Cornell University

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OF THE

Rew Work State College of Forestry

je University Library

if ‘iT

MADISON, WIS.:
ATWOOD & RUBLEE, STATE PRINTERS, JOURNAL OFFICE,
1867,

Cornell University

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The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

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the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002949919

REPORT.

INTROBUCTION,

Phe undersigned, having been appointed Commissioners, under the pro-
visions of a law of the State of Wisconsin, entitled “ an act relating to the
growth of forest trees,” approved Mareh 23, 1867, to ascertain and report in
‘detail to the legislature alt its wext session certain factsand opinions refating
to the injurious effects of cleating the land of forests upon the climate; the
‘the evil consequences to the present and future inhabitants; the duty of the
‘state in regard to the matter; what experiments should be made to perfect
our knowledge of the growth and proper management of forest trees; the
best ‘method of preventing the evil effects of their destruction; what sub+
‘stitutes for wood can be found in the state ; and generally such facts as may
be deemed most useful to persons desirous of preserving or increasing the
growth of forest and other trees in this state—have complied with the duties
thus imposed upon them, as well as the limited time and want of adequate
‘means would allow, and now have the honor to submit the following report:

NECESSITY OF TREES.

Both past history and present experience show that a country destitute of
forests as well as one entirely covered with them is only suited to the condi-
tion of a barbarous or semi-barbarous people. Deprive a people of the com-
forts and conveniences derived directly or indirectly from forest products,
and they soon revert to barbarism. It is only where a due proportion be-
tween the cultivated land and the forests is maintained that man can attain
and enjoy his highest civilization. _

It would seem to be the part of wisdom in a state, as well as with individ-
‘uals, to profit by the experience of others, in the ‘present and in past time,
‘to imitate their good works and to avoid their evil doings.

For it seems to be established as fact that a countty entirely covered *
with dense timber, as well as one destitute of trees, are.each inhabited by
savages. As heavy forests are removed and the country is brought under
culture, civilization advances until a certain breadth of plowing and pastur-
‘age is reached ; ‘but if the removal of trees advances beyond that extent, 80
that the country is denuded of its trees, barbarism equally ferocious as in
‘the timbered region again sets in, In the one case the savage meny desti-

4

fute of all domestic animals except the dog, are drivén to the seacoast and
water-courses, where by means of rudely constructed canoes they gratify the’
human passion ‘for migration to and from their small corn patch, fishing
places and hunting grounds; in the other, the horse, the camel or even the
ox affords the means of wandering over extensive countries of thin grass, or
desert sands, in quest of their prey.

Palestine, a land once “flowing with milk and honey,” so full of native
products as to attract the children of Israel from the highly favored plains
of Egypt; a country which for many ages sustained-a numerous, happy and
prosperous people, is now comparatively a barren waste ; its productions’
scarcely sufficient for 2 miserable population dwindled to only one-tenth of
its former numbers. The most careful examination of the soil shows no want
of the elements of vegetable growth—it remains as fertile to-day asin the
most ancient times, thus showing that we must look to the changes in the
local condition of the climate, rather than the exhaustion of the soil for the
causes of the wonderful changes that have taken place; and these local cli-
matic changes could only be produced by the indiscriminate destruction of
the forests that originally covered the whole country.

Egypt and Palestine were once the granary of the world, but these coun-
tries have long since lost their proud position among the nations of the
earth. We now claim to hold the keys to the food-production of the country,
but we are also in danger of soon losing the position unless we profit by their
example.

WARNINGS OF HISTORY.

Warnings from the experience of others may be found nearet home, and
in more modern times. According to a recent report, it appears that in
Switzerland the forests have been destroyed at such a rate that they do not
now yield an adequate supply for the present inhabitants. The higher
mountain regions have heretofore been considered the store houses of wood
for the most populous parts of level Switzerlaud, and for foreign countries ;
but the depredations have been so extensive that many of the inhabitants
are now suffering for the want of wood, and some of them are compelled to
convey their fuel from six to twelve miles up the mountains. If the future
forests, (says this report,) should not be better managed, and their too
extensive removal stopped, they would soon be entirely ruined in some
parts of these mountain regions, and then there would prevail such a' state
of things as already exists in Asia-Minor, Greece, a large portion of Italy,
Spain, Southern France, &., where forests abounded in former times. The
decrease of fertility on the Alps, and especially on the upper boundary, the
disappearance of the forests in the higher regions, the unfavorable changes
of the weather during the time of vegetation, the frequent and’ extensive
devastations of floods, avalanches, and precipitation of rocks, and large land-
slides on the sides of the mountains, filling up the valleys, are dhiefly occa-

5

ioned by the extensive clearing of the forests, and the careless management,
or rather, the mismanagement of those entrusted with its performance; and
these persons now must ascribe the jargest share of the misery which has
and will befall them, to their selfishness, and their disregard of the laws of
nature.

Timber protection is absolutely necessary for the successful cultivation of
certain crops and fruit-trees. Dussard maintains, that the mistral, the
dreaded northwest wind of France, whose chilling blasts are so fatal to ten-
der vegetation in spring, ‘‘is the child of man, the result of his devastations.
Under the reign of Augustus, the forests which protected the Cevennes, were
felled or destroyed by fire, en masse A vast country, before covered with
impenetrable woods—powerful obstacles to the movement and even the
formation of hurricanes—was suddenly denuded, swept bare, stripped, and
soon after a scourge, hitherto unknown, struck terror over the land, from
Avignon to the Buches du Rhone, and thence to Marseilles, and along the
whole maritime frontier. The people thought this wind a curse sent of God
They raised altars to it, and offered sacrifices to appease its rage.”’

Professor Rosa, in the Polytechnic Journal for December, 1861, gives the
following: ‘‘To supply the extraordinary demand for Italian iron, occasioned
by the exclusion of English iron, in the time of Napoleon I., the furnaces of
the villages of Bergamo were stimulated to great activity. The ordinary
productions of charcoal not being sufficient to feed the furnaces and the
forges, the woods were felled, the copses cut before their time, and the whole
economy of the forest was deranged. At Piazzatore there was such a devas-
tation of the woods, and consequently such an increased severity of the cli-
mate, that maize no longer ripened. An association formed for the purpose,
effected the restoration of the forest, and maize flourished again in the fields
of Piazzatore ”’

Similar ameliorations have been produced by plantations in Belgium.
Bande makes this statement: ‘‘a spectator placed on the famous bell tower
of the cathederal at Antwerp, saw, not long since, o» the oppasite side of
the Scheldt, only a vast desert plain; now he sees a forest, the limits of
which are confounded with the horizon. Let him enter within its shade.
The supposed forest is but a system of regular rows of trees, the oldest of
which is not forty years of age. These plantations have ameliorated the
climate which had doomed to sterility the soil where they are planted.
While the tempest is violently agitating their tops, the air a little below is
still, and sands far more barren than the plateau of La Hague, have been
transformed, under their protection, into fertile fields.” But to come still
nearer home; many of those immigrants to Wisconsin, who came from New
York and Pennsylvania, look back with pleasure to the days when they gath-
ered peaches and plumbs, from the trees, growing wherever the seeds hap-
pened to take root; butif they return again to that old homestead they
will find the primeval forests cut away and destroyed, and those trees dead,

6

and they will be told that new ones cannot be reared except in the uid
sheltered places. They will also find some of their favorite apple and pear
trees falling before some unseen enemy.

The Hon. Horace Greeley, in his lecture delivered at the annual spring ex~
hibition of the Brockport, N. Y., Union Agricultural Society, speaking on
this subject says: ‘This matter of raising timber needs be better cared for.
Taking the forest off has left our lauds exposed to the bleak and driving
winds, and has aggravated the disadvantages of our hot, dry summers, and
bleak, cold winters. Lack of fevests has narrowed the fruit region, and is
constantly narrowing it. More forests must be raised, and those of the best
kinds.” So too, within the last ten years the peach and the pear grew in all
the southern half of the State of Michigan ; but now, when by the destruc-
tion of the forests, their ameliorating influence on the climate of the state
is lost, the peach trees all over the state have failed, except upon a nar-
row strip under the east shore of lake Michigan.

T. T. Lyon, Esq., of Jackson, Michigan, a veteran pomologist of that
state, places this matter ina clear light. In 1864, hesaid: “Tbe natural
resust of this wholesale destyuction is manifesting itself in the high winds,
the more sudden changes, and the more extreme cold of our winters. Al-
though in consequence of thisstate of aflaivs the peach, once almost as sure
throughout our state as the apple, is now, in effect, driven under the lee of
lake Michigan; and although our staple grain crop, wheat, was but two years.
since almost a total failure from want of shelter and protection, and though
we have reason to fear that we have not yet seen the worst, the process of
destruction yet goes on unchecked, and with a strange fatuity. Although
the subject is one that deeply concerns us all, no measures are being taken
or even seriously contemplated to stay the growing calamity.

“Two years since, at a similar meeting, I availed myself of the opportu-
nity to urge upon the agriculturalists of the state the importance of action
in this matter. During the next winter the wheat crops of the entire state,
from the want of the usual covering of snow, and the general lack of shelter
from wind and sun, was diminished in amount more than one half—a loss to
the state in a single year of more than 5,000,000 bushels. The present win-
ter threatens a repetition of the same calamity ; and with the great preadth
of wheat sown, we shall be fortunate if the amount of loss be not essentialy
greater than before.”

A committee of the House of Representatives of that state at its last ses-
sion reported to that body on the subject of the forest trées, and stated
that, last year the loss on all that part of the state lying south of the Michi-
gan Central railroad,—a region deprived of the ameliorating influences of
Lake Michigan upon the southwest side—and comprising the richest agricul-
tural portion of the state, was estimated at no less than three-fourths of the
entire wheat crop! From what inquiries they had been able to make, the
loss on the wheat crops alone, of that state, for the last four years, is not

7

less than $20,000,000, They say that they would be most happy to believe
that this enormous loss springs from causes evanescent in their nature, and
destined speedily to pass away, to return nevermore. But they feared that
these vast losses are but ‘the beginning of sorrow,” and, that the improvi-
dence which laid open their fields to that scourge of God, the southwest
wind, by the wholesale destruction of their forests, is now only beginning to
reap the fruit of that want of forethought; and that these losses can be
avoided only by restoring in part at least, the natural barriers against the
wind. . ,

If we enquire for the cause and origin of this wind which has made such
havock, in New York and Michigan, since the cutting away of the forests of
those states, we shall find it nearer our own door than theirs. Nor is it alone
a cold southwest wind, which chills, freezes, congeals and dries the sap of
life out of vegitation, that isto be dreaded, but equally to be shunned is
the same southwest wind, when in another portion of the year, it becomes
as fearfully dry and hot as the sirocco from the burning sands of Africa.

Géographers have fixed the center of the United States near the city of
Lawrence, in Kansas. The thermometrical observations taken at Leaven-
worth, 26 miles from this center, for many years have shown “ that Fort
Leavenworth was subjected, beyond any other part of the United States
where similar observations had then been made, to sudden and extreme
changes both of heat and cold, of moisture and drought.’’ Since the settle-
ment of Kansas, the terrible droughts experienced, and the many men who
have perished with the cold on the plains between the Missouri river and
New Mexico and Salt Lake, bear evidence to the truth of the observations at
Leavenworth; being more than confirmed by those of Fort Larned and
other posts on the Arkansas and its branches,

And this is to be expected in the nature of things. There is no large
body of water in the central part of the North American continent, west of
the Missouri river, which is able to exert any controling influence upon the
temperature of all that region. When we go north from Leavenworth five
degrees, we are in a cold and frozen climate, closed early in the fall, and
locked in frost until late in the spring. Pass five degrees southward, and we
have almost forsaken the region where ice may be said to form: hence this
middle ground is wholly controlled by the prevailing type of the season, in-
terspersed with the sudden and ofttimes violent injection of short periods of
temperature from the opposite points of the compass. Thus the general
winter may be mild, without snow, with scarcely frost enough to prevent
ploughing a single week through the entire winter, and still there may come
days when the thermometer will sink to 80 or 40 degrees below zero. On the
other hand, in a long, cold, snowy winter, a period of very spring or early
summer, as regards its balminess and comfort, may break in with equal
suddenness.

The same latitude upon either the Atlantic or Pacific coast is no criterion

8

by which to judge of the temperature of the plains. The presence of a great
ocean, with its broad, open bosom continually exposing to the biting air its
fresh warm currents, and evaporating its waters to moisten the dry atmos-
phere, gives a stability and controls the temperature, unknown when we reach
a point almost 2,000 miles from each ocean, and 1,000 from the Gulf of
Mexico.

The wind set in motion on this treeless plain, charged with heat or cold, as
the case may be, meets no resistance as it sweeps 600 or 600 miles, and like
some falling body acquires velocity as it makes distance from the mountains
to the settlements east of the river.

On the tropics the trade winds blow continually from the east. As these
strike the Mexican coast in the Gulf of Mexico, they are deflected to the
north along and among the ranges of the mountains east of the Rio Grande.
There all humidity is lost, and they are dried to excess as they reach and
pass the 40th parallel, where the prevailing winds of the globe are from the
west. From the snow-capped mountains they roll in torrents across the
broad plains of New Mexico, the Indian and Colorado Territories, over Kan-
sas and Nebraska, easily surmounting the narrow belts of timber, which are
at first hid in the deep channels of the water courses, then spreading out
but slightly at the Missouri and the rivers of Iowa ; thus almost unobstructed
they fall upon the prairies and thin oak openings of Illinois and Wisconsin,
without local impediment.

Having discovered whence our dreaded enemy comes, and how he comes;
the remedy is plain; and it become the duty of every land owner to build
up proper obstructions to his march. It is also the duty of the state to lend
protection and assistance to the land owner, by the enactment of such laws
as shall make it an inducement to the owners to undertake the task. As the
wind comes from south of west, it indicates that the timber to break its
force should be planted on the west and south sides of the land to be pro-
tected. The north side will not so much require protection until such de-
struction has taken place in our northern forests as shall let in the winds
from the north ; but even then those winds would come to us like the south-
west wind which reaches Michigan, more or less tempered by passing over
Lake Superior. But the beltings of any number of tracts of land of ten acres
each will all be protected on every side by merely closing up their ultimate
north and east sides, which may be done by a half belt, or such rows of trees
as ought to be planted along every road side.

As it now is, we look over the state and see in the southern, most populous
and least wooded portion of the state of Wisconsin, the forests have been
destroyed at such a rate that they do not yield a supply adequate for the
wants of the present inhabitants; and the forests of the northern regions,
heretofore considered the inexhaustable store house of wood for the adjoin-
ing treeless districts will soon be sa reduced that the people must look else-

9

where for their supplies, unless a better policy in regard to them be speedily
adopted.

The state of Illinois is familiarly known as the ‘Prairie State,’ on ac-
count of the scarcity of timber. Large quantities of wood and lumber are
annually exported from Wisconsin to supply this scarcity of timber. So ap-
parent are the evils resulting from a want of forests in that state that there
is a very general disposition among the inhabitants to plant trees, and we
may in a few years find Illinois amply supplied and her fields protected with
forest trees. On the other hand Wisconsin, except in a few southern and
southwestern gounties, is abundantly supplied with forests—so abundant that
the chief efforts of the inhabitants are directed to their removal and des-
truction. It will not be long if this course is continued before Wisconsin
will be groaning under the evils of a country exposed to the full blasts of
every wind that blows. Illinois will be the well-wooded, and Wisconsin the
prairie state.

In Europe where these matters are rapidly becoming better understood, it
has been found necessary for the governments to manage and preserve the
forests. Forestry in all its details is a very important feature of the pro-
ductive economy of many of the states, and consequently much attention has
been paid to it; the forests being kept with the cleanliness and good order
of a park.

THE EFFECT OF CLEARING THE LAND OF FOREST TREES UPON
THE CLIMATE OF THE STATE.

TEMPERATURE.—To become convinced that the destruction of the forests
would increase the temperature of the ground in summer one has only to ride
in an open conveyance, on a hot day, across a prairie or cleared country, and
then enter the depths of a dense forest. The change is at once apparent—
from the burning heat of the sun we pass to the cool shade of the trees, and
find a contrast so great that it must have been observed by every one; it is
the difference between sunshine and shade; and is so obvious that it seems
scarcely necessary to adduce arguments or illustratrions in further proof of
the fact that clearing the land of trees increases the temperature of the ground in
the summer.

It is not to be supposed that the sun supplies a less amount of heat upon a
given surface of forest than upon the same area of cleared ground; but in
the former case the heat is intercepted by the leaves of the trees, and there-
fore does not reach the ground. Hence, although the mean temperature of
the summer as measured by the thermometer in the shade in the usual way,
may not be effected by the clearing away of forests, yet the quantity of heat
that actually reaches the ground is vastly increased; and it is this tempera-
ture of the ground, perhaps as much as that of the air above it, that effects
the growth of farm crops.

Again, if one should pass in an open conveyance from an exposed or prairie

10

country into one covered with trees, at atime when the winter cold is the
most severe, he would immediately find a degree of comfort and relief, that
renders all arguments needless, to show that clearing away the trees from the
land diminishes the temperature of the gronnd in winter, It is familiarly known
that frost does not penetrate the ground to the same depth in the’ woods as
in the fields.

Although the thermometer will always exhibit several degrees, often as
high as twenty, between the temperature of the thick woods and the open
prairies; yet men do not require the delicate sense of the thermometer to
teach them this truth; their own sensation advises them of the change from
open grounds to the surroundings of overhanging trees, before they have
time to consult the instrument. Cut away these trees and a change must
follow the destruction.

In the state of Michigan it has been found that the winters have greatly
increased in severity within the last forty years, and that this increased se-
verity seems to move along even-paced with the destruction of the forests.
Thirty years ago the peach was one of the most abundant fruits of that state ;
at that time frost, injurious to corn at any time from May to October, was a
thing unknown. Now the peach is an uncertain crop, and frost often injures
the corn.

Trees have a power to conduct heat, by which they facilitate its passage

from the air to the ground in summer, and from the ground to the air in
winter. ;

Trees also, like animals, have a specific heat of their own, which aids in
equalizing the temperature of the surrounding air.

For some unexplained reason, connected with vegetable life, trees when in
full foliage become cold at night, often colder than the air, which therefore
is also cooled by this cause.

Forests, by their shade, prevent the radiation of heat from the ground.

The evaporation of a large amount of water from the surface of the leaves
of trees produces coldness in the air in contact with them.

It is quite evident, therefore, that a forest is a great equalizer of temper-
ature, modifying both the extreme heat of summer and the extreme cold in
the winter; its removal makes the climate more excessive; the range of the
thermometer being increased; and many crops, fruits, &c., that could be
raised under the protection of the forests, are killed, either by this excessive
heat or extreme cold.

Homiviry.—No constituent of the atmospheric air is more important, or
less understood, than aqueous vapor, the greater or less amount of which
regulates not only the growth of plants, but also to a considerable degree
the health and comfort of the inhabitants. It prevents the undue radiation
of heat from the ground, and thus aids materially in maintaining that equit-
able degree of temperature so essential to many of the processes uf nature.
Here again, it will be found upon passing, on a very dry day, from an open

it

to a well-wooded country, that a very marked change oceurs; in the woods
the air is more nearly saturated with vapor, the ground is moist, and not
hardened by the loss of water, and hence no further arguments need be ad-
duced to show that clearing away the forests from a country will increase the dry-
ness of the ground.

This effect of aqueous vapor in preventing the radiation and loss of heat
from the ground is subject to direct measurement. During nine days in
June, 1866, at Milwaukee, when the air was most nearly saturated with
vapor (relative humidity 90 per cent.), it was found that the difference of
temperature of the day, and of the night was 180,—while in the same number
of days when the air was most dry (relative humidity being only 56 per cent.),
the difference of temperature between day and night was 290, showing a dif-
ference of 110, due to the existence of the vapor, which acts like a blanket
in preventing the occurrence of frosts and the consequent destruction of
tender plants. Forests, by increasing the moisture of the air adds to the
security against frosty nights. :

From observations made at the agricultural college at Lansing, Michigan,
by Dr. R. C. Kedzie, as compared with those made at Milwaukee, it appears
that the amount of evaporation from the surface is considerably greater in
the latter place ; and in the interior of Wisconsin, away from the influence
of the lake, the difference must be still greater—thus showing a greater neces-
sity for the protection by forest trees in this state than in Michigan. This
necessity continues to increase as we go westward until we approach the arid
and almost desert plains at the foot of the Rocky Mountains.

Trees have a very decided effect upon the temperature and humidity of the
air by the evaporation constantly going on from the surface of the leaves. It
is a principle in chemical science, that evaporation produces cold; and care-
ful experiments show, that to convert water into steam or vapor 9650 of heat
must be supplied. In the steam engine this supply comes from the fuel con-
sumed for the purpose, but in ordinary evaporation an equal quantity comes,
(though a longer time is required,) from the surrounding air. To absorb beat
from any medium is to make it cold; and the amount of heat absorbed from
the atmosphere by the evaporation of water from leaves of trees must there-
fore be very considerable.

To estimate roughly, but with as much accuracy as possible, the vast quan-
tity of water consumed by vegetation in one year we may assume the follow-
ing data:

The average amount of earthy matter in plants, or the amount of ash left
when consumed by fire is about five per cent , or one pound in every twenty.
The average amount of earthy matter contained in natural waters is about
eight grains* in a gallon (of 58,318 grains) or one pound in 7,290 pounds.
From this it follows, that to obtain 20 pounds of wood, or other vegetable

*The water of Lake Michigan has recently heen found to contain 8.20 grains in a gallon.

12

matter, 7,290 pounds of water must be absorbed by roots from the soil and
evaporated from the leaves—for all mineral matter in plants comes from
water containing it in solution—in other words, to produce one pound of
vegetable matter, 365 pounds of water must be evaporated. Now, if we
assume, about 6000 pounds as the annual product of an acre of land in wood,
leaves, &c., a very simple calculation will show, that a rain fall of nine inches
is required to supply the water which must necessarily be consumed to pro-
duce the mineral matter annually formed or deposited in the tissues of plants ;
a quantity exceeding one-fourth of the whole annual quantity of rain falling
in this state.

The process of evaporation of water is very much accelerated by wind; for
when the air is still it soon becomes so nearly saturated with moisture that
no more can be absorbed from the soil, or from leaves: but when this moist
air is removed by the wind the absorption of moisture continues.

The ground under the forests being shaded and kept cool, the evaporation
from the surface is very much diminished, and the water of rains remains
longer in the ground to supply the absorption of roots, within the forests,
than upon open fields.

Another source of increased moisture under trees is the coolness of the
leaves at night causing a deposition of dew, sometimes in such quantities as
to cause drops of water to fall to the ground like rain.

HOW TREES AFFECT THE SPRINGS, STREAMS AND RAIN OF A
COUNTRY.

From what has already been said it is evident that clearing away the forests
diminishes the flow of water from springs In the woods the water is retained
in the soil, evaporation being prevented by the shade, while in the fields the
water is rapidly evaporated, or, not being impeded by vegetation, runs off to
the river and water-courses more rapidly, thus giving less time to penetrate
the soil and supply subterranean passages to springs. There are well attested
instances where springs have been dried up in consequence of the clearing
of adjacent forests.

Forest growths are regarded by many of our ablest physicists as exerting
a marked influence over the amount of rainfall in such a region. The fact
that all countries abundantly clothed with forests are also well supplied with
rain and the rain is equally distributed through the season of vegetable
growth, would naturally Jead to the conclusion that forest growths have some
agency in determining this rainfall. Others have claimed that the equable
rainfall was the effect of other causes, and that the abundant forest growth
was the effect of the abundance and distribution of the rain, and not the de-
termining cause of the rain. But whichever may be placed as antecedent or
consequent, abundant and well distributed rain is found associated with large
forest growths; and if these forest growths are extensively removed, the
rains diminish or become capricious, droughts and flood alternating, while in

13

tegions destitute of all vegetable growth, rain is unknown, as in the strong
lines of the poet:

“« Afric’s barren sand,
Where nanght can grow because itraineth not,
And where no rain can fall to bless the land,
Because naught groweth there.”

Humboldt, speaking of the effect of removing forests, says: ‘In felling
the trees which covered the crowns and slopes of thé mountains, men in all
climates seem to be bringing upon future generations, two calamities at once
a want of fuel, and a scarcity of water.” Herschel enumerates among the
influenees unfavorable to rain, ‘‘ absence of vegetation in warm climates, and
especially of trees. This is no doubt one of the reasons of the extreme arid-
ity of Spain.” Aridity and barrenness, indeed, is the general characteristic
of that whole country. The insane folly which has caused the people to
denude the country of trees, has modificd no doubt unfavorably, a climate
already too dry, and strikes with astonishment and horror one new from the
delicious freshness and verdufe of England and our eastern States. The
Spaniard, and above all, the Castilian, has an inate hatred of a tree; if he
does not cut it down for fire-wood, he cuts it down because it harbors birda
that eat his grain, Forests and brush alike disappear before the inevitable
axe, until, as often occurs in Castile, the traveler may look for leagues over
the country without seeing ‘a tree or bush to break its uniformity. This fool-
ish extinction of the forests has been the source of innumerable evils to the
country—evils which are continually acting upon and augmenting each other.
Unrestrained by any vegetation, the rain water rushes down the steep sides
of the hills and over the plains, wearing them into deep gullies, and carrying
off the finer and most valuable parts of the soil. The rivers, terrible and
dangerous torrénts in times of rain, shrink and dry up almost immediately
afterwards, and the water, for which the country is gaping, hurried off to the
sea, becomes lost for all useful purposés. Extreme aridity of the atmosphere,
continually diminishing rainfall, and impoverishing the country, ate but con-
sequences of the denudation—a condition which nothing can now remedy
but a strong energetic action on the part of the people to feplant and irri-
gate it.

Asbjotnsen says: ‘Numerous examples show that woods exert an inf®
ence in producing rain, and that tain fails whete they are wanting; for
many countries have by the destruction of their forests, been deprived of
tain, moisture, springs dnd water-coutses, which aré necéssary for vegetable
growth. In Palestine, and mary other parts of Asia and Northern Africa,
which in ancient times were the granaries of Europe, fertile and populous,
similar consequences have been experienced. These lands are now deserts,
and it is the déstruction of the forests alone which has produced this desola-
tion. On the other hand, examples of the beneficial influence of planting
and restoring the woods are not wanting. In Lower Egypt, both at Cairo

14

and near Alexandria, rain rarely fell in considerable quantity—for example,
during the French occupation of Egypt, it did not rain for sixteen months
‘put since Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim Pacha executed their vast plantations,
(the former alone having planted more than twenty millions of olive and fig
trees, cottonwoods, oranges, &c.,) there now falls a good deal of rain, espe-
cially along the coast, in the months of November, December and January }
and even at Cairo it rains poth oftener and more abundantly, so that real
showers are no rarity.”

Boussingault, a most careful observer and guarded writer, says: “In my
judgment, it is settled that very large clearings must diminish the annual fall
of rain in @ country.”

It is a matter of common observation that springs are frequently dried up
by clearing the ground above and adjacent to them. A great many instances
might be given. Marschand says: ‘The Wolf spring, in the commune of
Souberg furnishes a remarkable example of the influence of the woods upon
fountains. A few years ago this spring did not exist. At the place where
it now rises, a small thread of water was observed after long rains, but the
stream disappeared with the rain. The spot is in the middle of a very steep
pasture inclining to the south. Eighty years ago the owner of the land per-
ceiving that young firs were springing up in the upper part of it determined
to let them grow, and they soon formed a flourishing grove. As soon as they
were well grown, a fine spring appeared in the place of the occasional rill,
and furnished abundant water in the longest droughts. For forty or fifty years
this spring was considered the best in Clos du Douds. A few years sincé
the grove was felled and the ground turned intoa pasture. The spring disap-
peared with the wood, and is now as dry as it was ninety years ago.”

Dr. Piper, in his “Trees of America,” says: ‘ Within half a mile of my
residence ya isa pond, upon which mills have been standing for a long
time, dating back, I believe to the first settlement of the town. These have
been kept in constant operation until within some twenty or thirty years, -
when the supply of water began to fail. The pond owes its existence to a
stream which has its source in the hills which stretch some miles to the south.
Within the time mentioned, these hills, which were clothed with a dense for-

t, have been almost entirely stripped of trees; and to the wonder and loss
of the mill owners, the water in the pond has failed, except in the seasen of
freshets, and what was never heard of before, the stream itself has been en-
tirely dry. Within the last ten years a new growth of wood has sprung up
on most of the lands formerly occupied by the forests, and now the water
runs through the year, notwithstanding the great droughts of the last few
years.”

It follows also, from the facts above recited, that clearing a country of trees
inereases the suddenness and magnitude of floods and torrents; trees causing the
surplus water to pass off through the rivers more uniformly throughout the

15

season. As the trees are removed, the waters of heavy rains rush unimpeded
directly to the valleys and are carried off within a short time, leaving the
bed almost or quite destitute of water during the dry season. About one-
fourth of the water falling in the form of rain, snow and hail in this state is
carried off by rivers.

We need not have gone beyond our own state, nor referred to times longer
than our own limited experience to find examples of the evils resulting from
this change in the flow of rivers from one of regularity and uniformity to one
of periodic floods and dry or nearly dry beds. Such has been the change in
the flow of the Milwaukee river, even while the area from which it receives
its supply is but partially cleared, that the proprietors of most of the mills
and factories -have found it necessary to resort to the use of steam, at a largely
increased yearly cost, to supply the deficiency of water-power in dry seasons
of the Year. Until this waa done many large mills were closed for want of
water in the latter part of summer and early autumn; while the floods of
spring are increased until they are sufficient to carry away bridges and dams
before deemed secure against their ravages. The Menomonee river, a small
tributary of the Milwaukee, has been effected in the same way and to a still
greater degree, because a larger proportion of the water-supplying area has
been stripped of its forest trees. Several of the mills that formerly found
sufficient power on this stream, have been entirely abandoned; others are
propelled a large share of the time by steam. Down its channel during and
immediately following heavy rains, great floods sweep along, doing more or
less damage; followed in a very few days by dry pebbly, or muddy banks,
and bed, in which only an occasional pool of water can be found. A small
atream formerly run into the river within the sixth ward of the city of Mil-
waukee; it had a nearly uniform flow, and was seldom destitute of water,
even in the dryest’ summer: in former times the beaver built his dam and
constructed his curious houses upon it; but now, since the clearing away of
the trees, it is only a passage way for the heavy spring rains. During the
remainder of the season its bed is dry.

What has happened to the Milwaukee river and to these smaller streams,
has happened to all the other water courses in the state from whose banks
the forests have been removed; and many farmers who selected land upon
which there was a living brook of clear, pure water, now find these brooks
dried up during a considerable portion of each year.

HOW TREES PROTECT THE SOIL.

Another serious evil resulting from clearing away the forests is the washing
away of the soil by the rains. The degradation of the soil by rains, especial-
ly on side hills, commences when the trees are removed. At first a slight
break is made, along which the descendiug currents flow, carrying with them
the softened earth, to be deposited upon the plains below, or carried off by

i6

rivers. The removal of the natural turf or sod of the prairies has the same
effect upon the soil, especially in those districts where the particles are fine,
and therefore more easily suspended in water and washed away by the rain.
Even the slight interruption of the protecting vegetable carpet, caused from
an Indian trail, is often sufficient to cause frightful gullies in a very few
years. All steep hill-sides are liable to this evil when the trees or the sod
are removed. On the margin of the steep banks of lake Michigan these
deep gullies are formed, making it necessary to remove the “lake shore
road ’’ from time to time farther from the water. Advantage is often taken
of this process, to secure the filling of village lots in low grounds, by direct-
ing the earth-bearing currents upon them, and thus avoid the far more ex-
pensive mode of filling by the intervention of a ‘‘ contractor.” The curious-
ly shaped mounds of earth representing animal and even human forms, left
by the former inhabitants, could not have been preserved to puzzle the brain
of the modern antiquary, but for the protection of the matted roots of the
forest trees or of the prairie sod, with which they have been covered. When
these are removed, the form of the mound is soon lost by the wash of rains.

We hence see that trees are required, especially on steep side-hills, and
where the soil is light, to protect, by their roots and otherwise, the very soil
from being dissolved and carried away by rains.

To realize the importance of this constant absorption of the soil, we have
only to refer to the deep and broad valleys every where excavated, and to
the deltas of large rivers, where whole states owe their very existence to the
accumulations of earthy matter brought down from their channels above,
including among its particles the richest soil of the uplands. The quantity
of sand and mud carried into the Mississippi river by the principal tributaries
from this state, especially the Wisconsin and Chippewa, is such that the cur<
rent of this great river is checked in its onward flow, and formed into lakes,
With the exception of Lake Pepin, immediately above the bar caused by
the Chippewa river, these lakes have already been completely filled by the
moving sands from above. This lake remains, only because the supply of
earthy matter from. above is less abundant, and requires longer time to ac-
complish the object. Already has the amount of earthy matter, brought into
the Mississippi river from the surface of our state, been so much increased,
by the destruction of the forests, and the breaking of the sod, that it begins
to disturb the former condition of things; the water is no longer clear and
dark, from decomposed vegetable matter, as it used to be > More sand accu-
mulates in the stream, and a noticable quantity of saw-dust and chips from
the lumber regions of the St. Croix, Chippewa and Wisconsin is also deposited
along the banks. So important is this action deemed by competent engi-
neers, that’ it is mentioned in a recent government report, a3 one requiring
attention; though the gradual rise of the bed of the river, occasioned by

these increased deposits, may be so slow that its effects may, for the present,
be disregarded,

17

TREES MAY PRODUCE RAIN.

It is asserted by some meteorological writers, that trees attract clouds
from a distance, and cause them to discharge their watery contents in places
over which they would otherwise have been wafted, to dispense their trea-
gures upon far distant lands. Though it is not probable that this is’so to any
considerable extent, it is evident that the coldness of the air in and about
forests, causes them to act in the same manner as do mountains in condens-
ing the vapors. Whatever tends to cool a moist atmosphere saturated with
aqueous vapor, ‘causes rain; and it may eften happen that the conditions
are such, that the slight depression of temperature caused by forests is suf-
ficient to produce this effect.

On the hot and dry plains of our south-western territories we often, see
clouds passing’ overhead that reserve their contents until they have passed
from those almost desert regions. These clouds frequently present all the
usual appearance of rain in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and the
fertile giving drops are seen to fall far down towards the earth, only to be
dissolved and dissipated in the lower strata of air heated by the reflection
from the parched earth, which these rain drops do not reach. It is quite
possible and even probable, that a forest, could one be induced to grow there,
would so cool the surface as to cause these showers of rain to reach the
ground and thus render such forest permanent.

HOW TREES AFFECT THE WINDS.

Besides the very important influence forests exert upon the temperature
and humidity of the air, they afford protection from the bad effects of high
winds; both from the cold north-west winds of winter, and the hot, dry,
south-west winds of summer. Any one exposed to the full blasts of either of
these winds upon a high prairie, would very gladly welcome the friendly
protection of forest-trees, among which he could pursue his avocation with
comparative ease and comfort, listening to the whistling of the fierce winds
above the tree-tops, but free from their evil consequences. To clear away
the forests from the state is therefore to expose it and all its inhabitants to the
biting and blighting effects of these winds which will sweep over the surface ‘with
unabated violence.

If the trees would not stop entirely the strong currents of the wind to
which the state of Wisconsin is subjected from its vicinity to the great lakes
on the one hand, and the greater plains and prairies on the other, being it-
self in part a prairie; and that which was not prairie-at the first settlement
fast becoming so, they would certainly have great influence in modifying
those currents. Whether we adopt the theory that the motion of the
wind be that of a soft body rolling over the surface of the earth, or if a
ody sweeping along like the current of a river, slightly retarded by contact
with the upholding surface, need not be discussed or decided. In either

Rep. 2.

18

case the moving current must rise above the tree tops, and leave the surface’
almost undisturbed. Very much of this effect will be produced by belts of
trees, especially if they be closely planted.

Any obstruction to a current of the wind will affect that current as it passes’
over to a distance farther than is generally suppesed. Thus, Blequerel states:
“In the valley of the Rhine, a simple hedge, two metres in height, is a suffi-
cient protection for a distance of twenty-two metres,” ora wind-break—
thick belt of trees, will protect a width of space eleven times its height.
Experiments on the seacoast, st Nahant, where the winds strike with full
force upon the sandy beach, have proved that a barrier formed with pickets,
or narrow boards, set alternately, so that the currents of air can pass among
and through them, and not be compelled to rise in a solid sheet over them,
is a more effective wind barrier than the solid body of # house or wall, and
much less likely to be blown down. Apply this principle to a thick-set tree
-belt, of deciduous and evergreen trees, sixty feet high, and the protection
reaches six hundred and sixty feet. Such a belt placed around a lot 40 rods
square, containing ten acres of land, will completely protect it from the ef-
fects of all winds that may blow.

The effect of a very slight obstruction to the operation of the wind, will
have been noticed by every observing man, who has planted his winter wheat
with a drill. Mr. Lyon, the secretary of the state board of Agriculture of
Michigan, in 1865, says: ‘Et is presumed that during the seasons from 1861
to 1865, few of us failed to observe that even the protection of a 1idge or
dead-furrow, running north and south through a field of wheat, was sufficient
to preserve a streak of green where all else was brown and bare; and that
the shelter of a fence was the means of preserving a still greater breadth ;
while the interposition of a hedge of oak grubs, or a body of timber invari-
ably secured the preservation of a fair crop over a still greater breadth of
ground, often amounting to an entire field.”

In many parts of that state as well as in Wisconsin, the farmers having.
learned their ideas of farming from farther east, and where another and dif-
ferent climate prevails, harrow in their wheat, and then roll the ground
smooth Such sowings are here almost usually entire failures, whe where the
ground is left rough either with the cultivator or drill, # crop may be expect-
ed. The reason why the crop is secured, when protested from the bitter,
biting W. S. W. wind, is not hard to find; for besides-the shelter from the
wind, it encourages the snow and moisture to lie on the ground and give the
grain the warm covering of snow whieh God has prepared te protect the
earth and vegetation through the winter, When vegetation is covered with
anow it is almost always sure to live through the winter’s.cold. But we have
no surety of this covering, or of its equal distribution over the surface of
ground laid open to the full sweep of fierce winds.

Cutiing away the forests causes the snow to accumulate in drifts, leaving por-
tions of the land bare and unprotected while other portions are buried in accumulated

19

masses of snow, or it is speedily evaporated by the currents of dry air from
the arid plains. Consequently obstructions which prevent the snows from
blowing into drifts, also prevent them from melting and drying away by the
action of the winds.

Every cultivator of winter wheat knows the advantages to his crop from a
uniform covering of snow remaining upon the ground during the winter; it
keeps out the frost and protects the tender roots from those sudden and ex-
treme changes of weather, to which they would otherwise be subjected.
“ Winter-killing ”’ is one of the results of the alternate freezing and thawing
of the soil, which by the expansions and contractions, always accompanying
changes of temperature, break the roots from the stem and thus destroy the
plant; all this is prevented by a slight, even, covering of snow. In some
parts of the state where the snow falls early and is kept in its place by sur-
rounding forests, it is not found necessary to dig potatoes from the ground
until spring ; the covering of snow being sufficient to protect them from in-
jury by the severest frosts. In such places the ground is seldom or never
frozen.

The importance of warding off the cold north-west wind that often de-
presses the temperature below the zero point, is sufficiently apparent to all;
and it is almost equally important to secure protection against the hot, dry
winds that often blow with such force, and produce such blighting effects,
from the south-west. This protection can easily be secured by belts of trees.

We shall elsewhere show, that at least 18.75 per cent. of the land in this
state is required to be cultivated with timber, in order to the occupancy ot
the land itself, and to the comfort of the people. Should this timber land
be distributed in belts around every ten square acres, the belts will be nearly
one rod wide, or around every forty square acres, nearly two rods wide on
every side of these square fields; and when the fields are joined to other
fields similarly enclosed the belts will be doubled; thus giving to each ten
acreg at least a sufficient belt to form a perfect, compact protection to the
field. With such belts, it may be presumed that our spring wheat might be
changed to winter wheat, which from its greater quantity and quality, and
consequent higher price, would more than compensate for the less than two
acres of land included in the timber belt.

Says J. J. Thomas: ‘Isaac Pullen, a well-known nurseryman at Hightown,
New Jersey, showed me last summer (1864) several belts of evergreens which
had sprung up from his nursery rows toa height of twenty-five or thirty feet
in ten years, and he stated that within the shelter of these sercens his nurse-
ry trees, as well as farm crops, averaged fifty per cent. more than on bleak
and exposed places. I have known an ordinary English thorn hedge, which
had been allowed to run up without shearing, twenty feet or more in height,
to shelter and save from winter killing a crop of wheat as far as its influence
extended, while beyond this the grain was nearly destroyed; yet this narrow

20

hedge, only a few feet in thickness, formed a very imperfect screen when
compared to a mass of trees several rods in breadth.”

Wall protection is well known to gardeners, and every skillful horticultur-
ist is aware that tender plants will survive the severe winters when surround.
ed or overshadowed by evergreens, that would die without such surroundings;
and every woodsman knows equally that the ground seldom freezes in the
thick set forests. Every observant farmer must have seen his young plants
of grass and grain frozen up by the frosts, beaten about and torn entirely
from the ground by the winds.

If tree belts in New Jersey have been known to increase the production of
the land fifty per cent. ; and if one half of this increase could be realized in
Wisconsin, the surplus farm products of the year 1866 would have netted the
state the sum of $17,300,000. This sum would have been added to the
wealth of the state with but very little additional expense. The estimated
value of nine of the principal crops of 1866 is $69,500,600.

If lands could be made to yield one-fourth more income, their value is in-
creased correspondingly; and the hundred and twenty milions aggregate
value of farm lands in the state becomes $157,500,000.

{f the extreme cold of winter can thus be moderated, it would prevent the
destruction or injury of many of the crops, and the finer fruits we attempt to
cultivate ; and thus extend northward the area over which they can be pro-
duced with certainty.

But winter is not the only season of injury to crops. Sweeping tempests
beat down grain fields, level the heavy grass of the meadows, and break
down the corn. Orchards are severely whipped about, destroyed and dried
up by the blasts that sweep over them in summer.

On the 14th and 15th of June, 1861, one of these very hot dry winds blew
from the south-west over a considerable portion of southern Wisconsin and
northern Illinois; its origin and progress has not been studied ; we know not
from whence it came, whither it went, nor what further mischief it produced
in other portions of the country. Its effects upon young trees exposed to its
full influence, were like that of a bard frost, killing the leaves, which remain-
on the trees in a crisped, withered and blackened condition, for a number of
days afterwards. The effect upon the person was that of suffocation, and ex-
cessive dryness of the skin and throat. During its continuance the barome-
ter at Milwaukee fell from 29:69 inches on the morning of the 18th to 29:00
at 2p. m. of the 15th; the ‘‘ elastic foree of vapor” in the air was dimin-
ished from an equivalent of 0.614 inches of mercury at 9 p.m. of the 14th to
0.350 at 2 p. m. of the 1éth; and the ‘relative humidity,” or proportion of
moisture in the air, as compared with that which it was then capable of hold-
ing, was reduced from 69 per cent. at 7 p. m. of the 14th to 84 per cent. at
2p. m. of the 15th. Sach extreme dryness is quite unusual even in Wis-
consin.

Fruit trees, especially the more tender and valuable kinds were injured, the

21

leaves and even young twigs being blasted and killed; and the fruit torn
from the stem. Occurring just at the time when wheat was forming its heads,
in some counties, and the whole plant in a tender, rapidly growing condition,
it caused a rust that severely injured the crop. The injury to fruit and orna-
mental trees was much augmented by the mechanical effect of the violent
wind, switching about the branchesand leaves. Cherries and plums were es-
pecially injured, the fruit falling from the trees as though a hard frost had
cut them loose from the footstalks. Iruit-growers who had watched the young
fruit with interest, saw it fall to the ground when the ‘‘hot wind ”’ came.

_Passing through the dusty streets of cities and villages these high winds
sweep away the loose particles in the form of clouds of dust. If the soil con-
sisted of loose sand, much of it would be driven before the wind like the sand
storms of a great desert.

During the continuance of these ‘* dry storms ”’ the electrical condition of
the air is disturbed ; the positive electricity being reduced to zero, or con-
verted into negative, gives rise to lightnings and hail.

Orchards and crops protected by a sufficient belt of trees on the south and
west side were found to be uninjured; and the damage resulting from this
one storm, was, doubtless equal to the cost of such protection around a very
great number of farms. :

The south-west winds in Wisconsin, especially when the shape of the
ground is such as to concentrate their force, have the effect of causing trees
to lean towards the north-east ; as may often be seen in the openings where
the trees do not protect each other by growing in masses.

There is on the borders of the upper Wisconsin river, and stretching far
towards the east and west, a district of country embracing several counties,
underlaid by the ‘Pottsdam sandstone,” where the soil is thin and sandy,
with only sand below. This light, thin soil will yield but a very few crops,
with our usual careless culture, before it will become exhausted, and the
trees and sod being removed, there will be no protection against the motion
of this sand ‘by every wind that blows; hence the clearing away of the trees
from this sandy district, will so loosen the soil that it will be blown away by the
wind The peculiar structure and arrangement of the distorted layers of
some portions of the sandstone at the Dells of the Wisconsin river and else-
where, seem to indicate, that there was a time when this district was covered
by a desert of loose drifting sand, such as can be seen in the great deserts of
our day. Now, since nature has clothed these sandy places with fertility,
arrested the motion of the loose particles by covering the soil with a dense
growth of forest trees and bushes, it becomes us to beware how we inter-
fere with this new order of things, lest by the thoughtless destruction of the
ameliorating causes we bring back these lands to tieir former condition of
barrenness and sterility. What has been once, may be again! On the other
hand, if we study the laws by which the condition of a country is improved,

22

and so operate as to assist rather than to retard nature in her efforts, we
shall certainly be pursuing the wiser course.

That this is not an idle suggestion may be shown by the experienoe of
other countries. The burying of several towns and villages in England and
France by blown sand is upon record ; near St. Pol de Leon, in Brittany, a
whole village was completely buried beneath drift sand, so that nothing was
seen but the spire of the church, A part of Downham, in Suffolk, England,
in 1688, was overwhelmed by sand which had traveled five miles in a cen-
tury and covered more than 1,000 acres of land. A considerable tract of
cultivated land, on the north coast of Cornwall, has been inundated by drift
sand forming hills several hundred feet above the level of the sea.

The prevailing winds in Wisconsin, being from the westward, the villages
and cities towards the east will be endangered, by loosening and thus setting
this sand a-drift.

Along nearly the whole eastern shore of Lake Michigan, sand hills are
found; the sand probably thrown up by the waters from beneath the water.
These immense ‘‘dunes” are now confined to the ‘mmediate shore of the
lake by the dense forest behind them, A struggle is going on between the
sand and trees, for the mas ery of the situation; and already many large
trees are buried half their length while still maintaining their original posi-
tion. When the thoughtlessness of the people shall have removed these
trees and sent them to Illinois and Wisconsin in the form of lumber, or burnt
them in the log heap, they will very soon have cause to regret their folly.

TREES AFFECT THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

According to the very careful, patient and exceedingly delicate observa-
tions of Dr. A. Wislizenus of St. Louis, continued through several years, it
appears that there is almost always more or less positive electricity in the
atmosphere; most in winter, least in summer, corresponding inversely with
the temperature ; with a regular daily fluctuation, the greatest amount being
at 9 a.m. and 6 P.M.; the least at 3Pp.mM.and9p.m. It is when the amount
of positive electricity in the air is small or none, that we must look for
thunder-storms, hail, rain, or high winds; all of which are usually accom-
panied by negative electricity. Now, any thing that tends to keep up a due
equilibrium, to prevent the occurrence of negative electricity in the air,
will therefore, by just so much, diminish the liability to storms with thunder,
hail or dry winds, In some distr cts in Europe, where hail storms are so fre-
quent as to cause considerable damage to crops, the experiment has been
tried of preventing their occurence by very numerous lightning-rods (called
paragreles), and with great success. With the exception of the beech, our
trees may be considered as so many paragreles, carrying off the surplus elec-
tricity before it has time to accumulate in distructive quantity. Trees and
lightning-rods do not attract the electricity from the clouds, as many
suppose, but only afford a convenient conductor over which it can pass

23

‘more readily than through non-conducting vacant air. In this eountry the
amount of danger by hail is so small that no artificial protection is deemed
necessary.

TREES PURIFY THE AIR.

Forests afford other incidental benefits to man besides their effect in
modifying the climate, ‘affording a supply of wood, &c. They purify the air
by absorbing the carbonic aeid gas, which, when existing in sufficient quan-
tity, is destructive to animal life, and by emitting, at least during sunshine,
oxygen gas. They are supposed also te destroy that unknown something that
we call miasm in the air, and thus prevent sieknegs,

TREES ENRICH THE LAND.

By their aanual quantity of leaves, detached bark and twigs, and by their
fallen trunks, they supply the soil with a larger amount of vegetable matter
than they consume, so that its fertility is always increasing; they constitute
one of the grand provisions of nature for the restoration of exhausted lands.
Newly cleared land is always most productive; and leaf mould is sought for
by the skillful gardner, as the soil most to be relied upon, when he wishes to
rear some rare and delicate flower; it is the richest in the elements of plant-
growth of any kind of natural soil.

SUMMABY VIEW OF FACTS AND CONSEQUENCES.

While there is ao doubt but that these very decided changes of elimate
can be produced by man, by the rearing or by the destruction of forests, it
must be remembered that after all, they do not materially change the great
climatic laws due to the latitude in which we live; though we can protect
the ground occupied by our growing crops from the fierce winds; those winds
will not cease to blow; though we can secure shade, the piercing rays of the
sun will in no wise be abated , and though we may prevent the undue evapo-
ration of water from the soil, the quantity of rain will be but little if any
changed. We here have the ready explanation of the great differences of
of opinion upon this subject among men; the changes being local and not
general. It may be true that the annual quantity of heat received f:om the
sun upona given quantity of land is the same through all t me, yet it will be
found to make a vast difference with the condition of that land, whether this
heat is, or is not, permitted to strike the ground.

From the facts already given above it must be quite evident that clearing
away the forests of Wisconsin w ll have a very decided effect upon the cli-
mate and productions, and therefore upon the inhabitants themselves. The
summers will become hotter and more oppressive; the winters colder; both
the cold blasts of winter and the hot winds of summer will have full unob-
structed sweep over the land; the dryness of the ground will be increased ;
springs dried up; rivers cease to flow at some seasons of the year, and be-
ome great floods at others; the soil on sloping hills washed away; loose

24

sands blown over the country preventing cultivation ; snow will accumulate
in great drifts in some places, while other places are left bareand unprotect-
ed; the ground become frozen to great depth; vegetation retarded in the
spring ; the productiveness of the soil diminished; thunder-storms will be
increased in number and violence; and there will be more hail and more
heavy, damaging rains.

Under these changes | of climate and productiveness, the people being de-
prived of so many of the means of comfortable living, will revert to a condi;
tion of barbarism !

While we are holding out inducements for the caren of all the earth
to make new homes in our midst we are planting the seeds of decay, that will
sooner or later render their homes miserable, and send these people and their
posterity to other, more favored lands, for that home they will have failed to
find here.

Of the consequences of the destruction of the forests to the future inhabi-
tants of the state we can only judge from the experience of other countries
where selfishness, folly and want of proper appreciation of the wants of the
future, have already brought upon them the evils that may soon be looked for
here, Consult the history of Egypt, of Palestine, of Greece, of Italy, and
we shall see that the original fertility and productiveness of a country may
be destroyed; a country capable of sustaining a dense population of happy,
prosperous and civilized people, may be converted into one of comparative
sterility where the scanty population living in tents, or rude huts, are but
little above the lowest of the human family. Such may be our future unless
we profit by their example.

GENERAL CONSUMPTION OF WOOD.

What substitutes for wood can be found in this State to supply its place,
and thus diminish the demand, as well as the necessity for its consumption, is
another important question for consideration. The geological age of the rock
formations is such as to preclude the hope of ever finding coal in Wisconsin;
and peat, though an important item, that may hereafter be much used for fuel,
can never supply the place of wood to any considerable extent. The cheap-
ened processes for the manufauture of iron has induced the substitution of
that material for wood in many important cases, but so much wood is con-
sumed in its production that this is searcely an advantage. The same may be
said of brick as a material for building. Stone may be substituted for wood
in building houses, fences, making pavements, &c., with the greatest advant-
age. Our numerous stone-quarries afford excellent building material, in any
desired quantity; and as the unsettled portions of the State become more
fully explored and developed, there is no doubt but that these quarries will be
increased in number and in value. Granite, and even marble may, some day,
become important items of consumption and export from Wisconsin.

It is quite certain that no substitute can be found to supply the demand for

25

wood, and, therefore, it must either be preserved or its growth provided for.

There is no coal in Wisconsin, and all that may be used in the State must
be brought from a distance of at least 300 miles, and at an expense greater
than the first cost, and thus place it entirely beyond the reach of the common
people for fuel, even in our cities and villages. We must, therefore, look to
our forests for our supply of fuel. The county of Réck contains 36,033 in-
habitants; it also has 720 square miles of territory, or 50 inhabitants to the
square mile Thisis about an average of the population of the southern coun-
ties; and gives to each square mile 10 families of 5 persons each. To supply
the present population with fuel for all purposes, including what is used in the
houses, shops, schoolrooms, stores and offices, it will take at least three cords
of wood to each person, or 108,099 cords of wood every year for the use of
the people of that county. Culculating again 40 cords of wood to the acre,
and allowing that the same land may be cut over once in 25 years, and it will
take 67,562 acres, or 94 acres to each square mile to grow the fuel of the
county. If to this be added the land necessary to grow the timber for build-
ings, fences and other uses in which wood is indispensible, we shall not
over-estimate, if we set the amount at 120 acres, or 18% per cent. of all the
terriotry of the country, as necessary for this purpose.

If this amount of land be stretched out in one belt it would be one mile
long and 60 rods wide, or placing it on two sides of each forty acres, it
would be 74 rods wide, leaving a surplus sufficient to require a double row of
trees along the highways. The French and German economists have esti-
inated the amout of land necessary to be covered with trees in those coun-
tries, excluding fruit trees, at one-fourth the entire surface. The remaining
6} per cent. of forests might be advantageously placed upon the broken and
more barren lands, where other crops would not grow, and along the road-
side.

The quantity of land here given might be perhaps reduced one-third by
thickly planting only the most rapid growing of the hard woods, that are
rated also high as fuel; and giving to them careful cuiture and trimming.

CONSUMPTION BY RAILROADS.

The railroads of this State must ever consume vast quantities of wood for
for fuel, sleepers, bridges, piles, cars, buildings and other uses where it is ab-
solutely indispensible. Take the Milwaukee & Prairie du Chien railroad as
an example, and the amount of all may be arrived at It takes 150 cords of
wood as fuel for each mile of this road to move its freight, for one year.
Apply this rate to all the roads in the State, already nearly 1,200 miles in
length, and we have an annual consumption of 180,000 cords of wood burnt.
If 40 cords of wood be cut from the acre, it will take 4,500 acres to be cut
over every year to supply this demand, and as the same land if replanted to
to trees, cannot be again cut over, under 25 years, it must take 112,500 acres
of land to grow wood for railroad fuel, even if there be not that increase in

26

the amount of business, which is more than probale to happen. This land
stretched out the entire length of the roads would give a strip 48 rods wide.

Besides this demand for fuel the roads in their first construction require
2,880 sleepers per mile, to produce which will take the bodies of at least
1,440 trees. These must be supplied anew once in six years; and as only
oaks, red elm, cherry, black walnut, tamarack, red pine and hackberry will
answer for this purpose, and as the trees must be at least a foot in diameter,
the trees cannot be grown in less than 80 years. The roads also require sim-
ilar and larger timber for bridges, piles, turn-tables, depots, cars and other
uses. These trees will require enough more land to make the strip, when
completely and thoroughly planted and protected, 80 rods or ohe-quarter of
a mile wide the entire length of every railroad in the state; or 197,000 acres
of land to supply them with fuel and timber. Such a belt of timber evenly
divided by the line of the road, would effectually check all driftings of the
snow on the track during winter. Considerable drifting might also be pre-
vented by planting the ground enclosed by the railroad fences, on either side
of the track, with cedars, pines and larches. Although coal and peat might
be used for fuel, still the other demands would remain to be supplied with
wood.

HOW CHEAP WOOD AFFECTS THE COUNTRY.

Cheap houses, cheap fuel, cheap bread and cheap transportation for pass-
engers and freights, are among the fundamental elements of a nation’s growth
and prosperity. A nation that produces the raw material for manufacture
and commerce, at low cost—whose people provide their own houses and raise
most of what they consume—which moves its people, its products and manu-
factories, quickly and cheaply, is in the best condition to establish the most
complete division of labor, and to give to every man the resultsof his ability,
energy and skill. The question of cheap and abundant wood must enter
largely and constantly into each of these departments of industry and
living.

The growth of most of our western cities, especially along the great lakes
and rivers, has been the wonder of the civilized world, and deservedly so.
Their progress has generally been attributed to the cheap and productive
soils in their immediate vicinity, and doubtless in a great measure this is
true; but any one who studies closely and carefully the elements that have
contributed to that greatness, will find cheap lumber and cheap fuel the
greatest of all. A few years ago when Chicago and Milwaukee and other
places on the lake shore were making such wonderful strides towards becom-
ing what they now are—opulent cities—when our inland villages and cities
were keeping pace with these emporiums; pine lumber could be had in the
lake ports for about eight dollars per thousand feet, and good fire wood for
three dollars per cord. At such cheap rates for building materials there was
no reason why buildings, stores and warehouses should not spring up on every

27

hand, asif by magic. Bread at the same time was cheap and men flocked
here to escape the hunger which pressed them in other countries. Wood
was cheap to supply them with fuel for their houses, and to transport them
to our shores by steam. The same materials of lumber and fuel have doub-
led, tripled and quadrupled their former prices, and those cities, villages and
towns continue to thrive, because they have grown rich and are able to pay
more ; and by the opening of new and better means of transportation, the
costs of moving the people and the freights yet remain comaratively cheap.
But this march in the road of improvement cannot always remain. Cities
like men can never become so rich that they can continue to increase in
wealth after they have to pay more for building materials, than the buildings
will pay interest upon when they are constructed ; nor will men remain after
rents excel wages.

In the erection of ordinary buildings of brick and stone, except cut stone
walls, with wooden floors and joists, it is estimated that the cost of timber-
ing, flooring, roofing, wainscotting, the finishing of entrances, cornices,
cupulas, doors, window-sashes and blinds, makes an expense for wood work
exceeding all the brick and stone work. If the walls are of bricks,
then it required wood to burn them from the clay, making one-third of the
expense. The lime is burned with wood, and half its value arose from that
item. The clay is in the bank, the rock is in the quarry, and wagons com-
posed greatly of wood must carry these to the kiln, and then to the place
where they are to enter into the building. But we have not gone far enough
back yet. The brick-maker, the lime-burner, the stone-mason, the brick-layer,
the plasterer, the painter, the carpenter, the common laborer who tends to
all these, and the farmer who feeds them, have all needed wood in their houses
for fuel, in the construction of their dwellings to shelter them, and in their
stables to protect their animals. But if we come to the building itself. The
hogsheads and lime-boxes, the hod and scraper, the mortar-bed and board,
the pail and water barrel, the hoe, shovel-handle and rake, the tressels and
and scaffolds, inclined planes and ladders, the plumb and trowel, are wood. As
with the mason; so with the carpenter, the plasterer and painter, every thing
they grasp to work with is first of all wood.

There were in the United States in 1860, 3,862,337 dwelling-houses, be-
sides all public buildings, churches, educational institutions, stores, manu-
factories, depots, warehouses, barns, &c. How large a proportion of these
were brick and stone we cannot tell, but hy far the great majority were of
wood. What proportion of their cost came of wood? A little hardware, a
little paint, a little masonary, a little plastering and all else is wood. The
barns for keeping the hay and grain must be wood, or else a space must be
left next to the wall for the air to circulate. The out-houses and fences are "
generally of wood.

But these houses, barns, out-houses and fences give one-half the value to

28

the entire farm, as it is assessed to pay the taxes of the government; and
the value of the farms in the United States in 1860, was $6,654,045,007, avd
these buildings then were worth $3,827,022, 508.

All these houses, barns, out-houses, fences, &c., must be replaced in about
twenty years, or if some remain others of equal value will be constructed.
The whole must come from the trees. At the present rate of destruction
where is the timber to come from? What provisions are the land-owners
making for the future? What step does the state take in order to keep up
the assessed value of its lands?

But we must not stop with the additions made to the assessed value of the
lands by the use of wood; the additions made to manufactures are not less
important than those to the real estate, and from which the government
draws a revenue. When we compare the different manufactures of the
United States with each other, we shall find that those in wood out-strip all
the others. The value of the manufacturers from the grist mills in 1860,
reached $223,144,396, and of cotton fabrics $115,187,926. The vulue of the
sawed and plained lumber as it came from the mills, was $96,000,000. The
products of the grist mills gave employment to 19,000 professional bakers,
and those of the cotten mills employed 96,000 tailors and tailoresses, while
the lumber gave work to 249,958 carpenters, all of whom are men. The pig and
bar iron and iron machinery manufactured was valued at $94,460,481—less
than the raw Jumber as it came from the mills. There were also 29,223, cab-
inet makers, producing $22,701,304 worth of ware; and 3,610 musical instru-
ment makers, producing $6,791,807, from wood. More than 60 other trades
dependant in whole or in part upon wood as their material for manufacturing,
employed 500,000 men, the value of whose workmanship is not given, but if
estimated at $1,000 each, gives a total value of $500,000,000 for those trades—
nearly equal in value to the manufactures of the grist mills, cotton, woollen and
iron establighments.

In 1860 the ship tonage of the Union was 5,589,812 tons and worth $40
per ton, giving a value of $221,592,480—nearly the whole of which was com-
posed of wood. The woodwork in the railroad superstructures, bridges, cars,
engines, depots, engine and car-houses of the United States has been esti-
mated at $216,000,000—equal to one-fifth of the entire cost of the roads;
and these are the least durable portion of the roads. An estimate for the
fuel, repairs, fences, &c., for the roads, require $141,085,104 annually. All-
together, then we reach the same conclusion as to manufactures, as in rela-
tion to real estate, that one-half the values on which taxes are levied, has
its origin in or is composed of wood. But all this use of wood is accompanied
by an enormously increasing consumption, and the wood must be replaced
by other wood, which has to be grown.

Here is an interest outreaching all others in value, which has received no
fostering care from the government, nor scarcely any attention of public

29

men, less from the landowner. The whole country is beginning to feel the
want of timber for buildings. The demand for lumber is now so great that
in the midst of the pineries of this state, a poor man cannot to-day build his
wooden house for the same amount of money, that ten years since he could
have built the same, after the-lumber had been carried from 400 to 600
miles by water and rail from that same pinery. It now takes four times the
money to buy the lumber for the house, and consequently four times the
number of days’ work to earn the necessary money with which to do it. The
poor man is therefore no longer the owner of the house he lives in, but he is
a renter, paying often fifty per cent. upon the cost of the building. These
men of all others require cheap lumber in order to give them cheap houses.

The walls of the house may be formed of stone, or brick, or grout or even
adobes, but still there exists the same unvarying need of lumber for the
floors, roofs, doors, casings, &., which will cost as much as the walls them-
selves, if brick or stone, and more than the grout and adobes. For these
purposes, dear as lumber is, no other material so cheap and good as wood can
be substituted for it. If it be the duty of government to legislate for the
contentment and happiness of the people, then it is its duty to do all in its
power, without serious oppression to other interests, to furnish the people
with cheap lumber. This it can do by encouraging its growth.

Since writing the above the circulaof Woolner and Garrick, lumber deal-
ers at Chicago, dated August the 1st, 1867, has come to hand, in which is the
following table, showing the amount of lumber received at that port:

LUMBER.| LATH. |SHINGLES
RECEIPTS.
FEET. PIECES. PIECES.

Receipts for 1860,.. 255,147,000 | 380.509,000 | 133,578,000
Receipts for 1861, . | 249,808,000 | 82,667,000 | '79,356'000
Receipts for 1862, --| 299,365,000 | 28,880,000 | 181,225,000
Receipts for 1863, -. | 893,074,882 | 41,665,000 | 152,485,000
Receipts for 1864, - --| 480,165,000 | 63,805,000 | 133,360,000
Receipts tor 1865, or «| 882,869,856 | 62,555,009 | 276,510,000
Receipts for 1866, 698,048,715 | 8,405,000 | 399,038,000

Taking thia table as a basis of calculation, and allowing that one hundred
feet of lumber is equal to one thousand pieces of lath or shingles, and we
then have forthe 78,555,000 laths, and the 399,038,000 shingles, 4,715,980
feet of lumber; which being added to the 698,048,715, makes the whole
amount 702,764,645 feet received during the year 1866. Comparing the
years from 1860 to 1866 inclusive with each other, it will be found that
there has been an annual increase since “1860 of 63,710,969 feet of lumber,
which will give for 1867, 766,475,314 feet. The table of receipts up to Au-
gust 1st, compared with former years, indicate that it will exceed that
amount,

30

LUMBER. LATH. |SHINGLES
RECEIPTS.
FEET, PIECES. PIECES,
Receipts from Jan. 1 to Aug. 1, 1865,....... ey, , .| 291,413,989 | 25.636.000 | 111,246,250
Receipts from Jan. 1 to Aug. 1, 1866, .... 297,213.627 | 42,001.300 | 216,493,500
Receipts from Jan. 1 to Aug. 1, 1867, .... ....... eee 382.602,673 | 61.662.150 | 211,389,000

Again allowing that a sound stem fifty feet long, and 24 inches in diameter,
or four logs 12'feet, may be cut from a tree ; at that rate it will take 878,456
such trees to make the lumber landed in Chicago last year, with an increas-
ing ratio requiring 79,639 trees each year, and gives 958,095 trees for the
lumber of 1867, and 1,087,784 for 1868. This is for a single point where
lumber is received. ®

The same report informs us, that ‘‘ Canada lumber has only arrived in lim-
ited quantities, and of but very ordinary quality, the prices to be realized,
after deducting duty, not warranting any extensive shipments.’’ Conse-
quently the lumber landed at Chicago, must have been cut in the forests of
Wisconsin and Michigan.

Allowing again that the amount of lumber received at the other lake and
river ports in Wisconsin and Michigan and not reshipped to Chicago, together
with what has passed out of these states by the Detroit and Mississippi riv-
ers, equals the amount received at Chicago, and then there will be taken
from the woods of these states 1,532,950,626 feet of lumber, requiring 1,916,-
189 trees. Two millions of large pine trees cut from the forests of two
States, in a single year, to supply the lumber demand of that year!

How long will these forests last ? This to our people is a serious question
indeed. Some estimates may be made. Suppose there are now left 7,500
square miles in each of these states, which will give 19,200 trees each, or
thirty trees to the acre, yielding 24,000 feet of lumber; then on these 15,000
square miles there will be 288,000,000 for cutting. If there was no increase
in the cutting, but just 2,000,000 were cut each year, then the forest would
last 144 years. But the increased demand of about 160,000 trees is such
that the annual cutting is doubled in less than thirteen years, and therefore
the whole amount must be cutin fifty years=less than one-half the time
necessary to produce similar trees. When that time comes, when the fam-
ine of lumber is on us, the taxable property of the state will loose a large
per centage of its value, und mannfactures of lumber must almost cease, with
with its use in buildings, And another and severer wind than any that now
reaches us, will come to us unrestrained from the north. That will be a sad
day for the state. But come it surely will, unless the people shall immedi-
ately take steps to renew their forests.

THE NECESSITY OF CHEAP MOTIVE POWER.

Cheap motive power is not less essential to the happiness and prosperity
of a nation, than is cheap bread and cheap houses, Machinery for manus

ai

factiiring and transporting freights and passéngers are moved by steam, and
the cheaper the price of fuel, the cheaper must be the manufactured arti-
cles, freights and transportations. Stationery machinery may be moved in
some instances by water power, at cheap rates; but water is not always
where such machinery is required, never where a locomotive power is re-
quired. In such a situation steam alone seems adapted to the purpose ; and
the generation of steam requires the consumption of fuel.

There is no coal in Wisconsin, and we may never expect it will be cheaper
than at present, when the nearest coal bed is 300 miles distant. Such a dis-
tance over which so bulky au article is to be transported must keep the price
of coal as fuel beyond the reach of the poor man, and the general manufac’
turer as a motive power. Bitumenous coal as it is delivered in its wet state,
contains less heating properties, pound for pound, than dry wood, and is far
less pleasant and cleanly for use. Therefore even black jack oak, which
when dry weighs about 3,500 pound to the cord, when this can be obtained
at $8.00 per cord, is cheaper than coal at $5.00 per ton—a good deal lower
than it can be bought. The people, therefore, will not look to coal for fuel;
neither will railroads or manufacturers.

If we turn to the peat bogs and expeet to find cheap fuel in them, almost
innumerable difficulties and obstructions will present themselves, in mining
and preparing the article for fuel, all of which must enter into its cost; and
thus tend to keep the prices up as compared with wood. Moreover, the peat
bogs are far from inexbaustable. Nations are not men, whose life is lesa than
four decades. Nations live for centuries, and the multiplying generations
out-live the nations themselves on the earth’s surfaee. On this question of
fuel, we‘are to calculate by ages of the earth, and not by the life of man.
Fuel will be required so long as man shall inhabit the earth, for his comfort
and for his existence. Without fuel humanity would cease to exist. Viewed
in this light, the deposits laid up during uncounted periods of time, and cre:
ation’s rounds, in the shape of coal, petroleum, and peat, and which man ig
now drawing out and using for fuel or wasting, must be exhausted.

An acre of land contains a superficial measure of 1,6364 cords. But peat
raised from its bed and manufactured shrinks one-half in bulk, in manufactur-
ing and drying. Now suppose that 3 solid feet of peat are equal to 4 solid
feet of wood in weight, and heat giving properties; then a bed of peat must
be 6 feet deep to equal a pile of wood 4 feet high which would cover the
game ground; or an acre of peat 6 -feet deep is equal to 1,6364 cords of
wood. Although some of the peat beds are much more than tbat depth, it ig
doubtful if they will average more. Such beds where they can be drained
easily, are readily worked out. After which the peat will not again he re-
produced on it, any more than the coal will again return to fill the cavities of
the earth; at least not in the probable period of a nation’s existence. The
quantity which any bed will produce may be easily calculated, by allowing
for every Bix feet in depth an equivalent of one cord of dry hickory wood.

82

It is submitted, whether these bogs will do more than furnish # supply of
fuel, until forests may be raised, should we begin immediately in the work of
planting. But peat cannot be depended upon for a permanent supply of fuel,
as the beds must be exhausted much sooner than the boal beds of those
States which have them. Both must be exhausted in time, if worked by man.
We do not make these remarks to disparage peat as a fuel of good heating
qualities, but as 4 warning against depending. upon it to the neglect of
depending upon wood as a permanent source of supply for fuel.

There is another consequence of digging out the peat bogs, and especially
such as cannot be completely drained to the bottom of the bed, which ought
not to be overlooked. When the peat that now fills the basin of the bogs
shall be dug out, that basin will fill with foul, stagnant water, and so render
the country around unhealthy; whereas the water now in the bog is charged
with a.tiseptic material, which renders it free from all malaria.

Again, it is submitted whether more fuel cannot be obtained in the periods
of time, from the bog by properly preparing, and planting it thickly with
black-ash, tamarack, red-maple, and other treés that it will produce, without
empyting the the basin, or injuring the peat for the use of future ages, than
by digging out the peat now, and making a stagnant pool valueless to pos-
terity, and detrimental to the State.

The statisticians of England have cast the period of the coal beds of that
country. An article in the London Times, dated April 19, 1866, speaking of
the duty of England to set herself at once to work paying off her public debt+
while her supply of coal shall last, says: ‘But we must look beyond this cen-
tury. In THREE GENERATIONS—that is in the days of our children’s children—
we are told that all the coal of these islands that lies withen four thousand feet of the
surface will be echausted if we go on increasing our uption at the present rate,
Coal is everything to us. Without coal our furnaces will become idle, our
factories and workshops will be as still as the grave, the locomotive will rust
in the shed, and the rail be buried in weeds. Our streets will be dark, our
houses uninhabitable ; our rivers will forget the paddle-wheel, and we shall
be again separated by days from France, months from the United States.
The past will lengthen its periods and protract its dates. A thousand special
arts and manufactures, one by oue, then in a crowd, will fly the empty soil,
as boon companions are said to d sappear when the cask is dry. We shall
miss our grand dependence, as a man misses his companion, his fortune, or a
limb, every hour and at every turn reminded ot the irreparable loss, Wise
England will then be the silly virgin, without oil in her lamp. We shall be
surrounded and overwhelmed by the unprofitable lumber of buildings and ma-
chinery that we cannot use, and with cities we cannot occupy ; for who will
care to live in Manchester? Who will be able to live in the metropolis? It
is not so difficult to imagine the state we shall return to, for it takes only a
middle-aged man to remember it. They would be sorry to be called o/d who

83

‘tan ‘remember large towns lighted with oil lamps; the first steam vessel tira-
idly creeping along our shores, or up our rivers; and the hardly credited ru-
mor of a steam-engine on a tramway! But the process of learning will not
be slow, and neither easy nor pleasant. To be sure, as coal becomes searcer
-and dearer, we shall learn eeonomy. We shall warm our houses more scien-
tifically and improve our machinery. But in the meanwhile our de-
scendants will witness another process equally exhaustive; the population
will follow coal wherever it is found, whether on foreign or colonial soil.
Our manufacturers will be beaten by those who then have this advantage over
us, and the working: classes will accept the invitation of the master that bids
the highest. That is what they must do fer it is the law of existence. It ig
not easy, or at all possible to forecast any point at which the various conflict-
ing causes may fix the future of English labor, but we may as well expect a
darge population in Salisbury Plain, as a Manchester, a Liverpool, a Sheffield,
a Birmingham without coal and cheap coal too!”?

This gloomy picture, though prophetic, is not-overdrawn ; and represents a
‘country without coal or wood, such as Wisconsin may become without the
fostering care of the people -shall be extended to our forest trees. These
alone can save the peaple of the state to the state. Cut away our forests,
denude the state, and the years are not distant when the agriculture -of
the state will change to pasturage and stock raising; because the winds
which are already more severe than the winter wheat can bear, will become
too severe for the spring crops; then there will be too little fuel to keep the
‘50 inhabitants on each square mile of the southern counties warm and cook
their food. Men must give place to oxen and sheep. Public parks and
gardens, school houses, manufactories, stores and depots, will be converted
‘into sheep-pens, cattle stalls and hay barns. The small farm with its neat
‘house, orchard and garden, its fields of yellow grain and tall corn,—the
home of the happy family, will become part of a cattle range, for-these alone
can retain a foothold, until that other more distant day shall come when the
‘winds and droughts shall reduce the plains of Wisconsin to the condition of
‘Asia Minor. Trees alone can save us from such a fate.

HOW WOOD EFFECTS FREIGHTS.

Elsewhere has been shown the amount of wood consumed by-the railroads
‘of the state. The first construction of the roads, consumed for sleepers
-about 150 curds of wood to the mile, worth as mere wood, at present prices,
$6 per cord, or $900 But these sleepers have been, and must be again, re-
placed every six years, at an increasing price, thus giving an annual éxpehse
of $150. The Atlantic railroad, laid in the lumber portion of New York, had
paid, in 1862, for fencing, $728 a mile. The bridges of the same cost $826 a
mile, and-stations and buildings $760, and the cars cost about as much more,

The Wisconsin roads are not more cheaply built and maintained. “SpBeittat-
Rep, 8. ES

34

ing that the fences, bridges, stations, cars, &., must be rebuilt,in ten yeara,
and these items amount to $307 40 per annum, to which add the cost of
sleepers, and $750 for 150 cords of fuel, at $5 per cord, and the amount is
$1,057 40 per mile, for the single item of expenditure in wood by the rail-
roads, every year. One thousand dollars a mile, makes $1,200,000 spent by
all the roads for this item.

People complain of the high priees of freights. Such shoutd remember,
that, this one item of expenditure has not only increased in quantity since
the roads first began to be constructed, but also, that it has doubled in value,
not only to the road itself, but to all its employees, and thus has increased
their wages. This increased cost of running and maintenance is not at the
cost of the roads, but falls upon the people who make use of thé road for
transportion. If by any means this item of expenditure could be reduced,
say one-half, then the roads could afford to reduce the prices charged for
freights, and people and their productions would be moved eheaper from
place to place; the roads, at the same time, making as much or more money
than now.

Railroad companies are not the only ones interested in cheap motive
power. The manufacturers, and thruugh them, the people are everywhere
equally interested. If fuel could be cheapfy furnished, places now drooping,
almost dying out for want of manufacturing motive power, would spring into
life. Towns would grow up where now ate only pastures. Raising trees
will accomplish all this and more.

CORN CANNOT BE SUBSTITUTED.

It has beem stated that corn may be profitably raised for fuel, on various
places on the prairfes, Ai thing is profitably produced, only as itis eompared
with another of the same kind, and is equally good or better, and more
theaply produced. Apply this rule to the’ production of fuel by raising corn
and hickory trees, and then an estimate of value may be made of their re-
spective profitableness. An acre’ of land will produce 60 bushels of corn,
weighing with the cobs 70 pounds fit for fuel; or 4,200 pounds to the acre.
The same acre would produce in 25 years,.105,000 pounds of corn. But if
it were planted to hickory trees, it would yield in 25 years forty eords of the
very best quality of wood, which at 4,468: pounds per cord, would: give 178,-
720 pounds, 7,105 pounds each year; or 2,905 pounds a year more than the
corn, nearly } more solid fuel than the corn product would give, and if the
brush were cut up, and which would be every way equal to corn, it makes
twice as much, or equal to a yield of more’ than 120 bushels of corn to the
acre—an amount not to be expected at all.

If the expense of producing fuel from the two articles be taken into ac-
count, it will show still more strongly in favor of the hickory wood. To
raise corn the land must be plowed and planted twenty-five times and hoed-
twice or more each year, and manured, unless all the stalks and: leaves are’

35

left-on the ground; otherwise the land will be exhausted; more time will be
taken in gathering and housing the corn than in cutting and seagoning the
wood. On the other hand, the hickories require one preparation of the
land and cultivation for three or four years, after -which the trimmings and
nuts will more than pay all charges for rent of land and labor in earing for
the trees. The land will grow richer year by year, and is planted for many
successive crops; and such crops of 40 cords of wood will be produced in less
time than was the first one, or they will greatly exceed the amount. To pro-
duce the equivalent of fifteen cords of wood—the necessary amount for the
consumption of one family, it will take sixteen acresof land. Three-eighths
of an acre of hickory trees is sufficient for the same purpose. But as the
land can be cut over but once in twenty-five years, it will take 98 acres to
produce fifteen cords for twenty-five years. This amount may be reduced by
cutting and using all the brush. ‘Thus there may be a saving of nearly one-
half of. the land that would be taken to produce the’ equivalent of corn, and
which would yield no other production to assist in paying rents on land.
Moreover the trees would give an advantage by being planted in the form of
a timber belt in acting as a shelter from the winds.

Similar and even greater results would be reached by planting the more
rapidly growing trees, as the white maple, elm, butternut, locust, walnut or
ash, which would grow higher, and could be cut in a shorter time, although
the wood might be lighter. Moreover corn yields:‘more ash than any of the
woods, thereby extracting from the soil a larger amount of salts, and espe-
gially of potash, without which no soil can be made to produce vegetation.

In conclusion, we say that the most certain, lasting, cheapest and best
means of creating and maintaining a full supply of cheap fuel, is secured by
trees; and that to get trees, it is best to plant the seeds and raise them.
Other sources of supply are transient and can be soon exhausted, but trees
will grow with time itself, reproducing themselves while they purify the at-
mosphere, and adorn the surface of the earth,

THE DUTY OF THE STATE.

In view of the dangers thus shown to be threatening the future welfare’ of
Wisconsin, it surely should be the duty of some competent authority to make
such efforts as may be deemed necessary to avert them. Should an enemy
appear upon our borders threatening us with these disasters, money would be
at once rafsed without limit, men would be pressed (if necessary) into -the
service, and every effort made to repel the invasion ; and ‘surely it can be no
less the duty of the state to interpose its authority for the same object when
no such extraordinary exercise of power is needed. The labor of the wise
and good for many generations past, has resulted in the civilization of the
nineteenth century, and shall it be said, that for a want of prudent fore-
sight, the men of that century reglected the means necessary to prevent its
destruction. The eminence now secured is certianly worth preserving; and

36

if it is the duty of the government to so shape its policy as to secure the
greatest good to the greatest numbers, it surely cannot be deficient in
authority to act in a matter of so much importance.

A state that finds authority to regulate the times and seasons when its
citizens may catch fish, or shoot game, may certainly assume such as may be
needed to preserve the civilization of the present times; it would require
no greater stretch of power to regulate the cutting of timber where it would
obviously entail a public calamity, or to encourage its production where it is
so much needed for the public good.

One of the most serious evils this. state has to contend with is the pur-
chase of large tracts of land by persons who reside in some other states, or
who, if residing here, still have no permanent and living interest in the
land. It is purchased by: such persons, not for the ordinary, legitimate and
proper purpose of converting it into a. farm or homestead for himself and
family, but solely with a view of stripping it of its valuable timber. Leav-
ing tbe worthless trees and bushes to encumber the ground, he sells it for
what it.is worth, and renews his depredations upou other lands, He builds
fine houses in « distant place—he destroys the fair face of nature here.
Surely there should be some means devised to compel such men to spare at
least a belt of these noble trees for the purposes contemplated. in this re-
port. Their interest should be made to yield to that of the men who are to
become the permanent occupants of, the land, and whose interest in the
state will induce them to improve and.adorn it, rather than to injure and
destroy it.

EXPERIMENTS NEEDED.

There are many questions with regard to the growth of trees within this
state; their effect upon the local climate, and the production of crops; what
trees are best suited to our soil and climate; what improvement, if any, can
be made in the quality’ of wood by étiltivation, &c., which can only be satis-
factorily answered by a series of careful cchiceanents on a large scale, and
continued through a long time. Such experiments could best be made on
the Experimental Farm about to be established in connection with the State
University. Every valuable tree that will grow in this state should find a
place there, and all material facts in regard to their culture and use agcer-
tained and made known.

The principal facts in regard to the climate of Wisconsin should be more
accurately ascertained and made known. Very many observations have
been made and recorded at different localities, and extending over a great
number of years; but to render them useful they should be collected and
published in a volume, and: their full import deduced by a careful study and
comparison of their results,

_ These observations might be made at each of the normal and other higher
public schools of the state, as part of the consideration for the amount of

37

public moneys supplied for their support; and seneclally if the apparatus
were furnished them by the state.

PECULIARITIES OF CLIMATE.

People are apt to look upon the climatical zones of the earth as identical
with the zones of latitude, or but slightly varied from that relation. Hence
we often hear the expression of one place lying in the same latitude ag an-
other, as meaning that the two have a similar climatology. This is only
true when all other relations are identical, and not otherwise. Two coun-
tries on the same parallel, equally elevated, equally distant from the sea, on
the same side of a continent, exposed to wind of the same character for tem-
perature and aridity, and influenced by the same kind of ocean currents, will
have an identical climatology ; ; so two islands in the same mid-ocean, as in
the great Pacific, will be alike in climate. But change any of these condi-
tions and the whole climatology i is changed.

The island of Ireland and Newfoundland lie in the same latitude, one on
the west and the other on the east side of a continent, in the region of the
same prevailing west winds. In Ireland the thermometer seldom goes below
the freezing point, or rises above 65 degrees. There the west wind comes
from the warm ocean, and moisturé falls in the form of rain; and the mead-
ows and pastures are always green. In Newfoundland the west wind in win-

ter comes from a continent, chilled by passing over high snow covered moun-
tains, and severe cold and snows wrap the country more than half'the year
in the embrace of winter.

The change is the same or still’ greater when one country lies'on' the coast
of ‘the ocean and the other far inland; thus Wisconsin, with the same lati-
tudinal position as the four northern New England States, has much hotter
summers and colder winters than the corresponding latitudes of those states.

The climatographers, from a series of thermometrical obsérvations at dif-
ferent places through years, and from the temperature of the water drawn
from wells of the same depth beneath the surface, have established ‘the aver-
age temperature of a large number of places upon the earth’s surface, for
the year and for the different seasons of the year. Comparing these with
each other and joining those places which correspond, isothermal lines have
been drawn. These isotherms for different seasons of the yeat, differ from
and cross each other. This is particularly the case in this state; and ac-
counts for some of the peculiarities of our vegetable productions. ,

Although many observations have been already taken at different places
in the state of Wisconsin; and the record of them has been preserved ; yet
many more at these and other places all over the state, ought to be taken be-
fore there would be sufficient to determine all that is required to be known
to designate all the peculiarities of climate in different parts of Wisconsin.
These observations ought to be taken in as many towns as practicable, and
continued for a long series of years; while they should be reduced at least

38

every month in the year, and reported to some central point, or the original
observations sent in and the reduction made at the central point.

Observations have already, been taken in 60. different places in this state,
by 92 observers, covering an aggregate ‘of 350 years; the records of which
have been preserved, and most of these might still be procured and their re-
sults worked out for the benefit of the people, if the means could be provid-
éd. It seems a pity to lose all the benefit of the labors of these observers
for want of so small 'a sum; especially as we know how many very important
facts in regard to the specialities of our climate would thus be made known.

Most of these observations are beyond our reach, and all are at present in
such condition, that the time and expense necessary to reduce them to prac-
tical use, have put it out of our power to make proper deductions from them.
Therefore we are obliged to omit some things which these would show, with-
out that particularity which we would choose to have made, if they had been
reduced.

The annual isotherm of 45 degrees of temperature, passes nearly east and
west through Portage City and Concord, New Hampshire, making but slight
deflections from a straight line, on account of the influence of the great
lakes and the mountains of New York, Vermont and New Hampshire.

The isotherm of 45 degrees, during the spring months, enters the conti-

nent at;Boston, passes Albany along the south shore of Lake Ontario, through
Detroit, around the south end of Lake Michigan, through Portage Qity, and
thence by St. Paul to the valley of the Saskatchawan river. This line is
spread out some seventy miles wide, as it passes over New York, and is very
crooked,, showing in a remarkable degree the affect of high lands and the
cool lakes. On the west of us it, passes twice above the 50th parallel of lati-
tude, and once, in New Mexico, it goes below the parallel of 364; an isotherm,
but-one degree colder than this last, passes nearly parallel with it, and within
about twenty-five miles distance, until it reaches a point north of Portage
City,, whence. it runs near Berlin, Oshkosh and Green Bay, into Lake Michi-
gan. :
The. isotherm.of 70 degrees in summer, passes through Wisconsin in about
the same direction as that of the spring line of 45 degrees, except running
farther east in Wisconsin, but it, reaches the south end of Lake Michigan
from, Harrisburg. and Pittsburg, in Pennsylvan‘a, and near the line of the
Fort Wayne railroad. |

The. isotherm of 48 degrees i in the fall, must be drawn from Copper Harbor,
on Lake Superior, through Green Bay and Fond dn Lac, thence west by
Portage City to the Mississippi river,

The.isotherm of 20 degrees in winter runs by. about the same line as the
last, but makes its great bend near Madison, and thence bears a little south
of west; while a line but a little warmer passes by the south end of Lake
Michigan. The line of 20 degrees from the north end of Lake Huron, runs

39

to Ogdensburg and Plattsburg, and strikes the ocean at Portland, Maine,
being considerably bent south by the mountains of Vermont and New Hamp-
shire.

Whoever shall take his map of the state, and trace these isotherms, will
perceive that they have crossed each other at or near Portage City where
the govermental observations were taken some years since, from which one
element of them has been calculated: that the winter and fall isotherms
are almost at right angles to those of the summer and spring, and are almost
equally varying from the mean annual line, but on opposite ‘sides.

From what we have been able to gather, we think we have discovered,
that near the center of Wisconsin there exists an axis extending from some-
where near Plover, in Portage county, south into the state of Illinois, along
which, at different seasons of the year, sharp eurves in the isotherms are
made to vibrate, and that along the same axis considerable change takes
place in the amount of water fall during the year.

The isotherms that most effect vegetation, are those of 70 degrees in sum-
mer, and 20 in winter—the one operating upon the growth of vegetation
and the productien of annuals; the other destroying many perennials which
survive in other places on the annual isotherm. The first allows the variety
of corn, melons and other summer annuals grown in eentral Ohio and southern
Pennsylvania to perfect in southern Wisconsin ; while the seeond is fatai upon
all the tender trees, such as pears and peaches.

Those who have heretofore lived where the isotherms, at different seasons
of the year, ran in nearly or quite paralel lines, might be readily mistaken
in the climate of Wisconsin, by knowing the winter or summer temperature,
and comparing that with the same temperature in his native place. Such
persons might meet with as fatal results as would the man from this state,
who, having only a knowledge of the winter temperature of Ireland or England,
should plant his field with corn, and expect a harvest of ears; or that of the
man from Newfoundland, who having no knowledge of Wisconsin tempera-
ture, except of winter in Columbia county, should refuse to plant corn or
cucumbers, because he thinks they would not grow by reason of such cold
in summer as he had been aecustomed to experience.

From the fact, that the high temperature of summer, forces forward a
growth, and the dry atmosphere induces perfection in the new wood, early in
the fall, it may safely be expected, that those trees, which thrive along the
annual isotherm east of us, will survive the colder temperature of our winters,
and especially, if we shall afford such trees the shelter of others which have
proved themselves hardy; fora similar reason, we may expect trees, from
colder mean temperatures, to take up their abode in the southern counties, if
sheltered from the hot winds. Hence, we have been induced to recommend
several trees, not uatives of the state, for cultivation, as the chestnut, tulip,
gome species of the hickory and the European walnut, and also of the white

46

and red pine, Norway spruce, and Scotch pine and larch, and shall speak off
them as if they absolutely existed already and were thriving where we desire
them to grow.

SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICE.

Among the duties assigned to the present commission, is that ef suggest-
ing the best method of preventing the evils that threaten the future pro-
gress of our state in wealth and population by the too rapid destruction of
the forests. This would obviously be, to encourage the growth of trees in all
those portions of the state where they are deficient, and their preservation
where they are: still sufficiently abundant. At least one-sixth of the entire
surface should be devoted to wood—and one-fifth would not be too much—to
supply the wants of the present and future population, and to secure the
needed protection to crops, &c. Lands least suitable for ordinary culture
should remain, or be planted in wood. But to secure the greatest benefit.
from tree-culture, belts of timber should be reserved or planted. With
proper tree-belts the number of our agricuPtural products might be increased ;
the annual product of the crops now cultivated would be increased; the
the quality of these products would be improved; the health, eomfort and
enjoyment of both ‘‘man and beast’ would be promoted; and with judicious.
management’ these tree-belts would very soon yield an annual income, that
would amply repay their cost, in addition to all their incidental advantages.

It is believed that this object might be accomplished by offering, under
proper regulations, a bounty of one per centum of the assessed value of all
lands, not exeeeding one-fifth of the tract of which it forms a part, upor
which the owner has planted trees in such manner as to secure the required’ _

. protection ; and a similar bounty should be allowed to such as shall reserve
a suitable number of trees for the purpose, when clearing new land; or
if deemed more advisable, proper tree-belts might be exempted from tax-
ation.

OF TREE -BELTS.

No positive rule can be Jaid down, which shall be applicable to trees in all
places which shall be best for tree-belts;. but judgment, knowledge, observa-
tion and skill must be exercised in regard to each piece of ground. Mucls
information may be elicited by observing what trees grow naturally upon a
given quality of soil; and the planter will not be likely to go far astray who
shall follow such an index. Thus, where the burr and white oak, and shell-
bark hickory, is the prevailing timber; on that ground and the adjoining
black mould of the prairie, he may expect, that the shag-bark, shell-bark and
pig-nut hickory, the white and burr oak, white ash, sugar and silver leafed
maples, white pine; Scotch larch, black walnut, butternut, cherry, locust,,
basswood, tulip-tree, white elm, red elm, hackberry, Norway spruce, beech
and cedar will thrive well;, and of those trees he may make either his forest
or tree-helt,

At’

Where the Iand is sandy, and the prevailing timber is black jack oak, with
some hickories and burr oaks, hickory, locust, burr and black jack oak, red
pine, Scotch pine, Scotch larch, Norway spruce, cedar, and chestnuts will
thrive. As this sand becomes more dry, only pines, larch, spruce, red cedar,
and black jack oak may be expected, but the growth will be slow of course.
Where the land becomes moist but not swampy, the white elm, hackberry,
white and black ash, butternut, hickory, white pine, swamp white oak, birch,
tamarack, red maple and white cedar will be timber to choose from; and in
still wetter land, the tamarack, red maple, black ash, birch and willow will
grow. The overflowed river lands must be planted with such trees as the
natural growth may indieate.

But in making all plantations, the planter must not forget the great prin-
ciple of rotation, which governs every well informed farmer; whether we
adopt the theory, that roots, besides drawing from the soil such properties
as are required by each variety of plants, until all those which they can
reach are exhausted; or that the roots have also the power to cast off waste
or deliterious matter, makes no difference with the fact, that if the same
kindwf plants grow for a sufficiently long period of time in the same ground,
the soil will become unfit for their longer production, until it is renovated.
In scientific farming this renovation is affected by manuring the surface of
the ground, and by a rotation of crops, which require other ingredients from
the soil. Acting on this principle, it would seem, that ground which has
been producing the long tap-rooted oaks, should be planted with‘maples,, but-
ternuts, locusts, basswoods, elms and pines, whose roots spread nearer the sur-
face; and that oaks, on the other hand, should be placed on the prairies,
which have been producing grasses. To those who have observed the changes
which take place in the timber that grows up as the second crop where old
trees have been cleared away, will find a cause for that growth in this prin-
ciple underlying the necessity of rotation of crops.

The forms of the tree belts, as well as the trees of which they are com-
posed, may be varied almost infinitely. Before we suggest any.form at all,
we will premise: that in all belts, those rows of trees next to land which
must be plowed, or mowed, as well as highways, should consist of such trees
only, as strike their roots nearly perpendicularly, or if not, of sueh as do not
send up suckers naturally, nor because the roots may chance to be wounded
or cut by the plow. This rule will suggest, the oak, the pines, the larches,
the hickories and the cedars. They should also be disposed naturally to
grow in a perpendicular, or pyramidal form, so that they shall not shade the
ground by throwing out long horizontal branches; this rule excludes the
oaks; and lastly the outermost tier should be an evergreen of well known
hardiness, and one that will retain its limbs and foliage near the ground.
This rule will leave the red cedar, as the first and best choice, though the
white might at.times be taken. These trees answer all the conditions. In
the second tier of trees, the hickories fill all the conditions, and the pine

42

and larch would be rejected only because they grow too high for this place.

It is elsewhere shown that 182 per cent. of the land ia required to be cov-
ered with timber, and that such per cent. will put a belt of seven and one-
half rods along two sides of every forty acresof land, lying in a square form.
If this strip be divided into fifteen equal parts, it gives to each part one-half
rod wide; which may be again divided into rows, one-fourth of a rod apart.
We have already indivated the propriety of planting the two outer-parts or
four rows with cedar. The adjoining parts each two rows wide should be
planted with hickories. This disposes of four parts. The remainder should
be so planted, that the tallest trees be placed in the centre, and that indi-
cates the three or five center parts should be planted with pines, Scotch larch
and Norway spruce. The remaining parts between the pines and hickories,
where trees less tall than pines, and yet taller than hickories, are required,
indicate that the black walnut, tulip tree, white oak and sugar maple, cherry
and chestnut should be used, next to the pines; and maples, butternuts,
cherry, ash, locust, basswood, hackberry, oak, chestnut, birch, beech and
willow will be proper next to the hickories. This form may be varied by en-
larging the central coniferx, or leaving them out entirely. It must also, be
varied to suit the soil.

We have stated that the best and cheapest way was to plant the seeds of
the trees where they are required to grow. Acting on this principle, and
having prepared the land by thorough tillage, the planter divides the ground
into rows, one-fourth of arod apart, lengthwise. He then plants the two
outer rows with red or white cedar, so as to have a tree two feet apart, in
the row. The next two rows are planted with hickory-nuts one foot apart.
. The next six or eight rows are to be planted so that the leading trees that
are designed finally to remain for timber trees shall stund one rod apart in
the rows, but quincuncially, and the space between these trees may be filled
up with hickory, hackberry, oak, maple, locust, ash and other trees; care
being taken that trees growing with nearly equal rapidity be placed together.
All these, except elm and red and white maple and birch may be planted in
the fall. The seeds of these last mentioned ripen and’ are planted in June,
and grow the same summer, and ‘will be excellent trees with which to fill up
vacancies. The six or ten rows of conifer must be planted in the spring,
as the cones of these are gathered after it is too late to plant the seeds.
Only pines, larch and spruce can be planted in these rows, as other trees
would overgrow them during the first few years; after which they will shoot
up faster than any other tree. These may be planted as thick as recom-
mended for hickories, with the design of cutting the most of the larches and
spruces when of proper size for hop-poles and stakes. Also many of the
young pines must be cut for small timber, to make room for those to be
grown into large trees. Tis trimming must be done with due care, so that
the trees be neither too crowded, nor allowed too much space.

48;

Where the belt or forest is designed exclusively for fuel, then all the rows
inside of the cedars and hickories may be planted with such trees as shall
make the best and most fuel, at 20 years of age, and one-half of the belt may
be cut away at atime, leaving only the cedars. When the cut portion has
grown up, twenty or more feet, the other half can be cut. If kinds have
been used in forming the belt or forest, which send up shoots and suckers, or
if small seedlings have started, there will be no risk about the forest or belt
springing up again even too thick to stand and so as to require a great deal
of thinning out.

Timber belts may either be reserved in clearing.lands, wherever it can be
found sufficiently thickly planted by nature with valuable native trees, or be
made by planting. They should run in such manner as-to afford protection
from the severe prevailing winda; but no farther from belt to belt than will
afford the required protection. We have indicated for level land forty rods
apart as a very proper distance. If the land is more or less hilly discretion
must be used in placing the belts, and irregularity in their position will be
necessary. They may be allowed to occupy a hill side, or its brow, the bor-
ders of a ravine, or other irregular surface which cannot be advantageously
tilled without liability to wash. But wherever they are, however located, no
cattle or hogs should at any time be allowed access to the growing belt, a8
the one would consume the nuts and the other destroy the young trees which
are to keep the shelter perfect and afford the succession of trees when the
old ones are cut. -

SOME OTHER ADVANTAGES OF TREE BELTS.

The strip of land occupied by the tree-belt is far. from being so much land
lost to the farmer. Beside the protection and shelter it would afford by
warding off the winds from the men, the stock and the grain; assisting its
growth by making u moist stripof air around the field, and thus not unfre-
quently protecting the growing crop from frost by collecting and holding the
vaper on a cool summer night, the trees shed many of their leaves en the
land, where they decay, greatly enriching the sol]l.. When the timber has
once grown up, what can be more convenient than access to this storehouse
for a stake, a pole, a lever or other timber desired for use. No other acres
would be of equal value to.the farm. Wood land is to-day more in demand
in the thickly settled portions of the state, than wheat land, and higher
prices paid for it.

It is not unknown to us all that many countries are fearfully wasted by the
depredations of insects; also that the most devastating of these insets are
such ag are seldom seen on the wing during the period of their ravages. Thus
the locust and grasshopper have, from time immemorial, devoured tbe vegeta-
tion of some countries at the east. The ravages of these insects have fur-
nished the theme for the illustrations of the poet and orator in the east,
when describing the wrath of God against the sins of the people; and

44

they are still looked upon by the superstitious as sent by Him in’ judg-
ment Says the prophet Joel, they are a nation “ strong and without num-
ber, whose teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the cheek teeth of a
great lion. He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my fig tree. * * A
fire devoureth before them, and behind them a flame burneth; the land is as
the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness; yea,
and nothing shall escape them.” :

The grasshoppers on the dry plains, between the Missouri and Pacific, are
not less destructive to such few crops as the industry and perseverance of
man forces from the dry grounds by means of the irrigating streams, that
flow from the mountain ranges, than are the locusts of Arabia. Against'the
march of the innumerable hosts, the farmer opposes sometimes with success
his watering ditch, filled to the brim with the flowing streams, where count-
less myriads find a watery grave. Bnt woe betide the man whose crops have
no such guardian ditches. Over such a plantation the march of the devast-
ating army is as rapid, as destructive, as the armies described by the prophet.
We may well rejoice that the Mississippi and Missouri interpose their broad
channels to the advance of such armies, and act as guardian angels to our
corn and wheat fields. After the days of ravagings and feastings are past,
mounted on strong wings, rising above these broad streamsand the tree tops
they seek a new place where they may deposit their future brood of de-
vourers.

Hear Marsh on the remedy: ‘The insects most injurious to rural industry
do not multiply in or near the woods. The locust which ravages the east
with its voracious armies is bred in vast open plains, which admit the whole
heat of the sun to hasten the hatching of the eggs, gather no moisture to
destroy them, and harbor no bird to feed upon the larve. It is only since -
the felling of the forests of Asia Minor and Cyrene, that the locust has be-
,come so fearfully destructive in those countries; and the grasshopper which
now threatens to become almost as great a pest to the agriculture of some °
North American soils, breed in seriously injurious numbers only where a wide
extent of surface is bare of woods.”

The chinch bug of the prairies, which is equally dreaded, by those who
know their ravages, can never traverse a belt of thick timber of seven or
eight rods in extent to,devast an adjoining field. The cool damp soil of such
a belt presents an impassable barrier to their march; the same as to the
grasshopper. Another devouring pest has appeared among us whose origin
seems to be traced to the dry western plains—the ten-striped potato bug—
whose ravages is to-day more dreaded than the rot which produced a famine
in Ireland. Other forms of insect life now swarming on those arid grounds,
may multiply upon us as we cut away our guardian trees, and drive off our
forest-loving birds, which feed upon them as they have made their appear-
ance among us. If the open plains breed these myriads, and forests arrest
their march, the law of protection is plain; and he who raises the barrier,

45

does an act worthy of his country, and he who cuts it down commits a crite
against his race.

“ Another important advantage,” saya J.T. Thomas, '‘‘has been occasionally
afforded by the shelter of wood lands. It is well known.that rust in wheat igs
commonly most prevalent on low and mueky lands; yet at other times, and
in its most virulent form, it seems borne on the wind, and often destroys
thousands of acres on all kinds of soil, in onesweeping blight. An instance
of this sort occurred in northern Indiana in 1840. Early and late sown, on
compact and spongy soil, on hill and dale, cleared land and prairie, were all
alike affected. In every instance, however, where the crop was sheltered by
wood land, it was least injured. An extensive farmer of Ontario county,
New York, informed me, some years ago, that out of two hundred acres of
‘promising wheat which he then had growing, all was completely destroyed
except those portions sheltered by woods; the total loss being four or five
thousand dollars, most of which he believed would have been saved had his
land been protected by timber belts.”

There are farmers, not a few, in Wisconsin who will call to mind instances
of similar destruction of their wheat crops by a sudden spread of the rust
over their field; and all their promising hopes blasted at once; where they
expected thousands of wheat, they found only worthless straw, which they
were obliged to remove by the aid of fire.

OF CUTTING TREES FOR WOOD.

The time of cutting trees as well as the number of. trées which may be
grown upon the acre, so as to procure the greatest quantity of wood from
the acre, in a given period of time, are points that cannot be definitely set-
tled, so as to be equally applicable to all pieces of land, or to all parts of the
same piece.

If we take single trees fully established and growing rapidly, and examine
them some useful deductions may be made on this subject: Let our sample
tree be 12 feet high, and 4 inches around, or 14 inches in diameter, making
an annual layer of 4 inch of wood, then by counting the wood deposited on
the branches and ends of the top as equal to the amount deposited on the
body of the tree, and we have an annual deposit four inches wide, one-half
inch thick, and 12 feet long, or two superficial feet of wood one inch in
thickness. Take another tree growing with the same rapidity, but 60 feet
high and 16 inches in diameter, or 48 inches around, and the result of the
annual growth would be a deposit 48 inches wide and 60 feet long, making
120 superficial feet one inch in thickness—an equivalent to the growth of 60
trees 12 feet high—a number which would occupy four times the space oc:
cupied by the sixty foot tree. Similar results will be found by a comparison
of other trees of different sizes.

From these comparisons this rule may be deducted: Whenever trees
eease to lay on a greater amount of wood annually than would be laid on by

46

the sinaller trees that would stand upon the same space, and planted at
suitable distances to make a thrifty growth, then the large’ trees should be
cut away, and their place supplied by smaller trees; if the object be to get
the greatest amouht of wood. But if the trees possess any: particular value
for their fruit, or will continue to increase in value by age, without detriment
to the timber already formed, as would be the case with pines and cabinet
qvoods, then it will be more profitable to continue them in existence. At the
same time it must be remembered that, if the trees stand in a grove or
timber belt, they will greatly retard the growth of the small trees which are
beneath them.

This rule will be found changing to suit all kinds of soil and timber; and
will indicate to the grower that every tree that shows signs of decay, should
be at once cut down, to make rooni for others. Also, that in most cases, for
mere fuel, the maximum of wood producing property, in our native forest
trees, will be reached between 20 and 30 years after the trees are firmly es-
tablished. Eighteen years is the time allowed by law in France, in which
owners may cut over their wood-lands. But-experiments made in Massachu-
sets, have proved that 20 to 80 years ismuch-preferable, We have made our
estimates for 25 years.

‘When trees are cut off in the winter, they will send up sprouts from the
roots, except such trees as never do sprout. Also by cutting in the winter
the small trees which are growing, on the ground, receive the sun and com-
mence their vigorous growth in the spring of the year. “Trees cut in the
summer, or even after vegetation has commenced, and until some time after
all vegetation has ceased will be certainly killed. The young trees are also
likely to be killed at that time by being broken down, and damaged at a time
that will kill them.

In cutting down as well as in’ trimming forests or timber belts, all the
chips and brush shotld be removed from the ground. This fuel could be
eithér bound in bundles, or cut short and put in baskets or boxes for con-
venience in handling, and be all sold by the pound as is done in France and
some other places. It would meke excellent kindlings at all times, and in
summer would make a fine quick fire, and thus save much wood that would be
otherwise used, Such fuel would find a ready market, ag goon as its merits
were understood; and machinery might readily be adapted to cutting and
preparing the brush.

PROPOGATION OF TREES.

In this report, a scientific or elaborate description of the different methods
of growing trees cannot be given. All trees may be propogated by layerings,
many by cuttings, while all our native trees and the more common exotics,
valuable for forest trees may be grown from seeds. Valuable varieties may
be multiplied and perpetuated by budding, grafting and inarching. All who
will give a little attention to the subject can grow them in some of ‘these

47

ways. The fiutsety-tain succeeds better than others only because he has given
the subject more consideration. An acre of trees can bé grown with a little
different knowledge, but without exefcising any more skill than the culti-
Vator would exefcise in keeping the same land in corn. The eulture of trees
in Wisconsin requires no better preparation of the soil in the first instance,
and no better after-cultivation, than a majority of other erops.

The cost of producing seedling trees of maple, ash, oals, elm, pime, spruce,
tulip, birch, cherry, cedar; and similar trees, whose seeds can be had in
&bundanee for the mere eost of gathering, and without expense for trans-
portation, will not exceed two dollars for 1,000 trees wher a year old. This
estimate is intended to include the cost of seeds, preparing the soil, hoeing,
weeding, &., for one season. A few others like the hickory, butternut,
walnut, beech and chestnut, the seeds of which possess an intrinsie value,
frould cost as much more than that price, as the seeds are more valuable, and
as their bulk and weight would increase the expense of transportation.

Although trees may be grown at the cost named to the grower, yet, no one
tnust expect to buy such trees at the mere cost of raising them; because he
who grows trees for sale will expect to make a profit on hig skill and labor.
These cheap trees are such as are grown in seed-beds, at the rate of milliong
to the acre, and are taken up the first year for the purpose of sale at tha6
age, or to be transplanted to the nursery row, where they are to stand until
they are removed to their final place of growth.

Where rapid and strong growth is required, it is better to plant trees
where they are finally “to stand, than to make use of the seed-bed and nur-
sery. What may be lost in rent of land, is more than eompensated by saving
the labor of transplanting, and in amount of growth,

FORESTS AND TIMBER BELTS.

To grow trees in a forest or timber belt from seeds, the land should be welt
4nd cleanly cultivated or fallowed the summer before planting, so that it shall
be as clean of weeds as possible, and méllow. Before planting it should be
marked out, so that ther need be no mistake zbout where every seed is plant-
éd, as that will greatly facilitate efter culture. Two or more seeds should
be planted in each hill or place where a tree,is desired, to insure the growth
of at least one tree at the point. If more than one come up and grow they
can be used to fill vacancies; or sold, as the grower shall see fit. Trees thus
grown will send their strong tap-roots deep into the soil, and bring moisture
and nourishment from below, as well as from the surface; and thereby they
will stand firmer against the force of the winds, than transplanted trees,
Such trees will not be retarded, perhaps killed, by the transplanting which
the seed bed and nursery process requires, and consequently will never re-
quire to be headed back on that account. The labor and expense of trans-
planting, no inconsiderable item, will be saved by planting the seeds where
the tree isto remain, Altogether, a man may better afford to plant and kill

48

five seedling trees, than be at the risk and cost of transplanting one from
the nursery, if his sole object is to grow a forest tree.

In planting seeds the bed where they are to lie, should bé made level
and never more than two inches below the general surface of the ground.
‘The seeds should be deposited, one or two inches apart, and covered as evenly
as possible. “The smaller the seeds the less should be the covering as a gene-
ral rule, but none need be covered more than one inch deep. Extra seeds
being allowed for sich as do not come up, and such as may burn or rot off
when small. The soil with which they are covered should be mellow, and if
it contain a large allowance of vegetable material, so much the better, as in
that case the covering will retain moisture without liability to bake in drying.
After they come up they require about the same care as beets or carrots, and
must be kept clear of grass and weeds until they are large enough to produce
‘sufficient leaves to shade the ground completely.

If the plantation of trees be intended for a tree-belt or forest, such a plan
must be adopted as will give sufficient space between the rows und trees to
‘allow the horée-hoe or cultivator to pass; then in the vacant spaces some low
growing crop, like bush beans, dwarf peas, onions, turnips, beets, carrotsand
parsnips, might be planted ; remembering ‘all the time that these last are but
the temporary ¢rop and only planted, not for themselves, but to assist in part
paying for the the cultivation of the greatet crop of trees, during the first
years of their existence. Tap roots should never be grown, after the roots

of the trees have so extended themselves as to be endangered i in taking up
the crop of roots. After that period only such trops as produce no roots to
be dug should be grown. Such crops, without damaging the young trees,
‘would be a real benefit ; as they would induce manuring the ground, and se>
cure thorough cultivation of the surface. No crop should be attempted
where hickory nuts or other seeds are planted as thick as for growing hoop-
poles; that is in rows four feet apart, “and 12 to 18 inches in the row. Such
rows ought to occupy the entire ground after the second year, and never al-
lowing room for more than the cultivator to pass; though a small crop might
be made, if the land were worked by hand only; but it is doubtful if it
would pay for the summer work which would be required.

FORMS OF PLANTING.

Trees in forests and belts designed for timber or protection against winds
may be variously planted, as they may be designed for different purposes,
reference also being had to the kind of trees used. Such trees as are de
signed primarily for their fruit, and ultimately for timber, such as chestnuts,
butternuts, waluuts, and hickories, might be planted in squares one rod apart,
or 160 to the acre, or at 8 feet 8 inches apart each way, thus giving four trees
to the rod square, or 640. trees to the acre of land. This would be a good
distance for maples designed for making sugar ;"and for the conifere intend-
ed to be grown into large trees for timber, This form might be secondarily

49

attained froma thicker plantation thinned out. Apple trees might be used
to make this kind of plantation, which being a very fast grower and trimmed
high, and after bearing fruit for sevéral years, enough to pay a large rent on
the land, trould become tall trees with large trunks of valuable timber, and
tops making fuel of an excellent quality.

For fuel, and small straight timber, the trees might be grown, either pri-
marily or sécondarily, in rows 494 inches apart, and 8 feet three inches in
the rows, standing quincuncially. This form places eight trees to the rod,
while they are almost six feet from each other, and gives 1,280 to the acre.
Another form of planting for the same purpose would place them in the square
form, 54 feet apart, and would give nine trees to the rod, or 1,440 to the
‘acre. This last form would be more difficult to attain as & secondary result,
but would be 2 very good form to use, where other crops are grown in the
arly stages of its growth.

All these forms may be ultimately reached, ‘except the last, by planting
seeds at 494 inches between the rows, and at half or one-fourth that distance
in the row ; with the express intention of thinning them out at the proper
age, so as to leave the final form required. Different varieties of trees may
‘also be used which are intended to be cut away, as the planter shall deem
moat profitable for that purpose. For this last purpose no species offer more
‘advantages, than hickoties-and white oaks among deciduous trees and larches
among conifers.

Different forms of plantations will suggest themselves to each planter, ac-
cording to the use for Which he is planting. But however the trees may be
planted, they should be induced to shade the ground as soon as possible, so
as to kill out all other vegetation. In this lagt, the leaves will greatly aid
while it mulches and enriches the trees, and aids their growth.

When the land is valuable, as is generally the case in Wisconsin, it is ‘ob-
vious that the managenient, which gives tlre quickest and the heaviest return
of timber, will prove the most remunerative and profitable. Thorough culti-
vation gives the greatest ard most rapid -growth of the young trees, making
‘at least once anda half, and often two.fold difference in the first ten.years
of their existence. This is accomplished best by planting the trees in rows,
through which the cultivator can be passed, thus keeping it clean. This can-
not be done hy the uncertain mode of sowing the seeds broadcast, or setting
the trees at random, moreover it gives. greater evenness to the plantation.

TIME OF PLANTING SEEDS.

No one specified time can be named in which the seeds of all trees can be
*planted, as they mature at different periods of the year; and retain their
vitality for various lengths‘of time. As a general rule, the best time to
plant is soon after the seeds ripen. That is not always convenient, nor is it
‘always absolutely necessary. Yet with some kinds, a delay of a few weeks tg

Rep. 4.

50

alittost certain to result in a complete failure, as such seeds die in drying.
Others retain their vitality for months or years. In ‘the description of the
different trees, the time when each ripen its seeds, will be noted; also
whether they can be kept or not, with any peeuliarity which may be required
in their management.

HOW TO PROCURE SEEDS.

The eeeda of those trees whieh are native and convenient, may be pro-
cured, by such as want them, in person, or by assistants sent out for that
purpose. Generally all may be had of the seedmen; if application be made
at the proper season ; which should be done a short time before the’ kind de-
sired ripen. If the seedman be honest and intelligent he will send out only
fresh seeds, and such as will be sure to grow. Persons wanting seeds can
often procure such as they need by an exchange of other seeds, with persons
resident in the neighborhood of the native trees, by making use of the pro-
visions of the post-office laws, by which four ounces of seeds may be sent for
two cents to any part of the States. When exchanges cannot be made, sev-
eral persons who desire the same kind of seeds may dispatch a gatherer after
them to a distance; and when neither of these methods will succeed without
too great expense, they may be procured from the large dealers in forest
seeds.

In an exchange of seeds if will often happen, not only that seeds may be
procuréd, but also mich valuable information be obtained in addition by the’
correspondence.

Many of the seeds of the forest trees can be gathered by the simple pro-
cess of picking them up when they fall; but in some casés they are too small
to be thus gathered, or armed with such appendages as make them float to
such distances, as to prevent that method of procuring them. In such cases
they must be gathered from the trees, This is especially true of the betu-
lace, salicacew, and the conifer. The mode of gathering these seeds re-
quire a more detailed statement.

WHEN TO GROW TREES.

Nearly every man we meet is ready to confess that he sees the necessity of
having the trees growing in the country—some, because on every cold day
in winter the wind pierces through the thickest under and over clothes they
can wear, and yet be able to handle the pitch-fork and grain-scoop to feed:
the farm stock-~come, because they flounder through the drifting, blinding
snow as they pass along the public:road, and know that a slight belt of cedars
or other evergreens would check both the wind and the snow. The poor
man, With his wife and children, repeat, “Oh, how cold it is!” as they are
hovering over the two small sticks, part of a small load of second rate green
wood, for which he has paid at the rate of $12 per cord, and which are now
smouldering in the stove—not enough fire to raise the temperature of the
room above the freezing point, whose poor inmates dare not add another

51

stick, ag they have no means to get more; this man wishes wood was plentier.
The owner of the half section of prairie, whose house and barn is all un-
sheltred, and whose wood lot is two miles away, feels the need of trees
nearer home. More than all these, the man of reflection, who from the
past reads the future, and sees how the scattering groves are melting away
before the axe; how every seed gathered by the hogs, or the young tree that
starts into existence is eaten off by the cows and sheep, and the very roots
dug up to convert the place where the small trees grew into a pasture, sees
the want of wood that is surely pressing on the neople. He sees the famine
of wood that is as certain to follow this waste, as is the famine of bread to
succeed the failure of grain. All see the necessity, the want, the danger,
but know not, or say they know not the remedy; or they ask, where are the
million of trees to come from to supply this want—to cover the acres required
for growing fuel and timber. To produce the timber belts all over the land?
Two words answers the inquiry—‘‘ crow THEM.”’

Yes, plant the seeds, and the snows and rains, the suulight and the dews,
will make them germinate, and the genial soil will make them into trees,
each “after his kind.’’? Plant the little floating seed, that in June falls like
a snow-flake, yet contains the germ of the elm, and in after years, but within
the period of a man’s existence, its long arms will stretch over an eighth of an
acre, and it will give cords of wood. The acorn rescued from the paw of the
squirl, the craw of the pigeon, or the jaw of the hog, will, in the same time,
become the ‘giant of the forest,” if it be planted in October but one inch
under the light soil, and tended for four short seasons.

“ But I can’t wait, I want the trees to-day.” Who asks you to wait? Men
and trees are things of time; and time moves in spite of you. Plant the
next seed that ripens, and in ten years afterwards, while you are making up
your mind; whether you had better wait a few years for them to grow or not,
there will be another to-day, and you will have the tree you desired ten years
before, without waiting at all, Time has made the germ into a tree—the
rows of little seeds into timber-belts. Then, delay no longer. Begin now.

How often do we meet with men, who with abundance of means will tell
us, that they would like above all things to have the trees growing. They
care nothing for the expense—nothing for the narrow strip of land on which
they are to grow, but they cannot wait so long! These men have made this
same excuse for the last ten, fifteen or twenty years, and still not a tree
is planted—still the wind howls over their fields and buildings bleaker than
when they settled on their present farms, because they or their neighbors
‘have cleared away the scattering burr oaks, that gave them some shelter—
still they go miles for the fuel they burn. They have from the very first felt
the same want of the trees, the belt of timber, the protection, but they have
waited and hesitated years enough to have had to-day just what they so much
desire. Let such wait nolonger. Let the seeds be but planted and while

52

men sleep and dream of cool shades in summer and protection in winter, the
seeds will become trees.

But how long must they wait? Take any or all of the following trees:
white and red elm, silver and red maple, which may be planted the 15th day
of June, white and black ash, chestnut, walnut, butternut, thornless and
common locust, all of which may be planted in October ; and the evergreens,
white, red and Scotch pine, Norway spruce, and the Scotch larch, which can
be planted in the spring; and ten years from the day of planting they will
attain a height from 15 to 25 feet, and five years more they will reach from
30 to 50 feet, having required no hoing except for the four first years of their
existence. The silver-leafed and Lombardy poplar, the river eottonwood,
the Balm of Gilead and white willow, all of which grow from cuttings set in
the spring, will perhaps make more height and bulk of wood, but then the
timber is of very little worth for any purpose. From these rapid growing
trees, good selections can be made.

It is far better to grow trees from seeds in the spot where they are to re-
main, than to attempt to transplant them, even when the nursery belongs to
the planter; and it is worse than useless to depend upon getting trees from
the native forests. A tree already growing, may as well be left where nature
planted it, as to be dug up, half killed and set in another place. That adds
nothing to the number of trees in the world; but raising a tree from a seed
is like a new ereation. The man who wants trees should buy his seeds, hire
poor men, women and children to gather them for him, or better still go with
them to select and take only such as he wants, then he has them alive and
sure to grow, if he plants them at once, or places them where they will be
safely kept until his land is ready to receive them.

Time and money are both saved by planting seeds rather than by trans-
planting trees; as atty one will see who shall note the difference in time that
it will take to plant one thousand facorns, even where they are covered with
a handful, or half an inch deep with leaf mould or fine compost, or to trans-
plant one thousand trees three years old. The acorns may be planted by a
man in less than a day; transplanting the trees will take two men more than
a week. An acre of land may be planted with several thousand seeds of dif-
ferent kinds in a day; while it would take twice as many men more than @
week to put out the same number of trees a and requires to bé all done in
the busy seeding time of spring.

Most men have been discouraged in undertaking the work of*planting,
timber, by supposing that all plantations must be made only by planting trees
raised by the nurserymen from seeds. A little reflection will correct this
error; as well as show that the nurserymen could not possibly supply what
ought to be the present demand for trees. The county of Rock requires the
produce of 86,400 acres of trees for its full supply of fuel and timber for
other purposes for all time. Now, if we suppose that but one-half of this
amount or 48,200 acres only are to be planted anew; then as the treesin the’

53

nursery do not grow more than twice as thick as they are required in the
timber belt, we shall have no less than 21,600 acres or 834 sections, almost a
whole township to be planted in nursery for trees to plant that single county
—an amount too great for the nurserymen to undertake to supply, after they
have supplied the ornamental, fruit and other trees, which now take all their
time.

One hundred and twenty acres of thin or half nursery but thick forest is
required for every section; the care of which can only be had by every
land-owner becoming his own nurseryman, and making the nursery the iden-
tical strip of land on which the trees are to remain. There they should re-
ceive a smooth, clean surface and mellow culture, and they will thereby, at
least triple their growth while yet small, and sometimes six or eight fold
what they would do, if left in hard, uncultivated soil. It is not to be ex-
pected that the land-owner, who requires eight belts 33 rods wide, or four of
1% rods wide, and each half a mile long, will start them all in one year, as
that would require him to plant thirty acres of trees; but he could plant one
or two of these each year until all were planted.

Trees which grow directly from seeds without transplanting, are thriftiest,
straightest and best. Transplanted trees, on the contrary, require years to
become well established, and to assume a vigorous growth; and most likely
they have lost their upright shoot, from which it will take them years to re-
cover. They are more evenly grown from seeds than by either transplanting,
or allowing them to come up of their own accord, as they will do where large
trees have been cleared off. Another, and perhaps the greatest and best
reason of all for planting, by means of seeds, is the fact, that the planter
thereby secures just such trees as he desires most, without the shrubs which
are found such encumbrances in the native forests; whereas some of the
most valuable of trees, such as the oaks, hickories, waluuts and others that
send long tap-roots deep into the soil can scarcely be grown otherwise.

The man who wants trees for forests or belts, must plant good, sound, fresh
seeds, at the proper season, in suitable soil, and tend them for four years, as
well and faithfully as he tends his corn, and he will never repent the little
outlay. He must throw away the oft repeated expression, ‘‘I cannot wait,”
with the more injurious one, ‘There is time enough yet,” and begin action
to-day by saving seed, preparing land or planting, and he shall not wait; for
the trees will cover the land designed for them, while others are waiting for
the result.

PLANT THE BEST TREES.

In growing forest trees something besides square feet of timber is to be
considered. One kind of timber is often worth many times as much as an-
other; thus, a hundred feet of black walnut or cherry planks, are worth from
six to ten dollaas, while the same amount of pine may be had from two to
four dollars; and poplars would not pay for cutting; and the fork of a wal-

54

nut, white oak, or curled maple, for vaneering, would be worth a dollar for a
square foot. The butt of a thrifty growing hickory or white ash, eight feet
long and one foot in diameter, may bring from one to two dollars, while a
similar stick of Lombardy or other poplar would not be worth over fifteen
cents. As mere fuel the hickory and ash are worth nearly three times as
much as the poplar. Yet the valuable tree will occupy no more ground to
produce it than the almost worthless one, and still give the required size in
about the same time. This consideration of value should always be kept in
mind in planting ‘trees. A tree should not be chosen for planting, simply be-
cause it is a very rapid grower, nor yet be rejected because it is of moderate
growth, The true questions to ask and answer is this, which tree will be most
valuable at the end of twenty or more years.

The planter should remember he is planting a tree for its value at the end
of 25, 50, 100, or even 200 years hence, not for what it may be in five or ten
years. The man who plantsthe seed may see the tree when itis 50 or 60
years old, and may feed onits fruit at ten years. Let him, therefore,
plant trees for their value, not merely for their rapid growth. Acting on
this principle, there would be no hesitancy in choosing between a balm-of-
gilead and a red cedar, or a river cottonwood and a swamp white oak. The
valuable tree would be selected, and the almost worthless one rejected.

Timber is requircd for various purposes. Men want pine, tulip-tree, but-
ternut and basswood to work easy under the plane—white ash, hickory and
oak for strength and elasticity—hickory, oak and sugar maple for hardness
and stiffness—young hickory, white oak, white elm and black ash for supple-
ness—black walnut, cherry, butternut, oak, white ash, chestnut, maple and
birch for cabinet work—beech for hard compact wood which will wear smooth,
for plane stocks and other too]s—pine, spruce larch and oak, for long straight
timber, for buildings and ships—Hickory, black ash, and wifite oak for
hoop-poles—tamarack, larch, cypress and pine for hop-poles, stakes and trel-
lises—cedar, locusts, oak and black ash for durable posts for fences, and other
purposes,—willow, black ash and oak, for baskets. They want all forshade, for
forest and for fuel. But least of all they want the whole family of poplars,
notwithstanding they are rapid growers.

TREES CLASSED BY RAPIDITY OF GROWTH.

Forest trees may be classed by the rapidity of their growth into four
classes. 1. Trees of very rapid growth, or those making an annual increase
of more than an inch in diameter. 2. Trees of rapid growth, or making an
annual increase of more thau one-half inch. 38. Trees of moderate growth,
or making an annual increase of more than one-fourth inch: and 4. Trees
of slow growth, or making less than one-fourth of an inch in diameter each
year.

In the first class, we place the elm, silver and red maple, white and black
ash, chestout, locust, white and Scotch pine. Scotch larch, black walnut, but-

55

ternut, eypress, tulip tree, Lombardy and other species of the poplars, and
white willow.

In the second class will be found the hickory, red pine, white oak, cherry,
Norway spruce, sugar maple, box alder, bass-wood, black jack oak, hackberry
basswood. :

And in the third class we place the red and white cedar, beech, birch, hem-
jock, black spruce, tamarack.

It is not pretended that these lists are in all particulars exact, or that the
different trees will always make the growths here indicated. Instances may
occur in which trees here placed in the third class may make a growth to en-
title them to a place even in the first class; and sotoo, trees in the first may
fall back to the third. It is only designed to indicate in a general way what
may be expected when the trees are growing in good soil adapted to their
full development, with proper culture. Of all these trees we shall speak more
at length when describing the particular species.

The trees of slow growth and placed in the fourth class are either teo
small or too short-lived to be of value as forest trees, and will be omitted
from this report.

TREES CLASSED BY VALUE AS FUEL.

A vast mistake exists in the minds of most men, in regard to the relative
value of different kinds of wood to produce heat. Certain kinds of wood
are always preferred by the purchaser, because, when he buys or obtains wood,
and has prepared it for use, as fuel, he wants it as solid as possible and there-
fore, to lastas long as possible. Yet, it may happen, that the wood not so
desirable may be proeured for so much less than the better wood, that it will be
a saving to take the cheaper article, and prepare and use a greater quantity.
The rule may be stated thus: The greater the density of completely dried
wood, and the greater the proportion of the eharcoal in the wood, which it
is proposed to purchase, the greater will be its value as fuel. To this rule
there are what may appear slight exceptions. A wood may be light, and yet
be very resinous, and thus make a strong bright flame, while another of much
greater specific gravity, will make but little flame, yet the first may produce
amore intense heat in the puddling furnace, or in the boiler of the steam
engine, by reason of the flame, than the last, whieh has most eharcoal. But
such woods are not economical to buy for the purpose of heat ng houses, or
for cooking, where hot, burning and durable coals are preferable to flames. .

Marcus Bull, some years since, published some carefully prepared experi-
ments upon American woods, to test their qualities as fuel. One of his tables
is based upon shell-bark hickory, weighing, when thoroughly dried, by stove
heat, 4,468,75 pounds to the cord, estimated as 1,000 or unity. The table
contains forty-six different kinds of wood, some of which are little more than
underbrush, and seldom reach the fire, except to be burnt out of doors. Of
those woods, but four are placed below one-half of unity in value and density.

56

These are Lombardy poplar—lowest, white pine, Jersey pine and white birch ;
which stand respectively: 40, 42, 48, 48—poplar being the lowest on the
list, while the pines are above, both in density and proportion in charcoal.
We have extracted from that table twenty-six kinds of the woods, all of
which, with two or three exceptions, exist as natives of this state, and those
have some corresponding wood. By the use of this table the values of our
own woods may be discovered For example, we desire to know the value of
our black jack oak. It will be found to correspond with the pin oak of the
table, and stand at 71;'and basswood must be placed next to tulip tree, and
be about 50, or one-half the value of hickory.

Although Mr. Bull appears to have prepared his table with great care; yet
very many will doubt if sugar-maple is placed in its true positton either as re-
gards its specific gravity or quality as a heat-producing wood; in as much as
in the public. estimation it is held nearly equal to hickory. This disparity
may be readily accounted for by supposing that the specimens experimented
upon by him were cut wh¢n the tree was in full flow of sap, and that it had
been exposed to the action of the elements, until decomposition had com~
menced, as it readily does. This idea is confirmed by the fact that sugar
maple charcoal ranks higher than any northern wood, and as compared with
hickory coal it is 114 to 100.

Greenwood also contains water in different proportions, both as to kinds
of wood, and different specimens of the same kind. This amount is some-.
times as high as fifty per cent. A difference also exists as to the qualities of
the water contained in the wood, as to its capability of being expelled by
seasoning; thus the acidulous properties of red oak will not permit it to be~
come completely dried by mere action of the air; and, therefore, it fre~
quently happens that wood placed high in a table of values of fuel, based on
woods thoroughly kiln-dried, ought in actual practice to be placed much
lower in a table for every day use.

57
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD FOR FUEL.

PROPORT’N

SPrcrFic 5
Nos Kryps or Woop. Graviry or Yaue ae a
DareD W"p or Woop.
1 Shell Dark MickOry ies. ase yereae eedevsiansas 1,000 100 26.22
2 Plonut BAGKORY ..cisicissseieccais eaisievntiers assaarcreinen 949 95 25.22
3 Swamp White Oak........ 0... ceeee cece eaaeeee 885 86 22.16
We Dc ciniismncenesessawansaewnaaduusendee 885 81 21.62
5 Red Heart Hickory..............cceeesceereces 829 81 22.90
6 | White Ash.. ‘ Shae a T?2 Kus 25.74
% Post Oak. U5 74 21.50
8 | Pin Oak. tT 1 22.22

9 | Apple Tree 697 %0 25.
10 Red Oak.. » 928 69 22.43
1 Biack Walnu 681 65 22 56
12 Beech, white . ale 24 65 19.62
B Birch, black and yellow..........cssaeeeeeeees 697 63 19.40
14 Buear Maples cuss svarsnsaseecianowswensa 4149 644 60 21,70
15 | Yellow Oak... SNe 4 MRERE IG olw 653 60 21.60
16 SVN Elvis ss cs ci ceesmseaansaennuiaerasar nee 580 58 24.85
17 Red Cedar.... steel iat cia Stat imcpdt IRS 565 56 24.85
18 WAN) CNet sais 13 cadaccwedinkamaawarasieacaries 3 § 597 55 21.70
19 oft Maple eis, cisicrsicicisiw'ajeietessvsete siete wise), deiaivarsicpela 597 54 20

20 RY PIG ca carsncerr vids aaiveeamamemarwinersanincan 551 54 23.15
21 MLD Ds 25 can gp a aeshwivasetojerayaraiesa: ovsom austensiedcjove nie lebeyersisiers 563 52 21.81
22 Butternut. Sem Cne ree rere 567 51 20.%6
pa] Jersey Pine. A478 48 74.88
24 Wibite SBTC sncsicaysiea! rete 8. Misa ieee Sonu oun has Rua biolnaye eels BB dr osusisinnecsisis
2) White Pine... 415 42 24.35,
26 | Lombardy Pop! 397 40 12.89

TREES RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

In giving the description of such trees as are natives of this state, or such
as are adapted to the forests of Wisconsin, we have made use of the des-
criptions of Gray’s ‘“Botany,’’ Darlington’s ‘Flora of Chester County,”
Fuller’s '‘ Forest Culturist,” and ‘The Vegetable warld,’? hy Louis Figuier,
without quotations. Inthe same manner we have made free use of the pa-
pers on the culture and management of ‘Forest Trees,” and ‘‘ American
Forests,’’ found in the Reports of the Department of Agriculture of the
United States, 1864 and 1865. Sometimes using their ideas; sometimes ex-
panding, changing, or abridging their descriptions, and sometimes copying
them; and again combining and weaving these books and papers together in
the same sentence, with our own observations and examinations, in regard to
our climate, and the adaptation of certain trees to our wants.

MAGNOLIACEH. (Magnolia family.)

None of this family is known to exist as natives of Wisconsin; it consists
of trees and large shrubs, with largeshowy flowers, of calyx and corrolla col-
ored, and placed in rows of threes. Stamens and pistils numerous, also in
rows, the latter mostly packed together around and covering the prolonged’
recepticle, cohering, and in fruit, forming a sort of fleshy or dry cone. Seeds
one or two in each carpel; leaves alternate, not toothed, marked with minute
transparent dots, feather vaned. Bark aromatic and bitter. Flowers, sin-
gle, large, sweet scented. The family is named after Magnol, Professor of
Botany at Montpelier, in the 17th century.

MAGNOLIA ACCUMUNATA. (Cucumiber tree..)
Leaves oval, pointed, green, anda little pubescent beneath, scatteri ng

58

thin, five to ten inches long. Flowers pale greenish yellow, three or four
inches broad, and very fragrant. The fruit.cone two to three inches long,
and when young resembles a small cucumber ; hence its name, cucumber-tree.
Bark and cones highly aromatic and bitter, and are often used as a tonic.

This is the largest and best timber tree of all the magnolias, often growing
40 feet high, with a fine, straight stem of soft, light-colored and fine-grained
wood, not very liable to check in seasoning, resembling the wood of the tu-
lip tree ; and is much used for making wooden bowls, trays, &c. As this tree
grows plentifully in New York, in our own latitude, in the rich woods, with
the sugar maple, we may presume that it can be produced here by planting
the seeds; and be made profitable, since it isa very rapid growing tree and
sends up suckers from the stump to perpetuate itself when once cut down.
Such as have been tried, have proved hardy.

There are other species of the magnolia, as the magnolia umbrella (umbrella
tree,) with leaves from one to two feet long, and white flowers from seven to
eight inches broad, and rose-colored fruit; and the magnolia macrophylla
(great-leaved magnolia) with leaves two or three feet long, and white flowers
nearly a foot broad, and fruit two or three inches in diameter, which make
excellent ornamental trees; but the latter is more tender than the cucum-
ber tree.

To gather the seeds of the magnolias, the cucumbers must be picked as
soon as any of the carpels begin to open in September and show the seeds,
and spread on a dry floor where they can dry sufficiently to allow the seeds
to be shaken or picked out by hand. They must be immediately mixed with
sand and put in a cool cellar until spring or sowed in a light, sandy loam, as
they loose their vitality if allowed to become dry or become heated in the
fruit. Mice are very fond of the seeds, and care must be taken to guard them.
The trees have large, fleshy roots, but are easily transplanted, and can stand
in the seed Ved without damage for two years, where they may be protected,
as that is their most tender period.

LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERL. (Tulip tree— White wood— Yellow poplar.)

This tree, one of the most magnificent of the American forest trees, isa
sub-order of the magnoliacex, and but one species is known to exist. Some-
times it grows 140 feet high, and six feet in diameter, with a straight, clean
stem 80 feet high. The leaves are very smooth, with two lateral lobes near
the base, and two near the apex, and appear as if they were cut off by a
broad shallow notch, The three sepals are reflexed petals six in two rows,
making a bell-shaped corrolla two inches broad, greenish yellow marked with
orange.. The seeds which resemble a long slender key, are formed into a cone
while growing, from which they break away when dry and float off from the
tree. They die on drying. The name is Greek, from lirion, a lily or tulip,
and dendron, a tree.

The tree flowers in May and June, and the seeds ripen about the time the
leaves fall, and should be gathered in the cone and sown as soon as ripe in
moderately dry soil. They may remain in the seed bed two years if desira-
ble, and receive protection during winter; but as the roots are large and

59

succulent, care must be taken in transplanting; or rather the best method
would be to sow them where they are to grow, receiving the same care and
protection as in the seed-bed. The wood is light colored, greenish-white,
soft and light, not hard enough to receive a polish. It is much used in ecabi-
net work, for various purposes, and is especially adapted for foundations on
which vaneers are laid; also for panels {for carriages, where toughness or a
hard surface is not required. It holds glue and receives the oil of paint ex-
ceeding well. Perhaps no native tree shrinks more in sersoning than this,
as it shrinks not only sideways but endways as well; but when once thor-
oughly seasoned it remains fixed, and does not warp or twist like many hard
and tough woods, by subsequent working.

There is some difference in the quality of the timber, asit comes from dif-
ferent locations. The best is grown in a deep rich soil; where this is a very
rapid growing tree. As the wood is little used except as sawed lumber, only
large trees are desirable in the forest, yet as an ornamental tree we possess
few that excel it, as it will grow in the open grounds mu conical form, and
produce an abundance of its beautiful tulip shaped flowers in the spring..
Since this tree possesses so many good qualities, and no serious fault, we
hope to see it extensively raised in the southern counties of this state.
There can be but little risk in introducing it here, inasmuch as it grows all
over New York, and high up in Michigan. Probably it is not here naturally,
because of the same reason that has produced the prairies; the fires have
killed it.

ACERACEA. (Maple family.)

Trees, with opposite dotless leaves, without stipules, yielding a sweet sap,
small flowers, and a two winged fruit. From the back of each carpel grows
the wing, converting the fruit into a pair of separable, one-seeded samaras.

Seed nearly without albumen, variously coiled, and the leaf like cotyledous
crumpled.

ACER. (The Maple).

The trees in this tribe have flowers with calyx five-lobed—-petals five or none
—stames six to eight, rarely five, mostly polygamons. The leavesare simple,
palmately lobed, mostly heart-shaped at the base. The latin clasical name
ACER, maple, is derived from the Celt word ac, meaning hard.

Acer Saccuarinunm (Sugar maple, rock maple, or hard maple) all the com-
mon names are derived from the qualities of the trees; the first from its
sweet sap, the others from the character of the timber, it being one of the
firmest grained of our woods The leaves are three or five lobed, deep green
above, and paler beneath; flowers a greenish yellow, appearing with the
leaves, in clusters, on pendulous flower stems; and are eagerly sought for by
the honey bees. The seeds are broad winged, and ripen in autumn, falling
from the trees with the leaves; and should be planted soon after in rich
mould, an inch deep; or kept in a cool dry place, where vitality would not
be excited until early spring. The seeds come up about the time the parent
tree puts forth its leaves.

This tree which is well known in all the states north of the 40 parallel,
possesses many valuable properties, one of which is its sweet sap, which flows
from the tree while the frost is leaving the ground, before vegetation begins,

60

and from which large quantities of sugar are yearly manufactured. The
yield may be estimated from eight to twenty-five pounds annually. The wood
is hard and firm, and ranked with the beech, birch, walnut, white elm, oak,
white ash and hickory in producing charcoal; but as wood fuel it is placed by
many next to the hickory. The timber is extensively used in cabinet work,
mill-gearing, and naval architecture. When the grains are wavy or undulat-
ing it is called curled maple, and when contorted, bird's eye maple, according
to the form of the undulations. Both these when polished are of exquisite
appearance, and when kept dry are not less durable than the oak.

Few, if any, forest tree excels this for beauty of symetery, and deepness
of shade; and where the soil is adapted to its cultivation, few trees excel it
in rapidity of growth, as under favorable circumstances it often acquires a
height of eighty feet. R. 8. Bay in the Oountry Gentleman of 1862, says: ‘‘I
lately measured the trunks of a row of sugar maples set out eighteen years
ago in the town of Sennett, Cayuga county, N. Y. They stood by the road
side, had received no care, and now average one foot in diameter, and thirty
feet high. Had these trees stood in closer plantations, their diameter would
have been less, but their heighth greater.”

It prefers a calcareous soil, rich in vegetable mould, which will be greatly
enriched by the vast abundance of leaves. Good wheat land is generally
well fitted for its growth; and it will thrive to perfection on all the black
prairie grain soils of Wisconsin; which its deep shade would render more
moist and thus conduce to its own growth.

The value of an acre of sugar maples of twenty-five years plantation may
be thus estimated. One hundred and sixty trees one foot in diameter, will
yield ten pounds of sugar each, or 1,600 pounds, at 15 cents, $250, or deduct-
ing three-fourths for labor and expenses, leaves $62.50. This will be its>
minimum annual yield for fifty years or more.

The timber would advantageously increase in quantity until the trees were
100 years old; but would give a profitable yield of timber when the trees
would average twenty inches, as at that size they would give a cord of wood
to each tree or 160 cords; and which could not be estimated in the tree at
much less than $5 per cord; giving the value of the acre of timber at $800.
This estimate will not appear high, when it is remembered, that twenty-five
feet in length of each tree can be sawed into lumber, making 800 feet to
each tree, or 48,000 feet of sawed lumber, worth at present prices $30 per
thousand, or $1,440; and the balance of the trees go to the cord wood, giv-
ing eighty cords to the acre. The interest on the value of the land, the
cost of planting and taxes would be paid by the trimmings, leaving the land
as valuable as when the trees were planted, and the sugar and timber may be
estimated as profit for care and forethought. These estimates are based on
the trees being planted on soil properly adapted to their growth; that is, on
about one-half the lands lying south of town sixteen in Wisconsin. North of
that the proportion of land adopted to sugar maple culture is less,

61

Ac#r Nidrom (black maple.) This is only a variety of the preceding, and ig
very similar in its growth and general appearance, but does not come into
leaf quite as early in the spring, and has a denser and darker foliage. The
timber cannot be distinguished, nor is there any marked difference in tlie
growth of the tree, or sap. Both thesd maple are better adapted to the
forest culture than as shade trees for road sides, as they delight in spreading
their feeding roots near the surface of the ground, and require the mulch of
the leaves.

Acer Dasycarpum (white or silver maple.) Leaves deeply five lobed, with
sinuses tather acute, silvery white, and when young downy undeérneath, the
divisions narrow, cut-lobed and toothed—flowers greenish yellow, on short
pedicels, appearing before the leaves—Fruit woolly when young with large
divergent wings; ripens between the lst and 15th of June, generally about
the time the leaves are fully expanded; and must be sown immediasely, as at
that season of the year the heat will excite its vitality and destroy it unless
in the ground. When planted in mellow mould, less than inch deep, the seed
will spring up in froni seven to ten days, and attain the height of twelve to
twenty-four inches the first year. This is the most rapid growing of all
the maples, often making twenty feet high in three ot four years. It suc-
ceeds in most soils, but prefers a rich black one like the sugar maple. Hence
it will sometimes thrive where the other will die. Its wood is fine grained
and considerably used for a vaiiety of purpos¢s, but is not as hard or valuable
for cabinet work, and mill geeting, or for fuel as the sugir maple. The tree
is often used for sugar making.

This tree seldom attains a height exceeding 50 feet or two feet in diameter,
and is consequently shott-lived. Asa fuel producing tree its maximum value
may be assumed at 20 years of age. From its long graceful branches and
silvery foliage; it is highly prized asa shade tree. But this long branching
top renders it very liable to be badly broken by the winds, and loads of snow
and ice. Still it deserves particular attention from those who desire to pro-
cure a quick supply of wood and a large yield from the acre. For the pur-
pose of growing wood it might be planted at the rate of 640 trees to the
acre, or 8} feet apart, or at 54 feet 1,440 trees could be grown, letting it oc>
cupy the entire ground, At 26 years after planting, a crop of 160 cords of
wood might be expeeted. Every 15 years afterwards a similar crop might be
cut from the young shoots and volunteer trees, while the trimmings would
meet the interest on the purchase money, first expenses, and taxes on the
land. The wood, though less valuable than the sugar maple, is preferred to
the oaka for kitchen fuel. :

Acer Rusrum (Red maple, swamp or soft maple, for it takes all these names
in different localities.) Leaves three to five lobed with sinuses acute, whitish
underneath, the lobes irregular serrate and notched acutely, the middle are
usually longest—flowers on very short pedicels, deep red or scarlet, rarely
pale or yellow, appearing very early in the spring before the leaves; seeds
ripen like the silver maple, but are not quite as large.

The small branches are deep red in winter, and from them and the flowers
it takes its name, red maple. Its habits, timber and rapid growth corres-
pond so nearly with the silver maple that no special description is required,

Tn fact the two appear to be almost varieties of each other, like the sugar and

62

the black iiaples. Although generally found native in swamps and overflowed
lands, and along'the margins of streams, it thrives far better on drier lands.
In the former situation it is a shortlived and small tree, in the latterit equals
the silver maple in size and age. It furnishes a striking example of the fact
that trees are not alivays found in situations best adapted to their fuil devel-
opment; and that much is yet to be learned by experience in regard to tree
planting.

These three are the only American varieties which are deserving of cul-
ture, though three others might be used for ornamentaion. These are AcER
Pennsyivanicum (Striped maple, striped dogwood or moosewood ) Leaves 8 lobed,
quite pointed and large, flowers like the sugar maple—a small tree of no val-
ue for its timber, but quite ornamental for the peculiar color of the young
limbs, large leaves and seed wings. Acer Sricatum (Mountain maple) is only a
tall shrub. Acer Necunno, (Ash leaved maple.) This is sometimes called Nx-
cunpo AcERowwEs, and bow elder. Flowers diwcious, from the lateral buds;
the sterile in clusters on capillary pedicels; the fertile in drooping racemes.
Leaves pinnate with 2 to 6 leaflets. It isa small tree with light yellowish
green branches, has been used only as an ornamental tree. The sap issweeter
than the sugar maple; and is recommended by the sylvaculturists of Illinois,
for culture as a sugar tree. It thrives well on the rich prairies of that state.
The wood is very similar to the siver leafed and red maple. It is native along
the Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien down, and hardy.

AcurR PLatanorves (Vorway maple) leaves similar in appearance to the sugar
maple but larger, seeds also larger, ripens at the same time. It is no better
{n any particular than the sugar maple; and in some particulars is inferior,
yet might be grown to give variety to the maple grove. A

Aczr Psrvpo Piaranus (Sycamore maple,) is another foreign species—a
coarse growing tree with large dark green leaves, isa rapid grower. The
wood is hard and moderately fine grained. Though these foreign species
have been introduced, and are valuable for timber trees, they do not equal
the native species for cultivation.

The maples may all be worked on each other; and the silver leafed andred
may be grown from cuttings set in moderately moist ground, using for that
purpose, wood two or three yearsof age, as such branches strike more readily
than the new wood. These means of propagation seem scarcely necessary,
when We consider the (facility with which they may be grown from seeds;
and would scarcely be resorted to unless to secure some special character in
timber, foliage or manner of growth, which it was desirable to multiply by
propagation,

TILIACEE. (Linden family.)
soles oon hon euin te low Mtl Geet

bud, the stamens usually polyadelphous, and the antlers two- i
represented in northern regions only by ‘one genus, Bator ees eee

TICLA. (Linden—Basswood. )

But one species of this tribe isa native of Wisconsin Fruit a
is sort of
woody globular nut, one-celled, and one or two seeded, ripens Jate in summer
or ed ae and should be sown immediately after being gathered. The
seedlings produce numerous small fibrous roots, and are easil
he name is clasical latin, ; i eee

63
@ItTA AMERICANA, (American Linden— Basswood.)
Leaves obliquely heart shaped, serrate deciduous stipules, deep greet of

both sides, globrous or nearly so. Flowers cream colored; honey bearing,
fragrant.

This familliar tree is tarely called linn tree, lind; whitewood, but common
ly basswood; the last name is now obsolete in England, and is derived from
and alludes to the use made of the inner bark in the manufacture of mats
and cordage. Bark on the young ttees smooth, of light green or gray color,
becoming rough and deeply furfowéd on old trees.

The wood is white, soft and very light when seasoned ; does not then split
teadily, and is much used in cabinét work in making drawers, dnd carriagé
inaking where wood requires to be bent or moulded into shape ; for which
last pufpose no other wood is so well adapted. It takes paint well and then
polishes highly. Itis often used for clapboards to housés, and also for inside
tvork, but in either case it must be painted or oiled to insure durability.
When dry it burns freely and makes a good quick fire.

The inner ba-k of this treé is much used by nurserymen for tying in buds;
and by gardners for tying up vines, rdspberries and other plants; and is called
bass. To prepare thd bark for use; itis stripped from the trees in the spring;
about the time the léaves expand, when it comés off very readily; it is then
put into water—a running stream is best;—and allowed to remain there until
it will separate into thin layers; two or three weeks will usually suffice for
this purpose ; it should then be taken out, stripped of the outside bark, aud
laid up in @ dry place until wanted for use.

The tree is a very rapid grower in rich land, making a large tree sometimes
80 feet high and three feet in diameter. {t sends up sprouts from the stump
80 as to propagate itself when cut down; but seldom from its roots. It is an
excellent neighbor to other trees, and vegetation is not much injured by its
toots.

Another valuable property of the Americati basswood is ita very sweet
honéy-bearing flowers. Thosé persons who kéep honey bees for pleasure of
profit, should plant this tree plentifully within their reach, because there is
no flower of its sizd that yields better hon¢y, or in gréater abundance. Per-
sons who keep bees in the neighborhood of bass-wood trees value the honey
gathered from them in preference to all other; not excepting the white
clover.

The foreign species posséss no péculiar advantdge over tle American in
their wood, leaves or rapidity of growth, and dre not as sweet flowered or so
hardy. The basswood ought to be planted in all forests grown on rich, dry
soil.

ROSACEA. (Rose family.) |
This numerous family with regulat flowers, and @ five sepaled calyx, utlited

‘at the base—petals as many as the sepals, and inserted with the numerous
distinet stamens on the edge of the disk, that lines the calyx tube, gives us

64

but one large timber tree, with many very iinportant fruits and fruit trees,
some of which like the apple and pear grow to a good size, but are cultivat:
ed exclusively for their fruit.

CERASUS SEROTINA. (Wild black cherry.)

This tree is a species of the tribe cerasus of the sub-order amygdalee (al-
mond family) in the order Rosacee. Leaves are lanceolate-oblong, taper
pointed, serrate with incurved short and eallous teeth, thickish shining
above—flowers are elongated racemes—fruit a globular drupe, without bloom;
stone almost globular, and smooth, purplish black when ripe, with a pleasant
vinous flavor.

The bark is smooth, reddish brown on the young wood, with light spots,
and epidermis revolute, and bursting at first in Jaming, and afterwards be:
‘comes rough and dark colored; and possesses strong tonie properties, and is
much in medical use.

The tree is a rapid grower, on soil adapted to the white oak and sugar ma:
ple; where it makes a stem 50 or 60 feet high, and often two feet or moré
in diameter at the base, and with branches spreading irregularly. The wood
is often variegated, but generally brownish red, close grained and hard, ta-
king a good polish, and is in great demand for cabinet work, and when with:
out gum spots brings high prices. The seeds ripen in August and September,
and should be planted immediately, as they die upon drying. The tree is
eonsiderably infested by the tent worms, that should be destroyed, as they
sometimes strip all the leaves from the tree, and from thence are transferred
to the imported cherry and apple trees.

Black cherry timber is durable, and makes good fuel, and lasts well as sleep-
ers for railroad ties. On the whole the tree deserves cultivation; and ex:
cept for the worms would be an excellent shade tree near the houses.

LEGUMENOSE. (Pulse family.)

This vast family of herbaceous plants, shrubs and 4 few trees, with papillion=
aceous flowers, producing a legume in fruit, contain more distinct tribes and
species, than any other natural order of plants; yet it has but three species
of trees worthy of mention as capable of cultivation in Wisconsin. Thesé
are the robinia, gymnocladus and gleditschia. ‘

ROBINIA. (Locust tree.)

This tree belongs to the lotex, or melitot tribe, a suborder in the natural
family of leguminose, and to the galegew, » sub-tribé, ard has three spécies,
the pseudacacia viscosa and hispida. Flowers showy in hanging axillary race:
mes. Leaves odd-pinnate. It is named in honor of John Robin, herbalist
to Henry IV of France, and his son Vespasian Robin, who first cultivated
the locust tree in Europe.

Rosinta PSEUDACACIA, (common locust, or false adacia,) has loose, slender
racemes; flowers, white and fragrant; branches with spines, otherwise
smooth.

Rosina VICosa, (clammy locust;) has clammy branchlets; flowers crowded
in the racemes, tinged with rose-color, and nearly inordorous,

Rostnta HIsPIDAy (bristly rose-acacia,) has very large and handsome rose:
eolored flowers, but is a mere Ornamental shrub in the gardens.

5

GYMNOCLADUS. (Coffee tree.)

_ ‘Phis tree belongs to the cassie, or senna tribe, another sub-order of the
Leguminose. Flowers whitish, in axillary racemes. Pod oblong, flattened,
very large, pulpy inside, several-seeded. Seeds’ very large, flattish. The
name is from the Greek.gwmnos, naked, and Alados, a branch, alluding to the
stout branches destitute of sprby.

There is but one speties in the Northern States, the G@. Canadensis, Ken-
‘tucky Coffee-bean tree. ‘It isa rather large tree, with rough bark, stout
branchlets, not thorny, and vety large unequally, two-pinnate leaves; has
‘peen cultivated 4s an otnaniental trée, ahd give very valuable and durable
timber, growing very rapidly. The tree grows in central New York, and
‘plentiful in Ohio, and west tothe Missouri, and may be no more tender than
‘the common Ideust.

GLEDITSCHIA. (Honey locust.)

This tree belongs to the same sub-tribe as the last. ‘Pod flat, many seed~
ed, a sweet pulp ‘usually surrounding the flat seeds. ‘Thorny trees with ad-
‘ruptly one to two-pinnate ‘leaves, and inconspicuous greenish flowers in
‘small spikes. The name is given ir honor of Professor Gleditsch, a botanist
contemporary with Linnzus.

But one species the iricanthcs (three ‘thofned) is found inthe Northern
States. The thorns stout usually tripple or compound—iteaflets Janceolate
—oblong, somewhat serrate; podsilinear, much elongated, often twisted,
filled with sweet pulp between the seeds. The tree grows large and rapidly,
‘with durable wood, but its cultivation caunot ke recommended. :

Fuller speaking of it says: “The honey locust has been much extolled as

‘a hedge plant, and quite extensively planted in ‘some sections for that pur-
pose. Itis doubtful if it will ever become popular for this purpose, as it is
naturally a latge tree, consequently requiring severe pruning to keep it in
check. There are many other plants better suited for hedges, and which
do not produce Such enormous thorns. If there ever was a tree that ought te
‘be prodtribed and exterininated, I believe this to be the one. ‘he thorns
on old trees are often six to ten inches‘long, ahd so hard and’shidrp that the
‘man or beast that approaches them is in danger of being mortally wounded.
‘Every little clipping from a hedge must ‘be carefully picked up, or ‘there is
danger of some animal stepping on ‘it, and having its feet pierced by these
natural bayonets.”

It is doubtful if the ‘tree is entirely hardy as far north as Wisconain.

The common locust has been more‘extensively planted for its timber thar
any tree inthis country. It isa native tree, found in the woods of Penn-
sylvania and the South, but was carried to Europe and cultivated there by
‘Robin; and one of its variéti¢s is‘a native of the Rocky Mountains in New
Mexico and‘Colorado. Many acres were formerly planted on Long Island,
New Jersey, and other places, the remmants of which may still be seen,

‘The seeds were scattered in the original forest, leaving them to take root as
“best they could, and when they had.grown to a few feet, the native trees
‘Rep, 6

66
were cut ouf, leaving the locusts. Ina few years these seedlings bedainé
large enough to be cut and sold to the ship builders, or used for fence posts—~
in which last condition they have been known to last fifty years, and still
appeared sound. 2

The rapidity of growth and durability of the timber im the east, induced
the farmers of the western states to plant the locust largely upon the prai-
ries, both for a hedge plant amd for timber. In both of which capacities, it
has proved a failure. The timber grown om the rich prairies, is not more
durable than the white oak; and the borer having attacked thé tree has
killed it and destroyed the timber, while yet alive.

If the locust had some good qualities, it also has several faults. It pro-
duces a great number of seeds, whieh are scattered and come up just where
they are not wanted. It also produces suckers fronr every rounded or knotty
root of the tree, and often at great distances from it; while spreading its .
fibrous roots over the ground, it destroys’ nearly all vegetation within its
reach. It is eradicated from the land with great difficulty. Hs further cul-
ture should be discouraged, especially on all rich soils; even if it should be’
grown on the nearly barren sands. The tree cannot be pronounced as en-
tirely hardy in Wisconsin, as it was often effected by the frosts; before the’
borers commeneeéd their ravages.

The loss of the locust is perhaps to be less regretted, than it would other-
wise be, if another and native tree’ shall- meet the expectationsof those who
have given it a partial examination, in more than supplying the place of the’
failing loeust.

Whether this tree be a species of the gleditschtas(honey locust) or algarobia
{earob tree) whieh produced the wild honey of St. John, is not yet deter-
mined by us;. but it resembles the latter rather than the former trée. At
Prairie du Chien it is called “island locust,’ and may be designated as
shorniess honey locust, until its true species is determined.

The tree grows: large, often 70 feet high, with a' foliage’less than one-half
as large as the eommon locust, and much darker green, the pods are’an incl:
broad, and from six to ten inches long. he wood is fine grained, compact,-
very hard and heavy; eolor of heart wood, reddish brown,-between cherry and
walnut; polishes highly when dry; valuable for cabinet work, for wagon
axles and other purposes, where firm, stiff wood ist required; and as fueF
ranks with or above hickory. It is found quite abundant on the’ islands and
banks of the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers at Prairie du Chien, where it
ig overflowed every year, also on the dry sand hilloeks, in both of which lo:
calities it flourishes vigorously. Some trees are also growing-near Bridge-
port in the stony banks of the Wisconsin, some’ of which are 60 feet high,
and more than a foot in diameter. Two trees were found growing near the
outlet of the Mendota or Fourth Lake, in Madison, on the high bank, where it
received the full force of the west winds, as they swept over that sheet of
water and ice during the winter. Ashoot from one ofthese was taken up and

67

planted in one of the most exposed places in the city, in the stilf yellow soil,
where it grew nearly as rapidly ae the common locust. This last was de-
stroyed by the grading of the street in 1866. Itisalso found in Grant coun-
ty near Lancaster, and in Green county along the Sugar and Pecatonica riv-
ers; on the east side of Lake Winnebago, and at Grand Kaukanna. Some
trees were fonnd in the rich woods of Richland county, nearly two feet in
diameter, which have been cut, and their bodies sawed up into various sorts
of timber at Richland Centre. Some of this was used as axles for lumber
wagons, and preferred to sugar maple or hickory ; and some made into cabi-
net furniture, and received a high polish with a beautiful appearance. It also
grows op the Black river.

The specimen on which we have most experimented, grew on the dry, sandy
hillocksof Prairie du Chien, and at the height of three feef from the ground
it measured four inches in diameter, and yet had been growing but nine years.
These instances sufficiently prove its rapid growth and adaptability to most
soils of the State, and especially. to the dry, sandy portions, and it only res
mains to prove its durability as posts, to fully establish its reputation as more
than a substitute for the locust.

As a cabinet wood it must be exceedingly valuable, on account of its-color,
fineness of grain, compactness, hardness and weight, since it sinks readily
in water, and takes a fine polish; and from its stiffness and hardness it will
be valuable where those qualities are required, while as fuel it must stand
unrivalled.

‘The beans do not fall from the pod, as that does not commonly open, and
they require to be soaked ‘in boiling water before planting to make them
germinate. The nearly ripe pods would be as greedily devoured by horses,
mules and goats, as are the pods and beans of the mesquite of New Mexico,
which it moré nearly resembles than any other tree. The tree has little or
no disposition to send up shoots like the locust.

The following is extracted from a letter from J. Allen Barber, Bsq., of Lan-
easter, Grant Co, dated June 80, 1867: ‘The honey locust growing at this
place all sprung from seeds gathered by me on the banks of the Mississipp‘, at
Prairie du Chien, in 1843, from pods washed on shore. The trees grow as
rapid as the common locust, is more beautiful in foliage, trunks and limbs;
has a smooth compact bark, and is in all respects preferable to the common
locust—throws up no shoots or suckers, and will grow wherever the commen
locust will, * * The timber is more compact than that of the common lo-
cust. * * They are hardy, untroubled by disease or insects of any kind,”

The Hon. S. Mills, of Madison, says he observed this locust in the neigh-
borhood of Rock Island, where it grew more than three feet in diameter, and
where it was cut into cord wood, splitting very freely, and other uses made
of it. He considers the wood as equal to hickory for fuel, and as exceedingly
durable.

-Wm, M. Rasdall, E-q., of Madison, says that on his native plantation near

* 68

Bowling Gteen, Kentucky, there was a grove of locusts, growing on the tiver
bottom, some of which were many thorned, (the honey locust) and others
thornless. A marked difference was recognized by the common people and
negroes in the foliage and timber of the two; the thorny having much
larger leaves, the timber was difficult to split, and less durable than the
thornless, which split readily. He was told by his father that posts of the
latter were set around the garden for fence in 1805. In 1860, he was at the
place, and found several of the posts still firmly standing where he had first
knoWn thetn, and apparently as sound as when he first knew them. It did
not sptout from the roots, and was highly esteemed as a fuel tree.

From all we have been able to learn of this tree, we consider it of great
value as an ornamental and forest tree, and hopé to hear that every sced it
may prodtice in this state will be carefully planted and preserved. An ap-
parent variety is sometimes found which has @ stout thorn of an inch in
length, at each leaf. This will show itself the first year, and may be destoyed.

OLEACEA, (Olive Family.)

Treés ot shrubs, with opposite and piinate or simple leavés. A small fam-
ily of which the olive is the type, also represented by the lilac, the privet of
foreign origin and two indigenous genera of which the ash eonstitutes one
tribe.

FRAXKINA, (Ash Tribe.)

Trees with opposite and pinnated leaves, of 3 to 15 either tooted or en-
tire, odd leaflets; fruit is a 1 ot 2 celled samara or key, flattened winged at
the apex. The small flowers-are in crowded panicles or racemes from the
axils of last years leaves. The name Frazinus is supposed to be derived front
the Greek phragis (a separation) from the facility with which the wood is split
and separated into grains., There are several varieties, but only the most
valuable will be noticed. ;

FRAXINUS AMERICANA. (White Ash.)

Leaflets 7 to 9, oblong, ovate, pointed, entire glaucose underneath, at
length the branchlets are smooth, with white dots. Samaras produced on
long slender panacles; fruit linear, spatulate, obtuse, with a long narrowed
base, ripens in autumn, and should be planted as soon as gathered. Bark on
old trees grey, rough, deeply furrowed, with smooth greenish, grey branchlets.
The tree is of large size, with a stem 40 to 60 feet high—wood very white,
except the heart wood of old decaying trees. It requires a deep, rich soil, in
which it grows very rapidly; rivalling the elm; is also very ornamental,
forming a large round head when grown as a single specimen.

FRAXINUS QUADRANGULATA. (Blue Ashu)

Leaflets 5 to 9, lanceolate, eliptical, serrate, pointed at both ends, almost
sessile, downy underneath ; the young branches and pith 4 angled—samaras
from 1 to 14 inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, obtuse at both
ends. A large tree with o stem like the white ash, yielding as valuable tim-
ber, with which it is often confounded. It will grow on drier land than the
white ash, and is an equally valuable variety for all purposes. It is doubted
if this valuable species is a native of Wisconsin and it should be introduced.

FRAXINUS SAMBUCIFOLIA. (Black Ash, Swamp Ash.)

Leaflets 9 to 11, sessile, by an obtuse base‘ elliptical—lanceolate, pointed,
more or less hairy on the veins beneath—samaras elliptical—oblong, very

69

obtuse at both ends. A slender tree with a stem 40 to 60 feet high, of very
tough coarse-grained wood readily separated into grains, when it is used for
no hoops and baskets. A truly valuable variety for growing in low wet
soils.

All the species of the ash mentioned, are worthy of cultivation in the va-
rious soils on which trees may be desired. All but the black ash prefers the
same soil as the sugar maple and the elm, and as they are tall growing trees,
may be grown at the rate of from 1440 to 820 to the acre; or 160, with a
similar number of the hickory or sugar maple, which the white and blue ash
will outgrow. If the larger number of trees be started to the acre, all should
be trimmed to single stems of 40 feet, and removed to 160 as soon as the
trees reach a foot in diameter at two feet from the ground. Ash timber,
like hickory and oak, is all the more valuable for making a rapid growth, and
being coarse grained.

White and blue ash timber is largely used in the manufacture of farming
implements. One can scarcely name a tool, some part of which is not, or
ought to be, made of ash or hickory, where lightness, strength and elasticity
are required. The carriage maker resorts to these woods in the construction
of his wheels, axles, thills, bodies, and other parts of his light and fine car-
riages, when strength and lightness are to be combined with elasticity. The
European tarmer prizes American manufactured implements more than those
made of the same patterns at home, simply because we have and use better
timber, and that timber is ash. The timber is about.as durable as the oak,
and many trees have been split into fence rails. Considerable quantities are
also worked up at the cabinet makers, and ash furniture has many admirers;
for this purpos? the highest parts of the stems, aud more brittle timber is
even preferable to the tough wood required by the implement maker. Un-
der all these uses, ash trees and lumber is rapidly passing away, and prices
are raising in value ; and before others can be produced large enough to be
sent to the saw mills, the lumber must command double its present price.

As fuel all these varieties deservedly hold a place next to the hickory,
being better than the red hearted wood of the hickory. It burns with a
cheerful flame, kindles rapidly, even when green, and gives a hard hot coal.
The wood not adapted to manufacturing purposes can always go to the fire.

The black ash is not less valuable for its timber than the others, for cer-
tain uses. The wood is more durable for fence posts and rails, and railroad
ties than the white ash ; for hoops, the splits are in extensive demand, and
is the most economical of wood for that purpose. The tree delights in a soil
too wet to produce grain, and is not damaged by standing water which only
covers its roots. For timber belts which sometimes require to be located in
such Jands, no deciduous tree is better adapted than this. It may be grown
at the rate of 640 to the acre or eight and a quarter feet apart every way.
For that purpose the land might be thrown into small mounds, leaving the
water to stand on more than one-half the surface. Its own young shoots

70

would make a sufficient undergrowth for breaking the winds; and the young

poles are nearly as good as hickory for hoops. As fuel it ranks higher than

the maple, but requires to be dry when used, as the green or wet wood of
this variety can'scarcely be burned. An acre or two of wet land cannot be
more profitably planted, than with this tree. Planted in rows like hickory

when grown for hoop poles, it would afford as great a yield, as it grows more

rapidly; and the larger’ ones would make'excellent hop poles, being more

durable for that purpose than the oaks. The mere trimmings of ten acres of
ash forest, grown as thickly as it ought to be, would supply a farm with abun-

dant fuel for all the summer months, and give great satisfaction to the good
wife, fromthe readiness with which she could kindle her fire. Under every

phase of the case, the ash requires a prominent place in sylvaculture.

There is but one foreign variety which is worthy of cultivation, and even
that has no advantage over the white, blue and black ash of America, in the
value and uses of its timber. The foliage being a little darker, it is preferred
as an ornamental tree, and can be advantageously introduced to give variety
to the plantations.

All the kinds are readily worked on each other; but as they are so easily
grown from seeds, and produce such an abundance of fibrous roots the first.
season, and can be so safely transplanted, even when of considerable size, it
seems: scarcely necessary to graft or bud them. The native species which
deserve the most attention as timber trees, are the Americana and quadran-
gulata, (white and blue) for high and dry situations; andthe sambucifolia
(black) for low, wet soils. These are the most rapid growing, and make the
most valuable timber.

ULMACER. (Hm family.)

Trees and shrubs with alternate, roughish leaves. This order is distin-
guished from the Mulbery tribe by the want of milky juice; and consists of
the elm family proper, with its.winged fruit; and the celtidew, with the

fruit in a drupe.
ULMUS. (The Em.)

Mostly trees. Fruit a one eelled and one seeded membranaceous samara,
winged all round. Flowers purplish or yellowish, in lateral clusters, preced-
ing the leaves; which are strongly straight veined, short petaled and ob-
lique or unequally, somewhat heart shaped at the base. (The uame is clasi-
eal Latin.)

Probabiy no tree (the oak excepted) has been more extolled than the elm,
and no tree better deserves the praise bestowed. Noble, graceful, ornament-
al, fast growing, and useful, why should it not receive the praise, the hom-
age of the nations who, like Wisconsin, possess it? In Europe and the Unit-
ed States, great cities, towus, streets, noblemen’s and gentlemen’s country
seats, have received names derived from this tree. It is the boasted orna-
mentation of New Haven, not less widely known than Yale College. A row
of tall elms, a few years ago saved the city of Albany from conflagration.
We praise the tree, but give it little patronage or protection, cutting down

71

a hundred where we plant one, destroying what ought to be cultivated, not
alone for ornament, but for its valuable wood, and fine shade and protection.

All lands which will produce corn and wheat, or good grass, will grow some
wariety of the elm. Treneching upon the borders of the marsh, where con-
tending with the black ash, tamarack and alder, overtowing the sugar maple,
spreading its long limbs over the oaks on the dry ridges, or hiding them be-
neath the pines; it rivals all the trees in the forest in the breadth of its
range. In all these places no trees mount so rapidly, or make so much wood
in a given period of time. Its wood contends with the oak for strength, and
the hickory for suppleness, entering into and absolutely necessary for the
manufacture of many implements of industry; and as fuel when dried and
housed, as all fuel ought to be, it takes a high rank, between the hickory and.
maple.

But three marked species with, one sub-family are all we shall notice as.
worthy of cultivation.

DLMUS AMERICANA. (White Him.)

This is the largest of the elms, with leaves smooth above, downy under-
neath, oblong-ovate, pointed, sharply double serrate, flgwers in umble ke
clusters before the leaves in April. Fruit oval with wooly-fringed margins.
it is much the largest of all the elms, often growing to the height of 80 to
100 feet, with a stem six feet in diameter, and a very rapid grower in rich,
moist land.

This lofty and wide spreading tree; with its profusion of slender, drooping
spray, is particularly adapted for shade and street rows. The wood is tough,
close grained and much valued by carriage makers and others for bending,
into carriage and wagon bows, and into plow handles, and other purposes.

ULMUS RACEMGSA. (Corky White Elm.)

This epecies differs but little from the preceding, in leaves and flowers,
which are in compound racemes, and the branches are mostly eorky ridged,
ov winged, which render them less slender and drooping. The tree grows as
rapidly as the white elm, and the wood is tougher and closer grained. This
valuable tree is not very common in this state, ard flourishes in drier land
than the white elm.

ULMUS FULVA. (Zed or Slippery Hm )

This is a very rapid growirg tree on dry, rich soil, but of medium siged,
and short lived, not lasting more than forty or fifty years; but the root may
be kept alive when the tree is cut before it reaches a great age. Its heart
wood is reddish yellow, is more brittle than the other varieties; but is supe-
rior for fuel, and sufficiently durable for sleepers for railroads.

The inside bark from which it takes its name, slippery,, .is used for medici-
nal purposes. This species when small is extensively used for wagon and
carriage hubs, and by many is thought to be unequalled for that purpose, as
the wood is fine grained, compact and aot liable to check or crack open like
oak and some other kinds of timber; and it holds the spokes firmly.

The seeds of all the elms ripen in Wisconsin frm the first to the fifteenth
of June and are scattered by the winds in a few days after they mature. To

72

secure them they should be gathered from the trees as soon as they turm
brown, and the kernel becomes firm. They should be sown in good friable
soil soon after they are gathered, as they retain their vitality under the most
favorable circumstances but a few weeks, they should be p!anted before. the-
first of July, less than an inch deep.

The greater portion will come up in » few days, and grow a foot or more
the first year, and in about three or four years are fit to transplant from the
nursery. Cattle are exceeding fond of the young twigs and leaves, and must
be kept from them during the winter, spring and early summer months.
When planted in suitable soil, their roots extend to a great distance, com-
pletely taking possession of the subsoil, yet allowing grass to grow well un-
der the drip of the trees. Few trees can successfully maintain their ground
when competing with the elm, in fact nothing except the soft or red maple,
and some varieties of the cottonwood’; but as the elms, especialfy the white
ones, attain an age four times as great as those, and are much larger, it is best
not only to give them the entire ground, but not so crowd the space with the
elms, unless it. be the intention to remove them at an earlyage. Small trees
remove from the nuysery best, as larger ones have long slender roots,. which
eannot be extracted from the soil without destroying them.

CELTIS. (Wettietree—Hackberry.)

This isa snb-order of the ulmacez. Flowers greenish, appearing with the
leaves. Fruit a globular drupe, with thin flesh. Name is ancient Greck for
lotus, as it is supposed that the fruit was eaten by the Lotophagi.

CELTIS OCCIDENTALIS. (Sugar:-berry—Hackberry.),

Leaves roughish,. obliquely ovate, sharply serrate, often heart-shaped, or
half heart-shaped at the base. Fruit dull purple or yellowish brown, sweet
and edible, as large as bird chersies; ripe in autumn and remaining on the
tree during winter.

In Wisconsin the hackberry grows rapidly to a fair sized tree, and 60 feet
high, with yellowish white wood, nearly as supple as black ash, and is in some.
places called hoop ash. It splits freely and may be used as a substitute for-
ash, and also where elm would be required. The wood makes good fuel, and
can be grown at the rate of 640. or more to the acre, on any land fitted for
the growth of the sugar maple, into trees from 12 to 18 inches in diameter..
The tree has the aspect of the elm, but less Iiable to branch, and sometimes
it may be found two feet in diameter, with a straight and.sound stem. Al-
though this tree is considered valueless in the castern states, it is very dif-
ferent in Wisconsin, and can be propagated from the berries.

JUGLANDACER. (Walnut family.)

Trees with alternate pinnate leaves; the sterile flowers in catkins, with am
irregular calyx; the fertile solitary or in small clusters, with a regular three
or five lobed calyx. Fruit@ kind of dry drupe, with a bony endocarp, (nut~
shell), containing a large four lobed seed. Cotyledons fleshy and oily.

73

JUGLANS. (Walnui).

Trees with alternate odd-pinnate leaves of many serrate leaffets, from
naked buds—sterile flowers in long simple lateral catkins—fertile, solitary or
several together on a peduncle at the end of the branches—fruit a kind of
dry drupe, with a fibrous-fleshy indehiscent epicarp, and a rough, irregularly
furrowed bony endocarp, or nut shell—bark, strong scented, or resino-aro-
matie—pith in plates. The name is contracted from Jovis glans, the nut of
Jupiter, from its excellence.

JUGLANS CINEREA. (Butlernut— White Walnut),

Leaflets fifteen fo nineteen, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, rounded at the
base, downy, especially underneath, not always directly opposite, like the
ash—petioles and branchlets downy with clammy hairs, from which it de-
rives the specific name (cinerea) ashy-—fruit, oblong, clammy—nut pointed—
shell deeply sculptured and rough with ragged ridges—kernel sweet, ricb and
very oily, from whlch it takes its English name, butternut ; ripens in Septem-
ber. The tree grows from 30 to 60 feet high with wide spreading branches ;
light colored bark and smooth until the tree becomes very old, and then it is
slightly furrowed.

The wood is fine grained, of a light brown color, rather soft and easily
worked with tools, receives a good polish, and is much admired in cabinet
furniture in its natural color. By means of stains which the cabinet maker
knows how to employ it is made to take the colors and shades of mahogony
and black walnut, and from which it can scarcely be distinguished. As these
woods increase in value, the butternut must come into requisition; and it
already commands a heavy price equal to one-half that of biack walnut, and ~
is rapidly rising in value. It seasons readily, and no wood Jays in place bet-
ter, when put into work, forming the best of wood asa basis for laying
veneers. Though a light wood and splitting freely, it possesses considerable
strength and durability, lasting well for top rails to fences.

The butternut requires a rich soil, as it sends its roots near the surface as
well as deep and toa great distance for food. It is therefore one of our
most rapid growing trees, its leaflets are not apt to be blown far, and it en-
riches the soil instead of exhausting it. For timber it might be planted at
the rate of 640 to the acre and thinned down at 15 or 20 years. Such plant-
ing would give a fair length and straightness to the body of the tree. As
fuel it burns freely when dry and is easily prepared for the fire.

If few shall think of planting the butternut for timber, who may be induced
to plant trees of far Jess value for that purpose, every farm should have a
few trees to produce nuts, which they will seldom fail to bear. Many a man
can look back to the time in his youthful days, when the cracking of butter-
nuts was the main feature of the evening enjoyment in the old homestead.
Farmers should remember those days, and also that afew trees if planted
only by the road side, where their sparce shade will’ do no damage to the
track, and where their long arms will have abundant room to stretch them-
selves, and produce a surplus of nuts for the upgrowing children and perhaps
children’s children—may cause those sons and daughters to send back a

74

thought, a blessing to that old homestead, and to the good man whose fore-
thought added another value to his home. In planting trees do not forget
this truly valuable one, which outstrips the apple in growth, comes into bear-
ing from the seed in the same number of years, and adds a gusto to the fruit
of the apple, which must be tasted to be enjoyed. A tree may be seen in
yard of Mr. C. C. Church, in Madison, the seed of which was planted in Oc-
tober, 1860, transplanted in the spring of 1862, and bore nuts in 1865, and
now, in 1867, promises a fine crop.

JUGLANS NIGRA. (Black Walnut.) *

Leaflets 11 to 21, ovate—lanceolate, taper-pointed, somewhat heart shap-
ed, or unequal at the base, smooth above, the lower surface and petioles mi-
nutely downy. Fruit spherical, roughly dotted, the nut corrugated; epicarp
much more fleshy than on the butternut; kernel sweet, with a strong flavor
much admired by some, to others quite disagreeable, less oily than the but-
ternut ; ripens the first of October, when the epicarp must be beaten off, to
allow the nut to season for use. The nut is then black, from which and the
bark it derives its specific name black.

The black walnut is a large handsome tree, more rapid growing than the
butternut—few trees in the American forest making more wood than this.
The bark on the young as well as old trees, and on the large branches and
stems is very rough and deeply furrowed, and with the epicarps of the nut is
used for dying woolen cloth, giving, with a mordant of iron, a darker shade
.than the butternut. It requires a soil similar to the sugar maple, which it
outgrows, and reaches the same height and age; sends a tall, straight, limb-
less stem to the height of fifty feet on an average, in the forest, after which
its large limbs begin.

The wood is purplish brown becoming almost black with age, fine grained,
and may be highly polished, rivalling the mahogany in the cabinet shops, and
even preferred by most people to that expensive wood. It is the darkest
and richest colored of any of our native woods, and must always be in de-
mand for manufacture. Its popularity has been rapidly growing within the
past few years, and not undeservedly so. Prices have raised within the last
twelve years from $30 to $60 per thousand and is still going up in the woods
of Indiana, so that at present prices it only requires a tree with a stem forty-
eight feet long, and twenty inches in diameter at the centre, to bring in the
city of New York, $100. But this first of all our lumber trees is rapidly melt-
ing away before the intense desire of gain, and improvident destruction of
those who possess the living trees, without.a single effort to supply its place.
The timber is not only desired by the people of the United States, but is in
demand in the European markets.

A single gun factory in Europe, during the first two years of the rebellion,
consumed 98,009 walnut trees to supply gunstocks for the American market.
This fact will give some indistinct idea of the consumption of lumber in great
factories of cabinet ware, where the amount of wood required for the small-
est article, exceeds that required for the stocking of a musket.

75

Although found in Western New York, it is not a very common tree in
that state, but was found abundant in the western states. The heart wood
is very durably, lying on the ground perfectly sound some years after the ©
bark and sap wood have fallen off} Farms may still be found in Indiana, Tlli-
nois and Missouri, which are mainly fenced with biack walnut rails, It is
probably not more than twenty years since these rails were cut and split from
trees, that would have made 1000 feet each of sawed lumber. The large forks
of the tree being many times more valuable than the straight grained wood,
for vaneers. Had those trees thus wasted for rails, and the most valuable
forks consumed in the log heaps, been allowed to remain until this time, each
tree would now have been worth more than acres of the land they helped to
enclose, and on which they once were growing. If this be called killing the
goose that laid the golden eggs, what shall be said of those who committed
trees similar in value, to the log heaps and fires to clear the land from this

golden encumbrance, for the purpose of planting ten hills of corn where a
hundred dollar tree flourished before ?

The black walnut in good, rich, calcareous soil, grows as rapidly as the sil-
ver leafed maple; and like the butternut, comes into bearing when quite
young. For nut bearing it should have plenty of room, as it hasa wide
spreading and rather open top; but for the timber, where the tree is grown
for the stem, it would be better to growit at the rate of 320 to the acre, and
when they they had reached 12 feet high, to plant silver leaved or red ma-
ples to crowd the trees and prevent the tops from spreading. The maples
might be cut away for fuel as soon as they had accomplished their object. As
the wood increases in value by the age of the tree, the black walnut should
not be cut for timber until it was apparent that it had nearly ceased to grow.
When trees have reached their maximum value which may be placed at from
50 to 75 yearsfrom the seed, each tree may, at that time, be estimated at:
$100; and the acre of 160 trees at $16,000, what other enterprise will pay
the same rate for capital and labor invested? It may be safely said that.
few investments can be made with greater certainty of success, than in plant+
ing and growing the butternut and walnut. The fact that they have grown
in Wisconsin and attained great age, size and beauty of wood, is conclusive
proof that our climate is adapted to their growth in perfection, and the same
thing may be again expected. When planted on good land, and cared for
while young, they may be looked upon as certain.

JUGLANS REGIA. (English Walnut.)

Is the only foreign species that deserves any attention. The nut of that
species is well know in our markets. The trees much resemble the butternut
in appearance, and might be mistaken for it without close examination. It
is a large tree and quite hardy as far north as Albany, in New York, and bears
fruit. The tree is worth of a trial sufficiently to test its quality of hardiness.
Large quanties of the nuts are annually imported and consumed; and it cer-

76°
tainly is poor policy toincur the expense of importing an article which may
be grown just as well where it is consumed as at the place of exportation.
The wood is az heavy and firm as the black walnut, though lighter colored,
and exceedingly useful to the cabinet makér. In every view it is well worthy
a trial to prove whether it will succeed.

This tree was originally a native of Persia and the east; but was known to
and cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, by whom ‘it was much valued for
its wood, as well as for its nut. There is ‘no record of its introduction into
Britain ; but it must -have been done at an early day after the Roman con-
quest. In many parts of Spain, France, Italy and Germany, the nut forms a
great article of food to the people. In all these countries the walnut-tree is
extensively cultivated; the district of Bergstrasse, between Heidelberg and
Darmstadt, is almost entirely planted with them, and in some places, accord-
ing to Evelyn, in his days, ‘‘no young farmer is permitted to marry his wife
until he brings proof that he is father of a stated number of walnut-trees.””

All the juglans may be worked on each other by grafting and budding, so
that choice varieties of fruit may be propagated, with ease.

CARYA. (Hickory.)

These trees are a sub-order of the juglandacee—tree tall pyramidial—ster-
ile flowers in slender lateral catkins, mostly in threes on a common pedun-
cle—fertile flowers two or three together at the end of the branches—fruit
globular, with a somewhat fleshy, and at length leathery epicarp or husk,
which splits into four valves,and falls away from the smooth and slightly 4 to
6 angled, incompletely 4 celled endocarp or nut shell—leaves odd-pinnate, 5
to 18 leaflets, three terminals larger than the other pairs. The two kinds of
flowers proceed from the same scaly buds as the leaves; the catkins are
borne below the leaves—pith continuous. All the varities flower at the same
time in May.

The hickory, exclusively American, is a well known tree, found in almost
all parts of the United States, and possessess very many valuable properties.
Its wood has no equal for fuel, and is the standard with which a!l other fuel
is compared ; though there is some disparity among the wood of different
trees and species; the white and thrifty wood being ten per cent. better
than the more porous red-hearted. In its several species it isfound in almost
all kinds of soil, high or low, wet or dry. Sandstone regions have their
hickories as well as limestone, but seldom of the same species; all are more
or less valuable; and even trees of the same species are so various as at
times to induce the opinion that they are of different varieties or species.

The tree increases about as fast as the oaks and sugar maples, when in
suitable soil, and properly cultivated. Hickory hoop-poles are always in de-
mand, and command a large price. For that use there is but little difference
in the species. Plantations for that purpose alone would be very valuable, as
will be seen by any one who will make the calculation. An acre of land 10
by 16 rods or 165 by 264 feet, may be planted 66 rows four feet apart, and 165
trees at one foot apart in the row making 10,890 trees on the acre. At six
years from the seed, these trees, if properly cultivated and trimmed, would

¥

77

be 12 to 15 feet high, ard largé enough for hoop-poles, which at forty dollars
per 1,000, when cut and placed at the depot for market, amounts to $485.60;
with a good deal of small wood fit for surtimeér tse. This calctilation is based
on the supposition that all the trees are cut. Thé trees might be éxpected
to sprout, if cut as they ought to be, in the winter, and two could bé allowed
to grow on éach stump. In five years more these would give tis 15,000 poles,
worth as mtich as the first by the pole, or $600. ‘To produce these last no
other cultivdtion would bé requiréd except to thin out the shoots the first
year, and givé them a little trimming afterwards. A similar producé would
be continued for severdl successive crops, orice in dbout five years, All the

trees should be tut at evety cropping, so that all inight start on an equality,
for the nety ctop.

Another calculation would show a still greater produce from the acre. If
in the first cutting evéry fifth tree be spared, in every other row, there will
be 88 trees left in 88 rows or 1,089 for further growth, These would stand
5 feet in the row, and the rows eight feet apart, allowing ample room for the
erect growing trees to develope into timber. There would then be 9,801
poles, worth $392.04. The second crop would not be greatly deteriorated by
the trees, if they were properly trimmed up yearly, until their clear bodies
tere at least 15 feet high, which might be considered a fair length, though
more might be attained. The third and fourth euttings would not be as good
as if all the trees had been cut down, but each crop might be safely estimated
at 12,000 poles, worth $480, each crop. At the end of 20 years thé 1,089
trees would average ten inches, for 15 feet in length, and when the value of

, the timber of such young thrifty wood is taken into consideration, $1.50 a
tree would not be a high estimate, giving an additional value of $1,633.50
instead of thé $174.24 which the same trees might have made if eultivated
and cut for hoop-poles.

In all these calculations it is to be remembered that the ground is left full
of green roots from which sprouts may be expected, for future crops of poles,
and new trees. Other calculations might be made and results equally asten-
ishing arrived at.

For ornamental purposes few trees exeel the hickory in the variety and
beauty of its foliage, and in ita erect symmetry; cone-formed by lateral
branches, it is far more pleasing than the sharp pointed Lombardy poplar,
with its long perpendieular growing limbs. The leaf isa pure deep green,
and its thick shade invites to its coolness The tree is almost free from all
noxious insects, except a single variety of the tent worm, easily destroyed.
Ag an ornamental tree, to last for a period of forty years, it rivals and in the
the estimation of many, excels the sugar maple and the elm. If the last
gives nothing but shade; and the other a foretaste of maple sugar, this equal
in shade gives a promise in-early life, and at last yields its rich nuts as the
compensation for the rod of land which it honors with ita presence; Thig

78

tich harvest of uty detracts nothing from its other valuable properties; for
{f the round green nuts are detected through the dense foliage, they add to
rather than detract from the whole pleasing effect.

In the manufacture of implements of use it enters more largely than per-
haps any other tree, especially where hardness, elasticity and strength are
required) A volume might be filled with merely the names of the articles
which are wholly or in part made of hickory wood. To the American, ac-
customed as he is to the use of this valuable wood, it seems that no other
can be substituted for it, which will combine so many advantages.

But we need not stop with a bare consideration of the hickory as a timber
tree. The nutsof this and the other juglans tribe possess a virtue which has
been allowed by Americans to pass without notice. All are aware with what
eagerness the sweet kernel of the hickory, the butternut and black walnut,
are sought for by men and the nut eating animals; yet few havé thought of
the amount and quality of the oil which may be produced from these nuts:
Walnut oil has never been expressed in America, but in Europe the nut of
the juglans regia has been used for that purpose for some years past, and it
holds a rank with the oil of almonds, and poppy seed asa salad oil, and is
much above the oil of olives for the table.

G. P. Marsh (Man and Natur?) says ‘the walnut yields one-third the oil
produced in France, and in this respect occupies an intermediate position
between the olive of the south and the oleagenous seeds of the north. Two
and a half acres w Il produce nuts of 500f value ($94). It is stated by Cosino
Ridolfi, that ‘‘France obtains three times as much oil from the walnut as from
tHe olive, and nearly as much as from ali the oleagenous seeds together; and
twelve trees to the acre is equal to a capital of 1000f.” :

The writer in the New American Encyclopedia states that the oil expressed
from the walnuts, is in general use as an drticle of diet in those districts in
which thé tree abounds. And serves astill more important purpose in the
preparation of fine ¢olors. It is preferred on account of the coniplete and
rapid manuer in which it dries, and the facility of obtaining it perfectly lim:
pid by diffusing it upon water in large shallow vases. In copper plate print+
ing at Paris it is considered indispensibly necessary for a fine impression,
either in black or colors. I is also used in mixing paints, which it does
much bétter than linseed oil.

The smooth shelled hickory nuts could be ground as trell as the nut of the
juglans yegia » and the bitter nut of the cafya amara, which is about as rich
in oil as any of the hickory nuts, might well be employed in the manufacture
of table oil. The shell of this nut is very thin, probably fully equal to the
foreign walnut. The bitter principle is found exclusively in the inner inte-
gument which surrounds the kernel, separating all its parts. Thisbitter prin-
ciple is not soluble in the oil of the nut, and will not therefore be communi-
cated to the oil. None of the northern hickories bear more nuts, or nuts in
which the kernel bears a larger proportion to the weight of the nut. Some

71>

6f the sweet ntits dre also thin shelled, with large proportionate kernels, H¢
is submitted that means will be found of obtaining the oil from the black
tvalnut and butternut, notwithstanding their thick shells, and dry exterior
covering. In all the experiments for producing at home whatever is con-
sumed, it certainly seems that attention ought to be turned to this manufac-
ture of oil of walnuts and hickory nuts.

The thin shells of some of the varieties of sweet nuts, are often combined
with the most valuable timber, and it may be expected that the attention of
cultivators of the juglandace, should propagate trees with direct reference to
this quality of thin shell and excellent timber; thus rendering the trees muck
more valuable.

Fhe following varieties are recommended for cultivation:

CARYA ALBA. (Shell-bark or shag-bark hickory).

Leafiets 5, minutely downy underneath finely serrate, the 3 upper obovate
lanceolate; the lower pair much smaller, all taper pointed. Fruit depressed
gobular; nat somewhat fattened, nearly pointless, with a rather thin whitish
shell, and large kernel—grows in rich, moist woods+-a tall and handsome
tree, the old trunks very rough from the exfoliation of the outer part of the
bark, whi¢h loosens in large strips adhering by the middle or one end—
wood valuable as timber, the standard as fuel, while the nuts are the princi-
ple ones in the markets. Buds very conspicuous in the spring, with large
scales.

GARYA SALCATA. (Thick-shéll-bark-hickory).

Leaflets 7 to 9, in form like the preceeding—fruit oval, 4 tibbed““nut
Strongly pointed; nearly smooth, sometimes ribbed, or slightly flattened, with
a thick yellowish shell, nearly as sweet tasted as the last; more common in
the western than in the eastern states. Wood tough and valuable. Large
tree. Bark, rough ribs, sémi-cleaving, from which it takes its name, Salcaia.

CARYA TOMENTOSA. (JMocker nut—white hearted hickory:)

Leaflets 7 to 9, oblong or obovate-lanceolate, slightly serrate, roughish un-
derneath, as well as the petioles, aments hairy—fruit globular or ovoid, witk
a thick and hard husk; which splits almost to the base—nut somewhat 6-an-
pled, the shell very thick and hard, of a light brown—kernel small and sweet.
A tall, largé sized treé with a rough furrowed bark on old trees, quite smooth
when young. Its wood is tough and light colored; there appearing to be but
very little, or what is usually termed, heart wood; even in the largest trees.
The tree is well suited for growing upon high, dry soils, where it is more
generally found than in the deep soils; and is found from the Missouri river
to the sea board. For cultivation for timber it deserves the first rank, ex-
telling even the déa. It derives its specific name from the hairy leaves,
petioles and aments. The entire nuts differ in size, from three-fourths of an
inch to two inches in diameter, made by the thickness of the husks. The
tree grows in Ohio; but may prove tender in Wisconsin; yet it should be
éxperiméntéd with.

CARYA GLABRA: (Pig-nut )

Leaflets 8 to 7 ovate-lanceolate, serrate; smooth (from whence its name
plabra)—nuts somewhat pear shaped, with a thin husk, splitting about half
way down, and generally adhering when the nut falls. Shell hard and tough—
kernel small and variable—sometimes sweet and in others bitter. A large
tree with a close bark, very tough and valuable wood, light colored ;' com-
mon almost every where ; thrives welt on dry, sandy and stony land,

80

GARYA MICROCARPA. (Small-fiuited hicko¥y.)

Bitnilat in fruit and leaflets to the last, but the shell is very thin and the
kernel sweet and large in proportion to the size of the nut. The tree is
large and wood excellent. This is a valuable variety for nuts, even excelling
the pecan, but may prove tendéi in Wistonsin, of which it is probably not a
native.

CARYA AMARA. (Biiter-ntit.)

Leaflets 7 to 13 oblong-lancéolate, serrate, smooth; fruit globular, but va:
yiable, with ridged or prominent seams opening half way down ; nut inversely
heart-shaped ; shell very thin; kernel apparently intensely bitter, and re-
‘markably corrugated by the bitter integument. A’ graceful tree with close
bark, and small pointed buds nearly destitute of scales, covered in winter
with.a yellow pubescence. Wood not as hard and heavy as the other varie-
ties, but valuable for bending, being the most,supple of all the hickories. It
thrives well in moist Jand and swales, wheré it is almost springy ground, and
is particularly adapted for such locations.

The hickofies all strike a long tap root, and it is very difficult to transplant
‘them from where they have come up after they are more than a Year old.
They are best grown by planting the nuts where the trees are desired, and
cultivate them thére till they are four feet high after which they will shade
the ground, if planted thick, and will only require trimming. All the hicko-
ries can be worked on ‘each other. And no variety of tree will pay bette?
for cultivation, Plant the nuts as soon as gathered in autumn, or keep on
the ground under leaves till spring.

CUPULIFERA, (C@up-bearing.)

_ This family embraces some of the most valuable timber trees in America,
including the oaks, chestnut, beech and hornbeam. The leaves of these aré
‘alternate, simple, straight-veined, and monvécious flowers; sterile in catkins,
fertile solitary or clustered, furnished with an involucre which forms a cup
or covering to the nut or nuts. Seeds filled with the embryo; cotyledons
very thick and fleshy. The nuts must be planted before they dry as they dié
vn drying, and are apt to mould and rot by too great and moist heat. ,

QUERCUS. (Oak tribe.)

Sterile flowers clustered in slender and naked drooping catkins; fertilé
ones scattered or somewhat clustered, with a 8-lobed stigma enclosed by a
scaly bud-like involucre, which becomes an indurated cupule (cup, from which
the order takes its name,) around the base of the rounded nut or acorn.
Cotyledons remaining under ground in germination, All flower in May and
shed their nuts in September and October.

QUERCUS ALBA: (White Oak)

Leaves emooth, pale or glaucose underneath, bright green above. Cup
hemispherical, toughish, naked, much shorter than the ovoid or oblong acorn.
Nut an inch long, variable in flavor, sometimes sweet and quite good, in
others bitter, or almost tasteless. The bark on young trees is rough but ‘not
furrowed, becoming somewhat scaly on old trees; color, grayish white. ,

Wood, light color, very tough and very valuable; and used for more pur:
poses than any other timber. This is the largest and tallest of all the oaks,
reaching from 60 to 100 féet high, and from 2 to 4 feet in diameter.

The white oak is rather a slow grower, until the root is firmly established,
‘after which it makes wood rapidly, often laying on an inch of wood in four

81

years; but the wood is so valuable, that it deserves to be extensively plant+
ed for timber, in all parts of the state, where it does not already exist. Take
away the white oak, white ash and hickory, and the wagon and carriage maker
would lose the three most valuable materials which enter into the composi-
tion of his work; so too with the maker of farming implements. White oak
is also extensively used for building material, for railroad sleepers, for fence
posts and rails, in which situations it is ranked with the most durable tim-
bers, The sawed lumber is apt to warp considerably in seasoning, but it re-
tains its place afterwards, especially it kept dry or painted.

_ Quercus Onrusitopa, Q. Maccrocarpa and Q. OLivarormis, are generally
included under the common name of Burr oak, because the cup incloses most
of the acorn, and there is considerable resemblance in the appearance of the
bark and trees.

QUERCUS BICOLOR OR PRINUS. (Swamp White Oak.)

This is one of the chestnut oaks, with leaves coarsely sinuate-toothed, not
jobed—cup hemispherical, often a little mossy-fringed at the border, inclos-
ing less than one-half the oblong-ovoid acorn.

This oak grows rapidly into a large tree, in soil too moist for the guercus
aba, along with the red maple and black ash. It is found native in all the
wet grounds of the state, and is almost the sole species growing in the over-
flowed lands of the Wisconsin and other rivers. The tree is tall and straight,
with a good body, though apt to produce small limbs on the stem, if the tree
is at all isolated. It grows with about the same rapidity as the white oak,
but is not as long lived, hence trees more that two feet in diameter are rare.
The wood is as valuable in every way as the white oak, and for the purpose of
growing timber in the moist soils in which it grows it would be very profita-
bly cultivated.

These two white oaks are the only ones which can be fully recommended
in every particular as worthy of cultivation as forest trees, and with them,
both the wet and dry rich land may be converted into forests, Oaks like the
hickory will grow alone or with other trees, thus occupying part of the sur-
face or all. The white oak as fuel ranks higher than maple, and with the
lower giades of hickory. The small trees are nearly as valuable as hickory
for hoop-poles, so far as suppleness is concerned, and when once formed and
driven are more durable, especially when placed in a moist situation ; nor is
it so subject to the attacks of the powder-post worm, which : not unfrequent-
ly destroys the hickory.

QUERCUS COCCINEA. (Scarlet Oak.)

Leaves oval in outline, deeply sinuate ; acorn globular ovoid, one third or
‘more immersed in the thick and somewhat top-shaped conspiculously scaly
cup. The long petioled shining leaves cut two-thirds to the mid rib, turning
bright scarlet in autumn.

This oak is often known in this state as black jack, and is found on lands in
which sand either on the surface, or in the subsoil predominates; and in the
Rap. 6.

$2

most barren sands, is often short and disposed to rot and decay. On the
more tenacious soils, the tree is a rapid grower, but may be considered as
short lived, seldom showing an age much above 50 yaars. When it grows
rapidly, the wood is coarse-grained, but not very porous, yellowish brown, and
is highly esteemed for fuel, and prefer-ed to white oak for that purpose.
Grown at the rate of 640 to 1280 trees to the acre, and cut whenever the
tree begins to show signs of dying, say at 80 years, it would probably pro-
duce as large an amount of timber and fuel as could be procured from any
other oak; and a new growth might be expected from the acorns which
would have before sprang up, and formed strong grubs over the ground.
many fine clumps of timber, of these oaks, have grown from what were mere
scrubby bushes at the first settlements of Wisconsin. The timber is consid-
erably used as building material, and especially as hewed sticks. It is fullas
durable as white oak for fence posts, and rails, and railroad sleepers.

There are several other species of oaks natural to the state, but for general
cultivation these are all that can be recommended. Oaks are easily and
best obtained from the acorns, which must be kept as described for chest-
nuts, and should be planted where the tree is wanted. If they are grown in
the nursery they must be dug up and transplanted at the end of the first
year, as they will then have produced a large fleshy tap-root; and unless this
is shortened there will be no lateral roots, but the root will continue to pen-
etrate the ground, as it often does to the depth of several feet. This makes
the tree a good neighbor to other trees and plants. Of all our forest trees,
the oaks have the fewest faults and most virtues.

CASTANEA. (Chustnut).

This is another of the cupulifere, with leaves oblong-lanceolate—point-
ed, serrate with coarse pointed teeth, smooth and green on both sides,
strongly straight veined. The flowers appearing later than the leaves; the
sterile ones near the ends of the branches, in long and naked cylindrical
catkins ; fertile flowers at the base of the sterile, 2 or 3 together in an ovoid
seally prickly involucre. Nuts coreaceous, ovoid, three together or two or
one by abortion, in the hard coriaceous and very prickly involucre; cotyle-
dons very thick, somewhat plaited, cohering, remaining under ground in
germination. The centre nut is flattened on both sides, if the three mature
if two mature they are flattened on one side, if but one it is ovate, The
American variety of castanea vesca bears a smaller but sweeter nut than the
European. The clasical name is derived from the town of Castanea, in
Thessally, famous for its chestnuts. ,

This well know tree is not, as it is thought, a native of Wisconsin, but
many suppose it may thrive on the sandy, gravelly hills of the southern coun-
ties and that trials to that éffect should be made. It has been planted, and
produced nuts in some places in the state; yet it may require the pro-
tection of other trees. It is worth the attention of every land owner in the
state who is possessed of a piece of ground suitable to its growth, to make
the experiment. Though it does not grow equally well upon all kinds of soil,
like the oak, still it is found growing over so wide a range that suitable soil

83

may be expected to be found in this state. It prefersa dry, sandy or pray>
elly soil to an alluvial, clayey or moist one; even upon very poor sand and
gravel it will grow very rapidly. Rocky hill sides, where soil can be found
sufficient to start it, may yet be covered with this valuable tree. Experi+
ments heretofore made with it have undoubtedly failed from placing it upon
soil unsuited to its production.

To induce farther experiments with the tree, some of its excellent qualities
will be pointed out. The nuts always command a price higher thanany other
nut in the market; they are now worth from 9 to 10 dollars a bushel in New
York city. One crop of the first quality of nuts from a tree 20 years old
would more than pay for the almost worthless land on which it grows, and of
the planting and care of the tree. Though it would require a somewhat
large topped tree to produce a bushel of nuts, it does not therefore necessi+
tate an old tree. Here size of nut would act a conspicuous part. The lerger
and earlier the nut the more sure and greater the yield. °

For nut.bearing the trees might require to be planted at the distance of
83 feet each way, or 40 to the acre of land, as that distance would allow
space for them to head. Allowing for each tree a half bushel of nuts, and
but $5 per bushel, we have a yield of $100 to the acre—a return far above
that of any cultivated crop, raised and gathered at the same expense. In
the southern counties of Hurope the chestnut forms a large share of the food
of the people, being cooked in various ways, and eaten raw.. Our American
nuts are richer and sweeter than theirs.

Several years may pass before such a yield as we have supposed is pro»
duced; but it is te be remembered that we are supposing these trees to oc
cupy lands which otherwise would bring little or no return; therefore there
‘can be no loss in waiting for the grewth of the trees, except the smull amount
of interest on the investment. Should the trees be planted on lands which
could not be cultivated with other crops, it wonld be as well to plant as high
as 640 trees to the acre, and give them the entire ground as soon as their shade
covered it, and commence te thin them out as the trees reached sizes for
stakes, trellises, rails, posts, fuel and the thousand other purposes for which
their wood is valuable.

A few other kinds of tinher may be more durable than chestnut, but none
of equal value can be so rapidly and easily grown. When the tree becomes
large it is more valuable than when young, and the more rapid the growth
the more valuable the timber. Look into the work shop of the cabinet mak
er, and see it converted into many useful articles of furniture. You cannot
enter a railroad car, a steamboat or hotel without seeing chestnut timber
employed in some article of furniture, or portion of the structure itself. The
very coarseness of its grain when properly filled with oil and varnish to re-
veive a polish, gives tu the wood on almost endless variety of forms and
matchless beauty for furniture and casements,

84

When the chestnut is cut down sprouts will almost invariable spting up’
from the old stump and grow with surprizing rapidity, so that a forest once
planted is one for all time, if the trees are cut in the winter. If these sprouts
are thinned out when small, so as not to crowd, they will grow from eight to
twelve inches in diameter, and twenty-five to forty feet high in ten years.

As an ornamental tree in the open common, the chestnut is one of the best
of trees, sometimes presenting a broad oval, and at others 4 cone shaped
head. Scarcely any two trees bear nuts exactly alike, thus a great var’ety
may be produced and seleéted from for profitable multiplication. The great
object for Wisconsin would be large early nuts, and fast growing trees. The
native rather than foreign trees should bé selected. So too for planting, nuts
from the high hilly portions of New York and Massachusetts would be prefer-
able to seeds from Pensylvania and Ohio, as they would be more likely to pro-
duce hardy trees. It must not be forgotten, that the chestnuts grow from the
mountains of Wermont to the foot hills in Georgia, and have acclimated them-
selves to each latitude, in which they are found,

The seeds should be kept thtough the winter by placing them in wide
drills or other smooth clean ground, as soon as possible after they are
gathered, and fill the interstices with loose friable soil or sand, then covering’
them two or three inches deep with leaves, and small sticks placed on them
sufficient to hold the Icaves during winter. In early spring they may be taken
up before they sprout, and be buried an inch and a half deep in light dry
sandy soil, in the nursery or where they dre to remain; or they may be
planted at the first where they are to grow, by covering them with rotten
manure, muck or leaf-mould, but very shallow. They may be budded or grafted
at any age. If they are grown in the nursery they must be transplanted the
first year, to shorten the tap-root.

FAGUS FERRUGINEA, (Redand White Beech.)

The beech belongs to the family of Cupulifere, of which the oak and chest-
nut are prominent examples. It isa common tree in most of the northern
states, grows to a large size, often 70 feet and more, and wo or three feet
in diameter. It is found abundant along the shore counties of Lake Michi-
gan, from Racine northward. The largest trees are found in deep, rich,
loamy soil; but is common in stony land, with or without a strong admix-
ture of clay. The rootsspread very widely and keep near the surface, often
exposed, It isa tall, straight tree, and will thrive atthe rate of 1280 to the

acre, and wherever it will grow would make an excellent windbreak, when
grown in belts. The timber, if not classed with tough woods, is extremely
hard, and is used for a variety of purposes where a fine hard surface is re-
quired. Mechanics tools, such as planes, saw handles, &c, are almost ex-
clusively made of beech. It makes fuel excelling marle when dry; and is
used for building timber in many sections where it grows, being often hewn.
forty feet in length. Itis very durable timber when kept dry.

5

The young trees are often used for hoop-poles, and such are constantly
springing up from the naked roots in great abundance, if cattle are not al-
lowed access to them, as they are as fond of the beech leaves as the most nu-
tritious grasses. The tree is far from being a slow grower; though it would
take years to become most available for either fuel or timber. No timber
tree will more surely reproduce itself than the beech when cut off in the win-
ter. Though a good neighbor to several other trees, it will itself occupy the
entire ground.

There is but one Ameriean species of the tree, the difference between the
white and red wood depending on other causes, than the species.

The sharply three sided nuts, usually two in each, urn-shaped and soft
prickly coriacious involucre, ripens early in September, and the nut fails out,
They are the sweetest kerneled of oil nuts, and are greedily eaten by all the
nut devouring animals and birds, as well as men. A superior table oil could
be made from the nuts, as the shells could be easily removed if necessary.
The trees commence bearing at about ten years of age, and increase their
quantity with age. The nuts should be planted like the other cupulifere, as
soon as gathered, where they could not be disturbed by the nut eaters, and
they will come up in the spring. The classical name fagus is derived from
the Greek verb phago, to eat, in allusion to the esculent nuts of the tree.

The remaining species of this family of trees, consistiug of the water beech
{carpinus) and ironwood (vstrya), although valuable as wood and timber, are
too small trees, and of too slow growth to be valuable for cultivation. And
the hazel-nut corylus is a mere shrub.

BETULA. (Birch.)

Trees or shrubs, with both kinds of-flowers in separate sealy catkins. Fruit
a broadly winged and scale-like nutlet, or small samara; ripens in June and
should be then planted in moist sandy soil, or be mixed with sand and kept
till spring for planting—Foliage entire, mostly thin and light—Sterile catkins,
long and drooping, terminal and lateral, formed in summer, remaining naked
through the succeeding winter, and expanding their golden stamens in early
spring, preceding the leaves—fertile catkins, oblong or cylindrical, lateral,
protected by scales during winter, and fully developed with the leaves.

There are several native species of birch in Wisconsin, some of which grow
to a size large enough to be sawed into lumber. They ean be propagated by
cuttings in moist sandy land, and some succeed best in moist soil.

Betora Papyracza, (paper birch, canoe birch.)—Bark of the trunk is white
externally, separable in thin paper-like sheets, very durable and used by the

Indians for making their canoes. Is a large tree with a fine grained light
colored wood. Found in wet lands in the north parts of the state.

Beruta Excersa, (Yellow birch.) Grows in moist springy ground, common
in the north—tree 40 to 60 feet high, with yellowish silvery bark, the outer
layers exfoliating in thin revolute stripes. The thin young leaves and twigs
are aromatic with a winter-green flavor—wood hard, white, takes a satin
polish The tree yields an abundance of sweet sap, which is manufactured
into vinegar.

BETULA NIGRA. (River or Red Birch.)
A rather large tree of rapid growth, 40 to 70 feet high, and 2 feet in di-

86

ameter, with a smooth reddish brown bark, the outer layers exfoliating in
broad thin revolute laminz or sheets—Wood compact, heavy, light red color ;
and receives a fine polish. Found in abundance along the overflowed lands
of the Wisconsin river, and will succeed in all deep alluvial soils. Timber is
valuable for cabinet work.

BETULA LENTA. (Cherry Birch or Black Birch.)

A rather large tree 40 to 70 feet high, with dark chestnut-brown bark, red-
dish-bronze colored on the spray—Bark and spray strongly aromatic, and are
sometimes employed in domestic brewings and diet drinks. Timber rose-col-
ored, fine-grained, hard, compact, and as valuable for cabinet work as the
cherry, which it resembles. It is a thrifty growing tree on soil adapted to
the sugar maple, and its long virgate drooping spray and large green leaves
give it a very graceful appearance.

. There are other varieties of the birch, but they are all small and undeserv-
ing of cultivation. The paper and yellow birch are peculiarly fitted to grow
in cold springy land where no other large tree will thrive. The red birch is
equally well adapted to the sandy bottoms of our overflowing streams, where
by its roots it will proteet the land from washing, and out-lives and out-
grows the red maple and black ash, and even the cotton wood. All these va-
rieties produce fuel which when dried is equal to the sugar maple for produc-
ing heat. The-most valuable variety, the cherry birch, if found in Wiscon-
sin, is rare, and should be introduced immediately, as one of the best of
American forest trees for this climate.

SALICACEA. (Willow family. )

This family of trees and shrubs, with both kinds of flowers in catkins, on
different trees, has the seeds ina kind of pod, clothed with a long silky
down, and must be saved like the birch. It includes the willow proper, and
the poplars.

Several native species of the Saliz (willow) grow in this state and others
have been introduced by nurserymen and others. The soft light wood of all
the species is nearly valuless, except such as produce oziers for making bas-
kets; and there can be no object in growing any of them for forest trees.

POPULUS—pornar. (Aspen. Cotton-wood. Balm of Gilead.)

All of this sub-order of the Salicacez, are very rapid growers when young,
except the populus tremuloides (American aspen,) which last is out grown even
by the white oak. There are, native in this state, as many as seven distinct —
species. The wood of allis light, and possesses very little durability and
value asa timber. It checks, warps and springs so much in seasoning as to
ruin it as sawed or hewed timber. As fuel the willow and poplar rank the
lowest of American trees, bearing the relation of 40 to 100 as compared with
hickory.

Although for a period of 10 or 15 years the poplars may grow with great
rapidity, so as to have merited the reputation of the most rapidly growing
tree we can plant, yet after about that age they grow less and less rapidly.
In a period of 30 years or more the Lombardy popular, and balm of gilead
(P. eanadensis,) the most rapid growers of the poplars, will be out-grown by

87

the elm, the red and silver leaved maples, the butternut, black walnut, and
the thornless locust ; and will no more than keep pace with white, red and
Scotch pines. And in fifty years, the Norway spruce, Scotch larch, and
white oak will overtake them; so that they may be classed with the short-
lived trees, when compared with the trees above named.

Nearly all the species are infested with worms. All send up numerous
suckers, and at great distances from the tree. At the time the leaves com-
mence to grow, the scales of the buds fall to the ground, and there are blown
about, and in some of the species, these scales are covered with a tarry, bal-
samic substance, which fastens to everything, on which it is pressed ; and
whenever the tree stands near the sidewalks and houses, there gummy scales
are often carried by the shoes into the house and left fastened upon the
floors and carpets. The numerous sterile catkins, after having sent out their
polen, floating everywhere on the winds, fall to the ground again covering
the walks; while in summer the fertile catkins give off their clouds of cot-
ton, which float for miles from the trees, filling the air, to the great annoy-
ance ofall. The two foreign species which are found in cultivation, the pyr-
amidial Lombardy poplar (P. Dilata) and the white poplar (P. Alba), are
equally objectionable to the others, except that in the first of these only trees
bearing sterile catkins have been introduced, and consequently no cottony
seeds are’ produced. The seed bearing trees ought never to be planted near
houses. We dismiss this whole class of trees by stating, that even where
rapid growth of trees and shades are desired, the ground had better be plant-
ed with other and more valuable trees.

' CONILERA. (Cone-bearing—Pine family.)

Trees or shrubs with resinous juice, mostly with awl shaped entire leaves,
and moneecious or diccious flowers in catkins, destitute of calyx or carolla.
Entbryo in the axis of the albumen and nearly its length. Wood destitute of
ducts, composed chiefly of homoginous large woody fibre, which is marked
with circular disks on two sides.

This great family of trees embraces some that in the economy and advance-
ment of the country have played the most important part. Among which are
the pines, the firs, the cedars, the cypresses and the larches. All but the cy-
press and larch are evergreen, and nearly all the genera and species are in
some form used for timber and fuel. We are apt to overlook the chief value
of these trees, and their timber in planting forests or shades, because they
do not appear to hold out “such great pecuniary advantages, in so short a
time as do the deciduous trees. Although they grow as rapidly and their
wood is as valuable, yet it takes more years to attain the maximum of wealth
to be reaped from a single tree. Other trees are cut when small, so are some
of these ; but the best, the pines and the hemlock which are chiefly used for
boards and plank, sawed timber and shingles, require large trees grown in
shaded situations, so as to be free from knots and cracks, and have good
length of stem. Notwithstanding these trees grow as rapidly as other trees,

88

yet 50 or more years are required to produce such trees as are demanded for
sawing into lumber; and even at that age, years continue to add value to the
timber in increasing proportions.

The evergreen forests of Wisconsin have been and still are more valuable
than placers of gold in the gulches of the Rocky mountains, if we simply
count the dollars which the lumbermen have extracted from them by the aid
of toil and machinery.

” The pines of this state have contributed materially to build cottages and
palaces, not only in this state, but in all the states washed by the Mississippi
and Lake Michigan. Scarcely a dwelling, church, school-house, public or
private building can be found, to which they have not contributed more or
less. The plentifulness of the timber has hitherto kept down the price, and
it has not been appreciated. Great forests have been robbed of their best
trees, for the sake of a single log, or afew shingle-bolts ; other trees and forests
have been wantonly destroyed. The young trees, designed by Providence to
replace the old, have been ruthlessly cut away to make a place for an experi-
mentjin growing corn on sands so destitute of vegetable matter, that corn
could not grow, until the pines had for ages more shed their needly-shaped
leaves on the barren surface.

It would seem as if the woodman, axe in hand, had found himself in the
midst of the dense evergreen forest, and forgetting all of earth beside, and
because his vision was bounded by the trunks and branches of large trees, he
believed all the world was pine; and that fate had placed him there to hew
out an opening, and let in the light of the sun; that the quantity and extent
were what they appeared to his limited vision—infinitely large and there-
fore inexhaustable. His vision could not extend just over the tree tops,
within the day’s flight of the pigeon, where was spread out a region far
greater than his forest, on which no tree rears its head; and where all and
more than all, the trees which surround him, are wanted for its use.

The time has already arrived when we begin to feel that there is a
scarcity of pine timber; where it was but a few years ago, sold for $10 for a
1,000 feet, it now readily brings thrice its former prices, with no prospect of
being any cheaper.

This increase is not owing to a scarcity of labor, as some tell us, or to an
increase of currency, as others say. Although these causes may have some
effect at present, yet it is mainly owing to the difficulty in getting the trees
from which the lumber is made, which has raised the price. In u few years
more, if lumber continues to advance, and there is no reason why it should
not, it will be beyond the reach of the poor, or even the middle classes, and
these must resort to other materials from which to construct their abodes ;
and asin Europe with no intermediate material between mud and stone
walls, the rich will live in this, the poor in that.

The rapid strides which we have made in advancement, may be attributed

89

as much to the cheap pine lumber as to the enterprise and intelligenee of
the people expended upon the prolific soil of the state. This cheap lumber
has built our houses and our barns, our stores and fences, and given to the
people their long stride in the race of nations. But while those trees have
been destroyed to build a state, no efforts are made to replace them
with others; on the contrary, if the young trees are not broken down
and killed, the fire is allowed to run over the land and complete the devasta-
tion man had commenced ; whereas, if they had received proper care and
attention, the forests of evergreens now cut down and gone, would in 40 or
50 years have been replaced with another nearly equal to the first.

If in planting belts and groves of trees for timber, shelter or protection
from winds, a free use were made of such evergreens as would thrive on the
soil occupied, they would grow all the better for admixture; and within a
lifetime, the pines would become saw logs, and the cedars split into fence
posts. Retaining their foliage during winter, they afford protection at a
time when it is most needed. A belt of these surrounding a farm, mingled
with others, or alone, or at least such portions as contains the buildings, or-
chard and garden, gives a cheerful, comfortable appearance to the place; and
both man and beast will live longer and be more comfortable and happy than
when exposed to every gale of winter, when for more than six months of the
year nothing appears life-like—nothing to break the force of the blast as it
comes over drifting snows. If they take room, and shade the ground, they
shelter while the live, and pay a large rent in timber when they“lie. Cher-
ish them as good friends. ,

PINUS. (Pine Family.)

Fruit a cone formed of the imbricated and woody carpellary scales which
are thickened at the apex (except in the white pines,) persistent, spreading
when ripe and dry; the two nut-like seeds partly sunk in excavations at the
base of the scale, and in separating carrying away a part of the lining in the
form of a thin and fragile wing. Leaves evergreen, needle-shaped, in fasci-
cles of 2 to 5 from the same slender buds, sheathed by the scarous bud-scales
at the base. Flowering in May and June; the cones maturing the seeds in
the autumn of the second year. The name is classical latin.

PINUS BANKSIANA. (Gray or Northern Scrub Pine )

Leaves are in pairs, short, oblique, divergent—cones ovate-conical, usually
curved, smooth, the scales pointless, This species is generally a stragling
shrub or low tree from five to twenty feet high, but on the almost barren
‘Potsdam sands” of Wisconsin, it fills an important place, and grows into a
tree fitted for many uses. It seems to flourish best in soil too thin for grow-
ing any other tree, even the jack-jack-oak. In its early years it out-grows
all other evergreens, and has been said to make a tree five inches in diametre
in ten years from the seed, and at about four years of age to grow eight and
ten feet in one season. At such times the upright shoot is tender and brittle,
very jucy, and may be eaten, but is neither palatable nor nutricious, and

90

leaves a bad effect upon the mouth. It reaches 60 or 80 feet in height, and
timber may be hewn from it 80 or 40 long, and eight inches square. It is
short lived, and the largest trees often rot while yet alive, and break down.
Seldom does it grow large enough to be cut into boards. As it grows old it
become resinous, and then if cut and dried, it makes a hot flaming fire. It
seems fitted for the purpose of creating a soil on the light sands where it is
found, and to prevent them from blowing into drifts, and ought to be kept
growing thereon, until a soil capable of producing something else is formed.

PINUS RESINOSA. (Red Pine, wrongly called Norway Pine.)

Leavesin pair from long sheaths, semi-cilindrical, elongated, dark green, 5
to 6 inches long. Cones ovoid-conical, about 2 inches long, sometimes ag-
gregated in large clnsters; the scales pointless, dilated in the middle.

Large trees with smooth straight stems—reddish and rather smooth bark ;
and compact yellowish wood moderately resinous, very durable, and valuable
for joists and flooring, as well as fencing boards. A rapid grower on all dry
soils, and thriving on the most sterrile sandy lands in the state. Next to
the white pine this is our most valuable species of pine ; and for some loca-
tions and uses, is preferable. As an ornamental tree, its dark green foliage
and long leaves make it rank above the Austrian pine, which it much resembles,
and excells in growth.

Two other species closely resembling this are found in the northern states.
These are the P. Rigida (pitch pine), with very rough and dark bark, hard
wood saturated with resin, and grow 30 to 70 feet high; and Pinus Mitis
(yellow pine) But they do not make as large trees, nor as valuable timber
for any purpose as the red pine, and grow in similar soil; therefore they
cannot be recommended. :

PINUS STROBUS. ( White Pine.)

Leaves in fives, very slender, 3 to 5 inches long, rather glaucous, the
sheaths deciduous: cone narrow, cylindrical, nodding, a little curved 4 to 6
inches long; scales of the cones pointless and not thickened at the end, but
very slightly upwards; open early in winter, the seeds soon falling out. The
tree is large and the tallest of all our natives, sometimes towering in a single
stem to the height of 160 feet, and almost perfectly straight, one-half of
which is clear of limbs. This tree furnishes the immense quantity of white
pine lumber so well known throughout the country.

No other tree yields such invaluable, soft and lightish white or yellowish
wood, which in the large trunks is nearly free from resin; and although no
wood cuts easier and smoother under the plane, it is more durable than white
oak, The young trees in the forest generally have but few branches and
leaves, but in the opea ground, it is sufficiently dense to form a good shade,
and makes a handsome cone topped tree. Its best location is on rich corn
land, with other trees, to which it is a good neighbor, or massed by itself at
the rate of 640 to the acre, in which situations it will mount upwards with
the most rapid growers. The white pine grows in soils quite moist, almost
swampy, though not as well as on drier lands.

There are several foreign species of pines to be found among the nursery-

91

men, the best of which are the Austrian for ornament and Scotch for timber.
These are rapid growers, but not more so than the two native varieties above
mentioned. And as their foliage is inferior to the ‘natives, and their timber
no better than the red pine, and greatly inferior to the white, we cannot see
why they should be prefered to such as we know have stood the test of ages
in this state.

The young trees may be grown in the nursery, and transplanted to where
they are to grow; but with these as with most other trees, the best way is to
plant the seeds where the tree is to remain. It is cheaper to tend the very
young tree than to transplant it and tben tend it. And time is gained by the
planting process, and the tap root is better.

All the conifere grow slowly at first, and will be overgrown by the decid-
uous trees during the first five years of their existence, though afterwards
they mount upwards faster than any other tree. Therefore in planting these
trees, their own rows should be exclusively conifere, but not necessarily all
of the same tribe or species. Thus pines, spruce and larch may be planted
in the same row, and they will grow up about together.

ABIES. (Fir and Spruce family.)

In this sub-order of the coniferx are found the firs and spruces. The ste-
rile catkius are scattered or somewhat clustered towards the end of the
branchlets—scales of the cones thin, flat, not at all thickened at the apex,
nor with a prickly point—seeds with a persistent wing. Leaves are scatter-
ed, short, frequently two ranked, otherwise nearly as in the pines. The
name is classical Latin.

ABIES BALSAMEA. (Balsam Fir.)

Leaves narrow, and about an inch long; cones three to tour inches long,
and an inch wide, erect, violet colored when young—bark with numérous
blisters, from which the well-known Balsam fir or Canada balsam is taken.

It grows naturally in cold, damp woods and swamps; where it makes a
slender tree of but little value, and is short-lived. When the tree is young
it looks very well in cultivation, but at about ten or fifteen years the lower
branches die, and it becomes a tall, spindling, ill-looking tree. Its cultiva-
tion is not recommended, except as a specimen, where so many better trees
can be found.

ABIES CANADENSIS. (Hemlock Spruce.)

Leaves linear, flat, obtuse, one-half an inch long, dark green above and
silvery underreath, on light elegant spray-like, often drooping, branchlets.
Cone oval, of few scales, little longer than the leaves, hanging, terminal.

It is a large tree, and most graceful of all the spruces, as well as the most
valuable, almost rivalling the pine, when all its parts are considered. The
bark is a light reddish brown, and the most valuable material for tanning
leather we have. All parts of it are used, and it is the main dependence of
the tanners. The timber is coarse grained, and is of first quality for joists
and other building timbers, as it never springs, holds nails well, is stronger

™,

92

than pine, and is very durable when kept from contact with the ground. It
often attains a height exceeding 100 feet, and a stem four feet in diameter,
and has been split into rails, and sawed into shingles, as well as timber,
plank and boards. The knotless portions being generally entirely free from
resin, it takes and holds paint remarkably well. It grows nearly as fast as
the pines, and prefers a light, dry, hilly or even rocky soil, where it might
be planted at the rate of 1,440 tothe acre or 66 inches apart—one-half being
cut away when the trees are a foot in diameter, and suitable for small hew-
ing timber. Its dark, dense shade preventing evaporation, makes such dry
soil appear almost swampy. When found in wetter swampy soil, the tree
seldom reaches a large size; whije in heavy clay it is tender and often win-
ter kills.

This is the most beautiful native evergreen we possess ; and great exertion
should be made to make it grow in all parts of the state, as one of the most
valuable of trees.

ABIES NIGRA. (Black Spruce.)

In this state this spruce is little more than a shrub, and is nota rapid
grower; but that is not much to be regretted since we have already so far
introduced the Norway spruce (ABIES EXCELSA), that that tree may as well be
planted as the native variety. This lastis a magnificent tree and succeeds
well in almost any good soil. It grows very rapidly, both in height and size;
and when planted thick or with other trees, may be made to produce excel-
lent timber for hewing, and other building purposes.

Some of the species discovered in the Rocky mountains, grow to immense
heights, often over two hundred feet, making large trees, with beautiful fo-
liage and really wonderful cones in their structures as well as beauty. Trees
from there would be a great acquisition, and it would pay for the farmers to
procure seeds from that dry, open region for their own planting. Trees from
which timber fifty feet long may be hewed are not unfrequent in the moun-
tains near Taos, N. M. A species of balsam fir (Asics Batsamea), in the same
neighborhood, with an exceeding thick foliage, and leaves more than an inch
long, may also be obtained, at the same place. But after all it is doubted
if any species will give greater satisfaction, either for timber or ornament,
than the Norway spruce and hemlock.

LARIX. (Larch )

Catkins lateral and scattered, bud-like. Sterile flowers nearly as in the
pines, but the pollen is of simple sphcrical grains. Cones ovoid, erect, the
bracts and scales persistent ; otherwise asin abies. Leaves deciduous, soft,
very many in a fascicle, developed in early spring from lateral scaly and glob-
ular buds, which produce the same or the second year, shoots on which leaves
are scattered. Fertile catkins crimson or red when in flower. The name is
ancient Greek.

There is but. one species in this state, Larix Americanus (Black Larch, Tam-
arach and Hackmatack) with leaves almost thread-like; cones ovoid of a few
rounded seales, The Red larch is but a variety of the American.

93

The larch is a conifers, though the leaves are deciduous, in autumn. it {8
a tall; slender grower, with heavy, coarse-grained, durable and valuable wood,
wherever light straight timber, such as hop-poles, is required. The trees
should be cut in the winter, and the bark stripped off in the spring. Unless
this be done the poles will soon decay from retaining moisture under the
bark. It is also a valuable wood for fuel, but burns rapidly, and with great
heat, being much used for puddling iron, and in other places where a hot
flame is required. It grows naturally on low, wet, even swampy grounds, in
all the northern states and Canadas; yet it flourishes far better when brought
out’and planted in dryish soil. When the American larch is planted on such
land arid tended the same as the European of Scotch larch, it grows mach
more rapidly than in its native swamps. Those who desire to make planta-
tions of the larch, should take into consideration the character of the land
to be planted; if ithe wet then the American larch should be chosen; if it
be dry then the European larch should be planted. For timber trees the Eu-
topean is much preferable, as it grows as large as the pines.

The value of latcli plantations is manifest from the fact that it has been for
many years past profitably planted aga forest tree in Europe. Tens of
thousands of acres of larch have been planted in Great Britain, for the tim-
ber which it yiélds; and because such plantations have proved the most val-
uable investments which can be made. The same is true of France, Germany
and some other European countriés. In most cases lands hAve been used for
this purpose, such as exists in great abundance in Wisconsin, in the sandy
tegions, that are of little or no value as farming lands; and which become
all the more valuable from the leaves and small spray which would be annus
ally east on the ground, to enrich or rather form a soil out of these sands.

Of laté great excitement has sprung up among our farmers in the cultiva-
tion of the hop in Wisconsin. Have those cultivators once thought where
they shall obtain the 1,700 poles required to each acre of hops? Tamarack
and white cedar poles are now worth from 10 to 20 cents each; and when
those now in use are decayed, as they will be in afew years, we have no
large sourcé of supply.

The larch may be planted as we have fecommunded for planting the hick-
ory for hoop-poles, with a surety ef as great a yield of poles; but with this
difference, that the larch’ seldom sends uff a shoot from the stump, but it re-
quires a new plantation whenever the trees are felled. Everytree which can
be grown will be wanted, in this state, béfore it can be reared to sufficient
size for use. The large treés can be sawed into good boards, plank and other
sawed tintbers, or be hewéd into large building timbers, for which purposes
it is eminently adapted. The larch makes excellent piles for docks, or for
the foundation of buildings in wet grounds. That it will last for ages we
have abundant proof. Larch piles have been taken up where it is positively
known that they have been driven more than a thousand years, and yet they
were sound and uninjured. So too, larch logs have been dug from peat bogs

04

buried 12 to 15 feet deep, and where they must have been buried before the
Adamie period, and yet such logs were sufficiently sound to be cut into
timber. But although the timber lasts thus when completely immersed in
water, it is not valuable as fence posts when on dry land, since it will de-
cay rapidly at the surface of the ground, if allowed to remain the year
round. For hop-poles it is preferable to any other tree. Another valuable
quality about the tree is, that it may be planted in wet ground, with the
black ash, red maple and white pine to complete timber belts.

CUPRESSINEE. (The Cypress family )

Thesc are trees of a sub-order of the conifere, with fertile flowers, consist-
ing of a few carpellary scales, without bracts, bearing from one to several
erect ovules on their base, the orifice upward, forming a closed strobile or a
sort of drupe fruit—buds naked. This sub-order contains the thuja and cu
pressus (abor vite and white cedar,) taxodiwm (cypress) and juniperus (red ce-
dar),

THUJA, (Arbor Vite.)

Flowers monecious on different branches, in yery small terminal ovoid cats
king. Fertile catkins of few imbricated scales, fixed by the base, each bear:
ing two erect ovules; dry and spreading at maturity. Trees with very flat
two-ranked spray, on which the minute and oppressed scale-like persistent

leaves are very closely imbricated. The name Zhyja is from a Greek word
applied to a resinous evergreen, but what kind is doubtful.

THUJA OCCIDENTALIS. (American arbor vite),

Leaves ovate-rhombic, with a gland on the back, in four rows on the two»
edged branchlets ;—cones small, not more than half an inch long, pointless,
one-seeded—Seeds small, broadly winged all round, ripe in the fall and may
be kept till spring before sowing. Usually found in swamps and in cool
rocky banks.

In Wisconsin it grows in extensive ‘‘ cedar swamps,’’ and bears the name
of white cedar. The trees grow from 80 to 60 feet high, with recurved
branches; yielding a pungent aromatic oil, with light wood, but exceedingly
durable.

This tree is readily propagated from cuttings planted in frames early in
autumn and protected from frost in winter. In making cuttings it is best to
take the young wood with a small portion of the old wood attached. The
soil in which they are planted should be at least one-half sand or sandy loam,
and the remainder a good, well decomposed leaf mould, or other old and rich
soil. If planted in September or early October, they will usually be rooted
by the first of May following, even when no glass is used for coverings,
They should be shaded from the direct rays of the sun until winter sets in,
then covered sufficiently to keep out the frost, Transplant the next spring.

In this state the tree grows to a large size, even in its native places ; and
when planted on the dry sandy lands, it makes an excellent growth. Where
a thick timber belt is needed for protection, and the land is moderately
moist, no trees except the red cedar on the dry land excelsit. If planted
thickly the tree will shoot up into fine poles, admirably fitted for hop-poles,

95

and nearly as valuable as tamarack. They may be placed on moist and even
swampy lands. Of late it is considerably used as a border or evergreen hedge
for ornamentation, and bears the shears well.

JUNIPERUS. (Red Cedar—Savin.)

Flowers dicecious, or occasionally monecious in very small lateral catkins
—Fertile catkins ovoid, of three to six fleshy, one to three ovuled, coalescent
scales ; in fruit forming a sort of drupe or berry, scaly-bracted underneath
—Seeds one to three, bony. Evergreen trees or shrubs with awl-shaped or
scale-like rigid leaves. The name is classical Latin.

JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA. (Red Cedar or Savin.)

Leaves four-ranked, wnuch crowded on the young plants, and primary or
rapidly-growing shoots, awl-shaped and somewhat spreading, in pairs or
threes, on the older lateral twigs very small and scale-like, closely imbricat-
ed, triangular-ovate—Berries smali, with blue bloom.

The red cedar wood is well known as one of the most durable. It is laid
down in the books, that the tree is one of the slowest in growth. This state-
ment may be true in the eastern states, or generally; but is far from true in
Wisconsin. Trees may be seen in Madison, and other towns of the state,
which were taken from the banks of the lakes, twelve or fiftten years ago,
and which at that time were not more than three feet high, and an inch in
diameter, and planted in the yellow and richer soil, where the hickory and
black jack oaks flourised, and which are now fifteen feet high, and ten to
twelve inches in diameter. In fact, they have grown about as fast as the
sugar maples and white oaks, in the same situation. In the city of Janesville
and its vicinity, trees may be seen, which in fourteen or fifteen years from
seeds have grown into trees twelve inches in diameter at the butt, and twenty-
five feet high; even out-growing the Scotch pine which stands near them.

We have no tree which will endure as great changes in climate, wet and
dry, hot and cold, as the red cedar. It will find its root-hold on the ridges
and clifs of rocks, and is the first tree one meets as he approaches the Rocky
mountains, after crossing the treeless plains, where it stands on the dry hill
side, or hangs in the clifts of the rocks, where scarcely any other vegetation
is found; and it may be found in the wet sands of the islands of the Wis-
consin river aod other streams. It is one of the densest of our evergreens,
and is the very best tree to oppose to the full blasts of the storms and winds of
both summer and winter, in the most exposed situations. For posts to set
in the ground there is no tree which lasts so long; and even if it do take
years to grow it to sufficient size for posts, it will last until another tree may
be grown, if the seed be planted when the post is set.

It may be propogated from cuttings under glass; but the safest way is to
make use of seeds. These may be gathered in autumn, and mixed with muck
or leaf mould and placed in the open ground until they germinate, which of-
ten takes two years. Some bruise the berries so as to break the resinous
coverings and then the seeds come up the first year.

96

This is the only speeies worthy of cultivation, which can be grown in Wls:
¢onsin. <A very large tree, of the red cedar family, with excellent wood can
be found in the mountains in southern New Mexico, but it is doubtful if it
would be hardy here. If it should be, it would be a great acquisition to this
class of timber trees. But the one we have desérves thé most careful atten-
tion of the tree-growers of the state, and few trees will better repay the little
attention this tree requirés.

TAXODIUM. ( Cypress.)

A deciduous trees of large size in the south. Flowers monaicious on thé
same branches. Sterile catkins, bearing 2 to 5anther cells. Fertile catkins
ovoid, in small clusters, scaly with 2 ovules at the base of each scale. Cone
globulat, closed, composed of very thick and angtilar somewhat shield-shaped
scales, bearing two angled seeds at their base- Iieaves linear, very small,
numerous, two ranked on a very slender stalk; bark pale-colored, smooth ;
wood light, but very durable ; trees grow very rapidly, with a straight stem.
The namé is compounded of ¢azxos (the yew) eidos (resemblance).

Although the tree is a native of the southern states, being seldom found in
quantities north of Virginia, yet it is found in the swamps in New Jersey as
far north as New York, and when transplanted to dry land is found to be
perfectly hardy in that latitude. .

Says Fuller: ‘‘The valuable qualities of the cypress have been in a great
measure ovérlooked by those who require stakes in gardens, nurseries and
vineyards. Good eypress stakes can be grown much cheaper, and at home
than.one could transport them ten or twenty miles, even if they cost nothing
more ; besides the convenience of having a supply always at hand when wants
edisnotasmallitem. Red cedar stakes, eight or ten feet long, in the vi-
einity of New York, are worth from sixty to eighty dollars per thousand ; and
cypress stakes can be grown to that size in five or six years from seed, and
they are almost as durable. Ten thousand cypress trees can be grown on an
acre if planted in rows four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row; and if
they are worth but five cents each at the end of five years, it will give us a
return of $500 per acre; and allowing fifty per cent. of the amount for cost
of seed and cultivation, we then have a fair return for the use of the land.
The cypress is not very particular as to soil, but it will grow more rapidly in
moist soil thanindry. * * Ihave grown them successfully in high, dry,
gravelly soils, where scarcely any other tree would thrive, and I am quite
certain that any one can grow their own stakes much cheaper than they can
usually buy them. The young trees should be cut in spring, and the bark
taken off ;- then place them where they will become seasoned before they are
used.’”

If this tree be what it is here represented, it certainly deserves a trial, by
not only the nursery men, but by others and especially by the hop growers, as
an easy. means of supplying themselves with poles; and by all land owners
for the sake of the posts for fences which might be thus produced. We would
recommend for trial seeds procured from the most northerly groves on the

97

Mississippi river ; and that they be planted in well sheltered positions. They
send down a strong tap root, and if they are designed to be transplanted they
must be taken up at one year of age; but untilit is determined that they
can resist the cold winters, it is best to let them grow without being tak-
en up.

' a

HOW THE SEEDS OF THE CONIFER, &c., ARE COLLECTED.

The seeds of the birch require but a short notice, as more will be learned
of the manner of gathering and saving them in describing thoes of the
conifere. The nutlets of the birch are produced in small catkins, which open
on the ripening of the seeds, in the month of June, and the naked nutlets,
being then broadly winged all around like the seeds of the elm, but much
smaller and lighter, float away in the breeze to find anew home ata distance
from the parent tree. They can only be gathered by picking these catkins,.
and letting them dry and open, where the seeds will be saved. They can be
planted immediately in damp sandy soil, or leaf mould, and being scarcely
covered, and kept moist, they germinate and make a growth not unlike the
elm the same year. Or they may be mixed with sand and kept till next spring.
This last method only has the effect to lose one year’s growth. 4

The seeds of the order salicacee, which in cludes the willows and poplars,
are produced on those tree only, which bear the fertile flowers; and are
found in pods of various forms of round and oblong-ovate. A cottony ap-
pendage is attached to each seed, sufficiently large, when expanded to bear
it up; and these pods must be picked before they open, in order to save
the seed. These seeds also ripen in June, and should be planted immediate-
ly. The whole of this order grow readily from large cuttings; and, if care
is taken, none but those trees bearing the sterile flowers need be propagated,
as is now the case with the Lombardy poplar, and so the pest of the cotton.
is avoided.

The seeds of the pines and other conifere, have to be gathered in a some-
what similar manner. Whether these cones huve matured their seeds in one
or two summers, all ripen their seeds in October and November, and they
must be gathered in the cones. When the cones have opened their scales,
the seeds in most instances being armed with a broad wing will carry them-
selves to a great distance off, where they cannot be found by human sight.

The inhabitants of Griesham, a German village in the pine forests near
Darmstadt, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, were the first to collect these
cones, in order to save the seeds for market. They placed the cones in the
rooms of their houses, where the warmth and dryness of the air caused the
cones to open, and the seeds to fly out and they were caught on the floor.
Thus nearly every villager became a seedsman on a small scale, for the sup-
ply of his own neighborhood.

From that simple beginning has sprung the large establishments in Ger-

Rep, 7.

98

many, and especially that of Keller at Darmstadt, who was himself a native
of Griesham. The establishments of Dawson, at Edinburgh, and of Ville-
morin, Audrieux in Paris, are connected with Keller by business relations.
The poorer people of the forest neighborhood, and especially of Griesham,
during the autumn and winter months, are engaged in gathering the cones
of the pines, fir and larch, which they bring and sell to Keller’s factory and
its branches, This gives employment during the winter to nearly a thousand
men, who are scattered over the forests of the Duchy, and find renumeration
for their labor.

The gatherers of the fir-cones, particularly those of Griesham, which are
distributed in greater and less fellowships throughout the pine-forests be-
tween the Rhine, Main and Neckar, are clad in coarse canvass garments.
Woolen clothing would be a hindrance to them in climbing trees often a
hundred feet high. In rough and stormy weather a worn-out soldier’s cloak
protects their limbs, and a light cap the head. With climbing-irons fastened
upon stout boots or laced gaiters, these ‘‘ pine-tree birds,” in boldness, activ-
ity and sureness of foot vying with the squirrels and woodpeckers, clamber
swiftly, with vigorous steps, which resound far through the forest, to the
summit of the trees, even up to the slender topmost branches, and the snap-
ping of the twigs to which the cones are attached announces their busy la-
bors. They collect the cones in a linen sack thrown over the shoulder, and
fish down those upon the highest and most slender twigs with their only im-
plement, a pole about an inch thick and eight or ten feet long, provided
with a hook at the end, and in mounting the trees carried suspended in the
button-hole. When the industrious workman has filled his sack with pine-
cones redolent of resin, he descends from his airy throne as quickly and se-
curely as he ascended, empties the contents of his sack in a heap, warms
himself at his fire, made of empty concs, and then is ready again for work,
which continues thus until the gathering gloom of evening puts an end to his.
day’s toil.

_A late writer thus describes the process of saving seeds: ‘In Thuringia,
also, this gathering of pine-cones is carried on very industriously. ‘Often
one hears,’ says Schacht, in his famous book ‘The Tree,’ ‘a rustling in the
topmost branches of the fir-tree, and looks up, expecting to espy a squirrel
busily at work, and sees instead a man suspended at the giddy height. It is
a ‘cone-climber,’ who is clambering with wonderful activity from branch to
branch, from tree to tree, in order to gather the pine-cones. The boldness
of these people goes eo far, that they will in a thick wood, when sitting amid
the top branches of a fir, set the tree rocking to and fro, and, when its
branches approach the summit of a neighboring tree, spring with a quick,
dextrous leap from the one into the other,”

“The process of obtaining the seeds from the cones is conducted in the
following manner. The factory contains three great hot-air kilns, or ovens ;
the place of the fourth was taken during the past year by a steam-heating,

99

‘apparatus, the principal object of which is to obviate, or at least to lessen,
the danger from fire, and to increase the germinating power and the good
quality of the seed obtained. Seventeen layers of hurdles are so thoroughly
warmed and dried by the heating apparatus, containing some fourteen hun-
dred square feet of superficies, that the time within which the ‘ Kleng pro-
cess’ is completed, by the opening of the cones and the falling out of the
seeds is shortened perhaps one-quarter, although the degree of heat em-
ployed.is very considerably lower, and consequently the seed thus produced
retains far more germiating power, because the whole artificial process cor-
responds much more nearly to the natural. For example, the ovens heated
by the fires directly, and those warmed by steam, filled at the same time
with cones taken from one and the same heap, the seeds being afterwards
taken out at the same time, and immediately subjected to* germinating tests
conducted in the same manner, yielded in a week, the foriner 81 the latter 93
per cent. of grains capable of germination. Everywhere have the experi-
ments in germination made with seed obtained from Keller yielded results
exceeding the percentage promised, a fact which has gradually extended the
trade of this establishment to the most remote regions. The rapidity with
which the space occupied by the hurdles in the steam-kiln is warmed is sur-
prising. In one hour the same degree of heat is attained which, by the
method hitherto employed, of heating with hot air, was only reached in two
or three hours. Besides this, the readines with which the temperature and
the draft of air can at all times be regulated, is not to be valued too highly;
and still further must be added the fact, that the great risk of fire incident
to the former apparatus is entirely done away with. It may well be said
that science has here indeed given evidence of progress.

“The cones, after being freed from the needle-leaves and dirt, are spread
upon hurdles which are placed over the ovens and the’ steain heating appara-
tus. After the process of drying is completed, in the course perhaps of
twenty or four and twenty hours, the cones are transferred to the wire-shak
ers or screens, adjacent to the ovens, and in these, by means of the rotary
motion given to them, the seed is separated from the cones. It has then by
the removal of the beards by a particular apparatus adapted to this purpose,
to be prepared for cleansing, which is effected by means of sieves aud fan-
ning machines,

“The separation of the seeds from the Jarch-cones is accomplished by a
method which differs somewhat from the above. These cones, when taken
from the kilns, are passed through machines expressly devised for this pur-
pose, by which they are torn in pieces. The seeds intermingled with scales
and pieces of wood are then placed in a cleansing apparatus, and their prep-
aration completed by means of a stamping mill, which crushes the fragments
of wood with which they are mixed. A steam engine movesall the machine-
ry in the establishment. On an average, one hundred and sixty Hessian
malter (560 bushels) of pine-cones and thirty malter of larch-cones are sub-

100

jected to treatment daily, giving a result of five hundred and three hundred
pounds of seed.

‘“‘The establishment sends yearly to the different quarters of the globe
some twelve hundred hundred-weight of pine, fir and larch seeds. Most of
the German governments, Belgium, Holland, England, Denmark, Sweden
and Russia, many parts of Africa, and of late especially America also, obtain

seeds for planting of new forests from this establishment. Above all, how-
ever, France obtains from here the seed which she employs to clothe her
mountains again with verdure. In France, forest culture has become one of
the most serious questions, on account of the annually recurring inundations.
The revolution too, as is well known, exercised but little forbearance toward
the woods belonging to the state and the different communities. All the
mountains were denuded with an unsparing hand of their forests, which
would not grow again of themselves. Were it not possible to restore them
by the aid of forest culture, the future economical ruin of a portion of the
country would have been determined.

The largest demand is for pine-seeds, but besides the fir and larch seeds
already mentioned, the seed of the black pine, of maple, ash, and elm trees,
of lindens and locusts, white firs aud Weymouth pines (Piuus Strobus), is
likewise collected and prepared, though not in such large quantities.

‘“‘The sending-out of seeds by the establishment to its customers is dis-
tributed through the year as follows: the seeds of the deciduous trees, with the
exception of the elm, at the end of October, or beginning of November;
those of the white firs, at the beginning of December; those of the other
evergreens, in the middle or toward the end of March; the elm-tree seeds
at the end of May, or beginning of June-”’

We may soon expect to see similar establishments to these in existence
in the United States to save tho seeds of our own pines, spruces and other
trees, which far exceed in value the forest trees of Europe. Till then the
seeds must be collected by those who desire them.

In procuring seeds for planting, those grown, as far as may be, in a similar
or colder climate should be preferred to those from a warmer one; except
where it is desired to make experiments for choice varieties.

s

IN CONCLUSION,

The eommissioners having brought their work to a close, will state again
that in their opinion, no other interest so much demands the immediate at-
‘tention of the legislature of Wisconsin, as does that of increasing and pre-
-serving so much timber as shall be needed for future use by her people.
The state has freely given support, premiums and rewards to its peneten-
tiaries, eleemosynary institutions, to its agricultural societies for the products
of the farms, the manufactures and handicrafts of its people, to its public
schools and institutions of learning and to its roads, highways and other
‘public uses; but hitherto this great interest, from which one-half the entire

101

value of all the taxable property of the state bas been raised, has received
no attention whatever.

Whether this course ought to be continued, and if not what remedy shall
be adopted by the state, is for the legislative power, and not for this com-
mission to determine; snd to that august power it must be left at last. So
too, must be left to the same power the final responses tothe third and fourth
propositions of the act under which we bave been appointed, viz:

III. Whether, owing to the want of information in individuals and the
shortness of their lives, it is the duty of the state to interpose its authority
to prevent an undue destruction of forest trees where they now exist, and to
encourage their cultivation where they are now deficient.

IV. Whether any and what scientific experiments or investigations should
should be made to ascertain the best methods of growing and managing for-
est trees.

The necessity for the information on the several points here contemplated
has been felt by the commissioners at every step of their work; and it must
be felt by all who shall undertake to follow them, as it has been by such as
have gone before. Private enterprise cannot be expected to perform the
herculean labor of making the experiments necessary to procure all that is
needed ; and in-as-much as when obtained it must result more to the public
good, than to that of the individual, so no one man or society of men ought
to be expected to perform it, without public aid.

Before determining what shall be done towards making experiments and
gathering the requisite information, it is first necessary to settle the ques-
tion, shall anything more be done, and how much? After that point is de-
termined the manner and means are mere matter of detail.

Seeing the subject in this light, we respectfully submit the whole matter
to the future action of the legislature, content, if we have given any light
upon or excited any interest in this most important subject, and with the be-
lief that the time is not far distant when it will receive that attention which
its importance demands.

— — oe

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Juglandacew,..... as tearactatcvans imay ee ds ahbigrgs slesinieshte tae Aeseesa seis segues fees wien, 12
TUDIPerus,.. sess ecsee cree cece ence sneer teeter eee rs cect eee tee ee rents 95
Land is enriched by trees, a iiviany sharb etd Uo Gisatartareanasaiesase stig onssercaonee ena: uae sax 28

Larebyiiasccanunnes geatern’ee ee vioryeng sees PRGNE RE Dea Coe THERE RS 92,

104

Larix, csi ods enieee fina ie tae Suen wlcce tan’ Rasa Wigs aa ow ayia ease Shea a ieralese 92
Leguminose,-.....00 scence ee resect ener eneeees 64
LINGED i355 ic Tienes se SORTS EME 62
Liriodendron,......2+.eeeeeeeeeees 58
Locust, COMMON,... 2c. eee cece ee eee ree ete e teen eee tenet eee nes 64
ae ; 0) \-) ne nn 65

“ Thornless, 66
Magnoliacem. ..-...c cece cece een eee eee eee ee ee reese ee near aee 57
Maple, 2.22... cc ce ccc cece cree eee ne nee ee een ee en ee enenee es ernesens 59
Motive power, necessity of cheap,...-.-eeeeeceer rece er en secrete ransas 30
Necessity of trees, . 0... cece cece eee ee recente een n eee een eens a 8
Oaks ,...0cne ce waeeisiee due ease eu Gee eeeaiel Segall seca ss gee eee nes oes 80
Qe R088 y ioc sees Scie dase ice Vee HORUS CE HONS EES EE EIS oe glee a Ses Hee ts 68
Peat 3.052. 56. nee cae avels wie OMNNs SUUCEES EMER RueerS Hees ERS eee Oe 31
Pines,..... {AMIDA Rae RA VaR Re See ee eR REE Wes ssa cee ders 89
Planting tree belts,... 2... ce, c cee cere eee eee ete tees eee neeeeneeres 48
‘c trees, time Of... 6... eee ee eens srihie ging Sagres oa ge yate Ge eg as 49

66 time when,... 0... 2. serene es seer ence ee cestenee enc neseraeees 50
Plant the best: trees, «i. cise taes saws cace tess cite nee eee seer ee cs bare Siee 53
POPIANS: 5 16-28 oie oie oie sa CREMORNE RUG Rae's Shea eg eae Sy a gee See geeteS 86
Practice, suggestions for,.....-.+++0-+ dha el seiee ead ia wales cere ees. 40
Propagation of trees,....ee.ee eee eee crete test eee tees sidan cece eect ow 46
Quercusyarccseeceaianerraes aaa Madina: iewseeuey lees y hse ew ee Stee 80
Railroads, consumption Of Wo0d,.........ecceeecee eee cerseeceee Sais 25
Rain affected by trees,......--seeeeeee eras fear ousles ee v's ats oeutes 12
ROSA COM pais ws weceneen ees teeU es eWeewa reoe ee HE SER «EF SE oH SeiE Oe eree 63
Ba leeeeriys vy ua ¥ eS eee OER REO Oe WOR oe a Yd ae ee eS 86
Seeds of Conifere, how gathered,........ ccc cee ec sees eee eee eesees 97
Soil enriched: by trees; cca ccaiss case sae eaeie see e Cor eae eas xa oa Rewer 23
Soil protected by trees.......ess ee eeeeenee sender vsard sdecaew deus wiais 15
Springs and streams affected. by-trees,.... 0.0.02 eee cece eee eee eee 12
BPruGeSs ios cay eed Re GOds sade wen comes oweatuen s aes stew atte aso come OL
State, Ute dutyj: cs cia scswe see eee ase sabe esse REat Ce ¥iaM GDEs HOTS 35
Suggestions for practice,.......... sce eee ee eee eee cise Miraiatele mG Rew es 40
SUMMArY. VIOW ys 6 sic soa oa eed oe Ho se a ae Oe GROMER RR wee Rae S 23
TaxOdium yess. ne egaa nese ae aa 5-00 alae Gales Midas GLUT MNOS GRE eRE KER e 96
Tilia Ce myc; oe ocy 855 dog's ke Mois £6 RAGS BG Es SES MRTG tM Ue ORE SS 62
Trees affect springs, &c.,....... SRE MoY Re aes eee ecto eis Sesame = 12
“f Oe eleCtric CUPreN tis om « aiees sins toa OR eoe Rae ee TRL ESS 22

is the winds).i.scces nese BE GR Sm te Bee AE Ra scuitenstdvodentaneieyaie ae 17
Trees enrich: the oily... s<uis seid css n0b san LORS Keddie nde den deb ae 23
“protect, the s0il ac s4 wesc oud baa e 4 ee eromere Zalta cies diewisee VRS wiee Lb

se” purify the ally. sac cave ava wes tiers Rati seed edaaio dew ad sae es 23
Tree -belts)e:c 09s, seas ae nzseicianecaiagss eave tia ciaaNe awe tein bd dened oN eles 64 4i
Trees classed by growths, 1062495 sus vaatiweaace . 54
Trees classed by value as fuel, 55
Trees, how propagated,......... 46
Trees, when:to' plant. jicaccavwaecieow baa sies ee amid: warewais da eeda den vet 50
Trees recommended for cultivation described,...............0ceeeuees 57
Tuli putrees gens sea suc Sowa watewents Sbiew SEW tna Sica idee os canon 58
Wan C6 28 jie sein ssn erineserersere inva varie e aiaiieye ie te Raa Yo. gus seb bid va Gib. d 4.4.0 'e aeeinhc didig gee 10
Walnut, black, 74; white, 73; European,..........0cccecceeecceeeees 5
Warnings of history, GPa SUCHE, SRI@ NEVA Ssase ts spaces reied were olehiO a Rg Far 4
White wood, 2b FT OOT RMS DET RAS AA Serene mus eee Wate eae sees 58
Willowsye sracinunaaemaneges neciewiddeiad saw sarece siseie Sine See Sk Seals cate anhinly 86
Winds affected by trees... .. cee. ce cece cee c sens ceeecececccecccsacces 17
Wood affects freights,......... cc. ccceccececeeeceeeccereserasecs 30 38
“effects on the country,..........06 Wb Fase gee gos Gap lneneeeniets = 26

oy general consumption Of,.........0..se0ceees s Gielaighed auoneamantneas 24

consumed by railroads,............ 2008 ois pb akanas Gye wie’ 2B