MAMMALIA, projecting horny papille. The fore-feet have five, the hind four toes, armed with claws, which are retractile. When not in use these claws (fig. 253, a) are drawn back by means of ligaments (a and 6) into sheaths (s), so as not to be unneces- sarily worn down. All the Felide are extremely active, and have a very flexible backbone. They are mainly nocturnal Fic, 253.—BoneEs or Tor or Cat—a, with retracted, », with vxtended claw. a, Tendon of extensor muscle; b, retractor ligament; mc, metacarpal ; ph (1, 2, and 3), Ist to 3rd phalanges; s, bony sheath into which claw fits. (From Brit. Mus. Cat.) in habits, catching their prey by springing upon it; many of the lighter-built Felide climb well. One wild species occurs in Britain, but only in the north, especially Scotland, and the writer has seen it on Cader Idris in Wales—namely, the Wild Cat (Felix ratus). The domestic cat is descended from the Nubian Cat (F. municulata), a native of the Sudan and Nubia. RODENTIA or GNAWERS.! The order Rodentia contains the Mice, Rats, Squirrels, Rab- bits, and Hares. These are sometimes called ‘“Glires.” The 1 The Rodentia are also placed in the order T'rogontia of Haeckel; the two other sub-orders are the 7'%llodontia and T'ypotheria, formed for cer- tain Tertiary specics. RODENTIA OR GNAWELS. 491 Rodents are characterised by having two long curved incisor teeth in each jaw (fig. 254, 7); the crowns of these are continually being worn down, whilst growth as rapidly takes place at their roots. These teeth are employed in gnawing, and are more readily worn down behind than in front, so that they always present a sharp edge. This is due to the front having a plate of very hard enamel, whilst the back is composed of soft dentine. The lower jaw has never more than two incisors, the upper may have four. Canines are never present; the molars and pre- molars are seldom more than four in number on each side of the jaw. The molars have flat crowns, the enamelled surfaces Fic. 254.—Hgeap or Ropent. THE Hare (Lepus europaus). i, incisors ; pm, premolars ; m, molars. being in transverse ridges running across the teeth. The hind- feet are longer than the fore-feet, thus giving them the curious springing gait; the feet have usually five toes furnished with claws, but they may be reduced to four on each foot. The eyes are large and directed laterally. The brain has no convo- lutions, being nearly smooth. Many rodents have curious lateral “ cheek-pouches” in which food can be stored for some little time ; when this food is required, the animal presses the pouches with its fore-feet. Most rodents are small animals, and feed upon vegetation. They are endowed with great repro- ductive faculties. The foetus is enclosed in a deciduate dis- 492 MAMMALIA. coidal placenta. In the male the testes are temporarily placed in the scrotum, at other times they lie in the abdomen. The chief families are the Muridw (Rats and Mice), the Arvicolide (Voles), the Leporide (Hares and Rabbits), the Cavide (Guinea-pigs), the Casturidw (Beavers), and the Myo.- ide (Dormice). All we need consider are the Mice, Rats, Voles, and Rabbits. Murips, or Rats anp Mics. In this family the tail is long as a rule, and the body is long and narrowish. Hind-legs longer than the fore-legs. Head pointed. The back molars possess a tuberculate crown, entirely covered with enamel. External ears clearly seen. The genus J/us (Rats and Mice) have long, scaly, ringed tails. Three species of Rats are found in Britain—namely, the Black Rat (Mus rattus), the Brown Rat (/. decumanus), and the Trish Rat (MM. hibernicus) ; this last species, told by the diamond- shape patch of white in front, is only found in Ireland and the Outer Hebrides. The Black Rat only is indigenous to Europe (unless A. hibernicus is really a distinct indigenous species) ; it is smaller than the common brown rat, which came over to Europe in the eighteenth century. It was imported into Britain in shipping, and is now spread all over the world. It may also have entered Europe from Asia by migrating into Russia. In any case, it has increased with alarming rapidity, and has quite driven out the indigenous black rat. The black rat is smaller and much darker than Jf. deewmanus, which has a dusky-grey belly and a longer tail. Here and there specimens are still seen, the writer having trapped it in Lundy Island. The Rats live upon all manner of substances, and are noxious in many ways,—a great nuisance indoors, a veritable pest in poultry-yards and amongst corn, whilst they also distribute the trichinosis amongst pigs, a disease which vats are very subject to, and still more, through their fleas, plague. A fourth species, Mus alexandrinus, is sometimes found in RODENTIA (MICE). 493 dockyards, &e., having come over in ships from Egypt, but I am not aware that it is established in Britain. Three species of Mice are common in Britain—namely, the Common Mouse (MV. musculus), the Wood-Mouse (AL. syleaticus), and the Harvest-Mouse (MW. messorius). The Long-tailed Field-Mouse or Wood-Mouse (M. syleaticus). —This is the largest of our mice belonging to the genus J/us. It can be told from the Common Mouse (Af musculus) by its warmer-coloured fur, by the greater size of the ears and length of the hind-legs, by the large, very prominent eyes, and by the elongated tail: it is between three and four inches in length, the tail being another three and a half inches long. d/. sylvatirus is yellowish-brown with a greyish tinge, and white beneath with a patch of fawn between the fore-legs; the feet and fore-legs are pure white up to the carpus; the posterior feet and legs also white below, a white streak running up to the under surface of the body. The long flexible tail is dusky-brown above, white below. This mouse is a great pest to both farmer and gardener. It eats corn, and works along the rows of peas in the garden, whilst nuts, roots, clover, and carrots all fall to its bill of fare. These mice store up immense quantities of food for the winter, but do not hibernate. Wood Mice have been trapped in the hardest weather, when they come out to feed upon the bark of small trees. This species was one of the two that caused so much harm to the trees in the Forest of Dean in 1813. It may also take young birds, and I have found the remains of numerous Coleoptera in their stomachs, especially Carabide. Their burrows are found in banks, old walls, hedges around gardens and fields, and at harvest-time in the fields. They commence to breed in March, and have four litters, the number of young varying from six to nine. The young are said by Gilbert White and Barrington to stick most tenaciously to the teats of the mother when they are frightened. The Harvest-Mouse (M. messorius = minutus).—This mouse is bright sandy-yellow, brightest in colour towards the tail, 494 MAMMALIA, and white beneath; the sides of the head are orange. The colour, however, varies a good deal, but is always brightest in the female sex. The fect are long and delicate, and covered with fine yellowish hairs in front and white at the sides. Tail scantily clothed with hair. Length, as a rule, two and a half inches; tail two inches. The period of gestation is said to be three weeks; the young vary from five to eight. This species builds a beautiful nest lined with fine hair and grass, said to be split up by the animal’s teeth. The nests are often no larger than an orange, and sometimes quite round. This breeding-nest is much like that of a bird. A winter nest is also formed, where they pass the cold months of the year, in stacks, &c. The favourite localities are amongst reeds, long grass, and low shrubs, where the nest is often placed some way off the ground. It is no unusual thing for M. messorius to take the nest of a warbler and build its own in and over it. They may sometimes be found in wheat- and barley-fields, but never in any great number. These mice feed on corn and various seeds, also flies and other insects, and they are known to eat the buds of gooseberries and currants. Hazel-buds are also eaten. The Common Mouse (Af. musculus) need not be referred to, being well known. It is chiefly this species that we find so abundantly in corn-fields, and not M. messorvus, as is generally supposed. ARVICOLIDE OR VOLES. These can be told from the true Rats and Mice by the more solid body, thick head, and blunt snout, by the absence of ex- ternal ears, which are covered in fur, and by scales being found wanting on the tail, which may be partly hairy. There are three common species—namely, the Water-Vole (Arvicola amphibius), the Bank-Vole (A. glareolus), and the Ficld-Vole (A. agrestix). None of these are found in Ireland. The Field-Vole (A. agrestis), sometimes called the short-tailed field-mouse, is a small vole with dark-brownish back and grey RODENTIA (VOLES). 495 belly. This vole lives in colonies, preferring low-lying pastures, where it burrows into the ground. This species is most prolific, having often four litters in the year, each consisting of eight to ten young. Field Voles are frequently most destructive in pasture-land, also destroying the bark of trees. The Water-Vole or Water-Rat (A. amphibia) lives along the banks of streams and in damp meadows, tunnelling branched passages into the soil. It is blackish-brown on the back, with a greyish-brown belly, and is often very destructive to grass- land and corn and “clamped” roots. This vole takes the eggs of poultry, and damages the banks of rivers, canals, and dykes often to an alarming extent. The Bank Vole (A. glareola), a brownish-red species with pure white breast, belly, and feet, occurs chiefly in forest tracks. Unlike the field-vole, the tail is very long, there being twenty- three caudal vertebra ; and the ears are also longer than those of the field-vole, coming above the fur. It is from three and a half to four inches long, the tail being an inch and three-quarters. A. glareolus may be found in sheltered hedge-banks and ivy-clad tree-stumps, and amongst the exposed roots of trees in banks. Plagues of Voles—TIn 1891 there was a great plague of field- voles (A. agrestis) in South Scotland. In Roxburgh and Dum- fries alone over 90,000 acres were more or less affected. They first increased in 1890, overran the boggy and rough land, and then spread everywhere,’ damaging grass, heather, and trees, and carrying ruin before them. What had preceded this plague? Constant war with trap and gun upon the game- keepers’ so-called “vermin.” The Scottish farmers had to suffer for the ignorance of the gamekeepers, who had killed off the natural enemies of the voles—namely, the hawks, owls, crows, weasels, polecats, &c. A still more serious outbreak of voles (A. arvalis) occurred in Thessaly in 1892, which threatened to destroy the whole corn crop of the district ; but, thanks to Professor LoefHer, the voles seem to have been exterminated by inoculation on a large scale Missing Page Missing Page 498 MAMMALIA. there is not more than two inches of humus over the chalk, and where moles are abundant. The nest is placed under a heap of earth, and consists of a large round space lined with vege- table matter ; this central space is surrounded by other smaller chambers and passages. From the nest there runs a tunnel to the place where the insects, such as wireworm, abound ; the walls of this tunnel are firm and compressed. The chains of mole-hills and the subterranean passages having fallen in are certain indications of the mole’s feeding-ground : its passage to this area is marked by a depression in the soil. There are two Tia. 255.~a, SKULL, AND B, SHOULDER GIRDLE oF MoLF. e¢, Carpus; cl, clavicle; Jf, falciform bone; h, humerus ; me, metacarpus ; ph, phal- anges; 7, radius; «, ulna; sc, scapula; st, sternum ; i, inci:ors ; ¢, canines ; a, atlas; at, axis; vi, third cervical. (After Thomas.) (Brit. Mus. Cat.) separate chambers for living and breeding in. The latter is often lined with fur. The depth of the tunnels varies with the season, according as to whether the wireworms and earthworms are near the surface or deep down. The mole hunts winter and summer, and does inestimable good by devouring noxious grubs, Some authorities say they store up earthworms in deep firm-walled depressions for winter food and food for the young, The young moles are born in June and July ; the number of each litter varies from five to seven. Not only do they hunt underground, but they may often be found tracking the earth- INSECTIVORA (SHREW-MICE AND HEDGEHOGS). 499 worm above ground. In Ireland Talpa europea is unknown, nor is it seen in the Western Islands of Scotland. They may be a nuisance in grass-land and corn-fields at harvest-time, but should then be trapped alive and put where they can do much good, as long as they are not allowed to increase unduly. But is it certain that they do any harm? Surely by tunnelling the earth they help surface drainage; surely the mould they bring up, spread upon the land, would act as a beneficial top- dressing ; and what of the countless hordes of wireworm and leather-jackets they destroy ? THe Soricipz# or SHrew-Micr are all small mouse-like animals with soft fur, well-developed eyes, and external ears, and with a more or less pointed snout. Shrews live in subterranean passages, where they devour noxious grubs. They do not, it seems, make their own passages, but live in those formed by voles. All the Shrews have a peculiar smell, coming from two sebaceous glands near the anus. Three species are found in plenty in Britain—the Common Shrew (Sorea vulgaris), the Little Shrew (S. pyyiuveus), and the Water-Shrew (S. fodiens). The last mentioned is quite black, and although beneficial on land, is said to be most harmful to fish-breeding, living upon the small fry. Tue ERINACEIDE on HepGeHocs are represented by one species in Europe—namely, E. ewropeus —that lives upon grass-snakes, adders, frogs, snails, and various grubs, voles, poultry and game eggs, and sometimes vegetation. They hunt only of a night, rolling up into a ball when attacked, and are thus protected by the prickly spines on the upper surface of the body. The Hedgehog passes the winter in a semi-dormant state, but sometimes comes out at that time 500 MAMMALIA, of year. From three to four young are born in May: they are pinky white, with white quills, and both eyes and cars are Fic. 256.—SKULL or HEDGEHOG (Erinaceus europe@us). (Nicholson.) closed. They are produced and kept in a nest of moss, covered with leaves. In many respects the hedgehog is injurious, but it also does good in destroying vermin. CHIROPTERA or BATS. The Bats, which are insectivorous mammals, are characterised by the peculiarly modified forearms, adapted to form the wings. The digits of the fore-limb are enormously elongated, except the pollex. These fingers are united by a thin mem- brane called the “patagium”’ (fig. 257, P), which is also ex- tended between the fore and hind limbs and united to the sides of the body. This expanded membrane is used for flight. The pollex and first finger of the forelimb may have a claw, but the others are destitute of them. The hind-digits have each a long nail. Bats have teeth of three kinds, and in all the canines are well developed. The molars in the insectivorous bats are always sharp pointed ; in the foreign fruit-eating bats they are tuber- culate. The bones are never hollow as in birds. Two mamme are placed upon the chest. The body-is covered with hair, and CHIROPTERA OR BATS, 501 ( nat. size.) ZEEE Fic. 257,—Lone-EaRED Bat (Plecotus awritus). P, Patagium; H, humerus; R, radius; P, pollex; Di—Div, phalanges; F, femur; Ti, tibia; T, tail. 502 MAMMALIA. the ears may be large and sensitive. The tail (7) is sometimes included in the patagium, which stretches between the hind- limbs. Bats are either nocturnal or crepuscular, and therefore the eyes are small, the sense of touch being correspondingly developed. They pass the day hanging up in hollow trees, amongst masonry, in caves and the crevices of rocks. Only insectivorous bats (Insectivora) occur in Europe ; the Pruyivora occur in Australia, Java, Asia, &c. We have at least seventeen species in England, the commonest being the Pipistrelle (Véspertilio pipistrellu), the Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus) (fig. 225), the Large Noctule (V. noc- tui), and two Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinuin and hipposiderus), which have a curious leaf-like structure attached to the nose, of a sensory nature. These bats feed chiefly on moths, and thus prevent large numbers of cater- pillars from attacking our crops. The other orders of Mammalia are not of any special im- portance to us, and thus need not be referred to in this text- book. The Animal Kingdom culminates in the order Primates, which includes the Quadrumanu or Monkeys and Lemurs, and the Bimanca or Anuthropoid Apes and Man. APPENDIX APPENDIX IL THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. ALTHOUGH we have said in chapter v. that some worms (Anguil- lulide) occasion considerable harm to certain crops, yet it is amongst our stock that their ravages are mostly felt, especially in sheep, cattle, and horses. As the loss that many worms are accountable for often reaches very serious dimensions, a few general notes on the prevention and treatment of these parasitic diseases may not be out of place here, after having dealt with their economic history in preceding chapters. The three most important groups of the parasitic worms are the Tapeworms, Round- or Thread-worms, and Flukes. Tapeworms often cause severe diseases in animals and man (so called Teeniosis). When we know the life-history of a species it is usually easy to prevent the increase, if the trouble is taken to do so; but where we are ignorant of the various stages and habitats of the pests, remedies only lie in our power. As pointed out in chapter iv., most tapeworms have two distinct hosts —one in which the adult sexual tapeworm lives in the intestines, another in which the asexual cyst or bladder-worm takes up its abode. The cysts are usually found in carnivorous and omnivorous animals, in the various organs and internal membranes. Each cyst may give rise to one or hundreds of adult worms, in another animal, on being eaten. By the destruction of these cystic parts the tape- worm stage is prevented, and the teniosis is stopped from spread- ing. For instance, if all the heads of “ pothery” or “sturdy ” sheep are destroyed (and sometimes in lumbar-gid the spinal cord) with the ccenuri in them, so many hundreds of Tenia cenurus, one of the dog tapeworms, are destroyed. Again, if the diseased pork called “measly pork” is not eaten insufficiently cooked by human beings, the dreaded human tapeworm, 7’. solzwm, is prevented, and the same with “measly” beef. 506 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. The destruction of all parts containing the cysts or water-bags should be carefully carried out, instead of throwing the same to dogs, or being used cven as human food. The ova and embryos that form the hydatid stages or cysts are obtained in a great number of cases from polluted drinking-water. The eggs passed out with the sexual tapeworm, and thus out of the host, are often left upon the ground, and get carried by rain to runnels, ditches, dykes, and rivers. Yet many are taken off the ground direct by herbivorous animals. Sometimes whole proglottides voided out in the dung are eaten, and then the animal is invaded, if it be the proper host, with hundreds of small cysts, as seen in Cysticercus cellulose in pigs. We must bear in mind that we cannot get rid of these cysts when once they have taken up their rendezvous in the organs, except in the isolated case of Multiplex multiplex, which may sometimes, if a single cyst only exists, be extracted from the sheep’s brain by trephining. It is therefore very essential to prevent the ova of cestodes from entering an animal. To do this we must endeavour to keep our stock free from these worms (and other parasites). When they are noticed by such symptoms as thinness, capricious appetite, irritation in the lumbar regions, and the presence of proglottides in the excreta, the patient should be shut up, well dosed, and all excrement, with the expelled proglot- tides and scolices, burnt. We must bear in mind that as long as the scolex remains the cestode can continue to grow, thus necessitating the certain expulsion of this budding area. In regard to teenicides, great numbers of substances have been experimented with, and many are more or less successful. Before dosing, the patient should be given no solid food for at least twelve hours previously, but a small quantity of soft food only. A mild dose of castor-oil should also be given beforehand. The most certain drugs are areca-nut, male fern, calomel, pomegranate bark, and sulphuret of calcium. Perhaps the best is a mixture of areca-nut and male shield-fern powders in the proportion of 2 grains of areca- nut to every pound-weight of the dog, with 15 minims (drops) of male shield-fern extract. This tenifuge should be given in sweet milk, and is best followed next morning with a mild dose of castor- oil. Asa rule, two doses of the powders are necessary. thereal extracts of male shield-fern in 2-grain to 6-grain doses also brings away the worms. Similar drugs may be used for poultry in vary- ing doses. But for sheep, kamala in 10-grain doses has met with most success. In poultry I have obtained excellent results PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 507 with the extract of male fern, about 10 drops administered in salad-oil, Nematode or round-worms are little affected by the above, at least the majority of species. The round-worms may or may not have two distinct hosts. Such groups as the Trichine live in two different animals or in different parts of the same animal. The asexual forms live in the connective-tissue organs, and in the blood- vessels, &c. ; the sexual forms in the intestines, the air-passages, and a few beneath the skin. The majority of Nematodes pass their eggs out in the host’s dung, the worms coming away when their full complement of eggs are laid. These ova lie about upon the ground, get carried into the water, and are thus taken up again with food and drink. Some undergo a slight development outside the host upon the damp ground and vegetation ; and possibly some few may live in a secondary host, such as earthworms, snails, insects, &c. Some are carried by biting flies (Filariz and Mosquitoes). The well-known disease, trichinosis in pigs, rats, and men, is distributed chiefly by rats, and through them it is given to pigs, and from the latter to man. Here again the knowledge of the life- history helps us, for by stopping the common practice of giving dead rats to the pigs, we shall tend to check a disease which in human beings may be attended with fatal results. The destruction of rats is most necessary. Some pastures are known to be impregnated with certain diseases, such, for instance, as lung-worm or husk, and the worms producing parasitic gastritis. When this is known to be the case, it is well to keep the animal subject to the disease off the land for some time, feeding it down in the meanwhile with other stock that are not invaded by the particular kind of parasite we wish to destroy. In the red intestinal worms, the armed sclerostomes, in horses, we can employ this way of clearing the paddocks by grazing sheep on them for some time: these animals, feeding close and making the land obnoxious by their excreta, destroy the majority of the eggs passed out in the horses’ dung, and are not themselves invaded by the equine parasites. A large number of round-worms live in the intestines of all animals, and as the ova are passed out in the dung, it is very essential in an outbreak of these nematodes to see that the diseased animals, such as horses, are boxed and all the excrement burnt, whilst the meadows should be kept free from the hosts, and if the disease is not an ovine one, dressed with salt and fed down by sheep. Diseases, such as husk, 508 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. are spread by the embryos being brought up in the mucus from the air-passages ; these germs are scattered about upon the ground, and thus sow the seeds of disease for numbers of other lambs and sheep. When that spasmodic cough so characteristic of “ hoose” is heard, it is surely advisable to remove the animal, and so prevent it from contaminating the ground. Similar remarks apply to gapes in poultry. The ground becomes fouled with the ova released from the bodies of the coughed-up syngami, to such an extent that it is not possible to go on success- fully breeding birds on the same land for any length of time. Runs and breeding-places should be dressed with gas-lime, so as to destroy the ova and embryos, and chicks ought to be kept far from the stock-birds. Unfortunately wild birds suffer from gapes, so that we shall constantly get fresh infestations, but we can prevent epidemics. Speaking generally, we can prevent nematode diseases hy isolating the sufferers, burning their excrement, and removing to fresh land, thus allowing the old land to have a rest, or by substituting other kinds of stock until the land becomes once more clean. It is very doubtful if any dressings can be applied to grass-land, as nothing will touch the ova or larvee that will not burn the grass as well. Lastly, attention to the water-supply should not fail to be given during and after an epizootic attack on the farm. For destroying round intestinal worms, such as the ascarides and oxyures, the drug called santonine may be successfully used. It should be preceded by a purgative and absence of food for some six to twelve hours. For horses santonine is used at the rate of 20-grain to 30-grain doses, one dose given in the morning, another of a night, followed by a purgative next morning. By far the most certain nematocide is thymol, given in 15-grain doses to horses morning and night, followed by a dose of castor-oil. Thymol can be dissolved in alcohol, and should be administered in warm sweet milk. In cases of armed sclerostome attack the drug is especially valuable, as it not only clears out the free red-worms (NS. egudnwm and_S. tetracanthum) but also destroys those encysted in the mucous membrane. Generally the two doses suffice, but it is best to follow with the same treat- ment next day. Dogs can only stand from 2 to 3 grains of thymol, and fowls, I find, only 1 to 2 grains, which soon removes the white thread-worms (Heterakis). Those vermiceous pests that attack the air-tubes, such as the gape-worm in fowls and some of the lung-worms of sheep and calves, PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 509 can be destroyed by tracheal injections of camphor and creosote ; but as skilled labour has to be employed, and then only one of the three worms in the lamb is affected, the method is scarcely to be advised, in sheep. Fumigations with sulphur, &c., are equally un- satisfactory. All we can do is to keep the stock well fed, isolate the affected ones, and avoid foul pastures. In gapes, however, allowing a drop of camphorated or eucalyptus oil to run down the trachea is always satisfactory, and perhaps is the best way to treat birds when only a few are attacked ; but when large numbers have gapes the use of the fumigating-box is advisable. Blowing into the box, with bellows, finely ground camphor and chalk causes the worms to relax their hold and the birds to cough, and so the nematodes are expectorated. Flukes or trematodes are impossible to destroy, as far as our present knowledge goes, when once fairly housed in the bile-ducts and liver. Land along the edges of rivers and streams may be said to be generally liable to be infested with trematode germs, which, as pointed out previously, live in the water-snails (Limneus trun- catulus) during part of their early life. Certain meadows in which these molluscs abound are sure to aflect the flock ; such land should thus be fed to beasts which, although sometimes subject, to trematodes, are not seriously affected. Attention should be paid to the molluscan hosts, hordes of which may be destroyed, when cleaning out the ditches and dykes, by casting lime over the mud brought out, when not only the primary host but the embryo flukes are killed. In all parasitic vermiceous diseases the strength of the host must be well maintained by good and rich feeding, so that the invaded animal can withstand the extra drain on its system. This and proper sanitary measures, the application of a few well-known vermifuges, and the destruction of diseased parts instead of giving them to dogs and other animals, are the main points in preventing the too persistent losses from vermiceous diseases. In the case of infected food, which seldom now passes out of the markets in this country, thorough cooking destroys the cysts and germs of various diseases, the chances of infection being very slight. Water plays a prominent part in the distribution of these com- plaints, and where possible the purest spring-water only should be employed, for stock as well as for man, especially during and after an outbreak. 510 APPENDIX II. THE PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. To be able to cope with the numerous insect attacks which our fruit, vegetable, and other crops and stock suffer from, it is essen- tial that we know certain entomological facts, and something of the life-histories and habits of those insects we wish to destroy. A knowledge of some of the simplest elements of entomology will enable us to understand the why and the wherefore of applying certain remedies in certain ways and at particular times. (V7de chapter vii.) Certain insects are tnjurious in one stage only, others in two stages, and those with an tncomplete life-history during their whole life-cycle, from the hatching of the egg onwards.—In the majority of groups it is the larva that does most harm, as in the wireworms or larvee of the click beetles (liters), the leather-jackets or larv of the daddy-long-legs (7ipulidw), the surface-larve or caterpillars of the dart-moths (Noctuce), and the root-eating maggots, the larvie of true flies (Diptera). There are, nevertheless, many exceptions to this general rule: for instance, both larva and adult of the cockchafers (Melolonthide) do damage ; the larva as well as the imago of the flea-beetles (Halticide), the pea weevils (Nitones), the raspberry weevil (Otiorhynchus), and asparagus beetle (Créoceris) also cause considerable loss in our fields and gardens. In the case of flea- beetles and others the adults do most harm, the damage caused by the larvae being of secondary importance. Those insects, such as plant-lice, which have an incomplete metamorphosis are destructive in all their stages. With the exception of this last group, the larva, pupa, and adult have generally different habitats. In some insects we can best get at the larva to destroy it, in very few the pupa, whilst many we can attack whilst in the adult phase. The egg masses PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 511 of a few may be destroyed in winter. Thus the importance of knowing the life-histories of our insect and other pests. Nearly every known plunt ts attacked by some cnsect.—Very often each species of insect has a particular food-plant: the onion fly only attacks the onion, the rust or carrot fly the carrot and parsnip, the American blight the apple and hawthorn (seldom the pear). More generally any member of the same family of plants is attacked by one species of insect ; for example, the turnip flea infests all Cruciferze alike. Some of our worst pests are general feeders, such as the wireworm and leather-jacket, which will feed off the roots of nearly all plants. Where we get one species feeding only off one particular plant or family of plants, we can do much to prevent their damage by judicious rotation in the garden and in field cultivation. Three of the most important structural features to be considered in regard to insect eradication and prevention of their attacks are the structure of the mouth, the breathing apparatus, and the organs of sense.—There are three distinct types of mouth found in insects : the first is modified for beting, the second for piercing, the third for sucking. Insects provided with a biting mouth devour plant-tissue wholesale, both leaf, stem, and rootage being subject to their on- slaughts. Prercing-mouthed insects have their mouth-parts drawn out into needle-shaped lancets enclosed in a tube formed by the upper and lower lips. These insects feed by plunging the proboscis into the leaf and drawing out the sap. Sucking-mouthed insects have a long, soft, coiled proboscis, and can do no harm. Lepidoptera have sucking mouths, but some few in Africa, &c., have the pro- boscis so hardened they attack fruit. This structure of the insect mouth is a point too often neglected by people anxious to destroy insects. Poisons such as arsenical washes are useless for piercing- mouthed insects such as plant-lice and bugs ; on the other hand, poisons that will hold to the leaf will be taken in by leaf- and blossom-eating larvee, and so destroy them. The plant-louse would plunge its beak through the poison before it used, and so escape its ill effects ; to poison plant-lice we should have to poison the sap. How, then, can we destroy such pests? On examining any insect we shall observe (as pointed out in chapter vii.) at the sides of the body a number of oval or slit-like apertures: these are breathing- pores or spiracles. Insects do not breathe through their mouth, but through these respiratory openings. Varnish these over, and the insect will be asphyxiated. Plant-lice, &c., can be killed, then, by using some spray that will block up these breathing - pores : 512 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS, soft-soap answers this purpose ; other substances, such as quassia, put in the wash, are of value, but are not es-cutial for killing most aphides. Soft-soap also adheres to the aphides’ skin, and is useful besides in fixing corrosives and poisons on the insect and foliage. The more soft-soup used, within certain linits, therefore, the better. Certain substances, as paraffin, corrode the skin of aphides. Mites, on the other hand, breathe cutaneously, and not through spiracles ; nicotine or soap washes have less effect on them. On the head of an insect we hare observed, besides the mouth, two kinds of eyes, simple and compound, and in front of the tro large compound eyes a pair of jointed horn-like processes, the “ feelers” or untenne.—What are these feelers for? They are sense organs - whether they serve for one or two or more sensory functions we do not know. (ne sense is certainly developed in them—namely, “smell.” The sense of smell may also be seated in the jointed palpi attached to the two lower pairs of jaws. Insects have the sense of smell very acutely developed: they are attracted to their food-plant by its odour, both for feeding purposes and for ovi- position. Plant three heds of carrots in your garden some distance apart : sow one thinly, so that you have no necessity to thin them out ; sow the other two in the ordinary way, and thin out one of these, damaging the plants by bruising as you do so, and leave the soil loose around the plants left in the ground: thin out the third bed in the same manner, but sprinkle over it, as you go along, sand soaked in paraffin, so that the sand falls down and covers in the spaces around the young carrots. You will find the middle plot infested with “rust,” the flies having been attracted by the smell from the bruised carrots ; the dressed plot and plot one will be practically clean, owing to the paraffin destroying the smell of the plant in the one case, and no smell being released in the other. The use of these deodorants is very important as a preventive of insect ravages, both for dressing the seed and young plants. Thus from studying the structure of an insect we see that we can fight them in three different ways—by poisoning, by asphyxiating, and by destroying the natural smell of the plant. action of certain substances must also be noted. The two means of checking tnsect ravages «ure by Prevention and Remedies,—By prevention the appearance of any pest is forestalled, by either making the surroundings unfit for them to live in, by the winter destruction of the insects, by trapping, or by the use of deodorants upon seeds and seedlings. In regard to the eevnier de- The corrosive PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 513 struction, which is one of the most important features in prevention, let us see where insects generally take up their winter quarters. After an attack of onion maggot, rust, celery fly, cabbage maggots, and wurzel fly, &c. (all of which are the larve of Diptera), we shall find in the ground during the winter numberless small, oval, brown bodies known as “ puparia,” each of which contains a pupa derived from one of the maggots. We must not forget, however, that some of the larvee have not matured by the time the crop was lifted, and thus some are harvested with the crop, as we find in maggoty onions and rusty carrots; or they may remain in the leaves, as in the case of celery-fly, or in the rotting stalks and roots, as in cabbage maggots. Now, if these are left in and on the ground and not destroyed, fresh generations appear next year, and should a similar crop be grown on or near the same land it stands a considerable risk of further attack. Again, in sazw/fly larve attack on fruit-trees, at the end of the year the larve fall to the ground, bury themselves a few inches beneath the bushes and trees, and forming a case of silk and earth, likewise later pupate. They often remain as larvee in the cocoon until the spring, and then pupate. A very large number of moths also are found in the pupal stage in the earth in the winter time. At this time of year one and all should be destroyed. Two methods seem to recommend themselves—one, turning over the land so as to expose the pup to the attack of birds, which greedily devour them ; another, by deep trenching the land go as to bury the insects. After a bad attack of currant saw- fly, we may remove the soil from beneath the currant and gooseberry bushes in winter and burn it in gardens. It must be remembered that frost has little or no injurious effect upon insects in the egg or pupal state, or even upon most maggots.— I have known chrysalids frozen as brittle as glass, and yet their vitality was unimpaired. Frost, if anything, is beneficial to insect life, for the hard state of the ground protects the creatures from the attack of birds. Many insects hibernate in the adult state,—such as the turnip-flea, thrips, apple-blossom weevil, earwigs, &c.,—taking refuge in hedgerows, grassy headlands, rubbish-heaps, under dead bark, and so forth. Hedges bordering fields and gardens, and all grassy patches, should be well cleaned in the winter, the material burnt, and all rubbish cleared off and similarly destroyed. The dead leaves that collect in currant-bushes harbour the young larve of the currant moth (Abrawas grossulariata), and should therefore be cleaned out. All prunings of fruit-trees should be burnt, and not 2k 514 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. left about in heaps as we often see them, for numberless ova of psylla, aphis, lackey moth, and winter moth may be upon them ; a cursory examination with a lens will soon show their presence. Clean farming is the essential of insect prevention, and this especi- ally applies to fruit. Examine in winter an old apple-tree covered with rough bark, moss, and lichens, and we may find numberless larvee of the codling moth, American - blight insects, earwigs, weevils, &c., sheltering beneath. Cleaning the bark in winter will do away with many destructive creatures. Some insect enemies are found beneath the fruit-trees in the ground in winter, but some de- structive species come into activity during the cold months of the year—namely, the winter moths. These moths appear from October to April, and lay their eggs upon the twigs and buds. The females are wingless in some (March moth), nearly so in others (Winter moth), and ascend the tree-trunks to deposit their eggs: the males, however, 1nay carry a few up to the tree in copuld. Those crawling up the trunk are easily captured by grease-banding. This method has now been in vogue for some time. Banding of another sort is useful in gardens and orchards —namely, for codling moth larve. The best plan for this pest is to tie round the trunk about a foot from the ground a wisp of hay or sacking in May: here the larvee find a shelter in which to pupate, and can then be taken off with the sacking or wisp in the winter and burnt. Another insect which may be trapped is the click beetle, the parent of the wireworm. This is done by placing small masses of green stuff, lucerne or sainfoin, under a board in gardens from April to July, when numbers of click beetles will be found sheltering be- neath during the daytime, and may then be destroyed with the ova they have laid below the lucerne. JLeather-jackets may also be caught by placing large lumps of rotting turf upon the ground where they are abundant. Considerable damage is often done to fruit, peas, Kc., in gardens by a group of beetles called Weevils (Curculionidae). These beetles can always be told by their having a snout and elbowed antenne (vide p. 154). They are destructive both in the imago and larval stages, the adults devouring leafage and the larve rootage of plants. Weevils are always extremely sensitive, and fall to the ground at the least shock, when they curl their legs in and feign death. The larve are always curved, white, wrinkled, footless grubs, and generally feed close to the surface during the winter months. Many weevils (Otiorhynchus) have no wings. This genus PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 515 contains such noxious species as the raspberry weevils (O. picipes and 0. sulcatus) and the plum weevils (0. fuscipes and 0. tene- bricosus), They all hide away during daylight, coming out at night to feed. We can best catch these depredators by “jarring” the trees over tarred sacks or boards at nights, when the weevils fall off and are caught in the tar beneath. Jarring may generally be em- ployed for this group of beetles. Arsenical spraying is also said to kill them. Some other weevils (Bruchide) attack seeds, living in the larval state in them, such as the pea weevil (Bruchus ist). All infested seed should either be steeped in carbolic water or fumigated with bisulphide of carbon for some hours, when all signs of insect life will be destroyed. Such are some of the many ways by which we can prevent insect attack. Cleanliness and the judicious rotation of crops will to a large extent keep them in check; whilst, where we can, such animals as pigs, fowls, guinea-fowls, &c., may be employed on infested land after a bad attack, especially in orchards, where they will be seen greedily devouring all manner of grubs that come in their way. Substances used for the destruction of insects, or znsecticides, are now employed with great success.—Jnsectifuges are mixtures used for keeping insects off a crop — preventive washes or powders. Insecticides may be liquid or dry; the liquid washes are always preferable to the dry powders. To destroy insects by washes or spray fluids we must carry one thing in our mind—namely, How do the insects to be killed devour their food ? are they provided with a biting or a sucking mouth ? There are'six chief types of washes now in use—namely, (1) Arsenz- cal washes ; (2) Tobacco washes ; (3) Paraffin emulsions ; (4) Sulphur lime washes; (5) Soft-soap and Quassia washes ; (6) Caustic or winter washes. 1. Arsenical washes are three in number—viz., Paris green, London purple, and Arsenate of lead. These poisonous washes are only of use for leaf-eating larvee and beetles. As to the respective merits of each, arsenate of lead stands first, as it has a lesser tendency to burn the leafage, a feature which has too often attended the use of Paris green. Arsenate of lead is mixed in the following manner : dissolve 2 ounces of arsenate of soda (commercial) in a little water, then dissolve 74 ounces of acetate of lead also in water. Add the arsenate of soda to 10 gallons of water, and then after stirring well add the dissolved acetate of lead and mix the whole well together. It may also be obtained as a paste (Swift’s, Berger's, Voss’, &c.) 516 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. Spray in early morning and late in the afternoon, unless on dull days. Never spray when the blossom is out, as it kills the bees. ever leave the wash about, as it is poisonous. Three sprayings should be always employed—one just before the buds begin to burst, the second just be- fore the blossom opens, and the third directly the blossom has fallen. By so doing several insect attacks are dealt with, such as Winter moth, Tortrix, and Codling moth. 2. Tobacco washes.—Tobacco is one of the most potent insecticides. It may either be used in the form of a wash or mixed with camphor and used as a fumigant under glass. In many cases rag or paper steeped in tobacco-juice is used for burning in glass-houses to kill aphis, thrips, &c. It is best used as nicotine, but this is too ex- pensive to use on a large scale. Nicotine wash is made as follows :— Nicotine (90-98 per eu : : 1 oz. Soft-soap . : : : 2 02. Water. : 10 gallons. Plain tobacco-leaf waste may also be used, or home-grown tobacco, as follows :— Tobacco waste. ‘ - ‘ 2-3 lb. Soft-soap . ‘ ‘ : $-1 lb. Water. : 10 gallons. Infuse the tobacco wane in en ine press ; then add a pinch of soda, and add the whole to the dissolved soap and water. At present the only way tobacco wash can be used commercially is to buy it from insecticide makers. 3. Paraffin washes.—Paraffin-oil or kerosene forms an excellent insecticide and insectifuge, especially if it is used with soft-soap in the form of an emulsion, by which the paraffin is evenly distributed in the water. This wash is useful for celery fly, marguerite fly, scale insects, plant-lice, &. Paraffin emulsion may be prepared by mixing equal proportions of boiling soft-soap solution and paraffin together, and thoroughly churning them until a thick creamy emul- sion is formed. This emulsion can be kept and mixed with sixteen to thirty times its bulk of warm water when required for use. An- other method is to dissolve 1 quart of soft-soap in 2 quarts of boiling soft water. Remove from the fire, and while still boiling hot add one pint of paraffin oil, and immediately churn the mixture with a small hand syringe for five minutes. For use dilute with ten times its volume of water (Cousins). By far the best mixture is parafiin jelly, made as follows: Paraffin, 5 gallons ; soft-soap, 8 Ib. ; PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 517 water, 10 gallons. Boil together in a closed copper, and when boil- ing add a few pints of cold water. When all is dissolved, pour into a barrel or pails ; it then solidifies to a jelly. Use 10 Ib. of jelly to O gallons of water. Paraffin jelly is an excellent remedy for red- spider on fruit, for scale, aphis, and leaf hoppers. 4, Lime-sulphur washes.—The two following formule are the best for clearing trees in winter, for pear-leaf blister mite and some coccidee (Aspidiotus). They do not kill insect eggs, as some say, nor are lime-sulphur washes at summer strength of much value as insecticides. For winter use only. (1) Lime-sulphur-soda wash— Lime . : , : 3 lb. Sulphur ; : : 3 lb. Caustic soda : ; 1 Ib, Soft-soap ; ; F 1 Ib. Water . 10 gallons. Make the flowers of sulphur ae a paste sah water, and then thin and pour over the lime ; let this boil for a quarter of an hour, then stir and add the eautie: soda ; let this boil for some time, and then add the dissolved soap and full complement of water. (2) Lime-sulphur-soda-salt wash— Quicklime ‘ - F ‘i 3-6 lb. Sulphur : ‘ . ‘ 3 Ib. Salt. ‘ : ‘ : 3 lb. Caustic soda . . . ‘ 1 lb. Water . ‘ 10 gallons. Mix soda and lime together, ain lake with some hot water in which the sulphur has been incorporated, and then bring up to the full 10 gallons. This is self-boiling. (3) Lime-salt wash.— This is useful for cleaning fruit-trees of moss, lichen, &c., and at the same time undoubtedly checks the hatching of apple sucker and plum aphis eggs. Moreover, both ingredients, as they get washed off, pass to the soil, and there do much good. It is made by slaking 14 cwt. of the best white lime, and adding this, strained through a coarse sieve, to 100 gallons of water in which 15 lb. of salt has been dissolved. Use in March or late February, putting on as thickly as possible. 5. Soft-soap and Quassia wash forms a very useful cleansing wash for aphides. It is made of 1 1b. of soft-soap, 1 lb. of boiled quassia- chips to 10 gallons of water. The quassia should be boiled separ- ately for two hours, with just sufficient water to keep it liquid. 518 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OT INSECT PESTS. The soft-soap should be also boiled, and then added to the strained extract of quassia ; after both have been well mixed, they may be added to the 10 gallons of warm water. 6. Caustic washes are used with great success in the winter as agents for ridding the bark of trees of their vegetal incumbrances. The best wash is made by mixing 24 lb. of caustic soda with 10 gallons of water. It must not be used until the sap is well down the tree. Trees washed with this soon present a clean healthy appearance, and can be told at once. Fumigation.—This treatment is used for nursery-stock and plants under glass. For this purpose (1) Hydrocyanic acid gas is used, also (2) Tobacco, and (3) Pyrethrum. The first is most useful for nursery-stock and dormant plants—it kills all life. For every 100 cubic feet of space use 3 ounce of potassium cyanide, and for each ounce of the cyanide use one liquid ounce of sulphuric acid, mixed with 4 ounces of water. The cyanide is dropped by special apparatus into the acid and water, and at once the deadly fumes arise. Plants are best treated in a dull light, dry tem- perature, and at about 60° F., and should be exposed to the fumes for at least an hour. The fumigating chamber or houses must not be entered until all the gas has escaped, and this should be allowed to do so from above. If sodium cyanide is used, then a $ ounce is required. One must remember that this gas is a deadly poison, and so it must be employed with extreme caution. Soil Fumigation.—In killing insects under ground, bisulphide of carbon is employed. It is injected into the soil by means of the Vermorel Injector at the rate of 4 ounces to the square yard, as many small injections as possible. Being heavier than air, it sinks into the soil, and is fatal to insect life that it reaches. It is also used for fumigating grain, &c., and must then be placed at the top of the grain. Remember it and its gas are poisonons and highly inflammable—no light, cigar, or live electric wire must go near it. Various patent soil fumigants, such as vaporite, fumite, and apterite, are used with success for most ground pests, as leather - jackets, chafer larvee, surface larvae, and ants. The effect of artificial manures on vrsect pests is often most marked. Nitrate of soda and kainit are frequently of much service in destrov- ing surface grubs, whilst on the other hand superphosphates have less effect. Bone-meal and guanos encourage many insect pests. Soot forms an excellent deterrent to many leaf-eating beetles and onion fly ; dusting over the seed leaves and broadcasting over beds of PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 519 pickling onions is nearly always followed by cessation of attack in such insects as onion fly, especially if it is broadcasted when there is dew on the leaves : at the same time it stimulates the plant to growth, and makes good the damage caused by the insects. Infestation is often carried to gardens in dung and leaf-mould: these should be examined, and if found to be very foul, should be nixed with gas-lime if possible, and not used until the lime has done its work, and so purified the manure. I have seen many gardens infested in this way. Mould-heaps and peat-heaps should always have a dressing of lime on the top to keep off the daddy-long- legs, click beetles, &c., that will lay their eggs there if they get the chance. Lastly, every farmer and gardener should protect as far as he can the numerous insects that are beneficiai, and the birds and animals that help to keep down our only too rapidly increasing insect pests. The enemies of insects include such groups of insects as lady-birds, lace-wing flies, hover flies, ichneumon flies, tachina flies, sand-wasps, carabidee or ground beetles, &c., described in previous chapters. Besides insects, frogs, toads, and shrew-mice do much good in gardens, where they can be usefully employed ; and numerous birds are of the greatest benefit in checking insect depredations, notably the family of Tits or Paridw, and many of the migratory birds. Even the thrush does good by destroying heaps of grubs, snails, and slugs, and so makes up for the loss it sometimes occasions amongst the fruit ; and the rook and starling kill the wireworm in the fields which as yet we cannot do, and the plover takes no toll and does infinite good. INDEX. Generic and specific names are in Italics. Abdomen, of insect, 102; of horse, Amblyomma hebreeum, 127 329 American Blight, 266 Abdominal appendages of insect, 104 Ammonites, 296 Abomasum, 473 Amnion, the, 438 Abraxas grossulariata, 207 " the false, 438 Acanthis cannabina, 419 Ameba, 18 nu flavirostris, 419 " coli, 20 Acanthobothrium, 48 histolytica, 20 Acanthocephala, 64 Amabiwa, 18 Acaride, 119 Amphibia, 354 Acarina, 97, 99, 115, 118 " development of, 355 Accipiter nisus, 383 Amphiblastula (larva), 33 Achorutes armatus, 290 Amphioxus lanceolatus, 307, 309 " rufescens, 290 Anas boschas, 390 Acidia heraclei, 250 u— erecca, 890 Acordata, 15 penelope, 390 Acrania, 15 Anatide, 390 Actinozoa, 15, 384 Anchitherium, the, 466 Aculeata (hymenoptera), 172 Andrena, 176 Adder, the, 363 Anguillulide, 78 Alicnemide, 400 Anguis fragilis, 363 ABgeriide, 196 Amsopteryx cescularia, 207 Agriolimax agrestis, 299 Anopheline, 29 Agriotes lineatus, 161 Anoplura, 278 Agrotis exclamationis, 203 Anoura, 354, 355 nu segetum, 203 Anser albifrons, 388 Air-sacs in birds, 374 n brachyrhynchus, 388 Alauda arborea, 414 u Grenta, 388 n arvensis, 414 u ferus, 386 Alaudide, 414 un segetum, 387 Alcedo ispida, 412 Anseriformes, 385 Aleyrodide, 274 Antenne, 101; use of, 143 Alimentary canal, of insect, 105; of Anthomyia floralis, 239 horse, 329 ; of bird, 372 " radicum, 239 Allantois, the, 428 Anthomyide, 288 Alternation of generations, 39, 53 Anthonomus pomorum, 155 INDEX. 521 Anthophila, 176 Anthus, 424, 426 Antispila, 211 Antlers, of deer, 475 Ant- lions, 283 Ants, 1733 remedies for, 174 Aorta, 343 Aphaniptera, 256 Aphelenchus, 79 Aphidide, 262 Aphis brassicw, 268 nu pruni, 268 u Tumicts, 264 Apide, 176 Apion apricans, 159 Apis dorsata, 178 un fasciuta, 178 un flor, 178 nn tndica, 178 uw mellifica, 176 zonata, 178 Appendages “of head (insect), 102 Appendicularia (larva), 308 Appenzell cattle, 482 Apple-blossom Weevil, 155 n Sawfly, 191 n -Sucker, 272 Aptera, 289 Aquila chrysaétus, 383 Arachnoid, the, 345 Arachnoidea, 108, 114 Araneida, 97, 98, 99, 114, 115 Arch, pectoral, of horse, 321; of bird, 371; of mole, 498 Arch, pelvic, of horse, 324; of bird, 372 Archeopteryx, 376 Ardea cinerea, 380 Ardez, 379 Area opaca, 436 n pellucida, 436 u vasculosa, 452 Areca nut, use of, 506 ‘Argantine, 126 Argas, 24 n persicus, 126 un - reflexus, 126 Arion ater, 300 1 hortensis, 299 Armadillidium vulgaris, 109 Arsenate of lead, 515 Arsenical washes, 515 Arteries, 341 Arthropoda, 97, 109; groups of, 99, 108 ; characters of groups of, 108 Artificial maaures, effect of, on insects, 518 Artiodactyla, 469 Arvicola agrestis, 494 nu amphibia, 495 " arvalis, 495 " glareolit, 495 Arvicolide, 494 Ascaridee, 85 Ascaris lumbricoides, 86 un megalocephala, 85 " suilla, 86 Ascidians, 307, 308 Asio accipitrinus, 410 un otus, 410 Asparagus beetle, 153 Aspidiotus camellia, 270 W nertt, 270 " ostreeeformis, 270 perniciosus, 270 Ass, the domestic, 465 Aster Worms, 93 Athius hamorrhoidalis, 161 Atlas, of horse, 318 Alypus Sulzeri, 117 Auditory pits, development of, 440 Auroch, the, 482 Aves, 365 ; temperature of, 7b. ; skele- ton and anatomy of, 367; British, Avocet, the, 402 Axis, of horse, 318 Axolotl, the, 354 Bacon beetle, 165 Badger, the, "486 Balaninus nucus, 158 Balanoglossus, 310 Balantidum coli, 30 " minutum, 31 Bank Vole, 495 Barn-Owl, the, 409 “e Basilero, 938 Bats, 500 Bdellidae, 119 Bean Aphis, 264 Bean-seed Weevils, 159 Bean Weevils, 156 Beasts of prey, 483 Bed-bug, 24, 276 Bedeguar, 185 Bee-louse, 256 it moth, 209 Bees, 176 ; mouth and sting of honey-, 180 Beet-carrion beetles, 165 n _eelworm, 83 Beetles, 145 Belemnites, 296 Bell Animalcule, 30 Bern cattle, 482 522 Bernicla brenta, 388 Bibio hortulanus, 226 Bibionide, 225 Bilharzia crassa, 47 " hamatobia, 47 Bimana, 461 Biorhiza terminalis, 184 Bird-lice, 284 Birds, 365; skeleton of, 367; ana- tomy of, 367 ; British, 377 Bisulphide of carbon, 518 Bitterns, 379, 380 Black Bee, 177 Blackbird, the, 329 Blackcap, the, 428 Blackcock, the, 393 Black-fly, 264 Black Jack, 152 Black Rat, 492 Bladder, of horse, 337 Bladder-worms, 51 Blanjulide, 112 Blanjulus pulchellus, 112 Blastoderm, the, 482, 435 Blastodermic vesicle, the, 450 Blastopore, the, 450 Blatta americana, 282 nu germanica, 282 uu ortentalis, 99, 281 Blattida, 281 Blinding Storm Fly, 231 Blind-worm, 363 Blood, corpuscles of, 5 ; circulation of, 341; sources of, 344 Blue-bottle Flies, 252 Bombi, 1 Bombycina, 200 Bones, formation of, 8; of horse’s skull, 319; of limbs, 322; pneu- matic, 869; of bird’s skull, 370; of wing, 372; of ox’s skull, 482; of bat’s wing, 500 Book-lice, 284 Boophilus annulatus, 126 Bos bison, 482 un longifrons, 482 1 primigenius, 482 Botaurus stellaris, 380 Bothriocephalus, 53 Bovide, 480 Brachial plexus, 349 Braconide, 183 Brain, of arthropods, 98; of horse, 345 ; of pig, 470 Braula coca, 256 Breathing-pores of insect, 106 Breeze-flies, 230 “Brimps,” 280 INDEX. British Shorthorn, 482 Bronchi, of horse, 334 Brown Rat, 492 Bruchide, 154, 159 Bruchus rufimanus, 159 Bryolia, 121 un rtbis, 118 Budding, reproduction by, 44 Bufa calamita, 357 un eulgaris, 357 Bugs, 276 Bullfinch, the, 418 Bunodonta, 470 Buntings, 423 Burying-beetles, 144, 165 Buteo lagopus, 384 un vulgaris, 384 Butterflies, 192 Buzzards, British, 384 Byturus tomentosus, 167 Cabbage Flea, 151 n -root flies, 240 Caccabis rufa, 393 Caddis-flies, 287 Cecum, of horse, 330; of pig, 470; of ox, 475 Calandra granaria, 159 " oryze, 159 Calathus cysteloides, 169 Calepterya, 289 Calliphora, 252 Calocoris fulvomaculatus, 278 Calomel, use of, 506 Canide, 488 Canis dingo, 489 uu familiaris, 488 un lupus, 489 vulpes, 488 “Canker” in pigeons, 25 Cantharidu’, 146 Capercaillie, the, 394 Capra egagrus, 478 un hiveus, 478 Caprimulgus europwus, 411 Capside, 278 Carabide, 146, 168 Carabus nemoralis, 168 " violaceus, 168 Carbon disulphide, 518 Cardiac muscle, 9 Carduelis elegans, 422 Carnivora, 483 Carpocapsa pomonella, 209 Carpocapside, 209 Carpus, of horse, 322; of ox, 482 Carrot-fly, 248 Cartilage, 7 INDEX, Catabomba pyrastri, 233 Caterpillar, 140 Cats, 489 Cattle, 402; Chillingham, 2. ; origin of domestic, 482; races of, id. Caustic washes, 518 Cavicornia, 477 Cecidomyia brussicu', 225 " destructor, 220 Cecidomyids, 219 Celery-fly, 250 Cell, structure of the, 3; division of the, 4 Centipedes, 113 eee aon cds, 298, 295; fossil forms, Cephenomyia rufibarbis, 238 Cephus pygmeeus, 190 Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 258 Cerceris arenaria, 183 Cercomonas intestinalis, 22 Cerebellum, 347 Cerebrum, 347 Cervical plexus, 349 Cervide, 475 Cervus capreolus, 476 uu dama, 476 u_ elaphus, 476 Cestoda, 39, 47 ; development of, 50 Cetacea, 461 Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, 159 " assimilis, 153 Chetopoda, 90 Chaffinch, the, 420 Chaleididw, 183 Chalcid Flies, 183 Charadriiformes, 400 Cheimatobia brumata, 206 Chelidon urbica, 424 Chelonia, 362 Chermes, 264 Cherry-louse, 268 un Sawfly, 188 u_ -tree Casebearer, 213 Chiffchaff, the, 42 Chilognatha, 111 Chilopoda, 111 Chiroptera, 500 Chlorophyll, 11 Chloropide, 244 Chlorops teeniopus, 244 Chordata, 15 Chorion, the, 453; false, 455; frond- osum, 456 Chrysomelide, 146, 152 Chrysomitris spinus, 422 sops ceecutiens, 231 Chyle, 341 523 Cicadas, 260 Cicindelide, 145, 146 Ciconia, 379, 380 Ciconiiformes, 379 Ciliata, 29 Cimex, 24 un lectularius, 24, 276 Cimicide, 262 Circus, 304 Classification, of animals, 12; of chordata, 310; of craniota, 351 Clavicornia, 165 Clay-coloured Weevil, 158 Clearwing Moths, 196 Click-beetles, 160 Cloaca, 373 Clouded Yellow, 195 Clover-sickness, 80 u Weevil, 159 “Clubbing,” 20 Coccidee, 269 Coccidiidea, 24 Coccidiosis, 25 Coccidium oviforme, 25 Coccinellidee, 146 Coccinella bi-punctata, 146 " decem-punctata, 147 " ocellata, 147 " septem-punctata, 147 Cockchafers, 163 Cockroach, anatomy of, 100; internal structure of, 104 Cockroaches, 99 Codling Moth, 209 Ceelenterata, 32, 33 Calinius niger, 246 Cenurus, 54 " cerebralis, 54 Coleophora anatipenella, 213 Coleophoride, 213 Coleoptera, 145 Colias edusa, 195 Collembola, 289 Colon, of insect, 106; of mammal, 330 Columba wnas, 408 " livia, 407 n palumbus, 406 Columbiformes, 405 Colymbiformes, 378 Comma Butterfly, 193 Common Lizard, 363 " Newt, 358 " Shrew, 499 " Wasp, 174 Complete metamorphosis, 143 Connective tissue, 7 Conorhinus megistus, 23 524 INDEX. Coot, the, 400 Oysticercus, 2 Coracia, 412 " bovis, 62 Coraciiformes, 409 " cellulose, 56 Cordyceps entomorhiza, 200 piseiformis, 61 Corn Aphis, 268 Cy ystojlagellata, 21 -bunting, the, 423 Cysts, 52 Corncrake, the, 400 Cytopyge, 30 Corn Ground-beetle, 169 Cytostome, 30 n Moth, 216 n Sawfly, 190 Dabchick, the, 378 Weevil, 159 nee e eitri, 270 Coronella liuvis, 363 longispinus, 270 Corvidee, 414 Daddy- -long-legs, 227 Corvus corax, 414 Dart Moth, 203 nn cornia, 414 Daulias lucinia, 430 n corone, 415 Decidua reflexa, 456 u frugilegus, 416 " serotina, 456 un monedula, 416 " vera, 456 Cotile riparia, 424 Deciduate placenta, 455 Cotyledonary placenta, 457 Deer, 475; Red, 476; Roebuck, 476; Crabs, 99 Fallow, 477 Crambide, 209 Demodecide, 133 Crane-flies, 226 Demodex folliculorum, 133 Cranial-nerves, 348 Dermanyssus avium, 122 Craniota, 15 Dermaptera, 280 Cranium, of horse, 345 Dermatobia cyaniventris, 238 Crawtish, 110 Dermestes lardarius, 165 Crayfish, 99 Dermestidee, 165 Creeping Disease, 238 Dermis, the, 327 Creodonta, 483 Devil's Coach-horse Beetle, 170 Crea pratensis, 400 Dew-claws, of pig, 470 Crioceris asparagt, 153 Diamond-back Moth, 212 Crop, of insect, 105; of birds, 372 Diaphragm, the, 329 Crow, the, 415 Didelphia, 460, 462 Crucifer Midge, 225 Diffuse placenta, 457 Crustacea, 99 Digenea, 41 Ctenocephalus canis, 258 Digestive organs, of insect, 105; of " felis, 258 horse, 329; of bird, 372 Clenopsylla museuli, 258 Digging Wasps, 183 Cuckoo, the, 408 Dilophus febrilis, 225 Cuculiformes, 408 Dinoflagellata, 21 Cuculus canorus, 408 Diploptera, 172 Culicidee, 29 Diplosis pyrivora, 223 Curculionidae, 146, 154 " tritici’, 222 Curlew, the, 402 Diptera, 144 Currant Aphis, 268 Discoidal placenta, 455 wu -borer, 196 Distomata, 41 " Clearwing Moth, 196 Distomum hepaticum, 42 u Gall-mite, 134 " lanceolatum, 42 n Moth, 207 " magnum, 46 uw Sawfly, 187 " pulmonale, 16 Cuttlefish, 295 Diurni, 192 Cyanide of potassium, 518 Divers, 378 Cygnus olor, 389 Dog, the domestic, 488; Australian, Cynipide, 183, 184 489; New Zealand, 489 Cynips kollart, 185 Dogs, 488 Cyprian Bee, 177 Domestic fowls, probable origin of, Cypselus apus, 411 395 INDEX, 525 Dotterel, the, 401 Dourine, 22, 23 Dragon-flies, 288 Drasside, 117 Duck-bill, the, 460 Ducks, 385, 390; wild species, 390; origin of domestic, 391 Dura-mater, 345 Eagle, golden, 383; white-tailed, 383 Ear-cockles, 80 Earthworms, 90; life-history of, 91 Earwigs, 280 East Coast fever, 25 Echidna, the, 460 Echinococcus, 58 Echinococcus polymorphus, 58 " veterinorum, 58 Echinodermata, 32 Edentata, 461 Ee]lworms, 78 Egg, of frog, 356; of amphibia, 356 ; of reptilia, 861; of fowl, 431; origin and formation of, 433; fertilisation of, 434; segmentation of, 435; of mammal, 449 Elastic tissue, 7 Elateride, 146, 160 Emberizine, 418 Embryology of chick, 431; changes during first day, 438 ; during second day, 439; during third day, 441; during fourth day, 443 ; during fifth day, 444; during sixth and seventh days, 445; from eighth day onwards, 445; of mammals, 450 Embryonic sac, 436 Enchytreide, 93 Endogenous cell-formation, 5 Entameba, 20 Eohippos, 466 Epeiride, 117 Ephemeride, 284 Ephestia kiihniella, 216 Epiglottis, 335 Epilachna, 148 Epithelium, 6 Eproboscidea, 254 Equide, 464 ; living and extinct tabu- lated, 466 Equus asinus, 465 n caballus, 465 uu hemionus, 465 un onager, 465 1 te@niopus, 465 Ergot, the, of horse, 326 Erinaceide, 499 Erinaceus europeus, 499 Eriocampa limacina, 188 Kriophyide, 134 Friophyes pyrt, 185 W ribis, 134 Euacanthus interruptus, 276 Eudromias morinellus, 401 Euplecaptera, 280 Eutheria, 460 Euthrips pyri, 260 Eyes, of insects, 101; of mollusca, 293 ; development of, in birds, 440, 441 Falconide, 380 Falconiformes, 380 Faico esalon, 382 uw peregrinus, 382 uu subbuteo, 382 un tinnunculus, 381 False-caterpillars, 140, 186 chorion, 455 Fasciola hepatica, 41 Feathers, of bird, 365; development of, 446 Feelers, of insect, 101 ; use of, 143 Felidae, 489 Felis catus, 490 un maniculata, 490 Ferret, the, 484 Fetlock, of horse, 326 Fever Fly, 225 Fieldfare, the, 430 Field-Vole, 494 Filaria immitis, 87 un ocudis, 36 un papillosa, 87 Filaridee, 87 Finches, 418 Finger-and-toe, 18, 20 Fish, 352; respiration of, 353 Fissipedia, 483 Flagellata, 21 Flat-worms, 39, 40 ‘¢ Plax-seed” stage of Hessian Fly, 221 Flea, of hen, 257 ; of dog, 258 Flea-beetles, 148 Fleas, 256 n and plague, 258 Flukes, 40 Foetal membranes of mammals, 449 Foot, of horse, 324, 463, 466; of pig, 463 ; of ox, 482 Foraminifera, 16 Fore-limb of horse, 322 Forest-flies, 254 Forficula auricularia, 280 Formica, 178 " rufa, 174 526 INDEX. Formicids, 173 Globigerina, 16 Fossoria, 172, 183 Glochidium larva, 293 Fowl, skeleton of, 867; anatomy of, Glomeridw, 112 372; origin of domestic, 395; Red Gilomeris, 112 Jungle, 396; Ceylon, 376; Fork- Glossina, 23 tailed, 20. ; Sonnerat's, ib. ; egg of, Glottis, the, 335 431 Goat Moth, 193 Fowl-fly, 256 Goat-sucker, the, 411 Fowl Spirochetes, 24 Goats, 478; domestic, 478 Foxes, 488 Golden Plover, the, 401 Free cells, 5 Goldfinch, the, 422 Fresh-water mussel, 294 Goniocotes, 285 Fringillide, 418 Goniodes, 285 Frit-fly, 246 Gooseberry Sawfly, 187 Frogs, 354 Gout-fly, 244 Frost, effect of, on insects, 513 Gracilaria, 211 Fulica atra, 400 Grapholitha pisana, 211 Fumigation, for husk, 509; for gapes, Grass Moths, 209 74, 509; for insects, 518 un Snake, 363 Gray’s Banded Newt, 359 Gad-flies, 229 Grease-banding, 207 Galeriida, 209 Great Crested Newt, 358 Gall-flies, 184 Grebes, 378 n -gnats, 219 Greenfinch, the, 422 Galliformes, 391 Green Bottle Flies, 252 Gallinz, 391 ; domesticated, 395 u Lizard, 363 Gallinula chloropus, 399 Gregarinoidea, 24 Gambia fever, 23 Grey Field-slug, 299 Gamaside, 119, 122 Ground Beetles, 168 Gape-worm, 74 Grouse, 393 Gapes in poultry, 74 Grub, 141 Garden Chafer, 164 Gruiformes, 399 nu Snail, 302 Gryllotalpa vulgaris, 283 uw Swift-moth, 198 Guinea-fowl, 398; the domestic, 398 ; Garrulus glandarius, 417 probable origin of, ib. Gasteropoda, 296 Gulls, 403 Gastrophilus equi, 237 Gypsy Moth, 201 " hemorrhoidalis, 238 nasalis, 238 Homaphysallis, 127 - Geeinus viridis, 412 Humosporidia, 24, 27 Geese, 386 ; Grey- lag, 386; Bean-, 387; JZirmatopoda pluvialis, 231 Brent, 388 ; domestic, ib.; origin J«monchus contortus, 69 of domestic, 7b. ; Pink-footed, 7b.; Hamopis sanguisuga, 94 White-fronted, 7. Haliactus albicilla, 383 Genital organs, of horse, 337; of Halictus, 176 mare, 339; of bird, 374 Hatiotis, 297 Geometrina, 205 Halticide, 148 Geophilide, 113 Hare, the, 496 Geophilus longicornis, 113 Harpalus ruficornis, 169 " subterraneus, 113 Harriers, 384 Germinal disc, 434 Harvest Bug, 122 " vesicle, 434 Haustellata, 144 Ghost-moth, 199 Hawks, 380 Giant Honey-bee of India, 178 Hawk Moths, 196 Giant Sirex, 192 Heart, of insect, 104; of horse, 341; of Gid, in sheep, 54 fish, 353; of” reptile, 361; “of bird, Gizzard, of insects, 105; of birds, 874; development of, 440 373 Heart-and-Dart Moth, 308 INDEX. Hedgehogs, 499 Helicide, 297, 299, 301 Helix aspersa, 302 wu caperata, 302 un nemoralis, 302 un virgata, 302 Heliozoa, 17 Hemerobiide, 286 Hemiptera, 144 " -heteroptera, 261, 276 " -homoptera, 261, 262 Hepato-portal system, 344 Hepialus humuli, 199 " lupulinus, 198 Heron, the, 380 Hessian Fly, the, 220 Heterakis, 508 Heterocera, 192 Heterodera, 79 " radicicola, 84 " schachtti, 83 Heterogyna, 173 Heterotricha, 30 Hexactinia, 34 Hexapoda, 138 Hipparion, the, 466 Hippidion, the, 466 Hippobosca equina, 255 " maculata, 256 " rufipes, 256 Hirudinea, 93 Apes, Hirundo rustica, 423 Histolysis, 142 Hobby, the, 382 Hock, of horse, 326 Holland cattle, 482 Holoblastic segmentation, 450 Holotricha, 30 Honey-bee, 176 Hoofed animals, 461-463 Hoose, 68 Hop Aphis, 265 uw Flea, 151 u Frog-fly, 276 Hoplocampa testudinea, 191 Hornet, 175 Horns, of artiodactyla, 469; of ante- lopes, 478; of sheep, 478; of oxen, 1b, Horse, skeleton of, 315; foot of, 324 ; internal anatomy of, 327 ; domestic varieties of, 464 ; extinct species of, 465; descent of, 466; the age of, told by teeth, 467 Horse-bot, oy » Shoe Bat, 502 OU wo aT House-fly, 251 Hover-flies, 282 Humble-bees, 176 Humus and earthworms, 93 Husk, 68 Hyalopterus pruni, 264 Aybernia defoliaria, 207 Hydatid plague, 58 Hydrocyanic acid gas, 518 Hydrozoa, 34 Aygromyia rufescens, 302 Hylemyia coarctata, 242 Hylobius abietis, 159 Hymenoptera, 170 Hymenoptera aculeata, 172 " parasitica, 172 " tubulifera, 172 " petioliventres, 172 " sessiliventres, 172, 186 Hypoblast, 435 Hypoderma bovis, 234 " diana, 238 " lineata, 284 Hypotricha, 30 Hyracoidea, 461 Hyracotherium, the, 466 Hystrichopsylla talpe:, 257 Icerya purchasi, 148 Ichneumon flies, 183 Ichneumonide, 183 Ichthyopsida, 852 Incomplete metamorphosis, 143 Incurvaria capitella, 215 Infusoria, 17, 29 Insect pests, prevention and destruc- tion of, 510 Insecticides, 515 Insectivora, 497 Insects, 138; enemies of, 519 Intestines, of horse, 330; of birds, 373; of pig, 470 Trish rat, the, 492 Isopoda, 109 Tulide, 112 Iulus Londinensis, 112 u_ terrestris, 112 Teodes ricinus, 127 Ixodide, 123 Ixodine, 126 Jackdaw, the, 414, 416 Jarring, for insects, 515 Jay, the, 417 Jelly-fish, 33 Jointed-limbed animals, 97 Jungle Fowl, Red, 895; Sonnerat’s, 396; of Ceylon, 7b,; Javan, 397 528 Kamala, use of, 506 Kangaroos, 463 Karyokinesis, 4 Ked, the, 254 Kerosene oil, 516 Kestrel, the, 381 Kiang, the, 465 Kidneys, of horse, 336; of bird, 374; of ox, 482 Kingfisher, the, 412 Knee, of horse, 323 Knot Root Disease, 84 Labia minor, 281 Lacerta agilis, 3638 un vtridis, 363 nu _ vivipara, 363 Lacertilia, 362 Lace-wing flies, 286 Lackey Moth, 201 Lacteal system, 344 Lady-birds, 146 Lamellibranchiata, 293, 294 Lamellicornia, 146, 163 Lampronia rubiella, 214 Landrail, the, 400 Laniide, 426 Lanius collurio, 426 nu exeubitor, 427 un minor, 427 " pomeranus, 427 Lapwing, the, 401 Large intestine, of horse, 330; of pig, 470; of ox, 474 Large Larch Sawfly, 191 Large Tortoisehell Butterfly, 193 Lark, the, 414 Larus argentatus, 403 n canus, 403 un ridibundus, 403 Larynx, the, of horse, 334 Leaf Hoppers, 262 Leather-jackets, 228 Lecanium persica v. ribis, 271 Leeches, 95. ; life-history of, 94 ; medi- cal, 95; Horse, id. Lepidoptera, 144, 192 Lepisma saccharina, 290 Leporide, 493, 496 Leptus autumnalis, 122 Lepus caniculus, 496 nu timidus, 496 Libellulide, 289 Lice, 278, 284 Ligurian Bee, 177 Limacide, 299 Limax agrestis, 299 u maximus, 300 INDEX. Limbs, growth of, in chick, 443 Lime-salt wash, 517 » -sulphur wash, 517 Limneide, 297 Limnwus, 43, 298 " humilis, 299 " pereger, 43, 298 " trunculatus, 43, 298 " viator, 43, 299 Limnephilus flavicornis, 287 Linguatulide, 136 Linnet, the, 419 Liparis dispar, 201 Lipeurus, 285 Lassotriton teniatus, 358 Lithobiide, 113 Lithobius, 114 Lithocolletis, 211 Little Shrew, 499 Liver, of horse, 331; development of, in fowl, 442 Liver-fluke, 43; life-history of, 7b. ; effects of, on liver, 46 Liver-rot, in rabbits, 25; in sheep, 42 Lizards, 362 Lobosa nuda, 18 Loligo, 295 London Purple, 515 Long-eared Bat, 502 " " Ow], 409 Looper-larve, 140 Lophinus palmatus, 359 Lophyrus pini, 191 Lucilia, 252 Lumbricus terrestris, 91 Lung-finkes, 46 un -worms, of sheep, 68 Lungs, of horse, 333; development of, 442; of ruminants, 475 Lutra vulgaris, 486 Lygeide, 262 Lymph, 341 Macrochires, 411 Maggots, 140 Magpie, the, 417 Moth, 207 Malaria, cause of, 25, 29 Ma] de Caderas, 22, 238 Male shield-fern, use of, 506 Malignant jaundice, 25 Mallophaga, 284 Mammalia, 448, 460; development of, 449 ; foetal membranes of, 452; British species of, 460; classifica- tion of, 460 Mammary glands, 352; of pig, 470 Mandibulata, 144 Mange, 133 Mangold Fly, 242 Manyplies, 473 March Moth, 207 Marsupialia, 462 Marten, the, 484 Martes sylvatica, 484 Martin, the, 424 Mastigophora, 17, 21 Maw-worn, 86 May-flies, 284 Mealy Bugs, 270 Mealy Plum Aphis, 264 Measles, in pork, 56 Medical leech, 95 Mediterranean Flour Moth, 216 Medulla oblongata, 347 Medullary groove, 489 Medusa, 83 Meleagris americana, 397 " mexicana, 397 " ocellata, 397 Meles taxus, 486 Meligethes ceneus, 153 Melolontha vulgaris, 163 Melolonthide, 163 Melophagus, 254 " ovinus, 254 Membrana granulosa, 449 Menopon, 285 Menstruation, 339 Merlin, the, 382 Meroblastic segmentation, 450 Mesenteric gland of pig, 470 Mesentery, 333 Mesoblast, 485 Mesoblastic somites, 439 Mesohippos, the, 466 Meta-discoidal placenta, 455 Metamorphosis of insects, 143 Metatheria, 460 Metazoa, 13 Mice, 492, 493 Microgaster glomeratus, 184 Micro-lepidoptera, 208 Millepedes, 111 Miners’ disease, 36 Miohippos, the, 466 Missel Thrush, the, 430 Mites, 118 Mole, the, 497 nu -ericket, 283 Mollusca, 291; reproduction 292; groups of, 293; injurious, 297 Monadidea, 21 Moniexia expansa, 62 INDEX, “ Monkey-peas,” 109 Monodelphia, 461 Monogenea, 41 Monotremata, 461 Moorhen, the, 399 Mosquitoes, 217 Moss, on fruit-trees, 514 Motucilla alba, 425 " flava, 426 " lugubris, 425 " melanope, 425 " ratt, 426 Moths, 192 Mottled Umber Moth, 207 Mountain Bull, 482 " Twite, 419 529 Mouse, Long-tailed Field, 493; Har- vest, 493; common, 494 Mouth, of insects, 139 Mus Alexandrinus, 492 u decumanus, 492 u hebernicus, 492 un messorius, 493 un musculus, 494 un Tattus, 492 un sylvaticus, 493 Musca domestica, 251 Muscidee, 251 Muscular tissue, 8 Mussel-scales, 270 Mustard Beetle, the, 152 Mustard Blossom Beetle, 153 Mustelide, 483 Mutilla, 171 Mygalide, 117 Myriapoda, 111 Mycetozoa, 17 Myrmica, 173 Mytilaspis pomorum, 270 Myzostomaria, 40 Myzus cerasi, 268 Nagana, 22 Nautilus, the, 295 Necrophaga, 165 Necrophagi, 145 Needle-nosed Hop-bug, 278 Nemathelminthes, 63 Nematoda, 64; development of, 65; groups of, 68 Nematophora, 39 Nematus erichsoni, 191 " ribesit, 187 Nemertinea, 39 Nepticula, 211 Nerve cord, of worms, 37 ; of insects, 108 ; of horse, 345 Nerves, cranial, 848; spinal, 349 2 L 530 Nervous system, of insect, 108; of mollusca, 293; of horse, 348 ; sym- pathetic, 350 Nervous tissue, 9 Nettle-head, in hops, 84 Neural canal, 439 Neuroptera, 144 Newt, the Common, 358 ; Great-Crest- ed, 358 Nicotine, 516 “Nigger,” the, 147 Nightingale, the, 430 Nightjar, the, 411 Nitidulidir, 167 Noctue, 203 Noctule, the, 502 Nomadu, 176 Non-deciduate placenta, 455 Non-ruminants, 470 Notochord, 307, 308, 309, 437 Notodontide, 202 Nubian Cat, 491 Numida, 398; wild forms of, 398 Nut Weevil, 158 Oak-apples, 184 Occidental horses, race of, 465 Octactinia, 34 Ocypus olens, 170 Odonata, 288 Odontoid process, 318 Odontophore of mollusc, 293 Odontornithes, 376 Odynerus, 175 (CEstridx, 233 Gstrus ovis, 236 Oligocheta, 91 Omasum, the, 473 Ommatotriton vittatus, 359 Onager, the, 465 Onion Fly, 239 Oniscidiv, 109 Oniscus asellus, 109 Cpgeroliants of mollusc, 296; of fish, 35: Ophidia, 362 Opossums, 462 Optic vesicles, formation of, 440 Orgyia antiqua, 200 Oribata orbicularis, 183 u lapidaria, 134 Oribatide, 133 Oriental horses, race of, 465 Ornithodelphia, 461 Ornithodorus moubata, 127 Ornithomya avicularia, 256 Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, 461 Orohippos, the, 466 INDEX. Orthoptera, 144 Orthotylus marginelis, 278 Oscinider, 246 Oscinus frit, 246 Ostertagia ostertagi, 70 Osseous tissue, 7 Otiorhynchus fuscipes, 158 " pieipes, 158 " sulcatus, 158 Otiorhynchus Weevils, 153 Otter, the, 486 Ova, of bird, 374; of mammal, 449 Ovaries, of insects, 1/7; of mare, Ovis, 478 Owls, 409; Barn, 409; Tawny, 410; Long- and Short-eared, 410 Oxen, 450 Oxyures, 86 Oxyuris curvula, 86 " mestigodes, 87 " vermicularis, ST Oyster-shell Bark Louse, 270 Pachyrina maculosa, 228 Paleotherium, the, 466 Palmate Newt, 358 Palisade-worms, 68 Pancreas, of horse, 331 ; development of, in fowl, 442 Panniculus adiposus, 327 Panorpide, 284 Paraffin emulsion, 516 wu jelly, 516 Paramercium, 18 Parasitic gastritis, 69 Paridee, 427 Paris green, 515 Pre the common, 393; French, Parus ceruleus, 427 un major, 427 Passer domesticus, 421 n montanus, 421 Passeriformes, 413 Patagium, of Bat, 500 Pavo cristatus, 399 un muticus, 399 un nigripennis, 399 Peacock Butterfly, 193 Fees, the Indian, 399; the Javan, Pea-moth, the, 211 Pea Weevil, 156 Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 135 Pear Midge, 223 u Sawfly, 188 INDEX. ee arch, of horse, 321; of bird, Pediculida, 278 Pegomyia bet, 242 Pelvic arch, of horse, 324; of bird, 372 Penis, of horse, 337; of pig, 470; of ram, 480; of bull, 482 Pentastomide, 136 Penthina pruniana, 211 Perching-birds, 414 Perdix cinerea, 393 Peregrine Falcon, 382 Pericardium, 341 Periplaneta americana, 99, 282 Perissodactyla, 464 Peritoneum, 332 Peritricha, 30 Perlide, 284 Phiedon betule, 152 Phalangers, 463 Phalaropes, 402 Phasianide, 393 Phasianus colchicus, 394 " torquatus, 894 Pheasant, the, 394 Phorbia cepetorum, 239 ow brassicce, 240 Phorodon humuli, 265 Phryganeide, 284, 287 Phthirius capitis, 279 " inguinalis, 279 " vestimenti, 279 Phyllopertha horticola, 164 Phyllotreta nemorum, 148 Phytoptide, 134 Phytoptus avellance, 134 " pyri, 185 " ribis, 134 " taxt, 134 Pia-mater, 345 Pica caudate, 417 Pici, 412 Picus major, 412 . ou minor, 412 Pieridae, 193 Pieris brassice, 194 u napt, 195 un rape, 195 Pigeons, 405 ; origin of domestic, 407 Pigs, 470 Pine Sawfly, 191 nu Weevil, 159 Pinnigrade foot, 484 Pinnipedia, 483 Piophila aptt, 251 Pipistrelle, the, 502 Pipits, the, 424 Piroplasma bigemina, 27 531 Piroplasma canis, 28 " equt, 28 " parvum, 28 Piroplasme, 27 Piroplasmosis, 25-27 Pisces, 352 Placenta, 453; varieties of, 455; discoidal, 455; meta-discoidal, 455 ; zonary, 456; cotyledonary, 457 ; diffuse, 457 Plantigrade foot, 484 Plant-lice, 262 Plasmodia, 17 Plasmodiophora brassicw, 17, 20 Plasmodium, 27, 29 " immaculatum, 29 u malarice, 29 " vivax, 29 Platyhelminthes, 40 Plecotus auritus, 502 Plectroscelis concinna, 148, 151 Pliohippos, the, 466 Ploughshare bone, 369 Plovers, 401 Plum Aphis, 268 uu Weevils, 158 Plusia gamma, 204 Plusiadee, 204 Plutella maculipennis, 212 Pneumatic bones of bird, 369 Podiceps fluviatilis, 378 Polecat, the, 485 Polycheta, 40 Polydesmide, 112 Polydesmus complanatus, 113 Polyps, 33 Polystomata, 47 Polystomum interrimum, 47 Pomegranate bark, use of, 506 Pompilius plumbeus, 183 Porcellio scaber, 109 Porifera, 32 ae arch, of horse, 324; of bird, 32 Pratincoles, 400 Primates, 461 Primitive groove, 313, 436 " streak, 436, 439, 451 Proboscidea (diptera), 232 ; mals), 461 % Proctotrupide, 183 Propolis, 182 Protohippos, the, 466 Protoplasm, 3 Prototheria, 460 Protozoa, 16 Pseudalis ovis-pulmonalis, 69 Pseudotetramera, 146, 148 (mam- 552 INDEX. Pseudotrimera, 146 Reproductive system, of insects, Psila rose, 248 107 Psilide, 248 " organs, of mammals, Psocidee, 284 ~ 337 ; of birds, 374 Psoroptes, 128 Reptilia, 360 " communis vy. ovis, 129 Respiratory organs, of insects, 106 ; of Psorospermosis, 24 horse, 333; of Ichthyopsida, 352 ; Psychidee, 201 of bird, 374 Psylla mali, 272 Reticulosa, 20 wu pyrivora, 274 Reticulum, the, 473 Psylliodes attenuatus, 151 Rhinolophus fer vin-equinum, 502 Pteropoda, 295 " hipposideros, 502 Pulex irritans, 258 Rhipocephalus annulatus, 28 Pulicidee, 217, 256 Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 164 Pulmonary artery, 343 Rhodites rose, 185 " veins, 343 Rhopalocera, 192 Pulmonata, 297 Rhopalosiphum lactucw, 268 Pulse Seed Weevils, 159 Rhynchopora, 154 Pulvinia vitis, 270 Ribs, of horse, 321; of pig, 471: of Puparia, 142 oxen, 482 Pupipara, 254 Rice Weevil, 159 Putorius erminea, 484, 485 Ring-bone, 324 ‘ un feetidus, 484, 485 Rock Dove, the, 407 " furo, 484 Rodentia, 490 " vulgaris, 484 Rook, the, 416 Pyralide, 208 Root-eating maggots, 238 Pyrrhula europea, 418 Root-knot disease, 84 Rose Beetle, 163 Quadrate bone, 370 Round-worms, 63 Quadrumana, 461 Rove-beetles, 169 Quail, the, 363 Rumen, the, 473 Quassia, use of, 517 Ruminants, 473; stomach of, 473; Queest, the, 406 dentition of, 475 Rust in carrots, 248 Rabbit, the, 496 Radiolaria, 16 Salivary glands, of insects, 105; of Radula, the, 294 mammal, 331 Rails, the, 399 San José Scale, 269 Rallide, 399 Sand-flies, 226 Rana temporaria, 358 wu Lizard, 363 Ranide, 358 1 martin, the, 424 Rasores, 391 Sand Wasps, 175 Raspberry-beetle, 167 Santonine, 86 ef shoot-borer, 214 Seprinus virescens, 153 1 Weevil, 158 Sarcodina, 17 Rats, 492 Sarcoptes, 130 Rat Fleas, 258 " scabiet vy. ovis, 130 Red Grouse, the, 393 Sauropsida, 365 un Hen Mite, 122 Sawflies, 186 u Mange, 133 Sawfly larve, 186 u Spider, 119 Surtcola, 428 1 Wood Ant, 174 Seah, 129 Red-léged Weevil, 158 Scale insects, 269 Reduviidee, 262 Sealy-leg, in fowls, 133 Redwater, 25, 27 Schizoneura lunigera, 266 Redwing, the, 430 " ulni, 264 Reed-bunting, the, 423 Sclerostomum armatum (equinum), 70 Relapsing Fever, 126 " rubrum, 71 INDEX. Sclerostomum tetracanthum, 71 Scolopacide, 402 Scolopendridex, 113 Scolytidee, 170 Scooping-bone, of pig, 470 Scorpion-flies, 284 Scorpions, 108 Scratching-hirds, 391 Scymnus minimus, 147 Sea Anemones, 33 n -squirts, 307 Seals, 483 Segmentation of egg, 435 Segmented worms, 90 Selenodonta, 473 Sense organs, of worms, 38 ; of arthro- pods, 101 Sepia, 295 Sexton Beetle, 165 Sexual organs, of horse, 337 ; of ram, 480; of bull, 482 Sheep, 478 n fluke, 42 un nasal-bot, 236 nn seab, 129 1 spider tly, 254 « ‘treks, 127 Sheldrakes, 390 : Short-eared Owl, the, 410 Shot-borer Beetles, 170 Shrews, 499 Shrikes, 426 Sialidas, 284 Side-bone, 324 Silicoflagellata, 21 Silpha atrata, 166 1 — opaca, 165 Silver-fish, the, 290 Simulide, 226 Sirenia, 461 Siricide, 192 Sirex gigas, 192 u juvencus, 192 Siskin, the, 422 Sitones crinitus, 156 1 Lineatus, 156 Skeleton, of horse, 315; of bird, 367 ; of pig, 472; of oxen, 481; of sbeep, 479 ( “Sketer” Hawks, 288 Skip-jacks, 160 Skull, of horse, 319; of bird, 369; of ram, 478; of ox, 480 “Slaters,” 109 Sleeping sickness, 23 Slug-worm, of pear, 188 Slugs, 299, 302 Small Chafer, 164 533 Small intestine, of horse, 330; of pig, 470; of ox, 474 Sminthurus luteus, 290 Smooth Snake, 363 Snails, 801 ; natural enemies of, 303 Snake-flies, 284 Snakes, 360 Snipe, the, 400 Snow-flies, 274 Soft-soap, 516 Solidungulata, 464 Soil fumigation, 518 Solitary Wasps, 175 Solutre, fossil horses of, 464 Sorex fodiens, 499 nu pygmaeus, 499 un vulgaris, 499 Southern fever, 27 Sparrow-hawk, the, 383 Sparrows, 424 Sphingide, 196 Spider-fly, 254 Spiders, 115 Spinal cord, 345 Spiracles, 106 Spirillosis, 24 Spirochwte, 24 Spirochwta gallinarum, 24 " obermeiert, 24 Spleen, of horse, 331 Split swimming foot, of bird, 378 Spongide, 32 Spongilla fluviatilis, 33 Sporozoa, 17, 24 Stag-beetle, 163 Staphylinide, 169 “« Staggers,” 64 Starfish, 34 Starling, the, 417 Steel Blue, 192 Stem Eelworm, 80 eae of horse, 321; of bird, 1 Stifle-joint, 326 Stoat, the, 485 Stock-dove, the, 408 Stomach, of horse, 330; of bird, 373 ; of pig, 470; of ruminant, 474 Stomach Worms, 69 Stomoxys, 254 Stone Curlews, 400 u -flies, 284 Strawberry Snail, 302 Strawberry Weevil, 158 Strigide, 409 Striped Click-beetle, 161 Strix flammea, 409 Strongyles, of horse, 70 534 INDEX. Strongyles, of sheep and cattle, 69 Tenthredinide, 186 Strongylide, 68 Testacella, 301 Storks, 379 " hatiotidea, 301 “Sturdy,” 54 Testes, of insect, 107 ; ; of mammal, Sturnide, 417 337 Stylopide, 145 Tetrao scoticus, 393 Sub-zonal membrane, 453, 455 u— tetrix, 394 Suctoria, 29 nu wrogallus, 394 Suide, 473 Tetraonide, 393 Sulphur washes, 517 Tetranychus malver, 119 Summer Chafer, 164 " telarius, 121 Surface larva:, 203 Tetrarhynchus, 49 “ Surra,” 22 Texas fever, 27 Sus scrofa, 471 Thoracic duct, 344 Swallows, 423 Thorax, of insect, 101; of horse, Swans, 385, 389 329 Swifts, 411 Thread-worms, 64 Sylri atricapilla, 428 Thrips, 258 n evnerea, 428 Thrips cerealium, 259 u hortensis, 428 un minutissima, 260 Syinbiotes, 128 i ochraceus, 259 " communis v. ovis, 132 Thrush, the, 429 Sympathetic nervous system, 350 Thymol, use of, 73 Synergi, 184 Thymus gland, of horse, 331 Syngamus trachealis, 74 Thyroid, of horse, 331 Syrian Bee, 177 Thysanoptera, 258 Syrnium aluco, 410 Thysanura, 289 Syrphidz, 232 Ticks, 28 Syrphus balteatus, 232 Tinea granella, 216 " vibestt, 932 Tineine, 211 Tipula lateralis, ae Tabanide, 229 " oleracea, 2 oo] Tabanus autumnalis, 231 nu paludosa, 228 " bovinus, 231 Tipulide, 226 " sudeticus, 231 Tits, 427 Tadorna Bellonii, Toad, the Common, 357 ; the Natter- Tenia cenurus, 54 jack, 357 uu echinococcus, 58 Toads, 354 n expansa, 62 Tobacco wash, 516 n saginata, 62 Torcel Fly, 238 n serrata, 61 Tortricide, 209 solium, 56 Tortrix heparana, 211 Trenicides, 506 " larve:, 309 Teniosis, 48 u pruniana, 211 Talpa europea, 497 " ribeand, 211 Talpida, 497 Trachea, of insect, 106 ; of horse, 384 Tapeworms, 47; development of, 50; Tracheal injections, 509 human, 56, 58, Trematoda, 40 Tarsus, of horse, 326 Trichinella spiralis, 76 Tasmanian Devil, the, 463 Trichinosis, 7 Tawny Owl, the, 110 Trichocephalidw, 75 Tawny Wasp, 175 Trichocera hiemalis, 289 Teal, the, 390 " regelationis, 239 Teeth, of horse, 468; of dog, 488; Trichodectes, 284 of pigs, 470; of ruminants, 475 ; of Trichopsylla qallinu, 257 carnivora, 483 ; of cats, 489 Trichosomum, 75 Tenebrionide, 146 Trichostronqulus extenuatus, 70 INDEX. 53 Or Trichotrachelide, 75 Vapourer Moth, 200 Triton cristatus, 358 Vascular system, of mammal, 341; of Trogontia, 460 ichthyopsida, 353; of sauropsida, Trombidide, 118 361 Trombidium holosericeum, 122 Vedalia cardinalis, 148 Tropidonotus nutri, 363. Vena cava, superior and inferior, 342 Trypanoplasma, 22 nu porta, 844 Trypanosoma, 22 Vermiceous diseases, prevention and " brucet, 23 treatment of, 505 " cruzi, 23 Vertebra, of horse, 315; of bird, 369 " equinum, 23 Vertebral column, the, 315 " Lvansi, 23 Vespa crabro, 175 " gambiense, 23 u rufa, 175 Trypanosomatidé, 21 nu sylvestris, 175 Trypanosomes, 22 u vulgaris, 174 Trypetid«, 250 Vespertilio noctula, 502 Tsetse disease, 22 " pipistrella, 502 Tsetse Flies, 23 Vipera berus, 3638 Tulip-root in oats, 80 Vine Weevil, 158 Tunicates, 307 Visceral arches, 313, 452 Turbellaria, 39 " clefts, 442, 452 Turdus iliacus, 330 nn folds, 442 un merula, 829 Vocal cords of horse, 335 un musicus, 329 Voles, 494 ; plagues of, 495 un ptlaris, 330 Volucella bombylans, 233 un viscivorus, 330 " zonaria, 233 Turkeys, 397 Vorticella, 30 Turnip Flea, 148 Vulturide, 380 Gall Weevil, 159 Seed Weevil, 153 Wandering cells, 5 Turtle-dove, the, 407 Warble-flies, 233; of ox, 234; of Tylenchus, 79 pues 236 ; of horse, 237 ; of deer, " devastatriz, 80 238 scandens, 79 Warblers, the, 428 Typhlocybidee, 262 Washes, 515 bila 174; Sand, 175 ; remedies for, Umbilical vesicle, the, 453 175 Oncinate process of rib, 370 Water-rat, 495 Ungulata, 463 " Shrew, 499 Unio, 292; development of, 293 nu -snails, 097 Urachus, the, 454 Wax, 182 Ureters, 336 Weasels, 483 ; the common species of, Urethral canal, 336 484 Urinary organs, of horse, 336 Weevils, 154 Uroceride, 192 Wheat Eelworm, 79 Urodela, 354 Midge, 292, Uro- genital organs, of horse, 336; of Wheat: bulb fly, 242 mare, 339 Wheatears, the, 428 Urus, the, 482 Whip-worms, 75 Uterus, of mare, 339 Whitethroat, the, 428 Wild Boar, 471 Vanellus cristatus, 401 un Cat, 490 Vanessa C. album, 193 Windhover, the, 381 " to, 193 Wing, of bird, 365; of bat, 500 _ polychloros, 193 Winter-gnats, 229 Vanesside, 193 «Moth, 206 Vaporite, 518 Wireworms, 160 / 536 Wolf, the, 489 Wolffian duct, 444 Wombats, 463 Woodcock, the, 402 Wood-louse, 109 Woodpeckers, 412 Wood-pigeon, the, 406 nu -snail, 302 uw -wasps, 175, 186, 192 Woolly Aphis, 266 Worms, 36; classes of, 39 Wryneck, the, 412 Nyleborus dispar, 170 INDEX. 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Journal of Education.—“This Series has, we believe, already won the favourable notice of teachers. It certainly deserves to do so. Its volumes are edited with scholarly care and sound literary judgment. They are strongly and neatly bound, and extremely well printed.” Saturday Review.—‘‘The print is good, and the introductions both short and to the point, while the notes strike a happy medium between misplaced erudition and trivial scrappiness.” School Board Chronicie.—‘ There are no more thorough and helpful annotated editions than those of the series of Blackwoods’ English Classics.” Cowper—The Task, and Minor Poems. By Exizapeta Leg, Author of ‘A School History of English Literature.’ 2s. 6d. Guardian.—'‘‘ Miss Elizabeth Lee scores a distinct success. Her introduction is to the point and none too long; her notes are apt and adequate.” Scott—Lady of the Lake. By W. EH. W. Coturs, M.A. Is. 6d. 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Guardian.—‘‘ A igh acceptable addition to our stock of school classics, We congratulate Mr Downie on having found a field worthy of his labours and on having accomplished his task with faithfulness and skill.” Educational Works. 9 BLACKWOODS’ ENGLISH CLASSICS—continued. Goldsmith—Traveller, Deserted Village, & other Poems. By J. H. Loppan, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature, Birkbeck College, London. 1s. 6d. Literature.—‘“‘If Goldsmith touched nothing that he did not adorn, Mr Lobban and his publishers have adorned Goldsmith.” Pope—Essay on Criticism, Rape of the Lock, and other Poems. By Gzorez Sovran, M.A., Litt.D., Lecturer in English Language and Literature, University College, Dundee. 2s. 6d. Guardian.—“ The selection is made with taste, and the commentary is sound, adequate, and not overburdened with superfluous information.” Hazlitt—Essays on Poetry. By D. NicHou Smrrx, M.A:, Goldsmith’s Reader in English, University of Oxford, 2s, 6d. 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Academy and Literature.—‘‘ Nothing has been done perfunctorily ; Professor Duff is himself interested in Byron, and passes on to his reader, in consequence, some of the emotion he himself has felt.” Mr G. K. Chesterton in ‘The Daily News.’—‘‘ Mr Wight Duff has made an exceedingly good selection from the poems of Byron, and added to them a clear and capable introductory study.” : Professor R. Wiilker in ‘Englische Studien.’—‘‘ Wight Duffs Byron wird sicherlich dazu beitragen des Dichters Werke in England mehr zu verbreiten, als dies bisher geschehen ist. Aber auch in Deutschland ist das Buch allen Freunden Byron’s warm zu empfehlen.” 10 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. HISTORY. A Short History of Scotland. By ANDREW Lane. Crown 8vo, 5s, net. LATIN AND GREEK. Higher Latin Prose. With an Introduction by H. W. AupgEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ; late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar. 2a, 6d. *,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s, net. Educational Times.—‘‘ Those who are in need of a short practical guide on the subject will find Mr Auden’s little work well worth a trial....... The passages chosen are well suited for translation.” School Guardian.—‘‘This is an excellent Latin prose manual. The hints on composition are first-rate, and should be of considerable use to the student of style who has mastered the ordinary rules of prose writing. ..... Altogether, this is a very valuable little book.” Lower Latin Prose. By ee P. Wimson, M.A., Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh. 2s, 6d, *.* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net. Journal of Education.—‘' A well-arranged and helpful manual, The whole beok is well printed and elear. We can unreservedly recommend the work.” Higher Latin Unseens. For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Sel i - troductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Pacer Upuee coe ee iadgarg formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes Co ege, Edin- pore 2 a Ha ah olar of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Bell University Educational News.—‘‘The hints on translation gi hows: : given by Mr Auden are th most useful and judicious we have se ere Uae trated with skilful point and aptness, gee mana balk ant they are illus- Latin Unseens. Selected, with Introducti i School, Glasgow. 2a. om BY We Loppan, M.A., Classical miorten, Eee Athensum.—“‘ More interesting in substance th i ‘ an such thi: = Journal of Education.—‘' Will be welcomed by all ae mee seeghgol Guardian. —‘' The introductory hints en translation sh ld b 5 they are most valuable, and well put.” = es Educational Works. I Now issued at 1s. 6d. net to meet the requirements of the Education Department for a Latin Translation Book suited to pupils in the early stage of the subject. In its more expensive form the volume has been extensively used by the greater Public Schools, and is in its Thirteenth Edition. A specimen copy will be sent gratis to any teacher wishing to examine the book with a view to introduction. THIRTEENTH EDITION. ADITUS FACILIORES. AN EASY LATIN CONSTRUING BOOK, WITH VOCABULARY. BY A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D., Late Head-Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, and sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; AND THE Rev. ©. DARNELL, M.A., Late Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School, Edinburgh, and Scholar of Pembroke and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. Contents. PART I.—Stories and Fables—The Wolf on his Dvath-Bed—Alex- ander and the Pirate—Zeno’s Teaching—Ten Helpers—The Swallow and the Auts—Discontent—Pleasures of Country Life—The Wolf and the Lamb—Simplicity of Farm Life in Ancient Italy—The Conceited Jackdaw—The Ant and the Grasshopper—The Hares contemplate Suicide—The Clever Parrot—Simple Living—The Human Hand—The Bear—Value of Rivers—Love of the Country—Juno and the Peacock— The Camel—The Swallow and the Birds—The Boy and the Echo—The Stag and the Fountain—The Cat’s Device—The Human Figure—The Silly Orow—Abraham’s Death-Bed—The Frogs ask for a King—The Gods select severally a Favourite Tree—Hear the Other Side. PART Il.—Historical Extracts—TuE Srory or THE Fast: Histori- cal Introduction—The Story of the Fabii. Tux Conquest or Vzir: Historical Introduction—The Conquest of Veii. TH SacRIFICE oF Decrvs : Historical Introduction—The Sacrifice of Decius. PART IIl.—The First Roman Invasion of Britain—Introduction to Extracts from Cesar’s Commentaries—The First Roman Invasion of Britain. PART IV.—The Life of Alexander the Great —Historical Intro- duction—Life and Campaigns of Alexander the Great. APPENDIX. VooaBULARY. Two Maps to Illustrate the First Roman Invasion of Britain and the Campaigns of Alexander the Great, 12 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. First Latin Sentences and Prose. By K. P. Wuson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ; Assistant-Master at Fettes College. With Vocabulary, 2s. 6d. Also issued in Two Parts, 1s. 6d. each. Saturday Review.—‘“‘This is just the right sort of help the beginner wants. Sbek It is certainly a book to be recommended for preparatory schools or the lower classes of a public school.” Educational Review.—‘' Form masters in search of a new composition book will welcome this publication.” A First Latin Reader. With Notes, Exercises, and Vocabulary. By K. P. Wriso0n, M.A., Fettes College. Crown 8vo, ls, 6d. Tales of Ancient Thessaly. An Elementary Latin Reading-Book, with Notes and Voeabulary. By J. W. E. Peanoz, M.A., Headmaster of Merton Court Preparatory School, Sidcup ; late Assistant-Master, University College School, London. With a Preface by J. L. Paton, M.A., late Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge; Headmaster of the Grammar School, Manchester. 1s. Guardian.—'‘A striking and attractive volume, Altogether, we have here quite a noteworthy little venture, to which we wish all success.” Latin Verse Unseens. By G. MippLeton, M.A., Classical Master, Aberdeen Grammar School, late Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Joint-Author of ‘ Student’s Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s, 6d. Schoolmaster.—‘‘ They form excellent practice in ‘unseen’ work, in a great variety of style and subject. For purposes of general study and as practice for examinations the book is a thoroughly useful one.” Latin Historical Unseens. For Army Classes. By L. C. Vavauan Witxes, M.A. 2s. Army and Navy Gazette.—‘' Will be found very useful by candidates for entrance to Sandhurst, Woolwich, and the Militia.” Stonyhurst Latin Grammar. By Rev. JoHN GmRaRD. Second Edition. Pp.199. 3s. Aditus Faciliores Greci. An Easy Greek Construing Book, with Complete Vocabulary. By the lat A. W. Poms, M.A., LL.D., and the Rev. C. DaRNRLL M.A. Firth Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s. Camenarum Flosculos in Usum Fettesianorum decerptos Notis quibusdam illustraverunt A. Gut. Ports, M.A., LL.D, ; Gut. A. Hmanp, M.A., LL.D. New Impression. Crown 8vo, 85, 6d, , Educational Works. 13 Greek Accidence. For Use in Preparatory and Public Schools, By T. C, WEATHERH@AD, M.A,, Headmaster, Choir School, King’s College, Cambridge; formerly of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar. 1s. 6d. Literature.—‘' Not the least of its merits is the clearness of the type, both Greek and English.” Pilot.—‘‘ The most useful book for beginners we have seen.” The Messenian Wars. An Elementary Greck Reader. With Exercises and Full Voeabulary. By H. W. Aupgn, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto ; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ; late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar, 1s. 6d. Saturday Review.—‘‘ A far more spirited narrative than the Anabasis, We warmly commend the book.” Higher Greek Prose. With an Introduction by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto, 2s. 6d. *,* Key (for Teachers only), 58. net. Guardian.—‘‘ The selection of passages for translation into Greek is certainly well made.” Journal of Education.—‘'A manual of well-graduated exercises in Greek Prose Composition, ranging from short sentences to continuous pieces,” Lower Greek Prose. By K. P. Witson, M.A., Assistant-Master in Fettes College, Edinburgh. Qs, 6d. *,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s, net. School Guardian.—‘‘ A well-arranged book, designed to meet the needs of middle forms in schools.” Higher Greek Unseens. For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Selected, with Introductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AupEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh, 2s. 6d. Educational Times.—'‘‘It contains a good selection quite difficult enough for the highest forms of public schools.” Schoolmaster.—‘' The introductory remarks on style and translation form eminently profitable preliminary reading for the earnest and diligent worker in the golden mine of classical scholarship.” Greek Unseens. Bring ONE HUNDRED PassaGES FOR TRANSLATION aT SIGHT IN JUNIOR CuassEs, Selected and arranged. With Introduction by W. Lospan, M.A., Classical Master, The High School, Glasgow. 2s. This little book is designed for the use of those preparing for the Leaving Cer- tificate, Scotch Preliminary, London Matriculation, and similar examinations in Greek. The extracts are — from over a score of different authors, and regard lias been had in the selection to literary or historical interest, and in the arrange. ment te progressive difficulty. 14 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. Greek Verse Unseens. By T. R. Mus, M.A., Lecturer in Classics, University College, Dundee, formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford; Joint-Author of ‘Student’s Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s. 6d, School Guardian.—‘‘ A capital selection made with much diseretion....... It is a great merit that the selections are intelligible apart from their context.” University Correspondent.—‘‘This careful and judicious seleetion should be found very useful in the higher forms of schools and in preparing for less advanced University examinations for Honours,” Greek Test Papers. By James Mor, Litt.D., LL.D., late co-Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School. 2s. 6d, *," A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net. University Correspondent.—‘‘This useful book....... The papers are based on the long experience of a practical teacher, and should prove extremely help- ful and suggestive to all teachers of Greek.” Greek Prose Phrase Book. Based on Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, and Plato. Arranged accord- ing to subjects, with Indexes. By H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Editor of ‘Meissner’s Latin Phrase Book.’ Interleaved, 3s. 6d. : Spectator.—‘' A good piece of work, and likely to be useful.” Athensum.—‘‘A useful little volume, helpful to boys who are learning to write Greek prose.” Journal of Education.—‘‘ Of great service to schoolboys and schoolmasters alike. The idea of interleaving is especially commendable.” Aristophanes—Pax. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by H. SHARPLEY, M.A., late Seholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1 vol. 12s. 6d. net, A Short History of the Ancient Greeks from the Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest. By P. Gings, Litt.D., LL.D., Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. With Maps and Ilustrations. {in preparation, Outlines of Greek History. By the Same AUTHOR. In 1 vol,’ (In preparation, A Manual of Classical Geography. By Joun L. Myregs, M.A., Fellow of Magdalene College; Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. [Zn preparation, Educational Works. 15 BLACKWOODS’ ILLUSTRATED CLASSICAL TEXTS. GENERAL Epitor—H. W. AUDEN, M.A. Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master at Fettes College; late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell Uni- versity Scholar, Literature.—‘‘The best we have seen of the new type of school- book.” Academy.—‘If the price of this series is considered, we know not where to look for its equal.” Public School Magazine.—‘ The plates and maps seem to have been prepared regardless of cost. We wonder how it can all be done at the price.” BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS. Czsar—Gallic War, Books I.-III. By J. M. Harpwion, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rugby ; late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary. 1s. 6d, Czesar— Gallic War, Books IV., V. By Rev. St J. B. Wynne WILson, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury College ; late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary, ls. 6d. Vocabulary separately, 3d. Czsar—Gallic War, Books VL, Vil. By C. A. A. Du PonTet, M.A., Assistant-Master at Harrow. With or with- out Vocabulary. 1s. 6d. Virgil— Georgic I. By J. Saragaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Scholar of University College, Oxford, 1s. 6d. ‘Virgil—Georgic IV. By J. Sanczaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster; late Scholar of University College, Oxford. 1s. 6d.” 16 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. BLACKWOODS' CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued. Virgil—AEneid, Books V., VI. By Rev. St J. B, Wynne Wison, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury College. 1s. 6d. Ovid— Metamorphoses (Selections). By J. H. Vinog, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, Assistant-Master at Bradfield. 1s. 6d, Ovid—Elegiac Extracts. By R. B. 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AvpEN, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge ; Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master at Fettes College. 1s. 6d. Cicero—De Senectute and De Amicitia. By J. H. Vincs, M.A., Assistant-Master at Bradfield. (In preparation, Cicero—Pro Lege Manilia and Pro Archia. By K. P. Witson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ; Assistant-Master at Fettes College. 2s. 6d. Educational Works. 17 BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued. Cicero—Select Letters. By Rev. T. Nickiin, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rossall. 2s. 6d. Cicero—Pro Caecina. By Rev, J. M. Lupron, M.A. Cantab., Assistant-Master at Marlborough College. [Ln preparation. Tacitus—Agricola. By H. F. Mornanp Simpson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge; Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School. [In preparation. Xenophon—Anabasis, Books I., II. By A. Jacagr, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Gamsldee 5 Head- master, Queen Elizabeth’s Grammar School, Mansfield. 1s. 6d. Sallust—Jugurtha. By I. F. Smepuey, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. 1s. 6d. Euripides—Hercules Furens. By HE. H. Buaxgnzy, M.A., Headmaster, King’s School, Ely. 2s. 6d. Livy—Book XXVIII. By G. Mippueron, M.A., Classical Master in Aberdeen Grammar School ; and A. Sourer, D.Litt., Regius Professor of Humanity in the University of Aberdeen. 1s, 6d, Livy—Book IX. By J. A. Nicktin, B.A., late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge ; Assistant-Master at Liverpenl College. [In preparation. Nepos—Select Lives. By Rev. E. J. W. Hovauton, D.D., Headmaster of Rossall School. [in the press, MODERN LANGUAGES. FRENCH. Historical Reader of Early French. Containing Passages Illustrative of the Growth of the French Language from the Earliest Times to the end of the 15th Century. By HERBERT A, Strone, LL.D., Officier de l’Instruction Publique, Professor of Latin, University College, Liverpool; and L. D. Barnett, M.A., Litt.D. 3s, Guardian.—‘‘ A most valuable companion to the modern nandheoks on his- torical French grammar.” B 18 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. The Tutorial Handbook of French Composition. By ALFRED Mercigr, L.-és-L., Lecturer on French Language and Literature in the University of St Andrews. 3s. 6d. Educational Times.—‘''A very useful book, which admirably accomplishes its object of helping students preparing for examinations....... It is on rather novel lines, which commend themselves at once to any one who has had to teach the subject.” French Historical Unseens. For Army Classes. By N. EB. Toke, B.A. 28, 8d. Journal of Education.—‘‘A distinctly good book....... May be unreservedly commended.” A First Book of ‘‘ Free Composition’? in French. By J. EpMonD Mansron, B.-és-L., Senior Modern Language Master, George Watson’s College, Edinburgh. 1s. School World.—‘‘ We recommend it warmly to all teachers of French, and trust that it will have a wide circulation.” French Test Papers for Civil Service and University Students. Edited by Emme B. Le FRangois, French Tutor, Redcliff House, Win- chester House, St Ives, &c., Clifton, Bristol. 2s. Weekly Register.—‘‘ Deserves as much praise as can be heaped on it....... Thoroughly good work throughout.” All French Verbs in Twelve Hours (except Defective Verbs). By ALFRED J. Wyatt, M.A. 1s. Weekly Register.—‘‘ Altogether unique among French grammatical helps, with a system, with a coup d’cil, with avoidance of repetition, with a premium on intellectual study, which constitute a new departure.” The Children’s Guide to the French Language. By Annig G. FERRIER, Teacher of French in the Ladies’ College, Queen Street, Edinburgh. ls, Schoolmaster.— “The method is good, and the book will be found helpful by those who have to teach French to small children.” GERMAN. A History of German Literature. By Joun G. Roperrson, Ph.D., Professor of German in the Uni i of London, 10s, 6d. net. : DID AE eae Times.—‘‘1n such an enterprise even a tolerable approach to success is some- thing of an achievement, and in regard to German literature Mr Robertson appears to have made a nearer approach than any other English writer.” Outlines of the History of German Literature. For the Use of Schools, By the Same AUTHOR. Crown 8vo, 8s, 6d. net. Educational Works. 19 DR LUBOVIUS’ GERMAN SERIES. A Practical German Grammar, Reader and Writer. By Louis Lusovrus, Ph.D., German Master, Hillhead High School, Glas- gow ; Lecturer on German, U.F.C. Training College; Examiner for Degrees in Arts, University ef Glasgow. Part I.—Hlementary. 2s. Part II, 3s. Lower German. Reading, Supplementary Grammar with Exercises, and Material for Com- position. With Notes and Vocabulary, and Ten Songs in Sol-Fa Notation. By Louis Lusovivs, Ph.D. 2s. 6d. Athenzum,—‘‘ The volume is well designed.” Preparatory Schools Review.—‘' A capital reading-book for middle forms,” Progressive German Composition. With copious Notes and Idioms, and First InrRopUCTION TO GERMAN PumoLogy. By Lovis Lusovius, Ph.D, 3s. 6d. Also in Two Parts :— Progressive German Composition. 2s. 6d. *,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net, First Introduction to German Philology. 1s. 6d. Journal of Education.—‘'The passages for translation are well selected, and the notes to the passages, as well as the grammatical introduction, give real assistance....... The part of the book dealing with German philology deserves great praise.” A Compendious German Reader. Consisting of Historical Extracts, Specimens of German Literature, Lives of German Authors, an Outline of German History (1640-1890), Biographical and Historical Notes. Especially adapted for the use of Army Classes. By G. B. Brak, M.A. 23s. 6d. Guardian.—‘‘ This method of compilation is certainly an improvement on the hotch-potch of miscellaneous passages to be found in many of the older books.” Spartanerjunglinge. A Story of Life in a Cadet College. By Paul von SzozepaNski. Edited, with Vocabulary and Notes, by J. M. Morrison, M.A., Master in Modern Languages, Aberdeen Grammar School. 2s. Scotsman.—‘ An admirable reader for teaching German on the new method, and is sure to prove popular both with students and with teachers.” A German Reader for Technical Schools. By EwaLp F. SxcxLeR, Senior Language Master at the Birmingham Muni- cipal Day School; German Lecturer, Birmingham Evening School ; French Lecturer, Stourbridge Technical School. 2s. 20 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. SPANISH. A Spanish Grammar. With Copious Exercises in Translation and Composition; Easy reading Lessons and Extracts from Spanish Authors; a List of Idioms; a Glossary of Commercial Terms (English-Spanish); and a copious General Vocabulary (Spanish-English), By WinLiaM A, Kessen, Teacher of Spanish, Hillhead High School, Glasgow. 3s. 6d. Investors’ Review.—‘‘To the student who wishes to master the Spanish language for commercial or literary purposes this admirable little book will prove invaluable.” : : Commerce.—‘‘ Contains practically all that is necessary for the aequirement of a working knowledge of the language.” MATHEMATICS. Arithmetic. With numerous Examples, Revision Tests, and Examination Papers. By A. VerroH Loruian, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Mathematical and Science Lecturer, E.C, Training College, Glasgow. With Answers. 3s. 6d. Guardian.—'‘ A work of first-rate importance....... We should find it hard to suggest any improvement....... We venture to predict that when the book becomes known, it will command a very wide circulation in our public schools aud elsewhere.” Practical Arithmetical Exercises. For SgniorR PurILs IN Sonoors. Containing upwards of 8000 Examples, consisting in great part of Problems, and 750 Extracts from Examination Papers. Second Edition, Revised. 364 pages, 3s. With Answers, 3s. 6d. JAMES WELTON, Esq., Lecturer on Education, and Master of Method, Yorkshire College.—‘‘ Your ‘ Practical Arithmetic’ seems to me the most complete collection of exercises in existence. Both idea and exeeution are excellent.” Elementary Algebra. The Complete Book, 288 pp., cloth, 2s. With Answers, 2s. 6d. Answers sold separately, price 9d. Pt. I., 64 pp., 6d. Pt. IL, 64 pp, 6d. Pt. III., 70 pp., 6d. Pt. IV., 96 pp., 9d. Answers to Pts. I., II, III., each 2d. Answers to Pt. IV., 3d. Educational News.—‘‘ A short and compact introduction to”algebra....... The exercises are remarkably good, and the arrangement of the subject-matter is on the soundest principles. The work is, on the whole, to be commended as being at once inexpensive and scholarly.” Handbook of Mental Arithmetic. With 7200 Examples and Answers. 264 pp. 2s, 6d. Also in Six Parts, limp cloth, price 6d. each, Teachers’ Monthly.—'‘ The examples are mainly concrete, as they should be, are of all varieties, and, what is most important, of the right amount of difficulty.’ Educational News,—‘‘ This is, as a matter of fact, at once a handbook and a handy book. It is an absolute storehouse of exercises in mental computations, perer There are most valuable practical hints to teachers.” Educational Works. 21 Modern Geometry of the Point, Straight Line, and Circle. An Elementary Treatise. By J. A. THrp, D.Sc., Headmaster of Spier’s School, Beith. 3s. _ Schoolmaster, — ‘‘ Each branch of this wide subject is treated with brevity, it is true, and yet with amazing completeness considering the size of the volume. So earnest and reliable an effort deserves success.” Journal of Education. — “An exceedingly useful text-book, full enough for nearly every educational purpose, and yet not repellent by overloading.” Educational News.—‘‘A book which will easily take rank among the best of its kind, The subject is treated with complete thoroughness and honesty.” Mensuration. 128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and Tri- angles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may be had separately, price 2d. each Part. Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point, while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered to the students who make use of the book,” Higher Arithmetic. For Ex-Standard and Continuation Classes. 128 pp. Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d. With Answers, cloth, 11d, Answers may be had separately, price 3d. GEOGRAPHY. Fifty-Fitth Thousand, Elements of Modern Geography. By the Rev. ALEXANDER Mackay, LL.D., F.R,G.8. Revised to the present time. Pp. 300. 3s. Schoolmaster.—‘' For senior pupils or pupil-teachers the book contains all that is desirable....... It is well got up, and bears the mark of much care in the authorship and editing.” One Hundred and Ninety-Sixth Thousand. Outlines of Modern Geography. By the SaME AUTHOR. Revised to the present time. Pp. 128. Is. These ‘ Outlines’—in many respects an epitome of the ‘ Elements’—are care- fully prepared to meet the wants of beginners, The arrangement is the same as in the Author’s larger works. One Hundred and Fifth Thousand. First Steps in Geography. By the SaME AuTHoR. 18me, pp. 56. Sewed 4d. ; in cloth, 6d, 22 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. A Manual of Classical Geography. By Jon L. Myrxs, M.A., Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. ; [In preparation. CHEMISTRY AND POPULAR SCIENCE. Forty Elementary Lessons in Chemistry. By W. L. Sarcawt, M.A., Headmaster, Oakham School. Illustrated. 1s, 6d. Glasgow Herald.—‘‘ Remarkably well arranged for teaching purposes, and shows the compiler to have a real grip of sound educational principles, The book is clearly written and aptly illustrated.” Inorganic Tables, with Notes and Equations. By H. M. Trmpany, B.Sc., Science Master, Borough Technical School, Shrewsbury. Crown 8vo, ls. Things of Everyday. A Popular Science Reader on Some Common Things. With Ilus- trations, 2s, Guardian.—‘‘ Will be found useful by teachers in elementary and continuation schools who have to conduct classes in the ‘science of common things.’...... Well a , and strongly bound, and illustrated by beautifully clear diagrams.’ GEOLOGY. An Intermediate Text-Book of Geology. By Professor CHaRLES LaPworTH, LUL.D., University, Birmingham. Founded on Dr Pagu’s ‘Introductory Text-Book of Geology.’ With Ilus- trations. 5s. Educational News.—'‘ The work is lucid and attractive, and will take high rank among the best text-books on the subject.” Publishers’ Circular.—‘‘The arrangement of the new book is in every way excellent, and it need hardly be said that it is thoroughly up to date in all details.......Simplicity and clearness in the book areas pronounced as its accuracy, and students and teachers alike will find it of lasting benefit to them.” Education. — ‘‘The name of the Author is a guarantee that the subject is effectively treated, and the information and views up to date.” PALAEONTOLOGY. A Manual of Paleontology. For the Use of Students. With a General Introduction on the Principles of Palzontology. By Professor H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, Aberdeen, and RicHarD LypgkKer, B.A., F.G.S. &c, Third Edition. Entirely rewritten and greatly enlarged. 2 vols, 8vo, with 1419 Engravings. 638s, Educational Works. 23 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Fifteenth Edition, Revised. Introductory Text-Book of Physical Geography. With Sketch-Maps and Illustrations, By Davip Paas, LL.U., &c., Pro- fessor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Revised by Professor CHARLES LapworTH, 2s. 6d, , Athensum.—‘‘ The divisions of the subject are so clearly defined, the explana- tions are so lucid, the relations of one portion of the subject to another are so satisfactorily shown, and, above all, the bearings of the allied sciences to Physical Geography are brought out with so much precision, that every reader wil] feel that difficulties have been removed and the path of study smoothed before him.” PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC. An Introductory Text-Book of Logic. With Numerous Examples and Exercises, By SypNry HERBERT MELLONE, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.); Examiner in Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s. Scotsman, —‘‘This is a well-studied academic text-book, in which the traditional doctrine that has been handed down from Aristotle to the univer- sity professors of to-day is expounded with clearness, and upon an instruetive system which leads up naturally to the deeper and different speculations involved in modern logic....... The book, in fine, is an excellent working text-book of its subject, likely to prove useful both to students and to teachers. Elements of Psychology. By Sypnzy Hersert Mztxone, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.), and MARGARET Drummond, M.A. (Edin.) Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s, Scotsman.—‘“‘Thoroughness is a feature of the work, and, treating psychology as a living science, it will be found fresh, suggestive, and up-to-date.” Education. — ‘‘The authors of this volume have made satisfactory use of accredited authorities; in addition, they have pursued original investigations and conducted experiments, with the result that great freshness of treatment marks their contribution to the teaching of psychology ” A Short History of Logic. By Ropgrt Apamson, LL.D., Late Professor of Logic in the University of Glasgow. Edited by W. R. Sorzey, Litt.D., LL.D., Fellow of the British Academy, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Cambridge. Crown 8vo, 58 net. “There is no other History of Logic—short or long—in English, and no similar short work in any other language.” FORESTRY. The Elements of British Forestry. A Handbook for Forest Apprentices and Students of Forestry. By JoHN Niszet, D.Ci., Professor of Forestry at the West of Scotland Agricultural] College, Author of ‘The Forester.’ Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. net. Forest Entomology. By A. T. GitLtanpers, Wood Manager to His Grace the Duke of Northumber- land, K.G. Second Edition, Revised. With 351 Illustrations, Demy 8vo, 15s. net. 24 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. ELEMENTARY SERIES. BLACKWOODS’ LITERATURE READERS. Edited by JOHN ADAMS, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Education in the University of London. BOOK I. . . : , : Pp. 228. Price 1s. BOOK II. . : f 7 3 Pp. 275. Price 1s. 4d. BOOKIIL. . : ; : z Pp. 303, Price 1s. 6d. BOOK IY. . , * Pp. 381. Price 1s, 6d. NOTE. This new Series would seek to do for Literature what has already been done by many series of School Readers for History, Geography, and Scierice, Many teachers feel that their pupils should be introduced as soon as possible to the works of the great writers, and that reading may be learnt from these works at least as well _as from compilations specially written for the young. Because of recent changes in Inspection, the present is rr specially Suitable time for the Introduction of such a series into Eiementary Schools. in the Preparatory Departments of Secondary Schoois the need for such a series is clamant. It is to be noted that the books are not manuals of English literature, but merely Readers, the matter of which is drawn entirely from authors of recognised standing. All the usual aids given in Readers are supplied; but illustra- tions, as affording no help in dealing with Literature, are excluded from the series. — “The volumes, which are capitally printed, consist of selected readings of increasing difficulty, to which notes and exercises are added at the end. The selected pieces are admirably chosen, especially in the later books, which will form a beginning for a really sound and wide appreciation of the stores of good English verse and prose.”—Athenzum. _ “The selected readings...... are interesting, and possessed of real literary value. The books are well bound, the paper is excellent, and the unusual boldness and clear spacing of the type go far to compensate for the entire absence of pictorial illustrations.””—Guardian. “A very excellent gradus to the more accessible heights of the English Parnassus......The appendices on spelling, word-building, ye ee are the work of a skilful, practical teacher.”—Pall a azette. “If we had the making of the English Educational Code for Elementary Schools, we should insert a regulation that all boys and girls should spend two whole years on these four books, and on nothing else.’’—Bradford Observer. “The books ere graded with remarkable skill.”’—Glasgow Herald. Educational Works. 25 “ Absolutely the best set of all the history readers that have hitherto been published.”—The Guardian. THE STORY OF THE WORLD. FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By M. B. (In Five Books.) SYNGE. With Coloured Frontispieces and numerous Illustrations by B. M. Synge, A.R.E., and Maps. BOOK I. ON THE SHORES OF THE GREAT SEA. 1s. 4d. Colonial Edition, 1s. 6d. THz Home of Abraham—Into Africa— Joseph in Egypt—The Children of Israel— The First Merchant Fleet—Hiram, King of Tyre—King Solomon’s Fleet—The Story of Carthage—The Story of the Argonauts—The Siege of Troy—The Adventures of Ulysses— The Dawn of History—The Fall of Tyre— The Rise of Carthage—Hanno’s Adventures —tThe Battle of Marathon—King Ahasuerus —How Leonidas kept the Pass— Some BOOK II. THE DISCOVERY Tue Roman World—The Tragedy of Nero— The Great Fire in Rome—The Destruction of Pompeii—Marcus Aurelius—Christians to the Lions—A New Rome—The Armies of the North—King Arthur and his Knights— How the Northmen conquered England— The First Crusade—Frederick Barbarossa— The Third Crusade—The Days of Chivalry —Queen of the Adriatic—The Story of Marco Polo— Dante's Great Poem—The BOOK Ill. THE AWAKENING OF EUROPE. Greek Colonies—Athens—The Death of Socrates—The Story of Romulus and Remus —HowHoratius kept the Bridge—Coriolanus —Alexander the Great—King of Macedonia — The Conquest of India — Alexander’s City—-The Roman Fleet—-The Adventures of Hannibal—The End of Carthage — The Triumph of Rome—Julius Czsar—The Flight of Pompey—The Death of Cesar. OF NEW WORLDS. 1s. 6d. Maid of Orleans—Prince Henry, the Sailor— The Invention of Printing—Vasco da Gama’s Great Voyage —Golden Goa — Christopher Columbus—The Last of the Moors—Dis- covery of the New World—Columbus in Chains—Discovery of the Pacific—Magel- lan's Straits—Montezuma—Siege and Fall of Mexico — Conquest of Peru—A Great Awakening. 1s. 6d. Colonial Edition, 1s. 9d. Srory of the Netherlands—The Story of Martin Luther—The Massacre of St Bar- tholomew—The Siege of Leyden—William the Silent — Drake’s Voyage round the World—The Great Armada—Virginia—Story of the Revenge—Sir Walter Raleigh—The ‘Fairy Queen’—First Voyage of the East India Company—Henry Hudson—Captain Jobn Smith—The Founding of Quebec— The Pilgrim Fathers—Thirty Years of War —The Duteh at Sea—Van Riebeek’s Oolony —Oliver Cromwell—Two Famous Admirals —De Ruyter—The Founder of Pennsyl- vania—The ‘Pilgrim’s Progress '’—William’ Invitation—The Struggle in Ireland—The Siege of Vienna by the Turks—The Story of the Huguenots—The Battle of Blenheim— How Peter the Great learned Shipbuilding ~—Charles XII. of Sweden—The Boyhood of Frederick the Great—Anson’s Voyage round the World—Maria Therera—The Story of Scotland. 26 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. THE STORY OF THE WORLD—continued. BOOK IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR SEA POWER. 1s. 9d. Tue Story of the Great Mogul—Robert Clive—The Black Hole of Calcutta—The Struggle for North America—George Wash- ington—How Pitt saved England—The Fall of Quebec—‘‘ The Great Lord Hawke”— The Declaration of Independence—Capiain Cook's Story—James Bruce and the Nile— The Trial of Warren Hastings — Maria Antoinette-—-The Fall of the Bastile— Napoleon Bonaparte—Horatio Nelson—The Adventures of Mungo Park—The Travels of Baron Humboldt—The Battle of the Nile— Copenhagen — Napoleon — Trafalgar — The Death of Nelson—The Rise of Wellington— The First Australian Colony—Story of the Slave Trade—The Defence of Saragoza—Sir John Moore at Corunna—The Victory of Talavera—The Peasant Hero of the Tyrol— The ‘‘Shannon” and the ‘‘ Chesapeake ""— Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow—Welling- ton’s Victories in Spain—The Fall of the Empire—Story of the Steam Engine—Water- loo—The Exile of St Helena. BOOK V. GROWTH OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 23. How Spain lost South America—The Greek War — Victoria, Queen of England—The Great Boer Trek—The Story of Natal—The Story of Canada—The Winning of the West —A Great Arctic Expedition—Discoveries in Australia—The Last King of France--Louis Kossuth and Hungary—The Crimean War— The Indian Mutiny—King of United Italy —Civil War in America—The Mexican Re- volution—Founding the German Empire— The Franco-German War—The Dream of Cecil Rhodes—The Dutch Republics in South Africa—Livingstone’s discoveries in Central Africa—China’s Long Sleep—Japan, Britain’s Ally—Russia—The Annexation of Burma —The Story of Afghanistan —The Empire of India— Gordon, the Hero of Khartum—The Redemption of Egypt—The Story of British West Africa—The Story of Uganda — The Founding of Rhodesia — British South Africa—The Dominion of Canada — Australia— The New Nation— Freedom for Cuba—Reign of Queen Victoria —Welding the Empire—Citizenship. Also in 2 volumes, at 3s. 6d. each net, suitable as prize books. Uniform with this Series. THE WORLD’S CHILDHOOD. With oumerous Illustrations by Brinsley Le Fanu. STORIES OF THE FAIRIES. 10d, CONTENTS Lit-tle Red Ri-ding Hood. The Three Bears. ‘The Snow-Child. Tom Thumb. The Ug-ly Duck-ling. Puss in Boots. The Lit-tle Girl and the Cats. Jack and the Bean-Stalk. Gol-dy. Cin-der-el-la—Part I. Il. STORIES OF THE GREE SSO SHR CO ES ES 11. Cin-der-el-la—Part II. 12. The Lost Bell. 13, Jack the Gi-ant Kill-er, 14, Star-bright and Bird-ie. 15. Beau-ty and the Beast. 16. Peach-Dar-ling. 17. In Search of a Night’s Rest. 18. Dick Whit-ting-ton and his Cat. 19. The Sleep-ing Tae K GODS AND HBROBS. tod. CONTENTS, 1, A-bout the Gods. 2, The Names of the Gods. 8. Turn-ed in-to Stone. 4, The Shin-ing Char-i-ot. 5. The Laur-el Tree. 6. A Horse with Wings. 7. The Oy-press Tree. 8. The Fruits of the Earth. 9. Ou-pid’s Gold-en Ar-rows. 10. Pan's Pipe. 11. A Long Sleep. 12, The Re-ward of Kind-ness. 13, At-a-lan-ta’s Race. 14. The Stor-y of Al-ces-tis. 15. The Snow-White Bull. 16. The Spi-der and his Web. 17. I-o—the White Cow. 18, The Three Gold-en Ap-ples. 19. The Ol-ive Tree. 20. A Boy Her-o of Old. 21, The Thread of Ar-i-ad-ne. 22, The Boy who tried to Fly, 28, The Gold-en sand Teacher's Appendix. Educational Works. 27 “Tf history can be given a form likely to make it palatable to young folks, “F” has succeded. in doing so in these ‘Stories of the English’ It is ne eaucceention to say that the book represents not only a masterpiece in literature for children, but a work of no slight value for the national good.”—Scotsman. STORIES OF THE ENGLISH FOR SCHOOLS. By F. FOR JUNIOR SOHOLARS. Vov. L—FROM THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ARMADA. — 1s. 6d. CONTENTS.—The coming of the White Horse—The coming of the Cross—The Fight with the Raven—Alfred the Great—Edward the Confessor—William the Conquerer—The Kings of the Golden Broom—Richard Lion-Heart—King John and Magna Charta—Earl Simon the Righteous—Edward the Englishman—Bannockburn and Berkeley—The Lions and the Lilies—A King dethroned—Prince Hal—King Harry—The Wars of the Roses— Henry VIII. and the Revolt from Rome—Edward VI. and Mary—Hlizabeth, the Great Queen : (1) English Adventurers and the Cruise of the Pelican ; (2) Mary, Queen of Scots; (3) Papist Plots and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ; (4) The Armada, ILLUSTRATIONS.—Dover Castle—The Pharos, Dover—Norsemen—Homes of our Ancestors—Chfteau Gaillard—Tomb of a Crusader (Gervase Alard), Winchelsea Church— Carnarvon Castle—Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey—Knights of the Fourteenth Century—Edward the Third—The Battle of Cressy—Tomb of Edward the Third, West- minster Abbey—Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral—Richard II. on his voyage to Ireland—Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey—Henry V. with Military Attendants—Henry V. addressing his Army—Joan of Arc—The Crowning of Henry VII. on Bosworth Field—Henry VIII.—Wolsey—Sir Thomas More taking leave of his Daughter —Calais during the Sixteenth Century—Queen Elizabeth—The Armada—Drake—Mary, Queen of Scots—Drake playing Bowls with his Captains—Sir Walter Raleigh. FOR SENIOR SCHOLARS. Vor. I.—THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER AND GREATER ENGLAND.—1s. 6d. CONTENTS.—The First of the Stuarts—The Struggle for Power—The Puritan Tyranny —The Second Struggle for Power: Charles II.—The Revolution—The Fight with France: The Dutch King—Queen Anne and Marlborough—Greater England—The Story of Anson— The Story of Wolfe—The Story of Captain Cook—The Story of Clive—The War of American Independence—The great French War—The Story of Nelson—The Story of the Great Duke —The End of the Stories. - ILLUSTRATIONS.—James I.—Bacon—Charles I.—A Cavalier—Oliver Cromwell—The Great Fire of London—The Seven Bishops going to the Tower—Landing of William of Orange in England—Marlborough—Gibraltar—Chatham—Fight between the Centurion and the Manila Ship—General Wolfe—The Death of Captain Cook — Washington — Pitt— Napoleon Bonaparte—Nelson—H.M.S. Victory, Portsmouth Harbour—Duke of Wellington —Napoleon on board the Bellerophon. *Neill, Author of ‘Songs of the Glen of Antrim,’ writing to Mr Blackwood, ante atiog of the ‘English’ was written for my little daughter Susan. The child is quite fascinated by it, but equally so are all the grown-up friends to whom T have shown it. I lent it once to a sailor uncle, and he sat up to all hours of that night with it, and afterwards told me that he could hardly believe that such an account of Nelson’s great battles had been written by a woman, because it was technically accurate. And a soldier friend and critic used almost the same words about the account of Marlborough’s campaigns. F. is the most patient and faithful student of history that I know. She has such a strong literary sence that she amply could not write anything except in a literary form, and combined with it she h that rare thing, a judicial mind. This, I think, gives her work a quite peculiar value.” 28 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. Standard Readers. Revised Edition, With Supplementary Pages, consisting of ‘‘Spelling Lists,” ‘‘ Word-Building,” ‘‘ Prefixes and Suffixes,” &c. Profusely Llus- trated with Superior Engravings, BOOK I. 40 Lessons ‘ c F # 8d. BOOK II. 40 Lessons - ‘ . ‘ 9d. BOOK IIT. 60 Lessons 3 5 Gj « Ag. 0d, BOOK IV. 60 Lessons : ‘ é » 1s, 3d. BOOK V, 60 Lessons ‘ : . Is. 4d, BOOK VI. 60 Lessons P ¥ ‘ . Is. 6d. Schoolmaster.—'‘ We strongly recommend these books.......Children will be sure to like them; the matter is extremely suitable and interesting, the print very distinct, and the paper a pleasure to feel.” Infant Series. FIRST PICTURE PRIMER. 5 Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d. SECOND PICTURE PRIMER, ‘ Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d. PICTURE READING SHEETS, 1st SERIES. | 2ND SERIES. Each containing 16 sheets, unmounted, 8s. 6d. Mounted on 8 boards, with cloth border, price 14s,; varnished, 3s. 6d. per set extra. Or the 16 sheets laid on linen, varnished, and mounted on a roller, 17s. 6d. THE INFANT PICTURE READER. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth, limp, 6d. Edueational News.—‘‘ Teachers will find these Primers a useful introduction to the art of reading. We consider them well adapted to their purpose.” Geographical Readers. With numerous Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations. GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. (For Stand.I.) 96pp. 94d. BOOK I. (ForStand. II.) 96 pp. 5 ‘ 9a. BOOK II. (For Stand. III.) 156 pp. ‘ » Is, 0d. BOOK III, (For Stand, IV.) 192 pp. . » 1s. 8d. BOOK IV. (For Stand. V.) 256 pp. < . Is. 6d. BOOK V. (For Stand. VI.) 256 pp. i » Is. 6d. BOOK VI. (For Stand. VII.) 256 pp. 7 - 1s, 9d. Schoolmaster. — ‘This is a really excellent series of Geographical Readers. The volumes have, in common, the attractiveness which good paper, clear type, effective woodcuts, and durable binding can present ; whilst their conténts, both as to quality and quantity, are so graded as to he admirably adapted to the several stages of the pupil’s progress,” Educational Works. 29 Historical Readers. With numerous Portraits, Maps, and other Illustrations. SHORT STORIES FROM ENGLISH HISTORY . . . FIRST HISTORICAL READER . 160 pp. 1s. Od. . 160 pp. 1s. Od. SECOND HISTORICAL READER. . » 224 pp. 1s. 4d THIRD HISTORICAL READER ., 256 pp. 1s. 6d. Schoolmaster.—'‘ These new Historical Readers have been carefully compiled. The facts are well selected; the story is well told in language impress itself in the memory of young children; and the poet: fitting accompaniments to the prose.” most likely to ical pieces are School Board Chronicle.—‘‘ The treatment is unconventional, but always in good taste. The volumes will meet with much favour generally as lively, useful, high-toned Historical Readers.” Standard Authors. Adapted for Schools. HAWTHORNE’S TANGLEWOOD TALES. With Notes and [llustra- tions. 160 pp. 1s. 2d. Aytoun’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers. With Introduction, Notes, and Life of the Author, for Junior Classes. EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN . 82 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d. THE EXECUTION OF MONTROSE . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d. THE BURIAL-MARCH OF DUNDEE 32 pages, 2d.; cloth, 34d. THE ISLAND OF THE SCOTS . . 82 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d. Teachers’ Aid,—‘‘Capital annotated editions....... Beautifully clear and painstaking ; we commend them heartily to our brother and sister teachers.” Educational News.—‘‘ Useful issues of well-known poems are exceedingly appropriate, and leave nothing in doubt. For we can specially recommend these little books.” School Recitation Books. BOOK I. 382 pages ' . . . BOOK II. 32 pages , ‘i . , BOOK III. 48 pages. ‘ . . BOOK IV. 48 pages BOOK V. 64 pages : : , BOOK VI. 64pages . ‘ . isidece The notes class purposes Schoolmistress.—'' These six books are a valuable contribution to school literature. The poems for each standard are judiciously chosen, notes and questions at the end of every lesson are very suitable.” the explanatory 30 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. Grammar and Analysis. BOOK II. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d. BOOK III. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d. BOOK IV. 48pages . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d. BOOK V. 64pages . . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d. BOOK VI. 64pages . . Paper, 8d.; eloth, 4d. BOOK VII. 64 pages . . Paper, 8d.; cloth, 4d. Schoolmaster.—‘‘ This is a series of good practical books whose merits ought to ensure for them a wide sale. Among their leading merits are simplicity in definitions, judicious recapitulation, and abundance of well-selected exercises for practice.” Teachers’ Aid.—'' For thoroughness, method, style, and high-class work, commend us to these little text-books....... A practical hand has impressed every line with individuality....... We are determined to use them in our own department.” Arithmetical Exercises. BOOK I. a e . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 23d. BOOK Il. . ‘ . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d. BOOK III. : ¢ . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d. BOOK IV. , . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d. BOOK V. . . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d. BOOK VIL . . . Paper, 2d.; eloth, 3d. BOOK VII. . . . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d, HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua- tion Classes, 128 pp. . . Paper, 6d.; eloth, 8d. *,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct to Teachers only. Schoolmaster.—'' We can speak in terms of high praise respecting this series of Arithmetical Exercises. They have been carefully constructed. They are well graduated, and contain a large and varied collection of examples....... We can recommend the series to our readers.” Schoolmistress.—‘' Large quantity, excellent quality, great variety, and good arrangement are the characteristics of this set of Arithmetieal Exercises.” Elementary Grammar and Composition. Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCIS. With a Chapter on WORD-BUILDING and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. New Edition. 1s. Schoolmaster.—‘‘A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as analytic, and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young student how to use the elements of his mother-tongue....... A junior text-book that is calculated to yield most satisfactory results.” Educational Times.—‘‘'The plan ought to work well....... A decided advance from the old-fashioned practice of teaching.” Educational Works. 31 Grammar and Analysis. Scotch Code, STANDARD II. 24 pages. Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d. STANDARD III. 382 pages, Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d. STANDARD IV. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d. STANDARD V. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d. STANDARD VI. 64 pages. Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d. Teachers’ Aid.—‘‘ These are thoughtfully written and very practically con- ceived little helps....... They are most exhaustive, and brimming with examples.” New Arithmetical Exercises. Scotch Code, STANDARD I. 32pages . Paper, 13d.; cloth, 24d. STANDARD II. 32 pages . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d. STANDARD III. 56 pages . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d. STANDARD IV. 64pages . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d. STANDARD V. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. STANDARD VI. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d, HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua- tion Classes 128 pages . Paper, 6d.; cloth, 8d. *,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct to Teachers only. Educational News.—'‘The gradation of the exercises is perfect, and the examples, which are very numerous, are of every conceivable variety. There is ample choice for the teacher under every head. We recommend the series as excellent School Arithmetics.” Merit Certificate Arithmetic. 96 pp. Paper cover, 6d, cloth, 8d. Mensuration. 128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts, Pt. 1, Parallelograms and Triangles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids, 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may he had separately, price 2d. each Part. Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point, while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered to the students who make use of the book.” A First Book on Physical Geography. For Use in Schools. 64 pp. 4d. Journal of Education.—‘ This is a capital little book, describing shortly and clearly the geographical phenomena of nature,” 32 William Blackwood & Sons’ List. Manual Instruction—Woodwork. DxsicNep TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINUTE OF THE SCIENCE AND ArT DEPARTMENT on Manuva Instruction. By GEORGE ST JOHN, Undenominational School, Handsworth, Birmingham. With 100 Illustrations. 1s, Blackwoods’ Simplex Civil Service Copy Books. By Joun T. Pgaror, B.A., Leith Academy. Price 2d. each. CONTENTS OF THE SERIES. No. 1. Elements, Short Letters, Words, « 2, Long Letters, Easy Words. u 3, Capitals, Half-line Words. «u 4, Text, Double Ruling, Sentences. « 5, Half-Text, Sentences, Figures. » 6, Small Hand, Double Ruling. u 7. Intermediate, Transcription, &c. « 8. Small Hand, Single Ruling. The Headlines are graduated, up-to-date, and attractwe. Blackwoods’ Universal Writing Books. Have been designed to accompany the above series, and teachers will find it advantageous to use them as Dictation Copies, because by them the learner is kept continually writing at the correct slope, &c. Nol. is adapted for Lowzr Ciasses, No. 2 for HiaHER Ciasses. Price 2d. each. Practical Teacher.—‘‘ Our readers would do well to write for a specimen of this book, and of the blank exercise-books ruled on the same principle, They are worth careful attention.” School World.—‘‘ Those teachers who are anxious to train their pupils to write in the style associated with Civil Service Competitions should find the copy-books designed by Mr Pearce very useful. The writing is certainly simple ; it may, in fact, be reduced to four elements, in which the pupil is rigorously pated in the earlier books before proceeding in later numbers to continuous writing.” coe ee of our readers in search of new books should see ese. Journal of Education.—‘' Aids the eye and guides the hand, and thus checkmates any bias towards error in the slope.” UNIVERSITY CALENDARS. St Andrews University Calendar. Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 2s, 6d. net, St Andrews University L.L.A. Calendar. Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 1s, WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, BpINBURGH aND LONDON. 12/14. a as RES Ea en ay ee cme eee Sas A . ne desi eed a : PEE Bee Salsutes “ ae eae ph eo SEES, SAG one Ke Soe ete EEE a Sods ae ise ees eae ie se ey es ese eaten, dss - Se arid Sia apes ae Genes tas Pes Pe eee, a, Ate Settee ce ws te ee SN : , kon . 4 ce . es se x rtatay onan ee bt eee cnet ae Pen Tae fie ces sats at . on 2 ae Bes eer a os ye he é ie > By Petey phat ee oi oe ot Sie i ah = eh ee " o Pe ‘oer 3 * ae Po oe S ‘ 5 * ss re ss Pia 5 au Se 2 ; ewes ae xe ve Yi 15 £54 the i a tp é ‘ ‘ x reed ei H Tae - % : sity 4 saeeehs : ae 3 cs os eee ee st is = aii eh! co