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SF 487.L6

Tl laboratory guide; a manua

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK - BOSTON - CHICAGO
ATLANTA - SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO, Lim:tep

LONDON + BOMBAY - CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltn.
TORONTO

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“HOWIdSILNOWA

POULTRY
LABORATORY GUIDE

A MANUAL FOR THE STUDY OF PRACTICAL
POULTRY KEEPING

BY

HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S.

PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, BARON DE HIRSCH
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL

ILLUSTRATED

New Bork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1910

All rights reserved

SF487

hu.2ets

Coprrient, 1910,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1910.

Norhsood ress
J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

INTRODUCTION

THE object in publishing this laboratory man-
ual is to fill a long-felt want in poultry short
courses, where the classes are large and where a
great amount of practical work must of neces-
sity be crowded into a short period of time.

There is a growing demand for systematic
laboratory work in all of our practical agricul-
tural studies, and especially so in the short
courses. The purpose of this work, therefore,
is to aid the beginner in obtaining the maximum
amount of benefit in the least possible time, and
also to better enable him by personal study to
grasp the fundamental principles underlying the
work without the close personal attention of
the instructor, which is impossible in our poultry
classes.

The manual may also be used as a guide for
laboratory work in collegiate courses, more than
one period being given to the more important
exercises ; which should be left to the discretion
of the instructor, the amount of time being de-
voted to each part depending on the equipment

"Vv

vi INTRODUCTION

of the department, length of the course, and age
and previous training of the students. If used
in connection with a short course of less than nine
weeks, it will be necessary to introduce the
exercises dealing with incubation at an earlier
period in order to finish the work of brooding
before the end of the course.

The exercises begin with the very elementary
work and touch only the practical side (the
work which each student should do and observe
for himself) and with which. every poultryman
should be very familiar. It is not designed to
take the place of a text, but to be used in con-
nection with and as a supplement to a thorough
modern text-book, the idea being to discuss the
various problems in such a manner that the
student can solve them by deductions from his
own observation and experience.

If the institution is equipped with a depart-
ment of Zodlogy and Mechanic Arts, the work
in entomology and the repair and operation of
boilers and heating plants should be taken up in
their respective departments.

CONTENTS

EXEROISE

I. Cleaning and Disinfecting Poultry Houses
Preparatory for Use by the Student

II. A Study of the Various Types of Poultry
Houses

I. Internal Heumaent ‘ind Apamgeteent of
Poultry Houses . :

IV. Methods of Yarding and Ceieemudiion of
Fences

V. Collection, Selection; ae a Keeping Baws ae
Incubation .

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

VI. (A) Construction of Incubator Cellars
VII. (B) A Study of the Incubator
VII. (C) Art of Running an Incubator

NATURAL INCUBATION .

IX. Selection of Place of Setting and Care of
Hen . .
X. Testing, Seventh and Fourteenth Daye

EMBRYOLOGY.

XI. (A) Formation of the Dee .
XII. (B) Development from the Third 6 ihe
Sixth Day .
XIII. (C) Development from the “Righth io the
Nineteenth Day es: “chs .
vii

PAGE

viii CONTENTS

ARTIFICIAL BROODING . 7 : - % 5
EXERCISE

XIV. (A) Construction of Brooder Houses .
XV. (B) A Study of the Brooder both Out-
door and Indoor . A

XVI. (C) Art of Running a Brooder

Natura Broopvine a 8 : ,
XVII. Location, Housing, sa Care sg Hen
a and Chicks & <hs fo <
XVIII. Crate Fattening 5 F
XIX. Machine Fattening, or Crminling
XX. Caponizing : F
XXI. Preservation of ieee
XXII. New England Method of Killing ana

Picking .
XXIII. New Jersey Method of Kiting rt Pick.
ing. . ;
XXIV. Shaping and Diedesiag 2 : 3 3

XXV. Packing aud Shipping Eggs .
XXVI. Packing and Shipping Poultry
XXVIII. Poultry Book-keeping . A . .
XXVIII. Convenient Poultry Records.
XXIX. Figuring Poultry Profits
XXX. Advertising .
XXXI. Writing to Beespeckive Custatiens
XXXII. Scoring and Grading Eggs .
XXXIII. Scoring Poultry Plants
XXXIV. Judging Poultry for Fancy Poitite
XXXV. Judging Poultry for Utility Points
XXXVI. Systems of Heating Brooder Houses
and Art of Firing
XXXVII. Repairing Damaged HecGap Systewis:.
XXXVIII. Miscellaneous Appliances

Location of Incubator and Brooder Houses .

FIG.

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ae
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to
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a
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Students constructing Poultry House :
Students cleaning and disinfecting Poultry House
Single-pen House with Gable or Even-span Roof .
Double-pen Scratching Room House ‘
Open-front House .

. Group of Drinking Fountains

. Group of Feed Hoppers and Troughs
. Showing the Arrangement of Fences
. Corner Fence Bracing

Two Satisfactory Types of Boultey ‘Gates

Various Sizes and Shapes of Eggs .

External View of a Modern Incubator Celie:

Incubator of the Nursery Drawer Type with Parts
taken Out . : ‘

Interior View of a Modern fecubeiee Cella «

. A Convenient Method of setting the Hen
. Showing Three Methods of ae ss des

Testing
Reproductive Osgace of Rannils
Embryo Chick on Third Day .

. Individual Brooder House

Three Brooders which are in very Caines Us

Instruments for performing the Operation of Ca-
ponizing

Student making Stick

. Various Methods of packing Eggs fer Stipin ek

ix

82

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EXERCISE I

CLEANING AND DISiNFECTING Pouttry Houses
PREPARATORY FOR USE BY THE STUDENT

Puace all movable fixtures out of doors in
the sunshine, cleanse, and thoroughly spray with
the following disinfecting solution. Prepare
as follows :—

1% gallon of crude carbolic acid.
14 gallon of crude sulphuric acid.

Add the sulphuric acid very slowly to the
carbolic acid, stirring all the time. The vessel
containing the carbolic acid should be placed in a
large receptacle containing water, thus keeping
the mixture cool, as a large amount of heat will
be generated. One part of the mixture to
twenty parts of water makes a strong, reliable,
inexpensive disinfectant for use in and around
the poultry house. The undiluted acid should
not be allowed to touch the skin or clothing, as

it is very caustic in its action.
B 1

2 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Sweep walls and ceiling thoroughly, removing
all dirt and cobwebs. Remove all litter from
_ the house and burn or mix with compost. If the
floor is of dirt, remove a few inches of the top
soil and in its place put fresh clean sand or gravel.

Next close the house, making it as air-tight as
possible, and thoroughly fumigate for several
hours by burning flowers of sulphur. The
powdered sulphur should be placed in a metallic
basin on top of an inverted pail or pan. Alcohol
-may be used to aid ignition. Care should
be taken to avoid all danger from fire. One
pound of sulphur will thoroughly cleanse a
house which contains 120 square feet of floor
space. Allow the sulphur to burn continuously
for a number of hours, after which air the house
for an hour by opening all doors and windows.
Next spray the house with the disinfecting solu-
tion, being careful to touch all inside parts.

Replace all movable fixtures and give the
inside of the house a good coat of whitewash,
after which wash the windows perfectly clean
with sand soap and hot water, outside and in,
to admit all the sunlight possible. Fresh clean
nesting material and clean litter to the depth
of four or five inches must next be placed in the
house, and everything arranged in neat and
orderly manner for future use.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 3

EXERCISE II

A Srupy oF THE Various Typrs or PouLtTry
Houses

Examine carefully the various types of houses
found on the college plant. Note the kind of
material used for foundation. Does it answer
its purpose in every particular? The following
materials are commonly used for the foundations
of poultry houses: wood, brick, stone, and
cement, either as posts or as a solid wall. Which
do you consider best; and why ?

Note the size and arrangement of sills, posts,
studding, plates, and rafters, as well as the kind
and grade of lumber used. Are the outside
walls single or double? If double, what advan-
tage is obtained? If double walls, note the differ-
ence in construction between the outer and inner
wall.

Next examine the construction of the roof and
note shape. Compare with other types of roofs
as regards pitch, amount of lumber used, labor
required, and amount of roofing material re-
quired to cover same. The following types are
commonly used in the construction of poultry
houses: shed roof, gable roof, or even span,
two-thirds span, three-quarters span, monitor

4 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

and half monitor, and A-shaped roof. Com-
pare each of these types with regard to the pre-
vious mentioned differences and determine which
you think is the most economical, and why.

Note the kind of material used to cover the
roof and examine its condition. With a tape
find the area of the roof and determine which
would be cheaper, shingles or paper, taking
into consideration both the initial cost and the
length of time which each will last if properly
taken care of; using in each case the current
price of shingles and paper.

Upon examining the house from the front,
note the construction of the front wall. Ifa
large portion of it is open, covered onky with
wire and canvas curtains, there being no separate
laying and roosting room, the house is of the
open-front type. If, however, the house is built
with four solid walls, lighted by windows and to
one side is attached an open shed the front of
which is covered with wire, it is of the scratching
shed type.

Enumerate the advantages to be derived from
having the front of a house open or having an
open shed attached.

Go through each poultry house, discussing the
various advantages and disadvantages of each
type, taking notes on the construction, type of

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 5

roof, and design of front wall. Any type of house
not exemplified in the poultry plant should be
briefly described during the trip of inspection
and its points of resemblance to the exist-
ing types thoroughly explained. Each student
should know what is meant by and become fa-
miliar with the following kinds of houses: open
front and scratching shed. These may be single
pen, double pen, or. arranged in succession to
form the long house.

The work in the construction and types of poultry
houses should include not only a careful study of houses
already built, as outlined above, but where possible each
student should be allowed to take part in the construction
of some new poultry building. Where this is possible and
if time will permit, the exercise may be divided between
four or more laboratory periods.

EXERCISE III

INTERNAL EQUIPMENT AND ARRANGEMENT OF
Pouttrry Hovusss

In making a study of the internal fixtures of
the poultry house visit all the houses in turn,
comparing the good and poor points of each.

Perches. — Examine carefully and note the
following points: kind and size of lumber used,

6 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

arrangement and method of construction. Are
they all on the same level, or is one above the
other in the form of steps ? Which arrangement
is best, and why ?

Measure the distance from the ground to the
roost. They should always be near enough to
the ground so that the birds can fly to them
easily. (From one to three feet, depending on
the breed.) If dropping-boards are used, the
roosts should be raised at least six inches above
them to admit of easy cleaning. Measure the
total length of roost and determine the number
of fowls it will accommodate, allowing the follow-
ing space for the various breeds: the small egg
breeds require from six to seven inches of roost
per bird; the medium-sized fowls, such as Ply-
mouth Rocks, from seven to nine inches; and the
heavy Brahmas and Cochins, from eight to ten
inches.

The perches should be constructed with the
idea of convenience for the fowls and so arranged
that the droppings will be caught without drop-
ping to the floor or soiling the litter, and so that
they will be left in an easy position for cleaning
and removing.

Are the perches movable; if so, what is the
advantage ?

Dropping-board. — Note the kind of lumber

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 7

used in’ construction. They should have a
perfectly smooth upper surface. Why? Meas-
ure the width of the dropping-board and deter-
mine the width per roost. For single roosts it
should be eighteen to twenty-two inches wide,
and for double roosts about three feet.

Is the dropping-board movable or built per-
manently into the building? What is the ad-
vantage of having it movable?

Nests. — In deciding on the advantages and
disadvantages. of different kinds of nests there
are at least three things to be considered:

1. They should be situated so that they are
more or less darkened.

2. They should be so arranged that the eggs
can be easily collected, and so constructed that
they can be easily and thoroughly cleaned.

3. They should be raised above the floor, thus
making all the room available for the birds.

Note the size and kind of lumber used, shape
and size of nests, also method by which they are
attached to the wall or dropping-board.

Enumerate the different kinds of nesting
material used. Which do you consider best,
and why ?

Trap nests. — Make a study of the different
trap nests available, and after following out the
method of tripping and locking, decide which

8 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

one is the simplest, which one trips the easiest,
the quickest, and makes the surest catch; also
which one is the easiest to register the layers, to
collect the eggs, and reset.

Drinking fountains. — Note the different
shapes of fountains, how the water is held in
them, and how it is kept clean if the vessel is open.
Note the different materials of which they are
made, also their construction with reference to
ease and thoroughness of cleaning and quick-
ness of filling. Are they placed on the ground,
on a raised platform, or are they suspended or
hung from the side of the wall? Which is the
best ? What provisions are made, if any, for
keeping the water cool in summer ?

Feed hoppers and troughs. — Note size, shape,
and method of construction, kind of material
used, and how attached to the wall. Examine
carefully and study methods used to keep the
birds from wasting the dry food.

If wooden or metal troughs are present for
feeding wet mash, note size and shape, also what
method is used to keep the birds out of the
trough and of keeping the food clean.

All food hoppers should be so arranged that
they can be easily taken out of doors, emptied,
cleaned, and should be so constructed that the
birds will not waste or soil their food while eating.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 9

Notice the presence of some form of self-feed-
ing hopper, usually metal, for the feeding of grit
and shell.

A cage with one or more partitions fastened to
the wall in a secluded corner away from drafts
can be used for confining surplus males when
the alternating system is used, and makes a
handy place for breaking up broody hens.

In very cold climates or in houses with open
fronts a frame or curtain of burlap or cloth is
often provided for use in front of the roosting
place if protection from freezing is necessary.
Notice the construction of the curtain, also the
way it is raised and lowered. Does it roll asa
curtain or is it made in the form of a frame and
hinged? Which do you consider best, and why?

In open-front houses note the construction of
the curtain front, whether hinged or rolled,
presence of window sash to admit of light on
stormy days, thickness of curtain, and method of
opening and closing.

10 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EXERCISE IV

Metruops or YARDING AND CONSTRUCTION OF
FENCES

If the birds are to be given free range, there are
no yards to be planned or fences to be built; but
if they are to be kept in confinement, the plan-
ning of the runs and the cost of fencing become
a big item in the cost of construction and repair.

If the fowls are confined, notice whether each
pen has a single yard or two yards for alternating.
With double yards what are the advantages?
Are the yards in permanent sod, or is a system
of rotation cropping carried on?

Measure the yard and determine the number
of square feet per bird. How do the figures
correspond with the following: If the yard is in
permanent sod, a safe estimate is one hundred
square feet per bird. If a system of double
yarding is used or the green food is supplied
from outside sources, from twenty-five to thirty
square feet per bird is sufficient, simply for
exercise purposes.

Note the presence or absence of shade in the
yards and the character and kind of shrubs used
for the same.

If a system of crop rotation is carried on with

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 11

alternating yards, a list of the crops planted should
be kept, showing the time planted, date of ger-
mination, rapidity of growth, age and height at
which the birds were pastured on it, and the
length of time that it supplied them with green
food; so to determine by actual practice the
best crop suited for poultry pasture.

System oF Crop Rotation WHERE DovusLE YARDS ARE
UsEp

Pen No. I

Date Yard Aj Yard B

March 25 to April 30 | Peas and oats Feeding

April 30 to May 25 Feeding Peas and barley
May 25 to June 15 Dwarf Essex | Feeding
Rape
June 15 to July 10 Feeding Oats, buckwheat,
kafir corn
July 10 to Aug. 1 Buckwheat Feeding
Aug. 1 to Aug. 20 Feeding Cowpeas and mil-
let
Aug. 20 to Sept. 20 Rye, vetch and | Feeding
cr. clover
Sept. 20 to Dec. 1 Feeding Rye and vetch

The dates in the above will vary slightly with
location, but the crops mentioned will grow well
in all parts of the United States. The above is

12 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

especially adapted to the latitude of Pennsyl-
vania and New Jersey.

It will be noticed that while the birds are
feeding in one yard there is a crop growing in the
other, and it is a simple matter to grow four crops
a year in each yard.

The rye and vetch that are seeded in yard B
about September 20 should be allowed to grow
until planting time in the spring, when they will
furnish an abundance of green feed until the
spring-planted crops are ready.

The birds should not be allowed to feed on
any of the above crops until they are at least four
to six inches tall; if allowed on the feed before
this age, it will last but a few days.

Fencing. — Examine the material used for
posts, — wood, concrete, or iron. If wood, what
kind? Note the size of posts, both corner and
intermediate, also the method of bracing the
corner posts by means of poles from the top
to the bottom of the next posts in line, and
the running of a tension wire from the bot-
tom of the corner post to the top of the next
post.

With a spade dig around the bottom of a few
of the posts and see to what an extent decay has
taken place and estimate the future life and use-
fulness of the posts in that way. If different

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 13

kinds of posts are used, determine which is the
best as to rot-resisting qualities.

The following materials are used to a greater
or less extent for poultry fences: —

1. Pickets or laths nailed to a scantling for a
frame.

2. Poultry netting, one, two, and three inch
mesh — any width.

3. Woven wire fences made with small
meshes at the bottom and larger ones at the
top.

Measure the height of the fence, and if made
from poultry netting, is the whole height made
-by stretching one wide strip or two narrower
strips? What are the advantages of making it of
two narrow strips? Note the method used to
fasten the two strips of wire together, either
by wiring them with a short piece of pliable wire
or by twisting the selvages. Examine the
method of fastening the wire to the posts by means
of galvanized wire staples. How far are they
placed apart? Also notice the method used to
fasten the wire to the ground. The best way is
by means of a baseboard six to twelve inches
wide nailed to the bottom of the posts, and the
bottom of the wire nailed to the bottom of the
board. In order to keep fowls which will fly
over a six-foot fence separate for breeding pur-

14 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

poses, it will be necessary to keep them confined
in a covered run.

Notice the location of gates, whether they are
sufficient in number and so located as to be con-
venient and give easy entrance or exit. Deter-
mine the size and kind of lumber used, method
of bracing, number and size of hinges used, also
method of fastening them shut.

Examine the wire carefully and determine
its rust-resisting qualities, also the per cent
which should be allowed for depreciation and
repairs on same.

If there are any holes in the fence which need
repairing, take a piece of wire the same size mesh
as the fence to be repaired, cut it a little larger
than the hole, and carefully twist the loose ends
of the patch around the strands of the old fence ;
the loose ends of the old fence should then be
twisted around the strands of the patch. Take
great care to leave no loose ends, as the birds
are apt to injure themselves on them.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 15

EXERCISE V

CoLLECTION, SELECTION, AND Kerxrprng Eacs
FOR INCUBATION

Eggs for incubation should be regularly col-
lected, carefully selected, and properly kept
previous to being placed in the incubator. In
order to impress upon the beginner the impor-
tance of the above facts, each student should be
allowed to collect and select the eggs from his
own coop or coops, keeping always in mind the
following facts or rules : —

Eggs for incubation should be selected only
from birds which are properly mated, housed,
fed, and which are strong, vigorous, and healthy.
They should rarely be saved from pullets, but
preferably from yearling hens. The eggs should
be collected daily, the number of the pen from
which they are taken being written with pencil
on oneend. If they are from trap-nested stock,
the number of the hen should also appear on the
egg. In handling and carrying the eggs, care
must be taken not to crack or severely shake
them, the former ruining the eggs for incubation
purposes, and the latter causing a partial break-
ing or rupturing of the contents.

The eggs should next be taken to the storing-

16 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

room and the entire lot gone over, and only the
ideal ones saved, the others being separated and
sold as market eggs. The eggs selected should
be stamped with the date on which they were
laid, so that when it comes time to place them
in the incubator the older ones can be used first,
and also that eggs of nearly the same age can be
put in the incubator together.

Under the most favorable circumstance the
eggs will vary to the extent that there is room
for much selection. Select eggs of a medium

TABLE
Larce Crr-| Smaty Crr- WEIGHT
Breep AcE CUMFERENCE| CUMFERENCE PER Doz.
Hens 3 in. .2 in. {1 Ib.
Leghorns 6.3 5 Ib. 10.2 oz.

| Pullets | 6.3 in. 5.2 in. |1 Ib. 10.3 oz.
Plymouth | Hens 6.31 in. 5.4 in. |1 Ib. 11.2 oz.
Rocks | Pullets | 6.22 in. 5.37 in. |1 Ib. 8.8 oz,
Hens 6.5 in. 5.33 in. [1 lb. 9.6 oz.
Wesndenics | Pullets | 6.34in. | 5.3 in. [1 Ib. 84 02.
Rhode Island Hens 6.2 in. 5.31lin. {1 Ib. 8.0 oz.
Reds Pullets | 6.0 in. 5.19in. |1 lb. 6.4 oz.
(eae ,| 618in. | 5.2 in. |1 1b. 8.0 oz.
| Pullets
| Hens 6.12in. | 5.37in. |1 Ib. 6.4 oz
Pullets
Lact 6.0 in. | 5.12in. j1 Ib. 9.6 oz.
Pullets
Average of all breeds | 6.19 in. | 5.27 in. |1 Ib.8.05 oz.

Brahmas
Cochins

Langshans

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 17

size and average as regards color and shape.
The selection should be influenced by the aver-
age product of the hen or breed.

The preceding table shows average sizes and
dimensions and weights of eggs from our com-
mon breeds.

Measure and compare a number of eggs with
the above table; after a little practice it will be
very easy to readily judge by sight and touch
the size, shape, and weight of each egg which is
handled. An unusually large egg may be a
freak of nature and cannot be expected to hatch.
An unusually small egg may be defective and
should not be used for incubation. An even,
uniform lot, assorted as to size, color, and shape,
will be more apt to give the best results. An egg
of unusual length or rotundity should not be
saved, the probability being that a chick, if it
developed at all, would beso malformed as to be
unable to leave the shell.

The following figure illustrates normal and
abnormal eggs.

If the egg is at all soiled, it should be washed
clean, wiped dry, and placed with the others in
strong trays or racks. Care must be taken in
washing not to jar the contents, as it may injure
the egg for hatching. As fast as they are placed
in the racks they should be covered with a few

c

18 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

layers of clean cotton cloth to prevent them from
chilling. If the temperature of the room is sixty
degrees or above, this is not necessary. The
trays should be so arranged that the position of
the eggs can be easily changed daily. If eggs
are not in trays, but loose, each egg should be
partially turned each day to prevent the germ
from sticking to the shell. Incubation eggs in
storage should be kept at a temperature of from
fifty to sixty degrees; they will stand from forty
to eighty degrees Fahrenheit for a short time.
Great care must be taken to prevent them from
drying out, so they should not be exposed to
currents of air, steam, or vapor.

Freshness is a prime necessity, and an egg over
twenty-one days old should never be set; while it
may hatch, yet the chick will be weak and hard
to raise. Fresh eggs hatch early, and the chicks
are usually stronger than from older eggs.
About twelve hours previous to placing eggs in
the incubator it is well to stand them on the small
end, allowing the yolk to balance itself and the
air cell to assume its proper place. It is a poor
practice to set eggs of more than one breed in
an incubator at the same time, as different eggs
vary in thickness and strength of shell and in
the amount of heat and moisture required.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 19

SUMMARY

Eggs for incubation must be carefully and
promptly gathered and cared for. The egg has
as much to do with the results of incubation as
has the incubator, and therefore the machine
should not be blamed for not hatching a defec-
tive egg.

EXERCISE VI

LocaTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF INCUBATOR
CELLARS

The successful running of an incubator de-
pends largely upon the place in which it is located
and upon the ease and quickness with which we
can adjust and keep the desired conditions pres-
ent; therefore careful consideration should be
given to the subject of incubator cellar, location,
and construction.

Inspect the incubator equipment and discuss
the above questions with the following facts in
view : —

The location of the incubator house with ref-
erence to the brooder house. Is it connected to
the brooder, adjacent, or at some little distance ?
Which is best, and why ? If connected, how would
that fact affect the labor question, the ease of

20 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

transferring chicks, and the danger from fire? Is
it located on a side hill or on level ground ?
Would the former location have any advantage
over the latter? Which way does the cellar
face, especially with reference to the prevailing
wind direction ? *

Are the incubators located below the level of
the ground or above? What advantage is there
in having them below the ground level? Are
they located in a room or rooms which are a part
of some other building, or are they located in a
building constructed primarily for that purpose ?
What are the advantages of the latter method
over the former ?

Note method of ventilation; usually cone
of two systems : —

King system.

Double sash, with or without curtains.

Note the presence or absence of the direct rays
of the sun shining directly on the incubators.
If the sunlight is present, what method is used to
darken the cellar? What is the objection to
having the sun shining directly on the machine?

If the building is below ground, note character
of the foundation, whether stone, brick, or cem-
ent, also depth below ground. Are the in-
cubators entirely below the ground level?

1 See frontispiece.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 21

What kind of material is used for the floor?
Cement is best. Why?

Note carefully the method of construction as
regards the shape of the building, type of roof,
lumber used, and whether double or single walls.
Is there any provision made for regulating the
temperature of the cellar? The most desirable
temperature is from fifty to seventy degrees, but
incubation may be successfully carried on in a
temperature of thirty-five degrees, the disadvan- ,
tage being more in rapid variation than in a too
high or too low general temperature.

Connected with the incubator cellar there
should be a small room which is easily darkened
for the testing of eggs during incubation. The
presence of shelves or tables conveniently located
should be noted —one upon which all surplus
lamps are kept and where all trimming and filling
are done; another one should be for the turning
and cooling of eggs. A closet or shelves for the
keeping of thermometers, hygrometers, incubator
parts, records, etc., is very essential. The pres-
ence of a faucet from which water can be taken
to increase the humidity of the room is very
desirable.

Estimate carefully the probable cost of such a
building or room, also figure the capacity of the
cellar in dozens of eggs and determine the cost

22 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

per dozen. This will be much greater if the in-
cubator room is an individual building by itself
than if it is located in the cellar or room of
another building.

An economical and efficient building can be
constructed for from ninety cents to one dollar
per dozen eggs, not including labor.

Figure the cubic feet of air space and determine
the volume per dozen eggs. The amount of air
space required depends on the system of ventila-
tion. A good safe figure is about ten to twelve
cubic feet for each dozen eggs.

EXERCISE VII

A Stupy oF THE INCUBATOR

Carefully examine all parts of each incu-
bator, beginning with the general appearance of
the entire machine. It should be built of well-
seasoned lumber, be well put together, and should
also be substantial looking. It should have a
good smooth finish both for looks and durability.

See that the machine is perfectly level. Why?
Note the size of the legs and the method of at-
taching them to the incubator. Are they easily
removed for shipment or not? By placing the
hand on the front edge of the incubator see if it
is squarely and firmly resting on all four legs. If

Fic. 11.— External view of a modern incubator cellar, showing the sash hinger at the top.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 23

not, place a thin piece of wood under the free
legs to steady it. Open the door and take out all
internal fixtures, including the following: dia-
phragm, egg trays, thermometer, and if the in-
cubator is equipped with nursery drawers remove
same with covers. Clean these parts thoroughly
and wash all woodwork, including inside walls,
egg trays, etc., with a sponge moistened with
a ten per cent solution of creolin. Allow parts
to thoroughly dry before replacing them in the
machine.

Determine whether the machine is of the hot
air or hot water type. In the hot water machine
note the presence of tubes or tanks in the top of
the incubator through which the water circulates.
If hot air, a round metal tube will be seen run-
ning from the top of the lamp chamber about
three quarters of the way across the top of the

‘incubator, through which the hot air travels.

Remove lamp, and notice means of support.
Practise putting in and taking out the lamp,
being careful each time to have the burner fit
the base of the chimney perfectly. Examine the
lamp box and determine the course taken by the
pure warm air on its way to the egg chamber,
also that of the foul air direct from the flame.
What is the object of the asbestos packing about
the lamp box?

24 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Study carefully the self-regulating qualities
of the machine. They will consist of two es-
sential factors : —

First, a sensitive thermostat.

Second, a simple but accurate method of
transferring the energy of the thermostat to the
lamp.

The self-regulating mechanism should admit
of easy and simple adjustment and should be so
constructed as not to lose its efficiency with age.
The successful operation of most, thermostats is
based on the varying coefficient of expansion of
different metals. Note method of construction
so as to take advantage of this expansion.

See that the entire regulating apparatus is
properly connected, and study the form and
function of each part. Adjust the thumb nut
so that the lever arm is balanced and the damper
suspended over the chimney. By turning the
thumb nut to the right the incubator is cooled,
and by turning it to the left the temperature is
raised. Why?

Trace the current of warm air through the
machine and out at the bottom. Notice methods
used to filter the air and stop it from flowing
rapidly. Why?

Remove the top of the incubator and note the
presence of double walls. What is the advantage?

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 25

Remove the cotton, felt, and cardboard used for
insulation purposes, and note how perfectly the
machine is protected from outside changes of
temperature.

Examine carefully all ventilators, follow them
into the machine, and determine how the air is
made to circulate. Look for ventilators in the
bottom of the incubator; if absent, note the open
construction of the bottom. Note the presence
or absence of a drop-bottom which when down
leaves the entire bottom of the incubator open.
What is the advantage of this? Are there any
special arrangements for supplying moisture to.
the incubator; if not, how does the moisture get
to the eggs?

After the machine has been thoroughly in-
spected, replace all internal parts in their proper
positions, close the door, and leave the entire
machine in first-class condition for running.

Note the position in which the machine is
placed with reference to danger from fire and
the probability of strong drafts of air blowing
directly upon it.

Repeat these observations, using every differ-
ent make of incubators possible.

26 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EXERCISE VIII
RUNNING AN INCUBATOR

Previous to each hatch thoroughly overhaul
the incubator, clean inside and out, and wash all
internal parts with a carbolic solution. The
lamp should be cleaned, filled, and a new wick
put in.

Start the lamp and run the incubator for
seven days before putting the eggs in, to test its
accuracy and see that it is properly adjusted ;
-during this time regulate with the thumb nut
until the incubator reads the desired temperature
constantly. To cool the egg chamber turn the
thumb nut to the right, to warm turn to the
left. Why?

Before putting the eggs in the machine, place
them in a warm room so that they will
gradually warm up and not be subjected to too
suddenachange. The eggsmay completely cover
the tray but must not be on top of one another.

Trim and fill the lamp once a day, at a regular
time each day. Do not fill too full, and keep
all oil wiped from the lamp. Be sure that the
lamp is set firmly and properly in the incubator,
thus avoiding danger from fire andsmoke. After
lighting lamp and placing in position leave it

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 27

turned low for a few moments until it burns
up and then it may be safely turned to the de-
sired height. Never leave lamp flame turned up
high enough so that there will beany danger from
smoking. Keep flame the same and do all regu-
lating by the thumb nut, except in some cases the
lamp wick will need turning down on the nine-
teenth day. Why? Do not allow any drafts
of air to blow directly on the lamp.

On the evening of the third day take out the
eggs and turn them, continuing this process
twice a day morning and night until the evening
of the eighteenth day. What are the objects
of turning? Change the position of the trays
regularly to admit of all the eggs being subjected
to a uniform temperature.

In cooling the eggs the operator must be
governed by the temperature of the room and
the season of the year. In general it will be safe
to start cooling on the fifth day and cool five
minutes if the temperature of the room is above
sixty degrees. Eggs require less cooling in cold
weather, the time required for turning usually
being sufficient. Gradually increase the length
of time for cooling until during the last week of
the hatch they may be cooled for over twenty.
minutes under favorable conditions. What are
the objects of cooling? Stop turning and cooling

28 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

by the end of the eighteenth day, before there is
any chance of the chicks starting to pip.

The temperature of the incubator may range
from 101 to 104 degrees. During the first week
it should be kept at 101 to 102 degrees on the fer-
tile egg, which means 102 to 103 degrees above.
The temperature should gradually rise until the
end of the hatch, when it should read 104 de-
grees. Never let the incubator run over 106
degrees, a high temperature during the first week
of the hatch being more fatal than during the
latter part.

The amount of ventilation and moisture de-
pends largely on the kind of incubator used and
on the relative humidity of the incubator room.
Enough fresh air should always be admitted to
supply fresh oxygen to the eggs, but it should not
be admitted in sufficient quantity to cause a too
rapid evaporation of their contents. Moisture
is supplied in different ways and amounts in the
various makes of incubators.

Study carefully the different systems of ven-
tilation and the various methods of supplying
moisture. Which is the simplest, which gives
the best results, and why ?

Keep a careful record of all the work done.
Plot the temperature and moisture curve, and
compare with the ideal.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 29

Figure carefully the following percentages : —

Per cent of fertile eggs to total eggs.

Per cent dead germs to fertile eggs.

Per cent broken to fertile eggs.

Per cent dead in shell to fertile eggs.

Per cent crippled to fertile eggs.

Per cent vigorous chicks to fertile eggs.

Per cent vigorous chicks to total eggs.

The following is a very satisfactory form of
incubator record containing all the facts per-
taining to the hatch.

EXERCISE IX

SELECTION, CARE, AND Puace oF SETTING
A HEN

The majority of chicks are hatched by the
natural method, and where only a few fowls are
to be kept this method is usually very satisfactory.

Mature fowls are better than pullets for in-
cubating eggs; not all hens make good sitters,
however; for that reason select with care a bird
possessed with as many of the following qualifi-
cations as possible. She should be of medium
size, in perfect health, neither thin nor grossly fat,
possessed of a quiet, gentle disposition, allowing
herself to be easily handled after dark; she should

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

30

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32 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

feel warm to the hand when it is placed under the
body with the finger touching the skin.

If only a few hens are to be set, almost any
place where they will be free from disturbances
will be satisfactory. A barrel, box, or specially
prepared shelter may be placed on the south side
of a building, wall, or bank where it is protected
from winds and storms.

If a large number are to be set, the nests are
placed in surplus stock pens or in houses from
which layers have been removed. Wherever
the nest is located, thoroughly disinfect, cleanse,
and see that no vermin are present.

Nests must be roomy, neat, and natural, and
must be provided with a small door or curtain
to darken the nest and keep the hen contented
and comfortable. It should usually not be
smaller than twelve by fourteen inches.

Place in the bottom of the completed nest
loose, dry loam, firming same and hollowing out
place in the centre, being sure to keep corners
and sides high. Why? Place medium-length
straw, hay, or excelsior in the nest, pressing it
down firmly to form the hollow shape. Dust
thoroughly with lice powder, and place two or
three china eggs in the same.

After dark select the hen, dust her carefully
with lice powder, working it into the feathers

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 33

close to the skin, place her gently on the eggs, and
close the nests. Towards the evening of the
next day remove curtain and open door. If
after coming off to eat and drink she returns to
her nest, the sitting of thirteen eggs may be safely
placed under her.

Provide fresh water, whole grain, preferably ,
corn, and some fine dry loam for dusting. Open
the nest morning and night for her to come off
to eat, drink, and dust herself ; after she returns,
which is usually about twenty to thirty minutes,
close the nest again. Thoroughly dust the hen
every seven days with lice powder, and test the
eggs on the seventh and fourteenth days.

Number each nest consecutively, — No. 1 for
the first hen set. Fasten over each nest a card
corresponding to the number of the nest, upon
which an accurate record should be kept showing
the following facts: —

Date when set.

Variety and kind of eggs.

Number of eggs.

Date of first test, number fertile, infertile,
and dead.

Date of second test, number fertile and
number dead.

The hatch.

Number of live chicks taken from the nest.

D

34 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Number of dead in the shell.

If the nests are out of doors, the above record
can be kept in a book or the card kept on file and
used when needed.

Never set the same hen twice the same season.

EXERCISE X

TrsTING, SEVENTH AND FourRTEENTH Days

For testing satisfactorily the room must be
made totally dark, as light makes the contents of
the egg less visible.

The light for testing may be supplied by a
kerosene lamp, acetylene lamp, or by an electric
light placed in a small box, in which has been
bored a round hole one inch in diameter on a
level with the most intense part of the light.
When kerosene lamps are employed, specially
constructed chimneys are available for this pur-
pose. Acetylene lamps or electric lights are the
best.

When everything in the testing room has been
made ready, the eggs should be taken from the
incubator in the tray and set on the table at
the left of the testing lamp. At the-right of the
lamp should be placed a duplicate tray to re-
ceive the tested eggs.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 35

The circular opening should be about six inches
above the waist line for the best work. Take
the untested eggs in the left hand, two or three
at a time, transfer them one at a time to the
right hand, grasping the eggs between the thumb
and two first fingers with the large or air-cell end
outwards. Place this large end in the circular
opening in the testing box, gently revolve the
egg between the fingers, and the strong rays of
light will penetrate the egg, making its contents
visible. This causes the germ, if present, to
change its position, making it the more easily
distinguished.

The important facts to be noted in the first
test are the following: —

Size and location of air cell.
Infertile eggs.

Dead germs.

Germs adhering to the shell.
Cracked eggs.

I. The size of the air cell varies with the period
of incubation and the rapidity with which the
liquids of the egg have evaporated during incu-
bation. The moré moisture in the air the less
evaporation, and consequently the smaller air
cell; the drier the air the more evaporation
and the larger the air cell. Under normal
humid conditions the air cell of a hen’s egg

36 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

will appear in size approximately as fol-
lows : —

5th day, } of one inch deep.
10th day, 4 of one inch deep.
15th day, % of one inch deep.
19th day, } of one inch deep.

If the air cell is too large, moisture must be in-
creased to stop rapid evaporation, and if too
small, evaporation must be increased. An air
cell which is not in its normal position at the
large end of the egg will probably result in a
crippled chick if it succeeds in getting out of the
shell. It is caused by insufficient turning.

II. Any egg which appears clear or translu-
cent with no dark lines appearing in its centre
is infertile. Mark all infertile eggs in some dis-
tinguishing manner, and put in separate tray.
They may be used for chick feeding when hard
boiled, and if tested on the fifth day are perfectly
safe for culinary purposes.

III. A normal egg will show an air cell with the
edge clear-cut and distinct; upon slightly re-
volving, the germ will be seen to move about in
theegg. Rotating from the germ and circulating
around in the egg will be seen numerous dark
lines or veins.

An egg showing a fixed bright red line in the

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 37

form of a circle or semicircle around the germ
is dead, the blood of the embryo having settled
on the shell.

An egg on which the germ appears clear and
distinct as a single dark spot against the shell is
dead, having become fastened to it by insufficient
turning. Remove all eggs containing dead
germs, and when through testing bury them.

An egg showing an air cell and a small, poorly
developed germ is weak, and the chances are that
it will die. It should, however, be left in the
machine until the fourteenth day.

When through testing, place all good eggs with
normal germs in the machine immediately, and
record the number of eggs tested out under their
proper headings on the incubator record.

On the fourteenth day proceed in the same
manner as in the first test. At the second test
there are two objects in view, namely: ob-
serving the increase in the size of the air cell and
determining whether it is normal or not, also the
taking out of any egg, the germs of which were
doubtful or have died since the first test.

A normal egg at this time should have a large,
distinct air cell with the edges clear cut, about
five eighths of an inch deep. The whole centre of
the egg should be uniformly dark in color, nearly

38 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

opaque, and show no well-defined germ or
veins, and should shade to a lighter color near
the pointed end.

An egg containing a dead germ at this period
will show no clearly defined air cell, the whole egg
showing dark and light colors in spots, which
gives it a hazy appearance, the dark portion
running irregularly up into the air cell. Mark
all eggs containing dead germs and bury them;
also remove all cracked or broken eggs. Why?

Any egg which is not clearly understood and
over which there is any doubt as to whether it is
dead or not should be so marked and placed in
the machine, a note being kept whether it
hatches or not, and if so what kind of a chick
comes out.

In cold weather the eggs should be left out no
longer than necessary. Always examine each
egg carefully, and as the appearance of normal
and abnormal germs becomes more familiar try
to increase the speed of handling the eggs. An
experienced tester is able to run through 240
eggs in from eight to ten minutes.

EMBRYOLOGY

EXERCISE XI
ForRMATION OF THE EGG

Secure an old hen, and if possible one in the
laying condition. Kill her by sticking, extra
care being taken to bleed thoroughly. Lay the
bird on her back and with a sharp knife skin the
breast and abdomen as far back as the cloaca.
Tear the peritoneum, which is the membrane
lining the intestinal cavity, and remove the
organs of digestion, namely, liver, gizzard, in-
testines, spleen, etc., being yery careful not to
rupture the oviduct or ovaries.

At the same time prepare a fresh egg for study.
Break the shell carefully, and allow the contents
to run into a shallow dish without rupturing any
more than possible. Most of the parts dis-
cussed can be seen with the naked eye.

Examine organs of reproduction as they lie in
their normal position. They consist of a single
ovary and oviduct; the ovary lying on the left
side of the body resembles somewhat a bunch of

39

40 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

grapes, the external appearance being that of a
granular body attached to the spine by a folding
of the peritoneum. The nodules or ovum will
be seen irregular in size, some small and white,
and as they develop becoming large and yellow-
ish.

Remove one of the largest ova, and examine
it for the following characters. The develop-
ment of the ovum is caused by the accumulation
of the yellow or yolk food, which causes a dis-
tention of the ovarian sack or calyx that encloses
the ovum. As it develops this yolk sack be-
comes more or less separated from the ovary and
forms a complete covering for the ovum, remain-
ing attached to the ovary only by a narrow base
or stem called a pedicle. The calyx or yolk sack
will be seen to consist of two membranes joined
together by connective tissue and blood vessels.
These blood vessels seem to end in a transverse
white line which crosses the largest part of the
calyx. This band is called the stigma, and begins
to appear when the ovum is well developed, and
when fully developed the calyx gives way along
this line and the egg slips from its capsule and
passes into the enlarged funnel-shaped opening
of the oviduct. The empty sack collapses,
diminishing in size rapidly until it is finally
absorbed.

Fic. 16. — REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FEMALE.

(a) Ovary.

(b) Funnel-shaped opening to the oviduct.

(c) Portion of the oviduct which secretes the albumen.
(d) Uterus or shell-forming portion.

(e) Opening of the oviduct.

(f) Intestine. (g) Cloaca.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 41

Make an outline drawing of a fully developed
ovum.

The oviduct is a white tube which during the
breeding season is larger than the largest intes-
tine, covered with a network of branching blood
vessels. It starts near the ovary with an en-
larged funnel-shaped opening, and follows a
curved course, being bent upon itself three times,
finally reaching the cloaca, where it opens.

When the ovum enters the oviduct it consists
of a yolk or vitellus enclosed in a thin vitelline
membrane. Immediately upon its entering this
organ fertilization takes place, and it is pro-
pelled by the peristaltic contraction of the duct
toward the cloaca with a rotary or revolving
motion. The passage of the ovum stimulates
the membranes to secrete three layers of albumen
as it moves along, the first one being dense and
rich, containing threadlike forms connected at
each end which hold the yolk in place. These
threadlike pieces are called chalaze, and are
twisted in opposite directions by the rotations of
the ovum. Each of the following layers of al-
bumen is thinner and more watery than the
ones which preceded it.

When the ovum reaches the small part of the
oviduct two dense layers of albumen are added,
which form the inner and outer shell membrane.

42 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

A space at the large end between these mem-
branes being filled with air is called the air cell.
As the egg, small end first, nears the cloaca, the
last secretion, consisting of a thin liquid, is added;
this condenses and forms the shell. The pas-
sage of the egg down the oviduct requires from
four to six hours’ time. During the non-breeding
season the organs are greatly reduced in size and
nearly disappear.

Remove the oviduct, cross-section same, and
determine the different dilations which secrete
the various fluids. Make a sketch of the entire
oviduct.

The color of the shell depends upon pigment
matter secreted by certain membranes of the
uterus. What are the composition and function
of the shell ?

EXERCISE XII

FORMATION OF THE CHICK, FROM THE THIRD
TO THE SixtH Day

Take from the incubator or from under the
hen eggs which have been incubated for from
three to six days, one for each day. Test them
to make sure that they are fertile and of normal
development. Empty the contents of each egg
carefully into a separate dish, preferably porce-

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 43

lain-lined, using great care not to rupture the
yolk. Examine with the naked eye, and note
any great differences or marked stages in their
development. A hand lens will aid in more
clearly distinguishing and understanding many
of the stages of development.

The growth of the embryo up to the seventh
day is briefly outlined as follows: During the
first twenty-four hours the embryo develops
those parts which afterwards become some of the
leading organs of the body, namely: the head,
the vitelline vein, neural fold and groove. Note
the clear area about the embryo, called the area
pellucida. Note the presence of a peculiar mem-
brane which envelops the embryo, forming a
cavity in which it lies. It is made in folds, and
when these folds meet and coalesce above the
embryo, they unite so that the inner folds form
a continuous inner membrane or sack and the
outer membrane forms an outer membrane or
sack. The inner membrane forms a complete
closed sack around the embryo, and is called the
amniotic sack, or trueamnion. The liquid which
it contains is called the amniotic fluid. The
outer membrane lies close under the vitelline
membrane and is called the false amnion, and

goes to make up the serous membrane of the
body.

44 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Note the general shape of the embryo and any
change in the general position from day to day.
Examine the development of the brain as char-
acterized by the projections on the head. Lo-
cate the following: cerebral hemisphere, fore-
brain, mid-brain, and cerebellum. Examine
carefully the development of these, and note the
rapid development of the optic vesicle and the
growth of the lens. Just above and a little to
the rear of the optic vesicle will be seen the
auditory pit or vesicle. At the base of the head
fold, below the optic vesicle, will be seen the
heart, and running from it are the numerous
veins and arteries which form the vascular
system. The heart begins to beat and blood to
flow during the second day. The vascular sys-
tem increases in size very rapidly, and at the end
of the third day is nearly complete.

Passing down the body of the embryo in the
centre will be seen a dark line, which is called
the noto-cord, and develops into the spinal cord.
On each side of this cord will be seen small dark
projections called the proto-vertebree, which later
form the bones of the spinal column. On the
third day the embryo turns on its left side, the
head bends downward, the vitelline circulation is
completed, and the events after that day are
distinguished by the extension of parts already

Fic. 17.— Empryo Curtck on Turrp Day.

Seen from below, with head turned to one side.

rm

(a') False amnion.
(a) Amnion.
(ch) Cerebral hemisphere.

(ab) Anterior cerebral vesicle.

(mb) Middle cerebral vesicle.

(pb) Posterior cerebral vesicle.

(op) Optic vesicle.

(at) Auditory vesicle.
(h) Heart.

(v) Veins and arterics.
(nc) Notochord.

(pv) Protovertebre.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 45

marked out rather than by the formation of new
ones. On the fourth day the wing fold appears
midway on the curvature of the body, and the
folds forming the hind limbs also appear, being
shorter than the front limbs. The embryo in-
creases greatly in size.

Make a sketch of the six-day-old embryo, show-
ing the organs above named. Take notes on the
differences seen in the various-aged embryos,
briefly describing changes as seen.

EXERCISE XIII

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHICK FROM THE EIGHTH
To THE NINETEENTH Day

Take from the incubator or from under the
hen eggs whose embryos are eight, twelve, sixteen,
and nineteen days old respectively, and test to see
if they are normal. Carefully break the shell and
place contents in shallow dish, using great care
not to break the yolk. Examine carefully with
the naked eye the development which the em-
bryo makes from day to day.

From the seventh day on, the business of the
chick (for such it may now be called) is to grow,
and it is only necessary to notice a few of the
more important changes which take place bring-

46 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

ing about the distinctive type of the species and
variety.

The feathers begin to appear on the ninth day:
by the thirteenth day they are found all over the
body to the length of a quarter of aninch. The
sacks in which they are enclosed do not break
until after hatching. The white of the egg will
be seen to have disappeared, and a very thick
viscid mass remains at the lower surface of the
egg. Note the greatly increased length of the
limbs and the division of the distal ends into
fingers and toes.

On the eighth day the beak begins to form, and
can be distinguished as a chalky-looking mass,
which by the twelfth day has developed into a
horny beak, although still soft. On the thir-
teenth day the nails may be seen, which together
with the beak are considerably hardened by the
sixteenth day. During the fourteenth day the
embryo moves its position so that it lies length-
wise in the shell, its beak touching the inner shell
membrane; the air space at the broad end will
be seen greatly enlarged. It is in this position
that the chick must lie in order to make its way
out of the shell. If not so placed, it will represent
a false presentation and will probably be unable
to make its exit.

By the twelfth day the chick will be seen to

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 47

occupy the whole of the shell except the air space.
The yolk will be seen almost entirely absorbed,
the walls being loose and flabby. Just previous
to hatching the yolk is drawn into the body, the
walls closing over it at the umbilicus. This yolk
enclosed within the body serves to supply the
chick with food for twenty-four to thirty-six hours
after hatching.

Notice the movement of the embryo after the
fourteenth day, also the beating of the heart,
which will continue for. a long time after the
embryo has been taken from the egg.

Make a sketch of the embryo as seen on the
fourteenth day, marking all the parts.

The following is the process of hatching, briefly
described. Carefully observe same when the
chicks are hatching in the incubator.

When ready to come out, the chick raises its
head and pierces the inner shell membrane, and
immediately starts breathing the air in the cham-
ber, which causes the pulmonary circulation to
become active and the embryonic circulation to
cease. The head is next raised into the air cham-
ber, and the chick deals blows upon the shell,
which when often repeated in the same place
result in fracturing it. This process is repeated
until the shell is broken around about one third
of the way from the large end. The chick then

48 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

presses its head against the large end and its
feet against the small end, and then by pushing
is able to throw off the shell lid and make its
exit.

By observation note the length of time which
it takes for the chick to get free from the shell
from the time that it starts to pip.

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ARTIFICIAL BROODING

EXERCISE XIV

LocaTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF BROODER
HovuseEs

The following systems in brooder house design
are in common use.

(a) Long house.
1. Continuous hover heated by hot-
water pipes.
2. Indoor individual brooder, double
or single, heated by kerosene lamps.
3. Equipped with fireless brooders.
(b) Small colony brooder house with indoor
brooder.

In long brooder houses the entire house is
usually kept at the desired temperature by
means of wall or ceiling coils of pipes, and the
hovers are heated separately.

Which of these systems are in use on the
plant being studied ?

Note the location of the brooder house with
reference to the incubator cellar. Is it near at
hand or at considerable distance? Which is

E 49

50 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

best, and why? Note the location with refer-
ence to the prevailing wind direction. Are the
windows, doors, and yards so placed as to receive
protection from the building itself? Note its
location with reference to the points of the com-
pass, observing the various amounts of sunshine
which enter the house at various times during
the day.

What type of roof is used? Do you think
the one in use has any advantage over other
types? Are the walls single or double? Which
of the following materials are used for the outside
walls: shingles, clapboards, or paper? With a
tape, measure the surface to be covered and figure
the relative first cost of these three materials.
Considering durability, which material would
it be most desirable to use? Note the height
and width of the building. Estimate the amount
of material used in construction, and figure the
cost of same per running foot. Does a walk run
through the centre of the building with pens
running towards each wall, or is the walk arranged
on one side with the pens running to the front?
Ts the walk on a level with the floor of the build-
ing, or is it depressed? The advantages of the
latter are as follows: —

I. The ease with which the brooders and
lamps can be attended.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 51

II. By having the chick floor elevated, the
chicks are brought nearer the ceiling, which is
the warm part of the house; this reduces the
enclosed air space, which means a saving of heat
required to maintain a given temperature.

If a pipe brooder house, examine the con-
struction of the hover. Are the pipes carried
through the top of the hovers, supplying heat
from above, or are the pipes carried under the
hover, supplying heat by means of a drum in the
centre? The latter method is rapidly coming
into general use. Observe the height of the
windows from the brooder floor, also the pres-
ence or absence of muslin curtains at the windows
for ventilation. Is the building supplied with
ventilators for carrying off the dust and foul air ?
Test the ventilators with light fluffy feathers or a
lighted match to see if they work the right way.

Are there any labor-saving devices such as
mechanical fixtures for opening and shutting
windows, cords or pulleys for raising or lowering
hovers, thermostatic arrangements for regulat-
ing the temperature of the room, etc.? If so,
note their construction and arrangement.

Note the construction of the inside pens.
Does the wire run to the ceiling, and does the
attendant enter the pen to clean, feed, and water,
or are the pens constructed with a covering of

52 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

wire about a foot from the floor, allowing the
work to be done from the walk by simply re-
moving or raising the wire frame? The latter
method is adapted for young chicks and espe-
cially where individual brooders are used.

Figure the total square inches under the hovers,
also the total square inches of chick floor space
in the whole house, and determine the capacity.
Each chick requires about four to five square
inches of hover space the first week, which
amount should gradually increase until at six
to eight weeks of age they require from ten to
twelve square inches of hover space. The idea
is to give them sufficient room to spread out and
not to crowd.

Is the heater located in the centre of the
brooder house or at the end? If the runs of the
pipe are to be over one hundred feet, the heater
will prove more efficient if placed in the centre
with the runs of pipes running each way; if less
than one hundred feet, it is best placed at the
end of the house.

Nots. — See Frontispiece.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 53

EXERCISE XV

A Stupy or THE ARTIFICIAL BROODER

There are four requirements for a successful
brooder : —

I. An inviting, properly ventilated hover to
which the chicks may flock at any time and
warm up quickly.

II. A ventilated and lighted brooder or apart-
ment warm enough to prevent the chicks from
chilling.

III. Arun protected from the wind and storms
by being enclosed within a brooder house.

IV. An outside yard available in pleasant
weather.

An indoor brooder must of itself supply the
first two requirements; while the outdoor
brooder must supply the first three to be com-
plete.

Having gathered together all available
brooders of as many makes as possible, carefully
examine them to see how perfectly each one is
designed to fulfil the above-mentioned require-
ments.

First examine the indoor brooders and note
the following points. Some are constructed with
single and some with double hovers, in either

54 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

case one lamp being sufficient to supply the nec-
essary heat. Remove or open the top of the
hover and examine the method of heating. Fol-
low the course of the warm air from the lamp
through the heat tubes. Note the varying
amount of radiating area. Some heating ar-
rangements will be seen to be very complex,
others very simple.

Hovers will be seen of various shapes, some
square, others round, and in some the heat is
radiated from above and in others from the side.
Which do you consider best and why? Do you
ever find the heat coming from below? If not,
why ?

Note the way that the hover is ventilated.
Is it sufficient, in your estimation? Also notice
the ease with which the various hovers can be
properly cleaned and ventilated, as well as the
ease with which the attendant can observe the
chicks when they go under the hover. Is the
hover movable or stationary? Which is best?
Does the method of heating the hover give it a
uniform temperature throughout? Notice the
method of taking the temperature by inserting a
thermometer through the top of the hover. In
some hovers there will be found a thermostat
for automatically regulating the temperature;
with others it is necessary to raise and lower the

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 55

hover to change the temperature; in still others
the hover is turned; while in some all regulating
must be done by the lamp. What material is
used to separate the hover from the brooder
apartment and yet allow the chicks to move in
and out at will? How is this material prepared
and attached ?

Note the presence, except in the Universal
hovers, of a large, well-lighted, and ventilated
brooder apartment closely connected with the
hover, in which the chicks may stay when not
desiring the heated hover.

When studying the brooder take it to pieces
whenever possible, noting the kind of lumber
used, how it is fastened together, and position
and attachment of the lamp. Measure the floor
space of the hover, and determine the capacity of
the brooder.

Outpoor BRooDER

Examine all outdoor brooders, and determine
if they fulfil the requirements outlined at the
beginning of the exercise, observing the same
points that have been noted in regard to the
indoor brooder.

Besides the hover and the brooder compart-
ment the modern outdoor brooder will be found

56 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

to possess a third compartment; namely, a run
protected from the wind and rain, in which the
chicks may exercise when the weather is not
suitable for them to be out of doors.

Examine the construction, carefully noting
the double walls, position of the lamp, and pres-
ence of a chimney, also the way in which the
roof is constructed and attached to the brooder
and how the entire brooder is made waterproof.

EXERCISE XVI
Art oF RUNNING A BROODER

Successful brooding depends on the conditions
affecting the egg before and during incubation,
also upon the circumstances and conditions
affecting the chick during the brooding period.
Four days before the brooders are to receive the
chicks, give them a thorough overhauling and
cleaning. Wash all inside parts with a five per
cent solution of creolin; see that the heat tubes,
if any, are properly connected. Start the lamp
so as to have the brooders properly warmed and
regulated before the chicks are ready. Empty
out any old kerosene which may be in the lamp,
put in a new wick, fill with new kerosene, and see
that the wick is properly trimmed. When plac-
ing the lamp in the brooder, see that it is set

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 57

firmly in place and that the chimney is set firmly
on the burner. Turn the flame low at first.
After the brooder has thoroughly dried, cover
the floor about an inch deep with fine sand over
which place fine chaff, preferably in the form of
clover or alfalfa leaves.

Keep the temperature under the hover from
ninety-five to ninety-eight degrees the first week,
gradually lower it to about eighty degrees the
second, and during the third week it may drop to
seventy degrees. The chicks themselves will
show to the careful observer the temperature
which should be maintained, the object being to
keep them comfortable. A great variation in
temperature must be avoided.

Remove the chicks to the brooder in closed
basket or nursery drawer when they are from
thirty-six to forty-eight hours old, taking care
not to chill. them during the transferring. Place
them under the hover, about fifty to each
brooder. Supply them with an abundance of
white crystal grit and fresh water for the first
day, all other food being withheld. Why?

During the first twenty-four hours confine
them closely to the hover so they will learn where
to go and warm up quickly, thus largely pre-
venting huddling, after which time they may be
allowed the run of the brooder.

58 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

The hover as well as the entire brooder should
be well ventilated, so that an abundant supply of
fresh air may be drawn into the same and gently
forced into the hover. On warm, pleasant days,
when the chicks are out, open the brooder as
much as possible, allowing the sun to strike all
parts of it.

Keep the brooder dry and clean.

Once a week clean the brooder thoroughly, put-
ting in fresh sand and litter. Sprinkle a little
clean sand on the floor daily. Thoroughly cleanse
and disinfect the brooder before each brood.

Keep an accurate record of the temperature
of brooder and room, also of all deaths as they
occur, together with any notes in regard to the
same, as symptoms, general appearance, probable
cause of death, etc. The accompanying brooder
record will be found especially adapted to this
purpose.

Nots.— The feeding of little chicks is purposely

omitted, as a thorough discussion of the subject is not in
line with the object of this work.

59

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

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60 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EXERCISE XVII

Hovusine, Location, AND CARE OF HENS AND
CHICKS

Houses or shelters for hens with chicks may
be very simple and inexpensive. An empty
barrel laid on its side, raised a few inches
from the ground, provides an efficient shelter.
A-shaped coops constructed of lumber from dry
goods boxes, barrel staves, etc., make suitable
houses.

Whatever kind of a shelter is used it should be
at least one and one half by two feet square, and
must be provided with a wooden floor to keep
out vermin. It should also be provided with a
wire or board door for use at night to keep out
all prowlers. If located out of doors, the house
must be raised a few inches from the ground to
keep water from standing in it, and it should have
a sloping roof which is waterproof. A shelter
for protecting the front of the coop in bad
weather may be constructed of boards about
three feet wide and allowed to project over the
front.

Construct a suitable shelter, keeping in mind
the above requirements.

Place the coop in the shelter of some building,

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 61

hedge, or wall, facing it to the south or east and
where the chicks can find abundant shade if they
desire. Cover the floor about two inches deep
with nesting material cut fine.

If the shelter in which the chicks were hatched
is in good condition, it will be best to let the hen
brood them in the same nest. Twenty-four to
thirty-six hours after hatching carefully remove
the chicks for a few minutes while the old nesting
material is cleaned out, the nest disinfected with
a carbolic spray, and new nesting material re-
placed.

As the chicks are placed under the hen, mark
them with a punch well into the web, taking care
not to injure the bones of the foot. The marks
are to designate different matings. Replace
only the strong, healthy chicks, remove and kill
any weak ones, allowing twelve to fourteen
chicks to a large hen and nine to a small one.

Keep the hen and chicks close to the coop for
the first few days until they get strong and know
their home.. If cats, hawks, and other enemies
are troublesome, it will be necessary to provide
covered runs until the chicks are four weeks old.

Dust the hen and nest often with lice powder,
and watch the chicks for head and body lice;
should head lice appear, rub lard on the head,
which will cause them to leave.

62 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Keep fresh water, grit, and an abundance of
green food before them all the time.

Keep a record of each hen and her chicks, the
per cent of mortality, the gain in weight, and the
apparent health and vigor of each brood, and
compare with artificial brooding.

Nore. — See Figure 14.

EXERCISE XVIII

Crate FarreninG

The main requirements for economical fatten-
ing are: —

I. The partial confinement of young fowls.

II. The feeding at regular intervals, two or
three times a day, of a suitable mixture of ground
feed.

Construct a fattening crate out of 1 x 2 inch
scantling and laths, making it two feet high and
dividing it into three or four pens, each of which
should be about 2 x 2% feet. Each pen will then
hold from four to six birds, depending on the
size. Provide a shelf on the front, level with the
floor, for the feed troughs.

Place the crate in a building which can be
partially darkened, raising it about three feet
from the ground and placing it back to the wall
if possible. If it is desired to fatten a large num-

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 63

ber, the crates may be placed one above the other
to economize space. Construct a V-shaped feed-
ing trough out of 1 x4 inch boards.

Success in crate fattening depends largely on
the selection of the birds to be fattened. The
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes give much
better results than the smaller breeds.

Next select the birds for fattening, choosing
only those which are strong and healthy, those
which have a large frame capable of putting on a
lot of flesh, and those which have yellow skin
and shanks. White plumage is preferable to
colored, as the bird dresses better.

Having selected the birds, leg-band them and
weigh carefully, keeping an accurate record of
each.

Place them in the crates four in each pen, and
keep the room partially darkened except when
feeding, at which time it should be as light as
possible. Feed regularly three times a day by
placing the feed trough before them for twenty
minutes at a time and removing it at the close
of each meal. Keep water before them all the
time.

A ration which gives good results consists of
the following : —

One part of fine ground oats.
One part of fine ground corn meal.

64 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

This mixture may be fed dry in the feeding
trough, or it may be mixed with skim milk.
When once mixed with skim milk, do not keep it
over from one feeding to another. Why?

Weigh the birds daily, recording the variation
in weight. Determine the time of maximum
gain and the time when the birds should be
slaughtered for the best results. The time
usually required to satisfactorily fatten is from
two hundred and fifty to three hundred and
twenty-five hours. Figure the profit, keeping
in mind the following points: —

Weight before feeding.

Selling price per pound before feeding.

Total value before feeding.

Gain in weight before feeding.

Cost of food consumed.

Cost of producing a pound of flesh during
feeding.

Weight after feeding.

Selling price per pound after feeding.

Total value after feeding.

Profit from feeding.

If time permits, carry a number of different
lots through the crate, using different rations
and determining the relative merits of each.

Always bear in mind the fact that animals
fatten better at rest, since the economy of food

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 65

is promoted by diminishing the demand for heat
and energy.

EXERCISE XIX

Macuine Fatrenine

Select the birds to be fattened, and place them
one or two in each crate. The stall should be
made smaller than in crate fattening, about
sixteen by eighteen inches, and should be pro-
vided with a sliding door.

Construct the crate with movable pans or sliding
boards in the bottom. Why? Place the coops
one above the other in a building which can be
darkened.

Before attempting to feed the birds with the
machine, study its construction carefully, noting
the following parts and the work which each
part performs. Note the construction and shape
of the food chamber. What is its capacity?
Measure the diameter of the piston and the
length of the stroke. How much food does one
stroke of the piston force through the cylinder ?
Find the spring which brings the piston and foot
lever back into place. Examine the nozzle and
food tube; how is it constructed so as not to in-
jure the bird’s mouth or throat? Find the stop
for regulating the amount of food, move it up and

F

66 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

down; notice in each case the length of the piston
stroke. Examine the treadle construction and
lever attachment.

After becoming familiar with the principle of
the cramming machine, prepare the following
feed for use in same.

2 parts fine ground oats.

1 part fine corn meal.

1 part fine ground buckwheat.

Pulverized charcoal 5 lbs. to each 100 lbs.
of mixture.

A few hours before feeding take a sufficient
quantity of the above stock ration and mix it
with skim milk to the consistency of cream, fill
the food hopper, and at feeding time wheel the
machine in front of the birds to be fed.

Take the bird in the left hand, holding its feet
and flight feathers firmly in the same hand.
Stretch out the neck with the right hand, and
push the feed tube down the bird’s throat, being
sure that the nozzle ends in the crop. Place the
fingers of the right hand on the crop and press
the treadle with the foot. The pressure of food
in the crop will tell when the right amount of
food has been given. Feed lightly at first,
gradually increasing the amount up to the second
week, when the bird should receive a full ration
three times a day until killing time, which is usu-

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 67

ally from eighteen to twenty-one days. Weigh
the birds each day, noting the gain in weight.
If fed properly, the greatest gain will occur during
the second week.

Figure the profit from cramming, taking into
consideration the gain in weight, amount and
value of food consumed, also value before and
after feeding, and extra labor required.

*

EXERCISE XX
CAPONIZING

Select some young cockerels:four months old,
shut them up, and withhold all food for from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours before operating.
Secure a narrow table, box, or barrel about three
feet high and one which is light, so that it can be
easily moved about. Before attempting the op-
eration, study the instruments carefully, learning
the name of each of the following and how it is
handled.

Hooks and cord.

Caponizing knife.

Spreader.

Caponizing hook.

Probe and spatula.

Cannula and wire or patent scoop.
Spoon forceps.

Tweezers.

68 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

THE OPERATION

Lay the bird on its left side and wrap the cord
twice around the legs, making a half slip with the
hook; attach to the other end a weight about
the size of a half brick. Wrap the second string
around the wings, bringing them together at the
back, and let the weights hang over the opposite
sides of the table, thus holding the fowl secure.
Moisten the feathers with a two per cent solution
of creolin. This tends to prevent bleeding, and
makes the feathers stay where placed, and kills
any germs which may be present.

Pluck a few feathers above the first and second
ribs, and pull the skin with the left hand toward
the hip so that after the operation the skin will
move back, covering the opening. Grasp the
knife in the right hand, and make the incision
between the first and second rib, cutting away
from the backbone. In making the cut push
the point of the knife in quickly about one quar-
ter of an inch, and hold it there, as the bird will
move its ribs up and down for a moment; then
increase the cut to about an inch in length, taking
care to cut between the ribs. Next insert the
spreader by pressing it together and having the
hook ends catch between the ribs. Should the
wound bleed freely, wipe it off with a piece of cot-

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 69

ton saturated with the creolin solution. With the
caponizing hook next tear the thin skin or peri-
toneum until the right testicle is plainly seen, and
have the opening large enough to admit the can-
nula easily. The hook must be used with care,
as there is danger of rupturing the arteries and
intestines. Next with the probe locate both
testicles, moving the table if necessary so that
the light shines directly in the incision. Take
the cannula in the left hand and thread it properly
with the wire, having the loop in the shape of an
oval a little larger than the testicle. Insert it in
the opening, and with the aid of the probe catch
the lower or left hand testicle in the loop; gradu-
ally draw the loop up with the right hand, gently
shaking the cannula and allowing the wire loop to
‘ slip up around the testicle until only the spermatic
cord is left. Now, gently pull the rest of the
loop into the cannula, giving the wire a sliding
motion which will sever the cord and leave the
testicle free. Remove same immediately with
the spoon forceps. Next remove the right or up-
per testicle in the same manner as the left. The
left testicle should always be removed first, as it
is the hardest to remove, and if the right one is
taken first bleeding may follow which will en-
tirely hide the lower one from view. If for any
reason it is impossible to take the lower one out,

70 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

it will be necessary to turn the bird and repeat
the operation from the left side. Use great care
to get all of the testicles out, for if any is left at-
tached it will cause a slip; by which is meant a
bird partially altered, but which possesses very
few if any of the advantages of capons. If much
blood is caused to flow, use a piece of cotton and
the tweezers to absorb same.

Remove the spreader, allow the skin to settle
back covering the opening, and wash the wound
with a disinfecting solution. Place the birds in
clean, shady quarters, with plenty of fresh water.
Feed them a soft mash for the first week at
least, and do not allow them to exercise violently
for the first few days.

The day following the operation look the birds
over for wind puffs near the incision, which will
be made to disappear by piercing them with a
sharp needle.

If a bird is killed during the operation, it is
as good for food as if it had been bled in the
neck.

When through caponizing cleanse all instru-
ments, wipe them dry, and place in the case for
the next operation.

Mark each bird operated upon with leg-bands
to keep them from getting mixed with male birds.

Weigh them each week and keep a record of

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 71

their gain in weight, and compare with unaltered
cockerels of the same age.

EXERCISE XXI
Tue PRESERVATION oF Eccs

Secure four jars holding about two quarts
each; they may be of stoneware or glass. A
two-quart Mason glass jar with rubber seal is
excellent. Scald the vessels thoroughly with
boiling water.

Place in each jar fifteen fresh-laid eggs, not
over one week old, which have been kept in a
cool place and washed clean. Number the jars
with printed labels one to four.

Next prepare the following solutions :—

No. I. Take one pint of water glass or silicate
of soda, and add to it nine pints of boiling water,
which makes approximately a ten per cent solu-
tion. Pour this solution of water glass over the
eggs in jar number one until they arecompletely
covered, and seal the jar.

No. II. Take one pound of quicklime and one
pound of table salt, and thoroughly mix them
with four quarts of boiling water. After slaking
and settling pour off the clear solution, and use
same to cover the eggs in jar number two.

72 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

No. III. Make a solution by dissolving three
and one half ounces of common table salt in two
quarts of boiling water, which makes a six per
cent solution. Cover the eggs in jar number
three with this solution, and seal.

No. IV. Dissolve two ounces of salicylic acid
(erystals) in alcohol, and add this solution to one
quart of water. Immerse the remaining fifteen
eggs in this solution for one hour, allow them to
dry, and pack separately, small ends down, in the
remaining jar in fine dry sand. Be sure to cover
all the eggs and seal the jar.

Mark on each jar the date and character of
the preservative used; also keep a record of same
in the notes. Place all four jars in a dark, cool
place, preferably on a dirt or cement floor in a
cellar. Leave them entirely alone for from six
to twelve months, at which time test them and
determine the advantages of the various preser-
vatives.

If eggs have been laid down at some previous
time for testing, examine them carefully and
compare with the strictly fresh egg as regards
the following : —

Color of shell.
Color of yolk.
Color of albumen.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 73

The presence or absence of mould on the
inside of the egg.

Consistency of yolk.

Consistency of albumen.

Flavor.

Smell.

Size of air cell.

Rotten or not.

Determine whether the eggs are usable for
culinary purposes or not, and rate each preserva-
tive in terms of per cent according to the number
of eggs which are good or bad; 100 per cent
meaning all good and 0 per cent all bad.

EXERCISE XXII

New EncitaAnp Merson or KILLING

Secure a plump chicken or other fowl which
is ready for killing. Attach a stout cord, with a
noose at the loose end, to a beam or ceiling, in
such a position that the bird when struggling will
not strike any obstacle. Take both feet in the
right hand and thrust them through the loop,
tighten it, and be sure that they are held securély
and that the head of the bird is about opposite
the waist line or a little below. Next lock the
wings to prevent flapping; this can be done by

74 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

bringing one over the other and catching the tip
of the upper wing under that of the lower; this
makes it impossible for the bird to free itself and
allows the picker free use of both hands. Grasp
the head firmly in the left hand, opening the beak
by the use of the thumb and the middle finger.

When you have a secure hold, thrust the blade
down the throat until the point is just behind the
head, draw it across with the point slipping
along the neck or backbone; this severs the
jugular vein and insures good bleeding. With-
draw the knife, and allow the bird to bleed freely
for afew moments; this may be hastened by hold-
ing the tongue down with the knife. Next place
the point of the knife against the roof of themouth
with the cutting edge towards the left hand and
force it through the membrane into the brain
cavity, turn it once around by a twist of the
wrist, and then draw the blade directly across the
base of the brain, thus severing the spinal cord
and thereby destroying the control which in life
the bird has over its feathers. As soon as the
brain has been pierced, turn the knife into the skin
of the lower beak and make a hole, through which
place a hook suspending a weight such as a horse-
shoe or brick. This keeps the neck extended
and insures a thorough bleeding, which is all-im-
portant.

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 75

After this operation quickly rub the hands
down the neck, removing the feathers therefrom.
and allowing them to fall into a barrel or box
provided for the purpose. Pull the tail and
wing feathers by a quick twist, and throw them
on the ground, then begin to remove those from
the tenderest parts of the body first, which on
the chicken are the breast and back near the base
of the tail and on the turkey the breast and the
thigh. Never use the fingernails to pick with;
the side of the forefinger and the end of the
thumb are much quicker and will not scratch.
When pulling the short or pin feathers, the nails
will have to be.used, but great care must be taken
that only a careful, clean pluck is made, as not
a scratch or scrape will pass in first-class prod-
ucts.

By the time the body is picked the bird will
be so nearly dead that flapping will be almost
impossible; then the wings may be unlocked and
picked clean. With turkeys the wing or flight
feathers may be left on, and with chickens the
wings may be cut off at the outer joint, not hurt-
ing the sale of the bird in the least.

When through picking, immerse the bird in
clean, cold water for one hour, which takes out
all of the animal heat and causes the body to
plump up.

76 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Weigh the bird before and after killing and
picking, and find the shrinkage.

EXERCISE XXIIT

New Jersey Mersop or KILLING AND PIcKING

Secure a large box about two feet square and
two feet high, fasten a leather boot leg to one
side, and place a box or stool beside it for a seat.
Select the fowl to be killed and hold it under the
left arm with the back up so that the neck is
stretched out when the arm is extended. Grasp
the head in the left hand, and open the beak from
the under side with the forefinger; with right
hand stick the bird with a sharp knife similar to
the New England Method.

While the bird is bleeding hold her by the base
of both wings and pluck the large wing and tail
feathers, then strike the head once or twice with
a short stick to stun and stop bleeding. Now
sit beside the box, thrusting the bird’s head into
the boot leg, holding it there with the knee and
holding the wings between the knees. Hold
the legs in the left hand and pick with the right;
first take out the breast feathers, then the back
and legs, finishing with the small wing feathers.

When picking, keep the bird stretched out and

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 77

always pull the feathers towards the head.
Throw all soft feathers into the box, those with
quills being discarded. Use a knife and the
thumb in drawing the pin feathers.

When through picking, immerse the bird in
cold water, allow to drain, and it is ready to pack
for shipment.

What are the advantages and disadvantages
of the two methods previously outlined ?

EXERCISE XXIV

SHAPING AND DRESSING

In preparing birds for market the appearance
of the dressed carcass governs the price; for this
reason any method which increases the desirable
qualities should be favored.

Shaping, while employed in this country to
but a small extent, is however a common practice
in Europe, and the value of the birds is thereby
greatly enhanced.

Construct a V-shaped trough thirty inches
long out of two 34 inch boards, the back board
being six inches high and the front one five inches.
Have the end pieces extend eight to ten inches
below the trough to act as legs and raise it from
the floor and table. As soon as the birds to be

78 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

shaped are plucked, tie the hocks loosely together
so that the legs lie flat against each side of the
breast. Before tying draw the meat upwards by
means of the hands, thus improving the appear-
ance of the bird. Next strike the stern against
a clean wall or bench, flattening it and making it
fit the shaping trough easily. Lay each bird in
the shaping trough breast down, with the neck
and head hanging over the front. The first
bird must be pressed firmly against the side of
the trough and a weight placed by its side to hold
it in position; as succeeding birds are placed in
the trough, the weight should be moved along
until the trough is packed full. It is very
essential to have them firmly and tightly packed.

Next lay a board about five inches wide over
the backs of the fowls just behind the wings, and
place upon it a heavy weight, which must be
equally distributed over its entire length, about
eight to ten pounds per bird. Allow the birds to
remain in the trough for several hours until they
are cold and set, after which they may be re-
moved, dressed, and packed for shipment.

Shaping adds nothing to the weight; it simply
improves the appearance.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 79

DRESSING

Fowls which are to be marketed in the common
or wholesale manner must never be drawn or cut
inany way. This work is left to the middleman
to perform in accord with his customers’ require-
ments. When selling direct to the consumer and
in a high-class retail trade it is best to deliver the
birds ready for cooking.

With a bird to be roasted proceed as follows:
place a handful of straw in the stove and when
blazing hold the bird above the same, burning or
singeing all hairs from the body. Use care not
to blacken the skin; this is why paper is objec-
tionable.

After singeing proceed as follows : —

I. Notch the skin of each leg just above the
joint so as to cut the sinews; twist the shank,
breaking the joint, and sever the tendons with a
knife.

II. Remove outer joint of wing in the same
way.

III. Pull the skin of the neck towards the body
and sever the neck about one inch from the body;
thus when the skin is released, about one inch of
free neck skin is left.

IV. Make a cut two inches long at one side
of the breast, exposing the crop; remove same,

80 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE.

being careful not to increase the size of the open-
ing.

V. Turn the bird with the tail towards the
operator and make a longitudinal cut about two
inches in length from the vent towards the
point of the keel. Insert the forefinger and
carefully loosen the tissue and fat around the
intestines and gizzard; when entirely loosened
draw them out, taking care not to rupture any
part. When all are out make a circular cut
around the vent and remove same with the
intestines.

VI. Next remove all internal organs, as liver,
gall, spleen, reproductive organs, heart, and
lungs, taking care not to tear the flesh around
the opening.

VII. Wash bird out thoroughly with warm
water followed by cold.

VIII. Open gizzard and heart and wash out
and place with the liver in the body cavity.

IX. Take small white thread and needle,
gather loose neck skin over the end of the neck,
and sew smoothly together and fasten.

X. Take six or eight stitches in the breast in
the opening from which the crop was taken, leav-
ing it perfectly smooth.

XI. Lay the wings flat and secure on the
sides of the body, and pass white cotton string

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 81

twice around the entire body and fasten, thus
holding them close and smooth.

XII. Tie a piece of string around the hock
joints, having them two inches apart, one on each
side of the keel, and bring them down close to the
body, tying the strings firmly to the tail.

XIII. Immerse the bird in clear cold water
for one hour, when the muscles will be firmly set;
after draining and drying it is ready for the
customer.

EXERCISE XXV

Packing Eces ror SHIPMENT

A large part of the profits in poultry-keeping
depends on the marketing of the products. A
careful grading of all poultry products pays,
since each grade-will sell better if sold by itself.
The low-grade products in a mixed lot will lower
the selling price more than the high-grade prod-
ucts in the same lot will raise it.
_ Egg packages must be selected with reference

to the needs of the trade for which they are to be
consigned. When shipping direct to the cus-
tomer in lots of a few dozen each, the small paste-
board carton with a capacity of one dozen eggs
is the most desirable. They cost from five to
eight dollars per thousand, according to the

G

82 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

quantity. The above estimate includes the cost
of printing on the cover, which gives to the poul-
tryman a constant source of advertising. When
it is desired to make express shipments to private
customers, the three-dozen size placed in a dur-
able and attractive shipping crate is very de-
sirable.

Construct a shipping crate for a three-dozen
size carton as follows. Make it 113 x 12 inches
inside measure and 4 inches deep; the sides
and bottom should be made of # inch material,
light and durable, as Georgia pine, the ends of
the same material about { of an inch thick, and
the cover of # inch material, reénforced with two
4 inch strips to prevent warping and splitting.
Fasten the cover on with two 24 inch strap
hinges and a 2 inch hasp and staple; further
strengthen the case by fastening a band of }
inch galvanized iron strapping around the edges.
When finished, give it a good coat of’paint and
varnish, and when dry, place the name and
address of the poultryman or farm shipping the
eggs on the top and sides of the case. This can *
be most easily done with a stencil. The capacity
of the above shipping crate can be increased in
series of three dozens each by simply making it
deeper according to the number of layers of
cartons desired. Fifteen inches in depth accom-

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 83

modates five layers, or fifteen dozen. The crate
as described is 4 inches deep, while the carton
is but 3; the remaining space is designed for
packing material to avoid breakage en route.

When shipping to large customers or com-
mission merchants, the eggs are packed in stand-
ard thirty-dozen crates with pasteboard fillers.’
These crates may be purchased second hand for
from five to fifteen cents apiece, and can be made
much more durable by removing the back and
replacing it with 2 inch Georgia pine and
providing a cover of the same material, cleating
it to prevent warping and fastening it to the
crate by means of 2 or 3 inch strap hinges and
a 3 inch hasp and staple.

Secure all of the different styles of egg cases
possible; note their construction and especially
the means employed to keep the eggs from strik-
ing against one another.

Fill the cases with fresh, clean eggs, always
placing them small end down. If any are dirty,
wash them before packing. Sapolio is good for
removing stains. Avoid washing them when not
dirty. Why?

Note the length of time it takes to fill the
various style cases. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each style? All eggs
should be shipped by express. Why?

84. POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EXERCISE XXVI
PACKING AND SHIPPING POULTRY

LIVE POULTRY

For shipping poultry to market, well-con-
structed crates are especially desirable. They
must be of sufficient size to cause no undue
crowding of the birds and not too large for easy
handling. When long crates are used, partitions
should be placed every two feet to prevent the
birds being thrown together when the crate is
tipped, thus preventing many birds from being
killed by smothering.

When the birds shipped are to be used for
meat, a large number may be shipped together;
but when they are birds of high value to be used
for breeders, a small number only should be put
in one case.

Construct a crate 30 inches wide by 40 inches
long, divide it into partitions out of 1 x 2 scant-
ling and laths. Make it 12 inches high, and
provide it with a movable door. When finished
band the edges with 4 inch galvanized iron
strapping to strengthen. Such a crate can be
used for many shipments, the express company
returning the same empty for ten cents per crate.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 85

Before shipment feed the birds liberally with
water, corn, and wheat; if they are to travel a
long distance, whole grain and water should be
provided in the crate.

DRESSED POULTRY

Before packing be sure that the birds are dry
and cold, with all of the animal heat removed.
Wash the feet, remove any clotted blood from
the mouth, and wash the head; also sew up any
bad tears in the skin, using fine white thread.
Packages for the shipping of dressed poultry
vary greatly in size.

When shipping single birds direct to the con-
sumer, each bird should be wrapped in waxed paper
and placed in pasteboard boxes which are of
sizes suitable to hold one bird or a pair, as the case
may demand.

When shipping to commission merchants,
boxes or barrels holding from one hundred to
two hundred pounds are desirable; when ship-
ping without ice, pack the birds in clean cases
lined with fresh wrapping paper. Wrap each
bird’s head with paper. Why?

For a high-class trade each bird should be
wrapped in a waxed paper. What are the ad-
vantages of so doing? Pack the birds tight

86 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

to prevent bruising. Barrels are especially
desirable for shipping in warm weather when ice
is used. In the bottom bore holes to provide
drainage, and place excelsior to the depth of two
inches. Pack the birds closely with alternate
layers of fine cracked ice, the bottom and top layers
always being ice. Straighten out the bodies and
legs so that they will not arrive bent and twisted
out of their normal shape. Upon the top place
a good-sized cake of ice, and cover the barrel with
white wrapping paper and burlap, fastening the
latter with a hoop. Cases may be packed in the
same manner, but whenever ice is used the top
should be covered with burlap, for by so doing
the package will be kept right side up.

Mark all packages with the name of the
shipper, kind, quality, and number of birds, also
the net weight.

Dressed and live poultry should always be
shipped by express and marked perishable.
Never use colored wrapping paper in packing.

Why ?

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 87

EXERCISE XXVII

Pouurry Book-KEEPING

Hither single or double entry may be used,
the single entry system being very simple and
in many cases the most advisable. It consists
of a day book in which is recorded all money
spent for supplies, help, repairs, feed, etc., and
all money taken in for sales of eggs, live poultry,
dressed poultry, feathers, etc.; credits and
debits are kept.

If the business is large and many cash and
credit sales are made, itis advisable to keep an
order book, sales book, cash book, and ledger,
which are filled out every evening.

When the business reaches large proportions
and is divided into many departments, it is nec-
essary to keep a double entry system of books
which will show at any time the exact status of
any branch of the business. It may be well to
divide the account as follows: laying stock,
breeding stock, young stock, incubation, brood-
ing, ete.

The poultry business is a business of details,
and anything which enables us to find the leaks
and stop the losses will go just so much farther
towards making it a success.

88 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

In the above outlined system of double entry
the debits and credits will be placed somewhat as
follows.

Debit the laying stock with the following
items: —

Stock purchased or received from the young
stock department.

Food purchased.

Labor.

Supplies.

Credit laying stock with the following: —

Eggs sold.
Live stock sold.
Meat and feathers sold.

Debit the breeding stock with the following: —

Stock purchased and received from the
young stock department.

Food purchased.

Labor.

Supplies.

Advertising, etc.

Credit the breeding stock with the following: —

Eggs sold to outside sources and to incuba-
tion department.
Live poultry sold for breeding stock.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 89

_ Debit the incubation account with the follow-
ing: —

Eggs received from the breeding stock.

Oil consumed.

Labor.

Credit the incubation account with the fol-
lowing: — .
All vigorous chicks turned to the brooding
department. .
Day-old chicks sold to outside sources.

Debit the brooding department with the
following: —
Chicks received from the incubators.
Food purchased.
Fuel.
Labor.

Credit the brooding department with the
following: —
Chicks sold as broilers.
Chicks turned on the range in the young
stock department.
Debit the young stock account with the fol-
lowing: —
Birds received from the brooding depart-
ment.
Food consumed.
Labor, etc.

90 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Credit the young stock department as fol-
lows: —

All stock sold or turned to the laying and
breeding stock department.

All young birds sold to outside sources,
whether alive or dressed.

The above system, while requiring consider-
able time to keep right, is absolutely necessary
on a large plant where the owner must be able to
tell at afew moments’ notice just what each branch
of his business is doing. The books should be
balanced at least monthly, and oftener if desired.

Make an outline for a system of single and
double entry book-keeping for a medium-sized
poultry plant.

EXERCISE XXVIII
CoNVENIENT PouLtry REcORDS

The following blanks have been used by the
author for many years and have proved very
satisfactory. The idea in keeping records is to
enable the owner or the manager of the poultry
plant to tell at any time just what any branch
of the business is doing; they make a valuable
asset to a complete system of book-keeping and

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 91

can be easily filed away and referred to at any
time.

A complete set of records, if accurately and
faithfully kept, will do away with the necessity
of keeping an elaborate set of books.

The table on page 92 is an egg record for trap-
nested stock, and it should be posted in the pen
where the birds are kept.

The table on page 93 is a feeding record and
should always be kept where exact records as
regards the cost of feeding and care are desired.

The table on page 94 is a record showing cost
of egg production, profit, ete.

The above is a combination of records I and II,
grouping them in such a way as to show at a
glance the exact egg yield, food consumed, selling
price, and profit per hen.

The tables on pages 95 and 96 are a yearly
egg record showing number of hens and eggs laid
daily by each pen. This record should be posted
in the pen, and is especially desirable where only
the egg yield is kept.

Nore. — See incubation and brooder records, Exercises
Nos. 8 and 16.

190.L

peddsi3 40ON

|

MEET TT|

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

SALON

92

161

qyoodd 20a

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

FEEDING RECORD

93

BREED,

PEN

No. of fowls,

From

to

Day or WEEK

A.M.

Corn .
Wheat

Oats ...
Vegetables
Mixture I
Mixture II .
Mixture III .

NOON

Corn .
Wheat
Oats . . .
Vegetables .
Mixture I
‘Mixture IT .
Mixture III.

P.M.

Corn

Wheat

Oats ...
Vegetables .
Mixture I
Mixture IT
Mixture III .

2 3 4

ToTaL

Toran AMOUNT OF

Vegetables
Mixture I

consumed,
consumed,
consumed,
consumed,
consumed,

Mixture II_ consumed,
Mixture III consumed,
Total amount in pounds

Nutritive Ratio, ___ Potential Energy, ___ T. D. Mattter,___

Cost

Total cost__

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

94

BAA

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POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EGG

RECORD

BREED

95

Marca

APRIL

May

JUNE

Eggs
| Hens

Eggs

Hens

| Eggs

Hens
Eggs

Eggs

Hens

Hens
| Eggs

Nores

ele|sfofe fe vf Date

96 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

EGG RECORD

PEN 3 BREED

Jury |Avcust| Sepr. Ocr. Nov. Dec.

Hens
Eggs
Hens
| Eggs
Hens
Eggs
| Hens
Eggs
Hens
| Eggs
| Hens
| Eggs

Nores

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

97

EXERCISE XXIX

Figuring Pouttry Prorits

Once a year, preferably about the first of
January, a complete inventory of the plant
should be taken, fixing the inventory values on
service values of the various birds, bearing in
mind as well the cost and selling price values.
When the inventory is complete, take the books
which have been balanced for the year and pre-
pare a financial statement for the year as

follows:

CuRRENT

INVENTORY YEAR Past Year
Farm 30 acres at $50.00 $1500.00 $1500.00
Barn with root cellar 500.00/For 1200] 500.00
Henhouses for 2000 birds. 3600.00} birds 2400.00
Incubator cellar, feed, and cook
room. = le 560.00 560.00
15 colony houses at $10.00 each} 150.00/10 houses 100.00
Fencing . . : 270.00 250.00
Incubators . ‘ 200.00 180.00
Brooder house and equipment} 700.00 700.00
Team and tools 500.00 500.00
Plows and harrows 20.00 20.00
Small tools and supplies . 60.00 50.00
2000 fowls at $1.25 each 2500.00]1200 fowls 1500.00
Total $8260.00

.|$10560.00

98 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Division or Lanp

Woodland and buildings . . . . .. 65 acres
Range for laying stock set with fru: 10 acres
Range for young stock set with fruit . . 8 acres
Clover and pea and oat hay . a . 5 acres
Cabbage, beets, etc... : 2 acres

WGtal) os de oe a ae 30 acres

EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT

Interest on $10,560.00 at 5% j : . $ 528.00
Depreciation, repairs and insurance on buildings

at 5% . . exe 247.50
Depreciation on team, foals, and foucine at10% . 105.00
Taxes 4 B fee 50.00
Help, two men and one boy ‘ 1000.00
Advertising : 100.00
Miscellaneous supplies andincidentals. . . . . 500.00
Feed for 2000 hens and young stock. . 3250.00
Improvement to buildings 246.00
New poultry houses oe . . 1000.00

Total . i $7027.00

PROBABLE RETURNS

Eggs sold for market, 20,000 dozen at 30 cts. $6000.00
Eggs sold for hatching ‘ , < 600.00
Day-old chicks sold Bs Bere yen ans 2 - . 500.00
Market broilers a a a ee 900.00
Meat and breeding stock sold . . . ... 1000.00
Fruit, feathers, ete. . Se Beg . «80000

Total . 2. 2 1 1 ee ew ee ew © . $9800.00

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 99

From the preceding figures make a balance
for the year’s work as follows :—

Total cash and credit sales. . . 2... 1. $9800.00
Increase in valuation . . ere . . 2800.00
Total increase ee hint $12,100.00
Totalexpense . ..... 2. ss «7027.00
Total profit . : iy oe . . $5073.00

Of this $5073, $2300 has gone into per-
manent improvements and increasing the pro-
ductive capacity of the plant. The remaining
$2773 can be considered as the farmer’s
salary for the year. This pays the farmer 26
per cent interest on the money invested above
the five per cent charged in the expense account.
The above figures are used more to show the
method, rather than as regards their absolute
accuracy, although the results here pictured are
known by the author to have been greatly ex-
celled in many much more modest poultry
plants.

The price of grain and the market value of eggs
and dressed poultry vary so often and to such a
great extent that it is impossible to say for any
long period of time the exact cost of keeping a
hen, the value of the eggs, and therefore the
profit per head.

Using the above as an outline, work out the

100 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

income and expenditures under different con-
ditions, locations, equipment, and capital in-
vested, and try to determine the influence which
these factors have on the net profits of the busi-
ness. In making the above estimate use the
current prices of all products bought and sold.

EXERCISE XXX

ADVERTISING

Advertising pays when the business is large,
when the products are plentiful, and when cus-
tomers are wanted. Advertising may be carried
on and made effective in any of the following
ways: —

J. General appearance of the farm and build-
ings.

II. Appearance of the team and wagons when
on the road.

III. An attractive name for the farm.

IV. Farm bulletin board.

V. Records of heavy egg production.

VI. The exhibition and winning of prizes in
pure-bred stock.

VII. Stencilling of all shipping packages.

VIII. Printed letter heads.

IX. Printed envelopes.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 101

X. Printed circulars and cards.

XI. Printed blotters.

XII. Advertising in magazines and news-
papers.

The latter is the most expensive, and should be
employed with care and judgment. The printed
circulars, cards, etc., should follow inquiries
from advertisements appearing in periodicals, and
should explain the products for sale and in detail.

Prepare a complete line of advertising material
containing representatives of the above for a
poultry farm which has for sale eggs and stock
of a heavy egg strain, also for a poultry farm
having for sale birds of high scoring and exhi-
bition qualities.

EXERCISE XXXI

WRITING TO PROSPECTIVE CUSTOMERS

Prepare a letter for a prospective customer
containing facts with variations to suit the cir-
cumstances.

FOR FANCY EGG TRADE

We aim to sell the best grade of strictly fresh
eggs which can be purchased. We earnestly
solicit your patronage, and wish to call your
attention to the following facts : —

102 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

I. Our birds are fed only on pure, wholesome
food, none being given which would in any way
give the egg a disagreeable taste.

II. Our eggs are collected three times a day,
and so kept clean and fresh.

III. All eggs are stamped with our name and
the date when laid.

TV. All eggs are graded, and only those weigh-
ing over two pounds to the dozen are sold as first
grade.

V. Our entire output of eggs is crated in
small pasteboard cartons, one dozen in each
package.

VI. All eggs are shipped the same day as
laid.

VII. Every shipment of eggs from our farm is
made by express. All orders will receive prompt
and careful attention.

FOR UTILITY AND FANCY STOCK

We wish to call your attention to the fact that
we have an extra fine line of heavy producing,
high scoring Barred Plymouth Rocks from which
we are selling eggs for hatching as well as birds for
breeders. The following facts may be of interest
to you: —

I. Our birds are all in excellent health and

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 103

have always been entirely free from any conta-
gious disease.

II. Our males are exceptionally vigorous,
producing a high percentage of fertile eggs. We
guarantee eighty-five per cent to be fertile.

III. Our birds are of unusually fine shape,
and their color is nearly perfection.

IV. Our entire flock last year averaged one
hundred and sixty-eight eggs. Pen No. four,
our heaviest producers, averaged two hundred
and ten eggs last year as pullets, and mated to
them are two males, one whose mother laid two
hundred and thirty-six eggs, and the other comes
from a line of heavy producers.

V. Our birds took (here mention any prizes
which may have been taken recently).

VI. We guarantee our birds to satisfy.

All orders will be shipped promptly and will
receive our most careful consideration.

EXERCISE XXXII
ScoRING AND GRADING oF E«@es

Secure a dozen eggs of as many breeds as
possible, and apply the following score card. In
doing so it must be remembered that the color
of an egg governs to a certain extent the price
on the market, and that market requirements in

104 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

regard to color differ greatly in various locali-
ties; for instance, the New York market de-
mands an egg with a clear white shell, and the
Boston market pays a premium for a dark brown
shell.

The size of the air cell must be determined by
candling and is the safest test of freshness. Ina
strictly fresh egg it is about half an inch in diam-
eter, and constantly grows larger as evaporation
takes place.

In scoring for weight of total sample deduct
two points for every one quarter pound under
perfect weight. It is very desirable that the
entire sample should be uniform with reference
to weight, color, and shape; any defects in this
uniformity clause should be severely cut.

Grade alarge number of eggs into the follow-
ing classes, which form the requirements of the
Boston market : —

Extra. Large, brown, and fresh in every way.

Weight two pounds or more per dozen.

Firsts. Good eggs as regards color (brown).

Fair size. Weight one and three quarters
pounds per dozen.

Ordinary. Mixed, weight one and one half

pounds per dozen.

The New York market has for many years
regarded the eggs of the White Leghorn as the

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

105

Scaty or Points
Freshness 30. Size of air cell. esreags Mae ees
Striking shell lustre . : . 10
Weight . 20. Oftotalsample . . 5 . 10
(perfection being 2 lbs. or more
per dozen).
+ Uniformity. . ...... .10
Color 20. Of totalsample . . . . . 10
(pure white or brown is perfee-
tion).
Uniformity . . oe oe ed
Shape . . 10. Egg shape

Uniformity . 5

Appearance 10. Clean . 5
(free from dirt and bleod staing)

Not cracked or broken. “0

Condition of | Smooth . 2

shell . . 5. Hard . . 3

Package . 5. Neat . 3

Light . . 1

Durable . 2 a

Tota 100. 100
Kind of eggs Date. Scorer.

ScorE Carp ror Ecags

(the ratio between ‘the large and
the small diameter is about one
to one and one fifth; this varies
slightly in different breeds).

Cours

106 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

POULTRY DEPARTMENT
Baron ve HirscH AGRICULTURAL ScHooL, Woopsing, N. J.
STUDENTS’ OFFICIAL SCORE CARD
Crass No. I— American Breeds

Date
Entry No. Coop No. Band No.
Owner __ Breed _____ Sex
Estimated Weight ________ Corrected Weight
Student’s Name Section
SCALE OF POINTS
PERFECTION Pecaene CorREcTED
Shape|Color |Total Shape/Color |Shape}Color
8 | Symmetry ......
6 | Weight or Size... .
4 Kage ee ee
eak.....
3 3 6 | Head Eyes.....
8 | Comb) c.6 i eae es
2 4 6 | Wattles and Ear-Lobes
3 6 9 | Netky. ssc on es 2
4 6 | 10 | Wings .........
6 6 | 12 | Back..........
4 5 Qe IPAM cise a ay eghas eta
5 5 | 10 | Breast.........
3 3 6 | Body and Fluff ...
3 3 6 | Legsand Toes ....
Torat___100 Tora Cuts

Score

Instructor

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 107

standard of excellence. These eggs are of good
size, of fine shape, and are chalky white in color.

EXERCISE XXXIII

Scorine Pouttry PLants

Score the college plant according to the score
card on page 109.

EXERCISE XXXIV

JupGING Pouttry For Fancy Points

There are two methods used in determining
the respective merits of different birds as regards
their fancy qualities.

The first method is thescore card system, which
is the comparing of the specimen to be judged
with a standard of excellence and cutting the
perfect score in the part which falls below stand-
ard requirement.

On page 106 is the official scale of points of
the American Poultry Association for the Ameri-
can classes, arranged in a suitable manner for
student scoring.

The Standard of Perfection published by the
American Poultry Association, which gives the
standard requirements for all classes of birds in

108 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

STUDENTS’ SCORE CARD FOR UTILITY SCORING

GENERAL APPEARANCE. 25 Cuts
Form. . 10
Compact and symmetrical, with no un-

due development in any portion, as
heavy breast or fat behind the legs.
Quality . . 7
Comb fine in "texture, skin and flesh soft
but not fat, skin of medium thickness
and mellow.
Temperament .. - 8
Nervous, active, vigorous, not lazy.

Heap anp NEcKE. 15
Size of head medium, broad
Eyes bright andfull . .
Comband wattles medium sizeand bright red
(Single Comb White Leghorns’ comb
should be large and drooping to one
side.)
Neck of medium length, full . . 4
(Birds with long, rangy necks rarely
prove good layers.)

owe

Bopy. 50
Breast moderately full, but very wide. . . 4
Back wide and fairly long, with great depth
from back to keel . . 5
Hind quarters greatly developed, with the
heaviest part of the body carried back of
the hock joint. . 15
ee fine, and carried close to the
0 ae ls . 8
Lay bones soft, liable, and widespread . 16
Tail set high ane well spread . we 2
Feathers soft and held close to the body . 2
Wings held well up and close to the body 3

Lees. 10
Well spread and set wide apart at the hock
joint . aes He 5
Length medium toshort |. ..... 2
Color of shank yellow or white ..... 1
Shank free from feathers “2

Toran .... . - 100

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 109

Povuttry Scorrt Carp

Scatze or Points Cuts
Location . . . . 20 Nearness to market ‘
Means of transportation .
Means of rapid communi-
cation : fe
Soil conditions
Climatic conditions

Shade
General appearance Efficiency
of entire plant 20 Driveway, walks, and
grounds . , é
Buildings
Painting
Fences 3
Situation and con- pence required .
struction of poul- Light
try houses and Ventilation
fences. . 20 Internal equipment.

Floor construction .
Sanitary condition .
State of repairs

Durability .
Incubation aie Location of cellar
ment. .. 20 Ventilation
Moisture

Internal arrangement .
Efficiency and sufficiency

ee eamB: Location
ment. . 20 Light :
Ventilation

Sanitary conditions
Labor saving devices
System of heating

PHONON WDH AOWERERW NNWNHNNWR WWWW CO WRhWOD BO

____ Efficiency . 4
Toraz 100 100
Name of plant
Post Office_________. County State

Co ——— Judge

110 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

regard to shape, weight, and color, must be used
with the score card.

The second method of determining the relative
merits of two or more specimens is by comparison
judging. This is the system of placing birds
which is employed at most of our large poul-
try shows and consists simply in determining the
birds which come nearest to the ideal in every
respect and placing them in the order of their
excellence, giving the best bird first place, next
bird second place, ete.

A thorough knowledge of the Standard of
Perfection must be acquired before one can be-
come expert in comparison judging. This know]-
edge can best be attained by a large amount of
practice in the scoring and placing of specimens,
and if one desires to become an expert judge, it is
necessary to memorize a large part of the Stand-
ard.

Secure a number of specimens and apply the
above score card, together with the Standard
of Perfection.

EXERCISE XXXV

JupGinGe PouLtry For Urtiniry Points

The scale of points on page 108 has been found
very useful in calling attention to the main

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 111

characteristics which usually go with heavy egg
production, regardless of breed. It is, as well, a
means of finding the utility value of one bird
over another.

Secure a number:of specimens which are
known to be good egg-layers and a few which are
not, and apply the scale of points on page 108.

In most cases good layers may be selected by
observing the points outlined above. The trap
nest, however, is the only sure way unless each hen
tested can be kept with a flock of another breed
laying eggs of different color.

EXERCISE XXXVI

Systems or Heatinc BroopErR HovusEs AND
ArT oF FIRING

Make a study of the heating which is installed
at the college brooder plant. Note the kind of
system ; whether it is hot water, hot air, or steam.
Hot water is most generally used.

Note the location of the heater. Is it below
the level of the pipe runs? If so, why? Note
its shape, size of fire box, also the water jacket or
tubes. Determine whether it is put together in
sections by means of collars, or nipples, or is the
body made in one piece. With small circular
heaters the latter is usually the case. Note the

112 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

size of the chimney, its location, and the dam-
pers which control the draft. Is there any
method of cleaning the heat flues? Examine
- the grate construction, also the method of shak-
ing. Is it-clinker proof?

Find the point at which the cold water is taken
into the system, also the point at which the hot
water leaves the boiler, as well as the point where
it enters on returning. Also notice the presence
of a thermometer if it is a hot water system, to
determine the temperature of the water. If
steam, note the presence of a pressure gauge.

Follow the course of the heated water through
the various coils, noting the presence of valves
controlling same, also the presence at the highest
point in each coil of a small pet cock to allow the
escape of steam and compressed air which often
forms at these points.

Note the presence of an expansion pipe and
tank which keeps a constant supply of water in
the pipes all the time, emptying or filling up as
the water cools or becomes hotter. Do the hot
water or flow pipes run level on leaving the
boiler, or do they slope? If so, which way and
why? Measure the size of pipes and determine
the radiating surface required.

In firing a hot water heater, observe the
following facts.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 113

Before starting a fire make sure that the sys-
tem is filled with water so that it shows on the
bottom part of the glass in the expansion tank ;
if not full, allow water to flow into same until it
is full, being sure to open valves and pet cocks
in the highest part of each coil to let out air
which will gather there.

Start a good wood fire, and get it well under
way before putting on any coal. To cause the
heater to burn freely open the pipe damper,
shut the door to the fire box, and open the lower
ash pit door. When:a good bed of coals is ob-
tained and the water is at the desired tempera-
ture, it may be checked from rising higher by
partly closing the pipe damper, shutting or partly
shutting the bottom door, and leaving the upper
door ajar. The exact position to leave each
door and damper will have to be determined by
practice, and will vary as regards height and size
of chimney; also it will vary greatly every day
as regards .temperature, wind velocity, etc.
When it is desired to cause more heat to be radi-
ated into the house, it is necessary to heat the
water in the boiler to a higher temperature, and
this can be accomplished by opening the pipe
damper, also the lower door, and closing the door
to the fire box. If it is desired to cool the water,
the reverse is the rule.

I

114 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Should the water ever go over 212 degrees,
steam will be formed and it will be necessary to
at once lower the temperature of the water, and
this can most quickly be accomplished by stop-
ping all draft and banking the fire. Whenever
steam forms, it is necessary to immediately open
the pet cocks in each coil to allow the same to
escape.

Hard coal makes the best fuel; soft coal will,
however, give satisfactory results, but it will re-
quire much more attention. With hard coal the
fire should rarely be poked from above, all pok-
ing being done from below; with soft coal the
reverse is the rule.

Take care to keep all ashes removed from the
ash pit, since if allowed to accumulate in great
numbers they will burn the grate out as well as
spoil the draft.

Be sure at all times that there is an abundance
of water in the system. If for any reason it
should get very low, do not admit’ more immedi-
ately, but bank or draw out the fire and allow the
boiler to cool off before letting in cold water;
if this precaution is not followed, a cracked heater
wil] be the result.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 115

EXERCISE XXXVII

REPAIRING DamaGeD Heatina Systems

Repair any broken places in the asbestos cov-
ering to pipes on heater by mixing the pulp asbestos
with warm water until it is a little thicker than
cream, and apply with a smooth trowel, rubbing
in thoroughly and leaving the surface smooth.

Look over all pipes and joints carefully, and
see that there are no leaks; if so, repair same as
follows: —

First examine the coils and determine the way
in which they are joined to the headers at each
end. This is usually accomplished by means of a
union or a right and left nipple. Loosen these
on the pipe or pipes to be repaired and disconnect
the leaking joints; if the threads are injured, run
the die over them to cut deeper; if not injured,
replace the pipes, placing white lead on the
threads before screwing up.

In studying the piping learn to distinguish the
following fittings: elbows, tees, reducers, coup-
lings, nipples, unions, etc.

Measure the diameter of the various pipes, both
inside and outside; which of these dimensions is
the standard size of the pipe?

Repair any worn or leaking valves by grinding
and repacking.

116 POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE

Replace all broken hangers with new ones, and
see that all others are firmly fastened to the
brackets.

Try all pet cocks to see if they will open easily
and are not choked with sediment. See that all
unions are properly packed and screwed tight.

Lastly give all exposed pipes a good coat of
mica paint, which entirely prevents rusting and
greatly improves the appearance.

EXERCISE XXXVIII

MIscELLANEOUS APPLIANCES

An electric fan in the incubator cellar to keep
the air cool and fresh. It must be regulated to
a slow speed and not turned toward the machine
but upward toward the ceiling.

A large dial spring balance for the weighing
of feed, eggs, etc.

A thermostatic arrangement connected with
the heater drafts to regulate the brooder house
temperature.

An automatic float attached to the cold water
inlet in the expansion tank, which gives assurance
of an abundance of water in the system at all
times.

Maximum and minimum thermometers in
incubator cellar and brooder houses.

POULTRY LABORATORY GUIDE 117

Transom arrangement for opening and closing
all chick doors in the brooder house at once.

Ropes and pulleys for the raising and lowering
of covers for inspection, cleaning, and airing.

Light, quick action springs upon doors to the
brooder pens, shutting them immediately upon
entry and keeping them closed.

Muslin frames in brooder and incubator cellar
windows, which are hinged and may be raised
inside by cord and pulley when it is desired to
shut the sash.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Exercise I. Disinfection and Commercial Disinfectants.
Wisconsin Station, Bulletin No. 166.

Exercise II. Poultry Experiments. Maine Experiment
Station, Bulletin No. 144. A Colony House. Oregon
Experiment Station, Circular No. 4.

Exercise VII. Incubation and Incubators. Farmers’
Bulletin No. 236.

Exercise VIII. Poultry Experiments. Utah Experiment
Station, Bulletin No. 102. Loss of Weight in Eggs
during Incubation. West Virginia Experiment Station,
Bulletin No. 73. Hatching Chicks. Ontario Depart-
ment .of Agriculture, Bulletin 163 Poultry Rec-
ords. North Carolina Experiment Station, Bulletin
No. 152.

Exercise IX. Incubation Experiments. Oregon Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin No. 100. Carbon Dioxide under
sitting hens. Connecticut Experiment Station, Re-
port 1907.

Exercise XIV. A Successful Brooder House. Connecticut
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 33.

Exercise XV. A Gasoline-Heated Colony Brooder House.
Cornell Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 246.

Exercise XVI. Raising Chicks Artificially. West Virginia
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 98. Poultry Ob-
servations. Connecticut Experiment Station, Bulle-
tin No. 44. Raising Chicks. Cornell Reading
Course for Farmers, Bulletin No. 19.

118

BIBLIOGRAPHY 119

Exercise XVIII. Experiments in Chicken Fattening.
Canadian Experimental Farms Report. 1903.

Exercise XX. Capons and Caponizing. Bureau of Animal
Industry, Circular No. 77.

Exercise XXI. Infection and Preservation of Eggs. Con-
necticut Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 55. Egg
Preservation. North Carolina Experiment Station,
Bulletin No. 191. Saturated Lime Water for the
Preservation of Eggs. Canadian Experimental Farms
Report. 1903. Preservation of Eggs. Rhode Island
Experiment Station Report, 1901, p. 304. Egg
Production of Virgin Fowls. New Jersey Experiment
Station Report, 1906.

Exercise XXV. Marketing Poultry Products. Cornell
Reading Course for Farmers, No. 20.

Exercise XXVI. Marketing of Poultry Products. Con-
necticut Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 38.

Exercise XXVIII. Appliances and Methods for Pedigree
Poultry Breeding. Maine Experiment Station, Bulletin
No. 159. Poultry Experiments. Cornell Experiment
Station, Bulletin No. 211. Trap Nests. Rhode
Island Experiment Station Report, 1901, p. 334.

Exercise XXXVIII. New Poultry Appliances. Cornell
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 248.

Miscellaneous. Fowls, Care and Management. Farmers’
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Leading European Countries. Bureau of Animal
Industry, Bulletin No. 165. Distribution and Mag-
nitude of the Poultry and Egg Industry in the United
States. Bureau of Animal Industry. Nineteenth
Annual Report. The Hen’s Place on the Farm. Kan-
sas Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 150. Farm
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120

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99. Poultry Suggestions for the Amateur, Connecti-
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