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LIBRARY

New York STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

city of seed years

i 003 ]

|

3

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003013574

A STUDY OF THE PERIODICITY OF SEED YEARS AND DIRECTION OF
SEED DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE PINE IN
THE VICINITY OF ITHACA,N.Y.

An investigation undertaken as minor work for the degree of
MASTER IN FORESTRY
by

Samuel A. Graham

Ithaca,N.Y.

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A STUDY OF THE PERIODICITY OF SEED YEARS AND DIRECTION OF
SEED DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE PINE IW
THE VICINITY OF ITHACA,N.Y.

INTRODUCTION.

The question of the periodicity of seed years has long been
a subject of discussion and some study among foresters.In fact this
subject dates back to the very beginning of the science.The primary
question to be solved in the culture of trees in the forest,or anywhere
else for that matter,is the problem of reproduction.When natural
reproduction is to be used in the regeneration of the forest it is of
the utmost importance to know when the seed will be distributed,in
order that the trees may be removed at the proper time.If seed trees are
to be left,we must know how far and in what direction the seed will
be seattered. ihen artificial reproduction is to be used it is a great
adventage to know when and where seed is to be produced in large
quantities,so that the expense of collection may be kept at the minimun.

Up to the present time the controling factors influencing the
periodicity of seed years have not been understood,and about all we
know of the subject is that white pines do seed periodically,that a
seed year may be expected every three or four years,that a seed year is
a local phenomenon and not widespread over the white pine region,and
that occasionally we may may have an unusually abundant seed year.
These are the facts,but when we are asked to explain them,we find our
present knowledge insufficient to more than hazard a guess.There are
so many factors of which we know so little that before any definite
conclusions can be reached we must have detailed observations on each
one of these.These observations cannot be made by any one person or

in anv one place, but must be made at points well distributed over the

range of the tree selected for study,in this case the white pine,and
must cover a long period of years.After this work has been done and
only then can we be sure of our ground.

the principal factors which may influence the production of
seed may be outlined as follows:-

I.Influences within the tree itself.

1.Storage of surplus food to be used in seed production.
and pistillate
2,Years staminate, flowers are produced
5.Photosynthesis and other physiological actions of the
tree.

II.External influences.

1.Meteorological conditions.
a.Maximum and minimum temperatures.
b.Latest and earliest killing frosts.
e.Prevailing winds.
d.6ffect of sudden changes.
e,.Precipitation.

eeDOils
a,Character.
b.Drainage.
c.Available water.

5.uxposure.

4.Effect of light and shade.

It has been beyond the scope of this problem to take up all
these points but they have suggested themselves during its pursuance.
this work has been confined,so far as seed productionfis concerned,
to a survey of the woodlots on the Cornell University *arm,recording
seed crop conditions duringfihe fall of 1914,and the collection of such
meteorological dataas is available.

the study of seed distribution is more simple,since only a

few factors are involved. ind is of course the most important of these
in the consideration of winged seeds like those of the white pine.this
part of the study has been taken up in connection with the reproduction
study during the summer of 1915.The plan followed has been to make
rough maps indicating the relative positions of reproduction and seed
srees and to record other data having a bearing on the subject,as
illustrated on the sample record under methods of collecting data.

In addition to this enough trees have been cut in each plot,
and the annual rimgs counted,to ascertain the various ages of reproduc-
tion,to determine the seed years for the last forty years.”

the object of this study has been to collect such data as
will be useful,combined with future observations,in the solution of

these problems rather than to attempt a solution at the present time.
MEPHODS USED IN COLLECTING DATA.

In collecting data in this werk the following methods have
been used:-

* In the study of the woodlots in regard to the seed crop of
the fall of 1914 each woodlot was taken separately and a card was
kept for each speeies.The trees of each species were divided into the
usual crown classes; Dominant ,Codominant,Intenmediate,and Suppressed,

The records were kept on 4X6 cards as illustrated in the following

specimen.

*iIf a dry year should follow the distribution of seed it is vrobable
that many of tne seeds would lie over and not germinate tne summer
following their distribution.During seasons of normal rainfall,however,
the majority of thé seeds should germinate the first summer, judging

from germination as found in the seed beds in this locality.

Date, yrs Species Pinas strohus.

Age class — 80 te/oo

Veterinary Viboods.

Seed Crep.

| Lominant
| Codami nant.
Liter med ale.

Suppressed

Incidentally each woodlot has been roughly mapped.Since the
terms abundant,fair,poor are rather indefinite,and often used comparatively
it seems advisable to define exactly what is meant by these terms as
used in this study.If the cones averaged eight or more to the bunch and
each of the principal upper branches of the tree bore a bunch the
crop was considered abundant.If *..only one halt the upper branches bore
cones the crop was considered fair.Any smaller crop was considered poor.

An attempt was made to count every white pine and a fair
proportion of other species in each woodlot.

The reproduction study was made during the summer of 1915,

and the following form was used in keeping field notes.

Date YY Locaiion:— Smith weeas: Prot *2

Dive ction os prevailing
wind as indicated by.

; Wwergh? of : MAX. OST.
ys 4s Trep vaduction pound. ine dueton Lenst Z, Y | from seed

frees.

Trees in

oe Freproduclon

Froportion of Ages found.

The definitions of dense,medium,and open reproduction will
be necessary to explain these terms as usec in this work.If the trees
are 6X6 feet apart or closer,they are termed dense.If they are spaced
10X10 to 6X6 feet they are termed medium.Amy wider spacing is termed
open.

fach woodlot having in or about it natural reproduction has
been taken up separately and in addition other plots in the vicinity
of Ithaca have been included. Where possible the various stands of young

stock have been photographed and will be used to illustrate this paper.
SEED YEAR OF 1914 IN THE CORNELL UNIVENSITY “JOODLOTS.

A seed fear may be defined as a year when the majority of
dominant trees bear seed to a greater or less extent.The following tables
show the percent of white pines which bore seed ripening during the
fall of 1914.Since this specie s has received special attention in
this study,the tabulations for it will he made separately.The other species

will all be included in one table.
Percent of Wile Pines Bearing Seed During 1914.

Age Class _Jo-soo Species '— Pinus strobes.
Yalerinary Wood's Orchard Woods.
Abundant \ Farr Boor |Mone _\\fburdant | Fair Poor Lone.
Dominant. 6.5% |34.22% | 243% |358.220||s95% | 5ITR | 27h | H74%
—Lirbepanl 14.3 b \85.7 bc Woe
Later me dale Loo % 100 va
Suppressed. 100% 1000
Meade Woods. Poutlrg Woods,
Hbandant | Farr Zhor_| None \|\Abundal\ fair Poor Mone.
_Lhminant 421% \326% | 1.57 | 138% 322 | 26.8%
_Lodeminant. 100 ve 1008
_lLilermediale 100 (o Pao!
_ Suppressed 104%, f00 &

Hae liass.- Go —/oe.

Species :— Pinus

strobus,

Cyclone VVoods Smith Vieeds.
Abundan? \ Farr Poor | None || Abundant \ Fair Poer Nore. =
Dominant Ae 25 4 ee
lodominant V4, x, 3 100 bo
Cry
Intermediate = 4 [000
Suppressed “9 [00 (b
Mitchell Woods Stim Sina Wiheds.
Abundant | Farr Poor | None || hurled | Fajr Poor. Nore.
Dominant 28/4 | H9@ 63% | G37%4%
lLodeminant /00 lo / 00 Zo
Lntermediale 100 fo /00 (3
Suppressed. /0°f5 /0°f,
Open Crrele.
Abundant Far Pror_| None _|| ALundnt| Farr Poor Nore,
Donynant $0.5 % G14 \3514 | 4.3% | 9532 | 1733%\| 24% 99.347,
__ Codominant
Tnlermedate.
Suppressed.
the table for the Circle is for a planting of youngf#¢y7trees

which vary in age.from 15 to 20 years and are growing in open formation.
These trees have born some cones each year for the last few years.In
this table those trees bearing 25 or more cones were considered as
having an abundant crop,those having from 10 to 25 as having a good
crop,and those having from 1 to 10 as having a poor crop.

From the above tables it is evident that in most of the woodlots
containing white pine to any great extent a majority of the dominant
trees bore seed.In the open a much larger percent bore an abundant crop..
Nevertheless when we consider that in the Poultry Woods,where the white
pines are numerous,there was practically no seed crop and that in a number
of other woods,outside the Cornell University Farm the white pines
produced no seed,we must consider the seed year of 1914 as being
comparatively light.The fact that such a large proportion of trees in
the open bore seed may explain the appearance of a heavy seed year to
the causual observer,and emphasizes the necessity of making detailed

observations in order to be sure of the exact conditions existing.

One point brought out in this survey was that ;.: the same

Weather Conditions + Seed Production During the Past 4o Vears.

Wear Seed Miltin ; frasts | Ann. oom Ten perat ures: si Pree:pitateon.
Crop. \Lalest \Zarhest | Max.|Min. i“ aS- PESTS ih fl Precip. | Sune July Aug.
975° | None 28.98 363 | 7,72 \ 3.97
1876 | fan F 33.63 Fil | 496 | 177
7677 | None 23.46 | 3.49 | 487 | 2s
1878 | None 38.65 | 4-76) 3.90 | 5.G1
1879 | bood & Sepl.as| 95 |- 8 | 90 |38 195 | F0188 | 49 | 20.27 2.80 | 4.05 | 0.72
1880 | None | May /S | Oct-14 | 94 |-—72 | 93 |40|94\48|9 | 43 | 29.07 246 |4.62 | 3.757
seat u “4 it | 96 —70_ \35 | 40|95|53|96| 48 | 32.97 3.90 | 2.92 | 0.39
1882 e » 3 “21 94 -15 | 9F% |42\92|50|93| 44 | 30.f2 2.67 | 2.33 | 2.85
1883 f 14 og | O7 =8 |89 |42|9/ |44|90|42 | 3544 7.547 | 4.37 | 2.62
2884 _|Hbandant| "29 "Jo |94 |-20 | 94 |44|91 | 46|927|39 | 34.17 L355 \ 4.87 | 3.75
zees: | None | "722 «8 {96 |-24 | 96 |491196|46|\88|40 | as.70 | 7.69 | 2.64 | 8.94
1886 “ Apr9. “16 G6 —11_ |\90 |47 |96\46|92| #7| 32.938 2.239 | 4.55°| 7.69
2887 “2S 15 |95 |-72 |92|48|95|56\90|42\ 30.73 | 5.47 | 797 | 3.04
eee | Fair. | mays 15. | 96 15 | 96 | 40 |\93| 48|92| 46) 30.97 | 2:37 | 2.335.| 5.36
1889 | None | Apr.23 "6 92 22 | 82 |\42\92|50\88| 43 | 22.04| 6.74) 6.73 | 5.72
1090} May2 | Sept.2s|9G |-F | 88 |4e|96|94|\92| 46| 46.39.| 494 | 7.249 | 2.92
1891 e "6 Oct. 72 192 =2_ 192 |37|90|47|92| 47| 38.07 | 4a s6 | 4.25°| 324
41852 | Fair. Apr26| " 2 |9F ~6__ 193 _|47195|46193| 52| 40.49| 5 20 | 4.93 | 6.91%
21893 _| one 26 "76 |9F ~12_ 193 |46|92|45|91| 43 | 37.58 | 2.20 S13 | 3.826
1894 " May 29) Sept.26. | 9S -24 |90 | 36\95 | 48\89| 42| Fa75 | 3.40 Re fi bi 0.59
£995 _| Fair “22 " £5 195 | -9 |95 |44|90 |43|Q9|41| 28.66 | 5.37 196 | ZIz2
1096 | None | apr9. | Oct.20 | IF -28 |86 |39|90|49194| 41 | 36.17 | 4.36 369 2.43.
teo7_ |__| Apr27| Oct.e 194 |-6 |35\39|94|56|83|46| 33.67 | 354 | Z357| 2.74
1898 _| Goody "22 “17 \|96 -4 |90 |40|96\40\99|72\ 39.55 | 3.024 |4./7 | 4.42
1899 None 117 "3 93 ~l \95 |38|96|46|96| 43 | 27455| 799. | 3.46 | 2.31
1900 “ Mag7\ “20 |96 |-2 |91 |44|9%|46|95|46 | 32771 1.98 | 241| 2.935
1001 " Apv.t2 “9g | 9S -—8 |\9F |42\95\52|\85| 50 | BS17 } 2.06 5.60| 3.85
£90R | Abundant | May 10 “10 |88 ~2 (85 |39|88 |S2\88| 95 | 7678.| 539 6.68 | 3.73
2903 | None “2 “as | 92 =5_ |85 |735|92|42\86| 45 | 35,476 | 567 | 2.64| 725
1904- ‘12 “7 | 92 —20 |89 |44|91|48196| 45 | 30.04 | 2.77 | 3.79 2.20
1905. " "2 26 190 -6__|88 |43|90\48|86| 45| 38.04] 6.8/ | 4 F97 2.83.
7906 |\Good. | “27 ut |92 | -11 187 137188 | 491 92| 46 | 33.79 | 706 | AGF| 2.53.
£907 | None “12 » 21 | 93 10 _|93 | 41 |89 |\43|93| 42) 33,47 | s./5 | 4 GS | 1.64
1908 | oH “< « to | 96 13 _|72 | 40|95\47|96| 43 | 374 | 726 | 475| 3.48
1909 \ Fair Apr.2s "43 | 9S =8_ |92 | 45|90 |43|95|42 | 27 20 3.97 | 462\ 1.68
(90 None | Mayé "413 | OF -6 |91 |38\94\49189| Zo | 3/.65 | 4./4 \.7.62| 2.39.
LH} ” “ 5 | Sept.14 |102 v4 94 |44\/02| 50|94|4F | 3/.91 3.59 | 253.| 4/5
fala { Aprea | Oct.16 |96 -/6 188 |36|96|42\86| 97 | 32,95 | 727 2.64 | _ 3.54
SUB “ June 9 | Sept 15 196 pa f 94 |32\96 |\98\96\ G6 | 49.48| 2.00 1.59 | 4,92
79t8| Far |Mayt | Oct. 25.|26 -~/5 |90 \39\9/ |48|96|44| 72.335 | 470 | 189
1919,.|\ None “27 90 88 |42 |88 | 49|88 | 42

influences controlling the seeding of the white pine do not necessarily

control the seeding of the other trees.There seems to be little relation

in the seeding of the different species.The following table includes

the other species beside the white pine which have been included in
19/4 Seed Crop on Dominant Trees.

this survey.

Hbua rndarnt Farr Poor None.
Liicoria _ovala 123 La % 72%
sid glabra. 20%, PACHA
Quercus alba. LE.G FR 25.550 63.54 fh
“__ vabra. STF fo 3oR G2 22% 1.#E lo
‘ Velutina. 2aIZ. I2% 25-44
Betula (enta. 4S fe 2S te 28f2 24%
—_44gu5 americana. G7 24% 127, ea
THA Y1Ca Na. L000 702 GEG
Hicer. saccharum. IF Zo A aA 29%
FYAXINUS americana. A 90%
__Lastanea dental. Zo % L2 Ze Zhe Vier WE
larpinus Carblinrana 80 72 LE °@ a4
Ostreza virginiana, JOB 256 257
Tsuga Canadensts, ZG lo Sb Sa SF. Da.

SEED YEARS OF THE WHITE PINE AS INDICATED BY NATURAL REPRODUCTION

The fall of 1914,as has been shown,was a fair seed year for

the white pine.By cutting trees and counting the annual rings we find

a remarkable uniformity of the various ages of reproduction in this

vicinity.We find that in certain years the reproduction was heavy,in

other years was lighter,and in still others there was no reproduction

whatsoever.By adding one year to theage of these trees

,»vhe year in

which the seed for each crop was produced has been determined.These

observations have covered the country about Ithaca quite thoroughly and

the results have been Gaite

excee

din
a ae pee It is possibl

that
e,every seed year is not

represented by reproduction as the conditions following the seeding may

heve been So adverse as to make the establishment of seedlings impossible.

during
It is certain, however, that ,each year indicated as a seed year by the repro-

duction seed must have been distributed.Also the proportionate abundance
of seed during these years is indicated is probably fairly well indicated
by the abundance of seedlings for the respective years.
of the white pine

The following table shows the seed yearsfor the past forty years
as indicated by the reproduction,in connection with the meteorological
conditions existing during that period#rom this table it is evident that
the late and early frosts have apparently no influence on the seeding,
for in 1913,when the flowers and young cones for the 1914 crop was producéd,
we had the latest end almost the earliest frost an record,but still a
cror was produced.And so we may consider frost as a negligible factor so
far as seed production wd is concerned.

Next let us look at the annual temperatures.So far as can be seen
from the figures at hand there appears to be no particular relation to
the seed years in these temperatures.Neither do the temperatures fer
June,July,and August throw any light on the subject when considered alone.

the precipitation records,however,show some relation to the seed
years and may,combined with the summer temperatures,give a dnb ae he
answer to the question of periodécity of seed years.It is a well known
fact that a tree may be forced to produce fruit by partial girdling,/The
explanation ordinarily given is that it is a provision of nature to
provide against the extermination of the species,which is really no
explanstion at all.What happens when a tree is girdled?Nothing more or less
than the cutting off of a part of the water suply from the ground.The same
effect may easily result from drouth,and perhaps this may heve something
to do with the production of seed.¥ollowing out this theory we should
expect after a year or two of drouth,or after years of moderate rainfall
accompanied by excessive heat,which would produce the effect af drouth,

that the white pines would flower,and bear seed the following yeor.

Mherefore the third and to a less extent the fourth year before the seed

year would be the years which would influence the bearing of seed.

During the year 1876 the earliest seed year indicated in this
study oceummed.. Untortunately we have no weather records previous to 1875. |.
The eye was in 1879,when apparently a very good crop was produced.
The year immediately precegding was wet,but in 1877 the rainfall was
below the normal,especially in the latter part of the summer.So we have
a drouth one year,flowers and the setting of fruit the year following,
and the next year seed being produced?

The next seed year was in 1884.?his was immediately preeeded by
a normal year.In 1882,however,the precipitation during the summer months
was very low,and the average for the year was below the normal.This
comparatively low precipitation was accompanied by high temperatures
throughout the summer months,thus producing drouth conditions by an increase
of the rate of evaporation and transpiration.

The next seed year was in 1888 and practically the same
conditions preceded it as existedin the years preceding the previous seed
year.The next seed year was in 1892 when a fair crop was produced.In this
case our theory falls down as the two years preceding were wet AJ but a
fairly high temperature was maintained through out the summer months.

The next year the precipitation was reduced and the summer was hot.This
condition was followed by a seed year in 1895.1895 was dry and the
normal rainfall of the following summer was probably not sufficient to
restore the soil to its normal condition.In 1897 the trees bloomed and
set fruit and in 1898 a good crop was produced.

the next seed year was in 1902 when an abundant crop was pro-
duced.The years 1899 and 1900 were both dry and the drouth was accompanied
by very hot weather.In 1906 there was a good seed year and 1904 was

pelow the normel in precipitation.In 1909 there was a fair seed year

Freceeded by years of normal precipitation and with no excessive

summer heat.The seed year was not very heavy and probably not very general
as only a few seedlings of this age were found.If this year was not a
general seed year,we should expect a seed year in 1911 since 1909 was

very dry.No such seed year is indicated by the reproduction,the next year
comming in 1914.Since 1912 was somewhat below the normal and was preceeded
by & number of dry years,this seed year fits in with ourntheory exactly.
The summer of 1915 has been very wet and rather cool,and following out

our theory we should expect no seed year until 1918,and unless next summer
is dry,not until 1919 or 1920.

there is not enough data at hand to warrent the unconditional
endorsement of this theory,but there certainly seems to be some relation
between precipitation,or rather available soil water,and the production
of seed,and the periodicity of seed years.

In the Ventralblatt fur das gesamte Horstwesen,for June,1906,
there appeared a short article under "Notifzen"entitled vie Ursachen der
Bblutenbildung.A rather free translation of this article appeared in the
Forestry Quarterly,vol.4,page 205 and was as follows:-

nthe celebrated plant physiologist,J.Sachs,maintained that
flowering was dependent upon the presente of certain materials, produced
at certain periods and acting as stimuli.In the Naturwissenschaftliche
Wochenschrift (1905,p 573) the primary cause is sought in certain weather
conditions which produce these maferials and act upon them.That light
is an essential factor in forming flower materials may be proved by
placing plants in a dark room,when no flowers will be produced;similarly,
shrubs shaded on one side and exposed on the other to full sunlight
flower mainly on the latter side.»jower materials may,however,be deposited
as reserve material in bulbs,which may then develop flowers in the dark.
Temperatures also influence flowering favorably,but in the tropics

excessive humidity may counteract favorable temperature influence,so

BALD HILL PLOTS.

N
Sh
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i
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rt
Sh
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ei
Ay

e
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“Hs

Plot

Seed trees of

Plot #5.

7s
t Aas —

)

af

that trees from temperate zones,fail to flower,and the flowering time of
indigineous plants falls in the dry season.Again the practice of
pruning roots to induce flowering means a reduction of water suply or
the formation of water conducting tissue;on the other hand pruning the
shoots thereby increasing the water supdy reduces flowering."

"Prof.Loew,of tokio;considers sugar the flower-forming material,
and light,temperature,increase and diminution of water supply favor its
formation,the latter concentrating the sugar in the plant;hence the ren-
erkable flower show of cherries and plums in Japan,where the climate is
the cause of the fall of fruit before ripening,which induces the deposit
of the unused sugar as starch and fats in the bark and this concentration
accounts for the profusion of flowers(152 flowers on 10 inches of shoot
were counted)"

"These considerations may give a clue to the prediction of
seed years even in forest trees."

The above is interesting in the fact that in the main points
it supports the theory that seed production is influenced by the

available water and temperatures.

SEED DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE PINE.
The observations on seed distribution as to direction and dis-
tance from the seed trees have been made in stands in and about the
Gornell University woodlots and also in a number of stands in the

‘surrounding country.EHach stand will here be taken up separately.

VETERINARY WOODS,
This woodlot is situated on the south east corner of the
University Warm,on the south side of the Slaterville road,at the bottom

of a steep north slope.The soil is a clay loam and very rocky.More or

BALD HILL PLOTS.

Plot #5.

Plot #5.

PLIst #7

less reproduction is to be found on all sides of this woodlot,the heaviest
being on the north Side.South of the woods on the top of the hill is a
clump of old pines which have seeded down the hill and a good stand of
reproduction has resulted on this north slope.The reproduction about

this woodlot may be divided into eight groups,according to the source of
the seed.Hach group will be taken up in order.

GROUP #1. The seed for this group has evedently come from a
group of young seed trees growing in the open,and situated in a north-
easterly direction from the main woods.It is indicated on the map as #1.
The seed have been distributed dn a northerly direction from these trees
for a distance of 100 yards in an open formation.

GROUP #2.The seed trees for this group are also in the open
and situated due east of sroup #1.Like #1 the reproduction extends due
north for a little less than 100 yards in an open formation.

GROUP #3.This group forms the principal stand of reproduction
on the north side of the woods.The seed came from trees slong the north
edge principally from those on the northwest corner. Vithin 25 yards of
the seed trees the stand is dense,further out it is medium grading into
open at an average distance of 40 yards,and extending in a northerly
direction almost to the "laterville road,which is almost 100 yards distant.

GROUP #4.This group is at the east end of the woods and has
originated from trees at the northeast corner.The distribution in this
case has been in anfasterly direction,the reproduction extending in a
medium to open formation for a distance of 75 yards.

GROUP °5.This group is on the north slope of the hill to the
south of the woods and has evidently been seeded from trees at the ton
of the hill.l'rom these trees the reproduction extends in a northeasterly
for a distance of a little less than 200 yards.At the top of the hill
the reproduction is scanty,owing more likely to poor conditions for

germination than to lack of seed.the densest reproduction is about half

way dowa the hitl,and Tt craduallv srsedes from dense to medium,and then

POULTRY WOODS.

Reproduction.

neproduction.

to open formation.

GROUPF6.this and also group #7 are small stands of reproduction
to the suuth of the woods.The formation is open and the trees have made
poor growth,but it is sufficient to prove that seeds were distributed
to the south of the seed trees.

GROUP#B..It is difficult to tell exactly where the seed for
this stand of reproduction came from and so it will not be considered.

From this we see that in this woodlot the seeds have been
distributed on all sides where seed trees are present,but the principal
reproduction appears on the north and east,and on the north slope to the
south of the woods. Wherever the seedlings occur they are in somewhat
protected locations.ihis sugzests that the seeds are distributed in
practically every direction. from the seed trees but only become established

inffavorable locations.

POULTRY WOODS.
Unfortunately for this study the reproduction in this woods has
not been permitted to spread into the surrounding fields,and so,although
there is a great deal of young stock within the woods itself,it is impos-

sible to tell which trees the seed came from.

SMITH ‘OODS.

The stands of reproduction about this woodlot may be divided
into four groups.

GROUP ,31.The seed for this reproduction evidently came from
a single tree,situated on the southwest side well within the woods the
distribution being in a southwesterly direction.The reproduction in this
grour is dense next to the woods end extends for a distance of 25 yards.
oe the trees become scattered,the greatest distance they extend down

the hill beingfl50 yards.

SMITH WOODS.

Plot #1.

OA i.
wa
|

J)

PY)

BUTTERMILK VALLEY

GROUP #2.This is an open stand of reproduction originating
from seed blown in a westerly direction from trees situated at the
northwest corner of the woods.This reproduction merges with that of
group #5 and so the distance od distribution cannot be deffinately
determined but is probably less than 100 yards.

GROUP #$.This seed is at the bottom of the hill to the Ad¥thwest
and has been seeded by trees on the north side of the Varna road.'tthe
seed were distributed in a southerly direction and the resulting reprdduc-
tion extends for a distance of 75 yards in open formation.

GROUP #4.The seed for this group of reproduction came from
several cuarters.A part from the seed trees in group #2,a part from the
seed trees of group #3,but the principal seeding was evidently from a
row of trees extending from the Varna road to fall Creek in a north
and south direction,the south end of the row being just across the road
from the northeast corner of the woodlot.The seeding therefore has been
almost due west,and has resulted in a fairly even,dense to medium stand,

extending for a distance of nearly 200 yards.

BUTTERMILK VALLEY ABOVE THE MILL POND.

PLOT #1.This is a dense stand of reproduction on a northwest
slope.The seed were distributed up the slope in a southeasterly direction
for a distance of 50 yards which marks the top of the ridge.There is no
reproduction on the top of this hill,but over the ridge at a distance of
100 yards from the seed trees there is a small group ef seedlings.Evidently
conditions on the top of the ridge and on the southeast slope were adverse
to the establishment of seedlings,since there is no reason to suppose
that seeds were not distributed in these locations and yet were distributed

over the ridge and into the valley below.The soil here is @ gravel loam

of glacial origin.

BUTTERMILK VALLEY.

Plot #3.

PLOT #2.This plot is situated on the flood plain of Butternilk
Creek, just above the pond.The soilfis principally silt and sand deposited
by the creek,and is very rich.The reproduction has arisen from seed from
several sources,but in every case the seeds have been distributed toward
the east at a maximum distance of 75 yards.This stand is for the most
part of medium density.

PLOT “3.This is a small plot south of plot #2.The seeds have
been distributedin a southerly direction,resulting in an open formation
for a distance of 50 yards.

PLOT #4.This plot of reproduction occupies the flood plain of
the creck at a point above plot #2,and extends up the north slope of
the ridge to the south.The plot is bounded on the west by young seed
trees ,which have seeded in for a distance of 25 to 50 yards on those sides.
The principal seeding has been done by @ group of seed trees at the north-
west copner of the plot,which have distributed seed for at least 100 yards
in a south easterly direction,and a single large seed tree growing in the
open,which has seeded in a direction slightly east of south,for a distance
of 190 yards,which takes it nearly to the top of the hill.This is a
most remarkable case of seed distribution as the seedling highest on
the hill is almost as high as the top of the seed tree from which the

seed must have come.

TURKEY HILL REGION.
PLOT #1.This plot of reproduction is in a hay field and owing
to the cutting of the field for hay the seedlings are only little
bunches of leaves close to the ground, but theyrindicate fairly well the
distribution of seed in this location.The field is bounded on the north,
south,and west by woods,and on the east by e road.On the south boundary
and curving around to the west is a small brook.The seed trees are located

elong the south boundary and the seeds have been distributed in a

northerly direction for a distance of 140 yards.The rdproduction is
evenly distributed in an open stand,which would probably be dense if it
were not for the repeated cuttings. |

PLOT #2.This plot is located due east of plot one,on a steep
slope with a northwest exposure.The principal stand of reproduction is
west and down the hill from the seed trees,and extends for e distance of
160 yards,The dense stand is within the first 50 yards,and then it
grades into medium afd then open formation.Seed has been distributed
toward the north for a distance of over 180 yards.In this direction
the land is occupied by brush and young hardwoods and the chance of
seedlings becoming established has been poor.

“LOT #3.This plot of reproduction is situated on the north
slope of iurkey Hill and the seed all evidently came from a single
tree 200 yards from the top of the hitiZ/¢.The seeding has been up the
hill in a southerly direction and reaches the summit in a medium to

open stand.

PREVAILING “JINDS DURING SEPTEMBER ,OCTOBER,ANTD NOVEMEER.

Records of the winds prior to 1900 are unavailable,but the
following table. will show the conditions since that time.It will show that
the winds in this locality,during the periods of seed distribution are
very variable,and that if the land were perfectly level and the trees
were in the open we should find the seed distributed around the tree in
every direction,but principally toward the northwest and southeast.In
this study we have found reproduction in almost every direction from
the seed trees,but always in a location suitable for its establishment.
In every case,however we found the reproduction more in one direction
than in the others.This may be explained in one of two ways;either the
conditions were more favorable for the establishment of seedlings in

that direction than in the others,or the topography of the land cut off

cut off the wind in certain directions but permitted full swing in
another.Thus local topography seems to be more responsible for the

direction of distribution of white pine seed than the prevailing winds.

B29 Pg A oO a
18.9.9 None. ore ae NI“
VALIA) ie MW. NW. u a“
L204 He Ne Se. ie 2

90.2. Abundant i tt MW Sx,
L908 Nene oa ae Z 2 ft
L9Q2- a VA A'A Sf ”
L905 ‘ Sf is a YW
L906 Good MAW. MY. i MV
LGOZ None iu “ NW u
| 90a im “ Oe. S.2 a
| 9D Far. a ie MW SE.
LH0 None “ NUM ut MIM.
LDL ‘ o a Se. SE.
LW 2 a SZ. MWY ids
LUZ Mt ef ff a MN. WY
VSPA Eat. " NV. a Se.

CONCLUSIONS.

The conelusions of this study may be summarized eas follows:-
1. Yhe periodicity of seed years may be explained to some
| ex tent by the variation of available soil water fron year to year.
eae bifferent species,having different moisture requirements, are
influenced in different ways by these variations,thus accounting for the
fact that all species do not seed the same years.
3. Seed is distributed in all directions from the tree if local
conditions do not interfere.
4. the direction of seeding is controled more by local topography
than by the direction of the prevailing wind.
5.The presence of reproduction on one side of a group of trees and its

entire absence on the other may oftener be accounted for by the presence

of adverse conditions for the establishment of seedlings on that

side than by leck of seed distribution in that direction.

Map of Cornel! University farm.

Showing Woadlots, Seed Trees, and Patches of Natural Frepreduction.

\

Bultry Weotls I
_eererie |

Poultry Farm, | Behrends ELIE
|

Cye ies é
Wood let

Thicket.

anaes Boundary of Farin:
means Wood /o7 s

3s White Pyne Seed Trees.
2 WArte Prne Peeproduct lon.

mt 2%%S5 , ¢

° yetinary Woods.

Velevinary Woods.

Legend

ts Winle Dine seed trees.

& While pine reproduction,

Legend.
*: While pine seed trees
Waite pine reproduction,

ano Direction of Source: of seed.

Buttermilk Valley
Plot *1

> Fasture
;
y

Legend.
* White pine reproduction.

0° White pine seed Trees

anewvaDivection of Source of Seed.

Buttermilk. Valley
Plot *3.

e

— i huis’ +

Nv
A.

>
Legend
“33 White pine seed trees.

“While pine reproduction.

noes Direction of Source of Seed,

Turkey Hil Plot *1

Woods.

Legend.

oo” White pine seed Trees.
25. Whole pine ve production

a» Direction of Source of Seed.

Road,

Tur Key Holl Plot *2.

om OA Legend
2%? While pine seed frees
“2 White pine reproduction.

arr» Dirvechion of Source of seed.

Turkey Hill Plot *3.

Legend.
2¢° While pine seed
ks White pine reproduction.

Free §

}

avs Direction as 3 Source of seed.

#,

*%

vr