ae As at ay iets sah sh f Ve OLELEL rey NAN LM LSE TE Na tarta Wa Wr fu Ye Od OE = hah ay Nes Oot Se SEEN POC PAE A SSR ABCA Be ee ares er SRNR eeu Mschcaebs ates Shh ate hh! i a b: : . tah ast ue abate | . SS, . AY . te res GU A aunt SO DIAERESIS HDS : SECA stats : Nerney rs, aay sie RRNA HEN ie citi sates rsttyhat ROMO URN PN AES SDI Rta at one Raat teh winata Dstt baae Ke Brn CHO Neate Da aa lathe patetats hater A raed PALE LATE CASA ALA se %i roo Ls Ades eae he) IL OTe ISAS fe Ag dh cs sate eet Bore ai a oe Dork State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, M. DB. ° y [ tH TT LACT PeSOM ATF Librarp Pitts Forest Management (Forest Working Plans) Forestry for Kentucky Our Yellow Poplar Lectures on Forest Policy Forest Utilization Some Business Problems of American Forestry Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924003106105 Cornell University Library [Forestry reports] FOREST MANAGEMENT (Forest Working Plans) Guide to Lectures Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph. D. Forester to the Biltmore Estate 1907 HACKNEY & MOALE COMPANY ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA CONTENTS Par. I. Definitions and Introduction. CuaptEer I—Tue IpEAL Forest. Par. II. Normal gradation of age classes. Par. III. Normal growing stock. Par. IV. Normal increment. Par. V. Financial considerations. Par. VI. Sustained yield (“possibility”). Par. VII. Utilization-percentage. CuapTerR II.—Suspivisions oF A Forest. Par. VIII. Working circle. Par. IX. Working sections. Par, X. Compartments and blocks. CuaptTer IIJ.—Workine PLan REPORTS. Par. XI. The chief working plan. Par. XII. Forest survey. Par. XIII. Description of locality. Par, XIV. Yield tables and volume tables. Par. XV. Silvicultural and protectional problems. Par. XVI. Forest utilization. Par. XVII. Forestal investments. CuaptEer IV.—MEtTHOpDs REGULATING THE YIELD IN WooD AND TIMBER Par. XVIII. General remarks. Par. XIX. Regulation of yield by area. Par. XX. Regulation of yield by volume. Par. XXI. Charles Heyer’s method. Par. XXII. Hundeshagen’s method. Par. XXIII. Increment method. Par. XXIV. Brandis method. Par. XXV. Pinchot method. CHAPTER V.—METHODS REGULATING THE INVESTMENTS AND THE RETURNS. Par. XXVI. Judeich’s method. Par. XXVII. Raess’s method. Par. XXVIII. Schenck’s method. FOREST MANAGEMENT Corest Working Plans.) PARAGRAPH I. DEFINITIONS AND INTRODUCTION. The term “forest management,” used in a broad sefise, comprises collectively the branches of forestry known as forest survey, forest mensuration, forest finance and forest working plans. Used in a nar- row sense, the term “forest management” deals with forest working plans only and is usually defined as that branch of forestry which deter- mines upon and regulates the sustained yield (la possibilité) of forests; or, by others, as a systematic arrangement of the rules by which abnor- mal woodlands are transformed into normal forests. American forest management will do well to rest on a broader foun- dation. It should determine, in science, as well as in practice, upon the ways and means by which the desire of the owner, relative to the use of a forest (for revenue, timber supply, shelter, pasture, ornament, water protection, game preserves, etc.) car be best accomplished. In the majority of cases the owner desires to draw from the forest the largest possible revenue. As’ a consequence American forest manage- ment will have to deal usually with the various means by which given forestal investments can be developed in a manner producing the high- est dividends in the Iong run. In Europe financial considerations are rarely applied to forest man- agement. Since 1871, however, the adherents of John Frederic Judeich insist that forest management (like farm management, railroad man- agement and any other business management) should see its goal in a strife for the highest rate of interest obtainable from all productive capital engaged in the forest. The owners of forests (like the owners of farms, mines. hotels, rail- road stocks) cannot be expected to seek any other managerial end in the administration of their property. The rapidity of any development depends (in forests, farms, mines, perhaps in all investments), pre-eminently on the owner’s financial ability to make desirable moves at the most desirable time. In many instances development is possibly only with the help of money borrowed by the owner. Borrowed money (mortgages, bonds) usually proves a curse to the owner of forests after the lapse of a few years. His policy of development is handcuffed by the necessity of meeting the indebtedness, year in and year out, irrespective of market conditions and labor conditions. Forestry, in such cases, must be de- structive. It must pay the bonds as they mature out of the substance of the forest. ‘ 6 Forest Management Frequently forest destruction promises better dividends than forest maintenance. In such cases a forest working plan resolves itself into a plan covering the various operations commonly known as destructive lumbering. The soil may be cleared because it is thought to be valua- ble as farm soil, pasture soil, orchard soil; or the land may be aban- doned after lumbering as worthless when the owner believes that the taxes due on the cleared land (taken together with the expenses of pro- tecting a second growth expectable on the cleared land) form a new investment of an unpromising nature. Forests cannot be well developed where the development of the whole country is in arrears. Here the owner is compelled to adopt a policy of waiting—waiting for that general development of the country which is sure permanently to improve the value of stumpage. In such cases a working plan resolves itself into a plan for forest protection (against squatters, fires, etc.) In the prairies and also in the East, the land owner is frequently inclined—on a small scale, usually—to improve the condition of his property sylviculturally, making investments for afforestation, clean- ing, weeding, etc. In such cases a forest working plan resolves itself, essefitially, into a plan covering various sylvicultural operations (con- structive forestry). In Germany and France, at the time being, conservative forestry produces invariably financial results superior to those of de-forestation and of abandonment of cut over woodland. In these countries cut over woodland unfit for the plow (known as absolute forest land), has a value usually exceeding $10 per acre. Modern European foresters are in the habit of identifying the term “management” with the term “conservative management” of forests; and all European forest working plans provide for conservative work- ing of the forest. CHAPTER I—THE IDEAL FOREST In an ideal forest continuously supplying certain mills or certain markets with an equal annual amount of timber or wood there should be at hand: A normal gradation of the age classes ({ II); A normal growing stock ({ III); A normal increment (f IV). No forest ever has been, is, or ever will be “ideal.” ‘The ideal forest de- serves attention only in theory. Its theory deals with volumes instead of dealing with values. PARAGRAPH II. NORMAL GRADATION OF AGE CLASSES. A normal gradation of age classes is literally at hand in the forest when there are found as many age classes as the rotation comprises Forest. Management 7 years. Each class has an age differing from that of any other class. The youngest class is one year old; the next class is two years old; the third class is three years old, and so on to the oldest class the age. of which equals the rotation. In the case of natural seed regeneration, the normal number of age classes at hand is expressed by the fraction r s wherein r stands for rotation, and wherein s stands for the number of years normally elapsing between successive seed years. Since a single seed year is rarely sufficient to secure a complete stand of seedlings, a wood raised by natural seed regeneration is usually composed of two, three or more age classes appearing in mixture and forming distinct aggregates. : Where the rotation comprises 100 years, and where the period of regeneration comprises 20 years, and where seed years occur every § years, there a “normal gradation of age classes” contains, in the fall succeeding a seed year, the following aggregate of age classes: Youngest aggregate ‘ and 16 years old Second 336 “a 3 Third “ “ 56 « “ Fourth “ “56 “ Oldest ue "96 “ Youngest aggregate.,........+ and 21 years old Second Be” << sakecataiaealare Se AT SS ; Third f= -xeibavanese ie a aan Fourth * Eee ARE Re SE yar oe Oldest aaa ate ne SOF 7 te Youngest aggregate............ and 26 years old Second te eis j “460 “ Third “ “ 6 Fourth he se Say of BGR sy Oe Oldest a HP ALO! SS ES Youngest aggregate a and 31 years old Second wor us Third a . 71 “ Fourth se a . : or" : Oldest . HE nse irate tam “ lacking Amongst all age classes under 21 years old, some mother trees are still at hand up to 110 years old; and ‘beneath all age classes over go years old, some seedlings are found up to 20 years old. In the ideal selection forest, all age classes are represented on every acre of ground. The separation of the age classes (allotting to each age class separ- ate areas) facilitates logging and transportation; it increases, on the other hand, the dangers threatening the forests. _ If a proper gradation of age classes exists in a forest it does not necessarily follow that the age classes are properly grouped and ar- 8 Forest Management ranged in “cutting series.” By “proper cutting series” is understood a number of adjoining age classes, sloping roof-like from the older to the younger, toward the windward side... If the cutting series are improper, then sacrifices must be made, hypermature wood must be left, and im- mature wood must be cut unless the mistake originally at hand is allowed to be perpetuated. In the latter case, the losses of the future are apt to be greater than the sacrifices voluntarily made with a view to the establishment of proper cutting series. Cutting series must be isolated one from the other, if need be, by “severance cuttings.” PARAGRAPH III. NORMAL GROWING STOCK. The normal growing stock is at hand where the age gradation of the various woods composing the forest and their respective volumes are normal. A forest, however, might have the normal volume without having the normal age gradation, when a deficiency of one age class is. offset by a surplus in another age class. The normal growing stack, during summer, has the volume ri 2 wherein r represents the rotation, and i the average annual increment of a mature age class. : Ittustration: A spruce forest covers 2,000.acres. The rotation is 100 years. The mature wood, I0q years old, contains normally 120 cards per acre. Under these conditions, the area of an age class is 20 acres; the average annual increment of the mature age class is 24 cords; and the normal growing steck is 100 X 100 K 24 =120,000 cords. 2 The volume of poles and trees predestined to be cut and removed prior to maturity (by way of thinnings) is not included in the volume given by the formula. Whilst one normal growing stock is, removed, in the course of a ro- tation, another normal growing stock—its exact counterpart—is raised on the very same area. If the original growing stock is abnormally deficient, the foresters, by cutting less than the increment of the forest and thus adding to the original volume, may succeed in gradually establishing the “normal growing stock,” Normality of the growing stock is that condition required in an “ideal forest,” which the foresters would find it rather easy to pro- vide. In the virgin woods, frequently the actual growing stock is larger than the normal growing stock, owing to the preponderance of mature and hypermature age classes. : Forest Management 9 PARAGRAPH IV. NORMAL INCREMENT. The normal wood at the age of maturity has imbedded in itself the increments of a wood, one, two, three, etc., years old; consequently, it represents all of the increments taking place annually over the entire area of a normal forest containing the age classes, one, two, three, etc. Since only a few trees, however, reach maturity a rule fails to be en- tirely correct which reads: “The normal increment of a forest equals the normal volume of its oldest age class.” Generally speaking, since the same catises must have the same ef- fect, the actual increment, in tons of wood fibre, normally formed on an acre of ground, fully stocked, depends solely on climate and soil, wood fibre being “solidified atmosphere.” The forester’s aim should be to concentrate the increment into the smallest number of trees, without losing any increment, so as to grow the biggest logs in the shortest rotation. : In America, soil is cheap; hence there seems to be no need to force every square inch of soil into the harness of tree production. We should keep in mind, however,— 1. That woods poorly stocked are apt to yield knotty timber; 2. That the outlay for taxes, protection and administration de- pends more on area than on density of stand; . 3. That the logging expenses per 1,000 feet b. m. are small where the stumpage is heavy; 4. That investments for roads and other permanent improve- ments, per 1,000 feet b. m., are relatively small in well stocked forests; 5. That the fertility of forest soil suffers under a loose canopy overhead. The main sylvicultural measures leading to a normal increment are: Weeding. Improvement cutting. Thinning. Afforestation. Reinforcing. PARAGRAPH V. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS. Three kinds of increment compose the latent gross revenue obtain- able from any wood which is left to itself or which is placed under forestal care: 1. The quantity increment, depending solely on the amount of wood fibre formed. ; 10 Forest Management 2. The quality increment, depending solely on the difference of price shown in the same year by logs of different diameters, per unit: of contents. 3. The price increment, depending solely on the difference of value which the same log will exhibit in different years. This latter incre- ment is influenced by increase of population and wealth, cheapened fa- cilities of transportation, exhaustion of the virgin woods, and declining purchasing power of gold. As an illustration of price increment, the following figures may be of interest: Wholesale Prices of Yellow Poplar, 4-4 Lumber, at Biltmore, N. C. Quality. z In 1896. In 1907. fas. $21.00 $43.00 to $52.00 saps 16.00 33.00 C.1 12.00 28.00 C.2 6.50 16.00 The expense of production, with modern mills and improved trans- portation, is as high in 1907 as it was in 1896, viz.: $9 per 1,000 feet b. m. Assuming that certain trees have turned out 25 per cent. of fas, 25 per cent. saps, 25 per cent. C. 1 and 25 per cent. C. 2, the stumpage values of such trees was per 1,000 feet b. m. 1 1806) See seston Sena ae Chas ee oe Beet ER $ 5.00 DLL ROO 7 icitssh ag asveusdihaec duce iat syaca balaboa ee aera emtnr noun nina $22.00 and has increased, consequently, at the rate of 30 per cent. (simple in- terest, equalling 14 per cent. of compound interest) per annum. The increase in the value of many other forest products has been similarly phenomenal; and the question arises: Why is the owner of forests unwise enough to reduce this stumpage as long as the rise con- tinues to be phenomenal,—in excess of any dividend derivable from other investments? The answer frequently lies in three words: Poverty; Impatience; Ignorance. The enormous increase of gold production during the last 20 years promises to continue and to become more phenomenal. The director of the U. S. Mint reports (in 1904, p. 41) that the rise of wages does not act as an automatic check to gold production, and that the tendency of the expense of gold production continues to be downward. The effect of increasing gold supplies on commodity prices, wages, land values, mortgages, bonds, etc., is easily perceived: The owner of bonds and mortgages sinks to a lower level of rev- enue; whilst the owner of forests and farms remains (at least) equally wealthy. The question will be asked, naturally: Does it pay to strive towards the establishment of an “ideal forest” .... towards the establishment of an impossibility? Forest Management 11 European foresters are apt to answer the question by an emphatic “Ves.” The American forester might consider, before answering, four points: (1) The great variety of conditions existing in the various sections of the various states from which the financial prospects of conservative forestry depend. (2) The fact that conservatism in the forest cannot be expected, in the long run, to be as remunerative in this country as it is abroad un- less the forest is rendered as safe as the German forests from fire, taxes and whimsical legislation. (3) The fact that an ideal forest represents a large investment yield- ing a small rate of surplus revenue. (4) The possibility that a forest now considered “ideal” as to rota- tion, composition, species, roads and so on, is apt to be considered de- ficient when the lapse of years has caused a ‘change of the economical conditions surrounding the forest. As long as our country develops by leaps and bounds, as long as the immediate future of our forests is dark, as long as other investments seem safer, simpler, better than forestal investments, the time has not arrived to strive toward “ideal forests.” The American forester can consider the forest only as “so much money invested.” That forest is ideal which can lbe expected to yield, for a long time and perhaps forever, a safe, steady and high dividend on every dollar invested. In such a forest, the various items of value (as trees, soil, roads, sawmills) appear as proper shares of the aggre- gate value. The following may serve as an illustration: Value of stumpage, per acre............ $7.75, or 77% per cent. Value of soil, SEE 6 et alec cob 1.00, or IO__ per cent. Value of roads, BE TEE. society i ied .50,0r § per cent. Value of sawmills, “ “ .........00, .75, or 7% per cent. Total investment...........--...06- $10.00, or I00 per cent. The form of the ideal revenue depends on the owner’s wish. The owner may or may not prefer an annual revenue lof 40 cents per acre, obtained without decreasing the value of the stumpage, to a revenue of $2.00, exhausting the forest in a dozen years. The owner alone can de- cide whether a dividend is safe enough, steady enough and high enough; his decision is based, naturally, on a comparison between for- est revenue and revenues obtainable from other investments. The investor stakes his money on that enterprise in which he has the greatest confidence; and it is usual that the farmer puts his money in farms; the miner in mines; the railroad man in railroad stock; and the lumberman in forests, 12 Forest Management The American lumberman is apt to consider investments in forestry (be it destructive or conservative) as ideal investments; outsiders are not prone to share his view. As long as this country abounds in merchantable woods, the lumber- man has an easy chance, after exhausting the stumpage on a given tract completely, to shift his capital to another tract, purchasing the stump- age thereon out of the moneys obtained by his operations conducted on the preceding tract. Usually, he prefers, for obvious reasons, the purchase of timber to the purchase of the forest in fee simple. Under such conditions, the lumberman cannot be interested in the production of second growth, nor in operations merely withdrawing trees working at a small rate of revenue. The owners of the fee simple—farmers, townsfolks, aliens—do not, command any knowledge of forest investments; having paid the taxes’ on the land for a number of years without any returns, they embrace readily the first chance at obtaining “big returns.” These big returns usually exceed the price by far at which the land was bought. Never- theless, and just as usually, such “big returns” are a mere pittance. The Forest Service of the United States has before it an enormous task: the task of proving to the owners of woodlands, who are ignor- ant of present and of prospective values of timber, the advisability of conservative lumbering. Unfortunately, there do not exist anywhere associations of forest owners through which the members might be enlightened. PARAGRAPH VI. SUSTAINED YIELD (“POSSIBILITY”). Normally, the “sustained yield” of the forest is that number of cubic feet of wood which nature produces in the forest ‘annually; the annual removal of this number of cubic feet does not decrease the original amount of stumpage. The normal sustained yield equals the annual surplusage of production. The cutting of a sustained yield—no more, no less—is indicated wherever the capacity of the market is limited, a condition which we meet almost invariably on the fuel market. In Germany, two-thirds of the annual increment of all forests consists of fuel wood. In America, the requirements of expensive, non-movable plants (tanneries, pulp mills, mines) are in the direction of a sustained yield. When all merchantable trees have been removed from a forest, a sustained yield can not be obtained any more. Before touching the primeval forest, the owner must decide whether or not conservative forestry, whether or not a sustained yield is indicated. Primeval woods containing a large number of idling and decaying trees should not be worked for a sustained yield. It should never be forgotten that there is a vast difference between Forest Management 13 the term “merchantable trees,” and the term “mature trees.” Mer- chantable trees are very often far from being mature; and mature trees have often ceased to be—or are not—merchantable. An equal annual yield offers to the lumberjack the advantage ot equal and steady employment in one and the same forest or at one and the same mill. An equal annual yield offers to the owner approximately equal an- nual dividends. Where no yield is obtainable for a long series of years, there the outlay for taxes, protection and administration will accumulate at a rate deterring the owner from any attempt at conservatism. The disadvantages of a sustained yield where it binds the forester in iron chains, are: 1. It is impossible to take advantage of boom prices. 2. It is necessary to cut in years of panic. 3. Trees without increment are left uncut; trees of good increment are cut where the yield is strictly sustained. ‘Similarly, needful thin- nings are often postponed; or in other cases conducted with excessive severity. 4. Valuable young growth is often left under severe pressure over- head; or in other cases prematurely exposed. 5. Seed years are not used to full advantage. The normal possibility, from the economic standpoint, cannot be expressed by volume; it must be expressed in dollars and cents. It is that sum of money which yields annually the expected or desired inter- est on all capitals engaged in the forestal production. In other words, it is the yield of a forest when in financial equilibrium. In that case, no wood works at a lesser rate than at the proper indicating percentage adequate to its age. PARAGRAPH VII. UTILIZATION PERCENTAGE. The ratio between annual cut and stumpage at hand reads, in the normal forest:— sustained yield ri 2 2 = =-. The factor -- normal growing stock r * i 1 Tr r 2 is called the utilization percentage. It expresses the fact that a short rotation allows, when the growing stock is given, of a larger possi- bility than a long rotation. Short rotations are handicapped by silvicul- tural drawbacks and the production of small trees only, the demand for which is restricted (firewood, spokes, axe-handles and railroad ties). The utilization percentage, since it is the ratio of volumes only, has little economic importance. 14 Forest Management CHAPTER II—SUBDIVISIONS OF A FOREST" The subdivision of a forest into minor units of management is based on local conditions and on local needs. A large forest is usually subdivided into Working circles (| VIII). Working sections (f IX). Compartments and blocks (J X). PARAGRAPH VIII. WORKING CIRCLES. Under “working circles” we understand, after Schlich, that forest area owned by one person or company which is much under the pro- vision of one and the same principal working plan. PARAGRAPH IX. WORKING SECTIONS. In large working circles, the economic conditions are frequently such as not to allow of uniting all woods under one cutting plan. Woods growing under more or less equal conditions and exhibiting equal silvics are allotted to distinct working sections, to be dealt with independently from all others. A working section should comprise woods of all ages and classes, and should consist of several cutting series. ‘There is no need for the working section to cover a coherent area. For each working section in Europe, the financial possibility is ascertained separately. The following moments may necessitate the formation of a working section:— Different species. Different silvicultural requirements. Different rotation. Different laws. Different means of transportation. Different locality. A large number of working sections complicates forest adminis- tration. Oe Bee PARAGRAPH X. COMPARTMENTS AND BLOCKS. The leading foresters do not agree with regard to a proper defini- tion of the term “compartment.” For the majority of foresters, a compartment is a “unit of silvicultural treatment.’ The compartment may contain sub-compartments consisting of smaller or darger groups which, to speak with the advocates of that definition, should be elim- Forest Management 15 inated by purification of the compartments. Others maintain that the compartment should designate merely a geographical unit of the forest used to describe, in instructions, reports and records, the exact locality at which a certain act is to be or has been performed. The boundary lines of geographic compartments should be natural lines (ridges, creeks and slopes) as much as possible, and not artificial lines (survey lanes and roads). The size of the compartment depends entirely on local economic conditions. High timber prices and inten- sive management invite the formation of small compartments. Several adjoining compartments are allotted to a “block;” for in- stance, the compartments on a certain mountain or beyond a certain creek. In some cases, each block has a separate series of compartment numbers, each series beginning with “one.” A block may be composed of compartments belonging to different working sections. Under extensive management, a block might be formed by the area drained by an entire river system; and the compartments composing it might be designated by the names of the creeks traversing them. CHAPTER III—WORKING PLAN REPORTS The term “working plan” is a misnomer. The “working plan” is a report more on facts than on proposed schemes. The meaning of the term is somewhat indistinct. It might repre- sent one or the other of the three following statements: 1. The chief (principal) working plan, extending over a large num- ber of years (a whole rotation, or the time of installation). 2. The periodic working plan, extending over Io, 20 or 24 years usually. 3. The annual working plan, forming a mere annual budget. In many cases, the principal working plan is simultaneously used as a periodic working plan. PARAGRAPH XI. THE CHIEF WORKING PLAN. The chief working plan is called by Schlich. more properly, “chief working plan report,” and contains the following three parts: 1. A statement of facts based on stock taking. 2. The desire of the owner regarding the purpose of forest man- agement. 3. The plan proper, containing the forester’s advice as submitted to the owner, discussed with the owner and approved by the owner. The plan proper is, usually, a compromise between owner and for- ester. 16 Forest Management The chief working plan requires revision and is invariably re-drawn before the lapse of many years whenever the facts are altered on which the plan was based. : _ The subheads of a chief working plan [under the chapters “facts,” “desire of the owner,” “plan” ] are: Forest survey (f| XII). Description of locality ({ XIII). Yield tables and volume tables (f XIV). Problems of silviculture and of protection (f XV). Forest utilization (| XVI). Forestal investments (f/ XVII). All data ascertained and all changes planned should be shown, if possible, on maps allowing of rapid reference. The scale and the detail of the maps depend on the value of the in- vestment per acre. PARAGRAPH XII. FOREST SURVEY. The objects of a forest survey are:— 1. Outside boundaries and those of interior holdings. 2. Railroads, rivers, creeks, bluffs and other obstacles, a means of transportation. : 3. Lines between localities having different laws, inasmuch as they influence forest management. 4. Differences in ownership. 5. Boundaries of the various forest ranges. 6. Configuration. : 7. Differences of soil; mineral possibilities. 8 Dividing lines between forest soil, farm soil, pasture soil, and mineral soil. 9. Lines of working circles, if there are any. 10. Roads, trails, and fire-lanes. 11, Age, species, and quality of growing stock, according to com- partments. It is not necessary, of course, that all of these points should be ex- hibited in all working plants. PARAGRAPH XIII. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. The “locality” is usually described by compartments. The ‘ ‘quality of the locality,” which means to say its productiveness, is a function of soil and climate. The height growth of the trees yields the best indication of the Forest Management 17 quality of the locality. The number of qualities of locality distin- guished in a ‘chief ‘working plan depends on local conditions,—notably on the intensity of management. PARAGRAPH XIV. ‘ YIELD TABLES AND VOLUME TABLES. Yield tables are required for a forecast of future timber crops. In America, tree growth tables (volume tables) must frequently take the place of yield tables. Yield tables and volume tables show the interdependence between soil, age, diameter and volume. It is wise to show the development of the value of a tree as well, with a view of determining the.age of ma- turity. A tree is mature when the annual quantity, quality, and price increment ceases to yield a sufficient rate of interest on the stumpage value of the tree. PARAGRAPH XV. PROBLEMS OF SILVICULTURE AND OF PROTECTION. Wherever local conditions allow of it, the chief working plan dwells at length upon the silvicultural system to be adopted for the various working sections. The method of regeneration, the species to be fa- vored, the extent of improvement cuttings, the method of weeding and the financial effect of these measures must be shown. The extent and advisability of forest pasture, turpentine or sugar industry, game pres- ervation, landscape considerations, etc., must be touched. Silvicultural investments are unwise where the forest can not be protected from fires. The financial outlook of investments in first growth is better than the financial outlook ‘of investments in second growth wheresoever the restriction and the control of fires is difficult. The chief working plan describes the existing and the proposed means of protection from forest fires, detailing the outlay to be in- curred on that score. Continuous employment of workmen in all parts of the forest, year in and year out, together with ready access to all ‘parts of the forest, are the surest means of fire protection. PARAGRAPH XVI. FOREST UTILIZATION. For many a year to come, the major part of the work to be planned and to be done by the American forester must consist in the utilization of the forest (lumbering). The forester is essentially a lumberman. The working plan considers the most advisable way of transforming into money the various raw products of the forest. It discusses the 18 Forest Management financial effect of the various methods of logging (animal power versus steam power), of the various mills (portable, circular, band, etc.) The degree in which the owner (through the forester) attends to the removal and to the refinement of his timber products is controlled by local as well as by personal conditions. The owner might offer for sale stumpage, or logs yarded, or rough lumber, or refined lumber. As long as there are more owners of timber land than manufactur- ers of lumber, the stumpage market is a buyer’s market; and the owner of forests does well to engage in manufacturing enterprises. Of the utmost importance is a careful study of the means of trans- portation (water, rail, flumes, etc.) The forester should never forget that lumbering—and consequently forestry—is essentially a problem of transportation. The expense to be incurred for permanent and for temporary means of transportation requires careful discussion. In conservative forestry, the main arteries of transportation, necessarily, have a permanent char- acter. The combination of the means of transportation to be adopted (railroads, narrow or standard; cables; water-courses; flumes; wagon roads) depends on local circumstances. Public roads and railroads, advisable alterations, charters to be secured from the legislature are topics requiring attention. The plan of transportation is explained by a map showing the existing and the proposed lines of transporta- tion. PARAGRAPH XVII. FORESTAL INVESTMENTS. In the United States, no private activity having the forest for its object (id est, any forestry in a broad sense), is conceivable which does not mean to result in good financial returns. Forestry is business, and in business there is no room for sentiment. That forestry must be considered best, which pays best. Compared with other investments in realties (e. g., farms, mines, houses), forest investments show several undesirable features. They are difficult of control; they fail continuously to yield annual cash divi- dends; they are endangered by fires and cannot be insured against de- struction; their products are not as absolutely indispensable to man- kind as farm products, mine products or the shelter of a house; sub- division, joint ownership, sale in fee are difficult to arrange; mortgages or bonds on forests are hard to secure, and theft of timber is hard to prevent. ; There are, on the other hand, many: factors speaking in favor of forest investments: Notably the phenomenal increase in the value of timber brought about by an increase in population and continuous prosperity; the certainty of wood production, year in and year out, with which fires only can interfere; the strong possibility of more ex- tended use of wood products in the manufacture of paper, packages, Forest Management 191 yarns, alcohol, sugar and food stuffs; the fact that the forest stores its own products away, free of charge, until it may please the owner to place them on the market; the rapid advance in the value of soil, etc. ; ' According to the location of the forest and in a higher degree, ac- cording to species of trees and age of trees, the disadvantages con- nected with forest investments vary from case to case. They seem to weigh heavily on a second growth which yields no dividend what- ever, is seriously endangered by fire, contains assets of prospective value only and offers no chance at extraordinary results. There exist in the United ‘States enormous areas covered with second growth for- ests: What sense can there be, consequently, in investments tending to produce still more second growth? It is obvious that the chances of first growth to be remunerative are, generally speaking, very good. This first growth does not in- crease in volume, the death rate of timber offsetting the birth rate; its increase in value, however, is certain; heavy logs are getting scarce,— and they alone furnish lumber commanding the highest price; the de- gree to which the trees are utilized without waste increases from year to year; the difficulties of transportation are declining continuously. Is it to be wondered at, then, that many investors—and notably all lumbermen—are eager to invest in first growth whilst utterly unwilling to stake their money on second growth? The question might be asked: Why are the owners reluctant to practice “conservative lumbering,” a modus of logging which tends to secure the maximum sum total formed of net present returns and pro- spective values left? To take an illustration from the South: Why does the owner insist on cutting every pine making a log of over 6 inches at the small end? Why does he refuse to leave all trees having a diameter under 20 inches and yielding over 7 per cent. of latent an- nual interest? The explanation lies in the following points: 1. No seer can actually foretell the latent annual interest which trees of various diameters will yield in the immediate and in the more distant future. The forest dividend consists largely of price increment; the price increment of big trees is (veneer business!) particularly good. There is little financial advantage in the utilization of big trees (if they are sound), as long as an annual price increment of Io per cent. and more can be counted upon. A big tree having a stumpage value of $12.00 per 1,000 feet b. m. is not mature per se. The fine poplars, oaks and chestnuts of the Southland must be considered immature, since their value is absolutely sure to increase at an annual rate of over 10 per cent. The assumption of the principle is wrong, it seems, that conserva- tive lumbering should leave the smaller trees and remove the ‘big trees; or that maturity can be determined by diameter limits. 20 Forest Management The owner of woodlands (and the forester) can only venture a forecast, guessing at the future condition of the lumber market; big trees have—to say the least—the same chance with small trees to be money makers. And it is natural that the owner is inclined to either remove or to leave all of his trees. = 2. Let us suppose that the owner leaves in the course of lumbering all trees having under 18 inches diameter representing a stumpage of 1,500 feet per acre. ‘The reduction of the cut ‘by 1,500 feet per acre has increased the logging expense per 1,000 feet of stumpage removed,— an increase which can be considered only as a new investment added to the value of 1,500 feet per acre left. For a number of years to come, the small trees are non-removable, since it cannot pay in the near future to remove a handful of inferior lumber from an acre of ground. In the meantime, the property must be watched and taxes must be paid. The owner leaving small trees embarks in a new venture which cannot be countermanded nor altered, for years to come, without seri- ous loss; and which is subject to more serious dangers than the old venture. Small trees form, prior to the removal of the big trees mixed with them, a tangible, merchantable asset. After the removal of the big trees, however, they can be considered only as an intangible asset, an asset of merely prospective value, an asset impossible to realize on. 3. After lumbering, small trees left are much more endangered by fire, windfall, insects, fungi than before lumbering. Where fires cannot be controlled at a reasonable expense, conservative lumbering is, under almost any circumstances, absolutely: absurd. 4. The soil on which small trees are left,—in order to grow into better dimensions and in order to act as seed trees for a third growth,— cannot be used for pasture without interference with the object at stake. 5. Conditions may arise, before a second growth of small trees becomes merchantable, rendering the soil occupied by them valuable for farming purposes. In that case the small trees must be removed without any benefits accruing to the owner from such removal. 6. The taxes on land completely stripped are lower than the taxes on land conservatively lumbered. When a long number of years is required to convert a second growth left into a merchantable stand, the taxes annually paid “ad valorem” and increasing at a compound. ratio, form a countercharge against the slowly increasing value of the second growth difficult to countenance. Considering these various points, the financier cannot be called un- wise when he prefers investments in first growth forest to those pos- sible in second growth. Many a man in the United States and in Canada has made a fortune by clever investments in first growth, whilst no one, practically, has Forest Management 21 had a chance to show dividends obtained from second growth forest (exceptions: farm wood lots; second growth pine in Virginia). Under what conditions, it may be asked, can or does conservative lumbering pay in primeval woods? The conditions are those under which any business proves to be remunerative, .... be it a livery business or a hotel, a railroad or a music store: that business alone can be remunerative in which the parts composing the business investments are at hand in proper pro- portions; that business alone can be remunerative which is established in an economically proper site; that business alone cam be remuner- ative, which is safe from over-taxation and—by insurance or otherwise —safe from accidental destruction of its assets. Let us take the livery business for an illustration: The investment consists of several components, viz.: horses, carriages, harness, saddles, buildings, feed. These components must be at hand in proper propor- tion. It would be preposterous, for a livery, to have invested, e. g., Ain HOTS OS: css siisunie cas Gare ens MA NON Bree Gas Sela eS $ 1,000 1M Carriages 3. ei5 tone ess eset eee ey Ree BERR eS 25,000 in: HatneSS acakandudasereied sw Mert a aaeasametes we 100 AML SAA ALES. oe. cosasic y.dianuapiutdralger sha ersteese ane tgnun a duavaunyes Sac xe 50 At DU GINS on eae earns aaideane quia e ace Pak eda eel wal 350 Til? LE OO) otic eae cjen sacs ates sth a ua we dct Se aaa ae ane ae 15,000 Again, the proper economic site for a livery business is in the city, the village—not in the back woods of Maine; not in the wild swamps of Minnesota; not indeed in Chicago one hundred years ago; which shows the dependence of economic sites on economic development. Finally, a livery business is never overtaxed, and all of its investments allow of being insured. There is, probably, many a livery in the United States whose owner is “falling behind,’—usually because his invest- ments are wrongly balanced or because the site of his business is wrongly selected. Still, it would be wrong to conclude that a livery business is generally a poor business. Properly arrangea within, properly arranged without; properly in- sured against accidents a business must be remunerative. — Applying this logic to conservative lumbering as a business it is safe to state that it must be remunerative A. Where its components are properly balanced. B. Where an economic site is obtainable for its conduct. ad. A: The components of a business investment in conservative for- estry are partly derived from nature ‘(natural gifts, natural powers) and partly made by man. The natural components are usually at hand in primeval forests,—which does not mean to say that they are at hand in proper amounts. The components made by man are added to those made by na- ture and consist, above all, in investments permanently em- ployed for forest utilization. Thus the aggregate investments in conservative forestry may con- 22 Forest Management sist of all of the following components—whilst only No. 1, No. 2 No. 8, No. 11 and No. 12 are considered essential: (a) Natural components: 1. Soil. 2. Trees. 3. Fish and game. 4. Minerals. 5. Water power. (b) Semi-natural components: 6. Pastures. 7. Farms and orchards. (c) Artificial components: Permanent means’ of transportation. 9. Logging appliances. to. Industrial establishments. 11. Means to prevent and to subdue forest fires. 12, Surveys, maps, working plans. 13. Ranger houses, workmen’s houses, lumber camps. 14. Nurseries. 15. Silvicultural improvements. 16. Capital set aside to defray taxes, protection, administra- tion and other current expenses. In the case of well-stocked virgin woods, the aggregate final invest- ment is likely to be lower than the original purchase price of the forest, when the virgin forest contains a surplus of mature timber exceeding in value the expense required for the establishment of the essential arti- ficial components. q In the American forests, affer the usual lumbering operations, very little is left of the natural components; as a consequence, relatively heavy additional investments,are required (as a rule without a chance of deriving immediate revenue) in order to make the aggregate, in time to come, a permanent source of revenue. The conclusion is simple: Unless the owner, before he begins to operate primeval woods, decides to embark in conservative forestry, the chances are slim that he will ever embark in it. In German working plans the necessity of ascertaining the most op- portune amount of capital to be invested in forestry is invariably over- looked. The explanation lies in the following: 1. The value of the growing timber and of the soil comprises, say, 95 per cent. of the investment. 2. The means of transportation are already at hand, developed at a time at which financial considerations were not made in forestry. The “period of installation” should cover as’ many years as are re- quired to obtain the proper total and the proper composition of the forestal investment. Forest Management 23 It is unfortunate that the period of installation in conservative for- estry must comprise a number of years; whilst other investments (e. g., a livery) can be fully installed in the course of a few weeks or a few months. ad B: Whosoever has traveled in recent years through Germany with an eye to the forest can not be in doubt that every state and every county offers innumerable sites at which conservative forestry can be conducted as a remunerative business. In- deed, economic sites are at hand in Germany wheresoever the trees do not happen to occupy farming soil. Such was not the case in Germany two hundred years ago; andi such is not the case in Russia, Canada and the United States today. Economic sites are those where stumpage values range high; where natural reproduction is easy; where the danger of fires is small; where the land is unfit for agriculture; where forest taxes are low. These conditions prevail, particularly, in the pineries of the Coastal Plains and in the hardwood forests of the higher Appalachian region. It must be clearly understood that these conditions did not —or did not all—prevail some 20 years ago; further, that the absence ‘of such ‘conditions in the West anno 1907, does not render conservative forestry in the West for all times im- possible. It is unfortunate, indeed, that the majority of these condi- tions arises only at a very late hour, to-wit, invariably after the general disappearance of the primeval woods. No man in the United States has had, so far, sufficient con- fidence in conservative lumbering to postpone the tapping of his primeval woods until the “economic site” for conservative lumbering had locally arisen. The man who does will never live to regret his confidence. CHAPTERIV—METHODS REGULATING THE YIELD IN WOOD AND TIMBER The question as to the amount of timber which might be removed annually without reducing the growing stock (the main investment) has occupied the minds of foresters since many centuries. European governments prescribe definite methods by which the yield of a forest is to be regulated. The family laws governing entailed property do likewise. For America, at the present moment, these methods will find application in rare cases only. A sustained vield in virgin forests con- taining large numbers of idling trees is an economic absurdity. Pulp 24 , Forest Management mills, tanneries, and other industrial establishments requiring large investments to be made close to a forest may, however, seek for sus- tained yields on cut over lands, from which the idling trees have been removed. PARAGRAPH XVIII. GENERAL REMARKS. The methods commonly used for regulating the “possibility” of the forest are: A. Brick masonry methods. 1. Area method (Par. XIX.) 2. Volume method (Par. XX.) B. Formula methods. : 3. Charles Heyer method (Par. XXI.) 4. Hundeshagen method (Par. XXII.) C. Increment methods. 5. Common increment method (Par. XXIII.) 6. Brandis method (Par. XXIV.) 7. Pinchot method (Par. XXV.) These seven methods consider the forest as a whole, ascertain the productive capacity of the whole, and locate the annual cuttings there- after. The methods to be considered in the next chapter (V.), treat every part of the forest according to its individual financial merits, thus locat- ing the cuttings to begin with. Thereafter, they merely see to it, if necessary, that the total cuttings of a year agree with the consuming capacity of the-market. PARAGRAPH XIX. AREA METHOD. The simplest way to regulate the yield by area is a division of the entire forest area into as many lots as the rotation numbers years. This scheme has been followed often in the case of coppice forests having rotations less than forty years. In the case of high forests, the rotation is divided into a number of periods of equal length (ten to twenty-four years). On the “Statement of Ages” the acreage of each compartment is: allotted to that periodical column to which it belongs according to its present age. ‘The oldest compartments are allotted to period number one; the next oldest period number two, etc. The total acreage allotted to each periodical column is found by addition and compared with the average contents of a column. If a column contains too much acreage, the surplus is shifted backward or forward into adjoining columns. Compartments growing vigorously are shifted Forest Management 25. backward into later periods and vice versa. After shifting, each col- umn contains in toto, approximately, an equal number of acres. By valuation surveys or yield tables, the volume contents of the compartments allotted to the first period are ascertained; and the con- tents are increased by the probable volume increment of these com- partments expected during half a period. The total contents are then divided by the number of years comprised by the period. The result is the annual “sustained yield.” Obviously, the sustained yield is apt to change at the end of each period. The installation period comprises a whole rotation. At the end of a rotation the forest is sure to exhibit a more normal age gradation. This method is in use in Prussia, Bavaria, etc., and has been working in almost all European forests since 1780. The method is not applica- ble to selection forests. It might be improved by replacing the “Statement of Ages” by a “Statement of Indicating Percentages.” PARAGRAPH XxX. VOLUME METHOD. A statement of ages is prepared, each compartment being allotted to a periodical column according to the number of years which separ- ates it from maturity. The compartmental entries made in the state- ment of ages are, in this case, however, the final volumes expected at maturity, and not the compartmental acreages. The totals for each period are drawn and compared with,the average volume expected from each periodical column. Again, by shifting com- partments onward and backward, surpluses are shifted into columns showing a deficit, under adequate allowance for changed yields. The possibility is obtained by dividing the total of the first column, as it stands after shifting, by the length of a period. The method does not work towards normal age gradation. The shifting of volumes is times taking, and the method is not in use nowadays. PARAGRAPH XXII. CHARLES HEYER METHOD. By cutting the actual annual increment, the growing stock is left undisturbed. In order to convert the actual growing stock into a normal growing stock, it is necessary to decrease the annual cut if the normal growing stock is larger than the actual growing stock; and to inerease the cut if the normal growing stock is smaller than the ac- tual growing stock. Heyer expresses this idea by the formula: The annual possibility (P) is equal to the sum (S) of the expected average increments diminished by the n’th part of the difference existing be- 26 Forest Management tween the normal growing stock (Ng) and the actual growing stock Ag). (Ag) Ne—AG P=S— n “n” is the number of years forming the installation period. The field work in this method is timestaking; especially so under the selection system or group system when the actual growing stock cam be ascertained only by complete valuation surveys. On the other hand, the method prevents any over-cutting or any under-cutting of the forest, and shows clearly how much of the revenue obtained is, in fact, net revenue and not capital withdrawn, or else, how much of the reve- nue is left latent being used to increase the original growing stock. This method is well adapted for irregular forests. The method re- quires :— 1. A detailed description of compartments giving the normal and actual volume, and the normal and actual increment for each compart- ment. 2. A statement showing the normal growing stock, the actual grow- ing stock, and the total increment for the period of installation. 3. A statement enumerating the compartments in which the possi- bility is to be cut. No particular stress is put on reaching anormal gradation of age classes. PARAGRAPH XXII. HUNDESHAGEN METHOD. Hundeshagen assumes that the ratio existing between the incre- ment and growing stock is constant. ‘With the help of yield tables, he ascertains the ratio existing between normal increment and normal growing stock and, further, the actual growing stock found in the for- est. Multiplying the actual growing stock by the above ratio, Hun- deshagen obtains his actual annual possibility of the forest. In normal forests (yield table forests), the ratio is necessarily at an optimum. If that optimum is applied to abnormal forests, over- cutting seems the necessary consequence. ‘Absurd results are apt to crop out if the growing stock is under normal and the increment poor. Inasmuch as the method requires periodic stock taking, over-cut- ting or under-cutting the forest for any length of time is, however, excluded. Indeed, any method is good which controls its own results by periodic stock-taking. 'Hundeshagen’s method is ‘applicable to all sorts of silvicultural conditions, and might well be applied in a tentative first working plan. In that case, it ‘will be sufficient to express the ratio, “normal increment over normal growing stock” by the frac- 2 tion —. n Forest Management 27 PARAGRAPH XXIII. COMMON INCREMENT METHODS. The increment methods are the oldest and roughest methods of yield regulation. The underlying idea is the following: As long as only the increment is cut—no more, no less—an overcutting of the forest is impossible. The average production per-acre can be ascer- tained from yield tables, by systematic experiments, or, as is the usual practice, by estimating. The methods do not pay any attention to normal growing stock, normal age gradation and normal increment. The methods are not applied anywhere, nowadays, in scientifically conducted forestry. PARAGRAPH XXIV. BRANDIS METHOD. The Brandis method was first applied ‘by Sir Dietrich Brandis in the Teak forest of Burma. ‘The method ascertains the number of mature trees in a forest as well as the time which an equal number of trees styled “immature,” next in diameter to the mature class, require to grow as large as the mature trees are, so as to be fit to replace them. Dividing the number ‘of mature trees by the period of replacement, the annual possibility of the forest is ascertained. The method per- petuates the original composition of the forest, calling it normal be- cause natural. An illustration might be obtained from the data contained in bulle- tin No. 32, Bureau of Forestry, prepared by F. ‘E. Olmsted: Diameter of mature trees, 20 inches and over. Number of mature tfees, per acre, 4.94. Number of immature trees, having 15 inches to 19 inches diam- eter, per acre, 4.99. Number of years required by a 15 inch tree to grow mature, 34. The annual possibility, after Brandis, in this case amounts to 4.94 —— = 0.145 34 mature trees per acre, or 145 mature trees for every 1,000 acres. After bulletin No. 32, the volume of the trees having 20 inches and over at breast height is 4561 feet b. m. The possibility in lumber is, consequently, 4561 — = 134 34 feet b. m. per acre per annum. 28 Forest Management PARAGRAPH XXV. PINCHOT METHOD. The published working plans for which Mr. Gifford Pinchot is re- sponsible as author or as forester of the U. 'S. Forest Service, are, notably, the following: The Adirondack spruce, published by the Critic Co., New York; A Forest Working Plan for 'Township 40, Bulletin 30; Bureau of Forestry; A Working Plan fot.............--.----- , Arkansas, Bulletin 32; Bureau of Forestry; A Working Plan for... , South Carolina, ‘Bulletin 56; Bu- reau of Forestry; A Working Plan for...........22------ , Alabama, ‘Bulletin 68; Forest Service. These publications fail to be working plans in the proper sense of the word. This failure might be due to the educational character of the publications. [Whilst they define the term “working plan” as “simply a scheme of management for a forest tract,” the reader looks in vain for an actual “scheme of management.” Forest utilization, which commands the lion’s share of forestal activity, is not considered by the scheme of forestal management. The Pinchot method is ‘classed as an increment method because it lays all stress on yield forecasts. Future ‘yields are forecasted on the basis of a first cut, reaching down to a stated diameter limit, for periods covering from ten to fifty years. Continuity of action is not advised in any case. Forestry as an in- vestment is considered in bulletin No. 32 and ‘No. 68. Table No. 15 in bulletin 'No. 32, however, showing the interest on the assets left by lumbering in virgiri woods and depending as to their size on the sever- ity of such lumbering, is incorrect. After the Bureau, a working plan should contain: 1. A statement of facts. 2. A statement of yield capacity. 3. A statement of market and transport conditions. 4. A systematic plan for lumbering. Only one-half page of bulletin No. 32, comprising 48 pages, is de- voted to point 3, and only two pages to point 4. The chief rules of management are in all working plans: 1. A fixed stump diameter limit. 2. A fixed height permissible for stumps. 3. Recommendations to prevent fire. 4. Recommendations to prevent damage to young growth. Bulletin No. 68, published in 1905, excels in clear financial consider- ations of the merits of a second growth, judged according to diameter limits observed in cutting. Forest Management 28 CHAPTER V—METHODS REGULATING THE IN- VESTMENTS AND THE RETURNS The methods to be described in the three paragraphs following are: Judeich Method (Par. XXVI.) Raess Method (Par. XXVII.) Schenck Method (Par. XXVIII.) Judeich, Raess and Schenck advocate conservativism only when conservative forestry pays better than destructive forestry. A “sustained yield” is considered only where it guarantees better financial results than an irregular yield. No two forests are alike. The financial development of any forest offers a problem of its own; on the basis of a difference existing in the resources of the forest; the accessibility of the forest; the availability of manual labor; the climate; the dangers threatening the forest, etc. Aside of these tangible differences there is invariably met another intangible difference in two forest problems otherwise comparable, due to a difference in ownership. Among the problems confronting the managing forester, the most difficult is, perhaps, the task of ascer- taining the definite desire of the owner. This task is more trying in the case of individual ownership than in the case of stock companies. Working plans cannot be made for a forest when an owner, lacking continuity of purpose, is subject to whimsical fluctuations of mind; or when the owner’s financial status happens to be of a shaky nature. It must be clearly understood, on the other hand, that a “working plan” is a plan merely outlining a definite policy; a policy to be fol- lowed as long as (and no longer than) the economic conditions sur- rounding the financial problem remain unaltered. The market of forest products in America is—unlike the German market—an interstate market, not a home market. In Germany the sustained yield of the forests is framed, essentially, with a view to the consuming capacity of a home market. In this country, so far, no attempt is being made towards the ad- justment, of a supply of lumber and demand for lumber—with the ex- ception only of the cypress industry which, controlled by firms of re- markable strength, seems effectually to establish an equilibrium be- tween lumber demand and lumber supply. In the production of the hardwoods and of pine, concerted action of the producers toward a similar end is, for the time being, a pious wish. “Concerted action” of the producers is usually decried as a “trust.” From the patriotic standpoint, no more beneficial trust can be imagined than a lumber trust. The German sustained yield, adopted by practically all owners of stumpage, amounts to a “trust-yield.” 30 Forest Management There is no possibility—neither abroad nor here—to establish an absolute equilibrium between production of trees and consumption of lumber, the latter being subject to continuous fluctuations, whilst the former allows only of slow alterations. The American producers, with rare exceptions, have never at- terhpted to curtail the output of the lumber industry. On the con- trary, when the price of lumber ‘was low, when the margin of profit was small, the producers have usually increased the production so as to obtain the surplus receipts required to meet pressing financial obli- gations (mortgages, bonds, notes due, etc.) The output of the lumber industry has risen by leaps and bounds; and: it is astounding that the prices of lumber have advanced, never- theless, by bounds and leaps. The advance of lumber prices is certain to continue, the available supply of merchantable timber declining from month to month. ‘An increased production of stumpage we may expect, indeed, to take a start when the ‘price of stumpage has increased at a ratio pro- portioned to the increased price of lumber. ~ Still, many a year must elapse before an increased production of trees Can result in increased offerings of lumber. In the meanwhile, the famous “law of demand and supply” is set at rest; and prices will continue to climb upward. PARAGRAPH XXVI. JUDEICH METHOD. Judeich’s method treats every part of the forest according to its own financial merits. The management ‘of the forest as a ‘whole is merely a consequence of the requirements of the individual woods com- posing it. Sustained yield of volume or money does not underlie Ju- deich’s method. ‘Where the capacity of the market requires it, how- ever, sustained yield is advised. The treatment for each piece of wood is prescribed in detail for the next working period. ‘From these prescriptions the total volume yield of the’ period as well as the total area to be cut during the period is finally ascertained. The normal growing stock is entirely disregarded. ‘Working plan periods shall not exceed ten years; and every five years a thorough revision of the entire working plan shall take place. Judeich puts great stress on the development of proper cutting series (small). The lumberman’s axe is meant to enjoy freedom of action and a multitude of points of attack. For each working section the financial rotation is determined. Ju- deich realizes, however, that the financial rotation is subject to change and. is: satisfied with fixing it approximately. The plan of cutting embodies the following points: Forest Management 31 There must be cut: 1. All economic necessities, especially severance cuttings. 2. All decidedly mature woods the indicating percentage of which is too low. 3. All woods which must be sacrificed to the proper progress of the axe within the cutting series; for instance, a group of polewoods lying between two mature pieces. Whether such a sacrifice should be made or not is answered accord- ing to the rules of forest finance. 4. All such woods as are about to mature, as far as such woods can be reached by the axe in the proper progress of cut- tings. These are the pieces for which an exact examina- tion of the indicating percentage is particularly desirable; which, ‘however, are so near financial maturity that mis- takes made will entail small losses only. By summing up the areas and yields of the above ‘headings, the periodical yield is ascertained. Control is required whether or not the market is able to consume that yield without changing the prices of forest produce on which financial calculations are based. The con- tents of the working plan are as follows: 1. Actual conditions of the forest. Compartments, cutting series, plan of road building. Yield. Future treatment, silviculturally, and forest utilization. i Gar NS Detailed descriptions of compartments and sub-compart- ments. PARAGRAPH XXVII. RAESS METHOD. The method recommended by Dr. Raess might be termed the method of sustained money yield. The method pays full attention to the silvicultural as well as the financial requirements of the forest, and gives the forester great freedom of action. ‘Raess realizes the financial mistakes due to a strictly sustained timber yield, and finds, on the other hand, that a sustained money yield is a necessity for the proper balance of annual budgets in case of wood-owning families, communities, or states. Like Judeich, he treats every piece of the forest according to its financial merits. If the revenue thus obtained exceeds the normal rev- enue, when the excess is placed in a bank and left over for lean years, etc. The normal revenue is that which brings the normal indicating percentage on the capital value of the forest. Normal growing stock and age gradation are discarded. Periodic stock-taking, not of timber 32 Forest Management but of values, forms part of the working plan. Over-cutting as well as under-cutting is thus prevented. The enormous amount of book- keeping required has prevented the introduction of this method in the German practice. PARAGRAPH XXVIII. SCHENCK METHOD. Schenck foots on the belief that forestry is business; and, enlarg- ing upon this truism, that forestry is at its best when it pays best. Schenck’s working plans do not advocate conservative forestry; they advocate destructive forestry whenever the destruction of the trees promises the best financial results; they advocate conservatism— to a lesser or higher degree—where conservative management seems to be the most productive of dividends; they advocate a policy of pa- tient waiting whenever it recommends itself financially. Schenck’s working plans are, consequently, according to the exi- gencies of the situation and of the owner: either merely plans of silvicultural development; or merely plans of forest protection; : or merely plans of utilization; or plans combining silvicultural advice with a distinct plan of lumbering and forest protection. Schenck’s working plans are characterized by the following: 1. After revising in detail the investments existing in the forest, Schenck shows the most opportune level to which the various compo- nents of the investment shall be either raised or lowered. Bad invest- ments must be eliminated. Good investments must be added. 2. Schenck considers, as sources of forestal revenue, not merely the trees but as well the farms, the meadows, the pastures, the minerals and the water powers available on the forest property. 3. Schenck forecasts the cash revenue obtainable from the adjusted investments,—not merely the yield in lumber and wood; he confronts the forecasted revenue with the revenue obtainable from unadjusted investments. 4. In plans of conservative forestry Schenck insists on the néces- sity of permanent protection from fires and of permanent investments to provide facilities of transportation. 5. Schenck insists that im forestry as in railroading, banking, in- surance, etc., calculation at compound interest must be applied to the comparison of receipts and expenses. 6. Periodic stock taking is demanded, so as to. control, from time to. time, the actual status of the entire investment. 7. Trees are either good or bad investments, and should be treated Forest Management 33. —as individuals or as aggregates—according to their financial merits. The trees are divided into four classes: (a) Money makers, promising to increase in stumpage value at a rate of interest higher than normal; trees to be preserved. (b) Indifferent trees, yielding a normal rate of interest, merely, through growth in volume, value and price; trees to be pre- served or cut. (c) Idlers, merchantable trees yielding an inadequate rate of in- terest; trees to be cut. (d) Weeds, trees of negative value (not merchantable), never promising any revenue; trees usually left to rot. Practical experience in the woods, in the mill and in the office is required to allot a given tree correctly to one of the four classes given. Volume tables are of little use in the determination of the tneaEEy of a tree. 8. A sustained yield is recommended only when it promises greater safety or higher remunerativeness of the investments. Schenck’s working plan reports consist of the three parts elven in Chapter III, viz.: ~ oNe : — first part, detailed statement of Hee << second part, statement of the owner’s desire; third part, detailed plan of action. The plan of action weighs the financial merits of all methods of development or treatment possible under the prevailing conditions and shows the financial superiority of its own recommendations over any other proposed plan of management. The heads under which the first part and the third part are treated should be those given in paragraph XVI. The “installation period” is the time required for the proper adjust- ment of all investments. The annual working plan is an annual budget. It dwells in detail on that part of all provisions of the chief working plan which should be carried out in a given year of the period of installation. FORESTRY FOR KENTUCKY A Stereopticon-Lecture Delivered at the Invitation of the Louisville Board of Trade by C. A. Schenck, Ph.D. Forester to the Biltmore Estate. Spring has come, and every tree freshly attired in a brand new spring. gown is, to the educated; and often times to the uneducated as well, an object of joy, welcomed like a friend returning from abroad after a winter’s absence. In fact, we all love trees, like friends, as friends. And true it is; the trees are our friends! They yield the shade about our homes; they improve the air we breathe; they filter the water we drink; and,—to speak of a more concrete service,— they furnish the chairs, on which my audience sit. As friends, the trees show more unselfish kindness than human beings.—For it must be confessed: we do not reward their friendship by any- thing beyond platonic love: we do not actively work for their benefit, we fail to repay ‘heir deeds by our deeds. We behave like the child, who, walking alongside his mother, with a nickel in hand, meets a blind beggar assiduously grind- ing his hand-organ. In spite of the mother’s admonition, the child refuses to part with his nickel, crying: ‘‘ Papa gave me the money to buy candy,—and the blind man will play the organ anyhow !” Sure enough: The trees, too, will work for us anyhow, without any complaint, without any remonstrance. The only sound which we hear from the tree, is the song of the bird nesting in its branches, or the lisping talk of the leaves exchanging their daily observations fanned by the evening wind, or, sometimes, the low-tuned assurances of subserv- ience, when the tree humbly bows before his majesty the storm. And then, finally, that last heartrending cry of deadly anguish strikes our ear, when the tree falls a victim to the murderous axe. Man and Tree Evidently, ladies and gentlemen, you see before you a German sentimentalist. Of course, all Germans (—my pronun- ciation easily betrays, me—) have a strong sentimental vein more or less covered by a skin of good humor. Still, I am free to maintain, that the phrase ‘‘Woodman spare that tree’ unceasingly ruminated by some eastern sentimental cranks, has done more harm to our trees and to the advance- ment of American forestry than all recklessness of the lumberjack in the backwoods. I, personally, annually put to death hundreds of thousands of trees; not alone the shrubby specimen fit for firewood only. No, thousands of gigantic oaks and tulip trees up to six feet in diameter—trees born before Columbus landed, trees the equal of which I can never reproduce! Forestry as Forest Utilization PICTURES OF APPALACHIAN FORESTS More than that: I skin,—a real forestry-vandal—the bark of the venerable old chestnut oak, and allow the naked body of the tree to go to waste in the woods. If I tell you in addition, that. hundreds of flowering dogwoods have been extirpated by me, you will certairly indict me for “ cruelty to trees,’ and I shall never leave this noble city alive. Allow me, however, a word. of justification before pro- ceeding against me! It is my belief, that this glorious commonwealth cannot have forestry on a large scale (—that is the only kind I am interested in—) unless forestry is a remunerative business. Agriculture and mining have shown a marvelous develop- ment, because they were found to be well paying industries. Forestry must follow suit, must cease to be a luxury, if we want it to grow strong. And there is many an acre of ground in Kentucky, devoid-of minerals, unfit for the plow, but productive of trees, which I want to claim for forestry as a business. Such land will lie idle, unless it is used for tree growth,—and idlers should be suffered in political economy no more than in our family-life. Some help will be required to start proper forestry,— just as it was and is the case in other industries, and to. offer such help, we should at once engage in concerted organ- ized action. By proper laws, by educating the people, by interesting the newspapers, by forming a Kentucky forestry association—we must level the road to forestry as a business. Now you will ask me: ‘““How can we establish forestry as a business?” You have plenty of good business men in Louisville, and they will tell you, that any business requires acertain amount of capital, in most cases the more of it the better. You cannot run a livery stable on one horse, or a dairy on one cow, nor can you imagine a successful railroad to be only two or three miles long. . Similarly, commercial forestry requires large holdings, —the larger the better. In such large holdings every foot of ground must be used for that production. under which it pays best: bottomland for agriculture; bare ridges for pasture; cold northern slopes for tree growth. The famous Black-forest in southern Germany is far from being a wilderness. It was an impenetrable wilderness three hun- dred years ago. Now it is dotted with farms and villages traversed by a splendid system of stone roads. BLACK-FOREST PICTURES Capital in Forestry Similarly. at Biltmore, N. C., on George Vanderbilt’s estate, I try hard to use every resource of the soil to best advantage. The old and mature trees are removed and made into money, making room for an offspring of healthy second growth. PICTURES BILTMORE CUTTINGS Only in exceptional cases artificial planting of trees is resorted to. Nature has regen- erated the forest periodically ever since the creation, and nature is not apt to stop work in the twentieth century. Thus I allow nature to re-forest the lumbered land, increas- ing only the chances for that set of conditions, which gives rise to a tree. Forest Planting BAVARIAN PICTURES. Still, near Asheville, N. C., where the stumpage price of wood is over a dollar per cord, and where many an aban- doned field or a previously devastated wood lot has been put in my charge, I am annually engaged in artificial reforesta- tion. PICTURES REFORESTATION ABROAD AND AT BILTMORE ™ Such reforestation is costly. Still, is it not more costly to allow land to lie barren, which was acquired at—say—$15 per acre, and which requires annually an expense of 10 cts. to defray the taxes? Is it not wisdom to invest another $10 or $20 for reforestation, if such additional investment allows of a prospect to make three or four per Gent. interest on the entire capital? And these returns are safe. As soon as a planta- tion is established, nothing can prevent it from growing. The annual growth represents annual returns stored away by the forest. The components of growth are air, rain and sun- shine, and the forest grows and accumulates compound interest on its capital value as sure as the wind blows, the rain falls and the sun shines. The history of many a wood owning family abroad proves unmistakably, that no investment yields returns so incessantly as forestry, and there is a good old German proverb: ‘‘ The forest is the father’s saving-box!’’ Empires are wrecked, and the imperial bonds lose their value; railroads, banks, factories go to the wall, and the shareholder loses his money ; but the well managed forest grows, and cannot help growing in size and value. I must put stress on the words, “the well-managed forest.’? For the primeval forest is unproductive, unless stumpage prices advance sharply, the annual formation of timber being exactly offset by the annual decay of timber. The forester does not in- tend to preserve the virgin woods. He removes as quickly as possible all such trees, which have reached their prime, which are mature, which have ceased to yield, by their annual growth, sufficient interest on their own value. Thus the timber originally contained in a forest is cut down to that figure, at which the highest returns on the remaining investment are obtained. Virgin Forests That remaining investment consists of young and healthy seedlings, saplings, poles and trees, and I am some- what doubtful, whether even from the aesthetic standpoint such strong and vigorous second growth is not superior in beauty, as well as in returns, to the original growth from which it has emanated. In forestry, the original investment is, on the other hand, increased by outlays made for railroads, roads, shutes, flumes, farm-buildings, irrigation ditches, pasture fences, telephone lines, etc., etc. In Western North Carolina it is especially the systematic development of graded dirt roads, that the business forester has at heart. In fact, the forestry advocate must invari- ably be a friend of good roads. The tree in the back woods, in spite of its size, has little value, because it is beyond the reach of transportation. If the old tree has little value, the small sapling tree has none at all, and it is poor business to spend a penny for its preservation or propagation. Only by improved means of transportation I can increase the value of my trees, poles, saplings and seedlings, and if I succeed, by spending $10,000 for roads, in raising the value of the forests by $20,000, then those $10,000 are certainly well invested. Forest Roads These roads, at the same time, make our woods accessi- ble to the health-seeker, the sportsman and the tree lover. You have plenty of forests in Kentucky, one-half of the state still being tree-clad. But all the recreation obtainable from the woods is wasted on you, as there are no roads bringing the forests within your reach. How many of you see the woods from a point of observation other than a car window? Do you realize from personal experience what pleasure a close contact with nature has in store for you? Of course, the man of small means and the owner of a small piece of forest cannot do much in the line of permanent improvements. And that is one of the reasons why, in my opinion (not shared by some lights in American forestry) the small man is incapable of practicing proper forestry. Only the wealthy, public and private corporations and pre-eminently the state and federal government are fit to embark in that forestry which we all desire to obtain. State Forestry The returns from a forest are partly tangible and meas- ureable: f. i. timber; tanbark; turpentine; and partly imma- terial and latent: f. i. the influence, which the forest exerts on public health, sport, navigation, floods, springs, and so on. The private owner of forest lands does not care to pro- duce these immaterial blessings, as there is no money in their production; thus he is apt to neglect them entirelly. The people as the owner of woodlands, on the other hand, may combine the material and immaterial production of the forest, with a view of deriving the greatest direct and indi- rect advantage from their forestry possessions. As we want forestry for the people, we had perhaps bet- ter practice it through the people. The state of Kentucky can, I judge, easily acquire a tract of say 200,000 acres as a starter and a nucleus for a state forest-reserve. If necessary —probably it will be necessary in order to make the reserve a compact body—the state might use her right of eminent domain and condemn such tracts, as are most desirable for areserve. The expense to be incurred for purchases, surveys, lawyers’ fees, roads, buildings and salaries should be defrayed from a public loan. The bonds forming the loan, backed as they will be by realty-assets, can certainly be issued at a low rate of interest. I dare to predict, that the reserve properly selected and placed under proper man- agement, will be able to pay the interest from the beginning out of its own gross returns. The staff of forestry officers must be entirely non-political, so as to avoid changes of personnel, which are no where more disastrous than in a forest administration. Hence some connection of the service with non-political bodies, f. i. the State University, the Board of Trade, the Women’s Clubs, the Forestry Association (if there is any to be) seems extremely advisable. In order to do justice to the counties, over which the reserve extends, and in order to avoid county antagonism against a step taken on behalf of the whole people, it will be necessary for the state as a forest owner not to shun the payment of the usual county taxes. Kentucky can already boast of a unique institution devoted to forestry: it is the forestry-school at Berea, in charge of my friend Prof. S. C. Mason. At Cornell and Yale, scientific forestry is taught by experts of national fame, and at my own forest-school, at Biltmore, N. C., I try to raise forestry superintendents by thedozen. Thus we are sure to be well supplied with highly educated foresters. But, unless they are trained at Berea, Forestry Education I do not know of a single place in America, where the sub- altern staff of forestry,—the ranger and the fire warden,— may receive its technical and scientific preparation. In ad- dition, Berea does a world of good by impressing the moun- tain-boy with the fact, that the young tree,—like the horse colt,—has a value, although it is still unfit for use; that it is wise to husband and protect a young tree, because the young tree is apt to be serviceable at the time, at which, the boy has developed into a man. Economically, the forestry problem is of great importance to your state. About 25,000,000 acres of Kentucky soil are still classed as wood- lands. Under proper forestry, every acre of woodland pro- duces annually 200 feet b.m., worth about 40 cts. Thus your 25,000,000 acres could produce $10,000,000 per annum, a raw production which offers the wage earner a chance of obtain- ing $20,000,000 when the raw product is converted into fine product. It looks as if it was advisable to spend a few thousand dollars annually for the benefit of the forest when such prospects are at stake. And those prospects are not of a chimerical nature! They cannot fail to realize, if a second growth is allowed to spring up in our woods. The main obstacle to a second growth are forest fires preying on the young trees, which easily succumb to a conflagration, whilst the old timber is fairly well protected against damage by a fire proof armor of heavy bark enveloping the trunk. Possibilities Some thirty years ago, forest fires were a necessity; the tree like the rock, was an ob- stacle to the plow, and its shade prevented the development of field crops. The tree was a weed that had to be extir- pated. The momentum of tradition is so strong amongst our farming people living close to or in the midst of wood- lands, that both school and legislature will have a hard task when trying to end the antiquated practice of firing the woods. Still, this firing of woods must be stopped, if forestal investments shall have that degree of safety, which invites capital to embark in an industrial enterprise. Forest Fires PICTURES FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTH AND NORTH At Biltmore, unaided by legislative help, I am fighting the mountaineer bitterly, who destroys or threatens to de- stroy my growing wood crops. Gradually the development of my road system gives me an advantage. I make friends by giving employment; in case of a fire, a force of men is quickly hurried to the place of conflagration. A fire, unless fanned by a hurricane, scarcely jumps across a road, and if there be a strong wind, the road serves as a basis for back firing. I sincerely hope that those of you, who engage in fog- estry in this state, will find the legislature at Frankfort more favorably inclined towards forestry and forestal investments than the legislative body ruling the Tar Heel State. Whether or not an industry flourishes, depends on eco- nomic and civic conditions. The economic conditions are certainly favorable to forestry ; the prices of timber advance constantly, and the means of transportation are increased and cheapened from year to year. But unless forestry is offered that protection, to which it is entitled as a tax-payer, —a tax-payer, who is incidentally a benefactor to its coun- try—it cannot possibly find a foothold in Kentucky. There are two directions, in which forestry may develop: The one is “state forest re- serves;’' the other ‘ private forestry’? made possible by adequate legislation. I strongly advise you to take steps in both directions. Conclusion OUR YELLOW POPLAR. NOTES AND TABLES Showing Contents and Value of Poplar Logs and Poplar Trees collected and arranged by C. A. SCHENCK, Ph. D., Forest Assessor to the Government of Hesse-Darmstadt, Forester of the Biltmore Estate. OUR YELLOW POPLAR. NOTES AND TABLES Showing Contents and Value of Poplar Logs and Poplar Trees collected and arranged by C. A. SCHENCK, Ph. D., Forest Assessor to the Government of Hesse-Darmstadt, Forester of the Biltmore Estate. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. The wood owner and the forester unite in the endeavor of drawing the largest possible returns from the forests, with which they have to deal. The average wood owner, however, wishes to derive the highest possible cash receipts in the near- est possible future, striving to convert every portion of the property, soil and trees, minerals and waters, into money to be engaged in other speculations. The forester, on the contrary, allows any and all parts of the investment to remain invested, which are paying sufficient interest on their value, with a view of continued ownership over them for an indefinite time. On the other hand, the forester will take all such portions out of the investment as do not return, or cease to return good profits. He brings the capital invested down to the level—by diminishing it—or up to the level—by increasing it—at which it will return to him the ‘highest possible interest. For instance, the forester will sell the bottom lands, which yield higher returns under an agricultural crop than under a tree crop. Such lands, which show a fine cover of grass and a poor crop of trees, the forester will set aside for use as sheep or cattle pasture—pasture of course not after the fashion of the western herder, but in a systematic way, with a knowledge of the possible damage to the surrounding timber lands and a knowledge of the means to avert it. The most frequent question, however, to be solved by the forester, is: Will this or that tree, by its annual growth, bear sufficient interest on the price at which it can be disposed of, considering its size and quality? In Europe, where the number of timber species is small and where the forest contains sections stocked with trees of sub- stantially the same age, these questions are easily solved. Ow- ing to the equal age and size of trees over whole compart- ments, there is no need of concerning oneself with single trees. 2 Besides, the rate of growth of all species has been carefully in- vestigated ‘by the several governments. In the United States the forester must find out the truth himself, at so high an expense, that the private individual gen- erally detests forest investigations. When I came over to this country and was put in charge of about 100,000 acres of forest, I was much embarrassed on account of my absolute ignorance as to the value of the land of stumpage, of trees, of tree-growth, the rate of taxation, the value and output of logs, the cost and risks of lumbering, mill- ing, selling etc., etc. With the kind assistance of my young friends Griffith, Price, Olmsted, Loup and Schleussner, who were studying forestry at Biltmore during the last three years, I have now gathered some data concerning the main financial questions which meet a forester in Western North Carolina. Mr. G. W. Vanderbilt’s liberality and interest in forestry have enabled me to extend my investigations in relation to the following species: Poplar, Tulip tree, (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) Chestnut, (Castanea Americana Sarg.) Red oak, (Quercus alba L.) White oak, (Quercus rubra L.) Hemlock, (Tsuga Canadensis Carr.) Of course, I do not claim that the data given in the follow- ing pages relative to YELLOW POPLAR hold good for any other conditions than those prevalent in Western North Caro- lina, nor is it possible for private individuals to make any such investigations on a scale sufficient to guarantee their absolute correctness. However, my tables and remarks will throw some light upon the financial questions involved in forestry, and—this is my main hope and wish and expectation—will show the wood owner engaged in lumbering that the difference between aesthetic and financial forestry is about as great, as the differ- ence between the principles applied on the flower bed in a gentleman’s garden and those followed on the vegetable bed of a truck farm. 3 NOTES TO TABLE 1, TABLE 2, TABLE 3. It is well known among millmen that neither Doyle’s Log Rule, nor the Lumbermen’s Favorite Rule, nor Scribner’s Log Rule, are sufficiently exact to serve as a basis for calculation relative to the output of lumber from logs. During the past few years I sawed up nearly 1000 sample logs of yellow poplar cut in Pisgah Forest, Western North Carolina, noting carefully the-actual output secured from each single log. The following tables, 1, 2 and 3, show the contents for 12- foot logs, 14-foot logs and 16-foot logs respectively, thus as- certained, and give at the same time, to facilitate comparison, in a second and third column the figures as computed hy Doyle’s Rule and the Favorite Rule. I did not think it worth while to add Scribner’s Rule, which I understand is practically out of use. No one will buy ore without having a fair knowledge of its actual composition; nor did I wish to have to buy logs without knowing what they really contained. The mill of the Biltmore Lumber Co., at which the tests were made, uses a large band saw, cutting a $ inch kerf. The output consists almost entirely of one-inch boards. From the following tables, it appears, that the band saw ob- tains from logs less than 25 inches through more inch stuff, and from logs over 28 inches through less inch stuff than might be expected to be the case according to Doyle’s Rule. Lumberman’s Favorite Log Rule is on the safe side in all cases. The reader will find that the actual output from 12-foot logs is not exactly by one-seventh smaller, and that the actual output from 16-foot logs is not exactly by one-seventh larger than the one obtained from 14-foot logs. The deviation, how- ever, is minute and readily explained by any one who is famil- iar with poplar logs. 4 TABLE 1. MERCHANTABLE LUMBER IN PopLaR Locs OF 12 FOOT LENGTH, IN FEET Boarp MEASURE. Diam- According | According sone | OPES PORTE | io Rule. 12 78 48 49 13 96 61 62 4 112 5 7 ‘ 15 129 91 90 16 146 108 107 17 162 127 125 18 180 147 148 19 197 169 170 20 212 192 186 21 | 230 217 214 22 248 243 243 23 266 271 268 24 298 300 294 25 331 381 326 26 362 363 358 27 394 397 390 28 422 432 422 29 456 469 448 30 488 507 474 31 518 547 509 32 556 588 544 33 596 631 589 34 634 675 634 35 670 721 662 36 710 768 690 37 755 817 734 38 806 867 778 39 850 910 824 40 901 972 870 41 950 1027 910 42 1000 1083 950 43 1052 1141 1001 5 TABLE 2. MERCHANTABLE LUMBER IN Popiar Locs oF 14 FOOT LENGTH, IN Feet Boarp MEASURE. Diam- According | According er apaaaa ine eam 12 86 56 51 18 105 71 72 14 126 88 86 15 M47 106 105 16 169 126 124 W 189 148 145 18 209 qi 172 19 209 197 198 20 51 204 218 21 272 258 247 22 297. 288 283 28 330 313 312 2 362 350 343 % 396 886 380 26 429 428 417 27 464 468 455 28 500 504 492 29 542 547 522 30 585 501 558 31 626 638 598 32 667 686 634 83 m ! 726 687 34 760 787 739 35 814 841 772 36 865 806 805 87 922 958 856 38 977 1011 907 39 1038 1070 961 40 1078 1134 1015 44 1180 1198 1061 6 TABLE 3. MERCHANTABLE LUMBER IN PoPLaR Locs oF 16 Foot LENGTH, IN Feet BoarpD MEASURE. Diam- According | According ince ae | eee 12 93 64 64 13 116 81 82 14 138 100 98 15 166 121 120 16 188 144 142 17 212 169 166 18 238 196 197 19 262 225 226 20 282 256 248 21 811 289 285 29 341 324 824 23 382 359 857 24 411 400 892 25 460 441 484 26 500 484 476 27 539 530 520 28 576 576 562 29 626 625 596 30 676 676 632 31 726 729 678 32 780 784 725 33 830 841 785 34 880 900 845 35 952 961 882 36 1020 1024 920 87 1090 1089 978 7 NOTES TO TABLE 4, TABLE 5, TABLE 6, TABLE 7. 917 logs were graded and scaled carefully when entering the mill at the loghoist. Then the output of lumber grades sawed out of each single log was carefully and separately noted. Of course we cannot look inside the logs when grading them, and two logs of apparently even quality may not furnish the same quantity of lumber of the different grades. However, what we want to find out is the average output from logs of equal diameter and grade, as all our calculations must be based on averages. The output in my case consisted mainly of inch stuff. The inspection was rigid and constantly controlled by the fore- man. It is a well known fact, that inspection and reinspection never tally. The difference of the two, depending on the dry- ing process and the method of piling, is so uncertain in its ef- fect on the output that it has been entirely neglected in the following tables. Those who make use of them must allow for that difference according to the circumstances, and following their own judgment. The logs were arranged in four grades, viz: A. Logs free from any defect. B. Logs with one or two defects well located. C. Logs with three to five defects well located. D. Cull logs. , Accordingly I constructed the following 4 tables, denoted 4, 5, 6 and 7, finding out with the aid of graphical interpola- tion, what per cent. of 1s and 2s, of common, cull, ete., a log of a given grade and diameter contains. The percentage of 1s and 2s increases and the percentage of cull lumber decreases with increasing diameter of logs. The percentage of common decreases on the whole with in- creasing diameter, except in the case of cull logs. 8 TABLE 4. PERCENTAGE Or LuMBeER Grapes SawepD Out or Locs FREE From Any DEFECT. Diam. |1’s and Com- |Mill Dimen-|Bright |Stain’d|Clear |Ship’ng Total Inches.} 2's. mon. cull./sions. saps.| saps.| Strips./cull. 5 11 |.... reeset 40 |oceeeeee se ceecee lene sare lecccnces 60 100 12 Jeceseene porn OBE ils ate,asbuieie DE sraveiaresutote [seve iene, va 70 100 AB ]ececseee 2 2B |asseanes BI. sefoccens 70 100 ae I ecorericrs 5 21 8 3 Df seelane aes 61 100 15 2 i 20 7 4 DB fensccens 54 100 16 6 14 18 3 5 5 1 48 100 17 10 18 16 1 5 5 1 44 100 18 13 20 15 1 5 5 1 40] * 100 19 16 21 14 1 5 5 2 36 100 20 20 22 13 1 5 5 2 32 100 21 24 21 12 1 5 5 2 30 100 22 27 20 11 el 5 5 By 28 100 23 31 19 10 1 5 5 B) 26 100 24 35 17 10 ik 5 5 8 24 100 25 38 16 10 1 5 5 8 22 100 26 41 15 10 1 5 5 3 20 100 27 44 14 9 2 4 5 B} 19 100 28 47 13 9 2 3 5 3 18 100 29 49 12 9 2 3 5 8 17 100 30 52 11 9 3 2 5 3 15 100 31 55 10 8 3 2 5 8 14 100 32 57 10 8 2 2 5 Bi 18 100 33 59 10 8 2 2 5 2 12 100 34 62 9 8 1 2 4 2 12 100 35 64 9 Bi 'lasrsinetars 2 4 2 11 100 36 85 9 es ey 2 4 2 10 100 37 66 9 1 4 2 10 100 38 68 9 1 4 2 9 100 39 69 8 1 4 2 9 100 40 71 8 1 4 2 8 100 41 72 8 Reo 5 2 7 100 49 7B 7 8 cekatesel ae teiey 5; 2 7 100 43 74 7 6 |eeee sees 5 2 6 100 44 76 7 5 lecucevee|eceevees 5 2 5 100 9 TABLE 5. PERCENTAGE Or Lumper Grapes SaweD Out or Locs WirH ONE or Two DEFECTS. Rai ’s and Com- {Mill Dimen-|Bright |Stain’d|Clear snipe Total. nches.| 2’s. mon.} oull./ sions.| saps.| saps | strips.|cull. AY) oinor|ooseees ; |foecanucl| p Bonclooete Bio [adn sa be loxeonaellanan ostae| aauaniee 12 dred eters [dette aci eae race i suid ise sovda| ciealsolaeie lee epee 13 |... de Suter | siesta lata aieen|! dag | lhsedtrentans Lesdecnats wise rss) enaleaan’s a eee aside vids [wenttmeneaeaeees taawave lee! “leesae Sel etar aig leagues 15 2 14 9B: lene al eroree I lesnanaes 58 100 16 8 |] 22 OD leneveas 8 leew naued 55 100 Yy 5 17 18 2 lesanee's 8 1 54 100 _ 18 6 18 16 2 3 1 52 100 19 8 19 15 Dl ecaan : 8 1 50 100 20 9 20 l4 B lscocives 3 1 48 100 21 10 21 14 4 1 8 1 46 100 22 12 21 18 5 1 8 1 44 100 23 4 22 12 5 a 3 1 42 100 24 16 22 i 6 1 8 1 40 100 25 18 24 10 6 1 3 1 37 100 26 19 4 10 6 2 8 1 85 100 27 21 24 10 6 2 3 1 38 100 28 28 23 10 5 2 4 1 82 100 29 26 1 10 5 2 4 1 81 100 80 29 20 10 4 2 4 2 29 100 81 31 19 10 4 2 4 3 28 100 32 83 18 10 8 2 4 3 27 100 33 36 18 10 8 2 3 8 25 100 34 38 18 10 8 2 8 8 28 100 35 41 18 10 2 2 2 3 22 100 36 44 ag 10 2 2 lg 38 20 100 87 47 MW 9 2 1 2 3 19 100 38 50 7 8 2 1 2 3 Ww 100 39 58 Ww 7 1 1 2 8 16 100 40 58 1 Gs | aiatevetis 1 2 2 14 100 10 TABLE 6. PERCENTAGE Or LumBeR GRaDES SAwED Our or Locs WitH THREE To Five DEFEcrs. Diam. |1’s and|Com- {Mill Dimen-/Bright /Stain’d/Clear |Ship’ng Total. Inches.| 2’s. mon. cull.| sions.| saps saps.| strips, cull. 25 5 31 14 2 1 By 2 42 100 26 6 80 18 2 1 4 2 42 100 27 8 29 12 2 1 4 2 42 100 28 10 28 12 2 1 4 2 41 100 29 12 27 11 2 1 4 2 41 100 30 15 25 11 2 1 4 2 40 100 31 17 24 11 2 1 4 2 39 , 100 32 19 23 11 2 1 3 2 39 100 33 21 22 11 2 1 3 2 38 100 34 25 20 10 2 1 3 2 87 100 35 27 19 10 2 1 3 2 36 100 36 29 17 10 2 1 3 2 36 100 37 31 15 10 2 1 3 2 36 100 38 34 | 14 9 2 1 3 2 35 100 39 | 38 | 11 8 2 1 3 2 35 100 It TABLE 7. PERCENTAGE Or LumsBer Graprs SAWED Our or Cutt Locs. Diam. |1’s and|Com- |Mill Dimen-|Bright |Stain’d|Clear Ship'ng Total. Inches.| 2’s. mon.| cull.| sions.| saps.| saps.| strips./cul!. pln Career pba ee a Remrasicnd oacneece Halll dcietas Nsmistepsitinis ee errr eee AD Nereis. sieut |store avenjess antes’ Nope av uzesevorvcahel a foiavoriatoaaer| cove aia afeindes | tasaratanecoraye eiSierps ier [interests ALD. eg /ahs gts tcle [he casevedeieiens [redereeseretars eset ai soipaner ove i sere avietets sateisleta: Nee GaN VA | aca cens[oces cons eyalit steyatees ugiasa coynie' | weoseisiatnarg easy aigseterstlnaisies « fo lheeistaintseel ay “sea DD jl ay sis See 1 7 BO |.eeeeeee seeeeees 62 100 16 0 2 7 28 1 2 1 59 100 17 1 3 8 26 1 2 1 58 100 18 1 4 8 26 1 2 1 57 100 19 1 5 9 25, 1 2 1 56 100 20 2 6 9 25 1 2 1 54 100 21 2 7 9 25 1 2 1 53 100 22 3 7 10 24 1 2 1 52 100 23 3 8 10 23 1 2 1 52 100 24 4 9 9 23 1 2 1 51 100 25 4 10 9 22 1 2 1 51 100 26 5 11 9 21 1 2 1 50 100 27 5 11 9 21 1 2 1 50 100 28 6 12 9 20 1 2 1 49 100 29 6 12 9 20 1 2 1 49 100 30 6 13 8 20 1 2 i 1 49 100 81 7 14 8 19 1 2 1 48 100 32 vi 15 9 19 1 2 1 46 100 33 8 15 9 18 1 2 1 46 100 34 9 16 10 AT |aseveeee 1 1 46 100 35 9 17 10 aU (eae 1 1 46 100 36 10 18 Ud AS: |tunaccalaeeeeseel «faces 46 100 37 10 19 11 Vd | ceeeeeed icc v eens sane 46 100 38 11 20 | 11 D2 esis eveiw seeeleees 46 100 39 it 24 12 10 asie 2 acta ween aie 46 100 40 12 22 12 8: svew'seaa) naeenial xaevase 46 100 12 NOTES TO TABLE 8, TABLE 9, TABLE 10, TABLE 11. It is highly important for every millman to know the actual cash value of the lumber in a given log. In order to get the necessary information, the various per- centages of lumber grades contained in a log of a given des- cription (see tables 4, 5, 6 and 7,) were multiplied by their re- spective yard prices, which at the time of my investigations were assumed to ‘be the following per 1000 feet board meas- ure: 1s and Qs, $21. Bright saps, $16. Clear strips, $16. Stained saps, $12. Common, $12. Dimension stuff, $6.50. Shipping cull, $6.50. Mill cull, $5. Of course the prices of any product are subject to variation, according to times and localities. However, the following tables may still be applied with slight modifications, if the prices rise 10 per cent. higher or fall 5 per cent. lower. A child can make the necessary corrections. The tables will lose their value only when the different grades of lumber show a decidedly divergent tendency of change for better or worse; when, for instance, 1s and 2s gain 10 per cent., whilst common and cull lose 10 per cent. The “Values of lumber sawed out of logs” are grouped in four tables, according to the four grades of logs distinguished. Table 8 shows the values of lumber from logs free from de- fects. Table 9 shows the values of lumber from logs with one or two defects well located. Table 10 shows the values of lumber from logs with three to five defects well located. Table 11 shows the values of lumber from cull logs. 13 TABLE 8. VALUE Or LuMBER ACTUALLY SAWED Out oF Locs WitHout Any DEFECTs. PER 1000’ B. M. IN DOLLARS. Diam. |1’s and|Com- |Mill Dimen- [Bright | tain’d/Clear |Ship’ng Total. Inches.| 2’s. mon. eull.| sions saps.| saps.| strips. eull. AE aca swailctoeres|| 62200! lesen) seennacte | setefeseesees] $8.90 | $5.90 12! enon welhcseasac|) AVAOM be tenes $0.82 jovee oe fii iste 4.55 6.27 18 |......66] $0.94} 1.25 [oe .e. AB) P< - -sejeisedlecndtarnsisee 4.55 6.52 Ste) seed ce 60 | 1.05] $0.52 48} $0.24 |........] 8.96 6.85 15 | $042/ 1.82] 1.00 45 64 Yl ane eee 7.58 16] 1.26] 1.68 90 19 80 60 | $0.16 | 3.12 8.71 17] 2.10] 2.16 80 06 80 60 16 | 2.86 9.54 18] 2.7 2.40 2) 06 80 60 16| 2.60] 10.10 19 | 3.86] 2.52 70 06 80 60 32] 2.84] 10.70 20] 4.20] 2.64 65 06 80 60 82} 2.08 | 11.35 21] 5.04] 2.52 60 06 80 60 32] 1.95] 11.89 22| 5.67] 2.40 55 06 80 60 48| 1.82] 12.88 23 | 6.51] 2.98 50 06 80 60 48] 1.69] 12.92 24 7.85 2.04 50 06 80 60 48 1.56 13.39 2% | 7.98] 1.92 50 06 80 60 48] 1.48} 13°77 26) 8.61] 1.80 50 06 80 60 48] 180] 14.15 27| 9.24) 1.68 45 18 64 60 48| 1.98] 14.45 28| 9.87] 1.56 45 18 48 60 48] 1.47] 14.74 29) 10.29] 1.44 45 18 48 60 48] 1.10] 14.97 80] 10.92] 1.82 45 19 32 60 48 98 | 15.26 BL] 11.55} 1.20 40 19 32 60 48 o1| 15.65 32] 11.97] 1.20 40 18 32 60 48 81 | 15.94 33 | 12.30] 1.20 40 18 32 60 32 78 | 16.14 34] 1802] 1.08 40 08 32 48 32 78 | 16.46 35 | 18.44] 1.08 AOS ehaatiee 32 48 32 71 | 16.75 36) 13.65] 1.08 0) ssetescds 32 48 32 65 | 16.90 a7 | 18.86 | 1.08 40 Jew... ; 16 48 | 2 65 | 16.95 38 | 14.28] 1.08 BD? cidconers 16 48 32 58] 17.25 39 | 14.49 96 85: laniacczeys 16 48 32 58 | 17.34 40 | 14.91 96 80: eaamerres 16 48 32 52| 17.65 41 | 15.12 96 60 32 45] 17.75 42 | 15.88 96 60] 82 45 | 17.96 43 | 15.54 84 60 32 39} 17.99 44] 15.96 84 60 | 32 32] 18,29 14 TABLE 9. VALUE Or LuMBER ACTUALLY SAweéD Out or Locs WirH ONE or Two DEFECTS. PER 1000! B. M., IN DOLLARS. bee I's and Com- {Mill Dimen-|Bright |stain'’d|Clear [Ship'ng Total nches.| 2's. mon. cull.) sions.| saps.| saps.| strips. cull. : 15 |} $ 0.42) $1.68 | $1.25 | see e cea $0.12 arse nace $3 77 | $ 7.24 16 63 1.80 1.10 | $0.13 |.....05. BBE | ereceieiseinsave 3.07 7.59 17 1.05 2.04 90 1B | weeeeee 36 | $0.16 3.51 8.15 18 1.26 2.16 80 18: |essucuns 36 16 3.38 8.25 19 1 68 2 28 75 IS: eswaae 36 16 3.25 8.61 20 1.89 2.40 70 BQ) |e: ae 36 16 3.12 8.95 21 2 10 2.52 70° 26 | $0.16 36 16 2.99 9.25 22 2.52 2.52 65 32 16 36 16 2.86 9.55 23 2.94 2.64 60 32 16 36 16 are 9.91 24 3.36 2.64 55 39 16 36 16 2.60 10.22 25 3.78 2.88 50 39 16 36 16 2.40 10.63 26 3 99 2.88 50 39 32 36 16 2.27 10.87 27 4.41 2.88 50 39 32 36 16 2.14 11.16 28 4.83 2.76 50 32 32 48 16 2.08 11.45 29 5.46 2.52 50 32 32 48 16 2.01 11.78 30 6.09 2.40 50 26 32 48 32 1.88 12.25 81 6.41 2.28 50 26 32 48 48 1.82 12.55 32 6.93 2.16 50 19 32 48 48 1.76 12.82 33 7.56 2.16 50 19 32 36 48 1.63 13.20 34 7.98 2.16 50 19 32 36 48 1.49 13.48 35 8.61 2.16 50 13 32 24 48 1.43 13.87 36 9.24 2.04 50 13 32 24 48 1.30 14.25 37 9.87 2.04 45 18 16 24 48 1.28 14,60 88 | 10.50 )+ 2.04 40 13 16 24 48 1.10 15.05 39} 11.18 2.04 35 06 16 24 48 1.04 15.50 40 12.18 2.04 B30 Jovee wees 16 Q4 32 91 16.15 15 TABLE ito. VALUE Or LumBer SAWED Out oF Locs WitH THREE To Five DeFEctTs. PER 1000’ B. M., IN DOLLARS. Diam. |l'sand |Com- |Mill__ |Dimen-/Bright |Stain’d|Clear |Ship’ng| motay Inches.| 2’s. mon.| cull.| sions.) saps.| saps.| strips| culls. : 25 | %1.05 | 43.72 $0.70 | $0.13 | $0.16 | $0.36 | $0.32 | $2 738 | $ 9.17 26 1.26 3.60 65 13 16 48 32 2.73 9.33 27 1.68 3.48 60 13 16 48 32 2.78 9.58 28 2.10 3.36 60 13 16 48 32 2.66 9.81 29 2 52 8.24 55 13 16 48 382 2.66 10.06 30 3.15 3.00 55 13 16 48 32 2.60 10.39 31 3.57 2.88 55 13 16 48 32 2.53 10.62 32 3.99 2.76 55 13 16 36 32 2.53 10.80 33 4.41 2.64 55 13 16 36 32 2.47 11.04 34 §.25 2.40 50 13 16 36 32 2.40 11.52 35 5.67 2,28 50 13 16 36 32 2.34 11.76 36 6.09 2.04 50 18 16 36 32 2.34 11.94 37 6.51 1.80 50 13 16 36 32 2.34 12.12 38 7.14 1.68 45 18 16 36 32 2.27 12.51 39 7.98 1.32 40 13 16 36 32 2.27 12.94 16 TABLE u. VALUE Or LumBer ACTUALLY SAWED Our oF CuLL Loss. PER 1000’ B. M., IN DOLLARS. abated 1's and Com- |Mill Dimen-|Bright |Stain’d|Clear |Ship’ng Total. nches.| 2's. mon. euli.| sions.; saps.| saps.| strips. eull. 15 |...eeeee] $0.12 | $0 85 | $1.95 |...... a oo $4.03 $6.45 IG: | eaweeens 24 35 1.82 | $0.16 | $0.24 | $0.16 3.83 6.80 17 | $0.21 36 40 1.69 16 24 16 3.77 6.99 18 21 48 40 1.69 16 24 16 3.70 7.04 19 21 60 45 1.62 16 24 16 3.64 7.08 20 42 72 45 1.62 16 24 16 8.51 7.28 21 42 84 45 1.62 16 24 16 3 45 7.84 22 63 84 50 1.56 16 24 16 3.38 TAT 23 63 96 50 1.49 16 24 16 8.38 7.52 24 84 1.08 45 1.49 16 24 16 3.32 7.74 25 84 1.20 45 1.43 16 24 16 3.31 7.79 26 1.05 1.32 45 1.36 16 24 16 3.25 7.99 27 1.05 1.32 45 1.36 16 24 16 3.25 7.99 28 1.26 1.44 45 |. 1.30 16 24 16 8.18 8.19 29 1.26 1.44 45, 1.30 16 24 16 3.18 8.19 30 1.26 1.56 40 1.30 16 24 16 3.18 8.26 31 1.47 1.68 40 1.23 16 24 16 3.12 8.46 32 1.47 1.80 45 1.23 16 24 16 2.99 8.50 33 1.68 1.80 45 1.17 16 24 16 2.99 8.65 34 1.89 1.92 50 1.10 |...-.06- 12 16 2.99 8.68 35 1.89 2.04 50 1.04 |........ 12 16 2.99 8.74 36 2.10 2.16 55 DT sesenccaslecnecveetecssones 2.99 8.77 37 2.10 2.28 55 91 |..... eceevecelocasence 2.99 8.83 38 2.31 2.40 55 TB i asseseenyenssevecfecervees 2.99 90.3 39 2.31 2.52 60 GS | csc sn beatele | Geateieverwins [teieiaiate dia 2.99 9.07 40 2.52 2.64 60 BD |rcevecscloceecers[oescvars 2.99 9.27 17 NOTES TO TABLE 12. The term, “stem analysis,” designates a well established method of determining the exact size of a tree in a given year of its life time. I applied this method, combined with graphical interpola- tion, to 20 poplar trees, growing cv various soils and expos- ures, and ascertained what logs 12 feet, 14 feet or 16 feet long and scaling 14 inches or more at the small end might have been obtained from each tree when 100, 120, 140, 160, etc., years old. Adding the contents of these logs for a given age and given conditions of growth, I arrived at the data put to- gether in the following table. . By “Conditions of growth” is understood the influence of soil, moisture and exposure upon tree growth. Yield tables, such as table 12, have only a local value. There cannot be any doubt that the growth of yellow poplar in Crockett County, Tennessee, far excels that in Henderson and Transylvania Counties of Western North Carolina, for which table 12 and all the following tables based thereon are claimed to hold good. : Under average conditions of growth, trees less than 140 years old, and under poor conditions of growth trees less than about 220 years old are not fit for the saw. Trees scaling 1000 feet B. M. can be grown only in the course of at least two centuries. The annual growth of a tree from its 150th year on, gen- erally speaking, amounts to about 10 feet B. M. MERCHANTABLE CONTENTS OF A SOUND TREE IN FEET BOARD 18 TABLE 12. MEASURE, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO AGE OF TREE. ace youre, | constageree | Condidvees? | oomiile’S growth, growth. growth, 120 0" ee ea 140 204 50 Sie Winintniecoinane sees 160 516 202 ae dene venceeceness 180 800 380 pe enneesereneneess 200 1070 561 rere rere rer Tres 220 peeseeseeves eveee 746 120 240 slnieipieidaieinysleiaiiee Wie io’ 924 244 260 oe eeeececeenceveee 1120 870 280 soccer nesses coneee 490 19 NOTES TO TABLE 13. Under given conditions of growth, a tree will show a certain diameter ata given age. The relation between age and diam- eter at 4 feet from ground (breastheight) is given on table 13. The diameter of a poplar, 4 feet from ground, grows at the rate of 3 inches in 20 years from its 40th to its 100th year. Thereafter the rate of diameter growth becomes gradually less, beg about 2 inches in 20 years at the age 200. This rule can be considered to be correct for average condi- tions of growth in Western. North Carolina. DIAMETER WITHOUT Bark ATTAINED BY YELLOW POPLAR 4 FEET 20 TABLE 13. From GROUND. tn yoave, | oondeideese | Gadhgarel | coniitidee a growth. growth. growth. 40 nee Taphee ci Faoliee: 60 9.5 71 4.5 80 12.8 10.2 6.7 100 16.0 13.3 9.0 120 18.8 15.9 11.1 140 21.3 18.2 13.2 160 23.5 20.4 15.1 180 25.7 22.4 17,0 200 27.7 24.8 18.5 220 29.6 26.0 20.0 21 NOTES TO TABLE 14. Table 14 is computed from table 12 and table 13 so as to show what quantity of lumber, in feet board measure, a sound tree may be expected to contain on an average when its diame- ter 4 feet from ground and freed from bark, reaches a given number of inches. The volme-increment of a tree does not run parallel to the diameter-increase. A diameter-increase of 2 inches corresponds with a volume-increment of about 125 feet B. M. in the case of trees 18 inches through, and of about 250 feet B. M. in the case of trees about 27 inches through. In others words, whilst a tree 18 inches through adds 125 feet B. M. to its volume by growing 2 inches larger, a tree 27 inches through adds about 250 feet B. M. to its volume when grow- ing 2 inches larger at breastheight. 22 TABLE 14. MERCHANTABLE CONTENTS OF A SOUND TREE IN FEET BoarD Mras- URE ARRANGED ACCORDING TO DIAMETER OF TREE 4 FEET FRoMm GROUND. If the diameter at Under good Under average Under poor 4 feet from the conditions of conditions of conditions of ground measures: growth. growth. growth. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. 18 82 60 oe 20 216 186 eee 22 370 340 280 24 584 520 465 26 838 744 aera 28 1120 sents sieats 23 NOTES TO TABLE 15. Table 15 is computed from table 12 and table 8, deducting from the values of logs given on the latter all expenses in- curred for converting standing trees into lumber ready for shipment. These expenses, on Mr. Vanderbilt’s. property, amount to from $9 to $11 per 1000 feet B. M., according to the circumstances prevailing in the different sections of the huge tract. Example: Under average conditions of growth, a poplar tree, which can be logged and sawed and handled at an ex- pense of $11 per 1000 feet B. M. is worth 109 cents at the age of 220 years, and 330 cents at the age of 260 years. The market value of a tree is negative, if the aggregate log- ging and milling expenses to be spent on it are in excess of the value of the lumber obtainable from it. The following. tables have reference only to sound trees free from defects. Logically, I ought to give the observations con- tained in these tables for trees with one or two defects, for trees with three to five defects, and for trees containing cull logs only, as well. However, calculations and mere figures are annoying enough, and I anticipate the wish of the reader, to have such statements curtailed as much as possible. As appears from table 8, the lumber in logs 16 inches through at the small end is worth $8.71 per 1000 feet. In logs 17 inches through at the small end it is worth $9.54 per 1000 feet. In logs 19 inches through at the small end it is worth $10.70 per 1000 feet. Therefore, where the logging and milling expenses are $9 per 1000 feet, logs 16 inches through ought not to be held out; whilst where they are $10, logs 17 inches through, and where they are $11, logs 19 inches through ought not to be cut, their value being negative. On the other hand, it appears from the notes to table 12 that I included logs of 14 inches diameter when computing the volume of my trees, and the values of table 15 are based on the same understanding. It would lead me too far to defend the course actually adopted. Suffice it to state, that the cor rectness of the following tables is scarcely affected by it. 24 TABLE 15. MarkKeET VALUE OF POPLAR STUMPAGE IN WESTERN NorTH Caro- LINA, PER TREE, IN CENTS. At the Under good conditions., Under average condi-|Under poor conditions. age of Logging and milling tions. Logging and Logging and milling Ae +3 expenses being per jmiliing expenses being | expenses being per yours. 1000 feet B. M. per 1000 feet B. M, 1000 feet B. M. $9. $10. $11. $9. $10. $11. $9. $10. $11. 100 Neg- Neg- |Neg- |Neg- Neg- Neg- Neg- |Neg- |Neg- ative.| ative.| ative.; ative., ative.| ative.| ative.| ative.| ative. 120 8 ay 77 oe be oe +i ray ct7 140 40 25 “ 4 “ “ “ “ “ 160 105 72 2 22 5 ar rs te we 180 265 170 98 67 35 sy ba ss bad 200 445 325 230 160 103 30 “e ef a 220 620 465 350 287 200 109 uf ae 240 430 380 210 27 3 a 260 460 330 60 25 we , 280 : : 45 oe 800 5 320 30 Foot NOTE: Dots below a column of figures indicate higher values, not specifically ascertained. : The values above the columns of figures are all negative and were not. ascertained specifically either. 25 NOTES TO TABLE 16. It depends entirely on the individual judgment of the forest proprietor whether he is satisfied with annual interest of 2 per cent. or 3 per cent. or 4 per cent., ete. Of course, for forestry as well as for any other business, the rule holds good, that “high interest” on capital invested “means bad security”—the quotation is from the Duke of Wellington. From tree-growth, to judge from 100 years experience abroad, it is impossible to obtain a constant return of more than 3 per cent. compound interest. Trees do not grow quickly, and if shorter rotations yielding seemingly higher returns were generally attempted, the market would soon be flooded with lumber of low grade, the output from young trees. To my individual judgment, an expected yield of 3 per cent. appeals most, as such a yield can certainly be secured year af- ter year. Therefore, I consider a tree of that age and that diameter “mature” which yields in annual growth a return of 3 per cent. on its stumpage value. The diameters in breastheight at this “age of maturity” are shown on the following table. Where the logging and milling expenses are low, and where the conditions of growth are poor, trees of smaller size must be considered mature, than would be the case under re- verse circumstances. Previous to the age of maturity the annual growth of a tree amounts to more than 3 per cent. of its stumpage value. After the age of maturity the annual growth of a trec amounts to less than 3 per cent. of its stumpage value. (Com- pare table 17.) 26 TABLE 16. DIAMETER OF SouND PopLarR TREES, 4 FEET From GrRounpb, WitTHouT Bark, AT AGE OF MaTuRITY. (1). Under good conditions of growth: When logging and milling expenses are $ 9. per 1000 ft. B.M. 25.7 inches. “ “e ce “ “cr oe Io. ce “es oe 26.7 4c oe oe ace ins ee “ce Il. “ce ia} “cc 27:7 a (2). Under average conditions of growth : When logging and milling expenses are $ 9. per 1000 ft. B.M. 25.2 inches. ae ae oe fe “e “se 10. oe et ae 26.1 ing vc “ ce “ 6 6c Ty, * 6c “cr 27.0 “e (3). Under poor conditions of growth: When logging and milling expenses are $ 9. per 1000 ft. B.M. 22.9 inches. ae oe ae ae s oe ce Io. ae “ ae 23.7 Lay 7 “ec “ . y " ss acide’ © | Sea ees Dei oe 27 NOTES TO TABLE 17. The table shows, what percentage on the stumpage value of a tree the wood owner derives annually by allowing the tree to live on at a given age. The calculation is based entirely on the data of table 15. Example: Where the logging and milling expenses amount to $10 per 1000 feet B. M., a poplar growing under good con- ditions yields by its annual increment, from the 180th to the 200th year of its life, 3 per cent. interest. After that time it. ought to be cut down, as the increment will fall below 3 per cent. (Compare notes to table 16.) Rule 1. A tree is financially ripe for the axe when its an- nual increment no longer yields more than 38 per cent. inter- est on its stumpage value. 2. The better the conditions of growth and the smaller the logging and milling expenses are, the sooner is a tree ripe for the axe. 3. The annual interest on the stumpage value of a poplar tree furnished by its annual growth is very high, whilst it is young—certainly more than 8 per cent. in the case of trees less than 120 years old. 4. With the advancing age of a tree, the annual inter- est on its stumpage value decreases. It stands above zero, how- ever, as long as the tree lives undamaged. 5. The value of a tree is still increasing at the rate of at least 14 per cent., under good conditions, when the tree is 200 years old; under average conditions, when the tree is 250 years old; under poor conditions when the tree is about 300 years old. 28 TABLE 17. ' ANNUAL INTEREST ON PoPLAR STUMPAGE, PER TREE, TO BE OBTAINED FRoM THE ANNUAL GROWTH. During, |Teoeciog nnd in| lave “Lous cend” (pees React” years of | expenses per 1000 feet | milling expenses per | expenses per 1000 feet Sa B. M. being, 1000 feet B. M. being, B. M. being, 59. $10. $11. $9. $10. fll. $9. $10. $11. % % % % % %o % % % 120 to 140 8 sn eennsa[erccenne acainishaneses over’ as eee 140 to 160 5 5+ . 8t os tee 160 to 180 44 44 oo 6 10 ceeeeeee seneee 180 to 200 24 3 4 4} 6 || Sewanee asentewctall eewoar-actewminees 200 to 220 1} 1t 2 38 34 6 ogee 220 to 240 |...... 195] eceioien ‘sieil acelpvorecs 2 2 24 Bib HE Hesaamsuipissane’ asnctisiecn an 240 TO! 280 | osceiawieinne | vin viniwieinini| wietetsere ein /sisieininreres 1} 1} 4 TY, | eteresercarses 260 tO 280 |..ceeveeierees iss saiatarefassi wes | cars ales vil lenis arene agiesereatere] marae venis Bo fowseaces 280 to 300 |.......5 seawaiellemas: SHlagors vaslasccveen|ecesesve! 6s. saleccewcar[eoeeee ot BOO CO: B20. lraycrasese vais ieisiecetesere vel a ateietese. 08 Ihave ses8 wuniesd oreidie:ecaieies| ve/dieincedotal) iesnieieracniai iveceiass Seis 9 Foot Note: Dots above a column of figures indicate higher interest ; and dots below a column of figures indicate lower interest not ascer- tained specifically. 29 NOTES TO TABLE 18. We all know, that a young colt has some value in spite of its present unfitness for service. An immature tree likewise has a value, which is arrived at by calculation backwards at 3 per cent. compound interest on the value of the mature tree. For imstance, under good con- ditions of growth, (logging and milling expenses estimated to be $10 per 1000 feet B. M.) asound poplar tree is mature at 190 years, being worth $2.47 at that age. The value of a tree only 100 years old, under similar circumstances, will be found 247 to be 1030 = 17.2 cents. In Germany, this value of immature trees is called rather awkwardly the “expectation value.” The stumpage value of a poplar 100 years old is negative, as appears from table 15. The wood owner will lose money when cutting and logging a tree 100 years old. Besides, he will meet a “lucrum cessans,” or will give up a possible profit of 17.2 cents, obtainable if he would allow the tree to grow 190 years old. The stumpage value of trees before they have reached the age of financial maturity is below their expectation value, 30 TABLE 18. Present VaLue oF ImMMatTuRE Sounp PopnarR ‘TREES, IF ALLOWED To Grow up to Economic Martority, IN CENTS. Under good conditions.| Under average condi- [Under poor conditions. At the | Logging and milling | tions Logging and Logging and milling age of expenses being, milling expenses being, expenses being, ee #9. $10. $1. $9. $10. $11. $9. $10. $11. 20 2.8 1.6 1.1 0.8 0,5 0.3 40 4.2 2.9 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.1 60 vows 5.3 3.7 2.7 1.8 1.0 0.1 . 80 18.8 9.7 6.6 4.8 3.2 1.9 0.8 0.1 100 24.9 17.2 11.9 8.6 5.7 3.4 05 0.2 120 45.0 81.1 21.6 15 6 10.4 6.1 0.8 0.4 140 82.1 56.7 39.4 28.5 18.9 11.1 1.5 0.8 160 145.7 101.0 69.8 50.6 83.5 19.8 2.7 1.8 180 5 183.0 | 127.0 92.0 61.0 36.0 5.0 2.5 200 . e . 167.0 | 111.0 66.0 10.0 5.0 220 ; . . j : 119.0 18.0 8.0 240 ‘ ‘ A z . 33.0 15.0 ~ 260 r é _ , . . 27.0 31 NOTES TO TABLE 109. The table gives the difference between the present value of the expected yield of immature trees and their actual stump- age value. (Expectation value minus market value.) . The breeder of horses will never. think of selling a colt for the value of its hide and flesh. No doubt he will ask a price proportionate to the expected value of the full grown horse. Why does the tree grower act differently? Example: The wood owner, who allows a tree growing un- der “average conditions of growth” to be cut at the age of 160 years, loses 28.6 cents, in case the logging and milling ex- penses amount to $9 per 1000 feet B. M. From its 160th to its 180th year the tree would yield 6 per cent., and from its 180th to its 200th year, 44 per cent. com- pound interest. (Table 17). The age of economic maturity for this tree is in the neighborhood of 210 years, when its in- crement will be about 3 per cent. 32 TABLE 1g. Loss IncurRED TuRoveH Curring TREES aT TOO YOUNG AN Aap, IN CENTS. The Wood Owner, who Allows Immature, Sound Poplar Trees to be Cut, Loses for Each Tree : tthe |"Logelig and milling "| tone. ‘Lenstes ang’ (Loewe amenities ier ere expenses being, milling expenses being, expenses being, $9. $10. $11. $9. $10. $11. $9. $10, $i1. cents. | cents. | cents | cents | cents. | cents. | cen's. | cents.| cents 120 DTD? | isistaxe sisal issersisis auey| scossiavivaieisilnsorerenesaosel|| save‘tvczevaye| lscenavaresavay] fOieseanelowed| felavovalalSase 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 Foot NOTE: Dots within the columns of figures indicate amounts, which could not be ascertained with sufficient accuracy. 33 NOTES TO TABLE 20. Whilst table 19 states the loss incurred by cutting or selling immature trees according to their respective ages, table 20 is meant to show the unwisdom of cutting trees of too small a diameter. The calculation is based on the data given. by tables 14,.15 and 19. Example: Under average conditions of growth, (logging and milling expenses being $10,) the owner loses 27.1 cents for every ‘tree which he allows to be cut when only 22 inches through at breastheight, free from bark. 34 TABLE 20. Loss Incurrep THRoveH Currina TREES oF Too SMALL A DIAMETER, IN CENTS. The Wood Owner, who Allows Immature, Sound Poplar Trees to be Cut, Loses for Each Tree: If the di- |Under good conditions.| Under average condi- |Under poor conditions. ameter at | Logging and milling tions. Logging and Logging and milling 4 tt. sant expenses being. milling expenses being, expenses being, ground is: inches $9. $10. $11. $9. $10, $11. $9. $10. $11. cents |cents | cents. | cents. | cents.| cents. | cents. | cents. | cents, Foot NOTE: Dots within the columns of figures indicate amounts which could not be ascertained with sufficient accuracy. LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Pu.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate, N. C. Second Part: ««FORESTRY CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.’’ Biltmore Forest School, Directors’ Office. Biltmore, N. C., January 1, 1904. Dear Sir—My lectures on Forest Policy appear in print, pri- marily, for the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore For- est School. Forestal text-books fit for American use not being available, I have been forced, for a number of years, to lengthily dictate the essence of my lectures. The following pages merely record the dictation. They are not intended for public sale. I most sincerely request, dear sir, that you may lend me your aid in checking; and correcting the data cores your “State, namely, ...6 00. cle cce eee eeeeeees » given on page-sr. safe By so that this little vofume, duly filed and controlled by eéllebera: ting friends, may thereafter publicly appear, in a better garment and improved contents, for the benefit of the American studerit of forestry. Thanking you for any kindness that you may deem fit to show me in connection with the improvement of my lectures on “Forest Policy,’ I am, dear sir, Most truly yours, LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Pu.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate, N. C. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ALABAMA: 1. Area: 38,300 square miles, or 74% of total area, are wooded. 2. Physiography: The Cumberland Mountains force the Tennessee River into Alabama, where it forms a huge curve. The Appalachian Mountains send a double chain of mountains, in a northeast to southwest direction, from Chattanooga to Birming- ham. Tombigby River and Alabama River join just before emp- tying into Mobile Bay. Chattahoochee River on Georgia line. Southern section of State undulating, swamps alternating with slightly elevated dunes. Mountains near Birmingham bear coal and iron. 3. Distribution: The southern third of the State is oc- cupied by long leaf and Cuban pine; the former on dry, the latter on wet land. Four large isolated tracts of long leaf pine (unaccompanied by Cuban pine) in the northern half of State. Taeda occurs all over the State in varying proportion, accompanying here long leaf, there echinata or hardwoods. Echinata is found, generally, outside the region of Cuban pine and does not proceed to the coast. Best stumpage of echinata on upland, with oak undergrowth. Pine stumpage estimated, in 1880, to be 21 billion feet b. m. Enormous cypress swamps along the rivers. Outside the long leaf pine sections, the hardwoods, notably black, Span- ish and post oak, prevail in number, but not in importance. In the curve of the Tennessee River, the southernmost sentinels of the fine hardwood and red cedar forests once typical for Tennes- 3 FOREST POLICY. see. In the mountain section, the flora of the Cumberland plateau (see under Tennessee), with some little white pine and hemlock. 4. Forest ownership: 525 firms own 1,224,000 acres of forest. The federal government, State railroads and homestead- ers are the chief owners. 5. Use of timber: Destructive lumbering only of recent date. Huge deserts are nowhere left by the lumber jack, as is the case in the lake States. No pine resists fire better than long leaf. Cuban pine is protected by its position. The industry threaten- ing ruin to the forests is the turpentine industry, which leaves only taeda intact. The output of the saw mills was in TORO) so ccsctanssastreseueecasubsaosts $ 2,700,000 TOQO! is. tueksdetinsenaie shuns 8,500,000 TOQOO! 2rgeuennrecurins tor 12,900,000 The cut in 1900 consisted of:— Yellow pine ............ 1,012,000,000 feet b. m Other conifers ......... 32,000,000 feet b. m. White oak ............. 61,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods ...... 44,000,000 feet b. m TOtall, acicaisivanis 1,149,000,000 feet b. m. Mil! investments average $5,251 with 1,087 mills. Logs on stump are worth $1.20, at mill $4.30 per 1,000 feet b. m. Cooper- age stock production, in 1900, is valued at $200,000; miscellaneous sawn products at $400,000; shingles, notably cypress shingles, at $460,000. In 1885, the naval store industry yielded $851,000. Leather industry surprisingly large, producing, in 18 tan- neries, $1,098,000 worth of leather and using 18,651 cords of oak bark, worth $62,628. Paper and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Fire laws of 1852, against wilful or negligent firing. Firing turpentine orchards is under a fine of $100 to $1,000, or punishable with hard labor for not more than 12 months. 8 Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: 89 acres of land were irrigated, in 1809, for truck farming. No rice fields enjoyed irrigation. 4 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ALASKA: 1. Area: The total area of Alaska is 590,000 square miles. The area of woodlands can scarcely exceed 60,000 square miles. 2. Physiography: The territory of Alaska forms a square, traversed by the east and west course of the Yukon River and framed by the ocean on three sides, with two appendages, namely: (a) In the S. W., the Aliaskan Peninsula, with Kadiak and Apognak Islands. (b) In the S. E., the mountainous coastal belt, 60 miles wide by 500 miles long, with over 1,000 islands (notably Sitka Island) fronting the coast. Mt. McKinley, in the Alaskan Range, lying somewhat south of the center of the territory, 20,464 feet high, is drained by the Kuskokwim River. The Kuro Shiwo causes abundant (60 inches to 160 inches) rainfall and high atmospheric along the southern coast. Eternal snow, however, lies above the 2,o00-foot contour line, even in the coast range and St. Elias Mountains. The moun- tains are beset with the hugest glaciers on earth, outside the polar region. Short growing season. Geologically, Alaska is one of the latest portions of the continent. 3. Distribution: The south coast, east of Kadiak Island, shows splendid coniferous forests, stocked with Sitka spruce, bal- sam fir (grandis?) hemlock, red cedar (Thujaplicata) and yel- low cedar (Chamaecyparis Nutkaensis). Amongst the hardwoods, cottonwood alone reaches commercial size. Sitka spruce pene- trates, in stunted form, to the Arctic Circle. The hills of the lower Kuskokwim River have little wood; heavy spruce forests, however, exist on the mountain slopes of its upper course, whilst the valleys exhibit splendid summer prairies. The northwestern hills are bare. Woodlands are found along the west coast up to Norton Sound. Arctic tundra—a treeless plain full of ponds and swamps— extends from the Yukon northward to the Arctic Ocean. Dwarfed spruces and willows dot it far to the north. 4. Forest ownership: Practically all woodland belongs to the federal government, though the Russian Greek Church may own comparatively small tracts. Lack of surveys prevents land entries. 5. Use of timber: Most lumber is imported from the 5 FOREST POLICY. Pacific States. Coal (sulphurous) is found in many places, re- stricting the consumption of wood. The population scarcely ex- ceeds, in 1902, 90,000, of which two-fifths are native. Yellow cedar is used by the natives for huge dugout canoes, The bark of the balsam fir is employed for tanning. The com- mon local timber tree is the knotty Sitka spruce, used for house building, mine props, sledges and firewood. The large output of the fish canning industry (over 51,000,- ooo Ibs. salmon in 1899) requires packing crates and slack barrels. The 12th census reports a cut of 6,500,000 feet b. m. lum- ber, mostly spruce, valued at $90,000. Much unlawful cutting on vacant timberland. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: None. 8. Reservations: The Apognac Forest and Fish Culture Reservation lies north of Kadiak Island and comprises 403,640 acres. The Alexandria Archipelago Forest Reserve covers 4,506,240 acres. g. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ARIZONA: 1, Area: 16,000,000 acres, or 22% of entire area of Terri- tory, are reported under forest. 2. Physiography: Arizona consists of a high plateau, 5,000 feet elevation, sloping gently towards Gulf of California, inter- sected in northwest by the Grand Cafion, and diagonally traversed from the northwest to the southeast by a chain of mountain ranges, many tops of which rise to 10,000 feet elevation. This chain drains towards west into the Rio Gila and towards east into the Little Colorado, both of which are tributaries of the Colorado River. The rainfall, especially during the summer months, often evaporates before reaching the ground. Streams are frequently smaller at the mouth than at the head, due to dry- ness of the atmosphere. 3. Distribution: Below 3,500 feet elevation occur deserts, with cactus, yucca and agave. The river cafions are deeply cut into the plateaus and are fringed with broad-leaved species, i. e., 6 FOREST POLICY. cottonwoods, willows, alders, ashes, hackberries and cherries. The foothills around the deserts show scattered scrub pines; scrub oaks occur notably on the hillsides; Mesas exhibit stunted oaks and pines. Above 5,500 feet elevation, open, park-like for- ests occur, notably of yellow pine (ponderosa), which, in the San Francisco Mountains near Flagstaff, are said to form the largest pure pine forest in the world. Trees are short, branchy and sappy. Qn the northern slopes, at about 6,500 feet elevation, occurs Douglas fir. The Rocky Mountain white pine (P. flexilis) and foxtail pine (P. balfouriana) are found at similar elevations in the San Francisco Mountains. Above them, large, often pure forests of Arizona cypress (Cupressus Arizonica). At the timber line, after Fernow, Engelmann’s spruce and Arizona cork fir (Abies Arizonica) occur. The plateau north of the Colorado Cafion is almost tree- less. A large number of coniferous species peculiar to Arizona are found in the southern part of the diagonal chain. Here the forest forms narrow stretches of fringe at altitudes exceeding 7,000 feet elevation. The best known mountain ranges are the Bradshaw Mountains, with 25 square miles of forest, the lower slopes dotted with nut pines (monophylla and edulis). The Mazatzal Mountains contain about 70 square miles of forest (yellow pine, white pine, Douglas fir, white fir). The White Mountains contain about 100 square miles of forest. Here, near the natural bridge, a splendid, almost pure forest of Arizona cypress occurs. The Chirihahua Mountains contain 160 square miles of for- est, a strip four miles wide and forty miles long. The Arizona pine (Pinus Arizonica) and the Chirihahua pine (Pinus Chiriha- huana), further, the Mexican pine (Pinus cembroides) and a white pine (Pinus strobiformis) are additions to the tree flora in these southeastern mountains, which otherwise consists of yellow pine (ponderosa), white pine (flexilis), Douglas fir and California white fir (Abies concolor). Between the deserts and forests there is invariably found a belt showing pinons and scrub oaks. Tim- ber species are generally wanting on mountains less than 7,000 feet high. 4. Forest ownership: The United States reserves aggre- gate, in 1902, 6,740,000 acres. Large Indian reservations, notably the Moqui and Navajo, in the northeast and in the White Moun- 7 FOREST POLICY. tains. JLumbermen own 409,000,000 feet b. m. yellow pine stump- age on 202,000 acres. 5. Use: Most prominent use of the forest is that for cat- tle and sheep pasture. Forest fires do little damage, forests being open. Sheep grazing in the reserves from April until December. Output of lumber industry in 1900 was 36,250,000 feet b. m., worth $547,000. Log stumpage, $1.03. Saw logs at mill, $7.50. Only 14 saw mills, with average capital of $26,000. No pulp or leather industry. Mining industry, near Prescott, obtains sup- plies from the Bradshaw Mountains. Saw mills turn out largely yellow pine ties. Percentage of 1’s and 2’s in the lumber nci over 7%. 6. The forestry movement in Arizona is nill. 7. Laws: Forest fire laws punish negligent or wilful firing as a misdemeanor. 8. Reservations: The Grand Cafion forest reserve is not a forest reserve proper. It contains forest only south of the Colorado. It occupies 1,851,520 acres. The Prescott forest reserve covers 423,680 acres; the Black Mesa forest reserve 4,658,880 acres. The latter extends to the New Mexico line, forming a narrow belt of forest at high ele- vations. The San Francisco Mountain forest reserve, with Flagstaff in the center, lies between the Grand Cafion and Black Mesa re- serves and contains 1,975,310 acres. This reserve will be imnor- tant for lumbermen in the near future. In April, 1902, the Santa Rita forest reserve of 387,300 acres was created. In July, 1902, there were created three new re- serves, namely :— Mt. Graham forest reserve (118,600 acres); Santa Catalina forest reserve (155,520 acres); Chirihahua forest reserve (169,600 acres). All reserves lie on the diagonal mountain range referred to, and are well selected. 9. Irrigation: In 1900, 190,000 acres of farm land were irrigated. Area is small, owing to irregularity of precipitations and lack of steady supply. The necessity and, at the same time, the opportunity for farms irrigated from storage reservoirs is great. FOREST POLICY. Some tribes of Aborigines have irrigated their farms long before the advent of the whites. Irrigation in the Salt River Valley, near Phoenix, shows results similar to those obtained in southern California. Fruits put on the market slightly earlier and freight rates to the east slightly better, give Arizona a certain advantage over California. The value of the irrigation works constructed is $4,400,000; the value of the irrigated products $2,200,000 (anno 1899). FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ARKANSAS: 1. Area of woodlands 45,000 square miles, equal to 84% of the State. Probably maximum percentage amongst the States. 2. Physiography: Undulating plains. Ozark Mountains traverse northwest corner of the State in a belt 80 miles wide and from 1,000 to 2,000 feet high. Arkansas River traverses State from west to east, joined by the White River close to its junction with the Mississippi. Red River in the southwestern part of the State. 3. Distribution: Forest everywhere. A small tract of prairie in east central part of State. South of the Arkansas River and west of the Mississippi bottom lands gigantic virgin forests of pine occur (echinata and taeda mixed, the former prevailing on pine ridges, the latter prevailing on pine flats). Both pine species sold under the name of “‘short leaf pine.” Stumpage of both species very heavy, say 6,000 feet b. m. per acre. Sargent estimated, in 1880, the stumpage of short leaf pine at 41,315,000,- ooo feet b. m. per acre. Bald cypress found in vast swamps in the bottom lands of the rivers. Stumpage about 5,000 feet to the acre. The hardwoods prevail north of the Arkansas River and all along the Mississippi; further, in the bottoms of the Red River. Here the trees are said to be unsurpassed in size. Black walnut is said to be particularly abundant in the valley of the Red River. The leading hardwoods are white and red oaks, cot- tonwoods, sweet gum, black gum, yellow poplar, beech, ash, hick- ories, cow and texan oak. Pinus echinata shows some important bodies north of the Arkansas River as well, whilst taeda is here lacking. The composition of the forest at Pine Bluff, after F. E. 9 FOREST POLICY. Olmsted, on an average acre, excluding trees of under 12 inches diameter, is as follows:— On Pine Land. In Hardwood Bottoms. Echinata.. eacosones cs 5.9 trees Bickory sseesancives 5.8 trees [Taeda: cxcansneaiseeks 5.3 trees Cow oak ........... 4.8 trees White oak ......... 3.8 trees White oak ......... 3.5 trees Post oak ........... 3.3 trees FLOM cessenad aecore a . 2.1 trees Black Oak ......... 0.7 trees ASH; cepnctie telan noe fo 1.3 trees GUM» sesengareitsarngag 2.1 trees Basswood .......... 0.6 trees Spanish oak ....... 1.2 trees Post oak: ssskces.w es:assceeees 400,000,000 feet b. m. White oak ......... 135,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods... 52,000,000 feet b. m. Logs are worth on the stump $3.06; at mill, $7.60. 1,613 mills of $20,900 average investment are reported. Michigan still leads the United States in the value of miscellaneous forest products (furniture, wagon, agricultural, cooperage and flooring stock), the output being $6,700,000. In the shingle production, worth $3,200,000, it is second only to Washington. The splendid railroad systems developed in the past now facilitate the logging of hardwoods. A State cen- sus of 1884 estimates the cord wood consumption at 5%4 million cords annually, worth 8.9 million dollars. Paper industry uses 12,300 cords of home-grown spruce and 83,000 cords of Canadian spruce. Total value of product is $4,200,000, for 1900. ; Leather industry consumes in census year, in 27 tanneries, 62,000 cords of hemlock bark, valued at $498,000; 1,000 cords of oak bark, valued at $8,800; 3,700 barrels of hemlock bark extract, worth $45,000, and 13,500 barrels of oak bark extract, worth $124,000, 3 ‘6. Forestry movement: The impediments to conservative forestry are: Agricultural qualities of white pine soil, excessive taxation, total lack of means to check fires, difficulty of conserva- tive lumbering in scattering holdings of virgin woods subject to wind fall. In 1875 a forestry commission was created, dying after two years of existence. In 1887 the State Board of Agriculture was constituted as a “Forestry Commission.” Forestal agitation is lead by Senator C. W. Garfield, assisted by the university, the agricultural college, farmers’ institutes and women’s clubs. 46 FOREST POLICY. In 1899 the “Forestry Commission” (appropriation $2,000 annually) was revived as a commission of inquiry and legislative advice. It consists of three scientific members, but no lumber- men. Allowance $2,000 a year, to be spent for gathering statistics. A department of forestry was established in 1901 at the State Uni- versity (now under Dr, F. Roth), and 57,000 acres of land for- feited for non-payment of taxes were turned over to the commis- sion to be worked for two years. In lieu of these 57,000 acres a recent law has turned over to the commission all State holdings in three townships at the head waters of the Muskegon River. By the aid of a continuous appropriation of $7,500 a year, the commission is gradually acquiring the contiguous lands, so as to make these reserve holdings more solid. The attempt of reserving all land forfeited for non-payment of taxes (and of a protective character) for State reserves failed in Igor. 7. Laws: Fire laws since 1817. Not enforced. Loss from fires reported by Sargent is $1,000,000 in 1880, 8. Reservations: Now 64,000 acres at the head of the Muskegon River. g. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MINNESOTA: 1. Area: Woodlands, inclusive of stump land, cover 52,000 ‘square miles, an area equal to 66% of the State. Stand of white pine after Sargent, in 1880, eight billion feet b. m.; after Gen. ‘C. C. Andrews, in 1895, seventeen billion feet b. m.; ater Horace B. Ayres, in 1900, twelve billion feet b. m. 2. Physiography: Undulating. 10,000 lakes and lakelets, the largest being Red Lake, Leech Lake and Millelac Lake. A multitude of swamps increase in size and number towards the north. Hills are rare. The Rainy River and Rainy Lake form the boundary line towards Ontario; the St. Louis River empties at Duluth; the St. Croix River runs on the Wisconsin line; the Red River on the Dakota line; the Mississippi starts in Lake Itasca and is navigable from Minneapolis southward. 3. Distribution: Two-fifths of the State is prairie, ad- joining the Dakota and Iowa lines; another fifth, next to prairie, shows hardwoods prevailing over the softwoods; the remaining two-fifths is pine land and swamp land. 47 FOREST POLICY. The northwestern pine belt of the United States reaches its western limit in Minnesota. The species prevailing in the hardwood belt are black oaks, sugar maple, birches and cotton- wood. In the pine belt, white pine, Norway and jack pine are found, according to the soil. The poorer the soil, the more jack pine. White pine occurs, usually, with an undergrowth of lin- den, maple and hazel. In,the swamps, black spruce, balsam, white spruce, white cedar and tamarack. On the wind-swept side of lakes, conifers are missing. No hemlock is found, a fact denied by H. B. Ayres. Birches and poplars occupy cut-over white pine land and secure, acting as nurses or ushers, if fire is kept out, a gradual recurrence of white pines. White pine underneath white pine is never found, whilst Norway pine immediately replaces Norway pine, and whilst jack pine invariably follows in jack pine’s wake. 4. Forest ownership: 85 lumber firms own 2,025,000 acres of 3,900 feet average stumpage per acre. State owns between 2 and 3 million acres of land forfeited for non-payment of taxes. The United States own enormous tracts still. 30 townships re- main unsurveyed north of the continental divide. Large Indian reserves, 5. Use of timber: The value of the products of the Jum- ber industry in Minnesota gives it third rank as a lumber produ- cing State. Minnesota came slowly to the front, having in 1880 an output of $7,400,000; in 1890, $25,000,000, and in 1900, $43,600,000. The cut in 1900 consisted of:— White pine ......... 2,250,000,000 feet b. m Norway pine ....... 108,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers ..... 20,000,000 feet b. m. Spruce? «ic xmaceeamaas 1,000,000 feet b. m Hardwoods ........ 62,000,000 feet b. m Total. svcvancuce 2,441,000,000 feet b. m. The miscellaneous industries (furniture, cooperage, wagon stock, flooring, spools, etc.) yielded, in 1900, only $1,300,000. White pine and hardwoods in Minnesota are, on the average, inferior to white pine and hardwoods in Wisconsin and Michigan. 404 saw mills of $60,848 average investment (maximum in- vestment, by far, of United States). Logging by rail is taking the place of log driving, on which the mills of Minneapolis used 48 FOREST POLICY. to depend. Skidding by horses during the winter months forms the rule. Sleighing over ice roads to the lakes or rivers. Wages of workmen about $28 (with full board) per month. Large amount of timber consumed by the iron mines of northeastern Minnesota. Logs are worth $3.40 on stump, and $8.09 at mill. The leather industry is small, hemlock lacking. Nine tan- neries use 107 cords of bark, 37 barrels of extract and a little gambier and quebracho. Relative to paper and pulp industry, no data are given by the 12th census. Possibilities are very good, since there is plenty of spruce. Big Weyerhauser mill near Duluth. 6. Forestry movement: Since 1876 a forestry association encourages prairie planting. Bounties for prairie planting since 1891. Arbor Day since 1883-1884. The Hinckley fire, of Septem- ber 1, 1894, through which a large number of lives and many mil- lions of dollars worth of stumpage were lost, caused the creation of a forest fire warden system, effective enough to prevent a sec- ond Hinckley conflagration, but insufficient for the absolute safety of forestal investments. The legislators hailing from the prairies antagonize outlays benefitting the wooded portion of the State. The State auditor is “forest commissioner.” Town supervisors and the mayors of cities are constituted fire wardens and are fined for neglect of duty. Remuneration only $2 per day for not to exceed 15 days annually (two-thirds paid by county and one-third by State). The chief fire warden ($1,200 salary) is appointed by the State auditor; he maintains and superintends the activity of the fire wardens; has authority to mass them at points of danger; controls an emergency fund of “$5,000 for suppression of fires. Annual forest statistical reports of great value, by General C. C. Andrews. Forestry lectures by Prof. S. B. Green at the Minnesota State College of Agriculture. The proposition to establish a national park at the Chip- pewa Indian reserve ceded to the United States was enthusiasti- cally upheld by the Minnesota Federation of Women’s Clubs and by the railroads. The influence of the lumbermen caused partial defeat of the park bill. As the law stands, the agricultural lands of the Chippewa reserve are to be opened to settlers; the pine lands, after the timber is sold at public auction, will form (with- out the President’s proclamation) a national forest reserve. 5% 49 FOREST POLICY. of the timber, however, will be left according to the. selection of the Bureau of Forestry. The friends of forestry now endeavor to obtain a national park in the northeast, close to Lake Superior. 7. Laws: “Staples bill” forbids the removal of timber previous to payment of back taxes. “Cross bill,” of 1899, makes State forestry feasible on land either donated by lumbermen or set aside by the State for reserve purposes. Practically no appropriation and practically no dona- tions. Companies are forbidden to own over 5,000 acres of land. Fire warden law, see under “forestry movement.” 8. Reservations: The Lake Itasca State forest reserve is insignificant. The Chippewa or “Minnesota National” forest reserve will be gradually established after timber is sold, and is expected to finally comprise 225,000 acres, 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MISSISSIPPI: 1. Area: Area of woodlands, 32,300 square miles, or 70%. 2. Physiography: Alluvial and diluvial soil. Huge bot- toms between Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers. The Pearl River on the Louisiana liné- The Tombigby River drains the north- eastern part. 3. Distribution: Originally the forest was half pine and half hardwood. Long leaf pine prevails in the south, extending northward to the latitude of Vicksburg and Meridian, on sandy soil, especially on former dunes. A belt along the Mississippi, some 30 miles wide, is free from long leaf pine. Cuban pine, with the long leaf, up to 60 miles from the coast, occupies moist soil, on which it regenerates freely. It is not found west of the Pearl River. Echinata is not found close to the coast, begin- ning where Cuban pine ends. It often appears mixed with long leaf and taeda pine, and prevails on the divide separating the Tombigby from the Yazoo Rivers on 5,000 square miles. Trees are more scattering than in Texas and Arkansas, the hard- woods taking a larger ‘share in the composition of the forest. Taeda occurs everywhere east of the Yazoo, from the coast up to the Tennessee line, under the name of short straw pine, lob- 50 FOREST POLICY. lolly, swamp, slash and rosemary pine. It occupies moister and more loamy soil, and is often found in inundation districts. The undergrowth or suite consists of black and sweet gum, red oak and magnolia on wet soil; of hickories, Spanish oak and black jack on drier soil. Spruce pine (glabra) occurs in small clumps on rich, terraced soil. Cypress fills huge swamps along the Mis- sissippi and Yazoo Rivers. White cedar occurs, with taeda, in half-swamps. ; : In the bottom lands are found cottonwood, both gums, white: oak, cow oak (prevailing); Texan oak, water oak (nigra), magnolia and beech. Further, walnut, shagbark hickory, yel- low poplar, sycamore, mulberry, elm and holly. Burr oak and red oak are here wanting. Overcup oak (lyrata) occurs under the name “swamp oak.” 4. Forest ownership: 349 firms own 1,214,000 acres, stocked with 7,600 feet b. m. per acre. The United States, the State and railroads, notably the Mobile and Ohio, own large tracts. The balance is owned by farmers. . 5. Use of timber: ~In the census year, 820: mills of $0,400 average investment. In 1900, log value on stump, $1.30; at mill, $4.60. The output of the saw mills. was valued in 1880 at .......... abe eevcng caunht vai $ 1,900,000 TGQO: ate xe cierasesn tesecrevast wa ate. aisty 5,700,000 ; 1000: at: aiurssexewwmnieeriass 15,600,000 The cut in the census year consists of Yellow pine ........ 964,000,000 feet b. m. Other conifers ...... 37,000,000 feet b. m. Cottonwood ........ 39,000,000 feet b, m. Red gum ........... - 23,000,000 feet b. m. White oak .......... 102,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods ... 42,000,000 feet b. m. Total wecwesicce 1,207,000,000 feet b. m. Hardwood logging is very expensive; yellow pine logging, with four yoke of oxen hitched to a high-wheel cart, is very cheap. The average logging distance, for pine, slightly exceeds one-third of a mile. Expense of logging (cutting and hauling), $1.25; of railroading, 50 cents per 1,000 feet b. m. ' 5I FOREST POLICY. Railroad grades are fearful. Minimum log diameter of long leaf pine admitted is 10 inches. Average log size about 220 feet b. m. Turpentine industry is now tapping the pole-woods as well as the tree-woods. Lumbermen box two or three years before cutting. Echinata and heterophylla as well as palustris are boxed. Leather industry: Insignificant. Paper and pulp industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: None. 7. Laws: Firing on vacant land is allowed only during the three spring months. On appropriated land, malicious firing only is prohibited. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: In 1899, 40 acres were irrigated; 30 acres in rice and to in truck. a FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF MISSOURI: 1. Area: 41,000 square miles, equal to 60% of the area of the State, are classed as woodlands. 2. Physiography: The Mississippi River forms the east- ern line; the Missouri River traverses the State from west to east. Undulating plains. Highest mountains are the Ozarks, from 800 feet to 1,000 feet high. 3. Distribution: The northwestern portion is prairie, with the usual forest groves along the rivers. The south-southeastern part exhibits short leaf pine (echinata) on the hills, notably on the Ozarks, alternating with stretches of post oak barrens. The undergrowth underneath pine is formed ,by oaks (scarlet, black, post, white), hickories and black gum. Altogether, 3,000,000 acres of pine are said to be found, the average stumpage being only 2,000 feet b. m. (after Mohr, often 3,000 to 4,000 feet b. m.). The lower dells of the east, south of the Missouri, show splendid broad leaf forests, where oak, walnut and ash, of prime quality, are still found away from the railroads. In the deep swamps of the scutheast, cypress and tupelo gum prevail. In shallow water, swamp maple, swamp plane tree, swamp white ash and water honey locust occur. In the damp woods, gigantic cottonwoods, burr oaks, gums and cypresses. Here, perhaps, is 52 FOREST POLICY. the best remaining supply for white hickory. Gigantic Texan oak, sweet gum, willow, water and scarlet oak are also met. 4. Forest ownership: In south, much forest owned by speculators. 274 lumber firms control 869,545 acres, of 5,500 feet b. m. average stumpage. Farmers own two-thirds of woodlands. State owns 500,000 acres. 5. Use of timber: 1,169 (!) mills, with an average invest- ment of $5,336, beset the forests. Large cooperage concerns using cottonwood, elm and oak. White oak cut for railroad ties and bridge timber. Stumpage price averages $1.89. Logs at mill worth $6.91. Leather industry uses 774 cords of hemlock bark, 2,936 cords of oak bark and 869 barrels of bark extract. Output of industry, $816,000. The cut of the census year was:— White Cale s.ccsccsanumage 250,000,000 feet b. m PING co ovsil Adiaesiasnas wei duece ands niae $2,000,000 T BQO 8s hers costnccedarhadssvare Raed dos iaegelindeters 2,100,000 TQOO: 425 aiessrsierenoeteesianctaeaatnedies 5,200,000 The cut of 1900 consisted of:— Cypress ............. 32,000,000 feet b. m Yellow pine ......... 433,000,000 feet b. m. White oak .......... 11,000,000 feet b. m. Other hardwoods ... 6,500,000 feet b. m. In 1880, South Carolina lead in the production of tar and turpentine. Since then, the industry was forced westward. The miscellaneous forest industries (furniture, wagon, coop- erage stock, etc.) produced $168,000 in the 12th census year. The leather industry is very small, using 305 cords of oak bark and producing $18,000 worth of goods. The paper industry is nill. 6. Forestry movement: Nill. 7. Laws: Stock law prevails over entire State. Fire law provides heavy fines for firing turpentine orchards. 8. Reservations: None. , 9. Irrigation: 648 planters irrigate, in 1899, 30,000 acres of rice fields. Rice irrigation has been practiced in South Carolina since 1700. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF SOUTH DAKOTA: 1. Area: 2,500 square miles, equal to 3% of the area of the State, are wooded. 2. Physiography: Missouri River running from north to 8&8 FOREST POLICY. south to the center of the State and thence towards the southeast corner. Mountains appear only in the southwest, i. e., the Black Hills on the Wyoming line, drained by the Cheyenne River. A strangely large number of rivulets have their sources in South Dakota. , 3. Distribution: South Dakota, like all other prairie States, is the meeting ground of the eastern and western tree flora, the former represented by the hardwood groves in the river bottoms (burr oak predominating, in addition, sycamore, cottonwood, willow, box elder, green ash); the latter (western flora) occurring on hillsides and represented by western yellow pine. This species shows in the Black Hills splendid natural re- generation and better trunks than in the Rockies. White spruce (canadensis) occurs in the Black Hills near streams, on high northern slopes. Aspen and canoe birch appear on moist slopes in dense thickets after fires. 4. Forest ownership: Farmers own little aside from prairie plantations. Six lumber firms control 6,000 acres. The federal government has reserved 76% of the wooded area in the “Black Hills reserve.” 5. Use: Yellow pine only used for timber and for the lead mining interests centering at Deadwood. The cut of timber in census year equals 30,000,000 feet b. m., drawn from a growing ‘stock of 1,500,000,000 feet b. m. Logs are worth, on stump, $1.80 per thousand; at mill $5.25. There are 28 saw-mills of $5,000 aver- age investment. 5,000 head of stock find pasturage in the hills. A plague of bark beetles occurred in 1900. Hardwoods largely used for firewood and fences. Planted forests have perished, ‘usually through fire or neglect, in the majority of cases. 6. Forestry movement: Arbor Day for ornamental plant- ing. South Dakota Agricultural College makes tree planting ex- ‘periments and issues bulletins bearing on forestry questions. 7. Laws: As in North Dakota. 8. Reservations: The Black Hills forest reserve comprises 1,211,680 acres, one-third of which lies in Wyoming. The opportu- nity for forest management in this reserve is unrivalled. The financial problem is easy, since stumpage values are high and the demand good. The silvicultural problem is easy, since regenera- tion is excellent, and since only one species has to beedealt with. ‘There are no “weed trees.” Finally, utilization is easy, the moun- 89 FOREST POLICY. tains having gentle slopes. Even firewood can be disposed of to a certain extent. Fires and insects, however, handicap the forest- er’s work. The Wind Cove national park, in the southern Black Hills, created in 1902, is said to be a Yellowstone without geysers. 9. Irrigation: During the census year, 44,000 acres of farm- land, irrigated from works (notably deep artesian wells) costing $285,000, produced crops valued at $208,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF TENNESSEE: 1. Area: 27,300 square miles, or 65% of the State, are under forest. 2. Physiography: Vast bottom lands along the Missis- sippi, subject to inundation. Cumberland River in the north and Tennessee River in the south. Cumberland and Alleghany Mountains in the east, the latter with summits over 6,000 feet high. Low mountain ranges in central part. 3. Distribution: The Mississippi bottom lands show gi- gantic hardwood forests without undergrowth and a sprinkling of swamps stocked with cypress, red and black gums. Cypress is said to be of poor quality. Amongst the hardwoods are found cottonwoods, gums, red and cow oaks, hickories, elms, beeches and white oaks of huge proportions. In the middle division of Tennessee (Blue Grass region) agriculture has entirely superceded the forest. Here have grown, originally, the finest red cedar, black walnut and yellow poplar. Now farm wood-lots even are strangely absent. In the original forest there were further found white, red, green and blue ash; white, chestnut, burr, cow, yellow, chinquapin and Texan oak; red, black, sugar and ash-leaved maple; white linden, hackberry, honey locust; winged and American elm. On dry hills, fire has played havoc with the forest. Here white and post oak are rap- idly removed for cooperage, whilst black, Spanish and scarlet oak, chestnut and black hickories are badly handicapped by fires. Chestrut is usually dying or dead. The “Black Jack Lands” (marilandica) are large stretches of strongly calcareous soil, stocked with a stunted growth of black jack, extremely monotonous and much less productive than go FOREST POLICY. the ‘Kentucky Barrens.” Pinus echinata occurs in island-like groups all over middle Tennessee. Pinus taeda forms a narrow belt along the Alabama line. In the Cumberland Mountains the limestone coves show, or used to show, a splendid growth of. all valuable hardwoods (white, red and chestnut oak; hickory, notably shag bark; black walnut and black cherry; yellow poplar, cucumber, ash and bass- wood; red cedar on dry cliffs), whilst the sandstone plateaus overlying them exhibit a poor growth, badly burned, of black, Spanish, post and white oaks; further, sourwood, black gum, chestnut and red maple, with occasional tracts of Pinus echin- ata, virginiana and rigida. Pinus pungens occurs at an altitude of about 3,000 feet and upwards. Good white pine tracts, heavily stocked, are hidden in the backwood coves of the Great Smokies, accompanied on moist and sheltered land by hemlock, or else occur on long, sharp ridges. Spruce and balsams at elevations from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. The hardwoods of the Great Smokies are those of Pisgah forest. 4. Forest ownership: 1,138,000 acres of land are owned by lumber firms. Average stumpage, 3,900 feet b. m. per acre. 5. Use of timber: Logs are worth $2.18 on stump and $6.58 at mill. Logs frequently measured in midst of log. Cedar logs bought by the pound. Lumber centers are Memphis and Nash- ville. The product of the lumber industry in Tennessee was valued in TBTO! cress Laue tga $ 3,400,000 T SCO) agin nao traacnen a areas 3,700,000 TSOO! vac ysrise atenennisudesendiiesosaeanns er hare 9,100,000 HE QO? ,cecgpavesay a ceoastoteanaee aneiend ede battens 18,100,000 The cut consisted of:— COnilets: n.ccscccuoens 82,000,000 feet b. m PASTA ccandncuse nets eivene'ort sannaesnctens 18,000,000 feet b. m. Poplar: sxisedewninetccs 275,000,000 feet b. m R€d, Gui sssasessaeraes 52,000,000 feet b. m. White oak ............. 408,000,000 feet b. m Other hardwoods ...... 114,000,000 feet b. m "TOtalsccusieeee s 949,000,000 feet b. m. In 1900 Tennessee leads all States in the produced value of staves (181,000,000 staves, worth $2,500,000) and furnishes 17,- gI FOREST POLICY. 000.000 sets of heading, worth $441,000. Furniture, agricultural and wagon stock are worth $1,245,000. Leather industry: Value of output, $2,800,000. The tan- neries consume 846 cords of hemlock bark and 37,050 cords of oak bark, worth $210,000; further, 58 barrels extract. Pulp and paper industry: None. 6. Forestry movement: The “Tennessee Forestry Asso- ciation” was formed two years ago. The Bureau of Forestry has made and published a working plan for a 7,000 acre tract at Sewanee. : 7. Laws: Fire laws absolutely ineffective. Arbor Day. 8. Reservations: None. 9. Irrigation: None. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF TEXAS: 1. Area: Woodlands cover 64,000 square miles or 24% of the total area of State. 2. Physiography: The Rio Grande River on the Mexican line, the Red River along Indian Territory and the Pecos River traversing the extreme western section are the principal streams. The western prairies are underlaid with limestone; the east is diluvial and alluvial, taversed by the Ozarks and Cross Timbers. 3. Distribution: Deserts in the extreme west (Staked Plains). Undulating prairies destitute of timber in the middle west. Western red cedar found along the canyons. Western high hill ranges, between Pecos and Rio Grande Rivers, show New Mexican flora. Mesquit extends to the desert borders. East of the 96th degree of longitude, the maritime pine belt ex- hibits splendid forests of long leaf pine, loblolly pine and short leaf pine (echinata). Stumpage of long leaf pine averages heavier than anywhere else, on 2,900,000 acres. The low flats between the pine hills show impenetrable thickets of hawthorn, holly and magnolia. Bald cypress forms extensive forests in the river bottoms. Pecan, live oak, holly and Carclina poplar show their finest development along the rivers of the east. Osage orange is a common tree in the east. The Cross Timbers are covered with poor post oak and black g2 FOREST POLICY. jack oak woods. These same species extend westward in open groves, ending abruptly where limestone appears. Hackberry said to be found everywhere. 4. Forest ownership: All deserts and outskirts of the Rockies and large forest tracts in the eastern part belong to the State, which, when admitted to the Union in 1845, was allowed to retain its lands and land laws. Federal government owns but a few military reservations. Lumber companies, in 1900, own Io billion feet stumpage on 1,671,000 acres. Under the State’s general land act of 1895, amended in 1897, the purchase, by individuals, of large tracts be- longing to the State is not prohibited. 5. Use of timber: Mesquit and red cedar used for fuel and posts. Cypress said to be of poor quality. Cottonwoods unused so far. The pine belt has been developed rapidly and re- cently at rising stumpage prices. The output in 1900 was 1,250,- ooo feet b. m., valued at $16,300,000. There are 601 saw mills, of $14,000 average investment. Logs are worth $1.17 on stump and $4.47 at mill. The eastern pine forests are most valuable for Texas, since they have to supply the constantly growing population of the treeless three-quarters of the State. The most important industry of Texas is cotton growing. Stock raising is a close second. The naval stores industry gradually adopts dangerous pro- portions, since it injures the prospects for a second growth. Paper industry attempts to use pinewood in the soda process. There are nine tanneries, producing about $60,000 worth of leather and using about 300 cords of oak and hemlock bark and 137 barrels of bark extract; balance of material used is gambier. 6. Forestry movement: A State “Forestry and Water Sup- ply Association,” formed in 1886, seems inactive. A forestry commissioner cannot be obtained from the leg- islature. Remarkable is the necessity for the large Kirby Lum- ber Co. to practice conservative lumbering, owing to stipulations contained in its mortgage bonds. 7, Laws: No information available. 8. Reservations: None. g. Irrigation: Irrigation on the enormous cattle ranches of central Texas is practically unknown. 93 FOREST POLICY. The Mexicans along the Rio Grande and Pecos have irri- gated small farms for centuries. In the east the flooding of rice fields by pumping has re- cently gained favor. In 1899, 50,000 acres of farmland were irrigated, yielding crops worth $539,000 from irrigation systems costing $1,028,000. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF UTAH: 1. Area: 13% of the State, or 10,000 square miles, are wooded. 2. Physiography: The western and eastern thirds of the State are barren. The central third is traversed by the Wahsatch Range, which drains eastward into the Colorado River and west- ward into Salt Lake, Utah Lake and Sevier Lake. 3. Distribution is little known. In the foothills scrub oaks, nut pine, cedar and juniper occur. Best timber (very poor) ob- tained from the limber white pine. Higher up in the mountains occur blue spruce (Picea pungens),. white spruce (Engelmann) and Douglas fir. ‘Yellow pine seems rare, except in the San Pete and San Pitch Ranges. Near Salt Lake the mines have con- sumed all accessible timber. Cafions are lined with cottonwoods and box elder. 4. Forest ownership: Reserves contain 1,029,760 acres. Large Indian reservation in the northeast called the Uintah Indian reservation. Railroads own alternating sections as usual. Lum- ber firms own very little. 5. Use: Mine props and fence posts are in chief demand. Coal is cheap. All timber is practically cull; still, log run limber white pine sells at $40 a thousand. Value of timber output, in 1900, only $214,000, less than the figures given in the last three census. Stumpage is reported worth $1.32; logs at mill, $5.31. Eighty-one mills of $1,224 average investment. Two very small tanneries, but no pulp industry. 6. Forestry movement: People and legislature are appre- hensive of the necessity of forest protection, as shown by peti- tions to Congress and the Governor’s messages. Shade trees planted in cities and on farms, especially box elder, sycamore, cottonwood and lombardy poplar. 04 FOREST POLICY. 7. Laws: Usual fire laws since 1876. Tax exemption of $500 worth of property for five years for every acre planted in trees, and of $50 for every 100 trees planted on streets or streams. 8. Reservations: The Fish Lake forest reserve (67,840 acres) in the San Pete and San Pitch Range of the Wahsatch Mountajns. The Uintah forest reserve (875,520 acres) along the Wyoming line at the head waters of the Green River. The Payson forest reserve of 86,400 acres lies south of Utah Lake. The Manti forest reserve of 584,640 acres has been estab- lished recently in central Utah; the Logan forest reserve of 182,080 acres in northern Utah. 9. Irrigation: The communal organization of the Mormons has admirably subserved the mutualistic cause of irrigation. Dry farming, for wheat and barley, is possible only on some high bench lands. Generally speaking, however, irrigation is,essential for the raising of forage, grain and fruit crops. The waters of the northeast, emerging from deep canyons, cut into the mountain sides, are diverted into canals, watering the bench land at the foot of the canyons. Large reservoirs are rare, The value of products raised on 630,000 acres of irrigated land with the help of irrigation works costing $5,900,000 amounted to $7,500,000 in the census year. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF VERMONT: 1, Area: 3,900 square miles, or 43% of the State, are under forest. 2. Physiography: The Green Mountains, running north and south through the heart of the State, rise to peaks over 4,000 feet high. Lake Champlain and the Connecticut River are the most important water ways. 3. Distribution: Originally, white pine, hemlock and spruce were imbedded in a forest of hardwoods (beech, maple, yellow birch and some little basswood, butternut, ashes, red, white and burr oak and chestnut oak on red sandstone). Spruce, with bal- 95 FOREST POLICY. sam, prevails on the ridges. Great bodies of white pine were found on the Connecticut River and in the northwest. 4. Forest ownership: 330 firms own 372,000 acres. 80% of woodlands are attached to farms. 5. Use of timber: White pine is practically exhausted. Quantities of spruce and hemlock are still left. The lumber in- dustry begins to decline slightly. The value of the output of the saw mills was in ISSO? x cys syseus eh de oa ace ses ome agiSN $ 600,000 TSO coeds ag Haus SATA BREE REEFS 900,000 TOS ZO 8x rit Seueiciysneesael ods b Seaet a bed Sptuchency oe 3,500,000 TSS osc som: ba ekatenw nator ante eacetels 3,200,000 TOOO! 4.57 aie wenayreyn a AY Rn eo ee cea 6,900,000 TOOL 4 sass Noy waco hg $e Sede 6,100,000 The cut in 1900 consists of 376,000,000 feet b. m., comprising 261,000,000 feet b. m. spruce; 43,000,000 feet b. m. hemlock; 21,- 000,000 feet b. m. white pine; 51,000,000 feet b. m. hardwoods. 657 mills report $6,304 as the average investment. Stump- age is worth $2.09; logs at mill cost $5.80.. The maple sugar industry produced, in 1880, 11,000,000 Ibs. of sugar. The leather industry has consumed, in 1900, 4,990 cords of hemlock bark, worth $30,000; 163 bales of gambier, worth $1,200; 100 barrels of extract, worth $1,200. Eight plants produce $186,000 worth of leather. Paper and pulp industry: 27 plants produce, in 1900, $3,400,- ooo worth of paper and pulp. There were consumed 31,500 cords of home-grown spruce, worth $172,000; 25,500 cords of Canadian spruce, worth $167,000; 2,262 cords of miscellaneous wood, worth $11,000. 6. Forestry movement: A Forest Commission, appointed in 1882, produced a good report in 1884. No action was taken upon it. 7. Laws: The State pays a premium on forest destruction by exempting the wood lands of saw mill owners for five years from forest taxes. Malicious firing only is punishable. 8. Reservations: None. g. Irrigation: None. , 06 FOREST POLICY. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF VIRGINIA: 1. Area: 23,400 square miles, or 58% of State, are woodland. 2. Physiography:— (a) Mountain section, a belt 60 miles wide along the West. Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee lines, covering two or three tiers of counties and forming 25% of State. (b) Piedmont plateau, drained in the main by the James River, lying southeast of “a” and forming 50% of State. (c) Coastal plains, a belt up to 100 miles wide, extending as far as tidewater in the streams. Swamps near the coast, notably the Dismal Swamp. Soil sandy. The plains cover 25% of the State. 3. Distribution: On Virginia soil the northern tree flora meets the southern. The long leaf and taeda pines do not ex- tend further north than Virginia. Mountain section: The hardwoods of the southern Appa- lachians (see under North Carolina) prevail here, with ‘some hemlock and white pine. Spruce at high altitudes. The moun- tain forests were practically untouched in 1880. It is now claimed that certain species, notably chestnut oak, are exhausted. Piedmont plateau: In the virgin woods, black oak was the prevailing timber; further, white oak, hickories and black gum. Now no virgin forest is left. Vast areas of fields, exhausted by tobacco growing, come up in Jersey pine (virginiana), rigid pine, echinata pine, sumac and sassafras; further, hardwood brush of chestnut, gum and oaks. Little taeda pine. Coastal plains: The original growing stock, after Michaux, consisted of belts of taeda pine, alternating with belts of echinata. Now a second growth of taeda forms 75% of the growing stock from the seashore to the’ meridian of Richmond, whilst echinata appears scatteringly. Long leaf pine is commer- cially unimportant, reaching its northern limit in stunted speci-. mens near Norfolk. The swamps near the coast show cypress, gums and, after Fernow, red cedar. 4. Forest ownership: 418 lumber firms control 402,000 acres of forest, stocked with 4,300 feet b. m. on an average. 5. Use of timber: Main source of lumber is 2d and 3d growth of loblolly pine, sold under the trade name “Virginia. pine,” which is said to reproduce exceedingly well. Trees 50; 97 FOREST POLICY. years old are said to yield three logs. Large quantities of loblolly firewood and kindling are shipped to New York. Sumac leaves are gathered for tanning purposes on such a scale that the railroads reported, in 1885, shipments amounting to 10,300 tons— a good indication of the enormous extent of abandoned fields. Mill investments average -$3,934, the number of mills being 3,234. Logs on stump are worth $1.79; at mill, $8.35. The value of the lumber product was in DS GD: sccsneceicsncseacncivercse second voveontcansentecini $ 1,000,000 ESG0! scizglevotne terete eanecnmeieyes 2,200,000 1870" acsssaeunpece ee eneasens 2,100,000 TSSOs. Geis sanchansvitieiaierssics aaah seatvannens 3,400,000 TSGG> sos.ausieaieraisie dane osUk Seetsuaxsctueseoae 5,600,000 TOGO? F RES GS See eer 492,907 WOO CET, WATE: co. ecovalecenst aco ssae 9h. sausuns [le setae aun d-EeSep SS space chek east 758,578 WOO. Pt Phin. Shira carsossibeatcapertves ¢ dapat as c0)8 tenet 38,000,000 lbs. 740,103 All other manufactured Wood .......|.... 0.05 eee e eee eeeees 4,451,858 W.00d alcohols sss: saistaior ss 249 9 54 gies 626,425 gallons 338,619 Naval stores, (rosin, tar, turpentine)].......... 0.0 e.0005 ee 11,733,562 Ginsenes;. cer awen caneoad te ene saat 154,063 Ibs. 856,515 Bark and Dark EXtHaCt. cious cao o% sisi ead wdeetereseraceutisesieis ncleisiese 288,012 IN GES: .csercccnastetuord daisiece ceive Sa ace is et asestcihvoiae Melee Svosbanees 304,241 INTITSERY STOCK sjececg ninasereae eve 5 Wustesabotne Ve benyemeldyne ceee-e lereiete 132,027 Agricultural implements: jo.4.narsecledses sceameee eeeees ares 16,286,740 Musical instruments 250.95 ceseincieleawe saat aac ee pees 3,694,143 Matches: «sis aieuneentvnay eae oaeiaesicasovancnel ete AaMeae Adi vik Succes 57,742 Paper and manufactures of paper...]...... 0... eeee cece eens 7,312,030: Carriages and parts thereof. ........1....0. co cceeceeeeeeees 2,490,073 REMARK: The last five items are, obviously, not forestry products pure and simple. Forest Utilization. TO THE READER. The Biltmore Forest School has offered annually, since 1898, a course of lectures on Forest Utilization—a vast topic comprising every art, every industry, all activity connected with the utilization of our woods. If forestry is and means a business, then it is safe to say that forest utilization comprises the major—the by far major—part of the American forester’s activity, provided that the term “forester” describes a man placed in charge of a forest and of its administration. There cannot be any doubt that American forest utilization is con- ducted on the grandest, most ingenious scale which the world ever knew. The conditions surrounding and bearing it are entirely at variance from those now confronting the European forester. It is not to be wondered at, consequently, that little knowledge of American forest utilization can be gathered from European handbooks on European forest utilization or from European travels. Like all disciplines of forestry, forest utilization had best be studied in and near the woods. Lectures delivered at a forest school, unless they be continuously illustrated by object lessons in the forest and in the workshop, ‘can merely lay a bare foundation of the topic in the mind, or rather in the memory of the student. The pages herewith submitted are printed primarily for the use of the students attending the Biltmore Forest School; they comprise the dictation given by the teacher during and after lectures; they are a skeleton of lectures merely, and it is the teacher’s task to clothe the skeleton with flesh, obtained from his practical experience in the Amer- ican woods. There is ample reason to believe that one-sided and local experience has allowed a number of mistakes to creep into the following paragraphs. The Biltmore Forest School begs to be corrected by the reader, and any suggestions relative to errors and erroneous statements contained in this little publication will be most thankfully received. Aside from the entire literature on forest utilization available in America and abroad, liberal use has been made of communications appearing in all of the leading trade papers; of the catalogues issued by the leading firms manufacturing implements for forest utilization; of the experience of the rangers'and foremen of the Biltmore Estate; of information privately obtained through correspondence. Most truly, C. A. Scuencx, Ph.D., Director Biltmore Forest School and Forester to the Biltmore Estate. Bitrmore, N. C., Sept. 1, 1904. (1) $1. § 2. § 3. § 4. § 5. § 6. § 7. $8. $ 9. § 10. Sir. forest Utilization. Definition. Literature. PART I. LOGGING OPERATIONS. CHAPTER I. LABOR EMPLOYED IN LOGGING. Manual labor. Animal labor. CHAPTER II. CUTTING OPERATIONS. Woodcutter’s tools and implements. Felling the trees. Dissecting the boles. i CHAPTER III. TRANSPORTATION. Transportation on land, without vehicles. Transportation by water. Transportation on land, by and on vehicles. Choice between the various systems of transportation. PART II. MANUFACTURE OF WOOD PRODUCTS. § 12. § 13. $14. § 15. § 16. $17. § 18. 3 10. § 20. § a1. § 22. § 23. $24. § 25. § 26. ~§ a7. § 28. CHAPTER IV. FOUNDATIONS OF MANUFACTURE. The American forester as a lumberman. Motive power. Transmission of power. Technical use made of the trees by species. Technical qualities of the trees. + CHAPTER V. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES. Saw mill. Woodworking plant. Veneering plant. Box factory. Basket factory. Cooperage. Wagon works. Shingle mills. Lath mills. Clapboard mill. Novelty mill. Matches. (2) FOREST UTILIZATION 3 $29. Shoe pegs. $30. Excelsior mill. § 31. Manufacture of wood pulp and chemical fibre. $32. Tannery. $ 33. Charcoal. $34. Lampblack and brewer’s pitch. § 35. Pyroligneous acid and wood alcohol. §36. True aethyl alcohol. $37. Artificial silk. $38. Oxalic acid. § 30. Maple sugar. § 40. Naval stores. § 41. Vanillin. $42. Beechnut oil. § 43. Pine leaf hair. $44. Impregnation. : FOREST UTILIZATION. § 1. DEFINITION. The term “forest utilization” comprises all acts by which forests— tthe immobile produce of nature—are converted into movable goods -or commodities. Considered as a science or as an art, forest utilization constitutes the major part of forestry now practiced in our new country, -abounding in forests. As a discipline, forest wtilization may be divided into two main ‘parts, namely: “logging operations” and “manufacture,” arranged in ‘the following five chapters: Chapter I. Labor employed in the forest. Chapter II. Cutting operations. Chapter III. Transportation. Chapter IV. Foundations of manufacture. Chapter V. Manufacturing industries. § 11. LITERATURE. There exists, unfortunately, no handbook on American forest ‘utilization, although forest utilization shows a higher development in the United States than in any other country. Among the foreign literature on forest utilization, publications of the following authors are particularly worthy of note: Carl Gayer, Richard Hess, William Schlich, Hermann Stoetzer, “Carl Grebe, Wilhelm Franz Exner, Carl Schuberg, Heinrich Semler, H. von Noerdlinger, Carl Dotzel, E. E. Fernandez, L. Boppe, M. Powis ‘Bale. Part 1. Dogging Operations. CHAPTER I. LABOR EMPLOYED IN THE FOREST. § 111. MANUAL LABOR. A. Duration of employment. I. Determining factors are: (a) Climatic conditions; (b) Economic conditions ; (c) Local custom. In the South, work lasts all the year round. In the Lake States and in New England, late fall, winter and early spring (from four to eight months) comprise the usual period of activity. : In the European mountains, logging is restricted to the summer months; in the European lowlands, to the winter months. II. Advisability of continuous employment in conservative forestry, especially in the case of foremen and sub-foremen, leads to the adoption of means tending to attach the laborer to his job and to his employer. Such means are: (a) Advances for tools.~ (b) Rent of cabins and farms at reduced rates. (c) Help in case of sickness and accidents. (d) Wholesale purchase of victuals so as to give the work- men the benefit of a reduced price. (e) Firewood, forest pasture and forest litter free of charge. (4) \Permission of agricultural use, for a number of years, of clear cut areas. (This last system is called in India “tongya.”) : (g) Employment during the season when cutting is stopped, in road building, fire patrol, planting, weeding, nursery work etc. (h) Possibility for hands to rise to a foreman's position. (i) Encouragement of home industries so as to keep the workmen busy on rainy or cold days, i. e, basket weaving, shingle making, wood carving, sieve making. It seems most important to supply the family of the woodworker with a comfortable home and school and church advantages. B. Remuneration. I. Means of remuneration. (a) Money. Wages in the South are from 50 to 75 cents a day. At Biltmore, now $1 per day, even in the moun- tains. On the Pacific coast, $2 to $3 per day. In Lake States, $18 to $32 per month, plus board; dry days only included. (4) FOREST UTILIZATION 5 (b) Commissary bills. This method of payment is used in the South only, in connection with colored labor. (c) Privileges (house, farm, pasture). (d) Board. Expense at Biltmore, per capita, 25c to 30c; in Lake States, 4oc to 50c per day. Wages of camp cooks in Lake States, $50 and over per month; at Biltmore, $15 to $30 per month. Victuals required per capita, see “Lumber and Log Book,” page 144. II. Scale of remuneration. Wages depend on the effect of labor or on the values created by labor. Influencing factors are: (a) Density of population. (b) Human strength and technical skill required. (c) Silvicultural understanding required. (d) Hardships endured and risks taken. (e) Prices of the necessary victuals. (f) Length of day during cutting season. Compare page 162, “Lumber and Log Book.” Where contract work prevails, the following additional factors come into play: (g) Tools supplied by employer or employee. (h) Softwoods or hardwoods. (i) Amount to be cut per acre. (j) Configuration of ground and remoteness from roads. (k) Distance from home village. (1) Possibility of continuing work during rain. Experiments have shown that workmen paid under con- tract per one thousand feet b. m. earn more money in big timber than in small timber, and that a system of payment according to the diameter of the log is far more just. C. Method of employment. -In France the woodworkers are employed by the purchaser of © stumpage; in Germany, invariably by the owner of the forest. In America, both systems are found, the former prevailing. Whether the German or French system is preferable is an open question.. I. Hands are usually recruited from farm laborers, hence advisa- bility of locally combining agriculture and forestry. In addition, the employees of the building trades, unoccupied during winter, supply help for the lumber camp. II. Day work is advisable in preference to contract work (a) Where quality (effect) of labor cannot be controlled, nota- bly in nursery work; (b) Where experienced hands must be trained; (c) Where contract labor cannot be obtained (Pacific coast) ; FOREST UTILIZATION (d) Where contract legislation is bad. (Lien laws in Minne- sota; $1,500 exemption clause in North Carolina.) JII. Contract work is generally preferable to day work because it is cheaper. Contract work is doubly advisable where em- ployer’s liability laws work against the employer... Contracts. should always be in writing. The specification sheet should be kept apart from the paragraphs of agreement, so as not to en cumber the contract. The main clauses of a contract cover: (a) Time allowed to complete work; (b) Installments and payments; (c) “Building of snaking roads, sleigh roads and skidways ; (d) Scaling of defective logs and of sound logs; (e) Employer’s liability; (£) Fines for fire, stock at large, fishing, hunting and drunken- ness, and demand for discharge of culprits; (g) Shanties and log houses and commissary bills; (h) Supply of tools; deduction for loss and spoliation of tools ;: (i) Fines for cutting trees not marked or of too small a@ diameter ; (j ) Fines for leaving marked trees uncut; (k) Fines for poor work and unnecessary damage; (1) Possibility of speedy termination of contract in emergency cases ; (m) Nomination of umpire to avoid suits in case of discrepan- cies. . ‘The specifications cover the following points: Height of stumps; peeling of bark; separating product accord- ing to quality; length, diameter, weight of product; nosing logs; cutting defects out (unsound knots etc.); placing the product on sticks (so as to allow it to dry) or on skidways; method of carrying or moving products; swamping (removal of branches); use of road poles (breast works); skidways; road building. D. Subdivision of labor. The leading principle is that one division gang must push the other. I. Lumbering. " (a) Cutting or felling crews, consisting usually of two hands; sometimes a third man to drive wedges and to make the axe cut. (b) Log makers, dissecting the bole into logs. A foreman should be an ex-sawyer or an ex-lumber inspector. (c) Swamping crew, to clear trees of branches and to open suspicious knots. (d) Snaking crew—at Biltmore five hands for a three-yoke team; three men to get the logs ready and to remove brush (debris) and two men to accompany the load. (e) Skidway crew—two hands rolling logs onto skidways. FOREST UTILIZATION 7 (f) Road crew—meant to prepare snaking or sleigh roads; to sprinkle and sand ice roads. II. Firewood or cordwood making .(for pulp, distillation, cooper- age etc.). a, b, and c are the same as in “I.—a, b and c.” (d) Carriers or carrying crew—often with hand sleighs or roll- ers or grapple hooks. (e) Splitters—with heavy axes which have broader, thicker cheeks than cutting axes. (f) Piling crew—a very careful, honest man is required for piling the wood. § Iv. ANIMAL- LABOR. A. Countries. In Europe, even in virgin forests, practically none is required. In India and possibly in the Philippines, elephants-are used. In the United States, in the Southern and Pacific States, as also in the Appalachians, oxen are used. In the Lake States, Pacific States and New England States, horses are preferred. In the South, mules are used for small logs and especially on tram roads. B. Horses. ile The numerical ratio between hands and horses in Northern camps varies from 2 to 1 to 6 to 1. The standard amount of work for one horse is: II. JI. (a) A haul of 1,600 Ibs. inclusive of wagon, on a level road over 23 miles per day. : (b) An output of 2/3 horsepower-per minute, equal to 320 horse- power per day of eight hours. Horses are employed for (a) Skidding or snaking. (b) Rolling logs on skidways. (c) Sleighing, trucking (two wheels) and wagoning (four wheels). (d) Go-deviling. (e) “Loading on railroad cars. (£) Supplying power for portable mills. Food for horses. (a) Interdependence between feed and effect in foot pounds per 1,000 lbs. horse flesh during a day’s work is: SULAW. ©. saisauiona ie bondanacennts 2lbs. 2 Ibs. 2 Ibs. TEP ay sesso ence Moe aelecnncvnciesl 19 Ibs. 15 lbs. 11 Ibs. Oats: srkcceamninicieseads 2 Ibs. 6 Ibs. 10 lbs. AR OGE cassis ewe rrneiancays 3,000,000 9,000,000 15,Cc00,000 (b) Food required. After Thaer, per 1,000 lbs. of horse Heke 25 lbs. of good hay and oats. After the ““Lumber and Log Book,” so Ibs. of oats and 40 Ibs. of hay per team per day. : FOREST UTILIZATION (c) -Feed values equivalent to 1co lbs. of good hay, after Has- well, are = 54 lbs. of barley. = 57 lbs. of oats. = 59 lbs. of corn. = 275 lbs. of green corn. = 374 lbs. of wheat straw. . = 400 Ibs. of cornstalks. C. Mules. I. They are employed for: (a) Light logs on good ground and for long distances. (b) For wagoning lumber and provisions. (c) For hauling on rail tracks (wooden and iron rails). (d) For hoisting logs on inclines. (e) For plowing and scraping in road and railroad building. II. Food for 1,600 lbs. mule flesh, as for horses. Mules require less care than horses, taking care of themselves and resisting overwork. They are frequently not fed at noon. (Price per team at Biltmore, $200.) D. Oxen. I. Price per yoke is from $80 to $120, weight from 2,000 to 2,500 Ibs. Ox yokes form the rule, although efficiency of oxen in harness is. superior. Shoeing for each claw separately—difficult and risky, but necessary on hard ground. Special training takes place from second year on. Fitness for hard work begins in the fifth year, when ossification of bones is com- . pleted. Special training for leaders. II. Employment. In the South for snaking heavy logs—or log trains in Oregon; for hauling logs suspended underneath high two-wheel trucks in the pineries; rarely for loading cars or wagons. III. Standard work. : An ox walks 14 miles per day with load. An ox yields in eight hours of work 270 horsepower, hence he produces only four- fifths of the effect of a horse. After Thaer, an ox produces only one-half as much power as a horse of the same weight. IV. Feed. , (a) It is much cheaper to feed oxen per 1,0c0 lbs. living weight than to feed horses of same weight. Ruminants have four stomachs and thus digest their food better. No feed is given in the middle of the day, and no expense is incurred during idle periods, where pasture is available. ’ (b) Careful treatment and gcod stables required. Oxen must not be hurried. Soft yokes, proper salting and regular watering. FOREST UTILIZATION 9 (c) In the South, at the present time, cottonseed meal and hulls form the cheapest food. Food requirements per yoke per day are 25 lbs. of meal and 4o lbs. of hulls. Present prices of meal $25 per ton and hulls $8 per ton, delivered at Brevard, N. C. CHAPTER II. CUTTING OPERATIONS. §v. WOODSMEN’S TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. A. Axe. It consists of a handle, 32 inches to 42 inches long, made of hickory, ash, locust or mulberry, either straight or “S” curved, and of a blade or head forming a steel wedge of particular temper. The cheeks of the wedge are slightly curved in the midst, falling down gradually towards the upper and lower line. The weight lies either close to the bit or close to the handle, according to local predilection. ‘The best make is the Kelly axe. Double bit axes, requiring straight handles, are largely used in the Northeast. Special splitting axes, of greater weight and broader cheeks, are rarely used (for sugar barrel bolts and retort wood). For hardwood, a thin and light axe (a cutting axe) is preferred, while for softwood a broad and heavy axe is used (a tearing axe). .A box of axes contains an assortment of various weights. In Europe the bit is relaid with steel, after wearing off. “The axe is used I. For cutting trees entirely or partly. II. For swamping (axe to be % Ib. heavier). III. For splitting. IV. For nosing logs. V. For driving wedges. Price of axes from $6 to $8 a dozen. Handles are $1 a dozen. B. Adz and broadaxe. , The adz and broadaxe are used for trimming and barking export logs, squares, ties and construction timber. The blade of the adz stands at right angles to the plane of the sweep and has such curvature as corresponds to the curve of the sweep through the air. The cutting edge is ground concave on the inner side. The broadaxe is either right or left sided, the plane of the blade forming an angle of 5° to 10° with the plane of the handle. The handle is usually short, the blade very heavy and wide. ‘C. Peavies. The peavy is a typical American tool, not used elsewhere. The best make is Morley Bros.’ line of blue tools. The hooks are distinguished as round bill, duck bill and anise bill hooks, made of hammered steel. The socket is either solid or con- sists of rings. The square pick (point) is driven cold into the round bored point of the handle. The handle is 4 to 6 ft. long, straight, 214 inches to 3 inches through and is made of hickory, ash, or usually hard maple. Price per dozen is $10 to $22. 10 FOREST UTILIZATION A peavy must answer the following requirements: I. Hook adapted to any size log. ‘II. Bill to be so constructed as to catch securely through any layer of bark. ‘ III. Proper length, greatest strength and low weight. D. Cant hooks. The cant hook is a peavy, lacking the pick (point). The socket consists of two rings only joined by a narrow bar. Cant hooks are used more in the mill and yard, peavies more in the woods. E. Cross-cut saws. “I. Radius experiments show a radius of 5 feet 2 inches to be best. The straight drag saws require excessive strength and are deficient in dust chambers. II. Width of blade. It is at the widest point about 8% inches. The hollow back saws, a very recent invention, have only about 4 inches - width all through. III. Thickness of blade: The back of the saw is always somewhat thinner than the gauge of the teeth. Henry Disston gives the saw backs 4 or § gauges less thickness than the saw teeth. Atkins. gives the teeth “14 gauge,’ the back at the handles “16. gauge” and at the center of the back “19 gauge.” IV. Uniformity. of temper and proper temper are obtained by spe- cial processes. No hammering of blades. Cheeks are per- fectly smooth. .V. Construction of teeth is very variable. Dust room between the teeth should be twice as large as the teeth. For hardwoods more teeth are necessary than for softwoods.. . There are two kinds of teeth, namely: (a) The cutting teeth, a couple or trio of which might be arranged on a common stock, to form “Tuttle or Wolf Teeth.” Only the points of the cutters actually cut into the fibre. (b) The raker or cleaner teeth, meant to plane off the fibre severed by the cutters and to shift the sawdust out of the kerf. European experiments prove the useless- ness of cleaners. They simply occupy valuable dust room, The point of the rakers should recede by 1/32 of an inch from the cutting line of the cutting points. VI. Length of saw is from 4 ft. to 8 ft. At Biltmore 61% ft. and at Pisgah 7 ft. is preferred. Local crews use the “diamond cross-cut,” the “champion teeth” and the “hollow back” saw. VII. Saw handles should be easily detachable. The material of the handle is maple, birch and hickory. Handles are fixed FOREST UTILIZATION II (usually) vertically to back of saw. Sometimes, however, they are in the direction of the radius of the saw. Large “bow” saws allow of a very thin blade and have a bow instead of handles. They are not used in America. VII. The effect of a saw is equal to the number of square inches cut by one man per minute. The effect is small in pole- woods, increasing gradually up to a diameter of 134 ft. and decreasing thereafter owing to increasing friction. In cutting longleaf pine, the saw is continuously sprinkled with turpentine. The effect of curved saws is from 40% to 50% higher than the effect of straight saws. The saw overcomes (a) The resistance of the fibre by the sharp points acting as knives and planes; (b) The friction at both cheeks of the blade by smooth cheeks and by a gauge narrowing toward the back; (c) The friction of sawdust by deep teeth, curved line of teeth, perforation, large dust chambers and possi- bly by “cleaning teeth.” IX. Dressing of cross-cut saws. (a) “Jointing” means filing all cutting teeth down to exactly the same circumference. The tool used is called a jointer. A file is placed in the joints and by a screw pressed into the proper curvature: (b) “Fixing the rakers” means filing them down with the help of a raker gauge. The rakers act as brakes if they project into the cutting line. Outside and forks of rakers are slightly filed to remove case hardening, and the point is sharpened to a planer edge. : A raker swage is being introduced to spread the points of the rakers and to give them a hook-like point, which is said to tear out long slivers instead of tearing out dust. (c) “Setting the cutter teeth” is done under the control of a “set gauge” with the help of a “set block and “hammer,” giving 3 to 4 taps (the best method when done by experienced men) or with the help of a “saw set.” “Saw sets” are constructed either wrench-like or after the hammer and block prin- ciple. Rules of setting are: 1. Setting should never go lower than half the length of the tooth. 2. It should never exceed twice the gauge of the teeth. 12 ’ FOREST UTILIZATION. 3. More set is required for long saws and for soft woods than for short saws and hard woods. 4. When hammering, strike tooth fully %4 inch from point of tooth. 5. If teeth are badly set, take, to begin with, all set out of the teeth. 6. Apply side file inside file holder, to take away slight irregularities of set (after filing the teeth). (d) “Filing.” Filing usually follows setting except in the case of saws spanned in a vise, when the set is afterward given by holding the set block on one side of the spanned saw and hammering from the other. Rules of filing are: 1. File inside of tooth only. 2. File to a bevel or fleam of 45° 3. Push the file away and do not draw it toward you. 4. Do not file point to a feather edge. 5. It is useless to sharpen tooth below the cutting” point. (e) “Gumming.” Gumming is usually done with the file; the lever (punch) gummer may be used for the purpose, however. (f) Remarks: A good, well-tempered saw holds sharpen- -. ing and filing for six work days. In California one man “cross-cut saws” up to six feet long are used in dissecting the bole into logs. The cross-cut saw file shows, on the cross section, a narrow triangle with curved back. In Europe flat and triangular files are used for cross-cut saws. The “spread set” of the cutting teeth has been tried and was found impracticable. : F. Wedges. Wedges are used: I. To split wood: The “axe wedge” is usually made of iron and should have straight and not convex cheeks, which are often grooved to prevent wedge from jumping the cleft. Wedges are sold by the pound. Iron wedges are prevented from jumping by heating them, by putting dirt in the cleft, or else a rag (wet) over the wedge. Wooden wedges are made of the butts of hard maple, horn- beam, black gum, dogwood and beech. Iron wedges with wooden backs are frequently used abroad. FOREST UTILIZATION 13 II. To prevent saw from pinching in the kerf. Special saw wedges of oil-tempered steel are made by Morley Bros. Frequently saw wedges and axe wedges are used alike. Wooden wedges must be driven with the axe or hammer. Iron and steel wedges must be driven with a wooden maul. G. Mauls and maul bands. — Mauls are made of the butts of dogwood, beech, hornbeam, hard maple, gum and locust, and are held together by two iron hoops -made of %4-inch by 34-inch flat iron. + H. Pickaxe and mattock. They are used where the stumps are used together with the bole and in the preparation of forest roads. The points of both are relaid with steel after wearing out. I. Brush hooks. They are used in cleaning boles and in making fagots or fascines; further in clearing snaking roads in dense underbrush. J. The krempe. The krempe is used largely abroad and in India and resembles the picaroon or hookaroon used in America for handling ties, tele- graph poles and pulp wood. It is used in rolling and moving logs down hill, the pick acting as a lever, the fulcrum! of which lies at the heel. K. Pike poles. Pike poles are used with pike and hook or with pike only; are 12 ft. to 20 ft. long, made of selected white ash, the points consisting of cast steel. The points are either screwed into the wood or driven without heating. Pike poles cost $10 to $25 a dozen. They are indispensable in driving and rafting operations and at mill ponds. L. Screws for blasting stumps. Such screws are used abroad, not to shoot stumps out of the ground but solely to split stumps where prices of firewood are high. The hollow screw loaded with blast- ing powder is inserted into an auger-made hole. M. Grindstones. Grindstones should not be exposed to the sun, should be kept equally round and even and should always be kept wet while in use. A water trough underneath the stone should be rejected, as the submerged side softens unduly and unevenly. Stones are sold by the pound. A 7o-lb. grindstone costs about $4. The extra fixtures, consisting of hubs, shafts with nuts, crank etc. cost about a dollar. N. Machine saws. For cutting trees such saws have proven a failure. Similar was the fate of the “electric cutting machine” recently patented. by Bayer. The expense of carrying machines from tree to tree is greater than the expense of cutting by hand. 14 FOREST UTILIZATION . O. Tree-felling machines. They are largely used abroad to obtain the stump of a tree together with the bole. I. One of them is the “Nassau machine,” consisting of a 4-inch board ro inches wide into which regular steps are hewn, and of a pole about 25 ft. long, with a crooked pike at the small end and squarely bound in iron at the big end. Half a foot above the big end the pole is perforated so as to receive a 114-inch round steel spike. The square base of the pole is placed on a step of the board, fixed flat on the ground, some 12 feet from the tree. The pole then forms an angle of about 50° against the board, while the spike is securely placed into the bole of the tree. By means of two crowbars the base of the pole is moved step by step toward the tree. This machine must be used in Hesse Darmstadt, under the employér’s liability law. II. The “wood devil” has been used for centuries in Switzer- land. A rope or cable is fixed in the top of the tree to be felled and a chain is fastened around a stump in the falling direction, which chain ends in two hooks. The lower end of the rope is secured to a chain, the links of which receive the hooks. By moving a long lever to and fro, the hooks are inserted alternatingly in the chain end of the rope, advancing two or three links at a time. The instrument is very cheap, simple and powerful; at an angle of 45° the rope has the maximum of power. III. To remove stumps alone the stump lifter might be used. . IV. “Weston’s differential hoist” lifts the maximum of weight with a minimum of its own weight. A Weston hoist capable of lifting 114 tons 8% ft. high weighs only 81 lbs, and costs $25. $vI. FELLING THE TREES. Under “A” and “B” are described the chief methods of felling, A. Obtaining bole without stump and roots: I. By exclusive use of the axe, handled from one side only in cutting small trees, in thinnings and in coppice woods, II. By exclusive use of the axe, cutting two kerfs on opposite sides. The first notch, on side toward which tree is in- tended to fall, made from 4 inches to 6 inches lower, must penetrate the center of the tree. Avoid felling toward the direction in which the tree leans. Advantages of this method are the facts that one tool and one . man only are required; that the bole is easily directed; that the logs obtain proper noses. Disadvantages are loss of bole, amounting to from 4% to 8% and loss of time and labor in large timber. This method of felling is universally used in Maine. FOREST UTILIZATION 15, III. By hewing “out of the pan,” a method used for valuable heavy boles. Uncertainty of fall is counterbalanced by a gain in the length of the bole. The bole thus obtained is said to show less heart shakes. IV. By using the two-handed cross-cut saw alone, without the help of the axe, a method not advisable for the reason that the fall of the bole cannot be directed. V. By joint use of cross-cut saw and axe. The axe cuts a kerf on - the falling side, the depth of which is 1/4 to 1/5 of the diam- eter, and the innermost point of which lies on a level with the saw kerf. When the saw begins to pinch, drive wedges behind the back of the saw. Withdraw the saw when the tree begins to shake heavily and force it to fall by wedging. Advantages of this method are: the'trees are easily directed at. a. small loss of. timber. Disadvantages are: several tools and several men are required. In very thick woods and on very rocky, steep slopes, the use of the saw is not advisable or possible. Careless wedging may cause the bole to split at the butt. The saw and the wedge are said to be responsible for heart shakes. B. Obtaining bole with stump and roots: It is essential to thoroughly sever the main roots with axe, mattock and pick. The tree is then forced over by a tree-felling machine, or with a rope fastened to a high limb. Advantages are: longer bole; gain of lumber 8% to 10%. Possi- bility of obtaining knees for ship building (tamarack and white oak). The tree falls gently, its fall being checked by the roots so that the bole shows less splits, cracks and wind shakes. The bole is less apt to break and can be allowed to dry out gradually. Further, root-breeding insects don’t find any incubators and agri- cultural use is facilitated. Disadvantages are: greater expense, more tools, axes ruined in cut- ting roots, extra saw cut required to sever the butt log from the roots and, above all, the delay in finishing the logging job. C. Criteria of a good method: JT. Danger to workmen. JI. Total net value obtained. III. Wastefulness. IV. Possibility of throwing the tree in the desired direction. D. Pollarding before felling: The branches or the tree tops in European logging are frequently lopped off before felling, for the following reasons: I. The younger generation of trees surrounding the tree to be cut receives less injury. II. Lopped trees touch the ground all along the bole at one and the same time. Hence no danger af the bolés breaking or splitting. In addition, a reduced crown causes the tree to fall with decreased force. 16 FOREST UTILIZATION E. Felling rules: I. The trees must be thrown in such a way as to do least damage to themselves, to surrounding trees and to undergrowth. -Il. The felled tree should lie in a position allowing of easy dissec- tion of bole and of easy removal of logs. III. Operations must be stopped during storms and blizzards. IV. Trees over 6 inches in diameter should be sawn down, coppice woods excepted. V. No more trees should be felled than can be worked up within reasonable time after felling. VI. The stumps should not be higher than the tree’s diameter. VII. All trees marked for cutting, and none else, must be cut. VIII. The tops should be swamped so that they may come in contact with the ground. § VII. DISSECTING THE BOLE OF THE TREE. A. Purpose of dissection. I. Reduction of freightage. II. Better adaptation to different methods of transportation re- quired for different assortments. : lI. Better accommodation of buyers requiring different assortments. IV. Obtaining manageable size of logs and wood. As much net value should be obtained from the bole as possible. _Waste is advisable wherever it pays to waste. In no forest on earth is all the woody substance produced mar- ketable. The amount of offal (waste, debris)- depends merely on the expense of transportation to markets within nearest reach. It is better to waste wood than to waste money. The modern lumberman gathering logs of 4 inches diameter and the modern forester objecting to any waste frequently neglect this rule. B. Factors influencing the dissection: I. Requirements of the market governed by custom. II. Distance from market: the longer the distance, the better must be the quality of the product. III. Locality (f. i. steepness of slope; swampiness). IV. Local laws (f. i. in North Carolina relative to 8-foot firewood). V. Available means of transportation and their construction, VI. Freight rates varying with the degree of conversion. VII. Size of cars and wagons. VIII. Length of mill carriage and of feedworks. C. The main divisions of woody produce obtained from dissected boles are: I. Piece stuff, i. e. logs, blocks, construction timber, sold by the foot, the standard, the pound. II. Numbered stuff, i. e. poles, posts, mine props, scaffolding poles and shingles, boards and staves, sold by the dozen, by the hundred, by the thousand etc. FOREST UTILIZATION 17 III. Space stuff, i. e. industrial cordwood (for insulator pins, bobbins, pulp, tannin etc.), tanbark and fuel, sold by the cord. In the case of bark, 2,240 lbs. are usually considered the equivalent of one cord. — D. The specifications governing the dissection describe: I. The dimensions, i. e, the range of length and diameter de- sired for each section obtainable. II. The quality of each section and the defects allowed and pro- hibited therein. (a) Saw logs for lumber. 2: Dimensions. Douglas fir on the Pacific coast used to be cut in logs 24 ft. long. The minimum diameter per- missible was 30 inches. _ Spruce in New England is often cut 13 ft. 4 inches long with a diameter of 6 inches and up. For yellow pine logs, any length and any diameter over 8 inches are permissible. Hardwood logs have a length ranging from 6 ft. 4 inches to 18 ft. 4 inches, arranged in intervals of 2 ft.’ Odd lengths are scaled down. A deficiency of % ft. in length of board or less is, however, often disregarded. Export logs of yellow poplar are 8 ft. and 16 ft. long. Jack pine logs for cheap box lumber are often cut 6 feet 6 inches long, the diameters ranging from 4 inches up- ward. Treatment. Saw kerfs at either end of log should be made perpendicular. Branches should be swamped off, knots cut level and laid open. Bark in the case of coni- fers is frequently peeled off in Maine and in Europe.. Bark rings are sometimes left at the ends. Defects of bole must be concentrated in one log, or must be sawn out. Nosing is required for loose driving and for snaking. Painting of end faces with red lead is pre- scribed for export logs. Very heavy logs are sometimes split in two. Putting logs on sticks to prevent spoliation of sap and to reduce specific gravity is often advised. (b) Blocks for woodenware. Poplar, for large .bowls, must be entirely free from defects. White pine blocks are often cut between the whirls of branches. (c) Hub blocks must be butt logs, the length allow- ing to cut either two or four out of the block. (d) Construction timber is hewn according to local requirements. Minimum diameter at small end most important. Construction timber abroad is sometimes whip sawn. (e) Poplar and walnut squares run from 4” x 4” to 10” x10". They are whip sawn in the back- woods of western North Carolina. 18 FOREST UTILIZATION (f) ) Telegraph poles. The smallest diameter, the diameter at or close to the big end, the length, crooks and treatment of bark must be consid- ered. ‘Sometimes pointing of the small end is specified. Fence posts. Species, length, smallest diameter, straightness, method of manufacture etc. must be considered. Usual length is 6% feet. Railroad ties. Specifications are very variable. Face is usually from 6” x 6” to 7x9”. Sawed railroad ties are used, especially in the yellow pine section. Great waste in hewing ties from trees just too small to yield two ties. Speci- fications cover allowance of sap, wind shakes, wany edge and dote. ‘ Shingle bolts. Lengths are multiples of 16” and 18”, usually. Mine props. Middle diameter from 3” to 8”. Stave and heading bolts. Basswood heading bolts used in Michigan. Length 18” or 37” and diameter not less than 8”. If from 12” to 18”, split into halves. If over 18”, split into quarters. White oak- bolts used at Wilming- ton measure 36” for stave bolts and 24” for heading bolts; core must be hewn out; mini- mum face at inner edge 4” Heading bolts for sugar barrels in the Adiron- dacks consist of spruce cut in lengths forming multiples of 22” with a diameter minimum of 6”. Stave logs for sugar barrels consist of birch, beech arid maple, the lengths forming multi- ples of 32”, with a diameter minimum of 8”. Bolts for carriage spokes. Material is black or shellbark hickory, white oak, white ash and post oak strictly free from imperfections. Minimum diameter 12”; length 6% feet, 714 feet, 844 feet and so.on. : (m) Paper pulp. Logs scale 6” and upwards; no dead (n) timber. In the State of Maine pulp logs are ‘peeled in the woods. Veneering blocks. Hardwoods preferred, of the biggest possible diameter, but certainly over 18” diameter. Blocks from 2 to 6 feet long. (o) Tannin extract wood. Length of wood 5 feet, split from logs 10 inches and over in diameter. Wormholes allowed. Fibre must be abso- lutely sound. A cord consists of 160 cubic feet. FOREST UTILIZATION 19 Higher price for peeled wood. Butt logs pre- ferred. Cutting of saw logs out of same tree forbidden. (p) Fuel cordwood. Advisability for piles to contain one cord Weight of pieces should be such - that one man can lift them easily. Splitting facilitates the process of drying; in pine wood it also prevents rotting. CHAPTER III. TRANSPORTATION, § VIII. TRANSPORTATION WITHOUT VEHICLES ON LAND. The following methods of such transportation are en vogue: A. Carrying stove wood, pulp wood, extract wood etc. on men’s shoulders, a method of transportation very largely used abroad and in India. Carrying distances abroad range up to one-eighth of a mile. In India railroad ties are carried by the Hindoos over much longer distances. “Stretchers” are sometimes used where slope is not steep, or ~“timber carriers.’ Morley Bros.’ lughooks are used in America. At Biltmore firewood is carried to the roads over an average distance of 150 feet on men’s shoulders. B. Dragging logs by human force where vehicles or water is near and where produce does not weigh over a ton. The front end of a log is placed on a tray (lizard) to prevent it from boring into the ground. Barked or peeled and well trimmed logs are easily dragged. Silviculturally, dragging is, of course, inferior to carrying of wood products. C. Rolling logs by human labor is necessary almost everywhere. Peavy, cant hook and “krempe” are used for the purpose. On a slope of about 15 %, after removing obstacles, logs will roll easily. Shingle blocks, stovewood blocks and other short round wood may be spanned in a frame. This method of transportation badly damages young growth and trees left standing. D. Shooting logs down chutes. A dell in the slope of 30 % or more is often filled with (peeled) logs; then the top logs are shot down the dell over the other logs below. Three kinds of chutes proper may be distinguished : _I. Pole chutes; II. Board chutes; III. Earth chutes. J. Pole chutes have been largely used in the United States, costing about $300 a mile. They are said 20 FOREST UTILIZATION to last from, seven to ten years and should have: the following grades: For For For long logs. short-logs. railroad ties.. Dry chute .. 5-35% 26% Iced chute .... 8-12% 6% Watered chute - 8% Heavy curves must be avoided and the outside of light curves fixed with a number of “saddle logs.” Pole chutes consist of a trough made of four to six poles. The pole chute is about three feet wide and requires cribs or yokes for a foundation where: it is not laid on the ground. Water, ice and soap are used for lubrication. Chutes made of hardwoods are said to run smoother than those made of conifers, owing to the greater elasticity of conifers. Where the grade is light, poles should be peeled and hewn on the inside. The grade of inlet must be very steep; the outlet should open into a pond. Frequently, when the job of chuting-is finished, the poles or ties composing the chute are shot down them- selves, thus dissolving. the chute. II. Board chutes, which are frequently movable, con- sist of I-inch or 2-inch boards. They are used. in carrying firewood and other short stuff down slopes of 25% to 35%. The rougher the produce, the steeper must be the grade and the wider and smoother must be the trough. Sprinkling is re- quired during dry weather, sanding during wet spells. III. Earth chutes. These resemble snaking roads of a steady grade, which grade must be: (a) Where snow or ice crust is available, 8 to 10%. ; (b) Where split cross ties are used, laid about 5 feet apart;- for logs 16 feet long or longer, from 1014 to 18%. (c) Where dry earth is used, 25% and over. Road poles must be used on the valley side, es- pecially so in curves, and bridges must cross all the gullies. E. “Roping” is a method employed for moving long and heavy logs in the “Black Forest.” A rope is fastened at the small end of the log to a ring dog and swung once or twice around the stump of a tree nearby. The log is started by the “krempe,” and its speed is controlled by loosening or tight- ening the loop around the tree. When the rope is run out FOREST UTILIZATION 21 it is fastened anew, after stopping the log, to a tree lower down on the slope. The best slope is about 35%. F. Snaking logs or skidding logs. I i. III. Attachment by chains 12 to 16 feet long and 1/3 inch to % inch thick ending in dogs. When a chain link breaks, a “cold shut” is put in its place (cost $3 per 100 for %-inch chain). For smaller logs skidding tongs are used in place of dogs, at- tached to main chain by three rings, swivel and hook, and costing, per dozen, about $50. In the case of horses, stretch@rs are used to prevent the traces from hurting their legs. On muddy soil, the nose of the log is frequently placed on a tray, or a lizard, or a triangle. ‘Snaking dogs are usually hand-made and should be driven by a maul. Plain points on dogs seem to be preferred. Logging dogs 10 inches to 12 inches long are quoted at $15 per dozen. Animals. For long distance hauling, mules or horses are preferred to oxen. Ox harness is rarely used. In the South three yokes form a “team” usually, the chains running from-yoke to yoke. Leaders (oxen) require special training. The teamster manages the yokes of oxen by shouting, applying the whip as little as possible. Roads for skidding or snaking. (a) Uphill grades must be strictly avoided; even level stretches are disastrous. The grade de- pends on the season of usage. Where ice and snow are available 1% or 2% are ample. On dry rocky ground 50% is the maximum. On the average, for “Biltmore” conditions, 20% seems best. (b) Curves must be strictly avoided, especially “inside curves” skirting a gully. Herein lies the greatest difficulty of snaking road build- ing in sections where the mountain slopes are deeply gullied. (c) In the Appalachians the surface of the road ; is 21% to 3% feet wide and road poles laid on the valley side prevent the logs from jumping the road. ° Swampy and moist places are corduroyed lengthwise with the road. Creeks must be bridged. It must be kept in mind that one bad spot in a snaking road requires the use of additional teams over the entire length of road. 22 G. Drums. FOREST UTILIZATION Regular troughs made of two strong poles resting on cross ties are used in Pennsyl- vania, where grade is deficient and distance long. Out West cross ties 7 feet apart are placed on the road. In both cases long log trains are formed. It is claimed for such trains that the pull or strain on the animals is evened or equalized, some logs sliding down hill while other logs of the same train overcome impediments. (d) Means of lubrication are: Sprinkling with water; laying cross ties or length ties; peel- ing of logs; greasing the ties. Means of braking the logs are: Sprinkling earth, sand, hay and branches on the road; throwing chains, on the road, or tying chains around the logs. ‘ (e) Snaking distance. Snaking distances range up to one mile (usually), averaging about one-third of a mile. Where many logs, say 30,000 board feet of logs or more, must be transported on the same road over an aver- age distance greater than one-third of a mile, other means of transportation are usually preferable to snaking. In the Appalachian hardwoods the expense for i,0co board feet snaked over !4-mile amounts to about $4. In the Adirondacks skidding costs 40c to 50c per 1,000 board feet, the dis- tances being short, since the logs are merely skidded to the skidways arranged alongside the sleigh roads. I. Hand drums or winches are used for yarding logs and especially for hoisting lags up hill on steep inclines, the distances not exceeding 300. feet. G. B. Carpenter quotes single “drum grabs,” weighing 275 pounds and having 2 tons power, placed in strong oak frames, at $27. Power capstans might be used for the same purpose. II. Drums with horses as motive power are used in eastern Tennessee for hoisting logs up to the rim of the sand- stone plateaus. III. Steam power is now universally used out West in connec- tion with drums known as “Bull Donkey” and “Donkey” engines. Skidding or snaking roads are usually dis- pensed with. Steel cable (34-inch plow steel) is used on the drums. The distance of haulage should not ex- ceed 1,2co feet. The main cable is pulled out by a FOREST UTILIZATION 23 14-inch endless cable (“tripline”) running into the dis- trict to be logged over a number of tackle blocks. Zig- zags can be made by using tackle blocks on the hauling line as well. One engineer and one fireman are all the crew required in addition to two loaders. Frequently the engine loads logs on railroad cars at the same time. The engine’s cylinders are about 8 inches by 10 inches. Engines are moved from place to place by their own power. Price for an engine f. o. b. Biltmore is $1,400. Boilers are of the upright type. The wire cable is usually made of 6 strands, each containing 19 wires, wound around a hemp center. Running cables should never be galvanized. The proper load of a cable is only one-fifth of the breaking strain in tons. Steel ropes (cables) have twice the strength of charcoal iron ropes. One-inch steel wire cable costs 19c a foot, weighs about 1% pounds per foot and has a breaking strain of 33 tons. Its proper load is 6 tons only. Silviculturally this method of steam logging is objectionable. § Ix. WATER TRANSPORTATION. Logs or lumber are driven loosely or floated in rafts. A. Loose driving is:a method used in eastern América for short logs, pulp wood and firewood. Specific gravity of material driven must be réduced below 1.00. Heavy species might be deadened a year before driving, like teak in India, to attain this end, provided that attacks from fungi or insects, on the deadened trees, are not to be feared. Under favorable conditions, where the creeks are narrow and well watered, no special arrangements for driving are re- quired. I, Splash dams. The proper site for a splash dam is the rocky narrows of a water course below a broad bottom of little fall, or else at the outlet of a natural lake. Large splash dams must be placed on rock foundations. The expense of building increases at a cubic ratio with the height of the dam. Splash dams built in tributaries are preferable to dams in the main creek, provided that they can be filled quickly enough. A system of dams of first, second and third importance is frequently formed. The distance of effectiveness of a dam depends on the size of the water reservoir, the width of the water course below the dam, and the rapidity of its fall. On “Big Creek” in Pisgah Forest the distance of effective- ness was four miles. Splash dams meant to be permanent must be built of stone and are exceedingly expensive. 24 FOREST UTILIZATION The usual splash dam consists of timber cribs filled with rock and joined by logs laid crosswise. The front of the dam must be slanting and is covered with a double layer of boards. The gateway of the dam must allow of rapid drawing (or opening) of the basin. The gates are either constructed barn door fashion, held in place by a strong key and lever, or consist of (vertical) piling, the individual piles to be lifted by a crowbar or drum. Half-moon-shaped gates are used in the Lake States and in the Adirondacks. The smaller the water supply and the greater the pressure the tighter must be the gate. | The expense of a splash dam of the first order is from $1,0co to $2,cc0. A timber splash dam lasts from six to ten years. Frequently additional small gates are made to give a “fore-water,’ meant to loosen the logs in the creek below the dam. The actual splash rather presses the logs down the creek, instead of floating the logs. II. Dams in the creek. bed itself are sometimes required to raise the water in a shallow section. : Ill. Before driving begins, the creek bed must be cleaned out by removing old log jams, leaning trees and huge boulders. Sharp bends of the creek must be cut through, so as to straighten the creek bed. 3 IV. Fixtures along the bank of the creek are required to pre- vent logs from getting smashed when striking a bluff; from being thrown on the bank in a curve of the creek; from destroying the banks, and further to prevent the spread of water and loss of force, where a splash is expected to overrun adjoining flats. Such bank fixtures consist of: Pole cribs filled with rock, the poles lying solid, pole to- pole, toward the creek, or of inclines of poles laid horizontally, supported by %trong uprights from be- hind, or of alternating layers of fascines and stone, joined together by strong piling driven into the ground; or, finally, of brush laid on the sloping bank and irreg- ularly covered with rock. ; V. The bottom of the creek is sometimes paved with stone or poles laid lengthwise, where the bottom. consists of clay. This is especially necessary in artificial channels or canals dug through sharp curves of the creek, or dug close to the connecting booms. VI. Booms. (a) European booms are rake booms, the teeth of the rake formed by strong palings. The tops of the teeth are connected by strong FOREST UTILIZATION 25 timber bars, which are held in place by stone cribs. These booms are stretched diagonally across the river, The logs or wood are merely diverted by the boom and forced into an artificial side canal ending in a reservoir near the mill or depot. A gridiron or sieve, filtering the river at a water- fall and retaining the wood on the gridiron, has been used in the Tyrol by the Bavarian Govern- ment for many decades. (b) The American boom consists of two sections, an upper shear boom spanning diagonally across - the stream and a lower storage boom stretch- ing for miles along the river bank, where the water is quiet and the current slow. Both booms are floating booms consisting of one or two strings of prime logs, the logs joined by ° anchor chain. The booms are kept in place either by wire cables 34-inch to an inch in diameter or by‘stone filled cribs. It is ad- visable to have the storage boom consist of independent sections so that the breakage of the boom empties one section only. Frequently several mill concerns form boom com- panies. The logs are lifted out’ of the booms by “jack works” or “log hoists.” VII. Driving and splashing must be considered a backwoods method, applicable to very cheap stumpage. It is not practiced on the Pacific coast, where we have very cheap stumpage, owing to the size of the logs and poor water facilities. Where there are plenty of natural lakes, in a coniferous. country as in the Adirondacks, Michigan and Minnesota, the method continues to be practiced: Splashing is the more advisable: (a) The smaller the specific gravity of timber. (b) The shorter the logs. (c) The lower the stumpage price. (d) The more reliable the rainy season and the gauge of the’ river. (e) The better the natural conditions are at the dam sites, in creek bed and at boom site. (£) The poorer the natural conditions are for railroad building and wagon road building. (g) The less land owned by other parties is traversed by splashed logs. 26 FOREST UTILIZATION (h) The more saw timber improves while being bathed. in running water. , (i) The longer the distance. (j) Tle more inclined the log owner is toward taking risks and the less affected he is by reduced fertil- ity along the river bank. Remarks: In the pine woods of the South in olden tiines ditches were dug about three feet wide, connecting stumpage with swamps and rivers. The outlay per 1,coo board feet in splashing and driving is from sec to $1 (for manual labor only). River driving of cord wood at Biltmore from the upper end of the estate to Asheville, inclusive of piling at the boom, costs 50c per cord. B. Rafting. Loose logs are tied into rafts at a place where the flow of the creeks and rivers begins to be more gentle. Only rarely are rafts ‘used in connection with splash dams on very rapid streams. (Black Forest.) According to the size and species of logs, rafts are formed either with the logs lying with the stream (longleaf pine rafts etc.), or with the logs lying square to the stream. In this latter case the length of the logs should not exceed eighteen feet. Square rafts consist usually of hardwood logs. I. Logs with the stream. 2 (a) The logs are joined into raft sections, each sec- ‘tion one log long; the narrow end of the log points down stream; joining usually by rope, cable or chain; ring dogs or eye dogs are used, or wooden pins in connection with auger holes. (b) At the tail section the rear ends of the logs are allowed to spread fan shaped. (c) The raft is directed by long rudders (sweeps), by brakes (poles which are pressed against the bottom of the river) and pike poles. (d) The width of the raft and the tightness of bind- ing depend on rapidity of the stream, span of bridges to be passed, sharpness of bends of river and width of river bed. ‘ Remarks: Ring dogs for rafting weigh about 134 pounds, are four inches long and have a 2%4-inch ring, through which rope is run. Price toc apiece. Eye dogs are made of %-inch round iron, are six inches long and cost 6c per pound. II. Logs square to stream. (a) The ends are joined by cross poles, sometimes im- bedded in the logs and held in place by pins C. D. FOREST UTILIZATION 27 driven into auger holes, or by chain rafting dogs, consisting of two small wedges joined by two rings and five links of chain. Weight 214 pounds. Price 12c. (b) The logs must have about equal length. Species not floatable otherwise are tied up with floaters of pine, yellow poplar, cottonwood and linden. In the Mississippi two oak logs are floated by three cottonwood logs. (c) Such rafts are naturally stiff and cannot be used on rapid streams. The narrow and wide ends of the logs should alternate so as to keep the sections straight. : ; Flumes. Flumes resemble chutes made of boards. They must be water tight. They are largely used on the Pacific coast. I. A V-shaped cross section has proven best. Side boards are equally long, about 16 feet, in double layers. Angle of the V= 110°. Top width is 3 feet to 4 feet. II. An even constant grade of from 1% to 3% is necessary, also slight curves and large water supply, which is often obtained from artificial reservoirs. High trestle bridges are sometimes required. III. The main flume has a number of tributaries, A crew is stationed along the flume; special attention is given to the inlets of tributaries. Patrol trails along the flume. ‘IV. The fluming of logs is said to be unsuccessful. In the West, anyhow, the size and weight of the logs would prevent fluming. Nowadays either planks or heavy di- mension stuff, to be resawn at the outlet of the flume, are sent down. Only coniferous lumber is flumed. The lumber in the flume_forms one continuous chain; this arrangement prevents the lumber from sticking and catching -at the side walls of the flume. V. Famous flumes are those at Chico—Sierra Nevada range (40 miles of flume), the flume of the Bridal Veil Lumber Company and the Great Madeira flume, all in California. The last is 54 miles long and has a daily carrying capacity of 400,000 feet of lumber. It cost only $5,coo per mile. The scarcity of water in California is the greatest ob- stacle to the continuous use of flumes. Water transportation over lakes and sea is effected in the fol- lowing: way: I. In the “fiords” of the Pacific coast, logs standing upright are chained together so as to form a stockade in which the other logs are similarly placed, filling it tightly. Such stockades hold about half a million board feet of 28 FOREST UTILIZATION lumber at a time and form a seaproof raft, pulled to the mill by tugboats. II. -Logs chained together’ in the form of a cigar-shaped raft after various patterns have proven a failure. These rafts were taken from the Oregon and Washington ‘ coast to San‘Francisco, being launched like a steamboat and towed by tugboats. To judge from newspaper re- ports cigar-shapéd rafts of boards have proven a suc+ cess. The steamship companies consider cigar-shaped rafts a great danger to navigation. III. In carrying logs across the lakes in the Adirondacks and Lake States, light ring booms are used. The logs are placed in such booms at “the landing” and are rafted (driven) to the outlet of the lake either by wind, cur- rent or tugboat. § x. TRANSPORTATION ON LAND WITH VEHICLES. Sleighs and sleds. I. Hand sleighs, home made, very light, are frequently ‘used. abroad at grades of 10% and more. Man sits in front of load and directs with legs and side brake. On steep slopes such sleighs are used in summer as well. Fifty cubic feet is an average load for one man. The work- man carries his sleigh back uphill on his shoulders for the next load. Sleighing roads for summer sleighing frequently have cross ties at short intervals to be kept greased at slight grades. II. The American sled has nothing in common with the European sled. A team of horses is always used for motive power. The sleigh, or sled, consists of two sets: The front set has a tongue of rock elm or oak and a front roller in which the tongue is-set. Runners are 7 feet to 9 feet long, 3 inches to 4 inches wide, shod with Y4-inch steel shoes or cast iron shoes either below only or both above and below; they are either slightly convex or flat. The front of the runner should be of a natural curve or crook, not hewn. Material is white oak. The cross beams, either ironed or plain, rest in saddles or nose plates with knees. The “back roll” of the hind set is coupled to the front set by chains attached to the center of the front cross beam. There is no tongue to the hind set. UL Log binders are used on loading chains to take about half a foot of slack out of the chain, unless the same end is secured by poles and the twisting of the binding chain. FOREST UTILIZATION 29 IV. The usual load of a sleigh is, five tons, while a wagon car- ries only two tons on an average. The actual load depends on distance, grade and condition of road. In the Adirondacks about 2,000 board feet form a load; in Ontario 1,500 feet of white pine or spruce. V. Sledding roads are constructed in the Adirondacks at an expense of $25 to $150 per mile. The sledding dis- tance is said not to exceed three miles, usually. The teaming expense is about rIoc per 1,000 board feet per mile. The relative distance of snaking and sledding depends on configuration and density of stand. Sledding roads are preferably built on swampy soil. Heavy grades re- quire a heavy outlay for sanding; insufficient grades a heavy outlay for icing. Carelessness in surveying sleigh roads is extremely expensive in short, mild, snowless winters. The modern lumberman surveys his roads with instrument in hand, completing them before snow- fall. To begin with, an empty or lightly loaded sleigh is run over the road to mark and set the track. B. Transportation on two-wheelers. I. High wheelers, wheels 7 feet to 10 feet high, are used in the pineries of the South, in California, and to -a cer- tain extent in the Lake States for hauling coniferous logs of 1% feet average diameter and of extra long length. ‘Logs are loaded underneath the axle, either by using the “tongue as a lever or with the help of a second axle having the form of a winch (Southern method). Logging distance in the South not to exceed half a mile, average one-quarter of a mile. Expense $1 per 1,000 board feet. The best makes are: Bodley Wagon Co., Staunton, Va.; Snyder Wagon Co., ' Shreveport, La. Prices from $100 to $150. II. Low wheelers, usually called “Bummers,” the wheels con- sisting of a solid tree section held by iron rims 1% feet in diameter. The top of the axle is even with the top of the wheels. The tongue is only six feet long and merely used as a lever in loading. The bummer is pulled by chain attached to point ‘of tongue and is loaded by placing axle parallel to log close to center of log, with the tongue standing perpendicular, the log being fastened to the axle by short chains and dogs. FOREST UTILIZATION High and low wheelers are used on undulating ground for downhill pull on soil free from rock, swampy places, debris and brush. C. Log wagons. Log wagons are entirely used for transportation in the old country, where the forests are traversed by a net- work of well graded stone roads. Wagons are always hand- made, of light weight and carry up to 17 tons of logs. In carrying long boles, the front and hind trucks are separated. Steep curves can be made if the rear ends of the logs are fast- ened underneath the axle of the hind truck. The American wagon has a track width, from center to center of tire, of 4 feet 6 inches or 5 feet. Wheels are usually made entirely of white oak. The wood is well seasoned. The tire is 3 inches, 5 inches and over. Front and hind wheels usually equally high—2 feet to 3% feet. Eight wheelers are now widely advertised. Skeins are preferably made of welded’steel instead of cast, 3 inches to § inches in diameter. Steel axles have not proven a success, owing to difficulty of repairs in the backwoods. Bolsters should reach to or over the top of the wheels. The reach should allow of changing distance between front and rear set. , if Main requirements are: I. Strength. II. Possibility of repairs in the woods. III. Low point of gravitation. IV. Ease of loading. V. Ease in turning. VI. Light weight of wagon itself. Prices for log wagons range from $80 to $200 according to carry- ing capacity. Weight from 800 to 1,8co pounds. Carrying ca- pacity 1%4 to 5 tons. D. Traction engines. Traction engines are largely used abroad and have proven very successful recently in the South African war. In freighting lumber from mill to city or depot they are used in the United States on a small scale, since -stone roads seem to be a prerequisite; loose sand, deep mud or swamp are impracticable for traction engines. In Pennsylvania four- wheelers costing $1,5co for a 16-horsepower compound engine and able to climb 12% grades and to turn 30 feet curves have proven a failure, since the use of traction engines plows the roads during rain. In the California mountains, where drouth prevails during six months of the year, the three-wheelers manufactured by the Best Company, of San Leandro, Cal., have been largely and successfully introduced. Very high wheels and broad tread cause little injury to the route traveled. The boiler is a com- FOREST UTILIZATION 31 bination of upright and horizontal, concentrating weight on the driving wheels and preventing water and fuel from dropping | back from the pipes on steep grades. Engines are said to be able to climb 30% grades and to climb over logs, brush, stone etc. Front wheel is for steering only, with front drum for ‘skidding logs by wire cable. : E. Pole roads. A statistic of 1886 finds in the United States over 2,0c0 miles of pole roads, using over 400 locomotives and over 5,000 trucks. I. The rails are made of straight, preferably coniferous poles, sufficiently trimmed to fit the double flange of the truck wheels. On suitable soil no ties are required, the rail being gradually pressed into the ground. Sawn rails, preferably consisting of several layers of boards, must be used in curves of the pole road and are still largely used near mills on steep and short grades. II. Trucks. The wheels should not turn with the axle. An oval concave rim said to be inferior to a flat rim with heavy flanges. Each wheel has about 2 inches room for side play. The reach should turn like a swivel in hind and front set, allowing all wheels to stay on the track. III. All lumbermen now agree that pole roads are impracticable for locomotives. On sawn rails locomotives are still used, however, when prices of steel are high, grade steep, distance short and use intended for a short while only. Sawn wooden rails do not allow of heavy loads and, consequently, seem unadvisable just for logging by steam engines. F. Forest railroads. I. Portable forest railroads. In American lumbering portable railroads are little used. The sections of which portable railroads consist are necessarily light and, consequently, unfit for the heavy traffic of American lumbering. In Europe the sections are usually 614 feet long, have 2% feet gauge and weigh 80 pounds. Steel ties are preferable at the ends so as to have the joints supported by ties. The sec- tions are joined by a hook arrangement without being bolted together. ‘ Usually the sections are merely laid on wood roads. Mo- tive power is supplied by gravity, men or horses. Wheel flanges usually on both sides of the rail. Rail sections of trapeze form are sometimes used in building curves. Bridge switches are preferable to split switches. In the wood yard at Biltmore sections of wooden rails were used, the ties being replaced by iron rods. The 32 FOREST UTILIZATION top of the rail was ‘shod with a strip of 14-inch iron, the ends joined by hook and pin, and by hole and pin. Steel sectional tracks of 2%4-inch gauge are manufactured. by the C. W. Hunt Co., New York. The trucks used have the. wheel flange outside. Curves and switches are ready made. Straight sections are 6 feet to 20 feet jong. II. Stationary track. (a) Grade. A proper survey is very essential. For steep grades (over 7%) a soft rail is required. Grades of 11% are feasible on straight track for locomotives having eight drivers. “High percentage for very short distance is, how- ever, permissible. ; Logging roads in ‘the South have grades running up to 15% for uphill traffic, obtaining the neces- sary impetus by a corresponding downhill grade. The expense of maintaining the track and the frequency of accidents render steep grades highly expensive. The standard. railroads have never over 4% grade. (b) Curves. The minimum radius of curves depends on gauge of track; distance between axles of front and hind trucks; length of timber to be carried and grade in the curve. Curvature is measured by the subtended angle, the (secant) chord of which is too feet. Standard railroads do not allow of an angle exceeding 10%. In curves, to relieve the increased friction, and, further, to prevent the trucks from jumping the track, owing to centrifugal force, three remedies are required: 1. Lessened speed and reduced grade. In practice for standard gatige of 5614 inches, for each degree of curvature the grade -is released by 0.02%; for narrow gauge by 0.03%. 2. The outer rail is elevated for standard track by %-inch for every degree of curvature; for 36-inch gauge (usual nar- row gauge) by 1-3 inch for each degree of curvature. 3. The track is widened in curves by 1-16 inch for every 2% degrees of curvature. (c) Rails. The form is usually the T rail. Grooved rails, flat rails, rails inclined toward center of track etc, are freaks merely. In logging rail- FOREST UTILIZATION 33 roads the rails are often fastened lengthwise on sawn or hewn stringers, which arrangement allows of light rail. The gauge is measured inside the tops of the rails if the flange is inside,. and outside the rails if the flange is outside. If the wheel has a double flange, measure from center to center of rails. In lumbering operations, the standard gauge (56% inches) is generally preferred, since- heavier loads can be taken and since the rolling stock can be disposed of more readily at the end of operations. Of the narrow gauges 36 inches is best, since the odd gauges prevent ready exchange of addition to and sale of rolling material. In mountainous sections narrow gauge is preferred. Here the expense of wide gauge track is too high, since it requires flatter curves, smaller grades and largely increased outlay for roadbed. In standard lumbering operations a heavy (56 pounds) rail is now preferred, the up-keep of track being cheaper, the bed for the track being less expensive and fewer ties being required for the heavy rail. Light rails are so twisted, after short use, that they cannot be sold at second hand. For 36-inch gauge a rail weighing 16 pounds to 20 pounds is best. Rule for number of tons of rail required per mile: 1. Tons of 2,000 pounds. Multiply the weight of the rail by 7/4 and you obtain the number of tons required per mile. For example, 20-pound rail x 7/4 = 35 tons. 2. Tons of 2,240 pounds (after which rails are usually sold). Multiply weight of rail by 11/7 instead of by 7/4. The price per ton of rail (steel) varies. from $25 to $35. The interdependence between locomotive’s weight and minimum weight of rail per- missible is given by the following equa- tion: w ——xXB=r n wherein w stands for weight of locomo- tive in tons; m stands for number of 34 FOREST UTILIZATION drivers; r stands for minimum weight of rail in pounds. Estimates of cost of track, exclusive of rolling stock and bridge arrangements, vary from $1,300 to $4,300 per mile for easy grading. One-half of the expense in this case is for rails, spikes and splice joints (fish plates). The grading and laying of track costs from $300 to $1,coo per mile for easy grading; and cross ties cost about as much. Estimate of cost per mile for 1. Sixteen-pound steel rail, requiring 25 tons of rail @ $32 per ton.$ 800.00 1,780 pounds of 314x3 in. spikes at Se per poltnds:+< ss: sseaneas 35.60 357 splice joints at 20c.......... 71.40 2,640 cross ties at ISC............ 396.00 Grading and track laying........ 500.00 1 Total: 2vaservssaserceemman st $1,803.00 2. 40-pound steel rail, requiring 63 tons of rail at $30 per ton...... $1,890.00 4,690 pounds of 4x™% in. spikes at’ ZO 8, POUNd s.scias aeewsmse es 5 93-80 357 splice joints at 4oc each...... 142.80 2,640 cross ties at 25c each...... 660.co Grading and laying track........ 1,000.00 Total, «cos ccm metaeess $3,786.60 (d) Cars. Cars consisting of two trucks, of two axles each, form the rule. The trucks should be very low and should have short distance between axles where curves are heavy. For narrow gauge tracks, special trucks are constructed costing from $50 to $80. While steel trucks are more satisfactory in the ‘old country, in America trucks with wooden framing and wooden bolsters are usually pre- ferred, owing to greater ease of repair far from factory. The bearings are frequently outside as well as inside the wheels, so as to have the frame sup- ported at eight instead of at four points of the two axles. The bolsters, swiveled on the frame, are very frequently much longer (wider) than the axles. (e) FOREST UTILIZATION 35 The weight and capacity of logging cars should be as follows: i Capacity Weight in lbs. in board feet. 4wheelcars ......... 3,000 lbs. 1,000 b. ft. 4wheelcars .......... 4,000 Ibs. 1,500 b. ft. 4wheelcars .......... 5,000 Ibs. 2,000 b. ft. 4wheelcars .......... 6,000 Ibs. 2,500 b. ft. 8wheelcars .........4 6,900 Ibs. 2,000 b. ft. 8wheelcars .......... 8,400 lbs. 3,000 b. ft. 8wheelcars .......... 9,600 lbs. 4,000 b. ft. 8wheelcars .......... 11,000 lbs. 5,000 b, ft. Locomotives, Logging locomotives are manufactured by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia; H. K. Porter, Pittsburg, Pa. ; Climax Mfg. Co., Corry, Pa.; Stearns Locomotive Co., Erie, Pa. (for Heissler geared locomotives). The price is practically independent of the gauge, being influenced more by horsepower. Four driving wheels are usually sufficient. On steep grades, six wheels and, on very steep grades, eight wheels are used. The resistance to be overcome by the tractive force is: 1. Gravity, which increases in exact propor- tion to steepness of grade expressed in per cent. Thus it is always 20 pounds per ton for each per cent. 2. Friction of the journals and of the wheel flanges against the rails, which depends, aside from curvatures, on quality of the track and of rolling stock. It is at least 5 pounds per ton; it amounts to 6%4 pounds for first class equipment; to 20 pounds to 4o pounds for bad equipment, and in extreme cases it rises to Ico pounds. Tractive force is understood to be one-fifth of the weight, in pounds, on the driving wheels, expressed in tons, For instance: Weight on driving wheels 25,000 pounds, divided by 5=5,000 pounds; and 5,000 tons is therefore the tractive force of the engine. . FOREST UTILIZATION The hauling capacity of an engine is: tractive force divided by the sum of the fric- tional and gravity resistance, both ex- pressed in pounds, deducting the weight of the locomotive from the quotient. For example: 4 Weight of locomotive on 4 driving wheel = 20,000 pounds. Tractive force is 4,000 tons. First case—Frictional resistance 8 pounds per ton, grade level. Then the hauling ca- pacity equals 4,000 tons over 8 (friction) plus o (gravity) minus 10 = 490 tons. 4000 minus 10 = 490 tons. 8+0 EA ; Second case—Frictional resistance same as above, grade 1%. 4000 minus 10 = 133 tons. Third ase Petional resistance ‘8 pounds. grade 2%. 4000 8+40 The cost of hauling logs on a standard rail- road, per carload of .40,coo pounds, amounts to $5 for distances of one to fifty miles, and to $6 for distances of fifty to one hundred miles. Porter’s catalogue gives the cost of hauling as ranging from 30c to 60c per 1,000 b. ft. for a logging distance of from five to ten miles. At Chicora, Ala., two standard trains provide daily, to- gether, 100,cco b. ft, coming from a distance of about eight miles. Small (narrow gauge) locomotives haul from 60,000 to 120,000 b. ft. per week over distances of from five to ten miles. Where grades are not excessive, a locomotive should cover daily 60 to 80 miles, the hauling distance varying from 2 to 10 miles. : minus 10 = 73 tons. G. Mono rail. The mono rail portable railway is a French invention (Caillet) and has been tried to a limited extent in India. It consists of one rail only, resting on steel sole plates at intervals of a few feet, and’ is laid down direct on the surface of the ground. Rails are joined together by scab- bard fish plates. The trucks have two low wheels, grooved FOREST UTILIZATION 37 at the rim, the carriage hanging between the wheels a few inches above the rail. Cars are balanced by a telescopic rod and kept in balance, like a bicycle, by the motive power itself, which consists of an animal hitched in a frame along- side of the carriage. The mono rail system might be applicable in the transporta- tation of bark, cordwood and minerals. H. Cable way logging. The logs are suspended from a cable and are not dragged on the ground. I. On steep slopes, the grade being 35% to 50%, the logs slide down by gravity, being suspended from two trolley blocks held apart by a strong rod or pole, about 15 feet long. At the upper end of the cable, curved iron rails lead, like a bridge switch, onto the cable. The cable is kept tight by heavy drums, over which the cable runs at the ends. It is said to wear out in about eight years. The speed of the block carriage is regulated by manila roye, wire or light wire cable, and the empty block carriage is carried backward by the same rope without any motive power other than that of a loaded block carriage going down hill. Proper switches allow the empty block carriage to pass.the loaded one at a _ half-way point. The price of i-inch wire cable is about 1¢c per foot. ' In Switzerland lines two miles long are found, without any supports. In the Hartz Mountains supports are given every 700 feet and the expense is $800 per mile for entire equipment. In Oregon and western North Carolina short cable con- duits of this character are in successful use, and in India (in the Himalayas) the most extensive plants of >this character are said to exist. II. In swamps of the Atlantic coast, where railroading is difficult, the system of the Trenton Iron Co. and of the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co. have been tried which move the block carriage holding the’ logs in suspense. over a cable either by steam power or by electricity. (a) In case of steam power, the engine is placed either on a scow swimming in the swamp, in the river, in the logging canal cut by powerful dredges, or on a railroad car, the logging outfit costing about $7,500 per mile (including lateral rig), consisting of: One-inch carrying cable and double traction rope; 38 FOREST UTILIZATION Double block carriage with differential hoist and log grip; Brackets, supporting the cable; Steam engine with hoisting drum; Lateral hauling-in rig, by. which logs are dragged to the main carrying line over distances running up to 1,000 feet. (b) In case of electric power, the outfit, costing $6,200 per mile, consists of: One-inch carrying cable and %-inch single current rope, which is swung thrice over a grooved sheave; Generating machines and 20-horsepower steam engine ; Carriage, including the log support and the motor with sheave, which has a speed of six miles an hour. I. Loading arrangements are required, wherever vehicles are used, except for bummers. I. Loading on wagons, (a) Sliding logs from a higher bank onto vehicles. Only one layer can thus be loaded conveniently. (b) Rolling logs up an incline, either with peavies or rope, the top of the incline resting on the tops of the wheels. ; (c) A (drum) winch in front of wagon, incline be- hind wagon, pulling logs up by rope. (d) Tackle block attached to a tree, the wagon stand- ing between the tree and log; the end of rope attached to outside wheel and the free end pulled by animals. (e) The skidway scheme. Trained horses running on prepared track: opposite the skidway. Two poles leading from skidway to wagon; rope running from outer wheel of wagon under and around the log and back over the wagon to the horses. (f) Ties and piling; cheap lumber; boxes; _laths. , Norway pine: Lumber generally; ship building; construction; flooring; masts; piles of wharves; covering; lining; siding ; floor- ing and sills of railroad cars; railroad ties. Eastern spruce: Chemical fibre and paper pulp (down to 5”- diameter); matches; excelsior; construction; posts; railroad ties; fresh-water ship building; clapboards; flooring; ceiling; stepladders; sounding boards (from butt logs); oars; spars; wharf piles; telegraph poles; toys; wood type; butter buck- ets; slack cooperage; wooden thread (for mattings); chewing gumi; vanillin. In Europe spruce bark is used for tanning. ° Engelmann’s spruce: Used in Colorado for common lumber. Tideland spruce: Lumber; construction; outer finish; wooden- ware; paper pulp. 54 FOREST UTILIZATION Hemlock: Coarse rat-proof lumber; dimension stuff and construc- tion; shingles; railroad ties; fencing; paper pulp; bark for tanning. Douglas fir: All building. lumber; construction; railroad ties; trestle bridges; piles; car sills; ship building; masts; mining timber; bark sometimes used for tanning. Firs: ‘Paper pulp. In the East for corduroying. In the West for local lumber; packing cases; cooperage; interior finish; mine props. Tamarack (Eastern): Fence posts; telegraph poles; ship’s knees; railroad ties. Tamarack (Western): Posts; railroad ties; car construction; dimension stuff. Tropical and subtropical timber. Yucca: Paper pulp and fibre for ropes; pincushions. Eucalyptus: Street paving; railroad ties; mine props; piles; ship building; wagon making; orchard paling. Mangrove: Bark very rich in tannin. Palmetto: Wharf piles; pincushions; brushes. Lignumvitae: Bowling balls; blocks for pulleys; fine interior finish and furniture; railroad ties in Panama. Teak: Ship building and flooring; railroad cars; street paving. West India cedar: Racing boats; cigar boxes. _ Olivewood:' Turnery; inlaying; furniture; backs of hair brushes; wood carving. The fruit yields the best oil for table use. Quebracho: Tanning; paving; railroad ties. Lancewood: Fishing rods. Mahogany: Furniture; ship building; pianos; fine interior finish. § XIV. TECHNICAL QUALITIES OF THE TREES. A. Botanical structure of the trees. I. Botanical structure of hardwoods. The cells forming the woody tissue are: (a) Ducts (pores, vessels) formed by the resorption of the partition walls in a vertically’ running string of cells. Such ducts are characteristic of hardwoods. (b) Sclerenchyma, cells of heavy walls and small lumina, usually forming long fibres. (c) Parenchyma, cells of thin walls and large lumina, fre- quently containing grains of starch. Medulla or pith is found in the central column, in the primary, secondary, tertiary rays and (rarely) in medullary spots (birch). The central pith is: Heavy in ash, maple, elder, catalpa; Triangular in birch, alder: Quinquangular in hornbeam. Broad leaved species are called “ring porous,” if the spring wood of the annual ring contains strikingly Medullary Rays. Scarcely visible. Visible. Broad. II. LOREST UTILIZATION 5s large pores, or else “diffuse porous,” if the ducts are evenly distributed over the entire ring. Sapwood and heartwood are merely distinguished by a differ- ence of color, caused by incrustations of pigments, lignin, tannin etc, in the walls of rings forméd a number of years before. The number of years elaps- ing before incrustation takes place is small in catalpa, chestnut, locust; and larger in yellow poplar, white oak, walnut where it is about thirty or forty years old. Beech, maple, basswood ete. do not form any heartwood. GENERIC STRUCTURE OF HARDWOODS, Ringporoue | Diffuse porous. always with Inner pores heart. more numer- Pores absolutely even ous, always With heart. Without heart. with heart. Castanea Rhamnus Juglaus Alnus _| Robinia Rhus Pyrus malus Pyrus communis Fraxinus Syringa Sorbus Crataegus Hicoria Salix Betula Lirlodendron Aesculus Populus Ulmus Prunus Tilla Morus Acer Ailanthus Corylus Carpinus Tlex Quercus Sambucus Platanus Vitis Fagus \ Rosa Botanical structure of softwoods, (a) The tissue of softwoods is more homogeneous than that (b) (c) (d) (e) of hardwoods. It is mainly formed by tracheae. The cell walls formed in early spring are thinner. and the lumina formed in early spring are larger than those formed in summer. Parenchyma is found in the medullary rays and around the rosin ducts. Ducts of the form found in hardwoods exist only close to the central pith column. The medullary rays are very fine (microscopic), usually only one cell wide and about a dozen cells high. The lowest string of cells in the ray is usually formed by tracheae (exception—red cedar). Rosin ducts are not cells merely, but, unlike the ducts of hardwoods, hollow tubes, the walls of which are formed by parenchymatic cells. These ducts are run- ning horizontally as well as vertically in picea, pinus, larix, pseudotsuga. . The tissue of the genera abies, taxus, juniperus, thuja, tsuga, chamaecyparis etc. lacks the ducts. 56 FOREST UTILIZATION (f) Heartwood and sapwood of conifers are distinguished merely by a difference in color, due to incrustations of rosin in the inner heartwood rings. Pinus echinata has, usually, about thirty sapwood rings. Spruces, firs and hemlocks have no heartwood. Heartwood is con- spicuous in the pines, red and white cedars, lawson cypress, yew, larches and douglas fir. ‘ Chemical qualities of wood. I. The walls of the tissue are formed by cellulose (CizH2:O,) and by lignin (CsHi20s). Cellulose transforms, entirely or partially, in the very year in which the cell is built, by incrustation. and reduction into lignin. If a branch or a seedling does not enjoy enough light during summer to allow of thorough lignification, then that branch or seedling is necessarily killed by the winter frost. II. Wood and bark contain on an average 45% (weight) of water. Conifers contain less water than broad-leafed spe- cies. The percentage varies irregularly with the seasons and with the precipitations. III. Other substances found in the woody tissue are: (a) In the sap and medulla—albumen, starch, sugar, oils. (b) In the cell walls—tannin, rosin and pigments. IV. The specific gravity of pure wood fibre is 1.56. Outer qualities, or qualities discernible by eye, touch or scent. I. Texture. The texture is fine or rough’ according to the ease with which parts composing the tissue can be distinguished. The texture is: (a) Very fine—yew, box, holly, persimmon. (b) Fine—pear tree, hornbeam, black gum. (c) Pretty rough—spruce, fir, magnolia, cottonwoods. (d) Rough—cherry, sycamore, maple. (e) Very rough—oak, elm, locust, beech. II Color. Color is an advantage in the furniture trade and a disadvantage in the manufacture of paper. The heart of seasoned wood is always darker than the sap- wood. Tropical species are particularly rich in color. Wood exposed to air changes its color more or less visibly. The heart of yellow poplar changes to a dark brown. Alder changes from white to red. Ash from white to light violet. Mahogany from brown to black. Walnut similarly, III. Gloss. Gloss is due to evenness, number and size of medul- lary rays. Shining species are maple, ash, elm, beech. Medium shining are oak, alder, hornbeam. Dull are peach, pear, conifers. FOREST UTILIZATION 57 Quarter sawing increases the gloss. ~1V. Odor. Odor is important for the use of wood in the package industry. The strong odor of wood is usually lost in the course of seasoning. The following species retain, however, a characteristic odor: Cherry, birch, sassafras, red cedar. D. Inner qualities, or qualities discernible by mechanical tests. I. Specific gravity. (a) Pure wood fibre forms in fresh wood, with broad leafed species of temperate climates, about 35 % of the entire weight, while conifers show an aver- age of about 25 %. (b) Air dried wood still retains from 10% to 15 % of water. If the dry kiln reduces the percentage of water below that figure, the hygroscopicity of the wood will speedily cause it to return. (c) Factors influencing specific gravity of air-dried wood within the same species are: * 1. The width of the rings, in ring porous hardwoods and in conifers forming heartwood. 2. The incrustations of rosin, tannin and pigments in the heart. The age of the tree. The decay of the fibre. 5. The section of the tree, since roots are ; very light, butt logs heavy, bole fairly light and branches fairly heavy. In the case of the diffuse porous hard- woods and of conifers destitute of heart, no rule can be given relative to specific gravity of inner and outer layers, of wide and narrow rings. (d) Air dried lumber has, on an average, the following weights: RY Weight of Species— Specific gravity. 1,000 ft. b.m. Turkey oak, hickory, service-bush. over 0.75 over 4,000 Ibs. Ash, white and red oak, locust, beech, hornbeam, hard maple, PORT ELC avec ciaravsais secre eceretn oar a 0% 0.70-0.75 about 3,759 lbs. > eiedhenactete espa lazaciue ebiiecte 0.60-0.70 about 3,400 Ibs. Horse chestnut, chestnut, tulip tree, alder, larch, longleaf pine 0.55-0.60 about 3,000 lbs. Yellow pine, douglas fir, spruce, fir, willow, cottonwood........ 0.45-0.55 about 2,600 lbs. White and sugar pine............ under 0.45 about 2,200 Ibs. (e) Rules. 1. Specific gravity times 5,200 equals the / weight of 1,000 feet b. m. of sawn lum- ber. Reason—1,000 superficial feet of water one inch deep weigh 5,200 lbs. ’ FOREST UTILIZATION 2. Specific gravity times 8,000 times cordwook reducing factor equals the weight of a cord of wood. Reason—128 cubic feet of water weigh 8,000 Ibs.; a cord of wood. contains from 20 % to 85 % of wood, the balance being air. 3. Specific gravity air dry times 5,200 times 23. equals the weight of 1,000 feet b. m, in the log. Reason—a green log has about 10% bark, about 27 % of water, to be removed by drying, and loses 33 % for slabs and kerf in band sawing. Hence the weight in 1,000 feet b. m. air dried and band sawed lumber is only 0.9 times 0.73 times 0.67 of the weight of a log scaling 1,000 feet b. m. Doyle. The -weight of a green log is 2.3 times the weight of air dried lumber obtainable from it by the band saw. For broad- leafed species and for circular saws the figure is higher than for conifers and. band saws. (f) Heavy planks do not dry as thoroughly as thim boards. ; (g) Weight determines freight and customs charges. Also adaptability to packages, floatability in flumes and rafts and possibility of loose driving. Lumber freight rates from Asheville, N. C., are: 29c per 100 lbs. to New York. 23%4c per 100 Ibs. to Philadelphia. 12%c per 100 lbs. to Atlanta. 18c per 100 lbs. to Washington. t4c per 100 lbs. to Norfolk. Lumber freight rate from Portland, Ore. to Chi- cago is about soc per 100 lbs. Steamer rate to Europe from Norfolk is 14c per too Ibs. of lumber. The freight rate on logs for 50 miles is at least: $5 per carload; for 100 miles at least $6. Hardness. By hardness is understood the resistance of the fibre to axe and saw worked vertically to the fibre. Factors of hardness are: (a) Density; wide rings in oak and narrow rings in pine j increase the hardness. (b) Incrustation; heartwood is harder than sapwood. (c) Moisture contents; dry wood is, on the whole, harder. than green’ wood. With some broad-~ leafed species of loose tissue (willows and cot- FOREST UTILIZATION 59 tonwoods), however, moist wood is tougher and therefore harder as well. (d) Frost increases the hardness. SCHEDULE OF HARDNESS. Hard. Medium. . Soft. Very soft. Hickory Ash Chestnut White pine Dogwood Oak Tulip tree Sugar pine Sugar maple Elm Sweet gum Sequoia Sycamore Beech Douglas fir Paulownla Locust Cherry Fir Willow Hornbeam Mulberry Yellow pine Persimmon Birch reh ‘ Sour gum Linden Longleaf pine Horse chestnut Hemlock Cottonwoods Spruce III. Cleavability or fissibility. Cleavability is the resistance of fibre to axe, saw and wedge, worked lengthwise in the direction of the fibre. Radial cleavage is usually by 50% to 100% easier than tangential cleavage (except in black gum). Factors of cleavability are: (a) A straight, long, elastic fibre. (b) Heavy and high medullary rays. (c) Straightness of growth. (d) Branchiness. (e) Moisture (very green and very dry wood splits best). (4) Frost (reduces the cleavability). (g) Hardness and softness (extremely hard and ex- tremely soft wood splits badly. This rule holds good only in hardwoods). SCHEDULE OF CLEAVABILITY. Hard to split. Medium to split. Easy to split. Black gum Oak Chestnut Elm Ash Pines Sycamore Larch Spruce Dogwood Cottonwood Fir Beech Linden Cedar Holly Yellow poplar Maple Hickory Birch Hornbeam IV. Pliability. Under pliability we combine flexibility and elasticity. (a) Flexibility; wood which is easily bent without breaking is flexile (flexible). Softwoods are nat- urally less flexile than hardwoods. Flexibility depends on: 1. Toughness and cohesive force of fibre. 2. Moisture, which increases it very much. 3. Heat, which increases it. 4. Age of tree, inasmuch as young shoots are tougher than old wood. 5. Impregnation, natural as well as artificial, FOREST UTILIZATION checks flexibility. (Heartwood less flexi- ble than sapwood.) 6. Root wood more flexible than stem wood. Remarks: Heat and moisture as a means to in- crease flexibility are applied in these industries: Cooperage; for bending staves and hoop poles. Carriage works; for bending poles, shafts, felloes, top frames, seats etc. Furniture; bent wood furniture. Ship building. Veneer peeling. Basket work. Manufacture of musical instruments. (b) Elasticity and flexibility are not always found in the same piece of wood. On the contrary, quali- ties which increase flexibility frequently reduce elasticity, and vice versa. Elasticity is the force with which an object resumes its old shape when pressed out of shape and released. The factors of elasticity are: 1. Long and straight fibre. ‘2. Narrow rings in conifers. 3. Dryness (moisture reduces elasticity). 4- Frost (which destroys elasticity). 5. Excessive contents of rosin (which in- creases the elasticity). SCHEDULE OF ELASTICITY. Very elastic are: Less elastic are: ew Cottonwood .. Larch Birch Fir Maple Locust Elm Chestnut Alder Hickory Walnut Osage orange Yellow pine Red cedar Yellow poplar Lancewood Beech Spruce White pine Ash Oak V. Strength. Strength is resistance to: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Tension; to which timber is usually not exposed. (Yoke of oxen pulling the-cart by the pole.) Compression (arches, pillars, scantling). Torsion (shafts, screws, axles). Shearing. Transverse straining (beams, girders, joists). Factors of strength are: 1. Specific gravity. 2. Soundness of tissue. 3. Freedom from branches. Timber, like any other material, should never be FOREST UTILIZATION 61 loaded to over one-fourth of its indicated strength. Transverse strength is always proportioned to length of girder; to width of girder; and to the square of the depth of girder. It is the. quality of tim- ber which is most required in timber used for building purposes. VI. Hygroscopical qualities. (a) Timber changes form, coherence and volume with greater or lesser ease under the influence of moist- ure, applied in gaseous or liquid form. Hence shrinking, swelling, warping, checking, cracking, casehardening and working. (b) Water invariably saturates the cell walls; in addi- tion, it may or may only partially fill the lumina. (c) Sapwood invariably contains more water than heart- wood. (d) Rate of dryness depends on the species, looseness of tissue, dimensions of object to be dried, presence or absence of bark cover in logs, preceding treat- ment by floating, deadening, steaming, prevalence of sapwood or heartwood, season of year, ex- posure to wind, climate etc. (e) Boiling and steaming reduce the hygroscopicity and produce, consequently, a more even shrinkage. (f) The evaporation from the cross section bears to that of the tangential and to that of the radial section the ratio of 8 to I to 2. (g) In the dry kiln, temperatures of 160 degrees to 180 degrees Fahrenheit are gradually produced. Dry- ing is accomplished by hot air, steam and moving air. Conifers stand the dry kiln process much better than hardwoods. The better qualities of hard- woods undergo air drying before being kiln dried, especially so in wagon, furniture and barrel fac- tories. The dry kiln saves insurance and interest on large stocks of lumber and allows the lumberman to rapidly fill pressing orders for lumber. (h) Wood is least permeable for water in the direction of the tangent or vertically to the medullary rays —a fact important for tight cooperage. 1. Shrinkage. It is least along the fibre; it is up to 5 % along the radius and is up to 10% along the tangent. Shrinkage of over 5% of green volume FOREST UTILIZATION occurs in walnut, linden, beech, elm, chestnut, birch. Shrinkage of 3% to 5% occurs in oak, maple, sycamore, ash, cottonwood, yellow pine. Shrinkage of 2% to 3% occurs in spruce, larch, fir and white pine. A large percentage cf rosin, narrow annual rings and light specific gravity reduce shrinkage within the same species. 2. Checking. It depends on the rapidity of the drying process; on size and dimension of ob- ject; on peeling of logs; on homogeneity of tissue. Checks are often of a temporary nature, disappearing when the inner layers are as dry as the outer layers. Hardwoods check much worse than soft- woods; and rift sawed or quarter sawed lumber checks less than bastard sawed lumber. : Remedies against checking of logs are: Winter cutting; strips of bark left near the end of peeled logs; felling with the roots and leaving the crown on the un- dissected bole; deadening; “S” shaped iron clamps driven into logs; boards nailed onto the ends of the logs; earth cover at the ends of the logs; red lead painting for export logs. Remedies against checking of lumber are: Quarter sawing; slow air drying under sheds; veneer sawing; steaming or boil- ing; sticks placed close to the ends of tiers in lumber piles. Checks are radial since the. tangential shrinkage is greatest. The so-called wind (or ring) shakes are not caused by the hygroscopicity of the timber; they are merely a form of disease of timber, due to frost, heat, fire or insect plagues inter- fering with the radial cohesion of ad- joining rings. 3. Swelling, warping and working. These phenomena are due to reabsorption of water after drying. The swelling is greatest tangentially. Heartwood warps VII. FOREST UTILIZATION 63 less than sapwood, and conifers warp less than hardwoods. Boards obtained from close to the slab warp worst of all. Remedies against working are steaming; Duration of wood. varnishing; forming boards by gluing fine veneers one-upon another; allowing framework of doors to be sufficiently grooved for receiving the panels. (a) Duration of wood depends on: 1. The surrounding conditions; i. e, tropics or arid deserts; presence of insects (ants and fungi); contact with clay, limestone or sandy soil; immersion in water (toredo); exposure to -atmos- phere; moisture conditions; presence of preserving matter (salt water, cop- per mine water). 2. The natural qualities of wood, especially the presence or absence of rosin, tannin and other preservatives; the specific gravity; the percentage of sapwood; the susceptibility to fungus and insect diseases. Locust, red cedar, sequoia, bald cypress; are less subject to such dis- eases when dead than when alive. (b) Remedies against destruction are: Impregnation or painting ; charring the part imbedded in the soil; winter cutting; change of species when replac- ing ties; kiln drying and steaming and smoking; raising buildings high above ground. ; (c) Bulletin No. 10 gives the following data for the average “life” of ties: White and chestnut oak, 8 years Chestnut, 8. Tamarack, 78 Cherry and walnut, (a Elm, 67“ Longleaf pine, ‘ 6“ Hemlock, ; 4-6 “ Spruce, ‘ nt Red and black oaks, 4-5 = Ash, beech, maple, 4 Locust, cypress, io“ Red cedar, Io (“ Redwood, wm « 64 FOREST UTILIZATION (d) Schedule for lumber: Very durable. Durable. Short lived. Walnut Ash Beech Locust Larch Sycamore Sequoia Yellow pine Birch Cedar Spruce Linden White oak Fir Cottonwood Catalpa Yellow poplar- White pine Sassafras Douglas fir Chestnut Longleaf. pine VII. Heating power. ‘ Heating power or fuel value bears a direct ratio to specific gravity air dry. All wood fibre having the specific gravity 1.56, equal air dry weights of our common species furnish equal heat. On the other hand, light weight means greater inflammability and a quicker heat, which naturally lasts for a short time only. The heating power of hard coal is to that of lignite and to that of wood as 5.2 : 4.3 : 1. In other. words, 5.2 lbs. of dry wood yield as much heat as 4.3 lbs. of lignite or as 1 lb. of coal. Influencing factors are found in the following moments: (a) Presence of rosin increases the heating power by about 12%. : (b) A cord of wood containing 45 % moisture has, after German experiments, the heating power of half a cord of air dried wood. After Sargent, the dis- crepancy is not as great. One cord of green wood contains 250 gallons of water, and the calories of heat required to convert this large amount of water into steam are lost for heating purposes. (c) Unsound wood has a reduced heating power, the cel! walls being decayed. (d) Chestnut, and to a certain extent larch and spruce, are despised in open fires owing to crackling and emission of sparks. Black gum is despised be- cause it is difficult to split and therefore difficult to season, Hornbeam, birch and alder are said to furnish a particularly quiet flame. (e) Schedule of the heating power of wood per cord: . Best. Good. Moderate, Bad. Hickory Oak Spruce White pine Beech Ash Fir Alder Hornbeam Birch Chestnut’ Linden Locust Maple Hemlock Cottonwood Heart pine Sap pine IX. Miscellaneous technical qualities of wood. (a) Adaptability to planing and molding; yarnishing and polishing; painting and gluing. FOREST UTILIZATION 65 (b) Nail holding power, which is said to be excellent in chestnut, white pine and hemlock. (c) Twisted growth, which is frequent in chestnut, Italian poplar and horse chestnut. Certain twist4 are due to a hypertrophical growth of the tissue and are highly prized by the trade under the names of birdseye maple, curly poplar, curly walnut, curly cherry and curly ash etc, It is-im-. possible to say whether a standing tree is “curly” or not. Sap-sucking woodpeckers may start the “freak.” (d) Knots check the value of lumber. A standard knot is a sound knot, the diameter of which varies ac- cording to local inspection from 1%” to 134”. Dry, dead and unsound knots throw a board into the mill cull pile. Usually, the knotty part of a log is sawn into dimension stuff. The core of a log, even in yellow poplar, necessarily shows knots, since there is no height growth without simultaneous formation of side branches. (e) The discoloration of the inner layers of certain species which are not classed as heartwoods (beech and maple) is a disease often found im old trees and causes rejection for certain applications in the trades (impregnation). : CHAPTER V. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES. § xvIl. THE SAW MILL. A. The saw. Three kinds of log saws are used: I. Straight saws, viz: Vertical straight saw; Gang saws; Horizontal frame saw. II. Circular saws, viz.: Solid tooth single saw; Solid tooth double saw; Inserted tooth saw. III. Band saws, viz.: P Single cutting band saw; Double cutting band saw. I. Straight saws. (a) Single vertical straight saw. At the toothed edge this saw has a thickness of from § to 10 gauges. Its blade is 8 inches wide and at least twice as long as the log diameter. 66 FOREST UTILIZATION A short blade yields the finest work, since it can be spanned more tightly. The gauge along the back should be finer than the gauge along the cutting line. The saw can cut any thickness of trees. The saw cuts only by the down stroke while the log is moved against the saw during the up stroke. The saw is spanned in a guide frame and is given as many inches inclination toward the log as the feed of the carriage per stroke amounts to. If the saw were not inclined all the work would be done by the lowest teeth. The usual set is still the spring set and not he swage set, although the latter is sure to be su- perior. Usually the ends of the boards are-not sawn through but are held together by the “comb,” which is finally split with the axe. In filing mill saws, obtain sufficient pitch of teeth to prevent, saw from kicking out of the cut. Too much pitch, however, causes chattering. Gullets must be kept carefully rounded. (b) Gang saws. They are used in large mills for in- ferior logs. The best make is Wickes Bros.,’ Saginaw, Mich. Enormous stone foundations are required. The saw frame has an oscillating motion which presents the saw to the cut in an easy raking sweep, forcing each tooth to do its full share of the work. Gang saws are not fed from a carriage. The logs are run through feed rolls, feeding the logs into the saws. Blades are 6 to 10 inches wide and of 8 to 16 gauge. : Horsepower required is said to be for friction, 3 horsepower; for first blade 4 horsepower, and for every additional blade 14 horsepower more. Where log heaps (up to 12 logs) are run through the gang saw, the logs are slabbed by a “rosser” or “log siding machine,” so that the logs can be placed one upon another. (c) Horizontal frame saw. It is used to cut fine veneers and valuable timber. Its advantage lies in the fact that very little weight rests on the saw, that the saw can cut on both trips (to and FOREST UTILIZATION 67 fro), that high speed may be applied and that a thin gauge can be used. The best make is Kirschner’s, Leipzig, Germany. Il. Circular saws. (a) Power. : Ten horsepower should manufacture 5,000 b. feet per day; 20 horsepower should manufacture 10,000 b. feet per day; 30 horsepower should manufacture 30,000 b. feet per day, and each ad- ditional horsepower should add 1,000 b. feet to amount cut. This amount depends on size of logs. : Five horsepower is required for a 20-inch to 30- inch saw; 12 horsepower for a 30-inch to 4o0- inch saw; 15 horsepower for a 48-inch to 50- inch saw; 25 horsepower for a 50-inch to 62- inch saw. (b) Right hand and left hand mills. If the carriage is to the left of the observer while the saw runs towards him, the mill is a left hand mill, and vice versa. A right hand saw is screwed to the arbor by a left hand nut and is usually driven by a left hand steam engine. Center crank engines can be used for either right or left hand mills. (c) Speed. The proper speed at the rim of any circular saw is 9,000 feet per minute. There should be a speed indicator to control the saw’s speed. It costs 75¢c. If the power is too light to run the mill at stand- ard speed, portable mill men usually increase the speed of the engine, putting a larger receiv- ing pulley on the saw mandrel. (d) Proper qualities of a saw. 1. The usual thickness is 7, 8 or 9 gauge. Frequently the center is one gauge heav- ier than the rim. 2. There-should be a sufficient number of teeth for the amount of feed. Each tooth should cut as much as is of- fered to it at a revolution. To cut one inch of lumber one may use either: Eight teeth, cutting % inch each at a revolution, or Sixteen teeth, cutting 1-16 inch each at a revolution, or FOREST UTILIZATION Thirty-two, teeth, cutting 1-32 inch each at a revolution. The number of teeth for one inch of feed should be, in hard timber, 16 teeth; in medium timber, 12 teeth, and in soft timber, 8 teeth. The usual feed is from 1 to 6 inches per revolution. The quicker the feed the more teeth are required to do the work. 3. The saw must be perpendicularly hung; must slip on the mandrel against the fast collar easily, so as not to twist the saw out of true,’ thus causing it to buckle when the loose collar is tightened up. The loose collar is hollow at the center (small saws excepted) and has about 6 inches diameter and 3% inch rim. : By pressing a layer of writing paper be- tween the collar and the saw the saw may be slightly bent toward or away from the carriage. 4. The saw must be evenly set (either spring or swage set). The teeth, filed square (not to a point but to a cutting edge), must form an exact circle and must re- tain that form in the course of operation. 5. The teeth must have the proper pitch. A shallow tooth cuts the smoothest lum- ber, but forbids of rapid feeding. The modern shape of teeth is such as will facilitate filing and as will preserve the original. pitch. A tooth gets dull over as much of an inch as it cuts. The gullet of the tooth must be larger for soff wood than for hard wood. Large gullets weaken the saw, small ones in- crease the friction very badly. A tooth should be filed two to four times a day. The backs of the teeth must never protrude beyond the point. Gullets must be kept circular carefully. Any sharp edge in a gullet is sure to cause a crack. 6. The mandrel must not heat in the jour- nals. The boxes require frequent rebab- bitting. The stem of the mandrel must be exactly level and perfectly straight. (e) (f) POREST UTILIZATION 69 Mandrels run hot owing to excessive fric- tion in bearings, to excessive tightness of belts, insufficient lubrication or heat- ing of the saw in the center. A hot mandrel expands the saw in the center, causing crooked sawing. Lining of the saw with the carriage into the log. The saw must “lead into the cut” just sufficiently to keep the saw in the cut. The proper lead is \% inch in 20 feet. Too much lead into the cut causes the saw to heat at the rim. A lead out of the cut causes the saw to heat at the center. The % inch lead in 20 feet is obtained by sighting over the saw and fixing the saw plane for a radius of 10 feet. This may be done by putting two staffs vertically into the ground 10 feet from. the saw center behind and in front of the saw; that done, a horizontal stick is fastened to a head block so as to just touch the forward staff. Then the carriage is gigged backward to the other vertical staff where the horizontal stick must lack exactly % inch from touching. Filing room. Automatic sharpeners and gummers are required for mills having over 15,000 feet daily capacity. Setting instruments for spring set are similar to those used with cross cut saws, constructed either after the wrench principle or after the block and hammer principle. The spring set is gradually discarded for the swage set. In swaging use oil on the point of the tooth, after filing to a sharp point. Swaging should draw the tooth out and should not shove it back. The set or swage of teeth should increase the gauge at the rim by at least 3-32 of an inch. The pitch of the tooth might be controlled by a so-called trammel. Gumming is required to preserve the original hook or rake of the tooth as well as the original round- ness of the gullet. Gumming as well as sharpening are usually done with emery wheels. Emery wheel rules are as follows: 1. Do not put too much pressure on emery wheel so as not to change the temper of the tooth (bluing and casehardening and consequently crumbling of the tooth). ‘ 7O FOREST UTILIZATION 2. Do not try to fix a tooth fully at one time. Treat it gradually at five or six revolu- tions of the saw. 3. Proper speed for emery wheels at the rim is 4,500 feet per minute. 4. After gumming remove the irregularities at the edges with a side file, since cracks in saw are apt to start from them. Hammering becomes necessary when the use of emery wheels has caused the saw to expand (“let down”) at the rim. For small mills gumming with a file or a butt gummer is preferable to the use of emery wheel. un Soft wood requires more set or spread and less pitch than hard wood. Swaging is also called, upsetting or spread setting. (g) Inserted tooth circular saws. -t.. The insertion into each socket of the rim consists of a holder and of a chisel point. These points are extremely hard; still they can be filed and swaged with the help of specially constructed files. It does not pay, however, to spend much time in filing since new points are cheap, and since they are readily inserted with the help of a special wrench. Points are oiled before being inserted. When renewing one individual point be sure to have it dressed down to corre- spond to the line of old points. If the saw guide is not properly adjusted it may touch the holder and smash the saw. ; 2. Advantages of inserted tooth saw are: Less experience is required for dressing a saw. Less filing and gumming. Less saw repairs in backwoods. Diameter of saw remains unchanged dur- ing its use. 3. Disadvantages of inserted tooth saw are: The saw kerf is very heavy. The teeth are large and hence few, so that feed must be comparatively slow. The price of the inserted tooth saw is higher than that of the solid tooth saw. FOREST UTILIZATION 71 The best makes are the Atkins and Disston saws. (h) The double circular saw. For big logs and high speed a double circular saw must be used. The width of the widest board which a single cir- cular saw may cut equals radius minus three ’ inches. Hence much valuable material is wasted in the common circular saw mill sawing heavy logs. The double circular saw shows an under or lower saw of 56 inches or 60 inches and an upper saw of 30 inches or 36 inches diameter. The top saw should have a reversed motion (so as not to throw sawdust into the lower saw), an arrange- ment which it is difficult to secure. A hanger top saw can be added readily to any sin- gle saw. Both saws should have the same speed at rim. The top saw should remain inactive so as not to use up power when small logs are sawn. Inserted teeth are not used at the double mills. The advantages of the double saw mill are: 1. Less chattering and truer cut than would be possible for one big saw. Thinner kerf. Faster feed. Less expense for saws. , Less repairs. 5 ab wn (i) Remarks relative to “putting up” portable circular saw mills: The minimum yard required is 50,000 board feet. The expense of tearing down and putting up again is about $50. For foundation timbers, place two pieces 8 x 10 inches x 11 feet long on either side of the saw pit (3 feet deep) and underneath the “husk.” One piece 4x 6inches x 7% feet long is saddled into the two big pieces, spanning the saw pit under- neath the far rail of the track. Construct the carriage track absolutely straight and level on the track ties (16 to 25 in number) and on the saw pit span. Place carriage with rack shaft, feed and gig works in place and fasten the.track by cleats and nails solidly to the foundation timbers. Then place the husk on them at a distance of about 6 inches from the track, putting wedge blocks between the 72 FOREST UTILIZATION husk and track. Then spike the husk to its foundation—to begin with in two places only, viz.. at the sawyer’s corner and at the middle of the opposite side, so as to enable the sawyer to change the lead by wedging the blocks. Then fix or hang the saw, set the saw guide and fire away. Ill. Band saws. (a) The blade. The blade material is steel. The width of the blade for log band saws is from Io inches to 16 inches—14 inches being usual. Gauge of blade is from 19 gauge to 13 gauge. Under tension of blade is understood the curvature across the width, which is increased or decreased by hammering at center or at edge. The tension gauge with curved edge guides the filer. (b) The tooth. ; Its width is from 1% inch to 2% inch. The hook or pitch is from 40° to 65°. The, depth should be as shallow as possible, with gullets kept round, since cracks usually start from a corner in the gullet. For sharpening the tooth, a medium soft emery wheel should be used and should not be crowded too hard against the saw, so as to prevent case- _ hardening. : The teeth are swaged—never spring set—like gang saws. The full amount of set should not exceed Q gauge in a 14 inch saw. Side filing or side dressing, after swaging, is usually practiced, although objected to by the saw makers. For .gumming, either a gumming press or the emery wheel is used. (c) The filing room. Every band saw mill has a separate filing room equipped with automatic dressing machines, i. e., automatic sharpener, automatic swage, automatic swage shaper, saw stretcher etc. In the band saw mill, the filer is considered more important than the sawyer for the success of the mill. Saws are changed three or four times a day. “Brazing” of a band saw. means joining the loose ends, uniformly beveled or ground to a feather edge 3% inch long. A strip of silver solder is placed between the cleaned laps, which are then taken between the cheeks of the brazing clamps heated to a bright red heat. After pressing the FOREST UTILIZATION 73 clamps together for several minutes and allow- ing them to cool, the braze is dressed down with a file to the proper thickness. The filer arrests cracks by punching a small pin hole or dot at extremity of crack. (d) The wheels. The band saw runs, belt like, over two wheels weighing from 1,500 to 3,000 pounds (the lower heavier than the upper) ; the lower wheel driving the upper by the band saw. The strain on the saw, which should not exceed 5.000 pounds and by which slipping off is pre- vented, is obtained by raising the upper wheel. The diameters of the wheels are 8 to 10 feet, the face about 11 inches, the teeth overlapping the wheel. The crown of the tire is up to 1-64 inch. The entire length of the log band saw varies from 30 feet to 70 feet. The saw guides, lined with wood or babbit metal, prevent the cutting part of the blade from bend- ing toward the carriage or toward the wheels, while the guard rolls, standing about 2 inches back of the saw, prevent it from slipping back- ward at the approach of the log. ' The maximum diameter of logs that can be handled by band saws is about go inches. , The weight of a band saw mill complete is 20,000 to 40,000 pounds. - (e) The “Allis” double cutting telescopic band saw. The saw blade has teeth on both edges, so that a board is obtained at each trip of the carriage. The entire mill is raised or lowered by hydraulic pressure with a view to bringing the top of the logs immediately underneath the upper wheel. IV. Conclusions. (a) The superiority of the band over the circular saw lies in a saving of 1,000 board feet in every 16,- ooo feet of 4/4 inch boards obtained. In heavier planks the saving is less, in lighter boards more. The boards obtained have a better width. Logs over four feet through cannot be handled by circular saws. Further, the band saw allows of a more rapid feed. Hence it is used preéminently for valuable logs, for big logs and for high out- put. : 5 Frequently mills of large output employ simul- taneously band, circular and gang saws, allotting the logs according to their quality, the best to 74 FOREST UTILIZATION the band saw and the poorest to the gang saw. Two edgers and one trimmer can take care of such a combined output. (b) Mammoth mills are now considered uneconomical, since it is difficult to take care of the output of boards at the outlet from the mill floor. The output per mill hand in big concerns is up to 7,5co board feet daily. Four acres of mill pond hold up to 1,000,000 board feet. Two standard gauge trains supply an output of 100,000 board feet from an average distance of to miles, daily. B. The carriage. I. The composing parts are: The truck with head blocks, knees, dogs, set works, and the driving machinery. The carriage is subject to the roughest treatment. Still, its proper alignment is as essential as that of the saw. (a) The truck is made of timber at least 6 inches square, thoroughly seasoned and strongly braced and bolted. Construction material is: Up North—Norway pine, birch and maple. Down South—Yellow pine and white oak. The length should correspond with the maximum size of logs. . So called screw block trailers may be added, in- creasing the length (in longleaf pine mills) up to 72 feet. (b) The head blocks, iron with steel face, are let into the timbers of the truck and form a groove for the tongue of the knee, which slides on the head blocks, being moved forward and backward by the set works, The head block and knee form a right angle into which the log is firmly pressed. (c) The knee is either solid or hollow and carries the dogs. The dogs are hooks or clamps or teeth, meant to grasp the log. They are fastened either inside or outside of the knee. Two tooth:bars, playing inside the hollow knee and pressed by a powerful lever, replace the original dogs in modern mills. “Underdogs” are used in quarter sawing. The number of head blocks, knees and dogs is variable. The minimum is two of each. ie FOREST UTILIZATION 75 (d) The set works consist of: The set beam, a shaft running underneath the car- riage from head block to head block, with a pinion at each head block. This pinion corre- sponds with a rack forming the tongue or basis of each knee. The index disc and ratchet. The set lever, handled either by the sawyer, in small saw mills, or by the setter, in larger mills. The set works are usually double acting, so that the knees advance with the to and fro motion of the set lever. In addition, each knee can be moved individually on its rack by the so-called taper movement. The knees, before a new log is loaded, are receded either by a spring device or, on the gig motion of the carriage, by a friction device. The brake wheel on the setshaft acts as a buffer when logs are loaded on the car. (e) The wheels. The wheels are attached either to the carriage or to the floor. The near wheels are flat on the tire and the far wheels, called guide wheels, are grooved on the tire. In band saws, an automatic off-set is required to prevent the face of the log fromm striking the saw on the gig motion.’ The steel rails are invariably placed on stringers. II. Driving machinery. The to and fro trips of the carriage are known as feed- ing and gigging. ; In small mills the motive power-is derived from the saw axbor by: (a) Rack and pinion device. (b) Chain, rope or cable running over one or several sheave drums. The speed is regulated either by so-called cone pulleys (two, three or four on the same shaft) or by a paper friction device. The so-called Reamy Disc Friction allows of freely varying the speed. The usual feed, with the cone pulley, is from %4 inch to 3 inches per revolution of saw. In large saw mills the piston of a steam cylinder pushes the carriage to and fro (so-called shot- gun feed). In that case the carriage usually runs on three rails (center guide rail). 76 FOREST UTILIZATION C. Additional parts of high grade saw mills: I. “The log haul up” (elevator) consists of a flanged foot wheel and an inclined trough, on the bottom of which runs a strong endless chain driven by sprocket wheels. The chain has steps (called welds) at intervals of about 6 feet. The haul up is driven by a separate engine or from the main shaft by double,gear wheels. It consumes a great deal of power. At the upper end of the haul up, a log flipper “boxes” the logs out of the trough onto the log deck, which is usu- ally inclined toward the carriage. On the log deck, the logs are freed from dirt and bark by hand. Il. “The nigger,” handled by the sawyer, throws the logs on the carriage and turns them by a boxing movement. Ill. “The hog” is a steel box within which the edgings and trimmings are cut into small slices by very strong knives rapidly rotating. IV. “Dust: conveyors” convey the output of the hog and the sawdust automatically to the boilers. D. The edger. The boards, falling from the log, are conveyed automatically or by hand to the edger. I. Parts of the edger are: (a) One or several circular saws of 12 inches to 28 inches diameter. (b) Feed works, either power or hand driven, consist- ing either of a carriage or of feed rolls or of barbed chains by which the boards are fed into the saws. (c) Edger table. Il. Task of the edger is: (a) Removal of defects, knots, bark edge at the side of a board. (b) Splitting boards into pieces of different quality. (c) Rapid sawing to proper width required for special purposes. — IIL. Kinds of edgers. (a) Hand feed edger, with one or two saws. (b) Power feed edger, usually with a single saw. (c) Gang edger. x IV. Pointers. (a) The distance between the various saws in gang edgers is regulated by overhead levers or by hand wheels. (b) Several boards can be fed at one time. (c) The attendant of the edger must be a lumber in- FOREST UTILIZATION 77 spector at the same time,:so as to turn out the maximum value of edged product. (d) The boards are taken to the edger from the live rolls onto which the board drops from. the log, either by hand or automatically, by chain con- veyors. 7 (e) The boards are conveyed from the edger to the trimmer by hand. The trimmer. In large mills, trimming follows edging. In small mills, edging follows trimming. I. Parts of the trimmer are: (a) One or several circular saws about 18 inches in diameter. A one saw trimmer is called a ‘‘cut- off.” (b) Feed works, viz.: live rolls or carriage or barbed chains running over sprocket wheels. ‘ (c) Table. II. Task of the trimmer is: (a) The shortening of boards to standard lengths of 6, 8, 10, 12 and up to 20 feet, allowing 2 inches extra for shrinkage. (b) The removal of defects at either end, so as to raise a board into a higher grade. (c) The cutting of straight ends. III. Pointers. 7 (a) Where two saws are used, the distance between them is changed by a lever or by a screw wheel, shifting one of the saws, while it is in motion, along the shaft. (b) Chain power fed trimmers are used in all large mills. The saws are either jump saws, easily pushed from below the table in pairs, or swing saws, hanging above the table and, similarly, pressed down by the attendant in pairs by a touch on hand or foot levers. Yard work. (Sorting and piling.) I. Sorting. The board after leaving the trimmer is taken up by a chain or cable conveyor and passes by the lumber inspector, who pencil-marks its quality. The various qualities are either at once thrown into parallel gutter conveyors, leading to separate chutes, below which a wagon or truck is in waiting, or are transferred to the piles by endless chain conveyors, by hand trucks and wagons. Frequently elevated roads traverse the yard on which and below which such conveyance takes place. 7 II. III. FOREST UTILIZATION Piling. Strong, high, horizontal ground sills are of the utmost importance. The front sill should be higher than the middle and back sills, except in shed drying. In some yards the front of the piles is given an overhang- ing “batter,” to protect it from rain, an arrangement feasible only in low piles. The usual pitch of the pile is 1 foot in ro feet or more. The tiers of boards are kept apart by three or four well seasoned ‘cross pieces called sticks—sawn 1 inch square and placed directly one over the other. The usual width of the. piles is from 6 feet to 10 feet. The distance between the piles is at least one foot and should be three feet. In order to prevent end cracks, the sticking should be placed exactly at the ends, slightly projecting over the ends. Each pile must contain equal lengths, as “overlaps” are sure to get spoiled. Valuable wide boards are often painted at the ends. Oak, ash, hickory and elm require at least four months for air drying; lynn, poplar and pine about two and a half months, ; Slow drying involves a loss of interest, large yard room, large insurance and slow filling of orders. Still in the case of high grade hardwoods, the use of the dry kiln is disastrous to the lumber. Thin lumber does not check as badly as thick lumber. Squares check worst of all. A fermentation and incidentally a discoloration takes place where two fresh, sawn surfaces touch one another. Each pile should have a roof 12 inches high in front and 6 inches high in back, projecting in all four directions over the pile. Proper curing of umber is as important as proper sawing of lumber. Dry kiln. A dry kiln consists of shed with gates closing tightly; lumber conduit; heating apparatus. : The heat is supplied—slowly— either by a hot air fan; or by a system of steam pipes; or by steam admitted into drying room. The air in the dry kiln must be kept in constant move- ment, so as to prevent unequal drying of the lumber in the piles. FOREST UTILIZATION 79 Lumber can be more evenly dried by steam than by hot air. Sapwater heated to boiling point expands 6co times. Con- sequently, wood at 212° F. contains only 1/600 of the water originally found therein. Before building a mill be sure to consult insurance com- panies, submitting mill plans. The insurance company prescribes the distance between the yard, boiler house, engine house, mill and dry kiln, The rate of insurance on a mill is 5% and over. § XVIII. WOODWORKING PLANT, A. Planing (surfacing, dressing or sizing). The planer consists of cylindrical cutter heads carrying two to four knives and making 3,000 to 5,000 revolutions per min- ute. It is preferably belted at both sides. The smaller the diameter of the cylinder with its knives, the smoother is the planing. The feeding is done either by two to four feed rolls (above) and friction rolls (below) or by a traveling bed. The entire ‘cutting length of the knives should be uniformly used. The top cutter should do the heavier work in double surfacers. The knives are usually sharpened automatically. Lumber is fed into the machine at the rate of 20 feet to 150 feet per minute. Hardwoods more slowly than the soft woods. The chip breaker is merely a front pressure bar preventing long splinters from being torn off. Price of single planers is $100 to $400; of double planers $400 to $800. No machine should have wood in its construction. B. Flooring. The flooring machine is a surfacer having an additional outfit of: two side cutters. revolving on ratchet spindles, cutting tongues and grooves. The machines weigh 5 tons and more. The usual flooring made is hard maple. Planers and flooring machines must be provided with a folding hood connected with an exhaust fan, so as to prevent the.shav- ings from clogging up the machinery or from pressing them- selves into the planed surface. C. Resawing. : Resaws are either circular or band resaws. The use of a resaw involves a great saving, since it takes a very fine kerf and at the same time relieves the work of the main saw. The feed is automatic and consists of four rolls. Circular resaws have as low as 19 gauge at the rim and are fre- quently built as segment saws. FOREST UTILIZATION Ripping. The rip saw is a circular saw running on a bench and allowing, by a gauge arrangement, to cut any desired width of board or strips. It is usually hand fed. A power fed gang rip saw is merely an edger. Cut otf saws. Cut off saws are either swing saws, jump saws, stationary saws with carriage moved by hand or automatically, or traveling railway cut off saws when the saw is moved horizontally against the timber. Sand papering. I. Belt sand papering, for carriage spokes, axe handles, buggy poles etc. II. Disc sand papering, notably for boxes. III. Spindle sand papering, for small tool handles. IV. Cylinder drum sand papering. The object to be sand papered is always fed onto-the ma- chine by hand. : Scraping. Under “scraping” is understood the removal of an extremely thin (not over 1/64 inch) layer of tisstte from a planed surface. It is meant to replace and to cheapen the process of sand papering, and is not intended to reduce the thickness. The scraper consists of power driven, smooth feed rolls and of one stationary knife, over which the boards are passed. Corky or stringy lumber cannot be scraped. Mitering. In mitering the stock is run along the so-called. “fence” against a circular saw, the plane of which forms a variable angle with the plane of the. saw table. Moulding. Mouldings are either one, two or four sided. Cutter heads, into which cutters of variable size and form are inserted, secure any variety of patterns of moulding. Moulders are often called “stickers.” Miscellaneous. Under “matching” is understood the cutting of a tongue and groove into the edge of box boards, flooring boards etc. The work is done by a knife and cutter head. Under “gaining” is understood the ditching across a piece. Under “plowing” is understood the ditching along a piece. “Tenoning” is especially required for doors and blind slats— single and double tenons being distinguished. Door panels go through a “panel raising” machine. Sash and door “relishing” means the biting or sawing of large teeth into the tenon. FOREST UTILIZATION 81 § XIX. VENEERING PLANT. Veneers are either sawn or peeled (sliced). The furniture factory and the package trade use veneers, with entirely different ends in view, on a daily increasing scale. The thickness of sliced veneers ranges down to 1/120 inch; veneers less than 1/40 inch thick, however, are rarely used. Sawn veneers are 1/20 inch thick or thicker. A. Veneer saws. Any saw of a fine gauge is a veneering saw. Largely used are the: I. Horizontal mill saw; II. Fine band saw; III. Circular saw ground to a fine gauge (19 gauge) at rim, strong (5 to Io gauge) at center; there is only one col- lar, to which saw is screwed. Veneer saws consisting of sections screwed to a common centerpiece are com- mon. B. Veneer cutting machines. Logs are boiled or steamed (in exhaust) for several hours- be- forehand. Usually, logs 3 to 5 feet long are used, the length of the log almost equaling the length of the knife. I. The rotary machine peels any log of, say, over 18 inches diameter, notably poplar, lynn, gum and cottonwood, into thin layers by revolving the log slowly against a sharp stationary knife. A clipper cuts the roll into pieces of proper size for strawberry boxes, staves, potato barrels, box boards, furniture backing etc. The core of the log, some 6 inches in diameter, does not allow of peeling. II. The stationary log cutter consists of a knife set in a sash frame removing at each stroke a thin slice or board. C. Advantages of veneering. I. There is little or no loss of timber for kerf and sawdust. Valuable logs (for furniture, cigar boxes) are invariably veneered nowadays. Logs too short for lumber are fit for peeling. II. Veneers show little shrinkage and little checking. Hence they allow of rapid seasoning. For that purpose, the veneers are frequently passed between heated rollers. JII. The rotary machine yields very large veneers often en- tirely free from knots which are merely contained in the core left unpeeled. § xx. BOX FACTORY. A. Kinds of boxes. (a) Planed or unplaned. (b) Knocked down or set up. (c) Nailed, lock-cornered or dovetailed. B. Material. Wood as light as possible—readily planed, nailed and treated. FOREST UTILIZATION The best is white pine; ‘next are spruce, basswood, poplar and, more recently, yellow pine, hemlock, gum, cottonwood. Elm and sycamore are used for special purposes. C. Machinery. A well equipped plant contains planers, resaws, rip saws, cut off saws, box board matchers (which tongue and groove com- posite sides), lock corner machine (or nailing machine. or dovetailing machine), sand paper machine and printing ma- chine (drum pattern). D. Business side. The skill‘of the box maker is shown by working up, without waste, the proper proportions of widths and_ thicknesses. Careful piling of lumber in the yard, separating according to width and thickness, is very essential. The interdependence between crop prospects and box prices is easily felt by the box makers. For large boxes the nailed pattern is preferred, being the strongest. Box shook fasteners and box strapping increase the strength. The lock cornered box is preferred for starch, plug tobacco and small boxes. Lock cornered boxes are required either by the bad qualities of the lumber or by the quality of the stuff packed. Locked corners demand gluing. “Bevel locked” corners and “inclined locked” corners are scarcely used. The dovetailed box does not require gluing. The mechanical process for stamp. locked corners (dovetails stamped into thin boards) is not yet perfected. E. Expense of manufacture. I. The manufacture of 1,c00 feet of lumber into shooks in- volves a bill of $4 for labor and $1 for wear and tear. II. One thousand small lock cornered boxes—gx6x3 inches, Yq inch thick for frame and 3/16*inch for top and bot- tom—require 700 board feet of lumber worth $8.50 in case of white pine; $5.10 for labor; $2.72 for glue, wear and tear; $2.50 for ten packing crates. §xxI. BASKETS. A. Willow baskets. They are hand made, mostly from cultivated shoots of Salix viminalis, amygdalina and caspica. Shoots 1 to 2 years old are used, being cut either in fall or in spring. In the first case, the bundles of shoots are kept in water over winter. The shoots are peeled after the rising of the sap by being passed through an iron or wooden fork; then rapidly dried to retain the white color. In this condition the material may be stored away for years. The shoots are bathed in water before weav- ing to restore flexibility and toughness, The bottom of the basket is made first, and then, frequently with the help of a FOREST UTILIZATION 83 model, the standards or uprights of the wall are fixed. The manufacture has been introduced into New Jersey and New York. Wooden baskets. They are used for picking and transportation of bulky farm produces. Sizes %4 bushel to 2 bushels. I. The hand made basket, from thin strips split and shaved from basket oak and white oak (sapwood). II. The Briggs stave basket consists of radial ribs cut from 234 inch oak planks; cross cut into lengths varying from 125% inch for 4 bushel to 18 inches for 2 bushel baskets. The ribs are jointed and pointed to an exact fit for a round center plate and then bent over a model form hav- ing grooves indicating the proper position for each rib ‘and for the strong elm hoop clasped around the rim. III. The common wood basket is made of straight long ribs up to % inch thick, cut on a rotary veneer machine. No center piece, no pointing and no jointing are required. The ribs are bent over a model form. A workman is said to make about 300 baskets in a day. . § XXII. COOPERAGE, Terminology. I. “Slack” cooperage turns out barrels for packing lime, vegetables, cement, salt, nails, crockery, sugar, flour, etc. II. “Tight” cooperage deals with barrels for liquids and for meat (pork). Material used: Any species may be used for slack cooperage. Alcoholic liquors must be cased in white oak (Quercus alba, michauxii, prinus, macrocarpa, minor etc.). Red oak will not hold whisky, but is used for other staves, flour barrel heading, sawn and coiled hoops. White ash is used for pork staves and butter tubs. Elm yields the best coiled hoops and the best slack staves. Cottonwood and gum are cut for staves on a large scale. Chestnut is used for cheap slack barrel hoops; yellow poplar for tobacco hogsheads; basswood for flour barrel headings; beech and maple for sugar barrels; second growth of hickory, birch and ash for hoops. For buckets, red and white cedar; for tanks, cypress and red- wood are preferred. Specifications : I. Flour barrels contain 196 pounds, or 3.57 bushels, or 32 gallons of flour. ; The diameter of the head is 17 inches; the length of the staves 28 inches. ; 84 FOREST UTILIZATION The forms preferred in slack cooperage, either locally or for given goods, vary to such a degree that figures descriptive of the forms cannot be recorded. Il. The “Tight Coopers’ Union’ specifies: (a) Whisky barrel staves—length 34 inches to 35. inches, thickness 7% inch, width 4% inch after jointing, measured across bilge on the outside. (b)_ Wine barrel staves—length 34 inches, thickness 11/16 inch after drying and planing, width 4% inches. (c) Oil, tierce and pork staves have similar dimen- sions, allowing, however, of sap, one or two sound worm holes and knots showing on one side only. Variations of % inch in length and 1/16 inch in thickness are permitted in all staves (so called equalized staves). Pipes, butts and puncheons contain over 100 gal- lons and are used for port, rum etc. A hogshead of claret is 46 gallons. D. Statistical notes: I. One thousand feet board measure in logs—Doyle’s rule— yield 2,500 sawed flour staves, 3,200 veneered staves, 4,000 cut hoops or 3,000 sawn hoops. II. One cord of bolts, with the bark, will make 1,000, or, without bark, 1,200 slack staves. III. In Tennessee, eight white oaks (of over 18 inches diam- eter) are said to average 1,000 half barrel beer staves. E. Prices and their tendency: Staves— Apr. 1, 1901. Feb. 10, 1904. No. 1, flour barrel, per 1.000.. «--$ 9.00 $11.00 to $13.50 No. 1, cottonwood, per 1,000........... 6.00 = ...........0.. No. 1, flour barrel, per set.............. i 08 to . .08e Now dy Bum) per Sets ssicngs ris eretewersee ‘ 07% to 08 Hoops— : : Coiled elm hoops, per 1,000............ dj 9.00 to 10.00 Hickory hoops, per 1,000..............05 ie 6.25 to 6.78 Barrels— Flour, 12 hickory hoop barrel.. 41 4 Flour, 8 patent hoop barrel..... cin 39 6 - sii Flour mugwump (10.hickory hoops < .89 45 QT (G2 Wallon) ose tak: see's KRY sisrecasersieiacanere Bento 1.45 The price of ‘white oak material has risen rapidly and must continue to rise indefinitely, substitutes for white oak being impossible. In slack cooperage, on the other hand, raw material continues to be plentiful, and new, cheaper forms of packages enter into daily competition with the barrel. The cost of making tierces at Chicago is: Staves ($21 per 1,000), 39 cents; heading, 16 cents; hoops, 20 cents; wages, 25 cents; total, $1. FOREST UTILIZATION 85 F. Manufacture of heading, staves, hoops and barrels. I. Heading. Heading for tight cooperage is sawn from split bolts. These bolts are obtained in the woods by halving, quar- tering and splitting (by hand and always with the grain) round blocks which slightly exceed in length the diameter of the heading. The heart of the bolt is not removed. The bolts are wagoned or sledded to the heading plant, where they are inspected, sorted, piled and air dried. Twenty-fivé horsepower are said to be required at a head- ing plant. The output at a “setting” of the plant aver- ages 200,000 sets of heading. The tight heading plant usually contains a sawing ma- chine, an equalizer and jointer. (a) The heading sawing machine consists of a vertical circular saw (44 inches diameter) screwed to the arbor without a loose collar; a pendulum swing with “grate” and “dogs” to receive the bolt; a slide guiding the swing; a gauge, ad- justed by screws; a separator throwing the sawed slats to the side. Price $300. (b) The equalizer contains a tilting table or a carriage, which is forced against a pair of circular saws. (c) The jointer edges the slats. It consists of a strong wheel carrying on its side 4 to 6 straight knives. The wheel is covered by a hood. Price $140. For tight cooperage the joints are made secure by blind wooden nails and by coopers’ flag (Typha latifolia) glued into the joints. Two more machines are required to finish the heading prepared by the apparatus mentioned under a, b. and c, viz.: (d) The heading planer carries knives 16 inches to 24 inches wide and has a capacity of 8,500 headings a day. (e) The heading turner cuts the heading circularly and carves the required bevel edge. It usually carries a concave saw, to cut through the boards, and on the same mandrel a small, thick circular saw which gives the bevel. The heading, held in clamps, rotates obliquely against these saws. Price $235. Capacity 5,000 a day. Heading is usually kiln dried. For slack heading, quarter sawing is usually not required. Ordinary lumber can be used. The slack heading plant may or may not contain all of the machines enumerated under a, b, c, d and e. ’ 86 II. Staves. (a) (b) FOREST UTILIZATION The tight heading plant of the woods contains the machines a, b and c, while the machines d and e are usually combined with the cooper works, unless they form a separate establish- ment, Staves for barrels containing the more valuable beverages are hand made (rived staves). The riving. of staves wastes timber. Proper bilge and curvature are obtained either by hewing (Ger- many) or in the finishing plant (America). The white oak timber used must come from straight trees of over 18 inches diameter. Such trees are found in clumps only. Hence the ne- cessity of a portable finishing plant, using from 15 to 35 horsepower. At each set or site—now ~ usually 15 miles from the railroad—at least 100,- ooo staves are manufactured. Six hundred rough staves have the weight of 1,000 finished staves. “Hence it is wise to bring the plant close to the timber. The felled tree is sawed (by hand) into blocks of two inches more than stave length, which are placed on their larger ends. Then the sap line is demarked with a pencil, and inside the sap line, with the help of a pattern showing the cross section of a stave, as many staves are pencil-marked as possible. By axe, wedges and wooden mauls the block is then halved and quartered (and rehalved and requartered in case of heavy blocks), the clefts following the pencil marks. The sectors are then split, along the annual rings, into rough staves—always following the-pencil marks. The core of at least four inches diameter, con- taining the small limb-stubs, is thrown away. The rough staves are inspected and sorted and piled hogpen-fashion for air drying, either be- fore or after sledding or wagoning to the fin- ishing plant. It might be added here that this finishing plant is—contrary to expectation—never combined with a heading plant. The “stave bucker,” by which three-fourths of all rived staves made in the United States are re- fined, dresses and planes both sides of the staves to proper curvature and bilge. A rack forces the rough staves through the narrow passage left be- tween two knives (either straight knives, or FOREST UTILIZATION 87 curved to correspond with the periphery of the finished barrel) which are fastened in a rocking frame. (c) The “stave dresser” frequently takes the place of the bucker. It carries knives on two cutter- heads, dressing and hollowing the stave on both sides to proper thickness and leaving either an abrupt or a gradual shoulder (d) The stave saw yields staves of equal form, but greater permeability, more economically than the hand. Stave bolts must have the following minimum dimensions: thickness with grain 5 inches; width close to heart 3 inches. The bolts are barked and hearted in the woods, being split from logs having at least a diameter of 15 inches inside the bark. The stave saw consists of: 1. A hollow steel cylinder, having the diam- eter of the barrels to be made and. car- rying saw teeth at one end. 2. A carriage with clamps passing the saw cylinder. 3. A stave holder running into the cylinder and removing the sawed staves. Capac- ity 12,000 staves per day. (e) In slack cooperage, a stave cutter is often used, consisting of a circle (20 inches for fruit bar- rels) with one knife attached, making 150 revolu- tions per minute. The stave bolts are steamed beforehand. The knife separates at each revo- lution of the circle, or by each single stroke, a stave from the bolt. Capacity 140,000 per day. Price $130. Horse- power, 4. (f) The rotary veneer machine is now also used to cut 4 inch or 4%4 inch gum staves. (g) The stave equalizer trims the ends and gives the staves the proper length. It consists of two circular saws and a tilting bed or a carriage. . (h) Stave listers or jointers edge the staves in such a way that the edges coincide with a plane through the axis of the barrel. Staves for export are straight listed and without bilge. The stave jointer is either a circular swing saw or it consists of two circular saws; or of a number of inclined knives held by cutterheads; or of one knife running in a sash frame; or it resembles a heading jointer (starjointer). FOREST UTILIZATION . (i) In the “stave planer,’ a steel pattern passing through the machine with the stave lifts the cutters in such a way as to allow the shoulders of the staves to retain a greater thickness than the middle of the staves. III. Hoops. In tight cooperage, steel.or iron hoops are used, driven over the barrel by hoop drivers or trussing machines and sometimes fastened by hoop fasteners. In slack cooperage, wooden hoops are still preferred and wire hoops are only occasionally used. .Wooden hoops are either hand made, especially the long white oak hoops used on tobacco hogsheads, or sawed from plank by a hoop machine, or finally knife-cut on a rotary machine or a sash frame machine. A machine by which sawed hoops are obtained directly from logs does not seem to be much used. By special machinery hoops’ are planed, pointed, lapped and punched. A hoop coiler rolls the hoops into bundles; usually the outfit of a “sawed hoop” plant consists of a saw bench, a saw machine and a coiler. IV. Barrels. — Putting up a barrel requires: (a) Heating, in order to increase the flexibility of the staves held together by an iron form and by one or two hoops. (b) Bending in an apparatus consisting of screw and rope, windlass and rope, or of a funnel press. (c) Crozing, i. e, making a groove for the insertion of the heading, either by a hand planer or by a power groover. fo. The finished barrel is atitomatically planed on the outside; if it does not assume the exact form of a doubly truncated parabolloid, it is pressed into shape by a barrel leveler. § XXIII. WAGON WORKS. A. The raw material must be tough and strong and, above all, air dry. The dry kiln often follows after two or three years of air drying. : Second growth of black or shell bark hickory is used for tongues, shafts, spokes, rims, axles, neck yokes, whiffletrees and eveners. White oak or burr oak is used for spokes, tongues, bolsters, hounds, reaches and axles. Black birch, rock elm, white oak and locust are used for hubs. Wagon beds are made of yellow poplar, pines, cottonwoods, the composing boards being either ship lapped or tongued and grooved. FOREST UTILIZATION 89 White ash, bending easiest and best of all woods, is used for _ rims, bent seats, bent bows, shafts etc. The manufacturing machinery is usually supplied by the Defiance Machine Works, Defiance, Ohio. I. Hubs are cut direct from log to proper length by double equalizing saws and are turned on outside automatically on a lathe; bored for boxes (thimbles) ; chisel mortised for spokes; and set with two to four iron rings. II. Spokes are obtained from bolts by rip sawing into squares which are turned on a lathe; tenoned at the big end; equalized in length; sandpapered and polished; and driven into hubs by automatic hammers. III. Rims and felloes are either bent to proper form or sawn from straight bolts. In the first case, the bolts are steamed or boiled; then bent and pressed in an iron pattern when hot; then cased up and dried; then bored to receive the spokes; rounded on the inside with a slight elevation left around the hole; planed and finally sandpaper polished. Very wide plank is required for sawn felloes, which are obtained either by a set of concave saws, having the required curvature, or by a nattow band or scroll saw which follows the pencil marks of a pattern made for each piece on the plank. IV. Axles are turned on a lathe according to a steel pattern spanned in the lathe; are gained to receive bolsters and hounds; and have the thimble skeins driven on by hydraulic pressure. V. Shafts and poles are sawn from plank 1% inch to 2% inch thick and 8% to 12 feet long; are heated and bent, cased, dried, rounded and belt polished. Few establishments make entire wagons. Usually shafts, spokes, rims, axles etc. are made in factories close to the woods, while other factories closer to the cities or to railroad centers put the wagons together after buying their component parts. § XXIV. SHINGLE MILLS. Material. Breasted, shaved, rived or rifted shingles (meaning hand made) are used in the backwoods only. At Biltmore, shaved shingles made of chestnut cost $2 per M., while so called boards, two feet long and six inches wide, split from white oak, cost $3 per M. Shaved shingles cannot be laid so neatly as sawn shingles. For machine made shingles are used: Oni the Pacific coast, red cedar; In the Lake States, white pine, white cedar, spruce, norway pine and hemlock; In the South, cypress, longleaf pine and shortleaf pine. FOREST UTILIZATION B. Durability. The durability is said to be for: White pine rived, 20 to 35 years. White pine sawn, 16 to 22 years. White pine (sappy) sawn, 4 to 17 years. Chestnut rived, 20 to 25 years. Cedar sawn, 12 to 18 years. Spruce sawn, 7 to Ii years. | C. Specifications. The usual size of sawn shingles is: 16 inches or 18 inches long; 4 inches wide; 1-16 inch thick at small end; % inch thick at butt end. A bundle of shingles contains 250 pieces, is 20 inches long and has 24 tiers. ‘ , A -carload of white pine shingles, weighing 22,000 pounds, contains 70,000 16-inch shingles; a large car of red cedar shingles con- tains 170,000 pieces. One thousand shingles cover 100 square feet of roof, each show- ing 14.4 square inches to the weather. A rule for the number of shingles required for a roof is: ascertain number of square inches in one side of roof; cut off the last figure, and the result is the number of shingles required for both sides of the roof. In this case, each shingle shows 20 square inches to the weather. ' ‘Shingles are usually laid to show 4 inches of their length, which arrangement yields, in 16-inch shingles, a quadruple layer of shingles on the roof. The higher the grade of the shingles, the larger is the weather face permissible. D. Machinery. The machinery used in a shingle plant consists of: ; I. Drag saw, either driven from a countershaft or acting directly from the piston, cutting the logs into shingle lengths. i II. Bolter, a circular saw cutting the round blocks into bolts, the thickness of which equals the width of the shingle. Bolts split with an axe-yield a better grade of shingles but cause a large waste of timber. A knot saw may be used after bolting to remove knots, rot, sap ete. III. Shingle machine, constructed in a variety of forms: (a) A knife is spanned in a sash frame moving up and down and severing a shingle at each stroke from steamed ‘bolts. This system, furnishing “cut shingles,” is not much used. (b) The shingle saw machine uses a circular saw lacking the Joose collar and screwed onto the fast collar. The gauge at the center of the saw may be very heavy while the gauge at the rim is from 15 to 20 only. The shingle blocks are fastened into either a slid- FOREST UTILIZATION 91 ing frame or 4 rotating frame and are tilted con- tinuously, so as to alternate edge and butt cuts. The sliding frame is either hand fed or power fed. A machine takes from one to ten blocks at a time. IV. The jointer is meant to give a rectangular shape to the shingle. It is either a single or a double rip saw (two saws 4 inches apart) or a wheel jointer consisting of a steel wheel carrying, close to the circumference, 4 to 8 knives radially or almost radially set and of a hood covering the machine and connected with a blowpipe to remove shavings. The shingles are placed opposite an opening in the hood and pressed by hand against the knives, which make about 500 to 800 revolutions per minute. V. The shingle packer, used for 16 inch and 18 inch shingles, consists of a bench and two slotted and overhanging steel rods. The attendant pressing the rods down by hand or foot packs the shingles tightly with their fine ends overlapping. VI. Shingle planers, fancy butt shapers and dry kilns are found in up to date plants. After dry kilning, bundles require tightening up. §XXV. LATH MILL. The usual length of laths is 4 feet; the weight per 1,co0 is 500 pounds. One thousand laths cover 70 square yards, and a cord of slabs yields 3,000 laths. All softwoods, further yellow poplar, cottonwood and linden form the raw material for lath. The machinery used consists of: A. Slab resaw, by which the last board is cut out of the slab. It contains a circular saw and feed works pressing the slab in to the saw. B. Lath bolter, consisting of a single or double cutoff. C. Lath machine, which is either an ordinary rip saw having up to six small circular saws and an automatic feed, or a cutter- head and knife machine. The latter machine makes the so called “grooved” lath. D. Lath bundling machine, which presses the laths together by a foot or hand lever and facilitates binding. § XXVI. CLAPBOARD MILL. ~ The cross section of clapboards is either square or. more usually, beveled, with the big edge from 3 inch to % inch thick. They are manufactured either from boards ¥ inch thick fed through a resaw, the feed rolls of which are inclined toward the saw, or by special clapboard machinery directly from the log. Logs, in the latter case, are cut in pieces of proper lengths (4 feet to 6 feet) by a drag saw; 9 FOREST UTILIZATION are turned on a lathe and then spanned into a sliding frame (between pins). Frame and log pass a circular saw with and not against the rotation of the saw. After passing, the log is automatically turned by an angle corresponding with the bevel of the clapboard. This process leaves a four inch core unused. _A planer, molder or jointer dresses the sides and a butter or trimmer dresses the ends. § XXVII. “NOVELTY MILL. Novelty mills have sprung up, in recent years, all over the Northeast, manufacturing trays, wooden dishes, wooden wire, rules, pen-holders, flasks, skewers, toys and thousands of playthings of the hour. The variety of the raw material used is as great as the variety of, the goods manufactured. Still, birch seems to be the acknowledged leader for novelty makes. Wooden dishes! and wooden ‘wire may deserve particular mention. A. Wooden dishes. ; I. Material. Yellow poplar is used for large wooden trays. Second growth white pine (cuts taken between whirls) is said to be used in New England. Maple is preferred for small oval wood dishes, turned out by a special machine automatically. II. Manufacture of oval dishes. These oval-dishes are obtained from sawn blocks, scal- ing from 6 inches by 8 inches to 7% inches by 9% inches. ’ The dishes are cut with the grain from the side face. Blocks are thoroughly boiled. The cutting knife, revolving ‘circularly, makes 25 dishes to the inch and 75,000 per day. Two facing knives shave the block clean between every two cuts, carving out true edges. . A screw fed carriage automatically feeds the block into the knives. No skilled labor is required. The attend- ant merely removes the remnants of a spanned bloclc and places a new block in the carriage. B. Wooden wire. Wooden wire is used for mattings, ~screens, inner rack of ladies’ hats ete. The raw material consists of willow, basswood and poplar plank. A series of planing knives, in the form of sharp rimmed, fine steel cylinders, plies in a sliding frame over ‘the plank, severing at each stroke a series of wires having the length of the plank. A straight planer knife follows in the wake of the fine cylinders, removing the irregularities left on the plank. FOREST UTILIZATION 93 § XXVIII. MATCHES AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. Wooden matches are either round or square. A. Round matches are made on a machine resembling the wooden wire machine described in Section XXVII. B. Square matches are made from blocks 16 inches to 24 inches. long which, after steaming or boiling, are peeled on a rotary veneer machine into layers having the thickness of a match. J.. The veneers are automatically clipped into sheets having a length of 6 feet and width equaling 5 to 12 match lengths. These sheets are heaped up in packs contain- ing 50 to 60 tiers. II. A knife system, with vertical spur-knives, plays in a vertical sash and cuts from each tier, at each stroke, 5 to 12 matches. The pack, after each stroke, is moved forward the thickness of a match. The machine has a daily capacity of 25,000,000 matches. III. The matches are then dried and cleaned by sifting. C. The treatment thereafter is identical for round and square matches, consisting of the following operations: I. Causing the match pegs to lie parallel, by rocking them in an oscillating drawer. II. Fixing about 2,250 matches at a time in a clasp or frame. III. Dipping the clasp (for fine matches) wholly into paraffine and the tips thereafter into a chemical compound (mastic) which forms the inflammable head. The mastic consists of one or more oxidizing substances (chlorate or bichromate of potash), often mixed with a particle of some explosive, so as to allow of ignition by friction on any rough surface. D. The raw material for matches is derived from cottonwoods, | linden, sapwood of yellow poplar, white pine, spruce. A white, soft and long fibre is required. §XXIX. SHOE PEGS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. A. Wooden shoe pegs are used to fix the “uppers” to the shoe sole and te construct the heel. The pegs are automatically fed from a pegging machine. Pegs are 3% inch to % inch long, square wich a prismatic head. The raw material consists of birch and hard maple. B. Manufacture. I. The blocks are cut into discs, 3 to % inch thick, by a circular saw. JI. The discs are pointed in a pointing machine, which plows parallel grooves, lengthwise and crosswise, into the discs. The distance between two furrows equals the width of the peg. FOREST UTILIZATION III. The splitting machine severs, by the gradual strokes uf a knife (first stroke down to %, second stroke down to ¥% of thickness of disc), the disc into strips of pegs and, playing crosswise, into individual pegs. After each stroke of the knife the disc is moved toward it by the width of one furrow. During the operation the disc ‘is held in a leather frame. IV. The wet, red pegs are then bleached by applying wash acid; then dried in heated drums; then cleaned from _splinters and irregularities by sifting. § xxX. EXCELSIOR MILL. Grades of product. First Grade—Fine wood wool, thickness from 1/500 inch to 1/64 inch. Second Grade—Common fine wood wool. Third Grade—Mattress stock, The greatest demand is for stock 1/100 inch thick and from 1/32 to 1/8 inch wide. Usage. Excelsior is used for upholstering and for packing (glass- ware, furniture, confectionery etc.). It is preferred to straw owing to its greater elasticity and to its lack of dust. It is easily colored. A limited amount of excelsior is woven into mattings and rugs. Kinds of wood. Basswood is best; balm of gilead, cottonwood and yellow poplar come next. Pine and spruce also are used. One cord of wood will yield-1,500 pounds of excelsior. Process of preparation. The wood is peeled, cut into 38-inch blocks, and the blocks split into slabs 5 inches to 6 inches thick. These slabs are thoroughly air seasoned under cover, and finally cut into two lengths of 18 inches each. Frequently the core of blocks peeled on the rotary veneer machine is used for excelsior. Machinery. Excelsior machines are small, upright knife machines, or carry the knives on a disc set in rapid rotation. The modern machine, however, is an eight block horizontal machine consisting of: I. Two sliding steel frames carrying eight tool heads into which the knives and the comb-like spurs are spanned. The sliding frames are moved by powerful cranks and pitmans on maple slides. II. Two stationary frames, above the sliding frames, each having four sets of rolls, each set pressing a block by its rotation downward against the knives. Ill. The shavings, falling through the sliding frame, are car- ried out by broad belts. FOREST UTILIZATION 95 IV. The daily capacity of an eight block machine is 4,000 pounds of fine wood wool, or 10,000 pounds of mattress stock. V. Additional machinery consists of automatic knife grinders, baling presses, cut off saws etc. VI. The price of the machinery for a modern plant is about $2,000. About 30 horsepower are required. § XXXI. GROUND WOOD PULP AND CHEMICAL FIBRE AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. A. Historical remarks. Up td 1854 paper was made from cotton, linen and hemp fibre, precipitated from a mush in the shape of a matting. Wood grinding was invented in 1854. Since 1867 the ground wood is refined by chemical processes which separate the wood into thinner strings of cells and free it from rosin, tannin, albumen, gums etc. In the United States there were, in 1890, 82 mills producing $4,600,cco worth of wood paper, while the value of the output in 1900 approximated $20,000,000. Rags, manila, straw and waste paper used as raw material for paper still outrank in value (in 1900) the wood used as raw material. In 1900, close to 2,000,000 cords of wood were consumed, worth nearly $10,000,000; three-fourths being spruce and one-fourth poplar and miscellaneous. If the United States shall conquer the Swedish and German export and supply the entire consumption of wood paper at home, 6,000,000 acres of well managed wood lands will be required to produce the raw material. B. Statistical remarks. One cord of wood yields one ton of ground pulp wood (mechanical fibre) or %4 ton of chemical fibre. In the so called “news grade” 80% of pulp is mixed with 20% of chemical fibre. Japanese paper is made of the inner bark of a mulberry tree (Brussonetia). For highest grades of writing paper, cotton and linen are used. An average mill produces 25 tons a day. A modern pulp plant requires annually, at least, 6,000 cords of wood; a modern fibre plant at least 25,000 cords. The price of the product loco factory is about: For ground wood pulp, $13 per cord; — : For soda fibre, $20 per cord; For sulphite fibre, $25 per cord. C. The plant: The plant requires an outlay of about $10,000 per ton of daily production. Unlike a saw mill, a paper mill cannot be shifted when the nearby supply of raw material is exhausted. FOREST UTILIZATION A plant must be located: I. Close to water; water is not so much used for motive power as for the dissolution of the fibre in the washing process. II. Close to cheap wood supply; wood must be plentiful and uniform, of a long, straight fibre, readily interlacing and white. Spruce is considered best, the price at river fronts being about $3.50 per cord and at mill from $4.50 to $5.50. Cottonwoods and poplar are next in impor- tance. Price at river fronts $2. Hemlock and. balsam are mixed with spruce in a daily growing proportion. Birch, beech and maple can be used only for wrapping paper and cardboard, the fibre being short, brittle and unbleachable. The use of pine is handicapped by the expense. of the removal of the rosin. The Pacific spruces and cottonwoods may have a great future. III. Close to cheap coal, since the coal consumption per pound of paper amounts to 5/16 of a pound of coal. So much coal is required for heating, drying and bleaching, that all excepting 15% of the machinery can be driven free of charge. Process of manufacture. The manufacture is either purely mechanical (ground wood pulp) or also chemical. In the latter case, distinguish between the soda process, the sulphite process and the sulphate process. The electric process, though very promising, is still in early infancy. : The principle of manufacture is: ‘ Grinding and. beating of wood in water until it forms a fluid pulp; allowing water to run off leaving a matted stratum of wet fibre; bleaching; drying; pressing. J. Ground wood fibre. (a) The wood is cut into bolts one foot long and five inches thick. The bark is removed, and the knots are usually bored out. (b) The bolts are pressed against stone mill-wheels which turn slowly under constant influx of water. Bolts must be ground in the direction of the fibre. (c) The fluid pulp is carried through sieves retaining the long splinters, which are transferred to a pulp engine for mechanical refining. (d) The fibre is ground a second time both in stamp- ers and rotary, mills. (e)- The fluid is separated according to fineness by sieves of different mesh which allow the water to run off. The filtered mass is taken up by FOREST UTILIZATION 97 endless belts of cloth which carry it as a thin matting through a series of heated rolls. (f) The mattings are dried by superheated steam, by pressure or in the air. Pulp is shipped in rolls about 3 feet long and 1% feet in diameter. It is not paper but merely the leading raw material _ for ordinary paper. II. Soda process. This process consists of: (a) Sawing wood into discs about 1 inch thick. (b) Grinding and dissecting the discs into fragments about 1/24 inch by 1 inch in size. (c) Packing the material into perforated iron boxes which are placed in digestors containing a solu- tion of caustic soda. (d) Boiling the wood for four hours under a pressure of 125 pounds. (e) Grinding between stones. (f) Repeated washing and sifting. (g) Bleaching with chlorate of lime and washing. (h) Taking up mass by endless rolls of cloth and dry- ing it between heated rollers. (i) Reclaiming caustic soda by boiling and melting. III. Sulphite process, Same as the soda process, excepting points “ep “dd? and °* The oe fibre is first cooked without chemicals and then boiled for 60 hours with calcium sulphite—a cheap chemical usually prepared at the mill itself. No or only little bleaching is required, the fibre being free from color when leaving the digestor. The expense of manufacture per ton of sulphite fibre is said to be as follows: Two tons of spruce............. losiante narecmeanees $ 9.00 COAL gsc sesveseneenetnas hbo eidacaw dc desaele asta ice oor ha alte eens 3.00 SS GL PINAL giciiieeveecss a skasvedo shanbabbnrdsa save aie eibiavacein oar duentnencdscaybyorand 3.30 DAMe gp veaniiaceauins Shed ao vie dayavas ease raga soso wives anayaven aeetaans .70 Labor inclusive of office force......... 0.200 e eee eee 7.00 WSR AM SOAR ince sain shasessiscesnsauestcsenaneuncaidodudd S oandhGrbcbears 2.50 Lotal’ vossewiehamans:ndeis camenacreeesiereoeesamens $25.50 These figures may seem to be unusually high. The sulphite process offers the following advantages: (a) It is cheaper (no bleaching, cheap. chemicals). (b) It does not interfere with the strength of the fibre. (c) It yields a larger output of fibre per cord. Hence the sulphite process is rapidly superseding the soda process. Exception in poplar. 98 “ FOREST UTILIZATION IV. Sulphate process. It is adopted in mills originally arranged for caustic soda process. The chemical used is sodium sulphate, the price of which is only one-third that of caustic soda. It is reclaimed out of its watery solution by evaporating and melting. This process gives the old soda mills a new lease of life which were about to be forced to the wall by the superiority of the sulphite process. V. Electric process. The electric current is used to obtain from an 8% solu-- tion of common salt (Na C1) its composing parts, viz., caustic soda and hydrochloric acid. These substances, alternatingly acting upon the wood pre- pared in the manner described under II, a, b, and c, dis- solve the lignin and destroy the incrustations of the fibre, so that pure cellulose remains in the digestors. Two digestors are used, connected with the positive and the negative electrode of the current respectively. The process is said to be faster and cheaper than the sulphite process. No bleaching required. § XXXII. TANNING MATERIALS AND TANNERIES. A. Tanning materials. Tanning materials used in the United States were in 1900: Hemlock bark, 1,170,000 cords. Oak, 445,000 cords. Gambier, 128,000 bales. Hemlock bark extract, 13,000 barrels. Oak bark extract, 54,000 barrels. Quebracho bark extract, 20,000 barrels. Sumac bark extract, 8,500 barrels. Chemicals, $2,225,0c0 worth. In the sole leather, belt leather and harness leather industries, vegetable tanning material is still preferred. Mineral or chem- ical tannage, however, has been developed during the last ten years to a degree threatening to entirely supplant the old methods. Since 1900, extracts obtained from chestnut wood have gained both favor and importance. B. Tanbark in particular. I. Notes on tanbark. (a) The corky layers of bark do not contain any tan- nin and are usually shaved off. In Europe, young oak bark not having any cork is prefer- ably used. i (b) Fresh bark contains on an average 45% water "and shrinks heavily during the drying process, FOREST UTILIZATION 99 (c) While oak bark must be pecled in spring imme- diately when the sap begins to rise (April-May), hemlock bark may be peeled at any time from May to September. (d) Bark peeling season for oak is from early April to the end of June. Trees in the bottoms peel earlier than those higher up. : The bark on the uphill side of a tree is thinner than the bark on the downhill side. Trees exposed to the weather, isolated, on unpro- teeted slopes, have short boles but a heavier bark than those growing under the reverse con- ditions. Dying trees will not peel. Il. Peeling process. : (a) Girdle the tree about four feet above the ground; remove. bark from stump and roots; fell the tree in such a way as to leave the bole well raised above the ground. (b) Notch (with axe) a line along the tree and rings around the tree every four feet. Have two men with “spuds” peel the ringed sections, and see that the pieces peeled are as wide as possible and, — as near as possible, four feet long. Large pieces will dry well and will save expense in handling. Handling costs more than peeling. d (c) Lean the peeled pieces against the felled bole, preferably flesh side out, as high above ground as possible, and see that the air circulates freely around them. (d) See that the bark is as little shaded as possible. Peel before leaves are out. Never leave bark to dry in a moist gully. (e) Toward evening, turn the flesh side of the bark toward the object supporting it so as to protect it from dew. The expense of “curing” ‘is so high, however, and the danger of spoliation by rain so great, that bark is now usually placed at once “bark side out.” (f) Pile the bark after two to three days, provided it is not wetted, close to the tree in loose piles. These piles are left for weeks in the woods. Bark is sure to mold if a rainy season sets in. Free access of air greatly reduces the danger of damage. 4 (g) Finally sled the bark, by hand sleds, cattle or mules, over rough trails (best grade is about 20%) to the wagon roads, to be removed to tannery or railroad. 100 III. FOREST UTILIZATION Remarks. (a) The minimum diameter of trees and branches peeled depends on the price of bark and the price of stumpage. At the present time, far from the tannery, it does not pay to peel pieces of less than 10 inches diameter. (b) The expense of the harvest of oak bark is per cord: Roads, 45c; felling, 27c; peeling, 57c; piling, 72. On the average a man will peel per hour from 0.3 to 0.38 cord. (c) Tannin percentages of dressed bark are, after Sargent : Mangrove .......... 30 % Burr and red oak... 4.6% Sumac? aamacraawverees 18 % Chestnut ........... 6.7% Sassafras root.......58 % Douglas fir.......... 13.8% German oak.......... 14 % Eastern hemlock....13.1% Cal. Chest. oak.......16.5% Western hemlock....15.1% Live: Gakiccusseeesss 10.5% Eastern spruce...... 7.2% Chestnut oak ........ 6.2% German spruce...... 8 % Spanish oak.......... 86% German fir.......... 6 % Black oak............ GO Yor LATO: « eaisssevesess so Rese 7% White oak........... 6. Fo Bit Gh: scscssacsncean senses 4 % C. Wood extracts in particular. I. Tannin extracts are manufactured from bark, chestnut II. ILI. VII. wood, quebracho, mangrove and oak. Quebracho wood contains 24% of tannin; chestnut wood 14% (?) of tan- nin. The wood is shredded in a chipper and the tannin ex- tracted (not entirely) by steam or hot water under pressure. The liquid obtained is condensed. While in France the sappy branches and young shoots of chestnut are preferred, in America the heart wood and especially the butt is preferred. The wood is cut 4 feet to 5 feet long. The leather trust uses a cord of 160 cubic feet = 1%4 cords of 128 cubic feet. Clear water, cheap transportation and cheap fuel are required for successful manufacture. Only sound wood is used; wormholes in chestnut, however, do not interfere with its value. Extracts exposed to air or exposed to heat spoil rap- idly. ee Extracts are shipped in barrels of 56 gallons capacity or in tank cars. The price of chestnut extract is 114c to 2c per pound. At D. E. F. G. FOREST UTILIZATION 101 a price of 1%4c, extract is cheaper than oak bark at $6 per cord. IX. One cord of chestnut wood yields 500 Benes of extract containing about 25% tannin. The methods of tannage employed nowadays are: I. Tanning by means of aluminum salts. II. Chamoying by means of certain oils or acids of oils, III. Tanning by salts of chromium. IV. Vegetable tanning, using the wood of quebracho, chestnut and oak; the bark of various oaks, hemlock, spruce, douglas fir, birch, larch, willows; fruits, cups and galls, i. e., divi-divi, catechu, myrobalans; further, the leaves of sumac. Instead of using these vegetable matters, their watery extracts frequently are applied. Object of tanning. Tannage tends to render the skin permanently supple and durable by impregnation with tannin. Aside of the mechanical imbedding of molecules by impregnation, a chemical action (fermentation > may take place in the case of bark tannage, due to the presence of microbes in the bark, chemically binding the tannin to the albumen and gelatine of the skin. Criteria of a good method of manufacture are: I. The weight of the leather produced. Since leather is sold by the pound, the tanner tries to press into the hide the maximum amount of tannin, tannin being much cheaper than hides. Beyond a certain point, this extravagance of impregnation fails to increase the wearing qualities of leather and is therefore useless to the buyer. II. The color of the leather produced and the adaptability of the leather for coloring. III. The possibility of tannin being washed out through wear and tear. From chromium tanned leather even a boil- ing process will not remove the tannin. IV. Quickness in filling orders and amount of capital re- quired. V. Cheapness of manufacture. The best leather is produced slowly only by use of materials rather poor in tannin. Statistical notes. I. One ton (2,240 pounds) of hemlock bark will tan 300 pounds of sole leather or 400 pounds of upper leather ; 4 to 5 pounds of good oak bark are required to produce 1 pound of sole leather. One acre of hemlock wood is said to yield about 7 cords of bark, and 1,500 board feet of timber are said to carry one cord of bark. One acre of hardwoods will yield on the average not over one-half cord of chestnut oak bark. 102 FOREST UTILIZATION One cord of chestnut wood yields one barrel of extract. II. The price of bark at the tanneries ranges from $4 to $16 per cord. The cord of bark is not measured, but is weighed, 2,240 pounds being called a cord. : The price of a cord of chestnut wood f. o. b. cars is $2.50 to $3. III. One hundred pounds of dry hides yield 150 to 185 pounds. of leather; 100 pounds of green hides yield 60 to 80 pounds. The cost of the hide amounts to from 50% to 75% of the cost of production. IV. The number of tanneries in the United States has greatly decreased from the year 1880 (5,628 plants) to 1900 (1,306 plants). The small tanneries using old fashioned and, wasteful methods have been killed by the large and intelligently conducted modern plants. The leather , trust controls over 100 of the largest plants. The investment of capital has increased from $73,000,000 in 1880 to $174,000,000 in Igo0. The cost of raw material, $155,000,000, and the value of the product, $204,000,000, have remained almost unal- tered during the same period. V. “Hides” are obtained from oxen, cows and horses; “kips’” from yearling cattle; “skins” from calves, sheep, goats and pigs. Calf skin is used for upper leathers of shoes; sheep skin for cheap shoes, linings and gloves; goat skin for fine upper leathers and gloves. Hides often are split and the so called grain and flesh splits are used in place of goat and calf skin. i. Manufacture. The old fashioned methods used from time immemorial consisted of rinsing skins; scraping off the flesh; treating the hair with lime; placing alternating layers of crushed oak bark and of skins in rough vats. The time consumed in this process of manufacture frequently exceeded a year. The best leather, however, is produced in this way. The modern process in manufacturing sole, belt and harness leather is: I. Soak in soft water (heated to less than 70° F.) to remove salt and blood and to restore the original soft- ness and pliability of the skin. II. Loosen hair by either liming green hide in milk of lime for three to six days or sweating dry hides at 70° ina close room, inviting a partial decomposition of the hair sheath. The sweating is preferred for acid hemlock tannage. III. Remove on the “beam,” by hand or machine, flesh, ‘hair, blood, lime, dirt. FOREST UTILIZATION 103 IV. Prepare the liquors in the leech house The liquors contain often from 5% to 64% of tannin only: Cold water extracts only part of the tannin from either bark or wood. Very hot water may extract all, extracting with it, however, undesirable coloring matters and kill- ing the fermenting microbes. . V. The tannage itself is either “Acid hemlock tannage” or “Non-acid hemlock, oak and union tannage.” ' (a) Acid hemlock tannage consists of: 1. Coloring in a dilute solution of tannin. 2. Placing skin for 2 to 4 days in a sulphuric bath (of 10% to 30%) by which the hide is swelled to a great thickness. 3. Placing the hide in a strong, concentrated solution of tannin. (b) 'Non-acid hemlock, oak and tnion tannage (2-3 hemlock, 1-3 oak bark): 1. Treat the hide, to begin with, with very weak solutions of tannin. 2. Gradually increase thereafter the concen- tration of the liquors. If a hide is at once hung in a strong liquor, its outer layers only are tanned. The hide will not swell, and the inner layers will fail to be impregnated. VI. The operations finishing the process of manufacture are: Washing; scouring off the so called bloom; stuffing ' (which means bathing in grease); drying; dampening and rolling under pressure; redrying; glossing on a brass bed by brass rollers. § XXXII. CHARCOAL BURNING IN CITARCOAL KILNS. Distillation of wood. Destructive distillation of wood, under reduced admission of air, yields chemically the following proportion of substances: I. 25% of non-condensable gases, viz. : carbon monoxide acetylene carbon dioxide propene marshgas ethylene II. 40% of condensable vapors, viz.: acetone formic acid furfurol butyric acid methyl alcohol crotonic acid methylamine capronic acid acetic acid propionic acid 104 FOREST UTILIZATION III. 10% of tarry liquid, viz.: tar cresol creosote phlorol toluol naphtalene xylol pyrene G cumol chrysene methol paraffin IV. 25% of solid residue, viz.: charcoal inorganic salts B. The kiln process. In the kiln process of destructive distillation of wood, all of the above substances are allowed to escape unused, excepting the solid residue. ; Modern technology succeeds in catching and utilizing several of the substances given under II and III, as appears from Section XXXV. : Still, the large majority of the charcoal commercially used is produced by the old and wasteful charcoal kiln. C. Characteristic qualities of charcoal. I. Charcoal has per cubic foot a larger heating power than wood. II. Owing to’ its lesser weight, it is very cheaply transported. III. Its freedom fron: sulphur and phosphates makes it valu- able for metallurgic work (Swedish charcoal iron). D. The work at the kiln. : I. For use in kilns, wood must be thoroughly seasoned, free from heavy knots. The billets must have equal length. The kilns should be charged with one species and one assortment of wood only at a time. II. The work consists of: (a) Preparation of ground near water by leveling and hoeing the soil, by. removing roots and: stones, by raising the center of the circle to be occupied by the kiln about 10 inches over its circumfer- ence. The diameter of the circle is from 15 feet to 30 feet usually. The best soil is loamy sand, which secures proper regulation of the draft. The site should be protected from wind. Twigs are woven into a wind screen on the windward side, if necessary. (b) Erecting the “chimney” by placing three or four poles of even height at one foot distance from a center pole, fastening them together to the cen- tral pole by withes. The -chimney is cylindrical if kiln is lighted from above, pyramidal if kiln is lighted from below. FOREST UTILIZATION 105 The chimney is filled with inflammable sub- stances (dried twigs etc.). (c) Constructing the kiln proper. The kiln should have a parabolic form. It con- sists of two or more tiers of billets placed almost vertically, the bark turned outward, the big end downward, the finest pieces near the chimney and near the circumference, the largest pieces half way between. These tiers are topped by a cap, consisting of smaller billets placed almost horizontally. A cylindrical chimney extends through the cap. A pyramidal chimney is closed by the cap. In the latter case a lighting channel is left. on the ground running radially on the leeward side from the bases of the pyramidal chimney to the circumference. This channel, too, like the chimney, is filled with easily inflammable ma- terial. (d) Stuffing all irregularities, interstices, cracks etc. showing on the outside of the kiln with small. kindling. (e) Covering the kiln by two draft-proof layers so as to exclude or restrict the admission of air. 1. The green layer, % to 34 feet thick, made of green branches, grass, weeds and moss. 2. The earth layer, 4 inches to 6 inches thick, consisting of wet loam, charcoal dust etc. If kiln is lighted from below, a belt about 1 foot high running around the circum- ‘ference on the ground is left without ‘earth cover until fire is well started. The earth layer and the green layer are thoroughly joined by beating with a pad- dle. é In large kilns a wooden frame (the armor) consisting’ of T sections is used to pre- vent the cover from sliding down. III. The kiln is lighted early in the morning on a quiet day. _The cylindrical chimney is stuffed up with wood from above and then closed on top by heavy covering after the fire is well started in the cap. The lighting channel, in the case of a pyramidal chim- ney, is similarly stuffed and closed. IV. The regulation of the fire and of the draft are the most important functions of the attendant who guides the fire 106 FOREST UTILIZATION evenly and gradually from the cap down to the bottom. The means of guidance are: (a) To check draft, increased earth cover. (b) To increase draft, holes of about 134 inches diam- eter punctured through the cover with the pad- dle reversed. If wind is strong, all holes are closed and earth’ cover increased. Cracks forming in the cover must be closed at once. ‘ In dry weather the kiln is continuously sprinkled. The kiln may explode if cover is too heavy and draft too strong. The color of the smoke escaping through the punctures indicates the completion of the char- ring process above the holes (transparent bluish color). The holes are then ‘closed, and another row of punctures is made about two feet below the closed holes. 1 . V. Refilling is required where dells are forming irregularly, while the kiln gradually collapses to. half of its original volume. : i For refilling, the cover over the dell is quickly removed, all holes having been closed beforehand, and the dell is rapidly filled with fresh wood. VI. When the bottom holes show the proper color of smoke, the charring process is completed. All holes are then closed and the kiln is allowed to cool. The duration of. the charring process is from six days to four weeks, according to size of kiln. The contents. vary between four and sixty cords. VIL The kiln is gradually, beginning at the leeward side, un- covered, and the crust of earth, after hoeing, is thrown on again. The earth, trickling down, quenches the fire. After another twelve to twenty-four hours, preferably at night, the coal is taken out in patches. Water must be ready at hand, since fire usually breaks. out when coal is drawn. F. Statistical notes. The loss of weight in the charring process is 75 %. The loss of volume is 50%. In America charcoal is sold by the bushel, a bushel weighing about 25 lbs. F. Appendix. In Norway, Sweden and Russia kilns of trapezium form are built of peeled logs 15 to 30 feet long. The lighting channel runs lengthwise on the ground. FOREST UTILIZATION 107 The kiln is lighted at the narrow end and covered with green branches and earth in the usual manner. The side walls being almost perpendicular, the cover is held in place by slabs spliced against the walls. No refilling is required. Fire is conducted from the top of the kiln at the big end toward the bottom of the kiln at the little end. The process lasts six to eight weeks. The billets are placed horizontally, skidway fashion, the largest billets being put in the center and the smallest at the head and at the foot of the kiln. § xxxIVv. LAMPBLACK AND BREWER’S PITCH, AND THEIR MANUFACTURE, The former is used in the manufacture of patent leather; the latter for pitching beer barrels. A. Raw material is spruce rosin. B. The process consists in a combined melting and pressing of rosin. The brewer’s pitch runs out through a pipe connecting the bases. of the melting vats with a cooling vat. C. The solid residue remaining in the vats is slowly burned in an oven. The smoke passes through a cool room and into a smoke room, the top opening of which is covered by a common bag. In this room pine soot or lampblack is deposited. The draft is regulated by the attendant according to the shape or bulge which the bag assumes under the influence of the smoke. D. Some turpentine can be derived at the same time if the vats are closed air tight and if the escaping gases are condensed in a worm. / §XXXV. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, WOOD (METHYL) ALCOHOL, AND THEIR MANUFACTURE. A. Raw materials: These are, preferably, broad leafed species—beech, birch, maple—which must be thoroughly seasoned. Heavy stuff is preferable, it is said, to small stuff. B. Distillation: The process consists in a dry distillation of the wood, differing from the.charcoal kiln process merely by allowing the gases to condense. The distillation takes place in large horizontal iron cylinders, usually about 10 feet long by 5 feet in diameter, into which the wood is run on steel trucks. After closing the cap of the cylin- ders (admission of air reduces the output of pyroligneous acid) the cylinders are slowly heated to a redhot. The gases forming are led through long worm pipes into a condenser. Not all of the gases formed allow of condensation. The uncon- densable gases are conducted to the fire room. At the bottom of the cylinder, tar is forming and is let out by a system of pipes into a collecting basin. Conifers yicld more wood tar than hardwoods. 108 A. FOREST UTILIZATION Further treatment. The gases, condensed to a liquid a large proportion of which is water, are then treated with lime. Lime neutralizes the pyrolig- neous acid, forming acetate of lime. The liquid is then redistilled, wood alcohol going over first, water next. The residue is boiled down in open pans to the consist- ency of a sugar, the acetate of lime of commerce. From it acetic acid and its salts are derived in chemical works. , The output. One hundred volumes of air dry wood furnish up to forty-eight volumes of pyroligneous acid. : One and three-quarters cords of beech yield 2,650 pounds of liquids, 25 gallons of tar and 700 pounds of charcoal. The 2,650 pounds of liquids furnish 200 pounds of acetate of lime and 9 gallons of 82% wood alcohol. Use: Acetate of lime is used by the chemical industry in the manufacture of acetic acid and of the salts of acetic acid. Wood alcohol is used largely in the manufacture of varnishes, dyes, celluloid and especially for heating. It is poisonous. . § XXXVI. TRUE OR AETHYL ALCOHOL AND ITS MANUFACTURE. Principle underlying the process. Wood boiled under pressure in the presence of acids yields sugar (dextrose). This sugar, freed from the acid admixed, is allowed to ferment under the influence of yeast and changed into aethyl alcohol. Raw material : Cottonwoods, linden, yellow poplar are said to be superior to the _ heavy hardwoods as well as to conifers. Possibly chestnut wood, from which the tannin is withdrawn in tannin extract factories, may answer as a raw material. Unless sawdust is available, the wood is prepared, sawed and pounded as if it were to be used in the manufacture of chemical fibre. Process: The acid used does not enter into any chemical combination with the wood. [t merely acts by its presence and is said to be most efficient when in statu nascendi. Sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid or a mixture of these and similar acids are used. The temperature of the lead-coated vats containing acid and wood is gradually raised to about 250° F. Hydraulic pressure is also applied, either before or after the boiling process. As a matter of fact, the partial conversion of cellulose into starch seems to be due to pressure—not to boiling. The acid is then neutralized and the temperature reduced to about 85° F. By the addition of yeast (fed on phosphates of potash and of ammonia) a violent fermentation of the sugar is started, ending within thirty-six FOREST UTILIZATION 109 hours, when the yeast has dropped down to the bottom of the vat while the sugar has been converted into alcohol. The liquid is distilled and redistilled, yielding alcohol of any de- sired concentration. The wood remaining—only 20% of its weight seems convertible into sugar—might be used for paper manufacture or as fuel for the boilers. Classen claims, after his methods, to obtain at least 30% dextrose from absolutely dry wood. D. Output. One hundred pounds of dry wood are said to actually yield about 5 pounds of 96% alcohol. The process of manufacture is far from being perfect. A number of chemists, notably Classen, are hard at work to further improve and to cheapen the process. Cheap alcohol—a fuel, a source of light and a source of tech- nical energy—manufactured from wood will be a boon for household, industries and forest. § XXXVII. ARTIFICIAL SILK MADE FROM CELLULOSE. A. History. Artificial silk was first prepared by Hilaire de Chardonet in 1884. Today many patents and numerous factories to exploit them exist in the old country. B. Process. There are two main processes in use, namely: I. II. A solution of nitrocellulose, a compound of nitric acid and cellulose in ether or alcohol, is pressed ‘through minute capillary pipes, appearing in long, silky threads. Additional chemicals (methods of Vivier, Lehner) re- duce or entirely destroy the inflammability of the product. Pure cellulose is readily dissolved in a few chemicals only,notably in concentrated copper oxide dissolved in ammonia. This solution forms a waxy mass which is pressed through minute capillary openings and appears in the form of supple, long, silky threads, immediately entering a bath of sulphuric acid. Here cellulose is set free, now a solid thread, while blue vitriol and sul- phate of ammonia result at the same time. The threads are spun exactly like threads of natural silk. C. Qualities of product. Artificial silk has an exquisite shine and is easily colored before the pressing process. The tearing strength of silk obtained from nitrocellulose, however, is now only 33% of that of true silk, its toughness only 45%. Artificial silk is used on a daily increasing scale in silk weavings. New methods and modifications of manufacture continuously increase its chances as a substitute for natural silk. Tio FOREST UTILIZATION § XXXVIII. MANUFACTURE OF OXALIC ACID FROM WOOD. Principle. Any wood heated to about 400° F. in the presence of caustic sub- stances yields, among many other products of disintegration, a goodly percentage of oxalic acid. Raw material. Any wood finely ground or pulverized, and especially sawdust and mill refuse, is well adapted to the process—oak as well as beech, pine, chestnut etc. Cottonwood is said to be rather poor as a raw material. Process. A mixture of caustic soda, caustic potash and sawdust is heated, under continuous stirring, in open-pans (14 foot deep and 6 feet square) by superheated steam or air. The temperature is grad- ually raised to 480° (not over) F., remaining at that figure for about 144 hours. The melted mass, consisting of oxalate of sodium and of carbonate of potassium, is thrown into water and allowed to cool, when the oxalate forms a dough of minute crys- tals. This dough is freed from water by centrifugal power, then treated with lime and thereafter with sulphuric acid, with the result that gypsum is precipitated from a solution of ‘oxalic acid. D. Output. One hundred parts of wood yield up to 80 parts of oxalic acid. The quantity of output depends on proper mixture of caustic soda and potash, and on proper regulation of the temperature. § XxXXIX. THE MAPLE SUGAR INDUSTRY. In the sap of all broad leafed species considerable quantities of sugar are found. This quality is commercially important, however, only in the case of hard maple. [n 1¢00 there were produced 51,000,c00 pounds of maple sugar and about 3,000,000 gallons of maple syrup. New York, Vermont and’-New Hampshire lead this industry. Seven- teen percent of all granulated sugar made in the United States is obtained from the maple tree. Vermont protects its maple sugar industry from counterfeits by State ‘inspection and official stamp. A. Tapping the trees. I. Time. End of January and February is best. Cold nights and hot days necessary for best results. If. A hole is made, with an auger, % inch to 34 inch in diameter, slightly slanting towards the entrance, to a depth of 2 inches.to 8 inches, at a point 2 to 3 feet above ground. Holes on north side of tree said to be most productive. Holes to feet above ground do not yield any sap. re III. A wooden or galvanized iron spout (3 to 8 inches long with a hook at the end to suspend the bucket) is in- serted into the hole. IV. Buckets are emptied at least daily, as the sap ferments B. FOREST UTILIZATION III easily. The sap, poured into large tanks resting on sleds, is quickly taken to the sugar shed. Buckets must carefully be kept clean. V. Production per tree is 4 lbs. of sugar per season. The sea- son lasts not over a month. The trees are not affected by tapping, either in quality or vitality. A new hole is made every year. Boiling process. ree Immediately after gathering, the sap is boiled down in open pans. I. Manufacture of sugar. Syrup is boiled to the consistency of wax, poured into forms and stirred to prevent formation of large crystals. Crystalization takes about 12 hours. Fifty quarts of sap yield 2 lbs. of sugar. II. Manufacture of syrup. The sap is boiled down to a lesser consistency and at once canned or bottled. §xL. NAVAL STORES, THEIR PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURE. Statistics. In 1902 the United States produced 600,000 bbls. of turpentine worth $13,200,000; 2,100,000 bbls. of rosin or colophany worth $4,200,000. One acre of orchard yields in three years’ tapping 25 gallons of spirits of turpentine, worth $8, and 8co pounds of rosin worth $4, at a labor expense and manufacturing expense of $10. Thus a profit of $2 per acre is left to the owner.: Orchards are leased actually at $1 to $2 per acre for three years. Methods of orcharding. I. Southern method (also Austrian method). (a) Species used: Longleaf pine (used now down to 8 inches in diameter); Cuban pine; echinata (small trees preferred); after W. W. Ashe, also Taeda; in Austria, Pinus Austriaca. (b) Operations of the first season: 1. Boxing: The tree is cut into, 8 inches above ground, with a narrow, thin- bladed “boxing axe.” Usually two boxes to a tree, on opposite sides. Width of box is 14 inches; depth horizontally 4 inches, vertically 7 inches; height of the tip above the lip about 10 inches. Box- ing takes place in January and Feb- ruary. 2. Cornering: Immediately after boxing the tree is “cornered.” Cornering im- plies the removal of two triangular strips of bark and sapwood above the 112 FOREST UTILIZATION box, running as high as the tip. The resulting grooves act as gutters for the rosin. 3. Hacking: Hacking or chipping begins in early March and is continued until October. The “hack” is a bent-bladed, sharp instrument which is used obliquely across the tree, producing a series of V shaped grooves in the outer layers of sapwood above the box and the corners. The points of the Vs stand in a vertical line over the tip. The surface thus scarified is called a face. The chipping removes % inch of sapwood. The face of the first season is from 18 inches to 24 inches high and always remains as wide as the box. 4.. Collecting: The virgin dip accumulating in the box during the first season is dipped out seven or eight times; the rosin, hardened on the face, is scraped off. (c) Operations of subsequent seasons: In the following seasons, the face is gradually car- ried upward until the working becomes unprofit- able. The output of dip, now called yellow dip, decreases from year to year, with the increase of distance between freshly hacked face and box. The scrape preponderates over the dip. Longleaf pine may be tapped for an indefinite num- ber of years, if intermissions of a few years ‘per- mit the trees to recuperate. II. French method (Hugues system). (a) Species used: Pinus maritima, which grows on the sand dunes fringing the western shore of France, is exclusively treated to this method. (b) Operations: t Remove the rough bark around the tree to prevent pieces of bark from falling onto the face. 2. In early March make a scar close to the ground 4 inches wide and 1% feet high, removing 2/5 inch of sapwood. The instrument used is a bent-bladed, crooked-handled axe. 3. Insert a toothed collar, made of zinc or FOREST UTILIZATION 113 iron, into an incision cut with a sharp curved knife at the bottom of the scar. 4. Hang a glazed earthen pot on a nail im- mediately under the lip of the collar. The pot is 5% inches deep, 5%4 inches wide at top and 3 inches wide at bottom. 5. Extend the 4-inch scar week by week upward until October, taking each time a thin layer of sapwood off the old face. The final length of the face reached in a number of years is up to 30 feet. 6. The collar and cup are moved each spring to the top of the preceding year’s face. The nailhole in the pot allows rainwater to run off, since water is lighter than , crude rosin. The pot is often covered with a wooden lid, the face itself by rough boards. III. Dr. Charles H. Herty’s gutter method. (a) Applicability : The method can be applied to bled or unbled trees. It has been tried by the Bureau since 1g02 in the Southern pineries. (b) Operations of the first season: 1. Use cornering axe to provide two flat faces 8 inches above the ground forming an angle of about 120°; each is half as high as long; total width about 14 inches. Two men, right and left handed, cut 3,000 faces per day. 2. Make incisions at base of faces, one at least an inch higher than the other. Tool used is a broad axe having a 12-inch straight blade. 3. Insert galvanized sheet iron gutters into the incisions. Gutters are 2 inches wide and 6 inches to 12 inches long, bent to proper form (angle 120°) by a tilting- bench contrivance. The lower gutter pro- _ jects by 1%4 inch over the mouth of the _upper, the projection forming a spout. 4. Fasten an earthen cup of a capacity equal- ing that of a box (5% in. x 3% in. x 7 in.) on the side of the upper gutter in such a way that its rim stands % inch below the spout, and that the nailhole is as far as possible from the spout. The 114 FOREST UTILIZATION nailhole should be two inches below the rim of the cup. bs 5. Chipping as in method I; cups emptied from time to time into collecting buckets. (c) Operations of subsequent seasons: Next season, the uppermost chipped channels are used for the insertion of the gutters. The cup is fastened at the upper end of the face made in the previous year. (d) Equipment: Equipment required for 10,000 boxes is: 10,500 cups (cost 1c each —-$131.25); gutter strips made from 1,886 pounds of galvanized iron, 29 gauge (cost of material $103.27; cutting and shaping gutters cost $4); 10,000 six-penny nails (costing $1.05); freight charges are about $30; labor at the trees requires an outlay of $80. (e) Results: Dr. Herty justly claims financial superiority of this method over the old Southern method, due to an increased output of turpentine. C. Manufacture of naval stores from pine products. I. From rosin of longleaf pine etc. (a) Melting crude rosin in order to separate from the liquid constituents pieces of bark, wood and a pitchy residue. (b) Dry distillation of the latter in a copper distilling apparatus, heated usually from an open fire be- neath the apparatus; but preferably from steam of high temperature. (c) Cooling of gases in a worm and condenser where there are obtained: 1. An upper layer of turpentine which is redistilled. 2. A middle layer of rosin (colophany) of a light yellow color, which is sifted re- peatedly into different qualities. 3. Water forming the lowest layer. II. From roots, branches and stumps of pine, the stumps to be dug out a few years after the trees are cut. (a) Cut the wood into kindling. (b) Fill it (from above) into a gasproof brick still- room, 15 feet high and 6 feet through, holding from 5 to 6 cords of kindling. The top and bottom of the still are funnel shaped and pro- vided with pipes. The still is surrounded by the fire room. FOREST UTILIZATION 115 (c) After closing the upper funnel, apply heat very gradually. Within 24 hours turpentine begins to escape through the top pipe which leads through a worm into a condenser. When the gases appear dense and thick, the top pipe is closed and the gases (now largely containing pyroligneous acid) are forced through the bot- tom pipe to be condensed in another con- denser. Light (at a later stage dark) tar is let out through this same pipe. The fires are checked when the tar begins to flow freely. (d) The process takes, for heating, 3 days; for cool- ing, 8 days. Charcoal is left in the still room. Proper regulation of temperature is most essen- tial. ; , (e) One cord of pine kindling yields about 25 gal- — lons of tar, 1 to 1% gallons of machine oil, % to 1 gallon of turpentine, some pyroligneous acid and % cord of charcoal. III. Uses of naval stores: (a) Spirits of turpentine are used for colors, paints, varnishes, asphalt laying, solvent for rubber. (b) Colophany is used for glue in paper manufacture, varnishes, soap making, soldering, manufacture of sealing wax. (c) Wood tar made of conifers is lighter than water (owing to spirits of turpentine therein con- tained) ; made of broadleafed is heavier than water. It contains tolnol, xylol, cumol, naph- talin, paraffin, phenol, kreosol, pyrogalol and ‘ many other carbohydrates. Caustic soda causes the solution of the aromatic alcohols contained in wood tar. From this solu- tion true creosote is derived. Dry distillation of wood tar yields: 1. Light wood oil; 2. Heavy wood oil; 3. Shoemaker’s pitch, a residue. D. Conifers other than pines are used only to a limited degree in the manufacture of naval stores. (a) The larch yields the so-called venetian turpentine, which is obtained by boring (with 1%4 inch auger) a deep hole into the heart of the tree. The hole is closed by a plug. After a year the turpentine, entirely filling the hole, is extracted. (b) Spruce was tapped for turpentine on a large scale in the old country before the orchards of the South were developed. Only scrape is obtained 116 FOREST UTILIZATION from long and narrow faces. The scar invites red rot, badly checking the value of the timber. The output in ten years is, per acre, 73 lbs. of crude spruce rosin. (c) Fir has rosin ducts only in the bark. Blisters or bubbles of the bark filled with rosin yield the so- called “Canada balsam” and “Strassburg tur- ‘pentine,” collected in tin cans. The blisters are opened with the rim of the can. § XLI. VANILLIN. Vanillin, a substitute for vanilla, which has caused the price of bean vanilla to decline rapidly and permanently, is obtained from spruce (fresh cut) by removing the bark and collecting the sap either with sponges or broad-bladed knives. The sap is then boiled, strained and condensed in the vacuum pan to one-fifth of its former volume. In the cooling room, crystals of coniferine are formed from the syrup. Coniferine, when treated with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, is oxydized into vanillin. The syrup obtained as a by-product is distilled and used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Eighty gallons of sap yield one gallon of coniferine. § XLII. BEECHNUT OIL. Mast years of beech occur,.according to climate, every 3 to 8 years. The nuts are gradually dried, slightly roasted, peeled and cleaned of shells; then either ground, applying moderate heat, or pounded in mills by -stampers. The oil oozing out is strained and placed in a cool room (in earthenware vessels), where the clean oil forms a top layer to be poured off gradually. The residue is pressed into cakes and used as feed for stock. Two hundred pounds of dry beechnuts yield 5 quarts of oil. § XLII. PINE LEAF HAIR. Pine leaf hair, or curled pine straw, is used as a substitute for wool and cotton in upholstering, carpets etc. The stuff is mothproof. _ Three hundred to 400 pounds of needles yield 100 pounds of wool. The price is $3 to $12 a cwt., according to the quality. A by-product is known as pine needle extract, used by the perfumer. The process of manufacture consists of: Drying ‘the freshly cut needles; steaming; fermentation; crushing «and disfibreing in pounding mills; repeated washing of the feltlike mass; loosening on sets of oscillating sieves; drying and bleaching. The product has a greenish or yellowish color. It is called “pine hair” in North Carolina, where the industry, now extinct, promised a successful career twenty years ago, FOREST UTILIZATION 117 § XLIV. IMPREGNATION OF WOOD. - Impregnation tends to increase the durability of wood by injecting an antiseptic liquid and may mean a desirable or undesirable change of color, and in some cases fireproofing. Little is known about the latter. Four principles may be applied: A. Immersion: I. II. B. Boiling: I. II. lil The oldest method used was immersion in a strong solu- tion of salt. European railroads place ties for eight days in large tanks filled with a light solution of corrosive sublimate. No other work required. The method is called “Kyanizing.”” Drawbacks are that the liquid is washed out on wet ground; that spikes do not hold well in the timber. Expense per cubic foot, 6%c. “Metalized” wood is obtained as follows: Immerse the wood in a solution of sulphate of iron; then smear the wood with chloride of calcium. In the outer layers of the wood gypsum (sulphate.of lime) is formed together with chloride of iron. Such wood is impermea- ble to water and has a metallic shine. Boiling in salt water or in a solution of borax seems to be a method rarely practiced. Boiling, however, with ex- haust steam, when a black juice is forced out of the log, is frequently seen abroad. In the latter case the log is -practically steam dried. “Franks” mixture consists of 95 % liquid manure and 5 % of lime. It is pumped into large vats, within which the wood is boiled for 3 to 8 days. The liquid enters to a depth of about 3 inches and darkens the wood to a ma- hogany tint. A method called “siderizing” injects, by a boiling process a solution of copperas. The wood is then dried, and liquid glass (a hot solution of silicate of aluminum) smeared on the surface. By a chemical reaction silicates of iron are formed in the outer layers, which are insolu- ble in water and resist decomposition. The wood at the same time obtains a beautiful gloss. C. Use of hydrostatic pressure: A solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) is used after Boucherie. It is kept in.a tank 30 ft. to go ft. above ground. The timber must be fresh cut with the bark on and is spread on a rough log-deck. At the big end of each stick a ring made of rope is held in place by a board or heading nailed to the log, A hose connected with the tank injects the liquid into the small cleft formed between log and heading. After a few hours, drops of vitriol appear at the small end, showing that the process is complete. The pressure being slight, only the outer sappy layers are impregnated. This method is largely used abroad, often in 118 FOREST UTILIZATION the woods themselves, for telegraph poles of pine, spruce, fir etc. Expense per cubic foot, qc. D.-° Use of steam pressure: The wood is dried thoroughly, then placed on small steel cars run- ning into long cylinders or boilers, closed by a strong head. -A vacuum pump removes the sap water and causes a vacuum to_ form in the wood itself. Then an antiseptic liquid is pressed into the boilers; temperature of liquid is 150° to 200°. The liquids used are: F (a) Chloride of zinc. (b) Creosote or rather cheap coal! tar oie (c) ‘Gases of tar oils (so called thermo-carbolization). The creosoting, method is used for ties and paving blocks. Creo- soted timber holds nails well; creosote is not washed out by rain; on the other hand, the darkened color of the wood is. sometimes objectionable. It is claimed that creosoting in the United States has failed, probably because an extravagant amount of the liquid has been pressed into the timber. In Germany the expense per tie is only 63¢ as against $1.25 in the United States. Results: -Heart wood is not as permeable and hence not as impregnable as sap wood. Maple, birch, beech, spruce, sappy pine etc. are more benefited by impregnation than white oak, longleaf pine etc. Generally the duration of life of impregnated ties is increased -at the following ratio: Beech, 400%; yellow pine and oak, _ 200% ; spruce, 50%. Obviously, every additional pound of preservative pressed into the fibre has a lesser effect on the lastingness of the wood than the preceding pound. For every woody species the limit must be found at which additional impregnation proves unremunerative. Some Business Problems of American Forestry Some Business Problems of American Forestry By C. A. SCHENCK, Pu. D., Forester to the Biltmore Estate, Biltmore, N. C. Forest Assessor to the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, and Principal Biltmore School of Forestry. A limited edition of 400 copies of this pamphlet has been printed. Copies will be mailed to any address at $1.00 each. Address orders with remittance to The French Broad Press, P. O. drawer 666, Asheville, North Carolina. Some Business Problems of American Forestry By C. A. SCHENCK, Pu. D., Forester to the Biltmore Estate, Biltmore, N. C. Forest Assessor to the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, and Principal Biltmore School of Forestry. The French Broad Press, Asheville, N. C. PREFACE. ORESTRY ona large scale will not be possible in the United Fk States, on private holdings, unless it proves to be a remun- erative investment of capital. Unfortunately, owing to the slowness of treegrowth, there is no chance of large profits in forestry. Not one of the forest own- ers abroad has engaged in forestry with a view of getting rich through it. Forestry is not a maker of wealth; it is only a pre- server of wealth. As a preserver of wealth, forestry is unrivalled. No business yields interest on the capital engaged in it as steadily as forestry. As sure as the sun shines, the wind. blows and the rain falls, the volume of a tree is compelled to increase, the increment represent- ing the interest on tree-capital. Sunshine, air and precipitations are the factors of treegrowth. Abroad, all aristocratic families owning forest-estates have suc- ceeded in the maintainance of their standing for centuries, whilst the rich merchants and bankers of olden times have not left a trace of their names and their wealth, in spite of the fact, that many of them, the merchants of Leipzig, Hamburg, Midland, Nuernberg, were richer than their sovereigns themselves. In America, it is the well-to-doclass, and pre-eminently the well- to-do lumberman, who should be interested in forestry, wherever it offers him a safe and remunerative chance of investment. The ‘‘Problems of Forestry’’ were compiled with a view of showing the American wood owners the financial character of pro- fessional forestry. The object in forestry, as in any other business, is the production of high and safe interest on capital. Some little knowledge of elementary mathematics and of banking generally is required for the solution of any financial problem. The banker, the insurance company, the stock broker, constantly meet with tasks similar to those outlined inthe ‘‘ Problems of Forestry.” The splendid interest tables issued by the Mutual Life Insur- ance Company were used for the solution of the problems in order to avoid the times-taking application of logarithms. C. A. SCHENCK, Forester to the Biltmore Estate. Biltmore, N. C., March, r1goo. TABLE OF PROBLEMS. A Longleaf Pine Problem (Florida). ...... Another Longleaf Pine Problem (Florida) .. . A Red Fir Problem (Oregon). ......... A Yellow Poplar Problem (North Carolina). . . re ee ry Another Yellow Poplar Problem (North Carolina)... . An Adirondack Problem. ........,.... ASpruce Problem ............... Another Spruce Problem .........2... A White Pine Problem (Minnesota) ...... A Shortleaf Pine Problem (Arkansas). .... Influence of Forest Fires on Rate of Interest e 3 Stumpage—Prices of the Future ....... Forest Taxation in the United States... ... Influence of Taxes on Business Forestry ... . A National Park Problem (Minnesota) .... . State Loans for Forestry Purposes (Pennsylvania ) Weeding and Road-building . ..... 2» . ee er? A LONGLEAF PINE PROBLEM (FLORIDA). PREMISES: Mz. S., of E., Florida, owns a pine forest of all ages, so that seedlings, saplings, poles and trees are equally mixed, and estimates that the annual growth is 250 feet board measure per acre. The tract is 100,000 acres and he thus cuts 25,000,000 feet board measure annually with the view of not decreasing the growing stock. The expense for taxes and the cost of protection from fire, etc., is 5c per acre per annum; the value of the stumpage is $1 per thousand feet board measure. Mr. S. thinks that the quality of the forest will be improved gradually, and expects an increase in pro- ductiveness, of one per cent. annually. He figures, besides, on ris- ing stumpage prices, the rise keeping step with the increase in pop- ulation (1% per cent.). He has a chance to invest money at 5 per cent. in an equally safe manner and wants to sell the forest. QUESTION: Below what price per acre is it not advisable for Mr. S. to sell? POINTS: 1. Mr. S. must figure at 5 per cent. interest, as the equally safe investment promises him 5 per cent. as well. 2. If the productiveness of the forest increases by 1 per cent. per annum, and the stumpage price at 134 per cent. per annum, the receipts will grow at the rate of 234 per cent. per annum. In dis- counting these receipts backwards, we have to figure at 5 per cent. —2¥% per cent. = 2% per cent. 3. The present value of all-annual receipts is $25,000 0.050—0.025 4. The present value of all expenses (taxes and protection) is 100,000 x 0.05 0.05 EQUATION : 25,000 ___ $00,000 0.05 _ 0.050—0.025 0.05 RESULT: $900,000 for the whole forest, or $9 per acre. ANOTHER LONGLEAF PINE PROBLEM (FLA.) PREMISES: Near Pensacola, Florida, a tract of 50,000 acres stocked with longleaf pine, not boxed for turpentine, is for sale, the stumpage averaging 3000 feet board measure per acre. The present owner offers the stumpage alone at $1 per thousand feet, or else is willing to sell the fee simple (soil and trees together) at $3.50 per acre. Under conservative lumbering, the annual production of timber is 133 feet board measure per acre, to be drawn from a growing stock of 1500 feet board measure per acre. The land itself is prac- tically unfit for farming. No damage is to be feared from forest fires, as long as turpentine is not obtained from the forest. Figure at 6 per cent. interest, and at 1c taxes per acre per annum. QUESTION: Is it advisable for a Pensacola mill firm, of twenty-five million feet annual capacity, to buy the stumpage alone, or is it more profitable for it to acquire stumpage and land together with a view of practicing forestry P POINTS: 1. When buying the fee simple, the firm can cut, within three years, 1500 feet per acre—the biggest trees—leaving the balance of 1500 feet on the ground, and obtaining from that balance henceforth on an annual average as much as the annual accretion, namely 133 feet board measure (worth 13.3 cents) per acre. 2. Thus the firm obtains from the forest (a) For three years annually 500 x 50,000 feet board measure worth $25,000. (b) From the fourth year on, annually 133 x 50,000 feet board measure worth $6,650. 3. The expense for taxes will, for the whole tract, amount to $500 annually. 4. The firm paying $3.50 x 50,000 equal to $175,000 cash obtains assets worth 25000 (1.061) 6650 500 0.06 x 1.067 ' 1.06°x0.06 0.06 EQUATION: Entrepreneur’s Gain 25000 (1.06°—1) | 6650 500 0.06 x 1.067 ' 1069x006 0.06 aga == 25000 x 2.67 + 6650 x 14.0 — 500 x 16.7 — 175000 = 66750 + 93100 — 8350 — 175000 RESULT: Bent on forestry, the firm seemingly incurs an undertaker’s loss of about $25,000, paying more for the forest than the forest is able to refund. If, however, the prices of stumpage can be expected to rise by 50 per cent. in the course of the next 20 years (corresponding with a 6 rise of 2 per cent. per annum), acquisition of the fee simple at $3.50 per acre implies a net gain of about $33,600. In addition it must be remembered that the tract, under destruc- tive lumbering, cannot be logged over in less than six years, the mill capacity being 25 million feet board measure only. Thus the firm, when engaging in ordinary lumbering, pays in fact more than $1.00 per rooo feet board measure, namely $150,000 x 0.06 x 1.06° 25,000 (1.06° — 1) If this consideration holds good, acquisition of fee simple and practice of forestry is preferable even under stagnating prices, being by about $11,700 superior to destructive lumbering. = $1.22 A RED FIR PROBLEM (OREGON). PREMISES: Mr. W—r, a Michigan lumberman, had a chance to acquire, in 1862, 200,000 acres of splendid white pine forest, at 4oc per acre. He had made 7 per cent. on the investment, and a total net gain of $1,200,000 when the last tree was cut in 1888. In 1900 Mr. W——r moved to Oregon, and had a chance in the Cascade backwoods to exactly repeat the speculation of 1862, buy- ing 200,000 acres of splendid Douglas fir, scaling 30,000 feet board measure per acre, at 40c per acre. The value of the denuded land, in Michigan and Oregon, is nill. Taxes Ic per acre per annum. QUESTION: What must be the development of stumpage prices in the section referred to, if Mr. W——r is again to makea net gain of $1,200,000 in addition to deriving 7 per cent. from the investment, in the course of 26 years ? POINTS: The answer depends on the rate, at which the railroad system in the section will be developed, by the establishment of which the gradual removal of the timber will be made possible. I. Suppose cutting begins after 16 years, in 1916 and ends in 1926. 1. The average cut will be 600 million feet board measure per annum, worth 600,000X. The receipts for stumpage, in 1926, will have accumulated to 600,000 X (1.07!° — 1) 0.07 2. The accrued expense for taxes will be, at 1c per acre per annum, 2000 (1.0728 — 1) O07 if we assume, that taxes on the whole land are paid until 1926. 3. The original price paid for the land, $80,000, has grown up, at 7 per cent. compound interest, to year 1926, to $80,000 x 1.07%, EQUATION: 600,000 X(1.07°—1) 2000 (1.07%—1) 0.07 a 0.07 — 80,000 x 1.07% 1,200,000 = RESULT: The stumpage price of Oregon pine, in that sec- tion, must average about 22 cents per 1000 feet board measure, from 16 years from to-day on. II. Suppose cutting begins after ro years, in 1910, and ends in 1926. 1, The average cut will then be 6,000,000,000 __375 million feet 16 board measure per annum. The receipts from stumpage in 1926 will have accumulated to 375,000 X (1.07!6 — 1) 2. and 3. asunder I. 0.07 EQUATION: __ 375,000 X(1.07'°— 1)__2000 (1.07*° — 1) as 1,200,000 = 0.07 6.07 —80,000x1.07 RESULT: The stumpage price of Oregon pine, in that sec- tion, must average about 17 cents per rooo feet board measure, from Io years from to-day on. A YELLOW POPLAR PROBLEM (N. C). PREMISES: A careful tally of the yellow poplar trees, stand- iug in the valley drained by Claw Hammer creek, furnishes the fol- lowing data: togo trees of 14% foot diameter, containing 300 feet b. m. each, equalte: ss es aevasG bem az - . 327,000 feet b. m. 1980 trees of 2 foot diameter, containing 450 feet b. m. each, equalto..... «+. «+. 891,000 ‘ se 860 trees of 24 foot diameter, containing 700 feet b. m. each, equalto ......... 602,000 “ 680 trees of 3 foot diameter, containing 1000 feet b.m. each, equalto ........... 680,000 ‘ ss 270 trees of over 334 foot diameter, containing 1700 feet b. m. each, equalto....... 459,000 ‘¢ ss The stumpage of these trees is worth, on an average, In the case of trees of 134 foot diameter, . $0.75 per 1000 feet b. m. In the case of trees of 2 foot diameter,. . 1.25 per 1000 feet b. m. In the case of trees of 214 foot diameter. 2.50 per 1000 feet b. m. In the case of trees of 3 foot diameter . . 4.25 per 1000 feet b. m. In the case of trees of over 334 foot diameter 6.25 per 1000 feet b. m. The trees, up to 24 foot in diameter, are growing at a rate of 1¥% inches in 10 years, and thereafter at arate of 1 inchin 10 years. The taxes are not apt to be reduced after the timber is cut. The owner believes, that the price of poplar stumpage will double in 25 years (annual increase of 234 per cent), and is satisfied to make 5 per cent on the investment. QUESTION: At what rate shall the owner dispose of the trees, viz. downto what diameter limit is it advisable for him to sell the trees ? POINTS: 1. Atreeof 14 foot diameter, in 40 years, attains 2 foot diameter Atree of 2 foot diameter, in 40 years attains.. 24 foot diameter A tree of 2% foot diameter, in 60 years attains.. 3 foot diameter A tree of 3 foot diameter, in 60 years attains... . 3% foot diameter 2. Ther foot tree, now worth $0.75 x 0.300 = 22% cents, will be worth after 40 years $1.25 x 0.450 x 1.0259—=... §$ 1.52 The 2 foot tree, now worth $1.25 x 0.450 = 56 cents, will be worth after 40 years $2.50 x 0.700 x 1.025 — . 26 4-72 The 2% foot tree, now worth $2.50 x 0.700 = 175 canta will be worth after 60 years $4.25 x 1.000 x 1.025 =. . 18.70 The 3 foot tree, now worth $4.25 x 1.000 = 425 cents, dill te worth after 60 years $6.25 x 1.700 x 1.0259 = ... , 46.80 3. All trees, growing at a 5 per cent. rate, are to remain ; those growing at a rate of less than 5 per cent. will be cut. 10 EQUATIONS: For 1% foot trees: 0.225x 1.0X— 1.52; X—=—5_ per cent. For 2 foot trees: 0.562 x 1.0X%— 4.72; X= 5% per cent. For 24 foot trees: 1.750 x 1.0X° — 18.70; K=4_ per cent. For 3 foot trees: 4.250 x 1.0X = 46.80; X= 4 per cent. RESULT: The owner should dispose of all trees having a diameter of 234 foot or more, as they grow only at a rate of 4 per cent. Obviously, unsound trees which are apt to deteriorate, should be cut at once whatever the diameter be. II ANOTHER YELLOW POPLAR PROBLEM (N.C.) PREMISES: Pisgah forest contains 40,000 acres, stocked with 60 million feet board measure yellow poplar of superior quality, worth now $3.50 per thousand feet board measure. The owner expects that the prices of yellow poplar stumpage will double within the next 15 years (increase of 5 per cent. per annum), and that then small logs and defective logs will have a value as well, so that 70 million feet board measure will be available in the year 1915. The taxes and the general expenses take six cents per acre per annum The value of the soil, after the timber is cut, can be assumed to be $2 per acre. The owner figures at 6 per cent. interest. QUESTION: What is the profit from the investment, if any at the end of the next 15 years, aside from the interest of 6 per cent? POINTS: 1. The present value of the investment is $60,000 x 3.50 for the trees and $40,000 x 2.00 for the soil. 2. The value of the forest in 1915 is $70,000 x 7.00 for the trees and $40,000 x 2.00 for the soil. 3. The running expenses from 1900 to 1915 are, per annum, $0.06 x 40,000. They accumulate up to 1915, to the sum 0.06 x 40,000 (1.06 — 1) 0.06 EQUATION: X= 70,000 x 7.00 -- 40,000 x 2.00 — 0.06 x 40,000 (1.06! — 1) 0.06 RESULT: The owner will find himself $182,000 short. He will lack a good deal from making 6 per cent. on his investment. As a matter of fact, he will make about 4 per cent. on the invest- ment and no more, unless the stumpage prices do more than double within the next 15 years. 1.065(60,000 x 3.50 + 40,000 x 2.00) AN ADIRONDACK PROBLEM. PREMISES: A tract of land in the Adirondacks, acquired in the year 1876 at $5 per acre, was cut over in 1888, yielding then, per acre, 1800 feet b. m. White pine, worth $3 per thousand feet b. m., and 2600 feet b. m. Spruce, worth $1 per thousand feet. In the year 1896, there were cut per acre another 6550 feet b. m. of spruce, worth $1.50 per thousand feet b. m. The taxes on the forest were 5c per acre per annum; the expense of administration and protection 2c per acre per annum. Figure at 6 per cent. e QUESTION: At what cost were those last 6550 feet b. m. produced P POINTS: 1. The price paid for the land, in 1876, was $5 per acre, which accrued, at compound interest, and up to the year 1896, to $5.00x1.06” a. The running expenses, during the period 1876 to 1896, were 4 cents per acre per annum, and sum up to the amount of 0.07 (1.06 — 1) 0.06 3. The yield made in 1888 was $3.00 x 1.8 + $1.00 x 2.6=$8.00 Discounted forward to the year of calculation, 1896, this yield, (which is of course to be subtracted from the various outlays) amounts to $8.00 x 1.068. EQUATION : 0.07 (1.06% — 1) KX=5 x 1.06% 1+ 506 RESULT: The cost of producing those 6550 feet was $5.80. As the value of the 6550 feet is $9.82, the owner has gained, aside from making 6 per cent. interest on the investment and aside from having the value of the culled forest for an additional asset, about $4.00 per acre. — 8x 1.068 13 A SPRUCE PROBLEM. PREMISES: A spruce forest contains in the year 1899 per acre about 4228 feet b. m., consisting of trees scaling 10 inches or more at four feet from ground. First case: Suppose that the owner actually cuts down to 10 inches diameter, thus removing now 4228 feet. Then, in the year 1929 he will be able to again cut 2420 feet b. m., cutting again down to ro inches. Every 34 years thereafter he will have the same yield of 2420 feet b.m. The price of the stumpage is $1.40 per thousand feet. The taxes are, on an average, 3c per acre per annum. Second case: Suppose the owner cuts only down to 12 inches. Then the forest will yield,to begin with,3608 feet b. m. Inthe year 1919 the owner will be able to cut 2115 feet b. m., and thereafter the same amount every 24 years. The value of stumpage in this case is $1.50 per rooo feet. The taxes are,on an average, 4c per acre per annum. Third case: Suppose the owner cuts only down to 14 inches. Then the first yield will be, in the year 1899, 2846 feet b. m. In the year 1919 the owner will be able to cut 2624 feet b. m., and thereaf- ter every 21 years the same amount. The value of the stumpage is $1.60 per thousand feet; the taxes are, on an average, 5c per acre per annum. The owner wants to derive 5 per cent. interest and believes in a gradual increase of thc prices, the increase to average 2 per cent. perannum. The cost of administration and protection is in all cases Sc per acre. QUESTION: Had the owner of the forest better cut down to Io inches, to 12 inches or to 14 inches? POINTS: 1. The maximum difference between expected yields and ex- pected expenses determines the best course to be followed. 2. In the ro inch case the yields are 1.03‘ X 2,420 x 1.40 4,228 x 1.40 + ere = $8.14 In the 12 inch case the yields are 1.03! x 2,1I5 x 1.50 3,608 x 1.50 + cout — : = $8.80 In the 14 inch case the yields are : 4+ 1.03 x 2,624 x 1.60 2,846 x1.60 + Tog =a = $0.56 3. In the 10 inch case the expenses are 0.03 + 0.05 $1.6 9.05. = 1.00 14 In the 12 inch case the expenses are 0.04 + 0.05 $1.80 0.05 In the 14 inch case the expenses are 0.05 -+ 0.05 $2.00 0.05 EQUATION : (8.14 — 1.60) = (8.86 — 1.80) = (9.56 — 2.00) 6.54 7.06 7.56 RESULT: Cutting down to 14 inches only, the most con- servative practice, pays best. It pays by $1 per acre, better than cut- ting down to 10 inches, and by Soc. per acre, better than cutting down to 12 inches. 15. ANOTHER SPRUCE PROBLEM. PREMISES: A lumberman owns 20,000 acres of spruce land, from which he has just cut 6000 feet board measure per acre, 12 inch and over in diameter at the stump, worth $1.50 per thousand, After another 20 years he will be able to obtain 3320 feet per acre, cutting again down to 12 inch diameter, and we may expect, that, after 40 years, the same yield will be obtainable and so on. The land, when cleared, is said to have some value for pasture purposes. The taxes are 4cts., the expense for administration, pro- tection, etc., 8 cts. per acre per annum. Figure at 6 per cent. QUESTION: What is the forest worth at the present mo- ment ? POINTS: 1. After 20, 40, 60 (and so on) years, a yield of 3320 feet b. m., worth $4.98 can be obtained. 2. The necessary expenses are 4 cents plus 8 cents per acre per annum. 3. The value of a forest, like the value of a house or a farm or a business is equal to the present value of all returns, minus all ex- penses, expected from it. : _ 4.98 O12 EQUATION: X = 106% 006 7 222 — 2.00 RESULT: The forest, after lumbering, is worth 22cts per acre. If the owner can sell it, for farming purposes, at over 22cts. per acre, he should certainly do it, provided that he can make, by re- investing the proceeds of the sale, 6 per cent. in an equally safe manner. If the taxes, or the expense necessary for administration, pro- tection, etc., are 2cts higher per acre per annum than is supposed in the premises, the owner had better give up the land after the first cutting, unless he can sell it, for in that case its forestry value is negative, the necessary expenses devouring all possible profits. If, on the other hand, there is a good chance for the stumpage prices to rise, say at the average rate of 2 per cent. per annum, the cut over forest has a value of 4.98 0.12 1.04%—r 0.06 The study of future prices of stumpage is of the very greatest importance for the wood-owner. == $2.15 per acre. 16 A WHITE PINE PROBLEM (MINNESOTA.) PREMISES: A Minnesota lumberman owns 10,000 acres of white pine forest, containing 6000 feet b. m. per acre, worth $3 per thousand. The agricultural value of the land is $5 per acre, when the timber is removed. Under conservative lumbering, an annual production of 300 feet b. m. per acre can be expected. Taxes 8cts per acre per annum. Protection from fire, under forestry,12cts per acre per annum. Extra logging expenses, under forestry, $4 per acre, at the first cutting. Lumber prices expected to double in 35 years (= annual rise of 2 per cent.) Proper growing stock for forestry 2000 feet b. m. per acre. QUESTION: What interest on the investment will forestry yield? POINTS: 1. The investment, to begin with, is 6000 feet b. m. worth $3 = $18 per acre plus value of soil worth $5 per acre. 2. The yield under forestry is 4000 feet worth $3 = $12 per acre to be derived at once, and 300 feet worth gocts to be derived annually thereafter, being the annual production of the 2000 feet left standing, per acre. The future yields are to be discounted at (X per cent. — 2 per cent.) 3. The annual expenses, under forestry, are 20 cents. The extraordinary expenses are $4 per acre, spent at the first cutting. ; _ -90 .20 EQUATION: 184 5= 12 Tea = ba sax 4 RESULT: About 7 per cent. 17 A SHORT LEAF PINE PROBLEM (ARK.) PREMISES: The S. & A. Lumber Co., of B., Arkansas, owns 100,000 acres of forest stocked, per acre, with 6000 feet board measure merchantable short leaf pine, and has a mill of thirty million feet board measure annual capacity. The stumpage is worth $1 per rooo feet board measure. The land is unfit for agriculture. Under conservative cutting the forest will continuously produce 200 feet board measure per acre per annum, after the “Virgin Surplus” of the forest, consisting per acre of 4500 feet of hypermature and mature trees, has been removed. Under conservative cutting, the logging expenses are 10 cents higher per thousand feet board meas- ure. Prices are expected to rise at I 1-2 per cent per annum. Fig- ure at 6 per cent. Taxes are Ict per acre per annum. Protection from fire, under conservative lumbering, will cost 3cts per acre per : annum. QUESTION: Which pays better, conservative or exhaustive lumbering ? POINTS: 1. If prices rise at 1 1-2 per cent., future yields must be dis- counted back to the present moment at 6 per cent — I 1-2 per cent equal to 4 I-2 per cent. 2. Under exhaustive lumbering, the forest will yield 30,000,000 feet b. m. for 20 years, and nothing more. The land, being non- agricultural, will be thrown away after 20 years. The value of all yields expected from the forest, minus taxes for 20 years, is there- fore : 3eoco = (1.0457 — 1) 1000 (1.06% — 1) 0.045 X 1.045% = 0.06 x 1.06% : 3. Under conservative lumbering, we withdraw as well annu- ally 30 million feet from the forest, as long as the mature stock of 4500 x 100,000 equal to 450 million feet lasts, namely for 15 years. 4. From the 16th year on, we cut only the annual production, namely, 200 x 100,000 equal to 20 million feet per annum. 5. As the extra logging expenses, in this case, are 10 cents higher, the timber has a stumpage value of go cents only, instead of $1 per 1000 feet board measure. 6. Taxes and protection from fire will cost annually 0.04 x 100,000 equal to $4000. 7. Thus, under conservative management, the present value of all expected yields, minus expenses for taxes and protection is: 27000 (1.045°—1) 18000 4000 0.045x1.045° 0.045x1.0455 ~~ 9.06 EQUATION : 30000 (1.045% — 1) — —- 1000 (3.06%) > 27000 (1.0455 — 1) , (0.045x1.045” 0.06x1.06% < 0.045x1.045" 18000 4000 0.045x1.0455 0.06 30000x13.0 — 1000xII.5 = 27000x10.7 + 400,000x0.5 — 66,700 RESULT: Conservative lumbering pays, by about $43,700, better than exhaustive lumbering. 19 INFLUENCE OF FOREST FIRES ON RATE OF INTEREST. PREMISES: Absolutely safe investments (f. i. U. S. bonds) yield about 3 per cent. interest on the principal. Forestry in America is a less safe investment. Of course, trees live and grow as sure as the sun shines, the wind blows and the rain falls, for sunshine, air and rainwater are the components of wood fibre. Still the ravages of forest fires endanger both capital and returns from capital. In the Southern Alleghanies, 2 per cent. of the woodlands, on an average, are annually damaged by fire. Nature will require 20 years for the restoration of the burned forest to its former value and productiveness. QUESTION: What is the minimum rate of annual interest which forest-growth, under these conditions, must yield ? POINTS: ; 1. 98 acres out of 100 acres are left intact, 2 acres out of 100 acres suffer a reverse resulting in a setback of 20 years. . I 2. Hence the value of those 2 acres is reducd to Tox” of what it was to begin with. 3. The growth of every 98 units of value left intact must make up for the loss through burning in such a way, as to bring the value of the total investment, at the end of the year, up to 103. 4. The 98 develop into the value 98 x 1.0X. This value, plus what remains of the 2 units damaged by fire, must be 103 if the in- vestor shall make 3 per cent. on the original principal. 2 EQUATION: 98x1.0X | ox RESULT: 41-4 per cent. Unless those sections of the forest, which are left intact, grow at a rate of 4 1-4 per cent., the owner does not make 3 per cent. of absolute interest on the whole investment. It will pay the owner to annually spend up to 1 1-4 per cent. of the investment for forest protection, if by such expen- sive precaution fires can be entirely avoided. Where fires result, on the annual average, in the entire destruc- tion of 5 per cent. of the forest, the annual production on areas left intact must amount to at least 8.4 per cent. if the entire investment is to bring 3 per cent. interest. Such a production is impossible, unless the price of standing timber doubles within the next 15 years. = 103 20 STUMPAGE PRICES OF THE FUTURE. PREMISES: Virgin forest is unproductive, because, annu- ally, just as much timber is lost, through death and decomposition of trees, as there is produced under the influence of sun, rain and wind. Cut over forest is, as a general rule, almost unproductive, owing to fires following the removal of the virgin growth. Hence it is safe to say, that the annual production of timber in the 700 million acres of American woodlands is not over one-fifth of what it might be, (namely, 200 feet board measure per acre) and is not likely to exceed 40 feet board measure per annum per acre, or 28 billion feet board measure on the whole. The total growing stock of timber in the United States is esti- mated to be goo billion, and the annual consumption is estimated to be 39 billion feet board measure, (exclusive of firewood). It is expected that, after the exhaustion of the American virgin surplus of timber, prices of stumpage will be at a level with those prevailing in No-Surplus countries, where, f.i., prime white oak stumpage is worth $75 instead of $3 here, and prime pine stumpage is worth $15 instead of $1.50 here, per thousand feet board meas- ure, QUESTION: At what annual rate can we expect the stump- age prices of oak and pine to rise, whilst our surplus is being grad- ually exhausted P POINTS: 1. The annual consumption of timber exceeds the annual pro- duction by at least 11 billion feet. 2. Hence our surplus stock of 900 billion will be consumed in “a equal to 82 years. 3. After 82 years, stumpage of oak will be worth about 25 times, and stumpage of pine will be worth about 10 times of what it is worth now. EQUATION: Oak: 3.00 x 1.0 X® = 75.00 Pine: 1.50 x 1.0 X® — 15.00 RESULT: The’ price of oak stumpage can be expected to rise at a rate of about 4 per cent. per annum; the price of pine stumpage at a rate of about 3 per cent. per annum. 2I FOREST TAXATION IN THE UNITED STATES. PREMISES: In America taxes depend on the value of prop- erty. In the less densely settled sections, where most of our for- ests are situated, the taxes amount to 1 per cent. of the property value. Given a forest, which when 90 years old contains $20 worth of timber per acre. The soil alone, when cleared, is worth only $1 per acre. Rate of interest 4 per cent. QUESTION: What taxes ought to be justly imposed upon the owner,—if taking 1 per cent. of the forest value is just taxation —at the 6oth and 3oth year of the development of the forest, and further, in the year, in which the seedlings were just starting ? POINTS: 1. The taxes being 1 per cent. of the value of the forest, that value—a prospective value—must be ascertained for the years 60, 30 and o. 2. The forest 90 years old is worth $21.00—$o0.21, the 21 cents being the amount of taxes due in the year go, $21.00—$0.21 equals $22 x 21 th? _99 * 22 $ 99x21 . 1 ~ I0OXT.04 T0OX1I.04 100 The forest 89 years old is thus wor! 2 equal to e } = ‘The forest 88 years old is thus worth ( 99 ] 8 or roo J 1.04? The forest 87 years old is thus worth ( 99 i 21 too J 1.04% 3. The forest 60 years old is thus worth [ 99 } al 21 100 1.0450 4. The forest 30 years old is thus worth ( 99 } 81 21 100 1.04 5. The forest 0 years old is thus worth ( 99 } $1 2r 100 1.04 EQUATIONS: Taxes in forest 60 years old 1 ( 99 } al ar too | 100 1.04” Taxes in forest 30 years old 1 [ 99 1° 21 too | 100 1.04% Taxes in forest 0 years old 1 { 99 } 91 ar too | roo 1.04% RESULT: At 60 years 4 7-10 cent. At 30 years 1 1-10 cent. At oOyears 2-10 cent. 22 INFLUENCE OF TAXES ON BUSINESS FORESTRY. PREMISES: The premises are just as in foregoing problem, QUESTION: To what figure do the taxes (paid from the first to the goth year of the forest) accumulate up to the time at which the timber is mature, namely, up to the goth year ? POINTS: 1. Taxes in the year o of the forest are 91 es 21 which, discounted to too 4 100 1.04°° the year 90, amount to—2* ( 99 )" BEBE PS 100 100 2. Similarly, the taxes paid in the year 1 of the forest accrue 21 99 |” ues iO. See [ res | and the taxes paid in the year 8y 2 of the forest accrue to eee | (=) and so on. too | 100 3. Thus the discounted values of the taxes forma geometrical progression of 91 numbers, with 2 for the constant factor. EQUATION: Sum of taxes equal to Mat | 100 = [} —=21 | 1- 2" 100 RESULT: The sum of taxes paid, accrued at compound interest is $12.60, and thus takes away 60 per cent. of the final yield obtainable. It is especially noteworthy, that the rate of interest used does not influence the accrued sum of taxes in the least. The sum simply depends upon the number of years required to develop merchantable timber out of seedling trees. It is safe to say that, under the conditions now prevailing in America, the taxes consume over one-half of the value of the yield derivable from forestry, if they are ‘‘justly’’ imposed. No wonder, then, that people are averse of engaging in forestry. If the rotation is 150 years, the taxes curtail the final yield by 77 per cent! 23. A NATIONAL PARK PROBLEM (MINNESOTA). PREMISES: It is proposed to establish a national park in Northern Minnesota, on land unfit for farming, stocked with about 6000 feet board measure pine timber per acre, worth $2.50 per thousand feet board measure. Four thousand feet board measure, per acre on an average, con- sists of mature or hypermature timber, whilst the balance is thrifty, and can be expected to yield by its own growth and by giving rise to a second growth, 150 feet board measure per acre per annum, under conservative management. In this case the first logging expenses will by 50 cents per acre exceed the logging expenses under destructive lumbering. Taxes, protection from fire and administration will take rocts per acre per annum. Five and one-half per cent. interest.---Stumpage prices expected to double in 35 years (corresponding with an annual increase of 2 per cent.) QUESTION: Will conservative lumbering, in this case, pay better than destructive lumbering ? POINTS: : 1. Under destructive lumbering, the value of the forests is 6000 x 2.50 equal to $15 per acre. 2. Under conservative lumbering, 4000 feet are cut at once, and 2000 feet are left standing as a permanent investment, yielding annually 0.150 x 2.50 equal to 3734 cents per acre, from which fig- ure, however, the annual expenses of rocts must be deducted. , = = 1 0.275 EQUATION: 15 = 10.00 — 0.50 - eae RESULT: Under conservative lumbering, an enterpren- eur’s gain of about $2.50 per acre is obtained. Hence conservative lumbering pays better. Unless the first logging expenses under forestry are by $3.00 per acre higher than is usually the case, destructive lumbering is finan- cially inferior to conservative lumbering. After destructive lumbering, the land is left worthless. Under conservative lumbering $10 are withdrawn from the forest, and there remains a permanent asset of about $8 per acre on the ground, yielding 54 per cent. interest per annum. 24 STATE LOANS FOR FORESTRY PURPOSES. PREMISES: The state of P. decides to engage in state for- estry, and to that end takes up a loan of $1,450,000, at 4 per cent., which is to be used as follows: $1,000,000 for purchase of 1,000,000 acres at the headwaters of the rivers, $ 50,000 for lawyer’s fees, surveys, demarkation, etc., $ 150,000 for roads, etc., $ 250,000 for defraying the annual salaries of superintendents and rangers. After the road system is developed, 12 years from today, an annual revenue of 10 cents per acre per annum will be derived, under conservative management, and it is expected that this revenue will gradually increase at the rate of 3 per cent. per annum, QUESTION: A: Within how many years will the forest itself be able to redeem the loan ? B: What is the forest worth after the loan is redeemed ? POINTS: 1. The annual interest on the loan is $58,000. 2. The revenue from the 12th year on is 0.10 x 1,000,000 <= $100,000, of which $58,000 are used, from that time on, to pay the interest on the loan, whilst $42,000 or more are available annually for redemption of loan. 3. As the revenue rises at 3 per cent. per annum, the receipts are to be discounted at 4 per cent. — 3 per cent. = 1 per cent. EQUATION: rv 42000 (1.01% — 1) _ 7 0.01 x I.01* B: _100,000 x 1.03% =x 0.01 RESULT: A: The loan can be entirely redeemed within 43 years after the 12th year, or within 55 years from today. B: The forest, freed from all incumbrances after 55 years, and producing annually $356,000 with prospect of an annual increase of revenue equalling 3 per cent., is worth about $35,600,000. If the people are ready to spend $58,000 for 12 years, they will gradually build up a very valuable forest. Far-leading calculations in forestry might seem fallacious and absurd, if forest-history had not proved the very contrary. 450,000 25 WEEDING AND ROAD-BUILDING. PREMISES: Given a spruce forest in the Adirondacks, containing 50,000 acres stocked with 4,000 feet b.m. per acre. The forest is to be cut over at once in such a way as to reduce the average stumpage to 1,200 feet b. m., which are expected to produce thereafter 140 feet b. m. per acre per annum. Stumpage is worth $1.50 per 1,000 feet b. m. Cuttings recur every 10 years. QUESTION: A: Is it advisable for the owner, to remove, by way of an additional ‘‘ weeding,” the misshapen trees at an expense of 50 cents per acre, if by so doing the annual production can be raised from 140 feet to 175 feet b. m. per acre? B: Is it advisable for the owner to build the skidding roads more solidly, at an expense of $10,000 soas to make them available for future operations, and so as to be less depend- ent on the snow-covering, if by so doing the logging expenses per 1000 feet b. m. can be reduced by 5cts ? POINTS: A: The additional expense of 50 cents results in producing, every ten years, an additional 350 feet b. m. worth 52% cents. B: The additional expense of $10,000, reduces the cost of logging, and hence increases the value of stumpage, by 5cts per tooo feet. The first cut, therefore, of 50,000 x 2800 — 140,000,000 feet b. m., gains $7,000; the subsequent cuttings, of 50,000 x 1'750 = 87,500,000 feet b. m., gain $4,375. a ee EQUATION: A: 0.50 = Pp 7 = 4 _ 4375 B: 10,000 = 7,000 + Saxe RESULT: The ‘ weeding’’ as well as the solid construction of roads are advisable, the former paying 7 per cent. and the latter 9% per cent. interest on the additional outlay required. 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