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New York

State College of Agriculture

At Cornell University
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Kibrary

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wil

ern pork production

i

SOUTHERN PORK
PRODUCTION

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924003220609

SOUTHERN PORK
PRODUCTION

BY

P. V. EWING, M. S.

Animal Husbandman in Charge of Swine Investigations, Texas
Agricultural Experiment Station. Formerly with Ohio State
University, Kansas State Agricultural College, and
Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station.

JLLUSTRATED

NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

1918

COPYRIGHT, 1918,
By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
All Rights Reserved

[Printed in U.S. A.]

PREFACE

A leading thought in the preparation of this volume
has been that swine husbandry offers the easiest and
safest kind of live stock endeavor to which the South,
as a whole, is generally adapted. Special emphasis and
stress has been placed on the practical side of pork pro-
duction, but as much of the scientific and theoretical as
may have an important bearing on the practice has been
included. Successful southern hog growers have been
freely consulted, and the farm press of the South has
assisted materially in the preparation of the manuscript.

The author here wishes to express his appreciation of
the generous assistance which has been accorded him by
many, and especially for the aid given him by his father,
R. B. Ewing, by Prof. C. L. Willoughby of the College
of Agriculture of the University of Florida, and by the
many agricultural workers and swine breeders who
assisted in supplying the photographs.

P. V. EWING.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Economic Aspects of the Swine Industry

CHAPTER II

Principles of Swine Breeding...............

CHAPTER III

Breeds sOf- SWANK ica a caw ww cmacteae nents eadh

id nine S Winer Aa eipses ences weak ees ANS

SHOWINGS IS WANES ara siong Sccsanle lances ed ar nincetcenetee sees

Feeding Swine... cc. 6 cece e scene ere eee eens

CHAPTER VII

Swine Management............0ee eee ee eee

CHAPTER VIII

Swine Diseases and Their Control...........

CHAPTER IX

PAGE

48

80

106

121

150

174

209

List of Illustrations

Pork production in Mississippi modernized-—I‘rontispiece

Some farmers combine beef and pork production

Typical unprofitable Coastal Plain pine-woods rooters

Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga.

Distribution of boys’ pigs club pigs .

Distribution of swine in southern states .

Proper feeding must accompany breeding

Swine breeding is dependent on the reproductive process

This type is on the increase in many sections of the South

Utility should be made the basis of all breeding operations

Litter mates; fed by a pig club boy and his father .

Blood lines of the Poland-China

Poland-China gilt, Jennie Girl (581414)

Blood lines of the Chester White and O. J. C.

Blood lines of the Small Yorkshire

Blood lines of the Duroc-Jersey zs

Duroc-Jersey boar, Defender’s Ohio Chief (45899)

Blood lines of the Essex

Blood lines of the Cheshire

Berkshire gilt, Premier’s Queen 25 (179325) .

Blood lines of the Berkshire

Hampshire gilt ‘

Louisiana bred Tamworth sow . 2

Big Guinea swine on Willow Dale Farm, Mayfield, tom

Points of the hog .

The butcher helps establish the aca BBEL type

From the rear the fat hog presents a compact appearance

Wholesale cuts marked on Champion Barrow 1913 Inter-
national

The body of the fat hee is jideed iereely. na fhe: aan view

Large type breeding swine are popular in the show ring
Mississippi State Fair Grand Champion Sows of 1915
Proper shelter is essential in show fitting

Personal attention is essential in show fitting

IX

107
113
118

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Most grazing crops should be supplemented

Feed wastes can be prevented by properly constructed ieouahs
Feeding city garbage near New Orleans, La. :
Self-feeders are becoming more popular in the South .
Monitor type winter farrowing house

Half monitor type winter farrowing house. f

The common A-shaped portable hog house

Cheap type small farrowing house and pen . :

A-type individual farrowing houses

Grazing lots make fall litters profitable

Winter farrowing houses in North Carolina

Lots to which sows and pigs are taken from farrowing ieee
Sunlight and dips are used to prevent disease

Administering serum to prevent hog cholera

Cement wallowing hole used to control lice

Typical drove of fat hogs coming to the Atlanta market.
Co-operative hog shipping day at Yazoo City, Mississippi
Too large for suitable pork production in the South

Home packing products resulting from high specialization
Making pure-bred Tamworth pork on Westview Stock Farm
In the cooler at Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga.
Hung up to cool overnight on farm of O. F. Troutman
Showing the usual method of cutting a side of pork

Smoke room of modern southern packing plant F 2

CHAPTER I

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE
INDUSTRY

Live stock farming necessary.—It is imperative that
southern farmers grow more live stock if we are to have
a permanent system of agriculture. We can raise more
cotton by adopting a system of farming that will guar-
antee an increase in soil fertility instead of a continual
decrease, as at present. The tenant cotton farmer has no
attachment for his land. Even the cotton farmer who
owns his land is in reality a tenant, for he hopes that his
children may not need to live on his farm, but that they
will have something better. On the contrary, the man
on the live stock farm looks far into the future, and he is
more firmly attached to his land and has its future at
heart, and he is a true landowner and improver.

Importance of soil conservation.—Over 40 per cent of
all products used in the factories of our country have
their origin in the soil. This makes agriculture the most
fundamental of all our national resources. We should,
therefore, take steps to conserve and add to our resources
of soil fertility rather than to continue depleting them,
as in the past. This is much more applicable to the
South than elsewhere, for here, not merely 40, but over
90 per cent, of the raw products used in our factories
come from the soil. Without a fertile soil the South can-
not long retain the position she now holds as the world’s
greatest producer of cotton. We must also have foods,

4 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

are fortunate in having a few good swine breeders scat-
tered widely over the South. It is largely due to their
efforts and courage that the southern swine industry has
developed so rapidly in the past 10 years. They have
demonstrated what can be done. They have not only
produced pork at a profit, but they have enriched their
soils, greatly increased their acre yields, and now have a
competence. It is high time that others follow their
example. The higher prices of meats in general, the
continued depletion of our soils under the one-crop
system, the tenancy evil, and the boll weevil menace, are
all sufficient reasons in themselves to cause every farmer
to enter the field of live stock production. The four
combined reasons make either pork production or the
beginning of some other form of live stock work an eco-
nomic necessity, to which we must acquiesce sooner or later.

Adaptability of the South for swine production—The
South is pre-eminently adapted to pork production for
several reasons. In the first place, we can supply feeds
for swine cheaper than any other section. We have grass
a greater number of days in the year than elsewhere.
This is a blessing in disguise, for grass is the basis of any
system of live stock farming. The South can have cheap
grass in the greatest abundance. The mild climate per-
mits a long growing season for cultivated feed crops.
Also, the expense of housing and sheds for protection
from the elements is not so great as in the more severe
climates. Cheap lands are abundant, and most of these
are admirably adapted to pork production. The amount
of tillable land is ample to produce the forage and other
crops. We can grow the greatest variety of forage crops,
especially the legumes, which not only supply an abun-

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 5

dance of nutritious feeds, but which assist in enriching
our depleted soils.

Natural conditions favorable for pork production On
account of climatic and economic advantages, and in
every other way, the South is destined to become a great
pork-producing section. Corn is increasing in use as a
human food without the agency of the hog, and the crops
which will be used for pork production in the South are
not such as can be used for human food so easily as corn.
In the South, grazing crops can be used all the year to a
greater or lesser extent. Not only do legumes and the
small grains do well, but fattening crops, such as corn,
chufas, peanuts, cowpeas, beans, sweet potatoes and
cassava, all make good growth. In an economic way the
production of live stock in the cotton regions has become
a necessity, and in adapting ourselves to some type of
animal husbandry, we shall naturally take to that type
which has proven most profitable. The seasons are
adapted to swine production because the winters are mild
and the summers not excessively hot, as they are tem-
pered by cool breezes and an abundant rainfall. Diseases
are no more prevalent than in other sections, and the
indications are that diseases are rarer in the South
than in the North (probably due to more sunshine), and that
the losses are due more to poor management than to disease.

Pork production a pasturing proposition.—One of the
principal advantages of the South as a swine-growing
section is the ease with which so many valuable swine-
grazing crops can be grown. Grasses do well and culti-
vated crops can be produced practically every month in
the year. Summer grasses, such as Bermuda, nut grass,
crab grass and wire grass, do well; while the clovers,

6 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

such as crimson, burr, red, white and Japan, and the
vetches, both the wild and the tame, provide legumes for
grazing the entire year. In addition, crops such as rape,
oats, rye, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, cowpeas, velvet beans,
chufas, cassava, artichokes, corn, peanuts, sorghum and
other valuable crops, make it possible to arrange for hog
pastures at all times. With no cheap carbohydrate con-
centrate, it is out of the question for the South to com-
pete with the Corn Belt in fattening hogs in feed lots.
The Corn Belt is rapidly coming to realize the advan-
tages of grazing crops, but the South can grow a greater
variety and have more grazing in winter than is possible
in the North and West. It has for a long time been
recognized that hogs cannot be successfully produced on
an extensive scale without pastures, and any large swine
industry in the South must of necessity be to a consider-
able extent a pasture proposition, as this has proven to
be the most practical and profitable.

Market values of beef and pork.—In making a study of
market prices of hogs and cattle in the South with corre-
sponding market prices in the North and West, we must
of necessity be impressed with the fact that at all seasons
of the year the prices paid for hogs compare well, with
occasional better prices in the South. In the case of
cattle, the prevailing prices are seldom equal to the
northern and western prices, and in most cases they are
only about three-fourths of the prices prevailing in the
North and West. It is true, of course, that southern hogs
compare better in class with the hogs produced in the
North and West than the classes of cattle compare.
Nevertheless, there is a difference which is sufficient to
have a considerable effect on pork production.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 7

Credits and swine production.—One important reason
why more southern farmers have not entered into an
extensive system of pork production has been the lack of
adequate capital, for some capital is required, and bank-
ers and merchants have not been willing to credit farmers
on many crops except cotton. With some farmers it is
therefore compulsory that they raise cotton exclusively.
Conditions in this respect are rapidly improving, how-
ever, and banks and bankers are encouraging in every
way possible a greater production of live stock, especially
swine. The merchants will be influenced by the action of
the bankers, and this great drawback will gradually be
overcome, and the farmers will reduce their cotton acre-
age and devote more attention to a permanent system of
live stock farming that will guarantee a more permanent
agriculture for the cotton belt. The time is near at hand
when live stock will be considered as much or more of an
asset than so much cotton.

Labor a limiting factor—One of the important limiting
factors upon a greater swine industry in the South is that
of labor. It is not so much a question of quantity of
labor as of quality. The average cotton negro has no
interest in live stock and has little natural ability in the
care, feeding and management of animals. This is due
to congenital conditions and environment. A few
negroes that have been brought up with live stock about
them in early life may by proper training become excel-
lent caretakers and manifest some interest and love for
the work. While the labor question requires careful
consideration, yet it is a difficulty that will decrease
readily with effort toward education. The average cotton
negro has not been trained to properly take care of swine.

8 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Classes of hogs grown in the South—There is no
reason why the pork produced in the South cannot be
equal in every respect to that produced in the North and
West. To be sure, the hogs that are marketed in the
South at present vary some from those marketed from
the Corn Belt. The hogs that are produced in the South
do not as a rule have the breeding, uniformity of size and

Typical unprofitable Coastal Plain pine-woods rooters. Courtesy
S. M. Byars of South Carolina.

condition of the northern and western hogs. Also, a
great many swine from the Coastal Plain region of the
southern states are fattened on peanuts or ground peas,
with the result that the pork has an oily constituency,
and is termed soft pork, which is greatly discriminated
against by most packers. When swine are fattened on
peanuts, it is usually the custom to top them off with
corn or other feeds to harden the fat.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 9

When we consider breeding, the South is far behind
other sections of America, and the proverbial “razorback”
is altogether too frequent. Improvement is rapidly tak-
ing place and this drawback will soon be removed. The
number of hogs that are produced on each farm is, as a
rule, more or less limited, which means than uniformity
will be somewhat difficult to attain. The improvement
made in recent years in arriving at the most profitable
class of hogs from both the standpoint of the producer
and packer has been rapid, and it will not be many years
until the South in general will be marketing swine that
on the whole will compare quite favorably with swine
from the Corn Belt and West.

Increase in soil fertility due to swine grazing.—Not
only is it possible for the farmer to make a profit from
grazing off a crop and turning it into pork, but by so
doing he thereby greatly increases the future capacity of
the land for growing staple crops. This has been clearly
pointed out by Gray’, in reports on some work done by
Bennett’ at the Arkansas Station, with results as shown

in the following table:

INCREASE IN COTTON YIELD DUE TO GROWING AND GRAZING OFF OF CROPS
Av.% Val. of
inc.in inc. per

seed acreeach

cotton year

due to Lint

Lbs. seed Lbs. seed Av. yield growing llc.

cotton cotton seedcotton and graz- Seed

1899 1900 1899-1900 ingcrop. 60c.

Cotton following peanuts

grazed by hogs_------ 1,771 1,134 1,452.5 61.1 $22.81

Cotton following soy
beans grazed by hogs-- 1,588 1,020 1,304.0 44.6 16.35

Cotton following chufas

grazed by hogs------- 1,200 981 1,090.0 20.9 7.68
Cotton following corn
not grazed by hogs--- 1,005 798 91.5 aes eane

* Farmers’ Bulletin 411. ; ;
? Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 68.

10 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

From this is seen the great increase in yield in future
crops by growing and grazing certain crops. Thus, when
we compute the value of an acre in grazing crops for
swine, we must not only figure on the amount of pork it
will produce, but also on the increase in the future pro-
ducing capacity of the land in cotton, corn and other
crops. From the above figures we can sce, in the case of
growing and grazing a crop of peanuts followed by
cotton, that more cotton was produced in the two follow-
ing years than would have been produced had cotton been
in the land all three years. In addition, this cotton was
produced at two-thirds the cost required with land in
cotton three years straight. Thus in three years’ time,
by growing a crop of peanuts and pasturing them off,
the farmer not only can make money on each crop of
cotton and on the pork produced on the peanuts, but in
the two years following, the increase in yield is more
than enough to make an extra crop of cotton without
additional cost. This increase in yield holds over for
several years. Thus we can see that the growing of
crops and grazing them off not only offers a direct means
of profit, but provides for a much greater indirect proit
through increased soil fertility. It virtually means that
every man can have a fertilizer factory on his farm that
will not only supply him with nearly all of the fertilizers
he needs free of cost, but will itself be a source of revenue.

Hogs on diversified farms.—At some time in the furure
most of the farms of the South will be diversified farms,
farms from which some grain, some cotton, truck crops,
fruit, dairy products, and some meat animals will be sold.
A diversified farm is not complete without some hogs.
They can make pork out of what would be otherwise
wasted. They can save the grain left in the field after

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 11

harvest; they will eat the left-over cottonseed and waste
of culls from all sorts of trucking operations, fallen
fruits containing the larve of injurious insects will be
utilized, the skim milk and buttermilk can be made into
pork, and the droppings of other live stock will be
gleaned for undigested food materials. As converters
of otherwise waste products into something with a mar-
ket value hogs are supreme.

Southern tendency of pork production.—The south-
ward tendency of pork production is not better illustrated
than by reference to the report of the Thirteenth Census.
In this we find that during the decade of 1900 to 1910 the
West Central states, comprising the greater portion of
the Corn Belt, lost 12.9 per cent in number of hogs, while
the south Atlantic divisions gained 7.2 per cent in the

Moultrie Packing Plant, Moultrie, Ga.

same period. The southern tendency of pork production
is shown in several ways. A study of the several cen-
suses shows that there has been a continual rise in value
per head of swine for the several southern states, which
rise has been greater than in the other sections. Also,

12 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

the development of a pork industry is attested by the
establishment in recent years of several packing houses
throughout the South.

Boys’ pig clubs.—Of all the organized efforts at im-
provement in the swine industry in the southern states
none is accomplishing more than the boys’ pig club work.
This work is fostered by federal, state and local officials
and organizations, with the most active part, however,
being taken by the Bureau of Animal Industry in co-
operation with the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstration
Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry. In each state is
placed a state pig club agent, a specialist in swine hus-
bandry, who looks after and supervises the work in his
state. In this work the county is made the unit, but
frequently smaller units in the county are made. County
demonstration agents usually have the immediate re-
sponsibility of organizing the work in the county. This
pig club work has been in existence a comparatively
short time, but already it has accomplished wonders in
the way of introduction of improved blood, the teaching
of improved methods of production, and of showing what
can be done with swine in a small way.

The objects of the pig club work are briefly set forth
in Farmers’ Bulletin 566, United States Department of
Agriculture, as follows:

1. To stimulate an interest in swine production end to
teach the boys how to raise better and cheaper hogs by
the use of improved blood and the growing of forage
crops.

2. To increase the number of hogs raised on the farms
in order that the meat for the home and that required to

feed the extra farm labor may be produced instead of
being bought.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 13

3. To complement the work of the boys’ corn clubs by
showing the boys how they can profitably sell their corn
through hogs.

4. To encourage the home curing of meats on the farm.

5. To teach the boys how to judge hogs and to select
them for breeding or market purposes.

6. To encourage the growing of forage crops and dis-
courage the use of high-priced feeds.

7. To instruct the boys in a practical way in the man-
agement, feeding, sanitation and prevention of diseases

Distribution of boys’ pig club pigs. Courtesy R. S. Mitchell of
Mississippi.

of swine, all of which information proves valuable with

respect to other forms of live stock work.

8. To give the boys a means of earning some money
for themselves while at home.

9. To instill in the boys while young a love of animals
which will result in their taking more interest in farm life,
and to furnish them at the same time some work which
will in a practical way give an insight into the business
side of farm life and incite in them a desire to struggle for
and attain success.

14 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

The pig clubs are usually organized in a business
manner with officers. A simple constitution and by-laws
are adopted. Fora president of the club a leader of such
work in the community is generally chosen. Other off-
cers are likewise elected, and the duties are prescribed in
the constitution and by-laws. Each club adopts a set of
rules, which are given also in the above-mentioned
Farmers’ Bulletin, as follows:

1. Any boy between the ages of 10 and 18 years may
become a member.

2. Each boy must secure at least one pig if he becomes
a member.

3. Each member must care for his stock in person, and
keep a record of the feed given and the pasture grazed.
He must record the weight of each pig when it came into
his possession, and at stated intervals, so as to determine
the gains. The date of farrowing should also be recorded.

4. Record blanks, which will be furnished, should be
filled out and certified by two disinterested persons.

5. Each member must have owned and kept a record of
his pig for at least four months in order to compete for a
prize.

6. The members must, whenever possible, show at
least one pig at the county exhibit, and the winner of the
county exhibit must show his pig at the state fair.

Geographical distribution of swine in the South.—As
a result of the last census we find the distribution of hogs
in the several southern states as follows:

Delaware: 2-cesu 4s 49260 Maryland -22-----.-- 301,583
District of Columbia__ 665: “Virginia. 225 225s02-2 797,635
West Virginia ----_-- 328,188 North Carolina ~_-___ 1,227,625
South Carolina ~_____ 665,211 ‘Georgia s22222----- 783,684
bllorida- 2223255 > <2 2: 810,069 Kentucky —_ 816
Tennessee 1835 (Mila balinianystee eee 1,266,733
Mississippi 1 Arkansas soos 1,518,947
Louisiana 505. Oklahoma -2-.-----2- 1,839,030

(Rexasy ato aan eons tees 2,336,365

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY 15

From the above figures and from the accompanying
map it is seen that as a general proposition swine are
rather evenly distributed over the entire South. The
larger states lead in total numbers and the smaller states
have the least numbers. In numbers the states rank as
follows: Texas, Oklahoma, Georgia, Arkansas, Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama,
North Carolina, Florida, Virginia, South Carolina, West
Virginia and Maryland. A study shows that the more

Distribution of swine in southern states according to Thirteenth
Census. (One dot equals 2,500 hogs.)

level sections sustain more hogs than do the rougher and
more mountainous sections. The tendency seems to be
for the industry to develop more rapidly in those sections
that are more easily cultivated. There are great differ-
ences in the hogs of the different sections of the country,
which differences are largely due to the extent of the
infusion of improved blood. As a general proposition,
the farther south towards the Gulf Coast one goes the
less improved the individual.

16 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Average value of swine per head.—The difference in
value of the hogs in the different states is well brought
out by the following figures, showing the value of hogs
per head for several states on January 1, 1916, according
to figures issued by the United States Department of

Agriculture:

Tex aS ones cebt sa sara see $7.70: Kentucky .-2-22----=-+-- $ 6.50
Oklahoma 322242222 Soo23 7.20 West Virginia ----------- 900
bouistana. 222-2+ eco sosee 7:30 Virginia, s.2:<-=.-----=- 7.00
Mississippi -------------- 620 South Carolina ---------- 8.50
(Alabama ies = ee SEs 7.60 North Carolina ---------- 7.80
Tennessee ~-------------- 680 Maryland <2222:4.2-225% 8.50
Georgia, 25-3520 7.70 New Jersey ------------- 12.80
Blopdat soe eee 600° .Délawate .2-225s522s22-22 9.00

These figures show how the value of swine in a general
way declines as we move southward. This is largely due
to inferior breeding and feeding, both of which can be
remedied. One of the first efforts to be made in the
development of a swine industry for the South should be
to use pure-bred boars and to improve the feeding by
greater production of feeds suitable for hogs, and by the
application of modern methods of feeding. There is no
good reason why just as valuable hogs cannot be raised
in Florida as in New Jersey.

CHAPTER II
PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING

Swine breeding.—While swine breeding is a science in
so far as it concerns biological functions and processes
and evolution, it is an art in practice. The practice of
swine breeding consists in the development of those
characteristics which are of value to man. In order to
accomplish this, the characteristics must be possessed by
the animal to start with. Our improved breeds of swine
‘would never have attained their present degree of per-
fection had not the high capacity for feed utilization been
inherent. This capacity has been cultivated and
developed.

Selection.—Progress in swine breeding has been made
by artificial and methodical selection based on utility. In
this selection both individuality and pedigree have been
considered. This selection has enabled the breeder to
favor and propagate desirable variations and to avoid the
more undesirable ones. Natural selection has also played
an important part in the development of breeds of swine.
The application of the law of “the survival of the fittest”
proceeds in the domesticated as well as in the wild state,
but in the domestic state it comes nearer being “the sur-
vival of the best,” since our efforts at artificial selection
are toward the favoring and fixing of those tendencies
of special value to man. Thus the progress in breeding
swine is dependent on the making of those selections of
value to man, depending upon heredity to fix the selected
qualities or characteristics.

17

18 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Laws of breeding —From time to time we read or hear
of the laws of breeding. The farmer or swine breeder
desires to know if he can make use of these to further his
interests. It is certainly well for the breeder to know
what progress has been made in the science of breeding,
but if it is something very practical desired the breeder
had best study the influence of environment, the origin,
history and pedigree of his animals, and make special
effort toward breeding more prolific strains than to
troub!e about infection, saturation, maternal impressions
and the transmission of acquired characters.

Heredity Heredity embodies those characteristics
which an individual acquires from its parents through its
germ plasm. The laws of heredity are none too well
understood, but it is so universal in its application and
has been the basis of our breeding operations until we
have accepted it as a fundamental. Like begets like has
been the basis of all of our improvement in breeding.
Unfortunately, good and bad characteristics are equally
transmitted, when taken as a whole. Difficulty is ex-
perienced in placing a quantitative value on heredity.

In the case of some characters we can measure the
character accurately, but the animal docs not necessarily
transmit those characters of its body, or somatic char-
acter, by means of its germ plasm, which we must recog-
nize as the sole carrier of hereditary substance. Weis-
mann, a famous investigator, has shown that the re-
productive cells are entirely distinet and separate from
the body or somatic cells. The germinal cells alone are
the carriers of the hereditary substances, and since these
are formed long before the birth of the animal, the im-
possibility of inheritance of acquired characters is evident,

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 19

This germ plasm is highly stable and independent of the
other cells of the body, which merely act as a carrier for
the germ plasm.

Variations.—One of the fundamental principles under-
lying our progress in breeding is that no two animals are
alike. All are different. These differences are referred to
as variations. They constitute to a large extent our basis
of selection, and without selection we would have had no
improved breeds of swine. All variations are of two
types, the inherent or congenital ones, and those pro-
duced by environment. Only the inherited or congenital
variations that arise spontaneously from the germ plasm
are inheritable. Unfortunately, the breeder cannot al-
ways distinguish between the inherited and acquired
variations. Environment both magnifies and obscures
inherited variations, and thereby assists in the making
of selections. Variations arise spontaneously from the
germ plasm, or else they are produced environmentally.
As breeders, we are interested in both kinds of variations,
but primarily, of course, only in the congenital variations.

Inheritance of acquired characters.—If a pig is stunted
and as a result develops a long snout and small stature,
we would call these acquired characters. If a pig has its
tail cut off, that would be an acquired character. For a
long time it was considered that all characters possessed
by an animal were inheritable and transmissible to the
next generation. In the light of more recent science we
must conclude that only those characters that are con-
genital and have their origin in the germ plasm are
inheritable.

Mendelism.—This is something about which we have
heard much in the field of scientific breeding, yet as a

20 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

matter of fact it has never proven to have any important
commercial value. In the past we have always con-
sidered that the crossing of two distinct characteristics
results in an intermediate character. This may occur in
the first generation, but if the characters are what have
been referred to as unit characters and Mendelize, some-
thing very strange happens, for instead of being an inter-
mediate type it will resemble more or less one of the two
original characters, and that character or type which it
resembles most is referred to as the dominant character.
These first crosses are called hybrids, so far as the par-
ticular character being studied is concerned. If two
hybrids are crossed the characters may Mendelize, or
break up, and all of the offspring do not have the same
characters, for while about half will resemble their
parents, the other half will resemble their grandparents,
giving a numerical proportion of 1:2:1 so far as the
characters are concerned. This ratio is the Mendelian
proportion stated in its simplest form.

Unit characters—The number of different characters
that are susceptible to Mendel’s Law is unknown. New
ones are continually being worked out and added to the
list. It is assumed that most characters that do not
Mendelize are composed in reality of several separate
characters, which makes it impossible to study the segre-
gation of the several unit characteristics of the offspring.
Since each character that Mendelizes is a unit, and since
no further division of the character is possible, the char-
acter is referred to as a unit character. A great many
characteristics have been proven to be unit characters,
inherited according to the laws discovered by Mendel.

Breeding the best to the best.—Since swine improve-
ment first began, the principle which has led to the

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 21

greatest success has been the breeder’s maxim, “Breed
the best to the best.” While as a general rule this is a
good one to follow, and in most instances is the best,
there are instances where it will result in failure. If the
breed is pure as to origin the results may prove satisfac-
tory, but if the origin of the breed has been complex, and
especially if the breed is of recent origin, the practice of
breeding the best to the best may yield a high per cent

Proper feeding must accompany breeding. Courtesy of E. J.
McCall of Louisiana.

of failures. This is easily understood when we consider
that if a breed is pure there is a variation around one
mean only, while when the breed is complex as to origin
and is made up of several types, the variations tend to
cluster around several means, and marked reversions too
often accompany crossing of members of the breed that
appear similar. Therefore, while it is fraught with
danger in some instances, about the best we can do is to
breed the best to the best, unless we have good reasons
for doing otherwise.

Pedigree.—Our progress in swine breeding must be to
a large extent based upon proper utilization of pedigree

22 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

or records of ancestry. Especially are pedigrees im-
portant in determining the prepotency of breeding swine.
The boar or sow possessing for several generations back
high-class individualities in their ancestry gives greater
assurance of itself being prepotent over another boar or
sow with equally as good an individuality, but lacking in
high-class individualities in their pedigree. Our pedi-
grees are dependent on the record associations, and fre-
quently it is impossible to trace the pedigree of swine
back for more than twenty generations.

Environment.—Environment is the external factor of
food, climate, shelter, etc., with which an animal is sur-
rounded. It is impossible to state just the exact influence
that environment has on animals, but, as a rule, it is
much greater than one might suppose. The quality of
early maturity, a much sought for character in our im-
proved swine, is greatly influenced by environment.
This factor of environment is very largely under the
control of the breeder. With it he can accomplish a great
deal. Environment may be as valuable as inheritance,
and either alone is valueless. Since environment is
simply the development of inherited traits, heredity is
probably the most important. The one great value of
environment to the breeder is that it so magnifies and
modifies the inherited traits as to make minute variations
between individuals discernible, so that selections can be
made with a considerable degree of reliability.

Inbreeding.—Inbreeding consists in the mating of
rather closely related individuals that possess desirable
characteristics, with the object of fixing or stamping the
type into the offspring. When carried too far, or when
the crossing is too radical, a loss of size, vigor and fer-
tility occurs, accompanied by a strong tendency for the

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 23

occurrence of malformations of various sorts. The re-
sults of inbreeding are different with different strains and
breeds. That inbreeding has a place in our breeding
practice is indicated by the fact that it has been freely
made use of in the formation of practically all of our
improved breeds of swine. In the hands of the right
man it can be used to good advantage.

Line breeding.—This is a term that is applied to one of
the methods often employed by breeders to fix a certain
type or character on their animals. Most breeders of
pure-bred hogs are line breeders, for they endeavor to
breed along a certain line. Line breeding resembles in-
breeding, but it is not so drastic. It has virtually the
same effects as inbreeding in fixing characters and estab-
lishing types, but it acts slower. As in inbreeding, it
may result in loss of vigor, size and fertility when carried
out without using sufficient judgment. Line breeding
has the opposite effect from cross-breeding. In practice
it consists of the continued use of the blood of some far-
ticular individual or strain of individuals in trying to
stamp or fix a certain character into the herd. This
method of improvement also has its drawbacks, for while
we are establishing some good characteristics we may
also be fixing and magnifying undesirable qualities.
Good examples of this are seen in those extremely well-
bred animals that in reality do not have the individuality
to merit registration. Nevertheless, in spite of its draw-
backs, our most successful breeders have made free use
of it. At present it is about the quickest way we have to
magnify and fix a character. The main thing is in know-
ing the character and in realizing its value, and to have
the courage and conviction to stick to the character once
it is known.

24 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Cross-breeding.—Strictly speaking, by cross-breeding
we refer to the crossing of two different breeds, yet from
the standpoint of breeding it may refer to the crossing of
different types or strains. This crossing is often made
use of in our breeding operations where increased size,

Successful swine breeding is dependent on the reproductive
process. Courtesy Joe R. Martin of Georgia.

vigor, thrift and fertility are sought. Many highly bred
females will not conceive to their kind, and a different
strain must be used. While, of course, there are advan-
tages to be gained by cross-breeding, it is not without
disadvantages. It always results in more or less in-
stability, and one cannot foretell with what success the
cross is being made. For this reason it is better to always
make moderate crosses only, for radical crosses more
often result unsatisfactorily, the instability of type
probably running several generations before being
re-established.

The reproductive process.—In order that a breeder may
carry on his work with intelligence, he should become

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING Z5

first well informed on the general principles of biology
that underlie reproduction. He cannot appreciate the
importance of heredity, the necessity of selection and the
value of variation until he does this. To understand
these principles he must first appreciate the cell and the
part it plays in the animal kingdom. He must look upon
the cell as the biological unit. He must know what cells
are, how they act, and why they are so important. He
must know something of cell structure, functions and
processes.

The cell—tThe entire body of any animal is made up of
cells. These cells may partake of a variety of shapes and
functions. In the simplest form it consists of a mass of
protoplasm with a nucleus, with the whole inclosed in a
cell wall. Within this cell absorption, assimilation,
growth and reproduction take place. The reproductive
function is of greatest importance, since the process of
growth and production of the animal is dependent on
cell division. The process of cell division is quite com-
plicated. The somatic cells, or body cells, are being
built up and destroyed continuously, but the reproductive
or germinal cells live from the time the animal is con-
ceived until they are expelled, or until the animal dies.
Therefore, the breeder should look upon the animal as
made up of millions of units, and before the entire animal
can be understood the functions and process of the in-
dividual units must be understood and appreciated.

The male germ cell (spermatozoon).—This cell origi-
nates in the germinal cells in the testicle. After several
divisions, they are fully developed spermatozoa, and pass
from the testicle as mobile cells, consisting of a head,
which contains the nucleus, a neck, and mobile tail. This

26 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

cell passes to the female organs and is attracted to the
female germ cells, with fertilization as the result.

Female germ cell (ovum).—These cells originate in the
ovary in a manner somewhat similar to the way in which
the spermatozoa originate. The cell is very large. Each
of these cells, as a rule, unites with one spermatozoon to
develop into the embryo from which a pig comes. In
some instances a fertilized ovum may split and two pigs
may result from the same cell, but more often each pig
comes from a separate ovum after it has united with a
spermatozoon. This cell is not mobile, but it gravitates
from the ovary to the uterus by the oviduct or the
Fallopian tube.

Fertilization of ovum.—The female cells travel toward
the uterus, and the sperm cell travels about in the uterus
and may go up the Fallopian tube to meet the female cell
to which it is attracted. When the two cells meet, the
male cell enters the female cell, leaving his tail behind,
with the result that the two nuclei of the germ cell
coalesce to start the process of cell division which results
in the embryo from which the pig comes. Since the
hereditary material of an animal is carried in its germ
plasm, the offspring partakes of the characters of both
parents.

Pregnancy.—When the male germ cell unites with the
female cell the result is a pregnancy. The pregnancy
extends until parturition. When a sow becomes preg-
nant it is indicated by (1) cessation of periods of heat,
(2) change in disposition, (3) tendency to fatten, (4) en-
largement of the abdomen, (5) and in the later stages by
sinking of loins, congestion of udder and external
genitals.

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 27

Reversion, or atavism.—Breeders frequently have
animals appear in their herds that are unlike their parents
or any near ancestor, but they seem to resemble some of
the older types of animals from which the breed origi-
nated. These variations are referred to as reversions,
and the tendency to revert is spoken of as atavism. The
tendency to revert is constant, and it seems that the
higher bred and more specialized our types become, the
more subject they are to reversion. It seems that even
through most extensive breeding we cannot escape the
influences of atavism. Especially does atavism manifest
itself when two different strains are crossed, or when the
animals are placed under different or adverse conditions.
Usually these reversions are undesirable in breeding, but
those reversions resulting from changed environmental
conditions can be controlled to some extent. Those
atavisms that are congenital are beyond our control and
use. Therefore, the further we advance in our swine
breeding the greater will be the efforts required to main-
tain what we have produced up to the attained standard.

Superfcetation and superfecundation.—This is an ab-
normal condition resulting from a pregnant sow con-
ceiving during a pregnancy. They sometimes will come
in heat while pregnant, and if served may conceive.
This condition is rare, however. It also may happen
that during a period of heat a sow may be served by more
than one boar, with the result that she may have pigs in
the same litter by both. Such a condition is referred to
as superfecundation. It will occur often where the
opportunity is presented.

Fecundity.—Fecundity of swine refers to their pro-
lificacy, or their ability to produce young in abundance.

28 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Fecundity is determined to a very large extent by en-
vironmental conditions, such as exercise, confinement,
climate, food supply, and season; in addition, it is in-
fluenced by such factors as age, size, condition, disease
and health, constitution and conformation. The most
common causes of a low fecundity are lack of exercise
and too high a condition. As to age, usually the number
of pigs in the first litter is less than the number in the
next few litters; then, after five or six years of rather
heavy production, there is a more or less gradual, some-
times rapid, decline, until the breeding powers cease, at
about ten years, a few remaining active breeders beyond
this age. Of course, the higher producing sows are more
desirable. Even though under the most favorable con-
ditions natural selection will assist materially in weeding
out the poorer breeders, care should always be taken
in the making of selections of breeding animals to choose
only those animals coming from large litters.

Determination of sex.—Rules for the control of sex
seem to have always existed, and they still flourish.
Thousands of theories have been propounded, and all
have failed to survive the tests of time.

The hog breeder.—To be a successful hog breeder one
must have a high-class breeding herd and yet be able to
produce each year individuals that are an improvement
over their parents. This requires a man of more than
ordinary ability and skill. He must of necessity give his
work great thought. He should know the demands of the
market and breed accordingly. The known laws of
breeding should be utilized. Men capable of becoming
successful hog breeders are few, especially as compared
with those who would make successful producers of

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 29

market hogs. Above all, the true swine breeder must
appreciate the principles of breeding, and he should study
and apply the established laws of breeding to his
operations.

Breeding conditions in the South—The breeding of
pure-bred swine has never become an established prac-

This type is on the increase in many sections of the South.
Courtesy Dr. R. Thor Weaver of Florida.

tice in the greater part of the South as it has in the Corn
Belt. But comparatively few pure-bred herds are main-
tained in the South below the southern Tennessee line,
yet within recent years there has been a decided tend-
ency for the more progressive breeders to grow regis-
tered animals, The result has been a rather rapid im-

30 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

provement in numbers and quality of swine. For many
years past, of course, the cotton industry has predomi-
nated, but it is rapidly becoming recognized that a
system of live stock farming is essential to a permanent
system of cotton production, and that the total cotton
production can be greatly increased by the proper intro-
duction of a system of swine husbandry.

Proportion of pure-bred swine.—In the southern states
there are approximately 20,000,000 head of hogs. Of
these there are much less than 20,000 pure bred and
registered that are used in improving and increasing the
quality and quantity of hogs. In other words, there is
less than one pure-bred and registered hog in the South
to exert its influence in the improvement of every 1,000
head of grade and scrubs. These figures readily show
the present status of the pure-bred swine breeding in-
dustry in the South, and they bring out sharply the great
possibilities for improvement. Especially do these figures
show that the possibilities of pure-bred swine business in
the South are based on sound principles, and that it is
merely in its infancy in many respects.

The lack of improved breeding.—While the present
condition of our swine-breeding industry in the South is
far from what it should be, it is nevertheless hopeful. In
order to correct and perfect conditions we must fully
appreciate the present status of the industry. In the first
place, there has been a general lack of infusion of good
blood. In the second place, what pure blood has been
used has been indiscriminatingly mixed with other blood
and has not been conserved. Thirdly, grade and scrub
boars have been indiscriminately and promiscuously
used. And, fourth, inferior pedigreed boars have been

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 31

used as sires where they should have been sent to the
pork barrel. One of the most regrettable sights is to see
a scrub boar masquerading under a pedigree heading the
herd of a would-be breeder, who knows no better than to
assume that, because his boar is registered, he is fit to
head a herd.

Better blood always needed.—In all of our swine-
breeding operations there is one thing that must be con-
stantly borne in mind, and that is that there is always
need for improved blood. The aim of the breeder should
always be to produce something better. With all of the
effort that will ever be directed toward improvement,
there will always be room for more. That stage in swine
breeding will never be attained at which no further effort
will be needed to maintain the perfection of the breeds.
This is in a measure due to the fact that there is a con-
stant tendency for an improved strain or breed to revert
to an original type, and the higher the specialization and
the nearer perfection we approach the greater will be the
effort required to maintain, much less improve, the breeds
of swine.

Co-operative swine breeding.—Of late we have heard
considerable of co-operative dairy and beef cattle breed-
ing associations. There is no reason why the same prin-
ciple would not apply to swine breeding. In general,
the plan would be for a community of farmers interested
in a particular breed of swine to form an association,
binding themselves by an agreement to advance the
interests of the chosen breed. They would agree to use
nothing but pure-bred and registered boars and sows, as
each member might choose. The plan would be for the
boars to be purchased by the association from the best

32 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

breeders after they had been passed on by a capable
judge. These boars would then be distributed among
the different breeders, to be used until such a time as in-
breeding might result, when an exchange of boars would
be made. This exchange is then made without additional
expense to the breeders, and an entirely new boar is
received. By this method the most valuable boar would
soon be recognized by his pigs, and these pigs could be
used for general improvement. Another great advantage
of such an association would come through the attraction
of buyers of swine for pork and breeding purposes.
Such an association, if of sufficient size, could afford a
sales agent to do nothing else but make sales.

County swine breeders’ associations.—In forming co-
operative breeding associations the county can frequently
be most conveniently made the unit, especially where the
counties have farm demonstration agents or similar
officers. Under such conditions the formation of an asso-
ciation is very desirable and should be encouraged,
especially in every county where the swine interests are
sufficiently large to justify its existence. The chief aims
of such an association should be the promotion of better
breeding, better methods of selling and better and more
profitable swine husbandry in general. Several county
swine breeders’ associations are already in existence, and
the county as a unit has generally proven more effective
than larger and more scattered units.

Pure-bred swine breeding as a business.—But very few
swine breeders have attained wealth through their swine-
breeding operations. The requirements for success in
this business are as exacting as in any other business,
and the infinite amount of painstaking work and attention

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 33

required is such that success is possible with but remark-
ably few men. Less than ten per cent of those who enter
the business remain in it longer than ten years and make
what would ordinarily be called a success.

Future of pure-bred swine business.——The pure-bred
swine business is at the very foundation of our entire
pork-producing industry. Naturally, as in the past, the
pure-bred herds will be called on in the future more and
more to improve our pork-producing herds and maintain
the perfection which has already been attained. The
necessity of a liberal use of pure blood is recognized by
pork producers, and the outlook for pure-bred swine is
good, to say the least. A careful review of the pork
industry in southern states in general will show that there
is a very profitable future near at hand for producers of
pure-bred swine of the right sort.

Pure-bred swine business looks tempting.—Far too
many men enter the pure-bred swine business with inade-
quate capital and experience, and they are unwilling to
give the business the time and care it demands, which, of
course, means ultimate failure. True, all breeders who
have accomplished anything to be proud of have only
done so after failures and disappointments, but these dis-
appointments would be fewer if we took greater precau-
tions in starting.

Number of hogs to grow.—The number of hogs which
one can conveniently and profitably produce will depend
to a great extent on the factor of food supply. Therefore,
in the contemplation of swine production, one of the first
considerations should be that of available food supply.
This will, of course, depend on the feeds and the quanti-
ties which one expects to feed. A probably easier method

34 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

of calculating is to place the number of hogs on the acre
basis, since any system of swine production in the South
will largely depend on the growing and grazing of pasture
crops. While single acres have been known to produce
with one crop upwards of 1,400 pounds of pork, a fair
average would be somewhere between 250 and 500
pounds, depending on the fertility. If the land is fertile,
one could therefore produce annually an average of four
head per acre that would average from 100 to 150 pounds
per head. If the land is very fertile, it may provide feed
for more than this, but the most of the land, especially in
the start, will provide feed for a smaller number.

The boar breeder.—There are a great many breeders of
pure-bred swine who make it a business to breed pure-
bred boars to supply the needs of farmers and other
breeders. Such a breeder is forced to breed animals to
meet the demands of the pork market, although he may
never send animals to the market. It therefore behooves
him to thoroughly inform himself on what the market
demands, for the boars he sells must be capable of siring
the type the market desires. While fashionable pedigrees
are desirable, market type and superior individuality are
more desirable, and those breeders who breed on pedigree
alone and who ignore the demands of the market and
show ring will sooner or later lack buyers for their boars.
The necessity of basing all of our swine-breeding opera-
tions on the utility basis becomes continually more and
more apparent.

Breeding for pork.—The aim should be to produce only
the type most sought after, for, as a general rule, those
hogs that bring the higher prices have been most profit-
able to their owners. Not only must the selections be

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 35

based upon the demands of the market, but the owner
must figure profits closely on each animal. Above all, the
individuals should be the quick-growing kind, with a good
constitution and a natural heavy fleshing. They should
show their breeding and give evidences of their
superiority. The blocky, compact, low-set animal most
nearly conforming to the ideal pork type should be
sought.

Always use a pure-bred sire.—There is one rule that is
applicable to all forms of swine-breeding industry that
should never be disregarded. This is to use always a
pure-bred sire, regardless of the objects sought, whether
the aims be to produce animals for breeding purposes or
for market. We frequently find grade individuals of
marked excellence that are considered good enough to
head a herd, but in most cases the resultant offspring in
the first generation will show marked traces of the
inferior breeding.

Continually grade up.—One thing that will have to
be borne constantly in mind by all breeders is that there
is always a necessity to select and breed up continually,
even though no improvement may be sought. This is
necessary if we are to maintain the excellence of our
animals. The condition is just as true, or more so, with
a pure-bred herd than with a market herd. This results
from the fact that the higher bred and specialized our
swine are, the greater the effort to maintain that breeding
and specialization. This tendency to reversion to an
inferior type is constant, and calls for a constant effort
at improvement which cannot be ignored.

Breeding for type.—In all breeding operations the ideal
must be kept constantly in mind, and all efforts must

36 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

have one aim—to secure that type. If one is selecting an
ideal grazing type of hog, he must know what constitutes
an ideal grazer. In breeding for a special type, ancestry
must be given due consideration. Individuals possessing
the desired type, but with different ancestry, may give
the desired results. On the other hand, the selection of
individuals with ancestry conforming to the desired type,
and as nearly similar in characteristics as possible, might
accomplish results quicker. Less variation in type is apt
to result when ancestry of similar characteristics are used,
and the desired type may be fixed in the offspring much
quicker than where the types involved in the offspring
varied greatly.

Type.—Type is a generic term applied to those groups
of swine of similar size, conformation and utility. These
various types have been evolved to meet certain demands
for swine, with certain qualifications. The result is that
each breed has its own special peculiarities which are not
found in the individuals of other breeds in the same pro-
portions. These characters grouped together are re-
ferred to as ‘breed type.” Ina general way the several
breeds of swine, therefore, are naturally classed or
grouped into certain classes, dependent upon their char-
acteristics. Thus we have the lard type of swine, in
which there are several breeds. These swine have strong
propensities for fattening, and their carcasses yield a
large amount of fat or lard. In the same way we have the
bacon types of swine, which are inclined to make lean
meat rather than fat.

Breed for utility —All breeding for improvement must
be based upon utilitarian lines in order to be justifiable.
This is the prime requisite for a successful breeder, and

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 37

all successful breeders have made utility the basis of their
operations and the goal of their efforts. The real value of
any meat animal depends upon its ability to convert the
products of the farm that are unfit for human food into
something that is edible. Its ability to do this most
economically determines its relative earning capacity to
its owner. Of course, fashionable pedigree, color mark-

Utility should be the basis of all breeding operations. Courtesy
E. C. McInniss of Mississippi.

ings and fads may be given some consideration, but
utility should never be sacrificed for any of these to the
least extent. While formerly some of the show ring
judges failed to recognize these cardinal principles, they
are now fully appreciated, and the animal that indicates
having brought the greatest profit to its owner is gener-
ally given first consideration.

Breeding for utility involves pedigree and individuality.
—Some breeders are inclined to place too much emphasis
on the fancy side and forget the practical, while others
place too much emphasis on the practical side and totally

38 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

ignore pedigree and blood lines. What we should aim
for is a middle ground, which alone can be the basis of
real utility. The middle ground takes note of not only
breeding and blood lines, but of individual merit and suit-
ability for breeding purposes. For the beginner, this is a
hard ground to take. He knows that the pedigrees are
the tabulated record of the ancestry of the individual, and
only guarantee ancestry, whether they be good or bad.
A good pedigree would, of course, contain a large number
of individuals possessing high merit.

Pure-bred hogs for farmers.—Many farmers are of the
opinion that pure-bred swine are for the rich and gentle-
men farmers only, and that they are not suited for aver-
age farm use, as they lack constitution and cannot main-
tain themselves under average farm conditions. In the
latter assumption they are partly correct, but it is due to
no fault of the swine. What the farmer wants is an
animal that will make pork and make it cheaply, and that
is what pure-bred or high-grade animals will do. In the
selection of breeding animals the farmer can do no better
than to select a pure-bred boar and either pure-bred or
high-grade sows, in spite of the fact that they may seem
to cost a little more to start with, for the advantages of
type, early maturity and economy of production soon out-
weigh any extra original cost. Scrubs and unimproved
animals are, of course, adapted to some farming methods,
but if a farmer is equipped for pork production at all, and
desires steady profits, he should consider no other breed-
ing animals than pure breds or high grades.

Cross-breds.—The term “cross-bred” is used somewhat
more loosely than the term “pure bred.” Some authori-
ties state it is used to designate that an individual is the

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 39

offspring of parents from different breeds, and that it is
not necessary that the parents be pure bred, but they
must be very high grade. Others state that an animal is
a cross-bred when the sire and dam were both pure bred,
but belong to different breeds.

Under certain circumstances it may be well to cross
two breeds, but the cross should never be carried farther
than one generation. In the second generation the tend-
ency is for various characteristics to Mendelize and split
off, and the resultant great variation is decidedly detri-
mental. Therefore, if we do any crossing at all, we
should not carry it farther than the first generation. It
is true that swine breeders and pork growers in general
attach great value to crossing breeds, claiming greater
vigor, quicker maturity and larger and stronger bone.
These advantages are to a large extent only apparent,
and experimental evidence shows the advantages to be
so slight as not to justify the crossing as a regular prac-
tice. Breeds should only be crossed, therefore, when hogs
are to be grown for the market. Most any breed will
cross up well with other breeds, but crossing is usually
not advisable, and should only be carried out under
exceptional circumstances.

Prepotency of pure-bred boars.—Pure-bred boars seem
to possess a certain prepotency and ability to stamp their
type that is not possessed by scrub or grade boars. This
is very much in evidence where a pure-bred boar is used
on a few native sows, in which the pigs of the first gener-
ation are apparently almost full blooded. This ability to
stamp type on the offspring is not possessed by the scrub.
This characteristic of pure-bred swine is undoubtedly due
to long and continued line inheritance as a result of
selection. The type of the pure bred we might say is

40 »~ SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

dominant,- while that of the scrub is recessive. This
means that the type of the pure-bred animal is inherited
and can be implanted on those swine not now possessing
pure-bred type. In this connection the fact must not
be lost sight of that the superiority of the pure bred over
the scrub is not-alone in breeding, for a pure-bred animal
when starved soon takes on a great many characteristics
of the scrub animal, and the well fed up scrub can be

Litter mates; one fed by a pig club boy and the other by his
father. Courtesy W. W. Browder of Kentucky.

made to partake of some of the characteristics of the pure-
bred type. This shows that breeding and feeding must
go hand in hand, and further indicates the better and
more economical use to which a pure-bred animal puts
his food than does the scrub.

Why pure-bred swine seem expensive—When full-
grown hogs are selling at from $25 to $50 per head, it
seems to the inexperienced that $25 for a registered boar
pig is a very liberal price. While this may seem an cx-
cessive figure to pay for a pure-bred boar pig, it is not.
Pure-bred swine of the right kind cannot be grown as
cheaply as scrubs, for they must be better fed and cared
for in order to be in salable condition, and the trouble
and costs of keeping up registrations is no small item of

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 41

expense. The trouble is that too many look at the first
cost alone. Twenty-five dollars is not an unreasonable
price to pay for a registered pig to make a herd header
of, and a sire selected at $75 to $100 would probably be
far more profitable in the long run than a cheaper one.
The additional value placed upon each pig in the first
crop generally much more than pays the difference be-
tween a cheap or scrub sire and a good, pure-bred one.

Swine-breeding terms.—Before one can intelligently
understand the underlying principles of swine breeding,
it is necessary that he familiarize himself with certain
terms that are met with more or less frequently in dis-
cussing the subject. Among these terms we frequently
find “pure bred,” “full blooded,” “thoroughbred,” “cross-
bred,” “high grade,” “grade,” “unimproved,” “scrub,”
“native.”

Pure bred.— Used synonymously, but erroneously, with
the term “pure bred,” are the terms “full blooded” and
“thoroughbred.” In speaking of any phase of swine
breeding it is never necessary to make use of the latter
two terms, and their use should be avoided as they are
more or less confusing. In discussions on swine breeding
the term “pure bred” is probably met with more fre-
quently than any other of the terms used. This term is
applied to those hogs whose ancestors came from the
native homes of the breeds in question and conformed to
the requirements of the breed. The blood must be pure
and the breeding and ancestry must be known for several
generations back. An animal cannot be considered as a
pure bred unless it is capable of being registered in the
standard herd book for the breed to which it lays claim.
The advantage of a pure-bred animal lies in the fact that

42 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

its ancestors were especially selected animals, all possess-
ing certain desirable characteristics insisted upon by the
men who founded and developed the breed.

Grades.—The term “grade” is generally used in con-
junction with one of the breeds, as “grade Duroc-Jerseys,”
or “grade Berkshires.” It indicates that the animal has
one-half or more of the blood of the breed mentioned.
In its use the term “high grade” is closely related to that
of “grade.” ‘High grades” are those hogs containing as
much as seven-eighths of the blood of one of the improved
breeds. When an animal becomes a high grade it is
almost impossible to tell it from a pure bred by a casual
observation.

Scrub swine.—Used synonymously with the term
“scrub swine” are “native” and “unimproved.” All of
these terms 2re applicable to those animals that do not
carry more than at least a small amount of the blood of
any of the improved breeds. They bear no evidence of
superior breeding. None of their ancestors were pure
bred, or at least if they were it is so distant that none of
their influence is manifested in the offspring. The term
“scrub” may be, and often is, applied to inferior swine of
any breeding. In general, the term “native” has a little
broader application than the other two terms, and is often
used to designate the swine of all kinds gathered up in a
certain locality.

Breeding management of a pork-producing herd.—To
start with, a uniform lot of sows should be secured. The
breeding and degree of excellence of these will be deter-
mined by several factors. If pork production alone is
desired, and high grades are secured, these should have
indications of the blood of one breed only. From the

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 43

same breed a pure-bred boar should be selected to mate
with these sows in order to secure a uniform lot of pigs.
While uniformity of itself may possess no real value, it
is one of the best paying investments to be made, for it
generally costs little or nothing and the market pays well
for it. The selection of the boar should be most carefully
made, regardless of the ultimate object of the breeding.
If grade sows are used and pork is to be produced, the
aim should be to continue the grading up from year to
year and from boar to boar. Such breeding practice con-
tinued through but a few years will give one a herd of
grade animals comparing quite favorably with pure breds
so far as uniformity of product and resultant offspring
are concerned. Breeding for pork production alone has
several distinct advantages over breeding for breeding
purposes, and not the least among these advantages is
the fact that in the pork-producing herd it is necessary to
keep the breeding animals in as high condition as in the
case of the pure-bred herd.

Breeding condition—While we must not forget the
necessity of keeping our breeding animal in high condi-
tion, we must recognize the incompatibility of too high a
condition with the best of breeding qualities. The best
results are obtained when the animals are neither too fat
nor too lean, but when they are in what might be con-
sidered the most healthy condition.

The results of too high condition—This danger of too
high a condition in breeding animals is already well
known. As to the causes, there may be several, but in
the cases of the females it is safe to assume that the large
quantities of fat deposited around the internal repro-
ductive organs do not make for the best breeding quali-

44 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

ties. The excess of fat seems to crowd the embryos,
possibly pressing against certain blood vessels and
nerves, thereby cutting off a part of the nutrition and
limiting the reproductive functions. In addition to this,
very fat animals do not, as a rule, take sufficient exercise
to guarantee the most healthy condition. This applies
to the overfed boar as well as to the sow. In the boar
the factors of proper nutrition and blood supply to the
reproductive organs may also play an important role.

Sterility, or barrenness.—Many of our high-bred swine
are barren, or sterile. This is a matter of vital importance
to the breeder. It is not a trouble confined solely to one
sex. In the female it may be due to failure of develop-
ment of the ova, to diseased organs, fatty degeneration,
contraction of the cervix of the uterus, to acid discharge
in vagina, weakness of the germ cells after conception,
lack of exercise, and to other physiological abnormalities.
In the male, many of these same or paralleled conditions
prevail to cause sterility. Where the trouble is due to
faulty management, it is the best plan to see that the
affected animals are allowed ample exercise, that they
are kept healthy and in good breeding condition, but not
too fat, and that the sexual functions are not overworked.

Number of pigs to litter—The question of the possible
number of pigs to the litter, the most desirable number
to have, and the ways of influencing the numbers of pigs
in litters have attracted some attention from breeders.
In numbers, it is possible for sows to have all the way
from 1 to 24. The latter figure is the number of pigs
farrowed at one time by one of the early sows in the
history of the Poland-China breed. This litter was far-
rowed in the herd of Chas. Hankinson, in Warren County,

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 45

Ohio, the place of origin of the breed mentioned. The
average number of pigs farrowed is much less than this,
of course, and for no breed does it exceed ten head.
Most breeds will average between six and ten head to
the litter, the fat or lard type of hogs generally farrowing
the smaller numbers. As to the most desirable number
to have, it is never desirable for a sow to have more pigs
than she has mammz. Most sows have 12 possible
functional mammz. This number is, however, too large,
and as a rule ten is as many pigs as one can expect to
handle and care for in one litter.

The number of pigs per litter and their sex is to a large
extent beyond our control. The boar has but little in-
fluence on the number, and in most cases it is determined
by the sow. In attempting to correct troubles with defi-
cient litters, we should first look to the sow for the
possible trouble. A great many swine breeders seem
to have the impression that there are direct means
whereby the number of pigs to the litter can be increased.
Such, however, is not the case, and the only thing that
can be done is to keep the sows and boars in the best
breeding condition. Above all, the sow must not be too
fat, she should be properly fed, her reproductive func-
tions must not be overtaxed, and she should have suff-
cient exercise to give her the best breeding condition.
Practically the same management should be applied to
the boar, for at times the small litters may be due to lack
of sexual vigor and prepotency in the boar. With care
being taken to see that the boar and sow are both kept in
the best of breeding conditions, one should be able to
secure the largest litters possible with the individuals at
hand.

46 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Work done by Carlyle’ at the Wisconsin Station has
shown that there is a direct relation between the size of
the litter and the size of the sow, the larger sows having
the larger litters. The same holds true for the age, al-
though to a lesser extent, and the greater the age the
larger the litter, up to certain limits, of course. These are
important facts and should be kept in mind by the
breeder desiring large litters.

Color of swine——The color of swine usually is of
secondary importance. Our pure-bred swine are more
or less constant in color, because this was one of the
easiest characters to establish in the formation of the
breeds. In the case of the wild types of swine, the colora-
tion, while fairly constant, is, as a rule, variegated for
protective purposes. The necessity of color protection
in the case of domestic swine is not present. Color in
swine has some value in protection from adverse climatic
condition. Most wild swine inhabit temperate and sub-
tropical climates, where sunshine tends to produce a
scalding on white swine. None of the wild breeds of
swine are light in color.

Period of heat—When the sow gives off germ cells
there are certain symptoms manifested which, taken
collectively, indicate the period of heat. The external
genitals may become swollen and congested, and there
may be a slight discharge. The mammary glands may
also become slightly congested. Restlessness and change
of voice are also manifestations. These periods occur
with some degree of regularity. They first appear in the
gilt in subdued or premature form at about three months
of age. After that, they occur every twenty-one days or

* Bulletin 104 Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Station.

PRINCIPLES OF SWINE BREEDING 47

thereabout until pregnancy intervenes, when they cease.
This cessation prevents superfcetation, or double preg-
nancy, which sometimes occurs in cattle or horses, but
rarely or never in swine.

BREEDING TABLE
Day of
month
bred ———————_Date due to farrow when bred in month of ————————__,
in Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.

1 22 23 21 22 21 21 21 21 22 21 21 23
2 23 24 22 23 22 22 22 22 23 22 22 24
3 24 25 23 2 23 23 23 23 24 23 23 25
4 25 26 24 25 24 24 24 24 25 24 24 26
5 26 Pa 25 26 25 25 25 25 26 25 25 27
6 27 28 26 27 26 26 26 26 2 26 26 28
7 28 29 27 28 27 27 27 27 28 27 27 29
8 29 30 28 29 28 28 28 28 29 28 28 30
9 30 31 29 30 29 29 29 29 30 29 Mar.1 31
10 May 1Junel 30 31 30 30 30 30 31 30 2 Apr.1
11 2 2 July 1 Aug.1 31 Oct. 1 31 Dec. 1 Jan.1 31 3 2
12 3 3 2 2 Sept. 1 2 Nov.1 2 2 Feb. 1 4 3
13 4 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 5 4
14 5 5 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 6 5
15 6 6 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 7 6
16 qT 7 6 6 5 6 5 6 6 5 8 1
17 8 8 7 7 6 7 6 us 7 6 9 8
18 9 9 8 8 7 8 7 8 8 7 10 9
19 10 10 9 9 8 9 8 9 9 8 11 10
20 11 11 10 10 9 10 9 10 10 9 12 11
21 12 12 11 11 10 11 10 11 11 10 13 12
22 13 13 12 12 11 12 ial 12 12 11 14 13
23 14 14 13 13 12 13 12 13 13 12 15 14
24 15 15 14 14 13 14 13 14 14 13 16 15
25 16 16 15 15 14 15 14 15 15 14 Li. 16
26 17 17 16 16 15 16 15 16 16 15 18 17
27 18 18 17 17 16 17 16 17 17 16 19 18
28 19 19 18 18 17 18 17 18 18 17 20 19
29 20 19 19 18 19 18 19 19 18 21 20

CHAPTER II
BREEDS OF SWINE

Swine are plastic—The life history of every species of
animal forms a more or less distinct arc, which may cover
a period of a hundred thousand or even a million years.
Species of animals are stable or plastic, depending on
their relative position on the arc of the life history of the
species. The nearer the species is to the starting point
of the arc, or, in other words, the younger the species,
the more plastic it is. At first a species is quite plastic
and variations abound, and progress in breeding, whether
it be natural or artificial, is very rapid and easy. Later,
the inherent tendencies of the species carry it along in
certain directions, and after a certain time the charac-
teristics may become so fixed that the species may not
be able to become harmonized with its surroundings, and
the result is the extinction of the race or species. The
swine species is, comparatively speaking, near the be-
ginning of its arc of development. It is quite plastic and
variations are numerous. Breeding progress is com-
paratively easy in the hands of man. Wild swine are
much more constant in characteristics than are domestic
swine, for in the wild state mutations not in accord with
nature are at once eliminated. Under domestication, all
sorts of variations and mutations have been preserved
and modified, and the result is that we have many types
of domesticated swine that are not in harmony with their
surroundings, which, of course, means ultimate loss.
Therefore, we might conclude, that, for instance, as com-
pared with horses, the formation and molding of breeds

48

BREEDS OF SWINE 49

of swine is comparatively easy, and such is the case,
although we may not at all times be able to see it,

Original swine——The original types of swine from
which our present day breeds have descended have been
the Sus Scrofa and the Sus Cristatus or S. Indicus, both
belonging to the species Suide. Nearly every part of
the world has native members of the Suid@, but so far
as we know, only the two above have played an impor-
tant role in the formation of our present day breeds of
swine, which may be considered as having arisen by the
crossing of these two strains, The Sus Scrofa was the
native swine of the British Isles and Europe, while the
S. Indicus was a native of Asia and southeastern Europe.
These are related to the wart hog of Africa, to the
babiroussa of the East Indies and the peccary of Central
and South America. The Sus Scrofa was a very large,
coarse animal, measuring often over three feet in height,
of a dark gray color with the young more or less striped.
The Sus Indicus, on the other hand, was nearer like our
present day swine, being short and thick, with a strong
tendency to fatten easily and mature early. They were
of several colors. The Asiatics were the first to do-
mesticate and make progress at breeding, with the result
that at a very early time there were three strains or
breeds of the S. Indicus, known as the Chinese, Siamese
and Neapolitan, which breeds or strains played a very
important part in the formation of the present day
breeds, which for the most part trace to England or to
English origin.

Influence of domestication on swine.—Knowing as we
do the principal characteristics of the original types of
swine and of the present breeds, we are able to state what

50 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

changes have been brought about by the process of
domestication. In the first place, it has brought about a
marked increase in their efficiency for converting feed
into pork. It is true that through domestication they
have lost to a marked degree their capacity to survive
adverse conditions, but this is not detrimental to their
usefulness and value, for they should not be forced to
withstand adverse conditions under present methods of
production. Economically, therefore, their value has been
increased through the loss of their capacity to withstand
the vicissitudes of climate and insufficient food supply.
A bit of reflection tells us that this is not only true of
swine, but that it is likewise true of other domestic
animals and plants, and we find it a general rule that
those plants or animals which are the most persistent
are the least valuable.

Origin of breeds and strains of swine-—While we may
be continually making new breeds and strains of swine,
we do not make the material from which new breeds and
strains arise. We are able to make our new strains only
by utilizing the inherent variations already present in
our animals. We control, develop and magnify these
variations as much as we are able by controlling the
environment. Any marked variations are referred to as
sports or mutations, which mutations cannot be isolated
and experimented with, but which have been studied
enough that we know that they are inherited as units,
hence the term unit characters, which is sometimes
applied to them. It is by the assembling of the right
sorts of these variations that we are able to form new
breeds and strains. We simply collect into one animal,
or into a few animals, those characters and groups of

BREEDS OF SWINE 51

characters which are most desirable. These characters
are then established and stabilized by continued selection.

It is a noteworthy fact that all of our breeds of swine
of today have had extremely local origins. For example,
the Poland-China, a lard type of swine that originated
largely in Warren County, Ohio, now has a world-wide
distribution. Among the other breeds, the Berkshire and
Yorkshire were extremely local during their early de-
velopment, but now their distribution is very wide.
Thus we have many breeds of hogs, some very generally
distributed and of great importance,and others very much
localized and of less importance. In the British Isles
alone, there have been numerous breeds described. On
the Continent breeds and sub-breeds are present in
abundance, and we find almost every agricultural section
with its own native breeds. It was not until about the
middle of the eighteenth century, or a little later, that an
active and systematic effort was made to improve the
breeds. At that time the efforts were centered upon the
production of new breeds, while all of our efforts at
present should be centered on perfection of what these
breeders have accomplished.

Breeds of swine.—Breeds and races of swine are identi-
cal. By these terms we refer to the several small groups
of swine that closely resemble each other. The breeds
usually derive their names from the locality in which
they originate. Our present day breeds are the results
of generations of effort, and we are very fortunate to
have them in their present state of perfection.

In making a study of the breeds of swine, one is at
once impressed by their numbers, which far exceed

52 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

average expectations. Any statement as to the number
would be purely an estimate, but the number is no less
than fifty. This large number results from the fact that
frequently a community will develop a breed that is of
purely local distribution. Very frequently these breeds
have considerable merit, but owing to geographical iso-
lation their distribution may remain limited for years, or
until the breed is finally absorbed. It is these kinds of
breeds that are so numerous, and in most instances the
division line between local breeds and native swine would
be obscure. The number of well-known breeds that have
a wide distribution is not more than a dozen. | Among
these the Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Berkshire, Hamp-
shire, Large Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, Essex, O. I. C,,
Chester White and Tamworth are important.

The breeds and their principal characteristics —In the
old-established breeds, color, conformation, habits and
the like need to be considered when determining their
adaptability to one’s requirements. Sometimes active
rustlers are needed; again, quiet, home-staying, depend-
ent hogs are best. In some instances quick-maturing
hogs are needed, and in other instances a slower-matur-
ing kind may more nearly meet one’s needs. Some
breeds will not fatten well until they are nearly grown.
Others will fatten at any time enough feed is given. All
breeds have their good and bad qualities. There are
various breeds well adapted to our southern conditions.
There is not so much difference in breeds, however, as
there is generally thought to be, so that usually the
preference of the owner may be followed without injury,
except in those cases where the environment demands a
particular type.

BREEDS OF SWINE 53

Breed types.—In a general way, the different breeds
of hogs may be divided into two classes, dependent to a
large extent upon the relative proportion of fat and lean
they carry when finished. The two classes, or types, are
referred to as the lard and bacon types. The lard, or fat
type, predominates, and is best adapted to the corn-rais-
ing sections, where it economically converts all surplus
corn into pork. The several lard breeds differ but little
from one another in essentials, so that as a rule personal
preferences may be indulged in without disadvantage.
The bacon breeds do not have the tendency to fatten so
marked as do the lard types, however, and some brecds
are either lard or bacon type, depending on the environ-
ment in which they are placed. Nevertheless there seems
to be a tendency for the bacon type of hogs to gain in
popularity, and especially are they adapted to the con-
version of grazing crops into pork. This is one thing that
prospective producers of pork will have to watch, and
that is to see that the breed or animals they select are
adapted to grazing. In addition, color plays a part in our
southern climate. The strictly lard type of hog will
probably never be so popular in the South as it has been
in the Corn Belt. In the selection of breeds to mect our
particular conditions we cannot ignore types; therefore,
in discussing the characteristics of the several breeds,
they are taken up in the order of their tendencies from
the lard to bacon type.

The Poland-China.—This is strictly an American breed
that originated about the middle of the last century in
Butler and Warren Counties of Southwestern Ohio. It
resulted from the crossing of the Russian, Byfield, Big
China, Irish Grazier, and Berkshire on the native Warren

54 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

County Pig. The name is the result of the use of a strain
of hogs that were bred by a Polander and which went
under the name of Polands and, of
course, the China came from the Big
China stock that was used. The early
animals of the breed were large
and quick-maturing, with a spotted
color.

This is a breed that comes as near
as is possible to conforming to the
ideal fat hog type. The head is of
medium size, with nose straight and
with the ears pendent. The body
is compact, with a broad back and
deep sides. The hams are perfect.
It is the ideal lard type. In color it
very much resembles the Berkshire,
being black with white markings.
The breed is of medium size, mature

boars weighing around 450 and the

POLAND-CHINA (lEZL i z

sows around 350 to 375 pounds.

Blood lines of the 3
Batand-Chita: It is not as adaptable a_ breed
as some of the others. It was
made primarily for use in the Corn Belt, where for
many years it has outclassed all other breeds. It is
strictly a lard type and is well suited for corn feeding.
It is an extremely early maturing type, but is of that
disposition that wants all of its feed placed right before
it. Some class it as a lazy breed. They are of second
rate as grazers and rustlers, largely for the reason that
they do not stand up well on their feet and pasterns. As
a feeder and fattener, this breed has no superior. The
quality of pork is quite fat and is not classed as the best

Warren County Hoe

BREEDS OF SWINE 55

by some on this account. It is good for crossing with
other types when pork-producing qualities of the extreme
type are sought. The boars, however, are not as pre-
potent as the boars of some breeds in stamping their type
on the offspring. In fecundity qualities this breed is
lacking, and has been severely criticized on this ground.
Dr. A. W. Bitting* found 1,086 litters to average 7.45,
while Dr. G. M. Rommel’ found the average to be 7.04
with 50,000 litters. As a breeder, therefore, it is second
rate.

Poland-China gilt, Jennie Girl (581414) owned by Joe R. Martin
of Georgia.

The breed is pretty generally distributed over the
South, but in the extreme South it has not met with the
popularity that has been awarded some other breeds.
The prices paid for individuals of this breed were ab-

*40th Ann. Rept. Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1897).
U.S. Dept. Agr. B. S. I. Circular 95.

56 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

normally high several years ago, but they are now
normal and not above the average. The interests of the
breed have been looked after by several associa-
tions. The American Poland-China Record Company
(1878), W. M. McFadden, Sec-
retary, Union Stock Yard,
Chicago, Ill.; the National Po-
land-China Record Co. (1905),
A. M. Brown, Secretary, Win-
chester, Ind.; and the Standard
Poland-China Record Associa-
tion (1887), Geo. F. Wood-
worth, Secretary, Marysville,
Mo., all register and look after
the interests of the breed.
The Chester White.—This is
a distinctly American breed
that originated largely in
Chester County, Pennsylvania.
The foundation stock for the
breed came from England,
principally from Bedfordshire
and Cumberland. Chinese,
Irish Grazier, and Normandy
swine were also used in mak-
: ing the breed, according to
Blood nes of the Chester Pumly, The. denuere, prin-
White and O. I. C. :
cipally from Chester County,
developed the breed, and being a white breed, the name
Chester White was appropriate.
This breed is distinctly of the lard type and conforma-
tion. The face is medium in length and straight. The
ears break over for the outer third or half their length.

Gesrer-Wrire bal. (es?)

BREEDS OF SWINE SZ.

The back and hams show the extreme of development.
As a rule, the bone is small and weak, and it is in the
pasterns that this breed is noticeably deficient. The
color is pure white, and the animals average large in
weight on account of the extreme fattening tendencies.
Mature boars will weigh around 500 and the sows
around 400 pounds. Some individuals will, of course,
greatly exceed these figures.

The breed is suited primarily for Corn Belt conditions,
and is not easily adapted to other conditions. There are
a few small herds of the breed in the South, but they will
probably never attain any great prominence. They are
extremely early maturing, but they rank low as grazers.
They cannot stand up in the pasterns. As feeders and |
fatteners they rank high, but they are not adapted to

intensive methods of feeding on grazing crops. Their
’ color is against them in the extreme South. The pork is
usually too fat, very similar in many respects to the meat
of the Poland-China. For crossing they do fairly well
where early maturity and fattening propensities are
desired in the offspring. The boars are only fairly pre-
potent in stamping their type. As breeders they rank
rather high and are considered as the most prolific of
the heavy types. Dr. A. W. Bitting’ found 600 litters to
average 8.96 per litter, which is high for the lard type
of hog.

There are a few herds scattered over the South, but
their distribution cannot be said to be widespread. They
are probably on the decline in popularity rather than on
the increase. In prices, they have never brought the
fancy figures obtained by the individuals of some breeds,

110th Ann. Rept. Ind. Agr. Expt. Sta. (1897).

58 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

but they have been average in price. The Chester White
Record Association, F, F. Moore, Secretary, Rochester,
Ind., attends to the registrations and looks after the inter-
ests of the breed.

Ohio Improved Chester.—This is a distinct breed that
resulted as an offshoot
from the Chester
Whites. It was origi-
nated by Mr. L. B.
Silvers, who developed
his herd by crossing
and selection until he
considered it superior
to the original Chester
White. He referred to
them as the Interna-
tional Ohio Improved
Chesters, and in 1891
an association was
formed to look after
the registration of the
animals. This associa-

825

1830

1850
SMALL YORMSHIRE (1050-1880)

Blood lines of the Small Yorkshire.

tion is now known as
the O. I. C. Swine
Breeders’ Association,
J. C. Hiles, Secretary, Cleveland, Ohio.

As a breed, it must be considered along with the
Chester Whites in so far as it concerns a southern swine
industry. It will probably never enjoy the popularity that
has been accorded the Duroc-Jersey and Berkshire breeds.

The Small Yorkshire—This English breed originated
in Yorkshire County, England, over a century ago as a

BREEDS OF SWINE 59

result of the use of Chinese, Solway, Small White,
Suffolk, Windsor, and Cumberland stock on the native
pigs of the country. According to Curtis, they were
introduced to this country about 1869. This is a dis-
tinctly lard breed. The ears are erect and the face short,
with an extreme dish. The breed is white, except for
occasional black spots on the skin, which are objection-
able. They are small of size, and mature boars average
around 250, while the sows will average about fifty
pounds less. They are in all probability not a breed that
would be well adapted to our southern requirements.
They are registered as Class A by the American York-
shire Club, H. G. Krum, Secretary (1893), with head-
quarters at White Bear Lake, Minn.

Duroc-Jersey.—This is distinctly an American breed,
that originated in New York and New Jersey during the
half century from 1822 to 1872. According to Plumb, it
resulted from the amalgamation of blood of Guinea,
Portuguese, Spanish Red, and possibly Berkshire blood,
upon the native stock, and finally by the amalgamation
of the local Duroc swine and the Jersey Reds in 1883.
The latter incident suggests the origin of the name. The
name Duroc, however, happened to be of local origin,
and was the name of a stallion owned by one of the early
breeders of these swine. The Jersey part of the name
comes from the place of origin, New Jersey. The early
types of Duroc-Jersey swine were long and rangy, with
tendencies to coarseness and size.

Among the noticeable characteristics of the breed are
the small head, with a straight or slightly dished face of
medium length and with the outer one-third of the ear
broken over or pendent. The general form of the body

60 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

of the hog is approximately that of the ideal fat hog, with
a short, wide, deep body, with a maximum of develop-
ment in the hams and the valuable part of the back. In
many ways it resembles the Poland-China hog in form,
although it is not quite the extreme lard type that this
latter named breed is. In color it is some shade of red,

PoRec -JeRszY (7683)
Blood lines of the Duroc-Jersey.

which may vary from a very light to a very dark red. In
some instances they have black spots on the skin, but this
is not objected to. In size they are classed as medium
to large. Some individuals attain weights close to 1,000
pounds, but mature boars will average around 500
pounds and mature sows around 400. This is one of the

BREEDS OF SWINE 61

most adaptable breeds of swine we have, and on
account of its color and general qualities it is remarkably
well suited to southern conditions. It is an early matur-
ing breed that will fatten readily at almost any age.

Its grazing qualities are fair and, as a rule, it is to be
looked upon as a good rustler. When the feed is put

Duroc-Jersey boar, Defender’s Ohio Chief (45899), owned by
A. Ramey & Bro. of Tennessee.

within its reach it will consume large quantities and
make gains as economically and as rapidly as any breed.
The quality of the pork produced is classed by some as
lacking in quality, but there seems no justifiable evidence
for these conclusions. It is, of course, inclined to be a
little too fat. For crossing on other types of swine, it is
admirably adapted, and early-maturing, easy-feeding
and fattening qualities are added to the offspring. A
cross that is commonly and successfully made is that of a

62 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Berkshire boar with sows of this breed. The fecundity
of the breed is high, and the sows have comparatively
large litters. In a study of the prolificacy of breeds of
swine, Dr. Rommel’ of the United States Department of
Agriculture found that 21,652 litters of this breed aver-
aged 9.26 to the litter, which must be considered as quite
high and above the average for pure-bred swine. The
breed, having been bred along definite lines for many
years, is quite prepotent, and the boars seem to stamp
their type and color well on all their offspring, the result
of the first generation when they are crossed onto grade
or common stock being of the red color and possessing
to a considerable degree the desirable characteristics of
the breed.

The breed is one of the most widely distributed and
probably enjoys the widest distribution of any of the
breeds in the South. In prices they range all along from
tather high to lower and average prices. It is especially
to be recommended for southern use for several reasons,
as mentioned above. Its quietness of disposition is a
most admirable quality, which makes it easily confined.
The registration and the interests of the breed are fos-
tered by two associations, the American Duroc-Jersey
Swine Breeders’ Association (1883), R. J. Evans, Secre-
tary, with offices at Chicago, Hl., and the National Duroc-
Jersey Record Association (1891), J. R. Pfander, Secre-
tary, with offices located at Peoria, III.

The Essex.—This is an old English breed that origi-
nated in the County of Essex in England, from whence
the breed gets its name. The stock used in its foundation
were principally Neapolitan, Black Suffolk and Berkshire.

*U.S. Dept. Agr. B. A. I. Circ. 95.

BREEDS OF SWINE 63

The early types were both black and white and were very
refined, showing plainly the results of the Neapolitan
blood. Early types of Essex were introduced to America

about 1820, but the breed never 9
met with any great success S
here. In many ways the breed :
resembles the Berkshire, the a :
blood of which breed it shows Qo. 8

8

plainly. The face is broad and
the nose short and upturned. It
is inclined to be on the order of
bacon hogs in form, but de-
cidedly of easy-fattening tend-
dencies. It is small of stature
and bone, and possesses ex-
treme quality. In color it is
black all over, and white is ob-
jectionable. The size of the in-
dividuals is as a rule small, and
mature boars average around
300 pounds, and the sows aera
about 250. Blood lines of the Essex.
Their distribution is not
widespread, but a few are found in the southern states.
As arule they seem to be increasing just a little in popu-
larity. The American Essex Association (1887), F. M.
Strout, Secretary, McLean, IIl., attends to the registra-
tions and looks after the interests of the breed in general.
Cheshire—This is a distinctly American breed that
was originated largely in Jefferson County, New York.
It resulted from the use of Large Yorkshire and White
Suffolk blood on the native stock of the county. The
origin of the name is obscure, but in all probability it

64 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

traces back to Cheshire, England, in some way. The
older types very much resemble the Yorkshire breed.

Owing to the free use of the Large Yorkshire breed, it
very much resembles that breed in characteristics. It is
smaller, however, and more
nearly resembles the Middle
Yorkshire breed. It has a
dished face, straight ears, and
a form between the lard and
bacon type. It is solid white
in color. They are only me-
dium in size, mature boars
weighing around 450 and ma-
ture sows around 350 to 400
pounds.

As a breed it is not widely
distributed in the South. There
are a few herds in the South-
east, where they have been
bred for many years. The
Cheshire Swine Breeders’ As-
sociation (1884), Ed. S. Hill,
Secretary, with offices at Free-
ville, N.Y., looks after the
registrations and the general interests of the breed.

WATE FIGS CORiGIN UNKNOWN)

CHesHiRE (1872)
Blood lines of the Cheshire.

The Berkshire—This is one of the older English
breeds that originated in the counties of Berkshire and
Wiltshire, England. It resulted from the crossing of
Chinese, Siamese and Neapolitan swine on the native
English swine. The name, of course, comes from the
county in England where the breed largely originated.
The early types of the breed had large pendent ears, with

BREEDS OF SWINE 65

colors varying from a reddish brown to a spotted color.
In quality and physical form they plainly showed the
refining effects of the Chinese, Neapolitan and Siamese
blood. They were first imported into the United States
in 1823 by John Bretwell of New Jersey.

The breed is a type peculiar to its own. In England
it is a bacon breed, but in America it inclines strongly
to the lard type. The face is of somewhat medium
length and is generally dished, with the ears standing
erect and forward. It has excellent bone and stands up

Berkshire gilt, Premier’s Queen 25th (179325), owned by J. W.
Strickland of Georgia.

well on its pasterns. The color is generally black, with
white markings on the face, end of tail and on the four
feet. It is only a medium-sized hog and the mature boars
will on the average weigh around 450, while the sows will
run about 100 pounds less. Some individuals readily
attain twice this size.

Like the Duroc-Jersey, it also is a very adaptable breed
and is well suited to average southern conditions. Its

66 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

color is suited to our climate, and, being an early maturer
and a good grazer, it meets our requirements well. It is
one of the best feeders and fatteners we have, making
gains rapidly and economically. It is not of the quiet
disposition of some breeds, and
is therefore not easily confined.
& It is a good rustler, however,
and if there is anything to be
found to eat, it will take care of
itself. It is almost as prolific as
the Duroc-Jersey, and the sows
show themselves to be excellent
mothers and less apt to lie upon
ey their pigs than the Durocs.
The quality of the pork is un-
surpassed, having a very high
percentage of lean. This breed
had been used extensively in
crossing, both in grading up and
in crossing with other breeds,
Crossed with the Duroc-Jersey,
5 RST OTE an ideal pork animal is pro-
Hinéd Vees ok the Bene: duced. Their fecundity and
Shine. breeding capacity is high. Dr.
A. W. Bitting* found 400 litters
to average 8.22 pigs each, which must be considered high.
The boars are quite prepotent on account of the age of
the breed, and they stamp their type strongly on un-
improved and grade animals.
As a breed they are widely distributed over the South,
but they are not so numerous as the Duroc-Jersey. They
have sold in the past at rather fancy prices, but they do

Native Pros or BERKSHIRE -WILTSHIRE (1789).

*Tenth Ann. Rept. Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1897).

BREEDS OF SWINE 67

not now range above the average. The interests of the
breed are largely looked after by the American Berkshire
Swine Breeders’ Association (1875), F. S. Springer,
Secretary, with headquarters at Springfield, Ohic. This
association looks after registering the pure-bred animals.

Hampshire or Thin Rind—This is distinctly an
American breed that originated in Massachusetts and

Hampshire gilt owned by J. P. Tilley, Jr., of Alabama.

Kentucky, principally in the latter state. It is possible
that some swine from Hampshire, England, figured in
the formation of the breed, but no authentic evidence is
at hand to prove it. There is evidence, however, that
some Chinese blood was used. In characteristics of body
the animal possesses many things similar to the Berk-
shire. The nose is rather long and the ears point straight
ahead. The conformation tends toward the bacon type,
but the development of the hams is excellent.

68 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

The color is black, with a white belting from 4 to 12
inches wide that starts at the neck or fore shoulder and
extends back to the heart-girth, generally taking in the
forelegs. It is not a large breed; mature boars will
average around 400 pounds, and the sows from 300 to 350
pounds. As a breed, it seems fairly well adapted to
southern conditions, and will probably meet with con-
siderable favor, as it has already done in several sections
of the South. The breed has not been used to any great
extent in crossing, but the individuals are prepotent and
could be used in the improvement of many herds. The
breeding qualities are excellent and above the average.
The breed is rather widely distributed in the South, but
not densely. The prices that have been obtained for the
breed have been only average. The registrations and
interests of the breed are looked after by The American
Swine Record Association, E. C. Stone, Secretary, Arm-
strong, Ill.

Mule Foot.—This is a rather recent American breed of
uncertain origin. The foundation stock used was prob-
ably Berkshire, Poland-China and native blood. The
first members of the breed were mutations in which the
cloven foot gave way to the one-toed condition, such as
prevails in the horse and mule, hence the name. S. H.
Dunlap of Ohio has been prominent in developing and
putting the breed before the public. It resembles the
Berkshire in body characteristics, but the ears are
pendent, and the color is solid black, with white per-
missible. The individuals are small to medium in weight,
mature boars averaging around 450 to 500, and the
mature sows averaging about 100 pounds less. The
breed has been boosted a great deal upon the ground

BREEDS OF SWINE 69

that it was cholera immune, but they have proven to be
just as susceptible to the disease as other breeds. They
do not mature very early, and in breeding capacity they
average pretty well up, resembling the Berkshire in this
respect. The quality of the pork produced is excellent.
They are not very desirable for crossing purposes, for
the breed is too young and the individuals lack in pre-
potency. They have not enjoyed a wide distribution and
popularity. The interests of the breed and the registra-
tions are looked after by the National Mule Foot Hog
Record Association, W. H. Morris, Secretary, with head-
quarters at Indianapolis, Ind.

The Large Yorkshire—This English breed originated
in Yorkshire County, England, over a century ago. It
resulted from the use of Berkshire, White Leicester,
Small Yorkshire and Solway blood on the Old Yorkshire
pig—hence the name. The early types were very large
and coarse, with but little or no refinement, with large,
coarse, heavy ears and strong tendencies toward extreme
bacon type. The breed was introduced to America prior
to 1840. Most of the importations cf the breed to
America went to Canada, where the breed attained some
prominence, but it has never met with great popularity
in the States.

The breed is quite large and is of the extreme bacon
type. The face is short and dished and the ears stand
erect. There is a slack development of the back and
hams, but with great depth and length of side. The
breed is characterized by a heavy bone. The color is
white. This is one of the largest breeds we have, and the
boars when matured will weigh around 600 and the sows
around 500 pounds. Individuals frequently weigh close

70 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

to 1,000 pounds. The breed as a whole is not one that is
readily adaptable to changed conditions. In the United
States it has not met with much favor, and probably will
not meet with any appreciable success in the South. It is
a slow-maturing type. One very commendable feature
about the breed is the very high breeding capacity, which
is excelled by no other breed. The litters average nearly
twelve pigs. The breed is valuable for crossing where
bacon type is desired. The boars are usually quite pre-
potent, due to the age of the breed.

The distribution of the breed in the United States is
very limited, and the numbers in the southern states are
few. It is not popular in the South, and probably never
will be. The registrations and interests of the breed are
attended to by the American Yorkshire Club (1893),
H. G. Krum, Secretary, with headquarters at White Bear
Lake, Minn.

Tamworth.—The origin of this breed is more or less
obscure. It probably originated in the counties of
Stafford, Leicester, Northampton and Warwick, in Eng-
land, and possibly the Irish Grazier in Ireland may have
played some part in its development. The foundation
stock used is likewise unknown, but it was probably
principally Old English stock on which some Berkshire,
Irish Grazier, and some White and Neapolitan stock were
used. The name comes from Tamworth, a borough on
the borders of Stafford and Warwickshire, in England.
The early type did not differ materially from the present
day type, having long legs and snout, narrow body, a
slow-maturing capacity, with great constitution and
activity, which combined to make it an excellent grazer.
It was a farmer’s hog and was improved largely by

BREEDS OF SWINE 71

farmers. The first importation of the breed was made in
1882 by Thomas Bennett of Illinois.

The Tamworth has a striking appearance, with a long
head, body and legs. The snout is, as a rule, noticeably
long and narrow. The ears are large and erect. The
back is narrow and the hams deficient. Some individuals

Louisiana bred Tamworth sow. Courtesy B. M. Jackson.

represent the extreme bacon type. The color is red,
generally a sandy red, and usually is not as bright as the
Duroc color. Some individuals attain great weight, and
the breed is a large one. The mature boars will average
around 500 pounds and the sows around 400 to 450.

The breed is not so well adapted to southern conditions
where modern methods are used. It is a breed that will
stand much abuse and is, therefore, suited to conditions
where the hogs must range over a wide territory for their
food supply. It is a slow-maturing animal, but as a
grazer it ranks high. As a feeder and fattener it is only
medium, for it has never been developed to the extremes

NI
bo

SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

along these lines, as have some of the other breeds. The
quality of the meat produced is excellent. As an animal
for crossing with other stock it is excellent where certain
rustling qualities are desired, and the boars will usually
be found quite prepotent in stamping their type.

The breed is pretty widely distributed over the South,
but the numbers are comparatively few. It seldom meets
with much popularity on account of its unattractive
appearance. It yet remains to be seen how nearly it meets
our requirements. The American Tamworth Swine
Record Association (1897), E. N. Ball, Secretary, Ann
Arbor, Mich., looks after the registrations and general
interests of the breed.

The Victoria——Two strains of this breed were pro-
duced, one by Col. F. D. Curtis in Saratoga County, N.Y.,
and the other by Geo. F. Davis of Dyer, Ind. The sow,
Queen Victoria, was one of the early notables of the
breed. In many respects they resemble the Middle York-
shire, the face having a medium dish, with the ears small
and erect, and of medium lard type. They are white in
color, in size they are medium, and mature boars will
average about 500 pounds, and the sows about 100 pounds
less. They are, as a rule, not well adapted to southern
conditions on account of their color, and there are but
very few in the South. The registrations are handled
and the interests of the breed looked after by the Victoria
Swine Breeders’ Association, which was organized in
1886.

The Large Black hog.—A breed of swine that has come
into prominence in recent years that may play a role in
southern swine husbandry is the Large Black pig from

BREEDS OF SWINE 73

England. The popularity of this breed is increasing.
The origin is obscure, but it has been developed in the
east and the south of England. The breed is large, as
the name implies; the bodies are long and of bacon
tendencies, with a general coarseness of all parts, es-
pecially of the head, which has a long, pendent ear. The
individuals of this breed are good feeders and do
well under conditions of adverse food supply, es-
pecially where the food is obtained by considerable effort.
The breed is quite prolific, and litters usually average
between 10 and 12. The interests of the breed in this
country are looked after by the American Large Black
Pig Society, Lexington, Ky., of which Mr. J. F. Cook is
Secretary.

Big Guinea hogs.—This is the only breed of hogs that
can be classed as strictly southern. It originated in the
South. Forty or 50 years ago it was quite popular.
While this was a distinct breed, no attempt has been
made to record them and keep them pure. They have
been kept pure only in a few places. The origin of the
breed is more or less obscure, but the Essex is reputed to
have had a part in their improvement. They also show
evidences of Berkshire blood. In color they are either
solid black or else black and white spotted, like the
spotted Poland-China. The ears are short and thin and
stand erect; they have a nose of medium length, which is
straight; the body is only average in dimensions; the
hair is thin and sometimes wavy; they are character-
istically short of leg and at first glance they appear
dumpy; they rank intermediate in type, and are reputed
to have a high dressing percentage, yielding a pork of
high quality.

74 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

The individuals of the breed seem to do well on rather
limited feed supply, and having been bred along grazing
lines they are to be classed as excellent grazers. They

Big Guinea swine on Willow Dale Farm, Mayfield, Ga.

have an advantage in the shortness of leg in that a
comparatively low fence will retain them. While the
pigs grow off at a fairly rapid rate, the mature indi-
viduals of the breed do not attain a large size. The
mature sows weigh from 200 to 250 pounds, and the boars
from 250 to 300 pounds. They are only fairly prolific,
averaging from six to ten pigs a litter. Their distribution
has been confined chiefly to the southern states east of
the Mississippi River, although a few have been taken
into Arkansas and other southwestern states. As to just
what part these hogs will play in the future swine
industry of the South it is difficult to state. They have
certainly declined in numbers and popularity for several
years, but just at the present time considerably more
interest is being manifested in them,

o

BREEDS OF SWINE 75

The best breed.—There are 20 or 30 different breeds of
swine. Each of these is claimed to be the best by its
supporters. Strictly speaking, from a market standpoint,
this matter of breed is of but little consequence. Swine
are intended for the production of pork, and on the mar-
ket we find that they are bought and sold strictly upon
the basis of their pork-producing capacitics. The prices
do not vary according to the breed, but according to
condition and quality. What one wants, therefore, are
breeding animals that will produce individuals which will
economically grow into pork. The principal considera-
tions are, therefore, the selection of those animals regard-
less of particular characteristics of some particular breed,
but emphasizing those points that make the animal a
more economical producer of pork.

The question is frequently asked as to which is the best
breed of hogs. There is no best breed for all conditions
of soil, climate and food supply. The breeds have their
adaptabilities, and one might succeed admirably where
others would fail utterly. For the most part, however,
the selection of breed will be a matter of taste. The
special advantage and qualifications of each breed should
be carefully weighed before a final decision is made.

The selection of a breed.—In selecting a brecd to use,
the preferences of the breeder should have considerable
weight. The personal interest and belief in a breed has a
great deal to do with success. Asa matter of fact, numer-
ous experiments at various experiment stations have
shown that no one breed is always superior to the other
breeds. The only exception to this is that in Canada the
Berkshires excelled the other breeds in a noticeable
number of instances. Generally it is better to select the

76 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

breed most raised in the neighborhood, as it gives an
opportunity for co-operation with neighbors, and is apt to
result in better prices and greater interest. It is impor-
tant to select a breed adapted to the particular farm or
neighborhood, with special reference to pasture and feed
supply. In the selection of a breed for average southern
conditions there are several considerations that can be
generally observed. First, white breeds should be
avoided to a limited extent at least. Then those breeds
that are of the extreme lard or extreme bacon type
should be avoided. This means that a black or red breed
of a rather intermediate type would be best suited to aver-
age southern conditions, and as it happens such is the case.

The type of hog best suited to southern conditions is a
semi-grazer type, such as the type approached by the
English Berkshire and some other breeds. All of our
present breeds have been developed, for the most part, to
consume large quantities of concentrated grains. What
is needed is a type adapted to the consumption of large
quantities of green forage and crops such as we can easily
raise and such as can be harvested by the hogs them-
selves. It is a fact that something a little more special-
ized than what we now have is needed, but we should
adapt one of our present breeds to meet the new condi-
tions. We want a hog with a larger stomach than the
present types have, a more active hog, and one that is
strong in bone and that stands up well on its pasterns,
and one that is able to search out a living, even though it
may be difficult to find. Some of our native swine
possess this latter characteristic to a marked degree, but
there are other improvements that our native swine do
not possess that we desire.

BREEDS OF SWINE 77

Registration of swine.—Every breeder of pure-bred
swine that expects to sell registered stock for breeding
purposes will find it necessary to keep his animals regis-
tered up. It is a simple matter, but one that is often
neglected because of the fear of inability to make out the
application papers correctly. The registering of pigs is
often neglected, and later one finds it impossible to trace
animals and have them recorded. The result is that many
animals have been sold as pure bred, eligible to registry,
for which it has been impossible to trace the pedigree.
One, in purchasing, is therefore forced to assume that all
animals, especially the older animals, are not pure bred
unless the breeding certificates accompany them. The
breeder should keep all breeding animals recorded up to
date, and when pigs are sold the papers should be secured
at once and forwarded, or if they have already been
secured, they should be transferred at once to the new
owner. When one has pigs to register he should write to
the secretary of the association in which the sire and dam
are recorded, and he will send the blanks and instructions
required to be filled out before pigs can be registered.
These application blanks are filled out, and a fee per head
is generally charged, which is to cover the costs of regis-
tering the animals and maintaining the association.

Practically every breed has an association that looks
after the registrations, and some breeds have several.
The matter of keeping up the registrations is one that the
breeder of pure-bred swine cannot afford to neglect.

Purpose of record associations.—The work of the swine
record associations is classified under two heads. The
first of these is the record work, and the second is the
exploitation work. The first of these is of the greatest

78 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

importance, since it has to do with the improvement and
preservation of the purity of the breed. The success of
all swine breeders, whether breeders of pure-bred swine
or producers of pork, is dependent to a greater or lesser
degree on the swine record associations. Were it not for
our record associations our present perfection would soon
be lost and largely absorbed by the abundance of unim-
proved swine. The recording work of the associations
becomes all the more important as the number of indi-
viduals in the breed increases. These swine breeders’
associations are generally officered by men who have
attained more or less distinction in some way in connec-
tion with the breed they serve. Stability and perfection
in organization are two important essentials for complete
success of the swine record associations.

Exploitation work of record associations.—Aside from
the work and good the swine record associations do in
keeping the records of breeding, they should advance the
interests of the breed they record in every way possible.
Above all, they should encourage perfection and improve-
ment in the individuals of their breed.

Swine shows create a desire for better stock, but they
fail to show wherein one can profit by the adoption of the
pure breds or improved types instead of the unimproved
scrubs. The farmer must be able to see the economic
value of making any change before he makes it. One way
in which this can be encouraged is for a method to be
devised whereby the reasons for making awards in the
show ring can be explained. The judges, and others,
sometimes try to supply this much needed information,
but the record associations should also strive to show the
advantages of the pure bred over the scrub. The breed-

BREEDS OF SWINE 79

ers must be encouraged and receive appreciation of their
accomplishments.

Points of the hog.

1—Snout 10—Chest 18—Point of hip
2—Eye 11—Heart girth 19—Rump
3—Face 12—Back 20—Belly
4—Ear 13—Loin 21—Ham
5—Jowl 14—Side 22—Stifle joint
6—Neck 15—Tail 23—Hock
7—Shoulder 16—Front flank 24—Foot
8—Front leg 17—Rear flank 25—Dew-claws

9—Hind leg

CHAPTER IV
JUDGING SWINE

Judging swine.—The judging of swine is the exercising
of the ability to distinguish between the respective merits
of swine intended for special purposes. The standards
for comparison are ideals. A good judge of swine must
possess a clear conception of what constitutes an ideal.
When a pen of swine is placed before him to be judged
he must be able to recognize values. Especially must a
judge stick to his ideal type and have the conviction of his
judgment to enable him to stand by his decision. Asa
rule, the judging of swine is best learned by association
with a good judge. The judge should be encouraged to
discuss the various points of the hogs being judged in
order to illustrate the standards of perfection he employs.
If, in addition to this, one can become familiar with a
good herd, the standard types may be more readily fixed
in mind. It is not often that the same person can become
a good judge of several breeds, but almost anyone may
become a fair judge of swine in a general way after a
short time of practice and application.

In the main, we judge hogs on three bases. The first
of these is the market hog basis, in which pork is the
direct object sought. In the second place, we judge for
breeding purposes, in which the production of swine for
slaughter is the ultimate object; we sometimes judge on
the feeding or stock hog basis. Since at the bases of all
swine judging is ultimate slaughter, we may well say that
the second and third bases of judging are merely exten-

80

JUDGING SWINE 81

sions of the first, and that the all-important point to bear
in mind is the ideal market type hog.

Producer’s ideal.—tIn order to more intelligently and
profitably carry out the business of pork production, one
should know the demands of the market. He should have
firmly fixed in his mind the ideal market hog. The pro-
ducer or feeder must see the finished product in his mind
before the animal is finished, or he will never be able to
attain the ideal. To appreciate and understand what
constitutes the ideal market hog, one should go to the
market and study the several market types in detail and
learn which types are in greatest demand. The best
swine shows should be attended and special study should
be made of the prize winners. Of course, the demands on
different markets differ, but in general the ideal market
type is similar, and one should learn this ideal and
attempt to produce it in order that the swine he produces
may bring the highest market price.

Classification—As a general rule, hogs fall into one of
two classes. Most of the swine in the South are what are
known as the lard or fat hog type. Contrasted with this
is the bacon type, that is used primarily in the production
of bacon. The two types are of different conformation.
The lard type is the type that has been largely developed
in the Corn Belt. On the market hogs of the lard type go
for the production of lard, cheap side meat, some bacon,
hams and shoulders. The bacon types of hogs furnish
bacon as their principal cuts, although they also furnish
hams and shoulders. The type of hog best suited for the
South is not the extreme lard type, but is an intermediate
between the lard and bacon types, a type that is a good

82 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

grazer and that can gather its own living, and yet one
that makes good use of the feed allowed it. Funda-
mentally, the requirements in judging the two types of
hogs are the same, and we shall therefore largely discuss
the subject of judging from the standpoint of the ideal
market type. To facilitate this study and the judging of
swine a score card has been developed to cover the ideal
market type.

Method in judging—One cannot become an expert
judge of swine without considerable training. It is true
that to some the matter of judging is easier than to
others. However, in order to make accurate observa-
tions and become expert in the placing of swine, it is
necessary that one use some method or system in ascer-
taining the relative merits of the animals being judged.
Above all, the judge must know what constitutes the
ideal type. Probably the best way to fix this in mind is
by means of the score card. The score card should be
used freely, especially by the beginner. Later on, as one
becomes more expert, he can go through the process of
scoring in his mind, and then later make the placings
according to the mental scores. A good plan to follow is
to take up first the matter of general appearance, under
which weight, form, condition and quality should each be
given consideration. Then the several parts of the head
and neck should be looked over, followed by an exami-
nation of the forequarters, body, and last by the hind-
quarters. The ease, facility and accuracy with which the
animals can be correctly placed will depend on the skill
and expertness of the judge.

Pork type.—In conformation the ideal market hog and
the ideal pork animal are identical. The general expres-

JUDGING SWINE

SCORE CARD
MARKET HOGS

Standard Actual

GENERAT, APPEARANCE—320 per cent

Weight—According to age-_---_--______________ 4
Form—Medium depth, breadth and_ length;
smooth, compact and symmetrical; standing
squarely on. shortlegs-- 2. -- 2. cece 8
Quality—Hair smooth and fine, with strong, clean
bones: general rehnementi is. 2-2 222522222 - 5 5
Condition—I"inished, deep, even covering of firm
flesh. Free from wrinkles__-.._._------_-_____ 8
Temperament—Quiet and placid_____-----_______ 2
Constitution—Showing indications of having been
a profitable feeder and now in a_ healthy
CONCIEIO Niemen ee Seem eee ee Sees 3
HEAD AND NECK—6 per cent
Snout—Medium length and breadth______-__-______ 1
Eyes—Clear and not sunken_____-_____-_-_-______ Al
Face—Short, with full cheeks___________________ 1
Ears—Medium sized and neatly attached___-_____ af
Jowl-—Full but:ineats22< -=— 2s 1
Neck—Thick and short, smoothly blended to
SHOULM Ere ee eee eo eee Sie Bene erie ale ee 1
FOREQUARTERS—12 per cen
Shoulders—Smooth and compact on top, with
medium breadth and depth_-____--____-__________ 8
Breast—Full breadth but neat____-__-----_______ 2
Legs—Straight, short, strong, standing up well on
Shorty pasternsye ss ose te eee ke eee 2
BODY—34 per cent
Chest—Deep, wide, large heart girth_______-_____ 4
Sides—Deep, full, smooth, medium length_______- 8
Back—Broad, strong, evenly covered____--_--__- 8
Loin—Wide, thick and strong_-_______-_-_-__-_- 10
Belly—Straight, smooth, trim__----_------__--_- 4
HINDQUARTERS—18 per cent
Hips—Broad and smooth____.-__--------_------- 3
Rump—Long, level. wide, smooth_-________---_-_- 3
Ham—Heavily fleshed, wide, deep and full_______ 10
Legs—Straight, short, strong, standing up on short
pasterns. Bone clean and hard_--------------- 2

Total score -- 100

8&4 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

sion of the animal should be neither active and masculine,
nor should it be passive and effeminate, but rather inex-
pressive and negative, with a tendency toward the
passive and lymphatic, characteristic of an unsexed
animal. A description of an ideal market or fat hog is
given later. Proper conformation is especially important.

Early pork types.—The attainment of great weights
seems to have been the chief aim of our earlier producers
of pork. This idea was especially fostered in the show
ring. Today the market discriminates against the large
and excessively fat hog, yet the demand on the part of
the average fair visitor is still to see the largest hog. The
attainment of these great weights was a little more ex-
cusable in the former days of cheap feeds than now, but
with the market demands as they are, and with the
demand for meats on the farm from small hogs, size is no
longer to be given such consideration in the show ring,
and the standards will be placed more along utilitarian
lines.

The ideal market hog.—The ideal porker fulfills in
every detail the requirements of the purpose for which it
is to be used in so far as such is possible. In a study of
the ideal fat hog we look at his value as an animal
designed for use as food, and do not take into account the
value of the animal as a breeder, or whether or not the
meat he carries was produced at a profit or loss. It is
therefore the butcher and consumer of pork that set the
standards of the ideal fat hog, but these standards must
not be contrary to economical feeding and breeding.
What the butcher demands is what should concern us.
He demands conformation, quality and finish, a high

JUDGING SWINE 85

dressing percentage and a high percentage of high-priced
cuts. These are vital points with the butcher. If, in
addition to the above, the animal possesses quality, the
value of the carcass is still more enhanced because

The butcher helps establish the ideal pork type. Courtesy O. F.
Troutman of Kentucky.

quality is associated with high dressing per cent and high
percentage of high-priced cuts. The butcher demands
finish or fat because it also adds to the dressing per-
centage and increases the percentage of high-priced cuts,
for it is mostly in the higher-priced cuts that an excess of
fat is deposited. In short, the ideal fat hog is synony-
mous with the ideal pork type.

8&6 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

General appearance.—A blocky appearance from every
angle should be the first impression gained in the judging
of an ideal market animal. From the side view the body
is rectangular, with lots of depth and not too much length.
The body is wide and set
squarely on short, strong legs.
There is a general smooth-
ness of outline, with all parts
so blending and balanced as
to create a symmetrical ap-
pearance. The top line, side
line and underline are all
straight or nearly so, and
especially should a straight
edge placed along the side of
the finished market hog touch
at all points between the
shoulder and ham, with an
From the rear the fat absence of wrinkles. In short,

hog presents a compact

appearance, Com rtesy the appearance should be

B. P. Folk of North such that a maximum of
Carolina. valuable meat is seen with as

small amount of waste as is possible.

Weight.—This was formerly a much more important
consideration than now. Now the demands of the mar-
ket and the show standards have so changed that weight
in fat hogs is of secondary importance. Naturally, with
the required condition, weight will largely take care of
itself. For pork type weights between 175 and 200
pounds would be ideal. Weight should always be con-
sidered in connection with age, for of two animals
weighing the same, and other things being equal, the one

JUDGING SWINE 87

that is the younger should be given the preference. Fat
hogs should never weigh less than a pound for each day
of age.

What constitutes form.—A judge of swine must appre-
ciate what constitutes form in swine. When he sees

Wholesale cuts marked on Champion Barrow 1913 Internat.ou._..
Owned by Iowana Farms, Davenport, Iowa.

excessive development in certain parts, he should be able
to tell what the development consists of. He must appre-
ciate to what extent form is due to fat deposition. Indi-
viduals and breeds of swine vary greatly in the distribu-
tion of fat and lean over the body. In this respect there
is a great difference between our improved and unim-
proved individuals. The unimproved swine are inclined
to store fat in those parts where it will be of least value,
such as in the body cavity surrounding the several

88 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

organs, while the improved swine are inclined to store it
more in those parts where fat has value, such as on the
back and hams, and between the muscles. Thus the
rotund and smooth form which a market hog takes on
when finished is due to a large extent to skeletal and
muscular development, but to a greater extent to the
deposition of fat over and in the muscles and under the
skin. The expert judge can tell by the touch the degree
to which excessive development consists of fat and lean
development. To do this it is necessary that he under-
stand thoroughly the anatomy of the hog.

The Head of the ideal market hog should be short and
broad, with large, bright, clear eyes set wide apart, and
with indications of a gentle, passive, lymphatic tempera-
ment. The nostrils should be large and open, general
features clean cut, indicative of breeding. The wide
forehead and heavy jowl, with medium fine ears, are
other points to be looked for in the head.

The Neck should be very short, thick and meaty, with
a neat blending at the head and shoulders. Long necks
are especially undesirable. The arch of the body should
continue with the neck in such a manner that the attach-
ment of body and neck is hardly discernible. The jowl
should extend from the jaw beneath the entire neck to
the shoulder.

The Shoulders should be smooth and rounding on top
and evenly covered, blending perfectly with the rest of
the body. The tops of the shoulder blades should not be
prominent and stand out, but should be nicely rounded
over and snug and neat. Rough shoulders constitute one
of the most common defects in market hogs, as they tend

JUDGING SWINE 89

to make the development back of the shoulders appear
deficient, and they indicate an excess of bone.

Chest—On the fat hog the development of the chest is
of minor consideration from the standpoint of the de-
mands of the butcher. From the standpoint of the pro-
ducer, this point is of considerable importance. The
chest is that part lying between the shoulders and imme-
diately behind them, and it should be very wide and deep.
High development of chest is associated with constitu-
tion and vigor. A narrow, shallow chest with a small
heart girth denotes a lack of constitution, vigor and
vitality.

The Back should be wide and smooth, with a slight
arch. The back is that part extending from the tops of
the shoulder blades to the last rib. It furnishes some
high-priced meats and should receive critical considera-
tion. Too much width, due to natural spring of rib and
fleshing, is impossible. Deep fleshing is most to be
desired. In addition, it is desirable that the back be
short, as the tendency with too long a back is to break
down in the top-line.

The Ribs should be deep and well covered, with deep,
long sides that will cut out a good strip of bacon or fat
bellies. With a well-sprung rib, more space is offered
for the deposition of high-priced meats.

The Loin is that portion lying between the rear edge
of the back and the hams. It has no ribs below it other
than the short, floating ribs of the lumbar vertebre, and
it consists largely of heavy muscles, which makes it cut
some of the highest-priced meats. Especially should the
muscling and fleshing of this part be the heaviest. The

90 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

muscles of this part are used but little, which makes it
tender.

The Hams, above all else, should have the maximum
of development. They should possess great length,
depth and width. The general width of the body should
continue into the hams. The depth should continue to

The body of the fat hog is judged largely from the side
view. Courtesy B. P. Folk of North Carolina.

the hocks, giving a square appearance there instead of
the usual cat-ham effect. By length we refer to the
dimensions of the ham lengthwise of the hog’s body.
Especially is this likely to be deficient in the region of
the flank.

The Feet and Legs should be strong enough to main-
tain the weight of the body; they should be placed
squarely on the four corners of the hog’s body, and
should be straight and short. Fineness of bone and
smoothness of joints are indicative of quality, while rough,
heavy-boned legs and joints indicate a lack of quality.
With hogs that have to graze and make their own living

JUDGING SWINE 91

there is a strong tendency for them to break down in the
pastern joints under market weight. Strong, short,
straight pasterns are, therefore, to be sought after.

The Body should be compact, low-set and broad, as
this is indicative of a high dressing per cent. Especially
is breadth desirable in the upper part of the body, for here
the width is due to the development of muscles and to
the deposit of fat on the ribs. The top line of the body
should be slightly arched. The underline should be
nearly straight, and certainly not excessively curved
down. The side lines should be such that all points fill
out smooth and plump to maintain straight lines all along
the sides. The flanks should be well filled out. Paunchi-
ness in particular should be guarded against.

Quality in the fat hog.—Quality and refinement are
synonymous. The ideal fat hog will show quality, both
externally and internally. It is quality of pork that is
sought after, and this cannot be obtained without exter-
nal quality. In the first place, fineness of bone and indi-
cations of a high dressing per cent accompany an animal
possessing quality. The quality of the meat the hog
carries is indicated by the quality of his bone, by a soft,
pliable hide or skin, by the fineness of his bristles, and,
above all, by his touch, or the correct feeling of flesh
from an external examination. The correct touch is
difficult of description, but it should indicate an even,
firm fleshing, with an ample admixture of fat and lean.

Extreme quality undesirable—Extreme quality and
refinement are had only with the sacrifice of constitution
and vigor. This condition is frequently met with in our
highly bred hogs. The delicacy of make-up in such

92 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

animals greatly reduces their breeding capacities. Es-
pecially is size reduced. This condition has been pro-
duced by the demand for early-maturing types. The
tendency for such animals is to produce fat in abnormal
quantities before they have matured their bodies.
Quality is, of course, desirable in breeding animals, but
we must be careful not to carry it to extremes. We want
the maximum of quality so long as it is not obtained at
the expense of constitutional vigor and size.

Condition.—One of the most distinguishing character-
istics of our present types and breeds of swine is the even
and properly mixing of the fat with the lean. A certain
amount of fat is most desirable, but an excess production
of fat over lean is to be guarded against. Hogs in low
condition have a firm, hard feeling along the back and lack
in width. As fattening takes place they widen out and
become more yielding to the touch. The degree or extent
to which the market pork should be fattened will depend
to some extent upon the market and to some extent upon
the available foodstuff. In the fat hog condition and
finish are synonymous. The same degree of condition is
not sought in breeding hogs as in fat or market hogs.

Fleshing.—We must make a distinction between condi-
tion and fleshing. By condition we refer to the amount of
fat the animal carries. By fleshing we refer to the amount
of lean meat. The fleshing should be present in abun-
dance and should be placed on smoothly. An evenly
fleshed thin hog will fatten smoothly, while an unevenly
fleshed thin animal seldom fattens so smoothly. The
fleshing is generally indicated by a firm touch along the
back, on the sides and on the hams. Heavy, smooth

JUDGING SWINE 93

fleshing is most desirable, for it indicates a profitable
production and is desired by the consumer.

Temperament of market hogs.—Temperament is indi-
cated for the most part by the features of the head. In
general, the nose should be short, with width between
the ears and eyes, with a full, high forehead, indicative of
a well-developed nervous system and strong vitality.
The temperament of the younger and unfinished animals
had best be of the more active sort, while of the finished
and fattened animal it had best be of the passive and
lymphatic order. A wide-open, clear, full eye is indica-
tive of the desirable temperament, and a few glances at
the head and eye will generally convey to one a fairly
accurate measurement of the temperament. The temper-
ament is also indicated by the carriage of the hog in
walking or moving about. Excitable and nervous hogs
are not desirable, for the quality of meat is apt to be
affected.

Style—Style on a finished hog has a market value, but
as a rule it is only in the show ring that it is taken into
account. A stylish hog stands squarely on his feet, with
a slight arch to his back, with his head in normal posi-
tion, but with his eyes and ears ready to catch all that
goes on. His style is also manifested in the manner in
which he handles himself. Such a hog will attract buyers,
for he forces his good points to the attention of the buyer.

Constitution—The hog, whether it be a breeding
animal or pork maker, must have constitution and vitality
to properly support the digestive and other bodily func-
tionings. The internal organs must have ample room
and full development, for they play an important part in

94 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

the transfer and assimilation of nutrients and in the
elimination of waste, and the proper exercise of their
functions demands a vigorous and strong constitution.
Constitution is of no consequence to the butcher, but it
is the breeder and feeder that must take it into account.
Especially in breeding swine is it of importance, for they
must not only provide the needs of their own bodies, but
also of their offspring. Constitution is indicated to a
large extent by a deep, broad, full body and large heart
girth. This allows of ample room for the functioning of
the vital organs. The eyes should be full, bright and
clear. The bones must not be too fine.

Early maturity.—Early maturity refers to the ability of
the animal to fatten sufficiently for marketing at an early
age. It is the result of selection over many decades, and
most of our improved breeds of swine possess the
capacity to a marked degree. The tendency in breeding
has been continually toward an earlier maturing type.
Formerly hogs were not marketed until one year of age
or over. Now they are sent to market at from six to nine
months. Indications of early maturity are to be found
largely in form and type. General refinement and com-
pactness and ideal pork form are compatible with early
maturity. Especially should the heart girth and chest
development be ample. Extreme early maturity has a
tendency to weaken the constitution.

Character in unsexed swine.—Barrows and spayed
sows should attain a certain development of character
that is inexpressive of either sex. They should be neither
masculine nor feminine. When unsexed the second-
ary sexual development of either males or females tends

JUDGING SWINE 95

to approach the same condition. The castrated males
become more effeminate and the spayed females more
masculine. The ideal pork animal should have an inex-
pressive character and resigned attitude suggestive that
the only purpose for which it existed was the conversion
of feed into pork.

Stock hogs.—The selection of stock hogs demands
greater skill than the judging of fat swine. The judge of
stock hogs must possess a conception of the animal after
it has passed through a fattening process. He must not
only pick the animals that will finish into the ideal mar-
ket type, but due consideration must be given to the
economy of production. In other words, he must be able
to judge the fattening and gaining capacity of the animal.
If one has a definite knowledge of the ideal market hog,
the selection of stock hogs and the production of the ideal
market type is a less complicated matter. In the selec-
tion of swine for feeding purposes we should therefore
look for indications of thrift and gaining capacity, a
strong constitution, quality, breeding, and a disposition
consistent with the finishing of the animal into an ideal
market animal.

Judging breeding swine.—Basically, the judging of
breeding swine and market swine is identical in so far as
conformation is concerned. With breeding swine, how-
ever, some allowances must be made for condition, but
with a lack of condition there must be indications of early
maturity and ample feeding capacity. In breeding swine
there are, in addition to the above, certain things directly
related to breeding capacity which must be doubly
emphasized. Constitutional vigor and sexuality are of

96 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

greatest importance. In the judging of breeding swine
the fact should ever be borne in mind that it is desired
that the offspring of the swine being judged are to be
made into perfect ideal fat hogs, and all the character-

Large type breeding swine are popular in the show ring.
Courtesy Chas. J. Tanner of Kentucky.

istics of the parents should contribute to this end. Con-
sequently, special emphasis must be placed on size, con-
formation, feet and legs, quality,sexuality and disposition.

The foundation herd.—It is quite necessary that we
have good individuals with which to start our breeding
operations because of the inherent tendency of highly
bred animals to revert to a poorer type. It is to be
assumed that under all conditions only pure-bred Loars
will be used, and that pure-bred sows may or may not be
used, depending on the ultimate objects sought. In either

JUDGING SWINE 97

case the same precautions must be taken in the selection
of the breeding animals. One must not accept an animal
for foundation stock simply because it bears a pedigree.
In order not to select a scrub masquerading as a highly
bred animal, he must know the true pork type, the ideal
market animal. Even then his selections may go amiss,
for the animals he selects may not breed true to type.
Therefore, when possible, the beginner should use only
young, tried animals, even though they may cost a trifle
more. A little extra money is always well spent in the
purchasing of better foundation stock.

Cost of breeding swine.—The cost of breeding swine
seems almost prohibitive, and most of us are tempted to
use scrub and unimproved animals with the hopes of
improving them. ‘This is not only true of the sows, but
it is also frequently true of the boars. Most of us do not
consider the increased value which a better boar puts on
each of his pigs, which will very soon more than cover
the small additional price. Asa rule, a few extra dollars
spent in better blood is well spent; but, of course, when
one is spending the few extra dollars for better blood he
wants to know that he is getting what is being paid for.
One can only know this by becoming a good judge of
breeding swine, which means that one must not only be
able to recognize type, character and pork qualities in a
breeding animal, but must be able to tell within a fair
degree of accuracy the kind of offspring that will come
from such an animal.

Selecting breeding swine.—Since the ultimate use of
breeding swine is the production of ideal porkers, their
selections should be made with this in view. Quick

98 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

maturity and evidences of profitableness should be given
consideration. In order to be profitable they must of
necessity be in possession of a vigorous constitution.
They must possess breed characteristics and breediness,
or sex character. In addition to a deep, natural flesh and
compact form, they must be possessed of reproductive
ability and be capable of producing their like.

Purchasing breeders.—After the selection of the breed-
ing herd from which it seems desirable to make some
purchases, one should, if possible, visit the herd and
carefully inspect the animals offered for sale, and find out
what he can of their type and ancestry. He should then
make his selections, being guided by the purposes for
which the animals are desired, by individual preferences
and by the information furnished by the breeder. An
honest breeder will not misrepresent his stock in order
to make a sale. Under no circumstances should a slight
difference in price influence the purchaser to buy inferior
animals, for it has been demonstrated time and again that
it pays to use only the best in starting a breeding herd of
pure-bred swine.

How to make selections.—While we can select for con-
formation, type and early maturity, we must also base
our selections on performance, or the ability to make
good use of feed and rapid gains up to the limit of the
capacity of the animal. In the case of swine greater skill
is required to select for performance than in the case of
some other animals. In race horses, for instance, where
all is sacrificed for speed, the matter of selection on the
performance basis is a simple matter. With swine in the
feed lot, the closest observation and the exercise of the

JUDGING SWINE 99

greatest skill are required. The show yards and sale rings
assist some in the making of these sclections, but for the
most part the breeder will have to depend on his own
observation and judgment.

Age of breeding swine.—In the selecting and purchas-
ing of swine for breeding purposes there are in the main
two methods that can be employed so far as age is con-
cerned. The first is to purchase young animals and grow
them to maturity, and the other is to purchase older
animals that have been used for breeding purposes. The
first of these methods is frequently the most economical
method of purchasing, but one’s expectations are not
always fulfilled, and the animals may not develop as they
should. The second method has the advantage of being
a little surer, which in the long run may be the best
policy. In selecting older animals one must be careful
to get breeding animals that have been merely tried out
and have not been worn out through several seasons of
breeding. The most profitable ages are between two and
seven years for either sex.

Mature breeding swine.—The reproductive functions
of swine are not fully developed until about the time the
individual begins to mature. The sexual organs and
instinct develop rapidly as maturity approaches, and we
say the breeding age has arrived. Gilts generally arrive
at this age a month earlier than males. The age at which
the breeding powers become manifested depends on
breed, method of handling, feeding and sex. With the
gilt the first period is co-existent with the bursting of
the Graffian follicle and liberation of the first ova. With
the male the arrival at breeding age is a more gradual

100 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

process. By no means should swine be permitted to
exercise their breeding powers as soon as they are mani-
fested. Gilts should not be bred before they are eight
months of age, for before that time they have not reached
the age of sufficient sexual maturity, and the age of
somatic maturity is not reached for some months after
this age. Boars should likewise not be used to any extent
before this age, and they should then be used only very
lightly until after they are one year of age.

Early maturity in breeding swine.—In the selection of
our boars and sows the early-maturing qualities must be
sought so that they can be transmitted to the offspring,
for it is of the greatest importance from the standpoint
of the grower and butcher that the hogs mature and
fatten at the earliest possible age. Especially should
boars be selected largely on the basis of their early
fattening propensities.

Conformation.—The conformation of breeding swine
must therefore be similar to that of the ideal pork animal,
and must give the indications of being able to produce
the ideal market animal, either through feeding or
through a process of reproduction and feeding. To be
sure, the condition of breeding swine and the ideal mar-
ket animal are different. In the conformation of the
breeding swine, as compared with the ideal porker, there
are other considerations. In the breeding animals sex
character will cause variations in boars and sows that
will not be found in the ideal market animal. The body
of the sow will be longer, with a greater development in
the hindquarters, and the boar will have a seemingly
surplus development of the forequarters, head and neck.

JUDGING SWINE 101

Weights.—The tendency at present is towards market
hogs of medium size. This preference is probably due
to the facts that the meat is better and the cost of pro-
ducing is less than in the large hogs. The production of
the second hundred pounds in weight costs much more
than the first hundred, and the cost increases with the
size. The weights of swine are dependent on so many
factors that an approximation of average weights is diffi-
cult. The age, feeding, sex, breeding, condition and
quality influence the weight. The following table may
be considered as average weights under different condi-
tions of feeding and care.

6 months 12 months 18 months

t. Roughed 222--222--- 100 200 275
2. Medium fed ~-----__ 200 350 450
Sree be dieses as 250 450 550
4: show ted eken 22252 300 500 600

A good standard for mature boars in breeding condi-
tion is from 450 to 500 pounds, and for sows from 75 to
100 pounds less than the boars.

Variation in weight.—While we have certain standards
of weight according to age, there are other factors, such
as breed and sex, that play a part. The more common
breeds will rank in size in about the following order, from
the heavier to the lighter breeds: Large Yorkshire,
Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, Tamworth, Poland-China,
Berkshire, Hampshire, Middle Yorkshire, Essex, and
Small Yorkshire. The boars generally weigh from one-
sixth to one-quarter more than the sows. Swine are
usually nearly mature at two years of age, although they
will continue to grow some after that age. If slowly fed,
they may take as much as four years in which to mature.

102 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Condition of breeding swine—High condition is in-
compatible with the best results in breeding. In general,
the breeding animals should possess an abundance of
natural fleshing rather than high condition. Under no
circumstances should they be excessively fat, nor should
they be excessively lean. Show animals in show condi-
tion are nearly always below par in breeding capacity.
Especially is high condition to be guarded against in the
sow, as an excess of internal fat is apt to result in crowd-
ing these organs and shutting off the normal blood
supply, preventing normal functioning. Also, high con-
dition causes a lymphatic disposition, which is not con-
ducive to the most desirable breeding qualities. Es-
pecially is this true of boars, and they should never be
fattened to the point where they become sluggish and
inactive.

Size and vigor.—In the selection of swine for breeding
purposes size and vigor are vital points to be considered,
as they largely control heavy and economical gains.
Vigor is especially to be desired to conform to our
grazing methods. Vigorous hogs are also less subject to
parasites and diseases in general. As to size, what is
wanted is not a large animal, but we do want a large
one for its age, for this indicates early maturity and
economical production. We can only have early-
maturing animals when they have proper vigor and
vitality. Thus, size and vigor are of importance from the
standpoint of economical production, and these qualities
must be taken into account in the selection of our breed-
ing animals in the future if we are to secure hogs best
suited to our conditions.

4

JUDGING SWINE 103

Importance of strong bone.—In our judging and selec-
tion of breeding swine greater attention will have to be
given to strength and quality of bone than has been given
in the past. This comes from a changed method of pro-
duction, in which we will no longer do extensive lot
feeding, but will produce our pork by means of grazing
crops. It is not so much a great size of bone that is
desired as moderate size with quality. Too much size
without quality would not be desirable from the stand-
point of the butcher. A strong bone is wanted to support
the weight of the animal in the larger amount of walking
that will have to be done in the gathering of its food

supply.

Vitality and prolificacy.—In a herd of breeding swine
vitality and prolificacy are of considerable importance,
and on them to a large extent depends the outcome.
Care and attention are continually required to maintain
the required vitality and prolificacy, and under the condi-
tions with which we surround most of our pure-bred
herds there is a strong tendency toward over-refinement.
This lack of vitality and prolificacy is not so noticeable
in the body form as in the weakened breeding powers
manifested. In the sows, with a lack of these qualities
we have irregular and abortive breeders, lessened fe-
cundity, and low milk secretion. These weaknesses seem
to accentuate themselves as they go from one generation
to the next, but fortunately they are ultimately auto-
matically eliminated.

Breed type—All our breeding swine should possess
some breed type, whether the object is pork production
or the production of breeding animals. By breed type we

104 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

refer to the indications that the individual belongs to a
specific breed, or, that the blood of a specific breed pre-
dominates. The possession of this breed type is a good
indication of prepotency. Any pork animal should
possess these indications for at least one of the improved
breeds; otherwise, it may safely be assumed that a poor
pork type exists, for a good pork type seldom exists
without breed type. Especially should breeding swine be
typical and characteristic as to breed type.

Prepotency.—Prepotency refers to the ability of
breeding animals to impress their own likeness upon
their offspring. While it is not definitely recognizable
from the appearance, it should be one of the distinctive
characteristics of good breeding animals. An animal
with proper sexual development, breed type and breeding
is very apt to be prepotent. When two animals are
crossed, the one that impresses its kind more strongly on
the offspring is said to be more prepotent. Prepotency
is one of the bases of our progress in improvement in
swine breeding. Breeding animals that are not prepotent
are said to be impotent, or, in other words, they are not
able to stamp their type.

Quality in breeding swine.—Good quality is especially
evidenced by ability to make good use of feed. Other
indications of quality are to be found in the bone, bristle
and hide. Usually the hog of good quality makes a good
appearance, and by his smooth skin, bright eye and gen-
eral disposition makes a good impression. In addition to
being masculine, our breeding boars should possess a
certain degree of quality. His features should be clear
cut and symmetrical, showing strength and character

JUDGING SWINE 105

without coarseness. The breed characteristics should be
pronounced. The sow likewise should be more than
effeminate. She should be in possession of the quality
that is necessary in the make-up of a perfect brood sow.
She should show general refinement and symmetrical
and clear-cut features, combined with proper breed
characteristics. Quality and breed character go hand in
hand.

CHAPTER V
SHOWING SWINE

The show ring.—There is probably no other single
institution connected with the swine industry that has
made for more real progress than the show ring. With-
out it our present day swine would have presented noth-
ing like the uniformity of type and general perfection
which they now possess. The show ring has been the
guiding star for the breeders of pure-bred swine and to
the producers of market swine to a less degree. The
producer of market hogs can get much from the market
as to the demands and standards of the times, but the
breeder of pure-bred swine must rely on the show ring.
It has been the show rings that have made the standards
of perfection toward which we have been striving. They
tended to standardize and systematize the goal of per-
fection toward which all breeders have been striving,
which has been largely responsible for the progress that
has been attained. The show ring has given the indi-
vidual breeders an insight into what the best swine
judges have considered the ideal types. In addition, the
friendly rivalry of the show ring has been a great stimulus
in bringing about the production of continually better
individuals. The sporting instinct of man has been
aroused by the competition in the show ring. All in all,
the show ring has been a wonderful stimulus for the good
of swine breeding, and it is to be hoped that more and
more of the smaJJ breeders can utilize this institution in
the interests of their work

106

SHOWING SWINE 107

Advertising—One of the chief advantages to be
derived from the showing of swine is the advertising that
is secured. If the breeder properly fits and shows his
products, he will have no difficulty in placing his animals
before the public in a way that will be a credit to himself
and the herd. The great advantage of this method of
advertising is that if we are breeding swine of sufficient
merit to win they receive a stamp of approval from the
judge. This is one of the cheapest ways we have to do

AMA

Mississippi State Fair Grand Champion sows of 1915, owned
by E. J. McCall of Louisiana.

our advertising, for when the animals really possess merit
the winnings or prize money will more than offset the
expenses attached to the showing. In the past the value
of the live stock show as an advertising method has not
been recognized as fully as it deserved. If animals really
possess merit, they always sell for more if they have
winnings back of them, and nothing adds to the value of
an animal any quicker than to have won over hot compe-
tition at one of the better live stock shows.

Reputation.—One’s reputation as a breeder depends to
a large extent upon the show ring winnings he has made
with animals of his own breeding. This is one of the

108 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

chief advantages to be derived by the swine breeder from
the show ring. Aside from the advertising which his
herd and animals receive, his reputation as a breeder is
at stake, as it were, and the show ring offers an oppor-
tunity which cannot well be ignored by one who wishes
to make his reputation as a breeder of the most approved
types. A reputation built on attainments in the show
ring is a lasting one if attained honestly. It has an
immense monetary value to the swine breeder if properly
utilized.

Educational value of the show.—In addition to the
reputation and advertising to be gained by showing the
products of one’s efforts at breeding, there are other
advantages to be derived. One’s general store of knowl-
edge is added to along the line of swine breeding, be-
cause he cannot associate with other breeders without
absorbing valuable information from them. He sees
what others are doing, and he is thereby enabled to con-
duct his own operations more advantageously. This
educational feature of the show ring is one of the most
important; it lights the way, so to speak; standards are
set; friendly rivalries stimulate one to greater accom-
plishments, and one becomes educated as to what is
expected of a swine breeder and as to how best go about
the production of an ideal.

Show ring standards.—The question sometimes arises
in the show ring as to where we are to go to secure our
standards in making awards. It is very obvious that
since we are producing something to mect the discrimi-
nating demands of the market, we should go there to
seek our standards. That has been one great difficulty

SHOWING SWINE 109

we have had in the past. We have failed in a great many
instances to secure judges who were familiar with the
demands of the markets for which they were making
awards. The judge should be absolutely familiar with
what the market demands and is willing to pay the most
for. The markets are constantly changing in what they
demand, because the pork-producing industry is evo-
luting. The evoluting process is slow because our herds
cannot be changed on short order. If we are to make
progress in breeding, we must depend on the awards of
judges to show what the market demands, and thus the
responsibility resting on a judge in the show ring is much
greater than we might consider on first thought.

The profitable type-——The hogs that are fitted for show
are not necessarily the ideal farm type. They usually
carry such an excess of fat as to preclude profits from
their production. They do show, however, the type that
is desired, for they could never attain the condition they
carry were they not of the proper type. Therefore, we
may with safety depend on the show ring to indicate the
most desirable types for farm use. Especially does the
show ring point out to us those types which fatten most
readily and mature at an early age. In farm practice the
hogs we grow for the market must be able to develop and
grow rapidly from the start and be susceptible to fatten-
ing at almost any age.

Important shows.—There are numerous swine shows
held over the South, and some of them rank well with the
shows held farther north in what has been considered the
swine belt proper. Of course, the better the show which
one attends, or at which one shows, the greater are to be

110 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

the rewards in case of winning. Some county and local
fairs offer small premiums, and where the interest and
competition are sufficient a great deal of good can be
derived from showing at and attending these local fairs.
The state fairs are, however, better in that they cover a
broader field and give one more of a real insight into the
use and value of the show ring. Every southern state has
its state fairs, and some have more than one. In addition
to these state fairs there are other fairs of a wider scope,
such as the Feeders’ and Breeders’ Show, which is held
at Fort Worth, Tex.; the Southeastern Fair that is held
in Atlanta, Ga.; the Tri-State Fair, held at Memphis,
Tenn.; the Alabama-Mississippi Fair, held at Birming-
ham; and similar fairs that offer exceptional oppor-
tunities for southern breeders to obtain the advantages
to be derived from use of the show ring; and all breeders
should attend one or more of the best of these shows,
whether they show or not.

Making entries—In order that one may show an
animal in one of the better classes of shows it is generally
necessary that entry blanks of the proper sort be filled
out. These blanks are usually furnished free by the sec-
retary of the fair association. On them is a place for the
name of the animal, its date of birth, breed, registration
number, the class in which it is desired to show it, and
other spaces to supply whatever other information is
needed. In the entering of animals it is generally
possible to enter them in several competitions. When an
animal really possesses merit and stands a chance of
winning in more than one class, it is best to make the
entry that way where permissible. Prize money some-
times comes easier than it looks, and with good indi-

SHOWING SWINE 111

viduals and where the competition is not too great, one
can reasonably expect the prize money to pay the ex-
penses incidental to fitting and showing. Some breeders
esteem the show ring so greatly that they will have out
as many as three or four herds, that will remain out an
entire season, going from one fair to another. In the
making of entries one will be guided to a great extent by
the particular show, for each makes its own rules govern-
ing exhibits. As a rule, the classification made to cover
the different classes that will be shown is arbitrary, but
a complete classification for the showing is given as
follows. There are but few of the fairs that have all of
these classes.

SHOW CLASSES

Boars Sows Herbs

Aged boars Aged sows Aged herds

Senior yearlings Senior yearlings Bred by exhibitor

Junior yearlings Junior yearlings Owned by exhibitor

Senior boar pigs Senior sow pigs Young herds

Junior boar pigs Junior sow pigs Produce of sow

Senior Grand Senior Grand Get of boar
Champion Champion Litters (4)

Junior Champion Junior Champion

Fitting for the show.—In the fitting of swine for the
show there is an opportunity for the exercise of great
skill. It is well recognized that in order to properly fit
swine both skill and experience are necessary. Above
all, the feeding must be begun in time. The feeds must
not only be of the right sort for the purposes desired, but
the animal will require continual watching from start to
finish. The feeding must be systematic and judgment
must be used. In order to feed properly one must not
only have the animals to feed, but he must be supplied
with the right sort of feeds and have the right sort of

112 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

equipment, in the way of lots, pens, troughs, sheds, etc.
The whole thing resolves itself into the proper feeding
and handling of the animal so that it will make use of
feed up to the limit of its capacity. In the fitting for the
show more is required than to merely attain a certain
condition. The hair, skin, feet, disposition and form will
have to be carefully watched. To fit swine properly for
the show is no simple matter and is one at which great
skill can be exercised.

Equipment for show fitting ——Not much equipment is
required in fitting swine for show purposes above that
which is ordinarily to be had on a hog farm. First, it is
necessary to have pigs or hogs of breeding sufficient to
make it possible for them to be developed into prize
winners. Next, which is equally important, is the supply
of the proper kind of feeds. The kind will depend on the
kind of hogs to be fed and the length of time the feeding
is to take place. After that, some shelter or shed space
will have to be available, for show hogs cannot be run in
the sunshine and weather to any great extent, as it injures
the hair and skin. Also, proper exercising pens or pad-
docks must be available, these preferably to be sown to
grazing crops. In addition to this, a place for washing
the hogs, oils, brushes, soaps, straw, crates, troughs, and
the like will have to be provided. As stated, most of
these can be had on the average farm, and what little
extra is required for proper fitting will more than repay
for itself.

Feeding for the show.—It is necessary to feed liberally
and judiciously when feeding for show purposes. The
use of foodstuffs conducive to an excessive production of

“euTpoIeD YWON JO moyeg ‘DH 'N Asaqinog $ “Bunz MoyYs UT [eTJUAassa St JoyeYs Jodo1g

114 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

fat should be avoided, since such feeding is apt to result
in an abnormal development of fat tissue in comparison
with the lean. The distribution of fat and lean in the
carcass can be influenced to a limited extent by the
method of feeding. Proper covering and firmness of
flesh are most desirable. Unnecessary expenses should be
avoided. Vermifuges, tonics and appetizers may be used
to advantage. The feeding of sugar, molasses, and starch
is an expensive procedure that is seldom justifiable. The
cooking of feeds is also of questionable value. The em-
ployment of some of these and similar methods is some-
times justifiable. Of course, in show fitting one is not
justified in figuring too closely on costs of gains, and
especially in the case of breeding swine when very high
prices may obtain. Linseed meal is a food that we are
justified in using in the South in show fitting only. It is
very rich in protein and generally contains considerable
oil, which is supposed to have a very beneficial influence
on the skin and bristle.

Greater skill is required in the proper fitting of breed-
ing swine than fat or market swine. In the fitting of
breeding swine considerable exercise must be allowed.
The all-important thing is to attain the proper condition
for winning in the competition without injuring the
breeding qualities. In the fitting of market hogs or fat
hogs conformation and condition, combined with the
right quality, are all essential. In the case of either class
of swine, it must ever be borne in mind that after a hog
is once fitted for the show he must not be allowed to
decline in condition, for with a decline in condition a
certain coarseness of fleshing and bone is brought about
that can never be overcome by the most judicious feeding.

SHOWING SWINE 115

Over-fitting for showing.—Swine that have been fitted
fur the shows are nearly always too fat to have been pro-
duced at a profit. For this reason the show-yard
standards and the commercial standards are not exactly
in accord. The quantity and quality of fat usually de-
manded in the show ring are not only too great to have
been produced at a profit, but the show hog is generally
in too high a condition to suit the average consumer of
pork. In this respect the show yards are inclined to set
the wrong example for the grower. Of course, in fitting
for the show the matter of cost is secondary, yet if our
shows are to serve the purposes they should, more em-
phasis will have to be placed on whether or not an
animal has been profitably produced by its owner, and we
shall depend less on the old show standards that have
had their origins in conditions different from what exist
today in the southern states.

The proper finish—The proper degree to which to fit
show animals will depend on several factors. Different
judges have different standards, there are different
standards for the different classes, the amount of natural
fleshing is a factor, the degree of hardness of the fat is
another factor, and the competition that one has to meet
is still another. Showmen make a practice of obtaining
information in advance, where possible, of the fitness and
merits of the animals against which they will have to
show. This is not a bad practice. The proper condition
to which to finish is difficult to describe. Ifa market hog,
the animal must be finished, yet he must not be overly
fat and soft. Breeding animals do not require the condi-
tion that is demanded of the fat classes. Under no cir-
cumstances must the animals be too soft, and never so fat

116 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

as to be wrinkled. What is desired is a smooth finish in
which there is a firmness, indicative of plenty of lean
meat. To obtain the desired firmness such feeds as corn
and cottonseed meal can be fed to harden the fat. In the
breeding classes it is an easy matter to have the animals
too fat. The exact condition and fleshing qualities re-
quired can only be learned by experience.

Different treatment for different ages——It must be
borne in mind that pigs of different ages will require
different feed and attention to be properly fitted. Pigs
will require greater attention and care than the older
animals. The feeds of the pigs should be more of a
nitrogenous nature, and especially should it have bulk.
Pigs can be expected to make better use of certain
leguminous pastures than the older hogs. They should
be fed only a comparatively small amount of corn and
such carbonaceous feeds, and greater quantities of skim
milk, shorts, and nitrogenous feeds, especially legumes.
More corn and other fattening feeds can be fed to older
hogs. They are less apt to get out of condition than the
pigs. The pigs will usually take sufficient exercise of
their own accord, but older animals have to be encour-
aged to take exercise. All of these natural tendencies
exhibited by swine of different ages should be studied and
utilized in show fitting.

Securing width.—In the fitting of swine for competition
in the fat or market classes some difficulty is generally
experienced in securing the width that is desired to give
the compact and blocky conformation. No two things
make more for securing the desired width than breeding
of the proper sort and ample food supply from birth,

SHOWING SWINE 117

The use of bulky feeds during the early life of the pig is
especially desirable, since it tends to produce and stimu-
late growth and general development without excess
fattening. Bulky feeds enlarge the digestive organs and
promote digestive activities in general. A full stomach
and intestines in the show ring does a great deal toward
giving the blocky appearance demanded.

Securing proper hair condition.—In order to show to
the best advantage, swine intended for show purposes
must have a smooth, lustrous coat of hair or bristles. In
order to have a good hair coat the animal must be in the
best of health, for when an animal gets off feed or in poor
physical condition one of the first places that it shows up
is in the hair coat and skin. Show fitters resort to several
means to secure the condition of hair and skin required.
On black hogs lamp black and oils are used to some
extent. Rubbing and washing tend to give the coat a
luster, and the use of oil dressings of several sorts is re-
sorted to. Frequent washing with soap and water will
keep the hogs cool and comfortable and tends to promote
hair growth and condition. To obtain the proper condi-
tion of the hair and skin is no small matter, yet if one is
to show and win in strong competition, we are compelled
to resort to such impractical methods in self-defense.

General care previous to showing.—After the proper
condition and weight has been secured to fit the hogs for
the ring, care must be continually exercised to see that
they maintain themselves, or even improve, until they
come under the eyes of the judge. One of the main things
to watch is to see that they take ample exercise. They
should be encouraged to take this in the cool of the day.

118 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

There are several ways in which they can be induced to
take exercise, but in doing it care must be taken not to
unduly disturb and excite them. In addition to the exer-
cise, the feet must be properly looked after. They may

Personal attention is essential in show fitting. Courtesy
S. H. Pedrick of Georgia.

need trimming. They should be trimmed if necessary,
and sometimes they are sandpapered and polished with
emery dust and oil. The hair coat and skin must not be
permitted to become rough. Above all, the individuals
should be trained so that they will not be wild and excit-
able, but so that they can be easily handled. Many
animals of merit have failed in the show ring because they
were not sufficiently docile to be judged properly. Fre-
quent handling and rubbing will make them tame and fit

SHOWING SWINE 119

them so that they can be shown to the best advantage
when they enter the ring.

Equipment for showing.—After the animals have been
fitted and the time arrives to take them to the place of
showing, there is a certain amount of equipment required
in order to carry out the program. First, one needs feeds
for the hogs, unless these are supplied by the show asso-
ciation. If taken, the feeds are best taken already mixed
in sacks. In addition, some buckets for watering and
slopping and some feed troughs will be required. In
addition to some crates, some small hurdles will be found
useful in handling the hogs. Other accessories, such as
bedding, brushes, oil, possibly lamp black or other pig-
ments, hammer, nails, lantern, kerosene can, medicines,
etc., will be required. In addition to these items, it is
generally customary for the herdsman that attends the
hogs to sleep in their vicinity, which calls for a cot and
some bedding. A large trunk or two is usually provided,
in which to keep the small items that are necessary. All
of these things should be provided for. If one expects to
attend the shows and show, it does not pay to go half
prepared, and it takes preparation in other than properly
finished hogs to show and win against the hot competi-
tion one finds at the better shows.

Transportation.—After the hogs are finished and all of
the herdsman’s outfit is prepared, the question of trans-
portation is to be solved. It is generally necessary to
make use of the railroads, for but few breeders live close
enough to the shows to haul by wagon or truck. As to
whether the hogs will be driven or hauled to the car will
depend on local conditions. In some instances, where

120 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

the switch is on the farm, or close to it, it may not be
necessary to haul. Otherwise, if the distance is too
great, the hogs will have to be hauled to the car. The
ordinary box car is the most frequently used type of car
in transporting the show herd. Other types are some-
times made use of, however. Usually pens have to be
constructed in the car. These will have to be bedded.
Arrangements must be made for feeding and watering
en route. The attendant and his feeds and outfit are
usually placed on a platform over the pens, especially if
the car is crowded. If only a part of the car is occupied
with the hogs, the other part may be utilized by the
herdsman and to store feed, bedding and other equip-
ment. Upon arrival at the show yards the hogs should
be removed to the assigned pens as soon as possible.
Preparations should then be made at once to prepare the
animals for the show ring.

Proper showing.—Many animals of superior merit have
lost in the show ring because of improper showing. The
competition is such in our better shows today that every
advantage counts for something. In many cases proper
showing has won the blue ribbon, even though a better
animal was competing. The herdsman or showman must
know and appreciate the particular merits of his entry,
and exhibit them to the judge to the best advantage
possible. The herdsman should study the judge and learn
his strong and weak points and play to them. In the
present day of large entries and keen competition, show-
ing is largely a game, and while individual merit counts,
proper showing also frequently lands the blue or purple
ribbon.

CHAPTER VI
FEEDING SWINE

The South can grow pork.—The South can never com-
pete with the Corn Belt sections of the North and West
in the fattening of pork on corn. By the extensive use of
grazing crops we can grow pork of a desirable quality,
however, at figures which cannot be equaled under Corn
Belt conditions. We should aim to make our hogs only
so fat as to make the carcass juicy, palatable and tendcr.
Any fat above this is produced at a loss, for so far as we
know eight or ten times the weight of food required to
produce a pound of lean is required in the production of
a pound of fat. If we must have an extra quantity of lard
or fat, we can best afford to import it from the Corn Belt,
or, better still, make a more extensive use of our own
vegetable fat, cottonseed oil.

The size of native swine.—The smallness of our native
unimproved swine, especially of those farther South, is
due to the animals not having had a constant and suff-
cient amount of nutritious food. They are not kept in a
healthy and growing condition from the time they are
weaned until ready for slaughter. Inbreeding and breed-
ing at too young an age may have reduced the size more,
but for the most part the inadequate food supply during
winter and early spring has been the chief contributing
factor. When ample food is supplied a much larger
animal will be produced from this native stock, and the
animal will be ready for slaughter at a much earlier age

than when raised in the usual manner.
121

122 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Our carbohydrate supply —For many years our investi-
gators in feeding and nutrition have realized that the
deficiency of feeding nutrients in the South was not pro-
tein, but was in carbohydrates. This is the reverse of
the condition in the Corn Belt, where corn supplies an
abundance of carbohydrates and where proteins are
naturally scarce. Fortunately, an adequate protein
supply is more important than an adequate carbohydrate
supply, so that while we have a problem, it cannot be
considered with the same gravity as the protein supply of
the Corn Belt. We must not feed too narrow a ration
and must feed some carbohydrates. Corn will supply
some. Sweet potatoes, chufas, molasses, saccharine and
non-saccharine sorghums will supply some, and, in addi-
tion, legumes and all other feeds contain appreciable
quantities of carbohydrates.

Too much corn not profitable.—In those sections of the
South where corn can be grown to advantage, a mistake
has been often made of feeding a ration to hogs restricted
almost entirely to corn. Corn has always been considered
a valuable feed for swine, and so it is, but we too often
fail to realize that to obtain the maximum value from it,
it must be properly supplemented. As many as a dozen
experiments have been tried at the several experiment
stations in testing the value of corn alone and with corn
supplemented. All have agreed that a ration of corn
alone was not profitable and that production was obtained
at a greatly reduced figure by properly supplementing the
corn with a food rich in nitrogen and mineral matter. In
several instances, notably at the Kansas Station, the pigs
died on rations of corn alone. The supplements that were
found most valuable were the legumes, and by their use,

FEEDING SWINE 123

both of the seed and green pastures, a reduction of from
ten to fifty per cent and more was obtained in the cost per
100 pounds of gain.

The use of grazing crops.—Pork production can be put
on an absolutely permanent basis in the South by every
farmer who will take up seriously the matter of growing
forage crops so as to supply an abundance of roughage
for his swine the year through. Every successful hog
man knows that the greatest profits in pork production
have come from the liberal and judicious use of forage

Most grazing crops should be supplemented. Courtesy D. T.
Hardin of Tennessee.

crops. By the use of forage crops swine can be grown
and maintained with but very little concentrates. For
the proper finishing of pork for the market some concen-

124 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

trates will have to be used, but it is also possible to grow
these at low cost, and they can, for the most part, be
harvested by the hogs themselves. We can have forage
crops every day in the year for our hogs if we plan far
enough ahead.

Rotations.—After one has decided upon the crops that
can be grown under his conditions, the more important
problem of arranging for a rotation or succession enters
in. There are no rotations that are applicable all over
the South, a specific one being required for each section
and farm. In order to show how they are planned, some
typical ones are presented. Of course, it will be necessary
to have several fields in order to properly graze swine.
As a general proposition, the more fields and the greater
variety of crops grown the better. It is possible to pro-
vide grazing pretty well through the year and feed hogs
in a limited way with three fields on a three-year rotation.
Such a rotation might be planned about as follows:

GRAZING FROM JAN. 1 TO JAN. 1

Order Approximate order
planted grazed (months)
Field 1—Winter grains plus winter legume__-__Mar., June
Summer legume plus corn____--_----- Sept., Oct.
Field 2—Winter grains plus winter legume_____ May, July
Sweet potatoes plus peanuts_-________ Nov., Dec.
Field 3—Rape. plus oats..-2--2222---.20.-_.- Jan., Feb., Apr., May
Early corn plus legume_-_-___--__-____/ Aug.

A four-field rotation could be made from the above by
the addition of a field of alfalfa. A permanent grass
pasture, such as Bermuda or blue grass, would also work
in well with the above grazing plan, but it should not be
rotated. An ideal five-field system would include the
above three-field plan, with one field additional for al-

FEEDING SWINE 125

falfa and one additional permanent pasture, which could
be grazed off as needed.

In order to show about how the succession would run
on a four-field rotation, the following is presented:

A Four-Fietp Rotation To SupPpLy GRAZING FROM JULY 1 To JULY 1

Order Approximate
planted grazing dates
Field 1—Early corn plus New Era peas------------------ July

Rap emplus: oats sesetaes teen eee Ae eee eee Nov., Apr.
Field 2—Sweet potatoes and peanuts____________-_____-___ Sept., Oct.

Winter grain plus winter legumes_-_---__---____ Dec., May
T'ield 3—Corn plus soy beans or cowpeas-_---------------_ Aug.

Winter grain plus winter legumes___-___--_--___ Jan., June
Field 4—Chufas and bur clover____------_---___-_-_______ Feb., Mar.

As pointed out in the case of the three-year rotation,
this could be made a five or six-field plan by the addition
of either alfalfa or a permanent grass pasture, or both.

In order to facilitate the planning of the right rotations
and to assist in the selection of the most suitable crops,
the following table is offered, which shows the most
suitable crops for grazing for each month of the year
under average southern conditions. The average planting
date is also given. The number of hogs that an acre of
the crops will carry is not given, for the reason that they
will vary within such wide limits, varying in the length of
time the grazing is to take place, upon the stage of
growth, the fertility of the soil, the season, climate, and
many other factors.

To supply Suitable crops Planting date
grazing in
January Rape ---22s2222-2-5s2ss222se-sn22525-2 Sept. 1
RyerandGvetchisos sna seso-- ee Sept. 1
Bur cloveri==-232-- 225555 2e 2 See July
Oats) soss2e2 22 oases ee sare erence a Sept.

Ghilias wastes foo sean eee eo ee May

126

To supply
grazing in
February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Suitable crops Planting date
Raper. tat toe Sear tee he eae ee Sept.

Riyevand syvetches tee esa Sole SOS eek Sept.

Oats. 222 aha oh Secon eae Sept.

Boi Clover s2422 0s 2 tS es eee Sept.

Crimson’ clover’ 222225022522 sles Sept. 15

CUR alge eee DS A ee May

Rape sianeeceteaw an 222 sane tes Pe Sept.

Ryecand vetchssc2J22 22 2255- eee ess Sept.

Bur cloyercoso-s oss. eo ese eee Sept.

Oats oS seas eee eee oe Oct. 1

Alfalta s222 ees. SS as ees eee AC previous.year,
Ghititass = aa o ess he ec eee ae eee, May

Corn, @raitine soso os: SS ose See eee
Rape: (S-2222 oot wate Sas ee es Oct. 1
Riye-andvéteh 2222s sae eee ees Sept.

@ats( 2522 ta eater neta tes ee oles ee Oct. 1
Crimsonnclover 2220s ee = 2 Sept. 30
olf a Whar co Se eS ee ee A previous year
Cormecrainc. Ais be tee ee ee ed Soe Ee
Alfalta..=--2200- 2.225552 25250-22-2.2A previous year
Oats) 222s see seee ee ae Se ee Oct. 1
Crimson-cloverics 5s Ease eee Oct. 1

Ryécand ‘yeteh.22 tok es oe ee Sept. 15

Rapex essen es eae wee Cree pene Feb. 1

Gonna taliny= se aoe eae Sane MS Oe eR ee
halt che s2en ceases Reker eee ORR A previous year
Oats eee ee ae paid oe te SES ae Mar. 1

Rapens< se 22 eos wa ssa ay eee ies eee es Feb. 1

New? Era peas. 2-22.05. 25. cscs, Apr. 15
Bermuda. 25-222 -22232 sbesese ee Permanent
Alialiacss fos ove fle tee oe a ee A previous year
Néw Era peas2os2-22sc5s525ss50 ose! Apr. 25
BarlyncOniis 222s 2o. Gane tae eo Apr. 1
Bermudar 2-22 se sure tek Permanent
Banl yeesOy sbeansacns su. = sack eee May 1
Cowpeds:=2-c2252 25 22 soa May 20

soy beans, 22222222522 tesco sees teet May 10

i falbay (228 o228 oe as ee ooo Se ah a A previous year
Wield-cor in, 22232-82825 3 oe Apr. 1
Bermiudawesr seas aa set eee e ee ee eae Permanent
Gowpeas <2 222 See ee oe ee eee June 1

Soy ibeasies soso she eo eae CS June 1

Corny aise sre oS eee ee May 20
Bermiida: ia 2oesiesoun 22a nse w sesso Permanent
Sweet potatoes), 2c 2 nk eee ee June 1

Peanuts: 222-cocees 220 cst oct June 1-10

FEEDING SWINE 127,

To supply Suitable crops Planting date

grazing in

October CO nrapet ee eee re a ree June 1-15
Sweet:potatoes: £-2-222.22222-0 22 ee June 1-15
COW pease sta ent een eee July 1
IBerimudageeees sma e See eee Permanent
Peanuts ete oe on wets eae a eh June 1-10

November Sweet potatoes __---------------------- June 1-10
Ra Cyrene ees ere ne ese ee ne eee Sept. 1-10
Rapes satsene neta eee es See Seeees Sept.1-10
Peantitseee= cee ee son ene ce ee eee ae June 1-15

December® “Rape: -22- 2-22-22 So ee See Sept. 1
Rye*and! vetch222-—2.2.-.-=-2.----.----Sept,1
(Ghutasgessessa ses 2 eS es ee May 1
Oates eee ae se eee o ae eer Sept. 1

Perennial grazing crops.—By perennial grazing crops
we refer to those crops that we plant once and then they
reseed themselves. There are a number of true peren-
nials that have value as grazing crops. Among these
alfalfa is by far the most important. In addition to this
there are several grasses that are perennial. Also, there
are several plants that are not perennial, but they re-
semble perennial plants in that they reseed themselves.
Among such plants is bur clover. The chief value in
perennials is that they require less work in reseeding each
year. A permanent pasture, such as Bermuda, is not
difficult to obtain, and it is a sure crop. Usually peren-
nials make a surer crop than the annuals, but will not
yield quite so heavily.

Annual grazing crops.—Most of the swine-grazing
crops in use are annuals. They have their chief value in
that two crops can be planted and harvested in the same
field in a season. Most hog-grazing crops are either
planted in the early spring or early fall. It is almost
impossible to arrange a system of crop rotation suitable
for hog grazing without the annuals. Among them are

128 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

such valuable crops as corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts,
chufas, the small grains, and a number of clovers and
grasses, without which we could not profitably graze
swine.

Leguminous forage crops.—One of the greatest oppor-
tunities offered by a system of swine production is that
means are provided whereby the fertility of the soil can
be not only maintained, but very rapidly added to, This
would result from the use of leguminous forage crops,
which are both valuable as a feed and for the fixing of
nitrogen in the soil. The South is extremely fortunate
in that practically all legumes do well. Cowpeas, soy
beans, vetches, velvet beans, peanuts, clovers and alfalfa
all thrive in most places. Legumes, as a rule, not only
possess greater feed value than non-legumes, but the
residual effect on the soil is an added advantage which
our farmers have failed to take proper advantage of as yet.

Available feeds ——Of necessity, forage crops must play
a most important role in any extensive system of swine
feeding that may be developed in the southern states.
We can secure and properly manage swine with which
to grow pork, but the greatest problem is and always
will be that of adequate food supply. What the hog
grower wants to know is, How can he economically pro-
vide the feed to grow and fatten swine and be assured of
profits from his undertaking? It can be done and is
being done in many places. It is never done without
considerable effort and planning. A careful study of the
characteristics of the different feeds and their values will
assist the swine grower in providing the proper feeds for
his swine.

FEEDING SWINE 129

Space is given only to the more important swine feeds,
and while there are many others, a few of which are
enumerated, it will generally be found advisable for the
feeder to restrict himself to those feeds described more in
detail, for their value has been proven. In the making
of these discussions and calculations, authoritative works
have been freely consulted, and in most instances credit
is given. In other instances, where several authors have
concurred on a special point, the references have been
omitted for obvious reasons.

Corn.—A description of the grain or seed of this
standard American cereal is unnecessary. It is one of
the most valuable carbohydrate feeds we have, contain-
ing about 68 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 5
pounds of digestible fat per hundred pounds of grain.
In the same amount there are only about 7 pounds of
digestible protein, which shows that it is deficient in
protein. It has a nutritive ratio of approximately 1: 11.3.
The weakness of corn thus lies in its small amount of
protein. Also, research work has shown that the pro-
tein that is supplied by corn is not of the best quality. In
addition, corn is deficient in mineral matter. These two
deficiencies show the great necessity for properly supple-
menting a corn ration. Its composition suggests the
value of corn in supplementing pastures rich in protein,
such as peanut, rape, broom or rescue grass, alfalfa,
vetch, velvet bean and bur clover. Practically every
system of grazing crops for swine should contain corn.
It is generally planted from March to May, or as soon as
all dangers of frost are over. Yields vary greatly, al-
though the average is low in the South. It is a feed that
is available almost over the entire South and at all

130 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

seasons of the year, which makes it a most valuable
source of food supply.

Sweet potato pasture.—This is a summer-growing
tuberous root of the utmost importance to the South so
far as hog feeding is concerned. It is adapted to practi-
cally every section, but generally does best on light,
sandy soils, where yields of 200 bushels to the acre are
often obtained. It is a highly carbonaceous feed, having
a nutritive ratio of about 1:25, containing per 100 pounds
of potatoes about 25 pounds of digestible carbohydrate,
.3 pounds of digestible fats and 1 pound of digestible pro-
tein. In feeding value it is equal to one-third the
quantity of corn, which is remarkably high, considering
its succulence. It is generally planted in May or June,
and where intended for hog feed is never harvested ex-
cept by the hogs. The grazing-off season generally runs
from August to after frost in October. Owing to its
highly carbonaceous character, it is admirably adapted
for feeding in connection with legumes with ripe seeds,
such as mature peanuts, velvet beans, soy beans, cow-
peas, etc. This is a feed of proven worth that should be
in every system of swine grazing that may be adopted,
unless for certain reasons it will not grow well.

Peanut pasture——This is a summer legume of proven
worth, as indicated by the fact that already thousands
upon thousands of hogs are annually fed upon this
standard southern swine feed. There are two types that
are commonly grown, the Spanish and common. The
Spanish is smaller, but where it has been tried it has
generally proven more valuable. Yields of two or three
tons per acre have been secured, which indicates how

FEEDING SWINE 131

cheaply the feed is produced. They do best on light,
sandy soils. They go by the name of “pindars” in south
Georgia and Florida, and in other sections they are re-
ferred to as goobers. While the usual practice is not to
put the hogs into the fields until the nuts are mature, it
is sometimes done. The stage at which they are pas-
tured has much to do with their feeding value. One hun-
dred pounds of the material eaten by the hogs will con-
tain from 10 to 16 pounds of digestible protein, from 15
to 40 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and from 8 to 30
pounds of digestible fat, which indicates that as a food it
is fairly well balanced, having a nutritive ratio of about
1:5.5. Being slightly of a nitrogenous nature, it should
be balanced up with such feeds as sweet potatoes, corn,
sacharrine and non-sacharrine sorghums. Peanuts tend
to produce soft pork, and this condition is overcome by
the feeding of a little corn, and especially at the end of
the feeding of market hogs, for the corn hardens the fat
sufficiently that it will not be discriminated against. It
is generally planted in June and grazed off from August
to January. The great pork-producing value of this crop
is indicated by the fact that in one recorded instance a
yield of over 1,000 pounds of pork was obtained from one
acre.

Bermuda pasture.—This is by far the most important
native grass in the South so far as swine production is
concerned. It is a perfect grazing grass in that it seems
to be uninjured by the most severe grazing and tramping.
It can stand drouth when necessary. Swine make good
use of it, but it must be properly supplemented. It has
succulent underground roots of which swine are very
fond. In rooting for these they do no other damage than

132 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

to make the pasture rough. This is a highly carbo-
naceous feed, having only about one and a half pounds of
digestible protein per 100 pounds of grass. The carbo-
hydrates amount to about 16 pounds and the fat less than
a half pound per 100 pounds. The nutritive ratio is 1:11
or 12, which suggests supplements of mature legume
grazing crops, such as peanuts, velvet beans, soy beans
or soy bean pasture, and when concentrates are used,
linseed or cottonseed meal, meat meal, or wheat by-
products made into a slop are valuable.

This is a permanent grass, and it is generally not
difficult to obtain a stand. It is propagated by means of
roots, which will readily take hold if given half a chance.
This is one of the most persistent grasses and is difficult
to eradicate when it once gets a hold. In many parts of
the South this grass grows in connection with lespedeza,
which makes an excellent maintenance pasture for hogs
of all kinds, available from one month after the last frost
in spring to heavy frost in the fall.

Cowpeas pasture.—The great value of this legume to
southern agriculture is attested by the fact that it has
been grown here for over 150 years. It originally came
from India or China. It is an annual summer legume.
There are many varieties, and they vary from an upright
plant to plants with runners 12 to 16 feet in length. The
seeds are of all colors and mixed, and some varieties are
early and some late. It is adapted to practically all parts
of the South, and it is unequaled as a soil renovator and
legume forage crop for swine. The pigs eat the pods and
.tender leaves and shoots. It is generally not grazed until
the first peas begin to mature, the peas not all maturing
at the same time, but coming on along for a month or

FEEDING SWINE 133

more. The time at which the pigs are turned on has a
great deal to do with the feeding value of the crop. One
hundred pounds of the feed consumed by the pigs is of
greater feeding value as the crop matures, the consump-

Feed wastes can be prevented by properly constructed troughs.

Courtesy W. D. Troutman of North Carolina.
tion of this amount of feed containing all the way from
3 to 15 pounds of digestible protein, from 8 to 50 pounds
of digestible carbohydrate and from .4 to 1 pound of
digestible fat. It has an average nutritive ratio of about
1:3, which suggests its use in connection with such feeds
as corn, sweet potatoes, sacharrine and non-sacharrine
sorghums, Bermuda grass and by-products of the rice
milling industry.

It is generally planted in April as soon as all danger
of frost is past, and it is available from August to
November. A common practice in most sections is to
grow a crop of cowpeas either in corn or else after a

134 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

small grain crop, such as oats, in which case it is gener-
ally September before it is available for pasture. It is
not so valuable as soy beans for the production of seed
for several reasons, not the least among which is the
necessity for hand picking resulting from the uneven
ripening, which must be classed as an advantage from the
standpoint of a swine-grazing crop.

Oats pasture.—This is a small winter grain and is the
most extensively grown of all sma!l grains in the South.
It is planted in the fall in most southern states, but in the
northern states it must be planted in the spring. It is
most commonly raised for seed, but its value as a swine-
grazing crop is rapidly becoming appreciated, especially
when it is combined with vetch. It is one of the cereals
that is grazed to quite an extent when young. After
grazing during nearly all of the latter part of the winter,
the hogs are generally removed about March Ist or a
little later to give it a chance to make grain, after which
it may be grazed off once or twice if properly handled.
The pasturing of oats at different seasons makes its
feeding value quite variable, 100 pounds of consumed
feed containing from 2.5 to 7.5 pounds of digestible
protein, from 12 to 48 pounds of digestible carbohydrate,
from .8 to 3.2 pounds of digestible fat. It is a fairly well-
balanced ration, having a nutritive ratio of approximately
1:6, but in its immature state a concentrate such as
middlings or soy beans should be added. It has also been
found excellent when fed in rations containing vetch,
rape and alfalfa pastures, although in such instances
some concentrates should be fed. It is generally avail-
able from December to June, but the early pasturing
does not amount to sc much in the northern part of the

FEEDING SWINE 135

South as nearer the Gulf. A common practice is to follow
the crop of oats with cowpeas. September is the usual
month of sowing.

Rape pasture.—This plant in many respects resembles
the collard. In shape and color of leaf it resembles the
rutabaga or Swedish turnip. The leaves grow very rank
and succulent, and being sweet and tender they are
quite palatable. It is primarily a winter grower and is
of little value in summer. There are several varieties,
but the Dwarf Essex is the best for swine-grazing pur-
poses. The seed are usually broadcasted in September
at the rate of five pounds per acre, and a common method
is to grow the crop in connection with oats. Its value in
yield of pork often exceeds $25 per acre. The high feed-
ing value of rape is largely due to its protein content and
to its succulence. While the dry rape leaves have been
reported to contain over 20 per cent of protein, the con-
sumption of 100 pounds of rape on pasture yields only
about 2 pounds of digestible protein, about 10 of digest-
ible carbohydrates and less than one pound of digestible
fat, with a nutritive ratio about 1:5.2. This is a fairly
well-balanced feed and suggests the use of such carbo-
hydrate concentrates as rice by-products, corn, or chufas,
and the use of oats and rye pastures in conjunction
with it.

Rape yields an immense quantity of forage, and the
Iowa Station has reported the production of over 1,400
pounds of pork from an acre. Rape should never be
grazed when wet or frozen. If it is not pastured too
closely it will come back several times during the winter
and spring. It should be allowed to attain a height of ten

136 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

or twelve inches before the hogs are turned in. With
this plant grazing can be had from November to June.

Chufa pasture.—This crop gives great promise for the
reason that the food is available for pasture at a season
when other feeds are scarce and the feed is of very high
value. It is a summer sedge that makes its growth in
summer, but provides tubers for winter grazing. It is
admirably adapted to sandy soils and does not do so well
on heavier soils, which in a way limits its use. Yields of
from 75 to 150 bushels per acre have been reported. It
is generally planted in May, 12 to 15 inches apart in
3-foot rows. The tubers are generally grazed off at any
time from October to April. Henry and Morrison’ report
that as much as 600 pounds of pork can be made per
acre from this crop. These same authors state that 100
pounds of chufas will yield .4 pounds of digestible pro-
tein, 10.2 pounds digestible carbohydrates and 3.3 of
digestible fat, and will have a nutritive ratio of approxi-
mately 1:44. This suggests the use of this crop in con-
nection with such nitrogenous feeds as buttermilk and
skim milk, soy beans, bur clover and alfalfa pasture.

Alfalfa pasture——In the South this is both a perennial
winter and summer legume. It has been rather widely
grown on a limited scale and requires no detailed descrip-
tion. Twenty to 30 pounds of seed are generally
sown to the acre in September or October. As a pasture
crop it is available at all seasons of the year, but to a
much reduced extent in winter. Its feeding value is high
tor a succulent grazing crop, and the feeding value per
100 pounds will often run 3 pounds of digestible protein,

* Feeds and Feeding, p. 245.

FEEDING SWINE 137

10 to 12 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and approxi-
mately a half pound of digestible fat. Being a legume, it
is of a nitrogenous nature, having a nutritive ratio of
about 1:4, which suggests its use with such feeds as
sweet potatoes, chufas, sacharrine and non-sacharrine
sorghums, corn and rice by-products.

Soy bean pasture.—This legume is generally planted
in May and provides pasture from July to November. It
ought to be nearly mature before pasturing. It is highly
digestible and is rich in oil and protein, containing from 3
to 25 per cent of the former and from .5 to 10 per cent of
the latter. The digestible carbohydrates run rather low,
ranking from 10 to 20 per cent, depending on the stage of
growth and on the feed other than beans consumed.
With a nutritive ratio averaging around 1:3, it naturally
requires with it carbonaceous feeds, such as sweet pota-
toes, corn, rice by-products, and sacharrine and non-
sacharrine sorghums to make a balanced ration.

Soy beans are sometimes grown in connection with
corn, being planted between the rows, the rows having
been left rather wide. It gives great promise of playing
a very important role in our general system of swine
feeding, as it is already doing in many sections.

Soy beans.—The seed of the soy bean promises to be-
come one of the chief sources of our protein concentrates.
The seed are heavy in oil, and this may cause the
development of a considerable industry, which will leave
the cake for feeding purposes. Either the meal is valu-
able, or the whole bean can be fed to advantage, as it is
very digestible. The plant can be grown over practically
the entire South, and an average yield per acre of around

138 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

30 bushels can be secured. It is superior to cowpeas not
only in yield, but the seeds ripen in such a way that the
crop can be saved without hand picking, as is necessary
in the case of cowpeas. The seeds are quite digestible,
and it is not necessary to grind them. Their digestible
protein content is quite high, being about 30 per cent,
while the digestible carbohydrates run around 25 and the
digestible fats from 12 to 15 per cent, with a nutritive
ratio between 1:1.5 and 1:2. Their strong nitrogenous
nature suggests their use in connection with such carbo-
naceous feeds as chufas, sweet potatoes, sacharrine and
non-sacharrine sorghums, corn, and possibly molasses.

Bur clover pasture—This valuable annual winter
legume thrives on any soil where Bermuda does well, and
is largely confined to that area. It is best to seed it
broadcast in July. It can then be pastured from Febru-
ary to May. Its great value, too, comes in the fact that
it can be grown in with Bermuda, as their growing or
active dates do not interfere, and by the use of Bermuda
and bur clover it is possible to have a valuable permanent
pasture through the entire year. Even in cultivated
ground it does not require reseeding when properly
handled. Being a legume, it is naturally of a nitrogenous
nature. Henry and Morrison’ give the per cent of digest-
ible crude protein at 3.4, that of digestible carbohydrate
at 8.2 and that of digestible fat at 1.1, and with a nutri-
tive ratio of 1:3.1. This suggests using with it such
carbohydrate feeds as chufa pasture or corn, about the
only highly carbohydrate concentrate feeds available at
this season of the year. The value of this crop is three-

*Feeds and Feeding, p. 664.

FEEDING SWINE 139

fold—it is not only a valuable swine-grazing crop, but on
cultivated ground it serves as a winter cover crop, pre-
venting washing, and in addition adds nitrogen to the
soil.

Vetch pasture——There are over 100 varieties of this
valuable winter legume in America, but only a few attain
any importance. So far as we are concerned, we are in-
terested only in the hairy or sand vetch and the native
Carolina and Louisiana vetches. These annuals have
weak, slender stems, and for that reason generally do
best with some support crop, such as oats or rye. They
are generally seeded in August or September, and can be
grazed from December to May 1. They are of a
nitrogenous character, having a nutritive ratio averaging
around 1:3.5. Being grazed at all stages of growth, their
feeding value is naturally variable, and the digestible
protein will run from around 3.5 to 18 pounds per 100
pounds of feed eaten, and from 8 to 50 pounds of digest-
ible carbohydrate and from .4 to 1 pound of digestible
fat in the same amount of feed consumption. This sug-
gests their use with such carbonaceous concentrates as
chufas, corn, rice by-products, and possibly molasses, in
order to make up a balanced ration.

Rye pasture.—This small winter grain offers a good
winter pasture, because of all of the small grains it makes
the most growth in the fall and winter months. It is
often hogged down when mature. It can be pastured
from December to March or April, when the pigs should
be removed to give it a chance to make grain, putting
the pigs back in again in May or June to finish up the
crop. Being a cereal, it is naturally of a carbonaceous

140 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

character, but it is not a badly balanced feed. The feed-
ing value varies greatly on account of the different stages
of growth at which it is fed. One hundred pounds of the
feed that hogs will consume on rye pasture will contain
from 2.5 to 8 pounds of digestible crude protein, from 13
to 60 pounds of digestible carbohydrate, and from a half
to a pound of digestible fat, with a nutritive ratio of
approximately 1:6.5. This suggests the combining with
it of a winter legume like vetch, which is common prac-
tice, and of feeding with it such nitrogenous feeds as soy
beans, garbage, rape, wheat by-products, and meat meal
or tankage.

Wheat by-products (middlings, shorts, red dog flour).
—These feeds should only be resorted to when other
suitable protein concentrates cannot be grown on the
farm, for protein feeds can generally be grown more
cheaply than they can be bought. Of these feeds, the
digestible protein per 100 pounds will run from 10 to 15
pounds, of digestible carbohydrates about 50 pounds, and
the digestible fats from 3 to 5 pounds. The nutritive
ratios will generally run about 1:4.5, which suggests
the use of these feeds with such feeds as chufa pasture,
sweet potato pasture, saccharine and non-saccharine
sorghums, corn, and rice by-products. These feeds are
especially valuable in making slops and in enriching
garbage,

Kentucky blue grass pasture.—This is a most valuable
winter grass, but its usefulness is confined mostly to
Kentucky, Tennessee, North Georgia, North Carolina,
Mississippi and the northern southern states. The seed
are usually sown in September at the rate of about 25

FEEDING SWINE 141

pounds to the acre, after which time it is permanent if
allowed to seed. It furnishes grazing from July to
October of a very superior sort, containing on the aver-
age above 3 per cent of digestible protein, about 20 per
cent of digestible carbohydrates and a little less than a
pound of digestible fat per 100 pounds of grass. The
nutritive ratio shows the feed to be carbonaceous in
nature, having a nutritive ratio of something over 1:7,
which suggests its use with such nitrogenous feeds as
soy beans, cottonseed meal, alfalfa hay, linseed meal,
wheat by-products, and tankage and meat meal. This
would be a most important feed if it were wider in its
adaptability. Fortunately, where it leaves off, Bermuda
is the grazing grass that supersedes it, and, as we have
already seen, this is a valuable swine-grazing grass.

Velvet bean pasture—For the extreme South this
summer legume is a most valuable grazing crop. Its
usefulness is limited farther north by the time required
for the maturing of the plant, six months generally being
required. The early speckled variety matures much
sooner than the Chinese. By means of its beans it is
valuable to supply a good protein foraging crop through
winter. The yields on the better fields have amounted to
as much as 1% tons of beans in the pod per acre.

The plant is an annual and is generally seeded in April
at the rate of six or eight quarts of seed per acre to
supply fall and winter grazing from September to March.
It is a very rank grower. As a general rule it cannot be
satisfactorily grown north of 33° latitude. It is a heavy
yielder, making from 40 to 60 bushels of seed, and is
generally grown with corn, for with it a fairly well-
balanced ration is made, and the two crops are ready for

142 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

grazing at the same time. One hundred pounds of the
feed :onsumed by hogs on velvet bean pasture will run
from 3 to 15, 7 to 45 and .4 to 5 pounds respectively of
digestible protein, carbohydrates and fats. The nutri-
tive ratio ranges between 1:3 and 1:3.5, which suggests
the use of velvet bean pasture with such feeds as chufas,
sweet potatoes, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums.

Red clover pasture.—This is a rather important
legume in all those sections where blue grass grows
well, requiring for growth the same soil and lime condi-
tions as this grass. It does not do so well on poor sandy
or white pine soils. The seeds are generally sown in the
fall farther south, and in the spring in the north, at the
rate of 15 or 20 pounds per acre, yielding pasture from
early in the spring until July. In those sections where
it thrives it acts not only as a pasture crop, but as a cover
and nitrogen-gathering crop as well. It is especially
valuable as a feed for brood: sows and pigs, for it tends to
make good bone and develop a strong constitution. It
is almost a balanced ration in itself, having a nutritive
ratio of 1:6, and the remainder of the ration fed with it
should, therefore, be pretty well balanced. Corn and
wheat by-products with clover make an ideal ration.

Cottonseed meal.—This valuable by-product of the
cottonseed industry is becoming of more and more value
each year as a feed for swine. In the past its consump-
tion has been limited by the dangers accompanying its
feeding, but as we better understand it we can safely feed
continually larger quantities. It is not adapted for con-
tinuous long feeding, and heavy feeding should never
exceed 60 days. It can, therefore, be used to advantage

FEEDING SWINE 143

in the last feeding period prior to the marketing of fat
hogs. Another factor that will conduce to greater con-
sumption is that greater quantities of this feed can be
fed when the hogs are on the pasture, and with a rapidly
increasing tendency to the use of grazing crops the in-
creased consumption of this feed will continue. In the
feeding of cottonseed meal some precautions seem neces-
sary. In no case should over one-fifth of the ration be
made up of this feed, and in the case of young animals
the amount should be still less. Cottonseed meal is one
of the narrowest feeds we have, having a nutritive ratio
of approximately 1:1.2, which suggests its use in con-
nection with rations containing corn, chufas, molasses,
sweet potatoes, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums
and other carbonaceous feeds. It is a very rich feed, 100
pounds of the meal containing about 35, 25 and 8 pounds
respectively of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat.
It supplies a protein cheaply and is available at all times
and at all places, and its judicious use is to be encouraged
and recommended.

Other less important feeds.—There are many feeds that
do remarkably well in a small locality, but the adapta-
bility of the crop is not general. In this respect Florida
is almost in a class by itself, for in addition to the feeds
discussed, cassava, beggar weed, Japan cane, St. Augus-
tine grass, Mexican clover, Para grass and Guinea grass
all have some importance in swine grazing. In addition
to these feeds mentioned, there are localities in the South
where such legumes as white and alsike clover play a
part in the feeding of swine, and where such grasses as
Italian rye grass, teosinte, Sudan grass, large water
grass, foxtail millets, red top, crab grass, carpet grass,

144 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Colorado grass, perennial ray grass, southern canary
grass, big blue stem, tall fescue, Texas blue grass, barn-
yard grass, tall oat grass and Virginia rye grass attain
importance. In addition to these, wheat bran, molasses,

Feeding city garbage on the farm of F. W. Clew, near New
Orleans, La.

barley, linseed meal, slaughterhouse and rice by-products,
lespedeza, crimson clover and wheat pasture, brome and
rescue grass, saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums,
and the seeds of wheat, oats, barley, rye, sweet corn,
velvet beans, cowpeas, cottonseed and hog goobers play
important roles in some localities. Root crops, as arti-
chokes, carrots, mangel-wurzels, potatoes, sugar beets,
rutabagas and turnips, are of some importance. Whole
milk is rarely fed, whey is not available in any quantity,
but some buttermilk and skim milk are fed. Pumpkins,
watermelons and squash are made use of in some locali-
ties, and it is possible that legume hays, such as red
clover, alfalfa and cowpea, may be used to a small extent.

FEEDING SWINE 145

The droppings from fattening cattle is a feed of impor-
tance in some cattle-feeding sections. Frequently near
large cities garbage is fed extensively to fattening swine.

Concentrated commercial feeding stuffs—For several
reasons commercial concentrated feedstuffs for swine
have not come into very general use. They are subject
to considerable adulteration with materials having low
feeding value. Some common adulterants or fillers are
chaff, oat hulls, peanut hulls, coffee hulls, screenings,
corn cob, corn bran, oat dust, cottonseed hulls and mill
sweepings. Most states provide statutes to protect the
consumer from adulteration of feeds, and require the
manufacturer to guarantee and keep the standard of their
products up to certain specifications. Most of our com-
mercial feedstuffs, such as bean culls, middlings, cotton-
seed meal, linseed meal, shorts, tankage, meat meal, etc.,
are the by-products of other industries. These kinds of
feedstuffs have their places, but as a rule they should
only be used in a supplemental way.

Condimental feeds.—For all practical purposes con-
dimental feeds have but little value, and as a general
proposition are not to be recommended. Careful experi-
ments have shown that swine utilize no more, if as much,
of their feed when condiments are added. Tonics and
alteratives are generally present in these feeds, but aside
from these the feed value is negligible. Well-known
materials are used in the compounding of these proprie-
tary articles, and where such medicines are called for
the farmer can make for himself simple tonic mixtures.
He can do this a great deal cheaper than he can purchase
them.

146 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

A simple mixture for preventing worms and condi-
tioning swine that may be easily made up at home is
that recommended by Dr. Carey of the Alabama Station.
This mixture is made up of:

Pulverized charcoal ~---__------------ 10 pounds
Air-slaked lime ~---------------_----- 10 parts

Hardwood “ashes: ..22-222222225-2--eu5 10 pounds
Coimimon:sal tae eee 5 pounds
Pulverized sulphate of iron__--_------- 1 pound
Salphiitris2 22s sas Si ee eee Se 5 pounds

This should be mixed thoroughly and placed in a dry
place, preferably in a self-feeder, so that the hogs can go
to it at will. This mixture has met with considerable
success in keeping down worm infestations and keeping
the hogs in a healthy condition.

Hardening of fat—In the making of pork on certain
feeds, notably in the case of peanuts, we are apt to have
a fat that is too soft and oily. Frequently such pork is
discriminated against on the market, and it is up to the
grower to either harden the fat in some way or to sell at
a sacrifice. This hardening process is generally accom-
plished by feeding corn or corn and cottonseed meal in
connection with the peanuts for a short time before
placing on the market. Since corn cannot always be
obtained as cheaply as some other feeds, we should look
for other possible remedies for the condition. Above all,
the degree to which the hog is fattened is an important
factor. The greater the quantity of fat that is placed on
the hog the softer it becomes. We should, therefore, be
very careful not to fatten our pork too much, and es-
pecially the fattening should not be carried beyond that
point where fattening no longer pays. According to
some experimental work that has been done, we know

FEEDING SWINE 147

that the first fat that is placed on the carcass contains
more stearin than the later deposited fats, and is there-
fore harder. The later fats are composed of greater
percentage of palmitin and olein and are softer. When
we cannot feed to increase the proportion of stearin, we
had best not fatten to too high a degree in order to secure
the degree of hardness of fat that is most desirable.

Balancing rations——We have for many years heard
much of balanced rations. Theoretically, rations should
be balanced so as to furnish the nutrients in the proper
proportions and yet not be wasteful. The necessity for
providing for the correct proportion of different nutrients
results from the fact that the specific uses to which
nutrients can be put are rather limited. To a limited
extent carbohydrates and fats can take the place of one
another, but proteins have a function that must be pro-
vided for with proteins. In some instances we have an
excess of protein feeds, while in other sections we have a
shortage of proteins as compared with the non-proteins.
As a general proposition the South is pretty well supplied
with proteins, and the greatest difficulty generally comes
in securing an adequate quantity of carbohydrate feeds.
So far as fats, proteins and carbohydrates are concerned,
it is an easy matter to pay too much attention to the
balancing rations. In certain instances, however, rations
require special attention to see that a sufficient quantity
of ash is supplied and to see that the quality of the pro-
teins as well as the quantity is adequate.

Calculating of rations——From published tables giving
the feed requirements for swine, and from tables giving
the nutrients contained in the several feeds, it is possible

148 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

to calculate an accurately balanced ration for any given
herd of swine. Thus, the mathematical calculation of a
ration is an exact science, for it is possible to figure
accurately the feed requirements of the animal.

Of course, under exceptional conditions it may be well
to calculate the rations for swine where the feeding con-

Self-feeders are becoming more common in the South.
Photo by Earl Hostettler of North Carolina.

sists for the most part of lot feeding. However, investi-
gations have shown that under average southern condi-
tions quantity of food is more often deficient than quality.
Hence, the best plan is to make sure of the quantity and
provide for the quality as accurately as possible. To
facilitate this, our swine feeds may be classified into
carbohydrate, balanced and protein feeds. In feeding, it
will suffice if sufficient quantities of feeds are given and
if a carbohydrate feed is fed along with a protein feed,
or vice versa, while the balanced foodstuffs may consti-
tute a portion of the ration without necessity of bal-
ancing. If swine rations are calculated in this crude
manner, it will be a step in the right direction and will

FEEDING SWINE 149

be far superior to the blind way in which we have been
conducting our feeding in the past.

The self-feeder.—This is a mechanical device that
enables the pig or hog to secure feed at will. In prin-
ciple the self-feeder consists of a bin to hold the feed, a
feed trap through which the feed leaves the bin, and the
trough. Self-feeders are made of various materials and
in various shapes and styles. Wood and sheet metal are
the two most commonly used materials in self-feeder
construction. Self-feeders can be made at home or they
can be purchased. Most agricultural colleges and experi-
ment stations now furnish free plans or blue prints for
their construction.

The use of the self-feeder—wWhile the use of the self-
feeder in pork production is a new idea, it is one of the
most economical, practical, labor-saving and efficient
methods we can employ, especially where full feeding is
desired. The importance of the self-feeder is largely the
result of efforts made by Mr. John M. Evvard of the
Iowa Station, who has secured some quite favorable
results. It can be safely stated that the self-feeder has
passed the experimental stage, and its use is to be gener-
ally recommended in pork production. Earlier maturity,
with the resulting saving in feed and labor, is made
possible.

CHAPTER VII
SWINE MANAGEMENT

Shelter for swine.—The coat of hair on a hog is com-
paratively thin, and even a cold summer rain will cause
considerable discomfort. The cold of winter, even in the
mild climate of the South, is disagreeable to the hog, and

Monitor type winter farrowing house on farm of F. W. Clew,
near New Orleans, La.
any suffering he must undergo will cost his owner some-
thing in the way of feed. Some sort of a roof and enough
siding to keep out the wind are all that are necessary under
most conditions. In the winter a good bed of leaves or
straw not only adds to the hog’s comfort and thrift, but a
saving of feed will be effected. The hogs rarely need to
150

SWINE MANAGEMENT 151

be confined to shelter, but it should be so placed that
they can make use of it at will. Shelter, shade and run-
ning water are the most desirable adjuncts to any swine-
growing plant and are essential to a proper foundation.
All of these except the shelter may be natural. Under
the most modern system of pork production a portable
type of shelter is generally advisable, but there are condi-
tions under which a permanent or stationary hog house
is to be recommended. As a rule, the extent to which
swine can be grown with grazing crops and the extent
to which attention is paid to breeding rather than pork
production determine the type of shelter that is best
suited.

Houses and inclosures.—Serviceability is all important,
and many have spent large sums in making shelters for
swine that were not serviceable and that were not suited
to the conditions. The matter of serviceability is largely
a matter of design, and is dependent on soil, climatic and
other conditions. Accessibility must be taken into con-
sideration. This is especially applicable in the case of a
permanent shelter or inclosure.

Materials used in construction.—Brick, cement and
other heavy materials can be used only in the larger sta-
tionary houses, while practically all portable houses are
made of wood. Most of the material that should be used
for hog houses will be wood, on account of its lightness
and cheapness. Over most of the South this is the proper
building material to use, and in most cases rough lumber
will be found quite good enough.

Sunlight.—Sunlight is one of the best germicides we
have, and with ample sunlight the dangers from disease

152 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

are reduced to a minimum. The houses need to be
located where the sun can strike them at least a part of
the day, and the houses, if of the closed type, should have

Half monitor type winter farrowing house on Maple Grove
Farm, Walton, Ky.

as much window or glass in the tops as is possible and
consistent. In the planning of a house of either the port-
able or stationary type provision should be made for
ample sunlight inside the house, for it offers a cheap
means of keeping disease bacteria and parasites in check.

Floors.—On many soils the earth makes as good a floor
as is required. Cement is not advisable for covering the
entire floor, but where used it has the advantage of being
easily kept clean. Cinders and clay make an excellent
floor for a permanent type of house. Boards will usually
be found to give the best satisfaction where earth floors
are not used. If the earth is dry, a dirt floor is good, and
if properly constructed, with a binder of cinders, there

SWINE MANAGEMENT 153

will be but little dust. Regardless of what materials the
floor is made of, ample bedding should be provided for
the comfort of the hogs. This bedding should be
changed often on account of vermin and disease

Drainage.—In the location of shelter and inclosures,
whether portable or stationary, it is important to see that
proper drainage is secured. This is of special importance
in winter. Shelter for breeding swine should in par-
ticular be located so as to provide ample drainage. The
house should never be located in a low place, but on a
rather high place, with ample slope. With poor drainage
there are apt to be worms and parasites through summer
and pneumonia and other diseases during the colder
months.

Ventilation—It is just as important to the health of
the hog that its house be provided with ample ventilation
as it is to our health that the air in our homes be changed
from time to time. Fortunately, it is rare that hog
houses are made too close, but such is sometimes the
case. Nearly all hog houses are so arranged that the
hogs can go in and out at will, the opening providing
ample ventilation for winter. In the summer, however,
some houses are inclined to heat very greatly, and in
such provision should be made at the top for ventilation.
Windows in the top of the house should be arranged to
provide a means of easy ventilation when necessary.
When a wooden floor is used in hog house construction,
provision should be made to have ventilation underneath
the floor to keep it dry.

Large stationary hog house.—This type of house
should be built to provide for ample sunlight. Plenty of

154 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

windows at the right height are a most necessary thing.
Hinged roofs or roof sections that can be turned back
are also advantageous. If the floor is made of cement,
a portion of it may be overlaid with boards for sleeping
quarters. The separate pens in the building should open
into separate pens outside, but where only a few hogs are
kept and the building stands in a pasture field, the differ-
ent groups of hogs may learn to come to the same pens
to be fed. The styles of this type of house are numerous,
but the fundamental requirements are the same.

Shed-roofed portable house.—This house is best made
in detachable sections. The sections may interlock or be
hinged or slightly nailed. The roof may slope in one
direction or in two. The hinges may be at the highest
part of the roof or may stand at right angles to the slope
and connect sections. This facilitates raising portions of
the roof to admit sunlight and air. If the houses are
made without projections they may be placed close to-
gether in winter. Farmers’ Bulletin 4388 of the United
States Department of Agriculture gives full directions
for the construction of hog houses, and it may be secured
without cost upon application to the Secretary.

The A-shaped portable house.—The A-shaped portable
house may be made portable either by nailing all to-
gether and moving it on runners from one place to
another, or it may be made in sections that interlock but
which are easily detachable. The sections may be put on
a wagon to be moved. The house made of sections is
desirable from another standpoint, since it permits of
greater ease in cleaning and can be used to admit a
greater amount of sunshine.

SWINE MANAGEMENT 155

Movable shelter houses—A very useful shelter, es-
pecially for summer use, can be made with a roof and one,
two or three sides, as may be desired. Some of these
have no sides at all, but have a low roof and are intended
primarily for protection from the sun. These are more
necessary on some farms than others, and if one has no

The common A-shaped portable hog house.

natural shelter in grazing patches or lots, something of
this style will be very useful, for it is cheaply con-
structed, can be removed from a field as soon as the
grazing is over, so that it will not be in the way of
ground cultivation and preparation for the next crop.

Sleeping quarters.—The same shelter that protects the
hogs from the sun can be used as well for sleeping
quarters in the field, but when so used it becomes much
more serviceable if one or two sides are put up. No
flooring will be necessary in most cases, but if the soil is

156 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

damp and muddy, a floor in a portion or under all of the
roof may be advisable. It is only in the large stationary
houses that one may need to consider the construction of
separate sleeping and feeding quarters. Comfortable and
healthy sleeping quarters are of sufficient importance to
warrant some special attention.

Farrowing pens.—Where breeding swine are kept it
often becomes advisable to have a few separate pens for
the exclusive use of the sows at the time they drop their
pigs and for a time thereafter. Such pens are called
farrowing pens and are constructed in the usual manner,
with the exception that a railing is placed around the

Cheap type small farrowing house and pen. Courtesy H. S.
Lippincott of Maryland.

sides about eight or ten inches from the floor and allowed
to extend out some six or eight inches, so that if the sow
lies down against the side of the house any pigs that
happen to be in the way will be given a chance to escape
over-lying. A protective railing of this sort can be placed
in almost any type of house, so that it can be readily con-
verted into a farrowing pen without much cost or trouble.

SWINE MANAGEMENT 157

Pens and inclosures.—It is a lack of pens and in-
closures on many farms that hinders many from raising
hogs. What we want in the way of pens is something
that is satisfactory yet cheap. In lot construction the
materials to be used will depend on several factors and
conditions. Board fences are sometimes advisable, but

A-type of individual farrowing houses in use on farm of F. W.
Clew, near New Orleans, La.

under most conditions a wire fence with wooden posts
will be most economical. Around the hog houses, es-
pecially if the houses are permanent, a permanent system
of lots should be constructed. If the houses are portable,
a portable fence may also be used to advantage. The
pens and inclosures should be arranged according to the
hog house or houses, according to the water supply and
according to the grazing patches. In the arrangement
and location of lots each farm offers a special problem in
itself.

Fencing materials—In the permanent or stationary
fences posts are used. These may be of several kinds of
wood, of cement, steel or of rock. The material of the
fence itself may be the same in the case of portable or
drift fences as in the stationary fence. Boards are the

158 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

most common materials used in drift fences, but wire can
be used. In permanent fences wire is probably the most
commonly used material. In portable fences the fence is
supported by braces at the end of each panel, and with
some a stake is driven down, to which the brace is lightly
tacked. Drift fences are about as cheaply constructed as
permanent fences, because the use of posts is done away
with, and they have additional advantages in that they
can be continually kept in use, thus requiring a small
total length of fence, and they are readily taken out of
the way to prepare land and cultivate the grazing crops.

Water supply.—There are but few farms that have a
stream that is adapted to supply water to all fields.
Where it is possible and feasible an artificial water
supply system is best suited, for it is under control and
clean water can always be provided. A small tank witha
hydraulic ram is an ideal method of water supply where
the ram can be used. If no stream is available for a ram
a pump and well can be used to supply the water. In the
arrangement of the lots the water supply should be taken
into consideration. Not only is water needed for drink-
ing purposes, but some is needed in the wallows, for
mixing feeds and for cleaning up. <A supply of ten
gallons per day per hog should be available regardless of
the source, and it should be placed so as to be of greatest
value to the hog and still be economically supplied.

Bedding.—In the sleeping quarters, whether they be
for brood sows or for fattening swine, attention should
be given to the bedding. It should be changed often for
sanitary reasons. It should not be so damp as to be
soggy and unhealthy, and neither should it be so dry as

SWINE MANAGEMENT 159

to be dusty and cause lung troubles. If the place is in-
clined to be damp, such materials as sawdust, dry sand
and straw should be used freely. If the place is already
inclined to be too dry and dusty, fresh sawdust, cinders
and straw may be used to advantage.

The herdsman.—Other things being equal, the owner
himself makes the best herdsman. In addition to the
experience, the herdsman must have a natural love for
his pigs. A noticeable feature of a good herdsman is
that he soon knows accurately each individual in the
herd, not only knowing its physical conformation, but
also its behavior and ability to respond to treatment.
Painstaking care and constant attention are called for
from the herdsman. He should be a willing worker, with
intuition and judgment, especially at such times as far-
rowing, when the loss of a litter means the loss of at
least six months’ time with one sow, which, counting
feeding and interest on the investment, soon amounts to
an appreciable sum. Good herdsmen are scarce, but if
one desires a good one and can secure one at a little
additional cost, it is generally an economical investment.

One litter or two.—Something like half of the sows are
only permitted to have but one litter a year, which comes
generally in the spring. Since the period of gestation is
only about 112 days, and since pigs can be weaned readily
at two months of age, it is entirely possible and feasible
to grow two litters a year, two months being allowed for
the sow to rest and become rebred in. It is not eco-
nomical for the sow to raise but one litter, and on any
well-regulated farm two litters will be obtained. So far
as the investment is concerned, two litters cost about the

160 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

same as one, and since the sow must be maintained, the
additional feed cost is not much greater. The great
trouble has been that the food supply is always more
abundant through the summer and fall, while it is gener-
ally scarce during the late winter and early spring. The
aim should be to grow two litters a year, but to do this
will require greater skill in the arranging for feed and in
the caring for fall pigs, which are, as a rule, a little more
difficult to raise than the spring pigs.

Little pigs need exercise.—Provision should always be
made to see that the little pigs do not lack for exercise.
Fortunately, under pasture systems of raising, provision
is automatically made for exercise. The reason we desire
the little pigs to have exercise is that the bone may be
developed and that they may have ample constitutional
capacity.

Runts.—In nearly every litter there is one runt, and
frequently there are two or three. When the litters are
quite large it may be economy to kill these runts. If the
litter is small, it pays to worry along with them, and
after a time all of the runts can be placed either in a lot
or grazing patch to themselves, where they can be given
special attention and feed. The occurrence of runts can-
not be avoided, but it can be mitigated by ample and
judicious feeding of the pregnant sow. In by far the
majority of cases the lack of size has resulted from a lack
of nutrition, and it is easily overcome if means can be
made for special nourishment for a time for the runts.

Marking the litters.—It is desirable to mark the litters
in the case of pure-bred swine in order that the ancestry
may be definitely known. Perhaps the easiest system of

SWINE MANAGEMENT 161

marking is by means of notches in the ears. A single
notch in the outer rim of the right ear indicates that the
pig belongs to the first litter born that season. The
second litter is marked by two notches in the outer rim
of the right ear. Litter No. 3 is marked by a single notch
in the outer rim of the left ear. A pig of the tenth litter
is marked by a single notch in the inner rim of the right
ear. A pig of the thirtieth litter has a single notch in
the inner rim of the left ear. A notch, therefore, has a
value of 1, 3, 10 or 30, according to its location in the
outer rim of the right or left ear or the inner rim of the
right or left ear. The number of the litter to which a pig
belongs is indicated by the sum of the values of all of the
notches present. A hundred litters in the same herd can
be marked by this system. It is useless to try to give
each pig an individual number, for all of the pigs in one
litter should have the same ancestry.

Fall vs. spring pigs.—As has been pointed out in a
previous paragraph, spring pigs have an advantage over
fall pigs in that they come at a season of the year when
they will have an abundance of feeds to grow on during
the summer and an abundance to fatten on in the fall.
Fall pigs come at a time when the feeds for growing
come high and when the grazing feeds for fattening at
an early age are almost not to be had. The result is that
fall pigs must be kept longer than spring pigs before
marketing, and the cost is thereby increased that much,
A properly equipped breeder will arrange for nearly as
many pigs to be dropped in the fall as in the spring and
will arrange to get them off to market as early as
possible in the summer or early fall, when prices are
generally good. The advantages of spring pigs over fall

162 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

pigs are thus largely offset by a slightly cheaper feed in
the fall and early winter, and by being able to get them
to market before the spring pigs at a time when hogs are
generally a little higher. One should lay special
emphasis on the supply of feeds for the late winter and

Grazing lots make fall litters as profitable as spring farrowings
on the farm of Joe R. Martin in Georgia.

spring months, and by a proper system of feed supply
the fall pigs can be made just as profitable as spring pigs.

Early castration best—Many hog raisers let the pigs
get too old before castrating. The castrating should be
done at about five weeks of age, for the reason that the
hog is then easier to hold, loses but little blood, and seems
but little disturbed by the operation. This early castra-
tion also prevents miscellaneous breeding and breeding
too young. The details of the operation are given in the
next chapter.

SWINE MANAGEMENT 163

Young vs. old sows.—There is but little difference
between the pigs of young and old sows. Owing to the
fact that gilts with the first litter do not usually do as
well as older sows, it seems advisable where possible to
use sows, other things being equal. It is nearly always
true that bred gilts can be obtained at lower figures than
older tried sows, and this largely accounts for their more
general use by those entering the swine business. It
seems that the best sows for breeding purposes are there-
fore the young sows, but not gilts. With the old sows
the period of usefulness is too limited, and after a certain
age is reached they are apt to become barren. Other
things being equal, a sow with the second litter is about
as good as one can do, because she will take good care of
her pigs and her period of usefulness will be greatest. A
sow has generally lived the best part of her life during the
first seven years. Some fail before that age and some exceed
it. Some sows will breed regularly for ten years and more.

Pigs from old and young sows.—As pointed out in the
previous paragraph, the age at which the sow is of great-
est usefulness is between the time of her second litter and
the time when her breeding powers begin to fail. Some
are inclined to discriminate against the pigs of both the
first and second litters, but there seems to be no just
ground for such discrimination. Owing to the fact that
pigs coming from sows that have had two litters have
been more fully nourished than in the case of younger
sows, they may have some slight advantage. With the
sows of the first litter the pigs suffer some because during
pregnancy the sow continues her growth and some extra
nutrition is required, which is obtained at the expense of
the nutrition of the pigs.

164 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Cost of a fifty-pound pig.—It is possible for a fifty-
pound pig to be produced at figures varying all the way
from $5 to $50. To figure the cost of a pig at birth, one
will have to figure the cost of the sow, interest and in-
surance on her for six months, and the cost of her upkeep
for six months. Interest, taxes, insurance and other fixed
charges would amount to $5 for the six months. The
feed cost for six months will range from $10 to $18. If
the cost amounts to $18, and there are six pigs, each will
cost $3 at birth. If the cost is $18, and there are nine
pigs in the litter, the cost at birth will be about $2, which
is a fair average cost figure. It costs all the way from
less than 50 cents to over a dollar per week to raise a
pig. At eight weeks of age the pig should weigh close to
50 pounds, and at a maximum of $1 per week for feed
and care, and at $2 each for cost at birth, the total cost
would be about $10 each. In many instances it will be
possible to produce pigs at eight weeks of age for half
the above, or for $5 each.

Weaning the pig.—The time to wean a pig is when it
is from six to eight weeks of age. The weaning process
should consist in a gradual feeding of other feeds until
the pig can get along without its mother’s milk. After
weaning the quantity of feed should be increased as
rapidly as the pig’s appetite indicates. The proportion
of concentrates to be fed will depend on what other feeds
accompany it.

Care of the sow and pigs at weaning time.—The wean-
ing of pigs should not be sudden. By the time the pigs
are eight weeks of age they will have become able to eat
almost anything the older hogs can eat, and if they have

SWINE MANAGEMENT 165

been fed separately from the sows, they will have ac-
quired more dependence on other feeds than the sow’s
milk. And, if they have become gradually accustomed
to being absent from the sow, the weaning may be finally
consummated by permitting them to return to the sow
once a day for two or three days, meanwhile lessening
the sow’s feed so that less milk will be produced. The
gradual weaning is as much for the sake of the mother
as the pigs. The sow may be expected to come into heat
a few days after the pigs are weaned and regularly
thereafter until bred.

Care of the gilts——After weaning the gilt will require
but little special care and attention up to the breeding
age. Ample grazing crops should be supplied, and she
should be forced, especially with roughages and bulky
feeds, as the middle will be developed in size, which will
be a distinct advantage later. She should not, however,
be fed so as to make her excessively fat. At eight or nine
months she may be bred, after which some further atten-
tion will be required. She should not be placed with
larger animals and the supply of proteins should be in-
creased. The gilt usually grows but little during the
later stages of pregnancy, which shows the importance
of late breeding and liberal feeding.

Age at which to breed.—A mistake that is commonly
made is to breed too young. The result is that the gilt
is forced not only to nourish herself, but she must also
nourish the developing embryos. She cannot do both of
these perfectly. If pregnancy intervenes before the
growth process has advanced beyond a certain point, not
only will the final size of the sow be affected, but she

156 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

will never make as good a mother as she would have had
she been more nearly ‘mature. It must be remembered
that this extra drain on the gilt does not come only dur-
ing pregnancy, but it exists all the time she is suckling
the pigs. Under no circumstances should a gilt be bred
so that she will farrow under one year of age

The time to breed.—Perhaps the most favorable time
for a litter of pigs to come is in the early spring, when
they can feed on the newly starting grass. A second
litter, coming in September or October, should be pro-
vided for. Our southern climate will permit of this, and
especially do they seem to do well where a good swamp
pasture is accessible.

The breeding season.—Sows will usually come in heat
a short time after the pigs are weaned and about every
twenty-one days thereafter. The pigs should suckle for
about cight weeks. When the sow comes in heat she
should be taken to a boar, and after a single uninter-
rupted service she may just as well be taken back to her
lot. The sow, when in heat, usually indicates it by
swelling of the vulva and by a change in voice. Instead
of a squeal there is a rather long-drawn-out roar. When
a sow fails to come into heat there is something physio-
logically wrong. Of course, they will not come in heat
if too old or if they have been bred. If the pigs are not yet
weaned they need not be expected to come in heat, and if
excessively fat they are not so apt to come in. The
period may sometimes be hastened by placing the sow in
the same lot with the boar. If a sow comes in heat but
will not catch, the best thing that can generally be
done is to fatten her for pork, unless she is an ex-

SWINE MANAGEMENT 167

ceptionally valuable sow, when other expedients may be
resorted to.

Age and time to breed pure-bred sows.—A great many
of our best breeders make a practice of having their gilts
bred to drop pigs at one year of age, and, if they have
been properly pushed along, this is not too young.
Others seem to prefer to wait until later. In farrowing
at from one year to fifteen months of age gilts from one
spring may farrow the first litter the next spring. Fall
pigs are usually a little slower growing than spring pigs
and fall-farrowed gilts may frequently be bred to farrow
in the winter or early spring after they are a year of age.
While most breeders prefer spring litters on account of
the food supply for the several months to come, fall
litters or litters at any other season are all right and can
be made successful. Throughout the southern states the
market for pure-bred pigs is best in the late winter
months and pigs farrowed in the early fall can often be
sold early to good advantage.

Period of gestation.—After the ova or germ cells of the
sow have been fertilized, gestation or pregnancy starts,
which ends with the expulsion of the pigs from the
uterus. The length of the period of gestation is fairly
constant and will vary but little either way from 112
days. Heavy feeding tends to hasten and light feeding to
retard the farrowing date. Early-maturing types also
require slightly less time. A sudden cold spell, nervous
excitement, the sight of another sow farrowing, the sight
or taste of fresh meat or blood, and certain drugs, as
ergot, cotton root extract and digitalis, may cause pre-
mature termination of gestation.

168 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Care of pregnant sows.—In the case of the gilt in par-
ticular, attention should be given to ample food supply,
for she not only has to have additional feed for the
developing pigs, but for the continuation of her growth.
The quantity of concentrates or grain will have to be in-
creased as pregnancy advances and the quantity of feed
should be according to appetite. Pasture is especially
valuable, for it gives ample exercise, which is necessary
to the pregnant sow. After 214 or three months has
been reached, the pregnant sows should be placed in a
lot together, away from other hogs, and especially away
trom large stock. The food supply should have variety,
and it should be of such a nature as to encourage growth.
The pregnant sow has a strong natural tendency to
tatten, this being nature’s way to provide for ample food
for the coming pigs in case there comes a shortage in
food supply. It is possible to make the sow too fat and
clumsy. Thus the feeds must not be too fattening, but
should contain a high percentage of protein. Cowpeas,
alfalfa, peanuts, velvet beans, and other protein feeds
have special value. A little tankage or meat meal is a
good thing for brood sows at all times, and especially
during pregnancy. Care should always be taken to see
that too much corn is not fed for too long a time during
pregnancy. The same may be said of other highly car-
bonaceous or fattening feeds.

Abortion.—We frequently have cases of abortion or
slinking of pigs. This may be brought on by several
things. It may be due to a contagion or disease. It is
generally the result of some accident, such as a kick from
a horse or mule, from over-heating, or from rough han-
dling otherwise. It may also be due to something eaten,

SWINE MANAGEMENT 169

as many poisons occur in certain feeds that are capable
of producing premature birth when sufficient quantities
are consumed. When abortion takes place during the
later stages of pregnancy, some difficulties may be ex-
perienced in handling the surplus of milk in the udder.

* 4 “oe Neste nt

Winter farrowing house on farm of N. H. G. Balfour in
North Carolina.

In most cases this milk will be absorbed without trouble,
but in other cases some treatment will have to be given
to check and dry up the secretion. In some instances
abortion or premature farrowing becomes constitutional
and chronic, when the best thing that can be done is to
fatten the sow for pork.

Farrowing.—Prior to the delivery of the young certain
changes take place with the mother, which indicate the
approaching event. The causes of these changes are
none too well understood, but they are purely physio-
logical and normal, and are probably brought about
through the agency of harmones or internal secretions.

170 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Among other changes the udder becomes congested and
swollen. At first the secretion is waxy, but it later de-
velops into colostrum and then to normal milk. Just
prior to delivery the belly sinks and seemingly enlarges.
The vulva becomes congested and swollen and quite
elastic, capable of being widely distended. The cartilagi-
nous connections between the bones, especially bones
near the pelvic region, become very elastic. An uneasi-
ness and restlessness are experienced. Seclusion is gen-
erally sought and an attempt is often made to make a
rather elaborate bed. The gestation ceases with the ex-
pulsion of the embryos during labor, which normally
results involuntarily from violent abdominal muscular
exertions and certain other physiological activities. In
some instances it may be necessary to provide assistance
to farrowing sows. This is because difficult farrowing
is frequently encountered, which may result disastrously
to both the sow and the pigs. High condition, disease,
weakness, wrong presentation, injury and abnormalities
may cause these difficulties. Aid is imperative in cases
where much difficulty is experienced, and it often be-
comes necessary to assist in removal of the pigs by
means of pig forceps, which may be of various types
and makes.

The sows should be watched carefully as the farrow-
ing date approaches. About 112 days from service she
may be expected to farrow. In the colder months the
farrowing should take place under shelter, preferably
in a well-lighted ventilated and roomy farrowing pen.
The herdsman should watch all his sows carefully dur-
ing farrowing time, but should not interfere in the least
unless it becomes necessary. Soon after the pigs have

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172 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

been dropped the pigs should be inspected to see that
they are all right and to remove any dead ones. In the
case of pure-bred swine the number, sex, and farrowing
date must be recorded so that the pigs can be registered.

Management of brood sows.—Aside from the matter
of adequate feed supply of the right sort, there is noth-
ing of so great importance to the success of the swine
business as proper brood sow management. So far as
the sows are concerned, we must take into account such
factors as age, breed, condition, conformation, quality
and disposition in their relation to reproduction. In ad-
dition such external factors as feed supply, shelter, care
and attention should be given due consideration. In all
our efforts to secure maximum returns we must take
every factor at what it is worth and constantly keep in
mind in brood sow management that what is wanted is
that animal that will mother the greatest number of
thrifty pigs that will return a profit to their grower.

Caring for the boar.—While boars as a rule can stand
more rough treatment and lack of care than any other
class of hogs they respond readily to good treatment.
They require a little different treatment from all other
classes of hogs. It is an easy matter to make them too
fat. They need pasture and only moderate amounts of
concentrates. The boar should not be allowed to run
with the sows, as he will worry both himself and them.
Boars need some attention after they attain maturity to
keep their tusks cut so that they will not injure people
or stock. A very good way to do this is by means of a
bolt cutter. When not on pasture and when lot fed,
they may need their feet trimmed occasionally. If the

SWINE MANAGEMENT 1/3

skin becomes too harsh and rough it may be improved
by applying crude oil, old lard or other greases. Above
all, the boar should be kept gentle if such is possible.
He should be handled often, firmly, but gently.

Bad habits.—Practically all bad habits to which swine
are subject are either the direct or indirect result of poor
feeding or faulty management. Hogs that are closely
confined about the house or barn frequently develop
such bad habits as chicken eating, rooting, fence break-
ing or climbing, ill temper, chasing other animals, eating
pigs and cow sucking. Nine times out of ten these bad
habits are the result of improper feeding and poor man-
agement. It is a difficult matter to break hogs of these
habits, and a much better way of handling the situation
is to remove the cause, which means proper feeding on
grazing crops in the field.

CHAPTER VIII
SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

Indications of disease.—One of the essentials to suc-
cess in any system of swine industry must of necessity
consist in the ability to detect and control swine diseases.

Sunlight and dip are used to prevent disease on the farm of
W. W. Shay, Cruso, N. C.

There are so many ailments to which swine are subject

and in which the mortality is high that it becomes im-

portant that we be able not only to recognize disease

when it occurs, but we should know the causes of disease

in order that we may more successfully prevent them.
174

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 175

Likewise, we should know the recognized methods of
treatment for the more common diseases. It is an art
to be able to detect disease in its primary stage so that
it can be properly handled to prevent spread and properly
treated to effect a cure where possible. We must, there-
fore, know what the healthy condition of the hog is and
know what conditions are indicative of lack of health.

In many diseases the first place where its effect will
be noticed is in the temperament or disposition of the
affected animals. They may be sluggish and dull, refuse
to eat, and show other indications of lack of health. On
the other hand, in some diseases the nervous system may
be so affected that they become excitable to the extent
of delirium. Staggering gait, convulsions, paralysis and
twisting of the head to one side and walking in a circle
are conditions of disposition and temperament sugges-
tive of diseased condition. ,

Another valuable guide to the health condition of swine is
the condition of the hair or bristles. While the hog has
coarse bristles that are comparatively thinly distributed
over his body, their general appearance is one of the best
indications we have of a hog’s general condition or thrift.
When a hog is improperly nourished or is suffering from
disease, one of the first places it shows up is in the hair
coat. So long as the hair is bright and glossy, and lies
down smoothly, giving the whole body a slick appear-
ance, we look upon the hog as doing well and in a thrifty
condition. If, on the other hand, the hair is dull and
stands on end and is inclined to curl up we say he is not
normal and is unthrifty or diseased in some way. This
unthriftiness may be due to lack of sufficient food or feed
of the right sort, or it may be due to parasites or to other

176 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

pathological conditions. All of our hogs should be care-
fully watched, and when they show an unhealthy condi-
tion of hair coat the condition should be corrected as soon
as possible,

In addition to the hair the condition of the hide is also
an excellent indicator of the health condition of the hog.
The hide or skin follows the hair coat in condition to a
large extent. In health it is soft and mellow. An in-
elastic, hard, rigid, scaly skin is indicative of an un-
healthy condition.

In diseased conditions we also find variations from the
normal in the body temperature, pulse rate and respira-
tion, or the rate of breathing. The normal temperature
of a pig varies from 101 to 105 degrees with an average
of about 103 degrees. The temperature is changed from
the normal by several conditions, even in health. The
normal pulse rate of the pig is from 70 to 80, and the
respiration rate is 10 to 20 normally, but with excite-
ment or heat it may reach 50 or 60. The pulse, respira-
tion and temperature are all increased by excitement and
heat, and lowered by cold and rest. Other indications
of a diseased condition are to be found in the appearance
of the exposed mucous membranes and in the condition
and quantity of the excretions and secretions. The ap-
plication of these to the detection of disease requires a
little more skill than the previously mentioned indicators,
and use can be made of them only by those that are more
or less skilled.

Administering medicines—The expert herdsman will
become more or less experienced in the administration
of medicines. Under the majority of circumstances the
medicine will be administered in one of four ways. First

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 177

of all is the administration by way of the mouth, next
is by injection beneath the skin, the third is by direct
application to the affected parts, and the fourth is by
way of the rectum. There are other ways in whch medi-
cines may be administered, but they are seldom resorted
to. In administration by way of the mouth the medicine
may be given in the food in most cases, or else it may
be given as a drench, if proper care is taken. In drench-
ing a pig the important consideration is not to pour the
medicine in the pig’s mouth while he is excited and
squealing, but to wait until it becomes quiet. Injections
under the skin are sometimes made use of where the
drugs are not too irritant. The administration of medi-
cine by way of the rectum is rarely made use of. Where
the dosage is to be given to a number of hogs care must
be exercised to get an even distribution to prevent over-
dosage and to get a sufficient dosage all the way round.

Veterinarians.—There are a few troubles that occur
in the swine herd that can be treated by the herdsman
without the aid of a veterinarian. There are many times,
however, that the services of a veterinarian should be had
when they are not. By all means when a condition oc-
curs quite general over the herd a veterinarian should be
called if there is the least doubt as to the disease and its
condition. Even when the trouble is not general in the
herd, but is not understood and the disease is doubtful,
it will pay in most cases to consult a veterinarian. The
fact should be impressed upon the grower of swine that
practically all diseases of swine are amenable to treat-
ment and control through the application of scientific
knowledge, and above all a licensed or graduate veteri-
narian should be called in, and not a quack who

178 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

can do little but harm in spite of his probably false
reputation.

Swine diseases—In a general way the diseases of
swine may be divided into three main groups. The first
of these is the result of an infection of some sort and may
be either infectious or contagious, depending upon the
method of transmission from one animal to another. In
addition to diseases due to microscopic organisms there
are certain other diseases due to macroscopical organisms.
Such diseases as these are conveniently classified as para-
sitical diseases. There are also a number of diseases that
can be classified as surgical, since surgery is involved in
their treatment. As a good example of surgical diseases,
we might refer to hernia or rupture. In addition to this
classification, diseases are frequently classified into
groups according to the organs, parts, or systems
affected. Among these groups we find diseases of the
circulatory system, digestive system, excretory system,
locomotor system, nervous system, reproductive system,
respiratory system and diseases of the skin.

Circulatory system.—The circulatory system involves
the heart and the blood vessels carrying blood to the dif-
ferent parts of the body and returning it to the heart.
Diseases affecting the circulatory system are generally
the indirect result of unhealthful conditions in other parts
of the body, and this becomes one of the first systems
affected in general disease. Aside from the matter of
pulse rate and strength and other minor diseases of the
system, there are two diseases affecting this system that
are not uncommon in the swine herd. The first of these
is septicaemia or blood poisoning, and the other is fatty

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 179

degeneration of the heart. Such diseases as pleurisy, hog
cholera, pneumonia and rheumatism may give rise to
inflammation of the tissues around the heart. General
blood and heart diseases are indicated by high fever,
weak, quick and irregular pulse, with indications of pain.
Treatment of diseases of the circulatory system is usually
unsatisfactory and should be preventive rather than
curative.

Septicemia (blood poisoning).—This trouble can be
suspected where an operation has been performed, after
a difficult farrowing, or following a bruise or injury. In
the case of internal abscesses it occurs without apparent
external symptoms: Fever, loss of appetite, muscular
tremors, stupidity and weakness are the usual symptoms.
The disease is due to absorption of the toxic substances
produced by the bacteria. As a usual thing the infection
comes from an external wound or bruise, but in the case
of abscesses septiczemia may result from pyogenic bacteria
or abscesses in different parts of the body, which ab-
scesses may or may not become apparent on the surface.
The treatment is preventive. Wounds should be kept in
such condition as not to predispose to infection. Closed
abscesses and wounds should be opened and cleansed
and washed with a solution of boric acid, hydrogen per-
oxide or other disinfectants. Diseased individuals should
be separated from the herd and given nutritious and
easily digested feeds, and in some cases tonics may be
advisable.

Fatty degeneration of the heart—This disease occurs
not infrequently under lot-feeding conditions where ex-
tensive use is made of corn. It is due to over-feeding with

180 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

fat-making feeds without sufficient exercise. The dis-
ease is characterized by a fatty deposition around the
heart and by a partial replacing of the muscular tissue
of the heart with fatty tissue. The symptoms are a weak,
irregular heart action, generally accompanied by difficult
breathing. The prevention of the disease largely con-
sists in proper feeding with ample exercise.

Digestive system.—There are many diseases affecting
directly and indirectly the digestive system. This is be-
cause the system is so vitally connected with every other
system on the body. When the digestive organs are
diseased all other parts of the body will suffer. The
proper feeding has more to do with the condition of the
digestive system than any other factor, and under health-
ful feeding conditions organic diseases will be largely
prevented and the animal will be better able to ward off
infectious and contagious diseases. Diseased conditions
of the digestive system are manifested in several ways.
The appetite is invariably affected one way or the other.
The pulse, temperature, and the respiration are also
affected in most diseases. Among the more important
diseases affecting the digestive system are indigestion or
gastritis, which occurs in both the chronic and acute
forms, gastro enteritis, scours, diarrhea, constipation, hog
cholera and thumps.

Indigestion (gastritis) —Cases of indigestion are quite
common in the average herd. Many of these cases are
acute and others chronic. Where acute the cause is
generally due to over-feeding or to irritating feeds, and
indigestion is not infrequent from the administering of
quack remedies for fancied ailments. Poor care in feed-

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 181

ing or management, exposure and other debilitating in-
fluences may lead to forms of indigestion. Worms and
insufficient supply of nutritious feeds and excess of cot-
tonseed meal are common causes of chronic indigestion.
The presence of indigestion is indicated by vomiting,
fever, voluntary isolation, evidences of pain, constipation,
which is generally followed by diarrhea, and in chronic
forms it is generally accompanied by a general unthrifty
condition and slow and stunted growth. Restlessness
and evidences of abdominal pain are noticeable symptoms
in acute forms of the disease. The trouble may or may
not result in the death of the animal, depending on the
cause of the indigestion, the severity and treatment.
First the cause should be determined and that removed.
Care must be taken not to give irritating drugs. In acute
cases induced vomiting followed by a dose of oil is ex-
cellent treatment. Comfortable quarters, a light but nu-
tritious diet and removal of the cause will generally
effect a cure in a short time in acute cases. About the
same treatment is recommended for chronic cases. A
vermifuge, followed by a physic and repeated every 10
days, with possibly a tonic and with proper regulators
should soon give relief.

Hog cholera.—There is no greater obstacle to a more
extensive swine industry in the South than hog cholera,
a very contagious disease, often sweeping away entire
herds at atime. The serious nature of the disease makes
it imperative that we more thoroughly understand the
disease in order that we can more successfully cope with
it when the necessity arises. It is caused by a specific
organism so small that it cannot be seen under the most
powerful microscope, and it can be filtered through the

182 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

most dense filter. These facts make it difficult to study
the organism and to trace its transmission from one place
to another. Swine only are susceptible, and the suscepti-
bility is very high, especially in the acute form, when
frequently an entire herd will become infected very
quickly. The disease is also characterized by a very high
death rate. The period of incubation, or the time that
elapses between the time the hog is exposed and the time
it takes the disease, is variable. In some cases it may be
two days, and again it may be two weeks, depending on
the physical condition of the hog or on its susceptibility,
the virulence of the strain and the method in infection.
The period of incubation is much shorter in the acute
than in the chronic form.

Among the symptoms are loss of appetite, rise in tem-
perature, rapid intoxication and high death rate. Un-
fortunately, there are other diseases characterized by
similar symptoms and it is only possible to definitely
diagnose hog cholera by post-mortem examination. In
addition to the ante-mortem symptoms we find a char-
acteristic huddling together in pens or nests, stiffness of
joints, a cough, especially in the chronic form, a mucous
discharge from the eyes and nostrils and red blotches on
the skin, especially on the abdomen. At first the animal
is constipated, but that is later followed by a persistent
diarrhea. In cholera, especially in the chronic form, we
find a wide range of symptoms, which result largely from
secondary infections with other organisms. These sec-
ondary infections frequently complicate diagnosis. In
describing the diagnosis of hog cholera it is generally
customary to differentiate between the acute and chronic
forms, the differentiation being more or less arbitrary and

SWINE DISEASES AND TIEIR CONTROL 183

based upon the rapidity of the course and mortality of
the disease.

There are several diseases that are apt to become con-
fused with hog cholera when only the external symptoms
are considered. Among these parasitic infestation is
commonly confused with cholera and is also associated
indirectly with it. Acute and chronic gastritis or indi-
gestion has somewhat similar symptoms. Pneumonia
and swine plague are other diseases apt to be confused
with it. Thus the post-mortem diagnosis is most reliable.
On post-mortem the cholera hog will show in acute cases
characteristic hemorrhagic lesions. These occur in
the skin, in the serous mucous lining of the body cavity,
intestines, kidneys and lungs. In chronic cases the
lesions may take the form of ulcerations, occurring in
about the same locations as in the acute form.

Knowing of the dangers of hog cholera, one of the most
important things to know is how to prevent it. To do
this we must first know how it is spread or introduced
into herds. Above all, the infected hog is probably the
most important factor. If the hog is alive, it should be
subjected to the most rigid quarantine. It it dies the
carcass should be burned or buried deeply. Before a new
hog comes into a herd it should be placed in quarantine
for at least four weeks. The disease can be controlled
and prevented by proper sanitary precautions and the
judicious use of preventive serum. ‘The methods by
which the disease can be carried from an infected to a
healthy herd are numerous. Dogs, pigeons, other ani-
mals, men and farming equipment of all kinds can carry
the disease from an infected to a healthy herd. The
buzzard is reputed to play an important part in the dis-

184 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

semination of the disease, but if we would destroy the
carcasses of hogs that die from cholera this source of
possible infection would cease to a large extent. Above
all, a healthy herd is not nearly so apt to become
infected with cholera as an unhealthy one. We should,
therefore, keep our hogs healthy and free from worms.
If cholera is in the immediate community, or if the herd
has had a good chance for infection, an experienced per-
son should vaccinate the herd with serum. Good hog
cholera serum properly used is a sure preventive of hog
cholera. The use of scrum as a preventive is to be
recommended above all others. Losses from hog cholera
can be eliminated by keeping the herd immuned, but under
ordinary conditions this is not an advisable practice.

When a herd becomes infected quack remedies and
medicines should be avoided. A competent veterinarian
should be called in. If the disease is cholera, all healthy
hogs ready for the market should be marketed at once
where permissible by law. Sick animals should be iso-
lated at once from the herd. Dead hogs should be burned
and all rubbish cleaned up, houses and nests should be
closed until disinfected, and wallows should be filled up
or drained. Quicklime should be used on all places
known to be infected. If cholera is present provision
should be made at once to inoculate all animals in the
herd, both sick and well. The serum is given to the weil
to prevent them from having the disease and to the sick
to effect a cure, which it will do in many cases where the
disease is not too far advanced. Experience has shown
that serum has some curative properties, and an experi-
enced person can generally tell when it is advisable to
give it to a sick hog.

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 185

Many farmers and hog raisers administer the serum
themselves. There is no reason why anyone cannot
apply it successfully if he follows the few simple instruc-
tions. All hog raisers should know where the serum is
obtainable. In most states the State Veterinarian has
charge of the sale of serum and controls its use. It is
sold at so much per c.c., which ranges in price generally
from 34 to1% cents perc.c. Full directions for the use

»

Administering serum to prevent hog cholera. Courtesy R. D.
Goodman of North Carolina.

of the serum are also obtainable from the officer or in-
stitution in charge of the sale of the serum. The dosage
of serum generally varies according to the gross weight
of the hog. The following are the dosages generally
recommended:

25-50 “pounds --~------=22: 10-20 c.¢.

50-100 pounds ~------------- 20-30 c.c.
100-200 pounds ~------------- 30-45 c. c.
200-400 pounds -------------- 45-60 c. c. : :
Over 400 pounds_------------- 60-80 c. c., according to weight

186 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Tor some time use has been made of the double treat-
ment by which the hog is given an infection of hog
cholera and the serum at the same time, resulting in a
more or less permanent immunity to the disease. This
method of immunization has been given a most thorough
trial, and in most states is either now prohibited or ad-
vised against on account of the resultant spreading
of the disease and effects on the animal, many animals
being more or less permanently stunted by the treatment.
This brings up the question of the length of the immunity
secured by the inoculation with serum alone. It has been
found that this is quite variable, dependent to a large ex-
tent upon the natural susceptibility of the individual.
In some cases the immunity will last but six weeks, while
in others it will last as long as six months. Sows ad-
vanced in pregnancy can safely be inoculated with the
serum if proper precautions are taken. Many preventive
measures and precautions are also a matter of actual ex-
perience. When a herd becomes infected one must know
how long to keep the herd immuned until the danger of
cholera is past. That will depend largely on the rigidity
of the sanitary precautions taken.

Constipation Constipation is rather a common dis-
ease in swine herds, especially where the hogs are fed on
dry feeds. It is characterized by a dry, hard feces contain-
ing but little moisture. It is indicative of disease rather
than a disease itself. The treatment of the condition is
simple. In mild cases dieting will soon bring about the
proper condition. Dry feeds should be avoided and only
sloppy and green feeds fed. The consumption of much
water is desirable, and induced exercise assists in the
recovery to normal condition. A small dose, from one

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 187

to two ounces of castor oil, or two or three ounces of
linseed oil, will often relieve the constipation, and in
acute cases calomel at the rate of a grain per 25 pounds
in weight should relieve the condition in a short while.
Under the methods of swine growing which we should
adopt in which grazing crops play an important role,
trouble from this source becomes almost negligible.

Diarrhea.—Diarrhea is a common symptom of many
diseases affecting the digestive tract. In most cases it
is due directly to an irritation, which may be brought
about by poisons, or, as is more often the case, it may
be due to a bacterial infection. In the case of young pigs
it may assume the form of scours, and the discharge may
be a grayish liquid, with an offensive odor. This form
of scours is generally fatal in quite young pigs, but
diarrhea can generally be controlled in older pigs and
hogs. The disease is characterized by a gradual loss of
appetite, sometimes by fever, and indisposition to ex-
ercise, indications of pain and, above all, by the watery
nature of the fecal discharge. Diarrhea may result from
irritations due to intestinal worms. Indigestion, bacterial
infection from putrid feeds, change from dry to green
feeds and improper protection from the cold are other
causes of diarrhea. The treatment consists in the re-
moval of the cause. If the cause is another disease, the
other disease should be treated. Light diet, purgatives
of castor oil, nitrate of bismuth, opiates, formaldehyde
and slaked lime may be indicated. Especially is the lime
good where the cause is an acid irritation.

Thumps—spasm of the diaphragm.—This is quite a
common occurrence in pigs, and is the result of an irrita-

188 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

tion of the phrenic nerves. Indigestion, especially over-
loading of the stomach, intestinal parasites and lack of
adequate exercise are some of the more common causes
of the condition. The symptoms are marked. When
standing the body will move forward with the shock of
the contraction. When lying down the force of the
spasm can plainly be seen on the side of the animal. The
spasms occur with considerable regularity, but the con-
tractions occur more often when the stomach is full.
The treatment consists, first, in the removal of the cause.
A vermifuge of turpentine, a half teaspoonful per 80-
pound pig, followed by a dose of calomel, should be given.
Exercise on pasture is beneficial, and the bowels should
be regulated with laxatives and tonics. Tincture of
opium is generally recommended to stop the contractions
of the diaphragm.

Excretory system.—The diseases of the kidneys and
bladder are confined for the most part to inflammations.
Congestions of the kidneys from an injury or from a
poison are not uncommon in swine. Exposure is a cause
of kidney and bladder trouble and the excretory organs
are quite commonly affected by such diseases as swine
plague and hog cholera. Germs may infect both the
kidneys and bladder and give rise to irritations and
inflammations. When the urine is retained for any length
of time the fermentations release free ammonia, which
irritates the mucous membranes with which it comes in
contact. The symptoms of diseases of the excretory
system are generally obscure. The appetite may be ir-
regular, indications of pain may be manifested, the urine
may be passed frequently in varying quantities, and it
may be of high color. In some cases there is a retention

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 189

of the urine. When the disease is advanced more general
symptoms may become manifested, and death may result
from uremic poisoning. The bowels must be kept open
and frequent laxatives should be given. Home treatment
in cases of diseases affecting the excretory system are
generally not very satisfactory, and in most cases the
treatment should be given under the direction of a com-
petent veterinarian.

Diseases of the locomotor organs.—Diseases affecting
the organs of locomotion may be either due to physio-
logical or morphological conditions. Nearly all diseases
of locomotion manifest themselves by lameness. Thus
when lameness occurs we should at once ascertain the
location of the trouble and proceed to remove the cause.
The more common causes of lameness are rheumatism,
sore feet, stiff joints and weak legs.

Rickets is a rather common disease, affecting the bones
of the legs in particular. It is due to an insufficiency of
mineral matter in the diet, and is generally easily cor-
rected by the addition to the diet of such minerals as
lime, phosphates and carbonates. Lack of exercise,
crowded quarters, filth and poor feeding are common
contributive causes. The disease may assume the form
of a crumbling or fracturing of the bone without due
cause, or it may assume the form of distortion in the
extremities.

Lameness from rheumatism may result from articular
and muscular rheumatism. Frequently we find muscular
rheumatism resulting as secondary to another disease.
Overfeeding and exposure are two causes to which rheu-
matism is generally attributed, but it may come from
other sources, especially from diseases affecting the ex-

190 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

cretory system. In the articular form there may be a
swelling and stiffness of the joints. In the muscular
form the muscles of the back are more commonly
affected. The treatment is not very satisfactory. Com-
fortable quarters, a laxative diet and regular and judi-
cious feeding are valuable.

Sore feet is due generally to an infection of the soft
parts between the toes. If the disease is the result of
confinement on hard pasture, the hogs should be placed
on softer ground. In addition to removing the cause of
the infection we should take means to destroy it. To
do this the feet should be washed once a day in a 5 per
cent solution of a coal tar dip. Another good remedy is
to wash the feet daily in a saturated solution of copper
sulphate. Above all, the animals affected should be kept
out of the mud, mire and manure.

Diseases of the nervous system.—There are several
causes that will give rise to an inflammation or conges-
tion of the brain, with its resultant effects of paralysis,
epilepsy, apoplexy, blindness and deafness. Among these
are over-heating, tumors or parasites, injuries, improper
feeding, filth and exposure and infectious diseases.

Apoplexy and paralysis are usually associated with
inactivity. In the case of the former the condition is
usually sudden and general, while in the case of paralysis
the disease may be restricted to certain parts, and it may
come on more slowly. A sunstroke is an apoplectic con-
dition. In these diseases the cause should first be re-
moved and the treatment applied according to the cause.
In some instances recovery can be effected, but the best
treatment is prevention, and the hog should not be placed
under those conditions predisposing it to these diseases.

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 191

Epilepsy is characterized by periodic convulsions, be-
tween which the animal may appear normal or only
slightly stupid. The tendency may be congenital, or it
may result from an injury. In young pigs it may result
from an irritation due to parasitic infection or from the
cutting of teeth. Here again treatment consists in re-
moval of the cause where it is known. Cathartics should
be given. Cold water applied to the head of the animal
may give temporary relief.

Blind staggers is a symptom rather than a disease.
Treatment is unsatisfactory, and unless the cause is
known and can be removed it is generally better to kill
the afflicted animal.

Diseases of the male reproductive organs.—While
there are a few diseases of the reproductive organs or
system of swine that occur frequently in the breeding
herd, they are not nearly of the same importance as some
other diseases. In the boar we find that there are several
contributive causes to sterility, among the more im-
portant being too high condition with insufficient exer-
cise, too much service and improper feeding. Sterility
may result from an injury and may not be amenable to
treatment, but many cases of sterility can be remedied
by the removal of the cause. Medicines other than
tonics are of little or no value.

Among boars orchitis is not uncommon. This con-
sists in the inflammation of one or both testes. It is
generally the result of an injury or an infection. If the
infection results in an abscess, removal of the diseased
testicle is the quickest remedy. Medicinal treatment is
of some value. Potassium iodide administered in doses
twice daily for a week or 10 days may bring relief. Laxa-

192 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

tives and light feeding, with local applications of iodine
tincture or mild blisters, will assist in rapid recovery.
Another disease in boars is that of foul sheath, in which
an inflammation is set up in the sheath as a result of an
accumulation of dirt. The prepuce will swell and some
discharge may be noticed. Some local fever, painful
urination, retention of the urine and bad odor may be
found. The remedy is to place the hog on his back, wash
out the prepuce thoroughly with warm water, making
an incision if necessary, and keeping it free from infec-
tion by washing daily with a disinfecting solution.

Diseases of the female reproductive system.—Barren-
ness in the sow is due largely to the same causes that
bring about sterility in the male, and the treatment con-
sists largely in removing the cause. High condition is
perhaps the most common cause of barrenness in the
sow. Closing of the os or entrance to the uterus, inflam-
mation with an acid discharge, old age, and morphological
conditions may result in barrenness. When a case shows
up, the first thing to do is to provide for ample exercise,
a reduction in condition if necessary, and if the periods
do not occur the sow should be placed in the lot with
the boar. If the sow comes into heat, but does not con-
ceive, the trouble may be local. If an inflammation is
present, it will have to be treated with disinfecting solu-
tions until stopped and, if the uterus is closed, it may
in most instances be opened. Most barrenness is due to
improper feeding and management.

Abortions may occur in sows from injuries or from
infections. Crowding, exposure, over-heating, excite-
ment, spoiled feeds and disease in general must be
avoided with pregnant sows. Nothing can be done to

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 193

prevent an abortion after it once starts, so that the only
cure is prevention. The after treatment will depend on
circumstances.

Mammitis or garget results as an inflammation of the
udder due to an over-supply of milk. Heavy milk supply,
loss of all or a part of the litter, obstruction of a teat, in-
juries and infections may be causative factors. Equal
parts of belladonna and gum camphor mixed with two
parts of vaseline make an excellent ointment for such
cases. Bathing with hot water is of value and with-
drawal of the milk and massaging of the udder will as-
sist In overcoming the inflammation.

Diseases of the respiratory system.—Nasal catarrh is
a rather common disease of swine that corresponds with
a cold in the head in people. The symptoms and treat-
ment are similar. Over-heating, chilling and irritations
are common causes. The inflammation and infection may
extend to the pharynx and larynx, causing the disease
technically known as pharyngo-laryngitis. The bowels
should be kept open and health conditions carefully
looked after. The same conditions that cause nasal
catarrh and pharyngo-laryngitis may lead to bronchitis
or inflammation of the bronchial tubes, which disease is
nearly always accompanied by an infection. Here again
prevention is the best and most satisfactory treatment.
“omfortable quarters, light diet and general good care
are usually a more effective treatment than medicines.

Neglected bronchitis frequently terminates in pneu-
monia. Fat hogs are more subject to this disease than
thinner ones, and the chances of recovery are greater in
thin ones. The general symptoms are fairly character-
istic—fever, loss of appetite, depressed spirits, coughing,

194 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

exhaustion and inflammation of the visible mucous mem-
branes. Preventive measures are very important. Care-
ful nursing, comfortable quarters and light diet are about
as valuable as medicines. Counter irritants, stimulants
and tonics may be used to advantage in the convalescent
period. The bowels should be kept open at all times.
Pneumonia is generally associated with pleurisy, an in-
flammation of the serous membrane lining the chest
cavity. The causes, symptoms and treatment are similar
to those for pneumonia.

Another disease of swine affecting primarily the res-
piratory organs, but often extending to other parts, such
as the intestines, brain and lymph glands, is tuberculosis.

It is not very common in the South, but is probably
becoming more prevalent. The common source of in-
fection in swine is from cattle by way of the skim milk,
manure, or through the eating of offal from slaughtered
tubercular cattle. Pulmonary tuberculosis is accom-
panied by symptoms similar to those manifested in cases
of chronic bronchitis. Methods of possible infection and
predisposing causes should be removed, and all suspected
animals and those known to have the disease should be
isolated or destroyed.

Swine plague is another disease of swine affecting the
respiratory system. It is often confused with both hog
cholera and pneumonia. It occurs in both chronic and
acute forms. The preventive treatment is about the same
as that employed in hog cholera and pneumonia. This
disease does not occur often in the southern states.

Canker ot sore mouth (necrotic stomatitis) —This
infectious disease is fairly common and frequently oc-
curs in light form, when the animal may recover without

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 195

the knowledge of the herdsman. It affects the mouth
and adjacent parts and may extend to the nostrils, and
even to the stomach and intestines in severe cases. It
is caused by a specific micro-organism (bacillus nc-
crophorus). Congestion of the lips and gums, salivaton
and the occurrence of necrotic patches in the later stages
are primary symptoms. A foul odor is often present.
Diarrhea, prostration and emaciation occur in advanced
stages, followed by death in from two to six weeks.
Where it occurs the infected animals should be isolated
and their mouths or heads dipped daily in a 2 per cent
solution of creolin or good coal tar dip.

Urticaria or nettle rash.—Concurrent with the above-
described disease there frequently occurs a general herd
infection of urticaria or nettle rash. This disease arises
from skin irritations resulting from various causes, and
is characterized by skin eruptions on various parts of the
body, especially on the inside of the thighs, the belly,
between the forearms and back of the ears. Cleanliness,
sanitation, disinfection and prevention of skin irritations
are the best methods of prevention. Non-irritating dips,
such as five gallons of water to which has been added
six ounces of cresylic acid compound, U. S. P., or a two per
cent solution of a good coal tar disinfectant should be used.

Eczema.—Conditions under which some hogs are kept
render them susceptible to a chronic skin disease char-
acterized by inflammation and tenderness, followed by
watery vesicles or blisters, which change to pustules.
The disease can easily be prevented by sanitation, disin-
fection and proper use of sanitary hog wallows contain-
ing a weak solution of coal tar dip.

196 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Sun scald.—A disease similar to the above occurs to
some extent in the South known as sun scald. About the
only difference between sun scald and pitch mange or
eczema is in the cause. White hogs seem much predisposed
to the disease. The symptoms are about the same as
given for eczema except that parts exposed to the sun
are more often affected. Shade and general good care
in sanitation and disinfection are the main precautions
necessary to successfully control the trouble.

Parasitic diseases of swine.—In addition to those dis-
eases of swine caused by bacteria and morphological con-
ditions, we have those caused by worms and lice. Fully
90 per cent of losses in swine are associated with
parasitic infection. Roughly, the parasitic diseases of
swine may be classified into those caused by worms and
those caused by lice and mites.

Worms.—Among the diseases of swine caused by
worms those affecting the alimentary tract are more
numerous and important. The large thorn-head worms
are found wherever the secondary host, May beetles, are
found. The males are from 2 to 4 inches in length, and
the females may attain a length of 12 inches. As a rule
the worm is round, and the anterior end bears a number
of recurved hooklets, to serve as an attachment to the
wall of the intestines. The attachment may give rise to
irritation and possible rupture, resulting in peritonitis
and death.

Another very important worm affecting the alimentary
tract is the large, round worm, known as Ascaris Suis.
The females often attain a length of 12 inches. The worm
is white, tapering off to a point at each end, segmented,

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 197

and the eggs are laid and passed out to be reconsumed
without an intermediate host. The distribution of this
worm is most extensive, and but few herds are entirely
free. They mostly inhabit the small intestines, but fre-
quently penetrate the gall duct, and even enter the liver.
A few worms do not cause serious results. When pres-
ent in quantity, they cause indigestion, liver diseases,
progressive emaciation and occasionally convulsions.
This is one of the most troublesome worms affecting
swine and must be provided against if serious damage
is to be avoided.

The pin worm is a small white worm more commonly
inhabiting the large intestines. It is shaped similar to
the Ascaris, is white or grayish in color and about a
half inch in length. These worms never do serious dam-
age unless present in extremely large quantities, when
intestinal indigestion may result.

Another less important intestinal worm is the whip
worm. They attach themselves to the wall of the intes-
tines and may give rise to irritations in this way.

Trichinosis.—This small round worm has the adult
stage in the intestinal tract and the larval stages in the
muscular tissues. It is supposed that the hogs become
infected by eating rats and slaughter-house offal con-
taining the cysts of the worm, growth to maturity taking
place in the intestines. Copulation and reproduction take
place to liberate numerous embryos which penetrate the
intestines and migrate to the various tissues. This dis-
ease is communicable to man, and care must be taken
not to eat infected pork. The medical measures are
about the same as those recommended for other intestinal
worms, but the preventive measures must be from a

198 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

special angle owing to the methods necessary for in-
fection.

Treatment for intestinal worms.—Preventive treatment
is to be used in preference to medicinal, although the lat-
ter must be resorted to at times. It is very important to
keep the hogs healthy and in a thrifty, growing condition.
General sanitary and precautionary measures must be
used in preventing infection and spread of these parasites.
When an infection occurs medicines have to be resorted
to. Many vermifuges and vermicides have been recom-
mended. Turpentine, santonin, calomel and areca nut
are all excellent for use with swine. Doses of a teaspoon-
ful of turpentine, eight grains of santonin, five grains of
calomel, or three drachms of areca nut are common
doses. These should be followed by a physic of castor
oil and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. In
addition to the above it is always well to keep before the
hogs a worm preventive mixture such as recommended
on page 146.

Lung worms.—The lung worms are present in most
localities and are described by Craig as the most common
parasite of swine. When conditions are favorable for its
development, they may become present in such large
numbers as to lead to bronchitis, pneumonia and other
lung diseases. The lung worm is about the size of a
thread and ranges up to nearly 2 inches in length. The
chief source of infection seems to be by the breathing of
dusty air bearing the eggs or encystments. The method
of prevention and treatment is summed up in sanitation,
proper feeding and proper management.

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 199

Kidney worms.—This worm infests the kidneys and
the fat surrounding them. Dr. Carey states that from
90 to 95 per cent of all hogs over one year of age in the
South are affected with this worm. No satisfactory treat-
ment is known, and preventive measures, such as recom-
mended for other worms, should be used to keep the dis-
ease in check.

The hog louse—This common external blood-sucking
parasite is the largest louse known. It is the most com-
mon external parasite of swine. It affects unthrifty swine
more often than the thrifty ones. The female cements
the ova or nits to the bristles. These hatch in from 10
to 14 days. These lice suck the blood, irritate the skin
in puncturing it, and it is possible that they may trans-
mit infectious diseases.

Another parasite which burrows in the skin is the one
that causes mange, of which there are two or more kinds.
The most common is the sarcoptic mange. The adults
are scarcely visible to the naked eye. The rapidity with
which these parasites can multiply is almost beyond con-
ception. The disease may become serious if not properly
treated, resulting in loss of hair, thickening of the skin,
cracking of the skin and soreness. The treatment of this
disease consists in the application of oils and sulphur.
Another form of mange known as the demodectic or red
mange occurs rarely and is incurable.

Treatment for external parasites should be both pre-
ventive and curative. The dipping vat is the most valu-
able remedy. Dipping once every 10 days for three dip-
pings, or longer if necessary, and each month thereafter,
with a good coal tar or lime sulphur dip should soon con-
trol these parasites. In order to make the work effective

200 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

it must be accompanied by adequate sanitary and dis-
infecting measures. Thorough rubbing with machine or
other oils will often effect a cure.

Surgical diseases——The expert herdsman should be
able to perform the minor and simple surgical operations

Cement wallowing hole used to control lice on Broadacre Farms,
Bonifay, Fla.

necessary in the routine care of the herd and be able to
understand and appreciate the procedure where more
skill is required. He should understand the necessity
for asepsis and the conditions favoring infection. Above
all, the herdsman should be able to perform such simple
operations as castration, treatment of some cases of
hernia, abscesses, cuts and bruises.

Castration.—This is a very simple operation that is
performed by many who do not take the pains and pre-
cautions with it they should. If properly done, there is
practically no danger from complications, but as usually

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 201

done abscesses, tumors, hernia, peritonitis and the like
frequently result. The most favorable age for the opera-
tion is just before weaning time, when the setback caused
by the operation will be reduced to a minimum, Castra-
tion can, however, be done successfully at any age. In
the operation sanitary precautions are important. Hot
and wet weather should be avoided. Filthy pens, wal-
lows and other sources of infection should be eliminated.
A good plan is to cut out feed for 12 hours before the
operation. Confine the pigs to a small pen and catch one
at a time without excitement or heating them up. The
one that is to perform the operation should see to it that
he is provided with a sharp knife or sharp knives. In ad-
dition he should have a 5% solution of a coal tar dis-
infectant, some cotton pledgets, some suturing thread
and a needle or two if there be many to castrate. The
scrotum should be thoroughly washed two or three times
with the disinfectant, the knife should be disinfected,
and with one stroke an incision should be made on either
side of the median line parallel to it sufficiently large to
permit the squeezing out of the testicle. In pigs the cord
is generally severed by a jerk, in shotes by scraping
into, and in boars by the use of the emasculator. When
the pigs are of any size it may be well to ligature the
cord before severing.

After the operation is performed care should be taken
to see that the incision comes to the lowest part of the
scrotal sac to prevent an accumulation of pus. In cool
weather it will probably need no further treatment aside
from washing with the disinfecting solution. In warm
weather when the flies are bad some make a practice of
applying pine tar to the wound. If a hemorrhage per-

202 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

sists it may be treated by washing out with hot water, by
crushing or ligating the blood vessel or by packing for
twenty-four hours with absorbent cotton. Cases of rup-
ture due to an enlarged inguinal canal require more skill
than is ordinarily possessed by the herdsman, but some
develop sufficient skill to handle such cases.

Tumors are rather common as a complication follow-
ing castration. When present they must be dissected
out. Abscesses are treated in a similar manner, and the
main thing is to keep them open and washed out with
a disinfectant. In some cases only one testicle comes
down in the scrotal sac, or neither may come down. Such
cases are called cryptorchids and require an abdominal
operation, in which skill is required.

Spaying.—A few years ago spaying was practiced to
some extent in swine herds, but now but few are spayed.
This comes largely from the fact that a little more skill
and care are required in the operation than in castration,
and from the fact that we now market our sow pigs in-
tended for slaughter at an early age. This operation is
justified only in rare cases, and should be avoided as
much as possible.

Hernia or rupture.—There are three kinds of hernia or
rupture—umbilical, scrotal and ventral. All involve that
condition in which a part of the intestines or omentum
pass through the abdominal wall into a pocket in the skin.
The umbilical hernias so common in pigs are generally
congenital, although they may result from an injury. The
scrotal hernias result from an overly large inguinal canal.
Ventral hernias result from protrusion of the intestines
as a result of a tear or injury in the abdominal wall.

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 203

Ruptures are more or less dangerous and difficult to
handle, and should only be treated by someone skilled
in handling such cases.

Abscesses and tumors.—The location, nature and con-
ditions will, to a large measure, determine the treatment
indicated in the case of an abscess or tumor. Abscesses
on the exterior should be opened if not already so. Prior
to opening they should be brought to a head by fomenta-
tions or blisters. After opening they should be washed
out daily with a 2 per cent solution of coal tar dip so
long as is necessary. Provision should be made to pre-
vent reinfection. Tumors are more difficult to handle than
abscesses as a rule. Their growth can generally be
checked by two or three treatments of potassium iodide.
After they become encapsulated they can be dissected
out if exposed.

Prolapsus of the anus.—This condition is met with oc-
casionally and may or may not recover of its own accord.
It consists in a protrusion from the anus of a portion of
the rectal intestines. The treatment will depend on the
conditions. The protruding part can be cut off and the
edges sutured together at the anus. Where practical the
parts should be washed with astringent solutions and
replaced. Hogs properly looked after and fed are seldom
afflicted with this condition.

Cuts and bruises.—All wounds, cuts and exposed sur-
faces should be cleaned and disinfected, the jagged edges
cut off and hydrogen peroxide applied followed by an
application of turpentine, camphor or arnica ointment.
In addition to this the healing can frequently be hastened

204 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

by a dusting with powdered alum or iodoform. The
wounds should be washed and treated daily and great
care taken to prevent infection. Bruises are to be treated
slightly different. In the treatment of bruises hot
fomentations, ice packs, arnica, camphor, stimulating
liniments and lead acetate are indicated according to con-
ditions. All severe bruises should receive prompt and
regular attention.

Sanitation and disease prevention.—Nothing is of
greater importance in the control of disease than sanita-
tion and disease prevention. Fully nine-tenths of the dis-
ease that occurs in our swine herds is preventable. Dis-
ease prevention consists in proper methods of breeding,
feeding and management. Much of the disease we have
is due to improper feeding. Pure foods are as important
to the health of swine as they are to the health of men.
The foods must be more than pure, the rations must be
properly balanced, not necessarily so much as the rela-
tion of the nutrients is concerned, but so far as quality,
quantity and suitability for the purpose are concerned.
Not only must the food supply be looked after, but pure
water must be present in abundance, and provision must
be made to keep it cool, clean and free from contamina-
tion. The hogs must also be provided with suitable shel-
ter in winter from the cold and wet and in summer from
the heat and rains.

Disinfection.—In order to ward off disease it is nec-
essary that precautions be taken to destroy disease germs.
Especially when a disease of an infectious nature has
existed on premises, efforts should be made to destroy
the germs and their hiding places. The agents to be used

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 205

in the disinfection of houses, sheds, lots, pens, etc., will
depend on several factors, chief among which are the
organism and the material or places in which it exists.
A 1 per cent solution of corrosive sublimate is very effec-
tive, but its poisonous nature renders its use more or less
undesirable. Chloride of lime is probably the most valu-
able, the least poisonous, and least expensive disinfecting
agent we have, when used at the rate of five ounces per
gallon of water. This is applied by spraying the infected
parts or premises. All loose litter and rubbish likely to
be infected should be burned.

In addition to the cleaning up and disinfection of
premises proper disposition must be made of the bodies
of hogs that have died of disease. These can be either
buried or burned. In either case the work should be com-
plete. In burying, the top of the carcass should not be
nearer than four feet to the top of the ground. A good
plan is to sprinkle some chloride of lime over the carcass
after placing it in the ground. When the carcasses can
be burned it is best. Fat hog carcasses burn fairly easy.
A good plan is to place the carcass on a stump and pile
brush about it to start the fire. Where brush piles are
available hogs can frequently be burned by placing them
on top of the pile and firing. Where wood is not plenti-
ful a carcass can be burned at little expense and trouble
by digging a trench and placing supporting iron bars
across, and then by placing the carcass on the bars and
burning wood beneath. As soon as the fat starts drip-
ping the carcass will usually burn from then on of its
own accord.

In disinfection work and prevention of infection care
must always be taken to see that the hogs do not have

206 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

an opportunity at infection. One of the most neglected
sources of infection is the barnyard manure pile. Dirty
and filthy lots with stagnant water, old mud wallows
and outhouses are frequent sources of infection and dis-
ease germ breeding grounds.

Hog wallows.—A clean wallow is a source of comfort
and health to the hog. The average farm hog wallow
is, however, not kept clean, and instead of being a source
of health they often become a breeding and distributing
place for disease germs. A good concrete hog wallow
can be kept clean and a little kerosene or coal tar dip
added to the water occasionally will materially assist in
killing the lice.

Dipping vats.—A very practical means contributing
to the general health of the swine herd is the dipping vat.
It consists essentially in a tank of special design into
which a dipping solution is placed and through which
the hogs are driven. Where feasible a dipping vat made
of concrete is most satisfactory. The shape of the vat
should be such that a hog falls into it at one end and
walks out at the other. The arrangement of the pens,
chutes, drain pipes and dripping boards are dependent
on local conditions. The vat should be deep enough that
the hog will be completely submerged when he first falls
in. Experience in various instances has resulted in a
general agreement as to the best size for a dipping vat.
An inside top length of 8 feet, top width of 24 inches, and
bottom width of 20 inches are very good dimensions. The
end of the vat where the hog enters should be perpen-
dicular, and the end where he walks out should be slant-
ing, with corrugations to prevent slipping.

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 207

In the construction of a concrete dipping vat the ex-
cavation should be dug 8 inches larger than the dimen-
sions given above, which will allow for a 4-inch wall.
The grouting should be placed first on the bottom and on
the incline. The inside forms should then be put up,
using the dirt as the outside forms. Reinforcements of
woven wire can be used to strengthen the vat, but it is
unnecessary. A 1:2:4 mixture should be used for the
grouting and a 1:2 mixture for the facing. Anyone
contemplating the construction of a vat should secure
some of the excellent bulletins and other publications
devoted to the subject. Most all of the state veteri-
narians and State Agricultural Extension Departments
are equipped to give instructions and information along
this line and in many instances they can furnish a limited
amount of immediate supervision.

Dipping solutions—There are many effective solutions
that can be used in dipping vats for treating lice and
mange. Crude oil, lubricating or engine oil, or kerosene
to which some sulphur bas been added, when placed on
top of the water in the vat, makes a fairly good dip. A
mixture of 8 pounds of fresh lime, 24 pounds of
flowers of sulphur and 100 gallons of water makes a
large quantity of good disinfectant when properly pre-
pared. The lime should be slaked with enough water to
form a thick paste, with which the sulphur should be well
mixed. Twenty-five or 30 gallons of water are then
added and the whole boiled for at least an hour. Water
sufficient to make 100 gallons of dip is then added. This
dip gives the best results when used warm, although it
is nearly as effective used cold. In addition to the home-
made dips there are several excellent commercial dips

208 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

containing coal tar derivatives. Of course, the same
solutions that are used in the dipping vats may be used
in the wallows, but they should only be used in diluted
form. The job is usually not so thorough in the case of
the wallow as with the vat.

The hog oiler—In recent years a number of new de-
vices have been placed on the market designed to assist
in killing lice on hogs by means of an application of oil
to the skin. These have proven quite valuable. They do
not take the place of the dipping vat on the hog farm,
however. In principle these oilers have a reservoir for
holding the crude oil, with a feeding arrangement so that
the hog rubs on some part of the machine and the part
of the hog rubbed receives a coating of the oil, which
will kill all of the lice it comes in contact with. The
same results can be secured by tying old grain sacks
around rubbing posts and saturating with oil or by pour-
ing the oil in the wallows, but these methods are a little
more wasteful of the oil than are the patented devices.

CHAPTER IX
MARKETING

Marketing.—Regardless of the phase of the pork in-
dustry in which one is primarily interested, it is quite
essential that he carefully consider the marketing end
if profits are to be expected. He is naturally a producer
and must be prepared to sell his products. Growers of
swine generally fall into one of two classes, depending
on their source of profit. The hog grower or the pork
producer is the man whose principal product is fat hogs
for making pork. The swine breeder makes a business
of breeding pure-bred swine, to be used either in the
breeding of other pure-bred swine or to be used in pork-
producing herds. Of course, in so far as the marketing
end is concerned, the market producer of swine and the
breeder of pure-bred swine bear a close relationship to
each other. The market producer is dependent on the
breeder to a large extent to keep up the perfection and
standards of his herd. The breeder is largely dependent
on the market producer for his sales of breeding stock.
In many herds the owner is both breeder and market
hog producer, which may be the ideal arrangement. In
either case it is most important that every man engaged
in the breeding or growing of swine closely follow the
market and its demands in order to produce that type
which sells to the best advantage. The marketing of
pure-bred swine is distinct from the marketing of fat
hogs and should receive separate consideration,

209

210 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

Marketing of pure-bred swine.—There is a demand
and market for pure-bred swine, but finding a purchaser
is costly and a large advertising expense seems unavoid-
able. The two principal ways of advertising are by using
the advertising space of farm papers and by going to the
expense and trouble of showing. In many cases the
breeder himself must attend the shows and sales in order
to keep up his acquaintance with other breeders and
swine growers and to keep posted on the types most
highly prized and sought after. With the small breeder
in particular does the cost of advertising come high.
Combination and consignment sales will, of course, re-
duce the expense of selling and they are of special benefit
to the small producer. The widely scattered small
breeders are the ones that will really do the most good,
and the ideal way will be, of course, when all farmers
produce pure breds or nearly pure breds.

Shipping pure-bred swine.—One of the principal things
in the marketing of pure-bred swine that does not con-
cern the producer of pork hogs is that of proper shipping.
In the case of pure-bred swine shipments are gen-
erally made by express with one or two pigs at a time,
while in the case of swine intended for use as pork the
shipments are usually made in quantity, generally in
carload lots by freight.

The art of shipping pure-bred swine comes only from
experience. Care must be taken to make the crates light
but strong, provision must be made to see that the hogs
are comfortable and do not have a chance to hurt them-
selves, and to see that ways and means are offered for
feeding and watering if they are to go any distance.
When a sow and pigs are to be shipped, the problem be-

MARKETING 211

comes more complicated. If the distance is not over two
or three hundred miles the sow can be shipped in one
crate and the pigs in another. Where the shipment is
farther the sow and pigs can be shipped in the same
crate if it is of a special design. In the shipping of breed-
ing swine there are other considerations not met with in
the case of market hogs. The matter of registration
papers has to be looked after, the inoculation against
cholera and other health precautions are frequently dif-
ferent from those for hogs intended for slaughter.

Profits from pork production.—There are two factors
controlling to a large extent the profits to be made from
the prodtction of pork. One of these is the cost of pro-
duction and the other is the net sales. We are naturally
interested in producing at least possible cost to give us
a greater selling margin. So far as the selling end is
concerned, we are especially interested in the gross sales
and the costs incidental to making the sales. The dif-
ference between this net sale figure and the cost of pro-
duction is the net profit from the operation. As a rule
the market value can be approximated more closely than
the cost of production, since the market value is in-
fluenced by fewer factors. The market value is almost
entirely dependent on the supply and demand and upon
the costs of marketing.

Factors influencing cost of production.—The cost of
production is dependent on both economic and local con-
ditions. Of the economic conditions influencing the cost
of production we have the market value of the land
and equipment, interest on the investment in other than
land and equipment, and the natural adaptability of the

212 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

farm for pork production. Among the local conditions
influencing the cost of production we have as the most
important the rate and cost of gains, the cost of main-
taining a breeding herd, and the degree to which the hogs
are grown or fattened before marketing. Under the first
of these local conditions we might include the cost of
feed, the cost of labor, the kinds of feed and the value
of the manures produced. Under the last heading, the
degree of condition and growth, we might include the
breeding, which involves type and quality.

The lard type of hog.—The predominating type on the
markets of the entire country is the American or lard
type of hog, which has been developed largely as the
type best suited to Corn Belt conditions. The type has
been to a large extent adopted in its entirety by the
South, although we are best equipped for the production
of an intermediate type between the fat or lard hog and
the bacon type, with the ideal approaching the lard type
rather than the bacon hog. The hogs from the southern
farms do not average as fat as the hogs from the Corn
Belt, and the indications are that the hogs coming from
southern farms will never average as fat as hogs coming
from the Corn Belt farms. This will come about nat-
urally from a more extensive use of grazing crops, the
greater economy of production of lean over fat, and as
a result of climatic conditions.

Bacon types for special markets—In pork-packing
establishments the carcasses are examined by experts,
who determine which carcasses will make good breakfast
bacon. Only a few are found that will make first-class
bacon. It often happens that a hog of one of the lard

MARKETING 213

breeds will make good bacon, owing to individual pe-
culiarities, or to the influence of feeding, or both. But
by raising the bacon type of hog and feeding properly,
nearly every animal will make good bacon, and if there
is a proper market accessible, or if the bacon is intended
for family use, the raising of such hogs may become de-
sirable and profitable. It is only in a very rare instance
that the use of a strictly bacon breed of swine is to be
recommended under southern conditions, for, as has been
pointed out before, the ideal southern type will more
nearly resemble the lard type rather than the bacon type.

Marketing finished pork.—The establishment of pork-
packing plants in many towns and cities in the South
is one of the most striking developments at present along
the line of marketing swine products. Steady and con-
stant markets will result as a natural sequence, and the
marketing end of the swine business will not be so diffi-
cult in the future as in the past. It is the plan of these
packing plants to take care of any excess production over
immediate demands of the local butchers. A great many
farmers do not raise enough pork for their own use, or
else they raise it but sell it and buy fresh and cured pork
for several times what they sell their own for. This
failure to produce a supply of pork for home consump-
tion is a loss to be regretted. We should first produce
enough pork for home consumption and then have some
to market, according to the emphasis we place on pork
as a source of income.

Seasonal demands of the market.—One factor which
the producer of pork must take into consideration, es-
pecially if he is supplying the demands of the local mar-

214 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

ket, is the influence which the season may have upon
the demand for pork. This applies especially to fresh
pork. As a rule the consumption of fresh pork is much
greater in the colder than in the warmer months. The
price will generally average over 10 per cent greater for
the colder or winter months. In addition to this, the
consumer in the winter months seeks pork with more fat
than in the summer months. This influence of the sea-
sonal demands of the markets is of special importance to
the small producer, especially the one who markets
locaily for home consumption. If a producer is supply-
ing hogs to one of the central markets, it will generally
be found that the demand is fair the year through.
Fortunately, those seasons of the year in which pork is
least in demand are the same months in which it is more
dificult to fit hogs for the market. Later in the year,
when the demands for fresh fat pork begin to improve,
there is an abundance of forage crops admirably suited
for fitting hogs for slaughter.

Pork producers should study the market—Producers
of pork should study the market in order that they may
know what to produce that will bring the highest prices.
It is very essential that they visit the market occasionally
and familiarize themselves with the different market
classes and grades. They could then interpret market
quotations and know better what their hogs should bring
if placed on the market at any particular time. Producers
should keep posted on market conditions, either through
a good market paper or through the letters of commis-
sion firms, who advise their clients as to market condi-
tions daily or weekly as the case may be. By continually
keeping up with the market one is frequently enabled to

MARKETING 215

realize a greater profit than when the hogs are blindly
thrown on the market, as they are in many cases.

Produce what the market demands.—All those interested
in pork production are in the last analysis dependent
upon the demands of the ultimate consumer. We must,
therefore, learn what he desires, for if we have something
that is wanted there will be no trouble to sell it. We
must recognize that there are different kinds of pork.
What the ultimate consumer wants is pork that is tender,
juicy, palatable, and with as little waste as possible in
cooking. It must also present an attractive appearance
to sell well. The tenderness, juiciness and palatability
depend largely upon cooking. Of course not all of our
pork is sold over the block to be used as fresh pork, but
a very large portion of it is made up into cured pork
products, such as bacon, hams, shoulders, white or dry
salt meat and various canned and smoked products. In
gencral, these also must possess the qualities demanded
in fresh pork to command the best prices.

Change in market demands.—An inspection of the
kinds of hogs coming onto southern markets today as
compared with ten years ago shows a marked difference.
Ten years ago the percentage of swine with improved
breeding predominating was much smaller than at pres-
ent. They were generally a year or more of age, and
the scrub and unimproved swine, of course, had no great
size. Today, however, we find the majority of the hogs
coming to the market show some evidence of breeding.
The present types are the early-maturing types, and a
large percentage are under one year of age. The hog
in greatest demand seems to weigh in the neighborhood

216 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

of 150 to 175 pounds, and pigs, when in good condition,
are becoming much more popular than formerly.

Most desirable age for marketing.—The most desirable
age at which to market is usually the earliest age at
which the hog reaches that stage of maturity and fatten-
ing when it is suited for the making of pork. The most
desirable age is dependent to a large extent upon the
time of year the pigs are born and upon the crops grown
for fattening. Early spring pigs are generally best mar-
keted in the early fall at eight or nine months of age.
Late spring pigs are generally marketed in late fall or
during the fore part of the next year, at which time they
will be ten months or a year of age. Fall pigs should be
marketed in the summer or early fall. If they come early
in the fall they may be marketed in summer, while if
they come later they are generally at the proper age and
condition for marketing very late the following summer
or early fall at from nine to eleven months of age. It is
rarely advisable to market before eight months or later
than twelve months of age, and all else being equal, the
earlier the better. One is controlled in marketing not
alone by size and age of the pig and condition of the
market, but primarily by the feed supply.

Most desirable size for marketing.—The most desir-
able size for marketing will depend on the time of year
and the market. The market will usually take heavier
hogs during colder months than during the warmer
months. At a large packing center the size is not of
such great consequence, for there is always a demand
for every size of hog. It has been found, however, that
the size that is in greatest demand on the central mar-

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Ss ; ah ~s

218 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

kets is that size averaging about 180 to 200 pounds. For
home slaughtering purposes this is also a very satisfac-
tory size. In the winter months a heavier weight may
be used to advantage, and in summer a lighter weight is
readily salable.

The economy of early marketing.—The producer of
pork must continually bear in mind the advantages to be
derived from early marketing. The gains are made at a
greater expense as the hog grows older; the longer
one keeps a hog the longer he has to maintain him or
supply him with maintenance feed, that feed which makes
no gain, but which is necessary for the continuation of
the animal’s life. Thus, in order to minimize this main-
tenance cost and to produce the gains at the lowest cost,
we should aim to place on maximum gains at the earliest
age possible, in order that the production may be the
most economical.

Finishing for market—While the growth process had
best not be allowed to slacken from the time it is started
until the hogs are marketed, it is often not advisable to
try to make the maximum fat production from the start.
It is easily possible to arrange for ample fattening feeds
to come on in the summer and fall of the year. A few
of these are of such a nature that they will keep over
through early spring, but there is a decided dearth of
fattening feeds from the time spring opens up until mid-
summer, or until the early cowpeas or corn come on.
Of course one can feed corn or other concentrates during
that season when fattening feeds are scarce, but so far
as practical the fattening should be done in the fields with
a minimum of lot feeding. Crops suitable to finish hogs

MARKETING 219

for the market in the field must be provided for if the
pork is to be produced in the most economical way.

When to ship.— With a continually fluctuating market
a producer is at a loss to know when it is the most
opportune time to make a shipment. What the producer
desires is, of course, to sell at the best figure possible.
In this connection, where a producer ships to market
there is one general rule that most successful shippers
follow, and that is to ship on a rising rather than a de-
clining market. Too many shippers wait too long and
ship about the time the market breaks, and they realize
less on their shipments than they would have earlier.
The object should be, therefore, to ship early on a rising
market before the bulk of the shipments are received.

Preparing hogs for shipment.—Before loading a ship-
ment of hogs they should be properly cared for so as to
avoid excessive shrinkage in transit and insure arrival
at the market in good order. Especially are hogs apt to
shrink considerably if they go direct from a grazing
patch containing succulent materials. Therefore, just
before shipment, one should aim to feed them feeds that
will stay with them, feeds not too heating or too con-
centrated in nature. Good feeds for this purpose are
corn and cob meal, crushed oats and ripe grain pasture.
This grain feeding is also desirable, since it will give the
hogs the appearance of having been grain-fed when the
grain shows up in the droppings, and they will be less
apt to be discriminated against. If the haul is very
long, provision must be made for feeding and watering
in transit. According to the present law, the railroad
has to unload and feed after 28 hours in transit, but the

220 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

shippers generally sign a release allowing of a longer
limit of time so that the hogs reach the market before
it is necessary to feed again. However, in case it is nec-
essary to feed in transit corn alone should not be fed,
especially in summer, on account of its heating qualities
and the possibilities of indigestion due to the riding. A
good dry mash of bran, crushed oats and corn is cooling
and refreshing and is apt to get the hogs through in the
best condition. During the hot weather hogs should
leave the shipping point, where possible, during the late
afternoon, and in most cases they will arrive at the mar-
ket in the night, or early the next morning.

Average carloads.—The number of hogs that can be
shipped in a single car is dependent on several factors,
among which are the size of the car, the size of the hogs,
distance to be shipped, the kind of hogs, the kind of car,
whether double or single deck, and the weather condi-
tions. Extensive reports on railroad shipments and
stockyard receipts show that in single-deck cars the
number generally runs about 90 to 100 head for light
hogs and from 150 to 175 for light hogs in double-decked
cars. It is always better to have a car loaded too light
than too heavy.

Marketing.—The two principal ways of marketing
hogs are selling to local buyers and shipping direct to a
central market. There are advantages to both methods
and the most advisable one will depend on circumstances.
Frequently one can do better selling to local buyers even
in quantity. That will all depend, however, on the con-
dition of the market and the kinds and quantity of hogs
one is marketing.

MARKETING 221

Marketing through local buyers.—Selling to the local
buyer or shipper is one of the most feasible methods of
marketing pork open to the farmer and small producer.
The regular shipper is known on the market and can
generally secure the best prices obtainable. Also, in sell-
ing to the local buyer the risks from loss are lessened
and the trouble is far less. If there is a decline in the
market during transit, it is the shipper and not the grower
that suffers. The shipper’s long experience is always
worth something, and the seller gets the benefit of that.
Thus the local buyer can frequently be used to advan-
tage, as the difference between the price he is able to pay
and the probable price one would obtain by shipping
direct is not sufficient to cover shrinkage, freight termi-
nal and commission charges, and the risks of one sort
and another that must be assumed.

Shipping direct to the market.—This method of mar-
keting has many distinct advantages, but it is accom-
panied by risks. By this method the producer always
gets the profit which might fall to the local buyer. This
method of marketing gives the grower a chance to learn
what the demands of the markets are. By learning this
he can more intelligently and profitably cater to the de-
mands of the market. He meets men from other sections
and profits from their experiences. He also comes to know
the commission men, learns the markets and obtains in-
formation in general, which, when applied, will assist
him in increasing profits.

Co-operative shipping of swine——This method of ship-
ping is to be recommended and should be more exten-
sively practiced. By this method the profits of the ship-

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MARKETING 223

ping point buyer are eliminated. A co-operative shipping
association in one state saves its shippers annually over
$6,000, according to figures given out by the United
States Department of Agriculture. These co-operative
shipping associations are organized for the most part in
connection with other enterprises. Some handle in ad-
dition to swine and other live stock, lumber, coal, grain,
feed and farm implements, A few handle live stock ex-
clusively. The financial arrangement is generally for
the shippers to share pro rata in costs and to pay the
manager or shipper a flat rate per car of from $6 to $10
for the first car and $5 each for additional cars on any
one day. In some instances the fee may be put on
the shipping-weight basis, the manager to receive from
5 to 10 cents per hundredweight. The advantages of
such a co-operative shipping arrangement are obvious.
The railroads give better service in this way, better
prices are usually obtained, one can make a shipment
when he is ready regardless of the number he may have,
the member does not have to deal with the local buyers,
and these, with the other advantages offered, are suffi-
cient to justify the existence of such an organization
whenever a sufficient number of hogs are produced in
a community.

Lack of shipping facilities Under the present method
of production the individual breeders and the different
sections are not producing a sufficient number of swine
to justify the most efficient methods of marketing. Even
the railroads in the South do not handle shipments of
swine with the same facility and satisfaction as in other
sections where more are produced. They are rapidly
overcoming this drawback, however, and as soon as swine

224 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

are produced in greater quantities this will be one of the
first of the serious handicaps to profitable marketing
to be corrected.

Early methods of transportation—The early method
of transportation of live stock in the South was by driv-
ing. This method was extensively practiced up to the
time of the war and for some time thereafter. In the
earlier days this was the only feasible method of trans-
portation. Even after the railroads traversed the country
the necessary expense prohibited their use in the trans-
porting of many droves of swine. Prior to 1850 the
transportation of swine by any other method than driv-
ing was almost unheard of. Driving routes to market
points were generally selected where ample feed could
be secured en route. The practice was to drive largely
at night during hot weather. Where the distance to mar-
ket was far, several days would be required, and by this
method they could be taken to market at a considerable
profit with little or no shrinkage. The driving of hogs
has largely been superseded by hauling with wagons and
by railroads, and in the future railway transportation of
swine will be of a considerably greater extent than in
the past.

Stockyards.—At several central points in the South
there are central markets at which there are stockyards
to provide ample handling facilities for hogs. Markets
of this kind are located at Augusta, Ga., Baltimore, Md.,
Oklahoma City, Okla., Ft. Worth, Tex., and at other
points. Practically all of these stockyards are controlled
by an incorporated company, with the stock held by
various interests, generally railroads, packing companies

MARKETING 225

and live stock dealers holding the greater part of the
stock. These stockyards are usually located out some
distance from the city on account of cheaper land and
better location for the packing plants that are nearly al-
ways associated with the yards. The yards are usually
laid out after the manner of a town site, with the various
yards representing the blocks, and the driveways and
alleys representing the streets. Packing plants and other
buildings are generally near. Railway tracks usually
run along the side of and through the yards. A central
exchange building known as the live stock exchange is
always present in the larger yards. The live stock ex-
change is really an organization of the buyers and sellers
and dealers that do business in the yards. Their pur-
pose is to control and regulate trading. Either the stock
exchange or the stockyards company prescribes all the
rules under which stock enter the yards. They have fixed
charges on the use of the yards, commissions, costs of
feeds, switching charges, insurance, etc. The stockyard
companies handle the stock after it reaches the yards
and they do all of the weighing which the buyer pays
for at a fixed rate per head. The dealers in the yards
are usually divided into two classes—the buyers and
sellers. The sellers are generally commission men.
Methods of settlement vary somewhat, but they are
usually on a cash basis and are made through local
banks.

Market costs.——When one has a car of hogs to be
shipped, if he is the business man he should be, he will
figure up all the attendant costs and figure the price his
hogs should bring him. Fortunately, most of the costs
incidental to marketing are fixed and are pretty well

226 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

known, and the total costs may be figured quite closely.
The freight charges are all well known and fixed. There
may be some terminal charges, but these are also con-
stant, then there may be yardage charges and commission
charges, with possibly a few incidentals in the way of
telegrams and telephone messages. These improved con-
ditions make the business more profitable, and profits are
almost guaranteed where certainties have displaced un-
certainties to such a large extent.

Commission houses.—Commission firms on the larger
markets are a very necessary adjunct. They are special-
ists in securing high prices. The stockyards company
usually assigns pens or lots to each firm, and the firms
then employ a force to see that their consignments re-
ceive prompt attention in the way of rest, feed and water.
Frequently they may receive a large number of cars of
mixed stuff. They may take these and grade and classify
them and secure appreciably better prices. Then they
pay each consignor just what his hogs totaled, although
they may have been sold in three or four different lots
in order to secure a larger sum for the consignment.
The live stock commission business on the southern mar-
kets has not yet advanced to the same stage of develop-
ment as on northern and western markets. When there
are several commission firms, the particular one to be
patronized will be largely a matter of taste. Some ship-
pers occasionally split consignments and are thereby
enabled to determine which firms secure the best prices.
As soon as a good firm is found it is generally advisable
to stick to them as long as they maintain their reputation,
for they will be better able to advise and assist in mak-
ing shipments at the most opportune time.

MARKETING 227

Live stock exchange——On most of the large markets,
especially those of the West and North, we find live stock
exchanges, which serve a most useful purpose. They
handle all the larger matters for the better interests of
the shipper, stockyards company, packing houses, com-
mission men and all interested parties. They decide such
questions as dockage, post-mortem examinations, freight
rates, insurance, and yard regulations and charges. Be-
fore the development of the exchange the shipper was
at the mercy of the larger buyers, who made prices and
controlled the markets. The exchanges handle all dis-
putes, guarantee security of property, and are beneficial
in many ways. The live stock exchange is a necessary
adjunct to any large market and its usefulness is only
limited by the support given it.

Market classifications.—Owing to the great variations
that exist among the hogs that are shipped to any mar-
ket, it has been found necessary to standardize and
classify those of certain qualifications into certain classes
and grades. These classifications are based to a very
large extent upon weight, condition, age, sex, quality
and utility, and we find each class and grade better
adapted to some particular commercial purpose than any
other class or grade.

Market classes and grades of hogs.—Hogs that are
sent to the market are classified into groups or classes
according to the specific commercial purposes to which
they are best adapted. These classes are numerous when
the market receipts are large. When a small market is
concerned the number of classes and grades is small.
In order to give some idea of the extent of market clas-

228 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

sifications, a complete classification, such as one might
expect to find upon a large specialized market, is given:

1. Prime hogs 10. Heavy packing

2. Good butcher 11. Rough heavy packing
3. Good butcher pigs 12. Throwouts

4. Light pigs 13. Pigs

5. Heavy rough hogs 14. Boars

6. Mixed packing 15. Stags

7. Light pigs 16. Government

8. Light light 17. Cripples

9. Heavy shipping

These classes are in turn divided into grades, which
indicate the degree of fitness of the animal for the specific
commercial purpose which has determined its class. The
several grades that may occur in a specialized market
are from the best to the poorest, as follows: Fancy,
prime, choice, good, medium, fair, common, and poor or
inferior. Quality, condition, age, sex, conformation,
breed, finish and soundness determine to a large extent
the particular class and grade into which any hog or
group of hogs will fall.

Market classes flexible—It must not be considered
that market classes and grades are inflexible, for no two
markets have the same classification, and certainly all
kinds, breeds and ages of hogs will be shipped to both.
Also, even on the same market, the various classes and
grades will be made up of different kinds of hogs on
different days, for if there is a demand for a certain class
or grade of hogs and there are none or but few of these
to be had, the deficiency will be supplied from other
classes or grades. Therefore, we must not conclude that
market classes and grades of swine are absolute and dis-

MARKETING 229

tinctive, because they are subject to considerable flexi-
bility to meet existing conditions.

Market type.—The term market type is distinctive from
market classes or grades. Market type is a term em-
ployed by the breeder of pure-bred swine and by the
pork producer to designate that class of hogs which the
market desires. What the breeder and grower want to
know is which type is most sought after that will at the
same time yield the greatest profits, in order that they
can make their business more profitable by directing their
energies and efforts toward producing that particular
type. The breeders will then select animals which seem
to them to approach most nearly the most desirable mar-
ket type. The grower will in turn be willing to pay the
breeder better prices for breeding animals possessing this
desirable market type to a marked degree. The market
types are, therefore, much fewer than market classes,
and the only type which the breeder and grower desire
to eventually produce is the ideal market type.

Packing houses.—Of course wherever there are large
stockyards there are also apt to be packing houses. It
is to these that by far most of the hogs consigned to the
stockyards find their way. These packing companies
have buyers out with orders to buy so many hogs of one
kind, so many suited for another purpose, and so on.
The prices are generally rather steady, and these ex-
perienced buyers for the packing houses are generally
careful not to pay more than the market price. On the
whole, a healthy competition exists between the different
packing firms, and the shipper gets from them the ap-
proximate market value of his shipment. The packing

230 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

houses are the life of the central stockyards, for it is they
that create the demand. They are most necessary and

Too large for suitable pork production in the South.
Courtesy S. H. Lippincott of Maryland.

developments of an extensive swine industry would be
almost impossible without them.

MARKETING 231

What the butcher wants.—Not only does the butcher
desire a carcass with as large a percentage of edible meats
as possible, but he also desires that as great a percentage
as possible of the carcass be made up of the higher-priced
cuts. These cuts are located in the hind part of the hog,
and are made up mostly of the ham and loin. It is the
hind half of the hog that makes money for the butcher
and packer, for it is this part that sells materially above
what he paid for it. Therefore, what the butcher really
wants for the retail meat trade is a high dressing hog,
not so fat that he has to be scaled, and with as large a
proportion of the carcass weight in the hams and loins
as is possible. A heavy ham, wide back and loin, with
straightness of top and underline, and other character-
istics indicative of capacity for the production of high-
priced pork are sought.

The dressing percentage.—The dressing per cent of
a hog is determined by dividing the dressed weight by
the live weight and multiplying by 100. Since it is the
carcass of the hogs we are after, the dressing percentage
becomes a very important factor. The expert buyer will
accurately estimate the dressing percentage. The ques-
tion of record and average dressing percentages is of
interest. On southern markets average hogs will dress
around 65 to 70 per cent. The better class range from
75 to 85 per cent. Hogs on southern markets will aver-
age nearly 5 per cent less than hogs from the Corn Belt.
At one slaughter test held in Chicago in which seventy
head of hogs were entered the highest dressing per cent
was 90.2. This figure is exceptional, of course.

Factors affecting dressing per cent.—All kinds of hogs
come to the market. They will be found to dress all the

232 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

way from 50 up to 85 per cent, depending on several
factors. Among these factors may be mentioned, first
of all, condition. As a rule the higher the condition the
higher the dressing percentage. Since the fat is de-
posited largely in and over the musculature, it is quite
evident that the higher the condition the greater will be
the proportion of carcass to offal and waste matter.
Quality is also generally associated with a high dressing
per cent. Especially is quality of importance in coarse
hogs with large bones and paunchy middles. The butcher
desires a minimum bone, just large enough to bear the
weizht of the hog’s body from the time the hog is bought
until it is on the killing floor. Next in importance is the
paunchiness, or the relative size of belly compared with
the rest of the body. The larger the paunch, regardless
of the cause, the less will be the dressing percentage.
Next, the seediness of old sows and the staginess of
boars and stags will result in an appreciable lowering of
the dressing percentage. Old sows that have raised a
large number of pigs generally have considerable waste
on their bellies that will have to be trimmed off.

Federal inspection.—At the present time in all of our
larger packing plants federal inspectors are placed to see
that no diseased meats are slaughtered and that no
spoiled meats are placed on the markets. This work was
started several years ago, and the results of the constant
care and watchfulness have greatly increased the quality
of the packing plant output. At first the inspection was
objected to, but the public and packers soon adjusted
themselves to the new conditions, and although there
is still ample room for improvement the work has pro-
ceeded most effectively. It is unfortunate that this in-

MARKETING 233

spection and supervision cannot be carried on in even
the smaller plants. The packers usually invite federal
inspection on account of the prestige it gives and be-
cause the public demands federal inspected meats. For

Home-packing products resulting from high specialization.

one plant to have inspection and another not to have it
gives the latter an undue advantage, because in the
latter case the condemnations will be very few, while
the profits of the former will be greatly cut through the
condemnations by the federal inspectors. A more ex-
tensive application of federal inspection is desirable.

Home retail marketing of pork.—The slaughtering of
pork at home not only provides an ample supply for
home consumption, but by home slaughtering a means
is provided to secure greater returns from the hogs
grown. The hogs may be slaughtered and sold as fresh
pork to the butcher, or it may be retailed out and the

234 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

greatest returns are realized. Many southern farmers
are beginning to make a practice of curing a surplus of
pork, to be sold later on in the season, generally to a
select retail trade. The hams, shoulders and sides are
especially adapted for selling as cured meats. It is very
often the case that these parts of the carcass will bring
as much or more than the entire hog would on foot, which
would leave the head, ribs, backbone, sausage, lard and
other parts as clear profit for the extra labor involved.
The home retail marketing of pork is especially to be
recommended for the small farmer, and a profitable
method of marketing in this manner may be developed
by the more extensive producer.

CHAPTER X
PORK

Pork as a food.—Pork has been in our dietary for many
centuries. It is one of our standard meat foods. It has
its advantages and disadvantages in comparison with
other meats. It is fatter than most meats, which under
some conditions would be considered a disadvantage.
On the other hand, there is a larger proportion of meat
to bone in pork than in either beef or mutton. Likewise,
the percentage of water in pork is lower than in these
other two meats and the energy content per pound is
greater, which are advantages not easily overcome. The
fact that in this country we annually produce and con-
sume nearly $1,000,000,000 worth of pork and pork prod-
ucts shows the extensiveness of its use as a food.

Composition of pork.—As a food pork may be con-
sidered as composed of two materials, the edible part
and the non-edible or waste. The non-edible part con-
sists of such refuse as skin, bone and gristle. The amount
of waste in a piece of pork is dependent upon the cut
from which it comes. The waste in pork chops will run
from 12 to 24 per cent, while for ham it will run from
8 to 14 per cent. The edible portion is the portion in
which we are primarily interested. This is made up
of water, fat, protein and ash. All meats contain some
water. Dry salt pork contains a minimum and may have
as little as 4 per cent of water. On the other hand, fresh
pork may contain as high as 60 per cent moisture. The
fat is likewise variable, and pork may contain all the way

235

236 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

from 10 to 95 per cent. From the standpoint of economy
we desire pork with as much fat as possible. The pro-
teins or nitrogenous compounds of pork are very im-
portant, as is the case with all meats. The amount of

Making pure-bred Tamworth pork on Westview Stock Farm,
Winston-Salem, N. C.

protein in pork will vary from 2 to 20 per cent. The
ash of pork is of importance even though present in rather
small quantities. On the whole, pork contains less waste
matter than other foods, and the food value is greater
than most other meats on account of its high fat content.

Pork-slaughtering industry.— The pork-slaughtering
industry of the past on an extensive scale has for the
most part been confined to northern markets. The south-
ern markets are, however, coming to slaughter more and
more pork annually. Practically all of the slaughtering

PORK 237

centers pattern after Chicago in so far as is practical,
since this is the largest pork-packing center in the world.
It may be well, therefore, to refer to the industry as it
is carried on there, where seven millions of hogs are
slaughtered annually. It is here that the industry has
been carried to its present high point of specialization.

Slaughtering.—The slaughtering of hogs takes place
to a limited extent on the farm, to a much larger extent
by the local butcher, and to a still greater extent by the
pork packer. The volume of slaughtering by some of
the larger packing plants is enormous. In order to ac-
commodate the volume, methods are employed which
insure rapidity of slaughter. In these larger plants the
slaughtering takes place at the rate of several per minute.
The usual plan is to have a hoisting wheel to which the
hogs are shackled by a shackler with chains that are
hung to the large wheel. This wheel revolves and ele-
vates them and runs them off onto the sticking rail or
bar automatically to the sticker. Expert stickers can
stick as many as ten head per minute. From the sticker
the hogs pass to the scalding vats and automatic scrap-
ing machines, the scraping being finished by hand. They
are then beheaded, gutted, split, washed down and hung
in the cooler.

Variations in carcasses.—Aside from differences in
weight, the carcasses show marked differences in form
as they hang in the cooler. Some are wide and compact
showing high condition, while others are long and nar-
row. Great differences are manifested in particular in
the region of the ham and loin. In the halved carcasses
the various ratios between the amounts of fat and lean

238 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

in similarly shaped carcasses are also quite noticeable.
Even in those carcasses possessing the same degree of
condition there is a marked tendency on the part of some
to place it on the back, while others show more of a
tendency to deposit it on the inside of the ribs and around
the kidneys. In the cut carcasses there is also marked
differences in the degree of marbling, even when the
quantity of fat on the back is the same. The color of
both the fat and the lean presents marked contrasts. The
grain of the meat, the quality and size of the bone, and
the degree of moisture presented on the cut surface are
other respects in which the carcasses will be found to
differ greatly. In some carcasses, especially where the
hog is old and fat, the meat will separate from the bones
if the cooling has not been begun soon enough after
slaughter; or, if the carcass has not been cooled to a
sufficiently low temperature, the same result may be seen.

Classification of hog carcasses.—This lack of un1-
formity necessitates a classification where the slaughter-
ing is carried on ona sufficiently extensive scale to justify
specialization. The butcher and packer are, of course,
primarily interested in these variations, as they are used
in determining the specific use for which the carcass is
best suited. The different ways in which carcasses may
differ are in age, size, condition, color of lean, shape,
thickness of fleshing, thickness of external fat, distribu-
tion of fat, color of fat, grain and texture of meat, hard-
ness and size of bone and in soundness and quality. In
the large packing houses the carcasses are placed in va-
rious classes dependent upon the above qualities. The
most complete classification that has been made of hog
carcasses is that by Hall reported in Bulletin 147 of the

PORK 239

Illinois Station. In this, dressed hogs are divided into
six classes—smooth, heavy hogs, butcher hogs, packing
hogs, bacon hogs, shippers and pigs. Packing hogs are
further graded into heavy, medium and light, and bacon
hogs are further divided into choice, good and common.
The classification is thus based upon the use to which
the carcass is best adapted. It requires an expert to
properly classify carcasses. This classification is, of
course, more or less arbitrary and flexible, and if there
is a shortage of a certain class the demand will be met
from other classes having similar carcasses.

Qualifications of a good carcass.—The qualifications
of a good carcass will largely depend upon the kind of a
carcass or class and the use to which it is to be put.
Above all, an extra development is sought in those parts
that are of greatest value. The thickness and smooth-
ness of outside fat are especially essential. The qualities
of the lean meat are important. This should be abun-
dant in quantity and of fine grain and proper color. The
bones should be small and fine. Especially should there
be a high development of ham and loin. These two parts
command better prices than the rest of the hog because
there is less waste in them, and they possess to a marked
degree the required tenderness, marbling and palata-
bility, and present an attractive appearance on the block.
Experimental evidence has shown that there is but little
difference in the nutritive value of meats from different
parts of the carcass. There are differences in palata-
bility and proportion of waste in preparing for the table.
It is the proportion of higher-priced cuts or the form of
the carcass that makes the greatest difference in value.
Therefore, the aim of the producer of pork should be to

240 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

grow those carcasses which will retail for the largest
figures, for in the long run they will prove the most
profitable.

Pork cuts.—When hogs are killed in the larger packing
houses they may be sold either in the carcass or cut up.
When cut up the regulation cuts and parts of the hog’s
carcass are the hams, sides, bellies, backs, shoulders,
loins, butts and plates, miscellaneous and lard. These
may be graded to some extent to meet the demands of
the trade. The grading of pork cuts is more or less diff-
cult owing to the fact that the grading is complicated by
the style of cutting and methods of packing required for
different classes of trade.

The offal—With the high degree of specialization that
comes with the development of a great industry we find
that some use is made of everything and that nothing
is wasted. This is especially true of the pork-packing
industry. Everything that cannot be classed as pork
to be eaten as food is used in some manner. The blood
may go for the manufacture of dried blood to be used as
a stock feed. From the small scraps of meat and other
parts unfit for human food digester tankage is made as
a feed for swine. A great many of the waste parts are
used in the arts and trades. Soap stock is made from the
fat rendered in the making of digester tankage and meat
meal and from the making of fertilizers. Fertilizers are
made from all of the contents of the alimentary tract and
from the inedible organs. The stomachs and bladders
may be used for packages for use in the various trades.
The casings are sometimes used in the packing of sau-
sages. It is largely on account of their ability to make

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242 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

profitable use of all parts of the hog that the larger
specialized packing interests are able to compete so suc-
cessfully with the small butcher,

Pork for home use.—We are apt to consider that we
can best sell our hogs on foot and then buy our required
pork as we need it, but such is not economy. The
slaughtering and curing of pork for home use has many
advantages to commend it. One cannot only save money
by it, but a better pork supply is to be had. Dry, hard
and tasteless meats are not wanted. Juicy, sweet and
tender meats can be had if some care is taken in the
methods employed in slaughtering, dressing, curing and
preserving. The aim of the farmer should be not only to
supply enough pork for home consumption, but to supply
a surplus to be sold in case it is not needed.

Co-operative slaughtering.—The extra force required
to do slaughtering and butchering can best be overcome
by co-operation among a few farmers in a community.
By this method five or six farmers of a community will
form a butchers’ club and go from one farm to the other
and do the slaughtering. Each one becomes more or
less expert and adept at some particular phase of the
work, which means added efficiency. One man may in
this way become quite expert at scalding and scraping,
another may become expert at dressing, and still another
at cutting up, another at trimming, and another at sau-
sage making and so on. An added advantage that comes
from such an association is that fresh pork may thus be
had at almost all seasons of the year. The plan would
be to kill a hog turn about during the warmer weather
and rotate the parts to the members of the association.

PORK 243

This plan is already in operation and is working quite
successfully in some sections.

Kind of hogs to butcher.—Under most circumstances
one will not have an opportunity to exercise any great
degree of selection in picking out animals for slaughter.
He should know, however, those animals best suited for
the making of home-cured pork and should strive to pro-
duce such animals. The hog, to be ideal, must have
sufficient fat to make the meat palatable and juicy. He
must not, however, have so much fat that it will make
the meat unsavory. The exact amount to be desired will
be largely a matter of taste. Also, it must be recognized
that good pork cannot be made unless the animal
is in perfect health. The hog must be of the right age
and breeding. Hogs that have been bred for pork pro-
duction for decades are more apt to make better pork
than the scrub without improved breeding. Also, only
young animals should be used. The best meats are not
to be had from animals that are old. There are also other
precautions to be taken prior to slaughter. Feed should
be withheld for a period of twenty-four hours. The
hogs should be killed with as little excitement as possible,
for a little nervousness tends to bring on a rise in tem-
perature, with its resultant bad effects on the keeping
quality, taste and color of the meat.

Proper time to butcher.—In a great portion of the
South where coolers are not to be had the most suitable
time for butchering will depend to a considerable extent
upon the weather conditions. Rainy and moist weather
is to be avoided. Clear, crisp, cool weather around freez-
ing is about the best. Most farmers prefer to kill in the

244 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

forenoon, for the reason that it is generally a full day’s
work to do the butchering properly. Where one or two
hogs are to be killed, the afternoon may be preferred, as
the carcass will be allowed to cool overnight without
passing through the heat of the day. Where the meat
is not to be cured, but is to be disposed of as fresh pork,
any weather is suitable.

Killing the hogs.—In some sections it is not custom-
ary to stun the hogs before sticking, but owing to the
excitement resulting from holding while sticking, it is
probably the best plan to stun in some way. Many prefer
to strike in the forehead with an ax, but more satisfactory
results may be secured by shooting with a small-calibered
rifle, especially if the hogs are fat. Regardless of whether
the hog is stunned or not, the essentials of sticking are
the same. A narrow straight-bladed knife at least 8
inches long should be used. This is inserted in the hog’s
throat just in front of the breastbone, directed back-
wards toward the center of the body directly in line with
the backbone. After penetrating to a depth of 6 or 8
inches, it is turned sideways, given a side thrust and
withdrawn. To give the best results it should be sharp
on both sides of the point. If the sticking is done prop-
erly the blood will come out in spurts. The sticking
should pierce the heart or the aorta, the main artery lead-
ing from the heart. A novice must be careful not to deviate
far from the median line in inserting the sticking knife,
for the blade may run up between the shoulder and ribs,
rendering the cut unfit for curing.

Scalding—As soon as the hog is dead and the blood
has stopped flowing the hog should be scalded without

PORK 245

undue delay. This means that the water should be hot
before the hog is killed. There is usually more danger
of having the water too hot than too cold. If too hot,
the hair will be set. More time is required with water
not quite so hot, but the lessened dangers more than con-
pensate for the small loss in time. Unless one is expert
a thermometer should be used to determine the tem-
perature of the water. At the time the hog is being
scalded the water should be between 150 and 175 degrees.
Too much time is required below 150 degrees, and there
is too much danger of setting the hair above 175 degrees.
Between these temperatures from 40 to 80 seconds will
be required to properly scald, the longer time being re-
quired with the lower temperature. While in the water
the hog should be kept moving constantly to prevent
cooking the skin. It is best to remove the hog and try
the hair from time to time. Some use wood ashes in the
water to make the scurf loosen, and others use soft soap
and lye for the same purpose. By using these the skin
is easier cleaned.

Scraping.—As soon as the hog is scalded he may be
removed to a platform to be scraped. The head and feet
are generally cleaned first. A knife is best for these parts.
The feet and legs can be cleaned with the hands by
twisting against the hair, if these parts are properly
scalded. The longer hair of the body can be removed
with the hands, and the shorter hair and scurf can best
be scraped off with a corn knife, a hog scraper, or dull
butcher knife. After scraping off all the hair the entire
carcass should be shaved with a sharp butcher knife,
after washing with hot water. The hog is now ready to
be hoisted. The gambrel cords are raised and the gam-

246 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

brel stick inserted and the hog hoisted, after which those parts
not properly cleaned may be gone over again. The carcass
is then washed off with cold water and is ready for dressing.

Dressing.—The carcasses should not be allowed to
hang too long before they are gutted. To do this the
hog is first split between the hind legs, separating the
pubic bones with a knife. The cut is then continued
down the median line of the abdomen and chest and
through the breastbone to the sticking place in the neck.
The cutting through of the breastbone may require an
ax if the hog is of any size. The next operation is to
return to the bung or rectum and cut around it and carry
it on down, cutting supporting cords where necessary.
This permits the stomach and intestines to fall out. The
gall bladder can then be sliced off the liver. The artery
should be cut that runs down the backbone, the dia-
phragm should be cut out around the wall of the body,
and the heart, lungs, gullet and tongue removed with the
rest of the offal. The mouth of the hog can be propped
open with a block of wood and the whole carcass washed
down several times. The leaf lard and kidney fat can
then be removed if the weather is warm. If the carcass
is large, it had best be split down the center by sawing
after removing the head. The carcass should then be
allowed to hang over until early the next day, when it is
ready to be cut up and started curing, if not to be dis-
posed of as fresh pork. If the weather is cold it may be
allowed to hang longer, but usually the sooner the cur-
ing process starts the better.

Cutting up the carcass.—After the carcass has cooled
overnight it should be taken down and cut up. To do

Hung up to cool overnight on the farm of O. F. Troutman of Kentucky.

248 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

this properly requires a good sharp butcher knife, a long
butcher knife, a saw, a sharp chop ax, and a solid table.
If not already split the head may be removed and the
carcass split while still hanging, if it
is large. If not split and small, the
best way is to place the carcass on the
table and remove the head by cutting
off an inch back of the ears. The
shoulders are removed by cutting be-
tween the fourth and fifth ribs, and the
hams are cut off about two inches in
front of the pelvic bone. The hams
and shoulders are then split apart, the
feet removed and trimmed, the middle
piece split and the leaf fat removed
with the kidneys.

Cuts of pork.—There are several
common methods of cutting up pork,
especially as regards the middle part
of the body. Nearly everyone cuts off
the head, the shoulders and the hams
about the same. The middle part may

Showing the usu- be divided into backbone, ribs and

rari ee sides, if to be cured, or, if to be sold

(1) ham, (2) fresh, it may be cut so as to secure a

wey aseeeee loin, from which pork chops are ob-

tained, leaving the ribs and sides; in
either case the sides may be divided into the middle cut
and belly. On the farm the most common method where
the meat is to be cured is to have the following cuts:
Head, shoulders, hams, side, ribs, backbone, leaf lard
and trimmings. In addition to the above, one also has
the feet, heart and liver.

PORK 249

Trimming the cuts——The method of trimming of the
several cuts depends a great deal upon custom. The best
way is to split the head in quarters, removing the jowl
for salting. The shoulder is trimmed by cutting out the
ribs and neck bone, trimming down to the top of the
shoulder blade, trimming off all loose bloody meat and
removing the foot above the knee joint. The middles
may be trimmed in several ways. The backbone is gen-
erally used for fresh pork, the loin removed, the ribs cut
out as close as possible, and the side stripped lengthwise
into two or three pieces, depending on the size of the
hog and the use to be made of it. The hams are trimmed
by removing the feet about 2 inches above the hock
joint and by rounding off the corners and edges. All
lean trimmings are used for the making of sausage and
the fat for lard. The feet, ears and snout may be pickled.
The several cuts may be used for either fresh pork or
for curing, as may be desired.

Value of the cuts.—The cuts coming from the several
parts of the hog are of different values because some are
in greater demand than others. These values are based
upon convenience in cooking, tenderness, flavor and
general appearance, and not so much upon their nutritive
values. The comparative values fixed by the public for
the different parts of the carcass are shown in the fol-
lowing figures and tables. A side of pork is shown with
the cuts most commonly made and the location of these
cuts on the live hog is shown by the diagram. The tables
give the name, value per pound, average value in per-
centage of the whole carcass and average value in weight
of the whole carcass. The value of the cuts depends to
a large extent upon the method of cutting. The two

bo
on
o

SOUTILERN PORK PRODUCTION

recognized methods are the usual farm cut, and the other
is the usual market or retail cut.

In this table the values given prevailed at several points
when live fat hogs were selling at 8 cents per pound. On
this basis a 200-pound hog would bring $16. From the
table it is seen that a farmer can kill his hogs and have
as clear money on each hog the amounts brought by the
parts other than the hams, shoulders and bacon or side
meat, for these three parts will on the average bring
cured as much as the entire hog on foot. These figures
also show a slight advantage in method of cutting of the
usual retail market cut as compared with the method
used on the farm. In this table both methods of cutting
are included. The basis for comparison is made on a 200-
pound hog dressing 80 per cent, yielding a 160-pound carcass.

Farm cuts Weight Percent Av.value Value of
of carcass. p.lb.in cuts
weight cents
Head. .22ssesS555 16 10 6.5 $1.04
Shoulders ~-..--- 25 16 175 4.37
Hatisuisss2sscoc5 3 19 21.0 6.30
Sidesmysevcceoses 44 2? 15.0 6.60
Ribshsachecsonee 6 4 13.0 0.78
Backbone J22c<s 20 12 13.0 2.60
eat lard. 22.2 2 10 6 15.0 1.50
Sausage -------- 5 3 15.0 0.75
Hee hee 4 3 5.0 0.20
‘Total 2s2cses5 160 100 mas $24.14
Market cuts

Head 222 ee 16 10 6.5 $1.04
Shoulders ~----- 26 16 17.5 4.55
Mein 22252222525 36 23 16.0 5.176
Hain ocseecceoce 32 20 21.0 6.72
Middle 2-....-.- 15 9 15.0 2.25
Belly 222 eee 15 9 125 1.87
Ribs xgeecse cecal 6 4 13.0 0.78
Leat lard. 22-225 10 6 15.0 1.50
Heet ss2e2ssccce 4 3 5.0 0.20

PORK | 251

Keeping fresh pork—In the South we are unable to
keep fresh pork as they do in colder climates, where
carcasses and cuts are frequently hung in outbuildings
to freeze, and from which fresh pork is taken as needed.
This can be done only to a very limited extent in the
South. We must therefore look to other means of keeping
fresh pork. The most common method is artificial cold
or cold storage. This preserves the pork in the most
palatable and nutritious form. For keeping pork fresh,
a temperature of 40 degrees or below should be main-
tained. At this temperature, with good ventilation, fresh
pork cuts can be safely kept for a week or ten days.
Dampness is especially to be avoided in the refrigerator.
Ice houses of proper construction may also be used to
advantage in the keeping of fresh pork. Another method
that is employed by some is partial cooking. By this
method the pork chops or Icin or sausages are partially
cooked, packed down in jars and hot melted lard poured
over the whole. The packed jars are then kept in a dark
cool cellar. Pork preserved in this manner is not as good
as freshly cooked fresh pork, but the method has several
advantages to commend it. It is applicable to all parts
of the South and may be employed where cold storage
is not available. Another method used to a limited ex-
tent to preserve fresh pork for a short time is to pack it
in salt.

Curing pork on the farm—When a man raises hogs
he should by all means cure sufficient pork to meet the
needs of his family, and any additional, which he may
cure, can always be disposed of at a good profit. There
is and always will be a ready market for home-cured
pork products, and but few farmers will meet with any

2o2 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

difficulty in finding regular customers for their cured
pork. To properly cure meats requires considerable
work, and it is something at which considerable skill can
be developed. The aim should be to produce only the
best cured pork, whether it is to be used for home con-
sumption or for sale. Juicy, savory, nicely put up cured
pork will always command a good figure, and the com-
mon, dry, hard, tasteless, salty, roughly trimmed and
poorly cured pork will never prove very profitable.

Vessels for curing.—A clean barrel or cask is good to
pickle pork in. The only essentials for a suitable vessel
are that it be clean, free from bad odors, tight and large
enough to hold the meat.

Preservatives.—The more common preservatives used
are sugar, salt and saltpeter. These are all that are
necessary. Others, such as borax and salicylic acid,
are used sometimes, but the use of such preservatives is
probably dangerous for those who eat the meat. The
common preservatives are not poisonous, but effect pres-
ervation by the withdrawal of moisture and by osmotic
action, commonly termed astringent action. The sugar
itself acts somewhat as a preservative, but its main func-
tion is the addition of a sweet flavor. In warm weather
baking soda can be used in the brine to keep it sweet
without danger of injurious effects.

Brine vs. dry curing.—There are two general methods
employed in the curing of pork. One of these is the
common dry curing and the other is brine curing. In
most sections the dry-curing method is employed, while
in other sections the brine method is used more exten-
sively. The method to be recommended will depend to

PORK 253

a large extent upon conditions. The brine curing usually
gives the best results.

Dry curing—When pork is dry cured more work is
involved, although the actual expense is often much less.
Each piece of meat must be rubbed over several times
with the dry salt mixture. The most usual plan is to
use 6 pounds of salt, 2 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of salt-
peter, thoroughly mixed, to every 100 pounds of pork.
The meat is rubbed once every four days with a fourth
of the mixture. After each rubbing it is repacked into
a tight box or barrel. After it has stayed in the cure for
a week after the last rubbing it may then be taken out,
brushed off and hung up for smoking, if it is to be smoked.
Pork will not dry cure well if the place is too hot and
dry, a cool, moist place being much more desirable.

Brine curing.—The only thing necessary is to pack the
cooled meat into a clean barrel and pour over it a prop-
erly prepared brine. This gives better protection to the
meat from insects and rodents. Of course, the brine will
have to be watched carefully, and if it shows signs of be-
coming ropy it should be either reboiled or new brine
should be made. For proper brine curing of pork a cool,
damp cellar is best. Any part of the carcass may be
brine cured, but ordinarily fat backs and middlings cut
into strips or 6-inch squares are more commonly used.

The time the meat is to remain in the brine will de-
pend on several factors, the principal one being the size
of the pieces of meat. Smaller pieces should stay not
longer than six weeks, while larger pieces may stay eight
weeks or longer without becoming too salty. If the
brine is not too strong the cuts can be left in the brine

254 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

until ready for using, but the best plan is to remove
them after they have been properly cured, wash them
off, hang and smoke, and wrap them for proper keeping.
This method, if properly carried out, produces a juicy
sweet meat with the desired flavor

The brine.—There are many formulas in use for mak-
ing brine. The old standard recipe for sugar curing, of
which there are many modifications, is made up for every
100 pounds of pork to be cured, of 8 pounds of salt, 2
pounds of sugar and 2 ounces of saltpeter dissolved in
4 gallons of boiling water. To this mixture some prefer
to add a little seasoning, such as cayenne pepper or other
spices. This brine should be made up the day before it
is to be used, so that it will be cool when placed on the
meat. After putting the brine on the meat it should
be examined every few days, especially in warm weather,
and it should be reheated if signs of ropiness or fermenta-
tions appear. Sometimes the fermentation can be
checked by the addition of a small amount of common
baking soda.

Recipes for curing pork.—Most recipes are modifica-
tions in some way of the sugar or plain salt method.
Many of these variations consist essentially in the ad-
dition of flavors and spices, such as cayenne pepper, black
pepper berries, allspice berries and molasses. Virginia
has been noted many years for its hams of fine flavor.
While there are many recipes used in the several parts
of the State, one that has been used extensively and has
met with much favor calls for a brine made up as fol-
lows: For every 100 pounds of pork, 8 pounds of salt,
2% pounds of brown sugar, 1 quart of sugar cane mo-

ion

PORK 25

lasses, 2 ounces of baking soda and 1 ounce of saltpeter
dissolved in 5 gallons of soft water. The meat is cut up
and packed into the barrel in the usual manner with the
skin side down. After the brine has cooled it is poured
over the meat and allowed to stand for about six wecks,
when it is taken out and smoked, if it is to be smoked,
or it may be left in the brine and used as desired.
Another recipe that has been given some considerable
attention and prominence is what is known as the Ashland
cure, which gives the famous Ashland hams. In this 3%
pounds of saltpeter are used for every ten hams of mod-
erate size. This is rubbed into the meat thoroughly and
the meat is packed down in a tight box or barrel for three
weeks. The meat is then taken up and repacked in a
tight barrel after brushing off most of the cure mixture,
covered for two weeks with a brine strong enough to float
an egg, after which it is taken out, dried, rubbed with
fine salt and hung up to smoke, after which it is care-
fully wrapped and treated to hold the moisture. Both
of these methods yield cured pork, especially hams, of a
very superior sort. The two methods yield a slightly
different kind of ham. The first described recipe yields
a more juicy ham paler in color, while the latter method
gives a ham higher in color, but not quite so juicy.

Smoking.—The smoking process aids in the preserva-
tion of pork through the creosote absorbed, which also
protects the meat from insects to some extent. The
flavor 1s what is sought after in connection with smoking,
hence more attention should be given to this point. The
flavor is dependent to a large extent upon the wood or
material burned in the smoking. Pines and resinous
woods should never be used because of the bad flavor

‘yuejd Suryoed uloyjNos UlopowW e& Jo WOOL IYOWS

a

AWTS ST

PORK 257

they impart. Green hickory or maple, corncobs and
cottonseed are the more commonly used materials.

The pieces to be smoked are taken from the brine or
dry cure and hung up to drip for a couple of days. Any
loose salt on the surface should be brushed off with a
stiff brush. The cuts should then be hung in the smoke-
house so that no two pieces touch. The fire may then be
started, using the materials as suggested above. A very
small slow fire is started, and care should be taken to see
that at no time the fire gets too hot, and to sce that there
is ventilation at the top to keep from cooking or over-
heating the pieces hung in the top. It is not necessary
to do the smoking all at once. It is best to Iet the smok-
ing cover a period of two or three weeks, starting the
fire up every two or three days and continuing until the
meat is of the desired color.

Smokehouses.—Any tight house with a ventilator in
the top can be used to smoke meat in. Every farm should
have a suitable smokehouse. These can be constructed
very cheaply from rough lumber, and they will soon re-
pay for themselves in better meat. In building smoke-
houses the most modern plans call for the fireplace out-
side with means of conducting the smoke in. This elimi-
nates Overheating and dangers from fires, and the work
can be made a little lighter.

Sacking and keeping.—After meats are smoked they
may be kept hanging in the smokehouse for a short time,
if the house is kept dark and dry. If the meat is to be
kept for any length of time it should be covered. In
nearly every section skippers make it necessary for extra
precautions to be taken. To properly prepare meat for

258 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

keeping, take down after cooling, wipe it off thoroughly,
and apply with a brush a coating composed of molasses
and black pepper, nine parts of molasses and one part
black pepper. After this is applied each piece should be
wrapped carefully with wrapping paper and inclosed in
either a heavy muslin sack or else in a paper sack, such
1s a meal or flour sack. After the sack is thoroughly and
securely tied with a string left for hanging, the whole
should be dipped into a baking pan containing the yellow
wash that is sometimes used for this purpose. This wash
consists of 50 parts of powdered barytes, 1 part each of
glue and lead chromate, and 5 parts of flour. This is
prepared by first making a thin paste of the flour, adding
the glue and dissolved chromate, and finally by stirring
slowly in the barytes. The entire package is covered
with this wash and hung in a cool dark place to stay
until used. Meat properly put up in this way will keep
for several years and in some instances will improve with
age. The pieces should be hung so that no two touch.

Sausage.—Sausage has a distinct advantage in that by
converting certain parts of the poorer grades of pork into
sausage it is rendered more palatable and can be kept
for a longer time. Sausage is commonly made from
scraps and trimmings. Sometimes on the farm meal or
flour may be added to the sausage to give it more body
and to make it more palatable. In the usual method of
sausage making, however, only clean scraps from fresh
pork are used. These should contain about one-fourth
fat. To each 4 pounds of the finely ground meat scraps
should be added 1 ounce of salt and a half ounce each of
ground pepper and sage. The amount of seasoning will
depend to a large extent upon the individual taste. The

PORK 259

meat should be run through the cutter the second time
after the seasoning has been added. Sausage will keep
fresh several days if the weather is cool or if a dry
refrigerator is available. If it is intended to keep it any
length of time, the sausage can be partly cooked and
covered with hot lard, or it can be stuffed into sausage
casings or muslin sacks, covered with or dipped into
melted lard, and hung up and smoked, when it will keep
for a considerably longer time.

Head cheese.—The hog’s head and sometimes the feet
are used in making this dish. The head is cleaned, the
eyes removed, the skin cut off, the head split through
lengthwise both ways, fat removed, brains taken out, and
the whole put to soak in salt water overnight. The parts
are then boiled until the meat easily falls from the bones.
The meat is then finely chopped with a knife, the boiling
liquor poured over the meat and cooked down until it
begins to thicken. The whole is seasoned to suit with
salt and pepper and poured into crocks, dishes and jars
to be molded, when it can be sliced off and eaten cold
as needed. Souse is made in about the same manner.

Liverwurst.—The liver, lights, hearts and other edible
scraps are cut into chunks and stewed until tender, when
they are removed from the fire, allowed to cool, when
they are chopped finely, put back and reheated until the
mixture begins to thicken, when they may be molded as
in the case of head cheese. As needed it is sliced off and
eaten either hot or cold.

Pickled pigs’ feet—The feet are scraped clean, toes
removed, the clean feet soaked in cold water overnight,
cooked until soft and salted while cooking. They are

260 SOUTHERN PORK PRODUCTION

then removed from the water, split, packed in earthen
jars, and hot vinegar and spices are poured over the whole,
in which case they will keep for several weeks, if placed
in a cool place.

Scrapple—Scrapple is made in the same manner as
head cheese, except that when the meat is returned to
the pot after chopping and when recooking begins, corn
meal is stirred in until the whole attains the constituency
of corn meal mush. This is cooked and stirred for 30
minutes, when it should be poured into shallow dishes
or pans to be molded. When cool it can be sliced thin
and fried or eaten cold.

Lard.—The best lard comes from the leaf fat on the
inside of the abdominal wall. The fat from backs, sides
and trimmings from the hams, shoulders and other cuts
make a very good grade, while that lard from the in-
testinal fat, stomach and pluck is of an inferior grade
and should be rendered separately. In rendering or try-
ing out lard the chunks should be cut into cubes of about
an inch square. The pieces of fat are then placed in a
kettle, a small amount of water added to keep the bottom
pieces from sticking, and the whole cooked until the
cracklings brown and rise to the top. These cracklings
should be skimmed off and the lard pressed out with a
lard press. The remainder should then be strained
through a cloth into cans or jars and stirred until cocl.
The stirring and the addition of a small quantity of bat:-
ing soda will help to whiten the lard and make it more
salable, if it is desired to sell it. The cracklings are fre-
quently mixed in with corn meal mush and with corn
bread. In this way an otherwise waste product can be
made into a palatable dish.

Abscesses’ .

Abortion,
causes
chronic
prevention

INDEX

Acre, pork-producing capacity | on :
Adulterants, feed ! ;

Advertising
Age,

and weight

for breeding
of breeding swine

of maturity

Agriculture, permanent

Alabama
Alfalfa,

feeding, value of

pasture
Animals, meat
Apoplexy
Appetite
Areca nut
Arkansas
Artichokes
Ascaris suis
Assimilation

Associations, record
swine breeders’

Atavism
Back
Bacon,
type
Barley

breeds

Barnyard manure

Barrenness

Beans

Bedding

Belly

Berkshire,
adaptability
as feeders
association

261

51, 59, 62,

PAGE
. 200, 201, 203

14, ie 16

27
79, 83, 89, 248
53

36, 53, 81, 212
: 144

: rae

. 44, 192

ae 5
153, 158, 159
79, 83, 87, 248
68,'73, 75, 101

. : 65
. 66
. . 67

262

Berkshire, blood lines

color

distribution

English

fecundity

origin
size

size of litters

Bermuda,

feeding value of

pasture

supplementing

Big China

Big Guinea, adaptability
“characteristics
distribution

origin
Biology

Black Suffolk

Blindness

Blind staggers
Blood poisoning .

Blue grass

feeding value

pasture

supp!ements to
Boar breeder

care of
grade

pure-bred

quality of

scrub

selection of

Body,

cells
Boll weevil
Bone,

larger and stronger
quality of

size
Borax
Bran, wheat

Boys’ pig clubs

Breed, best

associations
characteristics
selection of

time to
type

INDEX

F 91
18, 19, 25
: 4
104

. ‘ 39
. : 103
. 103

252

144

12, 13, 14

R 75

F 77

52, 105

75, 76

: 166

36, 53, 103

INDEX 263

Pace

Breeders, purchasing Ao vite 8 S isoepecee pike une 98
swine a : : : ‘ . ° . - 4, 18, 209
Breeder’s reputation ‘: ° . ‘i 107
Breeding ‘ ‘ . 7 es . 16, 116
Breeding animals, condition of 5 ‘ . 5 43
selection of . : F * . - F ° ey 97
Breeding, best to best. . 3 ls : . : Z 21
condition : F 5 fs : < a . 43
conditions in South . ‘ : : A e A : 29
cross - : A é 3 A . . : : . 23
for pork ; - a 3 . 2 ‘ ‘ 34
for type . : f 5 : 3 a . 35
for utility - : s - Fs : r F - 36, 37
improved, lack of . : * - ‘ - 5 : , 30
laws of . a : : é ‘ : aie - 18, 28, 29
time a A : 5 3 P ‘i : ‘ ; 23
management . = . : . . . a 3 < 42
principles of : : : . é . 29
progress ins: ; : . 7 5 . . . 109
promotion of better. : . . - : . 32
science of 3 , ‘i , 5 2 . . 3 5 18
season. , F * ‘ 3 ‘ ° . . . 166
table > 5 : 5 : 5 . = . 47
Breeding swine, age of 5 : 3 3 3 5 A ; 99
as a business . : % . r . . . . . 32
condition of . ; : : : i z fe . e 102
conformation of . Fi é 3 A 5 a 100
constitution of : - P 3 3 . 5 5 2 94
costs of . 3 : ‘ ‘ 5 5 3 . e 3 97
early maturity in . 5 ; ‘ “ tee ies ue fo 5 100
judging . : : s , : 3 : 7 4 : 95
quality of . ) i - : z 2 . ‘ 5 104
principles of 3 < 2 5 : . c . : 17
selecting ; 5 : 5 : 5 es . 102, 103
Breeds, adaptability of Zi : é ; : : 4 52
crossing of . : ° : 2 5 ;. . A 39
new ‘ 5 . . . . . . : 50
number of . : 3 3 3 : . : . ‘: 75
of swine - FE : : : 5 . - 17, 19, 23, 48, 51
origin of : & : : ; . es : : 50
white ‘ i é e ‘ 5 : 2 . 76
Bristle 7 : . . , . ; é A A - 104
Bronchitis . : 5 ‘ ‘ . ; 3 a 193
Brood sow management 5 . é : 5 3 5 . 172
Bruises i . . 5 : ; . . 204
Brine, . ; a . : A > . 5 5 E 252
curing : 5 : 5 5 S . ° ° 253
fermentation in . . . ; ; < 5 5 ° 254
formulas for : : 5 ; 254

264

Brine, ropiness in

Bur clover, : ;
feeding value °
pasture :
supplementing pi

Bureau animal industry

Burning carcasses :

Butcher, ‘ . ;
demands of . 3
time to . ‘ ‘

Butchering . A 3

weather for .
Butter milk . .

Byfield :
By-products of wheat
Calomel : : 3
Canker . Z 5
Capital 5 :
Carbohydrates . a

Carcasses, cooling ,
classification of .
cutting up i ,
qualifications of .

quality of : °
soundness of ;
variations in .
Carloads, average .
Cassava a : ‘
Castration . ‘ 3
age for . ‘

Catarrh, nasal. 3
Cell, ‘i - . B

division : Fs
functions ‘ 3
processes $ 3
structure 5 .
wall ‘ i ‘

Cells, . 5 s 4
body 1 .
germinal , ‘
reproduction
somatic

Cervix, contraction of.
Character, ;
in unsexed swine .
Characters, acquired .
Mendelization of .
segregation of é
somatic . - 3

INDEX 205

PAGE

Characters, transmission of acquired : : 5 ; ee aks
unit . ; ; ; : 4 F i fs . fi 20
Cheese, head ‘ : 2 A : : 2 : : 259
Cheshire, association , ; 4 - ; : : ; . 64
blood lines. . 5 : 5 , ; . ° ; 64
characteristics of . : & : : 5 - 3 : 64
distribution of - : ‘ ‘ : fs ‘ 64
origin of - : : : 2 ; 4 3 3 63

Chest . c - : B 5 : ; . : e 79, 83, 89
Chester White, . 5 o . F . ‘ : ‘. - 52, 101

adaptability . F : . a : . A ° : 57
association. . : 5 : : 5 ‘ : - 58
characteristics 2 5 . - > : - . 5 56
distribution. 5 : é Fi : 7 ; 57
fecundity : 3 5 5 : é . a : 57
origin : : ‘ : : 3 ; g 3 56
size of litters ; ; Si A 3 3 A 5 : 57
Chicken eating . ‘ 7 : A : alg
Chinese : & : 3 i : ; 49, 56, 59, 64, 67
Chloride of lime . , : 3 : 5 ‘ : 205
Chufas : 5 s 3 : . : ‘ - 6, 122, 128
feeding value z E 5 : : : ‘ : [36
grazing . A - 5 ; A 3 : 5 : : 136
supplementing : : ‘ ; . 6 4 _ A 136
yield : : - rs ‘ : 4 i ; 136
Classes, market . ° i ; : * 5 A : 2227, 228
of hogs . . ‘ ; ‘ ; 3 A . ; ° 8
show : : : : , 7 . . f 5 114
Classification, market : A : : : : : a 227
of hog carcasses . : ° . ; 5 : : 238
of swine . A , 3 - : : : A : 5 81
Climate : é 3 . s : : . 5, 22, 28, 50, 125, 150
Clovers : 2 . : : . ‘5 5 c on ones
alsike : : : - ; : 5 F ‘i j : 143
bur. 3 % A 2 . 5 : . : § 3 6
crimson . 5 ° 3 ° ° 3 s : 5 - 6, 144
Japan 5 5 : g ° : 5 : ; A 3 6
Mexican : : 2 S é . : E : - 143
red . ; ri - . ° 3 F . ‘ . : 6
white : F 3 5 A : 3 3 : : . 6, 143
Coal tar dips. F 3 5 ‘ 5 A ; 5 F 207
Coastal plain ; : E 5 é é 7 : ‘ 2, 8
Cold storage é ; : : : ‘ : 251
Coloration, pr otective : “ 6 : : ; 46
Color of swine . : * A : . . 46, 52, 53
Commercial fertilizer” ; : é : : F 3
Commission houses. : S : : : , 226
Commission men ; ; : ‘A ; A 3 225

Condimental feeds. * ; : 5 145

266 INDEX
PAGE
Condition, 28, 83, 92, 109, 112, 114, 116, 117, 227
degree of : 212
healthy . ‘ ; 43
high - 28, 43, 170
of breeding animals 43, 102
show 102
Confinement : : 28
Conformation, . ‘ 28, 96, 98, 114, 116
of breeding swine 5 100
of swine ‘ ; 52
Constipation hs : : ; 186
Constitution, . 28, 35, 83, 91, 93, 94, 95, 98
indications of : 94
lack of : 38
Consumer of pork : ‘ 215
Cooking, of feeds 114
fresh pork . 251
Cooler F 241
Cooling carcasses , : 247
Co-operative, hog shipping 5 QDI B92 203
slaughtering : ; 242
swine breeding : : , ‘ A : : 3
Gori) oe epee. 5, 6, 116, 122, 124, 128, 129, 146
clubs, : ;. . ‘ A P E)
feeding alone . ‘ 122
feeding value of . ‘ 3 129
protein of Z ‘5 : 120
supplements for . : : 122
supplementing 5 . 129
Corn belt. ” : . 54
Corrosive sublimate ig 205
Cost of fifty-pound pig : ‘ 164
Costs of production, factors influencing 211.
Cotton, : - 1, 10
farmers : al
pees increasing 30
Cottonseed, : . : 11
meal . 116, 142, 145, 146
meal, feeding value of 142
meal, on pasture . 143
Coughing 193
County swine breeders’ association > ; : 32
Cowpeas, 5, 6, 125, 128, 144
feed value ae 132
grazing . 132
supplementing 132
Crab grass : 5
Credits : 7
Crimson clover 6

INDEX 267

PAGE

Crops, cultivated - ‘ A . eee ° : : 5
fattening : : 6 A . és 5 : 4 5 5
forage, . i . 7 P : : e z : ries ok eb
grazing . é ° : 2 a : : ‘ z - 5, 123
Cross-bred . . é . ; . : - : . 38, 41
Crossing breeds . . : 3 . 5 é A 23, 24, 39, 104
Crude oil 2 5 4 é f : é 207
Cryptorchids : ‘ : ‘ . : i : : 202
Culls and waste . : : ; : - : A : : 11
Cumberland 5 - 4 fs 4 . . : : : 59
Curing, brine Tee ees. Ben) ee eae! : 252, 253
dry 5 mech Gas Pate 9, eee Se ee ep nee meer ont
of meats é . : : ‘3 : . ‘ : - 13
pork, recipes for . : , * : : ; 5 2 254
pork on farm ; 5 : : é : . ‘ 251
vessels for. A ° . ‘ : : z : 252
Cutting up carcasses, . ‘ : 5 : 5 , - 2 246
tools for : - : ; . e 2 : ‘ 248
Cuts, of pork . . Z : : : : ‘ . 240, 248
farm : 2 a . é : : é c 5 A 250
market . ‘ ‘ ; ‘ 3 . 5 3 3 ‘ 250
trimming : ‘ 7 . : : é A : : 249
value of . . ‘ 5 3 5 5 ‘ js F 249
wholesale fs : ‘ 5 : i : : : : 87
Cuts and bruises : _ : : : : : 5 . 200, 203
Dairy products . . ‘ 3 : : : : : 10
Deafness j 3 5 : : s . 5 ° 3 190
Delaware. ‘ 2 : : 3 ‘ : 14, 15, 16
Demands of butcher A ‘ 2 5 ‘ : : 84
Demonstration work . 2 ‘A - " : 5 : 12
Determination of sex : . . A é i : 5 28
Dew claws . 5 4 . . | . 5 j : 79
Diarrhea, causes : . a . : : Bi . ‘ 187
Digestive system ‘ ‘ fe . 4 . é 5 E 180
Dipping solutions . é . . . é : : 207
Dipping vats 3 . . ‘ . . é : : 206
Dips. ; é . 5 . 2 . - 4 ‘ 174
Diseases, swine . : A 5 : : ‘ . 5, 28, 174, 178
control. - : : A . 5 5 : : : 174
detection of . 3 : % . 2 : - ‘ +175, 176
indication of . 4 ° . ° . y 5 .174, 176
of circulatory system ‘i ° é . . . : ; 178
of digestive system F . . . c 3 , 178
of excretory system. - 5 : . . . : 178
of locomotor system . s . . d . 5 5 178
of nervous system : 4 ° : . a5 : : 178
of reproductive system 3 : 7 . . . ; 178
of respiratory system . a é 5 ° Zs . % 178

of skin. . : , . : . ° 5 : . ’ 178

268

Diseases, prevention of
Disinfection
Disposition :
Distribution of swine
District of Columbia
Diversified farms

Domestication of swine,

process of
Drainage
Drenching . S
Dressing, és :
carcasses
percentage

percentage, factors “affecting ‘

Driving hogs to market
Dry curing
Duroc-Jersey, ‘
adaptability of
association
as feeders .
blood lines z :
characteristics of
distribution
fecundity
origin ‘ E 5
size
size of litters
Dust. . ‘
Early maturity,
in breeding swine
indication of
Hats \3 ¢ i
Eating pigs .
Eczema 7
Educational value o
Embryo ‘
English Berkshire
Entrics, making
Environment
Epilepsy - 3
Essex, ‘ ;
associations. .
blood lines
description of
distribution of

eh

show

introduction to America

origin
Exchange, live stock

Excretory system, diseases ‘of

INDEX

13,

PAGE
174, 204

14, 51

10

18, 22

190, 191

73, 101
63

63

63

63

63

62

227
188

Exercise, :
for pigs . :
lack of . :
sufficient 2 é
Eyes. F % : 2
Face 2
Fairs .
Fall pigs
Fallopian tube.
Farmers, pure-bred hogs for
Farming, live stock
Farms, diversified 5
Farrowing,
difficult :
houses. 5
houses, winter “
pens é : :
Fat, :
and lean .
and lean, distribution of
deposition
hardness of
hardening
hog, ideal
Fats P :
Fatten, tendency ‘to. 3
Fattening propensities
Fatty degeneration
Fecundity
Federal inspection
Feed, adulterants s
quality . % : 3
quantity . -
saving. :
utilization
Feeding, : i
for the show . 2
methods of
stuffs, commercial

swine 3 A A
Feeds, . 5 ‘ 5 ‘

available . : 5

bulky A

cooking , :
Feet, . : : ‘ 5

and legs

care of

Female germ cells
Fence breaking

INDEX

. 28, 116,

269

PAGE
117, 118

EO

270 INDEX -

PAGE

Fences, drift F Z ‘ : 158
permanent c . 7 . . 7 x 158
Fencing materials : < . i f . 157
Fertility, Aaa cs ee cee 22, 23, 24
of soil : ene ee ke . 2, 125
of soil, increasing ‘ . o ‘ 9
Fertilization of ovum : . e . : 26
Fertilizers, . : ‘ , a . = ‘ 240
commercial 5 ° . 3 ; 3
Finishing for market | . 3 3 218
Finish, proper ‘ é 5 3 . 115
Fitting, and showing . ‘ ° : . 5 111
for show : 2 "3 . < . A : : 111
Flanks, . . ‘ ‘ . 5 , . 91
front . : F - 3 a ° 79
rear * ° ¥ . : 3 é * ‘ 79
Fleshing, . ° $ : : . , 92
deep 5 . ‘ - é . 89
heavy. ;: ‘ 3 ‘ 35
natural . . . i . ; 115
Floors to houses < : ‘ . 152
Florida F ‘ . ‘ : 14, 15, 16
Food . ‘ . Es . 22
supply : FS : 28, 33, 116
supply and health ‘ ‘ 204
supply available : - 5 33
supply inedleauate . ‘ . 50, 121
Foot 5 . < 3 79
Forage crops, 2 é 13, 124
leguminous F 5 . ° 128
Form . F . E 83, 87, 112
Fresh pork, keeping : 3 251
Front leg : - e : 79
Fruits, . ‘ : < . . 10
fallen ‘ 2 ‘ F ala
Full blooded , S 4 . ‘ . 41
Gains, cost of . é : e s 212
rate of A e ‘ . . F 212
Garbage . . ° . 7 . - - : 145
Georgia e . ° . : ‘ 14, 15, 16
Germinal cells, é F - : : . 18, 26
male . 3 - . . 3 25
weakness of . : : : : 2 : , ‘ ‘ 44
Germ plasm % ; e ‘6 . . < : . 18, 26, 199
Gilts, . : : . . : 7 . : 99
care of ‘ ‘ < . 3 ‘ 165
Gestation, . ‘ . ; : : 170
period of é 3 . . 167
termination of =, oe ce GEC: : 167

Goober, hog
Grade boars
Grading up
Grades,

high

market.
Graffian follicle
Grains,

winter
Grass,

carpet

crab

summer
Grazing,

lots .

type
Grazing crops,

annual

perennial

rotations

Ground peas ‘

Growth 5
Guinea

Gulf Coast
Habits, bad .

of swine . 3

Hair,
condition
Ham . : 5
Hampshire,
adaptability of
association
characteristics
origin.
Hardening fat
Hay, alfalfa
cowpea
red clover
Head,
cheese
Health

Heart, fatty degeneration

growth
Heat,

periods of 3
Herd, foundation
Heredity, A

laws of f
Herdsman...

INDEX

271

Pace

. ‘ 144

i : : 4 39
. . . . 385, 43
41, 42

. ; 42

* s : 228

‘ ° 99

. . . 10

. 124

4, 5, 128

143

143

5

é 9, 10

_ 155, 157, 162

36

121, “123, a
12

‘ 4 17

. 124, 125, 126

5, 6, 103, 1

79, 83, 87, 90, 248

Se tah 52, 101
ne eee: 68
d 68

aay 67

a ee 67

. . 8, 116, 148

: 26, 46, 166
By Ras 96
17, 18, 22, 25

: 18

» 120, 159, 170

272 INDEX

PAGE

Hernia - 5 3 : : , - : ; . 200, 201, 202
Hide . : : ‘ : : P é : : : .104, 176
High grades - ‘ - : ;: : : : 3 . 38, 41
Hind leg . : 3 ; ‘ : : ‘ : S : 79
Hips, . o ‘ - ‘ 2 . ‘ " ‘ 5 : 83
points of : ‘ 3 F 3 ‘ és ‘ : : 79
Hock . a rs : ; . ‘ - 3 , : 79
Hog, breeding : ‘ : 5 F : F ‘ : 5 28
houses, stationary . : 3 fs : : : : : 153
oilers : : F ; i : ‘ P A . : 208
points of , 3 : A 2 s ‘ ‘ 3 : 79
Hog cholera, ‘ z ‘: ‘ F P ; ; : | 181
acute ‘ F ° a r “ a s . é i 182
chronic . : . : . : 3 4 ‘ : - 182
diagnosis - ‘ ‘ x : ‘ a - : x 183
distribution . : . . : é ‘ ‘ ‘ : 183
inoculation . ° * - 3 3 . : : 3 186
prevention 5 ‘ j ‘ : ; ; x ‘ 5 183
serum ‘ 5 3 : ° » ‘ . . : . 183, 184
symptons F 5 a ‘ 3 . : $ “i 182
Hogs, number per acre : 7 p . ; 2 A F 125
number to grow . E : é ‘ : é 4 : 33
washing . E ° : : é ; ‘ ‘ ‘ : 112
weights . ‘ ; ' 7 ‘ ° . ‘ 3 . 84
Home, pork for . @ ; ‘ 7 : ‘ : ‘ 242
Houses, F é ‘ , ‘2 ‘ 5 2157, 152)
A- shaped, portable 3 : < ‘ : ? 154
movable shelter. % : ‘ 5 Z A . ; 155
shed roofed, ets é ‘ . i . 4 4 154
Housing : : 2 2 . 2 é é 4
Hybrids : ‘ Fs A : fs : . - 5 : 20
Ideal, fat hog. : ' a 2 3 . : - : 85
market type . . * : ; ; : 3 : : 81
producer’s : . . : . ‘: . : : 81
Impressions, maternal - $ : : é , 18
Improved swine . ‘ F ‘ é ‘ . F ; . 41, 42
Inbreeding . 3 5 F é ; . ; Z . «9 122;°23
Indigestion . ‘ - 5 : 2 , : : . : 180
Individuality ; . : 2 ; : E : ae ROO ay
Infection, . ‘ : . i 5 : : : 18
prevention of . ‘ Fi ‘ é : : : : 205
Infectious diseases. ‘ ; : ‘ i : 178
Inheritance of acquired characters : " ‘ , ; : 19
Inspection, federal . f : ; ; é : ; 3 232
Trish grazier . ke : : : : : : . 53, 56, 70
Japan clover : é z : Fi : : : : ; 6
Jowl . F ‘ ; : : i 3 : : ‘ 79, 83
Judges E Fi 3 3 : é : ; 80} 109, 115, 120
Judging, ‘ : : ‘ ‘ : F : , ; : 103

INDEX

Judging, bases for
breeding swine
method in
of swine
swine ;
swine, standard

Kentucky, :
blue grass pasture

Kerosene &

Killing a

Labor,
saving

Lameness

Lard,
breeds
rendering

type ‘
Large black,
association
characteristics
origin 2
Large Yorkshire,
adaptability
association
characteristics
distribution
importation
origin
size
size of litters”
Laws of breeding
Lean and fat
Lean meat
Legs,
Legumes, ‘
summer ;
winter ‘
Leguminous forage crops
Lespedeza
Lice 3 :
Limitations . s : 4 -
Line Lreeding 3
Linseed meal : : ‘ 4 3
Litters, age of sow on
large
marking
per year
securing large
size of

273

PAGE

. : 80
95

82

13

80

80

14, 15, 16
140

207

244

fi:

. 149

. 189
+121, 260

. 53

x ‘ 260
36, 53, 81, 212
‘ : 72
%3

%3

4 . 73
52, 63, 64, 101
i e 70
¢ ‘ 70
69

‘ 70

. a 69
5 Fi 69
69

70

. 3 18
. 88
. é 92
83, 90

*: Be 116, 122
124

124

A 128

. 132, 144

196

7

23

“114, 144

46

28

160

. 159
. . 45
J 2 46

274

Liverwurst . .
Live stock, droppings:
exchange
farming
Local buyers

Locomotor organs, diseases of .

Loin F P F
Louse, hog ‘ %
Lots, hog. ‘ :
Louisiana
Male germ cells |
Mammitis . ‘ <
Management, swine
faulty
Mange A
Manure, barnyard
pile . ‘
Marbling
Market classes
flexibility of
Market, classification -
conditions
costs
demands
demands, change i in
finishing for
grades ‘ :
hog, ideal : >
hogs 3 , "
pork ‘ ‘ 2

standards : $
type w . .
type, ideal

values. ‘. :

Marketing, . :
age for . . .

age of . é :
costs of . s B
early

finished pork
home retail
size for .
through local buyers
Markets, : F
central
seasonal demands of
Maryland
Maternal impressions
Mature swine, size of

28, 34,

189

"79, 83, 87, 39
ean 199
é 171

14, 15, 16

25

193

5, 13, 150

F 44

81, 106, 209, 215

INDEX

Maturity, age of . 6 * H :

early A : A 3 : 5 5

quicker : a
Meat animals
Meat meal i - ; 2
Medicines, administering & F 2 .
Mendelian proportion . ‘ : é .
Mendelism . ; i , 3 . .

Mendel’s Law. ; : 5 : 3

Methods of feeding . . . :

Middle Yorkshire , ‘ ‘ i :

Millets, foxtail :

Middlings - : F ‘ ; : ‘

Milk, butter . : % . 3 3
skim . A 5 .

Mineral matter . Z : , -

Mississippi . ‘ B : s é ‘

Mites . : * : .

Molasses

Mule Foot, association ; : s S
characteristics 5 é ; ;
distribution . - : ‘ , 5
origin . 5 ‘ 5 5

Mutations . . 3

Native swine ‘ 3

Natural selection 5

Neapolitan

Neck

Nervous system, diseases of
Nettle rash .
New Jersey .
Normandy swine
North Carolina A A .
Number, of breeds. P e
of hogs to grow .
of pigs to litter .
Nut grass. ; :

Oats, . ° : 3
pasture ‘ ‘
pasture, feeding value of . :

pasture, supplementing . : : ;
Offal. : 2 : : : : z
ORT see ‘ : : ‘ A : 5

association. ‘ : x ‘
origin ‘ 5 p : :
Oiler, hog
Ohio Improved Chesters
Oklahoma A

Old English

275

PAGE

: . < 101
, 52, 94, 102, 109, 149
. fi 39
. 10
. . 145
. 176
. 20
. 19, 20
. 20
. 16
. A 101
. es 143
. . 145
. 11
. ‘i 11
. 189
. = 15, 16
196

es 122, 144
% 69

. : 68
69

5 68

48, 50

42

SY ga! 28
49, 62, 64, 70
. 79, 83, 88

190

195

Te. 16
; 56
. 14, 15, 16
52

; 33
ae 44
. 5
: 6, 124
: 133
oa 133
: 133

: 240
ss 52
: 58
Se Ses 58
; 208

; 52, 58
14, 15, 16

5 70

276

Old Yorkshire . : :

Olein. ‘ 5 : .
Orchitis : : :
Organs, diseased . %
Origin, of breeds : 3
of strains * ‘
Original swine . a
Ova , ‘ F : ‘
Ovary . : : S

Oviduct , & . .
Ovum, - ‘
fertilization of . 5
Packing plants, . ‘5 :
Palmatin ; F F ‘
Paralysis . F ‘ <
Parasites ‘
Parasitical diseases of sw ine
Parturition . :

Pasterns : : 3 :
Pasture, ; F ‘ 5
Bermuda ‘ : s
sweet potatoes a 7
Pastures ‘; ‘ . P;
leguminous. ‘ 3
Pasturing . F . a
Peanut pasture . 2 :
Peanuts, ‘ : A
feeding value of :
grazing . . : 3
yields 3 :
Pedigree ‘ é
Pens. and enclosures
Period of heat, . 3 %
appearance of : 3
Peritonitis . r ‘
Pickled pigs’ feet ‘ :
Piedmont area. 3 :

Pig club agent 5
Pig clubs, . 3 ‘ 3

boys’ ‘ 2 is

Pigs, . 2 : . .
eating f 3 ‘
exercise for . : :
fall

from old sows
from young sows .
spring

to litter :
to litter, controlling

INDEX

6,

INDEX 277

PAGE
Pigs’ feet, pickled A ; z ‘ 5 3 : 5 5 259
Pindars : ‘ ; P . : : Fs 131

Pharyngo- -laryngitis 5 b : 3 : ¥ i A A 193

Pneumonia . : 5 3 . : é ‘ ‘ : 5 194
Plasm, germ : F ; “ F . : ‘ . , 19
Pleurisy . 5 7 : . : - ‘ : 5 : 194
Points of hog. : 3 : . : 5 é f : 79
Poland-China, . E 5 5 : 3 é 52, 53, 68, 73, 101
adaptability . : 4 : és es Z : : 2 54
associations . : Fl i : : : A 4 56
blood lines i ‘ : : : 2 ‘i A A 6 54
description. é : 5 ° a ; > 54
distribution . F : : , 5 : 55
fecundity 4 A . 3 s : A : F 55
origin of : : ‘ : A ‘ ° 4 $5 E 53
size of litters . : 5 : 5 . . : 55
Pork, . i : : 3 . : - a . 235
as a food . . ‘ : e . : . 235
breeding for . 3 5 . : . 34
composition of : 5 , 3 : ; A d 235
cuts of . 3 £ : 2 5 . . . 240, 248
finished . ° : . és ° A 213
for home use . . é s : . . 242
fresh, consumption of . 3 2 ; ‘ : 214
palatable . a Fi é 5 . : a 2 ; : 215
producers * 5 Z : . 2 4 . ; : 214
protein in P * . . . e . 236
production, breeding for : ‘ . . : . A 43
limitations of ‘ 5 < ° . < : 7
profits from A 4 Fs ° e 5 : % 211
slaughtering . : . aie cee A . 236, 237
soft . : : . 3 : 5 ;: < 5 ‘ 146
tender - rs . . 5 s 2 3 5 215
type, ideal . F : . al Sey 3 8 : 35, 85
types, early . : : 5 ° ‘ 5 A : 84
Portuguese . . ; 5 ° F . . a * 59
Potato, sweet e Qi A ° F 5 A . 130
Pregnancy, . A cj e ® . - 26, 47, 165
double z A e . < : : 47
Pregnant sows, care i eae 3 as 9 A . : 168
Prepotency, . : . : : B . 22, 39, 104
of pure-bred boars” 3 . e . : . 39
Preservatives 5 : . e . 6 . 252
Process, reproductive | ‘ Hi : . A : “ 24
Producers, ideal . . : . : 5 81
Production, cost of 5 ‘ é . . . ° 164
Profits . e : 5 z : fc 2 : 3 211
Prolapsus of anus. 4 : , 3 : ‘ : P 203
Prolificacy . ; 3 : . s . : Z - 27, 103

278

Protein : ‘
Protoplasm . .
Pulse rate of hog 5
Pumpkins
Pure-bred,
advantage of .
boars,
prepotency ‘of
hogs for farmers
pigs, market for .
sire . 5 : °
sows
swine

swine business, future of

tempting
swine, expensive
swine, marketing
proportion of .
shipping .
type of

type, ch aracteristics of .

Quality,
extreme : .
in breeding swine .

Rape,
feeding value
pasture . % .
value per acre

Rations, balancing
calculating

Razorback

Recipes for curing pork

Record associations,
purpose of
work of .

Red clover, .
adaptability
feeding value of
pasture. e
supplements to

Registration of swine

Reproduction

Reproductive, cells
functions, limiting .
organs, diseases of
process
system, diseases of.

Respiration of swine .

Respiratory system, diseases of

INDEX

3, 85, 90, 92, 96, 105,

41
16, 31, 43, 96
39

38

167

35, 41

96, 167

33, 38

33

. 40

114, “212, 227

Reversion
ees 5

ice by-produ
Rickety : cts
Rooting é
Rubbing post
Rump
Runts
Ruptures
Russian
Rye,

pasture

pasture, feeding value ‘
pasture, supplementing .
Sacking and keeping pork .

Sales, combination
consignment
Salicylic acid ‘
Salt : :

Saltpeter
Sanitation .
Santonin :
Saturation .
Sausage, i :
making . .
Scalding
Science of breeding
Score card F
Scraping : 5
Scrapple :
Scrubs
Scrub boars.
Scrub sire
Scrub swine
Season
Selecting breeding swine
Selection,

cee
.

artificial : s
basis of . :
breeding swine
natural
of boar

Selections, how to make
Self- feeders, :
use of

Selling, better methods of :

Septicaemia

Serum, administration of .

cost of

INDEX 279

198

280 INDEX

Serum, hog cholera
hog cholera, dosage
Sex, : : :
character |
control of
determination of ;
Sexual functions, ov erworking :
Sexuality
Shade .
Sheath, foul
Shelter, ‘
and health
for swine
Shelters : ‘
Shipping, co-operative
direct to market
facilities, lack of
of swine, co-operative
pure- -bred swine
Shipment, preparing hogs for
Ship, when to F
Shorts .
Shoulder
Show, feeding for
fitting
equipment for.
Showing,
equipment for.
overfitting for
proper : !
Show ring, . : - ‘
classification ; :
standards F 5 ‘ c
Shows, important .
Show-yard standards .
Siamese :
Sides
Size ; , ‘ E , : :
Skim milk . ‘ ‘ : . s
Skin : :
Slaughter, animals for
Slaughtering,
co-operative
Sleeping quarters
Small Yorkshire :
adaptability . ‘
association ;
description
Small White

.

Smokehouses
Smoking meats
materials for .
Smoke room
Snout .
Soda, baking
Soft pork A
hardening
Soil fertility,
increasing
Soil conservation -
Solway . .
Somatic cells
Somatic characters
Sore mouth .
Sorghums, .
saccharine
non-saccharine
Southern type .
South Carolina

Sow and pigs, care of.

Sow, quality in
Sows, old .

pure-bred .
sizeof . .
young . .
Soy beans . “4

Soy bean meal .

Soy bean pasture,
feeding value of
supplementing

Soy beans, feed value ‘of

supplementing

yield : :
Spanish red. ‘
Spaying ; °
Spermatozoa
Spring pigs . .
Standards, show ring .
Starch . . .
Stearin . .
Sterility . ‘
Sticking hogs .
Stifle joint .
Stock hogs . 5

Stockyards,
central .
Strains, 5

of swine.

INDEX

: 125,

213

14, 15, 16

164
105
163
96
46
163

“428, 137

137
137
137
137
138
138
138

59
202

25, 26
161
108
114
147

‘ 44, 191

244

79

95

1224, 225
230

24

50

282 INDEX

Strains, origin of
Style :
Sudan grass :
Suffolk . :
Sugar . ‘
Suidae . °
Sulphur .
Sunlight a
Sun scald.
Sunshine.
Sunstroke
Superfetation .
Superfecundation
Surgery
Surgical diseases .
Sus Cristatus
Sus Indicus .
Sus Scrofa .
Sweet potatoes,

feeding value of

pasture .
Swine, bacon type

breeders :

breeders’ association, county .

breeds of

breeding as a business

breeding, co-operative

breeding principles

breeding terms

color of .

cross-bred

diseases

distribution of

grazing

high-grade

improved

influence of domestication on

lard type.

native

original

plague

plasticity of

pure-bred ‘. : 2

registration of Z F : .

scrub , , ‘

shows . 3 4
Tail . 5 .
Tamworth

adaptability

a ee

5, 6, me, 124, 128

130

130

36

4

32

48, 51

32

31

17

41

: 46
. 38
5

51

Tamworth, as feeders
association
characteristics
distribution
importation
origin

Tankage

Temperament .

Temperature of hog

Tenancy 2

Tenderness of pork

Tennessee -

Teosinte

Terms, swine -breeding

Testicle 3 ‘

Texas ‘

Thin rind, origin .

Thoroughbred

Thrift . : F

Thumps, ; °
causes :
treatment

Tonics .

Trichinosis

Trimming cuts of pork

Transportation, F
early methods of .

Truck crops. ‘ :

Tuberculosis 3

Tumors . 3 :

Turpentine . : :

Tusks of boars . :

Type, . : : i
bacon : :
breed 3 3
breeding for .
for South P

grazing

ideal

ideal market

instability of . ‘

lard . i . .

market . é ‘

pork ‘.

Fenreible: .
Types, ;

of swine .

early maturing 7
Udder, congestion of .

INDEX

oe ew

2 & «© & «

"201, 202,

81, 97, 98,

eo 8 ee

36, 53,
. 103,

284 INDEX

Uniformity of pigs
Unit characters
Urticaria
Uterus .
Utility, :
breed for ‘
Utilization of feed
Vagina .
Value, per head .
of swine
Variation .
Variations,
acquired .
congenital
in carcasses
inherent
in weights
Vats, dipping
Velvet beans,
feed value of .
for pasture
supplements to
yield :
Ventilation
Vermifuges .
Vermicides
Vessels for curing
Vetch, pasture
tame 3
wild .
Vetches, :
feeding value .
supplementing
Veterinarians ;
Victoria, adaptability .
association :
characteristics
origin :
Vigor . y 3 5
Virginia : ‘
Vitality z Z .
Wallows, hog
concrete .
Warren county pig
Waste and culls .
Water, . .
supply :
supply and health . : A
Watermelons ‘ , . : : rs

ci)

2

, 24, 39, 92, 95, 102

177
72
72
72
72

14, 15, 16
93, 103
195, 206

INDEX 285

PaGE
Washing : F : A : . 3 5 5 y 117
Weaning the vig . é ; 5 : é : 5 . : 164
Weight : : s 83, 86, 117, 227
Weights, 5 : : : 84
average 5 ‘i ° 101
standard . 5 . é , 5 3 ; : ° 5 101
variations in . ‘i ‘ . : ; ; 5 5 4 101
West Virginia . 5 : : : F 5 : » 14, 15, 16
Wheat bran . : : : : : ; $ A : - 144
Wheat by-products, . : . : ‘ 5 : ‘ 4 140
feeding value of . s : . 5 ‘ . 4 A 140
supplementing 3 F ; 5 5 o ‘ 7 . 140
White Leicester . . : : i 5 B é 3 . 69
White Suffolk . : ; : : . é : A 5 63
Wholesale cuts . s 5 a 3 P 7 3 3 ; 87
Windsor é ; ; : 3 : ; 3 2 : 3 59
Wire grass . , 3 ; : 3 : * 6 s . 5
Worms, 5 ‘ ‘ : 5 5 ° é 5 ° ‘ 196
kidney. : : é : 5 4 : ° ° - 199
lung _ . : : a é é 5 ‘ . . 198
pin J - 5 . . . ° a Fs . 197
round - a A é . ° 5 5 e 5 z 196
thorn-head_ . 5 s e E ; 2 : * 196
treatment for. A ° F 5 : . : 5 A 198
whip : 5 z - : : : ‘ : 3 197
Yellow wash 65 ‘ ; or et : s 3 3 io 258
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