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INDIAN SNAKE ROISONS,

THEIR

NATURE AND EFRECTS.

BY

A. J. WALL, M.D. conv).

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND;
OF THE MEDICAL STAFF, H.M.’8 INDIAN ARMY.

LONDON:

W. H. ALLEN & CO.,.18, WATERLOO PLACE,
PALL MALL. 8.W.

1883.

(All rights reserved.)

LONDON
PRINIED BY}W. H. ALIEN 4ND CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE.

TO

SIR JOSEPH FAYRER, K.C.S.I.,

LL.D., M.D., F.R..S., ErTc.,

WHO,
WHILST PERFORMING AKDUOUS PUBLIC SERVICES,
HAS LABOURED SO SUCCESSFULLY IN THE
VAST TERRITORY OF TROPICAL PATHOLOGY AS TO UNITE HIS
NAME INSEPARABLY WITH MANY PROVINCES OF IT,
AND ESPECIALLY WITH THAT RELATING TO
THE INDIAN THANATOPHIDIA,
THIS WORK,
INTENDED FOR THE BENEFIT OF OUR ORIENTAL
FELLOW SUBJECTS,
IS DEDICATED,
AS A SLIGHT EXPRESSION OF GRATITUDE
FOR MUCH KINDNESS,
BY
Tue AvtTHor.

PREFACE.

Tue following is an attempt to present in a concise
form the chief features of snake-poisoning as seen in
India. The object that has been kept in view has been
to define, as closely as possible, the conditions on
‘ which the mortality from snake-bite depends, both as
regards the physiological nature of the poisoning
process, and the relations between the reptiles and their
victims, so as to indicate the way in which we should
best proceed with the hope of diminishing the fearful
mortality that exists.

The observations were made by the author in India
under the auspices of the Government. It was during
the experiments made for the purpose of finding out
the exact cause of the fatal results—one of the first
steps that must be taken whenever a method of treat-
ment is sought—that the great and numerous differences
in®the effects of the various poisons became manifest.

Although every effort has been made to test the

vi PREFACE.

various remedies that have been proposed for snake-
bite—and they have been very many—it has not been
thought necessary to give the unsatisfactory results of
the various trials. The effect of potassium permanganate
in destroying the activity of cobra-poison when mixed
with it before injection was ascertained by the author
some four years ago, but frequent experiment has
convinced him that as a practical method of treating
the constitutional effects of the poison it is of no avail.
The recommendations for treatment given have been
tested practically, and the circumstances under which
the misfortune happens have been constantly borne in
mind. Cases of poisoning by snakes do not usually
occur in crowded cities with hospitals always open,
with every appliance to receive the sufferer, but in the
fields where the peasant steps on the lurking reptile,
or more frequently still in the remote village where
the wife is bitten in a dark corner of her hut by the
snake which superstition has compelled her household
to protect. Directions for treatment, to be of use, must
be adapted to these contingencies.

The snakes mentioned have been referred to, as a
rule, by their scientific names. Had vernacular terms
been employed it would not have been possible to
select any that would have been intelligible except in
very limited areas. Thus the Bungarus ceruleus is the
Krait of Bengal, but the Gedi Paragidé of the Coto-
mandel coast. The Hchis carinata is the Afaé of Delhi,

PREFACE. Vii

the Kupper of Scinde, and the Foorsa of Bombay. The
word cobra has been used as it is of general acceptance,
though quite unknown in any native dialect; we are
indebted for it to our Portuguese predecessors. It is to
be regretted that its scientific equivalent is Naja instead
of Naga, as representing more accurately the Sanscrit
Néag, a serpent, in which it had its origin.

Although the gravity of a case of snake-poisoning
‘can hardly be over-estimated, yet it must be considered
full of promise that recovery may follow even the severe
hemorrhages of viperine poisuning. No wound in-
flicted by a venomous snake can be despised, yet even
when symptoms have developed no case should be con-
sidered necessarily fatal. Itis hoped that the sugges-
tions made may be of practical use to those who have
to deal with this awful scourge, and that the facts here
demonstrated may form a starting point for some more
successful departure.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Tur Puystonocican Errects or tHE Porson
or THE Copra (Nasa Tripupians)

CHAPTER II.

Tue Puysiotoaican Errects or tHe Porson
or Russeut’s Viper (Dasora Russe.)

CHAPTER III.
Tue ‘PuystonocicaL ErFrects PRODUCED BY
THE Poisons of THE BUNGARUS FAS-

CIATUS AND THE BUNGARUS C@RULEUS

CHAPTER IV.
Tur, Renative PowEr anD PROPERTIES OF
tHE Poisons or INDIAN AND OTHER
Venomous SNAKES

PAGE

1-48

49-83

84-103

104-116
b

x CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

Ture Nature or Snaxe Porsons

CHAPTER VI.
Some Practicat ConsIpERATIONS CONNECTED
WITH THE SuBJECT oF SNakE-POISONING,
ESPECIALLY REGARDING PREVENTION AND

TREATMENT

INDEX

PAGE

117-135.

186-163

165.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

I—Tracings of Respiratory Movements of a Fowl
under gradual Cobra-poisoning

II.—Respiratory Tracings from a Fowl that died very
rapidly from a large dose of Cobra-poison.
The Tracings are nearly continuous

III.—Tracings of Respiratory Movements of a ae
with Cobra-poisoning

IV.—Tracings of Respiratory sifoidemants of a Cat
under the influence of Cobra-poison

V.—Continuous Tracings of Respiratory Movements
of a Dog from the moment of Intravenous
Injection of Cobra-poison till Death

VI.—Tracings of Respiratory Movements in Fowl
under the influence of Daboia-poison .

VII.—Tracings of Respiratory Movements in a Fowl
under the influence of Daboia-poison that
had been heated to 100° C. : :

VIII.—Tracings of Respiratory Movements of a Dog
under Cobra-poisoning .

IX.—Tracings of Respiratory Movements of a Fowl
under the influence of the Poison of the

Bungarus fasciatus . . .
Head of the Daboia Russellii, and of the Nie
Tripudians (Cobra) é *

Structures found in the Poison of tine aa
Tripudians (Cobra) i

Structures found in the Poison of fie Daboia
Russellii : . . ‘ 3 ‘ -

to face p. 33

p. 34

INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,
THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS.

CHAPTER. I.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE POISON OF
THE COBRA (NAJA TRIPUDIANS).

THE inquiry that naturally presents itsclf first in con-
sidering the subject of snake-poiscning is:—How does
snake-poison kill? and what are the changes it effvcts
in the animal system ? And as a consequence of this :—
Is there only one poison common to all snakes, or are
there several? Upon the answers to these questions
depend both the certain recognition of snake-poisoning
when it comes under observation, and the indications
that must serve as guides to us in the treatment of it.
To answer these questions, it will be necessary to
examine, with great care, the symptums produced by

? ]

2 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

various poisonous snakes, in order to detect any differ-
ences in their effects, paying special attention to those
conditions on which the fatal results are dependent, aad
any prominent signs that will enable us, with certainty,
to say if, in a given case, we have really to deal with the-
results of snake-bite, or not.

As the cobra (Naja Tripudians) is at the same time
the commonest and the most deadly of all Indian
poisonous snakes, it will be best first to consider the
symptoms produced by it, and the ways in which its
poison may be fatal. To do this it will be necessary to
detail a sufficient number of experiments to bring into
prominence all the characteristic symptoms of cobra
poisoning, and from them to deduce the direct causes of
death. We shall then have a standard by which we
shall be able to contrast the effects of the poisons of the
other species of venomous snakes.

To begin with the symptoms as they occur in human
beings; the following is an account, by Dr. Hilson, of a
case that came under his own observation :—

“On a night in June, at about half-past 12 o'clock,
Dabee, a Hindu punkah coolie, was bitten on the
shoulder by a cobra, whilst sleeping. On inspecting
the wound, there were found over the prominence of
the right deltoid muscle, and about three quarters of an
inch apart, two large drops of a clear serous-like fluid
tinged with blood, which had apparently oozed from two
small punctures, so minute that they could not be

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 3

perceived by the naked eye. A burning pain was com-
plained of in the neighbourhood of the bite, which
rapidly increased in intensity, and extended so as to
affect a circular portion of the integument of the size of
an ordinary saucer; and, judging from the description
given of it, it was very similar in character to that
produced by the sting of a scorpion.

“At 12.45 a.m., or about a quarter of an hour after
gbeing bitten, he complained of a’ pain in his shoulder
‘shooting towards his throat and chest, and said he was
beginning to feel intoxicated ; but there was nothing in
his appearance at this time to indicate that he was in
any way under the influence of the poison. On the
contrary, he was quite calm and collected, and answered
all questions intelligently, at the same time that he was
fully alive to the danger of his condition. The pupils
were not dilated, and they contracted when exposed to
the light of a candle; his pulse was normal, and there
was no embarrassment of the respiration. About five
minutes after, he began to lose control over the muscles
of his legs, and staggered when left unsupported. At
about o’clock, the paralysis of the legs having increased,
the lower jaw began to fall, and frothy and viscid
saliva to ooze from the mouth. He also spoke indis-
tinctly, like a man under the influence of liquor. At
1.105a.M. he began to moan, and shake his head
frequently from side to side. The pulse was now some-
what accelerated, but was beating regularly. ‘The

1 *

4 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

respirations were also increased in frequency. He was
unable to answer questions, but appeared to be quite
conscious. His arms did not seem to be paralysed. At
1.15 aM., twenty-five minims of liquor ammonie were
rapidly injected under the skin of the fore-arm ; but aw
this produced no results, the basilic vein was laid bare,
and twenty-five minims injected into it. :

“The operation caused no amelioration in the symp-
toms, and the condition was evidently becoming critical.
He continued to moan and shake his head from side to
side, as if trying to get rid of viscid mucus in his throat.
The respirations were laboured, but not stertorous. The
external jugular vein of the left side was next exposed,
and twenty-five minims of the liquor ammonie injected
into it; but without producing any good effect. The
breathing gradually became slower, and finally ceased
at 144 am., while the heart continued to beat for
about one minute longer. No convulsions preceded
death, which took place in one hour and five minutes
after the infliction of the bite.”

From the description given of the snake, there can be
no doubt that it was a cobra, and it is clear that the
remedy administered had no more effect’ on the symp-
toms than it had on the result. It is a good description
by a careful observer, and may be taken as a typical
example of cobra-poisouing in the human subject.

Qn the lower animals, from which ulone we can learn
the detuils of the poisoning process, and the exact

&

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 5

causes on which the fatal results depend, the effects of
cobra-poisoning are well seen in the following cases.

Experiment I.

e A medium-sized pariah dog had 0°6 cubic centimétre
(about 10 minims) of fresh cobra-poison injected
subcutaneously.
5.21 p.m. Injection.
, 5.23 P.M. Lame in the leg in which the injection
was made.
5.29 p.m. Lies down, but does not seem affected.
5.35 P.M. Somewhat sleepy.
5.45 P.M. Got up of its own accord; salivation ;
retching.
5.47 P.M. Staggers about, and hangs down its head.
5.48 pM. Cannot stand.
5.49 p.m. Sleepy; respirations 40 per minute.
5.52 P.M. Pulse 72.
5.55 P.M. Convulsions.
5.56 to 5.59 P.M. Convulsions.
6.5 P.M. Respirations quite ceased ; heart beats 84
per minute; pupils commencing to dilate.
6.74 p.m. Heart stopped. Dead.

Experiment LI.

At 10.46 a.M. a pariah dog was bitten in the thigh by
a cobra,
11.14 a.m. Very lame in the bitten limb.

6 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

11.27 a.m. Affected by the poison; staggers when it
attempts to walk; chewing movement of jaw and lips.

11.28 a.m. Salivation.

11.30 a.m. Pupils somewhat small.

11.31 a.m. Attempting to vomit.

11.35 a.m. Respiration becoming slower.

11.87 a.m. Respirations 16 per minute.

11.38 a.m. Copious salivation.

11.39 a.m. Respirations fallen to 12.

11.40 a.m. Respirations of a jerky character.

11.42 a.m. Tongue hanging out of the mouth.

11.43 to 11.45 a.m. Convulsions.

11.46 a.m. Convulsions lessening.

11.47 a.m. Convulsions stopped.

11:474 a.m. Respiration completely stopped ; pupils
dilating.

11.49 a.m. Heart stopped. Dead.

Experiment III.

A pariah dog was watched for about an hour, during
which his respirations varied from 40 to 62 a minute.
His pulse was 120.

At 11.56 a.m. a very small quantity of fresh cobra
virus was injected subcutaneously into the left thigh ; the
amount injected was about 0°1 cubic centimétre. The
dog lay down after the injection, and seemed to take no
notice of what had been done.

12.14 p.m. Pulse 108.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 7

12.15 p.m. Respirations 48.

12.26 p.m. Respirations 44, occasionally a deep
respiration ; dozing.

12.29 p.M. Respirations 36.

12.32 p.m. Respirations 28; very regular; asleep.

_ 12.85 p.m. Respirations 24; respiratory movement
very slight ; still sleeping.

12.37 p.m. Respirations 24.

12.40 p.m. Respirations 22.

12.48 p.m. Awoke suddenly with a start, probably
aroused by flies; chewing movement of lips and
jaws.

12.45 p.m. Attempting unsuccessfully to rise;
staggered about on his fore-legs.

12.47 p.m. Respirations 26; hardly perceptible, of
a somewhat spasmodic character, and lasting an exceed-
ingly short time; salivation.

12.49 p.m. Pupils about normal.

12.50 p.m. Convulsive twitchings of the whole
body.

12.52 p.m. Tongue hanging out; convulsions much
stronger.

12.55 p.m. No trace of normal respiratory move-
ment, only convulsions: micturition.

12.56 p.M. Pupils slightly contracted.

32.58 p.m. Convulsions are becoming feebler.

12.59 p.m. No convulsive or respiratory movement
whatever ; pulse 120.

8 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

1.1 p.m. Pulse 96; pupils dilating. The only sign
of life remaining is the beating of the heart.
1.2 p.m. Pupils fully dilated; heart stopped. Dead.

Experiment IV.

A pariah dog was bitten by a vigorous cobra. The
skin in the middle of the dog’s back, as near as possible
at an equal distance from his fure and hind legs, was
taken up, and the cobra injected its poison into it.

8.25 a.m. Infliction of the bite.

8.26 a.m. The dog is evidently in some pain from
the bite; he turns round and round in endeavouring to
lick the bitten part. .

829 4.mM, Is quieter; pupils normal; no symptom.

8.380 a.m. Able to walk and stand perfectly well.

8.31 aM. Pupils normal, neither contracted nor
dilated : they answer well to light.

8.85 aM. Slight spasm of diaphragm.

8.386 a.M. Can walk perfectly.

8.39 am. Walks with uncertain tread, as if weak;
all the legs equally affected.

8.40 aM. Staggering, but no difference can be
observed between the fore and hind legs.

8.41 a.M. Fell over, his fore-legs first giving way ;
pupils about normal—at any rate, no tendency to dilata-
tion. ©

8.42 a.m. Lying on his side unable to rise, or even
to stand when placed on his legs; all his legs equally

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS, 9

weak ; twitching of respiratory muscles, also to a less
extent of certain muscles in his limbs.
8.438 am. Tongue protruded.
8.44 a.M. Pupils contracted; all motion ceased ex-
®cept that of: heart.
8.45 aM. Slight spasm of depressors of larynx.
8.46 aM. Heart alone acting; pupils suddenly
dilated widely.
» 8.47 a.m. Heart stopped. Dead.

Experiment V.

A large cock had two milligrammes (about ‘08 grain)
of dried cobra-poison, dissolved in one cubic centimétre
of distilled water, injected into its leg. .

3.13 pM. Injecticn.

8.20 p.m. Respirations 80 per minute.

8.84 p.m. Prefers to sit, but can stand and walk.

3.38 P.M. Head drooping, as if the neck were too
weak to support it, but from time to time the head is
raised with a jerk.

3.39 P.M. Beak rests on ground.

8.41 P.M. Respirations 25; can barely stand.

3.48 P.M. Respiratory movement very slight.

8.50 p.m. Cannot stand.

3.54 p.m. Cannot keep the eyes open.

8.55 P.M. Respirations 19; pupils somewhat con-
tracted.

10 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

4.3p.mM. Respirations 16 ; of a somewhat exaggerated
character.

4.5 p.M. Comb has become ofa dusky purple colour;
slight convulsive movements of body.

4.9 p.m. Respirations 9. \

4.13 p.m. Slight convulsions.

4.15 P.M. Pupils contracted ; answer to light.

4.17 p.m. Convulsions.

4.20 to 4.22 p.m. Convulsions continuing, but
gradually becoming less violent.

4.25 p.M. Pupils widely dilated. Dead.

Experiment VI.

A medium-sized frog (Rana tigrina) had a solution
of five centigrammes ("77 grain) of dried cobra-poison,
in one cubic centimétre_of distilled water, injected into
its dorsal sac.

12.42 p.m. Injection.

lpm. No change.

1.23 p.m. Struggling violently to escape.

1.40 p.M. Becoming paralysed.

1.53 p.m. Dead.

From these cases it may be gathered that the symp-
toms of cobra-poisoning are as follow :—

The first manifestation of cobra-poison having pan
injected beneath the skin is a sensation of pain in the
bitten part. It seems to vary much in degree, but is

THEIR NATURE AND EFFEC'S, j1

usually described, as in the case given, as being of a
stinging and burning character. The site of the wound
may also become swollen, red, and painful on pressure.
The evidence of the pain occurring in dogs is very’
eclear: the animal often turns round and licks the
bitten spot; and if it is the leg that is wounded, it either
limps on that leg, or, what is more usual, it draws it
up, so as to raise it. and relieve it completely of the
_weight of the body. This action has been termed
paralysis of the bitten leg, due to the local contact of
the poison with the muscles. Now, though it can be
proved that the local effect of cobra-poison on muscle
is to weaken it, yet after the bite of a cobra a very small
extent of muscle indeed comes in contact with the
poison, very often none at all; and if the limb were
really paralysed, it would hang uselessly down, dragging
upon the ground, instead of being drawn up.

An interval now occurs before the accession of any
fresh symptom, but its length varies greatly in different
cases. In that of the man quoted it was fifteen minutes;
but this is probably considerably under the average
time. In another case, related by the same careful
observer, an hour and a quarter elapsed in this way; and
an intelligent eye-witness, who described a case with
great accuracy as to details, stated four hours was
passed before any change was noticed. Taking into
consideration all the evidence on the subject, it appears
probable that in the majority of cases of cobra-bite in

i)

12 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

the human subject, an interval of an hour occurs before
any constitutional symptoms are developed. Under
certain exceptional circumstances the symptoms of
poisoning may begin almost at once. In the case of
dogs bitten by cobras this interval varies very greatly—e
perhaps fifteen minutes may be taken as its average
length, or perhaps a little less.

The retardation of the constitutional symptoms pro-
bably means that before cobra-poison can produce any,
effect, it must be present in the blood in certain pro-
portion, and, of course, in slow absorption, either due to
the small quantity of the poison injected, or to its
being injected into an unfavourable situation, some time
must elapse before this proportion can be attained. In
these cases the symptoms are delayed, as is also the
fatal result; whereas, should the poison enter the cir-
culation rapidly, as by injection into a vein, the
symptoms and fatal. result follow immediately. At the
same time it is clear that for a short time a fatal
quantity of poison may be present in the circulation
without producing a symptom; for the bitten part may
be sometimes amputated before the occurrence of any
sign of poisoning, yet, nevertheless, the animal may
die. |

In man the first constitutional symptom that cobra-
poison produces seems to be a feeling of intoxication,
although there appears to be no outward evidence of
it. That this symptom is not more frequently described

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 13

in the history of cases can be easily accounted for by
the fact that it would require a certain amount of
intelligence on the victim’s part to mention it; and in
animals, of course, it is impossible to get proof of a
purely subjective condition.

The special symptoms of cobra-poison now rapidly
manifest themselves. It man it is very commonly
observed that the patient cannot any longer keep his
eyes open, and about this time it is found that he is
losing power in his legs. When he walks he staggers,
and, if left unsupported, falls. The arms seem to retain
their strength much longer. In the case of dogs, the
animal at this stage can scarcely stand without falling
frequently, but there does not seem to be that difference
between the anterior and posterior extremities that is
‘ observed in the legs and arms of a man. Usually, a
dog loses strength equally on his fore and hind legs,
and rolls from side to side helplessly.

The order in which the symptoms now occur varies
in different individuals. In some, loss of the power of
speech and of raising the lower jaw is shown, and after-
wards profuse salivation ; but the salivation may precede.
But whichever may occur first, the tongue and the
larynx become speedily paralysed; the patient is unable
to speak or to clear his throat or to swallow ; and the
saliva, which is profusely poured forth, trickles down
the lips, the patient being no longer able to eject it

voluntarily. In dogs it is not unusual for the saliva-
Jy

14 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

tion to be manifested before any other constitutional
symptom, and in them a chewing movement of the
jaw and lips is often seen immediately before the
salivation. Nausea,.retching, and vomiting are of fre-
quent occurrence both in men and dogs.

The paralysis now becomes more general and decided.
The patient lies on his back, almost incapable of move-
ment. He threatens to be suffocated by the saliva
running into his paralysed larynx ; should, however, the
head be placed on one side, the abundant secretion will
flow down his lips. His limbs at this time may be
subject to startings and muscular twitchings. His
breathing becomes slower and slower, and the respira-
tory excursus is lessened. He appears to be conscious,
but is unable to express himself, through the paralysis
of his larynx and tongue; but it is not unfrequently the
case for the victim to become quite unconscious. The
action of the heart is somewhat quickened, but the organ
acts with fair strength. At length the breathing, too
slow and too slight to support life, ceases, and with or
without general convulsions the heart shortly after stops.

In dogs, as might be expected, convulsions are much
more common than in man, being very generally
present ; and while in man the extinction of the respi-
ratory act is, as a rule, a very slow and gradual process,
in dogs itis not unusual for respiration to stop quite
suddenly, and almost immediately after for its place to

be taken by violent convulsions.:
c

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 15

In birds the symptoms are usually very regular in
their occurrence. There is the same appearance of local
pain. The bird then generally seems drowsy, from its
being unable to keep the eyes open, the head droops as
if the neck were unable to support it, but the bird con-
stantly recovers itself with a jerk. It at last sinks down
to the ground, ultimately falling over on its side, unable
to raise either its head or itself. The pupils are, as a
rule, somewhat contracted, the eye often watering. The
respirations finally become exceedingly slow, and then
cease, convulsions and death following. It sometimes
happens, as in mammals, that the respiratory centre is
almost simultaneously stimulated and paralysed, the bird
dying at once.

In the amphibia, there can scarcely be said to be any
symptoms of cobra-poisoning ; the frog, for instance,
only becomes more and more sluggish and paralysed,
and is at last found to be dead.

It will be necessary to consider some of the more
important conditions in detail, after having noticed the
appearances to be found after death.

_ PosT-MorTEM APPEARANCES IN CasES OF DEATH BY
CoBRA-BITE.

Rigor mortis generally comes‘on about the usual time
® . . . .
and is as well marked as it is in death from ordinary
causes. The blood in man is fluid, as a rule, and in the

16 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

lower animals coagulated. If examined directly after
death no changes can be recognised by the microscope.
After a time the corpuscles may change in shape, become
crenated, and blood-crystals may form, but at the
moment of death no change can be recognised. The,
parotid glands may be swollen. The brain presents no
marked deviation from normal. The veins of the pia
mater are usually gorged with blood, and the ventricles
often contain turbid fluid. The muscles are often of a
dirty red colour. The sub-cutaneous veins bleed freely”
on section. The lungs may be pale and contain but little
blood, but in the human subject they are generally found
congested, the bronchi and the smaller tubes being often
filled with a thin frothy fluid, and their lining membrane
intensely injected. Occasionally portions of food or of
remedies are to be found in the air-tubes, the result
of administratiou while the larynx was paralysed. The
heart is distended with blood, especially the right side.
The liver bleeds freely on incision, and is quite dark
from contained blood, but this is not universal. The
kidneys vary from normal to excessive congestion, being
seen in all stages. The stomach may, or may not, con-
tain food—a proof that cobra-poisoning in the human
subject does not always cause evacuation of the contents
of the stomach. There is no regular change in the in-
testinal tract, which may be injected in places. The
bladder is generally firmly contracted. :

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 17

LocaL Errects oF COBRA-POISON.

It has been mentioned that severe pain is generally
felt in the region of the cobra-bite. There are, however,
gases on record which seem to prove that the intense
mental shock of snake-bite renders the victim occasion-
ally. insensible to the pain. This pain is accompanied
by, or rather is dependent upon, a very characteristic
local condition, which is of the utmost practical import-
‘ance. If the body of a man or animal killed by snake-
bite be examined, there may be scarcely a sign on the
skin to mark the spot where the snake inflicted its bite ;
or possibly one or two small punctures, or even ascratch,
may be found, especially if the part bitten be the fingers,
which, of course, are apt to be forcibly and involuntarily
retracted when the bite is felt. It may even happen
that the part is slightly swollen or discoloured. But
whatever may be the condition of the external aspect,

* there will be found a distinct change in the state of the
parts beneath. Jf an incision be made through the skin
and carried through the punctures made by the snake’s
fangs, very little difference will be found in the true
skin. It may be alittle more injected than normal, and
the punctures will be found to be intensely so just at
the edges, and a small quantity of blood may be effused
there. But the areolar tissue lying beneath the true
skin ‘is the site of the chief change. It will generally be
seen to be of a purple colour, and to be infiltrated with

2

18 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

alarge quantity of coagulable purple blood-like fluid.
In addition to this effusion the whole of the neighbour-
ing vessels are intensely injected, which injection
gradually fades as the site of the poisoned part is
receded from, so that a bright scarlet ring surrounds
the purple area, and this in itsturn gradually fades into
the normal colour of the veighbouring tissue. At the
margin, also, the purple blood-like effusion is replaced
by a pinkish effusion, which wells out as the incision is
made. This effusion of pinkish fluid may often be
traced up in the tissues surrounding the vessels which
conveyed to the system the poison they had absorbed
from the part. In one case, in which the victim was
bitten on the hand, the effusion from the veins could be
traced as high as the elbow. These are the essential
characters of the local effects produced by cobra-bite ;
but they may vary a good deal in degree, depending,
probably, upon the amount of poison injected and the
time the subject lived after being bitten. It has been
asserted that the nature of these local changes in snake-
bite is merely a hemorrhage into the tissues from vessels
that have been divided by the fangs of the snake, with
effusion of blood from the vessels around. But though
it is true that sometimes a very small amount of blood
may be found at the site of the punctures, yet it is clear
that this explanation will not account either for the
great pain that is felt in the part, or for the intense
injection of the neighbouring vessels. To determine the

THEIR NATURE AND EFFEOTS. 19

nature of these changes, dissections were made both on
the human subject and on the lower animals of indi-
viduals that had died of snake-bite ; also incisions were
made into the tissues at the place where snakes had
éitten at various intervals after the bite. The result of
these observations is to show that directly after the
poison is injected into the tissue its vessels become
enlarged and gorged with blood, effusion is poured out
dammediately; and as the engorgement and stagnation
of blood increase the effusion becomes more blood-like,
from its containing more of the contents of the vessels.
Now, these processes are singularly rapid in occurring.
In an animal that only lived thirty seconds after the
injection of the poison, a well-marked circle of vascular
injection was found at the site of the poison. In
another case, in one minute sufficient effusion had been
poured out to attract the attention of a casual observer.

Should the animal recover from the constitutional
effects of the poison, the result of these local changes
will be profuse suppuration and sloughing of the parts
in which the poison was deposited. Now, simple
effusion of blood is very rarely followed by suppuration.
In scurvy and allied diseases, and after injuries, we con-
stantly see effusions of blood rapidly absorbed as
recovery proceeds. Again, effusion of blood is seldom
attended by pain. Moreover, by using solutious of
cobra-poison of different strengths any degree of local
mischief can be produced—from an engorgement and

9 *

od

20 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

acute effusion that scarcely differs from blood, to a slight
hyperemin attended with a pale serous-like effusion.

From these considerations it appears evident that the
local effect of cobra-poison is simply severe and acute
inflammation, to which the pain attending cobra-bite ig
due, with a more than ordinary tendency to effusion
from the blood-vessels. Corroborative testimony to
what is here advanced must be present to the mind of
everyone who has had much to do in the manipulation,
of cobra-poison. A very frequent, but involuntary, ex-
periment is to get some of ‘the poison into the eye.
Should the circumstance not be at once noticed, so as to
permit the eye being washed out immediately, after a
very short time a smarting pain is felt in it; and if it
is examined it will be found red and watering, the
vessels becoming rapidly enlarged, and, in fact, an acute
attack of conjunctivitis with chemosis is set up, which
may last for days.

The subject has been specially dwelt on here, as on
it can be founded an easy method of deciding whether
a person has really been poisoned by a snake. One
of the most difficult subjects in connection with snake-
bite is to know for certain whether the patient has
really been poisoned by a snake or not, for it is clear
that unless the venomous snake really injects his poison
into the victim there is no danger. Now, the mark of
the teeth is no guide, or next to none, because a cobra

may not leave a single mark visible to the naked eye;
«

THEIK NATURE AND EFFECTS. 21

and, on the other hand, fanged harmless snakes, like
Lycodon and Dipsas, may leave punctures in the skin
that might easily be mistaken for the wounds caused by
the fangs of venomous snakes. And more misguiding,
*if possible, than any of these, is the victim’s description
of the snake. From these various causes it often
happens that a man is left without an attempt at treat-
ment because the bite is not visible or does not look
elike that inflicted by a venomous snake, or because
there are no symptoms. Now we know that symptoms
may not occur till more than an hour has passed, when
all chance of preventing the absorption of the poison
has gone. On the other hand severe measures have
been resorted to, even ending fatally, when it has been
proved afterwards that the subject had not been bitten
by a poisonous snake at all. It is therefore of great
importance to be enabled to say whether a man has
really been poisoned as well as bitten by a snake. This
can be done by simply observing the condition of the
tissues into which the poison has been injected. No
ordinary wounds, not even a poisoned wound such as is
received in dissections, can cause the immediate inflam-
mation that is peculiar to snake-poison. In a simple
or even ordinary poisoned wound a very considerable
time would elapse before any marked change would be
noticeable. In the vast majority of cases a simple
incision through the skin into the subcutaneous areolar
tissue will afford certain information whether the case is

22 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

one of poisonous snake-bite or not; for even though
there may be considerable differences in degree as to the
amount of inflammation, yet the existence of any at all
must indicate that there must be present a cause beyond
the mere mechanical injury. «

Action oF CoBRra-PoIsON ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

That the chief action of cobra-poison is on the,
nervous system, there can be no doubt. The exact
nature of the action, however, is not so clear. The
victim of cobra-poisoning just before death is usually
an example of very complete general paralysis. Sir
Joseph Fayrer and Dr. Brunton, who have written a
most elaborate and valuable series of papers on the
nature and physiological action of snake-poison, main-
tain that though the greater part of the nervous system
is affected, yet the terminations of the motor nerves
suffer especially, and in a very marked manner. They
base their reasoning on the results produced by experi-
ments in which the excitability of two nerves of the
same animal is tested, one of which has been subjected
to the action of the poison, and the other has been kept
from contact with the poisoned blood by the limb to
which it is distributed being ligatured, the nerve, how-
ever, being kept intact. Under these circumstances a
great difference will be found in the electric excitability

of the two nerves. These experiments have been
e

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 23

repeated, with, however, some modification in the
details.

The electric arrangements were as follows:—A con-
stant difference of potentials was maintained by means
‘of a galvanic battery between the terminals of the
primary series of coils of a Thomson’s Slide Resistance.
Two flexible insulated wires, the free ends of which
terminated in platinum needles, and were used as the
eelectrodes, were connected, the one to the zero end of
the primary series of evils, and the other to the sliding
contact of the secondary coils. By suitably moving
the sliding contacts, any desired difference of potentials
could thus be established between the electrodes.

Experiment VII.

A frog (Rana tigrina) was killed mechanically at
12.18 p.m., but reflex action continued for some time
afterwards.

1.6 p.m. Muscle was found to be infinitely sensitive.
Nerve, stimulated with 006 volt, produced distinct
contraction ; both sides give the same result.

This experiment shows how sensitive muscle and
nerve remain for some time after death from purely
mechanical causes.

Experiment VIII.
The right thigh of a frog (Rana tigrina) was ligatured

so as to completely prevent the blood circulating in the
part below the ligature. The sciatic nerve was not

24 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

included in the ligature. One cubic centimetre of
solution of cobra-poison, composed of equal parts of
distilled water and fresh cobra-poison was injected into
its dorsal sac.

2.53 P.M. Injection.

It gradually became paralysed till it ceased to show
any signs of reflex action.

8.88 F.M. The muscles of the left. or poisoned side
contracted with 2:97 volts. ‘

3.884 pm. ‘The muscles of the right or non-poisoned-
side contracted with 2°16 volts.

8.87 P.M. Nerve of poisoned side caused contraction
of muscle when stimulated with 27 volts.

8.39 p.M. Ligatured (or non-poisoned) nerve, 1°08
volts.

Here there was a marked difference between the
poisoned and the non-poisoned side, the non-poisoned
side being the more sensitive, but the nerve on the
poisoned side had lost its excitability to a greater
extent than the muscle. But the paralysis of both the
muscle and the nerve was well marked.

Experiment IX.

The right thigh ofa frog (Rana tigrina) was ligatured
with the exception of its sciatic nerve, and one cubic
centimetre of cobra-poison solution, consisting of equal
parts of distilled water and fresh cobra-poison, injected
into its dorsal sac.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 25

12.483 p.m. Injection.

12.58 p.m. Reflex movement ceased.

_ 140pM. Muscles of left or poisoned leg contracted
with 2.43 volts.

e 1.403 p.m. Muscle of right or non-poisoned leg with
1.89 volts.

1.444 p.m. Nerve on poisoned side caused contrac-
tion in muscle when excited by 10°8 volts.

« «oe 146 PM. Non-poisoned nerve with 0°54 volts.

. In this experiment the sensitiveness both of the non-
poisoned muscle and nerve, in comparison with that of
the poisoned side, was greater than even in the former
experiment.

These experiments seem to make it probable that
cobra-poison has some special property in deadening
the terminations of the motor nerves; and Sir Joseph
Fayrer and Dr. Brunton have, in support of this view,
given some experiments in which, on irritating the
spinal cord with an induced current, contraction was
caused in the non-poisoned leg, but not in the poisoned.

The following experiment had for its object to ascer-
tain if the mechanical excitement of the cord could be
transmitted through the poisoned nerve.

Experiment X.

A frog (Rana tigrina) had 0°5 cubic centimetre of
fresh cobra-poison injected into its dorsal sac at 2.12 P.M.,
the right thigh, with the exception of the sciatic nerve,
havjng been previously ligatured.

26 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

2.20 p.m. Very slight reflex movement.

2.45 P.M. Passing a current through the spinal cord,
with interruption produced by means of a key, the
muscles of both legs distinctly contracted at 0°5 volt.

2.52 p.m. Spinal cord, mechanically stimulated, gave
distinct twitchings in both poisoned and non-poisoned
legs.

In all these experiments, as long as the cord possessed
power at all, contraction could be excited in either leg,
provided the nerves had not been mechanically injured,
which would rather indicate that the nerves retained
their irritability, at the same time that the excitability
of the cord was exceedingly quickly lost. Of course a
good deal of allowance must be made for the difference
in the method of excitation pursued in the two series of
experiments. But though the above experiments go to
prove that the excitability of the motor nerves lasted as
long as that of the spinal cord, yet the difference in
the excitability between the two sides in the former
experiments showed how powerfully paralysing cobra-
poison is. ' These experiments, then, tend to show that
the spinal nervous system is rapidly paralysed by cobra-
poison, but that the terminations of the motor nerves
only suffer, pari passé, with the cord itself, and the
poison has no elective affinity for the ends of the nerves.
Nor are the results of the experiments of Sir Jogeph
Fayrer and Dr. Brunton incompatible with this view.
For when one thigh of the subject of the experiment

a

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 27

was ligatured and the other was poisoned, when the
cord was excited by a current the stimulus had to be
transmitted to the non-poisoned leg through the trunk
of the nerve which was unaffected, whereas on the
ether leg it had to overcome the resistance induced by
the paralysing poison. There is no need to suppose a
special effect of the poison on the ends of the motor
nerves; the different lengths of the trunks affected
would account for a considerable difference. To this
we have also to add the paralysing effect on muscle,
which, though not so great as on the nerve, is yet not
unimportant, and would tell on the same side.

Moreover, it does not necessarily follow that because
a nerve to which poison has had access conveys elec-
trical stimuli in a very imperfect manner, or not at all,
therefore that the effect of that poison has been to
paralyse the nerve. It is unfortunate that the only test
we have of the vitality of a nerve is its power of causing
contraction in a muscle when irritated by electricity or
mechanically. It would be going too far to say, there-
fore, that because a nerve did not transmit such rude
stimuli it was dead ; and even if the animal loses the
power of withdrawing a limb that is being painfully
stimulated, the break in the power of conducting im-
pressions or stimuli may be in any part of the nervous
chain necessarily called into requisition in such an
action.

A poison that produces death by totally different

28 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

means than paralysis, may yet cause in nerves a com-
plete deadness to stimuli.

Experiment XI.

The right thigh of a frog (Rana tigrina) was tightiy
ligatured, so as to completely prevent circulation through
the limb, the nerve being included. One cubic centi-
metre of a solution cf strychnia, containing two
centigrammes of strychnia, was injected into its dorsal
sac.

12.53 p.m. Injection.

12.56 p.M. Tetanus.

1.10 p.m. Reflex action ceased.

1.23 p.u. Muscles of right leg infinitely sensitive.

1.25 p.m. Muscles of left (poisoned) leg contract
with 0.75 volt.

1.39 p.m. Right sciatic nerve infinitely sensitive,
causes muscular contraction with less than 0°0001 volt.

1.45 p.m. Left sciatic nerve causes contraction with
15 volts.

Now, strychnia certainly does not kill by paralysis,
and yet the difference between the poisoned and the
non-poisoned sides, in regard to their nerves, was more
marked than in cobra-poisoning. In another frog this
difference was very pronounced before the strychnia had
ceased to produce tetanus, so that it occurs long before
exhaustion has taken place. The complete cessation of
the vital functions through tetanus is the real cause

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 29

of death, and the deadening of the nerves is simply the
result of the excessive nervous discharges that have
taken place through them. ‘Thus, though the trunk
or extremity of the nerve may be found paralysed, this
qoes not prove that paralysis was the cause of death, or
that it was the direct result of the action of the poison
on the nerve.

In this direction another point must be taken into
account. One of the most characteristic features of
cobra-poisoning in the human subject, is paralysis of
the legs. The patient is unable to walk or to stand,
though his arms as yet have not experienced any loss of
power. Now it would be difficult to suppose that this
was due to the terminations of the motor nerves of the
legs becoming paralysed, while those of the arms
remained unaffected. It is much more probable that
the spinal cord is becoming paralysed ; one of the first
effects of which would be that it would lose the power
of maintaining the tone and necessary contraction in the
many complex groups of muscles on which the upright
posture is dependent.

But in cobra-poisoning in dogs, paralysis of the
hind-legs without the fore, is rarely seen. In the vast
majority of cases, power is lost simultaneously in all
four members. As a rule, in those cases in which it
has been noticed that the hind-legs have suffered first,
the animal has been bitten on the hind-leg, which would
always cause a certain amount of lameness, and diffi-

30 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

culty of walking with the hind-quarters, due to the local
effect of the poison. But even with this source of
fallacy it holds good that in men suffering from cobra-
poisoning, paraplegia is a most characteristic symptom ;
whereas it is exceptional in dogs. Why, then, as a ruley
should paraplegia occur in men, and not in dogs?
Standing and walking are to a very great extent reflex
acts. A man when walking places one foot on the
ground, and the sensation of contact with the ground,
serves as a stimulus to a centre in the cord by which the
motor impulse to move the other leg is excited, and
paralysis of these few lower centres would at once
impair the action. But in dogs the mechanism is very
different. They move the foreleg of one side with the
hind-leg of the other. It is necessary, then, that the
centres governing the movements in these limbs should
be coupled, so to speak, together. The stimulus that
moves the fore-leg of the one side, has to excite
simultaneous movement in the hind-leg of the other.
Therefore, all the inferior, or rather posterior, extremity
of the cord has to do in the case of the dog, is merely to
transmit the motor impulse from the fore-part; whereas,
in man, the inferior part of the cord has to translate a
sensation into a stimulus to excite movement. It is,
therefore, probable that the earliest injury inflicted by
cobra-poison on the nervous system is a paralysis of, the
centres in the lower part of the cord.

It will have been observed that paralysis of the lips,

«

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 31

tongue, larynx and pharynx, as evinced by inability to
retain the saliva within the mouth, by incapacity to
move the tongue, or to speak, or to swallow, are very
prominent signs of cobra-poisoning both in men and
gnimals. Itis singular that the striking resemblance
of these symptoms to the disease known as glosso-
laryngeal paralysis has not been previously noticed.
Now, the preponderance of medical opinion attributes
this disease to lesion of certain tracts of the medulla.
It cannot be thought, therefore, anything but reasonable
to connect both diseases with paralysis of those centres
in the medulla oblongata which are so closely associated
together, and which are in connexion with the roots of
the vagus, the spinal accessory, and the hypo-glossal
nerves and the lower nucleus of the facial. But the
resemblance does not end here. In both diseases the
respiration becomes feebler and feebler, and the victim,
at last, dies suffocated. In other words, the lesion in
the one case, and the paralysing poison in the other,
have invaded the respiratory nucleus so near to the
centres they have already destroyed, and have thus
rendered the respiratory act difficult, and, at last,
. impossible. Lastly, after all the lower centres have
been completely paralysed, the one by which connection
is made with the second, fifth, and seventh nerves still
acts, and the eye is closed when touched, and even
when approached, after the animal is dependent on
artificial respiration for life. For these reasons it seems

32 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

natural to conclude that the principle action of cobra-
poison on the nervous system consists of an extinction
of function, extending from- below upwards, of the
various nerve centres constituting the cerebro-spinal
system; and though, no doubt, other parts of the
nervous system suffer, it is evident that cobra-poison
has a special affinity for acting on the respiratory centre,
and those other ganglia allied to it in the medulla
oblongata, which are in connection with the vagus, the
spinal accessory and the hypo-glossal nerves, and that it
is directly to this destructive action that we have to
attribute death in most cases of cobra-poisoning.

In very rapid cases of poisoning, when a very large
quantity of poison has entered the circulation at-once,
instead of the gradual extinction of function of the
cerebro-spinal centres, the poison appears to act almost.
immediately by stopping the action of the respiratory
centre. There is, of course, no time in these cases to.
watch the gradual extension of the influence of the
poison on the nervous system. It also happens that
before cobra-poisoning paralyses the cerebro-spinal
centres, it first stimulates them, and produces irregular
action. This is sometimes very marked in regard to
the respiratory centre, when a large quantity of cobra-
poison has entered the circulation with considerable
rapidity; and in this case it is very often seén that the
other centres in the cord have shared in this stimulation
before becoming paralysed; the result being irregular

‘No, 1.—TRACINGS op RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS: or 4 FOWL
unper GRADUAL COBRA POISONING.
L

a ee ee ee ee

~
Normal Respiration.

I Ne hs SEI RS,

Slightly exaggerated breathing.

m

a
Commencing Slowing.

Slowing greater. Sudden and abrupt inspiration and expisaion.

ee

Great slowness.

P ry bareiy

—

Convulsions commencing

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 33

contractions in various groups of muscles. They,
however, are not so well marked as those produced by
stimulation of the respiratory centre, but they are
equally rapidly followed by complete paralysis.

ACTION OF CoBRA-PoISON ON THE RESPIRATION.

The action of cobra-poison on the respiratory func-
tion deserves the closest attention, as death is generally
the direct result of the extinction of this function by
the effect of the poison.

The first change that is noticed in the breathing of
an animal after the introduction of cobra-poison, is a
decided quickening and deepening of the respiratory
movement. This effect is no longer to be perceived
after section of the vagi, and it has been asserted
that the acceleration is due to the stimulation of
those nerves by the poison. But section of the vagi is
always followed by excessive slowing of the respiratory
movement; thus, in dogs, the respirations are generally
reduced by one-half. It is not improbable, therefore,
that an agent that would somewhat stimulate and
accelerate the action of the respiratory centre, would
fail in producing this result if administered directly
after an operation that had so powerfully retarding
effect.’ The inhibitory effect of section of the vagi may
be too great to allow of the accelerating action of the
poison being perceived. But this quickening, however

: 3

84 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

produced, is merely temporary, and after an interval of
uncertain duration the respiration will be found to be
slower, and the slowness to increase. ‘The respiratory
movement is also lessened in extent. The slowing and
lessenivg of the respiration become at last too great tb
allow of the blood being properly oxygenated, and, after
the usual symptoms characteristic of asphyxiation, the
animal dies,

The simplest form in which one can observe the effect
of cobra-poison on respiration, is afforded by the
common fowl. The stethometric chart marked No. I,
gives, ina concise manner, the effects of cobra-poisoning
when the action is very gradual. The first line gives
the normal respiratory tracing. ‘The main points to be
noticed in the succeeding tracings, are the slight quick-
ening first perceived, and the increase of the excursus,
These are followed by rapidly increasing retardation,
with a certain amount of lessening of the excursus,
though the excursus is less affected than the frequency
It is also to be noticed that inspiration becomes sudden
and abrupt, and is immediately followed by an expira-
tion equally sudden. The movement that remains,
therefore, allows no time for that gradual filling and
emptying of the air-spaces of the lungs, that would
permit a free interchange of air, and is thus necessarily
peculiarly unfitted for respiration. In line VIL. «these
characters are well marked, the slowing especially being
excessive. A kind of struggle against the poison is to

NoW-RESPIRATORY TRACINGS roa » FOWL THAT DIED
VERY RAPIDLY raom 2 LARGE DOSE of COBRA POISON.
tas TRACINGS ars NEARLY CONTINUOUS,

hn ree ee

Slow and deep but natural Respiration.

0

iets

Quickened.

mw

LFF FD DAF SF

‘Still more quickened-

Me INS LF IRF PLP KS

Shghtly lessened Exc irsus.

oH

a ia OE aka ae es 7

Excursus very slight.

~~ )——___-

Resprration ceased—Conrulsions.

NVIL—TRACINGS or RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS
or DOG wit COBRA POISONING.

Pg ar

Normal but deep Respiration.

Quickened.

m

ee a ae

Lessened Excursus.

Movement grcatly lessened.

aN lly Jib

Convulsions

VT

a s+

Termination of Convulsions .

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 35

be observed in the greater excursus of the mouvement;
probably due to carbonic acid stimulation, but the
sudden and jerky character is unabated. In No. VII.
the respiratory movement is reduced to a barely per-
ceptible movement of the chest walls, completely
incapable of effecting respiration. No. VIII. shows
even this movement absent; but at the end of the
tracing, the commencement of the convulsions that
terminate life is marked. Chart No. II presents some
contrasts of interest. It gives nearly the whole course
of the respiratory movements of a fowl, from the
moment of the injection of the poison till the occurrence
of death, in a case in which a large amount of cobra-
poison was given, causing death very rapidly. From it
will be seen how very much more pronounced the acce-
leration is when a large quantity of poison is given,
and that when the stage of acceleration is passed the
excursus is lessened quite as rapidly as the frequency.
The respirations before the administration of the poison
bear to the respirations at their greatest degree of
acceleration, in the tracing IV., the ratio of tour to
seven. Chart No. III. is a series of tracings from a
large pariah dog, the acceleration followed by retard-
ation, and the accompanying diminution of excursus are
well shown ; but the nature of the convulsive movements
at the nd are of great interest. They begin by regular
contractions of the respiratory muscles; in the period of
their gueatest violence they lose all respiratory character,

38 *

36 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

and then gradually fade away in gentler and gentler
attempts at inspiration. The cat is an animal that
shows a peculiar power of resisting cobra-poison, pre-
senting a marked contrast to thedog. Chart No. IV. is
from a cat, in whom this resisting power was prominent.
After the retardation of respiration is accomplished, it
will be noticed that an occasional deep respiration
occurred; it is as if the animal, aware of its lessen-
ing breathing power, made conscious efforts to assist
respiration. A similar feature appears to have been
frequently noticed in the human subject, under like
circumstances.

The series of tracings in Chart V. shows graphically
the instantly destructive action of cobra-poison on the
respiratory function, when a large quantity of the poison
suddenly enters the circulation. ‘They are taken froma
dog, in whom the following observations were made.

Experiment XII.

A powerful pariah dog had one cubic centimetre of
fresh cobra-poison injected into its saphena vein. No
change was noticed for thirty seconds; at the end of
that time normal respiration abruptly stopped, its
place being taken by violent and irregular contractions
of the respiratory muscles. The action of the heart
continued strong, but increased greatly in frequency.
Very soon all movement ceased, with the exception of
that of the heart, which continued acting for about ten

No.IV-TRACINGS oF ras RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS of a CAT
UNoeR THE INFLUENCE op COBRA POISON.

WS Se Se a

Normal Respiration.

Wu

ag gt Sat

Quickened by Cobra poison.

m

aa OE aaa Ota ee iad

Commencing Slowing.

ae

Occasional deep Inspiration.

v

— eee
Respiration barely perceptible.

VI

Convulsions.

No.V—CONTINUOUS TRACING oy RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS or DOG
puom THE MOMENT or INTRAVENOUS INJECTION
or COBRA POISON Tt DBATH.

Un rrr ie na,

+ Moment of Injecuon. ’ }

{ or

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 37

seconds longer. The whole time from injection to death
was under 100 seconds.

Chart No. V. is a continuous tracing of the respira-
sion of this animal frum the administration of the poison
till death. It will be seen that the nurmal respiratory
rhythm is suddenly displaced by violent alternate up-
heavings and depressions of the chest walls, and that
then all movement at once stops. But it will be
noticed that the convulsions, though, of course, irregu-
ar, have a distinctly respiratory character. When
cobra-poisun, then, enters the circulation in large
quantity, it stimulates the respiratory centre to such a
degree that convulsive action of the respiratory muscles
is produced, but after a very brief period complete and
permanent paralysis of the respiratory apparatus is
induced. Itis worthy of note that rapid as death in
this case was, the action of the heart continued after
that of the respiration had ceased.

To sum up the different modes in which cobra-poison
destroys the respiratory function :—First, almost in-
stantaneous paralysis of the respiratory centre, a primary
stimulation of a very violent but very transient cha-
racter having occurred. This form of death must be
exceedingly rare, if it ever occur, in the human subject,
as the shortest period of fatal poisoning in man on
recurd appears to have been a little under a quarter of
an hour. Secondly, a more gradual method, the poison

38 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

having been more slowly absorbed, when no marked
change occurs for some time, and then some irregularity
in respiration is noticed, and the respiratory action is
soon, but, at the same time, gradually abolished; the
convulsions of asphyxia may terminate life. This mode
of death is very commonly seen in dogs which have
been bitten by vigorous cobras. Lastly, there is that
gentle primary stimulation of the respiratory function
which is shown only by acceleration, and which is soon
followed by lessening and retardation of the respiratory
movement, and, finally, by its complete cessation. This
appears to be the way in which cobra-poison in the vast
majority of cases destroys the human subject.

It should be noted that, though the final convulsions
of asphyxia which occur in cobra-poisoning can be ,re-
moved at will by artificial respiration, and that they
recur when the aération of the blood is stopped, yet that
the process of natural respiration cannot be restored by
these means after it has once ceased, though the action
of the heart and life may be prolonged for some time.

EFFECT OF CoBRA-POISON ON THE CIRCULATION, TEM-
PERATURE, SPECIAL SENSES, SECRETION, AND THE
BLoop.

Cobra-poison cannot be said to exercise a very great
effect on the circulation. The heart can be kept acting,
and the blood circulating, for very many hours* after
the rest of the functions of the body have been

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 39

suspended, if only artificial respiration is continued. In
ordinary cases of cobra-poisoning the heart can gene-
rally be felt acting for a short time after respiration has
stopped. Absorbed in the ordinary way, cobra-poison
-@Ppears to slightly accelerate the heart’s action, and it
also lessens the blood-pressure, at any rate for some
time. Sir Joseph Fayrer and Dr. Brunton have pro-
duced death by tetanizing the heart by injecting cobra-
poison into the circulation; but this was done by
throwing the poison directly into a very large vessel,
as the carotid artery or jugular vein, in a small animal
—the guinea-pig.

Cobra-poison also appears to have but little influence
on the temperature of the body. Sometimes a very
slight rise is to be noticed; generally there is no
change, and even a slight fall has been observed. It is
probable, therefore, that it has little, if any, effect. The
following experiment will show this :—

Experiment XTIL

A healthy pariah dog had a temperature of 10279 F.
in the rectum. The pulse was 81, and the respira-
tions 84. At 12.45 P.M. it was bitten by a vigorous
cobra.

12.48 p.m. Lame in bitten Jeg, which is drawn up.

lp.m. Seems quite unaffected.

P10 p.m. Affected ; staggers when it moves,

1.15'p.m. Temperature in rectum 103°) F.

40 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

1.16 p.m. Pulse 78, pupils normal.

1.17 p.m. Respirations 28.

1.20 p.m. Stight twitchings of respiratory muscles.

1.23 p.m. Respirations 8.

1.24 p.m. Strong convulsions; micturated; pupils
contracted.

1.25 p.m. All respiratory movements stopped ; tem-
perature 1081 F.

1.26 p.m. Pupils dilated.

1.274 p.m. Heart stopped. Dead.

The temperature began to fall directly after death.

In cases of cobra-poisoning of longer duration, we
have the disturbing influence of the local inflammation
to consider, which would account for some variation in
temperature. is

In the special senses and their organs no marked
change can be seen in cobra-poisoning: as long as con-
sciousness is preserved the victim appears to see and
hear perfectly. In regard to the eye there is very little
to be noticed. The pupil can be said neither to be
dilated nor contracted by the influence of the poison;
at the moment of death it dilates widely, while up to that
time it responds to light. If life be preserved by artificial
respiration the pupils remain somewhat contracted. I
once noticed the pupil remain contracted after death
from cobra-poiscning, in which long-continued artificial
respiration had been resorted to. Whether cobra-

€

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 41

poisoning affects accommodation cannot well be known,
and what evidence there is appears to be against its
being affected. The eye retains its sensitiveness, and
the eye-lid the power of closing, for some time after
most other parts are paralysed. But in the human
subject drooping of the upper eye-lid is often an early
symptom of the action of the poison.

On secretion cobra-poison appears to have consider-
able influence. It seems as if most secreting structures
were stimulated by it. The lachrymal glands act freely
during cobra-poisoning. Salivation is a most marked
and constant symptom; it is very rarely, indeed, absent
in dogs, and it appears to be equally common in man.
In dogs, the saliva often runs from the mouth literally
in streams; nor in man does it seem much less copious.
Should only a small quantity of poison have entered
the system, salivation may be the only symptom. The
whole of the mucous tract is also apparently in an active
state of secretion. After the stomach has been tho-
roughly emptied by vomiting, the animal will often bring
up repeatedly large quantities of mucus, and mucous dis-
charges are also frequently evacuated from the rectum.
The respiratory mucous membrane, too, participates.
Mucous secretion sometimes flows from the nose, and the
air-tubes are not unusually found bathed in fluid. Of its
action on the liver and kidneys it is very difficult to get
evidence, as the time before death is generally so short;

in the more chronic cases sometimes the kidneys appear
‘ #

42 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

to act very freely, but sometimes there is a diminution
of urine,

There is but little evidence of the effect of cobra-
Poisoning on the blood. It is, of course, by the blood
acting as carrier that the poison is able to reach the
system, and the blood of a cobra-poisoned animal is
poisonous, also, to another animal. It is clear, there-
fore, that the poison exists in the blood. ‘That it causes
changes in it, there is also evidence. Ina man poisoned
by a cobra it is very generally, indeed, found that his
blood has become incoagulable, though in dogs it is
exceptional for this to be the case. Very occasionally,
too, the mucous discharges from the body are stained
with blood, as if the relation existing between the blood
and the tissues had been in some way altered. If, how-
ever, the experiments given at the commencement are
referred to, it will be seen that in not’ one was there
noted a discharge of blood from a mucous orifice, and
they were selected on account of being typical. Still,
there are cases on record which prove that discharges of
blood, though rare, occasionally occur, perhaps through
individual peculiarities.

The interval that occurs between the injection of the
poison and the development of the symptoms is, to a
certain extent, evidence of blood-change, as the pause
can be proved to depend on two factors. The one factor
is the time required for the absorption of the poisuu, .or
it is lessened by the poison being injected simultaneously

\

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 43,

into several different sites, or into a spot where absorp-
tion is very active. The other is clearly dependent on
some secondary change produced by the poison, pro-
bably in the blood, for which time is necessary; for if
the part into which the poison has been injected be
“excised before the occurrence of a single constitutional
symptom, yet, nevertheless, the animal may die appa-
rently as rapidly asif no interference had been attempted,
showing that the mere presence of the poison in the
blood, even in sufficient quantity to kill, is not capable
of producing directly a physiological effect. On the
other hand, to prevent grave misconception, it should
be stated that it is quite possible to save life by excision
of the bitten part, if it be done sufficiently quickly to
prevent any material absorption.

But that the changes in the blood are not consider-
able there is abundant evidence. Thus, when an animal
has survived the nerve symptoms produced by cobra-
poison, it at once passes into a state of complete health,
and to suffer no further inconvenience from blood-
poisoning or other causes, save the local inflammation
produced by the bite. The evidence of this, in the
following experiment, is very conclusive :—

Experiment XIV.

A large pariah dog had five milligrammes (73, of a
grafa) of dried cobra-poison dissolved in 0°3 cubic
centimetre of distilled water injected into its hind-leg.

44 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

12,12 p.m. Injection.

4p.m. Vomited; no other symptom.

7.380 P.M. Salivated; depressed.

10.15 p.m. Still depressed; salivation slight; respira-
tions 14 per minute. e

12.5 a.m. Still salivated ; very depressed.

8am. Very weak, hardly able to walk; all the legs
equally affected.

8.25 a.m. Respirations 12; pupils somewhat dilated,
but contract to light. Site of injection very red, hot,
and swollen.

11.30 a.m. Respirations 15; frothy salivation.

12 p.m. Rectal temperature 89° C.

12.38 p.m. Pulse about 120, extremely irregular ;
chewing movement of jaw and lips; salivation consider-
able.

2.21 p.m. Better; can walk; salivation ceased; ate
sparingly.

7.80 P.M. Recovering fast; urinated, no albumen in
urine.

8 a.M. Seems quite well; purulent discharge from
site of injection; respirations 20; pulse 120.

The dog was kept under observation, and remained
quite well. ‘The normal pulse rate was 90, and respira-
tions 28.

Here, though the most severe nerve symptor~ ~-re
present, they completely passed off, leaving the animal

at once in a state of convalescence. There was no
a

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 45

trace either of permanent nerve injury or of blood
poisoning.

The same also occurs in the human subject. I am
indebted to Dr. Richards for the following account of
% most interesting case which came under his own
observation :—

A man named Bamon Das, aged forty years, was
bitten by a snake on the shoulder about 3 o’clock in
the morning. From his description it was probably the
snake termed by the natives of Bengal the “ Teutuliah
Karis’’ (a spectacled cobra) about four feet long. He
had complained, after the bite, of feeling intoxicated,
had vomited, and could neither stand nor speak, though
he had continued to be perfectly conscious. At 10 a.M.,
when Dr. Richards saw him, he was being supported
in the sitting posture by two men. Near the posterior
border of the deltoid of the left arm were two rather
indistinct fang-marks at some considerable distance
from each other; one fang-mark, however, more re-
sembled a scratch than a puncture. The arm was
painful, hot, and swollen, measuring eleven inches in
circumference, whereas the other arm at a similar part
measured only nine and a half. On cutting through
the punctures the track of the fang was clearly visible,
though the staining of the areolar tissue was very
slig)t indeed. He had no power whatever over the
eye-lids, which had dropped, leaving only the lower parts
of the pupils visible. The pupils were perfectly natural,

46 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

and the irides responded. When asked to identify
people he pushed his head back so as to bring the
person into the line of vision. He could, in fact, see
perfectly well. The hearing was not affected. There |
was profuse salivation, the saliva streaming down from
the corner of his mouth. The lower lip had drooped.
He could speak but very indistinctly, so indistinctly
that his friends had to ask him to repeat what he said.
The intonation was peculiarly nasal, much resembling
that of persons who have lost part of their palate. ‘The
lips were not used in his endeavour to pronounce his
name, consequently the labial 4 was omitted, and he
answered with a very indistinct and nasal ‘Aon Das.”
On attempting to swallow some water it was returned
through the nostrils. He was unable to clear his
throat, which caused him some distress. He felt some
difficulty in breathing, though the respiration was but
slightly embarrassed. The superficial temporal and
frontal veins were very distinct and tortuous, being
gorged with bluod. He could not walk himself, but
if supported walked with an unsteady gait, though he
had perfect control over his upper extremities. Still
felt intoxicated and his body hot. Pulse 96, full and
strong. Temperature 100°5 F. Occasional retching.

11.30 a.m. Slightly better; still feels intoxicated ;
temperature 101°1 F. «

1 p.m. Temperature 10175 F,

2.30 p.m. Arm a little more swollen—now measures

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS, AT

eleven inches and a half; has passed a large quantity
of urine.

Feels a little sick, and the veins about the face are
still rather gorged. Now speaks distinctly, and can
swallow. Suffering rather severely from the pain in
the arm.

_From this time the arm got gradually better, and
the man completely recovered. ‘

In this case we have an example of severe cobra-
poisoning, well described, in which the nerve symptoms
were fully developed, and yet, when they had passed
away, the man was at once in a state of thorough and
complete recovery.

In the published report of the Snake Commission,
by Drs. Ewart, Richards and Mackenzie, in the experi-
ments given as to the least amount of poison required
to kill, no animal died after thirty-two hours; and the
one case that lived that time, it is clear from the
history, died of nerve affection. Of the rest that sur-
vived, though many of them had the most serious nerve
symptoms, not one appears to have given any evidence
of blood alteration. The microscope, also, gives no
evidence of structural change in the blood. In cobra-
poisoning, also, albumen in the urine is unknown. In
animals that have suffered most severely from nerve
sympjoms, in which I have tested the urine, albumen
has not been present in a single instance, either in
fatal or non-fatal cases. When, however, artificial

48 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

respiration has been performed for some time, it is not
unusual for blood to be present in the urine; but if the
kidneys be examined in these cases the wonder will be,
not that blood was found in the urine, but that any
urine was secreted at all to mix with the blocd, se
great is the renal congestion. This circumstance,
therefore, can hardly be taken as evidence of blood
change.

In spite, then, of occasional discharges of blood
from mucous surfaces, and that the blood of man is
generally found flnid after death, if we take into con-
sideration the facts that death, except from nerve
symptoms, is unrecorded; that after the subject has
recovered from the nerve effects, he at once regains his
usual health, sequele being unknown, at least if we
trust the available evidence—always excepting the local
results of cobra-bite which are most severe; and that
in the vast majority of cases there is no symptom of
serious blood-poisoning even during the occurrence of
the nerve symptoms; also that the kidneys give no
evidence of altered relation to the blood; and that, as a
rule, the coagulability of the blood is not destroyed in
animals: we may conclude that though cobra-venom is
a nerve poison of surpassing deadliness, as a blood poison
it is not an agent of much power.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 49

CHAPTER II.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE POISON OF
RUSSELL’S VIPER (DABOIA RUSSELLII).

THE snake that it will be most advantageous, for various
reasons, to consider next is the Dabvia Russellii, an
extremely poisonous snake, found in great abundance
in Bengal proper, in many other parts of India, and in
Ceylon. Itis a very fierce snake, striking after a little
provocation with deadly precision. It has a very
stridulous noisy hiss. Jt belongs to the viperine family
of snakes, of which it is a typical member. For this
reason it is taken here as an example of a viperine
snake in the same way that the cobra was taken as the
representative of the colubrine family. It will be best
to follow the same plan that was adopted in cobra-
poisoning, detailing first the symptoms of a sufficient
number of cases of daboia-poisoning to elicit all the
points of importance, and then to discuss the conditions
on which the fatal results depend. There does not

4

50 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

appear to be a well-recorded case of daboia-poisoning in
the human subject, so it will be necessary to resort to
experiment.

Experiment I.

A small quantity of fresh daboia-poison (about 0°1
cubic centimetre) was injected into the thigh of a
pariah dog.

12.20 p.m. Injection.

12.25 p.M. Very lame in the leg in which injection
was made.

12.44 p.m. Looks very depressed and sleepy.

12.49 p.m. Slimy motion passed.

12.52 p.m. Very drowsy; unsteady in walking.

12.54 p.m. Pupils widely dilated; iris only just
visible.

12.56 p.m. Moaning; lying down with head resting
on ground; trying every now and then to stand up,
but soon desisting from the attempt. .

12.58 p.m. Constantly attempting to rise.

1 p.m. Panting; managed to raise himself to a
standing posture; but his legs “ doubled up,” as it were,
under him, and he fell to the ground.

1.5 p.m. Violent respiratory movements; respira-
tions 28.

1.6 P.M. Still able to move his head freely.

1.15 p.m. Still tries occasionally to rise.

1.17 P.M. Moaning.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 51

1.20 p.m. Moderately loud screams.
1.25 p.m. Convulsions.

1.82 p.m. Convulsions.

1.84 P.M. Dead.

Experiment IT.

A pariah dog was bitten in the thigh by a daboia.

11.57 a.m. Bitten.

11.59 am. Lame in the bitten leg.

12.8 p.m. Violent convulsions, all the limbs forcibly
extended and tense; pupils normal; urinated; screaming.

12.5 p.m. No trace of the convulsions left.

12.8 p.m. Hind-legs paralysed.

12.9 p.m. Vomiting.

12.13 p.m. Screaming.

12.14 p.m. Pupils dilated; not able to stand; much
less power in hind than in fore legs.

1219 p.m. Sanious fluid oozing from rectum.

12.20 p.m Screaming ; tongue has a slight tendency
to fall to the side of the mouth.

12.21 p.m. Forcible contraction of diaphragm.

12.25 p.m. Respirations 52.

12.30 F.m. Large quantity of blood-coloured fluid
passing from rectum.

1235 rm. Lying down quite paralysed.

12.40 p.m. Respirations rapidly diminishing in num-
ber and extent of movement.

12.47 p.m. Respirations about 10 a minute.

4

52 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

12.50 p.m. Respirations reduced to an occasional
spasm of inspiratory muscles.
12.55 p.m. Dead.

Experiment IIT,

A pariah dog had five milligrammes (77, of a grain)
of dried daboia poison injected subcutaneously, dissolved
in one cubic centimetre of water.

12.56 p.m. Injection.

1.54 p.m. Quite well; respirations 44.

7 p.m. Ate a good dinner of meat.

11 pm. Seems a trifle depressed ; has had copious
motions, but quite natural.

3 a.m. No change.

6 a.m. Looks a good deal depressed ; respirations
48 a minute.

7.80 a.m. Pupils contracted; panting; respirations
60 a mivute.

8.15 a.m. Panting excessively.

8.30 a.M. Passed a sanious motion.

8.45 a.m. Respirations 80; excessive dyspnea ;
blood oozing from mouth.

9.30 a.m. Dead.

After death the fatal dyspnea was found to be
dependent on edema of the lungs.

Experiment LV,

A small pariah dog was bitten in the thigh by a
small Daboia Russellii.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 53

12.34 p.m. Bitten.

12.35 p.m. Slightly panting.

12.3854 p.m. Fell over suddenly in violent convulsions,
his hind-legs being especially strongly convulsed ; pupils
contracted,

12.36 p.m. Slight attempts at respiration.

12.389 p.m. Dead.

Experiment V.

A somewhat small pariah had a pulse of 88; respira-
tions 30; rectal temperature 102°2 F. (39° C.)

3.24 P.M. Bitten by a Dabota Russell in the thigh;
struggled and cried much while being bitten.

3.25 pM. Lame, draws up the leg that was bitten.

8.28 p.m. General muscular spasm of the most
violent character, all parts of the body taking part. The
animal fell down, and rolled in convulsions; even the
muscles of the eye-balls shared in the spasms, jerking
the eyes about in the strangest way.

8.30 p.m. Convulsions ceased; complete paralysis
of both hind-legs; tries to stand, but cannot get beyond
just resting on his fore-legs.

3.313 p.m. Spasms of muscles of eye-ball continue ;
respirations very shallow, 68; pupils somewhat dilated.

8.87 p.m. Muscles of eye-ball at rest; scems utterly
prostrate, and unable to move; respirations 40, chiefly
abdominal.

8.40 p.m. Respirations 56, shallow; occasionally a
deep sigh.

54 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

3.44 P.M. Pupils somewhat dilated, but contract to
light.

3.47 P.M. Respirations 67, about every tenth one is
very deep.

8.50 P.M. Moaning.

3.538 P.M. Pulse 156.

8.55 P.M. Pupils dilated.

8.56 p.M. Moaning: temperature 1031 F.

4.1 pm. Respirations 82; sighing and moaning;
lying down paralysed ; sanious discharge from rectum ;
pupils widely dilated.

4.6 p.m. Still moaning.

4.9 P.M. Respirations 86.

4.12 P.M. Respiration reduced to a quick inspiratory
spasm, followed by relaxation.

4.15 p.m. Respirations 16.

4.17 p.m. Dead; temperature 108° F.

Experiment VI,

A pariah dog was bitten on the shoulder by a daboia.

3.7 P.M. Bitten.

3.9 p.m. As the snake had been in captivity scme
time, the dog was bitten by another dabvia.

3.13 P.M. Defecated.

3.14 p.m. Violent spasms of all the limbs, especially
the hind ones; arching of back, twitching of muscles
of eye-ball; pupils normal; fell over on his side. *

8.15 P.M. Pupils dilated.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 55

3.16 P.M. Defecating.

3.18 pM. Able to get up again; walked about.

3.19 p.m. Lay down again voluntarily.

3.23 P.M. Moaning.

8.37 P.M. Still lying down; is now unable to raise
himself, or to stand when raised.

3.41 p.m. Blood-stained motion.

4.3 P.M, Screaming.

4.17 P.M. Respiration failing.

4.3U P.M. Respiration stopped; heart ceased directly
afterwards.

From these experiments it will be seen how very
great is the dissimilarity of the symptoms in different
cases of daboia-poisoning. Hardly any two cases are
alike. Thus, in Experiment I., the dog becomes gra-
dually paralysed, and dies of asphyxia. In Experiment
Il. six minutes after being bitten it falls into severe
convulsions, after which it is found to be paralysed, the
paralysis ultimately stopping respiration. In Experi-
ment III. no change was observed for seventeen hours,
and then the animal died of lung complication. In
Experiment IV. in a minute and a half after being
bitten, the dog fell over in violent convulsions, and died
at once. In Experiment V. three minutes after being
bitten the dog had the most violent convulsions, to
which paralysis immediately succeeded, which became
more and more complete till death. In Experiment VI.
there were convulsions, but they passed off, leaving the

56 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

animal apparently unaffected and able to walk about ;
then it became gradually paralysed, and in this state
died.

We have here nearly every kind of death, from that
produced instantly by violent convulsions, to a lung
affection coming on many hours after the administration
of the poison, and unaccompanied’ by any nerve
symptoms at all.

The following experiments throw some light on the
causes of these differences :—

Experiment VII.

A pariah pup had about 0°1 cubic centimetre of fresh
daboia poison injected subcutaneously into the shoulder.

12.52 p.m. Injection.

1.0 p.m. Vomiting.

1.1 p.m. Sat down voluntarily.

1.3 p.m. Can stand and walk; defecating.

1.4 p.m. Can stand, but cannot walk.

1.5 p.m. Got up of his own accord to vomit.

1.6 p.m. Can stand, but prefers lying down; pupils
contracted.

1.8 p.m. Cannot stand; moaning.

1.11 p.m. Slight sanious discharge from rectum.

1.15 p.m. Shortrapid respiration, with an occasional
deep inspiration.

1.18 p.m. Pupils contracted.

1.80 p.m. Respiration very slight.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 57

1.88 p.m. Respiration still fainter.
2.6 P.M. Dead.

Experiment V1TI.

A pariah pup of the same litter as the one in the last
experiment, and as nearly as possible of the same size,
had 0°3 cubic centimetre of fresh daboia-poison injected
into its shoulder subcutaneously.

1.31 p.m. Injection.

1.32 p.m. Seems in pain.

1.34 P.M. Defecating.

1.35 p.m. Fell over in convulsions.

1.37 p.m. Unable to stand.

1.45 p.m. Lying down; is quite paralysed, but occa-
sionally groans.

2.1 P.M. Totally unconscious.

2.16 pM. Respization failing.

2.29 pM. Dead.

In these two dogs, which were of the same age and
size, the daboia-poison was injected into exactly the
corresponding part in each, and subcutaneously ; but in
the latter experiment three times as much poison was
injected as inthe former case. This was the only differ-
ence in the two experiments, and the result was that the
animal which had the larger quantity of daboia-poison
in four minutes had violent convulsions, and from that
time ‘was quite paralysed, whilst the other only gradually
became paralysed, and had no symptoms of convulsions

58 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

at all. The amount of poison given in even the datter
case was not above a third of the quantity that a dabvia
could inject. The poison, in both cases, was from the
same viper, and extracted at the same place.

ELxperiment LX,

A fowl had two centigrammes (about 0° grain) of
dried daboia-poison, dissolved in 0°83 centimetre of water,
injected subcutaneously into its leg.

12.17 p.m Injection.

12.19 pM. Defecated.

12.20 pM. Twitchings of the muscles of the neck,
followed immediately by violent convulsions and death.

Experiment X.

A third of a cubic centimetre of water containing in
solution about half a milligramme of dried duboia-poison
was injected into the leg of a fowl subcutaneously.

3.87 P.M. Injection.

3.45 p.M. No symptom.

3.52 P.M. Greatly exaggerated respiratory movement.

3.55 P.M. Head drooping, beak resting on ground.

8.59 P.M. Cannot stand.

4.4 P.M. Lying on its side.

4.24 P.M. Convulsions.

4.25pm. Dead.

In these two experiments, also, the same thing* is to
be noticed. Two centigrammes produced the most

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 59

violent and fatal convulsions, and the result would have
been the same if two milligrammes only had been used ;
whereas half a milligramme produced only the symptoms
of paralysis, followed by asphyxia. The convulsions in
this case followed the paralysis, and were dependent on
asphyxia, precisely in the same way as they occur in
cobra-poisoning. From these experiments we see that
though a very small quantity of daboia-poison may only
cause gradual paralysis, a somewhat larger one will pro-
duce death at once by convulsions in an animal of the
same size. In the same way it can be proved that the
same umount of daboia-poison given to two animals of
different sizes, though the larger may escape the con-
vulsions altogether, the smaller may die at once in
them.

We must conclude, then, that in daboia-poison we
have to do with a substance capable of producing the
most violent convulsions, and that the larger the animal
the greater is the quantity required to produce this
effect. But the convulsions are in no way dependent
upon the entrance of the poison directly into a vein, as
sometimes happens in the case of cobra-poison; and
birds are so susceptible to this substance, that it is only
with difficulty that a sufficiently weak solution can be
prepared to cause any symptoms at all with the avoid-
ance of convulsions. The first symptom, then, after the
loca? pain, which appears to be peculiarly severe in
daboia-poisoning, will very probably be the appearance

60 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

of convulsions. But their occurrence depends, as we
have seen, upon the size of the animal and the amount
of poison injected. I have seen an extremely large
pariah dog so severely convulsed that it seemed probable
that he would die in them. At the same time, a small
dog may escape them altogether. It is entirely depen-
dent on the quantity of poison injected by the snake.

If the convulsions occur, they generally take place in
from one to ten minutes after the infliction of the bite—
probably five minutes is about the average; and they
may have any degree of severity, from violent contrac-
tions of nearly every muscle in the body, so that the
animal dies almost instantaneously, to just a few twitch-
ings of the muscles of the legs or other parts. As a
rule, they are severe ; every muscle, it seems, taking part
in them; the muscles of the eye-balls, even, rolling the
eyes about in a most striking manner.

In this state the animal may die at once, asin Experi-
ment IV., or respiration may be established again, only
to cease shortly after, the animal remaining completely
paralysed in the interval; or the animal may recover
consciousness, but remain paralysed, the respiration
gradually ceasing, as in Experiment V.; or after the
convulsions he may quite recover and show no symptom
whatever, but a greater or less interval having occurred,
paralysis begins to be manifest, as in Experiment VI.
Even when convulsions are absent, marked twitchings
of the muscles of the eye, or the neck, or the hind-legs,

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 61

which completely pass off, may be noticed about five or
ten minutes after the bite.

Supposing convulsions to have occurred, the animal
will either be found to be completely paralysed, or will
ultimately become so. It is occasionally, though by no
means universally, noticed that there is a greater loss
of power in the hind-legs than in the fore, which is
probably due to the exhaustion produced by the violent
nervous discharges, which are often particularly severe
in the hind-legs. Respiration, directly after the con-
vulsions, may be quite absent; it re-commences
generally slowly at first, and then becomes very rapid.
The pupils are, after the convulsions, widely dilated,
though after a time they may begin to contract again.
The respirations, too, ultimately become slower, and the
paralysis more profound. Sanious discharges take place
from the rectum and other orifices, and finally respira-
tion stops.

Should convulsions not take place, the history is that
of advancing paralysis. The respirations and pulse
become very greatly accelerated, and there is gradual
loss of power in all the limbs; vomiting may occur.
Sanious discharges are observed issuing from the rectum,
or other parts. The pupils are usually widely dilated ;
the respirations then become less and less, and may :
cease with or without convulsions. This is seen in
Experiment I.

But there is a third form of death from daboia-

62 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

poisoning; it occurs in those cases in which but «
small quantity of daboia-poison has been injected. The
animal has very few nervous symptoms, very likely none
at all; but on the second day it appears ill, refuses
food, has diarrhea, the urine contains albumen, and it
may linger on thus for days, ultimately dying exhausted;
or some acute complication may supervene, as in
Experiment III., causing death rapidly.

In birds, the symptoms following daboia-bite show no
variation. The bird is almost at once seized with
convulsions, and falls dead.

Experiment XI.
11.80 a.m. A fowl was bitten by a daboia.
11.804 a.m. Respirations slightly accelerated.
11.804 a.m. Violent convulsions.
11.81d.4.m. Dead.
Birds are most easily affected in this manner by the
poison; after them come the Lacertilia.

_ Experiment XII.

About ‘4 cubic centimetre of fresh daboia-poison was
injected beneath the skin of a lizard (the Calotes
versicolor). The respirations were 54 per minute.

3.49 P.M. Injection.

3.51 p.m. Convulsions.

8.52 P.M. Quite paralysed.

8.53 P.M. Respirations 12 per minute.

8.59 r.M. Dead.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 63

Mammals, as it has been stated, are very easily
affected by the convulsion-producing agent; but am-
plibia only have symptoms of gradual paralysis.

Experiment XIII.

A medium-sized frog (Rana tigrina) had one centi-
gramme of dried cobra-poison in solution injected into
its dorsal sac.

1.12 p.m. Injection.

4.40 p.m. /Violent respiratory efforts.

4.39 p.m. Becoming paralysed.

4.53 p.m. Paralysed.

5.11 p.m. Dead.

It is important to notice this difference of power in
producing a fatal result in different classes of animals
by these two poisons.

Eaperiment XIV.

Five centigrammes (*77 grain) of dried cobra-poison
dissolved in water, were injected into the dorsal sac of a
frog (Rana tigrina).

12.43 p.m. Injection.

1.40 p.m. Paralysed.

1.50 p.m. Dead.

Experiment XV.

Five centigrammes ("77 grain) of dried daboia-poison,
dissolved in water, were injected into the dorsal sac of a

64 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

frog (Rana tigrina), of the same size as the one in the
last experiment.

11.38 a.m. Injection.

1.8 p.m. Weak, but struggles occasionally.

2.12 p.m. Some water discharged from nostrils.

2.30 p.m. Lying down extended.

5 P.M. Better; able to move.

8a.M. Is apparently quite well.

It remained perfectly well.

Thus, while five centigrammes of cobra-poison will
kill a frog in seventy minutes, yet the same quantity of
daboia-poison will only produce comparatively trifling
symptoms, and complete recovery will ensue.

Locat Errects oF DaBolA-BITE.

As to the local mischief caused by the bite of the
daboia, what has been said about the cobra might be
repeated here. But there are one or two points of
difference which are of sufficient interest to be men-
tioned. The fangs of the daboia, being much louger
than those of the cobra, produce a much larger and
deeper wound. From this it happens that it is much
more usual to find blood from divided vessels in daboia-
bite than in cobra-bite. The local action is also greater,
the pain of daboia-bite appearing to be peculiarly severe.
The same acute inflammatory effusion can be foufd in
the daboia-bite, but it has much more tle appearance of

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 65

blood than that found in cobra-bite; a circumstance
that is due to the greater power daboia-poison has in
causing the contents of the blood-vessels to transude
through their walls. However, if a dissection of a
daboia-bite be made about three minutes after its inflic-
tion, a circle of injected vessels with a pinkish effusion
within the meshes of the areolar tissue will be found,
sufficient to show the real nature of the process that is
commencing. The presence, however, of daboia-poison
imparts, so to speak, a “specific” character to the
inflammation in the large amount of blood-material in
the effusion. The characteristic changes are quite as
rapid in occurring as in cobra-bite ; if, indeed, they are
not more so, and they are of precisely the same nature,
the only difference being in regard to degree, They are
invariably followed, should the animal live, with slough-
ing and suppuratidn, and are equally valuable as evidence
of poisoning with those of cobra-bite.

AcTIon oF Dasota-PoIson ON THE NERVouUS SYSTEM.

Enough has already been said to show that there are
considerable differences in the action of daboia and
cobra-poisons on the nervous system. Daboia-poison
commences its action by producing convulsions. It is
true that the animal may escape them, through an
insuffftient quantity of poison being injected. Now,
these convulsions in uo way, depend upon a large

5

66 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

quantity of poison being directly injected into a vein, as
in cobra-poisoning, nor are they necessarily immediately
followed by paralysis and death, being not mere pre-
cursors of the extinction of function of the nerve-
centres ; but they may, on the contrary, be for the time
perfectly recovered from (see Experiment VI.), some-
times an interval of half an hour of perfect health
elapsing.

The following experiments show the contrast between
the two poisons very well.

Euperiment XVI.

One centigramme (*154 grain) of dried daboia-poison
was dissolved in one cubic centimetre of distilled water,
and the solution was injected, with great care, just
beneath the skin of the leg of a fowl.

3.10 p.M. Injection.

8.11 p.m. Slightly lame in the leg in which the
injection was made.

3.12 p.m. Violent convulsions.

3.123 p.m. Dead.

Experiment XVII.

The same quantity of dried cobra-poison dissolved in
the same quantity of water (namely, one centigramme in
one cubic centimetre), as in the last experiment, was
injected just beneath the skin of the leg of a fowlj

3.30 P.M, Injection.
C

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 67

8.32 p.m. Lying down.

3.34 P.M. Drowsy.

3.35 P.M. Head drooping.

8.86 P.M. Beak resting on ground ; unable to stand;
eyelids closed; pupils contracted.

8.87 P.M. Unable to lift head from ground.

3.40 p.m. Convulsions; eyes watering.

8.42 p.m. Dead.

Now, in these two experiments the greatest care was
taken to ensure the. conditions being exactly the same,
as regards the amount of poison, the quantity of fluid,
and the exact spot into which it was injected. More-
over, to avoid accidental sources of fallacy, the
experiment was repeated, with the unfailing result that
with daboia-poison the subject of the experiment died at
once in ‘convulsions ; while in cobra-poisoning the bird
went through the course of gradual paralysis, and after
_ respiration was extinguished had the convulsions of
asphyxia and died. .

These convulsions, therefore, are in no way due to the
injection of the poison into a vein, or to the slight
stimulation of nerve centres that is seen in cobra-
poisoning immediately before paralysis. The next
question is, are these convulsions in any way dependent
on asphyxia, like those met with in cobra-poisoning,
when the poison has been absorbed in the usual way ?
If the tracings Series No. 6 be examined, some evidence
on the subject will be obtained. It is a continuous

eC) 5 %

68 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,’

tracing taken from a fowl that died from daboia-
poisoning. In the first line no change will be perceived,
in the second line the breathing becomes slightly.
exaggerated, and then instantly, at the spot marked
thus (*), the convulsions begin, and do not cease till
death. Respiration was perfectly well performed up to
the moment of the invasion of ‘the convulsions, which,
therefore, could not have been due to asphyxia.

But the following experiment is still more conclusive
on this point.

Experiment XVIII,

A fowl had its trachea opened, and a tube in connec-
tion with a bellows, for artificial respiration, inserted
into it. A solution, containing two centigrammes
(‘3 grain) of dried daboia-poison, was then injected
subcutaneously into its leg. Immediately on the
injection being completed, artificial respiration was
commenced.

2.23 P.M. Injection.

2.234 P.M. Artificial respiration begun.

2.26 p.M. Convulsions in which the bird died.

Here, though ample means were employed to keep:
the blood oxygenated, the bird died immediately in
convulsions. It is clear, therefore, that these con-
vulsions are primary, and in no way due to defective
aération of the blood, like those usual in cobra-

poisoning. The convulsions are generally very violent,
c

THEIR NATURE AND HFFECTS. 69

the muscles usually being powerfully contracted, and
then relaxation takes place. Sometimes they may
remain tense for some time, but they are commonly
clonic. They are very general in character, even to the
muscles of the orbit. Sometimes they appear to be
tonic, the muscles, as it were, clasping forcibly the
frame of the victim.

Dr. Weir Mitchell, in investigating the action of the
poison of the crotalus or rattle-snake, describes what he
terms a “‘fremitus,” or trembling of the muscular
fibrils, dependent upon the contact of the poison with
the muscle. The following experiment was made, in
order to ascertain whether the convulsions were due
to this direct action of the poison on the muscles or
not.

Experiment XTX.

A fowl was placed under the influence of chloroform,
and its right crural nerve divided ; the left crural nerve
was then isolated, and a ligature placed round all the
other structures, so as completely to obstruct the circu-
lation, but the nerve was left uninjured. A small
quantity of solution of daboia-poison was subcuta-
neously injected into the tissues at the back of the
neck. Almost directly after, convulsions occurred; but
in these convulsions the muscles supplied by the right,
or divided nerve, took no part, remaining perfectly
flaccid, while the muscles of the left leg were violently
tetanized. Here the muscles of the right leg, which

»)

72 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

is such a marked symptom of cobra-poisoning, is absent
in daboia-poisoning. The tongue, it is true, may be
sometimes pendulous during part of the time ; but it is
usually retracted into the mouth before death, which
never happens in cobra-poisoning. Moreover, the
larynx is not paralysed, the dog groaning, screaming,
and barking, even when his limbs are powerless. It
seems as if the poison exerted its influence on the main
motor tract, and did not possess the marked affinity for
certain centres that cobra-poison has; a circumstance
for which the method in which it commences its action,
and the time that it takes to extinguish the respiratory
function, might have prepared us.

AcTION OF DaBora-PoIson ON RESPIRATION.

When primary convulsions occur in daboia-poisoning,
the natural respiration is very quickly abolished. Chart
No. 6, taken from a fowl,’gives a typival example of the
respiration when the primary convulsions are fatal. It
contains nearly all the chest movements from the
moment of injection of the poison till death. The first
sixteen respirations are normal; the excursus is then
slightly increased, and a slight retardation is to be
observed; then, without further warning, the most
violent convulsions took place, and with them life was
extinguished. It affords corroborative evidence of the ’

fact that asphyxia has nothing to do with the causation
4

INOVI—TRACING or RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS wv FOWL
unpgR THE INFLUENCB or DABOIA POISON.

LN FONT WAFS

Respiration after the injection of the poison, but still Normal.

Slightly exaggerated breathing, suddenly interrupted by Convulsions. *

[

Convulsions.

YON pre =I

End of Convulsions.

NeVI—TRACING or RESPIRATORY MOVEMENT iw 4 FOWL
u&per THe INFLUENCE or DABOIA POISON
quar HAD BEEN HEATED 7o 100°C.

VYYVYIVIVVVVYVIVIIVPPVIPIJYI™’—LI™IIWLUIAIVVIVIVIILIMS

Great acceleration.

GL LALLAALP LP LPP PPA LFS

AV AVAVAVIUAVAUIVAVAVAUACACAUAUACACACACACACACACACAUAL

Great acceleration with increased Excursus..

LI OE eee

Lessened Excursus.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 73

of the convulsions. Should death not occur at once
after the convulsions, respiration is resumed; very
slowly at first, then gaining a rapidity far beyond
normal, to be again diminished, and finally extin-
guished. If convulsions do not take place, the rapidity
of the respirations becomes extreme.

Chart No. 7 is from a fowl that was poisoned by
daboia-poison, which had been heated in solution to a
100° C., and so deprived of its power of causing con-
vulsions. The acceleration of the respiratory move-
‘ ments is most remarkable, as is also the way in which
the excursus is exaggerated and maintained; it is only
at the very end of life that the respiratory movement is
diminished.

Chart No. 8 is from a dog, to which sufficient poison
was not given to cause convulsions, The very much
greater acceleration of the respiration than can be caused
by cobra-poisoning is seen; the respirations in I. and
III. being as two to five. But in IV. a singular:
condition is to be noticed, which is exceedingly common
in daboia-poisoning. The respiration has become slower,
but the excursus is increased; but the peculiarity is
that ordinary respiration is occasionally interrupted—
it may be once in six, to once in twenty respirations—
by a very prolonged and excessive upheaving of the
chest-walls. If the phenomenon be examined, when well
marked, it will be found that a deep inspiration is first

taken, and when the diaphragm has descended, the
e

74 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

muscles of the abdominal wall contract forcibly, the
glottis is closed, the legs are drawn up over the abdomen,
the perineum is bulged out; then suddenly relaxation
occurs, and the ordinary respiratory rhythm is resumed.
As the paralysis becomes more marked this gradually
fades into a deep inspiration, and this, in its turn, is
abolished, the respiration becoming slower, though the
excursus is maintained in a remarkable way.

Daboia-poisoning is characterised, then, by the long
time it takes to abolish respiration after the body
paralysis is complete, and by the very irregular character
of the respiratory movements during the progress of
the paralysis, and also by the very great acceleration
that occurs in the earlier stages and the increased
excursus. The two species of poisoning could be dis-
tinguished from one another in the vast majority of
cases by the character of the respiration alone. It is
very unusual for the convulsions of asphyxia to occur
in daboia-poisoning if the primary convulsions have
been at all marked.

Errect oF DaBota-PoIson ON THE CIRCULATION, TEM-
PERATURE, SPECIAL SENSES, SECRETION, AND THE
Buioop.

In regard to its influence on the temperature and
circulation, it cannot be said that daboia-poisoning

differs much from cobra-poisoning. The temperature is
: C

NOVII-TRACINGS o RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS or DOG
usork DABOTIA POISONING.

LPP LPP RP SP PRP es

Nurmal Respiration.

AP ADAPADAADDADDWWDNADAADALLY

Acceleration.

Respiration still quicker

r eererrvers

Irregular Respiration.

RP) ADIT

Respiratioh slowing.
VI

ee) te

End of Respiratory movements.

oO

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 15

but slightly, if at all, raised in ordinary cases of daboia-
poisoning, and the circulation can be maintained long
after complete paralysis has occurred and the respiration
has stopped, if the blood be kept oxygenated by artificial
means,

On the pupil it seems as if daboia-poison had some
influence. After the primary convulsions have ceased,
the pupil is nearly always, if not always, widely dilated.
This dilatation is not dependent on asphyxia, as it is
often present when the convulsions are absent. The
iris becomes merely a narrow ring; but at the later
stages the pupil becomes again contracted, often being
smaller than natural. If life is prolonged by artificial
respiration, the pupil remains somewhat contracted, to
dilate again on artificial respiration being discontinued,
It would, of course, require direct observation on the
human subject to ascertain the effect which daboia-
poison exerts on accommodation.

Over secretion daboia-poison also has some power.
Mucous discharges occur from mucous tracts with con-
siderable frequency ; but it is infinitely less powerful in
causing salivation than cobra-poison. If the experi-
ments given at the commencement of this section be
looked at, in not one is salivation recorded. If the
elaborate series of experiments in Sir J. Fayrer’s
“‘Thanatophidia ” be examined, it will be seen that in not
a siigle experiment with daboia-poison is the word
“ salivation”” used, whereas it is constantly employed in

D>

76 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

describing cases of cobra-poisoning. I am, however,
satisfied that it does sometimes occur, having seen it
once in a very slight degree. But it is so rare that it
cannot be considered as anything but very exceptional ;
and it will not be going too far to say that in dogs it
is as rare to see salivation in daboia-poisoning as it is
to see it absent in cobra-poisoning.

In daboia-poisoning there is a good deal of evidence
to be considered as to the effect of the poison on the
blood. Itis almost universally found that the blood
is incoagulable; the only exceptions being when an
animal dies almost instantaneously from the convulsions,
and also when it dies after a very long interval from
exhaustion. The first condition is often found in fowls,
and the second in robust animals which have had only
a small quantity of poison administered to them. In
the first class of cases it is probable that sufficient time
has not elapsed for blood changes to occur; in the
second the blood has had time, to a certain extent, to
regain its normal character, for in these cases the
coagulation is somewhat imperfect. In addition to the
loss of coagulability of, the blood, even in the lower
animals, we have proof that the relation of the blood to
the tissues is altered. Even in rapid cases of daboia-
poisoning, hemorrhages from the mucous membranes
are exceedingly common. Exudations of blood beneath
the conjunctiva and mucous membrane of the mouth

are also sometimes seen. So grave are the changes in
c

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 17

the blood, that it is not unusual for an. animal to die of
the consequences of them alone, without a single nerve
symptom having occurred. Thus in Experiment III.
the animal had no symptom till the respirations began
to increase in frequency, nor did the-animal show any
muscular weakness then; the only evidence that there
was of any other abnormal condition being copious dis-
charges of sanious fluid from the mouth and rectum.
The sole cause of death was undoubtedly edema of the
pulmonary tissue, and the antecedent condition to this
must have been simply the altered condition of the
blood. But it is easy to collect plenty of cases of
death from blood change in daboia-poison.

Experiment XXI.

A cat had one cubic centimetre of a solution of daboia-
poison, containing about five milligrammes (°077 of a
grain) of the poison injected into its leg subcutaneously.

3.3 P.M. Injection.

8.16 P.M. Seems in some pain.

8.87 p.m. Respiration somewhat rapid.

7 pM. Seems pretty well.

6 a.m. Ill; vomiting.

1 p.m. Crouches down, disinclined to be disturbed.

7 PM. Refuses food.

This animal lived for four days, all the time refusing
foo® having diarrhea, and at last died of exhaustion.
The blood was found to be feebly coagulated after death.

718 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

Experiment XXII.

A solution of about five milligrammes (‘077 of a
grain) of daboia-poison was injected into a dog.

4 P.M. Injection.

7 pM. No symptom.

8 a.m. No change.

4 p.m. As no symptom appeared, five milligrammes
more daboia-poison were injected.

7 p.M. No change.

9.30 p.m. Affected; respirations 50; pupils widely
dilated.

6 aM. Still seems ill, but can stand.

2 p.m. Depressed and ill.

3 P.M. Passed some albuminous urine.

9 p.m. Not much change; diarrhea.

6 a.m. Still very ill.

12 p.m. Urine albuminous; seems very ill.

As it was clear that the animal would die a lingering
death, as in the last experiment, some more daboia-
poison was injected to shorten life.

1.30 p.m. Injection.

3.9 P.M. Passed a sanious motion.

3.17 p.m. Cannot stand.

8.20 P.M. Respiration failing.

3.29 p.m. Dead.

These were two cases of severe blood-poisoning which
occurred almost completely without accompanying nerve

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 79

symptoms, one of which was fatal, and the other un-
doubtedly would have been had the case been allowed
to run its course.

In cobra-poisoning pure and simple albuminuria is
unknown; but in every case of daboia-poisoning in
which symptoms were present, and in which six hours
elapsed before death, J have detected albumen in the
urine. Itis generally not in very large quantity, but
is still unmistakable. Care should be taken not to
allow the urine secreted before the commencement of
the symptoms to mix with that secreted after.

There is evidence, therefore, that daboia venom is a
most severe blood-poison, producing death when not
administered in sufficient quantities to cause serious
nerve symptoms, and that it is even possible for death
to occur quite early from this cause alone, nerve
symptoms not having supervened.

The following case, related by Dr. F. M. Mackenzie,
shows the insidious nature of blood-poisoning induced
by the venom of vipers. The snake was probably the
Echis carinata, a congener of the daboia :—

A Mahomedan, aged forty, was bitten by a snake
about a foot long, with rough scales, called by the
natives ‘‘ corella,” on one of his fingers. The region of
the bite was soon after incised, but the hand and arm
became much swollen, He vomited, and the same day
passed blood with his urine and feces, and his vomit
contained blood. The third day the temperature was

80 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

101° F. The fifth day the temperature was 99°4 F.,
and the symptoms remained unabated. He suffered
from hiccough, and the hemorrhage was unchecked.
He gradually grew weaker from the loss of blood, and
consequently died of exhaustion on, the ninth day.

It would be difficult to find a greater contrast to this
case of viper-poisoning than that of Dr. Richards’s
instance of cobra-poisoning, where the man, after
suffering from severe nerve symptoms, was on the second
day quite well.

There are in this case two points of interest. The
first is that the temperature was but very slightly raised
during the progress of the disease ; and the other, that
the symptoms, though they required so long a time to
prove fatal, yet commenced almost directly after the
infliction of the bite. It should be stated, also, that
even after the symptoms of hemorrhage have showed
themselves a complete recovery is possible. We may
conclude, then, that in this form of poisoning, when the
nerve effects have quite passed away, there remair/ a
period of blood-poisoning as fatal to life as the nerve
symptoms themselves.

In daboia-poisoning general muscular weakness is
much more marked than in cobra-poisoning. The
heart’s action especially gives evidence of its weakened
muscular condition, which appears often to be the
immediate cause of death. e

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 81

SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF
Dasota AND Cospra Porson.

From the above examination of the symptoms pro-
duced by the two poisons, the following summary of the
differences in their effects may be made.

Cobra-poison, when introduced slowly into the circu-
lation, produces gradual general paralysis, but at the
same time shows a preference for certain nerve centres,
—-paralysis of the tongue, lips, and larynx, being very
marked symptoms,—and respiration is very quickly
extinguished after the paralysis shows itself. Death is
often attended by convulsions, which are clearly due to
carbonic-acid poisoning.

Introduced with a fair amount of rapidity, these
symptoms are rapidly developed, the paralysis being
preceded by gentle stimulation, which causes slight
muscular twitchings.

Injected in a large quantity into the circulation, the
stimulation is so violent as to cause general convulsions,
of which, however, the respiratory muscles have the
chief share, and which are immediately followed by
paralysis and death.

Daboia-poison, though not injected directly into the
circulation, causes directly the most violent convulsions,
which are in no way necessarily followed by immediate
paraly$is and death, but may be for the time completely
recovered from. They do not depend on carbonic-acid

6

82 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

poisoning. The paralysis that succeeds is general, and
lasts a very considerable time before respiration is
extinguished. There is no evidence of the tongue, lips
and larynx being especially paralysed; they probably
only suffer in the same degree as the other parts.

Cobra-poison very quickly .destroys the respiratory
function: after slight acceleration the respiration becomes
slower and the excursus is lessened.

Daboia-poison at first quickens the respiration very
much more than cobra-poison does, and the lessening
of the excursus and the slowing of the breathing do
not occur so soon. The respiration generally in daboia- |
poisoning has a peculiarly irregular character. This
function certainly exists longer under the influence of
daboia-poison than under that of cobra-poison.

The effect of cobra-poison on the pupil is so slight as
to be a matter of doubt; daboia-poison nearly always
causes wide dilatation in the earlier stages of the
poisoning.

Salivation is a constant symptom of cobra-poisoning ;
it is exceedingly rare in daboia-poisoning.

The effect of cobra-poison on the blood is not very
great, sanious discharges are rare, albuminuria has not
been seen, and recovery is striking and complete.

In daboia-poisoning, on the other hand, sanious dis-
charges are the rule, albuminuria is usual should the
victim live any time, and after the nerve symptofus have
passed away the subject has to go through a period of

4

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 83

blood-poisoning little, if at all, less dangerous than the
primary symptoms. We have, in addition, the greater
local mischief caused by daboia-poison, and the greater
power it has of destroying the coagulability of the
blood.

The physiological properties of daboia-poison undergo
great change by its being heated to 100° C. in solution,
losing the power of producing primary convulsions,
whereas cobra-poison remains unaltered.

Daboia-poison kills birds at once in convulsions,
whereas with cobra-poison—unless the poison has been
directly injected into the circulation—death occurs only
after paralysis.

Lastly, amphibia recover from an amount of daboia-
poison that would be necessarily fatal in the case of
cobra-poison,

84 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

CHAPTER III.

.THE PHYSIOLOGIOAL EFFECTS PRODUCED BY THE
POISONS OF THE BUNGARUS FASOIATUS AND
THE BUNGARUS CQ@RULEUS.

Tre Bungarus fasciatus is a snake that has a very wide

‘distribution in India. It is common in Bengal, extends
down the Coromandel coast and into Burmah, where it
is said to entirely replace its congener, the Bungarus
ceruleus. It is also common in Java, the Malayan
Peninsula, Penang, Tenasserim, and China. It is of
shy, retiring habits, and is not easily irritated. The
natives of India are of opinion that it never hisses, but
I have several times heard it do so, but very gently.
It is not possible to determine what share it contributes
to the general mortality from snake-bite. It belongs, of
course, to the colubrine division of snakes, and is easily
recognised by the alternate bands of black and yellow
that surround its body. The effects of its poison are
demonstrated by the following experiments.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 85:

Experiment I.

A medium-sized pariah dog had a pulse of 72 beats
and 32 respirations per minute.

2.50 P.M.
3.1 P.M.

3.37 P.M.
3.47 P.M.

3.48 P.M.

4,1 P.M.
4.5 P.M.

4.16 P.M.
4.17 P.M.

4.20 P.M.
4.21 P.M.

4.33 P.M.

Bitten by a Bungarus fasciatus.
Respirations 27.

Retching.

Vomiting.

Respirations 36.
Respirations 28.

Staggering.

Hardly able to stand.

Respirations 26.

Pupils contracted.

Respirations 24.

Lying at full length, apparently uncon-

scious. Can be, however, roused, when it tries to rise,

but is unable.
4.85 p.m. Pulse 85; fore and hind limbs equally

paralysed.

4.39 P.M.
4.50 P.M.

Respirations 22.
Discharge from nostrils. The dog was

now bitten by another Bungarus fasciatus.

4,54 P.M.

Respirations 20.

5.2 P.M. Tongue hanging out of the mouth.
5.7 BM. Respirations 16.

5.25 P.M.

Pulse 72.

86 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

5.50 p.m. Slight twitchings of the muscles of the
extremities.

5.59 p.M. Respirations 18.

6 P.M. Convulsions.

6.5 P.M. Salivation.

6.23 P.M. Convulsions.

6.24 p.m. Respiratory movement ceased.

6.26 p.m. Dead.

Experiment II,

A cat was bitten on the leg by a Bungarus fasciatus.

1.7 P.M. Bitten.

2p.M. The leg which was bitten is swollen.

6.80 p.m. Affected; sluggish ; staggers when roused.

7.8 P.M. Becoming paralysed.

7.15 p.m. Respiration failing.

7.87 p.m. Lying down; respiration almost ceased ;
a smal] quantity of clear fluid running from the mouth;
commencing convulsions.

7.48 p.m, Convulsions stronger.

7.46 P.M. All movement ceased; pupils dilated.

7.474 P.M. Heart stopped. Dead.

Experiment ITI.

A strong healthy pariah dog was bitten in the centre
of the back by a Bungarus fasciatus.

1.20 p.m. Bitten.

1.56 P.M. Vomited.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 87

1.58 p.m. Looks somewhat depressed ; site of bite
much swollen.

2.4 P.M. Vomited some frothy mucus.

2.39 p.M. Slightly unsteady in gait.

2.46 p.m. Fell over.

2.57 P.M. Pupilsdilated ; salivation ; tongue hanging
out of mouth; respiration stopped.

2.59 pM. Dead.

Rigor mortis was well marked; blood coagulated ;
kidneys and lungs very much congested.

Experiment IV.

A cat was bitten by a Bungarus fasciatus.

245 P.M. Bitten.

7 a.M. Somewhat depressed ; has vomited.

11.30 a.m. Affected; can hardly stand.

12.10 p.m. Vomiting.

12.87 p.m. Copious salivation.

12.47 p.M. Vomiting frothy mucus.

3.88 P.M. Very weak.

4.12 p.m. Passed some albuminous urine.

7.89 pm. Cannot stand; respirations 80, but the
movement is very slight.

9.7 p.m. Dead.

There was coagulation of the blood after death.

Experiment V.

A sfftall pariah dog was bitten by a Bungarus fasciatus,
12.83 p.m. Bitten, ,

88 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

12.40 p.m. Bitten spot swollen.

1.17 p.m. Affected ; staggering.

1.35 p.m. Unable to stand.

1.386 p.m. Salivated.

1.38 p.m. Twitchings of muscles of limbs.

1.39 p.m. Occasional spasm of diaphragm.

1.40 p.m. Pupils normal.

1.41 p.m. Tongue protruded.

1.43 p.m. Respirations reduced to an sedan
inspiratory spasm.

1.56 p.m. Dead.

i
|
\
if

Experiment VI.

A pariah dog was bitten by a Bungarus fasciatus.
The snake had been some time in captivity.
Noon. Bitten.
lst Day—
12.19P.m. Had some general irregular muscular
contractions, after which it seemed somewhat
paralysed.
12.35 p.m. Seems quite well again.
2nd Day. Quite well.
38rd Day. No symptom.
4th Day. No change.
5th Day. Somewhat depressed; refused food.
6th Day. Lying down; very weak; temperature.
103°2 F.; respiratory movement somewhat less-
ened ; urine (the first passed since the 2nd |

e

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS.

89

day) slightly albuminous, contains casts of
renal tubes; pupils normal.
7th Day. No change in the symptoms, but is much

weaker.

8th Day. Died in the night.
Rigor mortis fairly marked ; lungs cedematous ; blood
feebly coagulated ; kidneys congested; bladder empty.

Eaperiment VII.

A large healthy pariah dog was bitten by a Bungarus

fasciatus.
lst Day—

12.38 P.M.
12.44 P.M.
12.46 p.m.
12.47 P.M.
12.50 P.M.

Bitten.

Site of bite swollen.
Respirations 24.

Pulse 84.

Temperature in rectum 102°7 F.

7 p.M. No symptom.
2nd Day. No change.
8rd Day. Quite well.
Ath Day. Without any symptom.

5th Day—

7a.M. No change.
7 v.m. Looks depressed; no special symptom.

6th Day—

7 a.M. Appears ill.
°4p.m. Pulse 180. Respirations 20. Tempera-
ture in rectum 10272 F.

90 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

7 P.M. Ate sparingly of food.
10.12 p.m. Pulse 182. Respirations 30. Has
vomited.
7th Day—
7am. Is very weak, but no special symptom ;
can walk, but soon lies down.
7Pp.M. Ate a little meat, which he retained.
8th Day—
8.15 a.m. Passed about six ounces of urine;
the first for four days.
8.36 a.m. Respirations 20.
8.387 a.M. Pulse 134.
8.45 a.m. Temperature in rectum 102°4 F.
5.5 P.M. Appears ill, and is very weak.
5.6 p.m. Respirations 40. Pupils dilated.
5.7 P.M. Pulse 160.
5.10 p.m. Temperature in rectum 108°9 F.
7 P.M. Very weak. Ate sparingly of food.
11.25 p.m. Slightly stertorous breathing.
9th Day—
2.3 .4.M. Vomiting.
7 aM. Extremely weak; unable to stand.
2.55 P.M. Respirations 24.
2.56 p.m. Pulse 108.
2.59 p.M. Temperature 10172 F,
3 P.M. Pupils normal. Tongue slightly pendu-
lous. There is a purulent discharge front the
eyes and “ose.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 91

8.47 P.M. Passed four ounces of urine; it is
albuminous, and contains fibrinous casts of the
renal tubes. :

3.56 P.M. Died after a few jactitations of the
limbs. The blood coagulated soon after
death.

Experiment VIII,

A pariah dog was bitten by a Bungarus fasciatus.
1st Day—
11.45 a.m. Bitten.
7 P.M. No change.
2nd Day—
Site of bite swollen, but no constitutional
symptom.
3rd Day—
7 a.M. Appears weak. Respirations 56.
11.17 a.m. Very depressed.
12.80 p.m. Passed some albuminous urine.
2.25 P.M. Occasional spasm of diaphragm.
8 P.M. Is weak, but can stand.
5.21 P.M. Pulse 150. Respirations 24,
5.29 p.m. Dead.
Blood feebly coagulated. Slight edema of lungs.

Experiment IX.

A fowl was bitten on the leg by a Bungarus fasciatus;
Its r€spirations, immediately before it was bitten, were
36 per minute.

92 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

1.18 p.m. Bitten.

1.19 p.m. Bitten leg drawn up.

1.24 p.m. Respirations 40.

1.25 p.m. Head drooping till the beak touches the
ground.

1.27 p.m. Cannot stand.

1.28 p.m. Pupils normal Respirations 28.

1.31 p.m. Respirations 10 per minute; slight mus-
cular twitchings.

1.32 P.M. Convulsions.

1.88 p.m. Dead.

The blood coagulated firmly.

It will be seen at a glance that these experiments
can be divided into two distinct classes, having scarcely
any feature in common. The first five experiments, and
the ninth, belong to one class; and the sixth, seventh,
and eighth, to the other. Experiment V. may be taken
as a typical example of the first class. It will be seen
that in the beginning there is a manifestation of local
inflammation at the site of the bite, and that there is a
considerable pause before any constitutional signs are
manifested. Then follow salivation, commencing para-
lysis, twitchings of the muscles of the extremities,
paralysis of the tongue, cessation of the respiration, and
death, In Experiment I. the same course of symptoms
occurs. There is retching, vomiting, gradually advan-
cing general paralysis, muscular twitchings, paralysis of

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 93

the tongue, salivation, convulsions and death. In all

these, the exact course of symptoms described in cobra-

poisoning is to be observed, and it would not be

possible, from watching a case of this kind to decide

whether it was an instance of cobra-poisoning, or of
poisoning by the Bungarus fasciatus, that was under

observation. The only difference that can be pointed

out is in the time that elapses before death occurs.

Thus, in the two cases given of death from the bite of
the cobra, seventy-three minutes and twenty-two minutes *
elapsed respectively before death ; whereas, the shortest

time in the case of the Bungarus fasciatus was eighty-

three minutes before a small dog succumbed, and a

large dog lived ninety-nine minutes; and a medium-

sized dog survived no less than three hours and thirty-six

minutes, and all the symptoms were much more gradual

in their accession, and lasted a longer time. In birds,

too, the symptoms are exactly those of cobra-poisoning,

only they are also more prolonged.

But if the Experiments VI., VII., and VIII. are
examined, an entirely different set of phenomena is to
be observed. Thus, if Experiment VII. is taken, we
find that for five complete days after being bitten, the
animal remained in perfect health. At the end of this
period the dog appeared indisposed, and from this time
a disease commenced, having marked definite features,
whéch proved fatal on the ninth day. The most singular
feature in this condition is the long interval that occurs

94 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

between the infliction of the bite and the occurrence of
any symptom. It appears to vary from two to six days.
Nothing like this is known in cobra-poisoning, where, if
the victim does not succumb soon, a complete recovery
is to be anticipated ; or from daboia-poisoning, where the
hemorrhages that destroy life begin in a few hours,
though they may last for a lengthened period before the
sufferer’s life is extinguished. This interval, in this
chronic form of poisoning by the Bungarus fasciatus,
calls to mind strongly that similar period which occurs
between exposure to the poison and the development
of most infectious diseases. It is, in fact, a period of
incubation, and we thus see snake-poison allying
itself in its effects to those subtle contagia so remark-
able for their profound constitutional results. The
disease, in this chronic form of poisoning by the
Bungarus fasciatus, once developed, pursues its course,
no case under my observation having recovered after
the symptoms had once begun.

But even when the constitutional effects of the poison
of the Bungarus fasciatus do manifest themselves after
this period of incubation, they no longer resemble, in
any particular, the acute form of poisoning, either of
the Bungarus fasciatus or the cobra; but they have a
character and course of their own. The first thing
noticed is loss of appetite, with great depression, and
diminution of urinary secretion. Then there is stight
failure of the respiratory function, irregular but con-

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 95

siderable elevations of temperature, and great muscular
weakness. Purulent discharges take place from the
eyes, nose, and rectum, but there is no tendency to
hemorrhage. There is albumen in the urine, but no
blood or hemal colouring-matter. There is no special
paralysis of the tongue and larynx. At last death ends
the exhausted condition to which the victim has been
reduced. The symptoms, it will be seen, are equally
distinct, on the one hand, from those of the acute form,
or from cobra-poisoning ; and on the other, from daboia
or viper-poisoning. The contrast between this poison
and that of the cobra is most striking. In cobra-
poisoning, the most prolonged fatal case on record took
forty-nine hours and nine minutes, and it was shown
in treating of that poison that even very severe sym-
ptoms might be completely recovered from. But in the
case of poisoning by the Bungarus fasciatus, we cannot
for certain say till after five days have elapsed whether
we may have to deal with a fatal disease or not.

Loca, EFFECTS oF THE BITE OF THE BUNGARUS
FasciatTus.

There is, after the bite of this snake, the same local
pain produced as in the case of the other snakes
described. The condition of the parts, also, is one of
inflammation, but the discolouration is much less than
that found in cobra-bite; but there is usually a large

96 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

quantity of pale pinkish serum effused in the areolar
tissue, so that considerable local swelling is common.
In all the cases I have examined, there has been much
greater local change than could possibly be accounted
for by the mechanical injury. In those chronic cases
terminating fatally after incubation, the site of the
wound generally suppurates during the progress of the
disease, but this sometimes occurs when no fatal con-
dition is developed, though to a much smaller extent.
In one fatal case, also, the only local manifestation was
an indurated state of the part, which was found to be
highly infiltrated, and somewhat hyperemic in the centre.

EFFECT OF THE POISON OF THE BunGaRus FasciaTus
on THE NERvous SystEM.

In the acute form of poisoning by this snake, the
symptoms show clearly that the chief, if not the sole,
cause of death is the effect of the poison on the
nervous system. The earliest sign is often an unsteadi-
ness of gait, affecting all the limbs equally, attended
by slight clonic contractions of the muscles, rapidly
succeeded by paralysis, the respiration at the same time
beginning to fail. The pupils remain normal, but the
paralysis of the lips, tongue, larynx and pharynx is as
strongly marked as in cobra-poisoning. Vomiting also
occurs early. There is, in fact, a complete parallelism
in the effect of the poison of the cobra and that of the
Bungarus fasciatus in the acute form.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 97

In the chronic cases of poisoning by this snake, it is
difficult to judge how far the nervous system is involved
in the complicated state of disease that has been
induced. In Experiment VII., on the first day on which
any change was noticed, being the sixth day from the
receipt of the bite, there was vomiting, but it could
hardly have been the direct effect of the presence of
the poison after this interval ; it was probably a result
of the general disease that was in course of development.
The other prominent symptom was the great weakness
manifested ; the animal became exceedingly feeble, but
there did not seem to be any sign of paralysis; the
symptom seemed to be due entirely to general muscular
debility, caused by the disease. In the same experi-
ment, on the eighth day, there was seen slight pendu-
lousness of the tongue ; but this special sign, so marked
in the acute cases, was absent in the other instances of
chronic poisoning by this snake.

In birds, the nervous symptoms present are exactly
those of cobra-poisoning. There is drowsiness, with
inability to keep the eyes open, general paralysis rapidly
advancing, asphyxia, and death.

t
EFFECT OF THE Porson oF THE BunGarus FAsciatus
oN RESPIRATION.

As ® rule, the extinction of respiration by this poison
is a very slow and gradual process. The stethometric

° 7

98 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

chart No. IX., depicts the chief changes that occur in
the usual course. They were taken from a fowl which
succumbed quickly to the effects. It will be seen that
at first there was slight quickening and increased
excursus, but that retardation and lessened movement
followed very soon, and that before convulsions occurred
the respiratory function was completely abolished. The
primary stimulation, however, does not appear to be
quite as great asin cobra-poisoning, and if Experiment I.
be examined, it will be seen that after the respirations
had been reduced from 86 to 20 by the poison, an
additional quantity of venom had no power to increase
the number of respirations. The fact that after retarda-
tion of the respiration has once occurred no acceleration
can be caused by more poison being given, shows how
dead to stimuli the respiratory centre rapidly becomes
under the influence of colubrine venom. In the nature
of the respiration during this form of poisoning, little
difference can be detected between it and that seen
under cobra-poisoning. The main distinction between
the two is the greater rapidity with which cobra-poison
acts; however, Experiment V., where the dog died in
eighty-three minutes, seemed, in all essential particulars,
like a case of ordinary cobra-poisoning.

NeIk TRACINGS OF THE RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS OF A FOWL UNDER
THE INFLUENCE OF THE POISON OF THE BUNGARUS FASCIATUS.

Kespirulion slightly guuckened wilh increased excursus.

m.
el I OP ORTON IOS OR

Exoursus greatly lessened .

Iv.
Pe Fa FA FS Aa
Commencing slowing.

Vv:

eNO NN NN NN

Both slowing and Aessening «xcursus.

Respuratory movement abolished

and gy d.

————_—_—>

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 99

EFFECT oF THE PoIsoN OF THE BUNGARUS FASCIATUS
ON THE TEMPERATURE, SECRETION, AND THE BLoop.

It will be seen that no change in the temperature
was noticed during the acute form of poisoning by the
Bungarus fasciatus, any more than is to be seen in
cobra-poisoning. In the chronic form, however, there
is evidence of considerable influence on the heat of
the body. In Experiment VII., during the period of
incubation no change was experienced; but with the
accession of the symptoms the temperature rose, so that
on the eighth day the thermometer marked 103°°9 F., but
before death the temperature again fell. In Experi-
ment VI., again, on the sixth day the thermometer was
at 108°2 F. Itis clear, therefore, that a febrile move-
ment of considerable intensity occurs during the period
of chronic poisoning, but that the interval of incubation
is quite free from it.

In acute cases, in its influence on secretion the
poison of the Bungarus fasciatus does not differ from
cobra-poison. Profuse salivation is common, and vomit-
ing of mucus is often seen; but the urine seems un-
affected. In chronic poisoning after incubation,
salivation has not been observed, but there is great
diminution of urine. The urine, when the diseased
condition is established, is scanty, high-coloured, it
contains no blood structure, but has in it a considerable
quantity of albumen. It will also be found to contain

7 *

100 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

large numbers of casts of the renal tubes. These casts
have a very pronounced outline, and appear to be some-
what fibrinous at their edges. In one case, after death
distinct fibrinous concretions were found in the pelves
of the kidneys.

In addition to this, the whole of the mucous tracts
of the body appear to be affected with a tendency to
secrete a thin muco-pus. The discharge runs from
the eyes, nose, rectum, and vagina; but it differs com-
pletely from the sanious discharges. seen during viper-
poisoning.

The blood in animals after death from the poison of
the Bungarus fasciatus is found to coagulate, but in very
chronic cases the coagulum formed is of a loose and
imperfect character.

Puysi0LoGiIcaL EFFECTS OF THE POISON OF THE
BunGaRrus Ca@RULEUS.

The following experiments show the symptoms that
are produced by the poison of the Bungarus ceruleus.
This snake has a wide distribution over the plains of
India, and, from its frequenting inhabited places, probably
contributes very largely indeed to the mortality from
snake-bite in India.

Experiment X.

A small pariah dog was bitten by a Bungarus coetuleus.
3.15 p.m. Bitten.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS.

3.25 P.M.
3.27 P.M.
3.29 P.M.
3.30 P.M.

101

Affected ; vomiting.

Chewing movement of the jaw and lips.
Salivation.

Tongue hanging out of the mouth; pupils

somewhat contracted ; becoming paralysed.

8.81 P.M.
3.33 P.M.
3.35 P.M.

Convulsions.
All movement ceased.
Pupils dilated.

3.354 P.M. Heart stopped. Dead.
There was no albumen in the urine.

Experiment XI.

A small quantity of fresh poison from the Bungarus
ceruleus was injected subcutaneously into a dog.

1.25 P.M.

1.40 P.M.

1.42 P.M.

1.45 P.M.

1.46 P.M.
light.

1.48 P.M.

1.49 P.M.

staggering ;

vation.
1.50 p.m.
1.54 P.M.
1.95 P.M.
1.56 P.M.

Injection.

Temperature in rectum 102°6 F.
Vomited.

Salivation.

Pupils somewhat dilated, but answer to

Vomited mucus,
Urinated—urine normal; pupils dilated ;

all the legs equally affected ; frothy sali-

Unable to stand ; muscular twitchings.
Temperature in rectum 102°6 F.
Convulsions.

Tongue hanging out of the mouth.

102 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

1.59 p.m. Heart only acting.
2 p.m. - Dead.
The blood coagulated after death.

Experiment XII.

A fowl was bitten by a Bungarus ceruleus.

2.3 P.M. Bitten.

2.10 p.m. Wings drooping.

2.11 p.m. Eyes closed.

2.12 p.M. Gasping respiration.

2.13 P.M. Cannot stand; head drooping.

2.14 p.M. Beak resting on the ground.

2.16 p.m. Convulsions.

2.20 pm. Dead.

In all these experiments there is not one point of
difference to be detected between the symptoms and
those present during cobra-poisoning. In regular order
we have vomiting, salivation, twitching of the muscles
of the extremities, special glosso-laryngeal paralysis,
gradually advancing general paralysis, the convulsions
of asphyxia, and death. There is absence of albumi-
nuria and of local hemorrhage. ‘The poison appears to
be identical in its effects with cobra-poison, and even in
virulence it does not suffer in contrast with it, for the
dog in Experiment X. died in twenty minutes and a
half. But though its effects are also exactly those of
its congener the Bungarus fasciatus, in the acute’form
of poisoning by that snake, I have not been able to

(

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 103

produce the chronic form of poisoning. It is, of course,
probable that the chronic form may occur with this
snake also, but the evidence of such a condition occur-
ring is at present negative. But the snakes used in
these experiments were very large and vigorous, and
would naturally cause the poisoning to be acute.

In regard to the local inflammation produced by the
poison of the Bungarus ceruleus, it is, like the Bungarus
fasciatus, very much less than that caused by cobra-
poison, and has seemed in some instances even less
than that of its congener. ‘There is, however, always
to be seen some amount of pale serum which is quite
enough to satisfy the practised eye that there is some-
thing present beyond the effect of mere mechanicai
injury.

It may be mentioned here that the Echis carinata, or
the smaller Indian viper, has, from the cases reported
in which its poison proved fatal, precisely the same
symptoms as the daboia. There can be little doubt
that it contributes very largely to the mortality from
snake-bite, especially in Northern and Western India.

104 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

CHAPTER IV.

THE RELATIVE POWER AND PROPERTIES OF THE
POISONS OF INDIAN AND OTHER VENOMOUS
SNAKES.

In the preceding chapters attention has been directed
solely to the leading species of Indian venomous snakes,
and the differences that exist between the poisons of
the colubrine and viperine tribes. Before proceeding to
consider the effects of any other snakes, it will be well
to sum up the points of which these differences consist.

In viper-poisoning, as seen in the case of the daboia,
there is first, if a fair quantity of poison be introduced,
intense and sudden general primary convulsions, which
may be at once fatal or may rapidly be succeeded by
general paralysis and death, or they may be recovered
from to a certain extent, paralysis and death following
later. The paralysis, which may occur without con-
vulsions, is general, and does not affect any special
nerve centres, and is attended also with great muscular

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 105

weakness. The breathing is at one period exceedingly
accelerated, and the pupil is greatly dilated. Even if
paralysis should not supervene, the victim may yet die
after a prolonged interval, of the effects of profuse
sanguineous discharges, which, however, begin soon after
the injection of the poison, there being no period of
incubation.

In colubrine-poisoning, as seen with the cobra, there
are no primary convulsions, with the exception of those
cases in which there is injection of a large quantity of
poison directly into the circulation. The increase in
the rapidity of the respiration is slight, and is quickly
followed by retardation. Paralysis rapidly succeeds,
which is peculiarly distinguished by special paralysis of
the lips, tongue, larynx and pharynx. Salivation is an
almost constant symptom. Death may be preceded by
the secundary convulsions of asphyxia. Should death
not occur soon, the symptoms pass off, and speedy con-
valescence is established. In the case of the poison of
the Bungarus fasciatus, a special form of chronic
poisoning may occur. It differs from the chronic
poisoning of the daboia by coming on only after a long
incubation which is passed without any symptom, and
which may be prolonged to as long as five or six days.
The main features of this condition are excessive
muscular weakness, severe fever, albuminuria, purulent
disch&irges from mucous surfaces, and death from ex-
haustion. There is no special tendency to hemorrhages.

106 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

It is, therefore, equally distinct from the acute form of
colubrine-poisoning, and from the fatal chronic form
due to viperine-poisoning.

Tt will be of great utility here to consider what light
can be thrown on the subject of the differences of snake-
poisons by the evidence that is obtainable as to the
actions of the poisons of snakes belonging to the fauna
of other countries.

Concerning Australian snake-poisoning, the best
reported case appears in the Appendix to the Report
on “Indian and Australian Snake-Poisoning,” by Drs.
Ewart, Richards and Mackenzie. The snake by which
the poison was injected was either the Pseudechis por-
phyriacus or the Hoplocephalus curtus; both of them
are colubrine snakes.

The following is the case :—

A dog weighing 26 Ibs. was bitten by asnake at 11.22
AM.

11.39 a.m. Vomited twice.

11.48 a.m. Is restless, vomited.

11.52 a.m. Vomited, and is purged.

Noon. Vomited bloody mucus.

12.30 p.m. Vomited white frothy viscid mucus.

l p.m. Lying down very drowsy, breathing quietly,
salivation.

1.21 p.m. Tongue partially paralysed.

1°35 p.m. Is slightly convulsed, but is sensiblé

1.48 p.m. Eye still sensitive.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 107

1.53 p.m. Heart’s action irregular; pupils widely
dilated.

1.56 p.m. Eye no longer sensitive.

1.58 p.m. Commenced artificial respiration ; eyes at
once became sensitive, and the heart’s action, which was
before weak and slow, became strong and rapid—the
heart was beating nearly 200, but on stopping artificial
respiration it fell to 80, and gradually failed.

2.11 p.m. Dead.

Here there was gradual general paralysis, with spe-
cial paralysis of the tongue, vomiting, salivation, and
the convulsions of asphyxia and death. The mucus
vomited was at one period stained with blood, but this
ceased. In fact, in all essential particulars it is a well-
marked case of colubrine-poisoning. There is not a
sufficiently well-recorded case of snake-poisoning by a
Hoplocephalus or Pseudechis in the human subject to
quote here; but it may be said, from the symptoms of
those cases that have been published, that they resemble
in their course the ordinary features of colubrine-poison-
ing, as seen with the cobra, but with a few minor
differences. There is a much greater tendency to vomit-
ing, which is very often stained with blood, as if this
was a special effect of the poison. Dilatation of the
pupil is very generally mentioned, often, also, swelling
of the parotid gland, but this occurs also in cobra-
poisSning. From certain remarks made about the
vision of the victims, I should not be surprised to find

108 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

that paralysis of accommodation occurs. In regard to
the relative power of the cobra and the Australian colu-
brine snakes, five cases of cobra-bite in dogs, taken
indiscriminately, gave an average time before death of
844 minutes; whereas the Australian Hoplocephalus
curtus took, in five cases selected on account of their
rapidity, an average time of 84 minutes, or about two
and a half times as long, and the average time required
to destroy human life seems about eighteen hours by
the Hoplocephalus. Chronic constitutional poisoning
does not seem to occur with this snake, as in no case
did death in the human subject occur after forty-eight
hours ; in one case, in a dog that was hypodermically
injected, death took place in sixty-six hours, and this
seems the extreme limit, forty-nine hours being the
longest period of all the cases of cobra-bite given in
Sir Joseph Fayrer’s “ Thanatophidia.”

The literature of American snake-poisoning is also
somewhat meagre, but the most valuable information
on the subject is undoubtedly contained in Dr. Weir
Mitchell's “‘ Researches upon the Venom of the Rattle-
snake,”

The Crotalus, or American rattle-snake, of which there
are many species, is, of course, a viper distinguished
both by the peculiarity of its tail, constituting the so-
called rattle, and by a depression on the lateral aspect
of the head, from which it has sometimes been térmed
a “ pit-viper.”

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 109

The following case from Dr. Weir Mitchell’s work
describes the symptoms of poisoning by the Crotalus in
the dog. A dog weighing thirty-one pounds, was bitten
by a Crotalus. After the bite there was considerable
twitching of the muscles around, and great local swell-
ing. The pulse at the fifth minute after the bite was
140, and the respirations 35. At the fifteenth minute
he appeared weak, the pulse was 160, and the respira-
tions 40. At the twentieth minute there was some
tenesmus, and a loose grey discharge from the rectum.
At the twenty-fifth minute the pupil was normal. At
the forty-filth minute, pulse 160, respirations 45, and
laborious. Fifty-fifth minute, loss of power in the hind-
legs. Eightieth minute, respiration very quick and
laboured; and at the third hour the dog was found
dead.

The next instance is also from Dr. Weir Mitchell's
book. A rabbit was bitten by a snake which, appa-
rently, had nearly been exhausted of its poison. Very
soon after, the animal showed signs of weakness, and its
respiration became rapid. It then improved somewhat,
but the next day it passed a large quantity of blood
mixed with feces, and its urine was very albuminous.
These symptoms increased in severity, and the animal
died on the third day.

In another case, in which a dog was bitten twice, the
first time without effect, five minutes after the infliction
of the second bite by a Crotalus, the dog fell on its side

ry

110 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

and vomited, the vomiting being instantaneously fol-
lowed. by general convulsions, in which the limbs were
extended and the head thrown back. The breathing
was laborious and often interrupted, the pupils were
contracted. The pulse became less frequent and very
feeble. The animal died in twenty-four minutes.

In the case of a pigeon, three minutes after the bite it
fell down and immediately began breathing convulsively,
now and then gasping, and making efforts to rise. At
the end of the seventh minute the laboured breathing
ceased, and the bird died at once.

In these instances we have in mammals general pri-
mary convulsions occurring five minutes after the in-
fliction of the bite, very rapid breathing, followed by
general paralysis and death. In one of the cases, also,
there was chronic constitutional poisoning commencing
directly after the bite, but not proving fatal till the third
day. There was, in this case, albuminuria, and passing
of blood from the rectum. In no case is salivation or
paralysis of the tongue mentioned.

In birds the convulsions seem to be entirely replaced
by excessive disorder of the respiratory function. There
is gasping, with irregular movements of the chest-
walls, and general paralysis supervenes. There seems,
also, great muscular weakness. The blood is nearly
always found fluid, and even extravasations of blood in
the viscera have been found after death. e

In its main features, therefore, the Crotalus resembles

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 111

the Indian viper in its effects, the chief difference being
that the primary convulsions are very much less fre-
quently seen—birds seeming to have in place of them
special respiratory irregularities. In regard to its power
of destruction, contrasted with that of other snakes,
there is some evidence to be considered. In Dr. Weir
Mitchell’s work four cases of fatal Crotalus poisoning in
dogs gave an average of two hours and twenty-six
minutes before death, but no fewer than five dogs re-
covered completely after being bitten. With the Indian
cobra and the Australian Hoplocephalus the average
length of the period of fatal poisoning was 84°4 minutes
and one hour and twenty-four minutes respectively. It
is, therefore, much less dangerous than either of these
poisons,

As to the probable duration of human life after the
bite of a cobra, it is difficult to obtain trustworthy
evidence, as the species of snake from which death
resulted is, in India, very rarely identified; and it is for
this reason, also, that it is impossible to assign to
each species its exact share in the general mortality.
However, disregarding the species of snake, there is
shfficient evidence in Sir Joseph Fayrer’s “‘ Thanato-
phidia” to give a close approximation to the probable
duration of life in Indian snake-poisoning. In that
work sixty-five cases are given in which the time that
elapsed between the infliction of the bite and death is
stated. The average length of time of the whole sixty-

112 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

five cases, is 15°17 hours; but the average is raised by
the exceptionally long duration of a few cases of viperine
poisoning, so that a better estimate of the probable
duration of time will be obtained by dividing the period
after the bite into spaces of one hour each, and deter-
mining what percentage of deaths occurs in each :—

Percentage of

Deaths,
One hour and under as ie 10°76
Between one and two hours nee 12°3
Between two and three hours aise 13°84
Between three and four hours Sia 761
Between four and five hours ae 1°54
Between five and six hours... oe 1°54
Between six and seven hours meet 3°07
Between seven and eight hours ae 461
Between eight and nine hours eee 3°07
Between nine and ten hours ee 7°69
Between ten and twelve hours ie 4°61
Between twelve and twenty-four hours 9°36
Over twenty-four hours... ee 20°00

From this table it will be seen that the most fatal
period is between two and three hours, and that more
than twenty-five per cent. of the total deaths take place
between one and three hours after the infliction of the
bite. But, if those who die after twenty-four hours be
eliminated as having occurred, as is probable, ‘from
viper-poisoning, it would raise the average of those who

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 113

die from colubrine-poisoning between two and three
hours after the infliction of the bite, to thirty-two per
cent.

It may be mentioned here, as bearing on the causes
of the differences of the poisons of the two tribes of
venomous snakes, that on the duct leading from the
poison-gland of the daboia, midway between the gland
and its termination at the fang, there is a second gland,
completely surrounding the duct, into which it empties.
This accessory gland. is globular, and is exceedingly
vascular. No trace of this structure can be found in
the cobra.

The exact significance of the differences between the
poisons of the viperine and colubrine snakes must rest
at present in obscurity. But it may be well to point
out some of the conditions in which the two groups
differ, and the possible uses of the poison apparatus. On
consideration, it will probably be admitted that as a
means of defence the poison would not be of any real
assistance. It is true that many animals—such as the
monkey—have the greatest dread of snakes; but the
monkey could have no possible motive in molesting a
cobra, or a cobra in injuring a monkey. This dread,
therefore, can hardly be of service to the reptiles. But
ore of the Indian snakes’ chief enemies, the mongoose,
has no fear whatever of the poison, as anyone will
confess who has seen with what complete ease he seizes
the snake and crushes out first one and then the other

8

114 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

of the poison fangs with his long incisors, and then
devours the cobra—thus rendered helpless—at his
leisure. That the mongoose is perfectly aware of the
existence of the poison-fang there can be no doubt, for
he only seizes the cobra by the fang; and should he
miss his aim, he retires at once out of reach, to make
a fresh attack. But the presence of the poison certainly
does not deter him in the slightest degree from engaging
in the struggle, and so does not in the least protect the
cobra from him. The enemy also of one kind of snake
is the enemy of the race, so that one kind of poison
would be of equal assistance as a means of defence to
all species. As a protection from enemies, therefore, a
case can scarcely be made out in favour of the poison.
But as an aid in procuring food, we can see at once that
it would avail much. The cobra, living in holes in the
jungle and around villages, haunts the water. Deprived
of water, it dies very soon. It is a well-known fre-
quenter of the village tank, and visits the neighbouring
jheels or ponds, and it is in these localities that it finds
its favourite food—the frogs. Now, few animals have
such a wonderful tenacity of life as the frog; and it is
easy to see that the victim can be even a source*of
danger to his devourer. But in the very act of swallow-
ing it is charged of necessity by the poison-apparatus
with a most powerfully paralysing venom which speedily
reduces it to a state of motionlessness, and so places it at
the mercy of the gastric arrangements of its enemy. The

Head of Dabota Lirssellir .

Flead of Naga lripudians/ Cobra .)

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 115

fang of the cobra is comparatively small], and the object
to be poisoned must be well within the grasp of the
jaws before the poison can be injected; thus the prey
must be securely caught before it can be poisoned. It
is true that all the varieties of the cobra have not exactly
the same habits; but, of course, habits are infinitely
more capable of alteration than structures.

The daboia, on the other hand, isa dreader of water ;
seldom, indeed, can it be induced to enter it, and I am
not sure that in a state of nature it ever drinks it. It
will live for months without touching it, though it is
constantly offered. Its favourite food seems to be small
mammals, lizards, and even birds. With its large fangs,
easily movable and capable of protrusion laterally quite
out of the mouth, it is able to inflict wounds on animals
that it has never had within its grasp. I have my-
self been scratched by the fang of a viper on a finger
which I thought was at a safe distance; and here,
perhaps, we get a glimpse of the reason why it is of
advantage to the daboia to have a venom different from
that of the cobra. For should the daboia but wound a
small mammal or lizard in the slightest degree, escape
is impossible; for in a few seconds the little animal
must fall over in convulsions. Thus the viper has but
to make one dart forward and wound his victim, and
await with confidence the result. Full of significance
in thig direction is the fact that daboia-poison is very
much less deadly to frogs than cobra-venom. The

8 *

116 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

poison-apparatus of the daboia may be looked upon as
an elaborate hunting weapon, as much so as the gun to
the sportsman. There is, however, a refinement about
the physiological contrivance that can either kill at once
by convulsions, or after an interval by paralysis, or at a
still more remote period by blood-poisoning, to which
the mechanical appliance utterly fails to attain.

Though snake-poisons can thus, to a great extent, be
grouped according to the structural classification of the
snakes to which they belong, the evidence given shows
that there are distinct minor differences, even between
those closely allied. That these slight differences of
nature are related to slight differences in aim, is highly
probable ; but to be in a position to prove this, would
require a most intimate acquaintance with all the habits
of these reptiles in their natural state.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 117

CHAPTER V.

THE NATURE OF SNAKE-POISONS.

THERE is a well-defined limit beyond which pure
chemical methods are useless in the investigation of
poisons. Chemistry can, of course, easily demonstrate
to what chemical group or family a complex body
belongs, and it can, therefore, afford valuable informa-
tion as to its affinities. By establishing analogies in
this way, chemistry often guides us to the nature of the
action of a given substance, in so far as it acts like
other members of the same group. But chemical in-
yestigation cannot tell us why a substance brings about
a physiological effect. Chemistry can teach us that
quinine and strychnia belong to the group called
alkaloids, and therefore both probably possess physio-
logical properties ; but it cannot show us why one has
an @ffect on malarious fever, and the other causes motor
nerve discharges. It would, therefore, not be reason-

118 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

able to expect chemistry to give us any further informa-
tion about snake-poison than to indicate the class of
substance to which it belongs, and those agents which
are most likely to effect alterations in it.

Cobra-poison, which may be conveniently taken as a
type of snake-poisons, is a clear, transparent fluid,
varying in colour from a yellow or straw tint to com-
plete colourlessness. Jt has an acid reaction; its
consistence varies from almost that of water to that of
the denser portions of white of egg. Its specific gravity,
too, has a wide margin of variation. Specimens taken
from several cobras and mixed gave a specific gravity
of 1058. Jt has a very bitter taste, which is chiefly
perceived along the margin of the tongue, and a faint
sickly odour. Daboia-venom is, however, without the
bitter taste. When cobra-poison is evaporated it loses
from 50 to 75 per cent. of water, and a yellow substance
easily pulverizable, resembling gum arabic or dried egg
albumen, is left behind. This substance possesses all
the physiological properties of cobra-poison, and it can
be kept in this state for years. Examined microscopi-
cally, cobra-poison is found to consist of a perfectly
structureless plasma, in which a few bodies are to be
detected. These bodies vary much, but if the poison is
taken from a very active, healthy, and vigorous cobra,
and care be used to prevent the admixture of mucus
from the mouth, the number of structures to be Seen
will be very few; whereas the poison of a cobra that

Suctures tound in the poison of the
Naja fripadians (Cobra )

SGuctures found iv thepoisor or
the Daboia Russell .

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 119

has’ been long in captivity and has been frequently
handled will often contain numerous cells. But the
purest and most active poison has but few structures in
it. Sometimes a whole microscopic field may not pre-
sent a single object. The structures usually seen are
cells of different diameters, some of them clearly being
epithelial cells from the mouth and lining membrane of
the duct. Besides these there will be seen some much
smaller very highly refracting bodies. The appearances
of daboia-venom are similar. There is, then, nothing
characteristic in the microscopic appearances of snake-
poison, and the fact that the most active venom shows
the fewest structures demonstrates that no importance
is to be attached to those that are present.

The ultimate analysis of the poison by Dr. Armstrong
gave the following percentage composition :—Carbon
45°76, nitrogen 14°3, hydrogen 6°6, sulphur 2°5.

When kept in the liquid state cobra-poison quickly
becomes first neutral and then alkaline, and a few
feathery and cubic crystals will form. If preserved in
a loosely-corked test tube, it will become cloudy, smell
offensively, and will swarm with bacteria in active move-
ment, but it is still poisonous. The alkalinity now
lessens, and the reaction becomes again acid, and the
fluid then coagulates into a firm whitish opaque sub-
stance, somewhat like the coagulated white of egg, but
of & lemon colour. If a small quantity of fluid is left
uncoagulated it is poisonous, and the washings of the

120 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

coagulum are also poisonous. When water is added to
the coagulum decomposition rapidly sets in, and the
products cannot be distinguished from those of any
other similar organic body. The changes are greatly
dependent on the physical conditions to which the
poison is subjected. Coagulation occurred in some
poison kept at 29° C. (84° F.) in ten days, whereas
weeks were required when the temperature was 20° C.
(68° F.)

The effects of heat on cobra-poison are well worthy
of attention. It is well known that raising the tempe-
rature of a solution of cobra-poison to boiling point
does not destroy its physiological effects, though much
less local inflammation is then produced by it.

Experiment I.

Six centigrammes and a half of dried cobra-poison
were heated in solution to boiling point, and the solution
was afterwards injected into a dog.

12.50 p.m. Injection.

1.40 p.m. Retching.

1.45 p.m. Vomiting.

1.50 p.m. Staggering.

1.54 P.M. Muscular twitchings.

1.56 p.m. Profuse salivation ; cannot stand.

2.274 p.m. Dead.

There was but very slight local inflammation dt the
site of the injection.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 121

Here the venom killed with all the usual symptoms of
cobra-poisoning.

When a solution of cobra-poison is heated to between
70° and 80° C. (158° to 176° F.), it first becomes cloudy
and then a white precipitate falls. This precipitate,
when washed, is not poisonous, and it corresponds in
its behaviour exactly with albumen that has been
coagulated in a similar manner. Moreover, if a small
quantity of acetic acid be added previously to heating,
no precipitate will fall, as is the case with albumen.
But a solution of cobra-poison will withstand without
injury a much higher temperature than 100° C.

Experiment IT.

Five decigrammes (7°716 grains) of dried cobra-poison
were dissolved in water. The solution measured ten
cubic centimetres, and it was heated for thirty minutes
under pressure to a temperature of 107° C. (22476 F.)
One cubic centimetre of the solution (equalling five
centigrammes or ‘77 grain) was then injected into a fowl.

12.57 p.m. Injection.

. 1418 P.M. Eye-lids closed; unable to stand; beak
resting on the ground.

1.28 p.m. Convulsions.

1.27 p.m. Dead.

Here five centigrammes that had been heated in
solution for half an hour to 107° C., killed a fowl in
thirty minutes.

122 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

Experiment ITI.

The same solution that was used in the last experi-
ment was again heated for another thirty minutes to the
same temperature (107° C. or 224°6 F.), and one cubic
centimetre of it (containing five centigrammes or ‘77
grain of the poison) afterwards injected into a fowl.

2.45 p.m. Injection.

3.55 P.M. Head drooping.

7.23 P.M. Convulsions.

7.85 p.m. Dead.

The same amount of poison, though heated for an
hour to 107° C., in solution again killed with all the
symptoms of cobra-poisoning. Now, though at the
present time it would be difficult to say exactly what is
or is not an infecting organism, or what the conditions
of its vitality may be, yet little will be risked by stating
that no life-possessing “ germ” could possibly survive
the treatment that the active agent of cobra-poison did
in these experiments.

But there is evidence that a high temperature has
some effect on the poison; for when the solution had
been exposed to the heat for half an hour, five centi-
grammes took only thirty minutes to destroy life,
whereas after an hour’s exposure they required four
hours and fifty minutes.

€

Experiment IV.
The same solution that had been used in the last two

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 123

experiments, and had been heated for an hour to 107°C.
{225° F.) was again exposed for another hour to the
same heat. One cubic centimetre of it was then injected
into a fowl; but the bird, though kept for a long time
under observation, never had any symptom of poisoning
at all,

Here, then, after two hours’ exposure in solution to a
very high temperature, the poison was at last destroyed.
But this destruction of the poisonous agent was gradual,
the solution becoming weaker as the application of
heat was continued.

There are, however, some other facts in connection
with the effect of heat on cobra-poison that must be
mentioned.

Eaperiment V.

A solution of dried cobra-poison was made, containing
one centigramme ("154 grain) of poison in twenty cubic
centimetres of water. One cubic centimetre of the
solution, containing *5 milligramme (‘007 grain) of
poison, killed a fowl in forty-two minutes; but this
solution, after being heated for half an hour to 106° C.
(222°°8 F.) was found to be completely harmless.

In this experiment a dilute solution of the poison
was destroyed with comparative ease, whereas the solu-
tion used in the previous experiments, of 100 times the
strength, resisted prolonged heat.

Bit it can be proved that even the heat of 100° C. has
a distinct effect in diminishing the strength of a solution

124 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

of cobra-poison. Thus half a cubic centimetre of dilute
solution of cobra-poison, containing half a milligramme
of poison, killed a small fowl in thirty-three minutes ;
whereas after the sulution had been boiled, it took forty-
seven minutes to kill a fowl of the same size.

Moreover, when a solution of cobra-poison, contain-
ing 2'5 milligrammes to the cubic centimetre was heated
to 100° C. °6 milligramme of the poison killed a fowl
in sixty-four minutes, whereas when the solution which
was heated only contained 1°25 milligrammes to the
cubic centimetre, °6 milligramme of the poison required
no less than 111 minutes to cause death. This shows.
clearly with how much greater ease heat destroys dilute
solutions than concentrated ones.

We see, then, that a temperature of 100° C. has a
distinct effect in lessening the strength of a solution of
cobra-poison, but that a very great heat continued for
u very long time is required to completely destroy the
properties of a concentrated solution. If cobra-poison
consisted of @ collection of ‘‘ germs,” it is, of course,
conceivable that the “ germs” might resist great heat,
but it is not credible that one collection of them should
be destroyed by heating for half an hour to 106°
(Experiment V.), whilst another should resist for more
than an hour a heat of 107° C, (Experiments II. and
III.) The heat that would destroy one germ would
destroy all, and the solution, instead of grafually
becoming weuker, would at once lose its virulence with

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 125

the death of its poison-bearing agents. But it is
thoroughly in accordance with experience that dilute
solutions of chemical agents should be decomposed with
greater ease than concentrated ones, and this decompo-
sition would proceed gradually as the heat was continued.
The whole evidence, therefore, that is given by the
action of heat is strongly in favour of cobra-poison
being a chemical agent of very great stability of con-
stitution.

In the chapter on daboia-poison it was shown that
if that poison be heated to 100° C. it loses all power
of causing convulsions; but this is not the whole of
the case, for if the poison be heated only to 80° C.
(176° F.) the same effect is produced. This change
is not due to the precipitation of albumen, for it occurs
if this is prevented by adding acetic acid, nor is it due
to the volatilization of any constituent of the poison,
for the products obtained in a receiver connected with
the heated solution, and kept at 0° C., were not
poisonous, but it seems to depend on the destruction of
a highly organised, easily decomposed agent, for the
addition of nitric acid diluted with its own bulk of
water also destroyed it. There can be no doubt, there-
fore, that it is a separate component of the poison, as
after its destruction the paralysis-producing power is
still present in the solution. Taken together with the
facte that the daboia has an additional gland on its
poison duct, it would seem to be a highly elaborated

126 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

constituent added to the paralysing agent to discharge
some special function.

In investigating the nature of snake-poison, it is not
only necessary to note what physical changes the venom
undergoes when treated with re-agents, but, what is more
important to observe, any alteration in its physiological
effects after it has been subjected to any chemical
process. It is more to this latter method that we must.
look for light as to the constitution of the poisonous
agent, as the substance itself can only be recognised by
its effects.

The first group of substances that would be naturally
selected to ascertain the effect on cobra-poison, are the
agents termed antiseptic. ‘To enable, as far as possible,
@ comparison to be made as to their relative effects, in
each case the same amount of poison was used, and it
was exposed to the action of an equal quantity of each of
the re-agents for the same time under the same physical
conditions. As, however, some of the agents were
gaseous, is was not always possible to use the same
quantity of substance. The agents chosen were carbolic
acid, ferrous sulphate, potassium permanganate, sodium
hyposulphite, zine chloride, sulphurous acid, and chlo
rine. The method employed was the following :—One
centigramme (‘154 grain) of the dried poison was dis-
solved in one cubic centimetre of water. To this was
added one cubic centimetre of water, which contajned
five centigrammes (°77 grain) of the re-agent, the effect

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 127

of which it was desired to ascertain. The mixture was
then hermetically closed in a glass tube and allowed to
remain for twenty hours, and the solution was then
tested physiologically. In the case of gaseous disin-
fectants, one cubic centimetre of the officinal solutions
of these gases were used. The following are the times
that the mixed solutions required to cause death in
fowls :—

One centigramme (*154 grain) of cobra-poison alone,

twenty minutes.

With sodium hyposulphite, twenty-four minutes.

With carbolic acid, thirty-six minutes.

With ferrous sulphate, forty-six minutes.

With solution of chlorine, fifty-three minutes.

With solution of sulphurous acid, sixty-five
minutes.

With zine chloride, ninety minutes.

With permanganate of potash, caused no symp-
tom.

In this list it is seen that in every case there was
some retardation of the symptoms, ferrous sulphate,
chlorine, sulphurous oxide, zine chloride, each pro-
ducing considerable weakening of the poison. Carbolic
acid caused very slight delay, and its use was attended
with its own special toxic symptoms. In no other case
was there the least change in the nature of the symp-
toms, By only one re-agent—namely, potassium
permanganante—was the poison completely destroyed.

128 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

It is a very significant fact that whereas carbolic acid,
which is peculiarly destructive to bacteria and to lowly
organisms, and has great efficacy in preventing their
appearance, only caused very slight retardation, that on
the other hand potassium permanganate, which has great
powers of oxidation when placed in organic solutions,
rendered the poison harmless. When a solution of
cobra-poison is mixed with a solution of potassium
permanganate, a considerable rise of temperature imme-
diately takes place—as much as five or six degrees
centigrade (9° to 10°8 F.) being often noticed. This
is, of course, a sign of great chemical activity; the
solution becomes thick and of a dark brown colour.
A very great impairment of its physiological properties
is at once observed. Butso sensitive are birds to the
least trace of unchanged cobra-venom that the poison
must be kept exposed to the action of the permanganate
for a very considerable time before the whole of the
poison is completely decomposed.

As it was found that potassium permanganate does
destroy the poison, steps were taken to see if it would be
of any practical use in the treatment of animals suffering
from snake-bite. It was found by experiment that ‘a
considerable quantity of potassium permanganate, dis-
solved in a weak saline solution, could be injected into
the circulation of an animal without producing any
immediate effect. A dog, therefore, was taken suffering
from cobra-poison. Through a cannula, placed in its

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 129

saphena vein, a saline solution of permanganate of potash
was injected; but though a large quantity of the anti-
septic was cautiously and gradually introduced into the
circulation, and though at the same time life was
prolonged ‘by artificial respiration, in no way was the
least benefit to be perceived from the remedy. The
reason is obvious. It is quite true that potassium
permanganate destroys the active agent of cobra-venom,
by oxidizing it; but when introduced into the blood it,
of course, commences oxidizing indifferently all the
organic matters with which it comes in contact, but it
has no power of selecting one organic substance for
oxidation rather than another. The oxidizing power of
the permanganate is, therefore, exerted on the con-
stituents of the blood generally, instead of being reserved
for the cobra-poison in it alone. So, if cobra-poison
is dissolved in an organic solution, and the perman-
ganate is added before injection, the poison suffers little,
if any, diminution of strength, for the oxidation has
taken place chiefly at the expense of the other organic
matter. Thus it would be necessary to destroy all the
constituents of the blood by oxidation, before all the
pvison in it could be destroyed too. If a substance
should be found having the power of oxidation, with a
special affinity for exercising it on snake-poison, the
problem of the treatment of ‘snake-bite would be solved ;
but potassium permanganate has not this special power.

There is, besides potassium permanganate, a large

9

130 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

class of substances which also have the power of

rendering cobra-poison inert. It is the class of

metallic salts capable of precipitating albumen. The

following experiment gives an instance in point.
Experiment VI.

To oné-tenth of a cubic centimetre of distilled water,
containing one milligramme of dried cobra-poison, was
added one cubic centimetre of a solution of silver nitrate
containing five centigrammes (‘77 grain) of the silver
salt. After the solutions had been thoroughly mixed,
they were injected into a fowl. No symptom whatever
followed.

To this class belongs gold chloride, mercuric chloride,
and many similar bodies. The only essential conditions
to observe are that the salt should be in great excess of
the poison, and that time should be allowed for the
whole precipitate to form.

But other bodies, also capable of precipitating albumen,
have the same destructive effect as these metallic salts.
If to a solution of cobra-poison tannic acid be added
till no further precipitate can be thrown down, the
resultant fluid has no physiological effect. é

Various statements have been made by different
observers about the action of alcohol on snake-poison.
The following are the chief results :—If to a solution of
cobra-poison absolute alcohol be added, a white pre-
cipitate is thrown down. After the precipitate has“been
thoroughly washed with alcohol, it can be re-dissolved

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 131

in water, and the solution produces all the effects of
cobra-poison. If dried cobra-poison, in a state of fine
powder, be added to absolute alcohol, and the mixture
be frequently agitated, the alcohol will derive no
poisonous property from the cobra-poison. If, however,
instead of absolute alcohol, rectified spirit be employed,
the water in the rectified spirit is capable of taking up a
certain amount of the poison. So, if absolute alcohol
be added to liquid cobra-poison as it comes from the
snake, a precipitate will fall which is poisonous ; but the
supernatant fluid is also poisonous from some of
the active agent being held in solution by the natural
fluid of the venom. That this is so, can be proved by
evaporating this clear supernatant fluid to a small bulk,
when a further addition of absolute alcohol will produce
a further precipitate of the poisonous agent. In other
words, the active agent of cobra-poison is precipitated
by, and is totally insoluble in, absolute alcohol; but
mixtures of alcohol and water ate capable of dissolving
a certain amount of the poison in proportion to the
quantity of water present. As a method of treatment,
alcohol is useless, except in so far as it is administered
on general principles as a stimulant.

Carbolic acid, as has been shown, has some effect in
delaying and lessening the action of cobra-poison when
mixed with it, probably by decomposing some of it; for
the longer it remains in contact with the poison before
injection, the greater is the diminution of strength.

132 INDIAN SNAK# POISONS,

But, administered independently of the poison, it has no
effect. whatever.

Sulphuric and nitric acid have no action on the
poison, except they are added in sufficient strength to
cause actual destruction of the organic matter.

Ammonia neither diminishes the strength of a solution
of cobra-poison, nor lengthens life if given separately.

Perhaps the class of agents from the actions of which
we can learn most about the nature of cobra-poison is
that of the fixed alkalies, though very many contra-
dictory statements have been made on this subject.

Experiment VII,

One decigramme (1°54 grain) of dried oe -poison
was dissolved in three cubic centimetres of the officinal
solution of potash, and the solution was injected into a
fowl, but the bird never had the slightest symptom of
poisoning.

In this experiment it is shown that cobra-poison
dissolved in a solution of potash has no effect. In
repeating it, two points must be borne in mind; one is,
that the solution should not be made hastily, and the
other is, that the solution of potash should be pufe.
At the high temperature at which chemical re-agents
are necessarily kept in India, solution of potash rapidly
takes up carbonic acid. In India it may be said that
liquor potasse is merely a solution of potassic carhonate.
In all the experiments made with this re-agent, the
solutions were specially prepared for the purpose.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 133

But it can be proved that though cobra-poison, when
mixed with a caustic alkali, produces no symptoms,
yet it has not permanently lost its poisonous properties,
as they can be restored to it.

Experiment VIII.

A quantity of fresh cobra-poison from several cobras
was taken. It was found that one quarter of a cubic
centimetre of this poison killed a dog in sixty-one
minutes.

Two cubic centimetres of the poison were taken,
and to them were added two cubic centimetres of a
solution of potash, containing one gramme of the alkali
in six cubic centimetres. Two cubic centimetres of the
resulting mixture (containing one cubic centimetre of
the fresh poison) were then injected into a dog, but the
_ animal never experienced a symptom of poisoning.

Two cubic centimetres of the mixed solution of
potash and cobra-poison still remained. To these were
added two cubic centimetres of the officinal solution of
acetic acid, and one cubic centimetre of the mixed
solutions containing one quarter of a cubic centimetre
of the original poison was injected into a dog. This
animal had all the symptoms of cobra-poisoning, and
died in one hour and fifty-six minutes.

Thus we see that cobra-poison mixed with a solution
of potash can be injected into the system without pro-
dycing any symptom, but that when acetic acid is added
to this solution all the powers of the poison are restored.

‘184 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

‘That this change is not due to the fact that the solution
is rendered alkaline, can be shown by adding ammonia,
when no alteration in the symptoms is produced, and
also by the circumstance that it is not necessary to
completely neutralise the alkali by the acid to restore
the activity to the poison.

More light is thrown on the nature of this change by
the following experiments.

Experiment 1X.

Twelve centigrammes (about two grains) of dried
cobra-poison were dissolved in a solution of caustic
potash ; after standing for eighteen hours, the solution
was neutralised with acetic acid, and a white flocculent
precipitate fell. A fowl, into which this neutralised
solution was injected, died with all the symptoms of
cobra-poisoning, though they were induced but slowly.

Experiment X.

One cubic centimetre of fresh cobra-poison was mixed
with four cubic centimetres of the potash solution, and
the mixture was allowed to stand for twenty-four hours.
It was then neutralised with acetic acid, but no precipi-
tate fell. The resulting solution had no poisonous
properties whatever.

Thus, after standing exposed to the action of the
alkali for eighteen hours, the strength of the poison
was greatly impaired, and after twenty-four hours
it had permanently lost all poisonous properties.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFEOTS, 135

The rapidity of this change can be greatly aided by a
high temperature. This loss of power is found to be
accompanied by a physical change ; for when the solu-
tion is no longer poisonous, acetic acid fails to throw
down any longer a white precipitate. Now this white
flaky precipitate gives the characteristic albuminoid
re-action with Millon’s re-agent. It is reasonable,
therefore, to conclude, that as long as the poisonous
agent of cobra-venom is capable of recognition chemi-
cally as albumen, so long is it poisonous, and no longer.
Now, potash is a well-known agent for decomposing
albumen, and is the ordinary means for preparing leucin
and other derivatives from it. When, therefore, cobra-
poison is circulating in the system, mixed with the
alkali, the chemical agent is occupied in decomposing
it, and thus cobra-venom, instead of producing those
changes in the constituents of the body which are
necessary for its power of destruction, is, in its turn,
itself being destroyed. It is much to be regretted that,
introduced separately to the poison, potash has, like
potassic permanganate, no power of specially selecting
cobra-poison for its destructive action. It is, however,
a point of deep interest in general pathology, that a
class of substances that can produce constitutional
effects after sometimes prolonged incubation, can be
demonstrated to belong to the group of bodies called
albuminoid.

136 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

CHAPTER VI.

SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS CONNECTED WITH
THE SUBJECT OF SNAKE-POISONING, ESPECIALLY
REGARDING PREVENTION AND TREATMENT.

As there is no agent at present known that can counter-
act the effects of snake-poison when introduced into the
system, it will be seen that it is of the highest im-
portance to prevent any of the poison entering the
circulation. As long as the poison remains at the spot
where it is injected by the snake, it is harmless. It is
only when it enters the circulation that it is capable of
doing injury. The exact position of the poison deposited
by the snake is, therefore, worthy of careful study.
When a snake obtains a fair hold of his victim both
fangs—one on each side of the upper jaw—pierce the
skin, and the poison is injected through each. There
are thus, beneath the skin, two separate deposits of
venom, from which absorption takes place simui-
taneously. Death, therefore, as a rule, is quickee in
cases of the natural bite, than after the artificial injection

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 137

of the poison in one place. In the case of the cobra, if
the bite has been inflicted on a fairly plane surface, as
the ball of the thumb, or the dorsum of the foot, the
distance between the punctures will be, as a rule,
seventeen millimetres, rarely exceeding twenty, or going
below fifteen millimetres; or, roughly, about seven-
tenths of an inch, and varying from three-fifths to
four-fifths of an inch. As the skin is movable, and
penetration by both fangs may not occur simultaneously,
there may ‘be a difference in the distance between the
two punctures, due to this cause. The punctures may
or may not be visible to the naked eye. Sometimes
their site is marked by a few drops of blood or serum
exuding; or there may be a scratch, if the victim has
withdrawn the part rapidly. Should the snake not have
been interrupted, on examining the part with a lens the
punctures will be seen. They may be either short,
straight cuts, gaping slightly at the centre, or triangular
punctures, the area of the triangle being the pit into
which the fang has been forced. The difference seems
to depend on whether the snake has made a hasty dart
and rapid withdrawal, or whether it was a deliberate and
prolonged bite.

The poison is deposited at a depth below. the punctures
of about three or four millimetres; it may be more if
the fang is able to depress the skin at the spot. The
poispn, also, is not deposited in the skin itself, but in
the areolar tissue beneath; and this is a point of

138 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

importance, for, as the skin is freely movable over the
parts below, especially on the back of the hands and feet,
the fang may have dragged the skin away from its proper
position before injecting the poison, so that the poison
deposit may not be immediately beneath the punctures.

The first consideration to be attended to in dealing
with a case of snake-bite is at once to prevent any
more poison being absorbed from the deposits. All other
considerations must yield to this. A minute or two may
make all the difference between life and death. Therefore
nothing else is to be thought of till any further absorp-
tion of the poison is rendered impossible. Fortunately
there is a practical point in connection with snake-bite
that. gives us a clear indication of how to proceed in the
majority of cases in the first instance. The best series
of cases of snake-bite in the human subject, is contained
in Sir J. Fayrer’s “ Thanatophidia.” In the list given
there, fifty-four instances are detailed, in which the
exact spot bitten is specified. From this the following
table has been prepared :—-

Place of bite. Percentage of total cases.
Fingers and wrist uke 31°48
Fore-arm ve — 1°85 ~
Elbow iv aa 5°56
Shoulder seid ie 1°85
Feet, toes, and ankle ae 48°15
Leg ... e's ise 3°70

Thigh aoe “a 185

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 139

Place of bite. Percentage of total cases.
Breast si eee 1°85
Ear ... “3 dee 1°85
Perineum = us 1°85

In other words, 94°54 per cent. of persons bitten are
wounded on the extremities, and it is, therefore, possible
to withdraw at once the part bitten from the circulation,
without injuring the person in the slightest degree.
There is only one way of doing this effectually. At
once let a thick india-rubber band—such as is used in
Esmarch’s bandage for bloodless operations—be firmly
bound on the limb above the part bitten. No circula-
tion, and, therefore, no absorption can go on after this ;
and time can be taken to consider what further pro-
ceedings are necessary. An ordinary cord or string, or
bandage, is nearly useless compared with the india-
rubber band. I have known fatal absorption take place
when a string has been applied so tightly as actually to
cut the flesh, and apparently strangulate the limb
completely, causing acute suffering, evidently from the
cord not accommodating itself accurately to the form of
the member, and thus leaving a small channel for the
ctreulation. The india-rubber band is nearly painless,
and properly applied is an absolute safeguard against
further absorption. An ordinary piece of cord or string
is commonly recommended as the proper application.
It is, as I have said, of very slight use indeed, and then
only when applied so as to be equivalent to amputation.

140 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

But, of course, as an india-rubber band is seldom
accessible, recourse must often be had to its nearly
useless substitute. But the india-rubber cord is so
inexpensive, so easily applied, and so completely fulfils
its purpose of preventing further absorption of the
poison, and thus placing the patient in a position of
complete safety for the time, and it is of so much
importance that it should be applied as quickly as
possible after the bite, that I cannot but think that
every thana, as well as every dispensary, in districts
where deaths from snake-bite are common, should have
one, and that the officials should be instructed how to
apply it properly. I think it would not be going too
far to express a belief that European households, and
those of the upper classes of natives in the same districts,
should also be provided with so simple means for the
immediate treatment of snake-bite.

The india-rubber band should be firmly and tightly
bound round the extremity above the seat of injury, and
should encircle the limb several times, and it should’ be
applied in all cases as soon as possible after the receipt
of the injury. The patient having thus been secured
against any further absorption of the poison, tim® is
allowed for treatment.

The surgeon’s first care should be to ascertain
if the patient has been really poisoned ; for the most
venomous snakes may bite, and yet, from their
poison-apparatus having been exhausted on some ob-

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 141

ject previously, they may not inject one particle of
poison. Symptoms are almost useless as an indication,
as the most profound collapse may be caused by the
fear of impending death, when the reptile causing the
dread has not been in the least poisonous; and the victim
not seldom does not see his assailant at all. Amputa-
tions, ending fatally, have even been performed on
persons who have thus apparently had symptoms of
snake-poisoning, though it has been proved afterwards
that the snake was a harmless one. Moreover, when
the time for symptoms has come, the time for treatment
has passed. It will be seen, therefore, of how great
importance it is to ascertain whether the person has
been poisoned as well as bitten.

It was pointed out in the chapter on cobra-poisoning
that snake-poison produces at once inflammation at the
spot where it has been injected. The degree of inflam-
mation may vary greatly, depending partly on the
species of snake, partly on the amount of poison injected
and the time it has remained in the tissues, and partly
on the position where it has been injected. Of Indian
gnakes the daboia produces the greatest amount of
inflammation, and the Bungarus ceruleus or krait, I
think, the least. Now this inflammation is not at all
perceptible on the surface of the skin. After applying
the band, the first thing to be done by the surgeon is
to Make a free incision through the skin at the site of
the bite, and reflect back the skin on each side, so as to

142 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

get a complete view of the underlying tissue. Now, it
is clear that if no venom has been injected by a poisonous
snake, or if the bite has been given by a harmless
reptile or mammal, no subjacent inflammation can be
present. A bite by a mongoose or Lycodon can pro-
duce nothing but a mechanical puncture. But if
inflammation is present, it is evident that there must be
some reason for it, and the only cause that can produce
such rapid inflammation of the subcutaneous areolar
tissue under these circumstances is snake-poison. There
are, of course, wide differences in the appearances to be
seen in the areolar tissue under the skin, in the neigh-
bourhood of the bite. In the case of the daboia a deep
purple patch will be found at the spot, whereas the
Bungarus ceruleus or krait will only cause a pale slight
watery exudation, not much in quantity, and of a
faint pink hue. The cobra, which is the snake that
chiefly concerns us, always leaves decided marks of its
poison, unless the venom has been thrown directly into
a vein, when, of course, treatment is useless if sufficient
to kill has been injected. It must be borne in mind
that if any change whatever is found in the areolar
tissue we must conclude that poison is present, and act
accordingly ; for we can only find out by leaving the
patient alone and seeing if death supervene, if sufficient
poison to kill has been injected; and this, of course, is
an utterly unjustifiable proceeding. Every opportiinity
should be taken to become thoroughly acquainted with

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 143

the appearance of areolar tissue, both in health and
under the influence of the presence of snake-poison, as
mistakes may easily be made from ignorance of the
appearances presented. .

The next step is to remove the whole of the deposited
poison. Many proposals have been made from time to
time on this subject. Suction, burning, igniting gun-
powder on the spot, excision, &c. &c., have been recom-
mended. But, practically, all methods must yield to
the careful dissection out with a knife of all the parts
likely to contain the poison. It is not of the least use
pinching up the skin and excising it, as the skin never
contains the poison at all, and the areolar tissue holding
the poison would retract before the knife and be left
behind. The following is the only efficient way:—An
incision at least an inch and a half long should be
made through the site of the bite; the skin should then
be excised on each side for three-quarters of an inch.
This will freely expose the parts below. The skin should
be reflected back in every direction by the scalpel, and
with a forceps the whole of the areolar tissue under-
neath should be thoroughly and completely dissected
ont, going freely up the limb in the direction of the
returning blood-current. On the ball of the thumb,
not only the areolar tissue, but the deep fascia and some
of the muscle beneath should be removed, as the fang
is capable of sinking in especially deeply here. On the
fingers and toes all the tissues should be cut away at

144: INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

the site of the bite till the bone is reached, and, if
necessary, on the back of the hand or foot, tendon and
every structure may be cleared right down to the bone.
Every part that may contain the poison must be removed.
Life is not to be saved by a haphazard cutting away of
anything that comes first, but by an intelligent and
careful dissecting away of the parts holding the poison,
bearing in mind the anatomical peculiarities of each
region. On the surface of the limbs it will be enough,
as a rule, to remove freely the subcutaneous tissue,
especially if this be thick. The skin should in all cases
be rémoved over an area of an inch and a half square.
It need scarcely be remarked that amputation is totally
unnecessary, as excision answers every purpose ; but if it
is found requisite to remove all the soft parts from one
of the less prominent fingers or toes, it may be perhaps
to the patient’s advantage to remove that finger or toe
completely. Careful but free excision, guided by the
appearance of the parts, is all that is necessary; but it
should be remembered that any shortcoming in carrying
out the excision may result in the death of the patient,
It would be cruel leniency to leave any tissue, however
important, that served as a receptacle forthe poison. After
the whole of the suspected parts have been thoroughly
dissected out, the india-rubber band may be removed, but
not till then, the part having first been freely washed with
a solution of caustic potash or potassic permanganate.
It may be urged that the appearances of the in-

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 145

flammation produced by snake-poison may lead one to
excise the bitten part, even when sufficient poison has
not been injected to kill. This may be true, but the
injury inflicted is trifling compared with the fearful
risk that would be run by leaving the patient alone.
Summed up shortly, the position is this:—If we do
not consult the condition of the parts we shall be
absolutely without any guide at all, and must act by
guess-work, or wait till the symptoms have developed,
when interference is useless. But by consulting the
appearance of the parts we sball obtain information,
the accuracy of which will be in proportion to our
knowledge of the subject.

In those rare cases where the victim is bitten on the
body, all that can be done is to make, as quickly as
possible, a complete excision of the part. It is singular
that out of the few cases that do occur on the trunk,
in a large proportion of them the wound is on a
place where complete excision can be performed with
ease, namely, the ear, the breast, and the scrotum. The
reason appears to be that a snake has some difficulty in
seizing hold of any part of the body which presents a
smooth flat surface, but that any pendulous part can be
grasped without difficulty by the reptile. This is a fact
much in the favour of this class of victims.

That these proceedings are of the greatest practical
use, and are quite sufficient under ordinary circumstances,
the following cases will prove.

10

146 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

A native woman was brought into the Presidency
Hospital, Calcutta, by her friends, who stated she had
put her hand into a dark corner of her house to reach
something, when she was bitten in the hand by a snake.
There was a distinct mark of a wound on the knuckle,
and she herself was in such profound collapse as to be
almost pulseless and quite speechless. An incision
through the skin at the wound revealed the fact that
the underlying tissue was perfectly normal. Her
friends were told that there was no danger, and in
a short time she walked out of the hospital perfectly
well.

On another occasion a young man, a pure European,
was admitted, having been bitten, whilst in his com-
pound, by a snake on the finger. A tight ligature had
been applied to the arm soon after the bite, and this
was replaced at once by an india-rubber band. An in-
cision revealed extensive areolar inflammation, and a free
excision was at once performed, but only enough to secure
safety, as the subsequent sloughing from the effect of
the poison showed. He ultimately completely recovered.

The great advantage of the india-rubber ligature is
that it gives time for the patient to be removed to where
he can obtain proper attention, and also affords oppor-
tunity to the surgeon for consideration and deliberate
action. That no further absorption can go on after
this form of ligature is properly applied, the follqwing
experiment will show.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFHC('S. 147

Experiment I.

A dog was bitten on the leg by a vigorous cobra.

2.15 p.m. Bitten.

2.17 P.M. A ligature of india-rubber applied above
the bitten part.

3.16 p.m. The part containing the poison carefully
dissected out.

3.20 p.m. Ligature removed.

The dog recovered completely, having suffered only
slightly from the effects of the poison.

Here, two minutes after the dog was bitten the ligature
was applied, but no further steps were taken for one
hour, and yet the dog was saved; and if the interval
between the application of the ligature and excision had
been prolonged to a day, the result would have been
the same. After the poison-bearing tissue had been
dissected out, it was steeped in water, and the resulting
fluid injected into a fowl, which died rapidly from
cobra-poisoning, showing that there was abundant poison
in the tissue to destroy life, if it could only have entered
the circulation.

*It is difficult to say what are the limits of time at
which the ligature may be usefully applied, as it
depends on so many various circumstances. If the
fang of the snake should chance to have entered a vein
and thus the poison have been thrown directly into the
circulation, as certainly happens sometimes, it is clear

10 *

148 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

that no ligature can avail anything, as the poison is
already in the blood. In another extreme case in the
other direction, the poison may only have been injected
in just sufficient quantity to destroy life, in a part far
removed from active vitality, perhaps in a person with
languid circulation ; say on the dorsal surface of one of
the toes. Under these circumstances it would be long
before the whole of the poison would be absorbed, and
anything short of total absorption would fail to destrov
life. Here there would be a long interval during which
the application of the ligature would be useful. As
the exact circumstances of a bite can never be known
it is right in all cases to apply the ligature at once, and
never to hesitate as to whether it will be useful or not.
A very short hesitation may cost the patient’s life, and
as no injury is caused by its application, there can be
no question as to the expediency of applying it in all
cases as soon as possible after the infliction of the
wound. And it is of great desirability that the excision
should also follow speedily.

It may be asked, considering there are several sub-
stances that destroy snake-poison—such as certain
metallic salts, tannic acid, potassic hydrate, and potassic
permanganate—why should not these substances be
used in preference to excision. The reply is obvious.
If we could know the exact position of the poison, and
if there were only one deposit we might possiblyesuc-
ceed in destroying it by injection. But to remove the

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 149

poison deposited by the bite of a snake requires a most
intelligent dissection, guided by eye-sight and judgment,
but an injection of a chemical agent must be to a great
extent made by guess-work ; and the solution, instead
of following the poison, takes the line of least resistance
in the tissues, often leading it far from the poison.
Applying the agent to an incision over the wound is
also nearly useless. In cases where the poison has been
artificially injected by an instrument, I have obtained
excellent results both with potassic hydrate, sodic
hydrate, and potassic permanganate; but after the
natural bite of a snake this method of treatment is
without avail. By chance it may occasionally succeed,
but though I have had special instruments contrived so
as to irrigate the whole of the poisoned area with these
re-agents, I have, in a very large proportion of cases,
failed altogether; whereas with thorough excision under
the condition that sufficient poison to kill has not
already been absorbed, failure is impossible. All that
chemical agents can do is to destroy the tissue and the
poison in it, and by no means can you tell whether you
are destroying more than is necessary, or less. But
‘with excision you remove exactly the poison deposit.
You are guided by sight and knowledge. In the artificial
injection of the poison through a tube, the re-agent
follows through that tube the course taken by the
poigon—a piece of simplicity of practice which unfor-
tunately does not obtain after cobra-bite.

150 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

After the tissue bearing the poison has, as far as
possible, been removed, advantage undoubtedly can be
obtained by using either potassic hydrate or potassic
permanganate to the wound, and they should, if used,
be applied in solutions of considerable strength. Per-
haps potassic hydrate is the best agent, but it should be
applied in as strong a solution as can be obtained, and
it should be used to the tissues above and around the
wound, especially in the direction of the returning blood-
current, It should be remembered that liquor potasse
is never in India more than a solution of potassic
carbonate, and therefore a fresh solution of the solid
re-agent should be made.

Sucking the wound inflicted by the snake is com-
pletely useless. A fair idea of its efficacy can be
obtained by attempting to remove a hypodermic in-
jection of morphia by suction.

When the symptoms of snake-poisoning have once
developed, a condition of appalling gravity is produced,
of which little that is hopeful can be said here. The
patient will sooner or later present symptoms of advan-
cing paralysis. Now nothing can be clearer in the case
of animals than the evidence that anything that disturbs.
the victim or excites his circulation hastens the develop-
ment of this state. In administering remedies to
animals suffering from snake-poisoning, nothing is more
conspicuous than the fact that the more frequent, or
the more exciting the administration of the antidote is,

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 151

the shorter is the duration of life after it. The patient,
therefore, should be kept quiet and his strength hus-
banded. Nourishing food should be given if necessary,
and if there is any tendency to syncope a small amount
of stimulants. In animals, however, alcohol certainly
does not lengthen life.

If the bite has been inflicted by a colubrine snake,
salivation and paralysis of the tongue and throat will
soon show themselves. ‘The head should be placed on
one side to allow the saliva to trickle out, as otherwise
it will probably enter the paralysed larynx, and aid the
process of suffocation; the tongue, also, should be pre-
vented from falling back, and at this stage the patient
should have nothing given him to swallow, as he is
quite incapable of doing so, and therefore the substance
will very likely be forced into the windpipe. I have
even found, after death, remedies in the air-tubes in
the lungs, which had been forced there by the anxious
friends, a circumstance which would have rendered
recovery impossible.

The next feature will be failure of the respiratory
,power. In the most acute form this occurs in a very
rapid manner, the function appearing to be suddenly
overpowered ; but it is not always thus extinguished.
In the less rapid cases the respiration fails very
gradually, and as death is clearly the result of this
faigure every effort should be made to stimulate the
lessening function. Frequently’ repeated affusions of

152 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

cold water on the face, whilst the rest of the body is kept
dry and warm, have a marked effect in keeping the
function alive, also artificial respiration. In regard to
the uses of artificial respiration in snake-poisoning, it
may be said that though it can never restore function
to a paralysed respiratory centre, yet it can undoubtedly
ward off, for a time at least, that paralysis. When
natural respiration has failed, it is useless to resort to
artificial, for though most of the functions of life may
be maintained for a considerable time, yet the natural
respiratory action does not return. But when only just
sufficient poison has been absorbed to impair the respi-
ratory function, so that complete cessation is just
threatened, artificial respiration, when resorted to before
the function has ceased, may enable the crisis to be sur-
mounted till the effects of the poison have somewhat
passed off; so that the natural respiration, though very
slight, and not of itself sufficient to support life, may be
maintained till the natural power has returned. The
following is 4 case in point :—

Eaperiment II.

A pariah dog, on whom tracheotomy had been per-°
formed a day or two previously, had one cubic centimetre
of fresh cobra-poison injected subcutaneously.

12.30 p.m. Injection.

12.33 p.m. Thirty cubic centimetres of solution, of
caustic potash, containing one gramme of the alkali to

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 153

six cubic centimetres of water, was injected through the
cannula of the syringe which had not been removed.

12.45 p.m. Salivation.

4.15 p.m. Not able to stand. Respiration very faint.
Artificial respiration by bellows and cannula through
the tracheal opening commenced.

5.8 P.M. Breathing by artificial respiration almost
entirely.

5.50 P.M. Natural respiration stronger.

6.10 pm. Artificial respiration stopped, as the
natural was sufficient to support life.

10.10 p.m. Able to get off couch and walk about.

The animal completely recovered.

Here, through the alkali having been injected through
the same channel as the poison, and soon after it, but
a sinall quantity of poison was absorbed, artificial respi-
ration was resorted to before natural respiration had
stopped and only to aid it. The artificial respiration
was constantly interrupted, to see that the natural respira-
tion was still performed, so that all that was done was
to assist the failing respiratory powers, not to supersede
them, and the animal’s life was saved. A result like
this cannot be often looked for under the natural con-
ditions of poisoning, as every detail was here arranged
beforehand. Great importance must be attached to the
fact that the tracheotomy was performed previously.
But,the case shows that every effort should be made to
assist the failing respiratory powers. When natural

154 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

respiration, however, has completely ceased, though
the circulation can be maintained for a long time by
using artificial respiration, I have never seen the least
return of the natural function, though I have tried
perseveringly, both in cobra and daboia poisoning. All
our efforts, therefore, must be directed to maintaining
and aiding the natural function, as this, once completely
extinguished, cannot be restored. Artificial respiration
by bellows and tracheal cannula is far superior to mere
movement of the arms. But in resorting to artificial
respiration care should be taken not to overdo it.
Thirty strokes a minute is the extreme limit that should
be reached.

After all, we can but seldom hope to achieve much by
any method after the symptoms have appeared, yet cold
affusion and artificial respiration by the Sylvester plan
of moving the arms, a little advantage may be gained
in the slighter cases. The other method referred to
requires too elaborate arrangements to be often available.

In regard to remedies, though [ have tried with care
every one that has been brought to my notice, and they
have been very numerous, it is impossible to exaggerate
the uselessness of each of them.

In the prolonged cases of viperine poisoning, where
symptoms of hemorrhage supervene, it is usual for them
to appear within six or eight hours after the infliction
of the bite. ‘This condition'is most serious, death
usually resulting, even though it may be as late as the

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 155

second week. But recoveries have been recorded even
in severe cases, showing that no change incompatible
with life has occurred. It is evident, from the history
of these cases that death is due to the loss of blood,
and it would therefore be clearly the indication to
prevent a fatal result from this cause to transfuse from
time to time a small quantity of fresh blood to replace
that which has escaped from the vessels. The great
muscular weakness which is developed in acute cases of
viperine poisoning, affecting especially the heart, would
render any attempt to make the patient exert himself
especially dangerous.

In the chronic form of poisoning seen after the bite of
the Bungarus fasciatus, nothing at present can be said
as to its treatment, though every effort should be made
to support the strength of the victim. But the fact of
its occurrence so long after the receipt of the injury
adds much weight to what has already been urged as to
the importance of early and complete excision of the
wounded part in all cases of poisonous snake-bite.

Closely connected with the subject of treatment is the
nature of the means that can be employed to prevent
loss of life in India from snake-poisoning. Foremost
stands the possibility of destroying the noxious reptiles
themselves, and the use of rewards in aiding this pro-
cess; and as different opinions are held on this subject
it mpy be advisable to review the arguments that may
be employed. Against the system of granting rewards

156 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

it may be urged—(1.) That the number of poisonous
snakes in the country is so enormous that it is practi-
cally impossible to lessen them if the whole revenue of
India be used for the purpose. (2.) That the snakes
chiefly inhabit the jungles, where it is very difficult to
attack them, and that it is only when natives go into out-
of-the-way places that they incur the risk of being bitten.
(3.) That the practice of giving rewards for capturing
snakes, instead of diminishing the number of snakes
would tend to increase them, as men would take to
breeding snakes for the rewards instead of catching them.

The number of snakes in India must, in truth, be
enormous, but we have no grounds for forming the
slightest idea as to what their number may be, and
therefore there is no evidence, one way or the other,
whether they can be exterminated or not. Large sums
have been disbursed in certain districts with little
effect, but in other cases a distinct diminution in mor-
tality has occurred. But it should be stated that.
often large amounts have been disbursed without any
safeguard as to whether the reward was given for
poisonous snakes only. I have known rewards in large
numbers paid in a district for the harmless Lycodon,
and I am by no means sure that the disbursing official
was, in the end, convinced that the object of his perse-
cution was harmless. Still, in another district where a
perfectly competent officer supervised the distribuijon,
the snakes were brought in in undiminished numbers

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 157

while the reward was given. It is, of course, likely
that they were brought in from greater distances, as no
reward was given in the surrounding districts. On this
subject, therefore, there is not sufficient evidence. But
universal experience shows us that when man has
earnestly striven to extirpate a noxious animal he has
always succeeded. Deaths from snake-bite used to be
common in Europe, they are almost unknown at present;
and thé same thing may be said of North America.
Wolves are now exceedingly rare in Southern and
Eastern Europe, where they used to constitute a public
danger. It is only amidst a passive population that
pests of this kind are tolerated.

That snakes are most frequently found in jungles and
similar places is of course accurate, but that natives are
bitten there is certainly not true. The most striking
feature in the statistics of death from snake-bite is the
exceeding frequency with which women are bitten. Thus,
in Bengal, in the last year for which I have the detailed
statistics, 2,155 women were killed, for 2,010 men, and
no less than sixteen percent. of the deaths were of
children under ten years of age. In other words, the

*home-staying portion of the population suffered as
heavily as those going abroad. But nearly twice as
many persons were bitten during the night as during
the day, showing still more clearly that the calamity
takgs place, not in the jungle, but actually in the home.
The mortality from snake-bite in India does not depend

158 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

upon the snakes in the jungle, but the presence of these
reptiles amongst the very people, who take not even the
ordinary precautions against being bitten. It is the
indifference of the people to the presence of these
enemies in their very midst that produces the fearful
loss of life in India. The toleration accorded to snakes
is simply incredible. A native, to my knowledge, has
allowed a poisonous reptile to escape that had fatally
bitten a member of his family. The attitude of the Indian
peasant towards poisonous snakes may be described as
that of passive toleration to avoid their active enmity.
Sometimes, indeed, it even goes further than this, and
snakes are offered food to propitiate them. On this
ground alone it would seem wise to follow up a policy
thit would tend to rouse in the native mind an idea of
resistance and hostility.

But may not the reward stimulate the inhabitants to.
breed snakes, and not to catch them ? Means as far as
possible have been taken to obtain information on this
subject. J have bred cobras, and have found it a work
of great difficulty. If the eggs become too dry, develop-
ment is suspended ; if they are made too moist, it is
stopped altogether. They require, therefore, great*
attention. When the young cobra is hatched it is very
small, very irritable, and exceedingly dangerous. A
full-grown cobra can be handled with perfect safety, but.
a young one, ten or eleven inches long, is so active, and
its body is so small, that it can be scarcely touched with

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 159

impunity. I have seen hundreds of cobras brought in
for rewards, but yearlings have been very few amongst
them. The reason is that when the snake's hole is dug
out, the cobra with the long body can be readily seized ;
but the young one, which can turn round in the smallest
space with the greatest ease, is generally allowed to
escape. ‘The fact that yearlings are seldom brought in
for the reward is conclusive evidence that it does not
answer to breed them, for no one would seriously urge
that the breeder would keep them for a long time before
producing them.

Taken altogether, then, it would seem wise to adopt
a moderate system of rewards ; but attention, of course,
should be paid to every detail that can add efficiency to
the scheme, and lessen its cost. In no case should a
reward be given except for a poisonous snake, and the
officer in charge of the distribution should, in all cases,
be thoroughly competent to identify a// common snakes,
both poisonous and non-poisonous; a knowledge that
can be acquired with ease in a few days, or even hours,
if opportunities of inspecting the snakes themselves he
afforded. It is doubtful, also, whether rewards should
be given for all poisonous snakes. The Trimeresuri,
for instance, are not very dangerous to life, and perhaps
no advantage would be gained by including them. The
snakes in the front rank of those offending, probably in
the order of their danger, are the Cobra, the Bungarus
ceeruleus, the Echis carinata, the Daboia russellii, the

160 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

Bungarus fasciatus, and the Ophiophagus elaps, and
rewards should only be given for these. The above
arrangement is, of course, one of probability only, as
statistics throw little or no light on the matter.

Great attention should be paid to the conservancy of
small towns and villages. In large towns public opinion
is already awake to the injury inflicted by jungle being
allowed to grow up around dwellings; but in villages,
naturally, but little attention is given to a detail of this
kind. A few holes stopped, and a few bushes cut down
in every village, would diminish immensely the hiding-
places of these pests, and exactly at the spots where
they do most harm.

That municipalities have in many cases undertaken to
give rewards for the destruction of snakes is a sign of
great hopefulness.

The most stringent system that has yet been devised
to exterminate pests is undoubtedly that of requiring
the inhabitants of an infested district either to present
a certain number of the proscribed animals each year
or to pay a sum instead, the amount thus obtained being
devoted to the purposes of extermination. It is difficult
to see how any animal, however prolific, could withstand
a persecution of this kind. But, of course, a scheme
like this presupposes that the inhabitants should clearly
see that it is their real advantage that is being con-
sulted, and that they have no reluctance to destroy heir
foes.

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 161

Another consideration to be regarded is, whether there
is any special season in which snakes can be destroyed
with advantage. In the cold weather the reptiles are
torpid, and do little or no injury; but from March to
September the loss of human life steadily increases.
Therainy season, commencing at the end of June, driving
them from their holes, naturally increases the mortality
greatly. It might, therefore, be assumed that the rainy
season is the period when they should be chiefly
attacked. But if we study the natural history of the
cobra, we shall find that the female usually lays her
eggs in July. The great aim, therefore, should be to
destroy as many of the reptiles as possible before the
eggs are laid, remembering that every female captured
then is equal to very many later on, and that vipers,
which, of course, bring forth their young alive, are even
much more prolific. The months, therefore, of May and
June, and part of July, are those in which the destruc-
tion of snakes is likely to be attended with the greatest
results. This would, in fact, be inverting the policy of
a “close season,’ which has been found so successful all
oyer the world in favouring the production of game.

The amount to be paid for each snake must clearly
depend upon the cost of labour locally. Practically,
but little difficulty can be experienced in determining it,
as an insufficient sum will have no result in causing
snake&® to be brought in. But the effect of any system
could, in regard to its ultimate success, not be ascer-

it

162 INDIAN SNAKE POISONS,

tained at once. In this, as in most other things, a
policy to have any effect must be persevered in. Seasons
fluctuate greatly, and though, of course, averages must
show in the end whether progress is being made, yet
increased accuracy in registration together with the
varying nature of the climate, may prevent the result
being speedily manifest.

It is sometimes stated that the loss of life from snake-
bite in India is exaggerated by the neighbours being
induced to return cases of murder as dying from this
cause. But it should be remembered that in all cases
of supposed snake-bite, the body is brought for exami-
nation to an English official, and the circumstances
undergo close scrutiny; whereas, if the death were
reported as being of a more usual nature no investiga-
tion would follow. It is hardly likely that murderers
would assign a cause which would at once challenge
inquiry. I have examined many bodies of persons
supposed to have died from snake-bite, and in all cases,
either from the blood, or from the wounded place
itself, by macerating it in water, I have obtained suffi-
cient poison to produce all the symptoms. Besides, eas
stated before, the appearances are quite characteristic.
There is no reason to suppose, therefore, that the loss of
life is in the least degree smaller than is represented.
But in regard to loss of property from destruction of
cattle and domestic animals, immense though it is
reported to be, itis probably but a small part of that

THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS. 163

which really occurs, for the peasant has no motive to
report his loss; he obtains no compensation, and a visit
to a thanaé would be uaturally looked upon as a dis-
agreeable task ; and so the loss is borne in the silence so
characteristic of the race when in adversity. .

165

IN DEX.

A

Acceleration of respiration in Bungarus-poisoning, 96.
Acceleration of respiration in cobra-poisoning, 33.
Acceleration of respiration in daboia-poisoning, 73.
Acids, effect of, on cobra-poison, 131.

Acute poisoning by Bungarus, 92.

Additional poison-gland in Daboia, 113.

Aération of blood and daboia-convulsions, 68.
Albuminoid nature of snake-poison, 135.
Albuminuria in Bungarus-poisoning, 99.
Albuminuria in daboia-poisoning, 63.

Alcohol, effect of, on cobra-poison, 130.

Alcohol, in treatment, 150.

Alkalies, effect of, on cobra-poison, 132.
American snake-poisoning, 108.

“Amphibia under cobra-poisoning, 15.

Amphibia under daboia-poisoning, 63.
Amputation in snake-bite, 144.

Analysis of cobra-poison, 119.

Antiseptic agents, effect of, on cobra-poison, 126.
Appearances, microscopical, of snake-poison, 119.
Appgarances, post-mortem, in cobra-poisoning, 15.
Artificial respiration in treatment, 152.
Australian snake-poisoning, 106.

166 INDEX.

B

Birds, effect of cobra-poison on, 9, 15.

Birds, effect of crotalus-poison on, 109.

Birds, effect of daboia-poison on, 58, 62.

Bite, pain after cobra, 11.

Blood, effect of cobra-poison on, 42. !

Blood, effect of daboia-poison on, 76.

Bungarus cceruleus, effects of poison of, 100.

Bungarus fasciatus, chronic poisoning by, 93.

Bungarus fasciatus, effect of poison of, on nervous system, 96..
Bungarus fasciatus, effect of poison of, on respiration, 97.

Cc

Carbolic acid, effect of, on cobra-poison, 127, 181.
Chlorine, effect of, on cobra-poison, 127.
Chronic poisoning by Bungarus, 93.

Chronic poisoning by daboia, 76.

Chemistry of snake-poison, 117.

Circulation, effect of cobra-poison on, 38.
Circulation, effect of daboia-poison on, 74.
Cobra-bite, description of, 136.

Cobra-bite, pain after, 11.

Cobra-poison, effect of, on amphibia, 9, 15.
“Cobra-poison, effect of, on birds, 9, 15.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on blood, 42.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on secretion, 41.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on the circulation, 38.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on the nervous system, 22.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on the respiration, 33.
Cobra-poison, effect of, on the temperature, 39.
Convulsions in cobra-poisoning, 36.
Convulsions in daboia-poisoning, 68.
Compulsory destruction of snakes, 160.
Conservancy of towns, 160.

Crotalus poisoning, 108.

INDEX. 167

D

Daboia, additional poison-gland of, 118.
Daboia-bite, local effects of, 64.

Daboia-poison, effect of, on amphibia, 63.
Daboia-poison, effect of, on birds, 58, 62.
Daboia-poison, effect of, on lacertilia, 62.
Daboia-poison, effect of, on nervous system, 65.
Daboia-poison, effect of, on respiration, 72.
Daboia-poison, effect of, on secretion, 76.
Description of cobra-poison, 118.

Description of cobra-wound, 136.

Destroying snakes, reward for, 155.
Destructiveness, order of, of snakes, 159.
Differences of symptoms of cobra and daboia poisoning, 81.
Distribution of Bungarus fasciatus, 84.

Dried cobra-poison, 118.

E

Echis carinata, effects of poison of, 103.

Efficacy of ligature, 147.

Excision of poison deposit, 143.

Excursus, respiratory, lessened by cobra-poison, 34.

F

Failing respiration, treatment of, 151.

Fang of cobra, 115.

Fang of daboia, 115.

Ferrous sulphate, effect of, on cobra-poison, 127.
Food of cobra, 114.

Food of daboia, 114.

G

Glgnd, poison-, additional, in daboia, 113.
Gtbsso-laryngeal paralysis in cobra-poisoning, 31.
Gold chloride, effect of, on cobra-poison, 130.

168 INDEX,

H

Hemorrhage in daboia-poisoning, 77, 80.
Hemorrhage, treatment of, 154.

Heart, tetanus of, in cobra-poisoning, 39.
Heat, effect of, on cobra-poison, 123.
Heat, effect of, on daboia-poison, 70,125.
Hydrate potassic and cobra-poison, 132.

I

Incision, necessity for, in snake-bite, 142.
Incubation in poisoning by Bungarus fasciatus, 94.
Insolubility of cobra-poison in alcohol, 131.
Interval without symptoms in cobra-poisoning, 43.
Intestinal tract, effect of cobra-poison on, 41.

Iron sulphate, effect of, on cobra-poison, 127.
Irregularity of respiration in daboia-poisoning, 73.
Irritability of nerve, effect of cobra-poison on, 28.

K

Kidneys, effect of Bungarus-poison on, 99.
Kidneys, effect of cobra-poison on, 41.
Kidneys, effect of daboia-poison on, 78.

L

Lacertilia, effect of daboia-poison on, 62.
Ligature, efficacy of, in snake-bite, 147.
Ligature in snake-bite, 139.

Local effect of Bungarus coeruleus poison, 103.
Local effect of Bungarus fasciatus poison, 95.
Local effect of cobra-poison, 17.

Local effect of daboia-poison, 64.

Loss of life by snakes, 162.

INDEX.

M

Mercuric chloride, action of, on cobra-poison, 130.
Metallic salts, effect of, on cobra-poison, 129,
Microscopic appearance of snake-pvison, 119,
Mongoose and cobra, 114.

Motor nerves paralysed by cobra-poison, 23.

N

Nature of snake-poisons, 117.

Nervous system, effect of Bungarus-poison on, 96.

Nervous system, effect of cobra-poison on, 22.
Nervous system, effect of daboia-poison on, 65.
Nitrate of silver and cobra-poison, 130.

Nitric acid and cobra-poison, 131.

Nitric acid and daboia-poison, 125.

O

Order of destructiveness of snakes, 159.

P

Pain after cobra-bite, 11.
Paralysis of motor nerves in cobra-poisoning, 23.

Paralysis of respiratory centre in cobra-poisoning, 32.

Paraplegia in cobra-poisoning, 29.

Paraplegia in daboia-poisoning, 71.

Period of incubation in Bungarus-poisoning, 94.
Post mortem appearances after cobra-bite, 15.
Potassa and cobra-poison, 132.

Potassium permanganate and cobra-poison, 128.
Potassium permanganate, treatment by, 129.
Printhey convulsions in daboia-poisoning, 68.

169

170 INDEX.

R

Rattlesnake poison, effect of, 108.
Recovery after cobra-poisoning, 44.
‘Resemblance between cobra-poisoning and glosso-laryngeal para-
lysis, 31.
Respiration, artificial, treatment by, 152.
Respiration, effect on, of Bungarus-poison, 97.
Respiration, effect on, of cobra-poison, 44.
Respiration, effect on, of daboia-poison, 72.
Respiratory centre paralysed by cobra-poison, 32.
Respiratory irregularity in daboia-poisoning, 73.
Rewards for destruction of snakes, 155.

8

Salivation in Bungarus-poisoning, 99.
Salivation in cobra-poisoning, 41.

Salts, metallic, effect on cobra-poison of, 129.
Season for destroying snakes, 161.

Secretion, effect of cobra-poison on, 41.
Secretion, effect of daboia-poison on, 75.
Silver nitrate and cobra-poison, 130.

Sites of snake-bites, 138.

Sodium hyposulphite and cobra-poison, 127.
Special senses, effect of cobra-poison on, 40,
Specific gravity of cobra-poison, 118.
Structures in snake-poison, 119.

Strychnia, effects of, 28.

Suction of wounds, 150.

Symptoms of Bungarus-poisoning, 92.
Symptoms of cobra-poisoning, 11. :
Symptoms of daboia-poisoning, 59.

T

Tannic acid and cobra-poison, 130.
Taste of cobra-poison, 118.
Temperature, effect of cobra-poison on, 39.

INDEX. 171

Temperature, effect of daboia-poison on, 75.
Tetanus of heart in cobra-poisoning, 39.
Treatment by alcohol, 150.

Treatment by potassium permanganate, 129.
Treatment, local, 148.

Treatment of chronic colubrine-poisoning, 155.
Treatment of hemorrhage, 154.

Treatment of symptoms, 150.

Time, changes produced in cobra-poison by, 119.
Time required to kill by snake-poison, 112.
Toleration of snakes, 157.

U

Use of rewards for snakes, 155.
Uses of poison apparatus, 113.

WwW

Weakness, muscular, in daboia-poisoning, 80.
Women frequently bitten by snakes, 157.
Wound inflicted by cobra, 136.

Wound inflicted by daboia, 80.

Z

Zine chloride, effect on cobra-poison of, 128.

LONDON :
PRINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE.

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