PRAIRIE FARMER'S - POULTRY BOOK WILLIAM OSBURN ames HE Rice MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY rrererert THE GIFT OF ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New YorK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Ornell University Library Anna Cornell University The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003181819 PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK You'll get ’em by the pailful if you handle your hens Osburn’s way PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK HOW TO MAKE THE FARM FLOCK PAY. FULL IN- FORMATION ABOUT FEEDING, MANAGEMENT, DISEASE, HOUSING, MARKETING AND OTHER INFORMATION THAT WILL HELP ANY FARMER TO _IN- CREASE HIS POULTRY PROFITS By WILLIAM OSBURN Poultry Editor of Prairie FARMER This book contains the answer to hundreds of poultry problems. It is written by a practical farmer who has had a lifetime of experience with poultry. The methods he advises have been tested and found successful. Double Your Poultry Profits First Epition Price One Dollar—Postpaid CHICAGO PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING COMPANY og ’ CopyRIGHTED, 1922, By PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO The Lakentde Press R.R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY CHICAGO DEDICATED TO FARMERS’ WIVES AND DAUGHTERS, WHOSE DILIGENCE AND SKILL IN HANDLING THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM FLOCK ARE RESPONSIBLE IN A LARGE MEASURE FOR THE MAGNITUDE OF THE POULTRY INDUSTRY Mr. Osburn at work on Prairie Farmer Poultry Book Preface HIS book is written to help farmers make more money from their poultry flocks. Success with poultry on the farm depends on intelligent care and feeding. Any farmer or farmer’s wife, or farm boy or girl, who will study the methods described in this book, and follow them carefully, can make the farm poultry flock a highly profitable enterprise. We have endeavored not only to point out profitable methods, but also to indicate dangers and pitfalls to be avoided. : Any branch of farming is always more interesting if we know the “why” of things. We have therefore devoted some space to a discussion of the scientific principles that lie back of successful poultry methods, in order that the reader may understand the wonderful process by which nature produces eggs and meat through the medium of the hen. The farm flock represents fully 80 per cent of the poultry industry. Ninety per cent of all farms produce poultry. The value of all chickens and eggs produced in 1919 was $1,047,989,919. These figures do not represent the full magni- tude of the industry, for they do not include fowls other than chickens, such as turkeys, ducks and geese, nor poultry produced on small estates. A safe estimate of the annual production of poultry and eggs in the United States is $1,500,000,000. For this large asset to the nation the farmer and his family deserve great credit. As the farmer himself is usually occu- pied in the larger and heavier tasks of the farm, the care of the poultry generally falls to the farmer’s wife or upon the daughter or son, or possibly some elderly member of the household. This is possible because the task does not require heavy manual labor. Wherever the task falls it means constant attention to minute details and a high degree of knowledge and skill. To help solve some of the problems which will surely present themselves is our aim. Table of Contents CHAPTERS PREFACE I. Tue Farm FtLockx II. Tue Factory anD WorKMEN III. Tue Raw MateriaL IV. FEEDING V. Tue FinisHep Propuct VI. Eccs anp By-Propucts VII. Tue Puzzite or THE BREEDS VIII. THe BreepInc ProBL—EM IX. Matinc' anp CULLING X. Tue Pouttry House XI. INncuBaTION AND BROODING XII From PrRoDUCER TO CONSUMER XIII. Pouttry SANITATION—PESTS AND PARASITES XIV. Diseases AND REMEDIES XV. THE Pouttry Account XVI. Sunpry Topics APPENDIX . INDEX viii Vii 107 122 137 153 163 175 194 205 218 247 List of Illustrations You’LL GET ’EM BY THE PAILFUL. . . . . we ) Se el OsBurN aT Work on Pouttry Boox : . iv EXTERNAL Parts oF FowL . . . ww we 8 DraGRAM OF SKELETON . ONS oe oats Bylo Ea » « 10 DiacRAM oF DicEsTIVE SYSTEM . . . . 1. we eee elt DraGRAM OF OvaRY. . . bie te, a ot. Bie wie. The dy coun B 16 Or Course THEY’LL.Lay . Gio (Bs Ah ean tep cg nads 08 : a 226 Cotony HousE . . . eo ee wp A oa LE os 4x 8221302139=151 Dinner Time in Pouttry YARD ; : . . «42-106 A Goop Day’s Worx Boe, \Gh. om oe . . 44 Oats SPROUTER . Poth fs Pe toial ta ty we 92 Wuat One Hen Dip pts AL say ea ak riie as ete 53: CAPONIZING . i Dun & dev Agligi'gls 7 57-58 DiacraM oF Ecc . . . . . ww ew ee ee . 61 Ecc Types . . ae: Bou be og F . . 62 Ecc TESTER : . 64 Ospurn FEEDING TURKEYS an Bot : ’ 68 Eccs From Hippen Nests >. oe ‘ 69 Ruopt Istanp Rep CocKEREL ; ; 80 BarreD PryMoutH Rock PULLET SG Oe Se eos 86 Barren PryMoutH Rock Cock . BS kan age PY 87 CotumMBiAN WyaNpoTtte PULLET . . . . SB eh 88 Burr Orpincton Hen .. . 0 he : 90 Wuitet LecHorn Hen me a as ee ee 91 EmpEN GOoOoSE . : Sof ie 625 5‘ F 93 Wuite HoLtLtanp TURKEY 2 ee ane ee ‘ i 94 Harr-Monitor Typr-House. . . .... . 102-125 Knock-Knerep RoosTER a de ay “kt GS : . 108 CULLING ee ee se . 112-114 Trap NESTS Bo Sy Oa ON oe Bel a Ga “aie Re Ga . 119 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS SELF-FEEDER Floor PLAN oF Pouttry House ELEVATION oF Pouttry House Semi-Gas_e Type or House INTERIOR OF Pouttry House Ossurn’s Pouttry House NestBox ARRANGEMENTS Brooper House DropPinc Board Broop Coop A Goon Hatcu Ossurn Taxinc Eccs to Town Tor-MarK CHART Scary Lec . WRYNECK OVARIES Gare WorMs CHICKEN Pox . Roup TouLousE GEESE Device to Keep Turkeys at Home DEFECTIVE CoMBS OSBURN AND ONE oF His HENS Market CHARTS Bitty Escar . VERNE ANDERSON’S Pou.ttry Houser Hunt’s Pouttry House TrME SwitcH For Pouttry House 120-215 123 124 126 128 129 131 132 133 134-135-136-148-149 141 159 162 171 172 181 PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Chapter I The Farm Flock HERE is little danger of overestimating the importance of poultry culture. Compared with other farm interests it has earned a place of deserved recognition. This is proved by the fact that of the 6,448,336 farms in the United States 5,800,000 are engaged in poultry production. And there are good reasons for this recognition. The flock furnishes a good percentage of the family dietary. It contributes something to every meal, food of high nutritive value. Probably 35 per cent of all poultry products is consumed on the farm. The remaining 65 per cent goes into the channels of trade to feed the world. The larger pro- portion is consumed locally, but an increasing annual amount is exported, thus adding to the wealth of the nation. It is evident therefore that the farm flock is of no insignificant value, not only as a source of food for the family but as a source of revenue. Sometimes this income furnishes the allowance for the farmer’s wife; sometimes it is sufficient to pay all the table expenses of the household. The farm flock contributes to other farm interests. Fowls destroy vast numbers of insect pests. It is estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture that the annual loss to the farmer by reason of insect pests is $1,555,000,000. The annual saving by birds is $444,000,000. Every agency that reduces this loss aids the-farmer in his task of production. If hens are allowed to forage in the orchard they will check the ravages of curculios and moths; chickens and turkeys in the meadow or cornfields destroy many larve of harmful insects. The farm flock utilizes the waste, saving much that would otherwise be lost. Fowls are great foragers and gather much of their subsistence from vegetation, the seeds of noxious [1] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK weeds, from grain gleaned after harvest, and from waste grain in the feed-lots. These would be a total loss were it not for the farm flock. There is another consideration outside the commercial importance of the industry. It is the appeal to the zsthetic. What in nature is more beautiful than a bird? Blending colors, symmetry of shape, curved outlines and grace of carriage all appeal to the eye and, through the eye, to the nobler senses, thus contributing something to the joy of living and the development of character. In order to keep the farm flock at a point of maximum production there should be a program of action. Here is an outline of procedure: , 1. Keep a purebred flock. It will cost no more to feed purebred than a mongrel. The mongrel will be neglected, but the purebred will command greater interest and receive better care and prove more productive. 2. Make conditions favorable for the flock. This means regular care, a dry, well-ventilated building with an abundance of light, and cleanliness in everything—clean water and food in clean vessels for clean fowls in clean buildings upon clean premises. 3. Select good foundation stock, strong in vitality and prepotency, and free from hereditary taint or physical de- formity, and follow a system of breeding that will perpetuate the good qualities and eliminate the weaknesses. 4. Plan for early hatching. The early hatched pullet makes the early layer in the fall and the matured breeder in the spring. 5. Eliminate the boarders. Every poultry breeder should qualify to do his own culling. This is especially important in the spring when the majority of the flock is coming into laying condition and in the fall when the “quitters” are easily de- tected. 6. Adopt a system of feeding that will give results. This means a balanced ration in all seasons. It means food ele- ments which contribute to health, growth and high production. It means planning for green feed in winter by planting cab- bage, carrots, mangels, alsike or alfalfa in season. 7. Make a study of enemies and diseases and conduct a vigorous campaign against them. Enormous losses are avoided by outwitting the enemies. The growing stock must [2] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK be protected. The first approach of disease should be noted by watching for abnormal conditions. If disease appears, sick fowls should be isolated promptly and dead fowls, as well as other dead animals on the premises, should be cremated with dispatch. 8. Store eggs for fall and winter consumption. When prices are not remunerative, why should the poultry farmer sacrifice? He can store for better prices as well as the grain farmer. His product will be of better quality than eggs which go through the cold storage plants, because packed when perfectly fresh. 9. Study the problem of marketing. Culling for market should begin early when prices are good. A broiler will some- times command a better price than the same fowl held over till the following spring. To market breeding stock and eggs successfully requires discreet advertising. 10. Eliminate waste and all unnecessary expenses. This program may appear visionary because so few attain to its requirements. The ideal is important in any enterprise, for it is only by striving for an ideal that we reach any degree of excellence. To show how in a measure this program may be worked out in practice is our aim in future chapters of this book. Don’t Neglect the Poultry Opportunity is at the door of every enterprise. Welcomed and seized she leads into fields of promise and reward; neglected her invitations and counsels are in vain. Neglect . spells loss. A beautiful damsel was encouraged by a good genius to pass through a cornfield once, and only once. She was urged to pluck an ear, large and beautiful, for according to its size and beauty would be its value to her. She passed many ears large, ripe and beautiful, but neglected to pluck, hoping to find one yet more beautiful. As the day declined she reached a portion of the field where the stalks were thin and barren. And, at last, as the evening closed upon her she found herself at the end of the field without having plucked an ear of any kind. Opportunity had flown and with it the promised reward. Neglect is the cause of nearly all our disappointments in poultry raising; it is responsible for nearly all the leaks and [3] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK iosses which end in failures. Watch the following common leaks and losses that often keep farm flocks from being profit- able: Loss in purchasing. Neglect to secure good foundation stock is a prime cause of failure. To make a beginning with weaklings where physical vigor has been undermined with disease is equivalent to making no beginning at all. It would be better to pay $100 if necessary for a pen of five birds. physically sound, and that meet standard requirements, and to build upon this foundation, than to spend the same money for a hundred specimens devoid of vigor and representing care- less breeding. The same principle applies to the purchase of equipment and feeds and the construction of buildings. It is true that many poultry appliances can be made at home and will give good service, but the things that must be purchased should have quality and durability. Moldy feeds may be cheap but in the end they will mean the loss of the flock, or, at least, the loss of profits. The poultry building need not be expensive but should be well built, sanitary and convenient. Loss from improper feeding. Excessive feeding may cause intestinal trouble, liver disease or apoplexy, resulting in the loss of many fowls. The lack of a well-balanced ration means _ a loss in egg production and retarded growth of the edible carcass, and these are the main sources of income. Wastefu! feeding often cuts a hole in the profits. Loss from careless handling of eggs. Let us follow an egg from producer to consumer. It may be cracked at the outset because the nest is not provided with suitable material. It may be overheated, causing incubation and subsequent de- composition. It may be frozen, cracking the shell and produe- ing a so-called leaker. It may be rough handled, breaking up the contents, producing a watery consistency. The same de- terioration may happen in the hands of the country merchant or in transportation to the wholesaler. If it goes to cold storage it may be kept in storage too long and become stale. When it goes to the retailer it still further may be subjected to too much cold or heat or dampness or rough handling result- ing in more deterioration. On the table of the consumer it may have a small per- centage of the value it had when fresh laid on the farm. The losses on a 30 dozen case of eggs, due to heat and dampness, [4] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK run from five cents to $3; due to freezing, from 10 cents to 60 cents per case; due to rough handling, from 5 cents to 25 cents. This was the estimate of the food administration during the world war. From producer to consumer the total annual loss of the egg crop is estimated by the government at $50,000,000. Leaks due to incorrect incubation. Many thousand of eggs should never go to the sitting hen or incubator, because de- fective in size, shape and contents. Many contain weak germs because of weak foundation stock or improper feeding. Many are destroyed by neglect of the hen or careless handling. A good average hatch is counted at 50 per cent of the eggs set. Here is a 50 per cent loss that to large extent can be eliminated by scientific breeding and more careful management. Losses due to enemies. Their name is legion. They popu- late air and water, they teem in untold millions in the soil, they congregate upon the surface of the earth in great armies of destruction; they stand at the gateways of life and gloat over their prospective victims. “A constant watch they keep; They never slumber, never sleep, Lest they should lose their prey.” The baby chick, emerging from its shell, looks out upon a world of living things in innocence, but is marked for de- struction, for there is a constant warfare of life upon life. It is the aim of every poultry producer to bring to maturity not less than 50 per cent of the chicks hatched. This goal is seldom reached. Here is a 50 per cent loss that may be averted in large measure by eternal vigilance and persistent warfare against the foes of the flock. Magnitude of Industry Here are some figures showing the magnitude of the poultry industry. The following table shows the number of fowls of all kinds on farms, January 1, 1920, also an estimate of all fowls not on farms, but on the back lots of towns and cities and on small estates of less than five acres. It also shows the value of these fowls and the value of all fowls and eggs produced in 1919. As the government does not collect statistics of poultry on back lots and small estates, the figures given are merely estimates and are indicated by the figures in black face. [5] PRAIRIE FARMER’?S POULTRY BOOK Table No. 1.—Poultry in United States. _ Total number Value of poultry |Value of fowls and Items on farms and on farms and eggs pee Jan. 1, 1920 small estates small estates 1919 Chickens 22.2 ssteon geisn 359,537,385 $349,508,867 $1,047 ,989,919 Turkeys ...........005 3,627,028 12,904,989 38,714,967 Dicks: estes yeewees ee 2,817,624 3,373,966 10,121,898 GEOSE? scrrgarsig ancien vos 2,939,203 5,428,806 16,286,418 Guinea Fowls ........ 2,410,421 1,582,313 4,746,939 Other Fowls .......... 1,493,861 595,116 1,758,348 On small estates...... 93,206,316 73,970,040 221,910,120 Torats, all fowls...... 466,031,838 | $447,364,097 | $1,341,528,609 “The number of chickens produced in 1919 was 473,923,935 and the number of eggs produced in that year was 1.656,267,200 dozens. In 1909 the Secretary of Agriculture estimated the annual income from poultry products at $750,000,000, and that was equal to the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron, and coal mined in that year. According to the table given above the total value of all poultry products in 1919 is esti- mated at $1,340,000,000. This is equal to all the oats, barley. rye, buckwheat, flax, and rice produced in that year. This large income is a great asset to the nation for which the farmer receives due credit and full measure of reward. The value of the industry, measured in money, is not the highest consideration. The food value to the nation is even more important. Consider the quality of the food product. What is more appetizing and nutritious than the flesh of fowl? And the egg, the universal article of diet, finding its way into every home, is the great tissue builder. It supplies the needs of the brain worker as well as the manual laborer. It furnishes the vitamines so much needed by growing children—the growth principles so essential to health and physical develop- ment. If all the farms should cease in poultry production, or if for any cause all the hens should cease to lay, it would be a national calamity. [6] Chapter II The Factory and Workmen pele production may be likened to the operation of a great manufacturing concern in which there are the . factory, the workmen, the raw material and the finished product. The factory is represented by the living bird, the workmen are energized cells and tissues of its organism, the raw material is the food and other materials which are trans- formed into poultry products, and the finished product is represented in flesh, eggs and feathers. The Factory Our first concern is a study of the factory, its systems of machinery and the work to be accomplished by each. The common hen is our illustration for she is queen of the poultry world. Around her revolve the chief interests of economic importance. EXTERNAL PARTS. The external structures of a fowl are: 1. Head, consisting of the beak, comb, face, eyes, ears, ear-lobes and wattles. . Beak, consisting of upper and lower mandibles. . Nostrils, located in the upper mandible. Comb, which may be single, rose, pea, V-shaped or strawberry. Face, naked side of head. Eyes, the color being determined by the iris. . Wattles, pendulous membranes beneath the lower mandible. Ear, behind the eye and covered with tuft of feathers. . Neck, consisting of front and cape. The cape is called the hackle in the male and comprises the feathers of lower neck resting upon the shoulders. 10. Breast, feathers covering breast bone. 11. Shoulder, feathers covering base of wing. 12. Wing-bow, feathers covering side of wing. 13. Secondaries, or wing-bay, large wing shafts above the primaries. 14. Primaries, lower flight feathers. 15. Primary coverts, smaller feathers covering flights. 16. Secondary coverts, covering base of secondaries. °17. Back and sweep, the latter term applying to feathers over base of tail, called the saddle in the male. 18. Cushion, feathers on each side of base of tail. [7] WHNAK AWN PRAIRIE FAKRMER’S POULTRY BOOK DDLE ATMATHERS as i 19. Saddle, a term applied to flowing feathers over base of tail in male. 20. Tail, including the main tail feathers and the sickles, the long curved feathers covering the tail shafts. 21. Tail coverts. 22. The fluff, region below the vent. 23. Body, all between back and sternum. 24. Thigh, the leg above the shank. 25. Hock, knee joint, or joint between shank and thigh. 26. Shank, between hock and toes. 27. Spur, a horny growth on side of shank. 28. Feet, including ball of foot, toes and nails. : 29. Toes, usually four, may be five in number, and may be feathered or naked. [8] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK A knowledge of all these sections of a fowl is necessary to comprehend the descriptions of purebred specimens. They perform very important functions and are designed for pro- tection, locomotion, obtaining food, etc. Internal Systems and Structures In a study of the internal structures of a hen we find nine important systems of organs, each having important work to accomplish. They are: Skeleton, respiratory, circulatory, di- gestive, excretory, reproductive, muscular, nervous, and tegu- mentary. , The Skeleton The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. A bone consists of the periosteum, the white fibrous covering that supplies nourishment; bone-proper, consisting of the carbon- ate of lime and phosphate of lime; and the marrow, or central soft tissue, whose chief work is to help in making red blood cells. The parts of the skeleton are: SKULL: Mandibles, upper and lower jaws. 7 Cranium, bony box containing the brain. NECK: 13 vertebrae, the one next the cranium being called the atlas. TRUNK: Dorsum, or back, comprising the seven thoracic vertebrae to which the seven pairs of ribs are attached. Sacrum, a term used to comprise all the vertebrae between the thoracic and the caudal vertebrae. They are fused together so as to form one solid structure. Caudal Vertebrae, six in number, which support the structures of the tail. Pelvis, comprising three distinct bones on each side, known as the ilium, ischium and pubis. These form a protection for the kid- neys and other viscera. They unite to form a socket for the femur, and they are fused to the sacrum so as to form a contin- uous arch. The points of the pubis, which can be located just below and on each side of the vent are known as the pubic bones, or so-called “lay-bones.” Shoulder circle, comprising: Scapula, or shoulder blade. Caracoids, strong bones extending from sternum to shoulder. They form a point of attachment for the humerus and the hold the sternum and shoulders apart. [9] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK The Skeleton Intermaxillary Lower mandible Nasal External nares Frontal Eye socket Cranium Quadrate Interorbital foramen Cervical vertebrae Dorsal vertebrae Sacral vertebra Lumbar vertebrae Caudal vertebrae 15 Anterior process of same Sternum Body of same Spine of same 19 Clavicle Ht ete OCU OC RIOR PONE O er OID y o Costal same Styloid process of process of teow wow sa 2 External process of same Coracoid toto moO nD ° S 3 & r=) g i=] & Carpals Metacarpals Thumb Third finger Maal) finger wWwwHwWwhddtb S Uncinate processes same Sternal ribs um. Acetabulum Pubis Ischium Femur Five a Tibla Calcaneum Tarsals Metatarsal 7 Spur core -51 Toes PAP AR Pe RRO OOK OO Clavicles, one on each side, which unite to form the so- called “wish-bone,” or “merry-thought.” Sternum, or breast bone, a boat-shaped structure, forming the floor of the vital organs. The sharp, bony edge of the sternum on the lower side is known as the keel, and to this the muscles of the breast are attached. [10] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK LIMBS: Wings: Humerus, or upper arm, attached to the shoulder girdle. Fore-arm, comprising ulna and radius. Hand, comprising two small bones united at their ends. Fingers, the thumb being attached to the upper end of arm and the two remaining fingers to the lower end. Legs: Femur, or thigh-bone, attached to the pelvis. Lower leg, consisting of the tibia and fibula, the former, large, and the latter small and splint like. Shank, or tarso-metarsus, attached to the lower leg at the knee joint, or hock, and bearing the spur. Toes: Inner toe, or hind toe, which has two joints. Second toe, or inner, front toe, having three joints. Middle front toe, having four joints. Outer front toe, which has five joints. A knowledge of the structures of the skeleton will be of value in mating and culling and in preparing the carcass for market as well as dissecting for table use. The Respiratory System Respiration in fowls includes the acts of receiving air into the lungs (inspiration) and expelling air from the same (ex- piration). These processes are accomplished by muscular action, raising and lowering the sternum. By the respiratory system oxygen is conveyed to the blood and vapor of water and waste matter thrown off from the body. As the fowl has no sweat glands to eliminate vapor of water and certain waste matter which accumulates in the blood by the process of oxidation, the respiratory system accomplishes this work to large extent. Respiration in man is 18 times per minute, but in the fowl it is more rapid, or 33 times per minute. The organs and functions of the respiratory system are: 1. Nostrils, through which the air is conveyed to the pharynx. 2. Pharynx, or throat. 3. Larynx, the enlarged cartilaginous, or gristly, opening into the windpipe, or trachea. It modifies the voice, which is produced at the lower end of the trachea. 4. Trachea, or windpipe, the cartilaginous tube formed by rings of gristle which conveys the air to the lungs. _ 5. The bronchi, or bronchial tubes, branch from the trachea and enter the lungs. Some pass through the lungs into the large air sacs in the body. Some have blind endings. The small tubes which branch from the bronchi are lined with blood vessels which absorb oxygen. 6. Air sacs, spaces outside of the lungs which receive the air from the bronchial tubes. They are large and lined with thin membranes [11] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK which contain blood vessels through the walls of which oxygen is taken up. Air spaces also occur in the feathers, bones, and elsewhere, making the bird’s body light and buoyant. A knowledge of the respiratory system is important on account of its bearing upon the hygienic care of the flock and a comprehension of the diseases which attack its organs. The more common diseases of the respiratory system are: Catarrh, roup, diptheria, gapes, pharyngitis, bronchitis, asper- gillosis, inflammation of lungs and, occasionally, tuberculosis. Circulatory System There are two systems of circulation, the blood vessels and the lymphatics. Blood circulation. The blood is the red fluid which is the carrier of the food elements to the cells and tissues of the body for their repair and upbuilding and of the waste matter to the lungs and kidneys to be eliminated. About 90 per cent of the blood is water ; the remaining portion comprises the corpuscles and the plasma. ; The corpuscles are red and white. The red corpuscles in a fowl are nucleated, elliptical discs; in human blood they are circular discs, non-nucleated, and smaller. The color of the red corpuscle is due to the hemoglobin, containing iron and manganese. The affinity of the hemoglobin for oxygen re- sults in oxyhemoglobin, and this becomes the carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. The white corpuscles are nucleated and consist of living protoplasm, exhibiting amceboid movements. They perform important functions, destroying disease germs, healing wounds and building up tissues. The organs of circulation are the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins. The contraction of the heart forces the arterial, bright red blood coming from the lungs through the arteries to the capillaries, and the veins collect the venous, dark red blood from the capillaries and convey it back to the heart, whence it is forced to the lungs to be again charged with oxygen and returned to the heart for another journey. The heart is a muscular organ with four cavities—two auricles and two ventricles. The pulsation of the heart is more rapid than in other animals, hence oxidation in the lungs and capillaries is undoubtedly more rapid and the blood is, therefore, hotter. [12] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK A temperature test of a number of chickens showed a temperature of 101°. The average for man is 98.6°. In a chicken the heart beat averages 150 per minute; in man it is 72 per minute. This explains why respiration is more rapid in fowls than in many other animals and why they soon get out of condition if kept in stuffy, ill-ventilated quarters. The average respiration per minute of a number of chickens was found to be 33. Human respiration averages about 16 times per minute. Several diseases attack the circulatory system of fowls and the blood, such as dropsy, inflammation and enlargement of the heart; thrombosis; cholera; anemia, infectious leukemia; and sleeping disease. The lymph is a colorless fluid of value to the blood and originates in the region of the capillaries, being an exudate of serum from the blood into the intercellular spaces. It is collected in very small tubes (lymph capillaries) which convey it to two main vessels, one on each side of the spine, thence upward to the base of the neck, where it is emptied into the general circulation. The lymph vessels in the intestines are called lacteals on account of the whitish color of the lymph fluid, known as chyle. The Digestive System The digestive system, as its name suggests, receives the crude food, grinds it, and prepares it for absorption into the blood and for assimilation. It is the great workshop of the factory, working over the raw material for replenishing old cells and for the manufacture of new. The organs of the digestive system are: 1. Pharynx, or throat, which receives the food from the beak and mouth and forces it into the cesophagus. 2. Esophagus, or gullet, an elongate tube capable of vermicular muscular action by which the food is forced downward into the crop. 3. Crop, a dilation of the cesophagus, where the food is softened and held in reserve for the further processes of digestion. 4. Proventriculus, or stomach. This is the enlarged pouch to which the food passes from the crop. It is provided with glands which secrete the gastric juice, a digestive fluid whose action is to change the food into a condition known as chyme. 5. Gizzard, a receptacle of the food as it passes from the proven- triculus. The gizzard is provided with a tough inner membrane and powerful muscular walls which assist in grinding the food and mixing it with the digestive fluid, so that before leaving it is reduced to a [13] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK pasty mass. The gizzard there- fore, is the organ of mastication, and the grit which it contains serves as teeth. 6. Duodenum, the upper intes- tine. It forms a curve in the shape of the letter U, between the arms of which lies the pancreas. The food passes from the gizzard to the duodenum where it mixes with the fluid from the sweetbread and the bile from the liver. These fluids, acting with the intestinal ae juices, change the fatty foods into POOR a condition known as chyle. The chyle is absorbed by the lacteals, carried by the lymphatic system to the base of the neck and emptied into the general circulation. Other portions of the food are absorbed by the capillaries and carried by the portal circulation to the liver, there to undergo certain changes preparatory to assimilation. Pro- tein is changed to peptone by the pepsin of the gastric juice, the peptone being soluble and capable of absorption through the intes- tinal walls into the circulation; carbohydrates, consisting of sugar and starches, are changed into glu- cose, which is also soluble and ca- pable of absorption. 7. Small intestine, or ileum, which receives the food fram the duodenum. It lies in folds and convolutions which are connected and held together by a thin mem- brane known as the mesentery. At the lower end of the small in- testine two branches are thrown off, known as ceca. These extend forward, parallel with each other, and are closed at their upper extremities, hence are called blind pouches. The functions of the small intestine are to carry on the work of digestion and complete the work of absorption. To this end it se¢retes a digestive fluid, known as the intestinal juice, and is covered with elevations known as villi to increase the absorbing surface. 8. Ceca. 9. Large intestine, or colon, which begins where the ceca branch off and is a straight tube to the cloaca. Its function is to convey the undigested portions of the food, or fecal matter, to the cloaca. [14] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK 10. Cloaca, an enlarged pouch at the end of the large intestine. This receives the waste matter from the raw material and urates from the kidneys and discharges them through the vent. 1], Vent. 12. Pancreas, as stated, lies in the fold of the duodenum. It secretes the pancreatic juice, a digestive fluid which has three ferments, each of which performs an important office in digestion. The trypsin changes the albumin to peptone, the amylopsin changes starch to glucose, and the steapsin acts upon the fat to emulsify it. 13. Unabsorbed yolk. Other digestive organs are: The liver, a large, soft, glandular organ lying between the heart and gizzard. It is a very important organ of digestion. It acts upon the peptone which comes to it from the intestines through the portal circulation. The peptone is converted back to albumin and thus pre- pared to become a constituent part of the blood and ready for assimila- tion by the cells throughout the body. The liver also changes the glucose into glycogen, which is taken up by the blood and is oxidized as it is carried onward in the circulation, thus giving heat and energy to the body. The liver also performs an important function in destroy- ing disease germs and eliminating poisons which may come to it through the portal circulation. The liver secretes the bile, which is collected in a sac known as the gall sac, whence it is conveyed by the bile duct to the duodenum. The bile plays an important role in digestion, for it not only lubricates the walls of the intestine but aids the other di- gestive fluids in performing their work. Thus we see that the digestive system is a marvelous piece of machinery. It is concerned with softening, grinding, dis- solving, and digesting by certain chemical changes, absorbing and assimilating the raw material. A knowledge of its organs, their mode of work, and their functions, is very vital to the poultry keeper. If these organs function properly, are provided with the elements needed for the up-building of the body, as well as their own recuperation, all goes well—the fowl is healthy and production continues. Otherwise there are dis- turbances throughout the factory, and fatal diseases may follow. The whole problem of feeding and maintaining health in the flock hangs very largely upon this knowledge. The Reproductive System This system is concerned in the perpetuation of the species. It produces the egg which contains the living primordial cell from which the new individual is to spring. The organs of the reproductive system are the ovary, oviduct and the cloaca. [15] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Zl % 7 Z LD ee LD) Ly, nD uy "yp Ly ny yf Trt TLL ne T ie “ S WM MOTT ran MT SLIM ayy 7 WWTDD Ly Vy » op Pe 5 BS > Egg organs showing ovary, oviduct and cloaca. The expanded opening into the ovi- duct is the infundibulum. The ovary comprises a cluster of spherical bodies, odcytes, which lie to the left side of the back, just beneath the spine. These bodies are at first but microscopic points, but they are living, protoplasmic cells. They develop into the yolks and are surrounded by a delicate membrane known as the ovisac, or follicle. When the yolk becomes ripe, the follicle cleaves and allows the yolk to escape into the oviduct. The oviduct is a convoluted tube, about 18 inches in length. The funnel-like mouth of the oviduct is called the infundibulum. As the yolk is conveyed downward through the oviduct it receives, in the upper portion, the albumen; in the central portion the membranes surrounding the egg are formed; and, in the lower end, lime is secreted to form the shell. Soon after the completed egg passes into the cloaca it is covered with a mucous deposit, or film, which serves to prevent the evaporation of the egg contents and also, in some degree, prevents the access of germs and harmful substances from without. The muscular walls of the cloaca are used to expel the egg. [16] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Male Reproductive Organs The principal male organs concerned in reproduction are the testes and the seminal vesicles. The testes lie in the same relative position as the ovary in the female and are opposite the last two ribs on each side. They produce the semen, which consists of the seminal fluid and the spermatazoa, or sperm cells. The seminal vesicles are the tubes that convey the semen to the cloaca. The sperm cells are living cells, oblong in shape, and are provided with whip-like flagellz, or lashes, by which they are able to swim from place to place. The reproductive organs, especially those of the female, are subject to a number of abnormalities and diseases, which will be considered in the treatment of diseases. A knowledge of these organs and their workings has a very practical bearing on the management of the flock. The Nervous System ‘There are two systems of nerves in a fowl, the cerebro- spinal and the sympathetic. The cerebro-spinal system comprises the brain, spinal cord and motory and sensory nerves. This system is the medium of such mental operations as the bird possesses and presides over the senses. The senses of sight and hearing are very acute with fowls, much more so than with human beings. The senses of taste, smell and touch are much more limited. The sympathetic system consists of a series of ganglia with radiating nerves and it is connected up very intimately with the cerebro-spinal system, and reacts on the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and repro- ductive systems. The operation of every piece of machinery in the factory depends upon the stimulation of the nerves. They are not often affected, but such diseases as apoplexy and epilepsy occur occasionally. Sometimes the nervous system is attacked by worms and other parasites which produce peculiar dis- orders, probably due to malnutrition caused by the parasites, or to toxic poisoning. Other Organs and Tissues The spleen. This is a small, dark red organ which lies above the liver and is attached to the proventriculus. It is not provided with a system of blood vessels and capillaries as in other organs. It is not a digestive organ but is considered the factory of the red blood corpuscles, [17] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK for the blood, after passing through it, is richer in these elements than when it entered. Red corpuscles are also manufactured in the red marrow of the bones. The muscular system. Muscles by their contraction and relaxation control the motions of the body. They are composed of fibers, which are striated in the case of voluntary muscles and non-striated, or smooth, in all involuntary muscles except the cesophagus and heart. The peris- taltic movements of the alimentary tract, the pulsation of the heart, and the motions of swimming, flying and walking all depend upon this won- derful system of muscles. It is estimated that there are 12,000 muscles in a goose, including muscles that control the movements of the feathers. The excretory system. Excretion is accomplished by the lungs, in- testines and kidneys. The uric acid is eliminated from the blood by the kidneys in the form of urates. These are semi-solid and are con- veyed to the cloaca by the urinary tubules. The urates are excreted with the droppings, and can be observed as a white layer constituting about one-third of the excreta. The kidneys are located in the back in the cavities of the sacral region and can be recognized as reddish, gran- ular masses. They often become diseased, and their failure to function results in such serious disorders as gout, rheumatism and uremic poisoning. Tegumentary System, or Skin. The skin is the outer covering of the body consisting of several layers of cells which serve as a protec- tion to the bird. The appendages of the skin, such as feathers, spurs and nails are modified scales. The continuation of the skin within the body is known as the mucous membrane. A Wonderful Machine We have considered the wonderful machinery of the hen’s organism. Every system of its machinery has its special organs and every organ has its special work to perform. It is only when all these parts work in harmony that there can be a healthy and productive fowl. If by any accident or disease any organ is impaired or put out of action it may seriously affect the working of the whole factory and limit, if not totally curtail, the output of finished products. The importance of understanding these structures is very evident. A Practical Lesson To show how this knowledge is of practical application in the care of poultry, one illustration is given. Protein is recognized as a very necessary constituent of the food. This nitrogenous food is acted upon by the digestive fluids and changed into peptone. Why? Because peptone is soluble and readily transfuses through the walls of the intestines. But [18] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK peptone is a poison to the system, therefore it is carried by the portal circulation to the liver, which has the power to change it to albumin, which is at once assimilated by the blood, and this carries it to the cells to be used by them in building tissues. If there is an excess of protein taken in the food and an excess of peptone formed, then the liver is overworked. Some of the peptone may go into the circulation to poison the system. The liver becomes congested and there may follow a train of liver diseases and gout or rheumatism, causing the loss of the fowl. Further, uric acid is a nitrogenous compound and is produced in excessive quantity when there is an excess of protein in the food, as often happens in the liberal use of tankage. As the uric acid is eliminated by the kidneys, they are overworked with resulting congestion and disease. Thus we learn the importance of a balanced ration in which there is a due proportion of protein and carbohydrate. Many illustra- tions of this nature may be drawn from the digestive system alone. The Workmen What are the workmen in the great factory? It is true that an organ of the animal body may function as a unit to perform a definite work, as, for example, the eye performs the function of sight; but the eye is made up of tissues, such as epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous, and each of these has a definite work to do. The tissues also are made up of cells and each cell plays a part in accomplishing the desired end. If the cells should break down there would be failure all along the line. The cells, therefore, are the real workers, and their functioning makes possible the organism, for cells make tissues, tissues make organs, and organs make up the organism, or living bird. The cell is the working unit, just as is the individual in the industrial concern. [19] Chapter III The Raw Material OOD is any substance which taken into the animal organism contributes to its growth and maintenance. Food is fuel for the engine and raw material for the factory. The term “feed” has a similar scope but is applied more par- ticularly to animals, not to man. The term feed may also apply to a definite portion of food, as a feed of corn or oats. A ration is a definite combination of foods or feeds. A balanced ration is one prepared to meet the full needs of the animal organism. The ration to be used depends upon the end desired and the environment of the flock. The ration in summer with free range should be quite different from that of winter in confinement. The ration to force egg production would differ somewhat from a fattening ration. The ration during the moulting season should be adapted to the needs of the fowl in growing new feathers. The baby chick ration should meet the demands of the growing body. Available Poultry Feeds Wheat is the most desirable of all grains for poultry. It is more nearly a balanced ration than any other grain. It is free from an indigestible hull. As a feed for growing chicks and laying hens it is of great value. Even though at times ex- pensive, the results obtained warrant its use. Corn is rich in carbohydrate and, therefore, is an excellent winter feed. Chickens will eat it in preference to any other grain. It is not a balanced ration and, if fed alone, will prove disappointing unless the fowls have free range and have opportunity to secure green feed and insects. It is valuable as a fattening ration and as a part of developing and laying rations, Oats make a very valuable feed for poultry, but on account of the thick hull with its indigestible crude fiber it is not relished like corn and wheat. It is equal to wheat in protein content and about equal to corn in fat. Its nitrogen-free ex- [ 20] ; PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK tract is somewhat less than either corn or wheat. Its ash content surpasses both of these grains. The hull is often provided with sharp beards which irritate the digestive tract and sometimes cause serious trouble. Clipped oats are free from these objections and, where practical, should be used in the grain ration. Hulled oats would be even better. They can be obtained at the mills in 500 pound lots at reasonable prices. Whole oats should con- stitute about one-fifth of the grain ration. If fed in the same amount as wheat or corn much of it will be left in the litter to become contaminated and moldy and thus the cause of disease in the flock. Ground oats make a valuable addition to the dry mash. The hulls are objectionable, but the mash is generally picked over and the hulls discarded by the fowls, so that this objection is not so serious. Only heavy oats with thin hulls should be used. Light oats with thick hulls will be rejected by the fowls unless they are on a starvation diet. Scalded and sprouted oats are desirable forms in which to feed this grain. Rye is not relished by poultry nor do they seem to thrive upon it. The ergot of rye is a dangerous poison. Barley is a good substitute for corn, having about the same composition. It may be fed with corn to give variety. The hull is objectionable. Buckwheat has a thick, indigestible hull and otherwise is objectionable. A small quantity in the grain ration will add variety, but otherwise is of little value. Milo maize, kaffir corn, sorghum seed, etc., are good sub- stitutes for indian corn and are relished by the flock. Millet seed adds variety when thrown in the litter with other grains and stimulates exercise, but it is indigestible and even injurious to growing chicks. Ingredients for the Dry Mash Bran is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and ‘is rich in ash, protein, and fat. It furnishes a narrow ration on account of its comparatively small amount of carbohydrate. The main objection to bran is its crude fiber which is 9 per cent of its composition. This objection disappears when it is combined with meals having a limited amount of crude fiber. On ac- count of its bulky nature it is valuable to mix with the denser meals, and on account of its coarse nature it has a stimulating [21] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK effect on the mucous membrane and is counted slightly lax- ative. Wheat middlings are produced from the layer of the wheat kernel next to the bran. They are richer in carbohydrates than bran and contain less ash and crude fiber. Corn meal is ground corn and is of the same composition as whole corn. Gluten meal is the portion of the kernel just under the hull. Gluten feed consists of the corn bran and gluten meal mixed. Corn bran is the ground hulls. Ground oats are whole oats ground fine. They contain the hulls and should therefore be made of heavy oats with thin hulls. Oat middlings, or oat flour, comprise the ground kernels after the hulls are removed. Oat meal, or rolled oats, is the hulled oats rolled out and prepared for human con- sumption. Linseed meal is made from flaxseed. It has high percent- ages of protein and fat and is a valuable feed for poultry. On account of its very laxative nature it should be fed in limited quantities. About 5 per cent in the mash ration will be found advantageous. It is especially valuable in stimulating the growth of feathers. Animal Feeds for the Mash Meals of animal origin are of great value in stimulating egg-production. They promote growth in young stock and help adult fowls to lay on flesh. Among those more commonly used are the following: . Meat scrap contains about 50 per cent protein. It consists of meat trimmings, steam-cooked and pressed to sterilize and remove fat, and then ground. Meat crisps are made from lean meat and contain 75 cent protein. Meat meal is the same as meat scrap only ground finer. Meat crisps, ground fine, are very valuable in the mash for growing chicks. Poor grades of meat scrap are unsafe as food for poultry. Purchase your supply from a reliable house and always test before using. Open the larger pieces and note whether mold is present. Pour boiling water upon a small quanity to discover whether the odor remains sweet. Also examine for hair and pieces of horn, which should not be present. Tankage is made of poorer grades of material and unless prepared by a reliable house with guaranteed analysis should not be used. High grade tankage is used very extensively, [22] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK but on account of its high protein content should be used in limited quantity. About 10 per cent of the mash mixture is advised. Used in excess it is liable to produce gout, rheuma- tism and other affections. Fish scrap, prepared from dried fish, is valuable as a proteid food and is used extensively in commercially prepared feeds. It frequently imparts a fishy flavor to the flesh and eggs. Milk in some form is very valuable for poultry. It may be fed sour or sweet. Granulated milk and dried buttermilk are convenient forms to use when skim milk is not accessible. Other Constituents of the Mash Charcoal is a corrective and aids digestion. It should be used in every dry mash to keep it sweet and dry, and should be kept before the fowls constantly in hoppers. Salt stimulates the secretions and aids digestion. Used in excess, it brings on bowel trouble and often acts as a poison, producing death. Used sparingly, it is of great value in a dry mash. About one-half pound in one hundred pounds of mash is the correct quantity. Dry, finely granulated table salt, free from lumps, is the kind to use. Ash comprises the mineral salts such as soda, lime, salt, magnesia. The combinations are chiefly chlorides, carbonates, phosphates and sulphates. These substances are usually sup- plied in foods of vegetable and animal origin. Fowls also obtain some of the mineral salts from the soil and the water they drink. A fowl given nothing but distilled water and foods containing only pure protein and carbohydrate would soon perish. Phosphate and carbonate of lime are needed to build bone and the shell of the egg. Ash enters into the structure of the feathers and is more or less needed in all the tissues of the body. If the supply in food and water is not sufficient, and this certainly occurs when fowls are kept in confinement, it should be supplied. This is done by feeding oyster shell, soil that is not infested, rock phosphate, ashes, crushed limestone and granulated bone. An adequate supply of mineral salts will prevent fowls from eating their droppings and increase the health of the flock. Oyster shell contains carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime and some organic matter. It should be kept before the fowls at all times. Its importance in egg production is shown by the sudden decrease in eggs when the supply runs out. [23] PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK Granulated bone is valuable not only for the mineral matter it contains but for its protein. If supplied in a separate com- partment of the hopper, the poultry keeper will realize its value by the large amount consumed. It is especially valuable as a part of the egg-producing ration. Water is a mineral. It is a food because it enters into al! the tissues and structures of the body. It must be provided or the fowl sickens and dies. It should be supplied fresh daily in clean vessels and is especially needed to soften the food after. a full crop is obtained of dry feed. Green Feeds Green feeds are greatly relished by poultry. The goose subsists almost entirely upon weeds and grasses during the growing season. The same is true to a large extent with ducks and turkeys. The value of green food in promoting health and increasing egg-production is generally underestimated, and too little effort made to provide it. It contains an abundant supply of ash, and its proteid and carbohydrate nutrients are in easily digested form. When it cannot be supplied in succu- lent form it should be furnished in dry form. Some of the dry forms are clover meal, alfalfa meal and dried beet pulp. Alfalfa meal can be purchased at supply houses and many feed mills. If prepared from fresh green hay it makes a valu- able substitute for green feed. Its abundant supply of ash and other food elements makes it a desirable meal for the dry mash. Asa rule alfalfa is not relished by poultry when fed alone, but as a part of the mash it is in favor, if used in limited quantity, about 10 per cent of the total weight. Clover meal has about the same value as alfalfa. Alsike. clover makes a fine litter for laying hens. The leaves are eaten greedily. Beets or mangel wurzels make a very desirable succulent green food. They are greatly appreciated by the hens and are eagerly devoured. They may be chopped fine and fed in vessels or cut in slices and nailed to the wall. Beets contain water-soluble C vitamine, but are especially valued for their ash content. Other succulent feeds are cabbages, carrots, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, sprouted oats, sprouted rye, swiss chard, lettuce, dandelion leaves, etc. The poultry keeper should plan in spring for his winter supply of succulent feed. A small [24] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK space devoted to mangels will give a surprising return. Carrots do not freeze readily and make a good feed that can be grown at small cost. Condiments We do not advise the use of stimulants and tonics as a practice. When the hens are healthy and happy and are doing full service in filling the egg basket why change a system of care and feeding that has been tried and found successful? There are times, however, when a tonic will help the fowl to tide over and save it from disease. Frequently the egg organs are dormant and only need a tonic to stimulate them to action in order to bring them into laying condition. Fowls are like human beings, they have their ills and humors and often need a corrective or a tonic, to which they readily re- spond, though it would be folly to depend upon these alone. Unless an egg tonic is used in connection with a balanced ration more harm will result than good. If the raw material is not present how can the egg be manufactured? If the nervous system needs a little stimulus to action, or the diges- tive system is sluggish and needs a tonic to correct abnormal conditions, or the reproductive organs are inactive and need a stimulant to incite the process of egg forming, a tonic may serve a good purpose. There are a large number of advertised tonics. Some of these are of real value, some are measured by an interrogation point. There are also private tonics which are offered as great secrets and sold for a price. Some of the substances frequently used are cayenne pepper, venetian red, quinine, strychnine, sulphuric acid, ginger, onions, etc. Of these the following deserve mention: Cayenne pepper is a stimulant to the liver and other di- gestive organs. It is used to relieve colds, in which case it is given in gelatin capsules. This powerful stimulant should be used in limited quantity, if at all. Venetian red contains oxide of iron and calcium sulphate. It serves as a tonic to the digestive system and is beneficial to the blood. Iron, quinine and strychnine are valuable tonics and com- bined in tablets or capsules will be found a splendid help in restoring to vigor fowls that are off their feed, anemic or [25] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Of course they’ll lay if they have a comfortable, well-ventilated house like this, and are fed the way Mr. Osburn advises emaciated. Formula No. 1 suggests how the preparation should be made and administered. Ginger is a tonic very beneficial to all the organs. Com- bined with other remedies, as suggested in formula No. 2, it provides a tonic of real value. Mustard is a strong stimulant. Its remedial and tonic character is not fully appreciated. Onions are valuable as a food and serve as a tonic. They can be fed to growing stock over four weeks old and to adult fowls. The following tonics and stimulants are recommended: Formula No. I—Health Tonic Tonic for colds, asthenia, digestive disorders, anem‘a, and general debility due to long continued laying, sitting, or other cause. Sulphate of quinine........... 00.0000 c cee eee 1 grain ERVCHNING 25.2 eahahus. diind # And ature Shue 4 pomiguancds 1/30 grain Tron: Sulphate sist osuvesz-stenvon-w pagheds gx a syseteadaee 1 grain Given daily in two-grain capsule until recovery. Mix equal parts of quinine and iron, then fill the capsule with the mixture after first putting in a 1/30th grain tablet of the strychnine. [26] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Formula No. II—Health Tonic Tonic for indigestion, torpid liver, constipation, diarrhza, blood af- fections, and general debility. Gentian: 2 snwiscduew satis ss uate at here aos nahn be eee 8 ounces DISEET. 2 cide in eG 6 Pah Danks HO OREN Ge EE 8 ounces GIN BET Ie ce open ats Be SAS pO toad tein ee cand a 4 ounces ESDSOmMi: Salts! fais ru acivgne eahen wee ranigdes geal Mavens 8 ounces PO ky ites < rragid & haaid Ww Ream E DAA RY RRR 4 ounces Tron: Sulphate: sa.cwvons aco nes ae wate a Mire ee cask 1 grain Mix thoroughly and give two tablespoonfuls of the mixture in ten quarts of dry or moist mash, daily until recovery. Formula No. III—Egg Tonic Correct feeding and exercise are the best stimulants for the egg organs. Eggs cannot be produced without the raw material and often hens will not lay, though correctly fed, because they do not have suf- ficient exercise. Sometimes, however, when conditions are apparently just right the flock is sluggish and the hens refuse to lay. Under such conditions an egg tonic may have value. The tonic recommended below has been used to some extent, and those who have tried it have not been disappointed. It is claimed for it that it does not weaken the vitality, if directions are followed, and actually increases the fertility of the eggs. We advise its use simply as a means of stimulating the egg organs to action and to get the hens into the laying mood. It should always be ac- companied with a balanced ration and an abundant supply of feed. Direc- tions follow. To the water or milk for the daily mash add tincture of cantharides, allowing one-fifth of a drop to each hen. A hundred hens would require only 20 drops. A teaspoon contains 60 drops, which would be sufficient for 300 hens. Feed in the moist mash daily for one week. During the second week alternate the tincture of cantharides with black gunpowder, ie., give the tincture one day and the gunpowder the following day. Add one tablespoonful of the powder to the water or milk for the daily mash. This will be sufficient for one hundred hens. After the second week feed the tincture of cantharides only once a week, but always follow it on the succeeding day with the black gun- powder. Gunpowder is composed of 70 per cent of niter, 15 per cent of sulphur, and 15 per cent of charcoal. It is sometimes difficult to pur- chase. Any druggist can prepare it according to the formula given above. Continue this feeding for four weeks and then discontinue. Caution: Tincture of cantharides is a powerful poison and should be kept out of the reach of children. Formula No. IV—Egg Tonic To the mash for 50 hens add 8 teaspoonfuls of mustard. The mix- ture. may be fed dry or moist, the moist mash being recommended. Mustard is a fine tonic and corrective, a splendid. stimulant to the egg organs, and promotes the health of the flock. It is claimed that no harmful effects follow its use. [27] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK A Word of Caution In the foregoing discussion we have pointed out the nature, composition and value of the raw material required by poultry and have enumerated some of the more important foods which are available to the farmer in preparing rations for his flock. A few cautions regarding the selection of materials will not be out of place. 1. Select feeds that the fowls relish. Rye is not relished by poultry and should not be fed, if other grains are available. Fed alone it will poison the flock and cause many losses. Oats and buckwheat are not relished on account of their indiges- tible hulls. Therefore they should be provided in inviting form. Palatability is the first requisite. 2. Select feeds that are easily digested. Millet seed is palatable but not easily digested, so is of little value as a poultry feed. A food that has an excess of crude fiber is diffi- cult of digestion and should be avoided. 3. Select feeds that are high in nutrient value. Polished rice is palatable and easily digested but it lacks in protein and is not a safe feed for poultry. 4. Select feeds that are farm produced as far as possible. They are more available and less expensive. The concentrates of animal and vegetable origin must be purchased, but why purchase milo maize when corn is at hand. 5. Select feeds that are free from mold and decay. This is the path of safety. Moldy and rotten feeds are dangerous and account for a large percent of poultry losses. Wheat must be free from must; corn should be hand-selected and shelled especially for the flock; oats should be examined for musty and rotten kernels. So also all other feeds should be given the closest scrutiny. How Food is Used The changes which take place in the raw material, or food, as it is being transformed into the component parts of the body, involve several processes : Deglutition, swallowing ; mas- tication, pulverizing the food; digestion or dissolving and. chemically changing it so that it can be transfused through the walls of the blood vessels; absorption, taking it up into the blood and lymph; circulation, transferring it to the parts of the body where it is needed for repair and growth; assimilation, [28] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK converting it into the substances which make up the or- ganism ; and oxidation, a process by which cell substances and organic compounds in the blood are united with oxygen, pro- ducing heat and energy; and excretion, by which the waste matter is thrown off from the body. These processes have been studied to some extent in Chap- ter II. Our discussion here pertains more especially to digestion, assimilation and oxidation. / Another Practical Lesson It has been pointed out that the albumin and other proteids of the food are changed into peptone by the gastric juice and this is carried by the portal circulation to the liver where it is changed back to albumin. The gastric juice secreted by the stomach and gizzard contains three digestive principles—hy- drochloric acid, pepsin and rennin. The rennin coagulates the albumin and the pepsin changes it to peptone, but this process cannot be carried on without the aid of the hydro- chloric acid. Now the hydrochloric acid is manufactured from the salt which is found in the blood. This suggests the importance of feeding salt in the daily ration. Its aid to digestion is here indicated. Another digestive process is the change in the carbohy- drates (starches and sugars) to glucose. This is also trans- ported to the liver and there converted into glycogen, which is taken up by the blood. Still another change in the food is accomplished by the pancreatic and intestinal juices by which the fats are saponi- fied and emulsified so that they can be taken into the lymphatic circulation and by this emptied into the general circulation. What Becomes of Digested Food? The emulsified fat is oxidized in the lungs, producing heat and energy. It is probably all oxidized, as very little is found in the blood after it leaves the lungs. It is not used to make fatty tissue. That is made from the other elements of the food in the body itself. | The glycogen, representing the carbohydrate of the food, is oxidized in the blood. It is the great source of heat and energy. Not all is oxidized there, but a portion of it goes to the cells and is used to manufacture fat. [29] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK The albumin of the blood is carried to the cells throughout the body and used to repair waste and build new cells and tissues for the body. Some of it is oxidized, but its chief func- tion is that of supplying material for growth and maintenance. It is a nitrogen-bearer, and there can be no protoplasm or living matter without nitrogen. It is even used in the manu- facture of fat, and this explains why fowls fatten readily when there is a liberal allowance of protein in the food. Composition of the Animal Body The elements that enter into the composition of a fowl’s body are: Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium. phos- phorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, sul- phur, silicon and fluorine. These elements also enter into the composition of an egg. In the body they are combined in many substances, some of them very complex. The process by which these elements and compounds are made a part of the living body is called assimilation. Oxidation, on the other hand, is a process of burning or tearing down. The chief sub- stances produced in this process are carbonic acid gas and water. The Kind of Food Required Evidently a perfect ration should contain all of the above named elements. We are accustomed to emphasize the pro- tein and carbohydrate content of the food but forget that the fowl just as surely needs water and the mineral salts in its ration. Water is a food because it adds to the weight of the body and is used to manufacture some of the compounds of the body. The mineral salts, such as salt, carbonate of lime, phos- phate of lime, sodium carbonate, sodium phosphate, and mag- nesium phosphate are truly foods for they enter into structures of the body. Food Constituents The substances entering into the composition of foods are classified as nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The nitro- genous substances are known as proteids. As the name implies, they contain nitrogen. The non-nitrogenous sub- [30] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK stances include the ash and the carbohydrates and the fats. Water enters into the composition of all foods but not in sufficient quantity to meet the demands of the animal body. Crude fiber is the indigestible portion of the food and is composed chiefly of cellulose. The following table will help to fix this analysis in the mind. Protein Nitrogenous.... Albumin. Water Nutrient Carbohydrate, or Nitrogen-free Foods ~ Non-nitrogenous Ge Sets 2: exthacts Ash Crude Fiber (Cellulose) Fat-soluble A Vitamines...... Water-soluble B Water-soluble C Protein. This is the most important solid constituent of the food. It comprises 20 per cent of the fowl’s body. It is necessary to the production of living matter, to cell-multiplication and growth, and to the formation of such tissues as blood, nerve and muscle. It occurs in nearly all grain and animal feeds. Those feeds which contain a large percentage of protein are called proteids. Illustrations are found in tankage, meat scrap, fish scrap, oil meal, cottonseed meal and milk products. Albumin. This is one of the proteids, but is given special considera- tion on account of its peculiar properties and its prominence in the tissues of the body, in the blood, and in the composition of the egg. Water. About 55 per cent of the fowl’s body is water. Every cell of its organism cries out for water. Without water an animal soon perishes. It comprises 66 per cent of the composition of an egg. Egg production ceases when the water supply is cut off. It con- stitutes 87 per cent of the composition of milk, so that when milk is fed liberally, as well as succulent green feed, the demand for water is decreased. In the body it dissolves the food, aids in absorption, serves as a carrier for the solid principles of the blood, makes the tissues soft and pliable, and enters into some of the chemical changes which are constantly going on. Carbohydrates. These foods supply heat and energy for the body by oxidation, and the surplus is used in the production of fat. A carbo- hydrate is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen are always in the proportion found in water, so that when it is oxidized, the oxygen uniting with the carbon to produce carbonic acid gas, water becomes the residue. Carbohydrates abound in all grains and their by-products. In cold weather more carbohydrate is required than in summer. It does not occur in the structures of the body but is found in the blood as glucose, or as glycogen, and in the egg as glucose. Crude fiber (cellulose) is a carbohydrate, but is insoluble, and, there- fore, is indigestible. About 6 per cent of the dry mash may be crude fiber. [31] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK This ista convenient type of small colony house Fat. Fat is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the hydrogen and oxygen are not in the proportion found in water. Fat, taken as food, is oxidized in the lungs to produce heat and energy. It occurs as vegetable oils in grains and seeds and as animal fat in meat scrap, bone meal, etc. The fat in the fowl’s body, deposited in the inter- cellular spaces and as masses of adipose tissue, is manufactured in the body and serves as a reserve supply of fuel for the body and as material for the manufacture of eggs. A hen to lay well should carry a good supply of fat. Lean hens with thin breast bones are invariably poor layers. ’ Ash. This term comprises the mineral salts and charcoal. They enter into the bones and other structures and form the shell of the egg. Grains and animal feeds usually provide sufficient ash to meet the hen’s needs. Some is obtained from the water and some from the soil. Fowls are fond of eating soil, especially if released from confinement, indicat- ing that the ash element is lacking in their food. Charcoal is a cor- rective, is not digested, but should always be supplied, as it absorbs poisonous gases, aids indigestion, and contributes to the health of the fowl. Vitamines Vitamines. A vitamine is a substance whose presence in the food is essential to growth and health. There are three substances of this nature, known as Fat-soluble A., Water-Soluble B, and Water-Soluble C. Hopkins says: “No animal can live on a mixture of pure protein, fat and carbohydrate; and even when the necessary inorganic material is supplied the animal still cannot flourish.” Not only is a balanced ration important, but the growth principles must be present in due pro- portion or the results will be disappointing. Vitamines have not been chemically analyzed. Their existence is known by experiment, their absence invariably resulting in such serious diseases as rickets, scurvy and polyneuritis (Beri-beri). [32] “PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Fat-soluble A occurs in such feeds as whole milk, eggs, whole grains, linseed, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and potatoes, and meats. Its absence results in rickets, a disease affecting the whole body. Water-soluble B is found in skim-milk, eggs, whole grains, bran, lin- seed, and most vegetables. Its absence results in Beri-beri, or poly- neuritis. A fowl fed solely on polished rice contracts this disease and may be cured by feeding whole rice or any of the feeds named above. Water-soluble C is found in milk, cabbage, turnips, carrots, potatoes, beets, lettuce and fruits. Feeding substances deficient in this vitamine results in scurvy, and the cure of this disease is secured by correcting the ration. Water-soluble C is found in all fruit juices and more or less in nearly all vegetables and fresh meat. All of the above nutrients are important. Even the crude fiber is of value in limited quantity, as it furnishes material to stimulate the peristaltic action of the intestines. In excess, however, it hinders digestion. The enumeration of poultry feeds given above comprises chiefly those produced on the farm. By careful planning the poultry keeper can produce his own feeds, thus reducing expenses and enabling him to prepare his own rations. Grain mixtures and mashes prepared at home are not only of known composition, but the quality of the nutrients can be known and regulated. [33] Chapter IV Feeding ROPER feeding is the chief secret of success in poultry raising. Large losses of young chickens, failure to get winter eggs, and many diseases and other troubles are due to improper feeding. We must first understand the needs of the fowl’s organism and then study faithfully how to supply those needs. Some of the rations which follow have been worked out in detail so that the reader can understand how the nutritive ratios are determined. All the rations, except the one pertaining to fat- tening, require a double mixture, i.e., a grain mixture and a mash mixture. It would be very difficult to compound a balanced ration such as the hen requires for egg-production from whole grains because they would be deficient in protein, but when we can add to the grain mixtures such protein concentrates as are found in animal and vegetable meals, it is quite easy to provide a balanced ration for the laying hen. The use of such a ration explains why the hens lay in winter. Under the old system of feeding whole grains, eggs were a great rarity in winter. Now it is the rule for the farm flock to give a good account in the months when eggs are supposed to be scarce. Hens always lay in summer time be- cause then they can secure insects and green feed and thus balance the grain ration that the farmer provides. Under scientific feeding they will respond just as faithfully in the winter season. Principles of Feeding If you will note the following outline of the composition of the body and egg of a fowl you can understand that scientific feeding consists in bringing to the flock all the elements needed for growth and maintenance and production, and these ele- ments must be provided in a manner economical and conducive to health. [34] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK WATER PROTEIN Fat ASH Fowl, per cent....... 55 20 19 6 Egg, per cent....... 66 13 9 12 Body growth and maintenance come first. Unless there is a surplus of material above that required for heat, energy, growth and maintenance there can be no production of eggs. In laying down the following principles of feeding the de- mands of the fowl have been consulted. Balanced Rations A balanced ration is necessary, that is, a ration that supplies the food elements that are needed, and in the proper proportion. If poultry raisers would feed only those rations that meet the actual needs of the fowls in each season, their troubles would cease. The medicine chest would be forgotten and the question, “Does poultry pay?” would receive an immediate answer in the affirmative. This is the secret they long have sought. Detailed grain and mash rations for all con- ditions are given on pages 46 to 51. Supplementary Feeds In addition to the regular ration selected, certain supple- mentary materials should be provided: Grit is actually needed for grinding the feed. Its presence in the crop is not absolutely needed for the life of the bird, for fowls have been known to thrive for months without it. It has been proven, however, that a supply of grit means more .rapid mastication, more complete digestion and greater thrift. If grit material is made of quartz or granite it is insoluble in the digestive fluids, and a small quantity will last for a long period. A fowl may be deprived of grit for months and yet a quantity will be found in the crop. Oyster shell serves as grit for a brief period only, as it is dissolved by the hydrochloric acid of the digestive fluids. Good sharp grit should always be in reach of the flock. Water must be classed as a food. As it comprises 55 per cent of the fowl’s body and 66 per cent of the composition of an egg, its importance is evident. It is true that a bird can live for a considerable period without water, but it cannot produce eggs without it nor can it live indefinitely. I have known baby chicks to thrive for two weeks without any water outside of what they obtained in their daily ration of food. [35] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK You consider this a cruel experiment, but probably they did not suffer seriously, as all feeds contain a large percentage of water and this is constantly being set free in assimilation and taken into the blood. The importance of clean water in clean vessels cannot be emphasized too strongly. Water gives plumpness to the body, aids digestion, takes part in the pro- cesses of assimilation, is the carrier of waste matter to the lungs and kidneys, and, therefore, is essential to a healthy body. The best method to supply water is in open vessels. These should be placed on elevated platforms in such a position that the fowls cannot get into them with their feet. The vessel should have sloping sides so that in case of freezing it will not be easily broken and the ice can be easily removed. Such a vessel is quickly cleaned and on a platform as suggested does not become foul from the litter. Milk is of great value for growing stock. It can be fed sour or sweet, but it is advised not to change from one kind to the other. For all seasons sweet milk has preference. Sweet milk can be used as soon as separated and, if fed in the morning, it will usually keep sweet until all is consumed. It is of great value in preparing moist mashes for growing stock and fatten- ing rations. It contains considerable protein but this is bal- anced by the carbohydrate of the succulent feeds. Chicks fed on milk grow rapidly and are thrifty. It is claimed that the lactic acid of milk holds in check the bacteria of white diarrhea. It is certainly true that if a brood of chicks once becomes in- fected with bacillary or coccidial diarrhea it has little value as a cure. Ash comprises the mineral salts. Of these phosphate of lime and carbonate of lime are of especial importance in form- ing bone and the shell of eggs. A good source of phosphate of lime, or phosphoric acid, is bone meal or granulated bone. It will pay to keep this before growing chicks constantly. It contains 45 per cent of phosphoric acid and in a form that is easy of assimilation. It also contains protein, which adds to its value as a food. The lime for the egg shell is obtained by feeding oyster shell. If this is withheld it means thin shells and fewer eggs. Green feed of a succulent nature is essential to the health of a fowl. It is valuable not only because it contains water and other nutrient substances but it contains the vitamines, or growth principles so necessary to vitality and growth. The [36] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK white potato is anti-scorbutic and will ward off the disease known as scurvy. Beets, carrots, Swiss chard, dandelion leaves and rape will help prevent sore eyes due to dietary de- ficiency ;.mustard leaves have a tonic effect and make a good green food. Quality of Feed Sound and clean grains should be selected for the ration. Sometimes shriveled and chaffy grain, caused by weather con- ditions, contains a larger protein content in proportion to weight than heavier grain and is perfectly safe for feeding, if free from disease. Mill feeds purchased for the dry mash | should be examined with the closest scrutiny. The odor and texture will be a guide as to quality. Musty, moldy and spoiled feeds should be rejected. Rotten potatoes will cause ptomaine poisoning. Rotten and moldy oats will cause As- pergillosis. Tainted meat scraps have caused untold losses. Putrid milk sometimes brings on an epidemic of disease. Many diseases are communicated through foul water. Crude fiber should be avoided. It is largely cellulose and indigestible. How Much Feed and When? Overfeeding results in serious disturbances of the digestive system. An excess of protein means liver and kidney disease. An excess of any one kind of feed, such as corn, often leads to serious digestive disorders. Underfeeding is as serious as overfeeding, for it means a stunted growth and weakness that render the fowl suceptible to disease. The quantity must be determined by the Wendant He must study the needs of the flock and feed only what will be consumed without waste. The average daily ration of 100 Leghorn hens is 15 pounds of grain mixture and mash. This would mean 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of mash. The average daily amount consumed by 100 hens of the dual pur- pose type is about 18 pounds. This would mean about 12 pounds of grain mixture and 6 pounds of mash. On free range a Leghorn hen will eat about 55 pounds of feed in a year and a dual purpose hen about 75 pounds. There is no fast rule as to the quantity of feed to be given. A heavy layer will eat much more than a poor layer. Con- [37] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK sumption will be greater in extremely cold weather than in mild weather. Consumption will be greater in the spring when the whole flock is busy in egg-production than in the fall when few are laying. Jere is where the personal equation enters. and the attendant must win or lose according to the judgment he uses. Cleanliness This is one of the cardinal principles of good feeding. A clean feeding place is vital. Damp and moldy litter is danger- ous. A feeding floor covered with the dropping of diseased chicks means speedy ruin to the whole brood. When the op- pressive days of summer come it is no pleasant task to clean out the brooder or the colony house and replenish the litter, but it must be done promptly and regularly or failure will fol- low. Watering vessels can be kept clean by placing them on elevated platforms. The same is true of hoppers and self feeders for grit, charcoal and mashes. Exercise and Feeding As far as possible feed should be given so as to encourage exercise. Even the mash can be placed so that the fowl must use some physicial exercise to get it. The grain mixture should be fed in moderately deep litter six to eight inches in depth. Care should be used in selecting the litter. For young chicks short-cut alfalfa, alsike clover, or short-cut rye straw will be found safe. Wheat and oat straw often bear the spores of mold and smut and rust. which fre- quently produce fatal disease. Rye straw is usually bright and clean and if run through the silo cutter will make a very fine litter. Chaff gathered around the threshing machine is usually dusty, and is unsafe to use. If the floor of the scratch pen is inclined to be damp the litter should be shallow to allow the dampness to dry out. The fowls in the pen with damp litter are the ones to get out of condition. The litter should be changed monthly while the flock is in winter quarters. How to Feed There are about as many systems of feeding as there are poultry keepers. Every farmer’s wife has her own system, and she generally wins average success. The systems given below [38] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK are not perfect, but if you give them a fair trial you will not be disappointed. Feeding the Baby Chick Feed nothing until the third day after the chick is hatched. Just before the chick is ready to break the shell the yolk of the egg is absorbed into the abdomen. This is a provision of nature to furnish nourishment for the chick during the first few days of its growing life. During these few days the yolk is absorbed into the circulation and assimilated. ' If the chick is fed before that process is completed, which requires about 72 hours, the process of absorption is checked and the yolk remains in the abdomen, a menace to its health and growth. Many chicks that perish, if examined, would be found to contain the unabsorbed yolk. At the end of this period, or at the close of the third day, give a light feed of rolled oats and give sweet milk for drink. The feed should be very simple for the first two days, nothing but rolled oats, with milk in the forenoon and water in the afternoon. If the plan of removing the milk at noon, cleansing the vessels, and replacing with water in the after- noon is followed throughout the feeding period, there will be little danger of harm from putrid milk. We advise sweet milk because it is just as valuable as sour milk and is available at all seasons. After the second day of feeding, place the chicks on Ration No. 1, found on page 46. Rolled oats or pinhead oats con- stitute the scratch ration, and should be thrown in shallow litter to induce exercise. A feeding box about three inches deep and three feet square would answer well for 100 chicks. This could be removed, cleaned and supplied with fresh litter as required. The mash portion of the ration should be placed in a hopper upon an elevated platform so as to keep it clean. Self feeders for this purpose can be purchased at trifl- ing cost. Near the mash feeder should be placed a hopper with three compartments containing grit, charcoal, and granulated bone. At the end of the second week change gradually to Ration No. II (page 46). This means a change from rolled or pin- head oats to whole wheat as the scratch feed, and the change can be made by adding a little wheat to the oats, then increas- ing the wheat until the oats can be omitted. [39] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK At the end of four weeks change to Ration No. III (page 46). Note that the mash mixture for No. III is the same as for No. I and No. II, so that no change will be required in that portion of the ration. The grain mixture, however, now consists of corn, wheat and oats, a less expensive ration and one presenting a greater variety. After the first week green feed should be supplied. Sliced raw potatoes will be greatly relished by the chicks. The tops of sprouted oats or rape also serve well. Dandelion leaves are especially recommended on account of their favorable action on the liver. Beet pulp is a good succulent food. Lettuce and rape are recommended by some poultry keepers. Swiss chard is worth considering. If Ration No. IV is used the same general system of feeding is recommended. How to Feed for Egg Production Use Rations No. V or VI (page 49) for winter feeding. The grain mixture should be thrown in deep clean litter to promote exercise. The mash should be kept before the fowls continually in hoppers on elevated: platform. Otherwise the hoppers will be filled with litter. Near the mash should be a four-compartment hopper with grit, charcoal, oyster shell, and granulated bone. For litter there is nothing better than bright alsike hay. If this cannot be obtained, chopped rye straw or bright wheat straw is advised. If this cannot be ob- tained oat straw should be used as a last extremity. The aim should be to secure litter that is not dusty or moldy. Change the litter once a month during the winter and once in three months when the fowls are on free range. For green feed mangel wurzels once a day are valuable. Sprouted oats or sprouted rye are greedily consumed by the fowls. In sprouting oats, mold often forms. This can be avoided by washing the trays with a solution of formaldehyde and by adding to the water in which the oats are to be soaked over night a few drops of formaldehyde. Cabbage, carrots, turnips, pumpkins, alfalfa leaves and alsike leaves all give good results as succulent feeds. When the days grow warmer a change should be made to Ration No. VIII (page 50). This is a narrower ration but is adapted to summer feeding. Keep the self-feeder full of mash and feed the grain mixture once a day. [40] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Feeding the Breeding Stock It is not customary to make any distinction between the utility layers and the breeders in the matter of feeding, but where eggs are to be sold for hatching, or the poultry keeper wishes to raise a large supply of breeding stock, the care and feeding of the foundation stock are certainly important. Where stock is to be used solely for the production of market eggs, forced feeding should be used for the first year or two, and then they should be fattened for market. In the case of breeding stock, however, where vigorous offspring are de- sired too much forcing may bring disaster. Whole grains are indicated, and the mash should not be too rich in protein. Ra- tion No. VII ‘is recommended. This is a wide ration and will probably bring the breeding stock to laying condition about the 15th of February. This is about the time when the farmer begins to think of filling the incubator. His flock has not been weakened by forced teeding for eggs, but is in the pink of condition. How to Feed During the Molt For the formation of feathers a ration rich in nitrogen is required. Ration No. IX (page 51) is advised. It should follow the summer ration, beginning about the first of Septem- ber and continuing till the last of November. If the fowls are confined, the usual allowance of succulent feed and ash should be provided. . Feeding for the Market . Capons, surplus cockerels and culls from the laying flock should not be shipped to market without conditioning. Even confinement in a room with whole corn, water and grit would be better than no conditioning at all. If Ration No. X (page 51) is used quick results will be obtained. The crate method of feeding, with slatted bottoms to insure cleanliness, and a feeding trough outside the crate, is a com- mon method of feeding. A small room with litter and an elevated platform for the feeding trough and other vessels will answer as well. The mash’ should be given three times a day, all that the fowls will consume in twenty minutes. As soon as the fowls are fat, market promptly. In crate fattening Leghorns, provision should be made for exercise or the re- sults will be disappointing. [41] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Constructing a Ration Balanced rations are determined by the ratio existing between the protein content of the ration and the starch, sugar and fat (nutrient carbohydrate). This ratio is called the nutritive ratio. For example, a balanced ration for growing chicks requires that the starch, sugar and fat in the combination of feeds | | Dinner time in the poultry yard should be four and one-half times greater in weight than the protein. The nutritive ratio therefore is 1 :4%. To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds which furnish a balanced ration for growing chicks it is found that there are 10 pounds of protein and 45 pounds of starch, sugar and fat. The ratio between the two is therefore 10 : 45. Reducing this by dividing the ratio by 10, we get a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.5. To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds ratio should be approximately 1:5. It may be a little more or a little less. If the nutrients are supplied in that ratio the [42] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK hen will see that her ration is balanced by selecting the feeds she needs. She cannot be fed with a spoon, or by exact rule or measure. If the nutrients are placed before her in approxi- mately the right proportion her own instincts will guide her in selecting the food required. To furnish a ration suited to fattening fowls for, market, it has been found that the nutritive ratio should be 1 : 3, i.e., there must be a smaller proportion of starch, sugar and fat than in the nutritive ratio for the laying hen. beni aa How is the Nutritive Ratio Determined? From the observations already made it is easy to under- stand that the nutritive ratio is the relation existing between the protein and the carbohydrate, it is the comparison between the weight of the nutrient protein and the nutrient carbo- hydrate. How is this ratio determined? Simply by determining the total weight of protein in all the materials of the ration and then the weight of the carbohydrate in the same materials. When that is done the comparison is easily made by dividing the ratio by the number representing the weight of the protein. To determine the weights in question it is necessary to refer to the table showing the percentages of nutrients in each variety of food. In determining the carbohydrate it is necessary to reduce the fat to terms of carbohydrate. This is done by multiplying by 2% and adding the product to the weight of the nitrogen- free extract. The reason for this is that fat has the power to produce two and one-fourth times as much heat and energy as the same weight of nutrient carbohydrate. Illustration: A ration consists of 10 pounds of corn, 10 pounds of wheat, and 10 pounds of oats. What is the nutritive ratio? By referring to the table given below, showing the per- centages of nutrients, it is possible to determine the weight of each nutrient. The following illustration shows how the prob- lem is worked out and the nutritive ratio determined. [43] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Nutrient GRAINS PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATE Fat 10 Ibs, Corn 1.05 Ibs, 6.96 lbs, 54 Ibs. 10 Ibs. Wheat 1,19 Ibs, 7.19 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 10 Ibs. Oats 1.18 Ibs. 5.97 Ibs. .50 Ibs. Totats 3.42 Ibs. 20.12 Ibs. 1.25 Ibs. Reducing fat to Carbohy, 2.81 Adding ots ea aan Sa baa 3.42 22.93 Dividing by 3.42 1 6.7 =the nutritive ratio. To convert the 1.25 Ibs. of fat to terms of carbohydrate we multiply by 2%. This gives 2.8 lbs. which is added to the 20.12 lbs. of nutrient carbohydrate (often called nitrogen-free extract) and this gives us 22.93 lbs., which represents the carbohydrate in the 30 lbs. of food. Our ratio therefore is 3.42 : 22.93. Dividing this ratio by 3.42 we get the nutritive ratio, which is 1: 6.3. Wide and Narrow Nutritive Ratios It will be observed in the ration just given that the amount of carbohydrate is much larger than the amount of protein, much larger than in the nutritive ratio for laying hens, which is 1:5. Such a ration is said to have a wide nutritive ratio. On the other hand the nutritive ratio for growing chicks has a smaller amount of nutrient carbohydrate than found in the nutritive ratio for the laying hen, and such a ratio is said to be narrow. A good day’s work [44] PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK Table I. Composition of Poultry Feeds CrupE Nurrient FEeps WatTeER AsH PROTEIN Fiber Carsouyprate Fat Percent Percent Perecnt Percent Percent Percent Whole grains: COE: wae 5 sae cane acing Nes ReeN oe 10.9 1.5 10.5 2.1 69.6 5.4 Kati, Cort, cxcx aeactin onokears 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6 Banley: