are erF yetans aa chute (aro at = : ~ poral es ok ats ‘opie bf, ears, : ai tties rane Fe ae DD Bet * : ( : is a Beh pt, ates ahs By A Orere oc, iat, Me eer aoe " ec < ee a ot me % fe ad OP ee eas ele tal “ z 4 \ Ee ene ay ae rE aa yah Ses =~ yen asa aie ae nd pager Reton & a ae ore ete thee ie) K Cart oe le i arg YY ani ee BE Meher es Be moyt Crohns wate har ate be rd pegertenl ts ee eA eet es et fee meet ea Tees rss rae iy ” eke pou apie A ae re Prices xe. Sagi more : sing ree Ai 200-* fs + eet oe c : Bas a ae tone on aay 4 rahi ports a ne Tes eee ay Cont Be SN Cpe reiexeotes se evs aDe MLA aie ee Sow; ances ick ace eatmt eee ee a net Saas ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library QP 235.C16 “Tai mann Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003146853 VENOMS VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM - THERAPEUTICS BY A. CALMETTE, M.D,, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE FRENCH INSTITUTE AND OF THE ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, DIRECTOR OF THE PASTEUR INSTITUTE, LILLE TRANSLATED BY ERNEST E. AUSTEN, F.Z.S. LONDON JOHN BALE, SONS & DANIELSSON, LTD. 83-91, GREAT TITCHFIELD ST., OXFORD ST., W. 1908 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 2 PREFACE TO ENGLISH EDITION. Mr. HE. E. Austen, of the British Museum, has been good enough to undertake the translation of my book on “Venoms.” For the presentation of my work to the scientific public in an English dress I could not have hoped to find a more faithful interpreter. To him I express my liveliest gratitude for the trouble that he has so kindly taken, and I thank Messrs. John Bale, Sons and Danielsson for the care they have bestowed upon the preparation of this edition. Institut Pasteur de Lille, A. CaLMETTE, M.D. June 17, 1908. INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION. In the month of October, 1891, during the rains, a village in the vicinity of Bac-Lieu, in Lower Cochin-China, was invaded by a swarm of poisonous snakes belonging to the species known as Naja tripudians, or Cobra-di-Capello. These creatures, which were forced by the deluge to enter the native huts, bit four persons, who succumbed in a few hours. An Annamese, a professional snake-charmer in the district, succeeded in catching nineteen of these cobras and shutting them up alive in a barrel. M. Séville, the admin- istrator of the district, thereupon conceived the idea of forwarding the snakes to the newly established Pasteur Institute at Saigon, to which I had been appointed as director. _ At this period our knowledge of the physiological action of venoms was extremely limited. A few of their properties alone had been brought to light by the works of Weir Mitchell and Reichard in America, of Wall and Armstrong in India and England, of A. Gautier and Kaufmann in France, and especially by Sir Joseph Fayrer’s splendidly illustrated volume (“The Thanatophidia of India”), pub- lished in London in 1872. An excellent opportunity was thus afforded to me of vi. INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION taking up a study which appeared to possess considerable interest on the morrow of the discoveries of E. Roux and Behring, with reference to the toxins of diphtheria and tetanus, and I could not allow the chance to escape. For the last fifteen years I have been occupied continuously with this subject, and I have published, or caused to be published by my students, in French, English, or German scientific journals, a fairly large number of memoirs either on venoms and the divers venomous animals, or on anti- venomous serum-therapeutics. The collation of these papers is now becoming a matter of some difficulty, and it appeared to me that the time had arrived for the production of a monograph, which may, I hope, be of some service to all who are engaged in biological research. Antivenomous serum-therapy, which my studies, sup- plemented by those of Phisalix and Bertrand, Fraser, George Lamb, F. Tidswell, McFarland, and Vital Brazil, have enabled me to establish upon scientific bases, has now entered into current medical practice. In each of the countries in which venomous bites represent an important cause of mortality in the case of human beings and domestic animals, special laboratories have been officially organised for the preparation of anti-venomous serum. All that remains to be done is to teach its use to those who are ignorant of it, especially to the indigenous inhabitants of tropical countries, where snakes are more especially formid- able and deadly. This book will not reach such people as these, but the medical men, naturalists, travellers, and explorers to whom it is addressed will know how to popu- larise and apply the information that it will give them. INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION vii. I firmly believe also that physiologists will read the book with profit. Its perusal will perhaps suggest to them the task of. investigating a host of questions, which are still obscure, relating to toxins, their mode of action upon the different organisms, and their relations to the antitoxins. There is no doubt that in the study of venoms a multitude of workers will, for a long time to come, find material for the exercise of their powers of research. At the moment of completing this work I would like to be allowed to cast a backward glance upon the stage that it marks in my scientific career, and to express my heart- felt gratitude to my very dear master and friend, Dr. Emile Roux, to whom I owe the extreme gratification of having been able to dedicate my life to the study of experimental science, and of having caused to germinate, grow, and ripen a few of the ever fertile seeds that he sows broad- cast around him. I am especially grateful to those of my pupils, C. Guérin, A. Deléarde, F. Noc, L. Massol, Bernard, and A. Briot, who have helped me in my work, while showering upon me the marks of their confidence, esteem, and attachment; to my former chiefs, colleagues, and friends of the Colonial Medical Staff, Drs. G. Treille, Kermorgant, Paul Gouzien, Pineau, Camail, Angier, Lépinay, Lecorre, Gries, Lhomme, and Mirville; and to my numerous foreign or French corre- spondents, George Lamb, Semple, C. J. Martin, Vital Brazil, Arnold, de Castro, Simon Flexner, Noguchi, P. Kyes, Morgenroth, J. Claine, Piotbey, and R. P. Travers, several of whom have come to work in my laboratory, or have obligingly procured for me venoms and venomous animals. viii. INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION I have experienced at the hands of a large. number of our ministers, consuls, or consular agents abroad the most cordial reception on repeatedly addressing myself to them in order to obtain the papers or information of which I was in need. It is only right for me to thank them for it, and to acknowledge the trouble that M. Masson has most kindly taken in publishing this book. Institut Pasteur de Lille, A. CALMETTE. March 10, 1907. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. Cuap. I.—I. General notes on poisonous animals a aide , II. General classification of poisonous snakes. Their anatomo- physiological characters Cuap. II.—Habits of poisonous snakes. Their capture Cuap. III.—Description of the principal species of poisonous snakes. Their geographical distribution A. Hurope B. Asia, Dutch tase me Pines Fitands C. Africa : : 6 D. Australia and adjacent pee tina KE. America F. Hydrophide ee as G. Geographical distribution of the Heansieal: genera of poisonous snakes in the five divisions of the world PART II. Cuap. 1V.—-Secretion and collection of venom in snakes Cuar. V.—Chemical study of snake-venoms Cuap. VI.—Physiological action of snake-venoms A. Physiology of poisoning in man and in animals bitten by the different species of poisonous snakes (Colu- bride, Viperide, Hydrophide) B. Physiology of experimental poisoning ‘ C. Determination of the lethal doses of venom ti dif. ferent species of animals D. Effects of venom in non-lethal doses... Page 100 181 142 147 159 168 168 170 173 177 x. TABLE OF CONTENTS Cuap. VII.—Physiology of poisoning (continued). Effects of the various venoms on the different tissues of the organism “ (1) Action upon the liver (2) Action upon the kidney e (3) Action upon the spleen, heart and ane (4) Action upon the striated muscles (5) Action upon the nervous centres Cuap. VIII.—Physiology of poisoning ee Action of venoms on the blood .. A. Effects of venom on the coagulation of the blood I. Coagulant venoms II. Anticoagulant venoms ... , III. Mechanism of the antioodgalanit able of if venoms on the blood B. Effects of venom on the red corpuscles and on the serum (1) Hemolysis zis (2) Precipitins of venoms ... (3) Agglutinins of venon.s... C. Effects of venom upon the white corpuscles : Leuco- lysin Cuap. IX.—Physiology of poisoning (continued). Proteolytic, cytolytic, bacteriolytic, and various diastasic actions of venoms: diastasic and cellular actions on venoms ... i A. Proteolytic action... B. Cytolytic action C. Bacteriolytic action D. Various diastasic actions of venoms E. Action of various diastases upon venoms Cuap. X.—Toxicity of the blood of venomous snakes Cuapv. XI.—Natural immunity of certain animals with respect to snake- venoms Cap. XII.—Snake-charmers TABLE OF CONTENTS PART III. ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPEUTICS. Cuap. XITI.—Vaccination against snake-venom — Preparation of anti- venomous serum—Its preventive properties as regards intoxication by venom ... Specificity and polyvalence of atfivenomcte serums Cuav. XIV.—Neutralisation of venom by antitoxin Cuap. XV.—Treatment of poisonous snake-bites in man and animals. Objects of the treatment. Technique of antivenomous serum-therapy PART IV. VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES, Cuap, XVI.—Venoms in the animal series. 1,—Invertebrates ... A. Celenterates B. Echinoderms oe C. Arthropods: (a) Araneids — (b) Scorpions _ (c) Myriopods — (a) Insects D. Molluscs Cuap. XVII.—Venoms in the animal series (continued). 2.—Venomous fishes ‘ oe : A; Teleostet. Acanthopterygit. 1. Trighde ... 2. Trachinde 3. Gobiide = = 4. Teuthidide 5. Batrachude 6. Pediculati... B. Teleostei. Plectognathi... C. Teleostet. Physostomi : ds oe _ _— 1. Siluride ... — — 2. Murenide xi. PAGE 241 248 253 259 269 269 273 274 276 280 281 286 288 290 297 300 301 302 303 305 307 308 309 xii. TABLE OF CONTENTS Cuap. XVIII.—Venoms in the animal series (continued). 3.—Batrachians; Lizards; Mammals ... A. Batrachians B. Lizards sine as aaa C. Mammals (Ornithorhynchus) ... PART V. DOCUMENTS. I.—A few notes and observations relating to bites of poisonous snakes treated by antivenomous serwm-therapeutics ... II.—A few notes and observations relating to domestic animals bitten by poisonous snakes and treated with serum III.—Note on the collection of cobra-venom and the treatment of poisonous bites in the French Settlements in India (by Dr. Paul Gouzien) ... PAGE 312 312 321 323 326 356 359 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1.—a. Skull of one of the non-poisonous Colubride (Ptyas mucosus) B. Skull of one of the poisonous Colubride (Naja tripudians) c. Skull of one of the poisonous Colubride (Bungarus fasciatus) p. Skull of one of the Viperide (Vipera russellit) ... es 8. Skull of one of the Viperide Crotaline (Crotalus durissus) ... F. Skull of one of the Colubride Hydrophiine (Hydrophis pelamis) 2.—a. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the Viperide (Vipera russellit) .. B. Maxillary bone and fangs at one of the Colubitae ite hou dians) - c. Maxillary bone and fangs ae: one ee the iblubide Bungarw fasciatus) F D. Maxillary bone and teeth of one ‘of fhe non. polsenons Colu- bride (Ptyas mucosus) ... 3.—a. Fang of one of the Viperide (Finera tiene D. Transverse section of the fang aia 4,—8. Fang of one of the Colubride (Naja iipuidsnied). E. Transverse section 5.—c. Fang of one of the Hydrophiina (Hyarophis pelanitih.... F, Transverse section 6.—Three transverse sections of a peter dang ety one of the Conia 7.—Marks produced on the skin oe the bites of different species of snakes 3 A 8.—Poison-gland and fangs a a venomous -euialles (Nake. teiubantia: 9.—Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Vipera russellii 10.—Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Vipera russellit 11.—Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Naja tripudians 12.—Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Naja tripudians 13.—Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the non-poisonous Colubride (Ptyas mucosus) 14.—Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of ‘the poisonous Colubride (Naja tripudians) ... as ae ee 15.—Feeding a poisonous snake (first stage) ‘ 16.—Feeding a poisonous snake (second stage) ... @ omp momo oO OW MO xiv. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 3 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 44 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 17.—Capture of a Naja tripudians (first stage) 18.—Capture of a Naja tripudians (second stage) 19.—Hindu carrying two captured Cobras in ‘‘ chatties ” 20.—Maxillary bone, mandible, and head of Celopeltis dhewenderuiaie Q1.—(1) Vipera berus; (2) Vipera aapis; (8) Ail sa ca : (4) Vipera ammodytes 22.— Vipera aspis, from the Forest of Fontainebleau 23.—Skull of Bungarus ; 24.—Bungarus fasciatus (India) 95.—Skull of Naja tripudians 26.—Naja tripudians (Cobra-di- Capelich < on the defensive, preparing to strike 27.—Naja tripudians (Cobra- ‘A Capello) 28.—Vipera russellui (Daboia) 29.—Pseudocerastes persicus 80.—Echis carinatus (India) ‘ 81.—Ancistrodon hypnale (Carawalla of Ceylon)... 82.—Lachesis okinavensis aa 33.—Lachesis flavomaculatus 34.—Skull of Dendraspis viridis 85.--Skull of Causus rhombeatus 86.—Skull of Bitis artetans (Puff AGAer) 37.—Bitis arietans (Puff Adder) 38.—Bitis cornuta wit 89.— Bitis rasicornis ... 40.—Cerastes cornutus 41.—Eichis coloratus.. . 42.—Skull of Aveaatienie ebiie 43.—Skull of Glyphodon tristis (Australian Colubrin) : ‘i .—Pseudelaps krefftii 45.—Pseudelaps harriette 46.—Pseudelaps diadema 47.—Diemenia psammophis 48.—Diemenia olivacea 49.—Diemenia textilis 50.—Diemenia nuchalis Z 51.—Pseudechis porphyriacus (Black Snake) 52.—Denisonia superba ag ae, 53.—Denisonia coronoides 54.—Denisonia ramsayt 55.—Denisonia signata 56.—Denisonia maculata 57.—Denisonia gouldit 58.—Hoplocephalus bitorquatus ... 59.—Notechis scutatus (Tiger Snake) 60.—Skull of Acanthophis antarcticus (Death Adder) = LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 61.—Acanthophis antarcticus Fig. 62.—Rhynchelaps australis ... Fig. 63.—Skull of Furina occipitalis Fig. 64.—Furina occipitalis Fig. 65.—Skull of Elaps marcgravii Fig. 66.—Hlaps fulviws (Harlequin Snake)... Fig. 67.—Head and Skull of Crotalus horridus (Hernia Rattle- snake) Fig. 68.—Aneistrodon piscivorus (Water Viper) an Fig. 69.—Lachesis lanceolatus (Fer-de-Lance)... Fig. 70.—Lachesis neuwiedit (Urutt) a es Fig. 71.—Sistrurus catenatus (Prairie Rattle- snghet ‘ Fig. 72.—A. Horny appendage (rattle) of a Crotalus Rovridluve B. Horny appendage, longitudinal section ... 5 C. Separated segments of the appendage Fig. 73.—Crotalus terrificus (Dog-faced Rattle-snake) Fig. 74.—Crotalus scutulatus (Texas Rattle-snake) ... Fig. 75.—Crotalus confluentus (Pacific Rattle-snake)... Fig. 76.—Crotalus cerastes (Horned Rattle-snake) Fig. 77._Skull of Hydrus platurus = Fig. 78.—Hydrus platurus Fig. 79.—Hydrophis coronatus Fig. 80.—Hydrophis elegans Fig. 81.—Skull of Distira . Fig. 82.—Enhydrina valdkadion (E. Rapeulensidl Fig. 83.—Skull of Platwrus colubrinus ... sie Fig. 84.—Platurus laticaudatus (P. fischert) Fig. 85.—Collecting venom from a Lachesis at the Serotherapentic Insti- tute of S&io Paulo (Brazil) F Fig. 86.—Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom ‘at Bondisheny (first stage) .. ; Fig. 87.—Chloroforming a Gobuw § in i onder te eollent venom ‘at Pondicherry (second stage) ‘ Fig. 88.—Collecting Cobra-venom at Pondicherry (thir stage) Fig. 89.—Mongoose seized by a Cobra ... ; Fig. 90.—Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) Fig. 91.—Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) Fig. 92.—Musical instrument used me Indian snake-charmers oe “phaen Cobras Fig. 93.—Vaccinating a horse against venom ab the Pasteur Tastitate: Lille Fig. 94.—Aseptically bleeding a horse, vaccinated against venom, in order to obtain antivenomous serum, at the Pasteur Thetitute, Lille... Fig. 95.—Technique of injecting antivenomous serum beneath the skin of the abdomen Fig. 96.—Lactrodectus mactans ... Fig. 97.—Scorpio occitanus Fig. 98.—Scolopendra morsitans ... xv, PAGE 97 98 99 99 101 105 109 110 112 116 121 122 122 122 123 126 128 130 132 133 134 135 137 188 139 140 154 155 157 158 225 230 231 232 244 245 264 275 277 280 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . 99.—Poison-apparatus of the bee . 100.—Interior of the gorget of the Bee - 101.—Synanceia brachio var. Verrucosa ... . 102.—Cottus scorpius (Sea Scorpion, or Father Lasher) . 103.—Scorpena grandicornis re “a . 104.—Scorpena diabolus . 105.—Pterois artemata . 106.—Pelor filamentosum oe . 107.—Trachinus vipera (Lesser Winevenas . 108.—Operculum and opercular spine of the Tiseser Weaver its . 109.—Callionymus lyra ee . 110.—Batrachus grunniens ... Aa . 111.—Thalassophryne reticulata . 112.—Lophius setigerus . 113.—Serranus ouatabile . 114.—Holacanthus imperator . 115.—Tetrodon stellutus . 116.—Tetrodon rubripes . 117.—Chilomycterus orbicularis . 118.—Chilomycterus tigrinus . 119.— Silurus glanis ... . 120.—Murena moringa . 121.—Salamandra maculosa (Spotted Salamander) . 122.—Triton marmoratus (Marbled Newt) bes . 123.—Cryptobranchus japonicus (Great Japanese Salamander) . 124.—Heloderma horridum ... . 125.—Ornithorhynchus paradoxus ‘(Duck ‘billed ‘Hlatypus) PAGE 281 282 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 300 302 302 308 304 805 306 306 307 307 308 310 314 314 315 322 824 VENOMS. PART I. CHAPTER I. GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS—POISON- OUS SNAKES: GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. I.—GENERAL Novres on Poisonous ANIMALS. A LARGE number of animals possess special glandular organs capable of secreting toxic substances called venoms. Sometimes these substances are simply discharged into the surrounding medium, and serve to keep off enemies (toad, sala- mander) ; sometimes they mingle with the fluids and digestive juices, and then play an important part in the nourishment of the animal that produces them (snakes) ; in other cases, again, they are capable of being inoculated by means of stings or teeth specially adapted for this purpose, and then they serve at once as a means of attack or defence, and as a digestive ferment (snakes, spiders, scorpions, bees). An animal is said to be venomous when it possesses the power of inoculating its venom. Venomous species are met with in almost all the lower zoological groups, in the Protozoa, Celenterates, Arthropods, Molluscs, and in a large number of Vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, and reptiles). The reptiles are best endowed in this respect, and it is in this class of creatures that we meet with the species most, dangerous 1 2 VENOMS to man and to mammals in general. The study of their venom, too, is of considerable interest, since it should lead to the quest of means of protection sufficiently efficacious to preserve us from their attacks. Venomous reptiles are not always easy to distinguish from those devoid of any inoculatory apparatus. For this reason both classes alike have at all times inspired mankind with a lively dread, which is displayed among the various races in legends and religious beliefs. In ancient days the cult of the snake occupied a prominent place. In Genesis the serpent is the incarnation of the Evil One, tempting and deceitful. In Greece it was the symbol of wisdom and prudence. In Egypt it was associated with the Sacred Scarabeeus and the flowers of the lotus to represent Immortality ! At Rome epidemics ceased when the snake sacred to Adscu- lapius was brought from Epidaurus. According to Kraff, the Gallas of Central Africa consider the snake as the ancestor of the human race, and hold it in great respect. In India the cult of the Seven-headed Naja, or serpent-god, was formerly almost as flourishing as that of Buddha. It is still regarded as a crime to kill a Cobra when it enters a hut; prayers are addressed and food is offered to it. Its presence is an omen of happiness and prosperity; it is believed that its death would bring down the most terrible calamities on whomsoever should have brought it about, and on his family. Nevertheless, in the Indian Peninsula alone, the Cobra, the Krait, and a few other extremely poisonous species of snakes cause every year an average of 25,000 deaths. The number of fatalities from the same cause is likewise considerable in Burma, Indo- China, the Dutch Indies, Australia, Africa, the West Indies and Tropical America generally. The temperate regions of the globe are less sale affected ; GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 3 but in North America-the Rattlesnake and the Moccassin are especially deadly. In France the Common Viper abounds in Jura, Isére, Ardéche, Auvergne, Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. Three hundred thousand have been killed in twenty-seven years in the Department of Haute-Sadéne alone. Every year this snake causes the death of some sixty persons. Cow-herds, shepherds, and sportsmen fear it greatly, since it is very dangerous to cattle, ‘sheep, and dogs, II.— GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF PoIsoNoUS SNAKES. THEIR ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. Poisonous snakes are divided by naturalists into two great Families, the CoLUBRIDZ and VIPERID®, distinguished from each other by certain anatomical characters, and especially by the dentition. The CoLUBRIDZ& resemble harmless snakes, which renders them all the more dangerous. They are divided into two groups: OPISTHOGLYPHA (d7cOev, behind ; yAvd}, a groove) and PRorEROGLYPHA (mpérepor, before ; yAud, a@ groove). The OpistHoGLyPHA have the upper jaws furnished in front with smooth or non-grooved teeth, but behind with one or several rows of long, canaliculate teeth. This group includes three Sub-families :-— A. The Homalopsine, having valved nostrils, placed above the snout. B. The Dipsadomorphine, in which the nostrils are lateral in position, and the dentition is highly developed. C. The Elachistodontine, which have, but rudimentary teeth only on the posterior portion of the maxillary, on the palatine and on the pterygoid bones. Almost all the snakes belonging to these three sub-families are 4 VENOMS poisonous, but only slightly so. They are not dangerous to man. Their venom merely serves to paralyse their prey before deglutition takes place; it does not afford them an effective means of defence or attack. All the Homalopsine are aquatic; they bring forth their young in the water, and are met with commorily in the Indian Ocean, starting from Bombay, and especially in the Bay of Bengal, on the shores of Indo-China and Southern China, from Singapore to Formosa, in the Dutch Indies, in Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and the Papuan Archipelago, and as far as the north of Australia. The Dipsadomorphine comprise a large number of highly cosmopolitan genera and species, found in all the regions of the earth except the northerly portions of the Northern Hemisphere. None of these reptiles is capable of causing serious casualties among human beings, owing to the peculiarly defective arrangement of their poison-apparatus. I therefore do not think it worth while to linger here over their description. The Elachistodontine are of even less importance; at the present time only two species are known, both of small size and confined to Bengal. The PrRoTEROGLYPHA group of the Coluwbride is of much greater interest to us, since all the snakes belonging to it are armed with powerful fangs, in front of the upper maxillaries. These fangs, which are provided with a channel in the shape of a deep groove, communicate at the base with the efferent duct of poison glands, which are often of very large size. The group is composed of two Sub-families :— A. The Hydrophiine (sea-snakes), provided with a flattened oar-shaped tail. The body is more or less laterally compressed ; the eyes are usually small, with circular pupils; the scales of the nose have two notches on the upper labial border. The normal habitat of all the members of this sub-family is the GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 5 sea, near the shore, with the exception of the genus Distira, which is met with in the fresh water of a lake in the Island of Luzon, in the Philippines. They are frequently found in very large numbers in the Indian seas and throughout the tropical zone of the Pacific Ocean, from the Persian Gulf to the west coast of the American Continent, but they are entirely absent from the West Coast of Africa. B. The Elapine (land-snakes), with a cylindrical tail, and covered with smooth or carinate scales. These serpents are fre- quently adorned with brilliant colours. Some of them (belonging to the genus Naja) have the faculty of expanding the neck in the shape of a parachute, by spreading out the first pairs of ribs when they are ularmed or excited: the breadth of the neck then greatly exceeds that of the head. They are distributed throughout Atrica, Asia, and North and South America, and are also found in Australia, where almost all the snakes that are known belong to this sub- family. The Family VipERID# is characterised by a triangular head, which is widened posteriorly, and by the general aspect of the body, which is usually thick-set and terminated by a short tail. The bones of the face are movable. The prefrontal bone is not in contact with the nasal; the maxillary is greatly shortened and may be articulated perpendicularly to the ectopterygoid; it bears a pair of large poison-fangs, one on each side, and these are always accompanied by several teeth to replace them, folded back in the gum; these latter teeth come in succession to take the place of the principal tooth, when this is broken or falls out of itself when the snake sheds its skin. The poison-fangs are not grooved, as in the Proteroglyphous Colubrid@ ; they are pierced by a perfectly formed canal, the upper end of which inosculates with the efferent duct of the corresponding poison-gland, while its lower extremity opens to the exterior a little above and in front of the tip. The latter is always very sharp. 6 VENOMS The palate and lower jaw are furnished with small hooked teeth, which are solid and non-venomous. With the exception of the species of Atractaspis, these snakes are all ovoviviparous. The majority are terrestrial; a few lead a semi-aquatic existence, while others are arboreal. Their distribution includes Europe, Asia, Africa (with the excep- tion of Madagascar), and North and South America. They do not exist in Australia. They are divided into two Sub-families:— A. The Vipering, in which the head, which is very broad and covered with little plates and scales, has no pit between the nose and the eyes ; B. The Crotaline (xporadov, a rattle), in which the head is incompletely covered with scales, and exhibits a deep pit on each side, between the eye and the nostril. Among snakes, the characters that serve as a basis for the determination of genera and species are the general shape of the body, especially that of the head, the arrangement of the cephalic scales, the cranial skeleton, and the dentition. Cranial Skeleton.—The cranium is composed of a certain number of bones, the homologues of which are found in the mammalian skeleton ; but the bones are complex, and subject to modifications according to the structure and habitat of each species. The special arrangement of the bones of the face is above all characteristic of the poisonous snakes. Those forming the upper jaw, the palate and the mandibles or “inter-maxillaries ’’ are movy- able upon each other and on the cranium. The upper and lower maxillaries are united by an extensile ligament and articulated with the tympanic bone, which permits the mouth to be opened very widely when the animal swallows its prey. Dentition.—The non-potsonous snakes have two rows of teeth in the upper jaw—one external, the mazillary, usually composed of GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 7 Fic, 1.—A, Cranial skeleton of one of the non-poisonous Colubrid@ (Ptyas mucosus) ; , cranial skeleton of one of the poisonous Colubride (Naja tripudians) ; C, cranial skeleton of one of the poisonous Colubride (Bungarus fasciatus) ; D, cranial skeleton of one of the Viperide (Vipera russellii); EB, cranial skeleton of one of the Viperide Crotaline (Crotalus durissus); F, cranial skeleton of one of the Colubride Hydro- phiine (Hydrophis pelamis). 8 VENOMS from 35—40 small, backwardly curved teeth; the other internal, the palatine, which only numbers from 20—22 teeth, having the same curvature (fig. 1, 4). In the poisonous snakes the maxillary bones are shorter, and the outer row is represented by a single long and tubular or grooved tooth (the fang), fused with the maxillary bone, which is itself mov- able (fig. 1, B, ©, D, E, F). Certain species (Dip- sas) have maxillary teeth which increase in size Fic. 2.—a, Maxillary bone and fangs of one of from front to rear ; the the Viperide {Vipera russellit) ; B, maxillary bone and fangs of one of the Colubrid@ (Naja tripu- longest teeth are grooved dians); c, maxillary bone and fangs of one of and serve for the better the Colubride (Bungarus fasciatus); D, maxillary pone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous Colu- retention of prey, and also brid@ (Ptyas mucosus). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) to impregnate it with ey D Fic. 3.—a, Fang of one of the Viperide (Vipera russellit) ; D, transverse sec- tion of the fang. saliva; but they are not in communication with the poison-glands. The poison-fangs are normally covered with a fold or capsule of mucous membrane, in which they are sheathed. This fold con- ceals a whole series of reserve teeth in different degrees of development, which eventually become attached to the extremity of the maxillary when the principal tooth falls out or is broken (fig. 2). Poison Apparatus.—The grooved or fur- rowed teeth in the Proteroglypha and the canaliculate teeth in the Solenoglypha are arranged, not for the purpose of seizing GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 9 prey, but in order to deal it a mortal blow by injecting the venom into its flesh. In the normal position they lie almost B horizontally, and exhibit no mobility of their own. But, when the animal prepares to bite, their erection is effected by the snake throwing its jaw back; and this movement, which is always very sudden, enables it at the same time to compress its poison- / glands, by the aid of special constrictor © muscles. = Fic, 4.—3, Fang of one On examining the various species of of the Colubride (Naja : tripudians) ; B, transverse poisonous snakes, we observe very sharply jection. marked differences in the arrangement and e dimensions of the teeth. Thus, in the VIPERIDZ they are long, extraordinarily sharp, and capable of producing deep wounds (fig. 2, a, and fig. 3). They are traversed by an almost completely closed canal, from @ the base, which communicates with the poison-duct, to the neighbourhood of the ne iis mae ee ans point, where it opens very obliquely on the of the Hydrophiine (Hydr- convex surface (fig. 3, A and D). ae coat B, dtaneverse In the EHlapine sub-family of the Colu- ig bride, and especially in the Hydrophine, AO hy: the teeth are much shorter and simply © ag : é (Ss B- grooved or canaliculate; that is to say, the “W canal communicates with the exterior Oe: throughout its extent by a narrow slit, py. ¢—Three transverse which traverses the entire convex surface bay ope eres of the tooth (figs. 4, 5, and 6). tees Ry pare areata It does not follow from this that the pulp cavity; v v v, poison- the bites of these reptiles are less dangerous; a ae 10 VENOMS the contrary, indeed, is the case, for their venom is infinitely more active. These differences, as well as the particular mode of arrangement of the other little non-poisonous teeth in both jaws, enable us in many cases to recognise, by the mere appearance of the bite, the species of snake by which the bite has been inflicted. ee Paine e:;.:. @ 2 4% ae is: . ° s e . . é . ° % . A 7 - : 4 eo: ; @ Oe se ; : : : oe ee 7 . 3 3 . 3 ‘ : a : ‘ ri : g g : . . . ° m4 s z . . - e ° : G8 s oe ae os 8 - * . e e . . . e . . « . e e . . . : : eo ee = . . i e ° I, II. IIT. Fic. 7. MaRKs PRODUCED ON THE SKIN BY THE BITES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SNAKES. I. Non-venomous Colubrine.—The bite is marked only by the imprint of from 35—40 small palatine or pterygoid teeth, and 20—22 upper maxillary teeth (on the outside of the foregoing) on each side. II. Venomous Colubrine (Naja tripudians, PROTEROGLYPHA). — The bite exhibits 25 or 26 punctures from the pterygoid or palatine teeth, and, on each side, one or two, rarely three, circular wounds produced by the principal poison-fangs and by the reserve teeth. III. Viperidz (SotmnogtypHA).—The sole indication of the bite consists of 8 or 10 punctures from the palatine or pterygoid teeth, and one little round wound, on each side, produced by the poison-fangs. (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) Fig. 7, above, shows how it is possible to distinguish the marks left by a non-venomous reptile, and by one of the Proteroglypha or Solenoglypha respectively. Poison-glands.—The poison-glands occupy an extensive inter- muscular space behind the eyes, on each side of the upper jaw. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES ll They are oval in shape, and may, in Naja tripudians for example, attain the size of a large almond (fig. 8). Their structure is the same as that of the salivary glands of the larger animals. The poison that they secrete accumulates in their acint and in the efferent duct that opens at the base of the corre- sponding fang. Hach gland is surrounded by a capsule, to which are partly attached the fibres of the masseter muscle, which violently com- presses it and drives the poison, just as the piston of a syringe would do, in- to the canalicule or groove of the fang. In a few venom- ous snakes the gland is developed to such an extent that it ex- Fic. 8.—PoIson-GLaAND AND Fancs oF a VENOMOUS! tends as far as the SnakE (Naja tripudians, Colubride). (Natural size.) first ribs L, Lobe of the gland ; pb, poison-duct ; Fr, fang attached : to the maxillary bone; GG, gland; m, capsule of mucous The species, ON membrane surrounding the fangs; R, reserve fangs; the contrary, that 44) muscular fascia covering the gland. Die ieee hes poison- (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) teeth placed in the hinder part of the mouth (Opisthoglypha) have glands but little developed. Muscular Apparatus of the Head—Figs. 9 and 10, 11 and 12 show the arrangement of the principal muscles that work the jaws and glandular organs in Vipera russellit and Naja tripudians, which respectively represent the most formidable types of Viperide and venomous Colubridé. It is not necessary to give a detailed description of each of these muscles. Let it suffice to point out that all contribute in giving the greatest elasticity to the jaws, and at the same time strength 12 VENOMS AA, Fascia cover- ing the anterior and posterior temporal muscles; B, small gland; c, tendin- ous insertion of the fascia; D, poison- duct; §, poison- fang; F, reserve fangs; G, mandible; H, ectopterygoid?muscle ; 3, poison-gland covered by the masseter; kK, masseter inserted in the mandible ; L, insertion of the temporal muscle; M, digastric muscle. AA, Ectopterygoid muscle ; B, pre-spheno-pterygoid muscle ; c, intermandibular muscle; p, prie- spheno-palatine muscle ; 5, prie- spheno-vomerine muscle ; F, cap- sule of mucous membrane sur- rounding the fangs; «G, long muscle of the neck. Fics. 9 anpd 10.—MuScCULAR APPARATUS AND POISON-GLAND OF Vipera russellii (Viperida), (After Sir Joseph Fayrer. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 13 A, Tracheo-mastoid muscle; BB, digastric muscle; cc, posterior temporal muscle ; DD, anterior temporal muscle ; EE, masseter; F, poison-gland, covered by the masseter and fascia; G, poison-duct; H, maxillary bone; 1, neuro-mandibular muscle ; 3, costo- mandibular muscle. A, Entopterygoid muscle; B, poison-gland ; c, poison-duct ; D, poison-fangs; E, prae-sphe- no-palatine muscle; F, pre- spheno-vomerine muscle; G, capsule of mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; H, pre- sphenopterygoid muscle (which erects the fangs) ; 3, inter-man- dibular muscle; kK, ectoptery- goid muscle; L, long muscle of the neck (longus collt). Fics, 11 anp 12.—Muscunar Apparatus AND POISON-GLAND OF Naja tripudians (Colubridz), (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) 14 VENOMS sufficient to retain the prey and to cause it to pass from front to rear towards the cesophagus, by a series of alternate antero-posterior movements and analogous lateral ones. By means of these move- ments, which are participated in by the upper and lower maxillary bones, the palatines, mandibles or inter-maxillaries, and the ptery- goids, the animal in a manner draws itself over its prey like a glove, since the arrangement of its dentition does not admit of mastication. Fic. 13.—ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF THE HEAD IN ONE OF THE Non-potsonous Colubrid@e (Ptyas mucosus). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) A, Rostral scale; B, anterior frontals; B', posterior frontals ; c, vertical; D, occipi- tals; E, supra-ciliaries; F, temporals; L, M, nasals ; N, loreals, or frenals; 0, anterior oculars, or prie-orbitals; Pp, posterior oculars, or post-orbitals; Q, supra-labials; G, median infra-labial; 1H, lateral infra-labials ; 1k, mentals. The enormous extensile power of the mouth and cesophagus thus enables snakes to swallow animals, the size of which is several times in excess of their own diameter. Deglutition is slow and painful, but the gastric and intestinal juices are so speedy in action, that the digestion of the most GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES 15 resistant substances rapidly takes place. The very bones are dis- solved, and the feces, which are voided some days later, contain only a few osseous remains and a felt-like material composed of hair or feathers. Scales.—The skin of snakes, which is very elastic and extensile, is covered with scales, small on the back, and in great transverse plates on the entire ventral surface. Fig. 14.—ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF THE HEAD IN ONE OF THE PoIsOoNoUSs Colubride (Naja tripudians, oR Cobra-di-Capello). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) The shape and dimensions of the scales of the head are highly characteristic in each species. It is therefore necessary to know their names and the arrangement that they exhibit: these details are shown with sufficient clearness in figs. 13 and 14. Coloration.—The colouring exhibited by the scales of snakes is governed generally by the biological laws of mimicry. It is therefore not a character of specific value, and may be modified several times in the course of the existence of the same reptile, according to the surroundings in which it is obliged to live. 16 VENOMS ‘Nature,’ write Dumeril and Bibron, ‘“‘ seems to have caused the tints and colours of snakes to vary in accordance with their habits and modes of life. Generally speaking, the colours are greyish or dull in species that are wont to live among sand, or which bury themselves in loose earth, as also in those that lie in wait on the trunks or large boughs of trees; while these hues are of a bluish-green, resembling the tint of the leaves and young shoots of plants, in snakes that climb among bushes or balance themselves at the end of branches. It would be difficult to describe all the modifications revealed by a general study of the colours of their skins. Let us imagine all the effects of the decomposition of light, commencing with white and the purest black, and passing on to blue, yellow, and red; associating and mixing them together, and toning them down so as to produce all shades, such as those of green, of violet, with dull or brilliant tints more or less pro- nounced, and of iridescent or metallic reflections modified by spots, streaks, and straight, oblique, undulating, or transverse lines. Such is the range of colours to be found in the skin of snakes.” This skin is covered by a thick epidermis, which is periodically detached in its entirety, most frequently in a single piece. Before effecting its moult, the reptile remains in a state of complete repose for several weeks, as if asleep, and does not eat. Its scales grow darker and its skin becomes wrinkled. Then one day its epidermis tears at the angle of the lips. The animal thereupon wakes up, rubs itself among stones or branches, divests itself entirely of its covering as though it were emerging from a sheath, and proceeds forthwith in quest of food. The moult is repeated in this way three or four times every year. 17 CHAPTER II. HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE. ALL poisonous snakes are carnivorous. They feed on small mammals (rats, mice), birds, batrachians, other reptiles or fish, which they kill by poisoning them by means of their fangs. They almost always wait until their prey is dead before swallowing it. Some of them are very fond of eggs, which they well know how to find in the nests of birds, and swallow whole. When a poisonous snake wishes to seize its prey, or strike an enemy, it raises its head, and depresses the lower and elevates the upper jaw in such a way that the fangs are directed straight forward. Then, with the quickness of a spring when it is released, the reptile makes a sudden dart and strikes its victim. After ‘inflicting the wound it draws back, doubles up its neck and head, and remains prepared to strike again. So rapid is the action of the venom, that the wounded animal falls to’ the ground almost immediately ; it is forthwith stricken with paralysis, and dies in a few moments. In most cases the snake holds it in its mouth until death ensues; the reptile then sets to work to swallow its victim, an operation which is always slow and painful. In captivity poisonous snakes almost always refuse to take any food whatever. If it be-desired to keep them for a long time, it is often necessary to resort to artificial feeding. For this purpose the snake is seized by the head by means of a strong pair of long forceps ; it is then grasped by the neck with the left hand without 2 18 VENOMS Fic. 15.—Frrpina a Potsonous SNAKE, First Srace. Vig. 16.—Frepinc A PotsoNnous SNAKE, SECOND STAGE. , HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE 19 squeezing too hard (fig. 15), taking care at the same time not to give the body a chance of coiling itself round anything. Next, one or more lumps of beef or horse-flesh are introduced into the jaws, and gently forced down deep into the wsophagus by means Fic. 17.—CatcHineG a Cobra-di-Capello (Naja tripudians), First STaGE. (At the French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.) of a glass rod, which is polished in order not to injure the mucous membrane. The wsophagus is then gently massaged in a down- ward direction, in order to cause the bolus of food to descend into the stomach (fig. 16). This operation is repeated every fortnight. In this way, at my laboratory, I have been able to preserve, in perfect condition for more than two years, Indian Cobras and 20 VENOMS Fers-de-lance trom Martinique, taking care to keep them in a hot- house, at a temperature of about 82° to 86° F. It is also very important to place inside the cases a vessel full of water, which should be frequently changed, for almost all snakes drink often and like to bathe for whole days at a time. Fic. 18.—Catcuine a Cobra-di-Capello (Naja tripudians), SECOND STAGE. (At the French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.) Within their reach should be placed in addition branches and rockwork, against which they rub at the moulting times, in order periodically to rid themselves of their scarf-skin. While moulting, snakes must neither be touched nor fed, since to force them to take food at such a time would be fatal. Snake-catching.—The capture of poisonous snakes, in order to keep them alive, can only be performed without danger by skilful persons, who are possessed of much coolness. HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE The best way of securing them is suddenly to pin the neck to the ground by means of a stick held horizontally, or a small two- pronged fork of wood or metal (fig. 17). The stick is rolled along until close to the occiput (fig. 18). The animal can then be seized with the hand immediately behind the head, in such a way that it is impossible for it to turn and bite. It is then put into a wire cage, provided with a small mov- able trapdoor, with the fas- tening on the outside. In this way poisonous snakes can be sent to a distance, and left without food for one or even two months, provided that they be kept in a place which is somewhat moist and suffi- ciently warm. Fig. 19 shows how cap- tured cobras are carried in India, in the environs of Pondicherry. They are en- closed in earthern chatties, or in baskets of plaited bamboo, which are pro- vided with covers, and are very convenient for carrying snakes short distances. Fig. 19.—Hinpu carryinc Two CapTtuRED Copras IN ‘‘ CHATTIES. ” ‘ CHAPTER III. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Potsonous snakes are especially common in the tropical zones of the Old and New Worlds. The species found in Europe are but of small size and not very formidable. In hot countries, on the other hand, they attain large dimensions, their venom is much more active, and, although they hardly ever attack man, and in most cases avoid him, they cause a considerable number of fatal accidents. It is sometimes a rather difficult matter to recognise from the mere appearance of a snake whether it is poisonous or not. Natu- ralists themselves are occasionally deceived. It is therefore useful to learn to distinguish the most dangerous species by their external characters, and to know in what countries there is a risk of their being encountered. A.— HUROPE. Of the continents of the Old World, the -poorest in poisonous snakes is Europe. The only species found there are a C@LOPELTIS (belonging to the Sub-family Dipsadomorphine of the Opistho- glypha), and certain ViPpERINm, which rarely exceed 75 centimetres in length. Ca@LoPELtis, the cranial skeleton and head of which are repre- sented in fig. 20, is characterised by a narrow, concave frontal shield, THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 23 projecting supraciliaries, short snout, large eyes, with round pupils, two poison-fangs at the back of the upper maxillaries, and a cylindrical body. The scales of the back are finely grooved, and in the adult slightly concave. The coloration, olivaceous- brown, or deep red on the back, becomes on the ventral surface pale yellow with brown streaks, and from five to seven longitudinal series of small spots, which are blackish and edged with yellow on the sides. The mean total length is 1,800 millimetres. The tail is somewhat tapering, and about 350 millimetres long. The only European species is Celopeltis monspessulana, which is met with pretty com- monly in France, in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, and Nice, near Valencia in Spain, and in Dalmatia. It is likewise found throughout North Africa, and in Asia Minor. A second species, Celopeltis motlensis, occurs in Southern Fic. 20.— MaxiLuary, MANDIBLE, AND Tunis, Egypt, and Arabia. Heap oF Celopeltis monspessulana. The European VIPERINZ belong exclusively to the Genus VipERA, the principal zoological characters of which are as follows :— Head distinct from the neck, covered with small scales, with or without frontal and parietal shields; eyes small, with vertically 24 VENOMS elongate pupils, separated from the labials by scales; nostrils lateral. Body cylindrical. Scales keel-shaped, with an apical pit, in from 19—81 rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; sub- caudal scales in two rows. The Genus Vipera is represented in Europe by several species, which are likewise found in Western Asia and North Africa. These species are :— V. ursinit, V. berus, V. aspis, V. latastii, and V. ammodytes.’ Vipera ursinii. Snout obtuse, soft on its upper surface, with the frontal and parietal shields distinct, the former about one and a half times as long as broad, and almost always longer than the parietals. A single series of scales between the eyes and the free margin of the lips. Temporal shields smooth. Body scales in from 19 to 21 rows, strongly keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides. Colour yellowish or pale brown above, grey or dark brown on the sides, sometimes uniform brown; spots more or less regular on the vertebral column, oval, elliptic or rhomboidal, dark brown or flecked with white, sometimes forming an undulous or zigzag band ; two or three longitudinal series of dark brown or black spots on the sides ; small dark dots running obliquely from the eye to the angle of the mouth ; nose and lips white, and one or two dark angular streaks on the head; chin and throat yellowish ; belly black, with trans- verse series of white or grey dots. No sexual differences in coloration. Total length from 420—500 millimetres; tail 50—55. 1 As regards the distinctive characters of these various snakes, and of the majority of those that we shall describe in this book, we have followed the state- ments in the “ Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History),” vol. iii, by George Albert Boulenger, F.R.S. (London: Printed by order of the Trustees, 1896.) THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 25 Habitat : South-east France (Basses-Alpes); Italy (Abruzzi) ; Istria; Mountains of Bosnia; Plains of Lower Austria ; Hungary (environs of Buda-Pesth). Vipera berus (Common Viper, or Adder). Snout rounded, short and truncate; pupil vertically elongate ; vertical diameter of the eyes equal to or greater than the distance separating them from the mouth; frontal and parietal shields dis- Fic, 21.—(1) Vipera berus ; (2) Vipera aspis ; (3, 4) Vipera ammodytes. (Natural size.) tinct, the former as long as broad, usually shorter than the space separating it from the rostral shield; 6—13 scales round the eyes; one or rarely two series of scales between the eyes and the lips; nasal shield single, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral shield ; temporal scales smooth. Body scaies in 21 rows (excep- tionally 19 or 23), strongly keeled; 132—150 ventral shields ; 38 36 subcaudals. Colour very variable, grey, yellowish, olive, brown, or red above, 26 VENOMS generally with an undulating or zigzag band along the vertebral column, and a series of lateral spots. A black spot shaped like a V, an X, or a circumflex-accent, on the head. The tip of the tail is yellow or reddish. Some specimens are entirely black. Total length from 350 to 700 millimetres ; tail 75 to 90. Habitat: Northern Europe, and especially the mountains of Central Europe; irregularly distributed in Southern Europe ; Northern Spain and Portugal, Northern Italy, Bosnia, Caucasus. This viper, which is very common in France, ranges as far as the Scandinavian Peninsula to about the 65th parallel of North Latitude. It is sometimes met with aniong the mountains at an altitude of about 6,500 feet (2,000 metres). It is found on heaths, in grass-lands, vineyards, and forests. Certain parts of the sandy moors of North Germany are literally infested with it. It abounds in the Jura, Isére, Ardéche, Auvergne, Brittany, Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. It seeks its prey by night, and feeds on voles, small birds, frogs, lizards, and small fish. During the summer it shows a preference for moist places, often even remaining in the water, in which it swims with ease. Light and fire attract it. It does not climb trees, but is frequently found coiled up on boughs of dead wood scattered on the ground. When on the defensive, and preparing to bite, it throws its head back, and makes a sudden dart of from a foot to sixteen inches. If irritated it makes a sort of hissing noise. To pass the winter it retires into the crevices of rocks or into old tree-trunks, where it entwines itself closely with a number of its congeners. In this way ten or fifteen vipers are frequently found together in the same hole. In April, the whole company awakes, and copulation then takes place. The eggs are laid in August and September, and the young immediately crawl out of the shell, already prepared to bite, and THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 27 capable of finding their own food. Their length at birth amounts to 230 millimetres. The two glands of-an adult adder contain about 10 centigrammes of poison. This smail quantity is sometimes sufficient to cause death ; out of 610 persons bitten, Teel binger returns 59 deaths, or about 10 per cent. In the departments of Vendée and Loire-Inférieure alone, Viaud Grand Marais has noted during a period of six years 321 cases of bites from adders, 62 of which were followed by death. In Auvergne, Dr. Fredet! (of Royat) returns 14 cases, which caused 6 deaths. Vipera aspis (Asp, or Red Viper). (Fig. 21, 2, and fig. 22.) Snout slightly turned up, soft and squarely truncate; vertical diameter of the eyes equal to the space separating them from the mouth; upper surface of the head usually covered with small, imbricate, smooth or feebly keeled scales, in 4—7 series, between the supraocular shields, which are prominent. The frontal and parietal shields are usually wanting; sometimes they are distinct, but small and irregular; the former are separated from the supra- oculars by two series of scales; 8—13 scales round the eyes; two (rarely three) series of scales. between the eyes and the labials; nasal shield single, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral shield. Body scales in 21—23 rows, strongly keeled; 184—158 ventrals ; 32—49 subcaudals. Coloration very variable, grey, yellowish, brown, or red above, with a zigzag band as in V. berus. Usually a black U-shaped mark on the hinder part of the head, with a longitudinal black streak behind the eyes; upper lip white, or yellowish. Ventral surface yellow, white, grey, or black, with lighter or darker markings. Total length, 620—675 millimetres ; tail 75—95. 1 Acad, de médecine, March 19, 1889. 28 VENOMS Habitat: France (especially Vendée, the Forest of Fontaine- bleau, and the South), Pyrenees, Alsace-Lorraine, the Black Forest, Switzerland, Italy and Sicily, and the Tyrol. This viper especially fre- quents dry, rocky, and arid hillsides, which are exposed to the sun. Like the adder, it hibernates in tree-trunks and oid walls. It lays from 6 to 15 eggs, from which the living young immediately issue, provided with poison. It feeds upon small rodents, worms, insects, and young birds. Raptorial birds, storks, and hedgehogs pursue it and devour it in large Fig. 22.—-Vipera aspis. (Natural size.) (From the Forest of Fontainebleau.) numbers. Vipera latastii. Intermediate between V. aspis and V. ammodytes. Snout less turned up into a corneous appendage than in the latter. Head covered with small, smooth, or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, among which an enlarged frontal shield may sometimes be dis- tinguished ; 5—7 longitudinal series of scales between the supra- ocular shields ; 9—18 scales round the eyes; 2 or 3 series between the eyes and the labials; nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body scales in 21 rows, strongly keeled ; 125—147 ventrals ; 82—43 subcaudals. Coloration grey or brown above, with a longitudinal zigzag band, usually spotted with white; head with or without spots on THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 29 the vertex; black streak behind the eyes; ventral surface grey, spotted with black and white; tip of the tail usually yellow or with yellow spots. : Total length, 550—610 millimetres ; tail 80—85. Habitat : Spain and Portugal. Vipera ammodytes. (Fig. 21, 3 and 4). Snout terminated in front by a horny appendage covered with 10—20 small scales; vertical diameter of the eyes less than the distance separating them from the mouth; upper surface of the head covered with small, smooth, or feebly keeled scales, among which an enlarged frontal and a pair of parietal shields are some- times distinguishable; 5—7 longitudinal series of scales between the supraoculars ; 10—13 scales round the eyes; two series between the eyes and the labials; nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body scales in 21—23 rows, strongly keeled ; 183—162 ventrals; 24—38 subcaudals. Coloration grey, brown, or reddish above, with a zigzag dorsal band, usually spotted with white; black streak behind the eyes; belly grey or violaceous ; end of the tail yellow, orange, or coral-red. Total length, 550—640 millimetres ; tail 70—80. Habitat : Southern Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, Hungary, Danubian principalities and kingdoms, Turkey. Does not pass beyond the 48th parallel of North Latitude. This viper loves very sunny places, and hillsides planted with vines. It rarely hibernates. In districts in which it is plentiful, it is only necessary to light a fire at night in order to attract this species in swarms; this is the best method of taking it. Its food consists of small rodents, lizards, and birds. 30 VENOMS B.—ASIA, DUTCH INDIES, AND PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. The species of snakes most dangerous to man are found in the warmer regions of Asia. India especially is infested by the famous Cobra-di-Capello (Naja tripudians), which possesses the highly remarkable faculty of dilating its neck in the form of a hood when irritated, and whose sculptured image appears on almost all the Hindu monuments. We shall describe in a separate section (see below, F.) the HyYDROPHIIN#, or Sea-snakes, a large number of species of which frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, the China Sea, the Moluccas, Celebes, and North Australia. In the case of certain species the area of distribution includes the whole of the tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Pacific Ocean, as far as the West Coast of America. It is therefore preferable to group them together for the purpose of comprehensive study. Besides the above, the continent of Asia harbours a muititude of poisonous snakes belonging to the two Families CoLUBRIDA and VIPERIDZ. The genera and species belonging to these are so diverse, that we must confine ourselves to mentioning the essential characters of those that present most interest. I.—Famity CoLUBRIDZ. ( (a) Bungarus. (b) Naja. (c) Hemibungarus. (d) Callophis. (e) Doliophis. Subfamily Evapinas: Genera (a) Bungarus. Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with round or vertically elliptic pupils ; nostril between two nasal shields. Two large poison-fangs followed by one or two small, slightly grooved THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 31 teeth (fig. 23). Scales smooth, oblique, in 13—17 rows, enlarged and hexagonal in shape on the vertebral column; ventral scales round. Tail relatively short; subcaudal scales in one or two rows. Two very dangerous snakes found in India and Indo-China belong to this genus, B. fasciatus and B. candidus (var. ceruleus). Both are fairly common. In Ceylon B. ceylonicus is met with, Fic. 23.—Skuci or Bungarus. (After G. A. Boulenger, op. cit.) ‘and in South China B. candidus (var. multicinctus). The length of these snakes is from 1,000—1,500 millimetres. The back is compressed in the shape of a keel. The neck is not dilatable. 1. B. fasciatus (Banded Krait). Colour bright yellow, ringed with black, with a black band commencing between the eyes, and broadening behind upon the nape and neck (fig. 24). VENOMS 2 Especially abundant on the Coromandel Coast, in Bengal, and in 3urma. In the North-west Provinces of India it is known as the Noclia-Krait. Its bite is very serious, but does not cause nearly so many fatalities as that of the Cobra, since its fangs are smaller. Dogs bitten by B. fasciatus die in from four to five hours. Fic. 24.—Bungarus fasciatus (India). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) 2. B. candidus. 3lackish-brown or bluish, with narrow transverse white streaks, or small white spots, or alternate vines of yellow and dark brown ; Smaller than the foregoing, scarcely exceeding 1,000 belly 'white. It is known as the ‘‘ Krait’”’ in India, where, millimetres in length. THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 33 after the Cobra, the variety ceruleus causes most deaths among human beings. It is found in jungles and rice-fields, and commonly secretes itself in old trees and old walls. It frequently penetrates into houses, verandahs, bathrooms, and even beds. Sir Joseph Fayrer relates the story of a lady, who, when travelling in a palanquin, found on arriving at her destination a ‘‘ Krait” coiled up in her luggage, the snake having thus made the journey with her throughout a whole night. : The Krait may easily be confused with Lycodon aulicus, a harmless snake which closely resembles it, though it can at - once be distinguished by examining its mouth. (b) Naja. (Fig. 25.) Head scarcely distinct from the neck; eyes with round pupils ; nostril between two nasal shields and an internasal. A pair of solid grooved poison-fangs. Body elongate, cylindrical, terminated by a conical and pointed tail. Scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15—25 rows. Ventral scales round. N. tripudians (Cobra-di-Capello). (Fig. 26.) Head small, covered with large shields, a frontal as long as broad, a supraocular, a preocular, 3 postoculars, 2 + 3 or 3 + 3 temporals, 7 upper labials, 4 lower labials. Neck dilatable by the separation of the first cervical ribs; 21—35 scales round the neck, 17—-25 round the middle of the body ; 163—205 ventrals ; 42—75 subcaudals. Total length, 1,500—1,900 millimetres ; tail 230. Coloration very variable, usually cinereous grey or almost black with a bluish sheen; belly lighter, sometimes tinted with red. The head is frequently tinged with golden-yellow; it is spotted with yellowish-white above, and is pure white underneath. 3 34. VENOMS This species is distributed throughout the whole of Southern Asia, from the south of the Caspian Sea to South China and the Malay Archipelago. Several varieties occur, and of these the principal are :— Fie. 25.— Sxunu or Naja tripudians, (After G. A. Boulenger, op. cif.) (1) Var. Typica (fig. 27), with a black-and-white spectacle- shaped mark on the middle of the dorsal surface of the most dilatable portion of the neck, and one or more dark transverse bands on the ventral surface, behind the head. . Habitat: India, Ceylon. THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 35 (2) Var. Ceca.—Colour, pale brown or uniform dark grey, without mark on the neck, and with one or more dark transverse bands on the anterior part of the belly. Habitat : Transcaspian region, India, Java. Fic. 26.—Naja tripudians (Cobra-di-Capello) ox THE DEFENSIVE, PREPARING TO STRIKE. (3) Var. Fasciata. —Colour, brown, olive, or black, with more or less distinct light trans- verse bands. White spot edged with black in the shape of a ring or of a U on the neck, behind; a black spot on each side in front. Habitat: India, Indo-China and South China, Hainan, Cam- bodia, Siam, Malay Peninsula. (4) Var. Sputatrox. —Black or dark brown, with yellow or orange- coloured spots on the sides of the head and neck. The young have a pale spot in the shape of a U or an O on the middle of the dorsal surface of the neck, and the throat is whitish. Habitat: Chusan Islands and South China, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java. (5) Var. Leucodira.—Brown or black, without mark on the neck. Throat yellowish-white, followed by a black transverse band. Habitat: Sumatra, Malay Peninsula. 36 VENOMS (6) Var. Miolepis—Brown or black; sides of the head and throat yellowish, no mark on the neck. Young with white rings completely encircling the body and tail. Habitat : Sarawak, Labuan, Borneo. Fic. 27.— Naja tripudians (Cobra-di-Capello), (After Sir Joseph Fayrer. ) Naja samarensis. Internasal shields shorter than the preefrontals, and in contact with the preoculars; 1—3 large occipital shields behind the THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 37 parietals; 1 preeocular and 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 tem- porals ; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials ; 21—23 scales across the neck, 17—19 across the middle of the body; 159—175 ventrals; 45—50 subcaudals. -. Coloration black or sometimes yellowish above ; pale brown or yellowish on the belly; neck biack. Total length, 1,000 millimetres ; tail 160. Habitat: Philippine Islands. Naja bungarus (Ophiophagus or Hamadryas elaps). (King Cobra or Hamadryad.) A pair of large occipital shields; 1 preocular; 3 postoculars ; 2+ 2temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials ; 19—21 scales across the neck, 15 across the middle of the body ; 215—262 ventral scales, 80—117 subcaudals. Neck dilatable. : Coloration very variable, yellowish, brown, olive, or black, with or without dark transverse bands. Total length, 3,900 millimetres ; tail 630. Habitat: India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Southern China, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. The species of Naja are oviparous, and usually lay some twenty eggs, elliptical in shape and as large as those of a pigeon, with a soft shell. These snakes do not fear the proximity of man, and feed upon rats, mice, and birds; they seek their prey chiefly in the evening, after sunset. They swim extremely well, and frequent the neighbourhood of water-courses. Indian legends relate that Brahma, having descended on earth and fallen asleep one day at high noon, a Naja placed itself in front of him and, dilating its broad neck, procured for him kindly shade. In order to repay it for the service rendered, Brahma-gave 38 VENOMS Naja the marks that it bears on its neck, intended to frighten the kites and other birds of prey, which are implacable enemies of this snake. When a native of the Malabar Coast finds a Naja in his dwelling, he begs it in a friendly way to depart; if the request be without avail, he offers it food in order to attract it outside; if the snake still does not move, the Hindu goes in search of the pious servitors of one of his divinities, who, procuring an offering, address the most touching supplications to it (Brehm). The mortality due to the bite of this snake, which is by far the most common in India, is considerable. In the course of a period of eight years, from 1880 to 1887, it amounted on the average to 19,880 human beings and 2,100 head of cattle every year. In 1889, 22,480 persons and 3,793 head of cattle perished from snake-bite. Since then, the annual tale of fatalities always fluctuates between 16,000 and 22,000, in spite of the rewards for the destruction of snakes which the Indian Government has been obliged to institute, which represent an expenditure of about £10,000 per annum. For every 100 persons bitten, it is estimated that on an average from 25 to 30 die, and in most cases death supervenes in from two to twelve hours after the bite. Naja bungarus, or the Hamadryad, is the largest and most formidable of poisonous snakes. It is very vigorous and very aggressive, but is more rarely met with than Naja tripudians. It loves the vicinity of rivers and streams, lives in forests and jungles, and climbs trees with facility. It feeds upon other snakes (whence its name Ophiophagus), and also on birds, fish, and small mammals. Hindu snake-charmers assert that it is very difficult to capture, and dangerous owing to its strength; they handle it only after having extracted its poison-fangs. A very intelligent Hindu told Torrens how he had seen the way in which the Hamadryad procures the snakes that form its favourite THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 39 food. The Hindu in question happened to be on the flat roof of his house, when a young Hamadryad appeared quite close to him. The snake raised its head, expanded its neck, and emitted a shrill hissing noise. Thereupon a dozen snakes came crawling up from all directions and assembled round the Hamadryad, when the latter made a dart at one of them and hastened to devour it (Fayrer). The Hamadryad is dreaded with good reason, for not only is it aggressive, and hurls itself boldly upon its adversary, but it also pursues him, a trait exhibited by no other poisonous snake. Cantor relates that in Assam an officer met with several young Hamadryads which were being watched over by their mother. The’ latter turned towards its enemy, who took to his heels with all speed, pursued by the terrible reptile. The course taken led to a river, which the fugitive did not hesitate to swim in order to gain the opposite bank, hoping thus to make good his escape; all, however, to no purpose. The snake still pursued him, and the officer saved himself only by a stratagem. He dashed his turban on the ground; the snake threw itself upon it and savagely bit it several times, thus giving the officer time to reach a place of safety. Cantor’s experiments show that the venom of the Hamadryad is extremely rapid in its action. A dog usually dies a quarter of an hour after being bitten, and Nicholson states that he has seen an elephant bitten by a snake of this species die in three hours. (c) Hemibungarus. This genus includes several species of snakes of somewhat small size, rarely exceeding 700 millimetres in length, with an elongate, cylindrical body; the head is scarcely distinct from the neck, the pupil round, and the tail short, while the nostril is situate between two nasal shields. The temporal shields are arranged in a single row. The poison-glands sometimes extend into the abdominal 40 VENOMS cavity. Scales in 13 or 15 rows; 190—260 ventrals, 12—44 sub- caudals in 2 rows. Four species belonging to this genus are known :— (1) A. calligaster.—2 + 3 temporal scales, 6 supralabials. Colour purple, with black transverse bands separated by narrow white bars; belly and end of tail red; snout yellow, with a black band on the upper lip below the eyes. Total length, 520 millimetres ; tail 30. Habitat: Philippine Islands. (2) H. collaris.—No anterior temporal scales. Colour black on the back, with black and red bands on the belly ; a yellow collar on the occiput. Total length, 430 millimetres ; tail 15. Habitat: Philippine Islands. (3) H. nigrescens.—Scales in 13 rows. A single temporal scale ; 218—251 ventrals ; 33—44 subcaudals. Belly uniformly red; upper lip yellow in front of and behind the eyes. Total length, 1,100 millimetres ; tail 115. Habitat: Hills of Western India, from Bombay to Travancore. (4) H.japonicus.—Scales in 13 rows; 190—216 ventrals ; 28—29 subcaudals ; temporals 1 + 1. Colour red on the back, with 1—5 black bands crossed by other black bands edged with yellow. Snout and sides of head black. Belly yellow, with large black spots alternating with black trans- verse bands. Total length, 520 millimetres ; tail 40. Habitat : Loo Choo Islands. (d) Callophis. This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs, but without other teeth. Head and eyes small, pupils round; THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 41 nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical, greatly elongate. Scales smooth, in 13 rows; ventrals rounded; sub- caudals in 2 rows. Five species are known :— (1) C. gracilis—Red or pale brown, with three longitudinal black lines passing through brown, or black spots; the lateral spots alternating with the vertebre. Black and yellow bands under the tail and on the belly. Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 35. Habitat: Malay Peninsula, Sumatra. (2) C. trimaculatus.—Head and nape black, with a yellow spot on each side of the occiput ; belly uniform red; tail with two black rings. Total length, 335 millimetres ; tail 21. Habitat : India and Burma. (3) C. maculiceps——Head and nape black, with one or two yellow bands on each side. Belly red, two black rings on the tail. Diameter of the eyes equal to two-thirds of the space separating them from the mouth. Total length, 485 millimetres ; tail 30. Habitat : Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula. (4) C. macelellandii.—Head and neck black, with a yellow transverse band behind the eyes. The space separating the eyes equal to that separating them from the mouth. Colour reddish- brown on the back, with regular and equi-distant black streaks ; belly yellow, with black bands or quadrangular spots. The head exhibits two black transverse bands separated by a yellow band. Total length, 620 millimetres; tail 55. Habitat: Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Southern China. (5) C. bibrontt.—Met with by Beddome in the forests of Malabar, at an altitude of 3,280 feet. Back purplish-brown, with a pearly lustre, and about forty irregular black transverse bands, extending to the tip of the tail. Head black in front, cherry-red on the occiput. 42 VENOMS Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 50. Habitat : Malabar. All the snakes belonging to the genus Callophis are remarkable for their bright and varied colours, whence the generic name, which signifies ‘‘ beautiful snakes.” They feed exclusively on other snakes belonging to the Family Calamaride ; consequently they are not found in regions where Calamaride do not occur, as, for instance, in Ceylon. They are essentially terrestrial, and live in old tree-trunks, or clefts in rocks. They are sluggish, slow-moving, and chiefly nocturnal. As a rule they do not seek either to defend themselves or to bite; consequently fatal accidents caused by them are scarcely known in the case of. human beings. Their venom, however, is very toxic to animals. (e) Doliophis. This genus exhibits the same characters as Callophis, except that the poison-glands, instead of being confined to the temporal region, extend a very long way on each side of the body, to about one-third of its length, gradually growing thicker and terminating at the base of the heart. It includes four species :— (1) D. biwirgatus.—Colour reddish-purple or black on the back, red on the head, tail, and belly. Total length, 1,610 millimetres ; tail 190. Habitat: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. (2) D. intestinalis —Brown or black on the back, with darker or lighter longitudinal. streaks ; tail red beneath; belly red, crossed with black streaks. , Total length, 580 millimetres ; tail 45. | THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 43 Habitat: Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes. (3) D. bilineatus.—Black on the back, with two white streaks along the whole length of the body. Snout white; belly striped with black and white bands. Tail orange, with two or three black rings or spots. Total length, 710 millimetres ; tail 45. Habitat: Philippine Islands. (4) D. philippinus —Back with dark brown cross-bands, merging into black transverse ventral streaks, which are separated by yellow or red interspaces. Head brown, with small yellow spots. Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35. Habitat: Philippine Islands. II.—Faminy VIPERIDZ. The Family ViPERID is represented in Asia by a considerable number of snakes belonging to the two Subfamilies VipERINA and CROTALINAE. The Asiatic VIPERIN& belong to the genera :— (a) Vipera. (b) Pseudocerastes. (c) Cerastes. (d) Hchis. The CRoTALINA consist of only two genera :— (e) Ancistrodon. (f) Lachesis. 1.—VIPERIN A. (a) Vipera. We shall not recapitulate here the characters of the Genus Vipera, which we described in dealing with the vipers of Europe. The genus is represented by several species, the geographical range of which is chiefly confined to Hastern and Central Asia. 44 VENOMS (1) Vipera renardi.—Resembles V. berus, but the snout is pointed and soft, with a turned-up tip; a single series of scales between the eyes and the lips; nostril pierced in the lower half of a single nasal shield; 8—9 supralabial shields; 4 infralabials. Body scales in 21 rows; 1830—150 ventrals ; 24—37 subcaudals. Coloration the same as in the European V. ursiniz, but the snout and lips are spotted with black or brown. Total length, 395—620 millimetres ; tail 40—75. Habitat: Central Asia, Turkestan. (2) V. raddit.—Snout rounded; supraocular shields erectile ; eyes surrounded by a complete circle of 14—17 scales; 9—10 supralabials ; body scales in 23 rows; 150—180 ventrals ; 28—382 subcaudals. Coloration pale brown or grey on the back, with a dorsal series of small reddish spots arranged in alternating pairs. A black mark like a circumflex accent on the occiput, and a black band behind the eyes. Belly yellow, speckled with black and white. Total length, 740 millimetres ; tail 50. Habitat : Armenia. (3) V. lebetina.—Snout rounded and obtuse, with a well-marked prominence ; 7—12 longitudinal series of scales between the eyes ; supraocular shields well developed or narrow, or broken up into several small portions ; 12—18 scales round the eyes; 9—12 supra- labials; 4—5 infralabials; body scales in 23—27 rows; 147—180 ventrals ; 29—51 subcaudals. Coloration variable, grey or pale brown on the back, with a series of large dark spots. Large brown mark like a circumflex accent on the crown of the head and another on the occiput. Belly whitish, speckled with grey-brown; end of tail yellow. Total length, 960 millimetres; tail 120. The female may attain the length of 1,350 millimetres. Habitat: Cyprus, Galilee, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Cashmir. THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 45 (4) V. russeliit (Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). (Fig. 28.)— This viper, which may attain a length of as much as 2,000 millimetres, is magnificently coloured. Its dorsal surface is brownish-yellow, Fra. 28.—Vipera russellii (Syn. Vipera elegans. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India, (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.) marked with large oval spots of blackish-brown, edged with yellow or white. The belly is covered with transverse bands, with beautiful triangular black spots, bordered with white. The head, which is long, ends in front in a thick, rounded snout; it is covered above 46 VENOMS with small keeled scales. The nostril, which is large and laterally placed, is surrounded by three shields and soft smooth skin. The species is found throughout India, from Bombay to Bengal, in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It is particularly common in Burma, around Rangoon. For walking in the jungle and rice-fields, the natives of this region encase their feet and legs in a special kind of jack-boots made of coarse jute-cloth, in order to protect themselves from the bites of this snake, which cause a large number of fatal accidents. The Daboia ascends the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,250 feet. It lives in thickets, under stones, and in the clefts of rocks. When disturbed it makes a terrible hissing, but bites only when attacked or irritated. It feeds upon small vertebrates, such as mice, rats, birds, and frogs, and often enters houses in pursuit of rats. “Schrott had the opportunity of observing a Daboia on the defensive. A lady carrying a child on her arm was returning home towards evening; she had almost reached her house when a bull- dog accompanying her began to bark furiously. Although the lady saw nothing, she was, nevertheless, frightened and called for help. Schrott, who was not far away, ran to the spot, and saw a Daboia lying across the path by which the lady had to proceed. The reptile had its neck thrown back and its head in a horizontal position ; its bright eyes followed all the movements of the dog, to whose barks it replied by shrill hisses. It was only waiting for an opportunity to strike. Schrott called off the dog, and the snake at once disappeared among the high grass close by. Next day it was killed at the same spot” (Brehm). The venom of this viper is terribly potent. According to Russell, a large dog exhibited symptoms of poisoning five minutes after being bitten. At the end of a quarter of an hour it lay down, uttering heartrending cries, began to breathe with difficulty and noisily, was seized with spasms of the jaws and cramps, and.died in frightful agony less than half an hour after the wound was inflicted. Fowls * THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES 47 in most cases die in less than two minutes.